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3,800 | Natural_history_of_Africa | Flora A composite satellite image of Africa The vegetation of Africa follows very closely the distribution of heat and moisture. The northern and southern temperate zones have a flora distinct from that of the continent generally, which is tropical. In the countries bordering the Mediterranean, there are groves of orange and olive trees, evergreen oaks, cork trees and pines, intermixed with cypresses, myrtles, arbutus and fragrant tree-heaths. South of the Atlas Range the conditions alter. The zones of minimum rainfall have a very scanty flora, consisting of plants adapted to resist the great dryness. Characteristic of the Sahara is the date palm, which flourishes where other vegetation can scarcely maintain existence, while in the semidesert regions the acacia, from which gum arabic is obtained, is abundant. The more humid regions have a richer vegetation; dense forest where the rainfall is greatest and variations of temperature least, conditions found chiefly on the tropical coasts, and in the west African equatorial basin with its extension towards the upper Nile; and savanna interspersed with trees on the greater part of the plateaus, passing as the desert regions are approached into a scrub vegetation consisting of thorny acacias, etc. Forests also occur on the humid slopes of mountain ranges up to a certain elevation. In the coast regions the typical tree is the mangrove, which flourishes wherever the soil is of a swamp character. The dense forests of West Africa contain, in addition to a great variety of hardwoods, two palms, Elaeis guincensis (oil palm) and Raphia vinifera (bamboo palm), not found, generally speaking, in the savanna regions. Bombax or silk-cotton trees attain gigantic proportions in the forests, which are the home of the India rubber-producing plants and of many valuable kinds of timber trees, such as odum (Chlorophora excelsa), ebony, mahogany (Khaya senegalensis), Oldfieldia (Oldfieldia africana) and camwood (Baphia nitida). The climbing plants in the tropical forests are exceedingly luxuriant and the undergrowth or "bush" is extremely dense. In the savannas the most characteristic trees are the monkey bread tree or baobab (Adanisonia digitata), doum palm (Hyphaene) and euphorbias. The coffee plant grows wild in such widely separated places as Liberia and southern Ethiopia. The higher mountains have a special flora showing close agreement over wide intervals of space, as well as affinities with the mountain flora of the eastern Mediterranean, the Himalaya and Indo-China. In the swamp regions of north-east Africa papyrus and associated plants, including the soft-wooded ambach, flourish in immense quantities, and little else is found in the way of vegetation. South Africa is largely destitute of forest save in the lower valleys and coast regions. Tropical flora disappears, and in the semi-desert plains the fleshy, leafless, contorted species of kapsias, mesembryanthemums, aloes and other succulent plants make their appearance. There are, too, valuable timber trees, such as the Yellow-wood (Podocarpus elongatus), stinkwood (Ocotea), sneezewood or Cape ebony (Pteroxylon utile) and ironwood. Extensive miniature woods of heaths are found in almost endless variety and covered throughout the greater part of the year with innumerable blossoms in which red is very prevalent. Of the grasses of Africa alfa is very abundant in the plateaus of the Atlas range. Fauna Southwest African lion (Panthera leo bleyenberghi) The fauna again shows the effect of the characteristics of the vegetation. The open savannas are the home of large ungulates, especially antelopes, the giraffe (peculiar to Africa), zebra, buffalo, wild donkey and four species of rhinoceros; and of carnivores, such as the lion, leopard, hyena, etc. The okapi (a genus restricted to Africa) is found only in the dense forests of the Congo basin. Bears are confined to the Atlas region, wolves and foxes to North Africa. The elephant (though its range has become restricted through the attacks of hunters) is found both in the savannas and forest regions, the latter being otherwise poor in large game, though the special habitat of the chimpanzee and gorilla. Baboons and mandrills, with few exceptions, are peculiar to Africa. The single-humped camel, as a domestic animal, is especially characteristic of the northern deserts and steppes. The rivers in the tropical zone abound with hippopotami and crocodiles, the former entirely confined to Africa. The vast herds of game, formerly so characteristic of many parts of Africa, have much diminished with the increase of intercourse with the interior. Game reserves have, however, been established in South Africa, British Central Africa, British East Africa, Somaliland, etc., while measures for the protection of wild animals were laid down in an international convention signed in May 1900. The ornithology of northern Africa presents a close resemblance to that of southern Europe, scarcely a species being found which does not also occur in the other countries bordering the Mediterranean. Among the birds most characteristic of Africa are the ostrich and the secretary-bird. The ostrich is widely dispersed, but is found chiefly in the desert and steppe regions. The secretary-bird is common in the south. The weaver birds and their allies, including the long-tailed whydahs, are abundant, as are, among game-birds, the francolin and guineafowl. Many of the smaller birds, such as the sunbirds, bee-eaters, the parrots and kingfishers, as well as the larger plantain-eaters, are noted for the brilliance of their plumage. Of reptiles the lizard and chameleon are common, and there are a number of venomous snakes, though these are not so numerous as in other tropical countries. The scorpion is abundant. Of insects Africa has many thousand different kinds; of these the locust is the proverbial scourge of the continent, and the ravages of the termites are almost incredible. The spread of malaria by means of mosquitoes is common. The tsetse fly, whose bite is fatal to all domestic animals, is common in many districts of South and East Africa. It is found nowhere outside Africa. See also Africa Ecology References | Natural_history_of_Africa |@lemmatized flora:6 composite:1 satellite:1 image:1 africa:21 vegetation:6 follow:1 closely:1 distribution:1 heat:1 moisture:1 northern:3 southern:3 temperate:1 zone:3 distinct:1 continent:2 generally:2 tropical:6 country:3 border:2 mediterranean:3 grove:1 orange:1 olive:1 tree:10 evergreen:1 oak:1 cork:1 pine:1 intermix:1 cypress:1 myrtle:1 arbutus:1 fragrant:1 heath:2 south:5 atlas:3 range:4 condition:2 alter:1 minimum:1 rainfall:2 scanty:1 consist:2 plant:6 adapt:1 resist:1 great:5 dryness:1 characteristic:6 sahara:1 date:1 palm:5 flourish:3 scarcely:2 maintain:1 existence:1 semidesert:1 regions:1 acacia:2 gum:1 arabic:1 obtain:1 abundant:4 humid:2 region:9 rich:1 dense:4 forest:8 variation:1 temperature:1 least:1 find:9 chiefly:2 coast:3 west:2 african:2 equatorial:1 basin:2 extension:1 towards:1 upper:1 nile:1 savanna:5 intersperse:1 part:3 plateau:2 pass:1 desert:4 approach:1 scrub:1 thorny:1 etc:3 also:3 occur:2 slope:1 mountain:3 certain:1 elevation:1 typical:1 mangrove:1 wherever:1 soil:1 swamp:2 character:1 contain:1 addition:1 variety:2 hardwood:1 two:1 elaeis:1 guincensis:1 oil:1 raphia:1 vinifera:1 bamboo:1 speak:1 bombax:1 silk:1 cotton:1 attain:1 gigantic:1 proportion:1 home:2 india:1 rubber:1 produce:1 many:5 valuable:2 kind:2 timber:2 odum:1 chlorophora:1 excelsa:1 ebony:2 mahogany:1 khaya:1 senegalensis:1 oldfieldia:2 africana:1 camwood:1 baphia:1 nitida:1 climbing:1 exceedingly:1 luxuriant:1 undergrowth:1 bush:1 extremely:1 monkey:1 bread:1 baobab:1 adanisonia:1 digitata:1 doum:1 hyphaene:1 euphorbia:1 coffee:1 grow:1 wild:3 widely:2 separated:1 place:1 liberia:1 ethiopia:1 high:1 special:2 show:2 close:2 agreement:1 wide:1 interval:1 space:1 well:2 affinity:1 eastern:1 himalaya:1 indo:1 china:1 north:2 east:3 papyrus:1 associated:1 include:2 soft:1 wooded:1 ambach:1 immense:1 quantity:1 little:1 else:1 way:1 largely:1 destitute:1 save:1 low:1 valley:1 disappears:1 semi:1 plain:1 fleshy:1 leafless:1 contorted:1 specie:3 kapsias:1 mesembryanthemum:1 aloe:1 succulent:1 make:1 appearance:1 yellow:1 wood:2 podocarpus:1 elongatus:1 stinkwood:1 ocotea:1 sneezewood:1 cape:1 pteroxylon:1 utile:1 ironwood:1 extensive:1 miniature:1 almost:2 endless:1 cover:1 throughout:1 year:1 innumerable:1 blossom:1 red:1 prevalent:1 grass:1 alfa:1 fauna:2 southwest:1 lion:2 panthera:1 leo:1 bleyenberghi:1 effect:1 open:1 large:3 ungulate:1 especially:2 antelopes:1 giraffe:1 peculiar:2 zebra:1 buffalo:1 donkey:1 four:1 rhinoceros:1 carnivore:1 leopard:1 hyena:1 okapi:1 genus:1 restrict:2 congo:1 bear:1 confine:2 wolf:1 fox:1 elephant:1 though:3 become:1 attack:1 hunter:1 latter:1 otherwise:1 poor:1 game:4 habitat:1 chimpanzee:1 gorilla:1 baboon:1 mandrill:1 exception:1 single:1 hump:1 camel:1 domestic:2 animal:3 steppe:2 river:1 abound:1 hippopotamus:1 crocodile:1 former:1 entirely:1 vast:1 herd:1 formerly:1 much:1 diminish:1 increase:1 intercourse:1 interior:1 reserve:1 however:1 establish:1 british:2 central:1 somaliland:1 measure:1 protection:1 lay:1 international:1 convention:1 sign:1 may:1 ornithology:1 present:1 resemblance:1 europe:1 among:2 bird:6 ostrich:2 secretary:2 disperse:1 common:4 weaver:1 ally:1 long:1 tail:1 whydah:1 francolin:1 guineafowl:1 small:1 sunbirds:1 bee:1 eater:2 parrot:1 kingfisher:1 plantain:1 note:1 brilliance:1 plumage:1 reptile:1 lizard:1 chameleon:1 number:1 venomous:1 snake:1 numerous:1 scorpion:1 insect:1 thousand:1 different:1 locust:1 proverbial:1 scourge:1 ravage:1 termite:1 incredible:1 spread:1 malaria:1 mean:1 mosquito:1 tsetse:1 fly:1 whose:1 bite:1 fatal:1 district:1 nowhere:1 outside:1 see:1 ecology:1 reference:1 |@bigram temperate_zone:1 olive_tree:1 gum_arabic:1 chimpanzee_gorilla:1 venomous_snake:1 tsetse_fly:1 |
3,801 | David_Angell | David Lawrence Angell (April 10, 1946 – September 11, 2001) was an American producer of sitcoms. Angell won multiple Emmy Awards as the creator and executive producer, along with Peter Casey and David Lee, of the comedy series Frasier. He died during the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York. Biography Angell was born in West Barrington, Rhode Island, and he received a bachelor's degree in English Literature from Providence College. He entered the army upon graduation and served at the Pentagon until 1972. He then moved to Boston and worked as a methods analyst at an engineering company and later at an insurance firm in Rhode Island. Career Angell moved to Los Angeles in 1977. His first script was sold to the producers of the Annie Flynn series. Five years later, he sold his second script to Archie Bunker's Place. In 1983, he joined Cheers as a staff writer. In 1985, Angell joined forces with Peter Casey and David Lee as Cheers supervising producers/writers. The trio received 37 Emmy Award nominations and won 24 Emmy Awards, including the above-mentioned for Frasier, as well as an Outstanding Comedy Series Emmy for Cheers, in 1989, which Angell, Casey, Lee and the series' other producers shared, and Outstanding Writing/Comedy Emmy for Cheers, which Angell received in 1984. After working together as producers on Cheers, Angell, Casey and Lee formed Grub Street Productions. In 1990, they created and executive-produced the comedy series Wings. On the Frasier series finale, the characters Daphne and Niles had a son, named David in dedication to Angell. In delivering his eulogy, David Lee credited Angell with coining the word "boinking" as a euphemism for sex on Cheers. He cited this as an example of one of the comedic contributions he made. Kelsey Grammer and Ted Danson also spoke at the funeral. Also, in 2006, a film based on the attacks on the WTC, World Trade Center, was released by Paramount Pictures - whose television division had produced Cheers, Frasier, and Wings. The American Screenwriters' Association gives out an annual David Angell Humanitarian Award, in honor of Angell. The award is given to an individual in the entertainment industry who contributes to global well-being through donations of time, expertise or other support to improve the human condition. David Angell Humanitarian Award References External links | David_Angell |@lemmatized david:7 lawrence:1 angell:13 april:1 september:2 american:2 producer:6 sitcom:1 win:2 multiple:1 emmy:5 award:6 creator:1 executive:2 along:1 peter:2 casey:4 lee:5 comedy:4 series:6 frasier:4 die:1 attack:2 world:2 trade:2 center:2 new:1 york:1 biography:1 bear:1 west:1 barrington:1 rhode:2 island:2 receive:3 bachelor:1 degree:1 english:1 literature:1 providence:1 college:1 enter:1 army:1 upon:1 graduation:1 serve:1 pentagon:1 move:2 boston:1 work:2 method:1 analyst:1 engineering:1 company:1 later:2 insurance:1 firm:1 career:1 los:1 angeles:1 first:1 script:2 sell:2 annie:1 flynn:1 five:1 year:1 second:1 archie:1 bunker:1 place:1 join:2 cheer:7 staff:1 writer:2 force:1 supervise:1 trio:1 nomination:1 include:1 mention:1 well:2 outstanding:2 share:1 writing:1 together:1 form:1 grub:1 street:1 production:1 create:1 produce:2 wing:2 finale:1 character:1 daphne:1 nile:1 son:1 name:1 dedication:1 deliver:1 eulogy:1 credit:1 coin:1 word:1 boinking:1 euphemism:1 sex:1 cite:1 example:1 one:1 comedic:1 contribution:1 make:1 kelsey:1 grammer:1 ted:1 danson:1 also:2 speak:1 funeral:1 film:1 base:1 wtc:1 release:1 paramount:1 picture:1 whose:1 television:1 division:1 screenwriter:1 association:1 give:2 annual:1 humanitarian:2 honor:1 individual:1 entertainment:1 industry:1 contribute:1 global:1 donation:1 time:1 expertise:1 support:1 improve:1 human:1 condition:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram emmy_award:3 rhode_island:2 bachelor_degree:1 los_angeles:1 award_nomination:1 deliver_eulogy:1 kelsey_grammer:1 ted_danson:1 paramount_picture:1 external_link:1 |
3,802 | C_(programming_language) | C is a general-purpose computer programming language developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system. Although C was designed for implementing system software, it is also widely used for developing portable application software. C is one of the most popular programming languages. It is widely used on many different software platforms, and there are few computer architectures for which a C compiler does not exist. C has greatly influenced many other popular programming languages, most notably C++, which originally began as an extension to C. Philosophy C is an imperative (procedural) systems implementation language. It was designed to be compiled using a relatively straightforward compiler, to provide low-level access to memory, to provide language constructs that map efficiently to machine instructions, and to require minimal run-time support. C was therefore useful for many applications that had formerly been coded in assembly language. Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage machine-independent programming. A standards-compliant and portably written C program can be compiled for a very wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with little or no change to its source code. The language has become available on a very wide range of platforms, from embedded microcontrollers to supercomputers. Minimalism C is designed to provide high-level abstracts for all the native features of a general-purpose CPU, while at the same time allowing modularization, structure, and code re-use. Features specific to a particular program's function (features that are not general to all platforms) are not included in the language or library definitions. However any such specific functions are implementable and accessible as external reusable libraries, in order to encourage module dissemination and re-use. C is somewhat strongly typed (emitting warnings or errors) but allows programmers to override types in the interests of flexibility, simplicity or performance; while being natural and well-defined in its interpretation of type overrides. C's design is tied to its intended use as a portable systems implementation language. Consequently, it does not require run-time checks for conditions that would never occur in correct programs, it provides simple, direct access to any addressable object (for example, memory-mapped device control registers), and its source-code expressions can be translated in a straightforward manner to primitive machine operations in the executable code. Some early C compilers were comfortably implemented (as a few distinct passes communicating via intermediate files) on PDP-11 processors having only 16 address bits; however, C99 assumes a 512 KB minimum compilation platform. Characteristics Like most imperative languages in the ALGOL tradition, C has facilities for structured programming and allows lexical variable scope and recursion, while a static type system prevents many unintended operations. In C, all executable code is contained within functions. Function parameters are always passed by value. Pass-by-reference is achieved in C by explicitly passing pointer values. Heterogeneous aggregate data types (struct) allow related data elements to be combined and manipulated as a unit. C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement terminator (not a delimiter). C also exhibits the following more specific characteristics: non-nestable function definitions variables may be hidden in nested blocks partially weak typing; for instance, characters can be used as integers low-level access to computer memory by converting machine addresses to typed pointers function and data pointers supporting ad hoc run-time polymorphism array indexing as a secondary notion, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic a preprocessor for macro definition, source code file inclusion, and conditional compilation complex functionality such as I/O, string manipulation, and mathematical functions consistently delegated to library routines A relatively small set of reserved keywords A lexical structure that resembles B more than ALGOL, for example { ... } rather than ALGOL's begin ... end the equal-sign is for assignment (copying), much like Fortran two consecutive equal-signs are to test for equality (compare to .EQ. in Fortran or the equal-sign in BASIC) && and || in place of ALGOL's and and or (these are semantically distinct from the bit-wise operators & and | because they will never evaluate the right operand if the result can be determined from the left alone (short-circuit evaluation)). a large number of compound operators, such as +=, ++, etc. Absent features The relatively low-level nature of the language affords the programmer close control over what the computer does, while allowing special tailoring and aggressive optimization for a particular platform. This allows the code to run efficiently on very limited hardware, such as embedded systems. C does not have some features that are available in some other programming languages: No assignment of arrays or strings (copying can be done via standard functions; assignment of objects having struct or union type is supported) No automatic garbage collection No requirement for bounds checking of arrays No operations on whole arrays No syntax for ranges, such as the A..B notation used in several languages Prior to C99, no separate Boolean type (zero/nonzero is used instead) C99 added a _Bool type, but it was not retrofitted into the language's existing Boolean contexts. One can simulate a Boolean datatype, e.g. with enum { false, true } bool;, but this does not provide all of the features of a separate Boolean datatype. No formal closures or functions as parameters (only function and variable pointers) No generators or coroutines; intra-thread control flow consists of nested function calls, except for the use of the longjmp or setcontext library functions No exception handling; standard library functions signify error conditions with the global errno variable and/or special return values Only rudimentary support for modular programming No compile-time polymorphism in the form of function or operator overloading Only rudimentary support for generic programming Very limited support for object-oriented programming with regard to polymorphism and inheritance Limited support for encapsulation No native support for multithreading and networking No standard libraries for computer graphics and several other application programming needs A number of these features are available as extensions in some compilers, or can be supplied by third-party libraries, or can be simulated by adopting certain coding disciplines. Undefined behavior Many operations in C that have undefined behavior are not required to be diagnosed at compile time. In the case of C, "undefined behavior" means that the exact behavior which arises is not specified by the standard, and exactly what will happen does not have to be documented by the C implementation. A famous, although misleading, expression in the newsgroups comp.std.c and comp.lang.c is that the program could cause "demons to fly out of your nose". Sometimes in practice what happens for an instance of undefined behavior is a bug that is hard to track down and which may corrupt the contents of memory. Sometimes a particular compiler generates reasonable and well-behaved actions that are completely different from those that would be obtained using a different C compiler. The reason some behavior has been left undefined is to allow compilers for a wide variety of instruction set architectures to generate more efficient executable code for well-defined behavior, which was deemed important for C's primary role as a systems implementation language; thus C makes it the programmer's responsibility to avoid undefined behavior. Examples of undefined behavior are: accessing outside the bounds of an array overflowing a signed integer reaching the end of a non-void function without finding a return statement, when the return value is used reading the value of a variable before initializing it These operations are all programming errors that could occur using many programming languages; C draws criticism because its standard explicitly identifies numerous cases of undefined behavior, including some where the behavior could have been made well defined, and does not specify any run-time error handling mechanism. Invoking fflush() on a stream opened for input is an example of a different kind of undefined behavior, not necessarily a programming error but a case for which some conforming implementations may provide well-defined, useful semantics (in this example, presumably discarding input through the next new-line) as an allowed extension. Use of such nonstandard extensions generally limits software portability. History Early developments The initial development of C occurred at AT&T Bell Labs between 1969 and 1973; according to Ritchie, the most creative period occurred in 1972. It was named "C" because many of its features were derived from an earlier language called "B", which according to Ken Thompson was a stripped-down version of the BCPL programming language. The origin of C is closely tied to the development of the Unix operating system, originally implemented in assembly language on a PDP-7 by Ritchie and Thompson, incorporating several ideas from colleagues. Eventually they decided to port the operating system to a PDP-11. B's lack of functionality to take advantage of some of the PDP-11's features, notably byte addressability, led to the development of an early version of the C programming language. The original PDP-11 version of the Unix system was developed in assembly language. By 1973, with the addition of struct types, the C language had become powerful enough that most of the Unix kernel was rewritten in C. This was one of the first operating system kernels implemented in a language other than assembly. (Earlier instances include the Multics system (written in PL/I), and MCP (Master Control Program) for the Burroughs B5000 written in ALGOL in 1961.) K&R C In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie published the first edition of The C Programming Language. This book, known to C programmers as "K&R", served for many years as an informal specification of the language. The version of C that it describes is commonly referred to as "K&R C". The second edition of the book covers the later ANSI C standard. K&R introduced several language features: standard I/O library long int data type unsigned int data type compound assignment operators =op were changed to op= to remove the semantic ambiguity created by the construct i=-10, which had been interpreted as i =- 10 instead of the possibly intended i = -10 Even after the publication of the 1989 C standard, for many years K&R C was still considered the "lowest common denominator" to which C programmers restricted themselves when maximum portability was desired, since many older compilers were still in use, and because carefully written K&R C code can be legal Standard C as well. In early versions of C, only functions that returned a non-integer value needed to be declared if used before the function definition; a function used without any previous declaration was assumed to return an integer, if its value was used. For example: long int SomeFunction(); /* int OtherFunction(); */ /* int */ CallingFunction() { long int test1; register /* int */ test2; test1 = SomeFunction(); if (test1 > 0) test2 = 0; else test2 = OtherFunction(); return test2; } All the above commented-out int declarations could be omitted in K&R C. Since K&R function declarations did not include any information about function arguments, function parameter type checks were not performed, although some compilers would issue a warning message if a local function was called with the wrong number of arguments, or if multiple calls to an external function used different numbers or types of arguments. Separate tools such as Unix's lint utility were developed that (among other things) could check for consistency of function use across multiple source files. In the years following the publication of K&R C, several unofficial features were added to the language, supported by compilers from AT&T and some other vendors. These included: void functions functions returning struct or union types (rather than pointers) assignment for struct data types enumerated types The large number of extensions and lack of agreement on a standard library, together with the language popularity and the fact that not even the Unix compilers precisely implemented the K&R specification, led to the necessity of standardization. ANSI C and ISO C During the late 1970s and 1980s, versions of C were implemented for a wide variety of mainframe computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers, including the IBM PC, as its popularity began to increase significantly. In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. In 1989, the standard was ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 "Programming Language C." This version of the language is often referred to as ANSI C, Standard C, or sometimes C89. In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with formatting changes) was adopted by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, which is sometimes called C90. Therefore, the terms "C89" and "C90" refer to the same programming language. ANSI, like other national standards bodies, no longer develops the C standard independently, but defers to the ISO C standard. National adoption of updates to the international standard typically occurs within a year of ISO publication. One of the aims of the C standardization process was to produce a superset of K&R C, incorporating many of the unofficial features subsequently introduced. The standards committee also included several additional features such as function prototypes (borrowed from C++), void pointers, support for international character sets and locales, and preprocessor enhancements. The syntax for parameter declarations was also augmented to include the style used in C++, although the K&R interface continued to be permitted, for compatibility with existing source code. C89 is supported by current C compilers, and most C code being written nowadays is based on it. Any program written only in Standard C and without any hardware-dependent assumptions will run correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation, within its resource limits. Without such precautions, programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries, such as GUI libraries, or to a reliance on compiler- or platform-specific attributes such as the exact size of data types and byte endianness. In cases where code must be compilable by either standard-conforming or K&R C-based compilers, the __STDC__ macro can be used to split the code into Standard and K&R sections to take advantage of features available only in Standard C. C99 After the ANSI/ISO standardization process, the C language specification remained relatively static for some time, whereas C++ continued to evolve, largely during its own standardization effort. In 1995 Normative Amendment 1 to the 1990 C standard was published, to correct some details and to add more extensive support for international character sets. The C standard was further revised in the late 1990s, leading to the publication of ISO/IEC 9899:1999 in 1999, which is commonly referred to as "C99." It has since been amended three times by Technical Corrigenda. The international C standard is maintained by the working group ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14. C99 introduced several new features, including inline functions, several new data types (including long long int and a complex type to represent complex numbers), variable-length arrays, support for variadic macros (macros of variable arity) and support for one-line comments beginning with //, as in BCPL or C++. Many of these had already been implemented as extensions in several C compilers. C99 is for the most part backward compatible with C90, but is stricter in some ways; in particular, a declaration that lacks a type specifier no longer has int implicitly assumed. A standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined with value 199901L to indicate that C99 support is available. GCC, Sun Studio and other C compilers now support many or all of the new features of C99. As of 2007, work has begun in anticipation of another revision of the C standard, informally called "C1x". The C standards committee has adopted guidelines to limit the adoption of new features that have not been tested by existing implementations. Uses C's primary use is for "system programming", including implementing operating systems and embedded system applications, due to a combination of desirable characteristics such as code portability and efficiency, ability to access specific hardware addresses, ability to "pun" types to match externally imposed data access requirements, and low runtime demand on system resources. One consequence of C's wide acceptance and efficiency is that compilers, libraries, and interpreters of other programming languages are often implemented in C. C is sometimes used as an intermediate language by implementations of other languages. This approach may be used for portability or convenience; by using C as an intermediate language, it is not necessary to develop machine-specific code generators. Some compilers which use C this way are BitC, Gambit, the Glasgow Haskell Compiler, Squeak, and Vala. Unfortunately, C was designed as a programming language, not as a compiler target language, and is thus less than ideal for use as an intermediate language. This has led to development of C-based intermediate languages such as C--. C has also been widely used to implement end-user applications, but as applications became larger, much of that development shifted to other languages. Syntax Unlike languages such as FORTRAN 77, C source code is free-form which allows arbitrary use of whitespace to format code, rather than column-based or text-line-based restrictions. Comments may appear either between the delimiters /* and */, or (in C99) following // until the end of the line. Each source file contains declarations and function definitions. Function definitions, in turn, contain declarations and statements. Declarations either define new types using keywords such as struct, union, and enum, or assign types to and perhaps reserve storage for new variables, usually by writing the type followed by the variable name. Keywords such as char and int specify built-in types. Sections of code are enclosed in braces ({ and }, sometimes called "curly brackets") to limit the scope of declarations and to act as a single statement for control structures. As an imperative language, C uses statements to specify actions. The most common statement is an expression statement, consisting of an expression to be evaluated, followed by a semicolon; as a side effect of the evaluation, functions may be called and variables may be assigned new values. To modify the normal sequential execution of statements, C provides several control-flow statements identified by reserved keywords. Structured programming is supported by if(-else) conditional execution and by do-while, while, and for iterative execution (looping). The for statement has separate initialization, testing, and reinitialization expressions, any or all of which can be omitted. break and continue can be used to leave the innermost enclosing loop statement or skip to its reinitialization. There is also a non-structured goto statement which branches directly to the designated label within the function. switch selects a case to be executed based on the value of an integer expression. Expressions can use a variety of built-in operators (see below) and may contain function calls. The order in which operands to most operators, as well as the arguments to functions, are evaluated is unspecified; the evaluations may even be interleaved. However, all side effects (including storage to variables) will occur before the next "sequence point"; sequence points include the end of each expression statement and the entry to and return from each function call. This permits a high degree of object code optimization by the compiler, but requires C programmers to exert more care to obtain reliable results than is needed for other programming languages. Although mimicked by many languages because of its widespread familiarity, C's syntax has often been criticized. For example, Kernighan and Ritchie say in the Introduction of The C Programming Language, "C, like any other language, has its blemishes. Some of the operators have the wrong precedence; some parts of the syntax could be better." Some specific problems worth noting are: Not checking number and types of arguments when the function declaration has an empty parameter list. (This provides backward compatibility with K&R C, which lacked prototypes.) Some questionable choices of operator precedence, as mentioned by Kernighan and Ritchie above, such as == binding more tightly than & and | in expressions like x & 1 == 0. The use of the = operator, used in mathematics for equality, to indicate assignment, following the precedent of Fortran, PL/I, and BASIC, but unlike ALGOL and its derivatives. Ritchie made this syntax design decision consciously, based primarily on the argument that assignment occurs more often than comparison. Similarity of the assignment and equality operators (= and ==), making it easy to accidentally substitute one for the other. C's weak type system permits each to be used in the context of the other without a compilation error (although some compilers produce warnings). For example, the conditional expression in if (a=b) is only true if a is not zero after the assignment. http://www.cs.ucr.edu/~nxiao/cs10/errors.htm 10 Common Programming Mistakes in C A lack of infix operators for complex objects, particularly for string operations, making programs which rely heavily on these operations (implemented as functions instead) somewhat difficult to read. A declaration syntax that some find unintuitive, particularly for function pointers. (Ritchie's idea was to declare identifiers in contexts resembling their use: "declaration reflects use".) Operators C supports a rich set of operators, which are symbols used within an expression to specify the manipulations to be performed while evaluating that expression. C has operators for: arithmetic (+, -, *, /, %) equality testing (==, !=) order relations (<, <=, >, >=) boolean logic (!, &&, ||) bitwise logic (~, &, |, ^) bitwise shifts (<<, >>) assignment (=, +=, -=, *=, /=, %=, &=, |=, ^=, <<=, >>=) increment and decrement (++, --) reference and dereference (&, *, [ ]) conditional operator (? :) member selection (., ->) type conversion (( )) object size (sizeof) function argument collection (( )) sequencing (,) subexpression grouping (( )) C has a formal grammar, specified by the C standard. "Hello, world" example The "hello, world" example which appeared in the first edition of K&R has become the model for an introductory program in most programming textbooks, regardless of programming language. The program prints "hello, world" to the standard output, which is usually a terminal or screen display. A standard-conforming "hello, world" program is: The original example code will compile on most modern compilers that are not in strict standard compliance mode, but it does not fully conform to the requirements of either C89 or C99. In fact, C99 requires that a diagnostic message be produced. #include <stdio.h> int main(void) { printf("hello, world\n"); return 0; } The first line of the program contains a preprocessing directive, indicated by #include. This causes the preprocessor — the first tool to examine source code as it is compiled — to substitute the line with the entire text of the stdio.h standard header, which contains declarations for standard input and output functions such as printf. The angle brackets surrounding stdio.h indicate that stdio.h is located using a search strategy that prefers standard headers to other headers having the same name. Double quotes may also be used to include local or project-specific header files. The next line indicates that a function named main is being defined. The main function serves a special purpose in C programs: The run-time environment calls the main function at the start of program execution. The type specifier int indicates that the return value, the value that is returned to the invoker (in this case the run-time environment) as a result of evaluating the main function, is an integer. The keyword void as a parameter list indicates that the main function takes no arguments. The main function actually has two arguments, int argc and char *argv[], respectively, which can be used to handle command line arguments. The C standard requires that both forms of main be supported, which is special treatment not afforded any other function. The opening curly brace indicates the beginning of the definition of the main function. The next line calls (transfers execution to) a function named printf, which was declared in stdio.h and is supplied from a system library. In this call, the printf function is passed (provided with) a single argument, the address of the first character in the string literal "hello, world\n". The string literal is an unnamed array with elements of type char, set up automatically by the compiler with a final 0-valued character to mark the end of the array (printf needs to know this). The \n is an escape sequence that C translates to a newline character, which on output signifies the end of the current line. The return value of the printf function is of type int, but it is silently discarded since it is not used. (A more careful program might test the return value to determine whether or not the printf function succeeded.) The semicolon ; terminates the statement. The return statement terminates the execution of the main function and causes it to return the integer value 0, which is interpreted by the run-time system as an exit code indicating successful execution. The closing curly brace indicates the end of the code for the main function. Data structures C has a static weak typing type system that shares some similarities with that of other ALGOL descendants such as Pascal. There are built-in types for integers of various sizes, both signed and unsigned, floating-point numbers, characters, and enumerated types (enum). C99 added a boolean datatype. There are also derived types including arrays, pointers, records (struct), and untagged unions (union). C is often used in low-level systems programming where escapes from the type system may be necessary. The compiler attempts to ensure type correctness of most expressions, but the programmer can override the checks in various ways, either by using a type cast to explicitly convert a value from one type to another, or by using pointers or unions to reinterpret the underlying bits of a value in some other way. Pointers C supports the use of pointers, a very simple type of reference that records, in effect, the address or location of an object or function in memory. Pointers can be dereferenced to access data stored at the address pointed to, or to invoke a pointed-to function. Pointers can be manipulated using assignment and also pointer arithmetic. The run-time representation of a pointer value is typically a raw memory address (perhaps augmented by an offset-within-word field), but since a pointer's type includes the type of the thing pointed to, expressions including pointers can be type-checked at compile time. Pointer arithmetic is automatically scaled by the size of the pointed-to data type. (See Array-pointer interchangeability below.) Pointers are used for many different purposes in C. Text strings are commonly manipulated using pointers into arrays of characters. Dynamic memory allocation, which is described below, is performed using pointers. Many data types, such as trees, are commonly implemented as dynamically allocated struct objects linked together using pointers. Pointers to functions are useful for callbacks from event handlers. A null pointer is a pointer value that points to no valid location (it is often represented by address zero). Dereferencing a null pointer is therefore meaningless, typically resulting in a run-time error. Null pointers are useful for indicating special cases such as no next pointer in the final node of a linked list, or as an error indication from functions returning pointers. Void pointers (void *) point to objects of unknown type, and can therefore be used as "generic" data pointers. Since the size and type of the pointed-to object is not known, void pointers cannot be dereferenced, nor is pointer arithmetic on them allowed, although they can easily be (and in many contexts implicitly are) converted to and from any other object pointer type. Careless use of pointers is potentially dangerous. Because they are typically unchecked, a pointer variable can be made to point to any arbitrary location, which can cause undesirable effects. Although properly-used pointers point to safe places, they can be made to point to unsafe places by using invalid pointer arithmetic; the objects they point to may be deallocated and reused (dangling pointers); they may be used without having been initialized (wild pointers); or they may be directly assigned an unsafe value using a cast, union, or through another corrupt pointer. In general, C is permissive in allowing manipulation of and conversion between pointer types, although compilers typically provide options for various levels of checking. Some other programming languages address these problems by using more restrictive reference types. Arrays Array types in C are traditionally of a fixed, static size specified at compile time. (The more recent C99 standard also allows a form of variable-length arrays.) However, it is also possible to allocate a block of memory (of arbitrary size) at run-time, using the standard library's malloc function, and treat it as an array. C's unification of arrays and pointers (see below) means that true arrays and these dynamically-allocated, simulated arrays are virtually interchangeable. Since arrays are always accessed (in effect) via pointers, array accesses are typically not checked against the underlying array size, although the compiler may provide bounds checking as an option. Array bounds violations are therefore possible and rather common in carelessly written code, and can lead to various repercussions, including illegal memory accesses, corruption of data, buffer overruns, and run-time exceptions. C does not have a special provision for declaring multidimensional arrays, but rather relies on recursion within the type system to declare arrays of arrays, which effectively accomplishes the same thing. The index values of the resulting "multidimensional array" can be thought of as increasing in row-major order. Although C supports static arrays, it is not required that array indices be validated (bounds checking). For example, one can try to write to the sixth element of an array with five elements, generally yielding undesirable results. This type of bug, called a buffer overflow or buffer overrun, is notorious for causing a number of security problems. Since bounds checking elimination technology was largely nonexistent when C was defined, bounds checking came with a severe performance penalty, particularly in numerical computation. A few years earlier, some Fortran compilers had a switch to toggle bounds checking on or off; however, this would have been much less useful for C, where array arguments are passed as simple pointers. Multidimensional arrays are commonly used in numerical algorithms (mainly from applied linear algebra) to store matrices. The structure of the C array is well suited to this particular task. However, since arrays are passed merely as pointers, the bounds of the array must be known fixed values or else explicitly passed to any subroutine that requires them, and dynamically sized arrays of arrays cannot be accessed using double indexing. (A workaround for this is to allocate the array with an additional "row vector" of pointers to the columns.) C99 introduced "variable-length arrays" which address some, but not all, of the issues with ordinary C arrays. Array-pointer interchangeability A distinctive (but potentially confusing) feature of C is its treatment of arrays and pointers. The array-subscript notation x[i] can also be used when x is a pointer; the interpretation (using pointer arithmetic) is to access the (i+1)th of several adjacent data objects pointed to by x, counting the object that x points to (which is x[0]) as the first element of the array. Formally, x[i] is equivalent to *(x + i). Since the type of the pointer involved is known to the compiler at compile time, the address that x + i points to is not the address pointed to by x incremented by i bytes, but rather incremented by i multiplied by the size of an element that x points to. The size of these elements can be determined with the operator sizeof by applying it to any dereferenced element of x, as in n = sizeof *x or n = sizeof x[0]. Furthermore, in most expression contexts (a notable exception is sizeof array), the name of an array is automatically converted to a pointer to the array's first element; this implies that an array is never copied as a whole when named as an argument to a function, but rather only the address of its first element is passed. Therefore, although C's function calls use pass-by-value semantics, arrays are in effect passed by reference. The number of elements in a declared array a can be determined as sizeof a / sizeof a[0]. An interesting demonstration of the interchangeability of pointers and arrays is shown below. The four assignments are equivalent and each is valid C code. Note how the last line contains the strange code i[x] = 1;, which has the index variable i apparently interchanged with the array variable x. This last line might be found in obfuscated C code. /* x designates an array */ x[i] = 1; *(x + i) = 1; *(i + x) = 1; i[x] = 1; /* strange, but correct: i[x] is equivalent to *(i + x) */ However, there is a distinction to be made between arrays and pointer variables. Even though the name of an array is, in most expression contexts, converted to a pointer (to its first element), this pointer does not itself occupy any storage. Consequently, you cannot change what an array "points to", and it is impossible to assign to an array. (Arrays may however be copied using the memcpy function, for example.) Memory management One of the most important functions of a programming language is to provide facilities for managing memory and the objects that are stored in memory. C provides three distinct ways to allocate memory for objects: Static memory allocation: space for the object is provided in the binary at compile-time; these objects have an extent (or lifetime) as long as the binary which contains them is loaded into memory Automatic memory allocation: temporary objects can be stored on the stack, and this space is automatically freed and reusable after the block in which they are declared is exited Dynamic memory allocation: blocks of memory of arbitrary size can be requested at run-time using library functions such as malloc from a region of memory called the heap; these blocks persist until subsequently freed for reuse by calling the library function free These three approaches are appropriate in different situations and have various tradeoffs. For example, static memory allocation has no allocation overhead, automatic allocation may involve a small amount of overhead, and dynamic memory allocation can potentially have a great deal of overhead for both allocation and deallocation. On the other hand, stack space is typically much more limited and transient than either static memory or heap space, and dynamic memory allocation allows allocation of objects whose size is known only at run-time. Most C programs make extensive use of all three. Where possible, automatic or static allocation is usually preferred because the storage is managed by the compiler, freeing the programmer of the potentially error-prone chore of manually allocating and releasing storage. However, many data structures can grow in size at runtime, and since static allocations (and automatic allocations in C89 and C90) must have a fixed size at compile-time, there are many situations in which dynamic allocation must be used. Prior to the C99 standard, variable-sized arrays were a common example of this (see malloc for an example of dynamically allocated arrays). Automatically and dynamically allocated objects are only initialized if an initialized is explicitly specified; otherwise they initially have indeterminate values (typically, whatever bit pattern happens to be present in the storage, which might not even represent a valid value for that type). If the program attempts to access an uninitialized value, the results are undefined. Many modern compilers try to detect and warn about this problem, but both false positives and false negatives occur. Another issue is that heap memory allocation has to be manually synchronized with its actual usage in any program in order for it to be reused as much as possible. For example, if the only pointer to a heap memory allocation goes out of scope or has its value overwritten before free() has been called, then that memory cannot be recovered for later reuse and is essentially lost to the program, a phenomenon known as a memory leak. Conversely, it is possible to release memory too soon and continue to access it; however, since the allocation system can re-allocate or itself use the freed memory, unpredictable behavior is likely to occur when the multiple users corrupt each other's data. Typically, the symptoms will appear in a portion of the program far removed from the actual error. Such issues are ameliorated in languages with automatic garbage collection or RAII. Libraries The C programming language uses libraries as its primary method of extension. In C, a library is a set of functions contained within a single "archive" file. Each library typically has a header file, which contains the prototypes of the functions contained within the library that may be used by a program, and declarations of special data types and macro symbols used with these functions. In order for a program to use a library, it must include the library's header file, and the library must be linked with the program, which in many cases requires compiler flags (e.g., -lm, shorthand for "math library"). The most common C library is the C standard library, which is specified by the ISO and ANSI C standards and comes with every C implementation (“freestanding” [embedded] C implementations may provide only a subset of the standard library). This library supports stream input and output, memory allocation, mathematics, character strings, and time values. Another common set of C library functions are those used by applications specifically targeted for Unix and Unix-like systems, especially functions which provide an interface to the kernel. These functions are detailed in various standards such as POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification. Since many programs have been written in C, there are a wide variety of other libraries available. Libraries are often written in C because C compilers generate efficient object code; programmers then create interfaces to the library so that the routines can be used from higher-level languages like Java, Perl, and Python. Deficiencies Although the C language is extremely concise, C is subtle, and expert competency in C is not common — usually taking many years to achieve. C programs are also notorious for security vulnerabilities due to the unconstrained direct access to memory of many of the standard C library function calls. In spite of its popularity and elegance, real-world C programs commonly suffer from instability and memory leaks, to the extent that any appreciable C programming project will have to adopt specialized practices and tools to mitigate spiraling damage. Indeed, an entire industry has been born merely out of the need to stabilize large source-code bases. C did not choose to limit the size or endianness of its types—for example, each compiler is free to choose the size of an int type according to what is efficient on the current platform. However, it should be pointed out that this is because different platforms' processors are optimized to work best with different sized types. By not locking in a specific standard, C ensures that compilers can optimize for whatever platform the programmer is working on. Many programmers work based on size and endianness assumptions, leading to code that is not portable. Criticisms of compiler-specific integer sizes were addressed in stdint.h in the C99 standard which introduced standardised minimum-length integer types as well as types which can be efficiently compared but are also of a given minimum length. The C standard defines only a very limited gamut of functionality, excluding anything related to network communications, user interaction, or process/thread creation. Language tools Tools have been created to help C programmers avoid some of the problems inherent in the language, such as statements with undefined behavior or statements that are not a good practice because they are more likely to result in unintended behavior or run-time errors. Automated source code checking and auditing are beneficial in any language, and for C many such tools exist, such as Lint. A common practice is to use Lint to detect questionable code when a program is first written. Once a program passes Lint, it is then compiled using the C compiler. Also, many compilers can optionally warn about syntactically valid constructs that are likely to actually be errors. MISRA C is a proprietary set of guidelines to avoid such questionable code, developed for embedded systems. There are also compilers, libraries and operating system level mechanisms for performing array bounds checking, buffer overflow detection, serialization and automatic garbage collection, that are not a standard part of C. Tools such as Purify, Valgrind, and linking with libraries containing special versions of the memory allocation functions can help uncover runtime memory errors. Related languages C has directly or indirectly influenced many later languages such as Java, C#, Perl, PHP, JavaScript, LPC, and Unix's C Shell. The most pervasive influence has been syntactical: all of the languages mentioned combine the statement and (more or less recognizably) expression syntax of C with type systems, data models and/or large-scale program structures that differ from those of C, sometimes radically. When object-oriented languages became popular, C++ and Objective-C were two different extensions of C that provided object-oriented capabilities. Both languages were originally implemented as source-to-source compilers -- source code was translated into C, and then compiled with a C compiler. Bjarne Stroustrup devised the C++ programming language as one approach to providing object-oriented functionality with C-like syntax. C++ adds greater typing strength, scoping and other tools useful in object-oriented programming and permits generic programming via templates. Nearly a superset of C, C++ now supports most of C, with a few exceptions (see Compatibility of C and C++ for an exhaustive list of differences). Unlike C++, which maintains nearly complete backwards compatibility with C, the D language makes a clean break with C while maintaining the same general syntax. It abandons a number of features of C which Walter Bright (the designer of D) considered undesirable, including the C preprocessor and trigraphs. Some, but not all, of D's extensions to C overlap with those of C++. Objective-C was originally a very "thin" layer on top of, and remains a strict superset of, C that permits object-oriented programming using a hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm. Objective-C derives its syntax from both C and Smalltalk: syntax that involves preprocessing, expressions, function declarations and function calls is inherited from C, while the syntax for object-oriented features was originally taken from Smalltalk. Limbo is a language developed by the same team at Bell Labs that was responsible for C and Unix, and while retaining some of the syntax and the general style, introduced garbage collection, CSP based concurrency and other major innovations. Python is a prime example of a language that has its roots deep in C. While the syntax of the language is not very similar to that of C, Python itself is written in C. This, along with the fact the Python is an open source program, allows C users to extend Python with C, or embed Python into C programs. This close relationship is one of the key factors leading to Python's success as a general-use scripting language. Perl is another example of a popular programming language rooted in C. However, unlike Python, Perl's syntax does closely follow C syntax. Perl is also written in C and works very well with extension C programs. See also C99, new standard for the C programming language Comparison of programming languages International Obfuscated C Code Contest List of articles with C programs List of compilers Comparison of Pascal and C Footnotes References Brian Kernighan, Dennis Ritchie: The C Programming Language. Also known as K&R — The original book on C. 1st, Prentice Hall 1978; ISBN 0-13-110163-3. Pre-ANSI C. 2nd, Prentice Hall 1988; ISBN 0-13-110362-8. ANSI C. ISO/IEC 9899. Official C99 documents, including technical corrigenda and a rationale. As of 2007 the latest version of the standard is . Samuel P. Harbison, Guy L. Steele: C: A Reference Manual. This book is excellent as a definitive reference manual, and for those working on C compilers. The book contains a BNF grammar for C. 5th, Prentice Hall 2002; ISBN 0-13-089592-X. Derek M. Jones: The New C Standard: A Cultural and Economic Commentary, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-70917-1, online material Robert Sedgewick: Algorithms in C, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-31452-5 (Part 1–4) and ISBN 0-201-31663-3 (Part 5) William H. Press, Saul A. Teukolsky, William T. Vetterling, Brian P. Flannery: Numerical Recipes in C (The Art of Scientific Computing), ISBN 0-521-43108-5 External links Draft ANSI C Standard (ANSI X3J11/88-090), Third Public Review (May 13, 1988) ISO C Working Group (official Web site) The Development of the C Language by Dennis M. Ritchie comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions The C Book by M.Banahan-D.Brady-M.Doran (Addison-Wesley, 2nd ed.) — book for beginning and intermediate students, now out of print and free to download. — An unpublished book about "detailed analysis of the International Standard for the C language." 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3,803 | Hiberno-English | Hiberno-English also known as Anglo-Irish and Irish English is English as spoken in Ireland, partly the result of the interaction of the English and Irish languages. English was mainly brought to Ireland during the Plantations of Ireland in the sixteenth century and established itself in Dublin and in the area of Leinster known as the Pale. It was later introduced into Ulster during the Plantation of Ulster through Belfast and the Lagan Valley in the seventeenth century. The standard spelling and grammar of written Hiberno-English, are largely the same as British English. However, some unique characteristics exist, especially in the spoken language, owing to the influence of the Irish language on the pronunciation of English. Pronunciation Hiberno-English retains many phonemic differentiations, which have merged in other English accents. Phonetic transcriptions are given using the International Phonetic Alphabet. With some local exceptions, occurs postvocally, making many Irish English dialects rhotic. The exceptions to this are most notable in Drogheda and some other eastern towns, whose accent is distinctly non-rhotic. In Dublin English, a retroflex is used (much as in most varieties of American English). This has no precedent in varieties of southern Irish English and is a genuine innovation of the past two decades. Mainstream varieties still use a non-retroflex (as in word-initial position). A uvular is found in north-east Leinster. R is pronounced as a postalveolar tap in conservative accents. Mícheál Ó Muircheartaigh and Jackie Healy-Rae are both good examples of this. is not usually pronounced as a plosive where it does not occur word-initially; instead, it is pronounced as a slit fricative . The distinction between w and wh , as in wine vs. whine is preserved. There is some variation with the consonants that are dental fricatives in other varieties ( and ); after a vowel, they may be dental fricatives or dental stops ( and respectively) depending on speaker, while word-initially they are always dental stops. making thin and tin, and then and den, near-homophones, where the pair tin and den employs alveolar pronunciation (as in other varieties of English). In a number of varieties, though, this occurs only to while is left unchanged. Some dialects of Irish have a "slender" (palatalised) d as and this may transfer over to English pronunciation. In still others, both dental fricatives are present since slender dental stops are lenited to and . The distinction between and in horse and hoarse is preserved, though not usually in Dublin. A distinction between in herd-bird-curd may be found. is never velarised, except in (relatively recent) Dublin English. The vowels in words as boat and cane are monophthongs: , and respectively, though not in Dublin. The in "night" may be pronounced The in "boy" may be pronounced in some cities e.g. Cork In some varieties, speakers make no distinction between the in putt and the in put, pronouncing both as the latter. In some highly conservative varieties, words spelled with ea and pronounced with in RP are pronounced with , for example meat, beat. In words like took where "oo" usually represents , speakers may use . The a in any and many is sometimes pronounced as a "short a". often becomes in words such as gave and came (becoming "gev" and "kem") Consonant clusters ending in often change. becomes , e.g. dew/due, duke and duty sound like "Jew", "jook" and "jooty". becomes , e.g. tube is "choob", tune is "choon" becomes , e.g. new becomes "noo" The following show neither dropping nor coalescence: Dublin English As with London and New York, Dublin has several dialects that differ significantly based on class and age group. Some features include: All of the below information is from Dublin English: Evolution and Change; Raymond Hickey. John Benjamins 2005 Traditionally the /ai/ vowel in words like "price" and "ride" ranges in pronunciation from in working-class speech to in middle-class dialects. However, among speakers born after 1970, the pronunciation (more typical of other Hiberno-English dialects) has become more frequent. The /au/ diphthong in 'around' and 'south' is fronted to or . Upper middle-class speech tends to preserve this as (note that the tense off-glide slightly distinguishes this diphthong from American or English pronunciations). Low-back vowels are typically lengthened, hence 'dog' becomes , 'lost' becomes , etc. The 'horse-hoarse' distinction in other Irish dialects is sometimes lacking modern dialects. Both are usually pronounced with the same low-back vowel (i.e. or in upper-middle-class dialects. Working-class dialects are weakly rhotic, with some historically non-rhotic pronunciations (e.g. for 'porter'). Rhotic speakers pronounce written in all positions, while non-rhotic speakers pronounce only if it is followed by a vowel sound (see "linking and intrusive R"), and not always even then. In upper-middle class speech, however, final 'r' is often retroflex, a feature which creates a strongly rhotic auditory effect, and as such a clear means of disassociation from the city's weakly-rhotic vernacular. Final 't' is heavily lenited in working-class Dublin English so that 'sit' can be pronounced , or even . In younger speakers, intervocalic 't' may be tapped as in North American and Australian English (i.e. 'patted' realised as ). Grammar derived from Irish The syntax of the Irish language is quite different from that of English. Various aspects of Irish syntax have influenced Hiberno-English, though it should be noted that many of these idiosyncrasies are disappearing in urban areas and among the younger population. Irish lacks words that directly translate as "yes" or "no", and instead repeats the verb in a question, possibly negated, to answer. Hiberno-English uses "yes" and "no" less frequently than other English dialects as speakers can repeat the verb, positively or negatively, instead of (or in redundant addition to) using "yes" or "no". "Are you coming home soon?" "I am." "Is your mobile charged?" "It's not." There is no indefinite article in Irish (fear means "a man", whereas an fear means "the man"), and the use of the definite article in Hiberno-English has some distinctive functions, which mark it out from Standard English by following and sometimes extending the usage of the definite article in Irish. "She had the flu so he brought her to the hospital." (This construction is normal in American English, but not in most British dialects). "She came home for the Christmas." The Irish equivalent of the verb "to be" The English verb "to be" can be represented in Irish, depending on grammatical circumstances, either by the verb bí or by the copula is, a defective verb; it is the former which is at issue here. The distinction between the verb bí and the copula is explained in full on the Irish syntax article. has two present tenses, one (the present tense proper or "aimsir láithreach") for cases which are generally true or are true at the time of speaking and the other (the habitual present or "aimsir gnáth láithreach") for repeated actions. Thus, 'you are [now, or generally]' is tá tú, but 'you are [repeatedly]' is bíonn tú. Both forms are used with the verbal noun (equivalent to the English present participle) to create compound tenses. Some Irish speakers of English, especially in rural areas, especially Mayo/Sligo in the West of Ireland, use the verb "to be" in English similarly to how they would in Irish, using a "does be/do be" (or "bees", although less frequently) construction to indicate this latter continuous present: "He does be working every day." "They do be talking on their mobiles a lot." "He does be doing a lot of work at school." "It's him I do be thinking of." Irish has no pluperfect tense: instead, "after" is added to the present continuous (a verb ending in "-ing"), a construction known as the "hot news perfect" or "after perfect". , The idiom for "I had done X when I did Y" is "I was after doing X when I did Y", modelled on the Irish usage of the compound prepositions i ndiaidh, tar éis, and in éis: bhí mé tar éis/i ndiaidh/in éis X a dhéanamh, nuair a rinne mé Y. "Why did you hit him?" "He was after showing me cheek." A similar construction is seen where exclamation is used in describing a recent event: "I'm after hitting him with the car!" Táim tar éis é a bhualadh leis an gcarr! "She's after losing five stone in five weeks!" When describing less astonishing or significant events, a structure resembling the German spoken perfect can be seen: "I have the car fixed." Tá an carr deisithe agam. "I have my breakfast eaten." Tá mo bhricfeasta ite agam. Irish has separate forms for the second person singular (tú) and the second person plural (sibh). Mirroring Irish, and almost every other Indo European language, the plural 'you' is also distinguished from the singular in Hiberno-English, normally by use of the otherwise archaic English word 'ye' [ji]; the word 'yous' (sometimes written as 'youse') also occurs, but primarily only in Dublin and across Ulster. In addition, in some areas in Leinster, north Connacht and parts of Ulster, the hybrid word 'ye-s', pronounced 'yis', may be used. The pronunciation does differ however, with that of the northwestern being and the Leinster pronunciation being . "Did ye all go to see it?" "None of youse have a clue!" "Are yis not finished yet?" In rural areas, the reflexive version of pronouns is often used for emphasis or to refer indirectly to a particular person, etc., according to context . 'Herself', for example, might refer to the speaker's boss or to the woman of the house. Use of 'herself' or 'himself' in this way often indicates that the speaker attributes some degree of arrogance or selfishness to the person in question. Note also the indirectness of this construction relative to, for example, 'She's coming now' "'Tis herself that's coming now." Is í féin atá ag teacht anois. "Was it all of ye or just yourself?" It is also common to end sentences with 'no?' or 'yeah?' "He isn't coming today, no?" Níl sé ag teacht inniu, nach bhfuil? "The bank's closed now, yeah?" Tá an banc dúnta anois, an bhfuil? Though because of the particularly insubstantive yes and no in Irish, (the nach bhfuil? and an bhfuil? being the interrogative positive and negative of the verb 'to be') the above may also find expression as "He isn't coming today, sure he isn't?" Níl sé ag teacht inniú, nach bhfuil? "The bank's closed now, isn't it?" Tá an banc dúnta anois, nach bhfuil? This is not limited only to the verb 'to be': it is also used with 'to have' when used as an auxiliary; and, with other verbs, the verb 'to do' is used. This is most commonly used for intensification. This is strong stuff, so it is. We won the game, so we did. She is a right lash, so she is. There are some language forms that stem from the fact that there is no verb 'to have' in Irish. Instead, possession is indicated in Irish by using the preposition 'at,' (in Irish, ag.). To be more precise, Irish uses a prepositional pronoun that combines ag "at" and me "me" to create agam. In English, the verb "to have" is used, along with a "with me" or "on me" that derives from ‘‘Tá....agam. This gives rise to the frequent Do you have the book? I have it with me. Have you change for the bus on you? He will not shut up if he has drink taken. Somebody who can speak a language 'has' a language, in which Hiberno-English has borrowed the grammatical form used in Irish. She does not have Irish. Níl Gaeilge aici. literally 'There is no Irish at her'. When describing something, rural Hiberno-English speakers may use the term 'in it' where 'there' would usually be used. This is due to the Irish word ann (pronounced "oun") fulfilling both meanings. Is it yourself that is in it? An tú féin atá ann?Another idiom is this thing or that thing described as 'this man here' or 'that man there', which also features in Newfoundland English in Canada. This man here. An fear seo. (cf. the related anseo = here) That man there. An fear sin. (cf. the related ansin = there) Conditionals have a greater presence in Hiberno-English due to the tendency to replace the simple present tense with the conditional (would) and the simple past tense with the conditional perfect (would have). John asked me would I buy a loaf of bread ('John asked me to buy a loaf of bread') How do you know him? We would have been in school together. ('We went to school together') Bring and take: Irish use of these words differs from that of English, because it follows the Gaelic grammar for beir and tóg. English usage is determined by direction; person determines Irish usage. So, in English, one takes "from here to there", and brings it "to here from there". Nevertheless, in Irish, a person takes only when accepting a transfer of possession of the object from someone else and a person brings at all other times, irrespective of direction (to or from). Do not forget to bring your umbrella with you when you go (To a child) Hold my hand: I do not want someone to take you. Preservation of older English and Norman French usage In old-fashioned usage, "it is" can be freely abbreviated "'tis", even as a standalone sentence. This also allows the double contraction "'tisn't", for "it is not". The word "ye", "yis" or "yous", otherwise archaic, is still used in place of "you" for the second-person plural. "Ye'r" "Yisser" or "Yousser" are the possessive forms, e.g. "What's ye'r weather like over in France this time o' the year?" The verb "mitch" is common in Ireland, indicating being truant from school. This word appears in Shakespeare, but is seldom heard these days in British English, although pockets of usage persist in some areas (notably South Wales, Devon, and Cornwall). Another usage familiar from Shakespeare is the inclusion of the second person pronoun after the imperative form of a verb, as in "Wife, go you to her ere you go to bed" (Romeo and Juliet, Act III, Scene IV). This is still common in Ulster: "Get youse your homework done or you're no goin' out!" In Munster, you will still hear children being told, "Up to bed, let ye" In some parts of Ireland, in particular the eastern seaboard, when someone is telling tall tales he is said to be "blowing" or "bilowen" out of him/her, which is likely to be a preservation of the Middle English "bilowen" or "bi-lyen", as seen in Piers Plowman (by William Langland): "2.22 - And bilowen hire to lordes þat lawes han to kepe." "Gassin", "gorsoon", "gossoon" or "gossoor" is a common descriptor in rural areas for a child, and derives from the French "garçon" (meaning "boy") as used by 12th century Norman settlers (via "garsún" (Munster dialect) and "gasúr" (Connacht and Ulster) in Irish). A sliced loaf of bread is still called in many parts of the country "sliced pan" deriving from the French word for bread "pain" while in the Beara Peninsula, a long shirt is called by older folk a "shemmy shirt" from the French "chemise". "Pismires", meaning "ants", is still used in parts of County Cavan and widely across County Mayo, County Sligo, County Roscommon, County Longford and County Leitrim; see also in Shakespeare. For influence from Scotland see Ulster Scots and Ulster English. Turns of phrase Amn't is used as an abbreviation of "am not", by analogy with "isn't" and "aren't". This can be used as a tag question ("I'm making a mistake, amn't I?"), or as an alternative to "I'm not" ("I amn't joking"), and the double negative is also used ("I'm not late, amn't I not?"). This construction occurs also in Scottish English Arra is used also. Arra tends to be used after something bad has happened, when someone is looking on the bright side ("Arra, we'll go next week", "Arra, 'tis not the end of the world"). Arra comes from the Irish word "dhera" (pronounced "yerra"). As a result, the words yerra and erra are also used in different parts of the country. Come here to me now, Come here and I'll tell ya something or (in Limerick) Come here I wan' cha is used to mean "Listen to this" or "I have something to tell you" and can be used as "Come here and tell me". The phrase "Tell me this", short for "Tell me this and tell me no more", is also common. These phrases tend to imply a secretiveness or revelatory importance to the upcoming piece of information. Various insults have been transferred directly from Irish and have a very mild meaning in English: e.g. Lúdramán, Amadán, pleidhce, rogue, eejit (idiot), all (loosely) meaning "fool" or "messer" (messer is also a Hiberno-Irish turn of phrase). "Langer" is used in as a derogative in Cork, but is believed to stem from the name of the "Langur" monkey encountered by the Munster Fusiliers while in India in the 19th century. The Gentrification of "Langer" As its provenance is not Irish, some do not consider it to be Hiberno-English. Also more prevalent in Cork is a profligation of colourful emphasis-words; in general any turn of phrase associated with a superlative action is used to mean very, and are often calculated to express these in a negative light and therefore often unpleasant by implication - "he's a howling/ thundering/ rampaging/ galloping/ screeching langer, so he is." The practice is widespread in the rest of Hiberno-English but is such a feature of Corkonian speech that it is now commonly lampooned when imitating the accent. Reduplication is an alleged trait of Hiberno-English strongly associated with stage-Irish and Hollywood films (to be sure, to be sure). It is virtually never used in reality. ar bith corresponds to English at all, so the stronger ar chor ar bith gives rise to the form at all at allI've no money at all at all. ar eagla go... (Lit. "On fear that") means in case.... The variant ar eagla na heagla, (lit on fear of fear) implies the circumstances are more unlikely. The corresponding Hiberno-English phrases are to be sure and to be sure to be sure. In this context, these are not, as might be thought, disjuncts meaning 'certainly'; they could better be translated in case and just in case. Nowadays normally spoken with conscious levity. I brought some cash in case I saw a bargain, and my credit card 'to be sure to be sure'.So is often used for emphasis ("I can speak Irish, so I can"), or it may be tacked on to the end of a sentence to indicate agreement, where "then" would often be used in Standard English ("Bye so", "Let's go so", "That's fine so", "We'll do that so"). The word is also used to contradict a negative statement ("You're not pushing hard enough" - "I am so!"). The practice of indicating emphasis with so and including reduplicating the sentence's subject pronoun and auxiliary verb (is, are, have, has, can, etc.) such as in the initial example, is particularly prevalent in more northern dialects such as those of Sligo, Mayo, Cavan, Monaghan and other neighbouring counties. Sure (pronounced "shur" or "sher") is often used as a tag word, emphasising the obviousness of the statement. Can be used as "to be sure", the famous Irish stereotype phrase. (But note that the other stereotype of "Sure and..." is not actually used in Ireland.) Or "Sure, I can just go on Wednesday", "I will not, to be sure." "Sure Jeez" is often used as a very mild expletive to express dismay. The word is also used at the end of sentences (primarily in Munster), for instance "I was only here five minutes ago, sure!" and can express emphasis or indignation. To give out to somebody is to scold that person. ("Me Ma gave out to me for coming home late last night"). A particularly strong scolding may result in the addition of the word "stink" to the phrase. ("Me Ma gave out stink to me for coming home late last night") The equivalent phrase in English-English, 'to have a go at', is not used in Hiberno-English, unless physical force is involved. Will is often used where English English would use "shall" ("Will I make us a cup of tea?"). The distinction between "shall" (for first-person simple future, and second- and third-person emphatic future) and "will" (second- and third-person simple future, first-person emphatic future), maintained by many in England, does not exist in Hiberno-English, with "will" generally used in all cases. Casual conversation in many parts of Ireland includes a variety of colourful turns of phrase. Some examples: Yer man (your man) and Yer wan/one (your one) are used in referring to an individual other than the speaker and the person spoken to. They may be used because the speaker does not know the name of the person referred to, and either can be used when the sex of the person referred to is not known. "I'll give yer one in the Health Board a call" can be used even if the speaker does not know whether the person who will answer the phone will be a man or a woman. The phrases are an unusual sort of half-translation of a parallel Irish-language phrase, "mo dhuine" (literally 'my person') and this form exists in Kerry, for example "I was just talking with my man-o here." Similarly, in Waterford city 'me man' is often used, for example "I was just talking to me man". The nearest equivalents in colloquial English usage would be "whatsisname" and "whatsername". Note also "wan" (particularly common in Munster) for a female person may be a direct usage of the Irish 'bean' (woman). In Newfoundland, the same form exists as 'buddy,' who is a generic nameless person. They use the word not always in the sense of 'my friend' but more in the sense of 'what's his name'. 'I went inside to ask for directions and buddy said to go left at the lights'. The expression is used in this old song, partly just to make a rhyme:And yer man / Mick McCann / From the banks of the Bann / Was the skipper of the Irish Rover. A soft day: referring to a rainy day with that particular soft drizzle, and an overcast sky, but relatively bright. This is a translation of the Irish "lá bog". Fecking is a mild abusive equivalent in force to "bleeding" or "darned". It is not a parallel of the English word "fucking", despite their similarity, and is generally less offensive. It appears often in the memoir Angela's Ashes. "Feck" is the corresponding expletive. The noun "fecker" is slightly stronger but not vulgar. These terms were lately introduced to Britain by Father Ted. (Mrs. Doyle refers to "feck" as "the f-word" and "fuck" as "the bad f-word" in one episode.) In old Dubliner slang, "to feck' is also slang for "to steal", as in the phrase, "We went to the orchard and fecked some apples." It can also mean, "to throw", especially if something is being thrown where it should not, as in "We fecked his schoolbag into the river." However, fuck is also used in this context and the two should not be confused. "To Feck Off" is used as a substitute for the verb "to go", either implying "go quickly" - "We fecked off home before it got any worse" - or to go away after a disappointment - "we fecked off to the pub after losing the match". "Feck off" is also used in place of the English "fuck off", as an order meaning "go away". It is generally used in an offensive context as a milder form of "fuck off" (for example, "Will you just feck off, I'm trying to read something", or "Feck off, you're not wanted here"). Yoke is typically used in place of the word "thing", for instance, "gimme that yoke there." It is more commonly used with tools or other objects needed to accomplish some sort of manual task; a book or an apple, for example, are not very likely to be referred to as a "yoke." Like "thing," it is more frequently used to refer to objects for which the actual name is cumbersome to say or more difficult to call to mind. It is also used as an insult: "you're some yoke" and the longer forms "yokiebob" and "yokiemibob" still survives. "Yoke" is also a slang term for an ecstasy tablet. Yoke can also be used when referring to an unattractive or annoying woman (e.g. "Jaysus but she's an awful looking yoke altogether"). Now is often used at the end of sentences or phrases as a semantically empty word, completing an utterance without contributing any apparent meaning. Examples include "Bye now" (= "goodbye"), "There you go now" (= when giving someone something), "Ah now!" (= expressing dismay), "Hold on now" (= "wait a minute"), "Now then" as a mild attention-getter, etc. This usage is universal among English dialects, but occurs more frequently in Hiberno-English. To is often omitted from sentences where it would exist in British English. For example, "I'm not allowed go out tonight", instead of "I'm not allowed to go out tonight". The devil is used in Irish as an expletive, e.g. Cén áit sa diabhal a bhfuil sé? "Where the devil is he?" (The Irish version is literally "What place in the devil is he?"). This has been translated into Irish as a mild expletive, used in the song "Whiskey in the Jar" in the line "But the devil take the women, for they never can be easy". Diabhal is also used for negation in Irish, and this usage might be carried over to Hiberno-English: diabhal fear "devil a man", for "not a soul". Substitute "nary" for "divil" in this line from the song Harrigan: Proud of all the Irish blood that's in me / Divil a man can say a word again' me. There are many terms for having consumed a drop too much drink, many are used elsewhere, but the Irish tendency is to attempt to find the most descriptive adjective yet on each occasion. Some examples: "loaded", "blocked", "twisted", "full" (common in Ulster), "as full as a Gypsy's tit", "spannered", "Spangled", "scuttered", "menashed", "stocious/stotious", "bananas", "baloobas" (common in Cavan), "locked", "langered", "mouldy" (pron. mowldy as in "fowl"; used in Galway esp.), "polluted", "flootered", "plastered", "bolloxed", "banjaxed", "well out of it", "wankered", "fucked", "fuckered","paraplegic" (common in Kilkenny), "ossified", "binned", "rat-arsed”, "gee-eyed", "demented" "flahed drunk" "langers altogether" "in shit drunk" (common in Cork), "buckled", "steaming"( common in Donegal), "messy", "rotten", "out of me tree" (common in Limerick) "off me head altogether", "off my face", "sloppy", "cabbaged", "wasted", "paralytic/palatic", "full as a boot", "full up", "full as the bingo bus" (common in Louth), "legless", "hammered", "circling over Shannon", "blootered", "squooshed", "banjoed", "mullered", "bingoed", "mangled", "ruined", "landed", "cant even see my hand in front of my face" "half-tore","lubed" (Common in Ballincollig), "oiled", "jarred" (not too drunk, "I'm not drunk, I'm just a bit jarred!"), "scorched", "in the horrors", (common in Waterford), "in the rats", "in the livin' rats", "in the livin' fuckin' rats" (common in Dungarvan, Co. Waterford), "stoned" (Louth/South Monaghan only), "I'm off my tits", "binned", "pissed", "cut and half cut", "flamin'" (common in Kerry), "sozzled", "blottoed", "trolleyed", "sloshed", "wrecked", "rancid", "goosed", "off my game", "off my trolley", "gimped", "destroyed", "wrote", "wrote off", "guitaroed" '"I wasn't banjoed I was guitaroed"', "steamed" (common in Mayo), "off my chops" (common in Clonakilty), "sauced" (Fermanagh) "transmoglified", "I was off me shoe"/ "I fell off my shoe", "smashed". (Phrases in italics are more "colourful") Irish English also always uses the alveolar or "light" L sound, as opposed to other English dialects which use a velar or "dark" L in word-final position. The naming of the letter "H" as "haitch" is standard, while the letter "R" is called "or", the letter "A" is often pronounced "ah", and the letter "Z" is referred to as "e-zed". Lexicon Hiberno-English vocabulary is largely the same as British English, though there are variances, especially with reference to certain goods, services and institutions. Examples that would come into everyday conversation include: Acting the maggot, used mainly by Dubliners to describe dawdling along or playing-up, e.g. "Ah Sean, stop acting the maggot, and eat your dinner". Amadán - fool (derived from Irish) Something banjaxed is broken, ruined, or rendered incapable of use. As in "My mobile's been banjaxed since I dropped it in the toilet." Not generally used as an active verb. Bold describes someone (usually a child) who is impudent, naughty or badly behaved. Bucklepper An overactive, overconfident person; as used by Patrick Kavanagh and Seamus Heaney S. Heaney Cat - bad, terrible. Common in Ulster. Sometimes "catmalojin". Found particularly in Sligo and Waterford, but sometimes used elsewhere (thought to derive from "catastrophic"). "The weather is cat isn't it?" Celtbion - a slabber - whether verbally or in writing - although better known in writing circles when bigoted rantings can be of Tolkeinesque proportions Chiseler - Dublin dialect for a child. Class is a very common slang term, used to describe something which the speaker deems to be excellent. "That movie was class." Cod acting, or acting the cod. Playing at being an eejit (q.v.). Used mainly by the over-30s. Coolaboola (also coolyaboolya) pronounced Coo-la-boo-la, Its general usage is as an affirmation similar to OK or just 'cool'. It gains popular usage in particular among young Irish students in the Gaeltacht summer colleges where speaking English is forbidden. "Did you send that fax through?" "Yeah." "Coolaboola." Craic or Crack is fun, a good time, good company, good atmosphere and conversation. If you are enjoying yourself, it is good craic. globalgateway.monster.ie HED :: Comments The word may also be used to refer to events, news, or gossip, as in the phrases "What's the crack?", "How's the craic?", "Any craic?" or "It was good crack". It can also be used in a negative context: "That was some bad crack there last night." A suggested connection to the Irish craiceann, skin, does not seem to be supported by any evidence. The word is a Scots word, as illustrated by the Dictionary of The Scots Language, which came from the Middle English crack (Old English krak) and has migrated from Scotland to Ireland through Ulster Scots. Craic is the Gaelicised version of the word, used from the 1970s, but the meaning is the same. Craytur - a term of endearment - probably a variation of the English word "creature". Cub - means a young child Culchie - means from the countryside (derogatory). In Dublin, it refers to people from any part of the country (urban or rural) other than Dublin. It is thought to come from the Irish word for woods "coillte", as far back as the time of the Pale, Dublin people referred to the rest of Ireland as 'people of the woods', hence Culchie comes from Coillte(the Irish for wood/forest). It may derive from the Irish phrase "cúl an tí", meaning "back of the house". For it was, and still is, common practise for country people to go in the back door of the house they were visiting, so they were dubbed Culchies. It may also derive from the name of the village of Kiltimagh, Irish Coillte Mach, in Co. Mayo, or possibly just from a truncation of the word "Agricultural". "Ya feckin' culchie!" Da Dublin and Ulster slang for father, as in "Me da doesn't do too well at the horses!" Dead on - (adjective) cool, fashionable, laid-back, relaxed, easy-going. Commonly used in Ulster. Deadly - (Dublin) slang for brilliant, for example, "That concert was deadly". Used in Munster when referring to something difficult, hard or complicated. "That exam question was deadly." Delph meaning Dishware, occasionally meaning artificial teeth. From the name of the original source of supply, Delft in the Netherlands. See Delftware. hiberno-english.com. Retrieved 9 July 2008. Desperate - often taken to mean unsavoury or (mildly) terrible - e.g. "It's an awful rainy day isn't it?" "Desperate". The word fierce is similar in meaning & usage. Dingen means 'very good', e.g. the film (fillum) was dingen. From the Gaelic 'daingean' meaning solid, secure etc. D'oul Collective / affectionate term, literally "the old", as in "d'oul silage", "d'oul motor" (pronounced as "th'oul" in some areas). Drout(h) - meaning drought/thirst for alcohol. 'There's an awful/fierce droot on me.' Common on Ulster. This is similar and probably related to Scots "Drouthy". Eejit (ee-jit), an idiot, but generally not as strong and not as offensive as using the term 'idiot'. "Would you look at that eejit trying to park that car." Evening starts at about 5:00 p.m. until about seven or eight p.m. Fair, as well as its usual meaning of just, can be used instead of very - 'They built that housing estate fair fast.' Fair play - used more so in Ireland than in other English speaking parts of the world. "Fair play to him" meaning "Well done to him", or "Good for him". Feck (or feic, from the Irish "to see") is a slang term that can mean, "throw", and “steal" or "go away" ("Feck off!"). Made famous overseas by Father Jack Hackett in Father Ted. FCUK took legal action against the producers of a 'FCEK' t-shirt in 2004 . Feen - A man. Its meaning is somewhat akin of the American Dude and the London Geezer. Etymology: fīn (Shelta) Usage common in Cork. Footpath is used in Ireland where "pavement" is in British English and "sidewalk" in American English. The shortened version of this word which is used more commonly everyday is 'path'. "I nearly tripped over that path." Gansey, from the Irish geansaí, (English dialect for Guernsey jersey) refers to a jersey or jumper (sweater in American English). This term is also used, although rarely, in parts of northern England. Gargle - alcohol e.g. "You going to the off-o (off license) to get some gargle for tonight?" Gas - adjective meaning 'hilarious'. e.g. "He's a gas man, isn't he?" or "That's gas." Geebag - Disreputable person, akin to bastard. "She's a total geebag." Less offensive than using gee (hard G sound) as a standalone word where gee would refer to female genitalia and would if spoken vociferously , mean "cunt". Give out (to someone) - to tell someone off, to scold a person, e.g. "She gave out to him for stealing the money". Come from the Irish tabhair amach (give out). Gobshite (offensive) refers to a fool, someone who talks nonsense, or sometimes someone who is gullible. "You're a right gobshite you know that." Go 'way as in 'go way out of that'. Can mean, in context, a) 'you're saying something new' or b) 'you're talking rubbish'. Often misunderstood by Americans as dismissive 'go away (from me)'. "And now she's keeping the baby but she hasn't told him yet" "Go 'way" Gombeen originally referred to a usurer (from the Irish gaimbín, diminutive of "lump"), but now refers to any underhand or corrupt activity. Gomey As a noun, a worthless individual, a fool e.g. "you're nothing but a gomey, like!". As an adjective, something not good or of little value e.g. "your shoes are gomey, ya gomey fool ya." Grinds - private tuition, usually for secondary school students. "I have to get maths grinds." Guards refers to the Garda Síochána, the Republic's police force, the Irish equivalent Gardaí being used more formally, usually in the media. The singular Garda is widely used, the female equivalent, Bangharda less so. The word "police" generally refers to police in other countries (although "Gardaí" and "Police" are sometimes used interchangeably within Dublin), while older people rarely use the American “cops”. Mainly the travelling community uses “Shades”. "Look you little bollox ye, get out of that garden or I'll call the guards." Gurrier means a young boy up to no good, usually used by the working classes from the Dublin area (see scanger). Derived from gur cake, a cheap rebaked cake eaten by the poor in Dublin. Someone on the run from the law was said to be 'out on gur', living off gur cake. Used the same way as the word 'punk' is in American English e.g. 'that guy is a no good, just some dumb punk kid'. Handy has more meanings in Hiberno-Irish than just "useful": it usually also means "great", "terrific". It is also used to describe a person's skill at a particular task; "Paul is pretty handy with a golf club" meaning "Paul is a good golfer". "Taking it handy" can mean "taking it easy", being careful or (when driving) not speeding How da form Used as a greeting in Cork. Howsa goin' Used as a greeting in parts of Connacht. Jackeen - A derogatory countryman's (culchie) name for a Dubliner. Cf. Irish Seáinín, "shoneen", an Anglicised Irish person. "Ya feckin' jackeen!" Jacks : lavatory. Cf. American English "john". "Here lads, I'm off to the jacks. Mind me drink will ya." Janey Mac! is an exclamation of amazement or frustration in Dublin. It comes from an old children's rhyme: "Janey Mac, me shirt is black, what'll I do for Sunday? /Go to bed, cover your head and don't get up till Monday!" Jaykers - A euphemism for Jeez; used as expression of amazement. Jaysus - The same as Jesus just pronounced differently, usually used in amazement. "Look at that bird!" "Jay---sus!" Jeep, much like "Hiace", is used by many to refer to any sort of off road vehicle, be it a small 4x4 like a Suzuki Jimny or large SUV like a long wheelbase Mitsubishi Pajero. This comes from US military usage of the term, while, oddly enough, actual Chrysler Jeeps were never officially sold in Ireland until the 1990s, and the word was just as common before then. Jockey's bollocks, the. Fantasic, on top, as in it's the JB. Similar to British-English 'the bee's knees' or 'the dog's bollocks'. Knacker - member of travelling community (derogatory). In Dublin it can also mean scanger" Kittle - the English word kettle is often pronounced more like the Irish citeal. Lack Waterford slang for girlfriend, similar to the use of "Mot" in Dublin. Loodar/Ludar - a fool; comes from an abbreviation and Anglicisation of the Gaelic Lúdramán. Lug - An ear. This expression is also found in the north of England and Scotland and is probably of Norse origin. Malarky - nonsense, usually used in a stern tone of voice by those in the teaching profession. "That's enough of that malarky." Meet - Meaning to kiss a person (often a French kiss). Used mainly by young people - 'Will you meet my friend?' Other variations include 'to score' someone and 'to shift' someone. Messages means groceries or errands. She's gone to the shop to get the messages. I had a few messages to do in town. This usage is also heard in the north of England and parts of Scotland. Minerals means soft drinks. Mouth-ed Telling a secret, giving information. Glottal T, as in "he mou'hed on me to the Guards". Mot - In Dublin, 'my girlfriend' would be 'me mot'. As the 't' is pronounced as a glottal stop, this sounds as if it might be related to the Irish maith for 'good' (maybe via cailín maith, 'good girl') but is actually a preservation of an English word (mainly for 'harlot') with possible French, Dutch, and Romany origins. The English Gypsy word for 'woman' is 'mort'. Mulla - A term used by people from Dublin to describe people from Wicklow. See also Culchie. Oul' fella/lad/man and oul' wan/lass(y) are used to describe one's father or mother respectively. "I was helping the oul'lad last night." Onst pron. one-st, once. Rural. Also in USA and spelled onct. As in: 'I was to Galway onst; 'tis great to see the world'. Pack is often used to refer to quite small packets, as in a "pack of crisps". Press is almost invariably used instead of cupboard. The hot press is the airing cupboard. Quare (pronounced kwer) - (a) used in place of 'very' and to add emphasis (b) used to describe something strange. "That's a quare looking yoke isn't it?", "That is quare bad so it is". Ramp is used generally to refer to a hump or bump. Example: Speed Ramps Runners or tackies, or in the north gutties, refers to "trainers" (British English) or "sneakers" (American English). Savage - great altogether. Commonly used to describe food or women. "Yer one is savage!" "I'd a savage steak there yesterday!" Scallion is usually used instead of Spring Onion (British English) or Green Onion (American English). However, since the proliferation of British supermarkets such as Tesco Ireland, some people have also started to use the term Spring Onion. Scobe, or Scobie , normally used in Munster or Leinster, refers to people low down in the social ladder, living in housing estates in the city, wearing hoodies, and committing petty crimes. It is synonymous with the words "scumbag" or "skanger". Scoop is used to describe an alcoholic beverage e.g. "You going for a few scoops?". It is rarely, if ever, used in the singular (for example "I left my scoop on the table" is not a phrase that would ever be used). Also used is the word Jars (giving rise to the expression to be intoxicated jarred). Both terms usually describe pints. Sca is a word used when asking someone if they have any news. Would usually be used in the form "any sca?". Could perhaps have its roots lying in the word scandal, or possibly originating from the Irish "aon sceal," which has the same meaning. Scratcher - Bed. Used in Dublin. "I couldn't get out of the scratcher this morning." Sham - a young man or boy. This word has come to be used as an exclamation by the Irish skanger community, for example "Aw Sham!" or "That is some sham!". Used in some parts of Ulster to mean a friend or as a greeting, particularly in North Antrim, for example 'All right sham, how's it goin?’ Etymology apparently from Shelta šam. Shift - to kiss, generally with tongues. Used mainly by youths. "Did ya shift her?" Shore - Street drainage in a gutter (a drain or stormdrain). Skanger is a derogatory term for a person with questionable fashion taste and/or a habitual use of recreational drugs and/or a penchant for petty crime. Most commonly used in and around Dublin. The word scumbag is commonly used elsewhere. The British equivalent is a chav. Keeping sketch describes keeping a lookout for teachers, Gardaí (police), parents etc. "Sketch!" is shouted if someone is coming. Usually used by teenagers. The term may derive from the Irish sceith meaning, "to inform on". Sláinte is an Irish word meaning "health". It is the shorter version of the term sláinte mhaith which means "good health". Either version is used as a toast, similar to "cheers", when drinking. Story - used as a casual form of greeting with friends or family. Often used on its own or can be used in conjunction with a word like bud (buddy) or man e.g. "Story bud?" or "What's the story man?". Usually used in passing or as a beginning to a conversation or 'story'. Sweet cake often used among older, but not very common among younger generations, a literal translation from Irish of cáca milis meaning "cake" or "pastry". Tayto (an Irish brand of potato crisps US "chips") has become synonymous with any sort of crisps, regardless of brand, among rural areas. Although the term itself is singular, - Tayto - the word is pluralised in use (as in "Go to the shop and get me a bag of Taytos.") Tearin' away is usually used to respond positively to an informal greeting. Usually it is preceded with an ah' Tilly often used among older, but not very common among younger generations, a small amount or remnant of liquid (as in "There's only a tilly of milk left in the bottle" or "Will I put a little tilly of milk in your coffee"). See also Tint Timber Used in Waterford, usually during hurling matches, provoking players to strike opposing players with their hurleys. Often preceded by "Give 'em- " Tint often used among older, but not very common among younger generations, a small amount or remnant of liquid. (See also Tilly) Tome adjective once used amongst Galway people meaning 'great'. Topper, pointer, parer, paro are often used to refer to a "pencil sharpener". Wan - A woman. This is a corruption of the word one under influence of the Gaelic word bean, meaning woman. "You wanna see yer wan." = You want to see that woman. Ware - Crockery to be washed. (principally used in Limerick and the MidWest) Well Used as a welcome in the South East and Louth, mainly in Waterford and Dundalk, and in Ulster as a welcome instead of hello. Used sporadically in Mayo. Welcoming a male is usually done "Wellboy" and a female is "Wellgirl" What about ye! - (informal slang) common greating in Belfast. Similar to How are you? and sometimes answered with 'Aye, Dead-on meaning 'Yeah, Cool/Good/Very Well'. Other common greetings What's the craic? which does not usually require an answer, or How's she cuttin'? which is more popular in rural areas (similar to the colloquial American greeting How's it hangin'?) Whisht - Meaning 'be quiet'. 'Hauld (Hold) your whisht' is a common phrase in rural Munster and Cavan, and is slowly going out of use. It probably comes from the Irish word huist (quiet!, ie. an instruction given to children), or éist (listen), which when said repeatedly becomes "Whisht". It might also be related to the similar (but now archaic) English or Scots whist . . Wet - Some speakers, particularly in Connaught, use the word "wet" as an adjective to describe the state of tea while brewing - 'The tea's wet.' The explanation presumably derives from the days when tea leaves were common, hence the act of pouring boiling water onto the leaves made them "wet", and the tea was ready to drink. Wojus - awful. Yoke - an unnamed thing, a whatchamacallit. Used commonly. (In parts of Ireland users of recreational drugs often refer to ecstasy tablets as "yokes".) "Yokabus" is another version, usually referring to a mechanical or electrical contraption. Similar meaning words are thingymabob, thingymajig, and a yokymabob. "How do you get this yoke to work?''" See also The lists at Wiktionary, the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project: list of Irish words list of words of Irish origin list of Scots words list of words of Scots origin list of Scottish Gaelic words list of words of Scottish Gaelic origin List of English words of Irish origin Terence Dolan Regional accents of English speakers Ulster Scots Mid Ulster English English speaking Europe Yola dialect of Wexford Notes Bibliography External links The Hiberno-English Archive The English As We Speak It In Ireland. 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3,804 | Affirming_the_consequent | Affirming the consequent, sometimes called converse error, is a formal fallacy, committed by reasoning in the form: If P, then Q. Q. Therefore, P. Arguments of this form are invalid, in that the conclusion (3) does not have to follow even when statements 1 and 2 are true. The simple reason for this is that P was never asserted as the only cause of Q, so, in general, any number of other factors could have caused Q (while P was false). The name affirming the consequent derives from the premise Q, which affirms the "then" clause of the conditional premise. Examples One way to demonstrate the invalidity of this argument form is with a counterexample with true premises but an obviously false conclusion. For example: If Bill Gates owns Fort Knox, then he is rich. Bill Gates is rich. Therefore, Bill Gates owns Fort Knox. Owning Fort Knox is not the only way to be rich. There are any number of other ways to be rich. Arguments of the same form can sometimes seem superficially convincing, as in the following example: If I have the flu, then I have a sore throat. I have a sore throat. Therefore, I have the flu. Having the flu is not the only cause of a sore throat since many illnesses cause sore throat, such as the common cold or strep throat. The following is a more subtle version of the fallacy embedded into conversation. A: All Republicans are pro-life. B: That's not true. My uncle's pro-life and he's not a Republican. B attempts to disprove A's modus ponens ("if Republican then pro-life") by providing evidence he believes would contradict one of its implications. However, B's example of his uncle does not contradict A's statement, which says nothing about non-Republicans. What would be needed to disprove A's assertion are examples of Republicans who are not pro-life. Cases where affirming the consequent is valid Tautologies If claims P and Q express the same proposition, then the argument would be trivially valid, as it would beg the question. If P, then P. P. Therefore, P. This is also the case for definitions. For example. If a man is a bachelor, then he's an unmarried male A man is an unmarried male. Therefore, the man is a bachelor. In everyday discourse, however, such cases are rare. The validity of such definitions is due to the fact that definitions can be expressed as an if and only if (see below). Clearly if the definition of "bachelor" is "an unmarried male", then the propositional statement: "A is a bachelor" if and only if "A is an unmarried male", must be true. In normal speech it is awkward to use the phrase "if and only if", so we substitute the valid but less complete "if", giving the conventional form which is similar to the form of the formal fallacy. If and only if The reason the conclusion of an argument that affirms the consequent does not follow is the lack of a unique cause for Q. However, if it is explicitly stated that the consequent could only have one cause (known as an "if and only if" statement or biconditional), the argument becomes valid. For example: If he's not inside, then he's outside. He's outside. Therefore, he's not inside. The above argument may be valid, but only if the claim "if he's outside, then he's not inside" follows from the first premise. More to the point, the validity of the argument stems not from affirming the consequent, but affirming the antecedent. Such if and only if statements often make their way into detective mysteries. The only way he could have gotten into the bedroom without leaving marks in the hall is the window. No marks were found in the hall. The cigar ends show he was in the room. Therefore, he used the window. Use of the fallacy in science Although affirming the consequent is an invalid inference, it is defended by some as a type of inductive reasoning, sometimes under the name "inference to the best explanation". That is, in some cases, reasoners argue that the antecedent is the best explanation, given the truth of the consequent. For example, someone considering the results of a scientific experiment may reason in the following way: Theory P predicts that we will observe Q. Experimental observation shows Q. Therefore theory P is true. However, such reasoning is still affirming the consequent and still logically weak. (e.g., Let P = geocentrism and Q = sunrise and sunset.) The strength of such reasoning as an inductive inference depends on the likelihood of alternative hypotheses, which shows that such reasoning is based on additional premises, not merely on affirming the consequent. References Affirming the Consequent in The Fallacy Files See also Modus ponens Modus tollens Denying the antecedent Fallacy of the undistributed middle Inference to the best explanation ELIZA effect | Affirming_the_consequent |@lemmatized affirm:11 consequent:11 sometimes:3 call:1 converse:1 error:1 formal:2 fallacy:6 commit:1 reason:4 form:6 p:12 q:10 therefore:8 argument:8 invalid:2 conclusion:3 follow:3 even:1 statement:5 true:5 simple:1 never:1 assert:1 cause:6 general:1 number:2 factor:1 could:3 false:2 name:2 derive:1 premise:5 clause:1 conditional:1 examples:1 one:3 way:6 demonstrate:1 invalidity:1 counterexample:1 obviously:1 example:7 bill:3 gate:3 fort:3 knox:3 rich:4 seem:1 superficially:1 convincing:1 following:3 flu:3 sore:4 throat:5 since:1 many:1 illness:1 common:1 cold:1 strep:1 subtle:1 version:1 embed:1 conversation:1 republican:5 pro:4 life:4 b:3 uncle:2 attempt:1 disprove:2 modus:3 ponens:2 provide:1 evidence:1 believe:1 would:4 contradict:2 implication:1 however:4 say:1 nothing:1 non:1 need:1 assertion:1 case:4 valid:5 tautology:1 claim:2 express:2 proposition:1 trivially:1 beg:1 question:1 also:2 definition:4 man:3 bachelor:4 unmarried:4 male:4 everyday:1 discourse:1 rare:1 validity:2 due:1 fact:1 see:2 clearly:1 propositional:1 must:1 normal:1 speech:1 awkward:1 use:3 phrase:1 substitute:1 less:1 complete:1 give:2 conventional:1 similar:1 lack:1 unique:1 explicitly:1 state:1 know:1 biconditional:1 become:1 inside:3 outside:3 may:2 first:1 point:1 stem:1 antecedent:3 often:1 make:1 detective:1 mystery:1 get:1 bedroom:1 without:1 leave:1 mark:2 hall:2 window:2 find:1 cigar:1 end:1 show:3 room:1 science:1 although:1 inference:4 defend:1 type:1 inductive:2 reasoning:4 best:3 explanation:3 reasoner:1 argue:1 truth:1 someone:1 consider:1 result:1 scientific:1 experiment:1 theory:2 predict:1 observe:1 experimental:1 observation:1 still:2 logically:1 weak:1 e:1 g:1 let:1 geocentrism:1 sunrise:1 sunset:1 strength:1 depend:1 likelihood:1 alternative:1 hypothesis:1 base:1 additional:1 merely:1 reference:1 file:1 tollens:1 deny:1 undistributed:1 middle:1 eliza:1 effect:1 |@bigram affirm_consequent:9 sore_throat:4 modus_ponens:2 inductive_reasoning:1 sunrise_sunset:1 inductive_inference:1 modus_tollens:1 |
3,805 | Duck_Hunt | is a video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) game console system in which players use the NES Zapper to shoot ducks on screen for points. The game was developed and published by Nintendo, and was released in 1984 in Japan. The ducks appear one or two at a time, and the player is given three shots to shoot them down. Duck Hunt was one of the two original pack-in titles for the first release of the game system. The game was not initially reviewed often, but given mediocre critical praise and positive gamer reaction. Prior to the NES version, Nintendo also made a Duck Hunt game based on Laser Clay Shooting System released in 1976. Nintendo Duck Hunt (1976) Nintendo Duck Hunt (1976) video Gameplay Players are allowed to shoot up to three bullets at ducks. (Screenshot of NES version.) The dog being shot in Vs. Duck Hunt. In Duck Hunt, players utilize the Nintendo Zapper Light Gun that must be plugged into their NES consoles, and attempt to shoot down either ducks or clay pigeons in mid-flight. Duck Hunt was also released as an arcade game in 1984, Duck Hunt at Arcade Vault Retrieved November 21, 2006. and is included in the PlayChoice-10 arcade console. The game has three modes: one and two-duck variations on the above formula, and a third mode called "clay pigeon shooting". The clay pigeons are much smaller sprites than the ducks, and, in later rounds, require faster reaction time to shoot down than in comparably numbered duck modes. In Vs. Duck Hunt, Clay Shooting mode appears as the second round with the first round being the two duck variation (the arcade version never had one duck). Also, in Vs. Duck Hunt, the dog appears in the clay shooting round when players miss the clay pigeons. In the NES version, the dog only appears in the duck shooting modes. Throughout the game, the player is accompanied by a nameless dog that laughs at the player if no duck is hit, and congratulates the player if a duck is hit. Since then, the nameless dog has passed into video gaming folklore. According to urban legend, the dog can be shot, but this is not possible in the console version of the game. The feat of shooting the dog is possible in a bonus round of the game's arcade version, Vs. Duck Hunt. In this situation, the dog can be shot only after the final duck has flown from the screen or been hit. This is quite difficult, as the window of opportunity, timewise, is quite narrow. However, if the player succeeds, the shot turns the dog's face black with powder, his carefree expression immediately turning to one of rage, which is directed at the player with a menacing glare. After briefly exiting the screen, the dog then returns to the foreground, hobbling on crutches, and chides the player by saying, "Ouch, shoot the ducks, not me!" However, players will get no bonus points if they are able to hit the dog. Also, there have been several unofficial remakes in which the player is able to shoot the dog. The nameless dog makes a cameo appearance in the NES game Barker Bill's Trick Shooting (another Zapper game) and he can be shot. While Duck Hunt does not have a traditional multiplayer mode, the manual states that a second player may plug in a standard NES controller in the other controller port and control the duck that appears. This option was only possible in the one duck mode, and could not be done with the clay pigeons. Development Nintendo Research & Development 1 created the game. They also developed the Light Gun used in Duck Hunt. The game was supervised by Takehiro Izushi, and was produced by Gunpei Yokoi. Packaging and music Packaging Duck Hunt has been placed in several combination cartridges. In the original Action Set configuration of the NES in the late 1980s, Duck Hunt was included with Super Mario Bros.. This particular cartridge is found quite often in the United States, due to it being included with the purchase of a NES. If one had purchased the NES system in a bundle with the Power Pad, then Duck Hunt was included on a 3-in-1 cartridge that also included World Class Track Meet and Super Mario Bros. Audio Clay Shooting releases two clay pigeons at once. The original music was composed by Koji Kondo and Hirokazu "Hip" Tanaka, both of which did music for several other Nintendo games at the time. The game's music was represented in the classic games medley on the Video Games Live concert tour. Reception Because of its release in the mid-80s, Duck Hunt received few reviews. Even today, most critics have not reviewed Duck Hunt. However, Allgame called the game an "attractive but repetitive target shooter" and "utterly mindless ... the game is fun for a short time, but gets old after a few rounds of play." Despite the lack of formal reviews, several user groups have rated the game positively. 1UP.com users gave it an 8.7 out of 10, and the GameSpot community gave the Mario-Duck Hunt package a 9.1 out of 10. It was rated the 150th best game made on a Nintendo System in Nintendo Power's Top 200 Games list. . References External links | Duck_Hunt |@lemmatized video:4 game:25 nintendo:10 entertainment:1 system:6 ne:11 console:4 player:14 use:2 zapper:3 shoot:18 duck:35 screen:3 point:2 develop:2 publish:1 release:6 japan:1 appear:5 one:7 two:5 time:4 give:4 three:3 shot:2 hunt:19 original:3 pack:1 title:1 first:2 initially:1 review:4 often:2 mediocre:1 critical:1 praise:1 positive:1 gamer:1 reaction:2 prior:1 version:6 also:6 make:3 base:1 laser:1 clay:10 gameplay:1 allow:1 bullet:1 screenshot:1 dog:13 v:4 utilize:1 light:2 gun:2 must:1 plug:2 attempt:1 either:1 pigeon:6 mid:2 flight:1 arcade:5 vault:1 retrieve:1 november:1 include:5 playchoice:1 mode:7 variation:2 formula:1 third:1 call:2 much:1 small:1 sprite:1 late:2 round:6 require:1 fast:1 comparably:1 number:1 second:2 never:1 miss:1 throughout:1 accompany:1 nameless:3 laugh:1 hit:4 congratulate:1 since:1 pass:1 folklore:1 accord:1 urban:1 legend:1 possible:3 feat:1 bonus:2 situation:1 final:1 fly:1 quite:3 difficult:1 window:1 opportunity:1 timewise:1 narrow:1 however:3 succeed:1 turn:2 face:1 black:1 powder:1 carefree:1 expression:1 immediately:1 rage:1 direct:1 menacing:1 glare:1 briefly:1 exit:1 return:1 foreground:1 hobble:1 crutch:1 chide:1 say:1 ouch:1 get:2 able:2 several:4 unofficial:1 remake:1 cameo:1 appearance:1 barker:1 bill:1 trick:1 shooting:1 another:1 traditional:1 multiplayer:1 manual:1 state:2 may:1 standard:1 controller:2 port:1 control:1 option:1 could:1 development:2 research:1 create:1 supervise:1 takehiro:1 izushi:1 produce:1 gunpei:1 yokoi:1 packaging:2 music:4 place:1 combination:1 cartridge:3 action:1 set:1 configuration:1 super:2 mario:3 bros:2 particular:1 find:1 united:1 due:1 purchase:2 bundle:1 power:2 pad:1 world:1 class:1 track:1 meet:1 audio:1 compose:1 koji:1 kondo:1 hirokazu:1 hip:1 tanaka:1 represent:1 classic:1 medley:1 live:1 concert:1 tour:1 reception:1 receive:1 even:1 today:1 critic:1 allgame:1 attractive:1 repetitive:1 target:1 shooter:1 utterly:1 mindless:1 fun:1 short:1 old:1 play:1 despite:1 lack:1 formal:1 user:2 group:1 rat:2 positively:1 com:1 gamespot:1 community:1 package:1 best:1 top:1 list:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram nintendo_entertainment:1 clay_pigeon:6 cameo_appearance:1 gunpei_yokoi:1 super_mario:2 mario_bros:2 external_link:1 |
3,806 | Lynx | A lynx (plural lynx or lynxes) is any of four medium-sized wild cats. All are members of the genus Lynx, but there is considerable confusion about the best way to classify felids at present, and some authorities classify them as part of the genus Felis. The Caracal, despite sometimes being called Persian lynx or African lynx, does not belong to this genus. Appearance Lynx lynx, the Eurasian lynx All four of the lynx species have very long legs. The sizes of lynx vary from small to medium , weighing from , up to a maximum of . Lynx have short tails and characteristic tufts of black hair on the tip of their ears. They have a ruff under the neck, which has black bars (not very visible), resembling a bow tie. They have large padded paws for walking on snow, and long whiskers on the face. The body color varies from medium brown to gold-ish to beige-white; and occasionally, is marked with dark brown spots, especially on the limbs. All species of lynx also have white fur on their chests, bellies and on the insides of their legs, which are extensions of the chest and belly fur. Also, the lynx's coloring, fur height and paw size varies by its climate range — in the Southwestern United States, the fur and color are short-haired, dark and the paws are smaller and less padded; as the lynx ranges to its colder northern climes, the fur gets progressively thicker (for warmth), the color gets lighter (for camouflage) and its paws enlarge and become more padded for snowy environments. Their paws may become as large as a human hand or even larger. They have extremely good hearing and they also have 28 teeth, which, when paired with the jaw structure, stab deeply into their prey. The digestive system of the lynx allows them to eat the flesh of its prey, giving them extra nutrients. This can be especially helpful to the lynx because they are not the most efficient hunters, losing most of their prey to many other factors. Behavior Lynxes are usually solitary, although a small group of lynx may travel and hunt together occasionally. Mating takes place in the late winter and they give birth to two to six kittens once a year. The gestation time of lynx is about 70 days. The young stay with the mother for one more winter, a total of around nine months, before they move out to live on their own as young adults. Adult lynx will give their young the prey to play with it before they eat it, thus honing their hunting skills. Lynx will create their dens in crevices or under ledges. They feed on a wide range of animals from white-tailed deer, reindeer, roe deer, small red deer, and chamois, to smaller, more usual prey: turkeys and other birds, snowshoe hares, fish, sheep, pets, squirrels, mice, and goats. Habitat Lynx inhabit the high altitude forests with dense cover of shrubs, reeds, and grass. Although the cats hunt on the ground, they can climb trees and can swim swiftly, catching fish. And are mostly found in the wood land or forest. Range Europe and Asia Lynx pardinus, the Iberian lynx North America Lynx rufus, the bobcat, California, USA The Canadian lynx is common throughout the boreal forests of Canada and Alaska, and is particularly abundant throughout its northern range when snowshoe hare numbers are high. Canadian lynx have been observed as recently as 2006 in the Wet Mountains of Colorado. In recent years, a few lynx sightings were reported in the southern Appalachian Mountains of western North Carolina, specifically in the area from Mount Mitchell across to the Shope Creek Forest area in the Pisgah National Forest. One lynx was even caught alive in a cage trap at Graystone Cabins near Barnardsville, North Carolina; the animal was later released into a wilderness area within Madison County, North Carolina. Although the USFWS officials still deny the presence of lynx in the southern Appalachians, the most recent sighting was reported in September 2007 in the Shope Creek Forest. USFWS officials have stated that if these sightings were actually lynx, they were most likely illegally-held pets, which had been released or had escaped. The bobcat (L. rufus) ranges throughout most of North America. Lineage The four species of the Lynx genus all believe to have evolved from the "Issoire lynx", which is believed to have been the original lynx during the Pliocene epoch. Legal status The hunting of lynx is illegal in many countries. The Iberian lynx is almost extinct and the killing of any individuals has been outlawed since the 1970s in Spain and Portugal. In 2000, the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service designated the Canadian Lynx a Threatened species in the lower 48 states. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/federal_register/fr3552.pdf 65 Federal Register 16051 16086 National animal The lynx has the status of a national animal in the Republic of Macedonia and is also displayed on the reverse of the Macedonian 5 denar coin. Kathimerini "The lynx is one of the most endangered wild species and is considered as a national symbol of the country" National Bank of the Republic of Macedonia - Coins in circulation It is also the national animal of Romania. See also Lynx (mythology) Wildcat, a small predator native to Europe, the western part of Asia, and Africa References External links SOS Lynx: Photos, news and information about the Iberian Lynx in English and Portuguese Canada Lynx in the Southern Rockies The Iberian Lynx The natural history of the Iberian Lynx The Nature Conservatory's Species Profile: Lynx Canada Lynx (U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Lynx photos European Lynx wildlife photography | Lynx |@lemmatized lynx:50 plural:1 four:3 medium:3 size:3 wild:2 cat:2 member:1 genus:4 considerable:1 confusion:1 best:1 way:1 classify:2 felid:1 present:1 authority:1 part:2 felis:1 caracal:1 despite:1 sometimes:1 call:1 persian:1 african:1 belong:1 appearance:1 eurasian:1 specie:6 long:2 leg:2 vary:1 small:6 weigh:1 maximum:1 short:2 tail:1 characteristic:1 tuft:1 black:2 hair:1 tip:1 ear:1 ruff:1 neck:1 bar:1 visible:1 resemble:1 bow:1 tie:1 large:3 pad:1 paw:5 walk:1 snow:1 whisker:1 face:1 body:1 color:3 varies:2 brown:2 gold:1 ish:1 beige:1 white:3 occasionally:2 mark:1 dark:2 spot:1 especially:2 limb:1 also:6 fur:5 chest:2 belly:2 inside:1 extension:1 coloring:1 height:1 climate:1 range:6 southwestern:1 united:1 state:3 haired:1 less:1 padded:2 colder:1 northern:2 clime:1 get:2 progressively:1 thicker:1 warmth:1 light:1 camouflage:1 enlarge:1 become:2 snowy:1 environment:1 may:2 human:1 hand:1 even:2 extremely:1 good:1 hearing:1 teeth:1 pair:1 jaw:1 structure:1 stab:1 deeply:1 prey:5 digestive:1 system:1 allow:1 eat:2 flesh:1 give:3 extra:1 nutrient:1 helpful:1 efficient:1 hunter:1 lose:1 many:2 factor:1 behavior:1 usually:1 solitary:1 although:3 group:1 travel:1 hunt:2 together:1 mat:1 take:1 place:1 late:1 winter:2 birth:1 two:1 six:1 kitten:1 year:2 gestation:1 time:1 day:1 young:3 stay:1 mother:1 one:3 total:1 around:1 nine:1 month:1 move:1 live:1 adult:2 play:1 thus:1 hone:1 hunting:2 skill:1 create:1 den:1 crevice:1 ledge:1 fee:1 wide:1 animal:5 tailed:1 deer:3 reindeer:1 roe:1 red:1 chamois:1 usual:1 turkey:1 bird:1 snowshoe:2 hare:2 fish:4 sheep:1 pet:2 squirrel:1 mouse:1 goat:1 habitat:1 inhabit:1 high:2 altitude:1 forest:6 dense:1 cover:1 shrub:1 reed:1 grass:1 ground:1 climb:1 tree:1 swim:1 swiftly:1 catch:1 mostly:1 find:1 wood:1 land:1 europe:2 asia:2 pardinus:1 iberian:5 north:5 america:2 rufus:2 bobcat:2 california:1 usa:1 canadian:3 common:1 throughout:3 boreal:1 canada:3 alaska:1 particularly:1 abundant:1 number:1 observe:1 recently:1 wet:1 mountain:2 colorado:1 recent:2 sighting:3 report:2 southern:3 appalachian:2 western:2 carolina:3 specifically:1 area:3 mount:1 mitchell:1 across:1 shope:2 creek:2 pisgah:1 national:6 caught:1 alive:1 cage:1 trap:1 graystone:1 cabin:1 near:1 barnardsville:1 later:1 release:2 wilderness:1 within:1 madison:1 county:1 usfws:2 official:2 still:1 deny:1 presence:1 september:1 actually:1 likely:1 illegally:1 hold:1 escape:1 l:1 lineage:1 believe:2 evolve:1 issoire:1 original:1 pliocene:1 epoch:1 legal:1 status:2 illegal:1 country:2 almost:1 extinct:1 killing:1 individual:1 outlaw:1 since:1 spain:1 portugal:1 u:2 wildlife:3 service:2 designate:1 threatened:1 low:1 http:1 ecos:1 fws:1 gov:1 doc:1 pdf:1 federal:1 register:1 republic:2 macedonia:2 display:1 reverse:1 macedonian:1 denar:1 coin:2 kathimerini:1 endangered:1 consider:1 symbol:1 bank:1 circulation:1 romania:1 see:1 mythology:1 wildcat:1 predator:1 native:1 africa:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 sos:1 photo:1 news:1 information:1 english:1 portuguese:1 rockies:1 natural:1 history:1 nature:1 conservatory:1 profile:1 photos:1 european:1 photography:1 |@bigram lynx_lynx:2 eurasian_lynx:1 roe_deer:1 iberian_lynx:5 boreal_forest:1 appalachian_mountain:1 north_carolina:3 pliocene_epoch:1 fish_wildlife:2 threatened_specie:1 republic_macedonia:2 external_link:1 |
3,807 | AutoCAD_DXF | AutoCAD DXF (Drawing Interchange Format, or Drawing Exchange Format) is a CAD data file format developed by Autodesk for enabling data interoperability between AutoCAD and other programs. DXF was originally introduced in December 1982 as part of AutoCAD 1.0, and was intended to provide an exact representation of the data in the AutoCAD native file format, DWG (Drawing), for which Autodesk for many years did not publish specifications. Because of this, correct imports of DXF files have been difficult. Autodesk now publishes the on its website for versions of DXF dating from AutoCAD Release 13 to AutoCAD 2010. Versions of AutoCAD from Release 10 (October 1988) and up support both ASCII and binary forms of DXF. Earlier versions support only ASCII. As AutoCAD has become more powerful, supporting more complex object types, DXF has become less useful. Certain object types, including ACIS solids and regions, are not documented. Other object types, including AutoCAD 2006's dynamic blocks, and all of the objects specific to the vertical-market versions of AutoCAD, are partially documented, but not well enough to allow other developers to support them. For these reasons many CAD applications use the DWG format which can be licensed from AutoDesk or non-natively from the Open Design Alliance. File structure ASCII versions of DXF can be read with a text-editor. The basic organization of a DXF file is as follows: HEADER section – General information about the drawing. Each parameter has a variable name and an associated value. CLASSES section – Holds the information for application-defined classes whose instances appear in the BLOCKS, ENTITIES, and OBJECTS sections of the database. Generally does not provide sufficient information to allow interoperability with other programs. TABLES section – This section contains definitions of named items. Application ID (APPID) table Block Record (BLOCK_RECORD) table Dimension Style (DIMSTYPE) table Layer (LAYER) table Linetype (LTYPE) table Text style (STYLE) table User Coordinate System (UCS) table View (VIEW) table Viewport configuration (VPORT) table BLOCKS section – This section contains Block Definition entities describing the entities comprising each Block in the drawing. ENTITIES section – This section contains the drawing entities, including any Block References. OBJECTS section – Contains the data that apply to nongraphical objects, used by AutoLISP and ObjectARX applications. THUMBNAILIMAGE section – Contains the preview image for the DXF file. END OF FILE The data format of a DXF is called a "tagged data" format which "means that each data element in the file is preceded by an integer number that is called a group code. A group code's value indicates what type of data element follows. This value also indicates the meaning of a data element for a given object (or record) type. Virtually all user-specified information in a drawing file can be represented in DXF format." "Chapter 1 -- DXF Format" http://www.autodesk.com/techpubs/autocad/acad2000/dxf/dxf_format.htm Software which supports DXF A9Cad Adobe Illustrator AGI32 AI4CAD 3D Alibre Design Altium ArchiCAD ArcMap AutoCAD Blender - DXFr12 2D+3D BRL-CAD Cadwork Corel Draw DWGeditor Drawbase Easy-PC Epanet Eye-Sys EnRoute FASTechnologies NC-CAM Geosoft Oasis montaj Google SketchUp GraphCalc - Export only Inkscape - export only as of version 0.46 IntelliCAD Harness Expert Hevacomp Kabeja Leica Geo Office Lenel OnGuard LD Assistant Lightcalc Manifold System Maple 12 Mathematica MetaCAM Microlux Microsoft Visio Microstation miniPLAN Modo (software) OmniWin Cadnest Paint Shop Pro PETRA Photopia Pro/Engineer pdf2cad QCad RackTools Rhinoceros 3D Solid Edge Solidworks VariCAD VectorWorks ViaCAD Visual See also DWF DWG Autodesk AutoCAD CAD QCad OpenDWG ArcMap References External links DXF Specifications - Autodesk documentation on versions of DXF from Release 13 to current. Open Design Alliance - Non-profit industry consortium which provides program libraries to read and write DWG and DXF files. Open Source DXF Viewer and Editor - Read, write, and draw to DXF files, export to image, print, zoom, pan. Kabeja - Open Source Java library for parsing, processing and converting DXF format. Can convert to SVG, PDF and others. Free DXF viewer - a DXF viewer provided by SEW, supports Windows and DOS AnyDWG DXF Converter - a batch DXF to PDF converter and DWG to DXF converter. AutoDWG has utilities for DXF to PDF conversion (also batch conversion) and DXF to DWG conversion. List of structural engineering software with DXF output Vincent-Draw is an easy tool for drawing and Export DXF File. | AutoCAD_DXF |@lemmatized autocad:13 dxf:29 draw:9 interchange:1 format:10 exchange:1 cad:4 data:9 file:12 develop:1 autodesk:7 enable:1 interoperability:2 program:3 originally:1 introduce:1 december:1 part:1 intend:1 provide:4 exact:1 representation:1 native:1 dwg:6 many:2 year:1 publish:2 specification:2 correct:1 import:1 difficult:1 website:1 version:7 date:1 release:3 october:1 support:6 ascii:3 binary:1 form:1 early:1 become:2 powerful:1 complex:1 object:8 type:5 less:1 useful:1 certain:1 include:3 acis:1 solid:2 region:1 document:2 dynamic:1 block:7 specific:1 vertical:1 market:1 partially:1 well:1 enough:1 allow:2 developer:1 reason:1 application:4 use:2 license:1 non:2 natively:1 open:4 design:3 alliance:2 structure:1 read:3 text:2 editor:2 basic:1 organization:1 follow:2 header:1 section:11 general:1 information:4 drawing:2 parameter:1 variable:1 name:2 associated:1 value:3 class:2 hold:1 defined:1 whose:1 instance:1 appear:1 entity:5 database:1 generally:1 sufficient:1 table:10 contain:5 definition:2 item:1 id:1 appid:1 record:2 dimension:1 style:3 dimstype:1 layer:2 linetype:1 ltype:1 user:2 coordinate:1 system:2 ucs:1 view:2 viewport:1 configuration:1 vport:1 describe:1 comprise:1 reference:2 apply:1 nongraphical:1 autolisp:1 objectarx:1 thumbnailimage:1 preview:1 image:2 end:1 call:2 tag:1 mean:1 element:3 precede:1 integer:1 number:1 group:2 code:2 indicate:2 also:3 meaning:1 give:1 virtually:1 specify:1 represent:1 chapter:1 http:1 www:1 com:1 techpubs:1 htm:1 software:3 adobe:1 illustrator:1 alibre:1 altium:1 archicad:1 arcmap:2 blender:1 brl:1 cadwork:1 corel:1 dwgeditor:1 drawbase:1 easy:2 pc:1 epanet:1 eye:1 sys:1 enroute:1 fastechnologies:1 nc:1 cam:1 geosoft:1 oasis:1 montaj:1 google:1 sketchup:1 graphcalc:1 export:4 inkscape:1 intellicad:1 harness:1 expert:1 hevacomp:1 kabeja:2 leica:1 geo:1 office:1 lenel:1 onguard:1 ld:1 assistant:1 lightcalc:1 manifold:1 maple:1 mathematica:1 metacam:1 microlux:1 microsoft:1 visio:1 microstation:1 miniplan:1 modo:1 omniwin:1 cadnest:1 paint:1 shop:1 pro:2 petra:1 photopia:1 engineer:1 qcad:2 racktools:1 rhinoceros:1 edge:1 solidworks:1 varicad:1 vectorworks:1 viacad:1 visual:1 see:1 dwf:1 opendwg:1 external:1 link:1 documentation:1 current:1 profit:1 industry:1 consortium:1 library:2 write:2 source:2 viewer:3 print:1 zoom:1 pan:1 java:1 parse:1 processing:1 convert:2 svg:1 pdf:3 others:1 free:1 sew:1 window:1 anydwg:1 converter:3 batch:2 autodwg:1 utility:1 conversion:3 list:1 structural:1 engineering:1 output:1 vincent:1 tool:1 |@bigram interchange_format:1 dxf_file:6 http_www:1 adobe_illustrator:1 external_link:1 |
3,808 | Classical_Kuiper_belt_object | The orbits of various cubewanos compared to the orbit of Neptune (blue) and Pluto (pink). In astronomy a classical Kuiper Belt object, also called a cubewano, "QB1-o"; by 2009 somewhat old-fashioned. is a Kuiper belt object (KBO) that orbits beyond Neptune and is not controlled by an orbital resonance with the giant planet. Cubewanos have semi-major axes in the 40-50 AU range and, unlike Pluto, do not cross Neptune’s orbit. The name "cubewano" derives from the first trans-Neptunian object (TNO) found after Pluto and Charon, . Later similar objects were called "QB1-o's", or "cubewanos". Objects identified as cubewanos include: Makemake, the largest known cubewano and a dwarf planet (50000) Quaoar and (20000) Varuna, each considered the largest TNO at the time of discovery 19521 Chaos, 58534 Logos, 53311 Deucalion, 88611 Teharonhiawako , , Haumea was provisionally listed as a cubewano by the Minor Planet Center in 2006, but is no longer listed as one. The orbits of the large cubewanos (in blue) with the large plutinos (in red) for comparison (H<4.5). The horizontal axis represents the semi-major axes. The eccentricities of the orbits are represented by segments (extending from perihelion to aphelion) with the inclinations represented on the vertical axis. Orbits Most cubewanos are found between the 2:3 orbital resonance with Neptune (populated by plutinos) and the 1:2 resonance. 50000 Quaoar, for example, has a near circular orbit close to the ecliptic. Plutinos, on the other hand, have more eccentric orbits bringing some of them closer to the Sun than Neptune. The majority of objects (the so-called 'cold population'), have low inclinations and near circular orbits. A smaller population (the 'hot population') is characterised by highly inclined, more eccentric orbits D.Jewitt, A.Delsanti The Solar System Beyond The Planets in Solar System Update : Topical and Timely Reviews in Solar System Sciences , Springer-Praxis Ed., ISBN 3-540-26056-0 (2006). Preprint of the article (pdf) . The Deep Ecliptic Survey reports the distributions of the two populations; one with the inclination centered at 4.6° (named Core) and another with inclinations extending beyond 30° (Halo). J. L. Elliot, S. D. Kern, K. B. Clancy, A. A. S. Gulbis, R. L. Millis, M. W. Buie, L. H. Wasserman, E. I. Chiang, A. B. Jordan, D. E. Trilling, and K. J. Meech The Deep Ecliptic Survey: A Search for Kuiper Belt Objects and Centaurs. II. Dynamical Classification, the Kuiper Belt Plane, and the Core Population. The Astronomical Journal, 129 (2006), pp. preprint Distribution This diagram plots the distribution of cubewanos and plutinos. Histograms are shown for orbit inclinations, eccentricity, and semi-major axes distribution. Inserts on the left compare the populations of cubewanos and plutinos using eccentricity versus inclination plots. The vast majority of KBOs (more than two-thirds) have inclinations of less than 5° and eccentricities of less than 0.1. Their semi-major axes show a preference for the middle of the main belt; arguably, smaller objects close to the limiting resonances have been either captured into resonance or have their orbits modified by Neptune. The 'hot' and 'cold' populations are strikingly different: more than 30% of all cubewanos are in low inclination, near-circular orbits. The parameters of the plutinos’ orbits are more evenly distributed, with a local maximum in moderate eccentricities in 0.15-0.2 range and low inclinations 5-10°. See also the comparison with scattered disk objects. Polar and ecliptic view of the (aligned) orbits of the classical objects (in blue), together with the plutinos in red, and Neptune (yellow). When the orbital eccentricities of cubewanos and plutinos are compared, it can be seen that the cubewanos form a clear 'belt' outside Neptune's orbit, whereas the plutinos approach, or even cross Neptune's orbits. When orbital inclinations are compared, 'hot' cubewanos can be easily distinguished by their higher inclinations, as the plutinos typically keep orbits below 20°. (No clear explanation currently exists for the inclinations of 'hot' cubewanos. Dave Jewitt, 2004 ) Cold and hot populations In addition to the distinct orbital characteristics the two populations display different physical characteristics. The difference in colour between the red cold population and more heterogeneous hot population was observed as early as in 2002. Recent studies, based on a larger data set, indicate the cut-off inclination of 12° (instead of 5°) between the cold and hot populations while confirming the distinction between the homogenous red cold population and the bluish hot population. Another difference between the low inclination (cold) and high inclination (hot) classical objects is the observed number of binary objects. Binaries are quite common on low-inclination orbits and are typically similar-brightness systems. Binaries are less common on high-inclination orbits and their components typically differ in brightness. This correlation, together with the differences in colour, support further the suggestion that the currently observed classical objects belong to at least two different overlapping populations, with different physical properties and orbital history. Toward a formal definition There is no official definition of 'cubewano' or 'classical KBO'. However, the terms are normally used to refer to objects free from significant perturbation from Neptune, thereby excluding KBOs in orbital resonance with Neptune (Resonant trans-Neptunian objects). The Minor Planet Center (MPC) and the Deep Ecliptic Survey (DES) do not list cubewanos (classical objects) using the same exact criteria. Many TNOs classified as cubewanos by the MPC are classified as ScatNear (possibly scattered by Neptune) by the DES. Dwarf planet Makemake is such a borderline classical cubewano/scatnear object. may be a inner cubewano near the plutinos. Furthermore, there is evidence that the Kuiper Belt has an 'edge', in that an apparent lack of low inclination objects beyond 47-49 AU was suspected as early as 1998 and shown with more data in 2001. Chadwick A. Trujillo and Michael E. Brown The Radial Distribution of the Kuiper Belt, The Astrophysical Journal, 554 (2001), pp. L95–L98 pdf Consequently, the traditional usage of the terms is based on the orbit’s semi-major axis, and includes objects situated between the 2:3 and 1:2 resonances, that is between 39.4 and 47.8 AU (with exclusion of these resonances and the minor ones in-between). These definitions lack precision: in particular the boundary between the classical objects and the scattered disk remains blurred. DES classification Introduced by the report from the Deep Ecliptic Survey by J. L. Elliott et al. in 2005 uses formal criteria based on the mean orbital parameters. Put informally, the definition includes the objects that have never crossed the orbit of Neptune. According to this definition, an object qualifies as a classical KBO if: it is not resonant it has the average Tisserand's parameter exceeding 3 its average eccentricity is less than 0.2. SSBN07 classification An alternative classification, introduced by B. Gladman, B. Marsden and C. VanLaerhoven in 2007, uses 10 million years orbit integration instead of the Tisserand parameter. Classical objects are defined as not resonant and not being currently scattered by Neptune. Formally, this definition includes as classical all objects with the current orbits that are non-resonant (see the definition of the method) have the semi-major axis greater than that of Neptune (i.e. excluding Centaurs) but less than 2000 AU (to exclude Inner Oort Cloud Objects) have the eccentricity e < 0.240 (to exclude detached objects) Unlike other schemes, this definition includes the objects with major semi-axis less than 39.4 AU (2:3 resonance) - named Inner classical belt, or more than 48.7 (1:2 resonance) - named Outer classical belt while reserving the term Main classical belt for the orbits between these two resonances. Families The first collisional family—a group of objects thought to be remnants from the breakup of a single body—is the Haumeid family. It includes Haumea, its moons, and seven smaller bodies.† The objects not only follow similar orbits but also share similar physical characteristics. Unlike many other KBO their surface contains large amounts of ice (H2O) and no or very little tholins. The surface composition is inferred from their neutral (as opposed to red) colour and deep absorption at 1.5 and 2. μm in infrared spectrum. Michael E. Brown, Kristina M. Barkume, Darin Ragozzine & Emily L. Schaller, A collisional family of icy objects in the Kuiper belt, Nature, 446, (March 2007), pp 294-296. †As of 2008. The four brightest objects of the family are situated on the graphs inside the circle representing Haumea. External links David Jewitt's Kuiper Belt site @ University of Hawaii The Kuiper Belt Electronic Newsletter Minor Planet Center List of Trans-Neptunian objects TNO pages at johnstonarchive Plot of the current positions of bodies in the Outer Solar System References | Classical_Kuiper_belt_object |@lemmatized orbit:27 various:1 cubewanos:15 compare:4 neptune:15 blue:3 pluto:3 pink:1 astronomy:1 classical:14 kuiper:9 belt:14 object:32 also:3 call:3 cubewano:7 somewhat:1 old:1 fashion:1 kbo:6 beyond:4 control:1 orbital:8 resonance:11 giant:1 planet:7 semi:7 major:7 ax:4 au:5 range:2 unlike:3 cross:3 name:4 derive:1 first:2 trans:3 neptunian:3 tno:3 find:2 charon:1 later:1 similar:4 identify:1 include:6 makemake:2 large:6 known:1 dwarf:2 quaoar:2 varuna:1 consider:1 time:1 discovery:1 chaos:1 logo:1 deucalion:1 teharonhiawako:1 haumea:3 provisionally:1 list:4 minor:4 center:4 longer:1 one:3 plutinos:11 red:5 comparison:2 h:2 horizontal:1 axis:5 represent:4 eccentricity:8 segment:1 extend:2 perihelion:1 aphelion:1 inclination:18 vertical:1 populate:1 example:1 near:4 circular:3 close:2 ecliptic:6 hand:1 eccentric:2 bring:1 closer:1 sun:1 majority:2 cold:7 population:15 low:6 small:3 hot:9 characterise:1 highly:1 inclined:1 jewitt:3 delsanti:1 solar:4 system:5 update:1 topical:1 timely:1 review:1 science:1 springer:1 praxis:1 ed:1 isbn:1 preprint:2 article:1 pdf:2 deep:5 survey:4 report:2 distribution:5 two:5 core:2 another:2 halo:1 j:3 l:5 elliot:1 kern:1 k:2 b:4 clancy:1 gulbis:1 r:1 millis:1 w:1 buie:1 wasserman:1 e:6 chiang:1 jordan:1 trilling:1 meech:1 search:1 centaur:2 ii:1 dynamical:1 classification:4 plane:1 astronomical:1 journal:2 pp:3 diagram:1 plot:3 histogram:1 show:3 insert:1 left:1 use:4 versus:1 vast:1 third:1 less:6 preference:1 middle:1 main:2 arguably:1 limiting:1 either:1 capture:1 modify:1 strikingly:1 different:4 parameter:4 evenly:1 distribute:1 local:1 maximum:1 moderate:1 see:3 scattered:2 disk:2 polar:1 view:1 align:1 together:2 yellow:1 form:1 clear:2 outside:1 whereas:1 approach:1 even:1 easily:1 distinguish:1 high:3 typically:3 keep:1 explanation:1 currently:3 exist:1 dave:1 addition:1 distinct:1 characteristic:3 display:1 physical:3 difference:3 colour:3 heterogeneous:1 observe:2 early:2 recent:1 study:1 base:3 data:2 set:1 indicate:1 cut:1 instead:2 confirm:1 distinction:1 homogenous:1 bluish:1 observed:1 number:1 binary:3 quite:1 common:2 brightness:2 component:1 differ:1 correlation:1 support:1 suggestion:1 belong:1 least:1 overlap:1 property:1 history:1 toward:1 formal:2 definition:8 official:1 however:1 term:3 normally:1 refer:1 free:1 significant:1 perturbation:1 thereby:1 exclude:4 resonant:4 mpc:2 de:3 exact:1 criterion:2 many:2 tnos:1 classify:2 scatnear:2 possibly:1 scatter:2 borderline:1 may:1 inner:3 furthermore:1 evidence:1 edge:1 apparent:1 lack:2 suspect:1 chadwick:1 trujillo:1 michael:2 brown:2 radial:1 astrophysical:1 consequently:1 traditional:1 usage:1 situate:2 exclusion:1 precision:1 particular:1 boundary:1 remain:1 blur:1 introduce:2 elliott:1 et:1 al:1 us:1 mean:1 put:1 informally:1 never:1 accord:1 qualifies:1 average:2 tisserand:2 exceed:1 alternative:1 gladman:1 marsden:1 c:1 vanlaerhoven:1 million:1 year:1 integration:1 define:1 formally:1 current:2 non:1 method:1 great:1 oort:1 cloud:1 detached:1 scheme:1 reserve:1 family:5 collisional:2 group:1 think:1 remnant:1 breakup:1 single:1 body:3 haumeid:1 moon:1 seven:1 follow:1 share:1 surface:2 contain:1 amount:1 ice:1 little:1 tholins:1 composition:1 infer:1 neutral:1 oppose:1 absorption:1 μm:1 infrared:1 spectrum:1 kristina:1 barkume:1 darin:1 ragozzine:1 emily:1 schaller:1 icy:1 nature:1 march:1 four:1 bright:1 graph:1 inside:1 circle:1 external:1 link:1 david:1 site:1 university:1 hawaii:1 electronic:1 newsletter:1 page:1 johnstonarchive:1 position:1 outer:1 reference:1 |@bigram kuiper_belt:9 orbital_resonance:3 trans_neptunian:3 neptunian_object:3 pluto_charon:1 dwarf_planet:2 eccentricity_orbit:1 eccentric_orbit:2 vast_majority:1 evenly_distribute:1 orbital_eccentricity:1 orbital_inclination:1 astrophysical_journal:1 et_al:1 inner_oort:1 oort_cloud:1 external_link:1 |
3,809 | Harvey_Mudd_College | Harvey Mudd College is a private college of science, engineering, and mathematics, located in Claremont, California. It is one of the institutions of the contiguous Claremont Colleges. Harvey Mudd shares university resources (libraries, dining halls, etc.) with the other institutions in the Claremont Colleges, including Pitzer College, Scripps College, Claremont McKenna College, and Pomona College. Students at Harvey Mudd are encouraged to take classes, especially classes outside their major of study, at the other four Claremont colleges. Together the Claremont Colleges provide the resources and opportunities of a large university while enabling the specialization and personal attention afforded by the individual colleges. The college is named after Harvey Seeley Mudd, one of the initial investors in the Cyprus Mines Corporation. Although involved in the planning of the new institution, Mudd died before it opened. Harvey Mudd College was funded by Mudd's friends and family, and named in his honor. Academics Harvey Mudd College entrance on Dartmouth Ave Harvey Mudd College's mission is to educate scientists, engineers, and mathematicians to be well-versed in the social sciences and humanities so that they better understand the impact of their work on society. The college offers four-year degrees in chemistry, mathematics, physics, computer science, biology, and engineering, as well as interdisciplinary degrees in mathematical biology, and a joint major in either computer science and mathematics, or biology and chemistry. Students may also elect to complete an Independent Program of Study (IPS) made up of courses of their own choosing. Usually between two and five students graduate with an IPS degree each year. Finally, one may choose an off-campus major offered by any of the other Claremont Colleges, provided one also completes a minor in one of the technical fields that Harvey Mudd offers as a major. Because of its mission statement, Harvey Mudd places an unusually strong emphasis on general science education, requiring a full one-third of courses, known as the "common core," outside of one's major. Students are also required to take another one-third of their courses in the humanities, in keeping with the school's tradition of "science with a conscience." The final one-third of courses comprises those in the student's major. The integration of research and education is an important component of the educational experience at Harvey Mudd; upon graduation, every student has experienced some kind of research, usually in the form of a senior thesis or a Clinic Program. The undergraduate focus of HMC means that, unlike many larger science and engineering institutions, undergraduates at HMC get unique access to research positions over the summer and during the school year. A unique opportunity for HMC students is the Clinic Program, which focuses primarily on projects in the fields of engineering, computer science, physics, and math. In the Clinic Program, teams of students work for a year on a project suggested by a company. They are expected to make regular reports to the company and to deliver a product at the end of the year. The Clinic Program offers students a first-hand look at a particular industry and allows the sponsoring company to hire an inexpensive Clinic team of four students, whom they often recruit after graduation. Reputation The middle 50% of entering SAT scores are 740–800 (out of 800) in mathematics, 690–760 in critical reading, and 680–760 in writing. A third of the student body are National Merit Scholars, and at one point, about 40 percent of graduates were going on to earn a Ph.D. — the highest rate of any college or university in the nation. Harvey Mudd today still maintains the highest rate of science and engineering Ph.D. production among all undergraduate colleges and second highest (Caltech ranks first and MIT third) compared to all universities and colleges, according to a 2008 report by the National Science Foundation. , Harvey Mudd College is tied for 14th with Grinnell College among liberal arts colleges in the United States and is ranked second behind Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology as the best undergraduate engineering program at a school whose highest degree is a bachelor's or master's by U.S. News & World Report. In 2006, Harvey Mudd was also named one of the "new Ivy leagues" by Kaplan and Newsweek , while the mathematics department won the first American Mathematical Society Award for Exemplary Program. Harvey Mudd College is said to be one of the few colleges in the US with very low grade inflation. This perception may be due to a period of significant grade deflation in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Only six students in the history of the college have achieved a perfect 4.0 GPA. In 1997, Harvey Mudd College became the sole American undergraduate-only institution ever to win 1st place in the ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest. As of 2009, no American school has won the world competition since then. Harvey Mudd College, along with Wake Forest University, long held out as the last four-year colleges or universities in the U.S. to accept only and not ACT test scores in their admissions process. In August 2007, however (the beginning of the application process for the class of 2011), HMC began accepting ACT results, a year after Wake Forest abandoned its former SAT-only policy. Student life Harvey Mudd College dormitories View of central campus, looking out of the Norman F. Sprague Memorial Library. The official names for the dormitories are (listed in order of construction): Mildred E. Mudd Hall (East Dorm) West Hall (West) North Hall (North) Marks Residence Hall (South) J. L. Atwood Residence Hall (Atwood) Case Residence Hall (Case) Ronald and Maxine Linde Residence Hall (Linde) Frederick and Susan Sontag Residence Hall (Sontag) Until the addition of the Linde and Sontag dorms, Atwood and Case dorms were occasionally referred to as New Dorm and New Dorm II; Mildred E. Mudd Hall and Marks Hall are almost invariably referred to as East dorm and South dorm. When Case dorm was being built some students decided as a prank to move all of the survey stakes exactly one foot in one direction. They did such a precise job that the construction crew didn't notice until after they had laid the foundation, but California earthquake law forced them to reinspect the new location at some significant expense. Case is also very occasionally known as Seventh dorm (despite being the sixth dorm built); some have called it the Pink Dorm, inasmuch as the cinder blocks used in its construction resemble the color of shrimp. Galileo Hall and Hixon CourtyardSouth Dorm is in the northwest corner of the quad. "East" was the first dorm, but it wasn't until West was built to the west of it that it was actually referred to as East. Then North was built, directly north of East. When the fourth dorm (Marks) was built, there was one corner of the quad available (the northwest) and one directional name (South) left. It got both, and to this day South is more 'north' on the compass than North dorm is. The fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth dorms built are Atwood, Case, Linde, and Sontag, respectively. They were initially referred to as "the colonies" by some students, a reference to the fact that they were newer and at the farthest end of the campus; these dorms are now more commonly referred to as "the outer dorms." The college had initially purchased an apartment building adjacent to the newer dorms to house additional students, but it was demolished to make room for the newest dorm, Sontag. Since any HMC student, regardless of class year, can live in any of the dormitories, several of the dorms have accumulated long-standing traditions and even so-called 'personalities'. Two examples of these traditions are the parties Long Tall Glasses (a formal affair thrown by North) and TQ Nite (a tequila-centered party formerly thrown by West). The personality of a given dorm experiences changes over the years, however, as Harvey Mudd alumni may find upon visiting their alma mater long after graduation. Athletics Athletics teams from Claremont McKenna College, Harvey Mudd College, and Scripps College compete as one team. Male athletic teams are called the Stags, and women's teams are called the Athenas. The teams participate in the NCAA's Division III and in the Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference. The HMC honor code HMC students developed, live by and enforce an Honor Code themselves. The Honor Code states: The Honor Code is so well followed that the college entrusts the students to 24-hour per day access to all buildings, including labs, and permits take-home exams, specified either as open-book or closed-book, or as timed or un-timed. Architecture The Norman F. Sprague Memorial Library The original buildings of campus were designed by Edward Durell Stone. Most are covered with thousands of square concrete features, called "warts" by the students, which would be perfectly suited to buildering except that, while some are set into the wall, others are simply glued on. In addition, these warts have the unusual usefulness of being great 'shelves' for unicycles and skateboards. One can walk towards Galileo Hall and see the warts (especially those near the entrances of buildings) being used as racks for unicycles and skateboards. Interestingly enough, the unofficial mascot of Harvey Mudd (featured on many college handbooks and other publications) is one of these concrete blocks with a face, arms, and legs, named "Wally the Wart." Most of the computer labs and many classrooms are located in the basements (called the Libra Complex) of the concrete-block buildings. All of the buildings that make up the Libra Complex are interconnected via a series of underground tunnels, enabling convenient inter-building access. Transportation on campus In the early 1970s the first unicycle appeared on campus. The notion caught on, and for a time there were dozens on campus. For many students it was a "rite of passage" to learn to ride. The unicycling club, known as Gonzo Unicycle Madness, was formed, and to this day organizes an annual eight plus mile ride (each way) known as "The Foster's Run," to "The Donut Man" donut shop in Glendora (originally known as "Foster's Donuts" hence the name of the event) for strawberry donuts. Gonzo Unicycle Madness Upon return to the campus, the ritual of the "shakedown" takes place (dismounting and then repeatedly jumping up and down in the dormitory courtyard), a necessary procedure after a unicycle ride of nearly twenty miles, especially for male riders. At irregular intervals club members also meet to play unicycle hockey. In the early 1990s, though, the ridership of unicycles waned at the college. Currently, very few Mudders ride unicycles. However, despite this drop in popularity, unicycling continues to be an integral part of the Mudd mythos. Other than walking, the leading form of transportation among Mudders is skateboarding. Because the paths of Mudd are smooth and the route to the academic building on one side of campus from the dorms is very direct, skateboarding to class is very popular. Rivalry with Caltech There is a long-standing rivalry between Harvey Mudd and the nearby Caltech, although this rivalry is basically unacknowledged by Caltech. For example, in 1986, students from Mudd stole a memorial cannon from Fleming House at Caltech (originally from the National Guard) by dressing as maintenance people and carting it off on a flatbed truck for "cleaning." Harvey Mudd eventually returned the cannon after the Caltech President threatened to take legal action. In 2006, MIT replicated the prank and moved the same cannon to their campus in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Another Mudd prank involved slight modifications to a freeway sign. By placing parentheses around Pasadena City College, a nearby community college, Mudd students changed the sign to read: California Institute of Technology (Pasadena City College) Next Exit Notable alumni Notable faculty References External links Official website The HMC Honor Code - ASHMC home page | Harvey_Mudd_College |@lemmatized harvey:22 mudd:31 college:40 private:1 science:10 engineering:6 mathematics:5 locate:2 claremont:8 california:4 one:20 institution:5 contiguous:1 share:1 university:6 resource:2 library:3 din:1 hall:13 etc:1 include:2 pitzer:1 scripps:2 mckenna:2 pomona:1 student:23 encourage:1 take:5 class:5 especially:3 outside:2 major:6 study:2 four:4 together:1 provide:2 opportunity:2 large:2 enable:2 specialization:1 personal:1 attention:1 afford:1 individual:1 name:7 seeley:1 initial:1 investor:1 cyprus:1 mine:1 corporation:1 although:2 involve:2 planning:1 new:8 die:1 open:2 fund:1 friend:1 family:1 honor:6 academic:2 entrance:2 dartmouth:1 ave:1 mission:2 educate:1 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link:1 website:1 ashmc:1 page:1 |@bigram harvey_mudd:21 mudd_college:10 grinnell_college:1 ivy_league:1 almost_invariably:1 alma_mater:1 ncaa_division:1 intercollegiate_athletic:1 unofficial_mascot:1 external_link:1 |
3,810 | Acceleration | For the waltz composed by Johann Strauss, see Accelerationen. In physics, and more specifically kinematics, acceleration is the change in velocity over time. Because velocity is a vector, it can change in two ways: a change in magnitude and/or a change in direction. In one dimension, acceleration is the rate at which something speeds up or slows down. However, as a vector quantity, acceleration is also the rate at which direction changes. Acceleration has the dimensions L T−2. In SI units, acceleration is measured in metres per second squared (m/s2). In common speech, the term acceleration commonly is used for an increase in speed (the magnitude of velocity); a decrease in speed is called deceleration. In physics, a change in the direction of velocity also is an acceleration: for motion on a planar surface, the change in direction of velocity results in centripetal acceleration; whereas the rate of change of speed is a tangential acceleration. In classical mechanics, the acceleration of a body is proportional to the resultant (total) force acting on it (Newton's second law): where F is the resultant force acting on the body, m is the mass of the body, and a is its acceleration. Tangential and centripetal acceleration The velocity of a particle moving on a curved path as a function of time can be written as: with v(t) equal to the speed of travel along the path, and a unit vector tangent to the path pointing in the direction of motion at the chosen moment in time. Taking into account both the changing speed v(t) and the changing direction of ut, the acceleration of a particle moving on a curved path on a planar surface can be written using the chain rule of differentiation as: where un is the unit (outward) normal vector to the particle's trajectory, and R is its instantaneous radius of curvature based upon the osculating circle at time t. These components are called the tangential acceleration and the radial acceleration, respectively. The negative of the radial acceleration is the centripetal acceleration, which points inward, toward the center of curvature. Extension of this approach to three-dimensional space curves that cannot be contained on a planar surface leads to the Frenet-Serret formulas. Relation to relativity After completing his theory of special relativity, Albert Einstein realized that forces felt by objects undergoing constant proper acceleration are indistinguishable from those in a gravitational field. This was the basis for his development of general relativity, a relativistic theory of gravity. This is also the basis for the popular twin paradox, which asks why one twin ages less when moving away from his sibling at near light-speed and then returning, since the non-aging twin can say that it is the other twin that was moving. General relativity solved the "why does only one object feel accelerated?" problem which had plagued philosophers and scientists since Newton's time (and caused Newton to endorse absolute space). In special relativity, only inertial frames of reference (non-accelerated frames) can be used and are equivalent; general relativity considers all frames, even accelerated ones, to be equivalent. (The path from these considerations to the full theory of general relativity is traced in the introduction to general relativity.) In-line references and notes See also Uniform acceleration Angular acceleration Gravitational acceleration Coordinate vs. physical acceleration Derivatives of position Equations of Motion Proper Acceleration 0 to 60 mph Shock (mechanics) Specific force External links Acceleration and Free Fall - a chapter from an online textbook Trajectories and Radius, Velocity, Acceleration on Project PHYSNET (ERROR - PAGE MOVED) Science aid: Movement The physics classroom Science.dirbix: Acceleration Acceleration Calculator Motion Characteristics for Circular Motion Practical Guide to Accelerometers be-x-old:Паскарэньне | Acceleration |@lemmatized waltz:1 compose:1 johann:1 strauss:1 see:2 accelerationen:1 physic:3 specifically:1 kinematics:1 acceleration:27 change:10 velocity:7 time:5 vector:4 two:1 way:1 magnitude:2 direction:6 one:4 dimension:2 rate:3 something:1 speed:7 slow:1 however:1 quantity:1 also:4 l:1 si:1 unit:3 measure:1 metre:1 per:1 second:2 square:1 common:1 speech:1 term:1 commonly:1 use:3 increase:1 decrease:1 call:2 deceleration:1 motion:5 planar:3 surface:3 result:1 centripetal:3 whereas:1 tangential:3 classical:1 mechanic:2 body:3 proportional:1 resultant:2 total:1 force:4 act:2 newton:3 law:1 f:1 mass:1 particle:3 move:5 curved:2 path:5 function:1 write:2 v:3 equal:1 travel:1 along:1 tangent:1 pointing:1 chosen:1 moment:1 take:1 account:1 ut:1 chain:1 rule:1 differentiation:1 un:1 outward:1 normal:1 trajectory:2 r:1 instantaneous:1 radius:2 curvature:2 base:1 upon:1 osculating:1 circle:1 component:1 radial:2 respectively:1 negative:1 point:1 inward:1 toward:1 center:1 extension:1 approach:1 three:1 dimensional:1 space:2 curve:1 cannot:1 contain:1 lead:1 frenet:1 serret:1 formula:1 relation:1 relativity:8 complete:1 theory:3 special:2 albert:1 einstein:1 realize:1 felt:1 object:2 undergo:1 constant:1 proper:2 indistinguishable:1 gravitational:2 field:1 basis:2 development:1 general:5 relativistic:1 gravity:1 popular:1 twin:4 paradox:1 ask:1 age:2 less:1 away:1 sibling:1 near:1 light:1 return:1 since:2 non:2 say:1 solve:1 feel:1 accelerate:3 problem:1 plague:1 philosopher:1 scientist:1 cause:1 endorse:1 absolute:1 inertial:1 frame:3 reference:2 equivalent:2 considers:1 even:1 consideration:1 full:1 trace:1 introduction:1 line:1 note:1 uniform:1 angular:1 coordinate:1 physical:1 derivative:1 position:1 equation:1 mph:1 shock:1 specific:1 external:1 link:1 free:1 fall:1 chapter:1 online:1 textbook:1 project:1 physnet:1 error:1 page:1 science:2 aid:1 movement:1 classroom:1 dirbix:1 calculator:1 characteristic:1 circular:1 practical:1 guide:1 accelerometer:1 x:1 old:1 паскарэньне:1 |@bigram johann_strauss:1 centripetal_acceleration:3 tangential_acceleration:2 curved_path:2 radius_curvature:1 radial_acceleration:2 serret_formula:1 special_relativity:2 albert_einstein:1 relativity_relativistic:1 inertial_frame:1 external_link:1 project_physnet:1 circular_motion:1 |
3,811 | Lombards | The Iron Crown with which Lombard rulers were crowned. The Lombards (Latin Langobardi, whence the alternative names Langobards and Longobards) were a Germanic people originally from Northern Europe who settled in the valley of the Danube and from there invaded Byzantine Italy in 568 under the leadership of Alboin. They established a Kingdom of Italy which lasted until 774, when it was conquered by the Franks. Their influence on Italian political geography is plainly visible in the regional appellation Lombardy. Early history Legendary origins and name Paul the Deacon was the primary source for the study of the Lombards. The fullest account of Lombard origins, history, and practices is the Historia gentis Langobardorum (History of the Lombards) of Paul the Deacon, written in the 8th century. Paul's chief source for Lombard origins, however, is the 7th-century Origo Gentis Langobardorum (Origin of the People of the Lombards). The Origo tells the story of a small tribe called the Winnili Priester, 16. From the Old Germanic Winnan, meaning "fighting", "winning". dwelling in southern Scandinavia Harrison, D. & Svensson, K. (2007). Vikingaliv Fälth & Hässler, Värnamo. 978-91-27-35725-9 p. 74 (Scadanan) (The Codex Gothanus writes that the Winnili first dwelt near a river called Vindilicus on the extreme boundary of Gaul.) CG, II. The Winnili were split into three groups and one part left the native land to seek foreign fields. The reason for the exodus was probably overpopulation. Menghin, 13. The departing people were led by the brothers Ybor and Aio and their mother Gambara Priester, 16. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, I, 336. Old Germanic for "Strenuus", "Sybil". and arrived in the lands of Scoringa, perhaps the Baltic coast Priester, 16 or the Bardengau on the banks of the Elbe. Hammerstein, 56. Scoringa was ruled by the Wandals, and their chieftains, the brothers Ambri and Assi, who granted the Winnili a choice between tribute or war. The Winnili were young and brave and refused to pay tribute, saying "It is better to maintain liberty by arms than to stain it by the payment of tribute." PD, VII. The Wandals prepared for war and consulted their god Godan (Odin), who answered that he would give the victory to those whom he would see first at sunrise. PD, VIII. The Winnili were fewer in number and Gambara sought help from Frea (Frigg), who advised that all Winnili women should tie their hair in front of their faces like beards and march in line with their husbands. So it came that Godan spotted the Winnili first, and asked, "Who are these long-beards?" and Frea replied, "My lord, thou hast given them the name, now give them also the victory." OGL, appendix 11. From that moment onwards, the Winnili were known as the Langobards (Latinised and Italianised as Lombards). When Paul the Deacon wrote the Historia between 787 and 796 he was a Catholic monk and devoted Christian. Therefore, he thought the pagan stories of his people "silly" and "laughable". Priester, 17 Paul explained that the name "Langobard" came from the length of their beards, that the Latin word longus meant Lang and barba meant Bart. PD, I, 9. A modern theory suggests that the name "Langobard" comes from Langbarðr, a name of Odin. Pohl and Erhart. Nedoma, 449–445. Priester states that when the Winnili changed their name to "Lombards", they also changed their old agricultural fertility cult to a cult of Odin, thus creating a conscious tribal tradition. Priester, 17. Fröhlich inverts the order of events in Priester and states that with the Odin cult, the Lombards grew their beards in resemblance of the Odin of tradition and their new name reflected this. Fröhlich, 19. Bruckner remarks that the name of the Lombards stands in close relation to the worship of Odin, who wore the epithet "the Long-bearded" or "the Grey-bearded", and that the Lombard given name Ansegranus ("he with the beard of the gods") shows that the Lombards had this idea of their chief deity. Bruckner, 30–33. Archaeology and migrations From the combined testimony of Strabo (AD 20) and Tacitus (AD 117), the Lombards dwelt near the mouth of the Elbe shortly after the beginning of the Christian era, next to the Chauci. Menghin, 15. Strabo states that the Lombards dwelt on both sides of the Elbe. Strabo, VII, 1, 3. Menghin, 15. The German archaeologist Willi Wegewitz defined several Iron Age burial sites at the lower Elbe as Langobardic. Wegewitz, Das langobardische Brandgräberfeld von Putensen, Kreis Harburg (1972), 1–29. Problemi della civilita e dell'economia Longobarda, Milan (1964), 19ff. The burial sites, are crematorial and are usually dated from the 6th century BC through the 3rd AD, so that a settlement breakoff seems unlikely. Menghin, 17. The lands of the lower Elbe fall into the zone of the Jastorf Culture and became Elbe-Germanic, differing from the lands between Rhine, Weser, and the North Sea. Menghin, 18. Archaeological finds show that the Lombards were an agricultural people. Priester, 18. Distribution of Langobardic burial fields at the Lower Elbe Lands, according to W. Wegewitz The first mention of the Lombards occurred between AD 9 and 16, by the Roman court historian Velleius Paterculus, who accompanied a Roman expedition as prefect of the cavalry. Paterculus described the Lombards as "more fierce than ordinary German savagery." Velleius, Hist. Rom. II, 106. Schmidt, 5. Tacitus counted the Lombards as a Suebian tribe, Tacitus, Ann. II, 45. and subjects of Marobod the King of the Marcomanni. Tacitus, Germania, 38-40; Tacitus, Annals, II, 45. Marobod had made peace with the Romans, and that is why the Lombards were not part of the Germanic confederacy under Arminius at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in AD 9. In AD 17, war broke out between Arminius and Marobod. Tacitus records: {{bquote|Not only the Cheruscans and their confederates... took arms, but the Semnones and Langobards, both Suevian nations, revolted to him from the sovereignty of Marobod... The armies... were stimulated by reasons of their own, the Cheruscans and the Langobards fought for their ancient honor or their newly acquired independence. . . " }} In 47, a struggle ensued amongst the Cherusci and they expelled their new leader, the nephew of Arminius, from their country. The Lombards appear on the scene with sufficient power, it seems, to control the destiny of the tribe which, thirty-eight years before, had been the leader in the struggle for independence, for they restored the deposed leader to the sovereignty again. Tacitus, Annals, XI, 16, 17. In the mid 2nd century, the Lombards also appear in the Rhineland. According to Ptolemy, the Suebic Lombards settled south of the Sugambri, Ptolemy, Geogr. II, 11, 9. Menghin, 15. but also remained at the Elbe, between the Chauci and the Suebi, Ibid, II, 11, 17. Ibid. which indicates a Lombard expansion. The Codex Gothanus also mentions Patespruna (Paderborn) in connections with the Lombards. Codex Gothanus, II. By Cassius Dio, we are informed that just before the Marcomannic Wars, 6,000 Lombards and Ubii crossed the Danube and invaded Pannonia. Cassius Dio, 71, 3, 1. Menghin 16. The two tribes were defeated, whereupon they desisted from their invasion and sent as ambassador to Aelius Basaus, who was then administering Pannonia, Ballomar, King of the Marcomanni. Peace was made and the two tribes returned to their homes, which in the case of the Lombards were the lands of the lower Elbe. Priester, 21. Zeuss, 471. Wiese, 38. Schmidt, 35–36. At about this time, Tacitus, in his work Germania (AD 98), describes the Lombards as such: From the 2nd century onwards, many of the Germanic tribes of the era of the Tiberian emperors started to unite into bigger tribal unions, resulting in the Franks, Alamanni, Bavarii, and Saxons. Priester, 14. Menghin, 16. The reasons why the Lombards disappear, as such, from Roman history from 166–489 could be that they dwelt so deep into Inner Germania that they were only detectable when they appeared on the Danubian banks again, or that the Lombards were also subjected into a bigger tribal union, most probably the Saxons. Ibid. Menghin, 16. It is, however, highly probable that when the bulk of the Lombards migrated, a considerable part remained behind and afterwards became absorbed by the Saxon tribes in the region, while the emigrants alone retained the name of Lombards. Hartmann, II, pt I, 5. However, the Codex Gothanus writes that the Lombards were subjected by the Saxons around 300, but rose up against the Saxons with their king Agelmund. Menghin, 17. Codex Gothanus, II. In the second half of the 4th century, the Lombards left their homes, probably due to bad harvests, and embarked on their migration. Zeuss, 471. Wiese, 38. Schmidt, 35–36. Priester, 21–22. HGL, X. Lombardic migration. The migration route of the Lombards, from their homeland to "Rugiland" in 489 encompassed several places: Scoringa (believed to be the their land on the Elbe shores), Mauringa, Golanda, Anthaib, Banthaib, and Vurgundaib (Burgundaib). Hammerstein, Bardengau, 56. Bluhme. HGL, XIII. According to the Ravenna Cosmography, Mauringa was the land east of the Elbe. Cosmographer of Ravenna, I, 11. The crossing into Mauringa was very difficult, the Assipitti (Usipetes) denied them passage through their lands; a fight was arranged for the strongest man of each tribe, the Lombard was victorious, passage was granted, and the Lombards reached Mauringa. Hodgkin, Ch. V, 92. HGL, XII. The first Lombard king, Agelmund, from the race of Guginger, ruled for thirty years. Menghin, 19. The Lombards departed from Mauringa and reached Golanda. Scholar Ludwig Schmidt thinks this was further east, perhaps on the right bank of the Oder. Schmidt, 49. Schmidt considers that the name is the equivalent of Gotland and means simply "good land." Hodgkin, V, 143. This theory is highly plausible, Paul the Deacon mentions an episode of the Lombards crossing a river, and the Lombards could have reached Rugiland from the Upper Oder area via the Moravian Gate. Menghin, Das Reich an der Donau, 21. Lombardia along the Middle Danube, mid sixth century Moving out of Golanda, the Lombards passed through Anthaib and Banthaib until they reached Vurgundaib. Vurgundaib is believed to be the old lands of the Burgundes KPriester, 22. Bluhme, Gens Langobardorum Bonn, 1868 . In Vurgundaib, the Lombards were stormed in camp by "Bulgars" (probably Huns) Menghin, 14. and were defeated; King Agelmund was killed. Laimicho was raised to the kingship afterwards; he was in his youth and desired to avenge the slaughter of Agelmund. Hist. gentis Lang., Ch. XVII The Lombards themselves were probably made subjects of the Huns after the defeat, but the Lombards rose up against them and defeated them with great slaughter. Hist. gentis Lang., Ch. XVII. The victory gave the Lombards great booty and confidence, as they "... became bolder in undertaking the toils of war." PD, XVII. In the 540s, Audoin (ruled 546–565), led the Lombards across the Danube once more into Pannonia, where they received Imperial subsidies, as Justinian encouraged them to battle Gepids. Kingdom in Italy Invasion and conquest of the Italian peninsula In 560 a new, energetic king emerged: Alboin, who defeated the neighbouring Gepidae, made them his subjects, and, in 566, married the daughter of their king Cunimund, Rosamund. In the spring of 568, Alboin led the Lombards, together with other Germanic tribes; (Bavarians, Gepidae, Saxons<ref>The latter esteemed to be around 100,000 in total, basing on the number of 26,000 warriors given by Paul the Deacon. The Saxons abandoned Italy after Alboin's death in 573. See Paolo Cammarosano, Storia dell'Italia medievale, pp. 96-97</ref>) and Bulgars, across the Julian Alps with a population of around 400,000 to 500,000, to invade northern Italy due to their expulsion from Pannonia by Avars. The first important city to fall was Forum Iulii (Cividale del Friuli), in northeastern Italy, in 569. There, Alboin created the first Lombard duchy, which he entrusted to his nephew Gisulf. Soon Vicenza, Verona and Brescia fell into Germanic hands. In the summer of 569, the Lombards conquered the main Roman centre of northern Italy, Milan. The area was then recovering from the terrible Gothic Wars, and the small Byzantine army left for its defence could do almost nothing. The Exarch sent to Italy by Emperor Justinian II, Longinus, could defend only coastal cities that could be supplied by the powerful Byzantine fleet. Pavia fell after a siege of three years, in 572, becoming the first capital city of the new Lombard kingdom of Italy. In the following years, the Lombards penetrated further south, conquering Tuscany and establishing two duchies, Spoleto and Benevento under Zotto, which soon became semi-independent and even outlasted the northern kingdom, surviving well into the 12th century. The Byzantines managed to retain control of the area of Ravenna and Rome, linked by a thin corridor running through Perugia. When they entered Italy, some Lombards retained their native form paganism, while some were Arian Christians. Hence they did not enjoy good relations with the Catholic Church. Gradually, they adopted Roman titles, names, and traditions, and partially converted to orthodoxy (7th century), not without a long series of religious and ethnic conflicts. The whole Lombard territory was divided into 36 duchies, whose leaders settled in the main cities. The king ruled over them and administered the land through emissaries called gastaldi. This subdivision, however, together with the independent indocility of the duchies, deprived the kingdom of unity, making it weak even when compared to the Byzantines, especially after they began to recover from the initial invasion. This weakness became even more evident when the Lombards had to face the increasing power of the Franks. In response to this problem, the kings tried to centralize power over time; but they lost control over Spoleto and Benevento definitively in the attempt. Langobardia major Duchy of Friuli and List of Dukes and Margraves of Friuli Duchy of Ceneda Duchy of Vicenza Duchy of Verona Duchy of Tridentum/Trent Duchy of Brescia Duchy of Bergamo Duchy of San Giulio Duchy of Pavia Duchy of Turin Duchy of Asti Duchy of Tuscia Langobardia minor Duchy of Spoleto and List of Dukes of Spoleto Duchy of Benevento and List of Dukes and Princes of Benevento Arian monarchy A Lombard shield boss from northern Italy, 7th century. Alboin was murdered in 572 in Verona by a plot led by his wife, Rosamund, who later fled to Ravenna. His successor, Cleph, was also assassinated, after a ruthless reign of 18 months. His death began an interregnum of years, the "Rule of the Dukes", during which the dukes did not elect any king, and which is regarded as a period of violence and disorder. In 584, threatened by a Frankish invasion, the dukes elected Cleph's son, Authari, king. In 589, he married Theodelinda, daughter of the Duke of Bavaria, Garibald I of Bavaria. The Catholic Theodelinda was a friend of Pope Gregory I and pushed for Christianization. In the mean time, Authari embarked on a policy of internal reconciliation and tried to reorganize royal administration. The dukes yielded half their estates for the maintenance of the king and his court in Pavia. On the foreign affairs side, Authari managed to thwart the dangerous alliance between the Byzantines and the Franks. Authari died in 590. His successor was Agilulf, duke of Turin, who in 591, also married Theodelinda. He successfully fought the rebel dukes of Northern Italy, conquering Padua (601), Cremona and Mantua (603), and forcing the Exarch of Ravenna to pay a conspicuous tribute. Agiluif died in 616; Theodelinda reigned alone until 628, and was succeeded by Adaloald. Arioald, who had married Theodelinda's daughter Gundeberga, and head of the Arian opposition, later deposed Adaloald. His successor was Rothari, regarded by many authorities as the most energetic of all Lombard kings. He extended his dominions, conquering Liguria in 643 and the remaining part of the Byzantine territories of inner Veneto, including the Roman city of Opitergium (Oderzo). Rothari also made the famous edict bearing his name, the Edictum Rothari, which established the laws and the customs of his people in Latin: the edict did not apply to the tributaries of the Lombards, who could retain their own laws. Rothari's son Rodoald succeeded him in 652, still very young, and was killed by the Catholic party. At the death of King Aripert I in 661, the kingdom was split between his children Perctarit, who set his capital in Milan, and Godepert, who reigned from Pavia. Perctarit was overthrown by Grimoald, son of Gisulf, duke of Friuli and Benevento since 647. Perctarit fled to the Avars and then to the Franks. Grimoald managed to regain control over the duchies and deflected the late attempt of the Byzantine emperor Constans II to conquer southern Italy. He also defeated the Franks. At Grimoald's death in 671 Perctarit returned and promoted tolerance between Arians and Catholics, but he could not defeat the Arian party, led by Arachi, duke of Trento, who submitted only to his son, the philo-Catholic Cunipert. Catholic monarchy Lombard domination at its greatest extent under Aistulf and Desiderius. Religious strife remained a source of struggle in the following years. The Lombard reign began to recover only with Liutprand the Lombard (king from 712), son of Ansprand and successor of the brutal Aripert II. He managed to regain a certain control over Spoleto and Benevento, and, taking advantage of the disagreements between the Pope and Byzantium concerning the reverence of icons, he annexed the Exarchate of Ravenna and the duchy of Rome. He also helped the Frankish marshal Charles Martel to drive back the Arabs. His successor Aistulf conquered Ravenna for the Lombards for the first time, but was subsequently defeated by the king of the Franks Pippin III, called by the Pope, and had to leave it. After the death of Aistulf, Ratchis tried once again to be king of the Lombardy but he was deposed in the same year. After his defeat of Ratchis, the last Lombard to rule as king was Desiderius, duke of Tuscany, who managed to take Ravenna definitively, ending the Byzantine presence in Central Italy. He decided to reopen struggles against the Pope, who was supporting the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento against him, and entered Rome in 772, the first Lombard king to do so. But when Pope Hadrian I called for help from the powerful king Charlemagne, Desiderius was defeated at Susa and besieged in Pavia, while his son Adelchis had also to open the gates of Verona to Frankish troops. Desiderius surrendered in 774 and Charlemagne, in an utterly novel decision, took the title "King of the Lombards" as well. Before then the Germanic kingdoms had frequently conquered each other, but none had adopted the title of King of another people. Charlemagne took part of the Lombard territory to create the Papal States. The Lombardy region in Italy, which includes the cities of Brescia, Bergamo, Milan and the old capital Pavia, is a reminder of the presence of the Lombards. Later history Italy around the turn of the millennium, showing the Lombard states in the south on the eve of the arrival of the Normans. United Principality of Benevento, 774–849 Though the kingdom centred on Pavia in the north fell to Charlemagne, the Lombard-controlled territory to the south of the Papal States was never subjugated by Charlemagne or his descendants. In 774, Duke Arechis II of Benevento, whose duchy had only nominally been under royal authority, though certain kings had been effective at making their power known in the south, claimed that Benevento was the successor state of the kingdom. He tried to turn Benevento into a secundum Ticinum: a second Pavia. He tried to claim the kingship, but with no support and no chance of a coronation in Pavia. Charlemagne came down with an army, and his son Louis the Pious sent men, to force the Beneventan duke to submit, but his submission and promises were never kept and Arechis and his successors were de facto independent. The Beneventan dukes took the title princeps (prince) instead of that of king. The Lombards of southern Italy were thereafter in the anomalous position of holding land claimed by two empires: the Carolingian Empire to the north and west and the Byzantine Empire to the east. They typically made pledges and promises of tribute to the Carolingians, but effectively remained outside Frankish control. Benevento meanwhile grew to its greatest extent yet when it imposed a tribute on the Duchy of Naples, which was tenuously loyal to Byzantium and even conquered the Neapolitan city of Amalfi in 838. At one point in the reign of Sicard, Lombard control covered most of southern Italy save the very south of Apulia and Calabria and Naples, with its nominally attached cities. It was during the ninth century that a strong Lombard presence became entrenched in formerly Greek Apulia. However, Sicard had opened up the south to the invasive actions of the Saracens in his war with Andrew II of Naples and when he was assassinated in 839, Amalfi declared independence and two factions fought for power in Benevento, crippling the principality and making it susceptible to external enemies. The civil war lasted ten years and was ended only by a peace treaty imposed by the Emperor Louis II, the only Frankish king to exercise actual sovereignty over the Lombard states, in 849 which divided the kingdom into two states: the Principality of Benevento and the Principality of Salerno, with its capital at Salerno on the Tyrrhenian. Southern Italy and the Arabs, 836–915 Andrew II of Naples hired Saracen mercenaries for his war with Sicard of Benevento in 836. Sicard responded with like. The Saracens initially concentrated their attacks on Sicily and Byzantine Italy, but soon Radelchis I of Benevento called in more mercenaries and they sacked Capua in 841. The ruins of that city are all that is left of "Old Capua" (Santa Maria Capua Vetere). Consequently, Landulf the Old founded the present-day Capua, "New Capua", on a nearby hill. The Lombard princes in general, however, were less inclined to ally with the Saracens than their Greek neighbours of Amalfi, Gaeta, Naples, and Sorrento. Guaifer of Salerno, however, briefly put himself under Muslim suzerainty. A large Muslim force seized Bari, until then a Lombard gastaldate under the control of Pandenulf, in 847. Saracen incursions then proceeded northwards until finally the prince of Benevento, Adelchis called in the help of his suzerain, Louis II. Louis allied with the Byzantine emperor Basil I to expel the Arabs from Bari in 869. An Arab landing force was defeated by the emperor, after a brief imprisonment by Adelchis, in 871. Adelchis and Louis were at war for the rest of the latter's career. Adelchis regarded himself as the true successor of the Lombard kings and in that capacity he amended the Edictum Rothari, the last Lombard ruler to do so. After Louis's death, Landulf II of Capua briefly flirted with a Saracen alliance, but Pope John VIII convinced him to break it off. Guaimar I of Salerno fought against the Saracens with Byzantine troops. Throughout this period the Lombard princes swung in allegiance from one party to another. Finally, towards 915, Pope John X managed to unite all the Christian princes of southern Itay against the Saracen establishments on the Garigliano river. That year, in the great Battle of the Garigliano, the Saracens were ousted from Italy. The Lombard principalities in the tenth century The independent state at Salerno inspired the gastalds of Capua to move towards independence and, by the end of the century, they were styling themselves "princes" and there was a third Lombard state. The Capuan and Beneventan states were united by Atenulf I of Capua in 900. He subsequently declared them to be in perpetual union and they were only separated in 982, on the death of Pandulf Ironhead. With all of the Lombard south under his control save Salerno, Atenulf felt safe in using the title princeps gentis Langobardorum ("prince of the Lombard people"), which Arechis II had begun using in 774. Among Atenulf's successors the principality was ruled jointly by fathers, sons, brothers, cousins, and uncles for the greater part of the century. Meanwhile, the prince Gisulf I of Salerno began using the title Langobardorum gentis princeps around mid-century, but the ideal of a united Lombard principality was only realised in December 977, when Gisulf died and his domains were inherited by Pandulf Ironhead, who temporarily held almost all Italy south of Rome and brought the Lombards into alliance with the Holy Roman Empire. His territories were divided upon his death. Landulf the Red of Benevento and Capua tried to conquer the principality of Salerno with the help of John III of Naples, but with the aid of Mastalus I of Amalfi Gisulf repulsed him. The rulers of Benevento and Capua made several attempts on Byzantine Apulia at this time, but in late century the Byzantines, under the stiff rule of Basil II, gained ground on the Lombards. The principal source for the history of the Lombard principalities in this period is the Chronicon Salernitanum, composed late in the century at Salerno. Norman conquest, 1017–1078 The diminished Beneventan principality soon lost its independence to the papacy and declined in importance until it was gobbled up by in the Norman conquest of southern Italy, who, first called in by the Lombards to fight the Byzantines for control of Apulia and Calabria (under the likes of Melus of Bari and Arduin, among others), had become rivals for hegemony in the south. The Salernitan principality experienced a golden age under Guaimar III and Guaimar IV, but under Gisulf II, the principality shrunk to insignificance and fell in 1078 to Robert Guiscard, who had married Gisulf's sister Sichelgaita. The Capua principality was hotly contested during the reign of the hated Pandulf IV, the Wolf of the Abruzzi, and, under his son, it fell, almost without contest, to the Norman Richard Drengot (1058). The Capuans revolted against Norman rule in 1091, expelling Richard's grandson Richard II and setting up one Lando IV. Capua was again put under Norman rule by the Siege of Capua of 1098 and the city quickly declined in importance under a series of ineffectual Norman rulers. The independent status of these Lombard states is generally attested by the ability of their rulers to switch suzerains at will. Often the legal vassal of pope or emperor (either Byzantine or Holy Roman), they were the real power-brokers in the south until their erstwhile allies, the Normans, rose to preeminence. Certainly the Lombards regarded the Normans as barbarians and the Byzantines as oppressors. Regarding their own civilisation as superior, the Lombards did indeed provide the environment for the illustrious Schola Medica Salernitana. Social structure Language The Lombardic language is extinct. The Germanic language declined beginning in the seventh century, but may have been in scattered use until as late as about the year 1000. The language is only preserved fragmentarily, the main evidence being individual words quoted in Latin texts. In the absence of Lombardic texts, it is not possible to draw any conclusions about the language's morphology and syntax. The genetic classification the language is necessarily based entirely on phonology. Since there is evidence that Lombardic participated in, and indeed shows some of the earliest evidence for, the High German consonant shift, it is classified as an Elbe Germanic or Upper German dialect. Longbardic fragments are preserved in runic inscriptions. Among the primary source texts are short inscriptions in the Elder Futhark, among them the "bronze capsule of Schretzheim" (ca. 600). There are a number of Latin texts which include Lombardic names, and Lombardic legal texts contain terms taken from the legal vocabulary of the vernacular. In 2005, there were claims that the inscription of the Pernik sword may be Lombardic. Migration Period society The Lombard kings can be traced back as early as circa 380 and thus to the beginning of the Great Migration. Kingship developed amongst the Germanic peoples when the unity of a single military command was found necessary. Schmidt believed that the Germanic tribes were divided according to cantons and that the earliest government was a general assembly that selected the chiefs of the cantons and the war leaders from the cantons (in times of war). All such figures were probably selected from a caste of nobility. As a result of wars of their wanderings, royal power developed such that the king became the representative of the people; but the influence of the people upon the government did not fully disappear. Schmidt, 76–77. Paul the Deacon gives an account of the Lombard tribal structure during the migration: . . . in order that they might increase the number of their warriors, confer liberty upon many whom they deliver from the yoke of bondage, and that the freedom of these may be regarded as established, they confirm it in their accustomed way by an arrow, uttering certain words of their country in confirmation of the fact. Complete emancipation appears to have been granted only among the Franks and the Lombards. Ibid, 47 n3. Society of the Catholic kingdom Lombard society was divided into classes comparable to those found in the other Germanic successor states of Rome: Frankish Gaul and Visigothic Spain. Most basically, there was a noble class, a class of free persons beneath them, a class of unfree non-slaves (serfs), and finally slaves. The aristocracy itself was poorer, more urbanised, and less landed than elsewhere. Aside from the richest and most powerful of the dukes and the king himself, Lombard noblemen tended to live in cities (unlike their Frankish counterparts) and hold little more than twice as much in land as the merchant class (a far cry from the provincial Frankish aristocrat who held a vast swathe of land hundreds of times larger than the nearest man beneath him). The aristocracy by the eighth century was highly dependent on the king for means of income related especially to judicial duties: many Lombard nobles are referred in contemporary documents as iudices (judges) even when their offices had important military and legislative functions as well. The freemen of the Lombard kingdom were far more numerous than in Frankland, especially in the eighth century, when they are almost invisible in the surviving documentary evidence for the latter. Smallholders, owner-cultivators, and rentiers are the most numerous types of person in surviving diplomata for the Lombard kingdom. They may have owned more than half of the land in Lombard Italy. The freemen were exercitales and viri devoti, that is, soldiers and "devoted men" (a military term like "retainers"); they formed the levy of the Lombard army and they were, if infrequently, sometimes called to serve, though this seems not to have been their preference. The small landed class, however, lacked the political influence necessary with the king (and the dukes) to control the politics and legislation of the kingdom. The aristocracy was more thoroughly powerful politically if not economically in Italy than in contemporary Gaul and Spain. The urbanisation of Lombard Italy was characterised by the città ad isole (or "city as islands"). It appears from archaeology that the great cities of Lombard Italy — Pavia, Lucca, Siena, Arezzo, Milan — were themselves formed of very minute islands of urbanisation within the old Roman city walls. The cities of the Roman Empire had been partially destroyed in the series wars of the fifth and sixth centuries. Many sectors were left in ruins and ancient monuments became fields of grass used as pastures for animals, thus the Roman Forum became the campo vaccinio: the field of cows. The portions of the cities which remained intact were small and modest and contained a cathedral or major church (often sumptuously decorated) and a few public buildings and townhomes of the aristocracy. Few buildings of importance were stone, most were wood. In the end, the inhabited parts of the cities were separated from one another by stretches of pasture even within the city walls. Lombard states Kingdom of Italy and List of Kings of the Lombards Principality of Benevento and List of Dukes and Princes of Benevento Principality of Salerno and List of Princes of Salerno Principality of Capua and List of Princes of Capua Religious history Paganism The earliest indications of Lombard religion show that they originally worshipped the Germanic gods of the Vanir pantheon while in Scandinavia. After settling along the Baltic coast, through contact with other Germans they adopted the cult of the Aesir gods, a shift which represented a cultural change from an agricultural society into a warrior society. After their migration into Pannonia, the Lombards had contact with the Iranian Sarmatians. From these people they borrowed a long-lived custom once of religious symbolism. A long pole surmounted by the figure of a bird, usually a dove, derived from the standards used in battle, was placed by the family in the ground at the home of a man who had died far afield in war and who could not be brought home for funeral and burial. Usually the bird was oriented so as to point in the direction of the suspected site of the warrior's death. Christianisation A hen and chicks. Sculpture given by Gregory I to Theodelinda. Meaning unknown. Now kept in Monza Cathedral. While still in Pannonia, the Lombards were first touched by Christianity, but only touched: their conversion and Christianisation was largely nominal and far from complete. During the reign of Wacho, they were Roman Catholics allied with the Byzantine Empire, but Alboin converted to Arianism as an ally of the Ostrogoths and invaded Italy. All these Christian conversions only affected, for the most part, the aristocracy; for the common people remained pagan. In Italy, the Lombards were intensively Christianised and the pressure to convert to Catholicism was great. With the Bavarian queen Theodelinda, a Catholic, the monarchy was brought under heavy Catholic influence. After an initial support for the Three Chapters, Theodelinda remained a close contact and supporter of Pope Gregory I. In 603, Adaloald, the heir to the throne, received a Catholic baptism. During the next century, Arianism and paganism continued to hold out in Austria (the northeast of Italy) and the Duchy of Benevento. A succession of Arian kings were militarily aggressive and presented a threat to the Papacy in Rome. In the seventh century, the nominally Christian aristocracy of Benevento was still practising pagan rituals, such as sacrifices in "sacred" woods. By the end of the reign of Cunincpert, however, the Lombards were more or less completely Catholicised. Under Liutprand, the Catholicism became real as the king sought to justify his title rex totius Italiae by uniting the south of the peninsula with the north and bringing together his Italo-Roman subjects and his Germanic into one Catholic state. Beneventan Christianity The Rule of Saint Benedict in Beneventan (ie Lombard) script. The Duchy and eventually Principality of Benevento in southern Italy developed a unique Christian rite in the seventh and eighth centuries. The Beneventan rite is more closely related to the liturgy of the Ambrosian rite than the Roman rite. The Beneventan rite has not survived in its complete form, although most of the principal feasts and several feasts of local significance are extant. The Beneventan rite appears to have been less complete, less systematic, and more liturgically flexible than the Roman rite. Characteristic of this rite was the Beneventan chant, a Lombard-influenced chant which bore similarities to the Ambrosian chant of Lombard Milan. Beneventan chant is largely defined by its role in the liturgy of the Beneventan rite; many Beneventan chants were assigned multiple roles when inserted into Gregorian chantbooks, appearing variously as antiphons, offertories, and communions, for example. It was eventually supplanted by the Gregorian chant in the eleventh century. The chief centre of Beneventan chant was Montecassino, one of the first and greatest abbeys of Western monasticism. Gisulf II of Benevento had donated a large swathe of land to Montecassino in 744 and that became the basis for an important state, the Terra Sancti Benedicti, which was a subject only to Rome. The Cassinese influence on Christianity in southern Italy was immense. Montecassino was also the starting point for another characteristic of Beneventan monasticism: the use of the distinct Beneventan script, a clear, angular scrip derived from the Roman cursive as used by the Lombards. Art and architecture During their nomadic phase, the Lombards created little in the way of art which was not easily carried with them, like arms and jewellery. Though relatively little of this has survived, it bears resemblance to the similar endeavours of other Germanic tribes of northern and central Europe from the same era. The first major modifications to the Germanic style of the Lombards came in Pannonia and especially in Italy, under the influence of local, Byzantine, and Christian styles. The conversions from nomadism and paganism to settlement and Christianity also opened up new arenas of artistic expression, such as architecture (especially churches) and its accompanying decorative arts (such as frescoes). Architecture The Basilic autariana in Fara Gera d'Adda. Few Lombard buildings have survived. Most have been lost, rebuilt, or renovated at some point and so preserve little of their original Lombard structure. Lombard architecture has been well-studied in the twentieth century, and Arthur Kingsley Porter's four-volume Lombard Architecture (1919) is a "monument of illustrated history." The small Oratorio di Santa Maria in Valle in Cividale del Friuli is probably one of the oldest preserved pieces of Lombard architecture, as Cividale was the first Lombard city in Italy. Parts of Lombard constructions have been preserved in Pavia (San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, crypts of Sant'Eusebio and San Giovanni Domnarum) and Monza (cathedral). The Basilic autariana in Fara Gera d'Adda near Bergamo and the church of San Salvatore in Brescia also have Lombard elements. All these building are in northern Italy (Langobardia major), but by far the best-preserved Lombard structure is in southern Italy (Langobardia minor). The Church of Santa Sofia in Benevento was erected in 760 by Duke Arechis II. It preserves Lombard frescoes on the walls and even Lombard capitals on the columns. Through the impulse given by the Catholic monarchs like Theodelinda, Liutprand, and Desiderius to the foundation of monasteries to further their political control, Lombard architecture flourished. Bobbio Abbey was founded during this time. Some of the late Lombard structures of the ninth and tenth century have been found to contain elements of style associated with Romanesque architecture and have been so dubbed "first Romanesque". These edifices are considered, along with some similar buildings in southern France and Catalonia, to mark a transitory phase between the Pre-Romanesque and full-fledged Romanesque. Visual arts Sculpture Metalwork Notes References . Gwatkin, H. M., Whitney, J. P. (ed) - The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume II—The Rise of the Saracens and the Foundations of the Western Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1926. Giess, Hildegard. "The Sculpture of the Cloister of Santa Sofia in Benevento (in Notes)." The Art Bulletin, Vol. 41, No. 3. (Sep., 1959), pp 249–256. Oman, Charles. The Dark Ages 476-918. London, 1914. Santosuosso, Antonio. Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels: The Ways of Medieval Warfare. 2004. ISBN 0-8133-9153-9 Karin Priester - Geschichte der Langobarden / Gesellschaft - Kultur - Altagsleben - Theiss Wilfried Menghin - Die Langobarden / Geschichte und Archäologie - Theiss Codex Gothanus Historia gentis Langobardorum Origo gentis Langobardorum Dr. Ludwig Schmidt - Älteste Geschichte der Langobarden Thomas Hodgkin - Italy and her Invaders - Clarendon Press Wilhelm Bruckner - Die Sprache der Langobarden Cosmographer of Ravenna Friedrich Bluhme - Gens Langobardorum Freiherren von Hammerstein-Loxten - Bardengau Kaspar Zeuss - Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme Robert Wiese - Die aelteste Geschichte der Langobarden Ludo Moritz Hartmann - Geschichte Italiens im Mittelalter II Vol. Tacitus - Annals Tacitus - Germania Willi Wegewitz - Das Langobardische brandgräberfeld von Putensen, Kreise Harburg Grimm - Deutsche Mythologie Hermann Fröhlich - Studien zur langobardischen Thronfolge - Zur Herkunft der Langobarden - Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken (QFIAB) Walter Pohl und Peter Erhart - Die Langobarden / Herrschaft und Identität Hallenbeck, Jan T - Pavia and Rome: The Lombard Monarchy and the Papacy in the Eighth Century Transactions of the American Philosophical Society New Series, 72.4 (1982), pp. 1-186. | Lombards |@lemmatized iron:2 crown:2 lombard:129 ruler:5 latin:5 langobardi:1 whence:1 alternative:1 name:15 langobard:6 longobards:1 germanic:18 people:13 originally:2 northern:8 europe:2 settle:4 valley:1 danube:4 invade:3 byzantine:20 italy:38 leadership:1 alboin:7 establish:4 kingdom:15 last:4 conquer:10 frank:8 influence:7 italian:2 political:3 geography:1 plainly:1 visible:1 regional:1 appellation:1 lombardy:3 early:5 history:9 legendary:1 origin:4 paul:8 deacon:6 primary:2 source:5 study:2 full:2 account:2 practice:1 historia:3 gentis:8 langobardorum:8 write:4 century:28 chief:4 however:9 origo:3 tell:1 story:2 small:5 tribe:11 call:9 winnili:10 priester:12 old:9 winnan:1 mean:6 fight:6 win:1 dwell:4 southern:11 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3,812 | Acute_disseminated_encephalomyelitis | Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) is an immune mediated disease of the brain. It usually occurs following a viral infection but may appear following vaccination, bacterial or parasitic infection, or even appear spontaneously. As it involves autoimmune demyelination, it is similar to multiple sclerosis, and is considered part of the Multiple sclerosis borderline diseases. The incidence rate is about 0.8 per 100,000 people per year. . Although it occurs in all ages, most reported cases are in children and adolescents, with the average age around 5 to 8 years old. The mortality rate may be as high as 5%, full recovery is seen in 50 to 75% of cases, while up to 70 to 90% recover with some minor residual disability. The average time to recover is one to six months. ADEM produces multiple inflammatory lesions in the brain and spinal cord, particularly in the white matter. Usually these are found in the subcortical and central white matter and cortical gray-white junction of both cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord, but periventricular white matter and gray matter of the cortex, thalami and basal ganglia may also be involved. When the patient suffers more than one demyelinating episode, it is called Recurrent disseminated encephalomyelitis or Multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis (MDEM). Causes, Antecedent History Viral infections thought to induce ADEM include influenza virus, enterovirus, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella zoster, Epstein Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, hepatitis A, and coxsackievirus; while the bacterial infections include Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Borrelia burgdorferi, Leptospira, and beta-hemolytic Streptococci. The only vaccine proven to induce ADEM is the Semple form of the rabies vaccine, but hepatitis B, pertussis, diphtheria, measles, mumps, rubella, pneumococcus, varicella, influenza, Japanese encephalitis, and polio vaccines have all been implicated. In rare cases, ADEM seems to follow from organ transplantation. The risk of ADEM from measles vaccination is about 1 to 2 per million, which is far lower than the risk of developing ADEM from an actual measles infection, which is about 1 per 1000 for measles (and 1 per 5000 for rubella). Measles infection also appears to lead to worse ADEM outcomes than cases associated with measles immunization. Some vaccines, later shown to have been contaminated with host animal CNS tissue, have ADEM incident rates as high as 1 in 600. Presentation ADEM has an abrupt onset and a monophasic course. Symptoms usually begin 1–3 weeks after infection or vaccination. Major symptoms include fever, headache, drowsiness, seizures and coma. Although initially the symptoms are usually mild, they worsen rapidly over the course of hours to days, with the average time to maximum severity being about four and a half days. Treatment No controlled clinical trials have been conducted on ADEM treatment, but aggressive treatment aimed at rapidly reducing inflammation of the CNS is standard. The widely accepted first-line treatment is high doses of intravenous corticosteroids, such as methylprednisolone or dexamethasone, followed by 3-6 weeks of gradually lower oral doses of prednisolone. Patients treated with methylprednisolone have shown better outcomes than those treated with dexamethasone. Oral tapers of less than three weeks duration show a higher chance of relapsing, and tend to show poorer outcomes. Other antiinflamatory and immunosuppressive therapies have been reported to show beneficial effect, such as plasmapheresis, high doses of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg), mitoxantrone and cyclophosphamide. These are considered alternative therapies, used when corticosteroids cannot be used, or fail to show an effect. There is some evidence to suggest that patients may respond to a combination of methylprednisolone and immunoglobulins if they fail to respond to either separately In a study of 16 children with ADEM, 10 recovered completely after high-dose methylprednisolone, one severe case that failed to respond to steroids recovered completely after IVIg; the five most severe cases -with ADAM and severe peripheral neuropathy- were treated with combined high-dose methylprednisolone and immunoglobulin, two remained paraplegic, one had motor and cognitive handicaps, and two recovered. A recent review of IVIg treatment of ADEM (of which the previous study formed the bulk of the cases) found that 70% of children showed complete recovery after treatment with IVIg, or IVIg plus corticosteroids. A study of IVIg treatment in adults with ADEM showed that IVIg seems more effective in treating sensory and motor disturbances, while steroids seem more effective in treating impairments of cognition, consciousness and rigor. This same study found one subject, a 71 year old man who had not responded to steroids, that responded to a IVIg treatment 58 days after disease onset. Prognosis Full recovery is seen in 50 to 75% of cases, ranging to 70 to 90% recovery with some minor residual disability (typically assessed using measures such as mRS or EDSS), average time to recover is one to six months. The mortality rate may be as high as 5%. Poorer outcomes are associated with unresponsiveness to steroid therapy, unusually severe neurological symptoms, or sudden onset. Children tend to have more favorable outcomes than adults, and cases presenting without fevers tend to have poorer outcomes. The latter effect may be due to either protective effects of fever, or that diagnosis and treatment is sought more rapidly when fever is present. Motor deficits Residual motor deficits are estimated to remain in about 8 to 30% of cases, the range in severity from mild clumsiness to ataxia and hemiparesis. Neurocognitive Patients with demylinating illnesses, such as MS, have shown cognitive deficits even when there is minimal physical disability. Research suggests that similar effects are seen after ADEM, but that the deficits are less severe than those seen in MS. A study of six children with ADEM (mean age at presentation 7.7 years) were tested for a range of neurocognitive tests after an average of 3.5 years of recovery. All six children performed in the normal range on most tests, including verbal IQ and performance IQ, but performed at least one standard deviation below age norms in at least one cognitive domain, such as complex attention (one child), short-term memory (one child) and internalizing behaviour/affect (two children). Group means for each cognitive domain were all within one standard deviation of age norms, demonstrating that, as a group, they were normal. These deficits were less severe than those seen in similar aged children with a diagnosis of MS. Another study compared nineteen children with a history of ADEM, of which 10 were five years of age or younger at the time (average age 3.8 years old, tested an average of 3.9 years later) and nine were older (mean age 7.7y at time of ADEM, tested an average of 2.2 years later) to nineteen matched controls. Scores on IQ tests and educational achievement were lower for the young onset ADEM group (average IQ 90) compared to the late onset (average IQ 100) and control groups (average IQ 106), while the late onset ADEM children scored lower on verbal processing speed. Again, all groups means were within one standard deviation of the controls, meaning that while effects were statistically reliable, the children were as a whole, still within the normal range. There were also more behavioural problems in the early onset group, although there is some suggestion that this may be due, at least in part, to the stress of hospitalization at a young age. ADEM & MS While ADEM and MS both involve autoimmune demylenation, they differ in many clinical, genetic, imaging, and histopathological differences. Some authors consider MS and its borderline forms to constitute a spectrum, differing only in chronocity, severity, and clinical course, Weinshenker B, Miller D. (1999). Multiple sclerosis: one disease or many? In: Siva A, Kesselring J, Thompson A, eds. Frontiers in multiple sclerosis. London: Dunitz, p37-46. while others consider them discretely different diseases. Acute Hemorrhagic Leukoencephalitis Acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis (AHL, or AHLE) or Acute necrotizing encephalopathy (ANE), Acute hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis (AHEM), Acute necrotizing hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis (ANHLE), Weston-Hurst syndrome, or Hurst's disease, is a hyperacute and frequently fatal form of ADEM. AHL is relatively rare (less than 100 cases have been reported in the medical literature as of 2006 ), it is seen in about 2% of ADEM cases, and is characterized by necrotizing vasculitis of venules and hemorrhage, and edema, death is common in the first week with mortality rate of about 70%, but increasing evidence points to favorable outcomes after aggressive treatment with corticosteroids, immunoglobulins, cyclophosphamide, and plasma exchange. About 70% of survivors show residual neurological deficits, but some survivors have shown surprisingly little deficit considering the magnitude of the white matter affected. Experimental Allergic Encephalomyelitis Experimental Allergic Encephalomyelitis (EAE) is an animal model of CNS inflammation and demyelination frequently used to investigate potential MS treatments. An acute monophasic illness, EAE is far more similar to ADEM than MS. See also Optic neuritis Transverse myelitis References External links Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis (ADEM) at myelitis.org | Acute_disseminated_encephalomyelitis |@lemmatized acute:8 disseminate:4 encephalomyelitis:7 adem:26 immune:1 mediated:1 disease:6 brain:2 usually:4 occur:2 follow:4 viral:2 infection:7 may:7 appear:3 vaccination:3 bacterial:2 parasitic:1 even:2 spontaneously:1 involve:3 autoimmune:2 demyelination:2 similar:4 multiple:5 sclerosis:4 consider:5 part:2 borderline:2 incidence:1 rate:5 per:5 people:1 year:9 although:3 age:10 report:3 case:12 child:13 adolescent:1 average:11 around:1 old:4 mortality:3 high:8 full:2 recovery:5 see:7 recover:6 minor:2 residual:4 disability:3 time:5 one:13 six:4 month:2 produce:1 inflammatory:1 lesion:1 spinal:2 cord:2 particularly:1 white:5 matter:5 find:3 subcortical:1 central:1 cortical:1 gray:2 junction:1 cerebral:1 hemisphere:1 cerebellum:1 brainstem:1 periventricular:1 cortex:1 thalamus:1 basal:1 ganglion:1 also:4 patient:4 suffer:1 demyelinate:1 episode:1 call:1 recurrent:1 multiphasic:1 mdem:1 cause:1 antecedent:1 history:2 think:1 induce:2 include:4 influenza:2 virus:3 enterovirus:1 measles:7 mumps:2 rubella:3 varicella:2 zoster:1 epstein:1 barr:1 cytomegalovirus:1 herpes:1 simplex:1 hepatitis:2 coxsackievirus:1 mycoplasma:1 pneumoniae:1 borrelia:1 burgdorferi:1 leptospira:1 beta:1 hemolytic:1 streptococci:1 vaccine:4 prove:1 semple:1 form:4 rabies:1 b:2 pertussis:1 diphtheria:1 pneumococcus:1 japanese:1 encephalitis:1 polio:1 implicate:1 rare:2 seem:3 organ:1 transplantation:1 risk:2 million:1 far:2 low:4 develop:1 actual:1 lead:1 worse:1 outcome:7 associate:2 immunization:1 later:3 show:11 contaminate:1 host:1 animal:2 cns:3 tissue:1 incident:1 presentation:2 abrupt:1 onset:7 monophasic:2 course:3 symptom:4 begin:1 week:4 major:1 fever:4 headache:1 drowsiness:1 seizure:1 coma:1 initially:1 mild:2 worsen:1 rapidly:3 hour:1 day:3 maximum:1 severity:3 four:1 half:1 treatment:11 controlled:1 clinical:3 trial:1 conduct:1 aggressive:2 aim:1 reduce:1 inflammation:2 standard:4 widely:1 accept:1 first:2 line:1 dos:3 intravenous:2 corticosteroid:4 methylprednisolone:5 dexamethasone:2 gradually:1 oral:2 prednisolone:1 treat:5 well:1 taper:1 less:4 three:1 duration:1 chance:1 relapse:1 tend:3 poor:3 antiinflamatory:1 immunosuppressive:1 therapy:3 beneficial:1 effect:6 plasmapheresis:1 immunoglobulin:4 ivig:8 mitoxantrone:1 cyclophosphamide:2 alternative:1 use:4 cannot:1 fail:3 evidence:2 suggest:2 respond:5 combination:1 either:2 separately:1 study:6 completely:2 dose:2 severe:6 steroids:1 five:2 adam:1 peripheral:1 neuropathy:1 combined:1 two:3 remain:2 paraplegic:1 motor:4 cognitive:4 handicap:1 recent:1 review:1 previous:1 bulk:1 complete:1 plus:1 adult:2 effective:2 sensory:1 disturbance:1 steroid:3 impairment:1 cognition:1 consciousness:1 rigor:1 subject:1 man:1 prognosis:1 range:5 typically:1 assess:1 measure:1 mr:1 edss:1 unresponsiveness:1 unusually:1 neurological:2 sudden:1 favorable:2 present:2 without:1 latter:1 due:2 protective:1 diagnosis:2 seek:1 deficit:7 estimate:1 clumsiness:1 ataxia:1 hemiparesis:1 neurocognitive:2 demylinating:1 illness:2 minimal:1 physical:1 research:1 mean:5 test:6 perform:2 normal:3 verbal:2 iq:6 performance:1 least:3 deviation:3 norm:2 domain:2 complex:1 attention:1 short:1 term:1 memory:1 internalize:1 behaviour:1 affect:2 group:6 within:3 demonstrate:1 another:1 compare:2 nineteen:2 young:3 nine:1 matched:1 control:3 score:2 educational:1 achievement:1 late:2 processing:1 speed:1 statistically:1 reliable:1 whole:1 still:1 behavioural:1 problem:1 early:1 suggestion:1 stress:1 hospitalization:1 ms:1 demylenation:1 differ:2 many:2 genetic:1 imaging:1 histopathological:1 difference:1 author:1 constitute:1 spectrum:1 chronocity:1 weinshenker:1 miller:1 siva:1 kesselring:1 j:1 thompson:1 ed:1 frontier:1 london:1 dunitz:1 others:1 discretely:1 different:1 hemorrhagic:4 leukoencephalitis:3 ahl:2 ahle:1 necrotizing:3 encephalopathy:1 ane:1 ahem:1 anhle:1 weston:1 hurst:2 syndrome:1 hyperacute:1 frequently:2 fatal:1 relatively:1 medical:1 literature:1 characterize:1 vasculitis:1 venule:1 hemorrhage:1 edema:1 death:1 common:1 increase:1 point:1 plasma:1 exchange:1 survivor:2 surprisingly:1 little:1 magnitude:1 experimental:2 allergic:2 eae:2 model:1 investigate:1 potential:1 optic:1 neuritis:1 transverse:1 myelitis:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 org:1 |@bigram disseminate_encephalomyelitis:4 viral_infection:2 multiple_sclerosis:4 child_adolescent:1 mortality_rate:3 brain_spinal:1 spinal_cord:2 cerebral_hemisphere:1 basal_ganglion:1 influenza_virus:1 epstein_barr:1 barr_virus:1 herpes_simplex:1 bacterial_infection:1 organ_transplantation:1 clinical_trial:1 peripheral_neuropathy:1 neurological_deficit:1 external_link:1 |
3,813 | Operating_system_advocacy | Operating system advocacy is the practice of attempting to increase the awareness and improve the perception of a computer operating system. The motivation behind this may be to increase the number of users of a system, to assert the superiority of one choice over another or out of brand loyalty, pride in an operating system's abilities, or to persuade software vendors to port specific applications or device drivers to the platform. Operating system advocacy can vary widely in tone and form, from published comparisons to heated debates on mailing lists and other forums. In its most extreme forms it can veer into zealotry. Advocates are often normal users who devote their spare time to advocacy of their operating system of choice; many have a deep and abiding interest in the use, design and construction of operating systems and an emotional investment in their favourite operating system. Operating system advocacy can be compared to advocacy in other fields, particularly browser and editor wars, but also advocacy of programming languages and video game consoles. Usenet and other advocacy forums Due to the often emotional nature of advocacy debate and its sometimes narrow appeal to the wider user population, forums for discussion of advocacy are often separate from those for general discussion. For example, the comp.os.ms-windows Usenet hierarchy has a group reserved solely for advocacy—the Guide to the Windows newsgroups exhorts Usenet posters not to "get involved in arguments about Windows vs. OS/2 vs. Macintosh vs. NeXTSTEP except in the comp.os.ms-windows.advocacy group." Operating system advocacy discussions, on Usenet and elsewhere, have spawned a variety of jargon describing commonly seen behaviour, including "MicroDroid" MicroDroid and "Amiga Persecution Complex". Amiga Persecution Complex The emotional form and negative characteristics often associated with operating system advocacy have led some to create guidelines explaining what they consider to be positive advocacy, such as the Linux Advocacy Guidelines Home | Linux Journal and the Guidelines for Effective OS/2 Advocacy. Guidelines for Effective OS/2 Advocacy Advocacy and specific operating systems FreeBSD FreeBSD is served by a mailing list specifically for advocacy discussion, archived here. Advocacy-related materials and links can be found at the FreeBSD website, including a page of logo images. Linux As there are a large number of Linux distributions, there are many organizations involved in Linux advocacy, including companies directly involved in the development of distributions as well as purely advocacy-based groups, such as SEUL. Promotion takes on a wide variety of forms from plush toys to t-shirts and posters, and even to more unorthodox forms, such as body paints and video games. Mac OS X From the 1984 Super Bowl advertisement and "Test Drive a Macintosh" to the Apple Switch and Get a Mac advertising campaigns, Apple Computer has a long history of advocating its platform through innovative techniques in traditional mediums. This also covers advocacy of the Macintosh hardware, peripherals and even lifestyle choices, with both fans and the company projecting a hip and trendy image while negatively portraying Microsoft Windows, IBM or other competitors as anything from awkward and dated to a totalitarian Big Brother figure. Microsoft Windows Neowin.net is a recent attempt in Windows and Microsoft advocacy, concentrating a community of fans of Microsoft products. The site also wrote editorials opposing Windows bashing in the media. Neowin.net - Why Vista Will Not Be The Last OS Microsoft Makes NetBSD Like FreeBSD, the NetBSD Foundation hosts a mailing list especially for advocacy. This mailing list is automatically archived and made accessible online. The mailing list archives are here They also provide some official advocacy material, such as posters and flyers and an official "powered by" logo The advocacy page is here and the logo here. with a license permitting use on any product running NetBSD. OpenBSD The OpenBSD logo. Like FreeBSD and NetBSD, the OpenBSD project provides a mailing list specifically intended for advocacy, [email protected]. It was created on July 21, 1998 for discussion of user groups, stickers, shirts and the promotion of OpenBSD's image and also to host all flame-worthy discussions. As a part of its advocacy, the project also maintains a list of consulting firms and individual consultants around the world on its website OpenBSD Support and Consulting and has produced a number of slogans, including "Free, Functional & Secure", "Secure by default", and "Power. Security. Flexibility." Each OpenBSD release features an original song OpenBSD release song lyrics and a variety of artwork OpenBSD Art . OS/2 OS/2 is the only operating system which saw the creation of a semi-formal advocates organization. Named Team OS/2, it was a grassroots organization conceived by an IBM employee and initially joined by other IBMers which quickly spread outside IBM. Whether IBM employees or not, Team OS/2 members initially volunteered their time and passion without official sanction from or connection to IBM. Members would promote OS/2 at trade shows, conferences, fairs, and in stores, participate in operating system discussions on CompuServe, Prodigy, Fidonet and Usenet, throw parties, help users install OS/2, contact media figures to explain OS/2 and generate interest, and in general exercise creativity and initiative in helping popularize OS/2. The industry dynamics that gave rise to such passionate advocacy were multi-faceted. Perhaps the leading cause was antipathy for the idea that Microsoft could and would establish a monopoly for Windows and DOS, widely deemed as far inferior to OS/2. Additionally, many users feared that IBM, who had proven eminently capable of developing a superior PC operating system, knew very little about consumer marketing in the high-tech marketplace or establishing even a superior product as a standard in the cut-throat, get-there-first-at-any-cost arena dominated by Microsoft. Finally, the mere fact that so many copies of Windows were shipping to users (whom OS/2 advocates viewed as uncritical and uninformed), coupled with the fact that so many in the industry had so much riding on the success of OS/2, created conditions ripe for so many trying to take matters into their own hands. The only spark that was needed for this combustible situation to ignite was an example of evangelism provided by the "new IBM" - a few employees who took "empowerment" seriously, able to coordinate their efforts through participation in TEAMOS2 FORUM, an internal IBM discussion group) - and passionate supporters outside IBM who adopted the ideas and modeled the behaviors of those who early activists within IBM. See also Apple evangelist Comparison of Linux distributions Comparison of operating systems Computer zealotry OS-tan Security-evaluated operating systems Security focused operating systems Software wars Technical evangelist XvsXP Linux adoption References External links Writing On Your Palm: Ford vs Chevy Mac, Windows War Ends in Truce Mac vs. Windows Computing's Holy War A simple argument for the Mac "Should I Buy OS/2 Warp?" "Why Linux?" Linux advocacy documents team? MacInSchool's list of Mac advocacy articles A site dedicated to showing why people use certain OSes | Operating_system_advocacy |@lemmatized operating:9 system:18 advocacy:33 practice:1 attempt:2 increase:2 awareness:1 improve:1 perception:1 computer:3 operate:8 motivation:1 behind:1 may:1 number:3 user:7 assert:1 superiority:1 one:1 choice:3 another:1 brand:1 loyalty:1 pride:1 ability:1 persuade:1 software:2 vendor:1 port:1 specific:2 application:1 device:1 driver:1 platform:2 vary:1 widely:2 tone:1 form:5 publish:1 comparison:3 heat:1 debate:2 mailing:6 list:8 forum:4 extreme:1 veer:1 zealotry:2 advocate:4 often:4 normal:1 devote:1 spare:1 time:2 many:6 deep:1 abiding:1 interest:2 use:3 design:1 construction:1 emotional:3 investment:1 favourite:1 compare:1 field:1 particularly:1 browser:1 editor:1 war:4 also:7 program:1 language:1 video:2 game:2 console:1 usenet:5 due:1 nature:1 sometimes:1 narrow:1 appeal:1 wider:1 population:1 discussion:8 separate:1 general:2 example:2 comp:2 window:10 hierarchy:1 group:5 reserve:1 solely:1 guide:1 newsgroups:1 exhorts:1 poster:3 get:3 involve:3 argument:2 v:4 os:13 macintosh:3 nextstep:1 except:1 elsewhere:1 spawn:1 variety:3 jargon:1 describe:1 commonly:1 see:2 behaviour:1 include:4 microdroid:2 amiga:2 persecution:2 complex:2 negative:1 characteristic:1 associate:1 lead:2 create:3 guideline:4 explain:2 consider:1 positive:1 linux:9 home:1 journal:1 effective:2 freebsd:5 serve:1 specifically:2 archive:3 related:1 material:2 link:2 find:1 website:2 page:2 logo:4 image:3 large:1 distribution:3 organization:3 company:2 directly:1 development:1 well:1 purely:1 base:1 seul:1 promotion:2 take:3 wide:1 plush:1 toy:1 shirt:2 even:3 unorthodox:1 body:1 paint:1 mac:6 x:1 super:1 bowl:1 advertisement:1 test:1 drive:1 apple:3 switch:1 advertising:1 campaign:1 long:1 history:1 innovative:1 technique:1 traditional:1 medium:3 cover:1 hardware:1 peripheral:1 lifestyle:1 fan:2 project:3 hip:1 trendy:1 negatively:1 portray:1 microsoft:7 ibm:10 competitor:1 anything:1 awkward:1 date:1 totalitarian:1 big:1 brother:1 figure:2 neowin:2 net:2 recent:1 concentrate:1 community:1 product:3 site:2 write:2 editorial:1 oppose:1 bash:1 vista:1 last:1 make:2 netbsd:4 like:2 foundation:1 host:2 especially:1 automatically:1 accessible:1 online:1 provide:3 official:3 flyer:1 power:2 license:1 permit:1 run:1 openbsd:9 intend:1 org:1 july:1 sticker:1 flame:1 worthy:1 part:1 maintain:1 consult:1 firm:1 individual:1 consultant:1 around:1 world:1 support:1 consulting:1 produce:1 slogan:1 free:1 functional:1 secure:2 default:1 security:3 flexibility:1 release:2 feature:1 original:1 song:2 lyric:1 artwork:1 art:1 saw:1 creation:1 semi:1 formal:1 name:1 team:3 grassroots:1 conceive:1 employee:3 initially:2 join:1 ibmers:1 quickly:1 spread:1 outside:2 whether:1 member:2 volunteer:1 passion:1 without:1 sanction:1 connection:1 would:2 promote:1 trade:1 show:2 conference:1 fair:1 store:1 participate:1 compuserve:1 prodigy:1 fidonet:1 throw:1 party:1 help:2 install:1 contact:1 generate:1 exercise:1 creativity:1 initiative:1 popularize:1 industry:2 dynamic:1 give:1 rise:1 passionate:2 multi:1 faceted:1 perhaps:1 cause:1 antipathy:1 idea:2 could:1 establish:2 monopoly:1 deem:1 far:1 inferior:1 additionally:1 fear:1 prove:1 eminently:1 capable:1 develop:1 superior:2 pc:1 know:1 little:1 consumer:1 marketing:1 high:1 tech:1 marketplace:1 standard:1 cut:1 throat:1 first:1 cost:1 arena:1 dominate:1 finally:1 mere:1 fact:2 copy:1 ship:1 view:1 uncritical:1 uninformed:1 couple:1 much:1 riding:1 success:1 condition:1 ripe:1 try:1 matter:1 hand:1 spark:1 need:1 combustible:1 situation:1 ignite:1 evangelism:1 new:1 empowerment:1 seriously:1 able:1 coordinate:1 effort:1 participation:1 internal:1 supporter:1 adopt:1 model:1 behavior:1 early:1 activist:1 within:1 evangelist:2 tan:1 evaluate:1 focus:1 technical:1 xvsxp:1 adoption:1 reference:1 external:1 palm:1 ford:1 vs:1 chevy:1 windows:2 end:1 truce:1 compute:1 holy:1 simple:1 buy:1 warp:1 document:1 macinschool:1 article:1 dedicate:1 people:1 certain:1 |@bigram mailing_list:6 mac_os:1 super_bowl:1 microsoft_window:2 freebsd_netbsd:2 netbsd_openbsd:2 multi_faceted:1 external_link:1 os_warp:1 |
3,814 | Kinsey_Reports | The 1948 first edition of Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, the first of the two Kinsey reports. The Kinsey Reports are two books on human sexual behavior, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953), by Dr. Alfred Kinsey, Wardell Pomeroy and others. Kinsey was a zoologist at Indiana University and the founder of the Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender and Reproduction, more widely known as the Kinsey Institute. The research astounded the general public and was immediately controversial and sensational. The findings caused shock and outrage, both because they challenged conventional beliefs about sexuality and because they discussed subjects that had previously been taboo. Critics have stated that some of the data in the reports could not have been obtained without observation or participation in child sexual abuse, or through collaborations with child molesters. The Kinsey Institute denies this charge, though it acknowledges that Kinsey interviewed men who had sexual experiences with children, and some former and current directors of the Institute described those men as "pedophiles". Findings Sexual orientation Parts of the Kinsey Reports regarding diversity in sexual orientations are frequently used to support the common estimate of 10% for homosexuality in the general population. However, the findings are not as absolute, and Kinsey himself avoided and disapproved of using terms like homosexual or heterosexual to describe individuals, asserting that sexuality is prone to change over time, and that sexual behavior can be understood both as physical contact as well as purely psychological phenomena (desire, sexual attraction, fantasy). Instead of three categories (heterosexual, bisexual and homosexual), a seven-category system was used. The Kinsey scale ranked sexual behavior from 0 to 6, with 0 being completely heterosexual and 6 completely homosexual. A 0 was considered to be strictly heterosexual, a 1 mostly heterosexual, a 2 more than incidentally homosexual, a 3 equally homosexual and heterosexual, a 4 homosexual but more than incidentally heterosexual, and so on. An additional category, X, was mentioned to describe asexuals, those who experienced no sexual desire. (Kinsey Male volume, page 640, table 141) The reports also state that nearly 46% of the male subjects had "reacted" sexually to persons of both sexes in the course of their adult lives, and 37% had at least one homosexual experience. Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, p. 656 11.6% of white males (ages 20-35) were given a rating of 3 (about equal heterosexual and homosexual experience/response) throughout their adult lives. Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, Table 147, p. 651 The study also reported that 10% of American males surveyed were "more or less exclusively homosexual for at least three years between the ages of 16 and 55" (in the 5 to 6 range). Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, p. 651 7% of single females (ages 20-35) and 4% of previously married females (ages 20-35) were given a rating of 3 (about equal heterosexual and homosexual experience/response) on the 7-point Kinsey Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale for this period of their lives. Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, Table 142, p. 499 2 to 6% of females, aged 20-35, were more or less exclusively homosexual in experience/response, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, p. 488 and 1 to 3% of unmarried females aged 20-35 were exclusively homosexual in experience/response. Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, Table 142, p. 499, and p. 474 Kinsey Scale The Kinsey scale attempts to describe a person's sexual history or episodes of their sexual activity at a given time. It uses a scale from 0, meaning exclusively heterosexual, to 6, meaning exclusively homosexual. In the Kinsey Reports, an additional grade (X) was used for asexuality. It was first published in Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) by Alfred Kinsey, Wardell Pomeroy and others, and was also prominent in the complementary work Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953). Introducing the scale, Kinsey wrote: The scale is as follows: RatingDescription0Exclusively heterosexual1Predominantly heterosexual, only incidentally homosexual2Predominantly heterosexual, but more than incidentally homosexual3Equally heterosexual and homosexual4Predominantly homosexual, but more than incidentally heterosexual5Predominantly homosexual, only incidentally heterosexual6Exclusively homosexual Men: 11.6% of white males aged 20-35 were given a rating of 3 for this period of their lives. Kinsey, et al. 1948. Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, Table 147, p. 651 Women: 7% of single females aged 20-35 and 4% of previously married females aged 20-35 were given a rating of 3 for this period of their lives. Kinsey, et al. 1953. Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, Table 142, p. 499 2 to 6% of females, aged 20-35, were given a rating of 5 Ibid, p. 488 and 1 to 3% of unmarried females aged 20-35 were rated as 6. Ibid, Table 142, p. 499, and p. 474 Marital coitus The average frequency of marital sex reported by women was 2.8 times a week, in late teens; 2.2 times a week, by age 30; and 1.0 times a week, by age 50. Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, p. 348-349, 351. Extra-marital sex Kinsey estimated that approximately 50% of all married males had some extramarital experience at some time during their married lives. Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, pp. 585, 587 Among the sample, 26% of females had extramarital sex by their forties. Between 1 in 6 and 1 in 10 females from age 26 to 50 were engaged in extramarital sex. Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, p. 416 However, Kinsey classified couples who have lived together for at least a year as "married", inflating the statistics for extra-marital sex. Kinsey, Alfred. Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, p. 53. Jones, James H. (1997). Alfred C. Kinsey: A Public/Private Life. New York: Norton. Sadomasochism 12% of females and 22% of males reported having an erotic response to a sadomasochistic story. Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, pp. 677-678 Methodology Data was gathered primarily by means of interviews, which were encoded to maintain confidentiality. Other data sources included the diaries of convicted child molesters. The data were later computerized for processing. All of this material, including the original researchers' notes, remains available from the Kinsey Institute to qualified researchers who demonstrate a need to view such materials. The institute also allows researchers to use statistical software (such as PSPP or SPSS) in order to analyze the data. Subject matter of the report led itself to sensationalism. Based on his data and findings, others claimed that 10% of the population is homosexual, and that women enhance their prospects of satisfaction in marriage by masturbating previously. Neither claim was made by Kinsey. Criticism Objections on moral grounds The books have been widely criticized by conservatives as promoting degeneracy. Sexual Behavior in the Human Male has been on two conservative lists of the worst books of modern times. It was #3 on the conservative Intercollegiate Studies Institute's 50 Worst Books of the Twentieth Century and #4 on a conservative website with modest web-traffic Human Events' Ten Most Harmful Books of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Objections to methodology In addition to moral objections, academic criticisms pertain to sample selection and sample bias. Two main problems identified were that (1) significant portions of the samples come from prison populations and male prostitutes, and that (2) people who volunteer to be interviewed about taboo subject are likely to suffer from the problem of self-selection, both of which undermine the usefulness of the sample in terms of determining the tendencies of the overall population. In 1948, the same year as the original publication, a committee of the American Statistical Association, including notable statisticians such as John Tukey, condemned the sampling procedure. Tukey was perhaps the most vocal critic, saying, "A random selection of three people would have been better than a group of 300 chosen by Mr. Kinsey." http://www.swlearning.com/quant/kohler/stat/biographical_sketches/bio15.1.html John Tukey criticizes sample procedure Criticism principally revolved around the over-representation of some groups in the sample: 25% were, or had been, prison inmates, and 5% were male prostitutes. But 26% (1,400) of Kinsey's alleged 5,300 white male subjects were already "sex offenders." (Reisman) A related criticism, by some of the leading psychologists of the day, notably Abraham Maslow, was that Kinsey did not consider "volunteer bias". The data represented only those volunteering to participate in discussion of taboo topics. Most Americans were reluctant to discuss the intimate details of their sex lives even with their spouses or close friends. Before the publication of Kinsey's reports, Dr. Maslow tested Kinsey's volunteers for bias. He concluded that Kinsey's sample was unrepresentative of the general population. Maslow, A. H., and Sakoda, J. (1952). Volunteer error in the Kinsey study, Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1952 Apr;47(2):259-62. In a response to these criticisms, Paul Gebhard, Kinsey's successor as director of the Kinsey Institute for Sex Research, spent years "cleaning" the Kinsey data of purported contaminants, removing, for example, all material derived from prison populations in the basic sample. In 1979, Gebhard (with Alan B. Johnson) published The Kinsey Data: Marginal Tabulations of the 1938–1963 Interviews Conducted by the Institute for Sex Research. Their conclusion, to Gebhard's surprise he claimed, was that none of Kinsey's original estimates were significantly affected by this bias: that is, prison population, male prostitutes, and those who willingly participated in discussion of previously taboo sexual topics had the same statistical tendency. The results were summarized by historian, playwright, and gay-rights activist Martin Duberman: Instead of Kinsey's 37% (men who had at least one homosexual experience), Gebhard and Johnson came up with 36.4%; the 10% figure (men who were "more or less exclusively homosexual for at least three years between the ages of 16 and 55"), with prison inmates excluded, came to 9.9% for white, college-educated males and 12.7% for those with less education. http://www.kinseyinstitute.org/publications/duberman.html Martin Duberman on Gebhart's "cleaning" of data Other attacks have centered on the sex life and motives of Alfred Kinsey himself. James H. Jones's biography, Alfred C. Kinsey: A Public/Private Life, describes Kinsey as bisexual and experimenting in masochism. He encouraged group sex involving his graduate students, wife and staff. Kinsey filmed sexual acts in the attic of his home as part of his research. Biographer Jonathan Gathorne-Hardy explained that using Kinsey's home for the filming of sexual acts was done to ensure the films' secrecy, which would certainly have caused a scandal had the public become aware of them. The Kinsey Institute - [Publications] The Kinsey Institute - [Publications] James H. Jones further wrote that Kinsey's appetite for unconventional sex and his disdain for conventional sexual morality, drove Kinsey's agenda to strip sexuality of guilt and to undermine traditional sexual morality. Critics contend that Kinsey allowed his agenda to bias his work. Reisman, Judith (2006). Kinsey's Attic: The Shocking Story of How One Man's Sexual Pathology Changed the World. WND Books. They point to Kinsey's over-representation of prisoners and prostitutes and his classification of couples who have lived together for at least a year as "married". Kinsey, Alfred. Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, p. 53. Jones, James H. (1997). Alfred C. Kinsey: A Public/Private Life. New York: Norton. Organized opposition Some fundamentalist groups including RSVPAmerica, headed by Dr. Judith A. Reisman, and the Family Research Council have stated that they aim to discredit the Kinsey Reports. These groups often accuse Kinsey's work of promoting unhealthy sexual practices or morals. RSVPAmerica advertises publications such as Kinsey: Crimes & Consequences and Kinsey, Sex and Fraud: The Indoctrination of a People, both by Reisman, and the video "The Children of Table 34", funded by the Family Research Council. The campaign website states that the video "presents the story of Dr. Reisman's discovery of Dr. Alfred Kinsey's systematic sexual abuse of 317 male children." In its 1998 response to the core allegations made by Reisman, Kinsey Institute director John Bancroft stated that the data on children in tables 31–34 of Kinsey's Sexual Behavior of the Human Male came largely from the journal of one adult pedophile, who had illegal sexual interaction with these children. The man's journal started in 1917, long before the Kinsey Reports. Bancroft further stated that Kinsey explicitly pointed out the illegality of the man's actions, but that he granted his source anonymity. In addition, Bancroft reiterated the Kinsey Institute's claim that Kinsey never had any sexual interaction with children, nor did he employ others to do so, and that he interviewed children in the presence of their parents. http://www.kinseyinstitute.org/about/cont-akchild.html Kinsey Institute director denies allegations by Reisman Child sexual response experiments In the Kinsey Reports are data concerning pre-adolescent orgasms. Particularly controversial are tables 30 through 34 of the male volume, which report observations of orgasms in over three-hundred children between the ages of five months and fourteen years. For example, table 34 is, "Examples of multiple orgasm in pre-adolescent males. Some instances of higher frequencies." A typical entry indicates that a certain 7 year-old had seven orgasms in a three hour time period. Kinsey's critics state that data such as these could have only been obtained by direct observation of or participation in child abuse. In particular they point to the information given in table 32, "Speed of pre-adolescent orgasm; Duration of stimulation before climax; Observations timed with second hand or stop watch," and say that the only way such precise data could have been collected was through cooperation with child molesters. The Kinsey Institute states on its website, "[Kinsey] did not carry out experiments on children; he did not hire, collaborate, or persuade people to carry out experiments on children." and that "The bulk of this information was obtained from adults recalling their own childhoods. Some was from parents who had observed their children, some from teachers who had observed children interacting or behaving sexually, and Kinsey stated that there were nine men who he had interviewed who had sexual experiences with children who had told him about how the children had responded and reacted. We believe that one of those men was the source of the data listed in the book." http://www.kinseyinstitute.org/about/controversy%202.htm Kinsey Institute statement denies child abuse in study Former and current directors of The Kinsey Institute confirmed that some of the information was gathered from nine pedophiles and that Kinsey chose not to report the pedophiles to the authorities, balancing what Kinsey saw as the need for their anonymity against the likelihood that their crimes would continue. Context and significance The Kinsey Reports, which together sold three-quarters of a million copies and were translated in thirteen languages, are arguably the most successful and influential scientific books of the 20th century. The Kinsey Reports are associated with a change in public perception of sexuality. In the 1960s, following the introduction of the first oral contraceptive, this change was to be expressed in the sexual revolution. Also in the 1960s, Masters and Johnson published their investigations into the physiology of sex, breaking taboos and misapprehensions similar to those Kinsey had broken more than a decade earlier in a closely related field. To what extent the Reports produced or promoted this change and to what extent they merely expressed it and reflected the conditions that were producing it is a matter of much debate and speculation. See also Alfred Kinsey Kinsey, the movie based on the life of Alfred Kinsey Kinsey Institute Masters and Johnson Judith Reisman Klein Sexual Orientation Grid External links Kinsey Institute home page Kinsey's Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale References be-x-old:Шкала Кінсі | Kinsey_Reports |@lemmatized first:4 edition:1 sexual:46 behavior:24 human:23 male:25 two:4 kinsey:83 report:19 book:8 female:22 dr:5 alfred:11 wardell:2 pomeroy:2 others:4 zoologist:1 indiana:1 university:1 founder:1 institute:19 research:7 sex:16 gender:1 reproduction:1 widely:2 know:1 astound:1 general:3 public:6 immediately:1 controversial:2 sensational:1 finding:4 cause:2 shock:2 outrage:1 challenge:1 conventional:2 belief:1 sexuality:4 discuss:2 subject:5 previously:5 taboo:5 critic:4 state:9 data:15 could:3 obtain:3 without:1 observation:4 participation:2 child:21 abuse:4 collaboration:1 molester:3 deny:1 charge:1 though:1 acknowledge:1 interview:6 men:7 experience:10 former:2 current:2 director:5 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3,815 | Bell_Labs | Bell Laboratories at Murray Hill, New Jersey Bell Laboratories (also known as Bell Labs and formerly known as AT&T Bell Laboratories and Bell Telephone Laboratories) is the research organization of Alcatel-Lucent and previously of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T). Bell Laboratories has had its headquarters at Berkeley Heights, New Jersey, and it has research and development facilities throughout the world. Origin and historical locations In 1925 Western Electric Research Laboratories and part of the engineering department of the American Telephone & Telegraph company (AT&T) were consolidated to form Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., as a separate entity. The first president of research was Frank B. Jewett, who stayed there until 1940. The ownership of Bell Laboratories was evenly split between AT&T and the Western Electric Company. Its principal work was to design and support the equipment that Western Electric built for Bell System operating companies, including telephone exchange switches. Support work for the phone companies included the writing and maintaining of the Bell System Practices (BSP), a comprehensive series of technical manuals. Bell Labs also carried out consulting work for the Bell Telephone Companies, and U.S. government work, including Project Nike and the Apollo program. A few workers were assigned to basic research, and this attracted much attention, especially since they produced several Nobel Prize winners. Until the 1940s, the laboratory's principal locations were in and around the Bell Labs Building in New York City, but many of these were moved to the New York suburbs area of New Jersey. Among the later Bell Laboratories locations in New Jersey were Berkeley Heights, New Jersey, Holmdel, New Jersey, Crawford Hill, New Jersey, the Deal Test Site, Freehold, New Jersey, Lincroft, Long Branch, Middletown, Princeton, Piscataway, Red Bank, and Whippany, New Jersey. Of these, Crawford Hill, Murray Hill, and Whippany remain in existence. The largest grouping of people in the company was in Illinois, at Naperville-Lisle, in the Chicago area, which had the largest concentration of employees (about 11,000) prior to 2001. There also were groups of employees in Columbus, Ohio, North Andover, Massachusetts, Allentown, Pennsylvania, Reading, Pennsylvania, and Breinigsville, Pennsylvania, and Westminster, Colorado. Since 2001, many of the former locations have been scaled down, or shut down entirely. Discoveries and Developments Bell Laboratories logo, used from 1969 until 1983 At its peak, Bell Laboratories was the premier facility of its type, developing a wide range of revolutionary technologies, including radio astronomy, the transistor, the laser, information theory, the UNIX operating system, and the C programming language. There have been six Nobel Prizes awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories. List of Awards 1937 Clinton J. Davisson shared the Nobel Prize in Physics for demonstrating the wave nature of matter. 1956 John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, and William Shockley received the Nobel Prize in Physics for inventing the first transistors. 1977 Philip W. Anderson shared the Nobel Prize in Physics for developing an improved understanding of the electronic structure of glass and magnetic materials. 1978 Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson shared the Nobel Prize in Physics. Penzias and Wilson were cited for their discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation, a nearly uniform glow that fills the Universe in the microwave band of the radio spectrum. 1997 Steven Chu shared the Nobel Prize in Physics for developing methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light. 1998 Horst Stormer, Robert Laughlin, and Daniel Tsui, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery and explanation of the fractional quantum Hall effect. 1920s During its first year of operation, facsimile (fax) transmission, invented elsewhere, was first demonstrated publicly by the Bell Laboratories. In 1926, the laboratories invented the first synchronous-sound motion picture system. Encyclopædia Britannica Article In 1924, Bells Labs physicist Dr. Walter A. Shewhart proposed the control chart as a method to determine when a process was in a state of statistical control. Shewart's methods were the basis for statistical process control (SPC) - the use of statistically-based tools and techniques for the management and improvement of processes. This was the origin of the modern quality movement, including the Six Sigma one. In 1927, a long-distance television transmission of images of the Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover from Washington to New York was successful, and in 1928 the thermal noise in a resistor was first measured by John B. Johnson, and Harry Nyquist provided the theoretical analysis. (This is referred to as "Johnson noise".) During the 1920s, the one-time pad cipher was invented by Gilbert Vernam and Joseph Mauborgne at the laboratories. Bell Labs' Claude Shannon later proved that it is unbreakable. 1930s In 1931, a foundation for radio astronomy was laid by Karl Jansky during his work investigating the origins of static on long-distance shortwave communications. He discovered that radio waves were being emitted from the center of the galaxy. In 1933, stereo signals were transmitted live from Philadelphia to Washington, DC. In 1937, the vocoder, the first electronic speech synthesizer was invented and demonstrated by Homer Dudley. Bell researcher Clinton Davisson shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with George Paget Thomson for the discovery of electron diffraction, which helped lay the foundation for solid-state electronics. 1940s The first silicon based transistor was invented at Bell Laboratories in 1947In the early 1940s, the photovoltaic cell was developed by Russell Ohl. In 1943, Bell developed SIGSALY, the first digital scrambled speech transmission system, used by the Allies in World War II. In 1947, the transistor, probably the most important invention developed by Bell Laboratories, was invented by John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain, and William Bradford Shockley (and who subsequently shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956). In 1948, "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", one of the founding works in information theory, was published by Claude Shannon in the Bell System Technical Journal. It built in part on earlier work in the field by Bell researchers Harry Nyquist and Ralph Hartley, but it greatly extended these. Bell Labs also introduced a series of increasingly complex calculators through the decade. Shannon was also the founder of modern cryptography with his 1949 paper Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems. Calculators Model I - A Complex Number Calculator, completed January 1940, for doing calculations of complex numbers. See George Stibitz. Model II - Relay Calculator or Relay Interpolator, September 1943, for aiming anti-aircraft guns Model III - Ballistic Computer, June 1944, for calculations of ballistic trajectories Model IV - Bell Laboratories Relay Calculator, March 1945, a second Ballistic Computer Model V - Bell Laboratories General Purpose Relay Calculator, of which two were built, July 1946 and February 1947, which were general-purpose programmable computers using electromechanical relays Model VI - November 1950, an enhanced Model V 1950s The 1950s saw fewer developments and less activity on the scientific side. Efforts concentrated more precisely on the Laboratories' prime mission of supporting the Bell System with engineering advances including N-carrier, TD Microwave radio relay, Direct Distance Dialing, E-repeaters, Wire spring relays, and improved switching systems. Maurice Karnaugh, in 1953, developed the Karnaugh map as a tool to facilitate management of Boolean algebraic expressions. In 1954, The first photo voltaic was examined at Bell Laboratories. As for the spectacular side of the business, in 1956 TAT-1, the first transatlantic telephone cable was laid between Scotland and Newfoundland, in a joint effort by AT&T, Bell Laboratories, and British and Canadian telephone companies. A year later, in 1957, MUSIC, one of the first computer programs to play electronic music, was created by Max Mathews. New greedy algorithms developed by Robert C. Prim and Joseph Kruskal, revolutionized computer network design. In 1958, the laser was first described, in a technical paper by Arthur Schawlow and Charles Hard Townes. 1960s In 1960, Dawon Kahng and Martin Atalla invented the metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET); the MOSFET has achieved electronic hegemony and sustains the large-scale integrated circuits (LSIs) underlying today's information society. In 1962, the electret microphone was invented by Gerhard M. Sessler and James Edward Maceo West. In 1964, the Carbon dioxide laser was invented by Kumar Patel. In 1965, Penzias and Wilson discovered the Cosmic Microwave Background, and won the Nobel Prize in 1978. In 1966, Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), a key technology in wireless services, was developed and patented by R. W. Chang. In 1968, Molecular beam epitaxy was developed by J.R. Arthur and A.Y. Cho; molecular beam epitaxy allows semiconductor chips and laser matrices to be manufactured one atomic layer at a time. In 1969, the UNIX operating system was created by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson. The Charge-coupled device (CCD) was invented in 1969 by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith. 1970s The C programming language was developed at Bell Laboratories in 1970 The 1970s and 1980s saw more and more computer-related inventions at the Bell Laboratories as part of the personal computing revolution. In 1970 Dennis Ritchie developed the C programming language as a replacement for the interpretive B for use in writing the UNIX operating system (also developed at Bell Laboratories). In 1971, an improved task priority system for computerized switching systems for telephone traffic was invented by Erna Schneider Hoover, who received one of the first software patents for it. In 1976, Fiber optics systems were first tested in Georgia and in 1980, the first single-chip 32-bit microprocessor, the BELLMAC-32A was demonstrated. It went into production in 1982. 1980s Bell Laboratories logo, used from 1984 until 1995 In 1980, the TDMA and CDMA digital cellular telephone technology was patented. In 1982, Fractional quantum Hall effect was discovered by Horst Störmer and former Bell Laboratories researchers Robert B. Laughlin and Daniel C. Tsui; they consequently won a Nobel Prize in 1998 for the discovery. In 1983, the C++ programming language was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup as an extension to the original C programming language also developed at Bell Laboratories. In 1984, the first photoconductive antennas for picosecond electromagnetic radiation were demonstrated by Auston et al. This type of antenna now becomes an important component in terahertz time-domain spectroscopy. In 1984, the Karmarkar Linear Programming Algorithm was developed by mathematician Narendra Karmarkar. Also in 1984, a divestiture agreement with the American Federal government forced the break-up of AT&T: Bellcore (now Telcordia Technologies) was split off from Bell Laboratories to provide the same R&D functions for the newly created local exchange carriers. AT&T also was limited to using the Bell trademark only in association with Bell Laboratories. Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., was then renamed AT&T Bell Laboratories, Inc., and became a wholly owned company of the new AT&T Technologies unit, the former Western Electric. The 5ESS Switch was developed during this transition. In 1985, laser cooling was used to slow and manipulate atoms by Steven Chu and team. Also in 1985, Bell Laboratories was awarded the National Medal of Technology "For contribution over decades to modern communication systems". During the 1980s, the Plan 9 operating system was developed as a replacement for Unix which was also developed at Bell Laboratories in 1969. Development of the Radiodrum, a three dimensional electronic instrument. In 1988, TAT-8 became the first fiber optic transatlantic cable. 1990s Lucent Logo, bearing the "Bell Labs Innovations" tagline In 1990, WaveLAN, the first wireless local area network (WLAN) was developed at Bell Laboratories. Wireless network technology would not become popular until the late 1990s and was first demonstrated in 1995. In 1991, the 56K modem technology was patented by Nuri Dağdeviren and his team. In 1994, the Quantum cascade laser was invented by Federico Capasso, Alfred Cho, Jerome Faist and their collaborators and was later greatly improved by the innovations of Claire Gmachl. Also in 1994, Peter Shor devised his quantum factorization algorithm. In 1996, SCALPEL electron lithography, which prints features atoms wide on microchips, was invented by Lloyd Harriott and his team. The Inferno operating system, an update of Plan 9, was created by Dennis Ritchie with others, using the new concurrent Limbo programming language. A high performance database engine (Dali) was developed which became DataBlitz in its product form. AT&T spun off Bell Laboratories, along with most of its equipment-manufacturing business, into a new company named Lucent Technologies. AT&T retained a smaller number of researchers, who made up the staff of the newly-created AT&T Laboratories. In 1997, the smallest practical transistor (60 nanometers, 182 atoms wide) was built. In 1998, the first optical router was invented and the first combination of voice and data traffic on an Internet Protocol (IP) network was developed at the Laboratories. 2000s 2000 was an active year for the Laboratories, in which DNA machine prototypes were developed; progressive geometry compression algorithm made widespread 3-D communication practical; the first electrically powered organic laser invented; a large-scale map of cosmic dark matter was compiled, and the F-15 (material), an organic material that makes plastic transistors possible, was invented. In 2002, physicist Jan Hendrik Schoen , was fired after his work was found to contain fraudulent data. It was the first known case of fraud at Bell Labs. In 2003, the New Jersey Nanotechnology Laboratory was created at Murray Hill, New Jersey. New Jersey Nanotechnology Consortium. Profile In 2005, Dr. Jeong Kim, former President of Lucent's Optical Network Group, returned from academia to become the President of Bell Laboratories. In April 2006, Bell Laboratories's parent company, Lucent Technologies, signed a merger agreement with Alcatel. On December 1, 2006, the merged company, Alcatel-Lucent, began operations. This deal raised concerns in the United States, where Bell Laboratories works on defense contracts. A separate company, LGS, with an American board was set up to manage Bell Laboratories' and Lucent's sensitive U.S. Government contracts. In December 2007, it was announced that the former Lucent Bell Laboratories and the former Alcatel Research and Innovation would be merged into one organization under the name of Bell Laboratories, continuing the commitment to research at Alcatel-Lucent. This is the first period of growth following many years during which Bell Laboratories progressively lost manpower due to layoffs and spin-offs. As of July 2008, however, only four scientists remained in physics basic research according to a report by the scientific journal Nature. On August 28, 2008, Alcatel-Lucent announced it was pulling out of basic science, material physics, and semiconductor research, and it will instead focus on more immediately marketable areas including networking, high-speed electronics, wireless networks, nanotechnology and software. See also Alcatel-Lucent - Parent company of Bell Laboratories Arun Netravali - Bell Laboratories engineer - former president of Bell Laboratories Bell Labs Holmdel Complex Walter A. Shewhart - Bell Laboratories engineer - "father of statistical quality control" George Stibitz - Bell Laboratories engineer - "father of the modern digital computer" "Worse is Better" - A Software design philosophy also called "The New Jersey Style" under which UNIX and C are supposedly developed History of mobile phones - Bell Laboratories conception and development of cellular phones High speed photography & Wollensak - Fastax high speed (rotating prism) cameras developed by Bell Labs Sound film - Westrex sound system for cinema films developed by Bell Labs References External links Bell Labs Timeline of discoveries as of 2006 Bell Labs' Murray Hill anechoic chamber Bell System Memorial | Bell_Labs |@lemmatized bell:68 laboratory:52 murray:4 hill:6 new:20 jersey:13 also:14 know:2 lab:8 formerly:1 telephone:11 research:9 organization:2 alcatel:7 lucent:11 previously:1 american:4 telegraph:2 company:14 headquarters:1 berkeley:2 height:2 development:5 facility:2 throughout:1 world:2 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3,816 | Aga_Khan_III | Sultan Mahommed Shah, Aga Khan III, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, GCVO, PC (November 2, 1877 – July 11, 1957) was the 48th Imam of the Shia Ismaili Muslims. He was one of the founders and the first president of the All-India Muslim League, and served as President of the League of Nations from 1937-38. Early life He was born in Karachi, Pakistan (then under British colonial rule), to Aga Khan II and his third wife, Nawab A'lia Shamsul-Muluk, who was a granddaughter of Fath Ali Shah of Persia (Qajar dynasty). Under the care of his mother, he was given not only that religious and Oriental education which his position as the religious leader of the Ismailis made indispensable, but a sound European training, a boon denied to his father and paternal grandfather. This blending of the two systems of education produced the result of fitting this Muslim chief in an eminent degree both for the sacerdotal functions which pertained to his spiritual position, and for those social duties required of a great and enlightened leader which he was called upon to discharge by virtue of his position. He also attended Eton and Cambridge University. "Aga Khan, Fashionable Londoner, Holds Enormous Power in Islam", The New York Times, July 8, 1923, p. XX5. Career In 1885, at the age of seven, he succeeded his father as Imam of the Shi'a Isma'ili Muslims. The Aga Khan traveled in distant parts of the world to receive the homage of his followers, and with the object either of settling differences or of advancing their welfare by pecuniary help and personal advice and guidance. The distinction of a Knight Commander of the Indian Empire was conferred upon him by Queen Victoria in 1897 (and later Knight Grand Commander in 1902 by Edward VII) and he received like recognition for his public services from the German emperor, the sultan of Turkey, the shah of Persia and other potentates. In 1906, the Aga Khan was a founding member and first president of the All India Muslim League, a political party which pushed for the creation of an independent Muslim nation in the north west regions of South Asia, then under British colonial rule, and later established the country of Pakistan in 1947. In 1934, he was made a member of the Privy Council and served as a member of the League of Nations (1934-37), becoming the President of the League of Nations in 1937. He was made a "Knight of the Indian Empire" by Queen Victoria, a Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire by Edward VII (1902), and a Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India by George V (1912). He was appointed a GCMG in 1923. Aga Khan initiated into freemansonry, December 1951, and was given Masonic burial services on July 30, 1957. Cited in 10,000 Famous Freemasons, William R Denslow. Missouri : 1957. http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/biography/khan_a/khan_a.html Imamate Under the leadership of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III, the first half of the twentieth century was a period of significant development for the Ismā'īlī community. Numerous institutions for social and economic development were established in South Asia and in East Africa. Ismailis have marked the Jubilees of their Imāms with public celebrations, which are symbolic affirmations of the ties that link the Ismāʿīlī Imām and his followers. Although the Jubilees have no religious significance, they serve to reaffirm the Imamat's worldwide commitment to the improvement of the quality of human life, especially in the developing countries. The Jubilees of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III, are well remembered. During his 72 years of Imamat (1885-1957), the community celebrated his Golden (1937), Diamond (1946) and Platinum (1954) Jubilees. To show their appreciation and affection, the Ismā'īliyya weighed their Imam in gold, diamonds and, symbolically, in platinum, respectively, the proceeds of which were used to further develop major social welfare and development institutions in Asia and Africa. In India and later Pakistan, social development institutions were established, in the words of the late Aga Khan, "for the relief of humanity". They included institutions such as the Diamond Jubilee Trust and the Platinum Jubilee Investments Limited which in turn assisted the growth of various types of cooperative societies. Diamond Jubilee Schools for girls were established throughout the remote Northern Areas of what is now Pakistan. In addition, scholarship programs, established at the time of the Golden Jubilee to give assistance to needy students, were progressively expanded. In East Africa, major social welfare and economic development institutions were established. Those involved in social welfare included the accelerated development of schools and community centres, and a modern, fully-equipped hospital in Nairobi. Among the economic development institutions established in East Africa were companies such as the Diamond Jubilee Investment Trust (now Diamond Trust of Kenya) and the Jubilee Insurance Company, which are quoted on the Nairobi Stock Exchange and have become major players in national development. Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah also introduced organizational forms that gave Ismāʿīlī communities the means to structure and regulate their own affairs. These were built on the Muslim tradition of a communitarian ethic on the one hand, and responsible individual conscience with freedom to negotiate one's own moral commitment and destiny on the other. In 1905 he ordained the first Ismā'īlī Constitution for the social governance of the community in East Africa. The new administration for the Community's affairs was organized into a hierarchy of councils at the local, national, and regional levels. The constitution also set out rules in such matters as marriage, divorce and inheritance, guidelines for mutual cooperation and support among Ismā'īlīs, and their interface with other communities. Similar constitutions were promulgated in the South Asia, and all were periodically revised to address emerging needs and circumstances in diverse settings. Following the Second World War, far-reaching social, economic and political changes profoundly affected a number of areas where Ismāʿīlīs resided. In 1947, British rule in the South Asia was replaced by the sovereign, independent nations of India, Pakistan and later Bangladesh, resulting in the migration of millions people and significant loss of life and property. In the Middle East, the Suez crisis of 1956 as well as the preceding crisis in Iran, demonstrated the sharp upsurge of nationalism, which was as assertive of the region's social and economic aspirations as of its political independence. Africa was also set on its course to decolonization, swept by what Harold Macmillan, the then British Prime Minister, aptly termed the "wind of change". By the early 1960s, most of East and Central Africa, where the majority of the Ismāʿīlī population on the continent resided (including Tanganyika, Kenya, Uganda, Malagasy, Rwanda, Burundi and Zaire), had attained their political independence. Race horse owner He was an owner of thoroughbred racing horses, including a record equalling five winners of the Epsom Derby, and a total of sixteen winners of British Classic Races. He was British flat racing Champion Owner thirteen times. According to Ben Pimlott, biographer of Queen Elizabeth II, the Aga Khan presented Her Majesty with a filly called Astrakhan, who won at Hurst Park Racecourse in 1950. Equestrianism In 1926, the Aga Khan gave a cup (the Aga Khan Trophy) to be awarded to the winners of an international team show jumping competition held at the annual horse show of the Royal Dublin Society in Dublin, Ireland every first week in August. The Aga Khan Trophy, Dublin Horse Show, accessed July 9, 2007 It attracts competitors from all of the main show jumping nations and is carried live on Irish national television. Marriages and children He married, on November 2, 1896, in Poona, India, Shahzadi Begum, his first cousin and a granddaughter of Aga Khan I. He married, in 1908 (Mutah form of marriage) and 1923 (legally), Cleope Teresa Magliano (1888-1926), a dancer with the Ballet Opera of Monte Carlo. They had two sons: Giuseppe Mahdi Khan (d. February 1911) and Ali Solomone Khan (1911-1960) According to "Memoirs of Aga Khan: World Enough and Time" (London: Cassel & Company, 1954), "In the year One thousand nine hundred and eight I was married to CLEOPE TERESA MAGLIANO according to the Muta form of marriage...". According to Anne Edwards' history of the Aga Khans ("Throne of Gold: The Lives of the Aga Khans", NY: William Morrow, 1996), Ali Solomone Khan's birth certificate states that his mother was considered single at the time of his birth, which was recorded as illegitimate. However, Islamic law states that a child born from a Muta marriage is considered legitimate. According to the Aga Khan's memoirs, he legally married Teresa Magliano in 1923, after the death of his first wife. Teresa, who reportedly had converted to Islam prior to the legal wedding in North Africa and was known as Princess Aga Khan, died in 1926, following an operation on December 1, 1926 ("Aga Khan's Wife Dies As He Buys Big Gem", The New York Times, December 2, 1926, p. 2). He married, on December 7, 1929 (civil), in Aix-les-Bains, France, and December 13, 1929 (religious), in Bombay, India, Andrée Joséphine Carron (1898 - 1976). A former saleswoman in a candy store and a co-owner of a hat shop, she became known as Princess Andrée Aga Khan. She did not convert to Islam. "Aga Khan Marries Former Shopgirl", The New York Times, December 8, 1929, p. 3. By this marriage, he had one son, Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, in 1933-2003. "Aga Khan Again a Father", The New York Times, January 18, 1933, p. 9. The couple were divorced in 1943. "Princess Andrée", The New York Times, December 30, 1976, p. 19. He married, on October 9, 1944, in Geneva, Switzerland, Yvonne Blanche Labrousse (February 1906 - July 1, 2000). According to an interview she gave to an Egyptian journalist, her first name was Yvonne, though she is referred to as Yvette in most published references. The daughter of a tram conductor and a dressmaker, she was working as the Aga Khan's social secretary at the time of their marriage. She had been "Miss Lyon 1929" and "Miss France 1930". "The Aga Khan Marries", The New York Times, October 10, 1944, p. 20. She converted to Islam and became known as Umm Habiba (Little Mother of the Beloved). In 1954, her husband named her "Mata Salamat" "The Begum Aga Khan III", Daily Telegraph, Issue 45115, July 3, 2000. Publications He wrote a number of books and papers two of which are of immense importance namely (1).India in Transition, about the prepartition politics of India and (2).The Memoirs of Aga Khan, his autobiography. Death and succession The Aga Khan was succeeded by his grandson Karim Aga Khan, as 'Aga Khan' and is the present Imam of the Ismaili Muslims. At the time of his death on July 11, 1957, his family members were in Versoix. A solicitor brought the will of the Aga Khan III from London to Geneva and read it before the family: "Ever since the time of my ancestor Ali, the first Imam, that is to say over a period of thirteen hundred years, it has always been the tradition of our family that each Imam chooses his successor at his absolute and unfettered discretion from amongst any of his descendants, whether they be sons or remote male issue and in these circumstances and in view of the fundamentally altered conditions in the world in very recent years due to the great changes which have taken place including the discoveries of atomic science, I am convinced that it is in the best interest of the Shia Muslim Ismailia Community that I should be succeeded by a young man who has been brought up and developed during recent years and in the midst of the new age and who brings a new outlook on life to his office as Imam. For these reasons, I appoint my grandson Karim, the son of my own son, Aly Salomone Khan to succeed to the title of Aga Khan and to the Imam and Pir of all Shia Ismailian followers." He is buried in Aswan, Egypt at the Mausoleum of Aga Khan. See also Fatimids Nizari Aga Khan Aga Khan Palace References Additional reading Daftary, F., "The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines" Cambridge University Press, 1990. Naoroji M. Dumasia, A Brief History of the Aga Khan (1903). Aga Khan III, "Memoirs of Aga Khan: World Enough and Time", London: Cassel & Company, 1954; published same year in the United States by Simon & Schuster. Anne Edwards, "Throne of Gold: The Lives of the Aga Khans", NY: William Morrow, 1996 Naoroji M. Dumasia, "The Aga Khan and his ancestors", New Delhi: Readworthy Publications (P) Ltd., 2008 External links Video Clip from the History Channel website Institute of Ismaili Studies: Selected speeches of Sir Sultan Mahomed Shah Aga Khan III The Official Ismaili Website Official Website of Aga Khan Development Network | Aga_Khan_III |@lemmatized sultan:6 mahommed:1 shah:7 aga:43 khan:47 iii:7 gcsi:1 gcmg:2 gcie:1 gcvo:1 pc:1 november:2 july:7 imam:8 shia:3 ismaili:6 muslim:9 one:5 founder:1 first:9 president:4 india:9 league:5 serve:3 nation:6 early:2 life:6 bear:2 karachi:1 pakistan:5 british:6 colonial:2 rule:4 ii:2 third:1 wife:3 nawab:1 lia:1 shamsul:1 muluk:1 granddaughter:2 fath:1 ali:4 persia:2 qajar:1 dynasty:1 care:1 mother:3 give:6 religious:4 oriental:1 education:2 position:3 leader:2 make:3 indispensable:1 sound:1 european:1 training:1 boon:1 deny:1 father:3 paternal:1 grandfather:1 blending:1 two:3 system:1 produce:1 result:2 fit:1 chief:1 eminent:1 degree:1 sacerdotal:1 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3,817 | Citizen_Kane | Citizen Kane is a 1941 American drama film, and the first feature film directed by Orson Welles. It was nominated for an Academy Award in nine categories, but won only for Best Original Screenplay by Herman Mankiewicz and Welles. It was released by RKO Pictures. The story is a fictionalized pastiche of the life of William Randolph Hearst and Welles' own life. Epstein, Michael and Thomas Lennon. "The Battle Over Citizen Kane." PBS, 1996. Retrieved: January 14, 2008. Upon its release, Hearst prohibited mention of the film in any of his newspapers. The film traces the life and career of Charles Foster Kane, a man whose career in the publishing world is born of idealistic social service, but gradually evolves into a ruthless pursuit of power. Narrated principally through flashbacks, the story is revealed through the research of a newspaper reporter seeking to solve the mystery of the newspaper magnate's dying word: "Rosebud." Citizen Kane is often cited as being one of the most innovative works in the history of film. The American Film Institute placed it at number one in its list of the 100 greatest U.S. movies of all time in 1997 and again in the revised list of 2007. In a recent poll of film critics and directors conducted by the British Film Institute, Citizen Kane was ranked the number one best film of all time by both groups. Plot The film opens in a night setting on a vast palatial estate on which the sign "No Trespassing" is posted. Gradually the camera comes to rest in a bedroom on which an elderly man is lying, holding a snow globe. He utters the word "Rosebud" and lets go of the snow globe which drops and smashes on the floor. A nurse enters and covers the man in a way that indicates he has died. The scene fades out. An abrupt cut leads to a newsreel obituary in which we find out that the estate was Xanadu and the man who owned it and died there was the enormously wealthy media magnate Charles Foster Kane (Orson Welles). The newsreel reveals details of his life — how his childhood was spent in poverty, then changed when the "world's third largest gold mine" was discovered on a property his mother had inherited, how he built up his empire of newspapers, how both his marriages were unsuccessful, his conflicting pronouncements, and how the power he once obtained disappeared. After its preview, the producer of the newsreel feels that it lacks something and asks a reporter, Jerry Thompson (William Alland), to find out about Kane's private life and personality, in particular to discover the meaning behind his last word. The reporter interviews the great man's friends and associates, and Kane's story unfolds as a series of flashbacks, some of which present the same incidents portrayed in the newsreel, but from different recollections. First, Thompson approaches Kane's second wife, Susan Alexander (Dorothy Comingore), now an alcoholic who runs her own club, but she refuses to tell him anything. Thompson then goes to the private archive of Walter Parks Thatcher (George Coulouris), a deceased banker who served as Kane's guardian during his childhood. It is through Thatcher's written memoirs that Thompson learns about Kane's childhood. In the first flashback, Kane as a young child is forced to leave his beloved mother (Agnes Moorehead) when she sends him away to live with Thatcher, to be both educated and protected from his abusive father. Thompson then interviews Kane's personal business manager Mr. Bernstein (Everett Sloane), best friend Jedediah Leland (Joseph Cotten), Susan for a second time, and Kane's butler Raymond (Paul Stewart) who recalls him saying "Rosebud" while holding a small glass globe — the same globe Kane dropped as he died. However, Thompson thinks this is worth very little. Other flashbacks show Kane's entry into the newspaper business and his profit-seeking with low-quality "yellow journalism". He takes control of the newspaper, the New York Inquirer, and hires all the best journalists (which he hires away from the Chronicle, the main rival of the Inquirer). His attempted rise to power is documented, including his first marriage to Emily Monroe Norton (Ruth Warrick), a President's niece, shown disintegrating through fragments of conversations at breakfast over many years, and his campaign for the office of governor of New York State. A "love nest" scandal with Susan Alexander ends both his first marriage and his political aspirations. Kane marries his mistress, but as a result of his domineering personality, he forces Susan into an operatic career for which she has no talent or ambition, destroys his relationships and pushes away his loved ones. Kane spends his last years building his vast estate and lives alone after Susan leaves him, interacting only with his staff. Despite Thompson's interviews, he is unable to solve the mystery and concludes that "Rosebud" will forever remain an enigma. At that point, the camera pans over workers burning some of Kane's many possessions. One throws an old sled into the furnace – the same sled that Kane was riding as a child the day his mother sent him away. The word "Rosebud" painted on the sled burns as the camera closes in on it in the furnace. For the viewer this is supposed to solve the "Rosebud" mystery. Perhaps, the sled is a token of the only time in his life when he was poor; perhaps, more than this, it represents the only time in his life when he was truly happy and wanted for nothing, a period in his life when money hadn't yet corrupted him. After this twist ending, the film ends as it began, with the "No Trespassing" sign at the gates of Kane's estate, Xanadu, an indication that sometimes we can never know the truth behind people. Cast Actor Role Orson Welles Charles Foster Kane William Alland Jerry Thompson Georgia Backus Bertha Anderson Fortunio Bonanova Signor Matiste Sonny Bupp Charles Foster Kane III Ray Collins Jim W. Gettys Dorothy Comingore Susan Alexander Kane Joseph Cotten Jedediah Leland George Coulouris Walter Parks Thatcher Agnes Moorehead Mary Kane Erskine Sanford Herbert Carter Gus Schilling The Headwaiter Harry Shannon Kane's Father Everett Sloane Mr. Bernstein Paul Stewart Raymond Buddy Swan Young Charles Foster Kane Ruth Warrick Emily Monroe Norton Kane Philip Van Zandt Mr. Rawlston Alan Ladd (bit part) Screenplay Development Mankiewicz as co-writer Richard Carringer, author of The Making of Citizen Kane (1996), described the early stages of the screenplay: "Welles's first step toward the realization of Citizen Kane was to seek the assistance of a screenwriting professional. Fortunately, help was near at hand. . . . When Welles moved to Hollywood, it happened that a veteran screenwriter, Herman Mankiewicz, was recuperating from an automobile accident and between jobs. . . Mankiewicz was an expatriate from Broadway who had been writing for films for almost fifteen years." However, according to film author Harlan Lebo, he was also "one of Hollywood's most notorious personalities." Lebo, Harlan. Citizen Kane: Fiftieth Anniversary Album, Doubleday Publishing (1990) Mankiewicz was the older brother of producer-director Joseph Mankiewicz and was a former writer for The New Yorker and the New York Times and had moved to Hollywood in 1926. By the time Welles contacted him he had "established himself as a brilliant wit, a writer of extraordinary talent, [and] a warm friend to many of the screen world's brightest artists ... [he] produced dialogue of the highest caliber." Yet Mankiewicz's behavior, according to Welles's close friend and associate John Houseman, was also a "public and private scandal. A neurotic drinker and compulsive gambler..." Houseman adds, however, that he was also one of the most intelligent, informed, witty, humane and charming men I have ever known." Despite those apparent contradictions in his personality, Welles "recognized the writer's abilities and trusted him to produce," wrote Lebo. Orson Welles himself later commented, "Nobody was more miserable, more bitter, and funnier than Mank — a perfect monument to self-destruction. But when the bitterness wasn't focused straight at you -- he was the best company in the world." Ideas and collaboration According to film historian Clinton Heylin, "the idea of Citizen Kane was the original conception of Orson Welles, who in early 1940 first discussed the idea with John Houseman, who then suggested that both he and Welles leave for Los Angeles and discuss the idea with scriptwriter Herman Mankiewicz. He adds that Mankiewicz "probably believed that Welles had little experience as an original scriptwriter. . .[and] may even have felt that John Citizen USA, Welles's working title, was a project he could make his own." Heylin, Clinton. Despite the System: Orson Welles Versus the Hollywood Studios, Chicago Review Press (2006) Still incapacitated with a broken leg, Mankiewicz was happy to work with Welles, and an "alliance" formed, noted Houseman. This combination of a "brash new director, a nervous studio, and an erratic genius" gave birth to Citizen Kane, in what Houseman called, "an absurd venture." Houseman recalled that Mankiewicz, during his convalescence, had "revived a long-simmering idea of creating a film biography in which a man's life would be brought to the screen after his death through the memories and opinions of the people who knew him best." And Welles himself, writes Lebo, also had ideas "that meshed well with this concept and had considered a newspaper publisher the best subject for the story: "I'd been nursing an old notion — the idea of telling the same thing several times — and showing exactly the same thing from wholly different views," Welles said. "Mank liked it, so we started searching for the man it was going to be about ... some big American figure ...Howard Hughes was the first idea. But we got pretty quickly to the press lords." Welles then assigned Mankiewicz, writes Lebo, "to work on an original screenplay — not an adaptation as his first two projects would have been." Welles next traveled to New York and desperately "pleaded and persuaded Houseman to return to Los Angeles to manage Mankiewicz and his writing schedule." Hearst as story model For some time, Mankiewicz wanted to write a screenplay about a public figure – perhaps a gangster – whose story would be told by the people that knew him. He had already written an unperformed play The Tree Will Grow about John Dillinger. Orson Welles liked the idea of multiple viewpoints but was not interested in playing Dillinger. Mankiewicz and Welles talked about picking someone else to use a model. They eventually hit on the idea of using William Randolph Hearst as their central character. But film critic and author Pauline Kael discovered that Mankiewicz "was already caught up in the idea of a movie about Hearst" when he was still working at the New York Times, in 1925. She learned from his babysitter, Marion Fisher, that she once typed as "he dictated a screenplay, organized in flashbacks. She recalls that he had barely started on the dictation, which went on for several weeks, when she remarked that it seemed to be about William Randolph Hearst, and he said, 'You're a smart girl.' " In Hollywood, Mankiewicz had frequented Hearst's parties until his alcoholism got him barred. And Hearst was also a person known to Welles. "Once that was decided," wrote author Don Kilbourne, "Mankiewicz, Welles, and John Houseman, a cofounder of the Mercury Theatre, rented a place in the desert, and the task of creating Citizen Kane began." Kilbourne, Don. Dictionary of Literary Biography: American Screenwriters, Gale Research Co. (1984) In later years, Houseman gave Mankiewicz "total" credit for "the creation of Citizen Kane's script" and credited Welles with "the visual presentation of the picture." Mankiewicz was put under contract by Mercury Productions and was to receive no credit for his work as he was hired as a script doctor. According to his contract with RKO, Welles would be given sole screenplay credit, and had already written a rough script consisting of 300 pages of dialogue with occasional stage directions under the title of John Citizen, USA. Debate over authorship px250|Welles visiting Mankiewicz (center, as nurse wipes his brow) in the California desert during his writing of Citizen Kane. John Houseman (right) is holding pages of screenplay. One of the long standing debates of Citizen Kane has been the proper accreditation of the authorship of the screenplay, which the opening credits attribute to both Herman J. Mankiewicz and Orson Welles. Mankiewicz biographer Richard Meryman notes that the dispute had various causes, including the way the movie was promoted. For instance, when RKO opened the movie on Broadway on May 1, 1941, followed by showings at theaters in other large cities, the publicity programs that were printed included photographs of Welles as "the one-man band, directing, acting, and writing." In a letter to his father afterwards, Mankiewicz wrote, "I'm particulary furious at the incredibly insolent description of how Orson wrote his masterpiece. The fact is that there isn't one single line in the picture that wasn't in writing -- writing from and by me -- before ever a camera turned." Meryman, Richard. Mank, William Morrow, (1978) And film historian Otto Friedrich said it made Mankiewicz "unhappy to hear Welles quoted in Louella Parsons's column, before the question of screen credits was officially settled, as saying, 'So I wrote Citizen Kane.' According to film critic Pauline Kael, Rita Alexander, who was hired to be Mankiewic's personal secretary, stated that she "took the dictation from Mankiewicz from the first paragraph to the last ... and later did the final rewriting and the cuts, and handled the script at the studio until after the film was shot. ...[and said] Welles didn't write (or dictate) one line of the shooting script of Citizen Kane. She added that "Welles himself came to dinner once or twice...[and] she didn't meet him until after Mankiewicz had finished dictating the long first draft." As a result, Mankiewicz went to the Screen Writers Guild and declared that he was the original author. Welles later claimed that he planned on a joint credit all along, but Mankiewicz claimed that Welles offered him a bonus of ten thousand dollars if he would let Welles take full credit." Friedrich, Otto, City of Nets — a portrait of Hollywood in 1940s, (1986) Harper & Row According to Pauline Kael, "he had ample proof of his authorship, and when he took his evidence to the Screen Writers Guild ... Welles was forced to split the credit and take second place in the listing." Kael, Pauline. For Keeps, Penguin Books (1994), republished section from Raising Kane, 1971 Kael herself felt that Welles downplayed veteran screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz's contribution. She argues that Mankiewicz was the true author of the screenplay and therefore responsible for much of what made the movie great. This angered many critics of the day, most notably critic-turned-filmmaker (and close friend of Welles) Peter Bogdanovich, who rebutted many of Kael's claims in an article for Esquire titled The Kane Mutiny. By the time the movie was released, however, Mankiewicz's contribution to the film was generally known, according to Kael. The Hollywood Reporter wrote the credit as "Written by Herman Mankiewicz;" Burns Mantle, in his newspaper column, referrerd to Mankiewicz having written it; and Ben Hecht wrote, "This movie was not written by Orson Welles. It is the work of Herman J. Mankiewicz." Kael notes that "Under the present rules of the Guild, Welles's name would probably not have appeared." She also came to an ironic conclusion: "And so it was by an awful fluke of justice that when Academy Awards night came, and Welles should have got the awards he deserved as director and actor, the award he got (the only Academy Award he has ever got) was as co-author of the Best Original Screenplay." According to film biographer David Thomson, however, "No one can now deny Herman Mankiewicz credit for the germ, shape, and pointed language of the screenplay..." Thomson, David, A Biographical Dictionary of Film, 3rd, ed. (1995) Alfred A. Knopf And film historian Robert L. Carringer, after weighing both sides of the argument, including sworn testimony from Mercury assistant Richard Baer, could only conclude "We will probably never know for sure, but in any case Welles had at last found a subject with the right combination of monumentality, timeliness, and audacity." Carringer, Robert L. The Making of Citizen Kane, (2nd ed., revised) University of California Press (1996) Harlan Lebo agrees, and adds, "of far greater relevance is reaffirming the importance of the efforts that both men contributed to the creation of Hollywood's greatest motion picture." Sources William Randolph Hearst The principal source for the story of Citizen Kane was the life of media tycoon William Randolph Hearst, and the film is seen by critics as a fictionalized, unrelentingly hostile parody of Hearst. According to film historian Don Kilbourne, "much of the information for Citizen Kane came from already-published material about Hearst... [and] some of Kane's speeches are almost verbatim copies of Hearst's. When Welles denied that the film was about the still-influential publisher, he did not convince many people." Welles himself insisted that there were also differences between the men. In 1968, he told Peter Bogdanovich, "You know, the real story of Hearst is quite different from Kane's. And Hearst himself—-as a man, I mean—-was very different." In his documentary F for Fake, Welles claims Kane was originally intended to be based on Howard Hughes (who was to be played by Joseph Cotten) but he later changed it to Hearst. Hearst's biographer, David Nasaw, finds the film's depiction of Hearst unfair: Welles' Kane is a cartoon-like caricature of a man who is hollowed out on the inside, forlorn, defeated, solitary because he cannot command the total obedience, loyalty, devotion, and love of those around him. Hearst, to the contrary, never regarded himself as a failure, never recognized defeat, never stopped loving Marion [Davies] or his wife. He did not, at the end of his life, run away from the world to entomb himself in a vast, gloomy art-choked hermitage. Susan Alexander Brulatour's second and third wives, Dorothy Gibson and Hope Hampton, both fleeting stars of the silent screen who later had marginal careers in opera, are believed to have provided inspiration for the Susan Alexander character. Orson Welles also claimed that Harold Fowler McCormick's lavish promotion of his second wife, Ganna Walska, was a direct influence on the screenplay. McCormick spent thousands of dollars on voice lessons for her and even arranged for Walska to take the lead in a production of Zaza at the Chicago Opera in 1920. Like the Susan Alexander character, she had a terrible voice, pleasing only to McCormick. But unlike Alexander, Walska got into an argument with director Pietro Cimini during dress rehearsal and stormed out of the production before she appeared. Roger Ebert, in his DVD commentary on Citizen Kane, also suggests that the Alexander character was based on Walska, and had very little to do with Marion Davies. The film's composer Bernard Herrmann also suggests that Kane is based on McCormick but also in great part on Welles himself. Other sources say the Alexander role — and the disastrous opera singing — is a composite of Hampton, Davies, Walska, and the story of Samuel Insull, who built the Chicago Civic Opera House in 1929 for his daughter, who hoped to become famous and sing at the Metropolitan Opera but never did. Samuel Insull Citizen Kane is in part based on the life of Samuel Insull and his wife Gladys. Playwright Herman J. Mankiewicz based Susan Alexander’s catastrophic operatic debut in Citizen Kane on Gladys Wallis Insull’s New York role as Lady Teazle in a charity revival of The School for Scandal. Higham, Charles, Orson Welles: Rise and Fall of an American Genius, (2002) The review of Susan Alexander's debut in Kane echoes Mankiewicz's actual 1925 review of Gladys Insull. His 1925 review began: "As Lady Teazle, Mrs. Insull is as pretty as she is diminutive; with a clear smile and dainty gestures. There is a charming grace in her bearing that makes for excellent deportment. But Lady Teazle seems much too innocent to lend credit to her part in the play." Welles as Kane There are autobiographical elements to the film. Orson Welles lost his mother when he was only nine years old and his father when he was 15. After this, he became the ward of Chicago's Dr. Maurice Bernstein—and Bernstein is the last name of the only major character in Citizen Kane who receives a completely positive portrayal. The documentary The Battle Over Citizen Kane points out the great irony that Welles's own life story resembled that of Kane far more than Hearst's: an overreaching wunderkind who ended up mournful and lonely in his old age. Citizen Kanes editor Robert Wise summarized: "Well, I thought often afterwards, only in recent years when I saw the film again two or three years ago when they had the fiftieth anniversary, and I suddenly thought to myself, well, Orson was doing an autobiographical film and didn't realize it, because it's rather much the same, you know. You start here, and you have a big rise and tremendous prominence and fame and success and whatnot, and then tail off and tail off and tail off. And at least the arc of the two lives were very much the same..." Peter Bogdanovich, who was friends with Welles in his later years, disagreed with this on his own commentary on the Citizen Kane DVD, saying that Kane was nothing like Welles. Kane, he said, "had none of the qualities of an artist, Orson had all the qualities of an artist." Bogdanovich also noted that Welles was never bitter "about all the bad things that happened to him," and was a man who enjoyed life in his final years. Charles F. Murphy The character of political boss Jim Gettys is based on Charles F. Murphy, a political leader in New York City's infamous Tammany Hall political machine, who was an enemy of Hearst. In one scene Gettys admonishes Kane for printing a cartoon showing him in prison stripes. This is based on the fact that Murphy, who was a horse-cart driver and owned several bars, was depicted in a 1903 Hearst cartoon wearing striped prison clothes. A caption, referring to the restaurant Murphy frequented, said: "Look out, Murphy. It’s a short lock-step from Delmonico’s to Sing Sing." Rosebud According to Welles author David Thomson, “Rosebud is the greatest secret in cinema...” Thomson, David, The Story of Orson Welles (1996) Vintage Books Orson Welles, explaining the idea behind the word "Rosebud," said, "It's a gimmick, really, and rather dollar-book Freud." Kael, Pauline, The Citizen Kane Book, Boston, 1971). The symbolic sled 'Rosebud' used in the film was bought for $60,500 by film director Steven Spielberg in 1982, at the time the highest price paid for a piece of film memorabilia. Spielberg commented, "Rosebud will go over my typewriter to remind me that quality in movies comes first." Video Viewer (August, 1982). Time Magazine, Monday, June 21, 1982 According to Peter Bogdanovich, Welles' reaction to Spielberg's purchase of the sled was "I thought we burned it..." According to Louis Pizzitola, author of Hearst Over Hollywood, "Rosebud" was a nickname that Orrin Peck, a friend of William Randolph Hearst, gave to his mother, Phoebe Hearst. Pizzitola, Louis. "Hearst Over Hollywood." Columbia University Press, 2002. It was said that Phoebe was as close, or even closer, to Orrin than she was to her own son, lending a bitter-sweet element to the word's use in a film about a boy being separated from his mother's love. In 1989, essayist Gore Vidal cited contemporary rumors that "Rosebud" was a nickname Hearst used for his mistress Marion Davies; a reference to her clitoris, Vidal, Gore. "Remembering Orson Welles." New York Times, June 1, 1989. Retrieved: 14 January 2008. Vidal, Gore. "Rosebud." New York Times, August 17, 1989. Retrieved: 14 January 2008. a claim repeated as fact in the 1996 documentary The Battle Over Citizen Kane and again in the 1999 dramatic film RKO 281. A resultant joke noted, with heavy innuendo, that Hearst and/or Kane died "with 'Rosebud' on his lips." Production During production, Citizen Kane was referred to as RKO 281. Filming took place between June 29, 1940 and October 23, 1940 in what is now Stage 19 on the Paramount lot in Hollywood. Welles prevented studio executives of RKO from visiting the set. He understood their desire to control projects and he knew they were expecting him to do an exciting film that would correspond to his The War of the Worlds radio broadcast. Welles' RKO contract had given him complete control over the production of the film when he signed on with the studio, something that he never again was allowed to exercise when making motion pictures. Filmmaking innovations Cinematography A deep focus shot: everything, including the hat in the foreground and the boy in the distance, is in sharp focus.Film scholars and historians view Citizen Kane as Welles' attempt to create a new style of filmmaking by studying various forms of movie making, and combining them all into one. The most innovative technical aspect of Citizen Kane is the extended use of deep focus. In nearly every scene in the film, the foreground, background and everything in between are all in sharp focus. This was done by renowned cinematographer Gregg Toland through his experimentation with lenses and lighting. Specifically, Toland often used telephoto lenses to shoot close-up scenes. Any time deep focus was impossible — for example in the scene when Kane finishes a bad review of Alexander's opera while at the same time firing the person who started the review — Toland used an optical printer to make the whole screen appear in focus (visually layering one piece of film onto another). However, some apparently deep-focus shots were the result of in-camera effects, as in the famous example of the scene where Kane breaks into Susan Alexander's room after her suicide attempt. In the background, Kane and another man break into the room, while simultaneously the medicine bottle and a glass with a spoon in it are in closeup in the foreground. The shot was an in-camera matte shot. The foreground was shot first, with the background dark. Then the background was lit, the foreground darkened, the film rewound, and the scene re-shot with the background action. Another unorthodox method used in the film was the way low-angle shots were used to display a point of view facing upwards, thus allowing ceilings to be shown in the background of several scenes. Since movies were primarily filmed on sound stages and not on location during the era of the Hollywood studio system, it was impossible to film at an angle that showed ceilings because the stages had none. In some instances, Welles' crew used muslin draped above the set to produce the illusion of a regular room with a ceiling, while the boom mikes were hidden above the cloth. Time compression One of the story-telling techniques introduced in this film was using an episodic sequence on the same set while the characters changed costume and make-up between cuts so that the scene following each cut would look as if it took place in the same location, but at a time long after the previous cut. In this way, Welles chronicled the breakdown of Kane's first marriage, which took years of story time, in a matter of minutes. Special effects Welles also pioneered several visual effects in order to cheaply shoot things like crowd scenes and large interior spaces. For example, the scene where the camera in the opera house rises dramatically to the rafters to show the workmen showing a lack of appreciation for the second Mrs. Kane's performance was shot by panning a camera upwards over the performance scene, then a curtain wipe to a miniature of the upper regions of the house, and then another curtain wipe matching it again with the scene of the workmen. Other scenes effectively employed miniatures to make the film look much more expensive than it truly was, such as various shots of Xanadu. A loud, full screen closeup of the typewriter typing a single word magnifies the review for the Chicago Inquirer. Makeup The film broke new ground with its use of special effects makeup, created by makeup artist Maurice Seiderman, believably aging the cast many decades over the course of the story. Soundtrack Welles brought his experience with sound from radio along to filmmaking, producing a layered and complex soundtrack. In one scene, the elderly Kane strikes Susan in a tent on the beach, and the two characters silently glower at each other while a woman at the nearby party can be heard hysterically laughing in the background, her giddiness in grotesque counterpoint to the misery of Susan and Kane. Elsewhere, Welles skillfully employed reverberation to create a mood, such as the chilly echo of the monumental Thatcher library, where the reporter is confronted by an intimidating, officious librarian. In addition to expanding on the potential of sound as a creator of moods and emotions, Welles pioneered a new aural technique, known as the "lightning-mix". Welles used this technique to link complex montage sequences via a series of related sounds or phrases. In offering a continuous sound track, Welles was able to join what would otherwise be extremely rough cuts together into a smooth narrative. For example, the audience witnesses Kane grow from a child into a young man in just two shots. As Kane's guardian hands him his sled, Kane begrudingly wishes him a "Merry Christmas". Suddenly we are taken to a shot of his guardian fifteen years later, only to have the phrase completed for us: "and a Happy New Year". In this case, the continuity of the soundtrack, not the image, is what makes for a seamless narrative structure. Cook, 330. Welles also carried over techniques from radio not yet popular in the movies (though they would become staples). Using a number of voices, each saying a sentence or sometimes merely a fragment of a sentence, and splicing the dialogue together in quick succession, the result gave the impression of a whole town talking — and, equally important, what the town was talking about. Welles also favored the overlapping of dialogue, considering it more realistic than the stage and movie tradition of characters not stepping on each other's sentences. He also pioneered the technique of putting the audio ahead of the visual in scene transitions (a J-cut); as a scene would come to a close, the audio would transition to the next scene before the visuals did. Music In common with using personnel he had previously worked with in the Mercury Theatre, Welles recruited his close friend Bernard Herrmann to score Citizen Kane. Herrmann was longtime collaborator of Welles, providing music for several radio broadcasts including the War of the Worlds broadcast. The film was Herrmann's first motion picture score and would be nominated for an Academy Award for Original Music Score but would lose out to his own score for the film All That Money Can Buy. Herrmann's score for Citizen Kane was a watershed in film soundtrack composition and proved as influential as any of the films other innovations and established him as an important voice in film soundtrack composition. The score eschewed the typical Hollywood practice of scoring a film with virtually non-stop music. Instead Herrmann used what he later described as '"radio scoring", musical cues which typically lasted between five and fifteen seconds to bridge the action or suggest a different emotional response. In the opening sequence, the tour of Kane's estate, Xanadu, Herrmann introduces a leitmotiv which reoccurs throughout the film. Much of the music used in the newsreel was taken from other sources,examples include the News on the March music which was taken from RKO's music library, Belgian March by Anthony Collins accompanies the newsreel titles and an excerpt from Alfred Newman's score for Gunga Din is used as the background for the exploration of Xanadu. In the final sequence of the film, which shows the destruction of Rosebud in the fireplace of Kane’s castle, Welles choreographed the scene while he had Herrmann’s cue playing on the set. For the famous operatic sequence which exposed Kane's protege Susan Alexander for the amateur she was, Herrmann created a brand new piece The Aria from Salammbô. There did exist an incomlete operatic setting of Gustave Flaubert's 1862 novel Salammbô [The Libyan] by Modest Mussorgsky, however Herrmann made no use of its music. An original piece was used as there is no major opera where the female soprano leads off. Herrmann put the aria in a key that would force the singer to strain to reach the high notes, culminating in a high D, well outside the range of Alexander. Herrmann said he wanted to convey the impression of a terrified girl floundering in the quicksand of a powerful orchestra. On the soundtrack it was soprano Jean Forward who actually sang the vocal part for actress Dorothy Comingore. In 1972 Herrmann said "I was fortunate to start my career with a film like Citizen Kane, it's been a downhill run ever since!". Shortly before his death in 1985, Welles told director Henry Jaglom that that the score was fifty per cent responsible for the film’s artistic success. However, Herrmann was vocal in his criticism of Pauline Kael's claim not only on her position that it was Mankiewicz, not Welles, who made the main thrust of the film but also in her assumptions about the use of music in the film without consulting him: Pauline Kael has written in The Citizen Kane Book (1971), that the production wanted to use Massenet’s "Thais" but could not afford the fee. "But Miss Kael never wrote or approached me to ask about the music. We could easily have afforded the fee. The point is that its lovely little strings would not have served the emotional purpose of the film." Wellesnet: The Orson Welles Web Resource » Blog Archive » BERNARD HERRMANN on working with ORSON WELLES and CITIZEN KANE Opera lovers are frequently amused by the parody of vocal coaching that appears in a singing lesson given to Susan Alexander by Signor Matiste. The character attempts to sing the famous cavatina "Una voce poco fa" from Il barbiere di Siviglia by Gioacchino Rossini, but the lesson is interrupted when Alexander sings a high note flat. Reception NY City premiere, May 1, 1941 Dolores del Rio and Orson Welles at the premiere of Citizen Kane in 1941 In a 1941 review, Jorge Luis Borges called Citizen Kane a "metaphysical detective story," in that "... [its] subject (both psychological and allegorical) is the investigation of a man's inner self, through the works he has wrought, the words he has spoken, the many lives he has ruined..." Borges noted that "Overwhelmingly, endlessly, Orson Welles shows fragments of the life of the man, Charles Foster Kane, and invites us to combine them and reconstruct him." As well, "Forms of multiplicity and incongruity abound in the film: the first scenes record the treasures amassed by Kane; in one of the last, a poor woman, luxuriant and suffering, plays with an enormous jigsaw puzzle on the floor of a palace that is also a museum." Borges points out, "At the end we realize that the fragments are not governed by a secret unity: the detested Charles Foster Kane is a simulacrum, a chaos of appearances." Borges, Jorge Luis. Selected Non-Fictions. New York: Viking Press, 1999. ISBN 0-14029-011-7. Despite numerous positive reviews from critics at the time, the film was not a box office success, just making back enough to cover the budget, but not enough to make a profit. Due to the Second World War, Citizen Kane was little seen and virtually forgotten until its release in Europe in 1946, where it gained considerable acclaim, particularly from French film critics such as André Bazin. In the United States, it was neglected and forgotten until its revival on television in the mid-1950s, and its critical fortunes have been significantly transformed since then. Critics worldwide began listing it among the best films ever made. The Sight & Sound Top Ten list, revised every ten years, began in 1952 and first listed Citizen Kane in 1962. Hearst's response Hearing about the film enraged Hearst so much that he offered RKO Pictures $800,000 to destroy all prints of the film and burn the negative. Although it is often said that Hearst was upset because the film was about him, one alternative theory is that Hearst was more upset about the portrayal of Marion Davies (as singer Susan Alexander) than himself in the film. When RKO rejected Hearst's offer to suppress the film, Hearst banned every newspaper and station in his media conglomerate from reviewing — or even mentioning — the movie. The documentary The Battle Over Citizen Kane lays the blame for Citizen Kane's relative failure squarely at the feet of Hearst. Even though it did decent business at the box-office and went on to be the sixth highest grossing film in its year of release, this fell short of its creators' expectations but was still acceptable to its backers. In The Chief: The Life of William Randolph Hearst, David Nasaw points out that Hearst's actions were not the only reason Kane failed, however: the innovations Welles made with narrative, as well as the dark message at the heart of the film (that the pursuit of success is ultimately futile) meant that a popular audience could not appreciate its merits (Nasaw, 572-573). In a pair of Arena documentaries about Welles' career produced and broadcast domestically by the BBC in 1982, Welles claimed that during opening week, a policeman approached him one night and told him: "Do not go to your hotel room tonight; Hearst has set up an undressed,underage girl to leap into your arms when you enter and a photographer to take pictures of you. Hearst is planning to publish it in all of his papers". Welles thanked the man and stayed out all night. However, it is not confirmed whether this was true. Welles also described his only meeting with William Randolph Hearst: in an elevator in a building in San Francisco, where the film was being premiered. Welles offered Hearst some free tickets but the tycoon declined to answer; Welles later stated that Charles Foster Kane would probably have accepted the offer. Although Hearst's efforts to suppress it damaged the film's success, they backfired in the long run, since almost every reference of Hearst's life and career made today typically includes a reference to the film's parallel to it. The irony of Hearst's efforts is that the film is now inexorably connected to him. This connection was reinforced by the publication in 1961 of W. A. Swanberg's extensive biography titled Citizen Hearst. Awards and honors Theatrical release poster Academy Awards - 1941Win Best Original Screenplay - Herman J. Mankiewicz and Orson WellesNominationsBest Director - Orson Welles Best Actor - Orson Welles Best Film Editing - Robert Wise Best Picture Best Art Direction - Perry Ferguson, A. Roland Fields, Van Nest Polglase, Darrell Silvera Best Cinematography (black and white) - Gregg Toland Best Sound Mixing - John Aalberg Best Music Score - Bernard Herrmann Boos were heard almost every time Citizen Kane was referred to during the Oscars ceremony that year. Robert Wise's interview, found in The Battle Over Citizen Kane, PBS Most of Hollywood did not want the film to see the light of day considering the threats that William Randolph Hearst had made if it did. In December 2007, Welles' Oscar for best original screenplay came up for auction at Sotheby's in New York, but failed to reach its estimate of $800,000 to $1.2 million. The Oscar which was believed to have been lost by Welles was rediscovered in 1994 and is owned by the Dax Foundation, a Los Angeles based charity. At the same sale Welles' personal copy of the last revised draft of Citizen Kane before the shooting script did sell for $97,000. Others The National Board of Review gave 1941 "Best Acting" awards to Orson Welles and George Coulouris, and the film itself "Best Picture." That same year, the New York Times named it one of the Ten Best Films of the year, and the New York Film Critics Circle Award for "Best Picture" also went to Citizen Kane. Allmovie Awards Recognition In 1989, the United States Library of Congress deemed the film "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry. Beginning in 1962, and every ten years since, it has been voted the best film ever made by the Sight and Sound poll of film critics and directors. The film has also ranked number one in the following film "best of" lists: Editorial Jaguar, FIAF Centenary List, France Critics Top 10, Cahiers du cinéma 100 films pour une cinémathèque idéale Cahiers du cinéma 100 films pour une cinémathèque idéale , Kinovedcheskie Russia Top 10, Romanian Critics Top 10, Time Out Magazine Greatest Films, and Village Voice 100 Greatest Films. Roger Ebert called Citizen Kane the greatest movie ever made.American Film Institute recognition''' 1998 - AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies - #1 2005 - AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes: "Rosebud" #17 2007 - AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) - #1 Criticism Despite its status, Citizen Kane is not entirely without its critics. Boston University film scholar Ray Carney, although noting its technical achievements, criticized what he saw as the film's lack of emotional depth, shallow characterization and empty metaphors. Listing it among the most overrated works within the film community, he accused the film of being "an all-American triumph of style over substance... indistinguishable from the opera production within it: attempting to conceal the banality of its performances by wrapping them in a thousand layers of acoustic and visual processing". Of its director, he went on to state, "Welles is Kane — in a sense he couldn't have intended — substituting razzle-dazzle for truth and hoping no one notices the sleight of hand". He also criticized critics and scholars for allowing themselves to be pandered to, stating "critics obviously enjoy being told what to think or they'd never sit still for the hammy acting, cartoon characterizations, tendentious photography, editorializing blockings, and absurdly grandiose (and annoyingly insistent) metaphors....When will film studies grow up? Even Jedediah Leland, the opera reviewer in the film, knew better than to be taken in by Salammbo's empty reverberations." Carney on Culture: Over-Rated Films The Swedish director Ingmar Bergman once stated his dislike for the movie, calling it "a total bore" and claiming that the "performances are worthless". He went on to call Orson Welles an "infinitely overrated filmmaker". http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Ingmar_Bergman#Jan_Aghed_interview_.282002.29 Similarly, James Agate wrote, "I thought the photography quite good, but nothing to write to Moscow about, the acting middling, and the whole thing a little dull...Mr. Welles's high-brow direction is of that super-clever order which prevents you from seeing what that which is being directed is all about." Tookeys Film Guide - Film Reviews since 1902 Prints The original camera negative of Citizen Kane was destroyed in a New Jersey film laboratory fire in the 1970s. Subsquent prints were ultimately derived from a nitrate fine grain positive made in the 1940s. Tom McGreevey and Joanne L. Yeck Our Movie Heritage, 1997, Rutgers University Press, p135-36. Modern techniques were used to produce a pristine print for a 50th Anniversary theatrical revival reissue in 1991 (released by Paramount Pictures). The 2003 British DVD edition is taken from an interpositive held by the British Film Institute. The current US DVD version (released by Warner Home Video) is taken from another digital restoration, supervised by Turner's company. The transfer to Region 1 DVD has been criticised by some film experts for being too bright. Also, in the scene in Bernstein's office (chapter 10) rain falling outside the window has been digitally erased, probably because it was thought to be excessive film grain. These alterations are not present in the UK Region 2, which is also considered to be more accurate in terms of contrast and brightness. In 2003, Orson Welles' daughter Beatrice sued Turner Entertainment and RKO Pictures, claiming that the Welles estate is the legal copyright holder of the film. Her attorney said that Orson Welles had left RKO with an exit deal terminating his contracts with the studio, meaning that Welles still had an interest in the film and his previous contract giving the studio the copyright of the film was null and void. Beatrice Welles also claimed that, if the courts did not uphold her claim of copyright, RKO nevertheless owed the estate 20% of the profits, from a previous contract which has not been lived up to. On May 30, 2007, the appeals panel agreed that Beatrice Welles could proceed with the lawsuit against Turner Entertainment, the opinion partially overturns the 2004 decision by a lower court judge who had found in favor of Turner Entertainment on the issue of video rights. Heir to sue for 'Citizen Kane' video rights ABC local, retrieved May 31, 2007 In the 1980s, this film became the catalyst in the controversy over the colorization of black and white films. When Ted Turner told members of the press that he was considering colorizing Citizen Kane, his comments led to an immediate public outcry. Welles supposedly told friends that he intended to "keep Ted Turner and his goddamned Crayolas away from my movie." The uproar was for naught, as Turner Pictures had never actually announced that this was an upcoming planned project. Turner later claimed that this was a joke designed to needle colorization critics, and that he had never had any intention of colorizing the film. Turner could not have colorized the film had he wanted to. Welles' original contract prevented any alteration to the film without his, and eventually his estate's, express consent. American Notes Hollywood - Kane Steals Ted's Crayons. Time Magazine February 27, 1989 See alsoRKO 281Beyond Citizen KaneThe Battle Over Citizen KaneFilms that have been considered the greatest ever Twist ending References Notes Bibliography Bogdanovich, Peter and Welles, Orson This Is Orson Welles, HarperPerennial 1992, ISBN 0-06-092439-X Callow, Simon. Orson Welles : Hello Americans London: Johnathon Cape, 2006. ISBN 0-224-038-532. Carringer, Robert L. The Making of Citizen Kane. University of California Press, 1985. ISBN 0-520-05876-3. Gottesman, Ronald, ed. Focus on Citizen Kane. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971. Heylin, Clinton. Despite the System: Orson Welles Versus the Hollywood Studios, Chicago Review Press, 2005. Nasaw, David. The Chief: The Life of William Randolph Hearst.''New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000. External links Citizen Kane bibliography via the UC Berkeley Media Resources Center The American Film Institute's "100 Greatest Movies" list PBS: Citizen Kane Bright Lights Film Journal Essay Roger Ebert: Citizen Kane Time Magazine Top 100 Greatest films DVD Review | Citizen_Kane |@lemmatized citizen:60 kane:112 american:9 drama:1 film:117 first:17 feature:1 direct:4 orson:33 welles:101 nominate:2 academy:5 award:11 nine:2 category:1 win:1 best:24 original:12 screenplay:15 herman:10 mankiewicz:40 release:8 rko:13 picture:14 story:15 fictionalized:2 pastiche:1 life:20 william:13 randolph:10 hearst:47 epstein:1 michael:1 thomas:1 lennon:1 battle:6 pb:2 retrieve:4 january:3 upon:1 prohibit:1 mention:2 newspaper:9 trace:1 career:7 charles:11 foster:8 man:16 whose:2 publishing:2 world:8 bear:1 idealistic:1 social:1 service:1 gradually:2 evolve:1 ruthless:1 pursuit:2 power:3 narrate:1 principally:1 flashback:5 reveal:1 research:2 reporter:5 seek:3 solve:3 mystery:3 magnate:2 die:5 word:8 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3,818 | Missouri_River | The Missouri River United States Geological Survey Hydrological Unit Code: 07-14-01-01- Cahokia-Joachim Watershed is a tributary of the Mississippi River, and the longest river in the United States of America . The Missouri likely originates at Brower's Spring at the upper reaches of the Jefferson, before joining the confluence of the Madison, Jefferson, and Gallatin rivers in Montana. From this point, it flows through its valley south and east into the Mississippi north of St. Louis, Missouri. At in length, it drains about one-sixth of the North American continent. The Missouri in its original natural meandering state was the longest river in North America. Nearly of the river have been cut off in channeling and so it is now comparable in length to the Mississippi River. The combination of the two longest rivers in North America forms the fourth longest river in the world. At its confluence, the Missouri nearly doubles the volume of the Mississippi, accounting for 45 percent of the flow at St. Louis in normal times and as much as 70 percent of the flow during some droughts. It is the second-largest tributary by volume of the Mississippi, trailing the Ohio. Overview Missouri River near Fort Abraham Lincoln State Park, South of Bismarck, North Dakota The Missouri River as seen from southeast Nebraska The headwaters of the Missouri are in the Rocky Mountains of southwestern Montana, near the small town of Three Forks, rising in the Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin rivers. The longest headwaters stream, and thus the Missouri's hydrologic source, likely begins at Brower's Spring, which flows to the Jefferson by way of several other named streams. From the confluence of its main tributaries near the city of Three Forks, the Missouri flows north through mountainous canyons, emerging from the mountains near Great Falls, where a large cataract historically marked the navigable limit of the river. It flows east across the plains of Montana into North Dakota, then turns southeast, flowing into South Dakota, and along the north and eastern edge of Nebraska, forming part of its border with South Dakota and all of its border with Iowa, flowing past Sioux City and Omaha. It forms the entire boundary between Nebraska and Missouri, and part of the boundary between Missouri and Kansas. At Kansas City, it turns generally eastward, flowing across Missouri where it joins the Mississippi just north of St. Louis. The extensive system of tributaries drain nearly all the semi-arid northern Great Plains of the United States. A very small portion of southern Alberta, Canada and south-western Saskatchewan is also drained by the river through its tributary, the Milk. Another, separate area, in southern Saskatchewan is drained by another Missouri tributary, the Poplar River. The river roughly follows the edge of the glaciation during the last ice age. Most of the river's longer tributaries stretch away from this edge, with their origins towards the west, draining portions of the eastern Rockies. Headwaters Beaverhead River, a tributary of the Jefferson River and a headwater of the Missouri River The Missouri in name officially begins at Missouri Headwaters State Park at in Montana at the confluence of the Jefferson River and Madison River. The Gallatin River joins the river about 0.6 of a mile downstream as it flows northeast. The Jefferson River originates in southwest Montana near the Continental Divide. The Madison and Gallatin Rivers flow out of northwest Wyoming to meet the Jefferson River. Meriwether Lewis in his journal entry on July 28, 1805 wrote: Both Capt. C. and myself corresponded in opinon with rispect(sic) to the impropriety of calling either of these [three] streams the Missouri and accordingly agreed to name them after the President of the United States and the Secretaries of the Treasury and state. The Lewis and Clark decision not to call the Jefferson the Missouri has spurred debate over what is the longest river in North America since the Missouri and Mississippi are nearly identical in length. With the Jefferson the Missouri would be the longest river. Lewis (who had followed the Jefferson River to the Beaverhead River) said that on August 12, 1805, he visited Beaverhead tributary of Trail Creek just above Lemhi Pass on the Continental Divide in the Beaverhead Mountains on the Montana and Idaho border at around which he described: the most distant fountain of the waters of the mighty Missouri in surch(sic) of which we have spent so many toilsome days and wristless(sic) nights. However in 1888 Jacob V. Brower, who had championed turning the headwaters of the Mississippi River into a Minnesota state park, visited a site in Montana which today is believed to be the furthest point on the Missouri -- now called Brower's Spring. Brower published his finding in 1896 in "The Missouri: Its Utmost Source." The site of Brower's Spring lies at around in the Centennial Mountains. The site is now commemorated by a rock pile at the source of Hellroaring Creek which flows into Red Rock River and then into Clark Canyon Reservoir where it joins the Beaverhead then the Big Hole River before ultimately hooking up with the Jefferson. In Montana, the river is a Class I water from Three Forks to the North Dakota border for the purposes of public access for recreational purposes Stream Access in Montana . Mouth The Missouri enters the Upper Mississippi River near its mile 195. The elevation is approximately . The confluence is ringed by Camp Dubois which is now part of Lewis and Clark State Memorial Park in Illinois; Columbia Bottom Conservation Area on the south bank of the Missouri in St. Louis and on the north bank of the Missouri by the Edward "Ted" and Pat Jones-Confluence Point State Park in West Alton, Missouri. Natural history Geology High silt content makes the Missouri River (left) noticeably lighter than the Mississippi River here at their confluence north of St. Louis. The river is nicknamed "Big Muddy" and also "Dark River" because of the high silt content. The river meanders from bluff to bluff in the flat Midwestern states, leading to the nickname the "Wide Missouri". History Name The popular but erroneous conception that the name means "muddy water" arose from the fact that Marquette gave it the indigenous name "Pekitanoui" meaning "muddy". The state is named after the Missouri River which in turn is named after the Siouan Indian tribe whose Illinois name, ouemessourita (wimihsoorita McCafferty, Michael. 2004. Correction: Etymology of Missouri (restricted access). American Speech, 79.1:32 ), means "those who have dugout canoes". American Heritage Dictionary: Missouri The etymology lies behind Bob Dyer's tribute song, "River of the Big Canoes". The river has also been known as: Big River, Big Muddy, Emasulia sipiwi, Eomitai, Katapan Mene Shoska, Le Riviere des Missouri, Mini Sose, Missoury River, Ni-sho-dse, Nudarcha, Rio Misuri, Riviere de Pekitanoni, Riviere de Saint Philippe, Le Missouri, Le Riviere des Osages, Missures Flu, Miz-zou-rye River, Niutaci, Pekitanoui, River of the West, Yellow River. Exploration Jolliet and Marquette Main articles: Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette The first Europeans to see the river were the French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette who shortly after looking at the Piasa petroglyph painting on the bluffs of Mississippi River above Alton, Illinois heard the Missouri rushing into the Mississippi. Marquette wrote: While conversing about these monsters sailing quietly in clear and calm water, we heard the noise of a rapid into which we were about to run. I never saw anything more terrific, a tangle of entire trees from the mouth of the Pekistanoui with such impetuosity that one could not attempt to cross it without great danger. The commotion was such that the water was made muddy by it and could not clear itself. Pekitanoui is a river of considerable size, coming from the northwest, from a great distance; and it discharges into the Mississippi. There are many villages of savages along this river, and I hope by this means to discover the Vermillion or California Sea. Marquette and Joliet referred to the river as "Pekistanoui" and they made a reference to a tribe who lived upstream on the river as "Oumessourita" which was pronounced "OO-Missouri." ), (meaning "those who have dugout canoes" ) This was the Illinois (tribe) name for the Missouri (tribe) whose village was nearly upstream near Brunswick, Missouri. Marquette wrote that natives had told him that it was just a six day canoe trip up the river (about 60 miles) where it would be possible to portage over to another river that would take people to California. Jolliet and Marquette never explored the Missouri beyond its mouth. Bourgmont Main articles: Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont and Fort Orleans The Missouri remained formally unexplored and uncharted until Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont wrote "Exact Description of Louisiana, of Its Harbors, Lands and Rivers, and Names of the Indian Tribes That Occupy It, and the Commerce and Advantages to Be Derived Therefrom for the Establishment of a Colony" in 1713 followed in 1714 by "The Route to Be Taken to Ascend the Missouri River." In the two documents Bourgmont was the first to use the name "Missouri" to refer to the river (and he was to name many of the tributaries along the river based on the Native American tribes that lived on them). The names and locations were to be used by cartographer Guillaume Delisle to create the first reasonably accurate map of the river. Bourgmont himself was living with the Missouri tribe at its Brunswick village with his Missouri wife and son. He had been on the lam from French authorities since 1706 when he deserted his post as commandant of Fort Detroit after he was criticized by Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac for his handling of an attack by the Ottawa (tribe) in which a priest, a French sergeant and 30 Ottawa were killed. Bourgmont had further infuriated the French by illegally trapping and for immoral behavior when he showed up at French outposts with his Native American wife. However after Bourgmont's two documents, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, founder of Louisiana, said that rather than arresting Bourgmont they should decorate him with Cross of St. Louis and name him "commandant of the Missouri" to represent France on the entire river. Bourgmont's reputation was further enhanced when the Pawnee, who had been befriended by Bourgmont, massacred the Spanish Villasur expedition in 1720 near modern day Columbus, Nebraska which temporarily ended Spanish designs on the Missouri River and cleared the way for a New France empire stretching from Montreal, Canada to New Mexico. After squabbling with French authorities over financing of a new fort on the Missouri and also suffering a yearlong illness, Bourgmont established Fort Orleans, which was the first fort and first longer term European settlement of any kind on the Missouri, in late 1723 near his home at Brunswick. In 1724 Bourgmont led an expedition to enlist Comanche support in the fight against the Spanish. In 1725 Bourgmont brought the chiefs of the Missouri River tribes to Paris to see the glory of France including the palaces of Versailles, and Fountainbleau and a hunting expedition on a royal preserve with Louis XV. Bourgmont was raised to the rank of the nobility, remained in France and did not accompany the chiefs back to the New World. Fort Orleans was either abandoned or its small contingent massacred by Native Americans in 1726. It is unclear how far up the Missouri Bourgmont traveled. He is the documented first European discoverer of the Platte River. In his writings he described the blonde-haired Mandans, so it is possible that he made it as far north as their villages in central North Dakota. MacKay and Evans The Spanish took over the Missouri River in the Treaty of Paris (1763) that ended the French and Indian War/Seven Years War. The Spanish claim to the Missouri was based on Hernando de Soto's "discovery" of the Mississippi River on May 8, 1541. The Spanish initially did not extensively explore the river and let French fur traders continue their activities although under license. After the British began to exert influence on the Upper Missouri River via the Hudson's Bay Company, news of English incursions came following an expedition by Jacques D’Eglise in 1790. The Spanish chartered the "Company of Discoverers and Explorers of the Missouri" (popularly referred to as the "Missouri Company") and offered a reward for the first person to reach the Pacific via the Missouri. In 1794 and 1795 expeditions led by Jean Baptiste Truteau and Antoine Simon Lecuyer de la Jonchšre did not even make it as far north as the Mandan villages in central North Dakota. The most significant expedition though was the MacKay and Evans Expedition of 1795-1797. James MacKay and John Evans were hired by the Spanish to search a route to the Pacific Ocean and to tell the British to leave the upper Missouri. McKay and Evans established a winter camp about south of Sioux City, Iowa on the Nebraska side where they built Fort Columbus. Evans went on to the Mandan village where he expelled British traders. While talking to Native Americans they pinpointed the location of the Yellowstone River (which they called "Yellow Rock"). They created a detailed map of the upper Missouri that was used by Lewis and Clark. Lewis and Clark Main articles: Louisiana Purchase and Lewis and Clark On October 27, 1795, the United States and Spain signed Pinckney's Treaty giving American merchants the "right of deposit" in New Orleans, meaning they could use the port to store goods for export. The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the entire Mississippi River. In 1798 Spain revoked the treaty. On October 1, 1800, the Spanish secretly returned Louisiana to the French under Napoleon in the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. The transfer was so secret that the Spanish continued to administer the territory. In 1801 they restored the United States rights to use the river and New Orleans. Thomas Jefferson, fearing the cutoffs could occur again, sought to negotiate with France to buy New Orleans for the asking price of $10 million. Napoleon countered with an offer of $15 million for all of the Louisiana Territory including the Missouri River. The deal was signed on May 2, 1803. On June 20, 1803, Thomas Jefferson instructed Meriwether Lewis to explore the Missouri and look for a water route to the Pacific. Although the deal was signed, Spain still balked at an American takeover, citing that France had never formally taken over the Louisiana Territory. Spain was to formally tell Lewis not to take the journey and expressly forbade Lewis from seeing the McKay and Evans map which was the most detailed and accurate of its time. Lewis was to gain access to it surreptitiously. To avoid jurisdictional issues with Spain they wintered in 1803-1804 at Camp Dubois on the Illinois (United States) side of the Mississippi. Lewis and William Clark left on May 14, 1804 and returned to St. Louis on September 23, 1806. American Frontier Karl Bodmer "Fort Pierre and the Adjacent Prairie", c. 1833 The river defined the American frontier in the 19th century, particularly downstream from Kansas City, Missouri, where it takes a sharp eastern turn into the heart of the state of Missouri. All of the major trails for the opening of the American West have their starting points on the river, including the California, Mormon, Oregon, and Santa Fe trails. The first westward leg of the Pony Express was a ferry ride across the Missouri at St. Joseph, Missouri. The first westward leg of the First Transcontinental Railroad was a ferry ride across the Missouri between Council Bluffs, Iowa and Omaha, Nebraska. The Hannibal Bridge was the first bridge to cross the river when it opened in Kansas City in 1869, and was a major reason why Kansas City became the largest city on the river upstream from its mouth at St. Louis. Extensive use of paddle steamers on the upper river helped facilitate European settlement of the Dakotas and Montana. The Department of the Missouri, which was headquartered on the banks of the river at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, was the military command center for the Indian Wars in the region. The northernmost navigable point on the Missouri before extensive navigation improvements was Fort Benton, Montana, at approximately 2,620 feet. Economy River modifications Fort Randall Dam on the Missouri River in South Dakota Since the lower river meanders through a broad floodplain in Midwestern states, it has often changed course and in its wake left numerous oxbow lakes (Big Lake is the largest such lake in Missouri). In the early 1800s the United States Supreme Court (which decides state border disputes) ruled that when the river changed course the border also changed (as happened with the Fairfax District at Kansas City, Kansas which switched from Missouri to Kansas.) However, in the late 1800s the Court began ruling on absolute boundaries, creating geographic oddities such as Carter Lake, Iowa, which is now a piece of Iowa on the west side of the Missouri between downtown Omaha and Eppley Airfield, and the French Bottoms in St. Joseph, Missouri, a piece of Missouri on the west of the river, requiring Missouri residents to go through Kansas to reach Rosecrans Airport. In the 20th century, the upper Missouri was extensively dammed for flood control, irrigation, and hydroelectric power. After President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Flood Control Act of 1944, the Pick-Sloan Plan turned the Missouri River into the largest reservoir system in North America. There are six dams in four states: Fort Peck Dam in Montana; Garrison Dam in North Dakota; Oahe Dam, Big Bend Dam, and Fort Randall Dam in South Dakota; and Gavins Point Dam on the South Dakota-Nebraska border. These dams were constructed without locks, so commercial navigation on the Missouri cannot proceed above the Gavins Point Dam. The Corps of Engineers maintains a 9-foot-deep (3 m) navigation channel for 735 miles (1183 km) between Sioux City, Iowa and St. Louis in non-winter months. The dams aid navigation on the lower river by reducing fluctuations in water levels. Thirty-five percent of the Missouri River is impounded, 32 percent has been channelized, and 33 percent is unchannelized. The only significant stretch of free-flowing stream on the lower Missouri is the Missouri National Recreational River section between Gavins Point Dam and Ponca State Park, Nebraska. This federally-designated "Wild and Scenic River" is among the last unspoiled stretches of the Missouri, and exhibits the islands, bars, chutes and snags that once characterized the "Mighty Mo". The dikes, revetments, and levees constructed by the Corps of Engineers as part of the Missouri River Navigation and Flood Control Project have transformed the once sprawling and constantly changing river into a narrower, deeper, fixed channel designed to more easily maintain the navigation channel. The river carries a large amount of silt and sand, but high water velocity in the navigation channel normally prevents settling out and sand bar accumulations. As a result, unlike the Mississippi River, the Missouri River rarely requires dredging to maintain the navigation channel. The huge amounts of sediment in the Big Muddy have long provided a free source of sand, mined by commercial dredgers to be used in concrete and asphalt for construction, mainly below Rulo, Nebraska. In recent years, the quantity of sand commercially dredged from the Missouri River has dramatically increased as Kansas City, Columbia, and St. Louis have grown. In 2000, 7.4 million tons of sand and gravel were dredged out of the navigation channel. As commercial sand dredging has increased, the Missouri River bed has gradually cut deeper into the flood plain. Between 1990 and 2005 the river around Kansas City, Missouri has degraded as much as . Traffic Barge traffic has been steadily declining from 3.3 million tons in 1977 to 1.3 million tons in 2000. The declining barge traffic industry has stirred controversies over the management of the river and whether upstream dams should release more water to maintain commercial navigation standards. Casinos The states of Iowa and Missouri have sought to revive their waterfronts by permitting riverboat gambling. The initial gambling regulations required the casinos to navigate the river. They were subsequently amended so that the casinos could be permanent land-based structures as long as they had a moat with Missouri River water surrounding them. Popular depictions George Caleb Bingham "Fur Traders on Missouri River", c. 1845. The American painter George Catlin traveled up the Missouri in the 1830s, making portraits of individuals and tribes of Native Americans. He also painted several Missouri River landscapes, notably "Floyd's Bluff" and "Brick Kilns", both from 1832. The Swiss painter Karl Bodmer accompanied German explorer Prince Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied from 1832 through 1834 on his Missouri River expedition. Bodmer was hired as an artist by Maximilian for the purpose of recording images of the Native American tribes that they encountered in the American West. In 1843, the American painter and naturalist John James Audubon traveled west to the upper Missouri River and the Dakota Territory to do fieldwork for his final major opus, Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America. A typical example from this folio is "American Bison". Missouri painter George Caleb Bingham immortalized the fur traders and flatboatmen who plied the Missouri River in the early 1800s; these same boatmen were known for their river chanties, including the haunting American folk song "Oh Shenandoah". Each verse of "Oh Shenandoah" ends with the line, "...'cross the wide Missouri." The Missouri may be the setting of the Pete Seeger song Waist Deep in the Big Muddy. (There is considerable ambiguity as to location, however. Seeger sings that the action took place in "Loo-siana" and there is also a Big Muddy River in Illinois. One could not "press on" very far into the Missouri and remain only "waist deep.") The song is set in 1942, during training for World War II, but its image of a foolish captain who pushes his men further and further into a hopeless situation was clearly meant to parallel the Vietnam War. In the song, a Captain leading a squad on training maneuvers insists on crossing the titular river, insisting that it is safe to cross. The Captain sinks into the mud, drowns, and his squad turns back, led by the Sergeant who had questioned the Captain's orders. A. B. Guthrie, Jr.'s popular Western novel The Big Sky (1947) tells the story of a group of men who, in the early 19th century, made the long journey up the Missouri from St. Louis to Montana. Howard Hawks made a film based on the book a few years later. Lists Tributaries The following rivers are listed going downstream based on the states where they enter the Missouri. Montana Jefferson River Madison River Gallatin River Sixteen Mile Creek Dearborn River Smith River Sun River Belt Creek Marias River Arrow Creek Judith River Cow Creek Musselshell River Milk River Redwater River Poplar River Big Muddy Creek The James River, a Missouri River tributary, in Jamestown, North Dakota North Dakota Yellowstone River Little Muddy Creek Tobacco Garden Creek Little Missouri River Knife River Heart River Cannonball River South Dakota Grand River Moreau River Cheyenne River Bad River White River South Dakota/Nebraska Niobrara River (Nebraska) James River (South Dakota) Vermillion River (South Dakota) Falls of the Big Sioux River, a Missouri River tributary, at Sioux Falls, South Dakota South Dakota/Iowa/Nebraska Big Sioux River (tri-state border) Nebraska/Iowa Perry Creek (Iowa) Floyd River (Iowa) Little Sioux River (Iowa) Soldier River (Iowa) Boyer River (Iowa) Mosquito Creek (Iowa) Platte River (Nebraska) Little Nemaha River (Nebraska) Big Nemaha River (Nebraska) Iowa/Missouri Nishnabotna River Nodaway River (Missouri) Kansas/Missouri Platte River (Missouri) Kansas River (Kansas) Missouri Blue River Grand River Chariton River Lamine River Osage River Gasconade River Populated places Missouri River at N.P. Dodge Park, Omaha, Nebraska Although the Missouri drains about one-sixth of North America, its basin is relatively lightly populated with only 10 million people. For a full list, see List of cities and towns along the Missouri River. From mouth upstream to source: St. Louis, Missouri Saint Charles, Missouri Jefferson City, Missouri (capital) Kansas City, Missouri Kansas City, Kansas Saint Joseph, Missouri Omaha, Nebraska Council Bluffs, Iowa Sioux City, Iowa Pierre, South Dakota (capital) Bismarck, North Dakota (capital) Great Falls, Montana Features Images See also List of crossings of the Missouri River Geography of the United States Across the Wide Missouri Pick-Sloan Legislation Roe River and D River, for the shortest river counterpart Flood of 1993 Montana Wilderness Association Montana Stream Access Law References External links Missouri River Montana Fishing Report | Missouri_River |@lemmatized missouri:120 river:164 united:9 state:26 geological:1 survey:1 hydrological:1 unit:1 code:1 cahokia:1 joachim:1 watershed:1 tributary:12 mississippi:17 long:11 america:7 likely:2 originate:2 brower:6 spring:4 upper:8 reach:3 jefferson:16 join:4 confluence:7 madison:5 gallatin:5 montana:18 point:8 flow:13 valley:1 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3,819 | Cerium | Cerium () is a chemical element with the symbol Ce and atomic number 58. Characteristics Cerium is a silvery metal, belonging to the lanthanoid group. It resembles iron in color and luster, but is soft, and both malleable and ductile. Cerium has the longest liquid range of any non-radioactive element: 2648 C° (795 °C to 3443 °C) or 4766 F° (1463 °F to 6229 °F). (Thorium has a longer liquid range.) Cerium oxidizes very readily at room temperature, especially in moist air. Except for europium, cerium is the most reactive of the “rare-earth” metals. A slab of cerium slowly decomposes in cold water, and rapidly in hot water. Alkali solutions and dilute and concentrated acids attack the metal rapidly. The pure metal is likely to ignite if scratched. Cerium(IV) (ceric) salts are orange red or yellowish, whereas cerium(III) (cerous) salts are usually white or colorless. Both oxidation states absorb ultraviolet light strongly. Cerium(III) can be used to make glasses that are colorless, yet absorb ultraviolet light almost completely. Cerium can be readily detected in rare earth mixtures by a very sensitive qualitative test: addition of ammonia and hydrogen peroxide to an aqueous solution of lanthanides produces a characteristic dark brown color if cerium is present. Cerium is especially interesting because of its variable electronic structure. The energy of the inner 4f level is nearly the same as that of the outer or valence electrons, and only small energy is required to change the relative occupancy of these electronic levels. This gives rise to dual valency states. For example, a volume change of about 10% occurs when cerium is subjected to high pressures or low temperatures. It appears that the valence changes from about 3 to 4 when it is cooled or compressed. The low temperature behavior of cerium is complex. Four allotropic modifications are thought to exist: cerium at room temperature and at atmospheric pressure is known as γ cerium. Upon cooling to –16°C, γ cerium changes to ß cerium. The remaining γ cerium starts to change to α cerium when cooled to –172°C, and the transformation is complete at –269 °C. α Cerium has a density of 8.16; δ cerium exists above 726 °C. At atmospheric pressure, liquid cerium is more dense than its solid form at the melting point. Phase diagram of cerium Occurrence Cerium is the most abundant of the rare earth elements, making up about 0.0046% of the Earth's crust by weight. It is found in a number of minerals including allanite (also known as orthite)—(Ca, Ce, La, Y)2(Al, Fe)3(SiO4)3(OH), monazite (Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y)PO4, bastnasite (Ce, La, Y)CO3F, hydroxylbastnasite (Ce, La, Nd)CO3(OH, F), rhabdophane (Ce, La, Nd)PO4-H2O, zircon (ZrSiO4), and synchysite Ca(Ce, La, Nd, Y)(CO3)2F. Monazite and bastnasite are presently the two most important sources of cerium. Large deposits of monazite, allanite, and bastnasite will supply cerium, thorium, and other rare-earth metals for many years to come. C. R. Hammond, "The Elements", in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81th edition, CRC press. Production Cerium is most often prepared via an ion exchange process that uses monazite sands as its cerium source. It is never found in nature as the free element. Metallic cerium is prepared by metallothermic reduction techniques, such as by reducing cerous fluoride with calcium, or by electrolysis of molten cerous chloride or other cerous halides. The metallothermic technique is used to produce high-purity cerium . Compounds Cerium(IV) sulfate Cerium has two common oxidation states, +3 and +4. The most common compound of cerium is cerium(IV) oxide (CeO2), which is used as "jeweller's rouge" as well as in the walls of some self-cleaning ovens. Two common oxidising agents used in titrations are ammonium cerium(IV) sulfate (ceric ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2Ce(SO4)3) and ammonium cerium(IV) nitrate (ceric ammonium nitrate or CAN, (NH4)2Ce(NO3)6). Cerium also forms a chloride, CeCl3 or cerium(III) chloride, used to facilitate reactions at carbonyl groups in organic chemistry. Other compounds include cerium(III) carbonate (Ce2(CO3)3), cerium(III) fluoride (CeF3), cerium(III) oxide (Ce2O3), as well as cerium(IV) sulfate (ceric sulfate, Ce(SO4)2) and cerium(III) triflate (Ce(OSO2CF3)3). The two oxidation states of cerium differ enormously in basicity: cerium(III) is a strong base, comparable to the other trivalent lanthanides, but cerium(IV) is weak. This difference has always allowed cerium to be by far the most readily isolated and purified of all the lanthanides, otherwise a notoriously difficult group of elements to separate. A wide range of procedures have been devised over the years to exploit the difference. Among the better ones: Leaching the mixed hydroxides with dilute nitric acid: the trivalent lanthanides dissolve in cerium-free condition, and tetravalent cerium remains in the insoluble residue as a concentrate to be further purified by other means. A variation on this uses hydrochloric acid and the calcined oxides from bastnaesite, but the separation is less sharp. Precipitating cerium from a nitrate or chloride solution using potassium permanganate and sodium carbonate in a 1:4 molar ratio. Boiling rare-earth nitrate solutions with potassium bromate and marble chips. Formerly used commercially was a method whereby a solution of cerium(IV) in nitric acid would be added to dilute sulfuric acid. This caused cerium(IV) to largely precipitate as a basic salt, leaving trivalent lanthanide in solution. However, the finely divided precipitate was difficult to filter from the highly corrosive medium. Using the classical methods of rare-earth separation, there was a considerable advantage to a strategy of removing cerium from the mixture at the beginning. Cerium typically comprised 45% of the cerite or monazite rare earths, and removing it early greatly reduced the bulk of what needed to be further processed (or the cost of reagents to be associated with such processing). However, not all cerium purification methods relied on basicity. Ceric ammonium nitrate [ammonium hexanitratocerate(IV)] crystallization from nitric acid was one purification method. Cerium(IV) nitrate (hexanitratoceric acid) was more readily extractable into certain solvents (e.g. tri-n-butyl phosphate) than the trivalent lanthanides. However, modern practice in China seems to be to do purification of cerium by counter-current solvent extraction, in its trivalent form, just like the other lanthanides. Cerium(IV) is a strong oxidant under acidic conditions, but stable under alkaline conditions, when it is cerium(III) that becomes a strong reductant, easily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen (O2). This ease of oxidation under alkaline conditions leads to the occasional geochemical parting of the ways between cerium and the trivalent light lanthanides under supergene weathering conditions, leading variously to the "negative cerium anomaly" or to the formation of the mineral cerianite. Air-oxidation of alkaline cerium(III) is the most economical way to get to cerium(IV), which can then be handled in acid solution. Applications Uses of cerium: In metallurgy: Cerium is used in making aluminium alloys. Adding cerium to cast irons opposes graphitization and produces a malleable iron. In steels, cerium degasifies and can help reduce sulfides and oxides. Cerium is used in stainless steel as a precipitation hardening agent. 3 to 4% cerium added to magnesium alloys, along with 0.2 to 0.6% zirconium, helps refine the grain and give sound casting of complex shapes. It also adds heat resistance to magnesium castings. Cerium is used in alloys that are used to make permanent magnets. Cerium is used as an alloying element in tungsten electrodes for gas tungsten arc welding. Cerium is a major component of ferrocerium, also known as "lighter flint". Although modern alloys of this type generally use Mischmetal rather than purified cerium, it still is the most prevalent constituent. Cerium is used in carbon-arc lighting, especially in the motion picture industry. Cerium oxalate is an anti-emetic drug. Cerium(III) oxide As a catalytic converter for the reduction of CO emissions in the exhaust gases from motor vehicles. In ceramic form, together with Tin(II) oxide (SnO) it is used for illumination with UV light. In the cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle. Cerium(IV) oxide The oxide is used in incandescent gas mantles, such as the Welsbach mantle, where it was combined with thorium, lanthanum, magnesium or yttrium oxides. The oxide is emerging as a hydrocarbon catalyst in self cleaning ovens, incorporated into oven walls. Cerium(IV) oxide has largely replaced rouge in the glass industry as a polishing abrasive. Cerium(IV) oxide is finding use as a petroleum cracking catalyst in petroleum refining. Cerium(IV) additives to diesel fuel cause that to burn more cleanly, with less resulting air-pollution. In glass, cerium(IV) oxide allows for selective absorption of ultraviolet light. Cerium(IV) oxide, doped with other rare earth oxides, has been investigated as a solid electrolyte in intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells. The cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle or CeO2/Ce2O3 cycle is a two step thermochemical process based on cerium(IV) oxide and cerium(III) oxide for hydrogen production Hydrogen production from solar thermochemical water splitting cycles . Cerium(IV) sulfate is used extensively as a volumetric oxidizing agent in quantitative analysis. Ceric ammonium nitrate is a useful one-electron oxidant in organic chemistry, used to oxidatively etch electronic components, and as a primary standard for quantitative analysis. Cerium compounds are used in the manufacture of glass, both as a component and as a decolorizer. cerium(IV) oxide in combination with titanium(IV) oxide gives a golden yellow color to glass. Cerium compounds are used for the coloring of enamel. Cerium(III) and cerium(IV) compounds such as cerium(III) chloride have uses as catalysts in organic synthesis. History Cerium was discovered in Bastnäs in Sweden by Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger, and independently in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, both in 1803. Cerium was so named by Berzelius after the dwarf planet , discovered two years earlier (1801). As originally isolated, cerium was in the form of its oxide, and was named ceria, a term that is still used. The metal itself was too electropositive to be isolated by then-current smelting technology, a characteristic of earth metals in general. However, the development of electrochemistry by Humphry Davy was only five years into the future, and then the earths were well on their way to yielding up the metals they contained. Ceria, as isolated in 1803, contained all of the lanthanides present in the cerite ore from Bastnäs, Sweden, and thus only contained about 45% of what is now known to be pure ceria. It was not until Mosander succeeded in removing lanthana and "didymia" in the late 1830s, that ceria was obtained pure. As a historical aside: Wilhelm Hisinger was a wealthy mine owner and amateur scientist, and sponsor of Berzelius. He owned or controlled the mine at Bastnäs, and had been trying for years to find out the composition of the abundant heavy gangue rock (the "Tungstein of Bastnäs"), now known as cerite, that he had in his mine. Mosander and his family lived for many years in the same house as Berzelius, and the former was undoubtedly persuaded by the latter to investigate ceria further. When the rare earths were first discovered, since they were strong bases like the oxides of calcium or magnesium, they were thought to be divalent. Thus, "ceric" cerium was thought to be trivalent, and the oxidation state ratio was therefore thought to be 1.5. Berzelius was extremely annoyed to keep on getting the ratio 1.33. He was after all one of the finest analytical chemists in Europe. But he was a better analyst than he thought, since 1.33 was the correct answer! In the late 1950's, The Lindsay Chemical Division of American Potash and Chemical Corporation of West Chicago Illinois, then the largest producer of rare earths in the world, was offering cerium compounds in two purity ranges, "commercial" at 94-97% purity, and "purified", at a reported 99.9+% purity. In their October 1, 1958 pricelist, one-pound quantities of the oxides were priced at $3.30 or $8.10 respectively for the two purities; the per-pound price for 50-pound quantities were respectively $1.95 or $4.95 for the two grades. Cerium salts were proportionately cheaper, reflecting their lower net content of oxide. Isotopes Naturally-occurring cerium is composed of 4 stable isotopes; 136Ce, 138Ce, 140Ce, and 142Ce with 140Ce being the most abundant (88.48% natural abundance). 136Ce and 142Ce are predicted to be double beta active but no signs of activity were ever observed (for 142Ce, the lower limit on half-life is 5×1016 years). 26 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most long-lived being 144Ce with a half-life of 284.893 days, 139Ce with a half-life of 137.640 days, and 141Ce with a half-life of 32.501 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 4 days and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 10 minutes. This element also has 2 meta states. The known isotopes of cerium range in atomic weight from 123 u (123Ce) to 152 u (152Ce). Cerium 144 is a high-yield product of nuclear fission; the ORNL Fission Product Pilot Plant separated substantial quantities of cerium-144 from reactor waste, and it was used in the Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion and SNAP programs. Precautions Cerium, like all rare-earth metals, is of low to moderate toxicity. Cerium is a strong reducing agent and ignites spontaneously in air at 65 to 80 °C (150 to 175 °F). Fumes from cerium fires are toxic. Water should not be used to stop cerium fires, as cerium reacts with water to produce hydrogen gas. Workers exposed to cerium have experienced itching, sensitivity to heat, and skin lesions. Animals injected with large doses of cerium have died due to cardiovascular collapse. Cerium(IV) oxide is a powerful oxidizing agent at high temperatures and will react with combustible organic materials. While cerium is not radioactive, the impure commercial grade may contain traces of thorium, which is radioactive. Cerium serves no known biological function. References Lattice and spin dynamics of gamma-Ce External links WebElements.com – Cerium It's Elemental – The Element Cerium Cerium Properties and Applications | Cerium |@lemmatized cerium:119 chemical:3 element:9 symbol:1 ce:10 atomic:2 number:2 characteristic:3 silvery:1 metal:9 belong:1 lanthanoid:1 group:3 resemble:1 iron:3 color:3 luster:1 soft:1 malleable:2 ductile:1 long:2 liquid:3 range:5 non:1 radioactive:4 c:9 f:5 thorium:4 longer:1 oxidize:2 readily:4 room:2 temperature:6 especially:3 moist:1 air:4 except:1 europium:1 reactive:1 rare:11 earth:14 slab:1 slowly:1 decompose:1 cold:1 water:5 rapidly:2 hot:1 alkali:1 solution:7 dilute:3 concentrated:1 acid:8 attack:1 pure:3 likely:1 ignite:2 scratch:1 iv:27 ceric:7 salt:4 orange:1 red:1 yellowish:1 whereas:1 iii:16 cerous:4 usually:1 white:1 colorless:2 oxidation:6 state:6 absorb:2 ultraviolet:3 light:5 strongly:1 use:27 make:4 glass:5 yet:1 almost:1 completely:1 detect:1 mixture:2 sensitive:1 qualitative:1 test:1 addition:1 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3,820 | Martin_Luther_King,_Jr. | Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968) was an American clergyman, activist and prominent leader in the African-American civil rights movement. His main legacy was to secure progress on civil rights in the United States and he is frequently referenced as a human rights icon today. King is recognized as a martyr by two Christian churches. The Episcopal and Lutheran Churches in the USA have feast days dedicated to Martin Luther King Jr., on 4th April and and 15th January respectively, as per the Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church in the United States of America), and Calendar of Saints (Lutheran). Neither church has a formal canonization process, and King Jr. is recognized as a martyr in both churches. There is a statue of King Jr. in the Gallery of 20th Century Martyrs at Westminster Abbey, London. A Baptist minister, Lischer, Richard. (2001). The Preacher King, p. 3. King became a civil rights activist early in his career. He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957, serving as its first president. King's efforts led to the 1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech. There, he raised public consciousness of the civil rights movement and established himself as one of the greatest orators in U.S. history. In 1964, King became the youngest person to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for his work to end racial segregation and racial discrimination through civil disobedience and other non-violent means. By the time of his death in 1968, he had refocused his efforts on ending poverty and opposing the Vietnam War, both from a religious perspective. King was assassinated on April 4, 1968, in Memphis, Tennessee. He was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1977 and Congressional Gold Medal in 2004; Martin Luther King, Jr. Day was established as a U.S. national holiday in 1986. Early life Martin Luther King, Jr., was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia. He was the son of the Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr. and Alberta Williams King. King's father was born "Michael King," and Martin Luther King, Jr., was originally named "Michael King, Jr.," until the family traveled to Europe in 1934 and visited Germany. His father soon changed both of their names to Martin in honor of the German Protestant leader Martin Luther. He had an older sister, Willie Christine King, and a younger brother Alfred Daniel Williams King. King sang with his church choir at the 1939 Atlanta premiere of the movie Gone with the Wind. Growing up in Atlanta, King attended Booker T. Washington High School. He skipped ninth and twelfth grade, and entered Morehouse College at age fifteen without formally graduating from high school. In 1948, he graduated from Morehouse with a Bachelor of Arts degree in sociology, and enrolled in Crozer Theological Seminary in Chester, Pennsylvania, from which he graduated with a Bachelor of Divinity degree in 1951. King then began doctoral studies in systematic theology at Boston University and received his Doctor of Philosophy on June 5, 1955. A 1980s inquiry concluded portions of his dissertation had been plagiarized and he had acted improperly but that his dissertation still "makes an intelligent contribution to scholarship." See Martin Luther King, Jr. authorship issues. See also: , , King married Coretta Scott, on June 18, 1953, on the lawn of her parents' house in her hometown of Heiberger, Alabama. King and Scott had four children; Yolanda King, Martin Luther King III, Dexter Scott King, and Bernice King. King became pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama when he was twenty-five years old in 1954. Influences Populist tradition and Black populism Harry C. Boyte, a self-proclaimed populist, field secretary of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and white civil rights activist describes an episode in his life that gives insight on some of King's influences: My first encounter with deeper meanings of populism came when I was nineteen, working as a field secretary for the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in St. Augustine, Florida in 1964. One day I was caught by five men and a woman who were members of the Klu Klux Klan. They accused me of being a "communist and a Yankee." I replied, "I'm no Yankee – my family has been in the South since before the Revolution. And I'm not a communist. I'm a populist. I believe that blacks and poor whites should join to do something about the big shots who keep us divided." For a few minutes we talked about what such a movement might look like. Then they let me go. When he learned of the incident, Martin Luther King, head of SCLC, told me that he identified with the populist tradition and assigned to organize poor whites. http://ginsberg.umich.edu/downloads/Boyte_Dewey_Lecture2007.doc Thurman Civil rights leader, theologian, and educator Howard Thurman was an early influence on King. A classmate of King's father at Morehouse College, Thurman mentored the young King and his friends. Thurman's missionary work had taken him abroad where he had met and conferred with Gandhi. When he was a student at Boston University, King often visited Thurman, who was the dean of Marsh Chapel. Walter Fluker, who has studied Thurman's writings, has stated, "I don't believe you'd get a Martin Luther King, Jr. without a Howard Thurman". Gandhi and Rustin Inspired by Gandhi's success with non-violent activism, King visited the Gandhi family in India in 1959, with assistance from the Quaker group the American Friends Service Committee. The trip to India affected King in a profound way, deepening his understanding of non-violent resistance and his commitment to America's struggle for civil rights. In a radio address made during his final evening in India, King reflected, "Since being in India, I am more convinced than ever before that the method of nonviolent resistance is the most potent weapon available to oppressed people in their struggle for justice and human dignity. In a real sense, Mahatma Gandhi embodied in his life certain universal principles that are inherent in the moral structure of the universe, and these principles are as inescapable as the law of gravitation." African American civil rights activist Bayard Rustin, who had studied Gandhi's teachings, counseled King to dedicate himself to the principles of non-violence, served as King's main advisor and mentor throughout his early activism, and was the main organizer of the 1963 March on Washington. Rustin's open homosexuality, support of democratic socialism, and his former ties to the Communist Party USA caused many white and African-American leaders to demand King distance himself from Rustin. Delivering the message Throughout his career of service, King wrote and spoke frequently, drawing on his experience as a preacher. His "Letter from Birmingham Jail", written in 1963, is a "passionate" statement of his crusade for justice. On October 14, 1964, King became the youngest recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, which was awarded to him for leading non-violent resistance to end racial prejudice in the United States. Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955 In March 1955, a fifteen-year-old school girl, Claudette Colvin, refused to give up her bus seat to a white man in compliance with the Jim Crow laws. King was on the committee from the Birmingham African-American community that looked into the case; Edgar Nixon and Clifford Durr decided to wait for a better case to pursue. On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat. The Montgomery Bus Boycott, urged and planned by Nixon and led by King, soon followed. The boycott lasted for 385 days, and the situation became so tense that King's house was bombed. King was arrested during this campaign, which ended with a United States District Court ruling in Browder v. Gayle that ended racial segregation on all Montgomery public buses. See also: Southern Christian Leadership Conference In 1957, King, Ralph Abernathy, and other civil rights activists founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The group was created to harness the moral authority and organizing power of black churches to conduct non-violent protests in the service of civil rights reform. King led the SCLC until his death. In 1958, while signing copies of his book Strive Toward Freedom in a Harlem department store, he was stabbed in the chest by Izola Curry, a deranged black woman with a letter opener, and narrowly escaped death. Gandhi's nonviolent techniques were useful to King's campaign to correct the civil rights laws implemented in Alabama. King applied non-violent philosophy to the protests organized by the SCLC. In 1959, he wrote The Measure of A Man, from which the piece What is Man?, an attempt to sketch the optimal political, social, and economic structure of society, is derived. His SCLC secretary and personal assistant in this period was Dora McDonald. The FBI, under written directive from then Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, began telephone tapping King in 1963. J. Edgar Hoover feared Communists were trying to infiltrate the Civil Rights Movement, but when no such evidence emerged, the bureau used the incidental details caught on tape over the next five years in attempts to force King out of the preeminent leadership position. King believed that organized, nonviolent protest against the system of southern segregation known as Jim Crow laws would lead to extensive media coverage of the struggle for black equality and voting rights. Journalistic accounts and televised footage of the daily deprivation and indignities suffered by southern blacks, and of segregationist violence and harassment of civil rights workers and marchers, produced a wave of sympathetic public opinion that convinced the majority of Americans that the Civil Rights Movement was the most important issue in American politics in the early 1960s. See also: King organized and led marches for blacks' right to vote, desegregation, labor rights and other basic civil rights. Most of these rights were successfully enacted into the law of the United States with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the 1965 Voting Rights Act. See also: King and the SCLC applied the principles of nonviolent protest with great success by strategically choosing the method of protest and the places in which protests were carried out. There were often dramatic stand-offs with segregationist authorities. Sometimes these confrontations turned violent. Albany movement The Albany Movement was a desegregation coalition formed in Albany, Georgia in November, 1961. In December King and the SCLC became involved. The movement mobilized thousands of citizens for a broad-front nonviolent attack on every aspect of segregation within the city and attracted nationwide attention. When King first visited on December 15, 1961, he "had planned to stay a day or so and return home after giving counsel." But the following day he was swept up in a mass arrest of peaceful demonstrators, and he declined bail until the city made concessions. "Those agreements", said King, "were dishonored and violated by the city," as soon as he left town. King 1998 King returned in July 1962, and was sentenced to forty-five days in jail or a $178 fine. He chose jail. Three days into his sentence, Chief Pritchett discreetly arranged for King's fine to be paid and ordered his release. "We had witnessed persons being kicked off lunch counter stools ... ejected from churches ... and thrown into jail ... But for the first time, we witnessed being kicked out of jail." After nearly a year of intense activism with few tangible results, the movement began to deteriorate. King requested a halt to all demonstrations and a "Day of Penance" to promote non-violence and maintain the moral high ground. Divisions within the black community and the canny, low-key response by local government defeated efforts. However, it was credited as a key lesson in tactics for the national civil rights movement. Birmingham campaign The Birmingham campaign was a strategic effort by the SCLC to promote civil rights for African Americans. Many of its tactics of "Project C" were developed by Rev. Wyatt Tee Walker, Executive Director of SCLC from 1960-1964. Based on actions in Birmingham, Alabama, its goal was to end the city's segregated civil and discriminatory economic policies. The campaign lasted for more than two months in the spring of 1963. To provoke the police into filling the city's jails to overflowing, King and black citizens of Birmingham employed nonviolent tactics to flout laws they considered unfair. King summarized the philosophy of the Birmingham campaign when he said, "The purpose of ... direct action is to create a situation so crisis-packed that it will inevitably open the door to negotiation". Garrow, (1986) p. 246. Protests in Birmingham began with a boycott to pressure businesses to sales jobs and other employment to people of all races, as well as to end segregated facilities in the stores. When business leaders resisted the boycott, King and the SCLC began what they termed Project C, a series of sit-ins and marches intended to provoke arrest. After the campaign ran low on adult volunteers, it recruited children for what became known as the "Children's Crusade". During the protests, the Birmingham Police Department, led by Eugene "Bull" Connor, used high-pressure water jets and police dogs to control protesters, including children. Not all of the demonstrators were peaceful, despite the avowed intentions of the SCLC. In some cases, bystanders attacked the police, who responded with force. King and the SCLC were criticized for putting children in harm's way. By the end of the campaign, King's reputation improved immensely, Connor lost his job, the "Jim Crow" signs in Birmingham came down, and public places became more open to blacks. Augustine and Selma King and SCLC were also driving forces behind the protest in St. Augustine, Florida, in 1964. The movement engaged in nightly marches in the city met by white segregationists who violently assaulted them. Hundreds of the marchers were arrested and jailed. King and the SCLC joined forces with the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in Selma, Alabama, in December 1964, where SNCC had been working on voter registration for several months. A sweeping injunction issued by a local judge barred any gathering of 3 or more people under sponsorship of SNCC, SCLC, or DCVL, or with the involvement of 41 named civil rights leaders. This injunction temporarily halted civil rights activity until King defied it by speaking at Brown Chapel on January 2 1965. March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom March on Washington, 1963 King, representing SCLC, was among the leaders of the so-called "Big Six" civil rights organizations who were instrumental in the organization of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1963. The other leaders and organizations comprising the Big Six were: Roy Wilkins from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; Whitney Young, National Urban League; A. Philip Randolph, Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters; John Lewis, SNCC; and James L. Farmer, Jr. of the Congress of Racial Equality. The primary logistical and strategic organizer was King's colleague Bayard Rustin. For King, this role was another which courted controversy, since he was one of the key figures who acceded to the wishes of President John F. Kennedy in changing the focus of the march. See also: Kennedy initially opposed the march outright, because he was concerned it would negatively impact the drive for passage of civil rights legislation, but the organizers were firm that the march would proceed. The march originally was conceived as an event to dramatize the desperate condition of blacks in the southern United States and a very public opportunity to place organizers' concerns and grievances squarely before the seat of power in the nation's capital. Organizers intended to excoriate and then challenge the federal government for its failure to safeguard the civil rights and physical safety of civil rights workers and blacks, generally, in the South. However, the group acquiesced to presidential pressure and influence, and the event ultimately took on a far less strident tone. As a result, some civil rights activists felt it presented an inaccurate, sanitized pageant of racial harmony; Malcolm X called it the "Farce on Washington," and members of the Nation of Islam were not permitted to attend the march. King is perhaps most famous for his "I Have a Dream" speech, given in front of the Lincoln Memorial during the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. The march did, however, make specific demands: an end to racial segregation in public school; meaningful civil rights legislation, including a law prohibiting racial discrimination in employment; protection of civil rights workers from police brutality; a $2 minimum wage for all workers; and self-government for Washington, D.C., then governed by congressional committee. See also: See also: Despite tensions, the march was a resounding success. More than a quarter million people of diverse ethnicities attended the event, sprawling from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial onto the National Mall and around the reflecting pool. At the time, it was the largest gathering of protesters in Washington's history. King's "I Have a Dream" speech electrified the crowd. It is regarded, along with Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address and Franklin D. Roosevelt's Infamy Speech, as one of the finest speeches in the history of American oratory. Stance on compensation King giving a lecture on March 26, 1964 Martin Luther King Jr. expressed a view that black Americans, as well as other disadvantaged Americans, should be compensated for historical wrongs. In an interview conducted for Playboy in 1965, he said that granting black Americans only equality could not realistically close the economic gap between them and whites. King said that he did not seek a full restitution of wages lost to slavery, which he believed impossible, but proposed a government compensatory program of US$50 billion over ten years to all disadvantaged groups. He posited that "the money spent would be more than amply justified by the benefits that would accrue to the nation through a spectacular decline in school dropouts, family breakups, crime rates, illegitimacy, swollen relief rolls, rioting and other social evils". He presented this idea as an application of the common law regarding settlement of unpaid labor but clarified that he felt that the money should not be spent exclusively on blacks. He stated, "It should benefit the disadvantaged of all races". "Bloody Sunday", 1965 King and SCLC, in partial collaboration with SNCC, attempted to organize a march from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery, for March 7, 1965. The first attempt to march on March 7 was aborted because of mob and police violence against the demonstrators. This day has since become known as Bloody Sunday. Bloody Sunday was a major turning point in the effort to gain public support for the Civil Rights Movement, the clearest demonstration up to that time of the dramatic potential of King's nonviolence strategy. King, however, was not present. After meeting with President Lyndon B. Johnson, he decided not to endorse the march, but it was carried out against his wishes and without his presence on March 7 by local civil rights leaders. Footage of police brutality against the protesters was broadcast extensively and aroused national public outrage. King next attempted to organize a march for March 9. The SCLC petitioned for an injunction in federal court against the State of Alabama; this was denied and the judge issued an order blocking the march until after a hearing. Nonetheless, King led marchers on March 9 to the Edmund Pettus bridge, then held a short prayer session before turning the marchers around and asking them to disperse so as not to violate the court order. The unexpected ending of this second march aroused the surprise and anger of many within the local movement. The march finally went ahead fully on March 25. See also: At the conclusion of the march and on the steps of the state capitol, King delivered a speech that has become known as "How Long, Not Long". Chicago, 1966 King with President Lyndon Johnson in 1966 In 1966, after several successes in the South, King and others in the civil rights organizations tried to spread the movement to the North, with Chicago as its first destination. King and Ralph Abernathy, both from the middle classes, moved into the slums of North Lawndale on the west side of Chicago as an educational experience and to demonstrate their support and empathy for the poor. The SCLC formed a coalition with CCCO, Coordinating Council of Community Organizations, an organization founded by Albert Raby, and the combined organizations' efforts were fostered under the aegis of The Chicago Freedom Movement. During that spring, several dual white couple/black couple tests on real estate offices uncovered the practice (now banned in the U.S.) of racial steering. These tests revealed the racially selective processing of housing requests by couples who were exact matches in income, background, number of children, and other attributes, with the only difference being their race. The needs of the movement for radical change grew, and several larger marches were planned and executed, including those in the following neighborhoods: Bogan, Belmont Cragin, Jefferson Park, Evergreen Park (a suburb southwest of Chicago), Gage Park and Marquette Park, among others. See also: See also: In Chicago, Abernathy later wrote that they received a worse reception than they had in the South. Their marches were met by thrown bottles and screaming throngs, and they were truly afraid of starting a riot. See also: King's beliefs mitigated against his staging a violent event, and he negotiated an agreement with Mayor Richard J. Daley to cancel a march in order to avoid the violence that he feared would result from the demonstration. King, who received death threats throughout his involvement in the civil rights movement, was hit by a brick during one march but continued to lead marches in the face of personal danger. See also: When King and his allies returned to the south, they left Jesse Jackson, a seminary student who had previously joined the movement in the South, in charge of their organization. Jackson continued their struggle for civil rights by organizing the Operation Breadbasket movement that targeted chain stores that did not deal fairly with blacks. Opposition to the Vietnam War Starting in 1965, King began to express doubts about the United States' role in the Vietnam War. In an April 4, 1967 appearance at the New York City Riverside Church—exactly one year before his death—King delivered a speech titled "Beyond Vietnam". In the speech, he spoke strongly against the U.S.'s role in the war, insisting that the U.S. was in Vietnam "to occupy it as an American colony" and calling the U.S. government "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today". He also argued that the country needed larger and broader moral changes: King also was opposed to the Vietnam War on the grounds that the war took money and resources that could have been spent on social welfare services like the War on Poverty. The United States Congress was spending more and more on the military and less and less on anti-poverty programs at the same time. He summed up this aspect by saying, "A nation that continues year after year to spend more money on military defense than on programs of social uplift is approaching spiritual death". Many white southern segregationists vilified King; moreover, this speech soured his relationship with many members of the mainstream media. Life magazine called the speech "demagogic slander that sounded like a script for Radio Hanoi", and The Washington Post declared that King had "diminished his usefulness to his cause, his country, his people." King stated that North Vietnam "did not begin to send in any large number of supplies or men until American forces had arrived in the tens of thousands". King also criticized the United States' resistance to North Vietnam's land reforms. He accused the United States of having killed a million Vietnamese, "mostly children." The speech was a reflection of King's evolving political advocacy in his later years, which paralleled the teachings of the progressive Highlander Research and Education Center, with whom King was affiliated. See also: King began to speak of the need for fundamental changes in the political and economic life of the nation. Toward the end of his life, King more frequently expressed his opposition to the war and his desire to see a redistribution of resources to correct racial and economic injustice. Though his public language was guarded, so as to avoid being linked to communism by his political enemies, in private he sometimes spoke of his support for democratic socialism. In one speech, he stated that "something is wrong with capitalism" and claimed, "There must be a better distribution of wealth, and maybe America must move toward a democratic socialism." </blockquote> King had read Marx while at Morehouse, but while he rejected "traditional capitalism," he also rejected Communism because of its "materialistic interpretation of history" that denied religion, its "ethical relativism," and its "political totalitarianism." King also stated in his "Beyond Vietnam" speech that "true compassion is more than flinging a coin to a beggar....it comes to see that an edifice which produces beggars needs restructuring". King quoted a United States official, who said that, from Vietnam to South America to Latin America, the country was "on the wrong side of a world revolution" King condemned America's "alliance with the landed gentry of Latin America," and said that the United States should support "the shirtless and barefoot people" in the Third World rather than suppressing their attempts at revolution. King spoke at an Anti-Vietnam demonstration where he also brought up issues of civil rights and the draft. Poor People's Campaign, 1968 In 1968, King and the SCLC organized the "Poor People's Campaign" to address issues of economic justice. The campaign culminated in a march on Washington, D.C. demanding economic aid to the poorest communities of the United States. King traveled the country to assemble "a multiracial army of the poor" that would march on Washington to engage in nonviolent civil disobedience at the Capitol until Congress created a bill of rights for poor Americans. However, the campaign was not unanimously supported by other leaders of the Civil Rights Movement. Rustin resigned from the march stating that the goals of the campaign were too broad, the demands unrealizable, and thought these campaigns would accelerate the backlash and repression on the poor and the black. Throughout his participation in the civil rights movement, King was criticized by many groups. This included opposition by more militant blacks and such prominent critics as Nation of Islam member Malcolm X. Stokely Carmichael was a separatist and disagreed with King's plea for racial integration because he considered it an insult to a uniquely African-American culture. Omali Yeshitela urged Africans to remember the history of violent European colonization and how power was not secured by Europeans through integration, but by violence and force. King and the SCLC called on the government to invest in rebuilding America's cities. He felt that Congress had shown "hostility to the poor" by spending "military funds with alacrity and generosity". He contrasted this with the situation faced by poor Americans, claiming that Congress had merely provided "poverty funds with miserliness". His vision was for change that was more revolutionary than mere reform: he cited systematic flaws of "racism, poverty, militarism and materialism", and argued that "reconstruction of society itself is the real issue to be faced". Assassination The Lorraine Motel, where King was assassinated, is now the site of the National Civil Rights Museum On March 29, 1968, King went to Memphis, Tennessee in support of the black sanitary public works employees, represented by AFSCME Local 1733, who had been on strike since March 12 for higher wages and better treatment. In one incident, black street repairmen received pay for two hours when they were sent home because of bad weather, but white employees were paid for the full day. See also: On April 3, King addressed a rally and delivered his "I've Been to the Mountaintop" address at Mason Temple, the World Headquarters of the Church of God in Christ. King's flight to Memphis had been delayed by a bomb threat against his plane. In the close of the last speech of his career, in reference to the bomb threat, King said the following: And then I got to Memphis. And some began to say the threats, or talk about the threats that were out. What would happen to me from some of our sick white brothers? Well, I don't know what will happen now. We've got some difficult days ahead. But it doesn't matter with me now. Because I've been to the mountaintop. And I don't mind. Like anybody, I would like to live a long life. Longevity has its place. But I'm not concerned about that now. I just want to do God's will. And He's allowed me to go up to the mountain. And I've looked over. And I've seen the promised land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the promised land. And I'm happy, tonight. I'm not worried about anything. I'm not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord. King was booked in room 306 at the Lorraine Motel, owned by Walter Bailey, in Memphis. The Reverend Ralph Abernathy, King's close friend and colleague who was present at the assassination, swore under oath to the United States House Select Committee on Assassinations that King and his entourage stayed at room 306 at the Lorraine Motel so often it was known as the 'King-Abernathy suite.' King was shot at 6:01 p.m. April 4, 1968 while he was standing on the motel's second floor balcony. The bullet entered through his right cheek smashing his jaw and then traveled down his spinal cord before lodging in his shoulder. See also: According to Jesse Jackson, who was present, King's last words on the balcony were to musician Ben Branch, who was scheduled to perform that night at an event King was attending: "Ben, make sure you play "Take My Hand, Precious Lord" in the meeting tonight. Play it real pretty." Abernathy heard the shot from inside the motel room and ran to the balcony to find King on the floor. The events following the shooting have been disputed, as some people have accused Jackson of exaggerating his response. After emergency surgery, King was pronounced dead at St. Joseph's Hospital at 7:05 p.m. According to biographer Taylor Branch, King's autopsy revealed that though only thirty-nine years old, he had the heart of a sixty-year-old, perhaps a result of the stress of thirteen years in the civil rights movement. The assassination led to a nationwide wave of riots in more than 100 cities. Presidential nominee Robert Kennedy was on his way to Indianapolis for a campaign rally when he was informed of King's death. He gave a short yet empowering speech to the gathering of supporters informing them of the tragedy and asking them to continue King's idea of non-violence. Klein, Joe. Politics Lost: How American Democracy was Trivialized by People Who Think You're Stupid. New York, Doubleday, 2006. ISBN 978-0385-51027-1, p. 6. President Lyndon B. Johnson declared April 7 a national day of mourning for the civil rights leader. Vice-President Hubert Humphrey attended King's funeral on behalf of Lyndon B. Johnson, as there were fears that Johnson's presence might incite protests and perhaps violence. At his widow's request, King's last sermon at Ebenezer Baptist Church was played at the funeral. It was a recording of his "Drum Major" sermon, given on February 4, 1968. In that sermon, King made a request that at his funeral no mention of his awards and honors be made, but that it be said that he tried to "feed the hungry", "clothe the naked", "be right on the [Vietnam] war question", and "love and serve humanity". His good friend Mahalia Jackson sang his favorite hymn, "Take My hand, Precious Lord", at the funeral. The city of Memphis quickly settled the strike on terms favorable to the sanitation workers. Two months after King's death, escaped convict James Earl Ray was captured at London Heathrow Airport while trying to leave the United Kingdom on a false Canadian passport in the name of Ramon George Sneyd. Ray was quickly extradited to Tennessee and charged with King's murder. He confessed to the assassination on March 10, 1969, though he recanted this confession three days later. On the advice of his attorney Percy Foreman, Ray pleaded guilty to avoid a trial conviction and thus the possibility of receiving the death penalty. Ray was sentenced to a 99-year prison term. Ray fired Foreman as his attorney, from then on derisively calling him "Percy Fourflusher". He claimed a man he met in Montreal, Quebec with the alias "Raoul" was involved and that the assassination was the result of a conspiracy. He spent the remainder of his life attempting (unsuccessfully) to withdraw his guilty plea and secure the trial he never had. On June 10, 1977, shortly after Ray had testified to the House Select Committee on Assassinations that he did not shoot King, he and six other convicts escaped from Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary in Petros, Tennessee. They were recaptured on June 13 and returned to prison. Allegations of conspiracy Ray's lawyers maintained he was a scapegoat similar to the way that alleged John F. Kennedy assassin Lee Harvey Oswald is seen by conspiracy theorists. One of the claims used to support this assertion is that Ray's confession was given under pressure, and he had been threatened with the death penalty. Ray was a thief and burglar, but he had no record of committing violent crimes with a weapon. Those suspecting a conspiracy in the assassination point out the two separate ballistics tests conducted on the Remington Gamemaster recovered by police had neither conclusively proved Ray had been the killer nor that it had even been the murder weapon. Moreover, witnesses surrounding King at the moment of his death say the shot came from another location, from behind thick shrubbery near the rooming house - which had been inexplicably cut away in the days following the assassination - and not from the rooming house window. Martin Luther King's & Coretta Scott King's tomb, located on the grounds of the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site Developments In 1997, King's son Dexter Scott King met with Ray, and publicly supported Ray's efforts to obtain a new trial. Two years later, Coretta Scott King, King's widow, along with the rest of King's family, won a wrongful death claim against Loyd Jowers and "other unknown co-conspirators". Jowers claimed to have received $100,000 to arrange King's assassination. The jury of six whites and six blacks found Jowers guilty and that government agencies were party to the assassination. William F. Pepper represented the King family in the trial. King biographer David Garrow disagrees with William F. Pepper's claims that the government killed King. He is supported by author Gerald Posner who has researched and written about the assassination. In 2000, the United States Department of Justice completed the investigation about Jowers' claims but did not find evidence to support allegations about conspiracy. The investigation report recommended no further investigation unless some new reliable facts are presented. The New York Times reported a church minister, Rev. Ronald Denton Wilson, claimed his father, Henry Clay Wilson — not James Earl Ray — assassinated Martin Luther King, Jr. He stated, "It wasn't a racist thing; he thought Martin Luther King was connected with communism, and he wanted to get him out of the way." King's friend and colleague, James Bevel, disputed the argument that Ray acted alone, stating, "There is no way a ten-cent white boy could develop a plan to kill a million-dollar black man." In 2004, Jesse Jackson, who was with King at the time of his death, noted: The fact is there were saboteurs to disrupt the march. And within our own organization, we found a very key person who was on the government payroll. So infiltration within, saboteurs from without and the press attacks. …I will never believe that James Earl Ray had the motive, the money and the mobility to have done it himself. Our government was very involved in setting the stage for and I think the escape route for James Earl Ray. Riots After King's assassination riots broke out in Chicago, Boston, Detroit, and Washington. Black leader James Farmer, Jr. and other called for non-violent action. "Dr. King would be greatly distressed to find that his blood had triggered off bloodshed and disorder... I think instead the nation should be quiet; black and white, and we should be in a prayerful mood, which would be in keeping with his life. We should make that kind of dedication and commitment to the goals which his life served to solving the domestic problems. That's the memorial, that's the kind of memorial we should build for him. It's just not appropriate for there to be violent retaliations, and that kind of demonstration in the wake of the murder of this pacifist and man of peace." "1968 Year In Review, UPI.com" Stokely Carmichael called for immediate forceful action. "White America killed Dr. King last night. She made a whole lot easier for a whole lot of black people today. There no longer needs to be intellectual discussions, black people know that they have to get guns. White America will live to cry that she killed Dr. King last night. It would have been better if she had killed Rap Brown and/or Stokley Carmichael, but when she killed Dr. King, she lost." "1968 Year In Review, UPI.com" FBI and wiretapping Allegations of Communist connections J. Edgar Hoover, the director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, for years had been paranoid about potential influence of communists in social movements such as labor unions and civil rights. Hoover directed the FBI to track King in 1957, and the SCLC as it was established (it did not have a full-time executive director until 1960); its investigations were largely superficial until 1962, when it learned that one of King's most trusted advisers was New York City lawyer Stanley Levison. The FBI found Levison had been involved with the Communist Party USA. The FBI had observed his alienation from the Party leadership, but it feared he had taken a low profile in order to work as an "agent of influence" in order to manipulate King, a view it continued to hold despite its own reports in 1963 that Levison had left the Party. Another King lieutenant, Hunter Pitts O'Dell, was also linked to the Communist Party by sworn testimony before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). See also: However, there is no evidence that King himself or the SCLC were actually involved with any communist organizations. The Bureau placed wiretaps on Levison's and King's home and office phones, and bugged King's rooms in hotels as he traveled across the country. The Bureau received authorization to proceed with wiretapping from Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy in 1963 and informed President John F. Kennedy, both of whom unsuccessfully tried to persuade King to dissociate himself from Levison. For his part, King adamantly denied having any connections to Communism, stating in a 1965 Playboy interview that "there are as many Communists in this freedom movement as there are Eskimos in Florida", and claiming that Hoover was "following the path of appeasement of political powers in the South" and that his concern for communist infiltration of the civil rights movement was meant to "aid and abet the salacious claims of southern racists and the extreme right-wing elements". Hoover did not believe his pledge of innocence and replied by saying that King was "the most notorious liar in the country." After King gave his "I Have A Dream" speech during the March on Washington on August 28, 1963, the FBI described King as "the most dangerous and effective Negro leader in the country". In December 1963, FBI officials who were gathered to a special conference alleged that King was "knowingly, willingly and regularly cooperating with and taking guidance from communists" whose long-term strategy was to create of a "Negro-labor" coalition detrimental to American security. The attempt to prove that King was a Communist was related to the feeling of many segregationists that blacks in the South were happy with their lot but had been stirred up by "communists" and "outside agitators". The civil rights movement arose from activism within the black community dating back to before World War I. Levison did have ties with the Communist Party in various business dealings, but the FBI refused to believe its own intelligence bureau reports that Levison was no longer associated in that capacity. In response to the FBI's comments regarding communists directing the civil rights movement, King said that "the Negro revolution is a genuine revolution, born from the same womb that produces all massive social upheavals—the womb of intolerable conditions and unendurable situations." Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X, March 26, 1964. Allegations of adultery Having concluded that King was dangerous due to communist infiltration, the focus of the Bureau's investigations shifted to attempting to discredit King through revelations regarding his private life. FBI surveillance of King, some of it since made public, attempted to demonstrate that he also engaged in numerous extramarital affairs. Further remarks on King's lifestyle were made by several prominent officials, such as Lyndon Johnson, who once said that King was a "hypocritical preacher". Ralph Abernathy, a close associate of King's, stated in his 1989 autobiography And the Walls Came Tumbling Down that King had a "weakness for women". Newsweek Magazine 1-19-1998, page 62; "And the walls came tumbling down," by Rev. Ralph Abernathy (1989) In a later interview, Abernathy said he only wrote the term "womanizing", and did not specifically say King had extramarital sex. King's biographer David Garrow detailed what he called King's "compulsive sexual athleticism." Garrow wrote about numerous extramarital affairs, including one with a woman King saw almost daily. According to Garrow, "that relationship, rather than his marriage, increasingly became the emotional centerpiece of King's life, but it did not eliminate the incidental couplings that were a commonplace of King's travels." King explained his extramarital affairs as "a form of anxiety reduction". Garrow noted that King's sexual adventurism was the cause of "painful and overwhelming guilt". See also: The FBI distributed reports regarding such affairs to the executive branch, friendly reporters, potential coalition partners and funding sources of the SCLC, and King's family. The Bureau also sent anonymous letters to King threatening to reveal information if he did not cease his civil rights work. One anonymous letter sent to King just before he received the Nobel Peace Prize read, in part, "The American public, the church organizations that have been helping—Protestants, Catholics and Jews will know you for what you are—an evil beast. So will others who have backed you. You are done. King, there, is only one thing left for you to do. You know what it is. You have just 34 days in which to do (this exact number has been selected for a specific reason, it has definite practical significant [sic]). You are done. There is but one way out for you. You better take it before your filthy fraudulent self is bared to the nation." See also: King interpreted this as encouragement for him to commit suicide, although William Sullivan, head of the Domestic Intelligence Division at the time, argued that it may have only been intended to "convince Dr. King to resign from the SCLC." King refused to give in to the FBI's threats. In January 31, 1977, United States district Judge John Lewis Smith, Jr., ordered all known copies of the recorded audiotapes and written transcripts resulting from the FBI's electronic surveillance of King between 1963 and 1968 to be held in the National Archives and sealed from public access until 2027. Across from the Lorraine Motel, next to the rooming house in which James Earl Ray was staying, was a fire station. Police officers were stationed in the fire station to keep King under surveillance. Using papered-over windows with peepholes cut into them, the agents were watching the scene while Martin Luther King was shot. Immediately following the shooting, officers rushed out of the station to the motel, and Marrell McCollough, an undercover police officer, was the first person to administer first-aid to King. See also: and The antagonism between King and the FBI, the lack of an all points bulletin to find the killer, and the police presence nearby have led to speculation that the FBI was involved in the assassination. Legacy From the Gallery of 20th Century Martyrs at Westminster Abbey — l. to r. Mother Elizabeth of Russia, Rev. Martin Luther King, Archbishop Oscar Romero and Pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer King's main legacy was to secure progress on civil rights in the United States, which has enabled more Americans to reach their potential. He is frequently referenced as a human rights icon today. His name and legacy have often been invoked since his death as people have debated his likely position on various modern political issues. On the international scene, King's legacy included influences on the Black Consciousness Movement and Civil Rights Movement in South Africa. See also: King's work was cited by and served as an inspiration for Albert Lutuli, another black Nobel Peace prize winner who fought for racial justice in that country. The day following King's assassination, school teacher Jane Elliott conducted her first "Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes" exercise with her class of elementary school students in Riceville, Iowa. Her purpose was to help them understand King's death as it related to racism, something they little understood from having lived in a predominately white community. King's wife, Coretta Scott King, followed her husband's footsteps and was active in matters of social justice and civil rights until her death in 2006. The same year that Martin Luther King was assassinated, Mrs. King established the King Center in Atlanta, Georgia, dedicated to preserving his legacy and the work of championing nonviolent conflict resolution and tolerance worldwide. His son, Dexter King, currently serves as the center's chairman. See also: Daughter Yolanda King is a motivational speaker, author and founder of Higher Ground Productions, an organization specializing in diversity training. There are opposing views even within the King family — regarding the slain civil rights leader's religious and political views about homosexuals, lesbians, bisexuals and transgendered people. King's widow Coretta said publicly that she believed her husband would have supported gay rights. However, his daughter Bernice believed he would have been opposed to them. The King Center includes discrimination, and lists homophobia as one of its examples, in its list of "The Triple Evils" that should be opposed. In 1980, the Department of Interior designated King's boyhood home in Atlanta and several nearby buildings the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site. In 1996, United States Congress authorized the Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity to establish a foundation to manage fund raising and design of a Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial on the Mall in Washington, DC. King was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha, the first intercollegiate Greek-letter fraternity established by and for African Americans. King was the first African American honored with his own memorial in the National Mall area and the first non-President to be commemorated in such a way. The sculptor chosen was Lei Yixin. The King Memorial will be administered by the National Park Service. King's life and assassination inspired many artistic works. In 1969 Maya Angelou published her autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. In spring of 2006, a stage play about King was produced in Beijing, China with King portrayed by Chinese actor, Cao Li. The play was written by Stanford University professor, Clayborne Carson. See also: George H. W. Bush signs Martin Luther King Jr. Day Proclamation King spoke earlier about what people should remember him for if they are around for his funeral. He said rather than his awards and where he went to school, people should talk about how he fought peacefully for justice.: Martin Luther King Jr. Day At the White House Rose Garden on November 2, 1983, President Ronald Reagan signed a bill creating a federal holiday to honor King. Observed for the first time on January 20, 1986, it is called Martin Luther King, Jr. Day. Following President George H. W. Bush's 1992 proclamation, the holiday is observed on the third Monday of January each year, near the time of King's birthday. See also: On January 17, 2000, for the first time, Martin Luther King Jr. Day was officially observed in all fifty U.S. states. Awards and recognition King was awarded at least fifty honorary degrees from colleges and universities in the U.S. and elsewhere. Besides winning the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize, in 1965 King was awarded the American Liberties Medallion by the American Jewish Committee for his "exceptional advancement of the principles of human liberty". See also: Reverend King said in his acceptance remarks, "Freedom is one thing. You have it all or you are not free". King was also awarded the Pacem in Terris Award, named after a 1963 encyclical letter by Pope John XXIII calling for all people to strive for peace. In 1966, the Planned Parenthood Federation of America awarded King the Margaret Sanger Award for "his courageous resistance to bigotry and his lifelong dedication to the advancement of social justice and human dignity." King was posthumously awarded the Marcus Garvey Prize for Human Rights by Jamaica in 1968. In 1971, King was posthumously awarded the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for his Why I Oppose the War in Vietnam. Six years later, the Presidential Medal of Freedom was awarded to King by Jimmy Carter. King and his wife were also awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 2004. King was second in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People in the 20th century. In 1963 King was named Time Person of the Year and in 2000, King was voted sixth in the Person of the Century poll by the same magazine. King was elected third in the Greatest American contest conducted by the Discovery Channel and AOL. More than 730 cities in the United States have streets named after King. King County, Washington rededicated its name in his honor in 1986, and changed its logo to an image of his face in 2007. See also: The city government center in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, is named in honor of King. King is remembered as a martyr by the Episcopal Church in the United States of America (feast day April 4) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (feast day January 15). In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Martin Luther King, Jr. on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans. Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8. Capital memorial A memorial to King has been planned for construction on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., by the Martin Luther King Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation. The Foundation hopes to begin construction of the memorial in 2009. In April 2009, the media reported that King's family had charged the Foundation $800,000 for the use of his words and image in fund-raising materials for the memorial. Zongker, Brett, (Associated Press), "King family draws fees from DC memorial project", Yahoo News, April 17, 2009. Intellectual Properties Management Inc., an organization operated by King's family, has been charging the Foundation licensing and management fees since 2003. Cambridge University historian David Garrow, who won a Pulitzer Prize for his biography of King, said of King's family's behavior, "One would think any family would be so thrilled to have their forefather celebrated and memorialized in D.C. that it would never dawn on them to ask for a penny." He added that King would have been "absolutely scandalized by the profiteering behavior of his children." King's family responded that the money would be used to maintain the King Center in Atlanta where King and his wife are entombed. Shirek, John, "King Center: MLK's Children Not Making Money on Memorial," WXIA-TV, April 22, 2009. Turley, Jonathan, "Monumental Shakedown: Cashing in on Martin Luther King, Jr.", Los Angeles Times, April 22, 2009. See also Anti-racism Black Nobel Prize laureates Christian left Civil rights leaders Congressional Gold Medal recipients List of notable African Americans List of pacifists List of religious leaders Nobel Peace Prize Laureates Opposition to the Vietnam War Pacifism Racism in the United States Protest marches on Washington, DC Speeches by Martin Luther King, Jr. Notes References Books Works by King Stride toward freedom; the Montgomery story (1958) The Measure of a Man (1959) Strength to Love (1963) Why We Can't Wait (1964) Where do we go from here: Chaos or community? (1967) The Trumpet of Conscience (1968) A Testament of Hope : The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. (1986) The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. by Martin Luther King Jr. (1998) edited by Clayborne Carson Other works Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference by David Garrow (1989) King Remembered by Flip Schulke and Penelope McPhee Foreword by Jesse Jackson (1986) Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King Jr., and the Laws that Changed America by Nick Kotz (2005) External links The King Center Morehouse College, RWWL Martin Luther King Jr. Collection Photo Essay: The Last Days of Martin Luther King Jr. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Papers Project MLK online Martin Luther King Jr.'s "A New Sense of Direction (1968)" article The Seattle Times: Martin Luther King Jr. Speeches of Martin Luther King "The MLK you don't see on TV" 1956 Comic Book: Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story New Georgia Encyclopedia Short Biography by Kirk, John A. Misreading the Dream: The Truth About Martin Luther King Jr. and Affirmative Action No Small Dreams: The Radical Evolution of MLK's Last Years Transcript of interview with Dr. Kenneth Clark Martin Luther King Jr. article, Encyclopedia of Alabama Video and audio material Audio from April 1961 King, "The Church on the Frontier of Racial Tensions" - speech at Southern Seminary Audio recordings of King speeches including "I Have a Dream" Martin Luther King, Jr. Historic Speeches and Interviews Video of speeches - "I Have a Dream" and "I've Been to the mountaintop" "I Have a Dream" Hiphop song sampling The New Negro, King interviewed by J. Waites Waring "I Have a Dream" speech video "Beyond Vietnam" speech text and audio YouTube clip of "How Long? 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3,821 | Clement_Attlee | Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee, KG, OM, CH, PC, FRS (3 January 1883 – 8 October 1967) was a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951 and leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955. He was Deputy Prime Minister under Winston Churchill in the wartime coalition government, before leading the Labour Party to a landslide election victory over Churchill's Conservative Party at the 1945 general election. He was the first Labour Prime Minister to serve a full Parliamentary term and the first to have a majority in Parliament. The government he led put in place the post-war consensus, based upon the assumption that full employment would be maintained by Keynesian policies, and that a greatly enlarged system of social services would be created – aspirations that had been outlined in the wartime Beveridge Report. Within this context, his government undertook the nationalisation of major industries and public utilities as well as the creation of the National Health Service. After initial Conservative opposition, this settlement was broadly accepted by all parties Conservative Party website - the postwar consensus. until Margaret Thatcher became leader of the Conservative Party in the 1970s. His government also presided over the decolonisation of a large part of the British Empire, a process by which India and the countries that are now Burma, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Jordan, and Israel obtained independence. In 2004, he was voted the greatest British prime minister of the 20th century in a poll of professors organised by MORI. http://www.mori.com/polls/2004/leeds.shtml Ipsos MORI: Rating British Prime Ministers. However out of those voting, 50% were Labour supporters, 27% Liberal Democrats and only 10% favouring the Conservatives. Early life and family He was born in Putney, London, into a middle-class family, the seventh of eight children. His father was Henry Attlee (1841–1908), a solicitor, and his mother was Ellen Bravery Watson (1847–1920). He was educated at Northaw School, Haileybury and University College, Oxford, where he graduated with a Second Class Honours BA in Modern History in 1904. Attlee then trained as a lawyer, and was called to the Bar in 1906. From 1906 to 1909, Attlee worked as manager of Haileybury House, a club for working-class boys in Limehouse in the East End of London run by his old school. Prior to this, his political views had been conservative. However, he was shocked by the poverty and deprivation he saw while working with slum children. He came to the view that that private charity would never be sufficient to alleviate poverty, and only massive action and income redistribution by the state would have any serious effect. This caused him to convert to socialism. He joined the Independent Labour Party in 1908, and became active in London local politics. In 1909 he worked briefly as secretary for Beatrice Webb, and from 1909 to 1910 he worked as secretary for Toynbee Hall. In 1911 he took up a government job as an 'official explainer', touring the country to explain David Lloyd George's National Insurance Act. He spent the summer of that year touring Essex and Somerset on a bicycle, explaining the Act at public meetings. Attlee became a lecturer at the London School of Economics in 1912, but promptly applied for a Commission in August 1914 for World War I. Military service during World War I During World War I, Attlee was given the rank of captain and served with the South Lancashire Regiment in the Gallipoli Campaign in Turkey. After a period of fighting in the heat, sand, and flies he became ill with dysentery and was sent to hospital in Malta to recover. This may have saved his life, as while he was in hospital he missed the Battle of Sari Bair in which many of his comrades were killed. Attlee had gained a reputation among his superiors as a competent leader. When he returned to the front, he was informed that his company had been chosen to hold the final lines when Gallipoli was evacuated. He was the last-but-one man to be evacuated from Suvla Bay (the last being General F.S. Maude). The Gallipoli campaign had been masterminded by Winston Churchill. Attlee believed that it was a bold strategy, which could have been successful if it had been better implemented. This gave him an admiration for Churchill as a military strategist, which improved their working relationship in later years. He later served in the Mesopotamian Campaign in Iraq, where he was badly wounded at El Hannah after being hit in the leg by shrapnel from an exploding shell while taking enemy trenches. He was sent back to England to recover, and spent most of 1917 training soldiers. He was sent to France in June 1918 to serve on the Western Front for the last months of the war. In 1917 he had been promoted to the rank of Major, and continued to be known as "Major Attlee" for much of the inter-war period. His decision to fight in the war caused a rift between him and his older brother Tom Attlee, who as a pacifist and a conscientious objector spent much of the war in prison. Beckett, Francis. (1997) Clem Attlee A Biography By Francis Beckett, Richard Cohen Books, ISBN 1 86066 101 7 After the war, he returned to teaching at the London School of Economics until 1923. Marriage and children Attlee met Violet Millar on a trip to Italy in 1921. Within a few weeks of their return they became engaged and were married at Christ Church, Hampstead on 10 January 1922. Theirs would be a devoted marriage until her death in 1964. Their four children were Lady Janet Helen (b. 1923), Lady Felicity Ann (1925–2007), Martin Richard (1927–91) and Lady Alison Elizabeth (b. 1930). Early political career Local politics Attlee returned to local politics in the immediate post-war period, becoming mayor of the Metropolitan Borough of Stepney in 1919, one of London's poorest inner-city boroughs. During his time as mayor, the council undertook action to tackle slum landlords who charged high rents but refused to spend money on keeping their property in habitable condition. The council served and enforced legal orders on house-owners to repair their property. It also appointed health visitors and sanitary inspectors, and reduced the infant mortality rate. In 1920, while mayor, he wrote his first book, "The Social Worker", which set out many of the principles which informed his political philosophy and were to underpin the actions of his government in latter years. The book attacked the idea that looking after the poor could be left to voluntary action. He wrote: 'Charity is a cold grey loveless thing. If a rich man wants to help the poor, he should pay his taxes gladly, not dole out money at a whim'. He went on to write: 'In a civilised community, although it may be composed of self-reliant individuals, there will be some persons who will be unable at some period of their lives to look after themselves, and the question of what is to happen to them may be solved in three ways - they may be neglected, they may be cared for by the organised community as of right, or they may be left to the goodwill of individuals in the community. The first way is intolerable, and as for the third: Charity is only possible without loss of dignity between equals. A right established by law, such as that to an old age pension, is less galling than an allowance made by a rich man to a poor one, dependent on his view of the recipient’s character, and terminable at his caprice'. He strongly supported the Poplar Rates Rebellion led by George Lansbury in 1921. This put him into conflict with many of the leaders of the London Labour Party, including Herbert Morrison. Howell, David. (2006) Attlee (20 British Prime Ministers of the 20th Century), Haus Publishing, ISBN 1-904950-64-7 Member of Parliament At the 1922 general election, Attlee became the Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Limehouse in Stepney. He helped Ramsay MacDonald, whom at the time he admired, get elected as Labour Party leader at the 1922 Labour leadership election, a decision which he later regretted. He served as Ramsay MacDonald's parliamentary private secretary for the brief 1922 parliament. His first taste of ministerial office came in 1924, when he served as Under-Secretary of State for War in the short-lived first Labour government, led by MacDonald. Attlee opposed the 1926 General Strike, believing that strike action should not be used as a political weapon. However, when it happened he did not attempt to undermine it. At the time of the strike he was chairman of the Stepney Borough Electricity Committee. He negotiated a deal with the Electrical Trade Union that they would continue to supply power to hospitals, but would end supplies to factories. One firm, Scammell and Nephew Ltd, took a civil action against Attlee and the other Labour members of the committee (although not against the Conservative members who had also supported this). The court found against Attlee and his fellow councillors and they were ordered to pay £300 damages. The decision was later reversed on appeal, but the financial problems caused by the episode almost forced Attlee out of politics. In 1927 he was appointed a member of the multi-party Simon Commission, a Royal Commission set up to examine the possibility of granting self-rule to India. As a result of the time he needed to devote to the commission, and contrary to a promise made to Attlee by MacDonald to induce him to serve on the commission, he was not initially offered a ministerial post in the Second Labour Government. However, his unsought service on the Commission was to equip Attlee (who was later to have to decide the future of India as Prime Minister) with a thorough exposure to India and many of its political leaders. In 1930, Labour MP Oswald Mosley left the party after its rejection of his proposals for solving the unemployment problem. Attlee was given Mosley's post of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. He was Postmaster-General at the time of the 1931 crisis, during which most of the party's leaders lost their seats. During the course of the second Labour government, Attlee had become increasingly disillusioned by Ramsay MacDonald, whom he came to regard as vain and incompetent, and later wrote scathingly of him in his autobiography. Spartacus Schoolnet - Contains excerpt from Attlee's biography towards the bottom of the page. Opposition during the 1930s Deputy Leader of the Labour Party After the downfall of the second Labour government, the 1931 General Election was held. The election was a disaster for the Labour Party, which lost over 200 seats; most of the party's senior figures lost their seats, including Arthur Henderson the party leader. George Lansbury and Attlee were among the few surviving Labour MPs who had served in government. Accordingly, Lansbury became leader of the party and Attlee became deputy leader. Attlee served as acting leader for nine months from December 1933, after Lansbury fractured his thigh in an accident. This raised his public profile. During this period, financial problems again almost forced Attlee to quit politics, as his wife was ill, and there was then no separate salary for the Leader of the Opposition. He was persuaded to stay on, however, by Stafford Cripps, a wealthy socialist who agreed to pay him an additional salary. Leader of the Opposition George Lansbury, a convinced pacifist, resigned as leader at the 1935 Labour Party conference, after the party voted in favour of sanctions against Italy for its aggression against Abyssinia, a policy which Lansbury strongly opposed. With a general election looming, the Parliamentary Labour Party then appointed Attlee as interim leader, on the understanding that a leadership election would be held after the general election. Attlee led Labour through the 1935 general election, which saw the party stage a partial recovery from its disastrous performance in 1931, gaining over one hundred seats. In the post-election leadership contest held in November 1935, Attlee was opposed by Herbert Morrison and Arthur Greenwood. Morrison was seen as the favourite by many, but was distrusted by many sections of the party, especially the left. Arthur Greenwood's leadership bid was hampered by his alcohol problem. Attlee came first in both the first and second ballots, and subsequently retained the leadership, a post which he would retain until 1955. Throughout the 1920s and most of the 1930s, the Labour Party's official policy, supported by Attlee, was to oppose rearmament, and support collective security under the League of Nations. However, with the rising threat from Nazi Germany, and the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations, this policy lost credibility. By 1937, Labour had jettisoned its pacifist position and came to support rearmament and oppose Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement. In 1937 Attlee visited Spain and visited the British Battalion of the International Brigades fighting in the Spanish Civil War. One of the companies was named the 'Major Attlee Company' in his honour. Deputy Prime Minister Attlee as Lord Privy Seal, visiting a munitions factory in 1941 Attlee remained opposition leader when war broke out in September 1939. The disastrous Norwegian campaign resulted in a motion of no confidence in the government. BBC - History - The Norway Campaign in World War Two Although Chamberlain survived this, the reputation of his administration was so badly damaged that it was clear that a coalition government was necessary. The crisis coincided with the Labour Party Conference. Even if Attlee had been prepared to serve under Chamberlain (in a "national emergency government"), he would not have been able to carry the party with him. Consequently, Chamberlain tendered his resignation, and Labour and the Liberals entered a coalition government led by Winston Churchill. In the World War II coalition government, three interconnected committees ran the war. Churchill chaired the War Cabinet and the Defence Committee. Attlee was his regular deputy in these committees, and answered for the government in parliament when Churchill was absent. Attlee chaired the third body, the Lord President's Committee, which ran the civil side of the war. As Churchill was most concerned with executing the war, the arrangement suited both men. Only he and Churchill remained in the war cabinet from the formation of the Government of National Unity to the 1945 election. Attlee was Lord Privy Seal (1940–42), Deputy Prime Minister (1942–45), Dominions Secretary (1942–43), and Lord President of the Council (1943–45). Attlee supported Churchill in his continuation of Britain's resistance after the French capitulation in 1940, and proved a loyal ally to Churchill throughout the conflict. 1945 general election Following the end of the war in Europe in May 1945, Attlee and Churchill wanted the coalition government to last until Japan had been defeated. However, Herbert Morrison argued that the party would not accept this, and the Labour National Executive Committee agreed with him. Churchill responded by resigning as coalition Prime Minister and decided to call an election at once. The war set in motion profound social changes within Britain, and led to a popular desire for social reform. This mood was epitomised in the Beveridge Report. The report assumed that the maintenance of full employment would be the aim of postwar governments, and that this would provide the basis for the welfare state. All major parties were committed to this aim, but perhaps Attlee and Labour were seen by the electorate as the best candidates to follow it through. Labour campaigned on the theme of "Let Us Face the Future" and positioned themselves as the party best placed to rebuild Britain after the war, while the Conservatives campaign centred around Churchill. With the hero status of Churchill, few expected a Labour victory. However Churchill made some errors during the campaign: His suggestion during a radio broadcast, that a Labour government would require "some form of gestapo" to implement their socialist policies, was widely seen as being in bad taste, and backfired. The result of the election when they were announced on 26 July, came as a surprise to almost everyone, including Attlee: Labour had been swept to power on a landslide, winning just under 50% of the vote, to the Conservatives 36%. Labour won 393 seats, giving them a majority of 146. The story goes that when Attlee visited King George VI at Buckingham Palace to kiss hands, the notoriously laconic Attlee and the notoriously tongue-tied George VI stood for some minutes in silence, before Attlee finally volunteered the remark "I've won the election." The King replied "I know. I heard it on the Six O'Clock News." Prime Minister Attlee meeting King George VI after his election victory Now Prime Minister, Attlee appointed Ernest Bevin as Foreign Secretary; Hugh Dalton was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer (it had widely been expected to be the other way around). Stafford Cripps became President of the Board of Trade, while Herbert Morrison was given the post of Deputy Prime Minister and given overall control of Labour's nationalisation programme. Aneurin Bevan became Minister of Health, whilst Ellen Wilkinson, the only woman to serve in Attlee's government, became Minister of Education. Domestic policy Health and Welfare reforms In domestic policy, the party had clear aims. Attlee's first Health Secretary, Aneurin Bevan, fought against the general disapproval of the medical establishment in creating the British National Health Service. Although there are often disputes about its organisation and funding, British parties to this day must still voice their general support for the NHS in order to remain electable See, e.g., http://content.healthaffairs.org/cgi/reprint/8/4/52.pdf . The government set about implementing William Beveridge's plans for the creation of a 'cradle to grave' welfare state, and set in place an entirely new system of social security. Among the most important pieces of legislation was the National Insurance Act 1946, in which, people in work paid a flat rate of national insurance. In return, they (and the wives of male contributors) were eligible for flat-rate pensions, sickness benefit, unemployment benefit, and funeral benefit. Various other pieces of legislation provided for child benefit and support for people with no other source of income. Nationalisation Attlee's government also carried out their manifesto commitment for nationalisation of basic industries and public utillities. The Bank of England and civil aviation were nationalised in 1946. Coal mining, the railways, road haulage, canals and cable and wireless were nationalised in 1947, electricity and gas followed in 1948. The steel industry was finally nationalised in 1951. By 1951 about 20% of the British economy had been taken into public ownership. Other changes included the creation of a National Parks system, the introduction of the Town and Country Planning system, and the repeal of the Trades Disputes Act 1927. The Economy Nevertheless, the most significant problem remained the economy; the war effort had left Britain nearly bankrupt. The war had cost Britain about a quarter of its national wealth. Overseas investments had been wound up to pay for the war. The transition to a peacetime economy, and the maintaining of strategic military commitments abroad led to continuous and severe problems with the balance of trade. This meant that strict rationing of food and other essential goods were continued in the post war period, to force a reduction in consumption in an effort to limit imports, boost exports and stabilise the Pound Sterling so that Britain could trade its way out of its crisis. The abrupt ending of the American Lend-Lease program in August 1945 almost caused a crisis. This was mitigated by the Anglo-American loan negotiated in December 1945 by John Maynard Keynes, which provided some respite. The conditions attached to the loan included making the pound fully convertible to the dollar. When this was introduced in July 1947, it led to a currency crisis and convertibility had to be suspended after just five weeks. Britain benefited from the American Marshall Aid program from 1948, and the economic situation improved significantly. However another balance of payments crisis in 1949 forced Chancellor of the Exchequer Stafford Cripps into devaluation of the pound. Despite these problems, one of the main achievements of Attlee's government was the maintenance of near full employment. The government maintained most of the wartime controls over the economy, including control over the allocation of materials and manpower, and unemployment rarely rose above 500,000, or 3% of the total workforce. In fact labour shortages proved to be more of a problem. One area where the government was not quite as successful was in housing, which was also the responsibility of Aneurin Bevan. The government had a target to build 400,000 new houses a year to replace those which had been destroyed in the war, but shortages of materials and manpower meant that less than half this number were built. 1947 crisis 1947 proved to be a particularly difficult year for the government; an exceptionally cold winter that year caused coal mines to freeze and cease production, creating widespread power cuts and food shortages. The crisis led to an unsuccessful plot by Hugh Dalton to replace Attlee as Prime Minister with Ernest Bevin. Later that year Stafford Cripps tried to persuade Attlee to stand aside for Bevin. However these plots petered out after Bevin refused to co-operate. Later that year, Hugh Dalton resigned as Chancellor after inadvertently leaking details of the budget to a journalist, he was replaced by Cripps. Relations with the Press and Royal Family Attlee's government faced constant hostility from Conservative supporting sections of society, including the Conservative supporting press. The Sunday Times journalist James Margach, wrote of the Attlee years; "I have never known the Press so consistently and irresponsibly political, slanted and prejudiced". As early as 1946 the Attorney-General Sir Hartley Shawcross attacked "the campaign of calumny and misrepresentation which the Tory Party and the Tory stooge press has directed at the Labour government. Freedom of the press does not mean freedom to tell lies". In 1946 the government set up a Royal Commission on the press which eventually led to the setting up of the Press Council in 1953. Relations with the Royal Family were also strained. A letter from Queen Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother), dated 17 May 1947, showed "her decided lack of enthusiasm for the socialist government" and describes the British electorate as "poor people, so many half-educated and bemused" for electing Attlee over Winston Churchill, whom she saw as a war hero. That said, according to Lord Wyatt, this was to be expected as the Queen Mother was "the most right-wing member of the Royal Family." Andrew Pierce, "What Queen Mother really thought of Attlee's socialist 'heaven on earth'." The Times, 13 May 2006, p. 9) Foreign policy Clement Attlee (left) with President Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin at the Potsdam Conference Postwar Europe and the Cold War In foreign affairs, Attlee's cabinet was concerned with four issues: postwar Europe, the onset of the cold war, the establishment of the United Nations, and decolonisation. The first two were closely related, and Attlee was assisted in these matters by Ernest Bevin. Attlee attended the later stages of the Potsdam Conference in the company of Truman and Stalin. In the immediate aftermath of the war, the Government faced the challenge of managing relations with Britain's former war-time ally, Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union. Attlee's Foreign Secretary, the former trade union leader Ernest Bevin, was passionately anti-communist, based largely on his experience of fighting communist influence in the trades union movement. Bevin's initial approach to the USSR as Foreign Secretary has been described by historian Kenneth O. Morgan as "wary and suspicious, but not automatically hostile". Morgan, Labour in Power. In an early "good-will" gesture that has been criticised more recently, the Attlee government allowed the Soviets access, under the terms of a 1946 UK-USSR Trade Agreement, to several Rolls-Royce Nene jet engines. The Soviets, who at the time were well behind the West in jet technology, reverse-engineered the Nene, and installed their own version in the MiG-15 interceptor, used to good effect against US-UK forces in the subsequent Korean War, as well as in several later MiG models. Gordon, Yefim, Mikoyan-Gurevich MIG-15: The Soviet Union's Long-Lived Korean War Fighter, Midland Press (2001) After Stalin took political control of most of Eastern Europe and began to subvert other governments in the Balkans, Attlee's and Bevin's worst fears of Soviet intentions were borne out. The Attlee government then became instrumental in the creation of the successful NATO defence alliance to protect Western Europe against any Soviet aggression. See, e.g., Kenneth O. Morgan, Labour in Power (Oxford, 1984), especially Chapter 6. In a crucial contribution to the economic stability of post-War Europe, Attlee's cabinet was instrumental in promoting the American Marshall Plan for the economic recovery of Europe. A group of left wing Labour MPs organised under the banner of "Keep Left", urged the government to steer a middle way between the two emerging superpowers, and advocated the creation of 'third force' of European powers to stand between the USA and USSR. However, deteriorating relations between Britain and the USSR, and Britain's economic reliance on America, steered policy towards supporting America. Fear of Soviet and American intentions led, in January 1947, to a secret meeting of senior cabinet ministers, where it was decided to press ahead with the development of Britain's independent nuclear deterrent, an issue which later caused a split in the Labour Party, although the first successful test did not occur until 1952, after Atlee had left office. In 1950 American president Harry S. Truman said that atomic weapons may be used in the Korean War. Attlee became concerned with the power America possessed and therefore called a meeting of some foreign affairs ministers in order to discuss the issue that had evolved. Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin (left) with Clement Attlee in 1945 Decolonisation Attlee's government was responsible for the first significant decolonisation of part of the British Empire -- India. Attlee appointed Lord Louis Mountbatten Viceroy of India, and agreed to Mountbatten's request for plenipotentiary powers for negotiating Indian independence. In view of implacable demands by the political leadership of the Islamic community in British India for a Muslim homeland, Mountbatten conceded the partition of India between a Hindu-majority India and a predominantly Muslim Pakistan (which at the time incorporated East Pakistan, now Bangladesh). Partition was accomplished only at the cost of large-scale population movements and heavy communal bloodshed on both sides. The independence of Burma and Ceylon was also negotiated around this time. Some of the new countries became British Dominions, the genesis of the modern Commonwealth of Nations. One of the most urgent problems concerned the future of the Palestine Mandate. This was a very unpopular commitment and the evacuation of British troops and subsequent handing over of the issue to the UN was widely supported by the public. The government's policies with regard to the other colonies, however, particularly those in Africa, were very different. A major military base was built in Kenya, and the African colonies came under an unprecedented degree of direct control from London, as development schemes were implemented with a view to helping solve Britain's desperate post-war balance of payments crisis, and raising African living standards. This 'new colonialism' was, however, generally a failure: in some cases, such as a then-infamous Tanganyika groundnut scheme, spectacularly so. Demise of Attlee's government The Labour Party was returned to power in the general election of 1950 with a much reduced parliamentary majority under the first-past-the-post voting system, despite an increase in the popular vote. It was at this time that a degree of Conservative opposition recovered at the expense of the dying Liberal Party. By 1951, the Attlee government was looking increasingly exhausted, with several of its most important ministers having died or ailing. The party split in 1951 over the austerity budget brought in by Hugh Gaitskell to pay for the cost of Britain's participation in the Korean War: Aneurin Bevan, architect of the National Health Service (NHS), resigned to protest against the new charges for "teeth and spectacles" introduced by the budget, and was joined in this action by the later prime minister, Harold Wilson. Labour lost the general election of 1951 to Churchill's renewed Conservatives, despite polling more votes than in the 1945 election and more votes nationwide than the Conservative Party, and, indeed, the most votes Labour had ever won. His short list of Resignation Honours announced in November 1951 included an Earldom for William Jowitt, Lord Chancellor. The Times, 30 November 1951; p. 6; Issue 52172; col G: "The Resignation Honours: Earldom For Lord Jowitt". Return to opposition and retirement Following the defeat in 1951, Attlee continued to lead the party in opposition. His last four years as leader are widely seen as one of the Labour Party's weaker periods. Thorpe, Andrew. (2001) A History Of The British Labour Party, Palgrave, ISBN 0-333-92908-x The party became split between its right wing led by Hugh Gaitskell and its left led by Aneurin Bevan. One of his main reasons for staying on as leader was to frustrate the leadership ambitions of Herbert Morrison, whom Attlee disliked for political and personal reasons. Attlee had reportedly at one time favoured Bevan to succeed him as leader, but this became problematic after the latter split the party. Attlee, now aged 72, contested the 1955 general election against Anthony Eden, which saw the Conservative majority increase. He retired as leader on 7 December 1955, having led the party for over twenty years, and was succeeded by Hugh Gaitskell. He retired from the Commons and was elevated to the peerage to take his seat in the House of Lords as Earl Attlee and Viscount Prestwood on 16 December 1955. He attended Churchill's funeral in January 1965 - elderly and frail by then, he had to remain seated in the freezing cold as the coffin was carried, having tired himself out by standing at the rehearsal the previous day. He lived to see Labour return to power under Harold Wilson in 1964, but also to see his old constituency of Walthamstow West fall to the Conservatives in a by-election in September 1967. Clement Attlee died of pneumonia at the age of 84 at Westminster Hospital on 8 October 1967. On his death, the title passed to his son Martin Richard Attlee, 2nd Earl Attlee (1927–91). It is now held by Clement Attlee's grandson John Richard Attlee, 3rd Earl Attlee. The third earl (a member of the Conservative Party) retained his seat in the Lords as one of the hereditary peers to remain under an amendment to Labour's 1999 House of Lords Act. When Attlee died, his estate was sworn for probate purposes at a value of £7,295, a relatively modest sum for so prominent a figure. His ashes are buried in the nave of Westminster Abbey, close to those of Lord Passfield and Ernest Bevin. Legacy "A modest man, but then he has so much to be modest about", is a quote about Attlee that is very commonly ascribed to Churchill (although Churchill in fact respected Attlee's service in the War Cabinet). Walter L. Arnstein, Britain Yesterday and Today: 1830 to the Present, Chapter 19, p. 363 Attlee's modesty and quiet manner hid a great deal that has only come to light with historical reappraisal. In terms of the machinery of government, he was one of the most businesslike and effective of all the British prime ministers. Indeed he is widely praised by his successors, both Labour and Conservative. His leadership style of consensual government, acting as a chairman rather than a president, won him much praise from historians and politicians alike. Even Thatcherites confess to admiring him. Christopher Soames, a Cabinet Minister under Thatcher, remarked that "Mrs Thatcher was not really running a team. Every time you have a Prime Minister who wants to make all the decisions, it mainly leads to bad results. Attlee didn't. That's why he was so damn good." Peter Hennessy, The Prime Minister: The Office and its Holders since 1945, Chapter 7, p. 150 Even Thatcher herself wrote in her 1995 memoirs, which charted her beginnings in Grantham to her victory in the 1979 General Election, that she admired Attlee saying: "Of Clement Attlee, however, I was an admirer. He was a serious man and a patriot. Quite contrary to the general tendency of politicians in the 1990s, he was all substance and no show". His administration presided over the successful transition from a wartime economy to peacetime, tackling problems of demobilisation, shortages of foreign currency, and adverse deficits in trade balances and government expenditure. Further domestic policies that he brought about included the establishment of the National Health Service and post-war Welfare State, which became key to the reconstruction of post-war Britain. Statue of Attlee outside Limehouse Library In foreign affairs, he did much to assist with the post-war economic recovery of Europe, though this did not lead to a realisation that this was where Britain's future might lie. He proved a loyal ally of America at the onset of the cold war. Because of his style of leadership it was not he but Ernest Bevin who masterminded foreign policy. It was Attlee's government that decided Britain should have an independent atomic weapons programme, and work began on it in 1947. Bevin, Attlee's Foreign Secretary, famously stated that "We've got to have it and it's got to have a bloody Union Jack on it." However, the first operational British A Bomb was not detonated until October 1952, about one year after Attlee had left office. Though a socialist, Attlee still believed in the British Empire of his youth, an institution that, on the whole, he thought was a power for good in the world. Nevertheless, he saw that a large part of it needed to be self-governing. Using the Dominions of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand as a model, he began the transformation of the Empire into the Commonwealth. His greatest achievement, surpassing many of these, was, perhaps, the establishment of a political and economic consensus about the governance of Britain that all parties, whether Labour, Conservative or Liberal subscribed to for three decades, fixing the arena of political discourse until the later 1970s. Image Although possessed of a genial personality, Clement Attlee was notably taciturn in his relations with the Press, sometimes offering only monosyllabic answers to reporters' questions. He was seldom referred to by his forenames; usually he was referred to as "C. R. Attlee" or "Mr. Attlee." Appearance in popular culture Art Attlee's portrait hangs in the dining hall of University College, Oxford in recognition of his services to Britain. Literature Attlee composed this limerick about himself to demonstrate how he had overcome his lacklustre image: "Few thought he was even a starter. There were many in life who were smarter. But he finished PM, A CH, an OM, An earl and a Knight of the Garter." Source: Jobes, B., Barry Jones' Dictionary of World Biography, 1994 An alternative version also exists, which may reflect Attlee's use of English more closely:- There were few who thought him a starter, Many who thought themselves smarter. But he ended PM, CH and OM, an Earl and a Knight of the Garter. Source: Kenneth Harris, "Attlee" (Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London, 1982) Sport In 1981, Attlee again entered British popular culture as one of the famous English people taunted by name in Bjørge Lillelien's legendary commentary immediately after Norway defeated England in a FIFA World Cup qualifier. Drama Played by Patrick Troughton in Edward & Mrs. Simpson. Appeared as a character in the play Tom and Clem, by Stephen Churchett. In the original production in 1997, Alec McCowen played Attlee, and Michael Gambon played Tom Driberg. Played by Alan David in the final episode of the BBC sitcom Goodnight Sweetheart, The main character in the BBC Radio 4 Saturday Play That Man Attlee. Broadcast on 15 September 2007, it was written by Robin Glendinning, with Bill Wallis playing Attlee. Played by Richard Attlee, his grandson, in Jerome Vincent’s 'Stuffing Their Mouths with Gold'; the story of how the National Health Service came to be. Broadcast on Radio 4 on 4 July 2008, the day before the 60th anniversary of the founding of the NHS. Attlee's cabinet 1945–50 Clement Attlee: Prime Minister and Minister of Defence Lord Jowitt: Lord Chancellor Herbert Morrison: Lord President of the Council and Leader of the House of Commons Arthur Greenwood: Lord Privy Seal Hugh Dalton: Chancellor of the Exchequer Ernest Bevin: Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs James Chuter Ede: Secretary of State for the Home Department George Henry Hall: Secretary of State for the Colonies Lord Addison: Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs and Leader of the House of Lords Lord Pethick-Lawrence: Secretary of State for India and Burma A. V. Alexander: First Lord of the Admiralty Jack Lawson: Secretary of State for War William Wedgwood Benn, Lord Stansgate: Secretary of State for Air Ellen Wilkinson: Minister of Education Joseph Westwood: Secretary of State for Scotland Tom Williams: Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries George Isaacs: Minister of Labour and National Service Aneurin Bevan: Minister of Health Sir Stafford Cripps: President of the Board of Trade Emanuel Shinwell: Minister of Fuel and Power Changes July 1946 - Arthur Greenwood becomes Paymaster-General as well as Lord Privy Seal. October 1946 - The three service ministers (Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, and First Lord of the Admiralty) cease to be cabinet positions. A. V. Alexander remains in the cabinet as Minister without Portfolio. George Hall replaces A. V. Alexander as First Lord of the Admiralty, outside the cabinet. Arthur Creech Jones succeeds Hall as Secretary of State for the Colonies. December 1946 - A. V. Alexander succeeds Attlee as Minister of Defence. February 1947 - George Tomlinson succeeds Ellen Wilkinson as Minister of Education upon her death. March 1947 - Arthur Greenwood ceases to be Paymaster-General, remaining Lord Privy Seal. His successor as Paymaster-General is not in the cabinet. April 1947 - Arthur Greenwood becomes Minister without Portfolio. Lord Inman succeeds Arthur Greenwood as Lord Privy Seal. William Francis Hare, Lord Listowel succeeds Lord Pethick-Lawrence as Secretary of State for India and Burma. July 1947 - The Dominion Affairs Office becomes the Office of Commonwealth Relations. Addison remains at the head. August 1947 - The India and Burma Office becomes the Burma office with India's independence. Lord Listowel remains in office. September 1947 - Sir Stafford Cripps becomes Minister of Economic Affairs. Harold Wilson succeeds Cripps as President of the Board of Trade. Arthur Greenwood retires from the Front Bench. October 1947 - Lord Addison succeeds Lord Inman as Lord Privy Seal, remaining also Leader of the House of Lords. Philip Noel-Baker succeeds Lord Addison as Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations. Arthur Woodburn succeeds Joseph Westwood as Secretary of State for Scotland. The Minister of Fuel and Power, Emanuel Shinwell, leaves the Cabinet. November 1947 - Sir Stafford Cripps succeeds Hugh Dalton as Chancellor of the Exchequer. January 1948 - The Burma Office is abolished with Burma's independence. May 1948: Hugh Dalton re-enters the Cabinet as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. Lord Pakenham enters the Cabinet as Minister of Civil Aviation. July 1948: Lord Addison becomes Paymaster-General. April 1949: Lord Addison ceases to be Paymaster-General, remaining Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Lords. His successor as Paymaster-General is not in the Cabinet. Attlee's cabinet 1950–51 In February 1950, a substantial reshuffle took place following the General Election: Clement Attlee: Prime Minister Lord Jowitt: Lord Chancellor Herbert Morrison: Lord President of the Council and Leader of the House of Commons Lord Addison: Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Lords Sir Stafford Cripps: Chancellor of the Exchequer Ernest Bevin: Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs James Chuter Ede: Secretary of State for the Home Department Jim Griffiths: Secretary of State for the Colonies Patrick Gordon Walker: Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations Harold Wilson: President of the Board of Trade Lord Alexander of Hillsborough: Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster George Tomlinson: Minister of Education Hector McNeil: Secretary of State for Scotland Tom Williams: Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries George Isaacs: Minister of Labour and National Service Aneurin Bevan: Minister of Health Emanuel Shinwell: Minister of Defence Hugh Dalton: Minister of Town and Country Planning Changes October 1950: Hugh Gaitskell succeeds Sir Stafford Cripps as Chancellor of the Exchequer. January 1951: Aneurin Bevan succeeds George Isaacs as Minister of Labour and National Service. Bevan's successor as Minister of Health is not in the cabinet. Hugh Dalton's post is renamed Minister of Local Government and Planning. March 1951: Herbert Morrison succeeds Ernest Bevin as Foreign Secretary. Lord Addison succeeds Morrison as Lord President. Bevin succeeds Addison as Lord Privy Seal. James Chuter Ede succeeds Morrison as Leader of the House of Commons whilst remaining Home Secretary. April 1951: Richard Stokes succeeds Ernest Bevin as Lord Privy Seal. Alf Robens succeeds Aneurin Bevan (resigned) as Minister of Labour and National Service. Sir Hartley Shawcross succeeds Harold Wilson (resigned) as President of the Board of Trade. Further reading Clement Attlee published his memoirs, As it Happened, in 1954. Francis Williams' A Prime Minister Remembers, based on interviews with Attlee, was published in 1961. Attlee's other publications include: The Social Worker (1920); The Town Councillor (1925); The Will and the Way to Socialism (1935);The Labour Party in Perspective (1937); Collective Security Under the United Nations (1958);Empire into Commonwealth (1961). Biographies include: Roy Jenkins, Mr Attlee (1948); Kenneth Harris, Attlee (1982); Trevor Burridge, Clement Attlee: A Political Biography, (1985); Francis Beckett, Clem Attlee (1997). Biographies of Attlee and of his Cabinet can be found in: Greg Rosen (ed) Dictionary of Labour Biography. Politicos Publishing. ISBN 1902301188 The entry on Attlee in the Dictionary of National Biography (DNB) was prepared by Maurice Shock, who as a Fellow of University College, Oxford (Attlee's alma mater), came to know Attlee personally in his later years. Accounts of the period include: Kenneth O. Morgan, Labour in Power 1945–51, Oxford University Press, 1984; Greg Rosen, Old Labour to New'', Politicos Publishing, 2005. Notes References External links More about Clement Attlee on the Downing Street website. 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3,822 | History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah | The history of ancient Israel and Judah is known to us essentially from the Hebrew Bible (known to Judaism as the Tanakh and to Christianity as the Old Testament). Certain aspects of that history may also be derived from, elaborated and confirmed by other ancient sources and later classical writings such as the Talmud, the writings of Nicolaus of Damascus, Artapanas, Philo of Alexandria and Josephus. These sources have been critically examined by medieval material such as the Ethiopian Kebra Nagast, and supplemented by ancient sources uncovered by archaeology including Egyptian, Moabite, Assyrian, Babylonian as well as Israelite and Judean inscriptions. Introduction William Dever Dever, William G. (2001) "What did the Biblical Writers Know and When did they know it?" (Eerdmans) suggests that rather than there being just one history there are in fact multiple histories and that we can distinguish nine types of history of Israel and Judah as follows. Theological history – the relationship between the God(s) and their believers. Political history – usually the account of “Great Men”, is generally episodic Narrative history – a running chronology of events Socio-cultural history – a history of institutions, including their social underpinnings in family, clan, tribe and social class and the state Intellectual history – the literary history of ideas and their development, context and evolution as expressed through texts and documents Cultural history – is based upon a larger context of overall cultural evolution, demography, socio-economic and political structure and ethnicity Technological history – a history of the techniques by which humans adapt to, exploit and make use of the resources of their environment Natural history – is a geographic history of how humans discover and adapt to the ecological understandings of their natural environment Material history – as shown in the study of artifacts as correlates of human changes in behaviour. Archaeology can provide assistance in 3,4,6,7,8,9. Biblical textual history can provide assistance in 1,2, 3 and 5. The history of the region later claimed by the states of Judah and Israel offers particular problems for the modern historian. Because of the association of this area with the scriptural accounts found in the Bible, there is a tendency to view the history of the southern Levant from an almost purely biblical perspective, giving scant attention to the post biblical period. Archaeology of the area has tended to be viewed principally through the biblical account, Whitelam, Keith (1997),"The Invention of Ancient Israel: The Silencing of Palestinian History (Routledge) making it difficult to understand its history within the modern archaeological context of the Ancient Near Eastern region as a whole. It has also been argued that the Israelites were themselves Canaanites, and that "historical Israel", as distinct from "literary" or "biblical" Israel, was a subset of Canaanite culture. "Canaan", when used in this sense, refers to the entire ancient Levant down to about 100 CE, including the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Tubb, Johnathan N. (1998) "Canaanites" (British Museum People of the Past) p.16 For example, Mark Smith states: "Despite the long regnant model that the 'Canaanites' and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and 'Canaanites' in the Iron I period (ca. 1200-1000). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from 'Canaanite' culture.....In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." Smith, Mark "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (pp6-7) Smith continues: “The change in the scholarly understanding of early Israel’s culture has led to the second major change in perspective, which involves the nature of the Yahwistic cult. With the change in perspective concerning Israel’s ‘Canaanite’ background, long-held notions about Israelite religion are slowly eroding. Baal and Asherah are part of Israel’s ‘Canaanite’ heritage, and the process of the emergence of Israelite monolatry was an issue of Israel's breaking with its own 'Canaanite' past and not simply of avoiding ‘Canaanite’ neighbours. Although the Biblical witness accurately represented the existence of Israelite worship of Baal and perhaps Asherah as well, this worship was not so much a case of Israelite syncretism with the religious practices of ‘Canaanite’ neighbours, as some biblical passages depict it, as it was an instance of old Israelite religion." Some writers consider the different source materials to be in conflict. See The Bible and History for further information. This is a controversial subject, with implications in the fields of religion, politics and diplomacy. Non-Biblical confirmation The nature and precise dates of events, and the precision by which they may be stated, are subject to continuing discussion and challenge. There are no biblical events whose precise year can be validated by external sources before the possible attack by Pharaoh Shoshenk I, identified with the biblical Shishak (=striker) in 925 BCE. The first independent confirmation of the biblical record is the Mesha Stele which dates back to the early 9th century BCE with the rise of Omri, King of Israel. All earlier dates are extrapolations and conjecture. In November 2008, however, archaeologists from Hebrew University discovered a 3000-year-old ostracon with five lines of Hebrew text written in Proto-Canaanite script at the Elah Fortress at Khirbet Qeiyafa. Carbon-14 dating puts this ostracon at the time of King David and the United Kingdom, and the location is in the area where, according to the Bible, David slew Goliath. Kalman, Matthew, evidence surfaces of David's kingdom," San Francisco Chronicle November 17, 2008 AlphaGalileo "Earliest known Hebrew text in Proto-Canaanite script discovered in area where David slew Goliath" November 2, 2008 ; although the ostracon itself doesn't actually mention these events. The Bible does not render itself very easily to these calculations: mostly, it does not state any time period longer than a single lifetime and a historical line must be reconstructed by adding discrete quantities, a process that naturally introduces rounding errors. The earlier dates presented here, and their accuracy, reflect a maximalist view, in that it uses the Bible as its sole source. Others at the opposite extreme, known as minimalists, often dispute that some of the events happened at all, thus making the dating of them moot: for instance, if the very existence of the United Kingdom is in doubt, it is pointless to claim that it disintegrated in 928 BCE. For example, Philip Davies argues that the canonical biblical account can only have been composed for a people with a long literate tradition such as found only in late Persian or early Hellenistic times, and argues that accounts of earlier periods are largely reconstructions based mainly upon oral and other traditions. Davies, Philip (1998), "Scribes and Schools: The Canonization of the Hebrew Scriptures" (Knox Press) Minimalists tend to accept those events which have independent archaeological corroborations, such as, for example, the Mesha Stele. Their argument comes into play in the earlier period where the biblical account seems most at odds with what has been discovered by modern archaeology. Another problem is caused by disagreements about terminology of historical periodisation. For example, the period at the end of the Early Bronze Age or the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age is called EB-MB by Kathleen Kenyon, Kenyon, Kathleen M and Moorey, P.R.S. (1987), "The Bible and Recent Archaeology", (Atlanta, 1987), pp. 19-26. MB I by William Foxwell Albright, Middle Canaanite I by Yohanan Aharoni, Aharoni, Yohanan. (1978) "The Archaeology of the Land of Israel" (Philadelphia, 1978), pp. 80-89. , and Early Bronze IV by William Dever and Eliezer Oren. Pre-history of Israel Map showing one interpretation of the borders of the Promised Land, based on God's promise to Abraham () The Book of Genesis traces the beginning (sometimes called pre-history) of the Israelites, who constituted ancient Israel and Judah, to three patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (who was also known as Israel). According to that source, Abraham was a nomadic leader who came from Mesopotamia and settled in Canaan, but continued to live a nomadic lifestyle. He stayed in the land for the rest of his life except for a short period when famine forced him to go to Egypt. His son, Isaac, was born in Canaan, and never left it. Isaac's son, Jacob, who on the other hand is called a "wandering Aramaean" in , the grandson of Abraham, traveled extensively outside Canaan. For example, he traveled to Haran, the home of his ancestors, to find a wife. Jacob had four wives: Leah and Rachel, and their maidservants Bilhah and Zilpah, and fathered twelve sons and at least one daughter. These stories locate the Israelites first on the east bank of the Jordan and then move to the west bank with the story of the sacking of Shechem (), after which the hill area of Canaan is assumed to have been the historical core of the area settled by the Israelites. The patriarchs are said to have been buried at the Cave of the Patriarchs, in Hebron. There are differences of opinion as to the dating of these events, with some commentators even assigning these narratives to legend. Traditional rabbinic dating based on the Seder Olam Rabbah places the birth of Abraham in Mesopotamia in 1976 BCE, the birth of Ishmael, Abraham's first son at the age of 87, in 1890 BCE, the birth of Isaac in 1876 BCE and the birth of Jacob in 1816 BCE. (See Chronology of the Bible.) William F. Albright, Nelson Glueck and E. A. Speiser, located these Genesis accounts at the end of Middle Bronze Age I (which is consistent with the Jewish dating) and at the beginning of Middle Bronze Age II based on three points: personal names, mode of life, and customs. Halsall, Paul (editor)"Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Israel" Other scholars, however, have suggested later dates for the Patriarchal Age as these features were long-lived characteristics of life in the ancient Near East. Cyrus Gordon, Gordon, Cyrus H. (1997), "Genesis: World of Myths and Patriarchs" (New York University Press) basing his argument on the rise of nomadic pastoralism and monotheism at the end of the Amarna Age, suggested that they more properly apply to the Late Bronze Age. John Van Seters, on the basis of the widespread use of camels, of Philistine kings at Gerar, of a monetarised economy and the purchase of land, argued the story belongs to the Iron Age. Other scholars (particularly, Martin Noth and his students) find it difficult to determine any period for the patriarchs. They suggest that the importance of the biblical texts are not necessarily their historicity, but how they function within the Israelite society of the Iron Age. Interestingly, archeological evidence has shown that prior to 1000 BC individual dwellings in Palestine were, essentially, of equal size, Bessenecker, Scott A. (2006) "The New Friars" Intervarsity Press, pg 43 suggesting, perhaps, that the Levitical law regarding the Jubilee year was practiced, although this can not be conclusively proved. The Egyptian experience The Exodus relates how the Israelites (who were called Hebrews by the Egyptians) became Egyptian slaves or also presumed as hard-laborers. There are various modern explanations given for the circumstances under which this occurred. A few historians believe that this may have been due to the changing political conditions within Egypt. In 1650 BCE, northern Egypt was conquered by tribes, apparently a mixture of Semitic and Hurrian peoples, known as the Hyksos by the Egyptians. The Hyksos were later driven out by Ahmose I, the first king of the eighteenth dynasty. Ahmose I reigned approximately 1550 - 1525 BCE, founding the 18th Egyptian dynasty which ushered in a new age for Egypt which we call the New Kingdom. Ahmose destroyed the Hyksos capital at Avaris, and the succeeding Pharaohs conquered the Hyksos city of Saruhen (near Gaza), Mayani, Zacharie "Les Hyksos et le monde de la Bible" as well as Canaanite confederations at Megiddo, Hazor and Kadesh. Thutmose III established Egypt's empire in the western Near East, destroying a Canaanite confederation at Megiddo and taking the city of Joppa, and extending it from the Sinai to the Euphrates bend, the area later thought to have been the size of the Empire of Solomon. The Egyptian Empire was maintained in the area of what was to emerge as Israel and Judah, up to the reign of Rameses VI in about 1150 BCE. From then on, the chronology can only roughly be given in approximate dates for most events, until about the 9th century BCE. Only in the 9th century are there contemporary independent Assyrian sources for the House of Omri that allows the Biblical account to be independently supported 1440 BCE The Egyptian reign of Amenhotep II, during which the first mention of the Habiru is found in Egyptian texts. http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/hebrews.html Jewish Virtual Library Recently discovered evidence (see Tikunani Prism) indicates that many Habiru spoke Hurrian, the language of the Hurrians. The Habiru were possibly a social caste rather than an ethnic group. Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman,"The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of its Sacred Texts" (2001);ISBN 0-684-86912-8 Marc van de Mieroop,"A History of the Ancient Near East, C. 3000-323 BC" (2003);ISBN 0-631-22552-8 Yet even so, they may have been incorporated into early Israelite tribal groups. Redford, Donald (1992)"Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times" (Princeton University Press) c.1400 First mention of the Shasu (or "wanderers") in Egyptian records, located just south of the Dead Sea. The Shasu contain a group with a Yahwistic name, although the Egyptian inscription of Amenhotep III, at the Soleb temple, "Yhw in the land of the Shasu", does not use the determinative for God, or even for people, but only for the possible name of a place. 1350-1330 BCE The Amarna correspondence detailed account of letters exchanged during the period of Egyptian domination in Canaan during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaton. Local mayors such as Abdi Khepa of Jerusalem and Labaya of Shechem were jockeying for power, and attempting to get the Pharaoh to act on their behalf. Akhenaton is reported to have dispatched a regiment of Medjay police to the region, to maintain order. This period is also one of the extension of Hittite power into Northern Syria for the first time, and is noticeable for the spread of a pandemic through the region. 1300 BCE Some Bible commentaries place the birth of Moses around this time. http://www.jajz-ed.org.il/history/body1.htm Jewish Agency http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/biography/moses.html Jewish Virtual Library 1292 BCE Egypt's 19th dynasty beginning with the reign of Ramesses I. Ramesses II (1279-1213 BCE) filled the land with enormous monuments, and signed a treaty with the Hittites after ceding the northern Levant to the Hittite Empire. These pharaoahs are often portrayed as those who persecuted the Hebrews in the Book of Exodus. Finkelman Cox, Penney (Producer), & Brenda Chapman (Director). (1998). The Prince of Egypt [Film]. Dream Works Distribution. He conducted a campaign throughout the territory of what was later to emerge as Israel, after the revolt of Shasu following the Battle of Kadesh, thereby establishing an Egyptian garrison in what was later to be Moab. Circa 1200 BCE The conquering of the Hittite empire of Anatolia by allied tribes from the west. The northern, coastal Canaanites (called the Phoenicians by the Greeks) may have been temporarily displaced by so-called "People of the Sea," but returned when the invading tribes showed no inclination to settle. http://leb.net/~farras/ugarit.htm Farras Abdelnour 1187 BCE The attempted invasion of Egypt by Sea People. Amongst them were a group called the P-r-s-t (first recorded by the ancient Egyptians as P-r/l-s-t), generally identified with the Philistines. They appear in the Medinet Habu inscription of Ramses III, http://www.courses.psu.edu/cams/cams400w_aek11/mhabtext.html Penn State University where he describes his victory against the Sea Peoples. Nineteenth-century Bible scholars identified the land of the Philistines (Philistia or Peleshet in Hebrew meaning "invaders") with Palastu and Pilista in Assyrian inscriptions, according to Easton's Bible Dictionary (1897). Other groups in addition to the Philistines, were the Tjekker, Denyen and Shardana. The vigorous counter-attack by Pharaoh Rameses III saw most Canaanite sites, in what was later to be Israel and Judah, destroyed. Later in the reign of this Pharaoh, Philistines and Tjekker, and possibly also Denyen, were allowed to resettle the cities of the coastal road which became known in the biblical Exodus account as "the Way of the Philistines". The name is used in the Bible to denote the coastal region inhabited by the Philistines. The five principal Philistine cities were Gaza, Ashdod, Ekron, Gath, and Ashkelon. Modern archaeology has suggested early cultural links with the Mycenean world in mainland Greece. Though the Philistines adopted local Canaanite culture and language before leaving any written texts, an Indo-European origin has been suggested for a handful of known Philistine words. 1150 BCE Internal troubles within Egypt that lead to the withdrawal of the last Egyptian garrisons at Beth Shean, the Jordan Valley, Megiddo and Gaza, during the reign of Rameses VI. The Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt and its chronology are much-debated. It is believed by Kenneth A. Kitchen Kitchen, Kenneth A. (2003), "On the Reliability of the Old Testament" (Grand Rapids, Michigan. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company)(ISBN 0-8028-4960-1) that the Exodus took place in the reign of Ramesses II due to the named Egyptian cities in Exodus: Pithom and Rameses. Archaeological evidence for an Israelite presence in the area has been found from only six years after the end of the reign of Rameses II, in the Merneptah Stele. The period marking the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th Dynasty was a particularly confusing one. Egyptian records document the rise of Asiatics from the region to high places within the Egyptian court. Chancellor Bay temporarily occupied the role of kingmaker, and Pharaoh Siptah's mother came from the region. After the death of Queen Twosret Meryamun, the country lapsed into chaos, and it appears Asiatics despoiled a number of Egyptian temples before being expelled by the first king of the 20th Dynasty, Pharaoh Setnakhte. These events may lie behind the Exodus account of Osarseph given by Manetho reported later by Josephus. Problems with conventional Biblical chronology A totaling of the reigns of the kings of Judah between the fourth year of the reign of Solomon [when he is supposed to have built the Temple], to the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE, is 430 years. This would suggest that the building of the temple by the United Monarchy under Solomon occurred in 1016 BCE. According to Kings 6:1, a total of 480 years was supposed to have lapsed between the Exodus and the dedication of this temple, giving it a date of 1496 BCE, as suggested by Redford Redford, Donald (1992) "Egypt, Canaan and Israel in Ancient Times" (Princeton Uni Press) to have been the 9th year of Hatshepsut's reign. According to Exodus 12:40, the sojourn in Egypt was supposed to have lasted 430 years placing the descent of Israel and his family in the reign of Senwosret I's in 1926 BCE. Adding together the very long life-spans of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob would date Abraham's arrival in Canaan at 2141 BCE, and his descent into Egypt at 2116 BCE, during the 10th Herakleopolitan Dynasty. The sojourn in Egypt would then have occupied the entire period of the 12th to the 18th Dynasty. As Numbers 32:13 allocates 40 years to the Wandering in Sinai, the conquests by Joshua must have occurred just prior to the reign of Thutmose III, when all of Canaan was possessed by Egypt. Even more astounding, according to this chronology, is the placement of Judges from 1456 to 1150 - almost exactly the period of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. Unfortunately, Egyptian sources say nothing about Israel, Joshua or his successors, and the Bible says nothing of the Amenophids, Thutmosids or Ramessids of this period. Ibid pp.257-259 Clearly, the development of the Israelites in Canaan is far more complex than the picture given in the Bible. http://www.institutoestudiosantiguoegipto.com/bietak_I.htm Egyptologist Manfred Bietak 2001 Research into settlement patterns suggests that the ethnogenesis of Israel as a people was a complex process involving mainly native pastoralist groups in Canaan (perhaps including Habiru and Shasu), with some infiltration from outside groups such as Hittites and Arameans from the north, as well as southern Shasu groups such as the Kenites- some of whom may have come from areas controlled by Egypt. Genetically, Palestinian Jews show closest connections with Kurdish people and other groups from Northern Iraq, suggesting that this is the area from which most of their ancestors originally came - a fact confirmed archaeologically from the Khirbet Kerak period down to the end of the Middle Bronze Age period, with the spread of the Hurrians (Biblical Horites), and in the Early Iron Age I period with the spread of Shasu (=Egyptian) and Ahlamu (=Assyrian Akkadian, i.e.wandering Aramaeans). William G. Dever,"What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?" (2001);ISBN 0-8028-4794-3 William G. Dever,"Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come from?" (2003);ISBN 0-8028-0975-8 Amihai Mazar,"Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 10,000 - 586 BCE"(1990);ISBN 0-385-42590-2 Wandering years and the conquest of Canaan Exodus goes on to say that, after leaving Egypt, nearly three million [Warshttp://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext01/warje10.txt] Israelites who had been wandering in the desert for a generation, invaded the land of Canaan, destroying major Canaanite cities such as Ai, Jericho and Hazor. Eric Cline, using a smaller figure of 2.5 million people (the Biblical figure refers to 'fighting men' to which must be added wives, children and the elderly), points out that 2.5 million people marching 10 across would form a line 150 miles long. Cline, Eric H. (2007), From Eden to Exile: Unravelling Mysteries of the Bible, National Geographic Society, ISBN 978-1426200847 p.74 The paradigm that has Ramses II as Exodus Pharaoh also has the conquest of Canaan and the destruction of Jericho and other Canaanite cities occur around 1200 BCE, despite the fact that Ai and Jericho seem to have been uninhabited at this time, having been destroyed at about 1550 BCE. Many of the other sites mentioned in the Book of Joshua also seem to have been unoccupied at this time, being synchronously present only in the seventh century BC, as suggested by Mattfield Mattfield Walter as the likely date for the composition of this account. Many other groups are known to have played a role in the destruction of urban centres during the late Bronze Age, such as the invading Sea Peoples, among whom the Philistines were one, and the Egyptians themselves. Feuds between neighboring city-states probably played a role as well. Population changes and the history of Judah and Israel Dever suggests that there were about 300 newly-founded small agricultural villages from lower Galilee to the Negev in the 13th-12th century BCE (usually considered the time of Judges), all of them conspicuously absent from previous Late Bronze Age towns and settlement along the coast. The population rose from around 12,000 at the end of the Bronze Age to about 55,000 by the end of the 12th century, and rose to 75,000 by the end of the 11th century - the period of David and Solomon - with the vast majority in the north. By the 8th century, just before the collapse and one century after the Omrides, Israel's population in the north had grown more than fivefold, to about 350,000. At the time of the Omrides it may have been even more, as Israel had lost Hazor, Dan and Bethsaida to Damascus, and the sacking of Megiddo and Taanach by Hazael of Damascus had led to a depopulation of the Jezrael. Under the Omrides, Israel was the most populous state of the Levant, probably surpassing even Damascus; but after the wars with Damascus and the coup of Jehu, it was probable that Aramaean Damascus had become the larger state. Thus, under the Omrides, the population of Israel may have been about 500,000. The south was much less populated. Judea's population, which before the collapse of the north had been low, grew 500% to 120,000. This means, the previous size of Judea before the reign of Ahaz had been about 24,000 people in the south with 96,000 coming as refugees from the north (about 1/3rd of the total of the previous population). This would suggest that the population of Judea was less than 1/20th that of the northern kingdom. During the 10th century it would have been still smaller. These discrepancies in population have caused some historians to doubt the factual accuracy of the United Kingdom, when Israel was supposedly ruled from Jerusalem Thompson, Thomas L. (2000), "The Mythic Past: Biblical Archaeology And The Myth Of Israel" (Basic Books) . But the enormous population after the fall of Israel did not last. The Assyrian campaign against Hezekiah, and the plague with which it was associated (Hezekiah himself narrowly escaped) reduced the population by nearly 50,000, so that by the end of the monarchy, Judah's population, based fairly accurately upon surveys at the time, was about 75,000, with 20% of it (about 15,000) living in Jerusalem. The Book of Jeremiah reports that a total of 4,600 went into exile in Babylon. The Book of Kings suggests that it was ten thousand, and then eight thousand. Finkelstein suggests that 4,600 represented the heads of households and 8,000 was the total, whilst 10,000 is a rounding upwards of the second number. Jeremiah also hints that an equivalent number may have fled to Egypt. Given these figures, Finkelstein suggests that 3/4 of the population of Judah did not move. The returnees at the time of Ezra and Nehemiah are said to be 50,000, possibly over a period of 100 years. Thus, about 50% of the total population in the Persian period, in the truncated territory of Yahud, estimated at about 100-150,000 was of the "new" post- exilic monotheism, and 50% practiced the old Canaanite pre-exilic polytheism. Given that Yehud did not include Bethsheva or Hebron, which were ruled by the Idumaeans, it is possible that the population within the border of old Judea was twice that (about 240,000). With the population of Israel nearly 10 times that of the south, the total population living within the borders of monarchial Israel and Judah at the end of the Persian period together may have numbered as many as 3 million, the number recorded roughly at the time of the Jewish Revolt. At this time it was estimated that Jews may have been 1/10th of the total population of the Empire, of between 50-60 million, and that the number of Jews in Diaspora, largely living in Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor (modern Turkey) was equal to the numbers living in the Land of Israel. Period of the Judges 1759 map of the tribal allotments of Israel If the Israelites returned to Canaan circa 1200 BCE, this was a time when the great powers of the region were neutralized by troubles of various kinds. This was the time of the "Peoples of the Sea" during which Philistines, Tjekker and possibly Danites settled along the coast from Gaza in the south to Joppa in the north. The entire Middle East fell into a "Dark Age" from which it took centuries to recover. Recovery seems to have occurred first in trading cities of the Philistine area, passing northwards to the Phoenicians, before moving inland to affect the interior areas of the Judean and Samarian hills, the historic core of Judea and Israel. According to the Biblical account, in their initial attacks under Joshua, the Hebrews occupied most of Canaan, which they settled according to traditional family lines derived from the sons of Jacob and Joseph (the "tribes" of Israel). No formal government existed and the people were led by ad hoc leaders (the "judges" of the biblical Book of Judges) in times of crisis. Around this time, the name "Israel" is first mentioned in a contemporary archaeological source, the Merneptah Stele. The withdrawal of the Egyptian garrisons in about 1150 BCE created a power vacuum in the region in which the Canaanite tribes tried to destroy the developing power-base of the Israelite tribes of the northern and central highland areas. According to the Bible, the Israelite response was led by Barak, and the Hebrew prophetess Deborah, who mustered some of the Israelite tribes in a common defence. Some authors Soggin, J. Alberto, "A History of Israel: from the earliest times to the revolt of Bar Kochba" consider that the early text of the "Song of Deborah" demonstrates that the core of the Israelite state was the tribes of Ephraim, Manasseh, Machir, and Benjamin, with additional groups (for example Dan, Asher and Judah) added later. The Bible shows that in this case the Canaanites were defeated, and the core of Israel extended north into Galilee and Jezreel. Origins of the United Monarchy As the wealth returned to the region with the end of the Late Bronze Age collapse, and trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia recovered, so new interior trade routes opened up, notably that running from Kadesh Barnea in the south, through Hebron to Jerusalem and Lachish to Samaria, Shiloh and Shechem and on through Galilee to Megiddo and the Plain of Jezreel. This new route threatened the trade monopoly of the Philistines, who sought to dominate the inland routes, either directly, through military intervention against the growing strength of the tribes of Israel, or indirectly, through promoting and employing mercenaries to positions of power, as Achish of Gath later had employed David. As outlined in the book of Deuteronomy chapter 7, Israel, to effectively resist the Philistine menace, was allowed to call for a king. Contrary to the instructions concerning whose duty it was to judge, Israel asked for a king to judge them (I Samuel 8:6, 20). According to the Books of Samuel, one of the last of the judges, the nation appealed for a king because Samuel's sons, who had been appointed judges over Israel, misused the office. Although he tried to dissuade them, they were resolute and Samuel anointed Saul ben Kish from the tribe of Benjamin as king. Samuel's pronouncement of the kind of king they would receive seems to be in direct contrast to the one described in Deuteronomy 7. Unfortunately, no independent evidence for the existence of Saul or these events has ever been found, although the Early Iron Age I period was certainly a phase of rapid Philistine expansionism, as the biblical account would seem to propose. United Monarchy Increasing pressure from the Philistines and other neighboring tribes, according to the Bible, forced the Israelites to unite under the king Saul in c. 1050 BCE. The Bible describes how Saul was defeated by the Philistines, and, in his place, David, originally a shepherd from Hebron, who, while serving Saul, managed to secure an independent power base (through victory in battle) in Jerusalem. David seized Jerusalem from the earlier Jebusite rulers, who were possibly a tribe of Canaanites, and took the throne in 1000 BCE. Although there is debate about the chronology of this period, as Jerusalem seems to have been a small village at best, Solomon, son of David, supposedly took the throne in 965 BCE. According to the Bible, this united kingdom lasted until c. 920 BCE when it split into the Kingdom of Israel in the north, and the Kingdom of Judah in the South as a result of irreconcilable differences between the northern and southern regions of the earlier united monarchy. As a result, two states developed separately, with Israel, the northern state, being culturally dominant. Unfortunately little if any independent archaeological confirmation of the existence of the United Monarchy has been found, and the subject remains highly controversial. Jonathan N. Tubb Tubb, Jonathan N. (2001), "The Canaanites" (British Museum Publications) argues that the two states that developed were identical culturally to the secondary Canaanite states of the Middle Eastern Iron Age II period. Archaeologists like Israel Finkelstein and others also considered there was never a united monarchy and that the stories about its existence were mostly developed during the kingdom of Josiah (see The Bible Unearthed). Josiah and his priests wanted, according to Finkelstein and other archaeologists, claim rights to the lands of the kingdom of Israel after this was taken over by the Assyrian empire. Divided Monarchy Map of the southern Levant, c.830s BCE. Kingdom of Israel Around 920 BCE, according to the biblical account, Jeroboam led the revolt of the northern tribes, and established the Kingdom of Israel (). B. S. J. Isserlin, Isserlin B. S. J."The Israelites" (Augsburg Fortress Publishers)ISBN 0800634268 in his examination of the Israelites, shows, from an analysis of the geographical setting, the origins of the Israelites, their neighbors, the political history of the monarchy, the socio-economic structure, town-planning and architecture, trade, craft and industry, warfare, and literacy as well as art and religion, that the Kingdom of Israel was typical of the secondary Canaanite states established at about this time. Economically, the Kingdom of Israel seems to have been more developed than its southern neighbor. Rainfall in this area is higher and the agricultural systems more productive. According to the biblical account, which cannot be checked by outside sources, there were 19 separate rulers of Israel. Politically, the Kingdom of Israel seems much less stable than Judah, maintaining a form of charismatic leadership by merit and competition between ruling families who seem to have depended much more on links with outside powers such as Tyre, Aram and Assyria in order to maintain their authority. This need to placate powerful neighbors was demonstrated early on during the reign of Jeroboam, when, despite reputed actions of establishing fortifications at Tirzah, Shechem and Penuel, Israel was invaded by Egyptian Pharaoh Sheshonk I (the Biblical Shishak) of the Libyan 22nd Dynasty. The Kingdom of Israel appears to have been most powerful in the first half of the ninth century BCE, during which time Omri (a. 885-874 BCE) founded a new dynasty with its capital city at Samaria with support from the Phoenician city of Tyre. Omri's son and successor, supposedly linked through dynastic marriage with Tyre, contributed 2,000 chariots and 10,000 soldiers to a coalition of states which fought and defeated Shalmaneser III at Qarqar in 853 BCE. Twelve years later, Jehu, with assistance from the Kingdom of Aram (centred in Damascus), organized a coup in which Ahab and his family were put to death. The Bible makes no reference to the fact, but Assyrian sources refer to Jehu as being a monarch of the house of Omri, which may indicate that this coup was the result of struggles within the same ruling family. Jehu is shown kneeling to the Assyrian monarch in the black obelisk of Shalmaneser III, the only monarch of either of the two states for which any portrait survives. As a result of these changes, Israel, like its southern neighbor, fell within the influence of Aramaean Damascus. King Hazael led the Arameans in battle against the forces of King Jehoram of Israel and King Ahaziah of Judah. After defeating them at Ramoth-Gilead, Hazael repelled two attacks by the Assyrians, seized Israelite territory east of the Jordan (the Philistine city of Gath), and sought to take Jerusalem as well (2 Kings 12:17). A monumental Aramaic inscription discovered at Tel Dan is seen by most scholars as having been erected by Hazael after he defeated the Kings of Israel and Judah. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah Recent excavations at Tell es-Safi/Gath have revealed dramatic evidence of the siege and subsequent conquest of Gath by Hazael. To end this domination from its two northern neighbors, Judah appealed to Tiglath Pileser III for Assyrian intervention, which ultimately (in 720 BCE) led to the fall of Israel to the Assyrians under Sargon and to the incorporation of Israel into the Assyrian Empire. Israel fell to the Assyrians in 721 BCE and was taken into captivity. . Despite the attempt by Assyrians to decapitate the Israelite kingdom by settling people on its eastern frontier with the Medes, archaeological evidence shows that many people fled south to Judah at this time, whose capital city, Jerusalem, now seems to have grown by over 500%. This also seems to have been a time when many northern traditions were incorporated within the region of Judah. This period of Israel's eclipse seems to have coincided with the rise of a line of independent prophets - Amos, Joel, Hoshea, Elijah, Elisha and Isaiah- all highly critical of the monarchs of Israel. The spiritual tradition that was later to coalesce in the biblical story, according to many biblical scholars, would have had its origins here. Kingdom of Judah Jewish noblemen in ancient Judah.Jewish noblewomen in ancient Judah.The major problems in the history of the divided monarchy is that the Septuagint, the Hebrew Masoretic text, and Josephus all have different figures Soggin J. Alberto (1985) "A History of Israel; from the beginnings to the Bar Kochba Revolt AD135" (SCM Press) . There is a further problem on whether or not it is known if the two kingdoms used the same calendar. Furthermore, it is unclear whether the number of years monarchs reigned refer to full years, partial years, or whether the reign went from new year to new year. Although the Mesopotamian New Year was from Spring Equinox to Spring Equinox, it is still not known what period was used for counting by the time the Kingdom in which these records were recorded, ended. This is compounded by the possibility of a shift during the period to a new calendrical system, and by possible periods of co-regency amongst kings. There are also possible copyist errors, which may explain why the biblical dates seem internally inconsistent MacKenzie, Stephen L and Hayes, Stephen J (1999) "To Each His Own: Biblical Criticisms and their Application" (WJK) . In 922 BCE, the Kingdom of Israel was divided. Judah, the southern Kingdom, had Jerusalem as its capital and was led by Rehoboam, who was responsible for leading them to war with Israel (which according to the Bible, continued during the reigns of Abijiah and Asa of Judah) and during whose reign Israel penetrated to Ramah, 5 km north of Jerusalem. Asa was supposed to have sent a delegation to Ben Hadad I, son of Tab-rimmon of Damascus (King of Aram), to attack Israel from the rear. The Dynasty of Omri brought an end to the war with Judah and cemented a dynastic alliance through Queen Athaliah, daughter of King Ahab and Jezebel of Tyre. During the reign of Ahaz, the population of Jerusalem seems to have grown enormously, possibly as a result of the arrival of many Israelite refugees fleeing from the north. The result was that the city grew from a small local market town to a sizable city. By the time of the reign of Hezekiah, his son, the population seems to have swelled to over 500% Finkelsetin, Israel, and Silberman, Niel Asher (2002), "The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts" (Free Press) . Hezekiah undertook a number of major works, including the expansion of the city wall to include the new population at Jerusalem and Lachish, the digging of the well of Siloam, to give the city an independent source of water within the city limits, and a major expansion of the temple. Phillip Davies Davies, Phillip R. (1998), "Scribes and Schools: The Canonization of the Hebrew Scriptures" (Westminster John Knox Press) and others suggest that at this time Jerusalem established its own scribal school for the first time, gathering the previous oral tradition into what became known as the J Source. The Bible also claims that Hezekiah undertook major religious reforms, attempting unsuccessfully to centralize Judean religious practices in the temple and eliminate the worship of the Nehushtan serpent, which may have been in place since the days of Moses. Hezekiah also seems to have been fascinated by the wisdom of Solomon, making a collection of the verses attributed to this monarch. Hezekiah's ambitions seem to have been over-stretched when, in part, prompted by promises of aid from the monarchs of the Egyptian 26th Dynasty, he took leadership of a coalition with the Philistines and asserted independence from Assyria, attempting to unify Judah and Israel. This led to disaster. Lachish was razed to the ground and its population taken in slavery to Assyria. Sennacherib boasted he had shut Hezekiah up in Jerusalem like a bird in a cage. The Bible, however, speaks of the angel of the Lord having smitten the besieging Assyrians; and the account certainly does read as if there was some kind of plague (Hezekiah himself is spoken of as having been afflicted but recovered). Nevertheless, the Assyrians extracted an enormous tribute, which seems to have pauperized the Judean population for a generation, and led to the complete reversal of all of Hezekiah's reforms. Hezekiah's son Manasseh, from careful cultivation by the Assyrian monarch Esarhaddon and his son Ashurbanipal, seems to have taken steps that led to the recovery of Judah's fortunes to a degree, despite the universally bad publicity which the monarch has received in the Bible. For instance, it is known that Manasseh spent time with Esarhaddon in Babylon and accompanied the latter in his invasion of Egypt. Manasseh's son Ammon had an insignificant reign before passing the throne to his infant son Josiah. In 633 BCE, the finding of a book of Law (a "Sefer Torah") by the priest Hilkiah, which was claimed to have been composed by Moses, led to major reforms of the state cult. Martin Noth contended, speculating on internal grounds, that this Deuteronomist was largely composed by someone during the reign of Josiah, making the king a "hero" (i.e. Messiah), and was closely connected to the Shiloah priesthood. This period saw the eclipse and collapse of the Assyrian Empire, which led Josiah to attempt to follow in the path of Hezekiah, centralizing all worship in Jerusalem and instituting the Passover. As before, he was tempted into a power-politics too big for Judah, and he died in battle resisting the advance of Pharaoh Necho's forces while attempting to aid the Assyrians at Harran. Judah fell to the Babylonians in 587 BCE and was taken into captivity. . Captivity Assyrian captivity of the Israelites Deportation of Israelites by the Assyrian Empire In 722 BCE, nearly twenty years after the initial invasions and deportations, the Assyrian King Sargon finally finished what Tiglath-Pileser III began in 740 BCE. He completed the conquest of the Northern Kingdom of Israel by taking captive the capital Samaria after a three year siege (which happened to kill Shalmaneser V) and deporting the remaining Israelites, including the ruling class, to the cities of the Medes and other disputed areas, generally believed to be in or near the vicinity of conquered lands occupied by the Assyrian Empire. Conversely, peoples from those lands were deported to Samaria. Thus, the Israelites of the Northern Kingdom were dispersed amongst the nations by being planted in the epicenter of the human migration tides of Eurasia. It is believed they were ultimately assimilated into new cultures, and eventually became unaware of their original identity. According to First Century Rabbis Sanhedrin 110b. and the historian Flavius Josephus Antiquities of the Jews, 11.5.2, from The Works of Josephus, translated by Whiston, W., Hendrickson Publishers. 1987. 13th Printing. p 294 , they had yet returned to the land of Israel even up to the time of the Roman destruction of the Second Temple. With the Kingdom of Judah being dispersed once more from their homeland in 70 CE, there is little evidence the Northern Kingdom Israelites ever returned in any substantial representation to rejoin the Jews of the Southern Kingdom before or after that time. Babylonian captivity of the Judahites 722 & 586 BCE. The First Dispersion, or Diaspora. Jews were either taken as slaves in what is commonly referred to as the Babylonian captivity of Judah, or they fled to Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, or Persia. http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Exile.html Jewish Virtual Library 586 BCE. Conquest of Judah (Southern Kingdom) by Babylon. Part of Judah's population, primarily the nobility, was exiled to Babylon. 587 BCE. Lachish letters, ostraca, classical Hebrew on 21 potsherds 559 BCE. Cyrus the Great became King of Persia. http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Persians.html Jewish Virtual Library Persian captivity of the Judahites 539 BCE. The Babylonian Empire fell to Persia under Cyrus. 550-333 BCE. The Persian Empire ruled over much of Western Asia, including Israel. Cyrus Cylinder (British Museum) Like most imperial powers during the Iron Age, King Cyrus allowed citizens of the empire to practice their native religion, as long as they incorporated the personage of the Persian Great King into their worship (either as a deity or semi-deity, or at the very least the subject of votive offerings and recognition). Further, Cyrus took the bold step of ending "state slavery". Ezra 1:1-4 These reforms are reflected in the famous Cyrus Cylinder and Biblical books of Chronicles and Ezra, which state that Cyrus released the Israelites from slavery and granted them permission to return to the Land of Israel. Second Temple Rebuilding the Temple 539 BCE. Jews return to Jerusalem under King Cyrus. Cyrus allowed Sheshbazzar, a prince from the tribe of Judah, and Zerubbabel, to bring the Jews from Babylon back to Jerusalem. Jews were allowed to return with the Temple vessels that the Babylonians had taken. Construction of the Second Temple began. http://jeru.huji.ac.il/ec1.htm The Jerusalem Mosaic http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Judaism/return.html Jewish Virtual Library See also in Biblical Hebrew, in Biblical Aramaic, . 520-516 BCE. Completion of the Second Temple under the spiritual leadership of the Prophets Haggai and Zechariah. At this time the Holy Land is a subdistrict of a Persian satrapy (province) known as Yehud and issues Yehud coinage. c. 450 - 419 BCE. Jewish polytheism found in ancient Egyptian papyri. Elephantine papyri of Jewish military colony in Egypt demonstrate [from letters to the temple at Jerusalem] that, at this time, some Jews were polytheistic; as letters specify that Yahweh was considered to have Anat as his consort. Bezalel Porten, with J.J. Farber, C.J. Martin, G. Vittman, editors. 1996. The Elephantine Papyri in English: Three Millennia of Cross-Cultural Continuity and Change, (Brill Academic) 444 BCE. Leaders of Israel's reformation. The reformation of Israel was led by Jewish scribes Nehemiah () and Ezra ). Ezra instituted synagogue and prayer services, and canonized the Torah by reading it publicly to the Great Assembly that he set up in Jerusalem. Ezra and Nehemiah flourished around this era. http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/gerald_larue/otll/chap25.html Gerald A. Larue on The Secular Web (This was contemporary with the Classical period of Ancient Greece). 428 BCE. Building of Samaritan temple. Samaritans build their temple on Mount Gerizim. Legacy of Alexander the Great Map of Alexander's empire. 331 BCE. Defeat of The Persian Empire by Alexander the Great. The Empire of Alexander the Great included Israel. However, it is said that he did not attack Jerusalem directly, after a delegation of Jews met him and assured him of their loyalty by showing him certain prophecies contained in their writings. 323 BCE. Death of Alexander the Great. In the power struggle after Alexander's death, the part of his empire that included Israel changed hands at least five times in just over twenty years. Babylonia and Syria were ruled by the Seleucids, and Egypt by the Ptolemies. 281-246 BCE. Ptolemy II Philadelphus: rules Israel, Septuagint translation begun in Alexandria, beginning of the Pharisees party and other Jewish Second Temple sects such as the Sadducees and Essenes. http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Judaism/The_Temple.html Jewish Virtual Library . 174-163 BCE. Antiochus IV Epiphanes: attempts complete Hellenization of the Jews [see also 1 Maccabees]. Hasmonean Kingdom The extent of the Hasmonean kingdom. 168-142 BCE. The Maccabee Rebellion, Hanukkah and the Hasmonean Kingdom (164-63) http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Maccabees.html Jewish Virtual Library . 160-60 BCE. Beginning of the formation of the community at Qumran [from whom came the Dead Sea Scrolls]. 134-104 BCE. "Age of Expansion" - John Hyrcanus's [Ethnarch & High Priest of Jerusalem] annexation of Trans-Jordan, Samaria, Galilee and Idumea, forced conversion of Idumeans to Judaism and hiring of non-Jewish mercenaries, etc. Alexander The Great Of Macedonia conquered part of this land. Roman occupation Iudaea and surrounding area in the 1st century 63 BCE. Pompey conquers Jerusalem and the region; makes it a client kingdom of Rome. 57-55 BCE. Aulus Gabinius, proconsul of Syria, splits Hasmonean Kingdom into Galilee, Samaria & Judea with 5 districts of Sanhedrin/Synedrion (councils of law). Antiquities of the Jews 14.5.4: "And when he had ordained five councils (συνέδρια), he distributed the nation into the same number of parts. So these councils governed the people; the first was at Jerusalem, the second at Gadara, the third at Amathus, the fourth at Jericho, and the fifth at Sepphoris in Galilee." Jewish Encyclopedia: Sanhedrin: "Josephus uses συνέδριον for the first time in connection with the decree of the Roman governor of Syria, Gabinius (57 BCE), who abolished the constitution and the then existing form of government of Palestine and divided the country into five provinces, at the head of each of which a sanhedrin was placed ("Ant." xiv. 5, § 4)." 40-39 BCE. Herod the Great appointed King of the Jews by the Roman Senate. Jewish War 1.14.4: Mark Antony " ...then resolved to get him made king of the Jews ... told them that it was for their advantage in the Parthian war that Herod should be king; so they all gave their votes for it. And when the senate was separated, Antony and Caesar went out, with Herod between them; while the consul and the rest of the magistrates went before them, in order to offer sacrifices [to the Roman gods], and to lay the decree in the Capitol. Antony also made a feast for Herod on the first day of his reign." See also Circa 4 BCE. Birth of Jesus and John the Baptist. 4 BCE-39 CE. Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee & Perea. 6 CE. Herod Archelaus, ethnarch of Judea, deposed by Augustus; Samaria, Judea and Idumea annexed as Iudaea Province under direct Roman administration H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 0674397312, page 246: "When Archelaus was deposed from the ethnarchy in 6 CE, Judea proper, Samaria and Idumea were converted into a Roman province under the name Iudaea." , capital at Caesarea, Quirinius becomes Legate (Governor) of Syria, conducts the first Roman tax census of Iudaea, is opposed by Zealots. Antiquities 18 7-26 CE. Brief period of peace and relative freedom of revolt and bloodshed in Iudaea & Galilee. John P. Meier's A Marginal Jew, v. 1, ch. 11); also H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 0674397312, page 251: "But after the first agitation (which occurred in the wake of the first Roman census) had faded out, we no longer hear of bloodshed in Judea until the days of Pilate." 9 CE. Death of Pharisee leader Hillel the Elder and the temporary rise of Shammai. 18-36 CE. Caiaphas appointed High Priest of Herod's Temple by Prefect Valerius Gratus, deposed by Syrian Legate Vitellius. 26-36 CE. Pontius Pilate appointed governor of the Roman province of Iudaea, John the Baptist beheaded, and Jesus crucified during the rule of Pontius Pilate who is also deposed by Vitellius. Josephus' Antiquities 18.4.2: "But when this tumult was appeased, the Samaritan senate sent an embassy to Vitellius, a man that had been consul, and who was now president of Syria, and accused Pilate of the murder of those that were killed; for that they did not go to Tirathaba in order to revolt from the Romans, but to escape the violence of Pilate. So Vitellius sent Marcellus, a friend of his, to take care of the affairs of Judea, and ordered Pilate to go to Rome, to answer before the emperor to the accusations of the Jews. So Pilate, when he had tarried ten years in Judea, made haste to Rome, and this in obedience to the orders of Vitellius, which he durst not contradict; but before he could get to Rome Tiberius was dead." 37-41 CE. Crisis under Caligula. H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 0674397312, The Crisis Under Gaius Caligula, pages 254-256: "The reign of Gaius Caligula (37-41) witnessed the first open break between the Jews and the Julio-Claudian empire. Until then — if one accepts Sejanus' heyday and the trouble caused by the census after Archelaus' banishment — there was usually an atmosphere of understanding between the Jews and the empire ... These relations deteriorated seriously during Caligula's reign, and, though after his death the peace was outwardly re-established, considerable bitterness remained on both sides. ... Caligula ordered that a golden statue of himself be set up in the Temple in Jerusalem. ... Only Caligula's death, at the hands of Roman conspirators (41), prevented the outbreak of a Jewish-Roman war that might well have spread to the entire East." 41-44 CE. Herod Agrippa I appointed "King of the Jews" by Claudius. 48-100 CE. Herod Agrippa II appointed "King of the Jews" by Claudius, seventh and last of the Herodians. Jewish-Roman Wars In 66, the First Jewish-Roman War broke out, lasting until 73. In 67, Vespasian and his forces landed in the north of Israel, where they conquered the Jewish armies from Ptolemais to Sepphoris. The Jewish garrison at Yodfat (Jodeptah) was massacred after a two month siege. By the end of this year, Jewish resistance in the north had been suppressed. In 69, Vespasian seized the throne after a civil war. By 70, the Romans had occupied Jerusalem. Titus, son of the Roman Emperor, destroyed the Second Temple on the 9th of Av, ie. Tisha B'Av (656 years to the day after the destruction of the First Temple in 587 BCE). Over 100,000 Jews died during the siege, and nearly 100,000 were taken to Rome as slaves. Many Jews fled to Mesopotamia (Iraq), and to other countries around the Mediterranean. In 73 the last Jewish resistance was suppressed by Rome at the mountain fortress of Masada; the last 900 defenders committed suicide rather than be captured and sold into slavery. Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakai escaped from Jerusalem. He obtained permission from the Roman general to establish a center of Jewish learning and the seat of the Sanhedrin in the outlying town of Yavneh (see Council of Jamnia). This is generally considered the beginning of Rabbinic Judaism, the period when the Halakha became formalized. Some believe that the Jewish canon was determined during this time period, but this theory has been largely discredited, see also Biblical canon. Judaism survived the destruction of Jerusalem through this new center. The Sanhedrin became the supreme religious, political and judicial body for Jews worldwide until 425, when it was forcibly disbanded by the Roman government, by then officially controlled by the Christian Church. In 132 the Bar Kokhba's Revolt began, led by Simon bar Kokhba, and an independent state in Israel was declared. By 135 this revolt was suppressed by Rome. The Romans, seeking to suppress the names "Judaea" and "Jerusalem", reorganized it as part of the province of Syria-Palestine. See also <table> <tr> Bible Biblical archaeology Canaan Chronology of the Bible Documentary hypothesis (the Torah represent a combination of documents from originally independent sources.) Hebrew Bible History of Israel History of Levant Israelite Old Testament Tanakh Torah Timeline of Christianity <td valign="top"> Notable people Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Benjamin, Moses, Aaron, Joshua <table> <tr> Kings of Israel Main: List of the Kings of Israel Saul, Ish-bosheth, David, Solomon, Jeroboam, Nadab, Baasha, Elah, Zimri, Omri, Ahab Ahaziah, Jehoram, Jehu, Elisha, Jehoahaz, Jehoash, Jeroboam II, Zachariah, Shallum, Menahem, Pekahiah, Pekah, Hoshea <td valign="top"><center> Kings of Judah Main: List of the Kings of Judah Rehoboam, Abijam, Asa, Jehoshaphat, Jehoram, Ahaziah, Athaliah, Jehoash, Amaziah, Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah, Manasseh, Amon, Josiah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jeconiah, Zedekiah </center> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> References External links Biblical History The Jewish History Resource Center - Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem | History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah |@lemmatized 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3,823 | ITU_prefix | The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) allocates call sign prefixes for radio and television stations of all types. They also form the basis for aircraft registration identifiers. These prefixes are agreed upon internationally, and are a form of country code. A call sign can be any number of letters and numerals but each country must only use call signs that begin with the characters allocated for use in that country. A few countries do not fully comply with these rules. Australian broadcast stations officially have—but do not use—the VL prefix, and Canada uses Chile's CB for its own Canadian Broadcasting Corporation stations. This is through a special agreement with the government of Chile, which is officially assigned the CB prefix. With regard to the second and/or third letters in the prefixes in the list below, if the country in question is allocated all callsigns with A to Z in that position, then that country can also use call signs with the digits 0 to 9 in that position. For example, the United States is assigned KA–KZ, and therefore can also use prefixes like KW0 or K1. Many large countries in turn have internal rules on how and where specific subsets of their callsigns can be used (such as Mexico's XE for AM and XH for FM radio and Television broadcasting), which are not covered here. Unallocated and unavailable call sign prefixes Unallocated: The following call sign prefixes are available for future allocation by the ITU. (x represents any letter; n represents any digit from 2–9.) E6, E8, E9, H5, J9, On, S4, T9*, Un, V9, Xn, YZ*, Z4–Z9, 4N*. (* Indicates a prefix that has recently been returned to the ITU.) Unavailable: Under present ITU guidelines the following call sign prefixes shall not be allocated. They are sometimes used unofficially - such as amateur radio operators operating in a disputed territory or in a nation state that has no official prefix (e.g. S0 in Western Sahara or 1A at Knights of Malta headquarters in Rome). (x represents any letter; n represents any digit from 2–9.) nn, x0, x1, 0x, 1x, Qx. no prefixes beginning with Q are used—they may be confused with Q codes. no prefixes with the digits 1 or 0 are used—they may be confused with the letters I or O. two digit prefixes (nn) are not as yet considered by the ITU. Table of Allocation of International Call Sign Series View as grid chart View this list arranged by nation Call Sign Series Allocated toA AA–AL United States AM–AO Spain AP–AS Pakistan AT–AW India AX Australia AY–AZ Argentina A2 Botswana A3 Tonga A4 Oman A5 Bhutan A6 United Arab Emirates A7 Qatar A8 Liberia A9 BahrainB B China B (BM-BO, BQ, BV, BX) Taiwan (uses prefixes allocated to China)C CA–CE Chile The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation operates the vast majority of its stations with call signs beginning with CB. CF–CK Canada CL–CM Cuba CN Morocco CO Cuba CP Bolivia CQ–CU Portugal CV–CX Uruguay CY–CZ Canada C2 Nauru C3 Andorra C4 Cyprus C5 The Gambia C6 Bahamas C7 World Meteorological Organization Series allocated to an international organization. C8–C9 MozambiqueD DA–DR Germany DS–DT South Korea DU–DZ Philippines D2–D3 Angola D4 Cape Verde D5 Liberia D6 Comoros D7–D9 South KoreaE EA–EH Spain EI–EJ Ireland EK Armenia EL Liberia EM–EO Ukraine EP–EQ Iran ER Moldova ES Estonia ET Ethiopia EU–EW Belarus EX Kyrgyzstan EY Tajikistan EZ Turkmenistan E2 Thailand E3 Eritrea E4 Palestinian Authority E5 Cook Islands Provisional allocation in accordance with No. S19.33: (Between radiocommunication conferences, the Secretary-General is authorized to deal with questions relating to changes in the allocation of series of call signs, on a provisional basis, and subject to confirmation by the following conference.) E7 Bosnia and HerzegovinaF F FranceG G United KingdomH HA Hungary HB Switzerland HB (HB0, HB3Y, HBL) Liechtenstein (uses prefixes allocated to Switzerland) HC–HD Ecuador HE Switzerland HF Poland HG Hungary HH Haiti HI Dominican Republic HJ–HK Colombia HL South Korea HM North Korea HN Iraq HO–HP Panama HQ–HR Honduras HS Thailand HT Nicaragua HU El Salvador HV Vatican City HW–HY France HZ Saudi Arabia H2 Cyprus H3 Panama H4 Solomon Islands H6–H7 Nicaragua H8–H9 PanamaI I ItalyJ JA–JS Japan JT–JV Mongolia JW–JX Norway JY Jordan JZ Indonesia J2 Djibouti J3 Grenada J4 Greece J5 Guinea-Bissau J6 Saint Lucia J7 Dominica J8 Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesK K United StatesL LA–LN Norway LO–LW Argentina LX Luxembourg LY Lithuania LZ Bulgaria L2–L9 ArgentinaM M United KingdomN N United StatesO OA–OC Peru OD Lebanon OE Austria OF–OJ Finland OK–OL Czech Republic OM Slovakia ON–OT Belgium OU–OZ DenmarkP PA–PI Netherlands PJ Netherlands — Netherlands Antilles PK–PO Indonesia PP–PY Brazil PZ Suriname P2 Papua New Guinea P3 Cyprus P4 Aruba P5–P9 North KoreaQThere are no prefixes beginning Q Three letter codes beginning with Q are for communication abbreviations, the Q codes and not used as callsign prefixes. R R RussiaS SA–SM Sweden SN–SR Poland SSA–SSM Egypt Half-series allocation. SSN–STZ Sudan SU Egypt SV–SZ Greece S2–S3 Bangladesh S5 Slovenia S6 Singapore S7 Seychelles S8 South Africa S9 São Tomé and PríncipeT TA–TC Turkey TD Guatemala TE Costa Rica TF Iceland TG Guatemala TH France TI Costa Rica TJ Cameroon TK France TL Central African Republic TM France TN Congo TO–TQ France TR Gabon TS Tunisia TT Chad TU Côte d'Ivoire TV–TX France TY Benin TZ Mali T2 Tuvalu T3 Kiribati T4 Cuba T5 Somalia T6 Afghanistan T7 San Marino T8 Palau T9 (T9 returned to the ITU on 7 August 2007. Bosnia and Herzegovina is now E7)U UA–UI Russia UJ–UM Uzbekistan UN–UQ Kazakhstan UR–UZ UkraineV VA–VG Canada VH–VN Australia VO Canada — Newfoundland and Labrador VP–VQ United Kingdom VR China — Hong Kong VS United Kingdom VT–VW India VX–VY Canada VZ Australia V2 Antigua and Barbuda V3 Belize V4 Saint Kitts and Nevis V5 Namibia V6 Micronesia V7 Marshall Islands V8 BruneiW W United StatesX XA–XI Mexico XJ–XO Canada XP Denmark XQ–XR Chile XS China XT Burkina Faso XU Cambodia XV Vietnam XW Laos XX China — Macau XY–XZ BurmaY YA Afghanistan YB–YH Indonesia YI Iraq YJ Vanuatu YK Syria YL Latvia YM Turkey YN Nicaragua YO–YR Romania YS El Salvador YT–YU Serbia YV–YY Venezuela (Republic of) Y2–Y9 GermanyZ ZA Albania ZB–ZJ United Kingdom ZK–ZM New Zealand ZN–ZO United Kingdom ZP Paraguay ZQ United Kingdom ZR–ZU South Africa ZV–ZZ Brazil Z2 Zimbabwe Z3 Republic of Macedonia2 2 United Kingdom3 3A Monaco 3B Mauritius 3C Equatorial Guinea 3DA–3DM Swaziland 3DN–3DZ Fiji 3E–3F Panama 3G Chile 3H–3U China 3V Tunisia 3W Vietnam 3X Guinea 3Y Norway 3Z Poland4 4A–4C Mexico 4D–4I Philippines 4J–4K Azerbaijan 4L Georgia 4M Venezuela 4O Montenegro 4P–4S Sri Lanka 4T Peru 4U United Nations 4V Haiti 4W East Timor 4X Israel 4Y International Civil Aviation Organization 4Z Israel5 5A Libya 5B Cyprus 5C–5G Morocco 5H–5I Tanzania 5J–5K Colombia 5L–5M Liberia 5N–5O Nigeria 5P–5Q Denmark 5R–5S Madagascar 5T Mauritania 5U Niger 5V Togo 5W Western Samoa 5X Uganda 5Y–5Z Kenya6 6A–6B Egypt 6C Syria 6D–6J Mexico 6K–6N South Korea 6O Somalia 6P–6S Pakistan 6T–6U Sudan 6V–6W Senegal 6X Madagascar 6Y Jamaica 6Z Liberia7 7A–7I Indonesia 7J–7N Japan 7O Yemen 7P Lesotho 7Q Malawi 7R Algeria 7S Sweden 7T–7Y Algeria 7Z Saudi Arabia8 8A–8I Indonesia 8J–8N Japan 8O Botswana 8P Barbados 8Q Maldives 8R Guyana 8S Sweden 8T–8Y India 8Z Saudi Arabia9 9A Croatia 9B–9D Iran 9E–9F Ethiopia 9G Ghana 9H Malta 9I–9J Zambia 9K Kuwait 9L Sierra Leone 9M Malaysia 9N Nepal 9O–9T Democratic Republic of the Congo 9U Burundi 9V Singapore 9W Malaysia 9X Rwanda 9Y–9Z Trinidad and Tobago Notes ITU table of international callsigns | ITU_prefix |@lemmatized international:5 telecommunication:1 union:1 itu:7 allocate:8 call:11 sign:11 prefix:14 radio:3 television:2 station:4 type:1 also:3 form:2 basis:2 aircraft:1 registration:1 identifier:1 agree:1 upon:1 internationally:1 country:7 code:4 number:1 letter:6 numeral:1 must:1 use:12 begin:5 character:1 fully:1 comply:1 rule:2 australian:1 broadcast:2 officially:2 vl:1 canada:7 us:1 chile:5 cb:3 canadian:2 corporation:2 special:1 agreement:1 government:1 assign:2 regard:1 second:1 third:1 list:2 question:2 callsigns:3 z:1 position:2 digit:5 example:1 united:8 state:3 ka:1 kz:1 therefore:1 like:1 many:1 large:1 turn:1 internal:1 specific:1 subset:1 mexico:4 xe:1 xh:1 fm:1 broadcasting:2 cover:1 unallocated:2 unavailable:2 follow:2 available:1 future:1 allocation:5 x:3 represent:4 n:3 un:2 xn:1 yz:1 indicate:1 recently:1 return:2 present:1 guideline:1 shall:1 sometimes:1 unofficially:1 amateur:1 operator:1 operate:2 disputed:1 territory:1 nation:3 official:1 e:2 g:2 western:2 sahara:1 knight:1 malta:2 headquarters:1 rome:1 nn:2 qx:1 prefixes:4 q:5 may:2 confuse:2 two:1 yet:1 consider:1 table:2 series:5 view:2 grid:1 chart:1 arrange:1 toa:1 aa:1 al:1 ao:1 spain:2 ap:1 pakistan:2 aw:1 india:3 ax:1 australia:3 ay:1 az:1 argentina:2 botswana:2 tonga:1 oman:1 bhutan:1 arab:1 emirates:1 qatar:1 liberia:4 bahrainb:1 b:2 china:6 bm:1 bo:1 bq:1 bv:1 bx:1 taiwan:1 c:1 ca:1 ce:1 vast:1 majority:1 cf:1 ck:1 cl:1 cm:1 cuba:3 cn:1 morocco:2 co:1 cp:1 bolivia:1 cq:1 cu:1 portugal:1 cv:1 cx:1 uruguay:1 cy:1 cz:1 nauru:1 andorra:1 cyprus:4 gambia:1 bahamas:1 world:1 meteorological:1 organization:3 mozambiqued:1 da:1 dr:1 germany:1 dt:1 south:6 korea:4 du:1 dz:1 philippine:2 angola:1 cape:1 verde:1 comoros:1 koreae:1 ea:1 eh:1 ei:1 ej:1 ireland:1 ek:1 armenia:1 el:3 em:1 eo:1 ukraine:1 ep:1 eq:1 iran:2 er:1 moldova:1 estonia:1 et:1 ethiopia:2 eu:1 ew:1 belarus:1 ex:1 kyrgyzstan:1 ey:1 tajikistan:1 ez:1 turkmenistan:1 thailand:2 eritrea:1 palestinian:1 authority:1 cook:1 islands:3 provisional:2 accordance:1 radiocommunication:1 conference:2 secretary:1 general:1 authorize:1 deal:1 relate:1 change:1 subject:1 confirmation:1 following:1 bosnia:2 herzegovinaf:1 f:1 franceg:1 unite:7 kingdomh:1 ha:1 hungary:2 hb:2 switzerland:3 hbl:1 liechtenstein:1 hc:1 hd:1 ecuador:1 hf:1 poland:2 hg:1 hh:1 haiti:2 hi:1 dominican:1 republic:6 hj:1 hk:1 colombia:2 hl:1 hm:1 north:2 hn:1 iraq:2 ho:1 hp:1 panama:3 hq:1 hr:1 honduras:1 hs:1 ht:1 nicaragua:3 hu:1 salvador:2 hv:1 vatican:1 city:1 hw:1 hy:1 france:6 hz:1 saudi:3 arabia:1 solomon:1 panamai:1 italyj:1 ja:1 j:1 japan:3 jt:1 jv:1 mongolia:1 jw:1 jx:1 norway:3 jy:1 jordan:1 jz:1 indonesia:5 djibouti:1 grenada:1 greece:2 guinea:4 bissau:1 saint:3 lucia:1 dominica:1 vincent:1 grenadinesk:1 k:1 statesl:1 la:1 ln:1 lo:1 lw:1 lx:1 luxembourg:1 ly:1 lithuania:1 lz:1 bulgaria:1 argentinam:1 kingdomn:1 stateso:1 oa:1 oc:1 peru:2 od:1 lebanon:1 oe:1 austria:1 oj:1 finland:1 ok:1 ol:1 czech:1 om:1 slovakia:1 ot:1 belgium:1 ou:1 oz:1 denmarkp:1 pa:1 pi:1 netherlands:3 pj:1 antilles:1 pk:1 po:1 pp:1 py:1 brazil:2 pz:1 suriname:1 papua:1 new:2 aruba:1 koreaqthere:1 three:1 communication:1 abbreviation:1 callsign:1 r:2 russia:2 sa:1 sm:1 sweden:3 sn:1 sr:1 ssa:1 ssm:1 egypt:3 half:1 ssn:1 stz:1 sudan:2 su:1 sv:1 sz:1 bangladesh:1 slovenia:1 singapore:2 seychelles:1 africa:2 são:1 tomé:1 príncipet:1 ta:1 tc:1 turkey:2 td:1 guatemala:2 te:1 costa:2 rica:2 tf:1 iceland:1 tg:1 th:1 ti:1 tj:1 cameroon:1 tk:1 tl:1 central:1 african:1 tm:1 tn:1 congo:2 tq:1 tr:1 gabon:1 tunisia:2 tt:1 chad:1 tu:1 côte:1 ivoire:1 tv:1 tx:1 ty:1 benin:1 tz:1 mali:1 tuvalu:1 kiribati:1 somalia:2 afghanistan:2 san:1 marino:1 palau:1 august:1 herzegovina:1 u:1 ua:1 ui:1 uj:1 um:1 uzbekistan:1 uq:1 kazakhstan:1 ur:1 uz:1 ukrainev:1 va:1 vg:1 vh:1 vn:1 vo:1 newfoundland:1 labrador:1 vp:1 vq:1 kingdom:5 vr:1 hong:1 kong:1 v:1 vt:1 vw:1 vx:1 vy:1 vz:1 antigua:1 barbuda:1 belize:1 kitts:1 nevis:1 namibia:1 micronesia:1 marshall:1 bruneiw:1 w:1 statesx:1 xa:1 xi:1 xj:1 xo:1 xp:1 denmark:2 xq:1 xr:1 xt:1 burkina:1 faso:1 xu:1 cambodia:1 xv:1 vietnam:2 xw:1 lao:1 xx:1 macau:1 xy:1 xz:1 burmay:1 ya:1 yb:1 yh:1 yi:1 yj:1 vanuatu:1 yk:1 syria:2 yl:1 latvia:1 ym:1 yn:1 yo:1 yr:1 romania:1 yt:1 yu:1 serbia:1 yv:1 yy:1 venezuela:2 germanyz:1 za:1 albania:1 zb:1 zj:1 zk:1 zm:1 zealand:1 zn:1 zo:1 zp:1 paraguay:1 zq:1 zr:1 zu:1 zv:1 zz:1 zimbabwe:1 monaco:1 mauritius:1 equatorial:1 swaziland:1 fiji:1 azerbaijan:1 georgia:1 montenegro:1 sri:1 lanka:1 east:1 timor:1 israel:1 civil:1 aviation:1 libya:1 tanzania:1 nigeria:1 madagascar:2 mauritania:1 niger:1 togo:1 samoa:1 uganda:1 senegal:1 jamaica:1 yemen:1 lesotho:1 malawi:1 algeria:2 barbados:1 maldives:1 guyana:1 croatia:1 ghana:1 zambia:1 kuwait:1 sierra:1 leone:1 malaysia:2 nepal:1 democratic:1 burundi:1 rwanda:1 trinidad:1 tobago:1 note:1 |@bigram western_sahara:1 arab_emirates:1 broadcasting_corporation:1 vast_majority:1 cape_verde:1 cook_islands:1 dominican_republic:1 el_salvador:2 saudi_arabia:1 guinea_bissau:1 saint_lucia:1 czech_republic:1 netherlands_antilles:1 são_tomé:1 costa_rica:2 côte_ivoire:1 san_marino:1 bosnia_herzegovina:1 newfoundland_labrador:1 hong_kong:1 antigua_barbuda:1 saint_kitts:1 kitts_nevis:1 marshall_islands:1 burkina_faso:1 equatorial_guinea:1 sri_lanka:1 east_timor:1 sierra_leone:1 republic_congo:1 trinidad_tobago:1 |
3,824 | Metaphor | Metaphor (from Latin metaphoria; see the Greek origin below) is language that directly connects seemingly unrelated subjects. It is a figure of speech that connects two or more things. More generally, a metaphor describes a first subject as being or equal to a second object in some way. This device is known for usage in literature, especially in poetry, where with few words, emotions and associations from one context are associated with objects and entities in a different context. It compares two subjects without using 'like or 'as'. The term derives from Greek μεταφορά (metaphora), or "transference" Metaphora, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus , from μεταφέρω (metaphero) "to carry over, to transfer" Metaphero, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus and that from μετά (meta), "between" Meta, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus + φέρω (phero), "to bear, to carry" Phero, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus . Structure The metaphor, according to I. A. Richards in The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1936), consists of two parts: the tenor and vehicle. The tenor is the subject to which attributes are ascribed. The vehicle is the subject from which the attributes are borrowed. Other writers employ the general terms ground and figure to denote what Richards identifies as the tenor and vehicle. Consider the All the world's a stage monologue from As You Like It: All the world's a stage,And all the men and women merely players;They have their exits and their entrances; — (William Shakespeare, As You Like It, 2/7) In this example, "the world" is compared to a stage, the aim being to describe the world by taking well-known attributes from the stage. In this case, "the world" is the tenor and "a stage" is the vehicle. "Men and women" are a secondary tenor and "players" is the vehicle for this secondary tenor. x The corresponding terms to 'tenor' and 'vehicle' in cognitive linguistics are target and source. In this nomenclature, metaphors are named using the typographical convention "TARGET IS SOURCE", with the domains and the word "is" in small capitals (or capitalized when small-caps are not available); in this notation, the metaphor discussed above would state that "LIFE IS THEATRE". In a conceptual metaphor the elements of an extended metaphor constitute the metaphor's mapping--in the Shakespeare passage above, for example, exits would map to death and entrances to birth. Terms and categorization A metaphor is generally considered to be more forceful and active than an analogy (metaphor asserts two topics are the same whereas analogies acknowledge differences). Other rhetorical devices involving comparison, such as metonymy, synecdoche, simile, allegory and parable, share much in common with metaphor but are usually distinguished by the manner in which the comparison between subjects is delivered. The category of metaphor can be further considered to contain the following specialized subsets: allegory: An extended metaphor in which a story is told to illustrate an important attribute of the subject catachresis: A mixed metaphor (sometimes used by design and sometimes a rhetorical fault) parable: An extended metaphor told as an anecdote to illustrate or teach a moral lesson Common types of metaphors A dead metaphor is one in which the sense of a transferred image is not present. Example: "to grasp a concept" or "to gather what you've understood" Both of these phrases use a physical action as a metaphor for understanding (itself a metaphor), do most visualize the physical action. Dead metaphors, by definition, normally go unnoticed. Some people make a distinction between a "dead metaphor" whose origin most speakers are entirely unaware about (such as "to break the ice"). Others, however, use dead metaphor for both of these concepts, and use it more generally as a way of describing metaphorical cliché. An extended metaphor, or conceit, sets up a principal subject with several subsidiary subjects or comparisons. The above quote from As You Like It is a very good example. The world is described as a stage and then men and women are subsidiary subjects that are further described in the same context. A mixed metaphor is one that leaps from one identification to a second identification that is inconsistent with the first one. Example: "He stepped up to the plate and grabbed the bull by the horns," where two commonly used metaphoric grounds for highlighting the concept of "taking action" are confused to create a nonsensical image. Less common classifications Other types of metaphor have been identified as well, though the nomenclatures are not as universally accepted: An absolute or paralogical metaphor (sometimes called an anti-metaphor) is one in which there is no discernible point of resemblance between the idea and the image. Example: "The couch is the autobahn of the living room." An active metaphor is one which by contrast to a dead metaphor, is not part of daily language and is noticeable as a metaphor. A complex metaphor is one which mounts one identification on another. Example: "That throws some light on the question." Throwing light is a metaphor and there is no actual light. A compound or loose metaphor is one that catches the mind with several points of similarity. Examples: "He has the wild stag's foot." This phrase suggests grace and speed as well as daring. A dying metaphor is a derogatory term coined by George Orwell in his essay Politics and the English Language. Orwell defines a dying metaphor as a metaphor that isn't dead (dead metaphors are different, as they are treated like ordinary words), but has been worn out and is used because it saves people the trouble of inventing an original phrase for themselves. In short, a cliché. Example: Achilles' heel. Orwell suggests that writers scan their work for such dying forms that they have 'seen regularly before in print' and replace them with alternative language patterns. An epic metaphor or Homeric simile is an extended metaphor containing details about the vehicle that are not, in fact, necessary for the metaphoric purpose. This can be extended to humorous lengths, for instance: "This is a crisis. A large crisis. In fact, if you've got a moment, it's a twelve-story crisis with a magnificent entrance hall, carpeting throughout, 24-hour porterage and an enormous sign on the roof saying 'This Is a Large Crisis.'" (Blackadder) An implicit metaphor is one in which the tenor is not specified but implied. Example: "Shut your trap!" Here, the mouth of the listener is the unspecified tenor. An implied or unstated metaphor is a metaphor not explicitly stated or obvious that compares two things by using adjectives that commonly describe one thing, but are used to describe another comparing the two. An example: "Golden baked skin", comparing bakery goods to skin or "green blades of nausea", comparing green grass to the pallor of a nausea-stic person or "leafy golden sunset" comparing the sunset to a tree in the fall. A simple or tight metaphor is one in which there is but one point of resemblance between the tenor and the vehicle. Example: "Cool it". In this example, the vehicle, "Cool", is a temperature and nothing else, so the tenor, "it", can only be grounded to the vehicle by one attribute. A submerged metaphor is one in which the vehicle is implied, or indicated by one aspect. Example: "my winged thought". Here, the audience must supply the image of the bird. A synecdochic metaphor is a trope that is both a metaphor and a synecdoche in which a small part of something is chosen to represent the whole so as to highlight certain elements of the whole. Metaphors outside of rhetoric The term metaphor is also used for the following terms that are not a part of rhetoric: A cognitive metaphor is the association of an object to an experience outside the object's environment. A conceptual metaphor is an underlying association that is systematic in both language and thought. A root metaphor is the underlying worldview that shapes an individual's understanding of a situation. A therapeutic metaphor is an experience that allows one to learn about more than just that experience. A visual metaphor provides a frame or window on experience. Metaphors can also be implied and extended throughout pieces of literature. Metaphors in literature and language Metaphor is present in written language back to the earliest surviving writings. From the Epic of Gilgamesh (one of the oldest Sumerian texts):My friend, the swift mule, fleet wild ass of the mountain, panther of the wilderness, after we joined together and went up into the mountain, fought the Bull of Heaven and killed it, and overwhelmed Humbaba, who lived in the Cedar Forest, now what is this sleep that has seized you? - (Trans. Kovacs, 1989) In this example, the friend is compared to a mule, a wild donkey, and a panther to indicate that the speaker sees traits from these animals in his friend (A comparison between two or more unlike objects). The Greek plays of Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides, among others, were almost invariably allegorical, showing the tragedy of the protagonists, either to caution the audience metaphorically about temptation, or to lambast famous individuals of the day by inferring similarities with the caricatures in the play. Novelist and essayist Giannina Braschi states, "Metaphors and Similes are the beginning of the democratic system of envy." Even when they are not intentional, they can be drawn between most writing or language and other topics. In this way it can be seen that any theme in literature is a metaphor, using the story to convey information about human perception of the theme in question. Metaphors in historical linguistics In historical onomasiology or, more generally, in historical linguistics, metaphor is defined as semantic change based on similarity, i.e. a similarity in form or function between the original concept named by a word and the target concept named by this word Cf. Joachim Grzega (2004), Bezeichnungswandel: Wie, Warum, Wozu? Ein Beitrag zur englischen und allgemeinen Onomasiologie, Heidelberg: Winter, and Blank, Andreas (1998), Prinzipien des lexikalischen Bedeutungswandels am Beispiel derfgjghfjg romanischen Sprachen, Tübingen: Niemeyer. . Example: mouse 'small, gray rodent' > 'small, gray, mouse-shaped computer device'. Some recent linguistic theories view language as by its nature all metaphorical; or that language in essence is metaphorical. See, for example, Vilayanur S Ramachandran, Reith Lectures 2003 The Emerging Mind, lecture 4 "Purple Numbers and Sharp Cheese", http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/reith2003/lecture4.shtml See also Cognitive metaphor Conceptual blending Conceptual metaphor Description List of political metaphors Metaphor in philosophy Nautical metaphors in English Pataphor Reification (fallacy) Simile Tertium comparationis Therapeutic metaphor Analysis of subjective logics alliteration References Other References Stefano Arduini (2007). (ed.) Metaphors, Roma, Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura. Aristotle. Poetics. Trans. I. Bywater. In The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation. (1984). 2 Vols. Ed. Jonathan Barnes. Princeton, Princeton University Press. I. A. Richards. (1936). The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Max Black (1954). Metaphor, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 55, pp. 273-294. Max Black (1962). Models and Metaphor, Ithaca, Cornell University Press. Max Black (1979). More about Metaphor, in A. Ortony (ed) Metaphor & Thought. Clive Cazeaux (2007). Metaphor and Continental Philosophy: From Kant to Derrida. New York: Routledge. L. J. Cohen (1979). The Semantics of Metaphor, in A. Ortony (ed) Metaphor & Thought Donald Davidson. (1978). "What Metaphors Mean." Reprinted in Inquiries Into Truth and Interpretation. (1984), Oxford, Oxford University Press. Jacques Derrida (1982). "White Mythology: Metaphor in the Text of Philosophy." In Margins of Philosophy. Trans. Alan Bass. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. Paul Ricoeur (1975). The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-Disciplinary Studies in the Creation of Meaning in Language'', trans. Robert Czerny with Kathleen McLaughlin and John Costello, S. J., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul 1978. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1977) John Searle (1979). “Metaphor,” in A. Ortony (ed) Metaphor & Thought External links * A short history of metaphor Audio illustrations of metaphor as figure of speech Center for the Cognitive Science of Metaphor Online Critical Inquiry (Autumn 1978) Special Issue: On Metaphors Introduction to Metaphor Metaphor Examples Top Ten Metaphors of 2007 The Canine in Conversation: Dogs in Metaphor and Idiom, Illustrated | Metaphor |@lemmatized metaphor:87 latin:1 metaphoria:1 see:6 greek:7 origin:2 language:11 directly:1 connect:2 seemingly:1 unrelated:1 subject:10 figure:3 speech:2 two:8 thing:3 generally:4 describe:7 first:2 equal:1 second:2 object:5 way:3 device:3 know:2 usage:1 literature:4 especially:1 poetry:1 word:5 emotion:1 association:3 one:19 context:3 associate:1 entity:1 different:2 compare:8 without:1 use:12 like:5 term:7 derive:1 μεταφορά:1 metaphora:2 transference:1 henry:4 george:5 liddell:4 robert:5 scott:4 english:6 lexicon:4 perseus:4 μεταφέρω:1 metaphero:2 carry:2 transfer:1 μετά:1 meta:2 φέρω:1 phero:2 bear:1 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3,825 | Cross_ownership | Cross ownership is a method of reinforcing business relationships by owning stock in the companies with which a given company does business. In the US, it also refers to a type of investment in different mass-media properties in one market. Cross ownership of stock Some countries where cross ownership of shares is a major part of the business culture are: Japan Germany Positives of cross ownership: Closely ties each business to the economic destiny of its business partners Promotes a slow rate of economic change Cross ownership of shares is criticized for: Stagnating the economy Wasting capital that could be used to improve productivity Expanding economic downturns by preventing reallocation of capital A major factor in perpetuating cross ownership of shares is a high capital gains tax rate. A company has less incentive to sell cross owned shares if taxes are high because of the immediate reduction in the value of the assets. For example, a company owns $1000 of stock in another company that was originally purchased for $200. If the capital gains tax rate is 50% (like Germany) and the company sells the stock, the company has $600 which is 40 percent less than before it sold the stock. Long term cross ownership of shares combined with a high capital tax rate greatly increases periods of asset deflation both in time and in severity. Media Cross Ownership Cross ownership also refers to a type of media ownership in which one type of communications (say a newspaper) owns or is the sister company of another type of medium (such as a radio or TV station). One example is The New York Times 's ownership of WQXR Radio and the Chicago Tribune'''s similar relationship with WGN Radio (WGN-AM) and Television (WGN-TV). The Federal Communications Commission generally does not allow cross ownership, to keep from one license holder having too much local media ownership, unless the license holder obtains a waiver, such as News Corporation and the Tribune Company have in New York. The mid-1970s cross-ownership guidelines grandfathered already-existing crossownerships, such as Tribune-WGN, New York Times-WQXR and the New York Daily News'' ownership of WPIX Television and Radio. | Cross_ownership |@lemmatized cross:12 ownership:15 method:1 reinforce:1 business:5 relationship:2 stock:5 company:9 give:1 u:1 also:2 refer:2 type:4 investment:1 different:1 mass:1 medium:5 property:1 one:4 market:1 country:1 share:5 major:2 part:1 culture:1 japan:1 germany:2 positive:1 closely:1 tie:1 economic:3 destiny:1 partner:1 promote:1 slow:1 rate:4 change:1 criticize:1 stagnate:1 economy:1 waste:1 capital:5 could:1 use:1 improve:1 productivity:1 expand:1 downturn:1 prevent:1 reallocation:1 factor:1 perpetuate:1 high:3 gain:2 tax:4 less:2 incentive:1 sell:3 immediate:1 reduction:1 value:1 asset:2 example:2 another:2 originally:1 purchase:1 like:1 percent:1 long:1 term:1 combine:1 greatly:1 increase:1 period:1 deflation:1 time:3 severity:1 communication:2 say:1 newspaper:1 sister:1 radio:4 tv:2 station:1 new:4 york:4 wqxr:2 chicago:1 tribune:3 similar:1 wgn:4 television:2 federal:1 commission:1 generally:1 allow:1 keep:1 license:2 holder:2 much:1 local:1 unless:1 obtain:1 waiver:1 news:2 corporation:1 mid:1 guideline:1 grandfathered:1 already:1 exist:1 crossownerships:1 daily:1 wpix:1 |@bigram economic_downturn:1 chicago_tribune:1 |
3,826 | Bastille_Day | The Champs-Élysées decorated with flags for Bastille Day Eiffel tower on Bastille DayBastille Day is the French national holiday, celebrated on 14 July each year . In France, it is called Fête Nationale ("National Celebration") in official parlance, or more commonly le quatorze juillet ("14 July"). It commemorates the 1790 Fête de la Fédération, held on the first anniversary of the storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789; the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille fortress-prison was seen as a symbol of the uprising of the modern nation, and of the reconciliation of all the French inside the constitutional monarchy which preceded the First Republic, during the French Revolution. Jacques Chirac reviewing troops on the 2003 Bastille Day parade. Festivities are held on the morning of 14 July, on the Champs-Élysées avenue in Paris in front of the President of the Republic. The parade opens with many cadets from the École Polytechnique, Saint-Cyr, École Navale, and so forth, then other infantry troops, then motorised troops; aviation of the Patrouille de France flies above. In recent times, it has become customary to invite units from France's allies to the parade; in 2004 during the centenary of the Entente Cordiale, British troops (the band of the Royal Marines, the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment, Grenadier Guards and King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery) led the Bastille Day parade in Paris for the first time, with the Red Arrows flying overhead. http://www.entente-cordiale.org/en/6a_c.php?id=1 Traditionally, the students of the École Polytechnique set up some form of joke. The president used to give an interview to members of the press, discussing the situation of the country, recent events and projects for the future. Nicolas Sarkozy, elected president in 2007, has chosen not to give it. The President also holds a garden party at the Palais de l'Elysée. Bastille Day falls during the Tour de France and is traditionally a day when French riders try to take a stage victory for France, working harder than they might on other days. Article 17 of the Constitution of France gives the President the authority to pardon offenders, and since 1991 the President has pardoned many petty offenders (mainly traffic offences) on 14 July. In 2007, President Sarkozy declined to continue the practice Sarkozy enterre la grâce présidentielle du 14 juillet plus news.fr . History The storming of the Bastille Prise de la Bastille, by Jean-Pierre-Louis-Laurent HouelBastille Day, Cazouls les Beziers 2008 On 5 May 1789, Louis XVI convened the Estates-General to hear their grievances. The deputies of the Third Estate representing the common people (the two others were the church and nobility) decided to break away and form a National Assembly. On 20 June the deputies of the Third Estate took the Tennis Court Oath, swearing not to separate until a constitution had been established. They were gradually joined by delegates of the other estates; Louis started to recognize their validity on 27 June. The assembly re-named itself the National Constituent Assembly on 9 July, and began to function as a legislature and to draft a constitution. In the wake of the 11 July dismissal of Jacques Necker, the people of Paris, fearful that they and their representatives would be attacked by the royal military, and seeking to gain ammunition and gunpowder for the general populace, stormed the Bastille, a fortress-prison in Paris which had often held people jailed on the basis of lettres de cachet, arbitrary royal indictments that could not be appealed. Besides holding a large cache of ammunition and gunpowder, the Bastille had been known for holding political prisoners whose writings had displeased the royal government, and was thus a symbol of the absolutism of the monarchy. As it happened, at the time of the siege in July 1789 there were only seven inmates, none of great political significance. When the crowd — eventually reinforced by mutinous gardes françaises — proved a fair match for the fort's defenders, Governor de Launay, the commander of the Bastille, capitulated and opened the gates to avoid a mutual massacre. However, possibly because of a misunderstanding, fighting resumed. Ninety-eight attackers and just one defender died in the actual fighting, but in the aftermath, de Launay and seven other defenders were killed, as was the 'prévôt des marchands' (roughly, mayor) Jacques de Flesselles. The storming of the Bastille was more important as a rallying point and symbolic act of rebellion than a practical act of defiance. Shortly after the storming of the Bastille, on 4 August feudalism was abolished and on 26 August, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaimed. The Fête de la Fédération The Fête de la Fédération The Fête de la Fédération of the 14 July 1790 was a huge feast and official event to celebrate the uprising of the short-lived constitutional monarchy in France and what people considered the happy conclusion of the French Revolution. The event took place on the Champ de Mars, at the time outside of Paris but now the site of the Eiffel Tower. The place had been transformed voluntarily by the population of Paris in what was recalled as the Journée des brouettes ("Wheelbarrow Day"). A mass was celebrated by Talleyrand, bishop of Autun. The popular General Lafayette, as captain of the National Guard of Paris and confidant of the king, took his oath to the constitution, followed by the King Louis XVI. After the end of the official celebration, the day ended in a huge four-day popular feast and people celebrated with fireworks, as well as fine wine and running naked through the streets in order to display their great freedom. Origin of the present celebration Claude Monet, Rue Montorgueil, Paris, Festival of 30 June 1878. On 30 June 1878, a feast had been set in Paris by official decision to honour the Republic (the event was immortalised in a painting by Claude Monet). On the 14 July 1879, another feast took place, with a semi-official aspect; the events of the day included a military review in Longchamp, a reception in the Chambre of Deputies, organised and presided by Léon Gambetta, and a Republican Feast in the pré Catelan with Louis Blanc and Victor Hugo. All through France, as Le Figaro wrote on the 16th, "people feasted a lot to honour the Bastille". On the 21 May 1880, Benjamin Raspail proposed a law to have "the Republic choose the du14 July as a yearly national holiday". The Assembly voted the text on 21 May and 8 June. The Senate approved on 27 and 29 June, favouring 14 July against 4 August (honouring the end of the feudal system on 4 August 1789). The law was made official on 6 July 1880, and the Ministry of the Interior recommended to prefects that the day should be "celebrated with all the brilliance that the local resources allow". Indeed, the celebrations of the new holiday in 1880 were particularly magnificent. In the debate leading up to the adoption of the holiday, Henri Martin, chairman of the French Senate, addressed that chamber 29 June 1880. "Do not forget that behind this 14 July, where victory of the new era over the ancien régime was bought by fighting, do not forget that after the day of 14 July 1789, there was the day of 14 July 1790. … This [latter] day cannot be blamed for having shed a drop of blood, for having divided the country. It was the consecration of unity of France. … If some of you might have scruples against the first 14 July, they certainly hold none against the second. Whatever difference which might part us, something hovers over them, it is the great images of national unity, which we all desire, for which we would all stand, willing to die if necessary." Bastille Day celebrations in other countries Budapest, Hungary; Bastille Day fireworks United States New York City has a large Bastille Day celebration each year on 60th Street on the Upper East Side of Manhattan San Francisco has a large celebration in the downtown historic French quarter. Philadelphia's Bastille Day, held at Eastern State Penitentiary, involves Marie Antoinette, with a cry of "Let them eat Tastykake!", throwing the locally-manufactured pastries at the Parisian militia, as well as a re-enactment of the storming the Bastille. ESP :: Eastern State Penitentiary Website Milwaukee's four-day Bastille Days street festival begins with a "Storming of the Bastille" with a 43-foot replica of the Eiffel Tower. Minneapolis has a celebration in Uptown with wine, French food, pastries, a flea market, circus performers and bands. Seattle's Bastille Day Celebration, held at the Seattle Center, involves performances, picnics, wine and shopping. South Africa Franschhoek's week-end festival Bastille Day Festival at Franschhoek has been celebrated for the last 15 years. [Franschhoek meaning 'French Corner' is situated in the Cape Province] Hungary Two day celebration in Budapest, sponsored by the Institut de France. One time celebrations 1979: A concert with Jean-Michel Jarre on the Place de la Concorde in Paris attracts one million people, securing an entry in the Guinness Book of Records for the largest crowd at an outdoor concert 1989: France celebrates the 200th anniversary of French Revolution, notably with a monumental show on the Champs-Élysées in Paris, directed by French designer Jean-Paul Goude. President François Mitterrand hosts world leaders 1998: Two days after the French football team becomes world champions, huge celebrations take place nationwide See also Bastille Day Military Parade Public Holidays in France Opération 14 juillet References External links Tout savoir sur le 14 Juillet Bastille Day at the French Embassy in London 2008 Bastille Day in New York 2006 Bastille Day in New York 2007 Bastille Day Celebration | Bastille_Day |@lemmatized champ:4 élysées:3 decorate:1 flag:1 bastille:29 day:31 eiffel:3 tower:3 daybastille:1 french:13 national:7 holiday:5 celebrate:7 july:17 year:3 france:12 call:1 fête:5 nationale:1 celebration:13 official:6 parlance:1 commonly:1 le:4 quatorze:1 juillet:4 commemorate:1 de:16 la:7 fédération:4 hold:9 first:4 anniversary:3 storming:6 fortress:2 prison:2 see:2 symbol:2 uprising:2 modern:1 nation:1 reconciliation:1 inside:1 constitutional:2 monarchy:3 precede:1 republic:4 revolution:3 jacques:3 chirac:1 review:2 troop:5 parade:5 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3,827 | Cygwin | Cygwin ( ) is a Unix-like environment and command-line interface for Microsoft Windows. Cygwin provides native integration of Windows-based applications, data, and other system resources with applications, software tools, and data of the Unix-like environment. Thus it is possible to launch Windows applications from the Cygwin environment, as well as to use Cygwin tools and applications within the Windows operating context. Cygwin consists of two parts: a Dynamic-link library (DLL) as an API compatibility layer providing a substantial part of the POSIX API functionality, and an extensive collection of software tools and applications that provide a Unix-like look and feel. Cygwin was originally developed by Cygnus Solutions and was acquired by Red Hat. It is free software, released under the GNU General Public License. Today it is maintained by employees of Red Hat, NetApp and many other volunteers. Corinna Vinschen and Christopher Faylor are currently the managers of the Cygwin development team. Description Cygwin consists of a library that implements the POSIX system call API in terms of Win32 system calls, a GNU development toolchain (such as GCC and GDB) to allow software development, and a large number of application programs equivalent to those on the Unix system. Many Unix programs have been ported to Cygwin, including the X Window System, KDE, GNOME Cygwin Ports , Apache, and TeX. Cygwin permits installing inetd, syslogd, sshd, Apache, and other daemons as standard Windows services, allowing Microsoft Windows systems to emulate Unix and Linux servers. Cygwin programs are installed by running Cygwin's "setup" program, which downloads the necessary program and feature package files from repositories on the Internet. Setup can install, update, and remove programs and their source code packages. A full installation may take up to 4 GB of hard disk space. Efforts to reconcile concepts that differ between Unix and Windows systems include: A Cygwin-specific version of the Unix mount command allows Windows paths to be mounted as "filesystems" in the Unix file space. Mount information is normally stored in the registry. Filesystems can be mounted as binary ones (by default), or as text-based ones, which enables automatic conversion between LF and CRLF endings. (This only affects programs that call open() or fopen() without specifying text or binary. Programs installed by Cygwin's setup program always open files in binary mode when appropriate, thus avoiding the problem.) Disk drives (C:, D:, etc.) are also denominated /cygdrive/c, /cygdrive/d, etc. Windows network paths of the form \\HOST\SHARE\FILE are mapped to //HOST/SHARE/FILE. Full-featured /dev and /proc file systems are provided. /proc/registry provides direct filesystem access to the registry. Symbolic links are provided, and use .LNK files (Windows shortcuts) containing Cygwin-specific information, and with the "system" attribute set to speed up processing. However, native NTFS symbolic links are handled differently; using the rm deletes the linked file instead of the link itself. Old Cygwin versions handled symbolic links using plain text files with hidden attribute set and a single line of text, pointing to the destination file or directory. The Solaris API for handling access control lists (ACLs) is supported and maps to the Windows NT ACL system. Special formats of /etc/passwd and /etc/group are provided that include pointers to the Windows equivalent SID's (in the GECOS field), allowing for mapping between Unix and Windows users and groups. Various utilities are provided for converting between Windows and Unix file formats, for handling line ending (CRLF/LF) issues, for displaying the DLLs that an executable is linked with, etc. The Cygwin library also interfaces to existing Windows libraries. It is possible to call Windows functions like waveOut from Cygwin executable itself. The version of gcc that comes with Cygwin has various extensions for creating Windows DLLs, specifying whether a program is a windowing or console mode program, adding resources, etc. It also provides support for compiling MinGW-compatible executables (that is, executables that do not require Cygwin to be installed to run, or more specifically, executables that don't require Cygwin's CYGWIN1.DLL, which provides the POSIX compatibility layer). Cygwin is used heavily for porting many popular pieces of software to the Windows platform. It is used to compile Sun Java, OpenOffice.org, and even server software, like lighttpd. Red Hat normally licenses the Cygwin library under the GNU General Public License with an exception to allow linking to any free software whose license conforms to the Open Source Definition. Red Hat also sells commercial licenses to those who wish to redistribute programs that use the Cygwin library under proprietary terms. History Cygwin began in 1995 as a project of Steve Chamberlain, a Cygnus engineer who observed that Windows NT and 95 used COFF as their object file format, and that GNU already included support for x86 and COFF, and the C library newlib. He thought it would be possible to retarget GCC and produce a cross compiler generating executables that could run on Windows. This proved indeed practical and a prototype was quickly developed. The next step was to attempt to bootstrap the compiler on a Windows system, requiring sufficient emulation of Unix to let the GNU configure shell script run. A Bourne shell-compatible command interpreter, such as bash, was needed and in turn a fork system call emulation and standard input/output. Windows includes similar functionality, so the Cygwin library just needed to provide a POSIX-compatible application programming interface (API) and properly translate calls and manage private versions of data, such as file descriptors. Initially, Cygwin was called gnuwin32 (not to be confused with the current GnuWin32 project). The name was changed to Cygwin32 to emphasize Cygnus' role in creating it. When Microsoft registered the trademark Win32, the 32 was dropped to simply become Cygwin. By 1996, other engineers had joined in, because it was clear that Cygwin would be a useful way to provide Cygnus' embedded tools hosted on Windows systems (the previous strategy had been to use DJGPP). It was especially attractive because it was possible to do a three-way cross-compile, for instance to use a hefty Sun workstation to build, say, a Windows-x-MIPS cross-compiler, which was faster than using the PC of the time. Starting around 1998, Cygnus also began offering the Cygwin package as a product of interest in its own right. Features Supports native application building using mingw Supports remote logins using rsh, ssh, and telnet Embedded cross platforms support, used for many platforms including PSP and PS2 X Window and OpenGL support Windows Vista support Derivatives Cygnix is a limited X11 environment based on Cygwin. Its name is an abbreviation of "CYGnus pseudo-uNIX". There are implementations of Cygnix in Windows 95 / 98 / ME and Windows NT / 2000 / XP. There was also a package called Cygnix for AmigaOS 4. It is now renamed to AmiCygnix. This package is not based on Cygnix for Windows. It is based on a X server port for AmigaOS 3.x for 68k Amigas. Additions to Cygwin Extensions to Cygwin are available, such as Cygwin/X, a port of the X Window System, and in turn, the KDE Desktop as KDE on Cygwin. However KDE on Cygwin has been phased out as KDE 4 has been ported to run natively on Windows. Alternatives to Cygwin Several open-source and proprietary alternatives are available for simultaneous access to both Windows and UNIX environments on the same hardware. Toolsets like Microsoft Windows Services for UNIX, UWIN and MKS Toolkit for Enterprise Developers also aim to provide a Unix-like user and development environment. They implement at least a shell, several utilities, including the familiar GNU and/or Unix compiler tools, including make and the complete C programming environment. MKS Toolkit for System Administrators, GnuWin32 and UnxUtils only provide a Unix-like user environment, not a development environment. MKS Toolkit for Developers has both a Unix-like user environment and a Unix-like development environment for Windows development. MinGW is a native software port of the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) to Microsoft Windows, along with a set of freely distributable import libraries and header files for the Windows API. MinGW allows developers to create native Microsoft Windows applications. In addition, a component of MinGW known as MSYS (Minimal SYStem) provides a lightweight Unix-like shell environment including rxvt and a selection of POSIX tools sufficient to enable autoconf scripts to run. What is MSYS? MinGW - Minimal SYStem Qt (pronounced "cute" by its creators Interview with Trolltech president Eirik Eng on dot.kde.org ) is a cross-platform application development framework, widely used for the development of GUI programs (in which case it is known as a widget toolkit), and also used for developing non-GUI programs such as console tools and servers. PWLib is a multi-platform code library that can be used to write applications that will compile and run on the BSD Unixes, Windows, Linux and a few other Unix variants which is used by the OpenH323 library. In addition, there are numerous virtualization solutions that provide x86 platform virtualization to run Windows and Unix-like operating systems simultaneously on the same hardware, but without the integration of the environments that Cygwin provides. Some, like VirtualBox and VMware Player run on Windows and Linux hosts and can run many other operating systems. Cooperative Linux (in short coLinux) runs a full, but modified Linux kernel like a driver under Windows, effectively making Windows and Linux two coroutines, using cooperative multitasking to switch between them. However, as of January 2009, coLinux has not reached a stable release. Wine is a free compatibility layer for Unix-like operating systems on the x86 or x86-64 architecture that can execute programs written for Microsoft Windows. See also Comparison of platform virtual machines Xming (X server for Windows) Cooperative Linux Linux Unified Kernel References External links Cygwin Home Cygnix project cygwin.dll with Unicode support | Cygwin |@lemmatized cygwin:41 unix:25 like:15 environment:13 command:3 line:3 interface:2 microsoft:7 window:40 provide:17 native:5 integration:2 base:5 application:11 data:3 system:20 resource:2 software:8 tool:7 thus:2 possible:4 launch:1 well:1 use:19 within:1 operate:4 context:1 consist:2 two:2 part:2 dynamic:1 link:9 library:11 dll:3 api:6 compatibility:3 layer:3 substantial:1 posix:5 functionality:2 extensive:1 collection:2 look:1 feel:1 originally:1 develop:3 cygnus:6 solution:2 acquire:1 red:4 hat:4 free:3 release:2 gnu:7 general:2 public:2 license:5 today:1 maintain:1 employee:1 netapp:1 many:5 volunteer:1 corinna:1 vinschen:1 christopher:1 faylor:1 currently:1 manager:1 development:9 team:1 description:1 implement:2 call:8 term:2 toolchain:1 gcc:4 gdb:1 allow:6 large:1 number:1 program:17 equivalent:2 port:7 include:9 x:8 kde:6 gnome:1 apache:2 tex:1 permit:1 instal:4 inetd:1 syslogd:1 sshd:1 daemon:1 standard:2 service:2 emulate:1 linux:8 server:5 run:11 setup:3 download:1 necessary:1 feature:3 package:5 file:14 repository:1 internet:1 install:1 update:1 remove:1 source:3 code:2 full:3 installation:1 may:1 take:1 gb:1 hard:1 disk:2 space:2 effort:1 reconcile:1 concept:1 differ:1 windows:5 specific:2 version:4 mount:4 path:2 filesystems:2 information:2 normally:2 store:1 registry:3 binary:3 one:2 default:1 text:4 enable:2 automatic:1 conversion:1 lf:2 crlf:2 ending:1 affect:1 open:4 fopen:1 without:2 specify:2 always:1 mode:2 appropriate:1 avoid:1 problem:1 drive:1 c:4 etc:6 also:9 denominate:1 cygdrive:2 network:1 form:1 host:4 share:2 map:3 dev:1 proc:2 direct:1 filesystem:1 access:3 symbolic:3 lnk:1 shortcut:1 contain:1 attribute:2 set:3 speed:1 processing:1 however:3 ntfs:1 handle:4 differently:1 rm:1 delete:1 instead:1 old:1 plain:1 hidden:1 single:1 point:1 destination:1 directory:1 solaris:1 control:1 list:1 acls:1 support:9 nt:3 acl:1 special:1 format:3 passwd:1 group:2 pointer:1 sid:1 gecos:1 field:1 user:4 various:2 utility:2 convert:1 end:1 issue:1 display:1 dlls:2 executable:2 interfaces:1 exist:1 function:1 waveout:1 come:1 extension:2 create:3 whether:1 windowing:1 console:2 add:1 compile:4 mingw:6 compatible:3 executables:4 require:3 specifically:1 heavily:1 popular:1 piece:1 platform:7 sun:2 java:1 openoffice:1 org:2 even:1 lighttpd:1 exception:1 whose:1 conform:1 definition:1 sell:1 commercial:1 wish:1 redistribute:1 proprietary:2 history:1 begin:2 project:3 steve:1 chamberlain:1 engineer:2 observe:1 coff:2 object:1 already:1 newlib:1 think:1 would:2 retarget:1 produce:1 cross:5 compiler:5 generate:1 could:1 prove:1 indeed:1 practical:1 prototype:1 quickly:1 next:1 step:1 attempt:1 bootstrap:1 sufficient:2 emulation:2 let:1 configure:1 shell:4 script:2 bourne:1 interpreter:1 bash:1 need:2 turn:2 fork:1 input:1 output:1 similar:1 properly:1 translate:1 manage:1 private:1 descriptor:1 initially:1 confuse:1 current:1 name:2 change:1 emphasize:1 role:1 register:1 trademark:1 drop:1 simply:1 become:1 join:1 clear:1 useful:1 way:2 embedded:1 previous:1 strategy:1 djgpp:1 especially:1 attractive:1 three:1 instance:1 hefty:1 workstation:1 build:2 say:1 mips:1 faster:1 pc:1 time:1 start:1 around:1 offer:1 product:1 interest:1 right:1 remote:1 logins:1 rsh:1 ssh:1 telnet:1 embed:1 psp:1 opengl:1 vista:1 derivative:1 cygnix:5 limited:1 abbreviation:1 pseudo:1 implementation:1 xp:1 amigaos:2 rename:1 amicygnix:1 amigas:1 addition:3 available:2 desktop:1 phase:1 natively:1 alternative:2 several:2 simultaneous:1 hardware:2 toolsets:1 uwin:1 mks:3 toolkit:4 enterprise:1 developer:3 aim:1 least:1 familiar:1 make:2 complete:1 administrator:1 unxutils:1 along:1 freely:1 distributable:1 import:1 header:1 component:1 know:2 msys:2 minimal:2 lightweight:1 rxvt:1 selection:1 autoconf:1 qt:1 pronounced:1 cute:1 creator:1 interview:1 trolltech:1 president:1 eirik:1 eng:1 dot:1 framework:1 widely:1 gui:2 case:1 widget:1 non:1 pwlib:1 multi:1 write:2 bsd:1 variant:1 numerous:1 virtualization:2 simultaneously:1 virtualbox:1 vmware:1 player:1 cooperative:3 short:1 colinux:2 modify:1 kernel:2 driver:1 effectively:1 coroutines:1 multitasking:1 switch:1 january:1 reach:1 stable:1 wine:1 architecture:1 execute:1 see:1 comparison:1 virtual:1 machine:1 xming:1 unify:1 reference:1 external:1 home:1 unicode:1 |@bigram microsoft_window:6 kde_gnome:1 window_nt:1 openoffice_org:1 windows_nt:2 bourne_shell:1 input_output:1 posix_compatible:1 window_vista:1 nt_xp:1 gnu_compiler:1 widget_toolkit:1 bsd_unix:1 linux_kernel:1 cooperative_multitasking:1 external_link:1 |
3,828 | Orbit | Two bodies with a slight difference in mass orbiting around a common barycenter. The sizes, and this particular type of orbit are similar to the Pluto-Charon system. In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of one object around a point or another body, for example the gravitational orbit of a planet around a star. orbit (astronomy) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia Historically, the apparent motion of the planets were first understood in terms of epicycles, which are the sums of numerous circular motions. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1968, vol. 2, p. 645. This predicted the path of the planets quite well, until Johannes Kepler was able to show that the motion of the planets were in fact elliptical motions. Isaac Newton was able to prove that this was equivalent to an inverse square, instantaneously propagating force he called gravitation. Albert Einstein later was able to show that gravity is due to curvature of space-time, and that orbits lie upon geodesics and this is the current understanding. History In the geocentric model of the solar system, mechanisms such as the deferent and epicycle were supposed to explain the motion of the planets in terms of perfect spheres or rings. The basis for the modern understanding of orbits was first formulated by Johannes Kepler whose results are summarized in his three laws of planetary motion. First, he found that the orbits of the planets in our solar system are elliptical, not circular (or epicyclic), as had previously been believed, and that the sun is not located at the center of the orbits, but rather at one focus. Second, he found that the orbital speed of each planet is not constant, as had previously been thought, but rather that the speed of the planet depends on the planet's distance from the sun. And third, Kepler found a universal relationship between the orbital properties of all the planets orbiting the sun. For each planet, the cube of the planet's distance from the sun, measured in astronomical units (AU), is equal to the square of the planet's orbital period, measured in Earth years. Jupiter, for example, is approximately 5.2 AU from the sun and its orbital period is 11.86 Earth years. So 5.2 cubed equals 11.86 squared, as predicted. Isaac Newton demonstrated that Kepler's laws were derivable from his theory of gravitation and that, in general, the orbits of bodies subject to gravity were conic sections, if the force of gravity propagated instantaneously. Newton showed that, for a pair of bodies, the orbits' sizes are in inverse proportion to their masses, and that the bodies revolve about their common center of mass. Where one body is much more massive than the other, it is a convenient approximation to take the center of mass as coinciding with the center of the more massive body. Albert Einstein was able to show that gravity was due to curvature of space-time and was able to remove the assumption of Newton that changes propagate instantaneously. In relativity theory orbits follow geodesic trajectories which approximate very well to the Newtonian predictions. However there are differences and these can be used to determine which theory reality agrees with. Essentially all experimental evidence agrees with relativity theory to within experimental measuremental accuracy. Planetary orbits Within a planetary system; planets, dwarf planets, asteroids (a.k.a. minor planets), comets, and space debris orbit the central star in elliptical orbits. A comet in a parabolic or hyperbolic orbit about a central star is not gravitationally bound to the star and therefore is not considered part of the star's planetary system. To date, no comet has been observed in our solar system with a distinctly hyperbolic orbit. Bodies which are gravitationally bound to one of the planets in a planetary system, either natural or artificial satellites, follow orbits about that planet. Owing to mutual gravitational perturbations, the eccentricities of the orbits of the planets in our solar system vary over time. Mercury, the smallest planet in the Solar System, has the most eccentric orbit. At the present epoch, Mars has the next largest eccentricity while the smallest eccentricities are those of the orbits of Venus and Neptune. As two objects orbit each other, the periapsis is that point at which the two objects are closest to each other and the apoapsis is that point at which they are the farthest from each other. (More specific terms are used for specific bodies. For example, perigee and apogee are the lowest and highest parts of an Earth orbit, respectively.) In the elliptical orbit, the center of mass of the orbiting-orbited system will sit at one focus of both orbits, with nothing present at the other focus. As a planet approaches periapsis, the planet will increase in speed, or velocity. As a planet approaches apoapsis, the planet will decrease in velocity. See also: Kepler's laws of planetary motion Secular variations of the planetary orbits Understanding orbits There are a few common ways of understanding orbits. As the object moves sideways, it falls toward the central body. However, it moves so quickly that the central body will curve away beneath it. A force, such as gravity, pulls the object into a curved path as it attempts to fly off in a straight line. As the object moves sideways (tangentially), it falls toward the central body. However, it has enough tangential velocity to miss the orbited object, and will continue falling indefinitely. This understanding is particularly useful for mathematical analysis, because the object's motion can be described as the sum of the three one-dimensional coordinates oscillating around a gravitational center. As an illustration of an orbit around a planet, the Newton's cannonball model may prove useful (see image below). Imagine a cannon sitting on top of a tall mountain, which fires a cannonball horizontally. The mountain needs to be very tall, so that the cannon will be above the Earth's atmosphere and the effects of air friction on the cannonball can be ignored. Newton's cannonball, an illustration of how objects can "fall" in a curve. If the cannon fires its ball with a low initial velocity, the trajectory of the ball curves downward and hits the ground (A). As the firing velocity is increased, the cannonball hits the ground farther (B) away from the cannon, because while the ball is still falling towards the ground, the ground is increasingly curving away from it (see first point, above). All these motions are actually "orbits" in a technical sense — they are describing a portion of an elliptical path around the center of gravity — but the orbits are interrupted by striking the Earth. If the cannonball is fired with sufficient velocity, the ground curves away from the ball at least as much as the ball falls — so the ball never strikes the ground. It is now in what could be called a non-interrupted, or circumnavigating, orbit. For any specific combination of height above the center of gravity, and mass of the planet, there is one specific firing velocity that produces a circular orbit, as shown in (C). As the firing velocity is increased beyond this, a range of elliptic orbits are produced; one is shown in (D). If the initial firing is above the surface of the Earth as shown, there will also be elliptical orbits at slower velocities; these will come closest to the Earth at the point half an orbit beyond, and directly opposite, the firing point. At a specific velocity called escape velocity, again dependent on the firing height and mass of the planet, an open orbit such as (E) results — a parabolic trajectory. At even faster velocities the object will follow a range of hyperbolic trajectories. In a practical sense, both of these trajectory types mean the object is "breaking free" of the planet's gravity, and "going off into space". The velocity relationship of two moving objects with mass can thus be considered in four practical classes, with subtypes: No orbit Suborbital trajectories Range of interrupted elliptical paths Orbital trajectories (or simply "orbits") Range of elliptical paths with closest point opposite firing point Circular path Range of elliptical paths with closest point at firing point Open (or escape) trajectories Parabolic paths Hyperbolic paths Newton's laws of motion In many situations relativistic effects can be neglected, and Newton's laws give a highly accurate description of the motion. Then the acceleration of each body is equal to the sum of the gravitational forces on it, divided by its mass, and the gravitational force between each pair of bodies is proportional to the product of their masses and decreases inversely with the square of the distance between them. To this Newtonian approximation, for a system of two point masses or spherical bodies, only influenced by their mutual gravitation (the two-body problem), the orbits can be exactly calculated. If the heavier body is much more massive than the smaller, as for a satellite or small moon orbiting a planet or for the Earth orbiting the Sun, it is accurate and convenient to describe the motion in a coordinate system that is centered on the heavier body, and we can say that the lighter body is in orbit around the heavier. (For the case where the masses of two bodies are comparable an exact Newtonian solution is still available, and qualitatively similar to the case of dissimilar masses, by centering the coordinate system on the center of mass of the two.) Energy is associated with gravitational fields. A stationary body far from another can do external work if it is pulled towards it, and therefore has gravitational potential energy. Since work is required to separate two massive bodies against the pull of gravity, their gravitational potential energy increases as they are separated, and decreases as they approach one another. For point masses the gravitational energy decreases without limit as they approach zero separation, and it is convenient and conventional to take the potential energy as zero when they are an infinite distance apart, and then negative (since it decreases from zero) for smaller finite distances. With two bodies, an orbit is a conic section. The orbit can be open (so the object never returns) or closed (returning), depending on the total kinetic + potential energy of the system. In the case of an open orbit, the speed at any position of the orbit is at least the escape velocity for that position, in the case of a closed orbit, always less. Since the kinetic energy is never negative, if the common convention is adopted of taking the potential energy as zero at infinite separation, the bound orbits have negative total energy, parabolic trajectories have zero total energy, and hyperbolic orbits have positive total energy. An open orbit has the shape of a hyperbola (when the velocity is greater than the escape velocity), or a parabola (when the velocity is exactly the escape velocity). The bodies approach each other for a while, curve around each other around the time of their closest approach, and then separate again forever. This may be the case with some comets if they come from outside the solar system. A closed orbit has the shape of an ellipse. In the special case that the orbiting body is always the same distance from the center, it is also the shape of a circle. Otherwise, the point where the orbiting body is closest to Earth is the perigee, called periapsis (less properly, "perifocus" or "pericentron") when the orbit is around a body other than Earth. The point where the satellite is farthest from Earth is called apogee, apoapsis, or sometimes apifocus or apocentron. A line drawn from periapsis to apoapsis is the line-of-apsides. This is the major axis of the ellipse, the line through its longest part. Orbiting bodies in closed orbits repeat their path after a constant period of time. This motion is described by the empirical laws of Kepler, which can be mathematically derived from Newton's laws. These can be formulated as follows: The orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse, with the Sun in one of the focal points of the ellipse. Therefore the orbit lies in a plane, called the orbital plane. The point on the orbit closest to the attracting body is the periapsis. The point farthest from the attracting body is called the apoapsis. There are also specific terms for orbits around particular bodies; things orbiting the Sun have a perihelion and aphelion, things orbiting the Earth have a perigee and apogee, and things orbiting the Moon have a perilune and apolune (or, synonymously, periselene and aposelene). An orbit around any star, not just the Sun, has a periastron and an apastron. As the planet moves around its orbit during a fixed amount of time, the line from Sun to planet sweeps a constant area of the orbital plane, regardless of which part of its orbit the planet traces during that period of time. This means that the planet moves faster near its perihelion than near its aphelion, because at the smaller distance it needs to trace a greater arc to cover the same area. This law is usually stated as "equal areas in equal time." For a given orbit, the ratio of the cube of its semi-major axis to the square of its period is constant. Note that that while the bound orbits around a point mass, or a spherical body with an ideal Newtonian gravitational field, are all closed ellipses, which repeat the same path exactly and indefinitely, any non-spherical or non-Newtonian effects (as caused, for example, by the slight oblateness of the Earth, or by relativistic effects, changing the gravitational field's behavior with distance) will cause the orbit's shape to depart to a greater or lesser extent from the closed ellipses characteristic of Newtonian two body motion. The 2-body solutions were published by Newton in Principia in 1687. In 1912, Karl Fritiof Sundman developed a converging infinite series that solves the 3-body problem; however, it converges too slowly to be of much use. Except for special cases like the Lagrangian points, no method is known to solve the equations of motion for a system with four or more bodies. Instead, orbits with many bodies can be approximated with arbitrarily high accuracy. These approximations take two forms. One form takes the pure elliptic motion as a basis, and adds perturbation terms to account for the gravitational influence of multiple bodies. This is convenient for calculating the positions of astronomical bodies. The equations of motion of the moon, planets and other bodies are known with great accuracy, and are used to generate tables for celestial navigation. Still there are secular phenomena that have to be dealt with by post-newtonian methods. The differential equation form is used for scientific or mission-planning purposes. According to Newton's laws, the sum of all the forces will equal the mass times its acceleration (F = ma). Therefore accelerations can be expressed in terms of positions. The perturbation terms are much easier to describe in this form. Predicting subsequent positions and velocities from initial ones corresponds to solving an initial value problem. Numerical methods calculate the positions and velocities of the objects a tiny time in the future, then repeat this. However, tiny arithmetic errors from the limited accuracy of a computer's math accumulate, limiting the accuracy of this approach. Differential simulations with large numbers of objects perform the calculations in a hierarchical pairwise fashion between centers of mass. Using this scheme, galaxies, star clusters and other large objects have been simulated. Analysis of orbital motion (See also Kepler orbit, orbit equation and Kepler's first law.) Please note that the following is a classical (Newtonian) analysis of orbital mechanics, which assumes the more subtle effects of general relativity (like frame dragging and gravitational time dilation) are negligible. General relativity does, however, need to be considered for some applications such as analysis of extremely massive heavenly bodies, precise prediction of a system's state after a long period of time, and in the case of interplanetary travel, where fuel economy, and thus precision, is paramount. To analyze the motion of a body moving under the influence of a force which is always directed towards a fixed point, it is convenient to use polar coordinates with the origin coinciding with the center of force. In such coordinates the radial and transverse components of the acceleration are, respectively: and . Since the force is entirely radial, and since acceleration is proportional to force, it follows that the transverse acceleration is zero. As a result, After integrating, we have which is actually the theoretical proof of Kepler's 2nd law (A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time). The constant of integration, h, is the angular momentum per unit mass. It then follows that where we have introduced the auxiliary variable The radial force ƒ(r) per unit mass is the radial acceleration ar defined above. Solving the above differential equation with respect to time yields: In the case of gravity, Newton's law of universal gravitation states that the force is proportional to the inverse square of the distance: where G is the constant of universal gravitation, m is the mass of the orbiting body (planet), and M is the mass of the central body (the Sun). Substituting into the prior equation, we have So for the gravitational force — or, more generally, for any inverse square force law — the right hand side of the equation becomes a constant and the equation is seen to be the harmonic equation (up to a shift of origin of the dependent variable). The solution is: where A and θ0 are arbitrary constants. The equation of the orbit described by the particle is thus: where e is: In general, this can be recognized as the equation of a conic section in polar coordinates (r, θ). We can make a further connection with the classic description of conic section with: If parameter e is smaller than one, e is the eccentricity and a the semi-major axis of an ellipse. Orbital planes The analysis so far has been two dimensional; it turns out that an unperturbed orbit is two dimensional in a plane fixed in space, and thus the extension to three dimensions requires simply rotating the two dimensional plane into the required angle relative to the poles of the planetary body involved. The rotation to do this in three dimensions requires three numbers to uniquely determine; traditionally these are expressed as three angles. Orbital period The orbital period is simply how long an orbiting body takes to complete one orbit. Specifying orbits It turns out that it takes a minimum 6 numbers to specify an orbit about a body, and this can be done in several ways. For example, specifying the 3 numbers specifying location and 3 specifying the velocity of a body gives a unique orbit that can be calculated forwards (or backwards). However, traditionally the parameters used are slightly different. The traditionally used set of orbital elements is called the set of Keplerian elements, after Johannes Kepler and his Kepler's laws. The Keplerian elements are six: Inclination () Longitude of the ascending node () Argument of periapsis () Eccentricity () Semimajor axis () Mean anomaly at epoch () In principle once the orbital elements are known for a body, its position can be calculated forward and backwards indefinitely in time. However, in practice, orbits are affected or perturbed, by forces other than gravity due to the central body and thus the orbital elements change over time. Orbital perturbations An orbital perturbation is when a force or impulse which is much smaller than the overall force or average impulse of the main gravitating body and which is external to the two orbiting bodies causes an acceleration, which changes the parameters of the orbit over time. Radial, prograde and transverse perturbations A small radial impulse given to a body in orbit changes the eccentricity, but not the orbital period (to first order). A prograde or retrograde impulse (i.e. an impulse applied along the orbital motion) changes both the eccentricity and the orbital period. Notably, a prograde impulse given at periapsis raises the altitude at apoapsis, and vice versa, and a retrograde impulse does the opposite. A transverse impulse (out of the orbital plane) causes rotation of the orbital plane without changing the period or eccentricity. In all instances, a closed orbit will still intersect the perturbation point. Orbital decay If some part of a body's orbit enters an atmosphere, its orbit can decay because of drag. Particularly at each periapsis, the object scrapes the air, losing energy. Each time, the orbit grows less eccentric (more circular) because the object loses kinetic energy precisely when that energy is at its maximum. This is similar to the effect of slowing a pendulum at its lowest point; the highest point of the pendulum's swing becomes lower. With each successive slowing more of the orbit's path is affected by the atmosphere and the effect becomes more pronounced. Eventually, the effect becomes so great that the maximum kinetic energy is not enough to return the orbit above the limits of the atmospheric drag effect. When this happens the body will rapidly spiral down and intersect the central body. The bounds of an atmosphere vary wildly. During solar maxima, the Earth's atmosphere causes drag up to a hundred kilometres higher than during solar minima. Some satellites with long conductive tethers can also decay because of electromagnetic drag from the Earth's magnetic field. Basically, the wire cuts the magnetic field, and acts as a generator. The wire moves electrons from the near vacuum on one end to the near-vacuum on the other end. The orbital energy is converted to heat in the wire. Orbits can be artificially influenced through the use of rocket motors which change the kinetic energy of the body at some point in its path. This is the conversion of chemical or electrical energy to kinetic energy. In this way changes in the orbit shape or orientation can be facilitated. Another method of artificially influencing an orbit is through the use of solar sails or magnetic sails. These forms of propulsion require no propellant or energy input other than that of the sun, and so can be used indefinitely. See statite for one such proposed use. Orbital decay can also occur due to tidal forces for objects below the synchronous orbit for the body they're orbiting. The gravity of the orbiting object raises tidal bulges in the primary, and since below the synchronous orbit the orbiting object is moving faster than the body's surface the bulges lag a short angle behind it. The gravity of the bulges is slightly off of the primary-satellite axis and thus has a component along the satellite's motion. The near bulge slows the object more than the far bulge speeds it up, and as a result the orbit decays. Conversely, the gravity of the satellite on the bulges applies torque on the primary and speeds up its rotation. Artificial satellites are too small to have an appreciable tidal effect on the planets they orbit, but several moons in the solar system are undergoing orbital decay by this mechanism. Mars' innermost moon Phobos is a prime example, and is expected to either impact Mars' surface or break up into a ring within 50 million years. Finally, orbits can decay via the emission of gravitational waves. This mechanism is extremely weak for most stellar objects, only becoming significant in cases where there is a combination of extreme mass and extreme acceleration, such as with black holes or neutron stars that are orbiting each other closely. Oblateness The standard analysis of orbiting bodies assumes that all bodies consist of uniform spheres, or more generally, concentric shells each of uniform density. It can be shown that such bodies are gravitationally equivalent to point sources. However, in the real world, many bodies rotate, and this introduces oblateness and distorts the gravity field, and gives a quadrupole moment to the gravitational field which is significant at distances comparable to the radius of the body. The general effect of this is to change the orbital parameters over time; predominantly this gives a rotation of the orbital plane around the rotational pole of the central body (it perturbs the argument of perigee) in a way that is dependent on the angle of orbital plane to the equator as well as altitude at perigee. Other gravitating bodies The effects of other gravitating bodies can be very large. For example, the orbit of the Moon cannot be in any way accurately described without allowing for the action of the Sun's gravity as well as the Earth's. Light radiation and stellar wind For small bodies particularly, light and stellar wind can cause significant perturbations to the attitude and direction of motion of the body, and over time can be quite significant. Earth orbits Scaling in gravity The gravitational constant G is measured to be: (6.6742 ± 0.001) × 10−11 N·m2/kg2 (6.6742 ± 0.001) × 10−11 m3/(kg·s2) (6.6742 ± 0.001) × 10−11 (kg/m3)−1s−2. Thus the constant has dimension density−1 time−2. This corresponds to the following properties. Scaling of distances (including sizes of bodies, while keeping the densities the same) gives similar orbits without scaling the time: if for example distances are halved, masses are divided by 8, gravitational forces by 16 and gravitational accelerations by 2. Hence orbital periods remain the same. Similarly, when an object is dropped from a tower, the time it takes to fall to the ground remains the same with a scale model of the tower on a scale model of the earth. When all densities are multiplied by four, orbits are the same, but with orbital velocities doubled. When all densities are multiplied by four, and all sizes are halved, orbits are similar, with the same orbital velocities. These properties are illustrated in the formula (known as Kepler's 3rd Law) for an elliptical orbit with semi-major axis a, of a small body around a spherical body with radius r and average density σ, where T is the orbital period. See also Artificial satellite orbit Escape velocity Gravity Kepler orbit Kepler's laws of planetary motion Orbit (dynamics) Orbital spaceflight/Sub-orbital spaceflight Rosetta (orbit) Trajectory, Hyperbolic trajectory and Parabolic trajectory External links CalcTool: Orbital period of a planet calculator. Has wide choice of units. Requires Javascript. Browser Based Three Dimension Simulation of Orbital Motion. Objects and distance are drawn to scale. Run on Javascript-enabled browser such as Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox and Opera. Java simulation on orbital motion. Requires Java. NOAA page on Climate Forcing Data includes (calculated) data on Earth orbit variations over the last 50 million years and for the coming 20 million years On-line orbit plotter. Requires Javascript. Orbital Mechanics (Rocket and Space Technology) Orbital simulations by Varadi, Ghil and Runnegar (2003) provide another, slightly different series for Earth orbit eccentricity, and also a series for orbital inclination. Orbits for the other planets were also calculated , but only the eccentricity data for Earth and Mercury are available online. Understand orbits using direct manipulation. 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3,829 | Netherlands | The Netherlands (Dutch: , ) is a country that is part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a parliamentary democratic constitutional monarchy. The Netherlands is located in Northwestern Europe, and bordered by the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east. The capital is Amsterdam and the seat of government is The Hague. The Netherlands is often called Holland, which is formally incorrect as North and South Holland are actually two of its twelve provinces (see terminology of "the Netherlands"). The word Dutch is used to refer to the people, the language, and anything appertaining to the Netherlands. Being one of the first parliamentary democracies, the Netherlands was a modern country from its very foundation. Among other affiliations the country is a founding member of the European Union (EU), NATO, OECD, WTO, and has signed the Kyoto protocol. With Belgium and Luxembourg it forms the Benelux economic union. The country is host to five international courts: the Permanent Court of Arbitration, the International Court of Justice, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Court and the Special Tribunal for Lebanon. The former four are situated in The Hague as is the EU's criminal intelligence agency Europol. This has led to the city being dubbed "the world's legal capital." , specifically, "In the 1990s, during his term as United Nations Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali started calling The Hague the world's legal capital" The Netherlands is a geographically low-lying country, with about 27% of its area and 60% of its population located below sea level. Significant areas have been gained through land reclamation and preserved through an elaborate system of polders and dikes. Much of the Netherlands is formed by the estuary of three important European rivers, which together with their distributaries form the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta. Most of the country is very flat, with the exception of foothills in the far south–east and several low-hill ranges in the central parts created by ice-age glaciers. The Netherlands is a densely populated country. It is known for its traditional windmills, tulips, cheese, clogs (wooden shoes), delftware and gouda pottery, for its bicycles, and in addition, traditional values and civil virtues such as its social tolerance. The country has more recently become known for its liberal policies toward drugs, prostitution, homosexuality, and euthanasia. It also has one of the most free market capitalist economies in the world, ranking 12th of 157 countries in one index. Netherlands, Index of Economic Freedom History William the Silent, leader of the Netherlands during the Dutch Revolt. Under Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and king of Spain, the region was part of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands, which also included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some land of France and Germany. The Eighty Years' War between the provinces and Spain began in 1568. In 1579, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces formed the Union of Utrecht, a treaty in which they promised to support each other in their defense against the Spanish army. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands. In 1581 the northern provinces adopted the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II. Philip II the son of Charles V, was not prepared to let them go easily and war continued until 1648 when Spain under King Philip IV finally recognised the independence of the seven northwestern provinces in the Treaty of Münster. Parts of the southern provinces became de facto colonies of the new republican-mercantile empire. Dutch Republic 1581–1795 Since their independence from Phillip II in 1581 seven provinces formed the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. The republic was a confederation of the provinces Holland, Zeeland, Groningen, Friesland, Utrecht, Overijssel and Gelre. All these provinces were autonomous and had their own government, the "States of the Province". The States-General, the confederal government, were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives from each of the seven provinces. The very thinly populated region of Drenthe, mainly consisting of poor peatland, was part of the Republic too, although Drenthe was not considered one of the provinces. Drenthe had its own States but the landdrost of Drenthe was appointed by the States-General. The Republic occupied a number of so-called Generality Lands (Generaliteitslanden in Dutch). These territories were governed directly by the States-General, so they did not have a government of their own and they did not have representatives in the States-General. Most of these territories were occupied during the Eighty Years' War. They were mainly Roman Catholic and they were used as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Southern Netherlands. The Dutch grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers of the 17th century during the period of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. In the so-called Dutch Golden Age (Gouden Eeuw), colonies and trading posts were established all over the globe (see Dutch colonial empire). Dutch settlement in North America began with the founding of New Amsterdam, on the southern tip of Manhattan in 1614. In South Africa, the Dutch settled the Cape Colony in 1652. During the 17th century, the Dutch population increased from an estimated 1.5 million to almost 2 million. The preponderance of the Dutch population lived in two provinces, Holland and Zeeland. This area experienced a population explosion between 1500 and 1650, with a growth from 350,000 to 1,000,000 inhabitants. Thereafter the growth leveled off, so that the population of the whole country remained at the 2 million level throughout the 18th century; De Vries and Van der Woude, pp. 51-52 Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country in the world. In early modern Europe it featured the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as such less benign phenomena as the boom-bust cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the tulip mania of 1636–1637, and according to Murray Sayle, the world's first bear raider - Isaac le Maire, who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount. "Japan Goes Dutch", London Review of Books (2001-04-01). 3-7. The republic went into a state of general decline in the later 18th century, with economic competition from England and long standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the Staatsgezinden (Republicans) and the Prinsgezinden (Royalists or Orangists) as main factors. Under French influence 1795–1815 On 19 January 1795, one day after stadtholder William V of Orange fled to England, the Bataafse Republiek (Batavian Republic) was proclaimed, rendering the Netherlands a unitary state. From 1795 to 1806, the Batavian Republic designated the Netherlands as a republic modelled after the French Republic. From 1806 to 1810, the Koninkrijk Holland (Kingdom of Holland) was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom governed by his third brother, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, in order to control the Netherlands more effectively. The name of the leading province, Holland, was now taken for the whole country. The Kingdom of Holland covered the area of the present day Netherlands, with the exception of Limburg, and parts of Zeeland, which were French territory. In 1807, Prussian East Frisia and Jever were added to the kingdom. In 1809 however, after an English invasion, Holland had to give over all territories south of the river Rhine to France. King Louis Napoleon did not meet Napoleon's expectations—he tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's—and the King had to abdicate on 1 July 1810. He was succeeded by his five year old son Napoleon Louis Bonaparte. Napoleon Louis reigned as Louis II for just ten days as Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte ignored his young nephew’s accession to the throne. The Emperor sent in an army to invade the country and dissolved the Kingdom of Holland. The Netherlands then became part of the French Empire. From 1810 to 1813, when Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated in the battle of Leipzig, the Netherlands were part of the French Empire. Kingdom of the Netherlands In 1795 the last stadtholder William V of Orange fled to England. His son returned to the Netherlands in 1813 to become William I of the Netherlands, Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands. On 16 March 1815, the Sovereign Prince became King of the Netherlands. In 1815, the Congress of Vienna formed the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, by expanding the Netherlands with Belgium in order to create a strong country on the northern border of France. In addition, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg. The Congress of Vienna gave Luxembourg to William as personal property in exchange for his German possessions, Nassau-Dillenburg, Siegen, Hadamar and Diez. Belgium rebelled and gained independence in 1830, while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when King William III of the Netherlands died with no surviving male heirs. Ascendancy laws prevented his daughter Queen Wilhelmina from becoming the next Grand Duchess. Therefore the throne of Luxembourg passed over from the House of Orange-Nassau to the House of Nassau-Weilburg, another branch of the House of Nassau. The largest Dutch settlement abroad was the Cape Colony. It was established by Jan van Riebeeck on behalf of the Dutch East India Company at Cape Town () in 1652. The Prince of Orange acquiesced to British occupation and control of the Cape Colony in 1788. The Netherlands also possessed several other colonies, but Dutch settlement in these lands was limited. Most notable were the vast Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) and Suriname (Suriname was traded with the British for New Amsterdam, now known as New York City). These 'colonies' were first administered by the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company, both collective private enterprises. Three centuries later these companies got into financial trouble and the territories in which they operated were taken over by the Dutch government (in 1815 and 1791 respectively). Only then did they become official colonies. During its colonial period the Netherlands were heavily involved in the slave trade. Slaves in the Dutch colonies in Suriname and Curaçao were known to be exploited in the worst conditions. At the end of slavery 1863 a mere 20,000 Africans had survived of the more than 200,000 slaves shipped to Suriname (in comparison in the territories now known as the USA about 450,000 slaves were shipped at 1860 more than 4 million Africans gained freedom). During the 19th century, the Netherlands were slow to industrialize compared to neighbouring countries, mainly due to the great complexity involved in modernizing the infrastructure, consisting largely of waterways, and the great reliance its industry had on windpower. Many historians do not recognise the Dutch involvement during World War I. However, recently historians started to change their opinion on the role of the Dutch. Although the Netherlands remained neutral during the war, it was heavily involved in the war. Abbenhuis, Maartje M. The Art of Staying Neutral. Amsterdam: Amsterdam UP, 2006. Count Schlieffen had originally planned to invade the Netherlands while advancing into France in the original Schlieffen Plan. This was changed by Helmuth von Moltke the Younger in order to maintain Dutch neutrality. Later during the war Dutch neutrality would prove essential to German survival up till the blockade integrated by the United States and Great Britain in 1916 when the import of goods through the Netherlands was no longer possible. However, the Dutch were able to remain neutral during the war using their diplomacy and their ability to trade. World War II Rotterdam after German air raids in 1940. The Netherlands remained neutral in World War I and intended to do so in World War II. There were, however, contingency plans involving the armies of Belgium, France and Great Britain. Regardless, Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands in 1940 in the Western European campaign of the Second World War. French forces in the south and British ships in the west came to help, but turned around quickly, evacuating many civilians and several thousand German prisoners of war from their elite airborne divisions. In spite of fierce fighting and victory in several local battles [citation needed] the country was overrun in five days, far longer than the German High Command and Hitler had planned for [citation needed]. Only after, but not because of, the bombing of Rotterdam, the army's main force surrendered on 14 May, although a Dutch/French allied force held the western part of Zeeland for some time after the surrender. The German Luftwaffe and Airborne regiments suffered very heavy losses [citation needed]. The Kingdom as such continued the war from the colonial empire; the government in exile resided in London. During the occupation, over 100,000 Dutch Jews 93 trains were rounded up to be transported to Nazi concentration camps in Germany, Poland and Czechoslovakia. By the time these camps were liberated, only 876 Dutch Jews survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in German factories, civilians were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food for German soldiers in the Netherlands and for shipment to Germany. Although there were many Dutch who risked their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, as in the diary of Anne Frank, there were also Dutch who collaborated with the occupying force in hunting down hiding Jews. Local fascists and anti-Bolsheviks joined the Waffen-SS in the 4th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Brigade Netherlands, fighting on the Eastern Front as well as other units. The government-in-exile lost control of its major colonial stronghold, the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia), to Japanese forces in March 1942. "American-British-Dutch-Australian" (ABDA) forces fought hard in some instances, but were overwhelmed. During the occupation, the Japanese interned Dutch civilians and used Dutch and Indos alike as forced labour, both in the Netherlands East Indies and in neighbouring countries. This included forcing women to work as "comfort women" (sex slaves) for Japanese personnel. Some military personnel escaped to Australia and other Allied countries from where they carried on the fight against Japan. The Japanese furthered the cause of independence for the colony, so that after VE day many young Dutchmen found themselves fighting a colonial war against the new republic of Indonesia. Recent history After the war, the Dutch economy prospered by leaving behind an era of neutrality and gaining closer ties with neighbouring states. The Netherlands was one of the founding members of the Benelux (Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) grouping, was among the twelve founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), and was among the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community, which would later evolve, via the EEC (Common Market), into the European Union. The last major flood in the Netherlands took place in early February 1953, when a huge storm caused the collapse of several dikes in the southwest of the Netherlands. More than 1,800 people drowned in the ensuing inundations. The Dutch government subsequently decided on a large-scale program of public works (the "Delta Works") to protect the country against future flooding. The project took more than thirty years to complete. According to Dutch government engineers, the odds of a major inundation anywhere in the Netherlands are now 1 in 10,000 per year. Following the disaster with hurricane Katrina in 2005, an American congressional delegation visited the Netherlands to inspect the Delta Works and Dutch government engineers were invited to a hearing of the United States Congress to explain the Netherlands' efforts to protect low-lying areas. The 60s and 70s were a time of great social and cultural change, such as rapid ontzuiling (literally: depillarisation), a term that describes the decay of the old divisions along class and religious lines. Youths, and students in particular, rejected traditional mores, and pushed for change in matters like women's rights, sexuality, disarmament and environmental issues. Today, the Netherlands is regarded as a liberal country, considering its drugs policy and its legalisation of euthanasia. Same-sex marriage has been permitted since 1 April 2001. Geography Rivers in the Netherlands Rivers The country is divided into two main parts by three large rivers, the Rhine (Rijn) and its main distributary Waal, as well as the Meuse (Maas). These rivers function as a natural barrier between earlier fiefdoms, and hence created traditionally a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognizable north and south of these "Large Rivers" (de Grote Rivieren). In addition to this, there was, until quite recently, a clear religious dominance of Catholics in the south and of Protestants in the north. The south-western part of the Netherlands is actually a massive river delta of these rivers and two tributaries of the Scheldt (Westerschelde and Oosterschelde). Only one significant branch of the Rhine flows northeastwards, the IJssel river, discharging into the IJsselmeer, the former Zuiderzee ('southern sea'). This river also happens to form a linguistic divide. People to the east of this river speak Low Saxon dialects (except for the province of Friesland that has its own language). Welschen, Ad: Course Dutch Society and Culture, International School for Humanities and Social Studies ISHSS, Universiteit van Amsterdam, 2000-2005. Floods The areas of the Netherlands that are above sea level In years past, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of human intervention and natural disasters. Most notable in terms of land loss is the 1134 storm, which created the archipelago of Zeeland in the south west. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed polder, replacing it with the 72 square kilometres (28 sq mi) Biesbosch tidal floodplains in the south-centre. Most recently parts of Zeeland were flooded during the North Sea Flood of 1953 when 1,836 people were killed, after which the Delta Plan was executed. The disasters were partially increased in severity through human influence. People had drained relatively high lying swampland to use it as farmland. This drainage caused the fertile peat to compress and the ground level to drop, locking the land users in a vicious circle whereby they would lower the water level to compensate for the drop in ground level, causing the underlying peat to compress even more. The problem remains unsolvable to this day. Also, up until the 19th century peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further adding to the problem. To guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium AD, villages and farmhouses were built on man-made hills called terps. Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called "waterschappen" (English "water bodies") or "hoogheemraadschappen" ("high home councils") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods. (These agencies exist to this day, performing the same function.) As the ground level dropped, the dykes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century, windmills had come into use in order to pump water out of areas below sea level. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous polders. In 1932, the Afsluitdijk (English "Closure Dyke") was completed, blocking the former Zuiderzee (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the IJsselmeer (IJssel Lake). It became part of the larger Zuiderzee Works in which four polders totalling 2,500 km2 (965 mi2) were reclaimed from the sea. Delta works The Delta Works are located in the provinces of South Holland and Zeeland. After the 1953 disaster, the Delta project, a vast construction effort designed to end the threat from the sea once and for all, was launched in 1958 and largely completed in 1997 with the completion of the Maeslantkering. The official goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in the province of Zeeland to once per 10,000 years. (For the rest of the country, the protection-level is once per 4,000 years.) This was achieved by raising 3,000 kilometers (1,864 miles) of outer sea-dykes and 10,000 kilometres (6,200 miles) of inner, canal, and river dikes to "delta" height, and by closing off the sea estuaries of the Zeeland province. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dyke reinforcements. The Delta project is one of the largest construction efforts in human history and is considered by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the seven wonders of the modern world. Additionally, the Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from climatic change. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but also erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow. Climate The predominant wind direction in the Netherlands is south-west, which causes a moderate maritime climate, with cool summers and mild winters. The following tables are based on mean measurements by the KNMI weather station in De Bilt between 1971 and 2000: Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Avg. maximum temp. (°C) 5.2 6.1 9.6 12.9 17.6 19.8 22.1 22.3 18.7 14.2 9.1 6.4 13.7Avg. minimum temp. (°C) 0.0 -0.1 2.0 3.5 7.5 10.2 12.5 12.0 9.6 6.5 3.2 1.3 5.7Avg. temp. (°C) 2.8 3.0 5.8 8.3 12.7 15.2 17.4 17.2 14.2 10.3 6.2 4.0 9.8 Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Avg. precipitation (mm) 67 48 65 45 62 72 70 58 72 77 81 77 793Avg. hours sunshine 52 79 114 158 204 187 196 192 133 106 60 44 1524 Nature National Park Schiermonnikoog. The Netherlands has 20 national parks and hundreds of other nature reserves. Most are owned by Staatsbosbeheer and Natuurmonumenten and include lakes, heathland, woods, dunes and other habitats. Phytogeographically, the Netherlands are shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of the Netherlands belongs to the ecoregion of Atlantic mixed forests. In 1871 the last old original natural woods (Beekbergerwoud) were cut down and most woods today are planted monocultures of trees like Scots Pine and trees that are not native to the Netherlands. These woods were planted on anthropogenic heaths and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) (Veluwe). Economy Amsterdam Stock Exchange performance The Netherlands has a prosperous and open economy in which the government has reduced its role since the 1980s. Industrial activity is predominantly in food-processing (for example Unilever and Heineken International), chemicals (for example DSM), petroleum refining (for example Royal Dutch Shell), and electrical machinery (for example Philips). The Netherlands has the 16th largest economy in the world, and ranks 10th in GDP (nominal) per capita. Between 1998 and 2000 annual economic growth (GDP) averaged nearly 4%, well above the European average. Growth slowed considerably in 2001-05 due to the global economic slowdown, but accelerated to 4.1% in the third quarter of 2007. Inflation is 1.3% and is expected to stay low at around 1.5% in the coming years. Unemployment is at 4.0% of the labour force. By Eurostat standards however, unemployment in the Netherlands is at only 2.9% - the lowest rate of all European Union member states. The Netherlands also has a relatively low GINI coefficient of 0.326. Despite ranking only 10th in GDP per capita, UNICEF ranked the Netherlands 1st in child well-being. On the Index of Economic Freedom Netherlands is the 13th most free market capitalist economy out of 157 surveyed countries. Amsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), nowadays part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is situated near Dam Square in the city's centre. As a founding member of the euro, the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the "Gulden" (guilder), on 1 January 1999, along with the other adopters of the single European currency. Actual euro coins and banknotes followed on 1 January 2002. One euro is equivalent to 2.20371 Dutch guilders. The Netherlands' location gives it prime access to markets in the UK and Germany, with the port of Rotterdam being the largest port in Europe. Other important parts of the economy are international trade (Dutch colonialism started with cooperative private enterprises such as the VOC), banking and transport. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. Amsterdam is the 5th busiest tourist destination in Europe with more than 4.2 million international visitors. Amsterdam - Economische Zaken The country continues to be one of the leading European nations for attracting foreign direct investment and is one of the five largest investors in the US. The economy experienced a slowdown in 2005 but in 2006 recovered to the fastest pace in six years on the back of increased exports and strong investment. The pace of job growth reached 10-year highs in 2007. Infrastructure, agriculture and natural resources A Frisian Holstein cow in the Netherlands: Intensive dairy farming is an important part of agriculture. Rotterdam has the largest port in Europe, with the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the hinterland upstream reaching to Basel, Switzerland and into France. In 2003, Singapore took over, and in 2005, Shanghai, as the world's busiest port. In 2006, Rotterdam was the world's seventh largest container port in terms of Twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU) handled. Port of Rotterdam - Home The port's main activities are petrochemical industries and general cargo handling and transshipment. The harbour functions as an important transit point for bulk materials and between the European continent and overseas. From Rotterdam goods are transported by ship, river barge, train or road. In 2007, the Betuweroute, a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, has been completed. A highly mechanised agricultural sector employs no more than 4% of the labour force but provides large surpluses for the food-processing industry and for exports. The Dutch rank third worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind the United States and France, with exports earning $55 billion annually. A significant portion of Dutch agricultural exports are derived from fresh-cut plants, flowers, and bulbs, with the Netherlands exporting two-thirds of the world's total. The Netherlands also exports a quarter of all world tomatoes, and one-third of the world's exports of peppers and cucumbers. In the north of the Netherlands, near Slochteren, one of the largest natural gas fields in the world is situated. So far (2006) exploitation of this field resulted in a total revenue of €159 billion since the mid 1970s. With just over half of the reserves used up and an expected continued rise in oil prices, the revenues over the next few decades are expected to be at least that much. Government and administration Government Thorbecke reformed the Dutch government to a parliamentary monarchy. The Netherlands has been a constitutional monarchy since 1815 and a parliamentary democracy since 1848; before that it had been a republic from 1581 to 1806, a kingdom between 1806 and 1810, and a part of France between 1810 and 1813. The Netherlands is described as a consociational state. Dutch politics and governance are characterised by an effort to achieve broad consensus on important issues, within both the political community and society as a whole. In 2008, The Economist ranked The Netherlands as the fourth most democratic country in the world. The monarch is the head of state, at present Queen Beatrix. Constitutionally, the position is equipped with considerable powers, but in practice it has become a ceremonial function. The monarch can exert most influence during the formation of a new cabinet, where they serve as neutral arbiter between the political parties. In practice, the executive power is formed by the ministerraad, the deliberative council of the Dutch cabinet. The cabinet consists usually of thirteen to sixteen ministers and a varying number of state secretaries. One to three ministers are ministers without portfolio. The head of government is the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, who often is the leader of the largest party of the coalition. In fact, this has been continuously the case since 1973. The Prime Minister is a primus inter pares, meaning he has no explicit powers beyond those of the other ministers. The Binnenhof is the centre of Dutch politics. The cabinet is responsible to the bicameral parliament, the States-General which also has legislative powers. The 150 members of the House of Representatives, the Lower House, are elected in direct elections, which are held every four years or after the fall of the cabinet (by example: when one of the chambers carries a motion of no-confidence, the cabinet offers her resignation to the monarch). The States-Provincial are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the Senate, the upper house, which has less legislative powers, as it can merely reject laws, not propose or amend them. Both trade unions and employers organisations are consulted beforehand in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with government in the Social-Economic Council. This body advises government and its advice cannot be put aside easily. While historically the Dutch foreign policy was characterised by neutrality, since the Second World War the Netherlands became a member of a large number of international organisations, most prominently the UN, NATO and the EU. The Dutch economy is very open and relies on international trade. The Netherlands has a long tradition of social tolerance. In the 18th century, while the Dutch Reformed Church was the state religion, Catholicism and Judaism were tolerated. In the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of pillarisation, in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. This tradition of tolerance is linked to the Dutch policies on recreational drugs, prostitution, LGBT rights, euthanasia, and abortion which are among the most liberal in the world. Political parties Seats in the Dutch House of Representatives after the 2006 elections Due to the multi-party system no single party has ever held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, therefore coalition cabinets have to be formed. Since suffrage became universal in 1919 the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: the strongest family were the Christian democrats currently represented by the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA), second were the social democrats, of which the Labour Party (PvdA) is currently the largest party and third were the liberals of which the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) is the main representative. These cooperated in coalition cabinets in which the Christian democrats had always been partner: so either a centre left coalition of the Christian democrats and social democrats or a centre right coalition of Christian democrats and liberals. In the 1970s the party system became more volatile: the Christian democratic parties lost seats, while new parties, like the radical democrat and progressive liberal D66, became successful. In the 1994 election the CDA lost its dominant position. A "purple" cabinet was formed by the VVD, D66 and PvdA. In the 2002 elections this cabinet lost its majority, due to the rise of the LPF, a new political party around the flamboyant populist Pim Fortuyn, who was assassinated a week before the elections took place. The elections also saw increased support for the CDA. A short lived cabinet was formed by CDA, VVD and LPF, led by the leader of the Christian democrats, Jan Peter Balkenende. After the 2003 elections in which the LPF lost almost all its seats, a cabinet was formed by the CDA, the VVD and D66. The cabinet initiated an ambitious program of reforming the welfare state, the health care system and immigration policies. In June 2006 the cabinet fell, as D66 voted in favour of a motion of no confidence against minister of immigration and integration Rita Verdonk in the aftermath of the upheaval about the asylum procedure of VVD MP Ayaan Hirsi Ali instigated by the Dutch immigration minister Verdonk. A care taker cabinet was formed by CDA and VVD, and the general elections were held on 22 November 2006. In these elections the Christian Democratic Appeal remained the largest party and the Socialist Party made the largest gains. The formation of a new cabinet started two days after the elections. Initial investigations toward a CDA-SP-PvdA coalition failed, after which a coalition of CDA, PvdA and ChristianUnion was formed. Administrative divisions The Netherlands is divided into twelve administrative regions, called provinces, each under a Governor, who is called Commissaris van de Koningin (Commissioner of the Queen), except for the province Limburg where the commissioner is called Gouverneur (Governor). All provinces are divided into municipalities (gemeenten), 458 in total (1 January 2006). The country is also subdivided in water districts, governed by a water board (waterschap or hoogheemraadschap), each having authority in matters concerning water management. As of 1 January 2005 there are 27. The creation of water boards actually pre-dates that of the nation itself, the first appearing in 1196. In fact, the Dutch water boards are one of the oldest democratic entities in the world still in existence. Flag Province Capital Largest city Area (km2) Population Density(per km2) Drenthe Assen Assen 2,641486,197184 Flevoland Lelystad Almere 1,417374,424264 Friesland Leeuwarden Leeuwarden 3,341642,209192 Gelderland Arnhem Nijmegen 4,9711,979,059398 Groningen Groningen Groningen 2,333573,614246 Limburg Maastricht Maastricht 2,1501,127,805525 North (Noord) Brabant Den Bosch Eindhoven 4,9162,419,042492 North (Noord) Holland Haarlem Amsterdam 2,6712,613,070978 Overijssel Zwolle Enschede 3,3251,116,374336 Utrecht Utrecht Utrecht 1,3851,190,604860 Zealand (Zeeland) Middelburg Middelburg 1,787380,497213 South (Zuid) Holland The Hague(Den Haag) Rotterdam 2,8143,455,0971228 Demographics The Netherlands have an estimated population of 16,491,852 (as of 8 March 2009). CBS - Population counter - Extra. Statistics Netherlands. Retrieved on 2009-03-08. It is the 11th most populated country in Europe and the 61st most populated country in the world. Between 1900 and 1950, the country's population had almost doubled from 5.1 to 10.0 million people. From 1950 to 2000, the population further increased from 10.0 to 15.9 million people, but the population growth decreased compared to the previous fifty years. CBS Statline - Population; history. Statistics Netherlands. Retrieved on 2009-03-08. The estimated growth rate is currently 0.436% (as of 2008). CIA - The World Factbook - Netherlands. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved on 2009-03-08. The fertility rate in the Netherlands is 1.66 children per woman (as of 2008), which is high compared to many other European countries, but well below the 2.1-rate required for natural population replacement. Life expectancy is high in the Netherlands: 82 years for newborn girls and 77 for boys (2007). The country has a migration rate of 2.55 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants. The majority of the population of the Netherlands are ethnically Dutch. A 2005 estimate counted: 80.9% Dutch, 2.4% Indonesian (Indo-Dutch, South Moluccan), 2.4% German, 2.2% Turkish, 2.0% Surinamese, 1.9% Moroccan, 0.8% Antillean and Aruban, and 6.0% others. The Dutch people are among the tallest in the world, with an average height of about 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in) for adult males and 1.68 m (5 ft 6 in) for adult females. People in the south are on average about 2 cm shorter than those in the north. The Netherlands is the 25th most densely populated country in the world, with 395 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,023 sq mi)—or 484 people per square kilometre (1,254/sq mi) if only the land area is counted. It is the most densely populated country in Europe with a population over 1 million. The Randstad is the country's largest conurbation located in the west of the country and contains the four largest cities: Amsterdam in the province North Holland, Rotterdam and The Hague in the province South Holland, and Utrecht in the province Utrecht. The Randstad alone has a population of 7 million inhabitants and is the 6th largest metropolitan area in Europe. Dutch people, or descendants of Dutch people, are also found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Canada, Australia, South Africa and the United States. According to the 2006 U.S. Census, more than 5 million Americans claim total or partial Dutch ancestry. "Census 2006 ACS Ancestry estimates" There are close to 3 million Dutch-descended Afrikaners living in South Africa. South Africa - Afrikaans Speakers. U.S. Library of Congress. Language The official language is Dutch, which is spoken by a majority of the inhabitants, the exception being some groups of immigrants. Another official language is Frisian, which is spoken in the northern province of Friesland, called Fryslân in that language. CIA World Factbook: Official languages per country Frisian is co-official only in the province of Friesland, although with a few restrictions. Several dialects of Low Saxon (Nedersaksisch in Dutch) are spoken in much of the north and east, like the Twentse language in the Twente region, and are recognised by the Netherlands as regional languages according to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, as well as the Meuse-Rhenish Franconian varieties in the southeastern province of Limburg, here called Limburgish language. There is a tradition of learning foreign languages in the Netherlands: about 70% of the total population have good knowledge of English, 55– 59% of German and 19% of French. - specifically, see Table 2. Some Dutch secondary schools also teach Latin and Ancient Greek. Religion Dom Tower of Utrecht The Netherlands is one of the more secular countries in the Western Europe, with only 39% being religiously affiliated (31% for those aged under 35). Fewer than 20% visit church regularly. Currently Roman Catholicism is the single largest religion of the Netherlands, forming the religious home of some 26.6 % of the Dutch people, down from 40 percent in the 1970s. The Protestant Church of the Netherlands is followed by 12% of the population. It was formed in 2004 as a merger of the two major strands of Calvinism: the Dutch Reformed Church (which represented roughly 8,5% of the population) and the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (3,7% of the population) and a smaller Lutheran Church. Other Protestant churches, mostly orthodox Calvinist splits, represent 6% of the population. The Netherlands now has an estimated 250,000 Buddhists or people who feel strongly attracted by this religion, largely white Dutch. In 1998, there were only 16,000 including just 4,000 Dutch natives and 12,000 Buddhist immigrants from Asia. According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005, 34% of Dutch citizens responded that "they believe there is a god", whereas 37% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 27% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force". In 1950, before the secularisation of Europe, and the large settlement of non-Europeans in the Netherlands, most Dutch citizens identified themselves as Christians. In 1950, out of a total population of almost 13 million, a total of 7,261,000 belonged to Protestant denominations, 3,703,000 belonged to the Roman Catholic Church, and 1,641,000 had no acknowledged religion. However, Christian schools are still funded by the government, but the same applies for schools founded on other religions, Islam in particular. While all schools must meet strict quality criteria, from 1917 the freedom of schools is a basic principle in the Netherlands. Three political parties in the Dutch parliament (CDA, ChristianUnion and SGP) base their policy on the Christian belief system. Although The Netherlands is a secular state, in some municipalities where the Christian parties have the majority the council practices religion by praying before a meeting. Other municipalities in general also give civil servants a day off on a religious holiday, such as Easter and the Ascension of Jesus http://www.beleven.org/feesten/lijsten/landen.php?land=Nederland . On September 4 2008, a discussion was started by Tineke Huizinga whether the Islam should receive a holiday, like Christianity. In 2005, 20% of the Dutch thought it should be a national holiday (which means the entire country receives a day off work or school) and 45% thought that Eid ul-Fitr should at least be recognized as a holiday. http://weblogs2.nrc.nl/discussie/2008/09/04/moet-nederland-een-islamitische-feestdag-krijgen/ Culture The Netherlands has had many well-known painters. The 17th century, when the Dutch republic was prosperous, was the age of the "Dutch Masters", such as Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen, Jacob van Ruysdael and many others. Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century were Vincent van Gogh and Piet Mondriaan. M. C. Escher is a well-known graphics artist. Willem de Kooning was born and trained in Rotterdam, although he is considered to have reached acclaim as an American artist. Han van Meegeren was an infamous Dutch art forger. The Netherlands is the country of philosophers Erasmus of Rotterdam and Spinoza. All of Descartes' major work was done in the Netherlands. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) discovered Saturn's moon Titan and invented the pendulum clock. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms with a microscope. In the Dutch Golden Age, literature flourished as well, with Joost van den Vondel and P.C. Hooft as the two most famous writers. In the 19th century, Multatuli wrote about the bad treatment of the natives in Dutch colonies. Important 20th century authors include Harry Mulisch, Jan Wolkers, Simon Vestdijk, Cees Nooteboom, Gerard (van het) Reve and Willem Frederik Hermans. Anne Frank's Diary of a Young Girl was published after she died in The Holocaust and translated from Dutch to all major languages. Replicas of Dutch buildings can be found in Huis ten Bosch, Nagasaki, Japan. A similar Holland Village is being built in Shenyang, China. Windmills, tulips, wooden shoes, cheese and Delftware pottery are among the items associated with the Netherlands by tourists. Education The Netherlands has compulsory education from age 5 to 18 (or 16 as a study is completed which has given the student adequate professional skills to start as a professional in the labour market). Pupils attend primary or elementary school from age 4 to age 12. After that they will continue their education at high school minimally until the age of 16; which indicates one of three tracks in the Dutch educational system. The vocational track starts with VMBO, which is seen as the lowest level of secondary education and lasts four years. Successfully completing VMBO results in a low level vocational degree and/or gives access to higher (secondary) levels vocational education. Completion of second level vocational education results in professional skills, and gives access to further study a university of applied science. The medium level HAVO lasts five years. After completion a student can attend a university of applied science, which award professional bachelor's and professional master's degrees. A degree at a university of applied science gives access to the university system. The highest level of high school education is VWO, which lasts six years, completion of which allows students to attend a university. University consists of a three year bachelor's degrees, followed by one or two year master's degrees. A master's degree is required to start a four year doctoral degree. Doctoral candidates in the Netherlands are often (temporary) employees of a university. Military The Netherlands has the oldest standing army in Europe; which army was first established as such by Maurice of Orange. The Dutch army was used throughout the Dutch empire. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Dutch army was transformed into a conscription army. The army was unsuccessfully deployed during the Belgian revolution in 1830. It was deployed mainly in the Dutch colonies, as the Netherlands remained neutral in European wars (including WWI), until the Netherlands were invaded (in WWII), and quickly conquered by the Germans in May 1940. A Leopard 2 main battle tank of the Royal Netherlands Army After WWII, the Netherlands dropped their neutrality and the Dutch army became part of the NATO army strength in Cold War Europe; holding several bases in Germany. In 1996 conscription was ended, and the Dutch army was once again transformed into a professional army. Since the 1990s the Dutch army has been involved in the Bosnian war, the Kosovo war, has been holding a province in Iraq after the defeat of Saddam Hussain, and is currently engaged in Afghanistan. The military is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix Koninklijke (Royal): Koninklijke Landmacht (KL), the Royal Netherlands Army Koninklijke Marine (KM), the Royal Netherlands Navy, including the Naval Air Service and Marine Corps Koninklijke Luchtmacht (KLu), the Royal Netherlands Air Force Koninklijke Marechaussee (KMar), the Royal Military Police, tasks include military police and border control General Peter van Uhm is the current Chief of the Netherlands Defence Staff. All military specialities, except the Submarine service and Marine Corps (Korps Mariniers), are open to women. The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs almost 70,000 personnel, including over 20,000 civilian and over 50,000 military personnel. Ministerie van defensie - Werken bij Defensie See also Outline of the Netherlands Notes References Statistics Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (2006). Health statistics. Retrieved June 17, 2006. Articles Books Paul Arblaster. A History of the Low Countries. Palgrave Essential Histories Series New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 298 pp. ISBN 1-4039-4828-3. J. C. H. Blom and E. Lamberts, eds. History of the Low Countries (1998) Jonathan Israel. The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477-1806 (1995) J. A. Kossmann-Putto and E. H. Kossmann. The Low Countries: History of the Northern and Southern Netherlands (1987) External links Government Overheid.nl - official Dutch government portal Government.nl - official Dutch government web site Chief of State and Cabinet Members About the Netherlands – Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs CBS - Key figures from the Dutch bureau of statistics General information Netherlands from UCB Libraries GovPubs News media Local news and features on the Netherlands,Expatica Employment Jobs in the Netherlands,Dutch employment Dutch employment portal,Dutch employment portal Travel Holland.com - English website of the Netherlands tourist office be-x-old:Нідэрлянды | Netherlands |@lemmatized netherlands:123 dutch:106 country:43 part:18 kingdom:11 parliamentary:4 democratic:6 constitutional:2 monarchy:3 locate:4 northwestern:2 europe:13 border:3 north:15 sea:13 west:6 belgium:7 south:20 germany:8 east:10 capital:5 amsterdam:14 seat:5 government:24 hague:6 often:3 call:11 holland:17 formally:1 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3,830 | Nine-ball | One of many correct nine ball racks: the 1 ball at the centered over the , the 9 ball at center, the other balls placed randomly, and all balls touching. Nine-ball is a contemporary pocket billiards (pool) game, with historical beginnings rooted in the United States and traceable to the 1920s. The game may be played in social and recreational settings by any number of players (generally one-on-one) and subject to whatever rules are agreed upon beforehand, or in league and tournament settings in which the number of players and the rules are set by the sponsors. During much of its history, nine-ball has been known as a "money game" in both professional and recreational settings; but today, in major tournament settings, it is respected and remains the dominant game. In recent years, nine-ball has become the game of choice in championship tournament matches in the United States, basically because a series of games (the "match") proceeds quickly, lends itself well to the time constraints of television coverage, and tends to keep the audience engaged. The sports network ESPN has been, for several years, a major catalyst for the popularity of nine-ball and a major sponsor of championship play. The current world champion is Noel Tate. Rules and governing bodies The general rules the game is played under are fairly consistent and usually do not stray too far from the format set forth in the Billiard Congress of America (BCA) BCA World Standardized Rules for Nine Ball, which have merged with those of the World Pool-Billiard Association (WPA), to form the World Standardised Rules, although amateur league play may be governed by similar but slightly different rules promulgated by the American Poolplayers Association (APA) and other organizations. The rise of "Texas express" rules For much of its history nine-ball rules allowed participants to "" multiple times during a game (see "The push-out", below, for the modern push-out rules), meaning any player could call a "push-out", and then hit the cue ball to any area on the table without being penalized by normal rules, such as failure to contact the lowest-numbered ball on the table. However, once a push-out was called and executed, the incoming player had the right to shoot or give the inning back to the opponent. If the player shooting the resulting shot fouled, the other player would have ball-in-hand; hence this manner of play was called the "two-foul" version. "One-foul" became popular in the 1970s, as play turned more aggressive for the early televised matches. This newer version of nine-ball awarded ball-in-hand on any cue ball foul. A now-standard rule variant, which started to sweep the sport of nine-ball in the mid-1980s, restricted the push-out option to once per game and only to the inning immediately following the break. This change profoundly affected the way the game was played. By about 1990 this new push-out rule had become ubiquitous and it and any additional rules appended to it were collectively referred to as "" rules, so called because of the supposed US state of origin and the speeding up of the game. Today, Texas express push-out rules dominate the way nine-ball is played and is the variant incorporated into the official rules maintained by the WPA and its affiliates like the BCA. European alterations As of the 2000s, the rules have been somewhat in flux in certain contexts, especially in Europe. The European Pocket Billiard Federation (EPBF), BCA's WPA-affiliate counterpart in Europe, has done away with standardized racking techniques, and instead relies upon in the cloth to position the balls, with no physical ball rack required; these indentations are carefully created using a "", such that the divots are slightly closer together than they would be expected to be, thus creating ball-on-ball pressure as the balls settle partially into the divot pattern, into which they cannot quite fit. This results in an especially tight rack, without any possibility of cheating by carefully manipulating the ball positions while racking. This innovative racking technique is now the official rack of the EPBF Euro-Tour. Another Euro-Tour innovation is a new requirement that the break shot be taken from a "", not unlike break shot zone used in snooker and blackball, consisting of the middle 50% of the . This change defeats the common break-from-the-side-rail technique for pocketing the 9 ball on the break and winning the game instantly. While 9 ball breaks are still possible, they are much more difficult under the new rule. This requirement was recently added to the Europe vs. US all-star team event, the Mosconi Cup, but has not otherwise been seen much by North Americans. Yet a third EPBF change, used on the Euro-Tour for several years, is the "" rule, a stringent requirement that in order for a break shot to be legal, at least three object balls must either be pocketed or come up-table and cross the . Failure to do so constitutes a loss-of-turn (but not ) foul – even if two object balls are pocketed, a potential major windfall for the non-breaking player under these rules. More stringently yet, the requirements are independent – if a ball crosses the head string and is then pocketed, it counts as a pocketed ball but not a head string-crossing ball. This alteration (from WPA's requirement that one object ball be pocketed or four driven to cushions) requires a powerful break shot, and was instituted to thwart a different form of break manipulation, the recently developed "nine-ball soft break", in which a languid break performed correctly, and given a tight rack (such as that produced by EPBF template-trained racking), is almost guaranteed to pocket a in a , perhaps even both wing balls, meanwhile the remaining balls stay mostly or entirely on the foot end of the table, giving the breaker an easy of short shots. By effectively banning the soft break, wins "on a silver platter" are much less likely. One problem with this "three above the line" break requirement is that very careful attention must be paid to whether or not particular balls cross the head string, such that even professional referees have had to resort to video playback, as happened several times at the Mosconi Cup, when this rule, too, was introduced in 2007 by the MC's organizers, Matchroom Sport, in an effort to make the event more competitive and interesting to audiences, and more even (the US has mostly dominated the annual event since its inception, and they did in fact lose the 2007 match). Another Mosconi Cup rule change in 2007 called for racking such that the 9 ball rather than the 1 ball is on the (i.e. the racker rolls the balls forward farther; the balls remain in the same position in the rack), which further thwarts pocketing a wing ball easily. Play The game is played on a pocket billiards table with six pockets and with ten balls. The , which is usually a solid shade of white (but may be spotted in some tournaments), is struck to hit one or more of the other nine balls (often referred to as ), each of which is distinctly colored and numbered 1 through 9. The object of the game is to pocket the 9 ball in a legal manner, subject to the rules in effect at the time. In nine-ball, on all shots including the break shot, a player must cause the cue ball to contact the lowest numerical ball on the table first before the cue ball strikes any other ball and, except when a push-out has been invoked (see "The push-out", below), either a ball must be pocketed or some ball (any ball including the cue ball) must contact a rail in order that a is not committed. This does not mean that object balls have to be pocketed in order; any ball may be pocketed at any time during the game, so long as the lowest numerical ball is contacted first. Because nine-ball is not a game, the 9 ball itself can also be pocketed in this manner for a win at any time in the game, including when it is pocketed on the break shot. Players alternate at the table, meaning play continues by one player until he or she misses, commits a foul, or pockets the 9 ball for the win. The penalty for a foul is that the player's inning ends and the opponent comes to the table with , able to place the cue ball anywhere on the table prior to shooting. Nine-ball is a relatively fast-paced game and is rarely played by the rack. Instead, players normally play a match (or ) to a set number of games, often five, seven or nine. The first player to win that set number of games wins the match. The rack The object balls are placed in a diamond-shaped configuration, with the 1 ball positioned at the front (toward the position of the breaking player), and the 9 ball placed in the center. The physical rack used to position the balls is typically triangle-shaped and capable of holding all fifteen object balls, although diamond-shaped racks that hold only nine balls are sometimes used. The placement of the remaining balls is generally considered to be random. However, in some tournaments, the ball being to the lesser player must be one of the two balls placed behind the 1 ball at the apex of the rack. The placement of balls is expected to be precise, especially in league and tournament play; if any ball in the rack does not touch each adjacent ball, or if the rack is not "straight", or if the 1 ball is not resting precisely on the , the player assigned the break may demand a re-rack. (See also "European alterations", above, for a recently devised "template-trained" racking system.) The break One person is chosen to shoot first, by the rack. Usually this is determined by flipping a coin, or by , especially in professional tournaments in the case of the latter, or it may be ruled by the authority in charge or the sponsor or the players themselves that the winner or loser of the previous game will always shoot first in the next rack. If the player who breaks fails to make a legal break, the opponent can either demand a re-rack and become the breaker, or continue to play as if it had been an ordinary foul, depending upon the rules of the event. If the breaker pockets a ball and commits no foul, it remains the breaker's turn. If the breaker pockets the 9 ball on the break (without fouling), this is an instant win. (See also "European alterations", above, for recent moves to change the breaking rules.) The push-out Immediately after the break shot (regardless of its results) the player at the table may call a "", and may then shoot the cue ball to any location on the table (i.e. not into a pocket in which case the player must continue shooting, nor off the table which would be a foul), without incurring a foul for failure to hit the lowest-numbered ball on the table, and then control of the table passes to the other player. The incoming player has the choice of accepting the table as it lies, or forcing the pushing-out player to take the next shot. Only one push-out is allowed per game, and it must be immediately after the break. (See also "The rise of 'Texas express' rules", above, for the historical multi-push-out rule variation.) The ideal push-out shot is one that the opponent will believe likely to be makeable, and will accept, but fail to actually make, giving control of the table back to the pusher-out, and which the pusher-out is confident to make if forced to do so. Thus, nine-ball players aim for a push-out that has about a 50/50 chance of being accepted or returned. Winning A player wins in nine-ball by pocketing the 9 ball at any time in the game in a legal manner, either by hitting it in with the cue ball or with a lower numbered ball in a combination shot. A player can also win by default if the opponent commits three successive fouls. However, in most formats, including under BCA rules, the opponent must be told that he or she is "on two fouls" in order to lose by committing a third foul. Derived games Three-ball (historical) While the modern folk game of three-ball bears no resemblance to nine-ball, the earliest-known version of three-ball was essentially nine-ball played with only three balls, racked in a triangle, in which the 3 ball was the . It is a quick game, and (due to the comparatively very high possibility of pocketing the 3 ball on the break) one with a more significant luck component than nine-ball and most other pool games. Six-ball A normal six-ball ; the 1 ball is at the apex and on the , and the 6 is in the center of the back row.A six-ball rack, played with the leftovers of a nine-ball game; the 10 ball (the lowest) is at the apex, and the 15 (the highest) is the . Six-ball is essentially identical to nine-ball but with three fewer balls, and racked in a three-row triangle, with the 6 ball (or more often the 15 ball; see below) as the , placed in the center of the back row. According to Rudolph "Minnesota Fats" Wanderone, the game arose in early 20th century billiard halls that charged by the rack instead of by the hour, as nine-ball players had already paid for the 10–15 balls and did not want to waste them. This explanation of the game's origin may be particularly plausible because six-ball remains popular today as a diversion or practice round among nine-ball-playing players, using coin-operated tables that deliver a full set of fifteen balls. Seven-ball a typical game of seven-ball, using the nine-ball diamond rack sideways.Racking a seven-ball game with a special hex rack and black-striped 7 ball.Seven-ball is a similar game, the primary differences being there are only seven object balls, racked in a hexagon, and the game is won by pocketing the 7 ball. Seven-ball is with the 1 ball at the apex on the and the 7 ball (the ) in the center of the hexagon. This game is not particularly common, and is primarily known because of ESPN's Sudden Death Seven-ball which aired in the early 2000s. Though hardly necessary, specialized equipment for the game can be purchased, including a unique black-striped seven ball and a hexagonal rack. Ten-ball A valid ten-ball rack; the 1 is at the apex on the , and the 10 (the ) is in the center. Ten-ball is a more stringent variant of the game, using ten balls (racked in a triangle with the 10 ball, the in this case, in the center), and in which the money ball cannot be pocketed early for an early win. Due to its more challenging nature, and the fact that there is no publicly known technique for reliably pocketing specific object balls on the break shot, there have been suggestions among the professional circuit that ten-ball should replace nine-ball as the pro game of choice, especially since the rise of the nine-ball soft break, which is still legal in most international and non-European competition. Regardless of the future of the nine-ball versus ten-ball debate, there are already hotly contested professional ten-ball tournaments. Carom nine-ball Carom nine-ball (also carom nine, for short) is played with the usual nine-ball rack, but breaking with the 1 ball, with the cue ball placed at the head of the rack (in the usual place of the 1 ball). As in regular nine-ball, play progresses from the lowest-numbered ball on the table; however a legal shot is made by shooting the object ball rather than the cue ball. The object ball must make first contact with the cue ball to count as a legal shot, the goal being to carom the object ball into a pocket or into another ball. Once a legal shot has been performed, any ball then sunk counts for that player; the winner is the player to first pocket the nine-ball after a legal shot. References The History of Billiards Sports history - Billiards See also List of WPA World Nine-ball Champions Glossary of cue sports terms External links WPA/BCA World Standardized Rules for nine-ball Pro9 — Website detailing the many nine-ball tournaments held within the British Isles and beyond. | Nine-ball |@lemmatized one:13 many:2 correct:1 nine:39 ball:155 rack:34 center:8 place:8 randomly:1 touch:2 contemporary:1 pocket:28 billiards:4 pool:3 game:38 historical:3 beginning:1 root:1 united:2 state:3 traceable:1 may:9 play:19 social:1 recreational:2 setting:4 number:8 player:30 generally:2 subject:2 whatever:1 rule:31 agree:1 upon:3 beforehand:1 league:3 tournament:9 set:5 sponsor:3 much:5 history:4 know:4 money:2 professional:5 today:3 major:4 respect:1 remain:6 dominant:1 recent:2 year:3 become:4 choice:3 championship:2 match:6 basically:1 series:1 proceeds:1 quickly:1 lend:1 well:1 time:7 constraint:1 television:1 coverage:1 tend:1 keep:1 audience:2 engage:1 sport:5 network:1 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3,831 | Manufacturing_Consent:_Noam_Chomsky_and_the_Media | This article is about a documentary film, for the similarly named book see Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media (1992) is a multi award-winning documentary film that explores the political life and ideas of Noam Chomsky, a linguist, intellectual, and political activist. Created by two Canadian independent filmmakers, Mark Achbar and Peter Wintonick, it expands on the ideas of Chomsky's earlier book, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media, which he co-wrote with Edward S. Herman. The film presents and illustrates Chomsky's and Herman's propaganda model, the thesis that corporate media, as profit-driven institutions, tend to serve and further the agendas of the interests of dominant, elite groups in the society. A centerpiece of the film is a long examination into the history of The New York Times''' coverage of Indonesia's invasion and occupation of East Timor, which Chomsky claims exemplifies the media's unwillingness to criticize an ally. Until the release of The Corporation (2003), made by Mark Achbar, Jennifer Abbott and Joel Bakan, it was the most successful documentary in Canadian history, playing theatrically in over 300 cities around the world; winning 22 awards; appearing in more than 50 international film festivals; and being broadcast in over 30 markets. It has also been translated into a dozen languages. Chomsky's response to the film was mixed; in a published conversation with Achbar and several activists, he stated that film simply doesn't communicate his message, leading people to believe that he is the leader of some movement that they should join. In the same conversation, he criticizes the New York Times review of the film, which mistakes his message for being a call for voter organizing rather than media critique. Noam Chomsky (2002). An Exchange on Manufacturing Consent. In Understanding Power. The New Press. Companion book Mark Achbar edited a companion book of the same name. It features a copy of the script annotated with excerpts from referenced and relevant materials as well as several comments from Chomsky interspersed throughout. Eighteen "Philosopher All-Stars" baseball cards (as seen in the film) are also included. On the back of each card it includes a short summary of the person, some of their major works and a series of quotations attributed to the individual. The people featured as cards in the set are: René Descartes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, Mary Wollstonecraft, Wilhelm von Humboldt, Pierre Joseph Proudhon, Sojourner Truth, Karl Marx, Sitting Bull, Rosa Luxemburg, Peter Kropotkin, Emma Goldman, Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr., Bertrand Russell, Michel Foucault, and Avram Noam Chomsky. The book made the national bestseller list in Canada. The first half of the book, hyperlinked to the relevant portions of the film's audio, is available online from Z Magazine''. See also Concentration of media ownership Propaganda model Criticism of Noam Chomsky External links Official website Zeitgeist Films (US distributor) page for the film NFB Web page Media, Power and the Origins of the Propaganda Model: An Interview with Edward S. Herman by Jeffery Klaehn, 2008 Multimedia Manufacturing Consent is available to download or watch online, for free legally at archive.org Manufacturing Consent - first half of the companion book with corresponding audio from the film in RealAudio format First half of the film's audio (MP3) References | Manufacturing_Consent:_Noam_Chomsky_and_the_Media |@lemmatized article:1 documentary:3 film:14 similarly:1 name:2 book:7 see:3 manufacture:5 consent:6 political:4 economy:2 mass:2 medium:8 noam:5 chomsky:10 multi:1 award:2 win:2 explore:1 life:1 idea:2 linguist:1 intellectual:1 activist:2 create:1 two:1 canadian:2 independent:1 filmmaker:1 mark:3 achbar:4 peter:2 wintonick:1 expand:1 earlier:1 co:1 write:1 edward:2 herman:3 present:1 illustrate:1 propaganda:3 model:3 thesis:1 corporate:1 profit:1 driven:1 institution:1 tend:1 serve:1 agenda:1 interest:1 dominant:1 elite:1 group:1 society:1 centerpiece:1 long:1 examination:1 history:2 new:3 york:2 time:2 coverage:1 indonesia:1 invasion:1 occupation:1 east:1 timor:1 claim:1 exemplify:1 unwillingness:1 criticize:2 ally:1 release:1 corporation:1 make:2 jennifer:1 abbott:1 joel:1 bakan:1 successful:1 play:1 theatrically:1 city:1 around:1 world:1 appear:1 international:1 festival:1 broadcast:1 market:1 also:3 translate:1 dozen:1 language:1 response:1 mixed:1 publish:1 conversation:2 several:2 state:1 simply:1 communicate:1 message:2 lead:1 people:2 believe:1 leader:1 movement:1 join:1 review:1 mistake:1 call:1 voter:1 organize:1 rather:1 critique:1 exchange:1 understand:1 power:2 press:1 companion:3 edit:1 feature:2 copy:1 script:1 annotate:1 excerpt:1 reference:2 relevant:2 material:1 well:1 comment:1 intersperse:1 throughout:1 eighteen:1 philosopher:1 star:1 baseball:1 card:3 include:2 back:1 short:1 summary:1 person:1 major:1 work:1 series:1 quotation:1 attribute:1 individual:1 set:1 rené:1 descartes:1 jean:1 jacques:1 rousseau:1 voltaire:1 mary:1 wollstonecraft:1 wilhelm:1 von:1 humboldt:1 pierre:1 joseph:1 proudhon:1 sojourner:1 truth:1 karl:1 marx:1 sit:1 bull:1 rosa:1 luxemburg:1 kropotkin:1 emma:1 goldman:1 gandhi:1 martin:1 luther:1 king:1 jr:1 bertrand:1 russell:1 michel:1 foucault:1 avram:1 national:1 bestseller:1 list:1 canada:1 first:3 half:3 hyperlinked:1 portion:1 audio:3 available:2 online:2 z:1 magazine:1 concentration:1 ownership:1 criticism:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 zeitgeist:1 u:1 distributor:1 page:2 nfb:1 web:1 origin:1 interview:1 jeffery:1 klaehn:1 multimedia:1 manufacturing:1 download:1 watch:1 free:1 legally:1 archive:1 org:1 corresponding:1 realaudio:1 format:1 |@bigram noam_chomsky:5 mark_achbar:3 east_timor:1 rené_descartes:1 jean_jacques:1 jacques_rousseau:1 mary_wollstonecraft:1 von_humboldt:1 joseph_proudhon:1 karl_marx:1 rosa_luxemburg:1 peter_kropotkin:1 emma_goldman:1 martin_luther:1 bertrand_russell:1 michel_foucault:1 external_link:1 |
3,832 | Hendrick_Avercamp | Fun on the ice Hendrick Avercamp (bapt. January 27, 1585, Amsterdam - buried May 15, 1634, Kampen (Overijssel)) was a Dutch painter. Avercamp studied in Amsterdam with the Danish-born portrait painter Pieter Isaacks (1569-1625), and perhaps also with David Vinckbooms. In 1608 he moved from Amsterdam to Kampen in the province of Overijssel. Avercamp was deaf and was known as "de Stomme van Kampen" (the mute of Kampen). As one of the first landscape painters of the 17th-century Dutch school, he specialized in painting the Netherlands in winter. Avercamp's paintings are colorful and lively, with carefully crafted images of the people in the landscape. Avercamp's work enjoyed great popularity and he sold his drawings, many of which were tinted with water-color, as finished pictures to be pasted into the albums of collectors. Queen Elizabeth II has an outstanding collection of his works at Windsor Castle, England. Winter Scene on a Canal Avercamp died in Kampen and was interred there in the Sint Nicolaaskerk. External links Hendrick Avercamp at Gallery of Art Avercamp at the WebMuseum | Hendrick_Avercamp |@lemmatized fun:1 ice:1 hendrick:2 avercamp:8 bapt:1 january:1 amsterdam:3 bury:1 may:1 kampen:5 overijssel:2 dutch:2 painter:3 study:1 danish:1 born:1 portrait:1 pieter:1 isaacks:1 perhaps:1 also:1 david:1 vinckbooms:1 move:1 province:1 deaf:1 know:1 de:1 stomme:1 van:1 mute:1 one:1 first:1 landscape:2 century:1 school:1 specialize:1 paint:1 netherlands:1 winter:2 painting:1 colorful:1 lively:1 carefully:1 craft:1 image:1 people:1 work:2 enjoy:1 great:1 popularity:1 sell:1 drawing:1 many:1 tint:1 water:1 color:1 finish:1 picture:1 paste:1 album:1 collector:1 queen:1 elizabeth:1 ii:1 outstanding:1 collection:1 windsor:1 castle:1 england:1 scene:1 canal:1 die:1 inter:1 sint:1 nicolaaskerk:1 external:1 link:1 gallery:1 art:1 webmuseum:1 |@bigram carefully_craft:1 queen_elizabeth:1 windsor_castle:1 external_link:1 |
3,833 | Naiad_(moon) | Naiad Naiad or Thalassa as seen by Voyager 2 (smearing has caused excessive elongation) Discovery Discovered by Voyager Imaging Team Discovered in September 1989 Orbital characteristics Epoch 18 August 1989 Semi-major axis 48 227 ± 1 km Eccentricity 0.0004 ± 0.0003 Orbital period 0.2943958 ± 0.0000002 d Inclination 4.75 ± 0.03° (to Neptune equator) 4.75° (to local Laplace plane) Is a satellite of Neptune Physical characteristics Dimensions 96×60×52 km Mean radius 33 ± 3 km Mass ~1.9 kg (based on assumed density) Mean density ~1.2 g/cm3 (estimate) Rotation period assumed synchronous Axial tilt ~zero presumably Albedo (geometric) 0.07 Surface temp. ~51 K mean (estimate) Atmosphere none A simulated view of Naiad orbiting Neptune with the Sun in the distance. Naiad ( , , or as in Greek Ναϊάδ-ες), also known as Neptune III, is the innermost satellite of Neptune named after the Naiads of Greek legend. Naiad was discovered sometime before mid-September, 1989 from the images taken by the Voyager 2 probe. The last moon to be discovered during the flyby, it was designated S/1989 N 6. The discovery was announced on September 29, 1989 in the IAU Circular No. 4867, but the text only talks of "25 frames taken over 11 days", giving a discovery date of sometime before September 18. The name was given on 16 September 1991 . Naiad is irregularly shaped and probably has not been modified by any internal geological processes after its formation. It is likely that it is a rubble pile re-accreted from fragments of Neptune's original satellites, which were smashed up by perturbations from Triton soon after that moon's capture into a very eccentric initial orbit. Naiad orbits about 23,500 km above Neptune's cloud tops. Since this is below the synchronous orbit radius, its orbit is slowly decaying due to tidal deceleration and may eventually impact Neptune's atmosphere, or break up into a planetary ring upon passing its Roche limit due to tidal stretching. Naiad orbits Neptune well within its fluid Roche limit, and its density is expected to be low enough that it may be very close to its actual Roche limit already. Since the Voyager 2 flyby, the Neptune system has been extensively studied from ground-based observatories and the Hubble Space Telescope as well. In 2002-03 Keck telescope observed the system using adaptive optics and detected easily the largest four inner satellites. Thalassa was found with some image processing, but Naiad was not located. Hubble has the ability to detect all the known satellites and possible new satellites even dimmer than Voyager 2. Still, Naiad has not been found. It is suspected that this is due to considerable errors in Naiad's ephemeris. References External links Naiad Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration Neptune's Known Satellites (by Scott S. Sheppard) | Naiad_(moon) |@lemmatized naiad:13 thalassa:2 see:1 voyager:5 smearing:1 cause:1 excessive:1 elongation:1 discovery:3 discover:4 image:3 team:1 september:5 orbital:2 characteristic:2 epoch:1 august:1 semi:1 major:1 axis:1 km:4 eccentricity:1 period:2 inclination:1 neptune:11 equator:1 local:1 laplace:1 plane:1 satellite:7 physical:1 dimension:1 mean:3 radius:2 mass:1 kg:1 base:2 assumed:1 density:3 g:1 estimate:2 rotation:1 assume:1 synchronous:2 axial:1 tilt:1 zero:1 presumably:1 albedo:1 geometric:1 surface:1 temp:1 k:1 atmosphere:2 none:1 simulated:1 view:1 orbit:6 sun:1 distance:1 greek:2 ναϊάδ:1 ες:1 also:1 know:3 iii:1 innermost:1 name:2 legend:1 sometime:2 mid:1 take:2 probe:1 last:1 moon:2 flyby:2 designate:1 n:1 announce:1 iau:1 circular:1 text:1 talk:1 frame:1 day:1 give:2 date:1 irregularly:1 shape:1 probably:1 modify:1 internal:1 geological:1 process:1 formation:1 likely:1 rubble:1 pile:1 accrete:1 fragment:1 original:1 smash:1 perturbation:1 triton:1 soon:1 capture:1 eccentric:1 initial:1 cloud:1 top:1 since:2 slowly:1 decay:1 due:3 tidal:2 deceleration:1 may:2 eventually:1 impact:1 break:1 planetary:1 ring:1 upon:1 pass:1 roche:3 limit:3 stretch:1 well:2 within:1 fluid:1 expect:1 low:1 enough:1 close:1 actual:1 already:1 system:3 extensively:1 study:1 ground:1 observatory:1 hubble:2 space:1 telescope:2 keck:1 observe:1 use:1 adaptive:1 optic:1 detect:2 easily:1 large:1 four:1 inner:1 find:2 processing:1 locate:1 ability:1 possible:1 new:1 even:1 dim:1 still:1 suspect:1 considerable:1 error:1 ephemeris:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 profile:1 nasa:1 solar:1 exploration:1 scott:1 sheppard:1 |@bigram axial_tilt:1 voyager_probe:1 irregularly_shape:1 adaptive_optic:1 external_link:1 |
3,834 | Arminianism | This article is about a theological philosophy. For the unrelated national and ethnic group, see Armenians. "Arminism" redirects here and should not be confused for the similarly named & entirely unrelated theological ideology called "Armanism" Arminianism is a school of soteriological thought within Protestant Christianity based on the theological ideas of the Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560-1609) Magnusson, Magnus (ed). Chambers Biographical Dictionary (Chambers: Cambridge University Press, 1995) 62 and his historic followers, the Remonstrants. The doctrines' acceptance stretches through much of mainstream Christianity, including evangelical Protestantism. Arminianism holds to the following tenets: Humans are naturally unable to make any effort towards salvation (see also prevenient grace). Salvation is possible only by God's grace, which cannot be merited. No works of human effort can cause or contribute to salvation. God's election is conditional on faith in the sacrifice and Lordship of Jesus Christ. Christ's atonement was made on behalf of all people. God allows his grace to be resisted by those who freely reject Christ. Salvation cannot be lost even though believers who can resist sin are still capable of sinning. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/35372/Arminianism Arminianism is most accurately used to define those who affirm the original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself, but the term can also be understood as an umbrella for a larger grouping of ideas including those of Hugo Grotius, John and Charles Wesley, and others. There are two primary perspectives on how the system is applied in detail: Classical Arminianism, which sees Arminius as its figurehead, and Wesleyan Arminianism, which sees John Wesley as its figurehead. Wesleyan Arminianism is sometimes synonymous with Methodism. In addition, Arminianism is understood by some of its critics to also include Semipelagianism or even Pelagianism, though proponents of both primary perspectives vehemently deny these claims. Within the broad scope of Church history, Arminianism is closely related to Calvinism (or Reformed theology), and the two systems share both history and many doctrines in common. Nonetheless, they are often viewed as rivals within Evangelicalism because of their disagreement over details of the doctrines of divine predestination and salvation. History Jacobus Arminius was a Dutch pastor and theologian in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. He was taught by Theodore Beza, Calvin's hand-picked successor, but he rejected his teacher's theology that it is God who unconditionally elects some for salvation. Instead Arminius proposed that the election of God was of believers, thereby making it conditional on faith. Arminius's views were challenged by the Dutch Calvinists, especially Franciscus Gomarus, but Arminius died before a national synod could occur. Portrait of Jacobus Arminius. Arminius' followers, not wanting to adopt their leader's name, called themselves the Remonstrants. When Arminius died before he could satisfy Holland's State General's request for a 14-page paper outlining his views, the Remonstrants replied in his stead crafting the Five articles of Remonstrance. After some political maneuvering, the Dutch Calvinists were able to convince Prince Maurice of Nassau to deal with the situation. Maurice systematically removed Arminian magistrates from office and called a national synod at Dordrecht. This Synod of Dort was open primarily to Dutch Calvinists (Arminians were excluded) with Calvinist representatives from other countries, and in 1618 published a condemnation of Arminius and his followers as heretics. Part of this publication was the famous Five points of Calvinism in response to the five articles of Remonstrance. The Remonstrants were inconsistent with the soteriological thought of Arminius. Some, like Philip von Limborch, moved in the direction of semi-Pelagianism at best or Socinianism or rationalism at worst. This is demonstrated in John Mark Hicks's dissertation comparing Arminius's soteriology with that of Limborch. Arminians across Holland were removed from office, imprisoned, banished, and sworn to silence. Twelve years later Holland officially granted Arminianism protection as a religion, although animosity between Arminians and Calvinists continued. The debate between Calvin's followers and Arminius's followers is distinctive of post-Reformation church history. The emerging Baptist movement in seventeenth-century England, for example, was a microcosm of the historic debate between Calvinists and Arminians. The first Baptists--called "General Baptists" because of their confession of a "general" or unlimited atonement, were Arminians. Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day (HarperCollins Publishers, 1985) 225-226 The Baptist movement originated with Thomas Helwys, who left his mentor John Smyth, who had moved into semi-Pelgianism and other distinctives of the Dutch Waterlander Mennonites of Amsterdam, and returned to London to start the first English Baptist Church in 1611. Later General Baptists such as John Griffith, Samuel Loveday, and Thomas Grantham defended a Reformed Arminian theology that reflected more the Arminianism of Arminius than that of the later Remonstrants or the English Arminianism of Arminian Puritans like John Goodwin or Anglican Arminians such as Jeremy Taylor and Henry Hammond. The General Baptists encapsulated their Arminian views in numerous confessions, the most influential of which was the Standard Confession of 1660. In the 1640s the Particular Baptists were formed, diverging strongly from Arminian doctrine and embracing the strong Calvinism of the Presbyterians and Independents. Their robust Calvinism was publicized in such confessions as the London Baptist Confession of 1644 and the Second London Confession of 1689. Interestingly, the London Confession of 1689 was later used by Calvinistic Baptists in America (called the Philadelphia Baptist Confession), whereas the Standard Confession of 1660 was used by the American heirs of the English General Baptists, who soon came to be known as Free Will Baptists. This same dynamic between Arminianism and Calvinism can be seen in the heated discussions between friends and fellow Methodist ministers John Wesley and George Whitefield. Wesley was a champion of Arminian teachings, defending his soteriology in a periodical titled The Arminian and writing articles such as Predestination Calmly Considered. He defended Arminianism against charges of semi-Pelagianism, holding strongly to beliefs in original sin and total depravity. At the same time, Wesley attacked the determinism that he claimed characterized unconditional election and maintained a belief in the ability to lose salvation. Wesley also clarified the doctrine of prevenient grace and preached the ability of Christians to attain to perfection. While Wesley freely made use of the term "Arminian," he did not self-consciously root his soteriology in the theology of Arminius but was highly influenced by seventeenth-century English Arminianism and thinkers such as John Goodwin, Jeremy Taylor and Henry Hammond of the Anglican "Holy Living" school, and the Remonstrant Hugo Grotius. Current landscape Advocates of both Arminianism and Calvinism find a home in many Protestant denominations, and sometimes both exist within the same denomination as with the Puritans. Faiths leaning at least in part in the Arminian direction include Methodists, Free Will Baptists, General Baptists, Churches of Christ, Disciples of Christ, Church of the Nazarene, Seventh-day Adventists, Mennonites, Pentecostals, and Charismatics. Denominations leaning in the Calvinist direction are grouped as the Reformed churches and include Particular Baptists, Reformed Baptists, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists. The majority of Southern Baptists, including Billy Graham, accept Arminianism with an exception allowing for a doctrine of eternal security. "The Baptist Faith and Message, 2000 Revision" Harmon, Richard W. Baptists and Other Denominations (Nashville: Convention Press, 1984) 17–18, 45–46 Dongell, Joseph and Walls, Jerry Why I Am Not a Calvinist (Downer's Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2004) 12–13, 16–17 Many see Calvinism as growing in acceptance, Dongell 7–20 and some well-known Southern Baptists such as Albert Mohler and Mark Dever have been trying to lead the Southern Baptist Convention to a Reformed theological orientation. The majority of Lutherans hold to a third view of salvation and election that was taught by Philip Melanchthon. The current scholarly support for Arminianism is wide and varied. One particular thrust is a return to the teachings of Arminius. F. Leroy Forlines, Robert Picirilli, Stephen Ashby and Matthew Pinson (see citations) are four of the more prominent supporters. Forlines has referred to this type of Arminianism as "Classical Arminianism," while Picirilli, Pinson, and Ashby have termed it "Reformation Arminianism" or "Reformed Arminianism." Other scholars who show sympathy with this view include the Christian churches scholar Jack Cottrell, the Churches of Christ scholar John Mark Hicks, I. Howard Marshall, and Jonathan R. Wilson. Through Methodism, Wesley's teachings also inspire a large scholarly following, with vocal proponents including J. Kenneth Grider, Stanley Hauerwas, Thomas Oden and William Willimon. Recent influence of the New Perspective on Paul movement has also reached Arminianism — primarily through a view of corporate election. The New Perspective scholars propose that the 1st century Judean culture understood election primarily as national (Israel) & racial (Jews), not individual; therefore their conclusion is that Paul's writings on election should be interpreted in a similar - corporate - light. Proponents of this movement include James Dunn and N.T. Wright. Other Arminian theologians holding similar perspectives but not directly linked with the New Perspectives movement include Robert Shank, Paul Marston, Roger Forster, Jerry Walls, Roger Olson, and Joseph Dongell (see citations). Theology Arminian theology usually falls into one of two groups — Classical Arminianism, drawn from the teaching of Jacobus Arminius — and Wesleyan Arminian, drawing primarily from Wesley. Both groups overlap substantially. Classical Arminianism Classical Arminianism (sometimes titled Reformed Arminianism or Reformation Arminianism) is the theological system that was presented by Jacobus Arminius and maintained by the Remonstrants Ashby, Stephen "Reformed Arminianism" Four Views on Eternal Security (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002), 137 ; its influence serves as the foundation for all Arminian systems. A list of beliefs is given below: Depravity is total: Arminius states "In this [fallen] state, the free will of man towards the true good is not only wounded, infirm, bent, and weakened; but it is also imprisoned, destroyed, and lost. And its powers are not only debilitated and useless unless they be assisted by grace, but it has no powers whatever except such as are excited by Divine grace." Arminius, James The Writings of James Arminius (three vols.), tr. James Nichols and W.R. Bagnall (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1956), I:252 Atonement is intended for all: Jesus' death was for all people, Jesus draws all people to himself, and all people have opportunity for salvation through faith. Arminius I:316 Jesus' death satisfies God's justice: The penalty for the sins of the elect is paid in full through Jesus' work on the cross. Thus Christ's atonement is intended for all, but requires faith to be effected. Arminius states "Justification, when used for the act of a Judge, is either purely the imputation of righteousness through mercy… or that man is justified before God… according to the rigour of justice without any forgiveness." Arminius III:454 Stephen Ashby clarifies "Arminius allowed for only two possible ways in which the sinner might be justified: (1) by our absolute and perfect adherence to the law, or (2) purely by God's imputation of Christ's righteousness." Ashby Four Views, 140 Grace is resistible: God takes initiative in the salvation process and His grace comes to all people. This grace (often called prevenient or pre-regenerating grace) acts on all people to convict them of the Gospel, draw them strongly towards salvation, and enable the possibility of sincere faith. Picirilli states "indeed this grace is so close to regeneration that it inevitably leads to regeneration unless finally resisted." Picirilli, Robert Grace, Faith, Free Will: Contrasting Views of Salvation: Calvinism and Arminianism (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2002), 154ff The offer of salvation through grace does not act irresistibly in a purely cause-effect, deterministic method but rather in an influence-and-response fashion that can be both freely accepted and freely denied. Forlines, Leroy F., Pinson, Matthew J. and Ashby, Stephen M. The Quest for Truth: Answering Life's Inescapable Questions (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2001), 313–321 Man has free will to respond or resist: Free will is limited by God's sovereignty, but God sovereignly allows all men the choice to accept the Gospel of Jesus through faith, simultaneously allowing all men to resist. Election is conditional: Arminius defined election as "the decree of God by which, of Himself, from eternity, He decreed to justify in Christ, believers, and to accept them unto eternal life." Arminius Writings, III:311 God alone determines who will be saved and his determination is that all who believe Jesus through faith will be justified. According to Arminius, "God regards no one in Christ unless they are engrafted in him by faith." God predestines the elect to a glorious future: Predestination is not the predetermination of who will believe, but rather the predetermination of the believer's future inheritance. The elect are therefore predestined to sonship through adoption, glorification, and eternal life. Pawson, David Once Saved, Always Saved? A Study in Perseverance and Inheritance (London: Hodder & Staughton, 1996), 109ff Eternal security is also conditional: All believers have full assurance of salvation with the condition that they remain in Christ. Salvation is conditioned on faith, therefore perseverance is also conditioned. Picirilli Grace, Faith, Free Will 203 Apostasy (turning from Christ) is only committed through a deliberate, willful rejection of Jesus and renouncement of belief. Picirilli 204ff The Five articles of Remonstrance that Arminius' followers formulated in 1610 state the above beliefs regarding (I) conditional election, (II) unlimited atonement, (III) total depravity, (IV) total depravity and resistible grace, and (V) possibility of apostasy. Note, however, that the fifth article did not completely deny perseverance of the saints; Arminius, himself, said that "I never taught that a true believer can… fall away from the faith… yet I will not conceal, that there are passages of Scripture which seem to me to wear this aspect; and those answers to them which I have been permitted to see, are not of such as kind as to approve themselves on all points to my understanding." Arminius Writings, I:254 Further, the text of the Articles of Remonstrance says that no believer can be plucked from Christ's hand, and the matter of falling away, "loss of salvation" required further study before it could be taught with any certainty. The core beliefs of Jacobus Arminius and the Remonstrants are summarized as such by theologian Stephen Ashby: Prior to being drawn and enabled, one is unable to believe… able only to resist. Having been drawn and enabled, but prior to regeneration, one is able to believe… able also to resist. After one believes, God then regenerates; one is able to continue believing… able also to resist. Upon resisting to the point of unbelief, one is unable again to believe… able only to resist. Ashby Four Views, 159 Wesleyan Arminianism John Wesley has historically been the most influential advocate for the teachings of Arminian soteriology. Wesley thoroughly agreed with the vast majority of what Arminius himself taught, maintaining strong doctrines of original sin, total depravity, conditional election, prevenient grace, unlimited atonement, and possibly apostasy. Wesley departs from Classical Arminianism primarily on three issues: Atonement – Wesley's atonement is a hybrid of the penal substitution theory and the governmental theory of Hugo Grotius, a lawyer and one of the Remonstrants. Steven Harper states "Wesley does not place the substitionary element primarily within a legal framework...Rather [his doctrine seeks] to bring into proper relationship the 'justice' between God's love for persons and God's hatred of sin...it is not the satisfaction of a legal demand for justice so much as it is an act of mediated reconciliation." Harper, Steven "Wesleyan Arminianism" Four Views on Eternal Security (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002) 227ff Possibility of apostasy – Wesley fully accepted the Arminian view that genuine Christians could apostasize and lose their salvation, as his famous sermon "A Call to Backsliders" clearly demonstrates. Harper summarizes as follows: "the act of committing sin is not in itself ground for the loss of salvation...the loss of salvation is much more related to experiences that are profound and prolonged. Wesley sees two primary pathways that could result in a permanent fall from grace: unconfessed sin and the actual expression of apostasy." Harper 239-240 Wesley disagrees with Arminius, however, in maintaining that such apostasy was not final. When talking about those who have made "shipwreck" of their faith (1 Tim 1:19), Wesley claims that "not one, or a hundred only, but I am persuaded, several thousands...innumerable are the instances...of those who had fallen but now stand upright." Wesley, John "A Call to Backsliders" The Works of John Wesley, ed. Thomas Jackson, 14 vols. (London: Wesley Methodist Book Room, 1872; repr, Grand Rapids: Baker, 1986) 3:211ff Christian perfection – According to Wesley's teaching, Christians could attain a state of practical perfection, meaning a lack of all voluntary sin by the empowerment of the Holy Spirit, in this life. Christian perfection (or entire sanctification), according to Wesley, is "purity of intention, dedicating all the life to God" and "the mind which was in Christ, enabling us to walk as Christ walked." It is "loving God with all our heart, and our neighbor as ourselves". Wesley, John "A Plain Account of Christian Perfection", Works It is 'a restoration not only to the favour, but likewise to the image of God," our "being filled with the fullness of God". Wesley, John "The End of Christ’s Coming", Works Wesley was clear that Christian perfection did not imply perfection of bodily health or an infallibility of judgment. It also does not mean we no longer violate the will of God, for involuntary transgressions remain. Perfected Christians remain subject to temptation, and have continued need to pray for forgiveness and holiness. It is not an absolute perfection but a perfection in love. Furthermore, Wesley did not teach a salvation by perfection, but rather says that, "Even perfect holiness is acceptable to God only through Jesus Christ." Other variations Since the time of Arminius, his name has come to represent a very large variety of beliefs. Some of these beliefs, such as Pelagianism and semi-Pelagianism (see below) are not considered to be within Arminian orthodoxy and are dealt with elsewhere. Some doctrines, however, do adhere to the Arminian foundation and, while minority views, are highlighted below. Open theism The doctrine of open theism states that God is omnipresent, omnipotent, and omniscient, but differs on the nature of the future. Open theists claim that the future is not completely knowable because people have not made their decisions yet, and therefore God knows the future in possibilities rather than certainties. As such, open theists resolve the issue of human free will and God's sovereignty by claiming that God is sovereign because he does not ordain each human choice, but rather works in cooperation with his creation to bring about his will. This notion of sovereignty and freedom is foundational to their understanding of love since open theists believe that love is not genuine unless it is freely chosen. The power of choice under this definition has the potential for as much harm as it does good, and open theists see free will as the best answer to the problem of evil. Well-known proponents of this theology are Greg Boyd, Clark Pinnock, William Hasker, and John E. Sanders. Some Arminians, such as professor and theologian Robert Picirilli, reject the doctrine of open theism as a "deformed Arminianism". Picirilli, Grace, Faith, Free Will, 40 - Picirilli actually objects so strongly to the link between Arminianism and Open theism that he devotes an entire section to his objections. See 59ff. Joseph Dongell stated that "open theism actually moves beyond classical Arminianism towards process theology." Dongell, Joseph and Walls, Jerry Why I Am Not a Calvinist, 45 The majority Arminian view accepts classical theism - the belief that God's power, knowledge, and presence have no external limitations, that is, outside of His divine nature. Most Arminians reconcile human free will with God's sovereignty and foreknowledge by holding three points: Human free will is limited by original sin, though God's prevenient grace restores to humanity the ability to accept God's call of salvation. Picirilli, Grace, Faith, Free Will, 42-43, 59ff Ashby, Four Views on Eternal Security, 146-147 God purposely exercises his sovereignty in ways that do not illustrate its extent - in other words, He has the power and authority to predetermine salvation but he chooses to apply it through different means. God's foreknowledge of the future is exhaustive and complete, and therefore the future is certain and not contingent on human action. God does not determine the future, but He does know it. God's certainty and human contingency are compatible. Picirilli, Grace, Faith, Free Will, 40 Corporate view of election The majority Arminian view is that election is individual and based on God's foreknowledge of faith, but a second perspective deserves mention. These Arminians reject the concept of individual election entirely, preferring to understand the doctrine in corporate terms. According to this corporate election, God never chose individuals to elect to salvation, but rather He chose to elect the believing Church to salvation. Dutch Reformed theologian Herman Ridderbos says "[The certainty of salvation] does not rest on the fact that the church belongs to a certain "number", but that it belongs to Christ, from before the foundation of the world. Fixity does not lie in a hidden decree, therefore, but in corporate unity of the Church with Christ, whom it has come to know in the gospel and has learned to embrace in faith." Ridderbos, Herman Paul: An Outline of His Theology trans. John Richard de Witt (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975), 350-351 Corporate election draws support from a similar concept of corporate election found in the Old Testament and Jewish law. Indeed most Biblical scholarship is in agreement that Judeo-Greco-Roman thought in the 1st century was opposite of the Western world's "individual first" mantra - it was very collectivist or communitarian in nature. Abasciano, Brian Paul’s Use of the Old Testament in Romans 9:1-9: An Intertextual and Theological Exegesis (T&T Clark Publishers, 2006), ISBN 0-567-03073-3 Identity stemmed from membership in a group more than individuality. According to Romans 9-11, supporters claim, Jewish election as the chosen people ceased with their national rejection of Jesus as Messiah. As a result of the new covenant, God's chosen people are now the corporate body of Christ, the church (sometimes called spiritual Israel - see also Covenant theology). Pastor and theologian Dr. Brian Abasciano claims "What Paul says about Jews, Gentiles, and Christians, whether of their place in God’s plan, or their election, or their salvation, or how they should think or behave, he says from a corporate perspective which views the group as primary and those he speaks about as embedded in the group. These individuals act as members of the group to which they belong, and what happens to them happens by virtue of their membership in the group." These scholars also maintain that Jesus was the only human ever elected and that individuals must be "in Christ" (Eph 1:3-4) through faith to be part of the elect. This was, in fact, Swiss Reformed theologian, Karl Barth's, understanding of the doctrine of election. Joseph Dongell, professor at Asbury Theological Seminary, states "the most conscipuous feature of Ephesians 1:3-2:10 is the phrase 'in Christ', which occurs twelve times in Ephesians 1:3-4 alone...this means that Jesus Christ himself is the chosen one, the predestined one. Whenever one is incorporated into him by grace through faith, one comes to share in Jesus' special status as chosen of God." Dongell, Joseph and Walls, Jerry Why I am Not a Calvinist, 76 Markus Barth illustrates the inter-connectedness: "Election in Christ must be understood as the election of God's people. Only as members of that community do individuals share in the benefits of God's gracious choice." Barth, Markus Ephesians (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1974), 108 Comparison to other views Understanding Arminianism is aided by understanding the theological alternatives - Pelagianism and Calvinism. Arminianism, like any major belief system, is frequently misunderstood both by critics and would-be supporters. Listed below are a few common misconceptions. Common misconceptions Arminianism supports works-based salvation - No well-known system of Arminianism denies salvation "by faith alone" and "by faith first to last". This misconception is often directed at the Arminian possibility of apostasy, which critics maintain requires continual good works to achieve final salvation. To Arminians, however, both initial salvation and eternal security are "by faith alone"; hence "by faith first to last". Belief through faith is the condition for entrance into the Kingdom of God; unbelief is the condition for exit from the Kingdom of God - not a lack of good works. Pawson Once Saved, Always Saved? 121-124 Picirilli Grace, Faith, Free Will 160ff Ashby Four Views on Eternal Security 142ff Calvinists, however, tend to view Arminianism as attributing salvation to human choice rather than divine grace, and also tend to view human free will as ultimately impossible until after salvation, due to the total depravity of human nature, meaning that faith itself can become present in the human heart solely through the grace of God. Arminianism is Pelagian, denying original sin and total depravity - No system of Arminianism founded on Arminius or Wesley denies original sin or total depravity; Ashby 138-139 both Arminius and Wesley strongly affirmed that man's basic condition is one in which he cannot be righteous, understand God, or seek God. Arminius, Writings 2:192 See the comparison to Calvinism below for where the two systems diverge. Arminianism denies Jesus' substitutionary payment for sins - Both Arminius and Wesley believed in the necessity and sufficiency of Christ's atonement through substitution. Picirilli Grace, Faith, Free Will 104-105, 132ff Arminius held that God's justice was satisfied individually Ashby Four Views on Eternal Security 140ff while Hugo Grotius and many of Wesley's followers taught that it was satisfied governmentally. Picirilli Grace, Faith, Free Will 132 Comparison with Calvinism Ever since Arminius and his followers revolted against Calvinism in the early 17th century, Protestant soteriology has been largely divided between Calvinism and Arminianism. The extreme of Calvinism is hyper-Calvinism, which insists that signs of election must be sought before evangelization of the unregenerate takes place and that the eternally damned have no obligation to repent and believe, and on the extreme of Arminianism is Pelagianism, which rejects the doctrine of original sin on grounds of moral accountability; but the overwhelming majority of Protestant, evangelical pastors and theologians hold to one of these two systems or somewhere in between. Similarities Total depravity – Arminians agree with Calvinists over the doctrine of total depravity. The differences come in the understanding of how God remedies this human depravity. Substitutionary effect of atonement – Arminians also affirm with Calvinists the substitutionary effect of Christ's atonement and that this effect is limited only to the elect. Classical Arminians would agree with Calvinists that this substitution was penal satisfaction for all of the elect, while most Wesleyan Arminians would maintain that the substitution was governmental in nature. Differences Nature of election – Arminians hold that election to eternal salvation has the condition of faith attached. The Calvinist doctrine of unconditional election states that salvation cannot be earned or achieved and is therefore not conditional upon any human effort, so faith is not a condition of salvation but the divinely apportioned means to it. Nature of grace – Arminians believe that through God's grace, he restores free will concerning salvation to all humanity, and each individual, therefore, is able either to accept the Gospel call through faith or resist it through unbelief. Calvinists hold that God's grace to enable salvation is given only to the elect and irresistibly leads to salvation. Extent of the atonement – Arminians, along with four-point Calvinists or Amyraldians, hold to a universal drawing and universal extent of atonement instead of the Calvinist doctrine that the drawing and atonement is limited in extent to the elect only. Both sides (with the exception of hyper-Calvinists) believe the invitation of the gospel is universal and "must be presented to everyone [they] can reach without any distinction." Nicole, Roger, "Covenant, Universal Call And Definite Atonement" Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 38:3 (September 1995) Perseverance in faith – Arminians believe that future salvation and eternal life is secured in Christ and protected from all external forces but is conditional on remaining in Christ and can be lost through apostasy. Traditional Calvinists believe in the doctrine of the perseverance of the saints, which says that because God chose some unto salvation and actually paid for their particular sins, he keeps them from apostasy and that those who do apostasize were never truly regenerated (that is, born again). Non-traditional Calvinists and other evangelicals advocate the similar but different doctrine of eternal security that teaches if a person was once saved, his or her salvation can never be in jeopardy, even if the person completely apostasizes. Comparison to Pelagianism Pelagius was a British monk and opponent of Augustine of Hippo and Jerome in the early 5th Century AD. When he arrived in Christian Rome from Britain, Pelagius was appalled at the lack of holiness he found. Pelagius preached justification through faith alone, but also believed salvation was finished through good works and moral uprightness. Furthermore, Pelagius completely denied the double predestination and irresistible grace affirmed by Augustine . Several of his students - notably Caelestius - went further than their teacher and rejected justification by faith. The teachings of Pelagius were condemned as heretical in 416 and 418 at the Councils of Carthage. These condemnations were summarily ratified at the Council of Ephesus in 432. Historically Pelagianism has come to represent any system that denies original sin, holds that by nature humans are capable of good, and maintains morality and works are part of the equation that yields salvation. Semi-Pelagianism is a variation on the original more akin to Pelagius' own thought - that justification is through faith, but that Adam's original sin was merely a bad example, humans can naturally seek God, and salvation is completed through works. Both systems reject a Calvinist understanding of predestination. Many critics of Arminianism, both historically and currently, claim that Arminianism condones, accepts, or even explicitly supports Pelagianism of either variety. Arminius referred to Pelagianism as "the grand falsehood" and stated that he "must confess that I detest, from my heart, the consequences [of that theology]." Arminius Writings, II:219ff (the entire treatise occupies pages 196-452) David Pawson, a British pastor, decries this association as "libelous" when attributed to Arminius' or Wesley's doctrine. Pawson Once Saved, Always Saved?, 106 Indeed most Arminians reject all accusations of Pelagianism; nonetheless, primarily due to Calvinist opponents, Pawson 97-98, 106 Picirilli Grace, Faith, Free Will, 6ff the two terms remain intertwined in popular usage. Listed below are similarities and contrasts between Arminianism and Pelagianism. Similarities: Both systems reject doctrines of Calvinistic predestination and irresistible grace. Both systems (along with traditional Calvinism) accept the importance of good works, moral decision-making, and striving to become more like Christ. Differences: Arminianism maintains original sin, total depravity, substitutionary atonement, and salvation by grace through faith alone, all of which Pelagianism denies. Pelagianism holds that a person's works are the determining factor for whether God grants eternal life to that person. See also Doctrine Total depravity Prevenient grace Unlimited atonement Substitutionary atonement Penal satisfaction atonement Governmental atonement Free will Conditional election Conditional preservation of the saints People, History, Denominations Jacobus Arminius Hugo Grotius The Remonstrants Methodism John Wesley Charles Wesley Pentecostalism & Charismatics General & Free Will Baptists History of Calvinist-Arminian DebateOpposing Views Calvinism Five points of Calvinism John Calvin Unconditional election Limited atonement Irresistible grace Perseverance of the saints Free Grace theology Pelagianism Pelagius Semipelagianism Further reading Supporting Ashby, Stephen M (contributor) and Harper, Steven (contributor) Four Views on Eternal Security, J. Matthew Pinson, ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002) ISBN 0-310-23439-5 — Stephen Ashby and Steven Harper present and defend their cases for Reformed Arminianism (classical) and Wesleyan Arminianism respectively against Michael Horton (Classical Calvinism), Norman Geisler (Moderate Calvinism) and each other. Forlines, Leroy F.The Quest for Truth: Answering Life's Inescapable Questions (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2001) ISBN 0-89265-864-9 — Forlines presents a comprehensive systematic theology of salvation from an Arminian perspective. Forster, Roger and Marston, Paul God's Strategy in Human History 2nd ed. (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2000) ISBN 1-57910-273-5 — The authors take a deep look at the grammatical and historical contexts of New Testament passages dealing with predestination and election, along with historical sources from the first 300 years A.D., and come to Arminian conclusions. McGonigle, Herbert. Sufficient Saving Grace (Paternoster, 2001) ISBN 1-84227-045-1 — Presents the development of Arminianism beginning in Holland and moving into the theology of John Wesley. Olson, Roger E., Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2006) ISBN 0-8308-2841-9 — American theologian and minister takes a historical look at Arminianism as part of the Reformed movement and clarifies teachings of historical Arminianism in light of misunderstandings and miscommunications concerning Arminianism. Pawson, David Once Saved, Always Saved? A Study in Perseverance and Inheritance (London: Hodder & Staughton, 1996) ISBN 0-340-61066-2 — British pastor and theologian takes a deeper look at the Scriptural, historical, and theological arguments against the doctrine of "once saved, always saved". Picirilli, Robert Grace, Faith, Free Will: Contrasting Views of Salvation: Calvinism and Arminianism (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2002) ISBN 0-89265-648-4 — Picirilli takes a closer look at the life and views of Jacobus Arminius and presents his historical and theological argument for Reformation Arminianism (classical). Pinson, J. Matthew, "Will The Real Arminius Please Stand Up? A Study of the Theology of Jacobus Arminius in Light of His Interpreters," Integrity: A Journal of Christian Thought 2 (2003), 121-39. Shank, Dr. Robert Elect in the Son (Bethany House Publishers, 1989) ISBN 1-55661-092-0 — The classic defense of Arminianism. First published in the mid-20th century, it remains one of the primary defenses of Arminian thought. Walls, Jerry L., and Joseph R. Dongell, Why I Am Not a Calvinist (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2004) ISBN 0-8308-3249-1 — Walls and Dongell present their Scriptural and philosophical arguments against Calvinism, focusing primarily on the nature of human freedom, divine sovereignty, self-consistency, and the Christian life. Wesley, John. "The Question, 'What Is an Arminian?' Answered by a Lover of Free Grace - a very basic overview of Wesleyan Arminianism Witski, Steve. "Free Grace or Forced Grace?" from "The Arminian Magazine", Spring 2001 Opposing Boettner, Loraine, The Reformed Doctrine Of Predestination (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1932) — A book presenting and defending the Calvinist doctrines of salvation (available online). Clark, Gordon H. Predestination (Unicoi: The Trinity Foundation, 2006) ISBN 978-1-891777-14-1 — A book by Presbyterian Theologian Gordon H. Clark defending the Calvinistic view of predestination and salvation. Gill, John The Cause of God and Truth — An exploration and defense of the Calvinist doctrines of grace by the Baptist divine (available online). Edwards, Jonathan (1754). The Freedom of the Will. ISBN 978-1-573580-33-3 — An argument against the Arminian view of human freedom. (Available online.) Packer, J. I. "Introduction to Death of Death in the Death of Christ" — The characteristically ecumenical Packer sharply questions the Arminian version of gospel in his preface to John Owen's defense of a limited atonement (available online) Peterson, Robert A., and Michael D. Williams, Why I Am Not an Arminian (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2004) ISBN 0-8308-3248-3 — The counterpoint to Why I Am Not a Calvinist presents a Scriptural and philosophical case against Arminianism. Spurgeon, Charles "A Defense of Calvinism" — A sermon by the Baptist "Prince of Preachers" (available online). White, James R. The Potter's Freedom (Calvary Press, 2000) ISBN 1-879737-43-4 — A Calvinist response to Norman Geisler's Chosen but Free (in which Geisler presents a "moderate Calvinism" which only holds to total depravity and perseverance of the saints), it is widely considered by both supporters and opponents to be a strong, consistent portrayal of Calvinism. Notes External links The Works of Jacob Arminius The Society of Evangelical Arminians What is an Arminian? by John Wesley Sermon #58: "On Predestination" by John Wesley "Corporate Election in Romans 9", Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, June 2006 by Brian Abasciano (Arminian perspective) The Nature of Wesleyan Theology by J. Kenneth Grider (Arminian perspective) Characteristics of Wesley's Arminianism by Luke L. Keefer, Jr. (Arminian perspective) Wesleyan Theology: Arminianism by Gregory S. 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3,835 | Le_Mans | Le Mans ( in French) is a city in France, located on the Sarthe River. Traditionally the capital of the province of Maine, it is now the capital of the Sarthe department and the seat of the Roman Catholic diocese of Le Mans. Its inhabitants are called Manceaux and Mancelles. It has been host to the famous 24 Hours of Le Mans sports car race since 1923. History First mentioned by Ptolemy (Geography 2.8.8), the Roman city Vindinium was the capital of the Aulerci, a sub tribe of the Aedui. Le Mans is also known as Civitas Cenomanorum (City of the Cenomani). Their city lies in the ancient Roman province of Gallia Lugdunensis. An amphitheatre built in the 3rd century AD is still visible. Gregory of Tours mentions a Frankish sub-king Rigomer, who was killed by Clovis in his campaign to unite the Frankish territories. As the principal city of Maine, Le Mans was the stage for struggles in the 11th century between the counts of Anjou and the dukes of Normandy. When the Normans had control of Maine, William the Conqueror was able to successfully invade England; however in 1069 the citizens revolted and expelled the Normans, which led to Hugh V being proclaimed count of Maine. Points of interest Le Mans has a well-preserved old town (Cité Plantagenêt, also called Vieux Mans) and a cathedral: Cathédrale St-Julien, dedicated to St Julian of Le Mans, who is honoured as the city's first bishop. There are remnants of a Roman wall in the old town and Roman baths by the river. Arboretum de la Grand Prée Jardin des Plantes du Mans Demographics At the 1999 French census, there were 293,159 inhabitants in the metropolitan area (aire urbaine) of Le Mans, with 146,105 of these living in the city proper (commune). source : http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/psdc.htm Transportation Le Mans inaugurated a new light rail system on November 17, 2007. http://www.railwaygazette.com/news_view/article/2008/01/8062/le_mans_light_rail_takes_off.html The city is best known for its connection with motorsports. There are actually two separate racing tracks at Le Mans, though they share certain portions. The smaller is the Bugatti Circuit (named after Ettore Bugatti, founder of the car company bearing his name), a relatively short permanent circuit which is used for racing throughout the year. The longer and more famous Circuit de la Sarthe is composed partly of public roads, which are closed to the public when the track is in use for racing, and has been host to the famous 24 Hours of Le Mans sports car race since 1923. Boutiques and shops are set up during the race selling merchandise and promoting products for cars. The first French Grand Prix took place here in 1906. The "Le Mans start" takes its name from the way racers lined up across the street from their cars and ran across the street and jumped into their cars to begin. Sport Motorsport The city is best known for its connection with motorsports. There are actually two separate racing tracks at Le Mans, though they share certain portions. The smaller is the Bugatti Circuit (named after Ettore Bugatti, founder of the car company bearing his name), a relatively short permanent circuit which is used for racing throughout the year. The longer and more famous Circuit de la Sarthe is composed partly of public roads, which are closed to the public when the track is in use for racing, and has been host to the famous 24 Hours of Le Mans sports car race since 1923. Boutiques and shops are set up during the race selling merchandise and promoting products for cars. The first French Grand Prix took place here in 1906. The "Le Mans start" takes its name from the way racers lined up across the street from their cars and ran across the street and jumped into their cars to begin. Basketball Le Mans Sarthe Basket Football Le Mans UC72 Personalities Le Mans was the birthplace of: Henry II of England, born 1133 Geoffroy V d'Anjou, born 1113 Geoffrey de Goreham or Gorron, became Abbot of St Albans, Hertfordshire, UK, in 1119 Dom Louis Le Pelletier, born 1663, linguist of the breton language Gilles-François de Beauvais, born 7 July 1693, was a Jesuit writer and preacher. Jean Rondeau, born in 1946, racecar driver and constructor François Fillon, born in 1954, Prime Minister of France. Julien Cottereau, born 1969, actor and clown - Cirque du Soleil, now in his own show Imagine Toi. Sébastien Bourdais, born 1979, racecar driver Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, born 1985, professional tennis player. Sister cities - Bolton, United Kingdom - Haouza, Western Sahara - Paderborn, Germany - officially since 1967, traditionally since 836 (oldest partnership of its kind in Europe). - Rostov-on-Don, Russia - Suzuka, Japan - Volos, Greece Gastronomy The culinary specialty of Le Mans is rillettes, a shredded pork pâté. Landmarks At Mayet, near Le Mans, and with a height of 342 m, the Le Mans-Mayet transmitter is one of the tallest radio masts in France. See also Communes of the Sarthe department References INSEE External links Official website Virtual visit Le Mans Nights — Unique experience in Europe. Le Mans 24 Hours official site lemans-history.com - The history of a Legend (Luis Santos) Le Mans Portugal - All (or almost) about the 24 Hours of Le Mans and the Le Mans Series... in Portuguese | Le_Mans |@lemmatized le:27 man:28 french:4 city:10 france:3 locate:1 sarthe:6 river:2 traditionally:2 capital:3 province:2 maine:4 department:2 seat:1 roman:5 catholic:1 diocese:1 inhabitant:2 call:2 manceaux:1 mancelles:1 host:3 famous:5 hour:5 sport:4 car:11 race:7 since:5 history:3 first:4 mention:2 ptolemy:1 geography:1 vindinium:1 aulerci:1 sub:2 tribe:1 aedui:1 also:3 know:3 civitas:1 cenomanorum:1 cenomani:1 lie:1 ancient:1 gallia:1 lugdunensis:1 amphitheatre:1 build:1 century:2 ad:1 still:1 visible:1 gregory:1 tour:1 frankish:2 king:1 rigomer:1 kill:1 clovis:1 campaign:1 unite:1 territory:1 principal:1 stage:1 struggle:1 count:2 anjou:2 duke:1 normandy:1 norman:2 control:1 william:1 conqueror:1 able:1 successfully:1 invade:1 england:2 however:1 citizen:1 revolt:1 expel:1 lead:1 hugh:1 v:2 proclaim:1 point:1 interest:1 well:1 preserve:1 old:3 town:2 cité:1 plantagenêt:1 vieux:1 cathedral:1 cathédrale:1 st:3 julien:2 dedicate:1 julian:1 honour:1 bishop:1 remnant:1 wall:1 bath:1 arboretum:1 de:5 la:3 grand:3 prée:1 jardin:1 des:1 plant:1 du:2 demographic:1 census:1 metropolitan:1 area:1 aire:1 urbaine:1 living:1 proper:1 commune:2 source:1 http:2 www:2 insee:2 fr:2 ffc:1 psdc:1 htm:1 transportation:1 inaugurate:1 new:1 light:1 rail:1 system:1 november:1 railwaygazette:1 com:2 article:1 html:1 best:2 connection:2 motorsports:2 actually:2 two:2 separate:2 racing:4 track:4 though:2 share:2 certain:2 portion:2 small:2 bugatti:4 circuit:6 name:6 ettore:2 founder:2 company:2 bear:5 relatively:2 short:2 permanent:2 use:4 throughout:2 year:2 long:2 compose:2 partly:2 public:4 road:2 close:2 boutique:2 shop:2 set:2 selling:2 merchandise:2 promoting:2 product:2 prix:2 take:4 place:2 start:2 way:2 racer:2 line:2 across:4 street:4 run:2 jump:2 begin:2 motorsport:1 basketball:1 basket:1 football:1 personality:1 birthplace:1 henry:1 ii:1 born:6 geoffroy:1 geoffrey:1 goreham:1 gorron:1 become:1 abbot:1 albans:1 hertfordshire:1 uk:1 dom:1 louis:1 pelletier:1 linguist:1 breton:1 language:1 gilles:1 françois:2 beauvais:1 july:1 jesuit:1 writer:1 preacher:1 jean:1 rondeau:1 racecar:2 driver:2 constructor:1 fillon:1 prime:1 minister:1 cottereau:1 actor:1 clown:1 cirque:1 soleil:1 show:1 imagine:1 toi:1 sébastien:1 bourdais:1 jo:1 wilfried:1 tsonga:1 professional:1 tennis:1 player:1 sister:1 bolton:1 united:1 kingdom:1 haouza:1 western:1 sahara:1 paderborn:1 germany:1 officially:1 partnership:1 kind:1 europe:2 rostov:1 russia:1 suzuka:1 japan:1 volos:1 greece:1 gastronomy:1 culinary:1 specialty:1 rillettes:1 shredded:1 pork:1 pâté:1 landmark:1 mayet:2 near:1 height:1 transmitter:1 one:1 tall:1 radio:1 mast:1 see:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 website:1 virtual:1 visit:1 night:1 unique:1 experience:1 site:1 lemans:1 legend:1 luis:1 santos:1 portugal:1 almost:1 series:1 portuguese:1 |@bigram duke_normandy:1 http_www:2 ettore_bugatti:2 boutique_shop:2 grand_prix:2 st_albans:1 prime_minister:1 du_soleil:1 western_sahara:1 external_link:1 |
3,836 | United_States_Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Court | The United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (or FISC) is a U.S. federal court authorized under . It was established by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (FISA). The FISC oversees requests for surveillance warrants against suspected foreign intelligence agents inside the United States by federal police agencies (primarily the F.B.I.). The FISA and FISC were inspired by the recommendations of the Church Committee. p. 34 FISA warrant Each application for one of these surveillance warrants (called a FISA warrant) is made before an individual judge of the court. Like a grand jury, FISC is not an adversarial court: the federal government is the only party to its proceedings. However, the court may allow third parties to submit briefs as amici curiae. When the Attorney General determines that an emergency exists he may authorize the emergency employment of electronic surveillance before obtaining the necessary authorization from the FISA court, after which the Attorney General or his designee must notify a judge of the court not more than 72 hours after the Attorney General authorizes such surveillance. According to the US Code Title 50 § 1805 If an application is denied by one judge of the FISC, the federal government is not allowed to make the same application to a different judge of the FISC. Instead, denials must be appealed to the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review. Such appeals are rare: the first appeal from the FISC to the Court of Review was made in 2002, 24 years after the founding of the FISC. It is also rare for FISA warrant requests to be turned down by the court. Through the end of 2004, 18,761 warrants were granted, while just five were rejected (many sources say four). Fewer than 200 requests had to be modified before being accepted, almost all of them in 2003 and 2004. The four known rejected requests were all from 2003, and all four were partially granted after being resubmitted for reconsideration by the government. Of the requests that had to be modified, few if any were before the year 2000. In subsequent years, according to journalist Joshua Micah Marshall, the breakdown was as follows: Here are some more details on the record of the FISA Court, Talking Points Memo, December 17, 2005 Year Modified requests 2000 1 request modified 2001 2 requests modified 2002 2 requests modified (both modifications later reversed) 2003 79 requests modified (out of 1724 granted) 2004 94 requests modified (out of 1758) On May 17, 2002, the court rebuffed then-Attorney General John Ashcroft, releasing an opinion that alleged that FBI and Justice Department officials had "supplied erroneous information to the court in more than 75 applications for search warrants and wiretaps, including one signed by then-FBI Director Louis J. Freeh". Secret Court Rebuffs Ashcroft: Justice Dept. Chided On Misinformation, Washington Post, August 23, 2002 page A01 Whether this rebuke is related to the court starting to require modification of drastically more requests in 2003 is unknown. On December 16, 2005, the New York Times reported that the Bush administration had been conducting surveillance against U.S. citizens without the knowledge of the FISC since 2002. Bush Lets U.S. Spy on Callers Without Courts, New York Times, December 16, 2005 - mirror On December 20, 2005, Judge James Robertson resigned his position with the FISC, apparently in protest of the secret surveillance. Spy Court Judge Quits In Protest: Jurist Concerned Bush Order Tainted Work of Secret Panel, Washington Post, December 21, 2005 The government's apparent circumvention of the FISC started prior to the increase in court-ordered modifications to warrant requests. Closed hearings and classified proceedings Because of the sensitive nature of its business, the FISC is a "secret court": its hearings are closed to the public, and, while records of the proceedings are kept, those records are also not available to the public. (Copies of those records with classified information redacted can and have been made public.) Due to the classified nature of its proceedings, only government attorneys are usually permitted to appear before the FISC. Due to the nature of the matters heard before it, FISC hearings may need to take place at any time of day or night, weekdays or weekends; thus, at least one judge must be "on call" at all times to hear evidence and decide whether or not to issue a warrant. Composition When the court was founded, it was composed of seven federal district judges appointed by the Chief Justice of the United States, each serving a seven year term, with one judge being appointed each year. In 2001, the USA PATRIOT Act expanded the court from seven to eleven judges, and required that at least three of the judges of the court be from within twenty miles (32 km) of the District of Columbia. No judge may be appointed to this court more than once, and no judge may be appointed to both the Court of Review and the FISC. Current membership {| class="wikitable" ! Judge ! Judicial district ! Date appointed ! Term expiry |- | Colleen Kollar-Kotelly (presiding) | District of Columbia | May 19, 2002 | May 18, 2009 |- | John D. Bates | District of Columbia | February 22, 2006 | May 18, 2013 |- | Dee Benson | District of Utah | April 8, 2004 | May 18, 2011 |- | Robert C. Broomfield | District of Arizona | October 1, 2002 | May 18, 2009 |- | Reggie B. Walton | District of Columbia | May 19, 2007 | May 18, 2014 |- | Malcolm Howard | Eastern District of North Carolina | May 19, 2005 | May 18, 2012 |- | George P. Kazen | Southern District of Texas | July 15, 2003 | May 18, 2010 |- | Frederick J. Scullin, Jr. | Northern District of New York | May 19, 2004 | May 18, 2011 |- | Roger Vinson | Northern District of Florida | May 4, 2006 | May 18, 2013 |- | Mary A. McLaughlin http://www.swamppolitics.com/news/politics/blog/2008/05/andrew_zajac_the_secrecy_news.html | Eastern District of Pennsylvania | May ?,2008 | May ?, 2015? |- | James Zagel | Northern District of Illinois | May ?, 2008 | May ?, 2015? |-|} Court of Review, Current membership Judge Judicial district Date appointed Term expiry Edward Leavy (presiding) Ninth Circuit September 25, 2001 May 18, 2008 Ralph K. Winter, Jr. Second Circuit May 18, 2003 May 18, 2010 Bruce M. Selya First Circuit August 8, 2005 August 18, 2012 Former membership Judge Judicial District Date Appointed Term Expiry James Robertson District of Columbia May 19, 2002 May 18, 2006(resigned December 20, 2005) James G. Carr Northern District of Ohio May 19, 2002 May 18, 2008 Nathaniel M. Gorton District of Massachusetts May 18, 2001 May 18, 2008 Harold A. Baker Central District of Illinois 2005 Stanley S. Brotman District of New Jersey 2004 William H. Stafford Jr. Northern District of Florida 2003 Royce C. Lamberth District of Columbia 1995 2002 John F. Keenan Southern District of New York May 1994 May 2001 Claude M. Hilton Eastern District of Virginia May 2000 May 2007 Michael J. Davis District of Minnesota May 2006 Frederick B. Lacey District of New Jersey 1979 1985 Notes References "Big Brother is Listening" by James Bamford, Atlantic Monthly, April 2006. FISA orders 1979-2004 See also NSA#External links James Bamford#External links Operation CHAOS Political Scandals of the United States External links Rules of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act Frequently Asked Questions (and Answers) - Electronic Frontier Foundation | United_States_Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Court |@lemmatized united:5 state:5 foreign:6 intelligence:6 surveillance:11 court:26 fisc:15 u:4 federal:5 authorize:2 establish:1 act:3 fisa:8 oversee:1 request:13 warrant:9 suspect:1 agent:1 inside:1 police:1 agency:1 primarily:1 f:2 b:3 inspire:1 recommendation:1 church:1 committee:1 p:2 application:4 one:5 call:2 make:4 individual:1 judge:16 like:1 grand:1 jury:1 adversarial:1 government:5 party:2 proceeding:4 however:1 may:38 allow:2 third:1 submit:1 brief:1 amici:1 curia:1 attorney:5 general:4 determines:1 emergency:2 exist:1 employment:1 electronic:2 obtain:1 necessary:1 authorization:1 designee:1 must:3 notify:1 hour:1 authorizes:1 accord:2 code:1 title:1 deny:1 different:1 instead:1 denial:1 appeal:3 review:4 rare:2 first:2 year:6 founding:1 also:3 turn:1 end:1 grant:3 five:1 reject:2 many:1 source:1 say:1 four:3 modify:8 accept:1 almost:1 know:1 partially:1 resubmitted:1 reconsideration:1 subsequent:1 journalist:1 joshua:1 micah:1 marshall:1 breakdown:1 follow:1 detail:1 record:4 talk:1 point:1 memo:1 december:6 modification:3 later:1 reverse:1 rebuff:2 john:3 ashcroft:2 release:1 opinion:1 allege:1 fbi:2 justice:3 department:1 official:1 supply:1 erroneous:1 information:2 search:1 wiretap:1 include:1 sign:1 director:1 louis:1 j:3 freeh:1 secret:4 dept:1 chide:1 misinformation:1 washington:2 post:2 august:3 page:1 whether:2 rebuke:1 relate:1 start:2 require:2 drastically:1 unknown:1 new:6 york:4 time:4 report:1 bush:3 administration:1 conduct:1 citizen:1 without:2 knowledge:1 since:1 let:1 spy:2 caller:1 mirror:1 james:5 robertson:2 resign:2 position:1 apparently:1 protest:2 quits:1 jurist:1 concern:1 order:3 taint:1 work:1 panel:1 apparent:1 circumvention:1 prior:1 increase:1 close:2 hearing:3 classify:1 sensitive:1 nature:3 business:1 public:3 keep:1 available:1 copy:1 classified:2 redact:1 due:2 usually:1 permit:1 appear:1 matter:1 hear:2 need:1 take:1 place:1 day:1 night:1 weekdays:1 weekend:1 thus:1 least:2 evidence:1 decide:1 issue:1 composition:1 found:1 compose:1 seven:3 district:27 appoint:7 chief:1 serve:1 term:4 usa:1 patriot:1 expand:1 eleven:1 three:1 within:1 twenty:1 mile:1 km:1 columbia:6 current:2 membership:3 class:1 wikitable:1 judicial:3 date:3 expiry:3 colleen:1 kollar:1 kotelly:1 preside:2 bat:1 february:1 dee:1 benson:1 utah:1 april:2 robert:1 c:2 broomfield:1 arizona:1 october:1 reggie:1 walton:1 malcolm:1 howard:1 eastern:3 north:1 carolina:1 george:1 kazen:1 southern:2 texas:1 july:1 frederick:2 scullin:1 jr:3 northern:5 roger:1 vinson:1 florida:2 mary:1 mclaughlin:1 http:1 www:1 swamppolitics:1 com:1 news:1 politics:1 blog:1 html:1 pennsylvania:1 zagel:1 illinois:2 edward:1 leavy:1 ninth:1 circuit:3 september:1 ralph:1 k:1 winter:1 second:1 bruce:1 selya:1 former:1 jam:1 g:1 carr:1 ohio:1 nathaniel:1 gorton:1 massachusetts:1 harold:1 baker:1 central:1 stanley:1 brotman:1 jersey:2 william:1 h:1 stafford:1 royce:1 lamberth:1 keenan:1 claude:1 hilton:1 virginia:1 michael:1 davis:1 minnesota:1 lacey:1 note:1 reference:1 big:1 brother:1 listen:1 bamford:2 atlantic:1 monthly:1 see:1 nsa:1 external:3 link:3 operation:1 chaos:1 political:1 scandal:1 rule:1 frequently:1 ask:1 question:1 answer:1 frontier:1 foundation:1 |@bigram grand_jury:1 mile_km:1 class_wikitable:1 north_carolina:1 http_www:1 james_bamford:2 external_link:3 |
3,837 | Clavichord | The clavichord is a European stringed keyboard instrument known from the late Medieval, through the Renaissance, Baroque and Classical eras. Historically, it was widely used as a practice instrument and as an aid to composition. The clavichord produces sound by striking brass or iron strings with small metal blades called tangents. Vibrations are transmitted through the bridge(s) to the soundboard. The name is derived from the Latin word clavis, meaning "key" (associated with more common clavus, meaning "nail, rod, etc.") and chorda (from Greek χορδή) meaning "string, especially of a musical instrument". History and use Clavichord in Bach's birthplace in Eisenach . The Bachhaus contains 4 clavichords, including an early 19th century pedal clavichord by Johann Georg Marckert. The clavichord was invented in the early fourteenth century. In 1504, the German poem Der Minne Regeln mentions the terms clavicimbalum (a term used mainly for the harpsichord) and clavichordium, designating them as the best instruments to accompany melodies. The "Lépante" clavichord, Catalogue entry for the Lépante clavichord, Cité de la Musique, Paris (in French) Musée de la Musique, Paris It was very popular from the 16th century to the 18th century, but mainly flourished in German-speaking lands, Scandinavia, and the Iberian Peninsula in the latter part of this period. It had fallen out of use by 1850. In the late 1890s, Arnold Dolmetsch revived clavichord construction and Violet Gordon-Woodhouse, among others, helped to popularize the instrument. Although most of the instruments built before the 1730s were small (four octaves, four feet long), the latest instruments were built up to seven feet long with a six octave range. Today clavichords are played primarily by Renaissance, Baroque, and Classical music enthusiasts. They attract many interested buyers, and are manufactured worldwide. A modern clavichord can range in price from $2,400 to as much as $20,000. There are now numerous clavichord societies around the world, and some 400 recordings of the instrument have been made in the past 70 years. Leading modern exponents of the instrument include Derek Adlam, Christopher Hogwood, Richard Troeger, and Miklos Spányi, and fine modern instruments are widely available. Some modern makers include: Dick Verwolf in the Netherlands, Peter Bavington and Karin Richter in Great Britain, Joris Potvlieghe in Belgium, Thomas Steiner in Switzerland, and Ronald Haas, Owen Daly, Charles Wolff, David Jensen, and Andrew Lagerquist in the United States. Rock music The clavichord has also gained attention in other genres of music, like rock in the form of the clavinet, which is essentially an electric clavichord which uses a magnetic pickup to provide a signal for amplification. A clavinet played through an instrument amplifier with guitar effect pedals is often associated with funky, disco-infused 1970s rock. Tori Amos also uses the instrument on "Little Amsterdam" from the album Boys For Pele as well as on the song "Smokey Joe" from her 2007 album American Doll Posse. And in 1976 Oscar Peterson played (with Joe Pass on acoustic guitar) songs from Porgy And Bess on the clavichord. Keith Jarrett also recorded an album entitled Book of Ways (1987) in which he plays a series of clavichord improvisations. The Beatles' "For No One" (1966) features Paul McCartney playing the clavichord. Structure and action Schematic diagram of clavichord mechanism: A/B. Keys. 1A/1B. Tangents. 2A/2B. Keylevers. 3. String. 4. Soundboard. 5. Bridge-pin, next to tuning peg. 6. Damping felt, next to hitch-pin. (Note that the keylevers are perpendicular to the strings.) . The introduction to this book contains far more detailed and accurate diagrams, labeled by the technical names of the different parts of the clavichord. In the clavichord, strings run transversely from the hitchpin rail at the left-hand end to tuning pegs on the right. Towards the right end they pass over a curved wooden bridge. The action is simple, with the keys being levers with a small brass tangent, a small piece of metal similar in shape and size to the head of a flat-bladed screwdriver, at the far end. The strings, which are usually of brass, or else a combination of brass and iron, are usually arranged in pairs, like a lute or mandolin. When the key is pressed, the tangent strikes the strings above, causing them to sound in a similar fashion to the hammering technique on a guitar. Unlike in a piano action, the tangent does not rebound from the string; rather, it stays in contact with the string as long as the key is held, acting as both the nut and as the initiator of sound. The volume of the note can be changed by striking harder or softer, and the pitch can also be affected by varying the force of the tangent against the string (known as Bebung). When the key is released, the tangent loses contact with the string and the vibration of the string is silenced by strips of damping cloth. The action of the clavichord is unique among all keyboard instruments in that one part of the action simultaneously initiates the sound vibration while at the same time defining the endpoint of the vibrating string, and thus its pitch. Because of this intimate contact between the player's hand and the production of sound, the clavichord has been referred to as the most intimate of instruments. Despite its many (serious) limitations, including extremely low volume, it has considerable expressive power, the player being able to control attack, duration, volume, and even provide certain subtle effects of swelling of tone and a type of vibrato unique to the clavichord. Fretting Large five-octave unfretted clavichord by Paul Maurici, after J.A. Hass Since the string vibrates from the bridge only as far as the tangent, multiple keys with multiple tangents can be assigned to the same string. This is called fretting. Early clavichords frequently had many notes played on each string, even going so far as the keyed monochord — an instrument with only one string — though most clavichords were triple- or double-fretted. Since only one note can be played at a time on each string, the fretting pattern is generally chosen so that notes which are rarely heard together (such as C and C#) share a string pair. The advantages to this system compared with unfretted instruments (see below) include relative ease of tuning (with around half as many strings to keep in tune), greater volume (though still not really enough for use in chamber music), and a clearer, more direct sound. Among the disadvantages: temperament could not be re-set without bending the tangents; and playing required a further refinement of touch, since notes sharing a single string played in quick succession needed to be slightly separated to avoid a disagreeable deadening of the sound, potentially disturbing a legato line. Some clavichords have been built with a single pair of strings for each note. The first known reference to one was by Johann Speth in 1693 and the earliest such extant signed and dated clavichord was built in 1716 by Johann Michael Heinitz. Such instruments are referred to as unfretted whereas instruments using the same strings for several notes are called fretted. Among the advantages to unfretted instruments are flexibility in tuning (the temperament can be easily altered) and the ability to play any music exactly as written without concern for "bad" notes. Disadvantages include a smaller volume, even though many or most unfretted instruments tend to be significantly larger than fretted instruments; and many more strings to keep in tune. Unfretted instruments tend to have a sweeter, less incisive tone due to the greater load on the bridge resulting from the greater number of strings, though the large, late (early 19th century) Swedish clavichords tend to be the loudest of any of the historic clavichords. Pedal clavichord J. Verscheure Reynvaan: engraving of an eighteenth century pedal clavichord While clavichords were typically single manual instruments, they could be stacked to provide multiple keyboards. With the addition of a pedal clavichord, which included a pedal keyboard for the lower notes, a clavichord could be used to practice organist repertoire. In the era of pipe organs which used hand-pumped blowers, and of churches which were only heated during church services, organists used pedal harpsichords and pedal clavichords as practice instruments (see also: pedal piano). The use of the pedal clavichord as a practice instrument is discussed by Friedrich Griepenkerl in the 1844 foreword to Volume I of the first edition of the complete organ works of J.S. Bach; see . There is speculation that some works written for organ may have been intended for pedal clavichord. An interesting case is made by that Bach's "Eight Little Preludes and Fugues", now thought to be spurious, may actually be authentic. The keyboard writing seems unsuited to organ, but Speerstra argues that they are idiomatic on the pedal clavichord. As Speerstra and also note, the compass of the keyboard parts of Bach's six organ trio sonatas BWV 525–530 rarely go below the tenor C, so could have been played on a single manual pedal clavichord, by moving the left hand down an octave, a customary practice in the 18th century. Various modern copies have been made of surviving pedal clavichords, such as the one in the Instrumenten-Museum in the University of Leipzig built in the 1760s by the organ-builder Johann David Gerstenberg from Geringswalde in Saxony. Repertoire Much of the musical repertoire written for harpsichord and organ from the period circa 1400–1800 can be played on the clavichord; however, it does not have enough (unamplified) volume to participate in chamber music, with the possible exception of providing accompaniment to a soft baroque flute, recorder, or single singer. J. S. Bach's son Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach was a great proponent of the instrument, and most of his German contemporaries regarded it as a central keyboard instrument, for performing, teaching, composing on and practicing. Among recent clavichord recordings, those by Christopher Hogwood ('The Secret Bach', 'The Secret Handel', and, most recently, 'The Secret Mozart'), break new ground. In his liner notes, Hogwood points out that these composers would typically have played the clavichord in the privacy of their homes. See also Electronic tuner Notes References External links Introduction of "The Clavichord" by Bernard Brauchli A brief history of the clavichord Tuning for playing J. S. Bach British Clavichord Society Boston Clavichord Society The pedal clavichord (in French) Clavichords at the house of Heinrich Schütz (in German) "Clavichord," poem by Jared Carter. Extant historical clavichords at The Metropolitan Museum of Art Clavichord by Christian Kintzing, Neuwied, Germany, 1763 Clavichord by John Christopher Jesse, Halberstadt, Germany, 1765 Clavichord, Germany, 18th century | Clavichord |@lemmatized clavichord:55 european:1 string:26 keyboard:7 instrument:27 know:3 late:4 medieval:1 renaissance:2 baroque:3 classical:2 era:2 historically:1 widely:2 use:12 practice:6 aid:1 composition:1 produce:1 sound:7 strike:3 brass:4 iron:2 small:5 metal:2 blade:1 call:3 tangent:10 vibration:3 transmit:1 bridge:5 soundboard:2 name:2 derive:1 latin:1 word:1 clavis:1 mean:2 key:7 associate:2 common:1 clavus:1 nail:1 rod:1 etc:1 chorda:1 greek:1 χορδή:1 meaning:1 especially:1 musical:2 history:2 bach:8 birthplace:1 eisenach:1 bachhaus:1 contain:2 include:7 early:5 century:8 pedal:15 johann:4 georg:1 marckert:1 invent:1 fourteenth:1 german:4 poem:2 der:1 minne:1 regeln:1 mention:1 term:2 clavicimbalum:1 mainly:2 harpsichord:3 clavichordium:1 designate:1 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3,838 | AutoCAD | AutoCAD 2009 with the Classic User Interface AutoCAD is a CAD (Computer Aided Design or Computer Aided Drafting) software application for 2D and 3D design and drafting, developed and sold by Autodesk, Inc. Initially released in late 1982, AutoCAD was one of the first CAD programs to run on personal computers, and notably the IBM PC. Most CAD software at the time ran on graphics terminals connected to mainframe computers or mini-computers. In earlier releases, AutoCAD used primitive entities — such as lines, polylines, circles, arcs, and text — as the foundation for more complex objects. Since the mid-1990s, AutoCAD has supported custom objects through its C++ API. Modern AutoCAD includes a full set of basic solid modeling and 3D tools. With the release of AutoCAD 2007 came improved 3D modeling functionality, which meant better navigation when working in 3D. Moreover, it became easier to edit 3D models. The mental ray engine was included in rendering, it was now possible to do quality renderings. AutoCAD 2010 introduced parametric functionality and mesh modeling. AutoCAD supports a number of application programming interfaces (APIs) for customization and automation. These include AutoLISP, Visual LISP, VBA, .NET and ObjectARX. ObjectARX is a C++ class library, which was also the base for products extending AutoCAD functionality to specific fields, to create products such as AutoCAD Architecture, AutoCAD Electrical, AutoCAD Civil 3D, or third-party AutoCAD-based applications. AutoCAD's native file format, DWG, and to a lesser extent, its interchange file format, DXF, have become de facto standards for CAD data interoperability. AutoCAD in recent years has included support for DWF, a format developed and promoted by Autodesk for publishing CAD data. In 2006, Autodesk estimated the number of active DWG files to be in excess of one billion. In the past, Autodesk has estimated the total number of DWG files in existence to be more than three billion. AutoCAD currently runs exclusively on Microsoft Windows desktop operating systems. Versions for Unix and Mac OS were released in the 1980s and 1990s, but these were later dropped. AutoCAD can run on an emulator or compatibility layer like VMware Workstation or Wine, albeit subject to various performance issues that can often arise when working with 3D objects or large drawings. AutoCAD and AutoCAD LT are available for German, French, Italian, Spanish, Japanese, Korean, Chinese Simplified (No LT), Chinese Traditional, Russian, Czech, Polish, Hungarian (No LT), Brazilian Portuguese (No LT), Danish, Dutch, Swedish, Finnish, Norwegian and Vietnamese. The extent of localization varies from full translation of the product to documentation only. AutoCAD LT AutoCAD LT is a version of AutoCAD with more limited capabilities. It costs less (approx. US$1200 versus around US$4,000 for the full AutoCAD). Besides being sold directly by Autodesk, it is also available for purchase at computer stores, unlike full AutoCAD which has to be purchased from an official Autodesk dealer. It was developed so Autodesk could have an entry-level CAD package available to compete in that price class. AutoCAD LT is marketed as a CAD package for those who only need 2D functionality. Compared to the full edition of AutoCAD, AutoCAD LT lacks several features: most notably, it has no 3D modeling capabilities (although it has a full suite of 3D viewing functions for looking at 3D models created in other CAD packages) and blocks the use of any programming interfaces, such as support for most third party programs and does not allow AutoLISP programs. A full listing of differences is on the Autodesk website. AutoCAD LT originated by taking the codebase of AutoCAD and commenting out substantial portions, which allowed AutoCAD and AutoCAD LT to be developed simultaneously. AutoCAD Student Versions AutoCAD is licensed at a significant discount over commercial retail pricing to qualifying students and teachers, with both a 14 month and perpetual license available. The student version of AutoCAD is functionally identical to the full commercial version, with one exception: DWG files created or edited by a student version have an internal bit-flag set (the "educational flag"). When such a DWG file is printed by any version of AutoCAD (commercial or student), the output will include a plot stamp / banner on all four sides. Objects created in the Student Version cannot be used for commercial use. These Student Version objects can and will 'infect' a commercial version DWG file if imported. The Autodesk student community provides registered students with free access to different Autodesk applications. Vertical programs Autodesk has also developed a few vertical programs, for discipline-specific enhancements. AutoCAD Architecture (formerly Architectural Desktop), for example, permits architectural designers to draw 3D objects such as walls, doors and windows, with more intelligent data associated with them, rather than simple objects such as lines and circles. The data can be programmed to represent specific architectural products sold in the construction industry, or extracted into a data file for pricing, materials estimation, and other values related to the objects represented. Additional tools allow designers to generate standard 2D drawings, such as elevations and sections, from a 3D architectural model. Similarly, Civil Design, Civil Design 3D, and Civil Design Professional allow data-specific objects to be used, allowing standard civil engineering calculations to be made and represented easily. AutoCAD Electrical, AutoCAD Civil 3D, AutoCAD Map 3D, AutoCAD Mechanical, AutoCAD MEP, AutoCAD P&ID and AutoCAD Structural Detailing are other examples of industry-specific CAD applications built on the AutoCAD platform. Version history Official name version release date of release comments AutoCAD Version 1.0 1.0 1 1982, December AutoCAD Version 1.2 1.2 2 1983, April AutoCAD Version 1.3 1.3 3 1983, August AutoCAD Version 1.4 1.4 4 1983, October AutoCAD Version 2.0 2.0 5 1984, October AutoCAD Version 2.1 2.1 6 1985, May AutoCAD Version 2.5 2.5 7 1986, June AutoCAD Version 2.6 2.6 8 1987, April last version to run without a math co-processor AutoCAD Release 9 N/A 9 1987, September AutoCAD Release 10 N/A 101988, October AutoCAD Release 11 N/A 11 1990, October AutoCAD Release 12 N/A 12 1992, June last release for Apple Macintosh AutoCAD Release 13 N/A 13 1994, November last release for Unix, MS-DOS and Windows 3.11 AutoCAD Release 14 N/A 14 1997, February AutoCAD 2000 15.0 15 1999, March AutoCAD 2000i 15.1 16 2000, July AutoCAD 2002 15.6 17 2001, June AutoCAD 2004 16.0 18 2003, March AutoCAD 2005 16.1 19 2004, March AutoCAD 2006 16.2 202005, March AutoCAD 2007 17.0 212006, March AutoCAD 2008 17.1 22 2007, March first release available for the x86-64 windows version of XP and Vista AutoCAD 2009 17.2 23 2008, March AutoCAD 2010 18.0 24 2009, March 24 introduction of parametrics and two 3D modeling topologies: mesh based and solid modeling See also Comparison of CAD software DWF DWG DXF IGES References External links Autodesk AutoCAD Exchange Autodesk AutoCAD information Autodesk Student Community - Academic community and software download AutoCAD History by Shaan Hurley Autodesk User Group International (AUGI) | AutoCAD |@lemmatized autocad:72 classic:1 user:2 interface:3 cad:10 computer:6 aid:2 design:5 draft:1 software:4 application:5 drafting:1 develop:4 sell:3 autodesk:15 inc:1 initially:1 release:15 late:1 one:3 first:2 program:6 run:5 personal:1 notably:2 ibm:1 pc:1 time:1 graphic:1 terminal:1 connect:1 mainframe:1 mini:1 early:1 use:5 primitive:1 entity:1 line:2 polylines:1 circle:2 arc:1 text:1 foundation:1 complex:1 object:9 since:1 mid:1 support:4 custom:1 c:2 api:1 modern:1 include:5 full:8 set:2 basic:1 solid:2 modeling:3 tool:2 come:1 improve:1 model:6 functionality:4 mean:1 good:1 navigation:1 work:2 moreover:1 become:2 easier:1 edit:2 mental:1 ray:1 engine:1 rendering:2 possible:1 quality:1 introduce:1 parametric:1 mesh:2 number:3 programming:2 apis:1 customization:1 automation:1 autolisp:2 visual:1 lisp:1 vba:1 net:1 objectarx:2 class:2 library:1 also:4 base:3 product:4 extend:1 specific:5 field:1 create:4 architecture:2 electrical:2 civil:6 third:2 party:2 native:1 file:8 format:3 dwg:7 less:2 extent:2 interchange:1 dxf:2 de:1 facto:1 standard:3 data:6 interoperability:1 recent:1 year:1 dwf:2 developed:1 promote:1 publish:1 estimate:2 active:1 excess:1 billion:2 past:1 total:1 existence:1 three:1 currently:1 exclusively:1 microsoft:1 window:3 desktop:2 operate:1 system:1 version:22 unix:2 mac:1 later:1 drop:1 emulator:1 compatibility:1 layer:1 like:1 vmware:1 workstation:1 wine:1 albeit:1 subject:1 various:1 performance:1 issue:1 often:1 arise:1 large:1 drawing:2 lt:10 available:5 german:1 french:1 italian:1 spanish:1 japanese:1 korean:1 chinese:2 simplify:1 traditional:1 russian:1 czech:1 polish:1 hungarian:1 brazilian:1 portuguese:1 danish:1 dutch:1 swedish:1 finnish:1 norwegian:1 vietnamese:1 localization:1 varies:1 translation:1 documentation:1 limited:1 capability:2 cost:1 approx:1 u:2 versus:1 around:1 besides:1 directly:1 purchase:2 store:1 unlike:1 official:2 dealer:1 could:1 entry:1 level:1 package:3 compete:1 price:1 market:1 need:1 compare:1 edition:1 lack:1 several:1 feature:1 although:1 suite:1 view:1 function:1 look:1 block:1 allow:5 listing:1 difference:1 website:1 originate:1 take:1 codebase:1 comment:2 substantial:1 portion:1 simultaneously:1 student:10 license:2 significant:1 discount:1 commercial:5 retail:1 pricing:2 qualify:1 teacher:1 month:1 perpetual:1 functionally:1 identical:1 exception:1 internal:1 bit:1 flag:2 educational:1 print:1 output:1 plot:1 stamp:1 banner:1 four:1 side:1 cannot:1 infect:1 import:1 community:3 provide:1 registered:1 free:1 access:1 different:1 vertical:2 discipline:1 enhancement:1 formerly:1 architectural:4 example:2 permit:1 designer:2 draw:1 wall:1 door:1 intelligent:1 associate:1 rather:1 simple:1 represent:3 construction:1 industry:2 extract:1 material:1 estimation:1 value:1 relate:1 additional:1 generate:1 elevation:1 section:1 similarly:1 professional:1 engineering:1 calculation:1 make:1 easily:1 map:1 mechanical:1 mep:1 p:1 id:1 structural:1 detailing:1 build:1 platform:1 history:2 name:1 date:1 december:1 april:2 august:1 october:4 may:1 june:3 last:3 without:1 math:1 co:1 processor:1 n:6 september:1 apple:1 macintosh:1 november:1 ms:1 windows:1 february:1 march:8 july:1 xp:1 vista:1 introduction:1 parametrics:1 two:1 topology:1 see:1 comparison:1 ige:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 exchange:1 information:1 academic:1 download:1 shaan:1 hurley:1 group:1 international:1 augi:1 |@bigram user_interface:1 ibm_pc:1 de_facto:1 dwg_file:5 microsoft_window:1 vmware_workstation:1 autocad_lt:7 functionally_identical:1 apple_macintosh:1 xp_vista:1 external_link:1 |
3,839 | Aragonese_language | Aragonese ( in English, in Spanish), is a Romance language now spoken in a number of local varieties by between 10,000 and 30,000 people over the valleys of the Aragón River, Sobrarbe and Ribagorza in Aragon. It is also colloquially known as (literally, "speech") and is the only remaining speech form derived from medieval Navarro-Aragonese dialects. History Aragonese originated around the eighth century as one of many Latin dialects developed in the Pyrenees on top of a strong Basque-like substratum. The original Kingdom of Aragon (formed by the counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe and Ribagorza) was progressively expanded from the mountain ranges towards the South, pushing the Moors further south in the Reconquista and spreading the Aragonese language. The dynastic union of the Catalan Counties and the Kingdom of Aragon—which formed the Aragonese Crown in the twelfth century—did not result in a merging of the language forms of the two territories into a single form; Catalan continued to be spoken in the east, and Navarro-Aragonese in the west. The Aragonese reconquista to the south ended in the kingdom of Murcia, which was ceded by James I of Aragon to the Kingdom of Castile as a dowry for an Aragonese princess. The spread of Castilian, now more commonly known as Spanish, and the Castilian origin of the Trastamara dynasty and a strong similarity between Castilian and Aragonese, meant that further recession was to follow. One of the key moments in the history of Aragonese was when a king of Castilian origin was appointed in the fifteenth century: Ferdinand I of Aragon, also known as Ferdinand of Antequera. The mutual union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile and the progressive suspension of all capacity of self-rule from the sixteenth century meant that Aragonese, while still widely spoken, was limited to a rural and colloquial use, as the nobility chose Spanish as their symbol of power. During the rule of Francisco Franco in the twentieth century and the spreading of compulsory schooling, Aragonese was regarded as a mere dialect of Spanish, and therefore was frowned upon (for example, pupils were punished in schools for using it). Then, the constitutional democracy voted by the people in 1978 also meant the debut of literary works and studies conducted in and about the Aragonese language. Modern Aragonese Today, Aragonese is still spoken natively within its core area, the Aragonese mountain ranges of the Pyrenees, in the comarcas of Somontano, Jacetania, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza. These are the major cities and towns where Aragonese speakers can still be found: Huesca, Graus, Monzón, Barbastro, Bielsa, Chistén, Fonz, Echo, Estadilla, Benasque, Campo, Sabiñánigo, Jaca, Plan, Ansó, Ayerbe, Broto, and El Grado. Aragonese is also learnt as a second language by other inhabitants of the country in areas like Huesca, Zaragoza, Ejea de los Caballeros, and Teruel. According to recent polls, altogether they only make up around 10,000 active speakers and about 30,000 passive speakers. There are about 25-30 dialectal variants of Aragonese, the majority of which are in the province of Huesca, due to its mountainous terrain where natural isoglosses have developed around valley enclaves, and where, not surprisingly, the highest incidence of spoken Aragonese is found. Ribagorçan, is one such variant: an eastern Aragonese dialect, which is transitional to Gascon, Occitan, Catalan, and Spanish. Phonology Some historical traits of Aragonese language: As in Spanish, open O, E from Romance result systematically into diphthongs , , e.g. VET'LA > ("old woman", Sp. , Cat. ) Loss of final unstressed -E, e.g. GRANDE > ("big") Unlike Spanish, Romance initial F- is preserved, e.g. FILIU > ("son", Sp. , Cat. , Pt. ) Romance yod (GE-, GI-, I-) results in voiceless palatal affricate ch , e.g. IUVEN > ("young man", Sp. , Cat. ), GELARE > ("to freeze", Sp. , Cat. ) Like in Occitan and Galician/Portuguese, Romance groups -ULT-, -CT- result in , e.g. FACTU > ("done", Sp. , Cat. , Gal./Port. ), MULTU > ("many"/"much", Sp. , Cat. , Gal. , Port. ). Romance groups -X-, -PS-, SCj- result into voiceless palatal fricative ix , e.g. COXU > ("crippled", Sp. , Cat. ) Unlike Spanish, Romance groups -Lj-, -C'L-, -T'L- result into palatal lateral ll , e.g. MULIERE > ("woman", Sp. , Cat. )), ACUT'LA > ("needle", Sp. , Cat. ) Unlike Spanish, Latin -B- is maintained in past imperfect endings of verbs of the second and third conjugations: ("he had", Sp. , Cat. ), ("he was sleeping", Sp. , Cat. ) Aragonese is, along with dialects of Gascon, the only Western Romance language to have preserved the voicelessness of many intervocalic stop consonants, e.g. CLETA > ("sheep hurdle", Cat. , Fr. ), CUCULLIATA > cocullata ("crested lark", Sp. , Cat. ) Orthography Contemporary Aragonese has two orthographic standards: The grafía de Uesca codified in 1987 by the Consello d'a Fabla Aragonesa (CFA) at a convention in Huesca (Aragonese: Uesca) is used by a majority of Aragonese writers. It uses a more uniform system when assigning letters to phonemes with less regard to the etymology of a word. For example, words traditionally written with "v" and "b" are uniformly written with "b" in the Uesca system. Likewise "ch", "j", "g(+e)", and "g(+i)" are all written "ch". In addition, the orthography uses letters more strongly associated with Spanish (e.g., "ñ"). Normas graficas de l'aragonés The grafía SLA devised in 2004 by the Sociedat de Lingüistica Aragonesa (SLA) is used by a minority of Aragonese writers. It uses more etymological-based forms that are closer to Catalan, Occitan, and medieval Aragonese sources. With the SLA system, "v" and "b" and "ch", "j", "g(+e)", and "g(+i)" are distinct forms and "ny" is used instead of "ñ". In 2006, an Academia de l'Aragonés was established but, , it had not decided on a single orthographic standard. In the 16th century, Aragonese Moriscoes wrote some texts in Arabic writing as Andalusi Arabic was forgotten or forbidden. Grammar Aragonese grammar is similar to the grammar of other Iberian Romance languages, such as Spanish and Catalan. Pronouns Aragonese, like many other Romance languages, but unlike other Ibero-Romance languages, preserves the difference between the Latin forms 'inde' and 'ibi' as clitics 'en/ne' and 'bi/i/ie'. See also Aragonese Wikipedia References External links Academia de l'Aragonés, a theoretic language regulator for Aragonese. A.C. Nogará, Cultural society & school Nogará. Consello d'a Fabla Aragonesa Sociedat de Lingüistica Aragonesa Aragonese language Aragonese Course Ethnologue report for Aragonese Aragonese Language Sample Webster's Aragonese-English Dictionary | Aragonese_language |@lemmatized aragonese:38 english:2 spanish:11 romance:11 language:13 speak:4 number:1 local:1 variety:1 people:2 valley:2 aragón:1 river:1 sobrarbe:3 ribagorza:3 aragon:7 also:5 colloquially:1 know:3 literally:1 speech:2 remain:1 form:8 derive:1 medieval:2 navarro:2 dialect:5 history:2 originate:1 around:3 eighth:1 century:6 one:3 many:4 latin:3 develop:2 pyrenees:2 top:1 strong:2 basque:1 like:4 substratum:1 original:1 kingdom:4 county:2 progressively:1 expand:1 mountain:2 range:2 towards:1 south:3 push:1 moor:1 far:1 reconquista:2 spread:2 dynastic:1 union:2 catalan:5 crown:2 twelfth:1 result:6 merging:1 two:2 territory:1 single:2 continue:1 east:1 west:1 end:1 murcia:1 cede:1 james:1 castile:2 dowry:1 princess:1 castilian:4 commonly:1 origin:2 trastamara:1 dynasty:1 similarity:1 mean:3 recession:1 follow:1 key:1 moment:1 king:1 appoint:1 fifteenth:1 ferdinand:2 antequera:1 mutual:1 progressive:1 suspension:1 capacity:1 self:1 rule:2 sixteenth:1 still:3 widely:1 limit:1 rural:1 colloquial:1 use:8 nobility:1 chose:1 symbol:1 power:1 francisco:1 franco:1 twentieth:1 spreading:1 compulsory:1 schooling:1 regard:2 mere:1 therefore:1 frown:1 upon:1 example:2 pupil:1 punish:1 school:2 constitutional:1 democracy:1 vote:1 debut:1 literary:1 work:1 study:1 conduct:1 modern:1 today:1 natively:1 within:1 core:1 area:2 comarcas:1 somontano:1 jacetania:1 major:1 city:1 town:1 speaker:3 find:2 huesca:4 graus:1 monzón:1 barbastro:1 bielsa:1 chistén:1 fonz:1 echo:1 estadilla:1 benasque:1 campo:1 sabiñánigo:1 jaca:1 plan:1 ansó:1 ayerbe:1 broto:1 el:1 grado:1 learnt:1 second:2 inhabitant:1 country:1 zaragoza:1 ejea:1 de:7 los:1 caballeros:1 teruel:1 accord:1 recent:1 poll:1 altogether:1 make:1 active:1 passive:1 dialectal:1 variant:2 majority:2 province:1 due:1 mountainous:1 terrain:1 natural:1 isoglosses:1 enclave:1 surprisingly:1 high:1 incidence:1 spoken:1 ribagorçan:1 eastern:1 transitional:1 gascon:2 occitan:3 phonology:1 historical:1 trait:1 open:1 e:13 systematically:1 diphthong:1 g:13 vet:1 la:2 old:1 woman:2 sp:12 cat:13 loss:1 final:1 unstressed:1 grande:1 big:1 unlike:4 initial:1 f:1 preserve:3 filiu:1 son:1 pt:1 yod:1 ge:1 gi:1 voiceless:2 palatal:3 affricate:1 ch:4 iuven:1 young:1 man:1 gelare:1 freeze:1 galician:1 portuguese:1 group:3 ult:1 ct:1 factu:1 gal:2 port:2 multu:1 much:1 x:1 p:1 scj:1 fricative:1 ix:1 coxu:1 cripple:1 lj:1 c:2 l:5 lateral:1 muliere:1 acut:1 needle:1 b:4 maintain:1 past:1 imperfect:1 ending:1 verb:1 third:1 conjugation:1 sleep:1 along:1 western:1 voicelessness:1 intervocalic:1 stop:1 consonant:1 cleta:1 sheep:1 hurdle:1 fr:1 cuculliata:1 cocullata:1 crest:1 lark:1 orthography:2 contemporary:1 orthographic:2 standard:2 grafía:2 uesca:3 codify:1 consello:2 fabla:2 aragonesa:4 cfa:1 convention:1 writer:2 uniform:1 system:3 assign:1 letter:2 phoneme:1 less:1 etymology:1 word:2 traditionally:1 write:4 v:2 uniformly:1 likewise:1 j:2 addition:1 strongly:1 associate:1 ñ:2 norma:1 graficas:1 aragonés:3 sla:3 devise:1 sociedat:2 lingüistica:2 minority:1 etymological:1 base:1 close:1 source:1 distinct:1 ny:1 instead:1 academia:2 establish:1 decide:1 moriscoes:1 text:1 arabic:2 writing:1 andalusi:1 forget:1 forbid:1 grammar:3 similar:1 iberian:1 pronouns:1 ibero:1 difference:1 inde:1 ibi:1 clitics:1 en:1 ne:1 bi:1 ie:1 see:1 wikipedia:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 theoretic:1 regulator:1 nogará:2 cultural:1 society:1 course:1 ethnologue:1 report:1 sample:1 webster:1 dictionary:1 |@bigram sobrarbe_ribagorza:3 crown_aragon:1 francisco_franco:1 twentieth_century:1 frown_upon:1 los_caballeros:1 mountainous_terrain:1 gascon_occitan:1 occitan_catalan:1 voiceless_palatal:2 galician_portuguese:1 palatal_fricative:1 palatal_lateral:1 dialect_gascon:1 catalan_occitan:1 external_link:1 |
3,840 | Adam_Carolla | Adam Carolla (born May 27, 1964) is an American radio/television host, comedian, actor and voice actor. Carolla achieved fame for several broadcast stints: co-host of the radio show Loveline, from 1995 to 2005 (and its television incarnation on MTV from 1996 to 2000); co-creator and co-star of the television program The Man Show (1999–2004); co-creator and performer on the television program Crank Yankers (2002–2007). In 2006, Carolla completed work on The Hammer, an independent film that he co-wrote and co-produced. Carolla plays the lead role in the film, opposite Heather Juergensen. The film was released on March 21, 2008. http://www.toronto.com/movies/movie/597827 From January 2006 through February 2009, Carolla hosted The Adam Carolla Show, a weekday morning radio program broadcast from Los Angeles and syndicated by CBS Radio in eleven west-coast markets beginning January 6, 2006. The last show aired Friday, February 20, 2009, when the company shifted the format of the flagship station, KLSX, away from hot talk, opting for the less expensive Contemporary hit radio format instead. http://www.ocregister.com/articles/cbs-radio-amp-2311999-jack-format On Monday, February 23, 2009, Adam moved his weekday talk show to a self-produced podcast format, now called The Adam Carolla Podcast. It is distributed as a daily download on his official website (), and as a free subscription through the iTunes Music Store (). Early life Carolla was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to an Italian-American father, Jim Carolla, a psychologist, and his mother, Chris, a sex therapist. www.imdb.com/name/nm0004805/ The Adam Carolla Show, 27Nov 2008 Adam's parents failed to give him a middle name . As a joke, he wrote "Adam Lakers Carolla" on his drivers license application . His drivers license still gives his full name as "Adam Lakers Carolla." After living in Menominee, Wisconsin and Secane, Pennsylvania The Adam Carolla Show, 2008-10-28 , the Carolla family relocated to the San Fernando Valley, and Adam was raised in North Hollywood, California. His family is often a topic on his radio show; he claims that his parents were uninterested in his upbringing, and still have no interest in his life. He describes his family as good people, fair and honest--but often claims that they were opposed to anything that involved getting off the couch and doing something. He also alleges that his family was incredibly cheap; Carolla would get small amounts of money, usually coins, for his birthday instead of gifts, and he did not go to any funerals growing up. Carolla attended Colfax Elementary School, Walter Reed Junior High, and North Hollywood High School. Carolla never received good grades, graduating with a 1.75 grade point average. He claims to have majored in ceramics. Carolla did not receive his high school diploma until years later, because (as he claims) he owed the bookroom $19.95 for a copy of We The People (ISBN 0-385-41903-1) . Although he eventually did pay for a history book at his high school, it was many years later; he incorporated it into his home improvement comedy "The Adam Carolla Project". Because of this, he also did not participate in his high school graduation ceremony. He was voted class clown and was the captain of his football team. Carolla played Pop Warner football for many years; he later suggested that being involved in sports saved him from a chaotic home life . He began living on his own at the age of 18. He briefly attended Los Angeles Valley College, a junior college, where he was placed on academic probation before dropping out to work in a series of jobs, including a carpet cleaner , carpenter, boxing instructor, traffic school instructor , and metal worker. Promotional posters and billboards introducing his self-titled radio show in early 2006 carried the caption "Adam Carolla: American Genius". Early comedy career Carolla claims that his goal from youth was to write comedy. He did not envision working on-air on the radio, or on-camera in movies and television. In his spare time he worked on his comedy skills, training with The Groundlings and attempting stand-up, but he didn't believe either of these were a good fit for him. He did perform sketch comedy with Acme Comedy Theatre for a few years, during which he worked with M.D. Sweeney (later, his business partner in a restaurant venture), Paul Rugg, and John P. McCann (with whom he wrote and performed a number of sketches involving Manly Men Doing Manly Things). During Carolla's early twenties, while working in various jobs, he grew fond of listening to talk radio. In his late twenties he heard an ad on the radio seeking a boxing instructor to train Jimmy Kimmel. Kimmel was, at the time, a radio personality on the KROQ morning show Kevin and Bean as "Jimmy the Sports Guy." Carolla met Kimmel at the radio station, and the two became best friends. Carolla asked Jimmy how he could get into radio; Jimmy replied that Carolla should create a character. Carolla eventually joined the show's cast as "Mr. Birchum," the ornery and misanthropic Vietnam-veteran shop teacher. Radio Loveline Carolla was offered the job of co-hosting Loveline with physician Dr. Drew Pinsky in 1995, replacing Riki Rachtman. Pinsky selected Carolla personally, after hearing Carolla's earlier radio work. Loveline is a syndicated radio program produced by Westwood One, and was also a television show on MTV for four years. On Loveline, Carolla often gave extended commentary about matters having little to do with the official subject matter of the show. Common topics included: Carolla's dislike of the negative effects of religious zealotry, criticism of celebrities, and complaints about politically-originated policies that make little sense, such as junior colleges, traffic/parking enforcement as pure revenue-generation, superfluous red left-turn arrows, and other "wastes" such as the abundance of police officers available to serve traffic citations while none seem to be available for important issues like counter-terrorism, and incessant radio weather and traffic reports. ("How many traffic reports have you listened to? Thousands. How many times have you actually changed your route based on a traffic report? That's right! Never!") His impassioned criticisms and observational humor became a central characteristic of the show. During his time on Loveline, Carolla gradually drew an increasing fan base to the program. Carolla, on Loveline after earlier attempts at traditional stand-up comedy, eschewed traditional stand-up methods, such as scripted comedic "bits". Carolla has claimed that he has no "act", referring to himself as a "comedy factory, as opposed to a comedy warehouse", distinguishing himself from comics who prepare material. Carolla preferred to use his time on the airwaves—and the subject matter of Loveline as an inspirational springboard—to launch into rants in a similar fashion to Dennis Miller. Carolla's presentation of his views frequently fits the description of black comedy. While Carolla distinguishes himself as being self-educated, he frequently refers to his formal education in abysmal, self-deprecating terms. Carolla claims to have genuinely forgotten several of his own past jokes, insights and innovations that have caught on with fans, attributing his forgetfulness to his "no self-esteem". During his final shows on Loveline, the fanbase that he had cultivated was, in his own words, larger than he expected. Carolla often claimed that he had no idea of the effect he had on his audience, saying frequently that, among the small staff in the Loveline broadcast studio, "no one cares"; he repeatedly drew attention to the apathy of his co-workers—with extended, comedic complaints about the staff, including Pinsky (they both stated they had become very close during their work together). He repeated sentiments of fan appreciation on-air during his last few Loveline broadcasts, consciously breaking from his black-humor comedic tone to thank his fans in earnest, explaining that the opportunity for his own morning radio show similar to Howard Stern's was an opportunity he could not pass up. On May 13, 2009, Adam returned to Loveline as a guest. During a typical discourse with a caller that was giving short, unaccommodating responses, Carolla snapped saying "Oh, Jesus Christ, I don't miss this God-damn show one second!" Adam said being on Loveline was like "visiting your grandfather at the morgue". Kevin and Bean, 2009-05-15 The Adam Carolla Show On November 1, 2005, Carolla announced that he would leave Loveline to pursue a position in morning radio, replacing Howard Stern—with Stern's approval—in a number of West Coast markets. Adam's last night on Loveline was November 3, 2005, to allow him to have time to prepare for his morning debut in January, 2006. He stated that he would love to continue to do Loveline by recording it immediately after his morning show, but Westwood One insisted that the show must be broadcast live. On October 25, Infinity Broadcasting officially announced that it would be replacing Stern with Carolla on several radio stations in the western United States. On February 18, 2009 it was confirmed that The Adam Carolla Show had been canceled as part of a format switch at KLSX to AMP FM, a new top 40 station. The final show was Friday, February 20, 2009. The Adam Carolla Podcast As of February 23, 2009, Adam began hosting a daily podcast at www.carollaradio.com. The show is available through iTunes: The Adam Carolla Podcast. The RSS feed is The Adam Carolla RSS Feed. In the initial 24 hours, the first Adam Carolla podcast was downloaded over 250,000 times and, as of the third podcast, it was the number one podcast on iTunes in both the U.S. and Canada. http://carollaradio.com/2009/02/24/thanks-everyone/ During the debut week, the Adam Carolla podcast recorded 1.6 million downloads. In the second week it recorded 2.4 million downloads. By the second week of the show, the fourth episode of the podcast featuring former Adam Carolla Show sidekick Dave Dameshek was downloaded over 500,000 times. http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/sunday/la-oe-stein6-2009mar06,1,4616454.column Adam stated that bandwidth costs over $9,000 per month as of May 2009. Loveline, 2009-05-12 Episodes Date of Podcast The Guest Length 02.23.2009 No Guest 0h 37m 8s 02.24.2009 Dr. Drew 0h 38m 58s 02.25.2009 Teresa Strasser & Bryan Bishop 0h 33m 28s 02.26.2009 Dave Dameshek 0h 55m 17s 02.27.2009 Bill Simmons 0h 43m 05s 03.02.2009 Larry Miller 0h 50m 58s 03.03.2009 D.A.G. 0h 47m 17s 03.04.2009 Dana Gould 0h 55m 42s 03.05.2009 Leo Laporte 1h 06m 52s 03.06.2009 Jamie Kennedy 0h 44m 38s 03.09.2009 Greg Fitzsimmons 1h 14m 47s 03.10.2009 Aisha Tyler 1h 11m 21s 03.11.2009 Alonzo Bodden 0h 55m 37s 03.12.2009 Joel McHale 1h 15m 03s 03.13.2009 Doug Benson 0h 55m 06s 03.16.2009 Lynn & Alex 0h 54m 22s 03.17.2009 Seth MacFarlane 1h 23m 06s 03.18.2009 Andy Dick 0h 53m 04s 03.19.2009 Tom Arnold 1h 02m 52s 03.20.2009 Jimmy Kimmel 1h 01m 32s 03.23.2009 ESPN Sports Guy Bill Simmons 1h 08m 22s 03.24.2009 Bobcat Goldthwait 1h 20m 30s 03.25.2009 Dana Gould 1h 02m 06s 03.26.2009 Bryan Cranston 1h 03m 32s 03.27.2009 Kevin Nealon 1h 19m 16s 03.30.2009 Deaf Frat Guy 0h 52m 49s 03.31.2009 Jeff Ross 0h 55m 12s 04.01.2009 Andy Fickman 1h 03m 36s 04.02.2009 Chris Hardwick 1h 01m 03s04.03.2009Windell Middlebrooks0h 47m 04s04.06.2009Christopher Titus1h 3m 0s04.07.2009George Takei1h 6m 22s04.08.2009Mike Birbiglia1h 4m 37s04.09.2009Matt and Dave0h 49m 48s04.10.2009Larry Miller0h 43m 39s04.13.2009Dicky Barrett1h 07m 17s04.14.2009Jason Calcanis1h 09m 58s04.15.2009Harland Williams0h 57m 32s04.16.2009Jimmy Pardo1h 03m 19s04.17.2009Danica Patrick1h 04m 24s04.20.2009Mike Tyson0h 23m 23s04.21.2009Carson Daly, Jimmy Kimmel0h 55m 38s04.22.2009Dave Dameshek1h 03m 19s04.23.2009Jake Lentz, Paul Koehorst0h 54m 03s04.23.2009Jack in the Box0h 53m 41s04.27.2009Teresa Strasser & Bald Brian1h 11m 53s04.28.2009Teresa Strasser & Bald Brian (Part 2)0h 56m 12s04.29.2009David Koechner0h 57m 35s04.30.2009Tom Bergeron0h 49m 29s Television Carolla began his first original television series with The Man Show, along with partner and close friend Jimmy Kimmel, on Comedy Central from 1999 to 2003. He left The Man Show at the same time as Kimmel, after having been reportedly offered $50,000 per episode to stay on. Carolla has continued his work with Kimmel as a writer and regular guest on Jimmy Kimmel Live. With partner Daniel Kellison, they are the heads of Jackhole Productions and created another television show named Crank Yankers for Comedy Central, which revived the Mr. Birchum character. Carolla has also done voiceovers for cartoons, including Commander Nebula on the Disney animated series Buzz Lightyear of Star Command, Death on Family Guy (replacing Norm Macdonald who only did one episode) and Spanky Ham on Drawn Together. From August 2005 to November 2005, Carolla hosted the talk show Too Late with Adam Carolla on Comedy Central. Also in 2005, Carolla was featured in a home remodeling program called The Adam Carolla Project wherein he and a crew of old friends renovated his childhood home. The 13 episodes aired on the cable channel TLC (The Learning Channel) from October through December 2005. In 2006, he appeared on the special summer series Gameshow Marathon as a celebrity panelist on the Match Game episode. In August 2007, Carolla guest hosted Jim Rome Is Burning. Recently, he has appeared as a guest on several episodes of Comics Unleashed. On the February 18, 2008 broadcast of his radio show, Adam announced that he would be one of the contestants on the next season of Dancing with the Stars. Later in the broadcast, it was revealed to Adam that his partner would be Julianne Hough. He was voted off on the April 8, 2008 episode after his performance of the Paso Doble. On June 16, 2008 Carolla was selected to host a pilot The Adam Carolla Show, June 12 2008 makes it clear Adam is the host and has chosen two "sidekicks". of an American version of the popular BBC show Top Gear for NBC. NBC declined to pick up the show http://jalopnik.com/5108040/nbc-cuts-top-gear-usa-due-to-knight-rider-failure/ ; it is currently being shopped to cable networks. On 21 February 2009, a day after his Los Angeles-based morning radio show was canceled -- as part of a format change at KLSX-FM -- CBS picked up a comedy pilot starring the actor/comedian. "Ace in the Hole" stars Carolla as a husband and father who works as a driving instructor. Carolla created and wrote the pilot with Kevin Hench ("Jimmy Kimmel Live"). Carolla stated that Pamela Adlon will play his wife and Windell Middlebrooks of the Miller High Life commercial fame will play his best friend. During his March 30, 2009 podcast, Carolla briefly described the show as being "All in the Family, essentially", with Carolla playing a similar role to that of Archie Bunker. Dancing with the Stars performances Week #Dance/SongJudges' scoreResultInabaGoodmanTonioli1Foxtrot/ "Mellow Yellow"555N/A2Mambo/ "House of Bamboo"676Safe3Tango/ "I Can't Tell A Waltz From A Tango"777Safe4Paso Doble/ "Plaza Of Execution"676Eliminated Film In 2006, Carolla finished work on The Hammer, a semi-autobiographical independent film in which he stars opposite Heather Juergensen. The film is based loosely on his real life and is filmed at a gym he helped build with his co-star, Ozzie, which is played by Oswaldo Castillo, his friend in real life whom he met while building the gym when they both worked in construction. The film made its world premiere at the 2007 Tribeca Film Festival in New York City and shortly thereafter received a positive review in Variety. Adam made a short appearance in "Waiting" sequel "Still Waiting" directed by Jeff Balis playing a pick up artist guru. Adam has written a new movie titled Deaf Frat Guy: Showdown at Havasu. It has been sold and will begin filming shortly. Adam Carolla interview on Leo The Film Freak, 2008-06-21. He would voice the title character in the independent short film Save Virgil. Personal life On September 28, 2002, Carolla married Lynette Paradise. Lynette gave birth (via cesarean section) to their first children, twins Natalia and Santino "Sonny" Richard Carolla on June 7, 2006. On The Adam Carolla Show, Adam repeatedly mentioned the birth was originally scheduled for June 6, but that he and Lynette decided to push it back one day as to avoid the symbolic 666 (06-06-06). An avid car enthusiast, Carolla has owned a BMW M3 E30-generation model, an E46-generation M3, Datsun 510, an Audi S4, Audi R8, Jaguar sports coupe, MINI Cooper S, Nissan 350Z, Aston Martin, Lamborghini 350GT, Ferrari and 1984 Nissan 300ZX Turbo (The original Newman Sharp car driven by Paul Newman and Fitzy to an SCCA national championship in 1984). Honors Asteroid 4535 Adamcarolla is named in his honor. References External links Adam Carolla Podcast | Adam_Carolla |@lemmatized adam:37 carolla:73 bear:2 may:3 american:4 radio:23 television:9 host:9 comedian:2 actor:3 voice:2 achieve:1 fame:2 several:4 broadcast:8 stint:1 co:9 show:36 loveline:17 incarnation:1 mtv:2 creator:2 star:8 program:6 man:3 performer:1 crank:2 yanker:2 complete:1 work:12 hammer:2 independent:3 film:12 write:6 produce:3 play:7 lead:1 role:2 opposite:2 heather:2 juergensen:2 release:1 march:2 http:5 www:5 toronto:1 com:7 movie:4 january:3 february:8 weekday:2 morning:7 los:3 angeles:3 syndicate:1 cbs:3 eleven:1 west:2 coast:2 market:2 begin:5 last:3 air:4 friday:2 company:1 shift:1 format:6 flagship:1 station:4 klsx:3 away:1 hot:1 talk:4 opt:1 less:1 expensive:1 contemporary:1 hit:1 instead:2 ocregister:1 article:1 amp:2 jack:1 monday:1 move:1 self:5 podcast:13 call:2 distribute:1 daily:2 download:3 official:2 website:1 free:1 subscription:1 itunes:3 music:1 store:1 early:5 life:7 philadelphia:1 pennsylvania:2 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3,841 | Kuala_Lumpur | Kuala Lumpur ( in English; Kuala Lumpur. Dictionary.com. Retrieved November 2007. Malay , locally or even , and often abbreviated as K.L.), is the capital and largest city of Malaysia. The city proper, making up an area of , has an estimated population of 1.6 million in 2006. Greater Kuala Lumpur, also known as the Klang Valley, is an urban agglomeration of 7.2 million. It is the fastest growing metropolitan region in the country, in terms of population as well as economy. Kuala Lumpur is the seat of the Parliament of Malaysia. The city was once home to the executive and judicial branches of the federal government, but they have since moved to Putrajaya starting in 1999. Some sections of the judiciary remain in the capital. The official residence of the Malaysian King, the Istana Negara, is also situated in Kuala Lumpur. The city is also the cultural and economic centre of Malaysia due to its position as the capital as well as being a primate city. Kuala Lumpur is rated as an alpha world city, and is the only global city in Malaysia, according to the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC). Kuala Lumpur is defined within the borders of the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur and is one of three Malaysian Federal Territories. It is an enclave within the state of Selangor, on the central west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Residents of the city are known as KLites. Beginning in the 1990s, the city has played host to many international sporting, political and cultural events including the 1998 Commonwealth Games and the Formula One World Championship. In addition, Kuala Lumpur is home to the tallest twin buildings in the world, the Petronas Twin Towers. History Chinese Kapitan Yap Ah Loy, the founding father of Kuala Lumpur Kuala Lumpur has its origins in the 1850s, when the Malay Chief of Klang, Raja Abdullah, hired some Chinese labourers to open new and larger tin mines. They landed at the confluence of Sungai Gombak and Sungai Klang (Klang River) to open mines at Ampang. Sungai Gombak was previously known as Sungai Lumpur, which means muddy river. The Original name for this city was "Pengkalan Lumpur", which means bundle of mud. As time passes by the name changed to Kuala Lumpur which literally means “muddy confluence” in Bahasa Melayu. Later, tin mines were opened at Pudu and Batu. Among the early notable pioneers are Hiu Siew and Liu Ngim Kong. These mines developed into a trading post which became to be considered a frontier town. Early Kuala Lumpur had many problems, including the Selangor Civil War; it was also plagued by diseases and constant fires and floods. Around the 1870s, the Chinese Kapitan of Kuala Lumpur, Yap Ah Loy, emerged as leader, and became responsible for the survival and subsequent systematic growth of this town. He began to develop Kuala Lumpur from a small unknown place into a mining town with economic boom. In 1880, the state capital of Selangor was moved from Klang to the more strategically advantageous Kuala Lumpur. In 1881, a flood swept through the town following a fire which engulfed it earlier. These successive problems destroyed the town's structures of wood and atap (thatching). As a response, Frank Swettenham, the British Resident of Selangor, required that buildings be constructed of brick and tile. Many of the new brick buildings mirrored that of shop houses in southern China, with "five foot ways" as well as skilled Chinese carpentry. This resulted in a distinct eclectic shop house architecture typical to this region. A railway line increased accessibility into this town. Development intensified in the 1890s, leading to the creation of a Sanitary Board. In 1896, Kuala Lumpur was chosen as the capital of the newly formed Federated Malay States. A scene during World War II on the streets of Kuala Lumpur. The scene depicts Japanese troops clearing up the streets. A mixture of different communities settled in various sections of Kuala Lumpur. The Chinese mainly settled around the commercial centre of Market Square, east of Klang River, and towards Chinatown. The Malays, Indian Chettiars, and Indian Muslims resided along Java Street (now Jalan Tun Perak). The Padang, now known as Merdeka Square, was the center of the British administrative offices. During World War II, Kuala Lumpur was captured by the Japanese army on January 11, 1942. They remained in occupation until August 15, 1945, when the commander in chief of the Japanese Seventh Area Army in Singapore and Malaya, Seishirō Itagaki, surrendered to the British administration following the Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Kuala Lumpur grew through the war, the rubber and tin commodity crashes and the Malayan Emergency, during which Malaya was preoccupied with the communist insurgency. In 1957, the Federation of Malaya gained its independence from British rule. Kuala Lumpur remained the capital through the formation of Malaysia on September 16, 1963. On May 13, 1969, one of the worst race riots in Malaysia took place in Kuala Lumpur. The May 13 Incident was a riot between the Malays and the Chinese. The former being dissatisfied with their socio-political situation at the time. The riot resulted in the deaths of 196 people, Official figure, and led to a major reform in the country's economic policy favouring the Malays. Kuala Lumpur later achieved city status in 1972, becoming the first settlement in Malaysia to be granted the status after independence. Later, on February 1, 1974, Kuala Lumpur became a Federal Territory. Kuala Lumpur ceased to be the capital of Selangor in 1978 after the city of Shah Alam was declared as the new state capital. On 14 May 1990, Kuala Lumpur was celebrated 100 years of local authority. The new federal territory of Kuala Lumpur flag and anthem were introduced. In 1998, another political movement known as Reformasi took place mainly in this city. The movement was a result of the sacking of former Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister, Anwar Ibrahim, and resulted in a chain of protests until 1999, where supporters of Anwar Ibrahim took to the streets to demand reforms in the government's administration, among others. On February 1, 2001, Putrajaya was declared a Federal Territory, as well as the seat of the federal government. The administrative and judicial functions of the government were shifted from Kuala Lumpur to Putrajaya. Kuala Lumpur however still retained its legislative function, and remained the home of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King). Geography A pedestrian mall by KL's central market. The geography of Kuala Lumpur is characterized by a huge valley known as Klang Valley. The valley is bordered by the Titiwangsa Mountains in the east, several minor ranges in the north and the south and the Strait of Malacca in the west. Kuala Lumpur is a Malay term which translates to "muddy confluence" as it is located at the confluence of the Klang and Gombak rivers. Located in the center of Selangor state, Kuala Lumpur was previously under the rule of Selangor State Government. In 1974, Kuala Lumpur was separated from Selangor to form the first Federal Territory governed directly by the Malaysian Federal Government. Its location on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, which has wider flat land than the east coast, has contributed to its faster development relative to other cities in Malaysia. The municipality of the city covers an area of 243.65 km2 (94.07 sq mi), with an average elevation of 21.95 m (72 ft). Climate and weather Protected by the Titiwangsa Mountains in the east and Indonesia's Sumatra Island in the west, Kuala Lumpur has a year-round equatorial climate which is warm and sunny, along with abundant rainfall, especially during the southwest monsoon season from September to April. Temperatures tend to remain constant. Maximums hover between 31 °C and 33 °C (88-92 °F) and have never exceeded 37 °C (99 °F), while minimums hover between 22 °C and 23.5 °C (71-74 °F) and have never fallen below 19 °C (66 °F). Kuala Lumpur typically receives of rain annually; June and July are relatively dry, but even then rainfall typically exceeds per month. Flooding is a frequent occurrence in Kuala Lumpur whenever there is a heavy downpour, especially in the city centre and downstream areas. Dust particles from forest fires from nearby Sumatra sometimes cast a haze over the region. It is a major source of pollution in the city together with open burning, emission from motor vehicles and construction work. Demographics Bahasa Melayu—the national language, is one of the principal languages of Kuala Lumpur. Other major languages spoken in the city are Mandarin, Cantonese and Tamil. English has a strong presence, especially in business and is a compulsory language taught in schools. Kuala Lumpur City Centre Park Kuala Lumpur also has a mix of different cultures which include Malays, Chinese, Indians, Eurasians, as well as Kadazans, Ibans and other indigenous races from East Malaysia and Peninsula Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur's rapid development triggered a huge influx of foreign workers from Indonesia, Nepal, Burma, Thailand, Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam into Malaysia. In the late-18th century, when Europe underwent Industrial Revolution, large groups of Chinese from Fujian and Guangdong in China were brought in to Malaya to work in the booming tin mining industry. The Chinese in Kuala Lumpur speak different dialects but the majority in Kuala Lumpur are of Cantonese descent, followed by the Hokkiens and the Hakkas. Indians form 10% of the population in Kuala Lumpur (as in 2000), mostly practise Hinduism and speak Tamil and other Indian and Pakistani languages such as Hindi, Malayalam, Punjabi, Telugu and Pashtu. Historically, most of the Indians were brought in during the British colonisation of the Malaysia. Their popular festivals are Thaipusam, Deepavali and Pongal. Islam is practised primarily by the Malays and the Indian Muslim communities. Other major religions are Hinduism (among Indians), Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism (mainly among Chinese) and Christianity. The city has many places of worship catering to the multi-religious population. Population statistics The connecting bridge between Mid Valley Megamall and The Gardens, spanning above the central boulevard. The estimated population of Kuala Lumpur in the city proper for 2006 was 1.58 million. "Basic Population Characteristics by Administrative Districts", Department of Statistics, Malaysia (June 2006) It has a population density of , and is the most densely populated administrative district in Malaysia. With an estimated metropolitan population of 6.9 million in 2007, it can be considered a primate city. The continuing decline in the birth rate for Kuala Lumpur has resulted in the decline in the proportion of young people below 15 years old from 33% in 1980 to slightly less than 27% in 2000. On the other hand, the working age group of 15-59 increased from 63% in 1980 to 67% in 2000. The elderly age group, 60 years old and above has increased from 4% in 1980 and 1991 to 6% in 2000. Based on the census of the Department of Statistics (see http://www.statistics.gov.my/eng/), the percentage of Bumiputera population in Kuala Lumpur alone was around 38% in 2000 (next census is in 2010) while the Chinese population comprised 43% and Indians 10%. A notable phenomenon has been the increase in the presence of foreign residents in Kuala Lumpur, who now constitute about 9% of the city’s population. Crime in Kuala Lumpur has been a concern of residents in recent years. Among the crimes showing increasing rates were snatch theft, drug addiction, gambling and vice. These problems have been associated with the rising numbers of immigrants from Indonesia and Myanmar. Some of them are brought in with the promise of low to medium grade salary. Government <center>The Kuala Lumpur City Hall<center> Local government The local administration is carried out by the Kuala Lumpur City Hall, an agency under the Federal Territories Ministry of Malaysia. Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur They are responsible for public health and sanitation, waste removal and management, town planning, environmental protection and building control, social and economic development and general maintenance functions of urban infrastructure. Executive power lies with the mayor in the city hall, who is appointed for three years by the Federal Territories Minister. This system of appointing the mayor has been in place ever since the local government elections were suspended in 1970. Since Kuala Lumpur became a Federal Territory of Malaysia on February 1, 1974, the city has been led by nine mayors. The current mayor of Kuala Lumpur is Dato' Ahmad Fuad Ismail, who is in his first term of office. (14 December 2008) "Pengenalan".Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur He was appointed in 2008. Politics Kuala Lumpur is home to the Parliament of Malaysia. The parliament is composed of a lower House of Representatives (Dewan Rakyat) and an upper House of Senate (Dewan Negara). The city is represented in the lower House of Representatives by eleven Members of Parliament (MPs), who are elected to five-year terms. Traditionally, political leanings in Kuala Lumpur have been dominated by Barisan Nasional (BN), with seven representatives from BN and the other four from the Democratic Action Party (DAP) prior to the 2008 General Elections. After the 2008 elections BN was left with just one representative, Zulhasnan Rafique, in the Setiawangsa seat. DAP took control of five seats, Parti Keadilan Rakyat taking four seats, and PAS one seat, marking the first time in which the majority of the Federal Territory's constituencies was dominated by opposition parties. Economy A street view of the Old Market Square (Medan Pasar) Kuala Lumpur and its surrounding urban areas form the most industrialized and economically, the fastest growing region in Malaysia. Despite the relocation of federal government administration to Putrajaya, certain government’s important machineries such as Bank Negara Malaysia (Central Bank of Malaysia), Companies Commission of Malaysia and Securities Commission as well as most embassies and diplomatic missions have remained in the city. The city remains as the economic and business center of the country. In fact, the city is a center for finance, insurance, real estate, media and the arts of Malaysia. The infrastructure development in the surrounding areas such as the Kuala Lumpur International Airport at Sepang, the creation of the Multimedia Super Corridor and the expansion of Port Klang further reinforce the economic significance of the city. Bursa Malaysia or the Malaysia Exchange is based in the city and forms one of its core economic activities. As of 20 November, 2007, the market capitalisation stood at US$318.65 billion. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for Kuala Lumpur is estimated at RM25,968 million in 2000 with an average annual growth rate of 4.2 percent. The per capita GDP for Kuala Lumpur in year 2000 is RM30,727, an average annual growth rate of 6.1 percent. The total employment in Kuala Lumpur is estimated at around 838,400. The service sector comprising finance, insurance, real estate, business services, wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels, transport, storage and communication, utilities, personal services and government services form the largest component of employment representing about 83.0 percent of the total. The remaining 17 percent comes from manufacturing and construction. Pre-war shoplots refurbished into restaurants and bars along Tengkat Tong Shin. The large service sector is evident in the number of local and foreign banks and insurance companies operating in the city. Kuala Lumpur is poised to become the global Islamic Financing hub with an increasing number of financial institutions providing Islamic Financing and the strong presence of Gulf's financial institutions such as the world's largest Islamic bank, Al-Rajhi Bank and Kuwait Finance House. Apart from that, the Dow Jones & Company is keen to work with Bursa Malaysia to set up Islamic Exchange Trade Funds (ETFs), which would help raise Malaysia's profile in the Gulf. The city has a large number of foreign corporations and is also host to many multi national companies’ regional offices or support centres, particularly for finance and accounting, and information technology functions. Most of the countries’ largest companies have their headquarters based here and as of December 2007 and excluding Petronas, there are 14 companies that are listed in Forbes 2000 based in Kuala Lumpur. Largest Company in Malaysia 2007 Other important economic activities in the city are education and health services. Kuala Lumpur also has advantages stemming from the high concentration of educational institutions located within its boundaries, providing a wide range of courses. Such public institutions include the International Islamic University Malaysia,University of Malaya, the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, International Medical University and the Medical Faculty of the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. There are also a large number of private colleges, including the Universiti Tun Abdul Razak and Tunku Abdul Rahman College, in and around Kuala Lumpur providing a wide range of courses which attract students from all over Malaysia as well as from other countries. There are numerous public and private medical specialist centres and hospitals in the city which offer general health services and a wide range of specialist surgery and treatment catering to locals and tourists. There has been growing emphasis to expand the economic scope of the city into other service activities such as research and development which supports the rest of the economy of Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur has been home for years to important research centers such as the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, the Forest Research Institute Malaysia and the Institute of Medical Research and more research centers are expected to be established in the coming years. Tourism Petaling Street, Kuala Lumpur's bustling Chinatown The tourism sector also plays an important part in the city’s economy, providing income, employment and expanding business opportunities. As an extension of this, many large worldwide hotel chains have presence in the city. Kuala Lumpur has also developed into an international shopping destination with a wide variety of shopping centres and megamalls which carry well-known global and local brands. Conference tourism — which mainly encompass conventions — has also expanded in recent years and is becoming a very important component of the industry. The major tourist destinations in Kuala Lumpur include the Dataran Merdeka (the Independence Square), the House of Parliament, the Istana Budaya, the Istana Negara (National Palace), the Kuala Lumpur Tower, the Muzium Negara (National Museum), the Putra World Trade Centre, the Tugu Negara (National Monument) and mosques such as the Masjid Jamek, the Masjid Negara (National Mosque) and the Federal Territory Mosque. Other tourist attractions include the Aquaria KLCC, the Batu Caves, the Makam Pahlawan (National Mausoleum), the National Science Centre, Petaling Street, the Zoo Negara (National Zoo), and events such as Malay cultural centres, the Chinese cultural festivals at the Thean Hou Temple and the Thaipusam procession at the Sri Mahamariamman Temple. The Golden Triangle, the commercial hub of the city, contains the Petronas Twin Towers and has a distinctive nightlife. Trendy nightclubs, bars and lounges, such as the Beach Club, Espanda, the Hakka Republic Wine Bar & Restaurant, Hard Rock Cafe, the Luna Bar, Nuovo, Rum Jungle, the Thai Club, Zouk, and many others are located within and around Jalan P. Ramlee, Jalan Sultan Ismail and Jalan Ampang. Hotels, from five-star to budget types, have cropped up everywhere to accommodate the influx of tourists each year. There are many hotels near Kuala Lumpur's entertainment and business districts. Retail Berjaya Times Square, the world's largest building ever built in a single phase Kuala Lumpur alone has 66 shopping malls and it is the retail and fashion hub for Malaysia. Shopping in Malaysia contributes RM7.7 billion (USD 2.26 billion) or 20.8 percent of the RM31.9 billion tourism receipts in 2006. and Kuala Lumpur, as Malaysia's retail hub, plays a big role in attracting consumers. Suria KLCC is one of Malaysia's premier shopping destinations due to its location beneath the Petronas Twin Towers, the world's tallest twin towers and second and third-tallest singular towers. Apart from Suria KLCC, Bukit Bintang, which resembles Tokyo's Ginza, New York's Fifth Avenue and Singapore's Orchard Road has the highest concentration of shopping outlets in Kuala Lumpur. Bukit Bintang, which is part of the Kuala Lumpur's Golden Triangle, spans over 3 roads which are Jalan Bukit Bintang, Jalan Imbi and Jalan Sultan Ismail. It houses various cafes, alfresco (open air) dining outlets and shopping complexes namely Berjaya Times Square, Bukit Bintang Plaza, Imbi Plaza, Kuala Lumpur Plaza, Lot 10, Low Yat Plaza, Pavilion KL, Starhill Plaza, Berjaya Plaza and Sungei Wang Plaza. It is also the location of the largest single department store in Malaysia, SOGO Kuala Lumpur KL SOGO, Corporate. Retrieved on 2008-11-10. (also known as KL SOGO) which is located at a landmark site on Jalan Tuanku Abdul Rahman, one of the best known shopping streets for locals in Kuala Lumpur. The Bangsar district also has a few shopping complexes, namely Mid Valley Megamall, The Gardens and Bangsar Village. The Damansara area north-west of Kuala Lumpur, though not in the city-proper, is the home of the only IKEA outlet in the country, and a cluster of locally-operated malls including Ikano Power Centre, NiuXehSui at Ara Damansara, The Curve, Cathay Multi Screen Cinemas and One Utama. The Central Market, which is located in the proximity of the Dayabumi Complex, offers an assortment of arts and craft merchandise Apart from shopping complexes, Kuala Lumpur has designated numerous zones in the city to market locally manufactured products such as textiles, fabrics and handicrafts. The Chinatown of Kuala Lumpur, or commonly known as Petaling Street, is one of them. Chinatown features many pre-independence buildings with Straits Chinese and European traditions influence. Gurstien, P (1985) Malaysia Architecture Heritage Survey – A Handbook, Malaysia Heritage Trust. Page 65 Google cache of 'HISTORICAL BUILDINGS IN MALAYSIA' The Kuala Lumpur's Central Market, which was once the city's wet market, offers an assortment of arts and craft merchandise, varying from antiques and paintings to souvenirs and clothing. It is also known as Pasar Seni in Malay. Since 2000, the Ministry of Tourism of Malaysia has kick-started the mega sale event for all shopping in Malaysia. The mega sale event is held thrice in a year—in March, May and December—where all shopping malls are encouraged to participate to boost Kuala Lumpur as a leading shopping destination. Malaysia Hotels Blog Cityscape Architecture The Petronas Twin Towers at dusk. The architecture of Kuala Lumpur is a blend of old colonial influences, Asian traditions, Malay Islamic inspirations, modern, and postmodern architecture mix. Being a relatively young city compared with other Southeast Asian capitals such as Bangkok, Jakarta and Manila, most of Kuala Lumpur's colonial buildings were built toward the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries. These buildings have Moorish, Tudor, Neo-Gothic or Grecian-Spanish style or architecture. extract Most of the styling has been modified to use local resources and acclimatised to the local climate, which is hot and humid all year around. The Petronas Twin Towers seen from Pertama Complex. Prior to the Second World War, many shophouses, usually two storeys with functional shops on the ground floor and separate residential spaces upstairs, were built around the old city centre. These shop-houses drew inspiration from Straits Chinese and European traditions. Some of these shophouses have made way for new developments but there are still many standing today around Medan Pasar (Old Market Square), Chinatown, Jalan Tuanku Abdul Rahman, Jalan Doraisamy, Bukit Bintang and Tengkat Tong Shin areas. Independence coupled with the rapid economic growth from the 1970s to the 1990s and with Islam being the official religion in the country, has resulted in the construction of buildings with a more local and Islamic flavour arise around the city. Many of these buildings derive their design from traditional Malay items such as the songkok and the keris. Some of these buildings have Islamic geometric motifs integrated with the designs of the building, signifying Islamic restriction on imitating nature through drawings. Examples of these buildings are Menara Telekom, Menara Maybank, Dayabumi Complex, and the Islamic Center. Some buildings such as the Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia and National Planetarium have been built to masquerade as a place of worship, complete with dome and minaret, when in fact it is a place of science and knowledge. The tall Petronas Twin Towers were designed to resemble motifs found in Islamic art. Late modern and postmodern architecture began to appear in the late-1990s and early-2000s. With the economic development, old buildings such as Bok House have been razed to make way for new ones. Buildings with all glass shell appears around the city, with the most prominent example being the Petronas Twin Towers and Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre. Mega-Urbanization in Southeast Asia Kuala Lumpur’s central business district today has shifted around the Kuala Lumpur city centre (KLCC) where many new and tall buildings with modern and postmodern architecture fill the skyline. Parks Kuala Lumpur City Centre Park as seen from the Traders Hotel The Perdana Lake Gardens, a manicured garden near the Malaysian Parliament building, was once home to a British colonial official. The park includes a Butterfly Park, Deer Park, Orchid Garden, Hibiscus Garden and Kuala Lumpur Bird Park, Southeast Asia's largest bird park. Other parks in the city include, the ASEAN Sculpture Garden, KLCC Park, Titiwangsa Lake Gardens, Metropolitan Lake Gardens in Kepong, Forest Research Institute Malaysia, FRIM Photos http://www.theteh.com/html/malaysian_rainforest_jungle_tr.html Taman Tasik Permaisuri (Queen’s Lake Gardens), Bukit Kiara Botanical Gardens, Equestrian Park and West Valley Park near TTDI, and Bukit Jalil International Park. There are three forest reserves within the city namely the Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve in the city centre, the oldest gazetted forest reserve in the country (, Bukit Sungai Putih Forest Reserve () and Bukit Sungai Besi Forest Reserve (). Bukit Nanas, in the heart of the city centre, is one of the oldest virgin forests in the world within a city. These residual forest areas are home to a number of fauna species particularly monkeys, tree shrews, squirrels and birds. Culture Arts Frieze depicting Malaysian history at the National Museum Kuala Lumpur is a hub for cultural activities and events in Malaysia. Among the centres is the National Museum which is situated along the Mahameru Highway. Its collection comprises artifacts and paintings collected throughout the country. Kuala Lumpur also has an Islamic Arts Museum which houses more than seven thousand Islamic artefacts including rare exhibits from China as well as a library of Islamic art books. This museum features some impressively decorated domes and large open exhibition spaces. It is located at Jalan Lembah Perdana next to the National Mosque. The premier performing arts venue is the Petronas Philharmonic Hall. The resident orchestra is the Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra (MPO), consisting of musicians from all over the world and features regular concerts, chamber concerts and traditional cultural performances. Kuala Lumpur City Centre Park at night. The National Art Gallery of Malaysia is located on Jalan Temerloh, off Jalan Tun Razak on a site neighbouring the National Theater (Istana Budaya) and National Library. The architecture of the gallery incorporates elements of traditional Malay architecture, as well as contemporary modern architecture. The National Art Gallery serves as a centre of excellence and trustee of the national art heritage. The Petronas Art Gallery, another centre for fine art, is situated in Kuala Lumpur City Centre (KLCC). The Galeri Tangsi near Dataran Merdeka houses exhibitions of works by local and foreign artists. The Kuala Lumpur Performing Arts Centre (KLPac) in Sentul West is one of the most established centres for the performing arts, notably theatre, music, and film screening, in the country. It has housed many local productions and has been a supporter of local and regional independent performance artists. One of the highlights in 2006 was the KL Sing Song 2006 music fest which featured Malaysian singer-songwriters of various cultural backgrounds, from both West and East Malaysia, through two days of performances and workshops. Kuala Lumpur holds the Malaysia International Gourmet Festival annually. Another event hosted annually by the city is the Kuala Lumpur Fashion Week, which includes international brands as well as local designers. Sports and recreation The National Stadium at Bukit Jalil. Kuala Lumpur has numerous parks and open spaces for recreational purposes. Total open space for recreational and sport facilities land use in the city has increased significantly by 169.6 percent from in 1984 to in 2000. Kuala Lumpur is one of the host cities for the Formula One World Championship, the open-wheel auto racing A1 Grand Prix and the Motorcycle Grand Prix with races being held at Sepang International Circuit in the neighbouring state of Selangor, next to the Kuala Lumpur International Airport. The Formula One event contributes significantly to tourist arrivals and tourism income to Kuala Lumpur. This was evident during the Asian Financial Crisis in 1998. Despite cities around Asia suffering declining tourist arrivals, Kuala Lumpur tourist arrivals increased from 6,210,900 in 1997 to 10,221,600 in 2000, or 64.6% increase in tourist arrivals. KL Grand Prix CSI 5*, a five-star international showjumping equestrian event is held annually in the city. This annual event draws the world’s top riders and their prized horses to Malaysia. Other annual sport events hosted by the city include the KL Tower Run, the KL Tower International BASE Jump Merdeka Circuit and the Kuala Lumpur International Marathon. Kuala Lumpur is also one of the stages of the Tour de Langkawi cycling race. The annual Malaysia Open Super Series badminton tournament is held in Kuala Lumpur. Kuala Lumpur has a considerable array of sports facilities of international class after hosting the 1998 Commonwealth Games. Many of these facilities including the main stadium (with running track and a football field), hockey stadium and swimming pools are located in the National Sports Complex at Bukit Jalil while a velodrome and more swimming pools are located in Bandar Tun Razak, next to the Taman Tasik Permaisuri Lake Gardens. There are also soccer fields, local sports complexes, swimming pools and tennis courts scattered around the suburbs. Badminton and ‘takraw’ courts are usually included in community halls. Kuala Lumpur has several golf courses including the Kuala Lumpur Golf and Country Club (KLGCC) and the Malaysia Civil Service Golf Club in Kiara and the Berjaya Golf Course at Bukit Jalil. The city also has numerous large private fitness centers run by California Fitness, Fitness First, Celebrity Gym, True Fitness and the major five star hotels. Media The Kuala Lumpur Tower is an important broadcast centre in the country. There are several newspapers, including daily newspapers, opposition newspaper, business newspapers and also a digital newspaper, based in Kuala Lumpur. Daily newspapers include Utusan Malaysia, Berita Harian, Harian Metro, The Star, New Straits Times, The Sun, Malay Mail, Kosmo! as well as other language newspapers like Sin Chew Daily, China Press, Nanyang Siang Pau and others oppositions newspapers such as Harakah, Suara Keadilan, Siasah and Wasilah. Kuala Lumpur is also the headquarters for Malaysia's state broadcaster RTM and Media Prima, a media corporation which houses the commercial television stations TV3, ntv7, 8TV and TV9. Programmes are broadcast in Malay, English, Chinese and Tamil. TM Tower is the headquarters of Malaysia's principal telecommunication service provider. The city is also home to the country's main pay-TV service, Astro, a satellite television service, which broadcasts local and global television channels such as CNN, BBC World, Star World and HBO. Astro official website Al-Jazeera, the Doha-based Arab news network has launched a new English-speaking channel called Al-Jazeera English to boost its international viewership with one of its broadcast centers based in Kuala Lumpur. Phoenix TV, a Hong Kong based television broadcaster has also announced plans to expand its regional business by partnership with local satellite TV provider, Astro. Astro launches Phoenix InfoNews Channel InfoNews Channel launches its broadcast services in Malaysia via Astro The Hong Kong office of Channel V International, an international music channel, relocated its programme production unit in Kuala Lumpur by appointing the local company Double Vision Sdn Bhd. In March 2008, Time Out, the international listings and events magazine, launched in Kuala Lumpur as its 24th global city. Kuala Lumpur has been featured in all aspects of popular culture such as movies, television, music and books. Movies set in Kuala Lumpur include Entrapment, starring Sean Connery and Catherine Zeta-Jones, and Children of Men, (starring Clive Owen) where the Petronas Twin Towers were depicted in flames for a few seconds. Books which were set in Kuala Lumpur include KL 24/7 by Ida M Rahim, Shireen Zainudin and Rizal Zainudin and Democracy by Joan Didion. Kuala Lumpur is also mentioned in many songs by local Malaysian artists such as Keroncong Kuala Lumpur by P. Ramlee, Kuala Lumpur, Ibu Kota by Saloma, Chow Kit Road by Sudirman Arshad, Senyumlah Kuala Lumpur by Alleycats, Streets of Kuala Lumpur by Murkyway, K.L. by Vandal, Kuala Lumpur by Poetic Ammo, Anak Dara by Azmyl Yunor and KL by Too Phat. Kuala Lumpur was also one of the destinations in The Amazing Race Asia and The Amazing Race. Games have also been set in Kuala Lumpur. They include three levels of the game Hitman 2: Silent Assassin and two levels of the PlayStation 2 game Burnout Dominator. Transportation The busy Jalan Ampang at night leading straight to the Petronas Towers. Unlike most other Asian cities, driving is the main mode of commuting in Kuala Lumpur. Hence, every part of the city is well connected by highways. As capital of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur has a comprehensive road network that leads to the rest of Peninsular Malaysia. High speed roadways, or expressways are tolled roadways, and motorists using these expressways have an option of paying by cash, or by stored value cards such as Touch 'n Go and SmartTAG. In terms of air connectivity, Kuala Lumpur is served by two airports. The main airport, Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA), which is also the aviation hub of Malaysia, is located about south of city. The other airport is Subang Airport which used to be the main international airport serving the city until KLIA replaced it when it opened in 1998. The airport connects the city with direct flights to destinations in six continents around the world, and is the main hub for the national carrier, Malaysia Airlines. KLIA can be reached using the KLIA Ekspres high-speed train service from KL Sentral which takes only twenty-eight minutes, while travelling by car via highway will take about an hour. As of 2007, Subang Airport is only used for chartered and turboprops flights by airlines such as Firefly and Berjaya Air. KL Sentral at night. Public transport on Kuala Lumpur and the rest of the Klang Valley covers a variety of transport modes such as bus, rail and taxi. Despite efforts to promote usage of public transportation, utilisation rates are low as only 16 percent of the population used public transportation in 2006. The rapid transit system in Kuala Lumpur consists of three separate rail systems which meet in the city and extends towards other parts of Klang Valley. The rail systems are RapidKL RAIL, KL Monorail, and KTM Komuter. These lines have either underground or elevated stations around the city. The main rapid transit hub is KL Sentral which facilitates as an interchange station for the rail systems. KL Sentral is also a hub for intercity railway operated by KTM Intercity. It provides rail services to as far as Singapore in the south, and Hat Yai, Thailand, in the north. Platform of the KLCC LRT station along the Kelana Jaya Line (Putra LRT) in Kuala Lumpur. The largest public transportation operator in Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley is RapidKL. Since the take over from Intrakota Komposit Sdn Bhd, RapidKL has redrawn the entire bus network of Kuala Lumpur and Klang Valley metropolitan area Rapid KL to revamp network to increase ridership and improve Kuala Lumpur's public transportation system. The management of RapidKL has adopted the hub and spoke system to provide greater connectivity, and cut down the need of more buses. RapidKL is also the operator of three rapid transit rail lines in Kuala Lumpur, namely Ampang Line, Sri Petaling Line and Kelana Jaya Line. Kuala Lumpur is served by Port Klang, located about 64 km (40 mi) southwest of the city. The port is the largest and busiest in the country handling about of cargo in 2006. Education Victoria Institution is one of the oldest secondary schools in the country. According to government statistics, Kuala Lumpur has a literacy rate of 97.5% in 2000, the highest rate in any state or territory in Malaysia. In Malaysia, Malay is the language of instruction for most subjects while English is a compulsory subject and is used as the language of instruction for mathematics and the natural sciences. There are also schools which provide Mandarin and Tamil as languages of instruction for certain subjects. In Kuala Lumpur alone, there are 13 tertiary education institutions, 79 high schools, 155 elementary schools and 136 kindergartens. There are several notable institutions located in the city which have existed for more than 100 years, such as, Bukit Bintang Girls' School (1893); Victoria Institution (1893); Methodist Girls' School, Kuala Lumpur (1896); Methodist Boys' School (1897); Convent Bukit Nanas (1899) and St. John's Institution (1904); Kuala Lumpur is home to the University of Malaya. Established in 1962, it is the oldest university in Malaysia, and one of the oldest in the region. It is also the most prestigious tertiary institution in Malaysia, having been ranked first among the universities in Malaysia in the 2004 THES international rankings. In recent years, the number of international students at University of Malaya has risen, a result of increasing efforts made to attract more international students. Other universities located in Kuala Lumpur include International Medical University, Open University Malaysia, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Wawasan Open University and the branch campus of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Apart from these, universities located around Kuala Lumpur include Monash University Malaysia Campus, Taylor's University College, HELP University College and others. The National Defence University of Malaysia is located at Sungai Besi Army Base, at the southern part of central Kuala Lumpur. It was established to be a major centre for military and defence technology studies. This institution covers studies in the field of army, navy, and air force. Sister cities Mashhad, Iran (October 2006) Esfahan, Iran {{cite web|year=2005|url=http://www.council.isfahan.ir/EStatic/WFESisterhood.aspx |title=Sisterhoods|work=Isfahan Islamic Council|accessdate=2007-12-04}} Shiraz, Iran Casablanca, Morocco Malacca, Malaysia (April 15, 1989) Kuala Lumpur fact file, Asian-Pacific City Summit. Retrieved on November 3, 2007. Osaka, Japan Ankara, Turkey Delhi, India Delhi to London, it’s a sister act The Times of India. Retrieved on August 30, 2008 References See also 2005 Malaysian haze 2020 Summer Olympics Kuala Lumpur FA External links Official Kuala Lumpur Website Kuala Lumpur City Hall ITIS Kuala Lumpur Kuala Lumpur Hotels Related information be-x-old:Куала Лумпур | Kuala_Lumpur |@lemmatized kuala:152 lumpur:154 english:6 dictionary:1 com:2 retrieve:4 november:3 malay:17 locally:3 even:2 often:1 abbreviate:1 k:2 l:2 capital:10 large:18 city:79 malaysia:75 proper:3 make:4 area:10 estimate:4 population:13 million:5 great:2 also:32 know:10 klang:14 valley:11 urban:3 agglomeration:1 fast:2 grow:4 metropolitan:4 region:5 country:15 term:5 well:13 economy:4 seat:6 parliament:6 home:10 executive:2 judicial:2 branch:2 federal:15 government:13 since:5 move:2 putrajaya:4 start:2 section:2 judiciary:1 remain:8 official:6 residence:1 malaysian:10 king:2 istana:4 negara:8 situate:3 cultural:7 economic:11 centre:26 due:2 position:1 primate:2 rat:1 alpha:1 world:18 global:5 accord:2 globalization:1 study:3 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3,842 | George_William,_Elector_of_Brandenburg | George William, Elector of Brandenburg George William () (13 November 1595 – December 1 1640) of the Hohenzollern dynasty was margrave and elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia (1619-1640). His reign was marked by ineffective governance during the Thirty Years' War. Biography Early life Born in Cölln on the Spree, George William was the son of Margrave John Sigismund and Anna of Prussia. His maternal grandfather was Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia. In 1616 George William married Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate. Their only son Frederick William later became known as the "Great Elector". Of his two daughters, the eldest, Louise Charlotte, married Jacob Kettler, Duke of Courland and the younger, Hedwig Sophie, married William VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel). Rule In 1619 George William inherited the Margravate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia. During the Thirty Years' War, he tried to remain neutral between the Roman Catholic forces of the Holy Roman Empire and the Protestant principalities. As his sister Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg was queen of Sweden, George William had to maneuver between requests of assistance from his Protestant brother-in-law King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and his own Protestant counsellors on one side and his Catholic chancellor Count Adam von Schwarzenberg on the other. Despite his attempts at neutrality, he was forced by Gustavus Adolphus to join the Protestant forces in 1631. His rule was largely weak and ineffective however, as much of Brandenburg-Prussia's government responsibilities were left with Schwarzenberg as the country suffered greatly during the war. Protestant and Catholic troops alike burned and plundered the region and the population was decimated there as it was throughout the German states during that conflict. With his brother-in-law Gustavus dead (1632), Goorge William stayed with the Swedish alliance until after the Swedish defeat at the Battle of Nordlingen on September 6 1634. George William withdrew Brandenburg from the war and signed the Peace of Prague with Emperor Ferdinand II on May 30 1635. Leaving Schwarzenberg in charge of the government, George William retreated in 1637 to the relatively safe region of the Duchy of Prussia where he lived in retirement until his death at Königsberg in 1640. He was succeeded by his son, Frederick William. Legacy His great-great-grandson Frederick II the Great later wrote about him, that this was the unluckiest time, it is a shame that Georg Wilhelm did not put up an army, before the combatants of the Thirty Years War destroyed the land, where the ravages can still be witnessed so many years later. Ancestors + George William's ancestors in three generations George William, Elector of Brandenburg Father:John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg Paternal Grandfather:Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg Paternal Great-grandfather:John George, Elector of Brandenburg Paternal Great-grandmother:Sofie of Liegnitz Paternal Grandmother:Catherine, Princess of Brandenburg-Küstrin Paternal Great-grandfather:John I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Küstrin Paternal Great-grandmother:Catherine, Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Mother:Anna, Duchess of Prussia Maternal Grandfather:Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia Maternal Great-grandfather:Albert, Duke of Prussia Maternal Great-grandmother:Anna Marie of Brunswick-Lüneburg Maternal Grandmother:Marie Eleonore of Cleves Maternal Great-grandfather:Wilhelm, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg Maternal Great-grandmother:Maria of Habsburg, Archduchess of Austria References Wedgwood, Cicely V. The Thirty Years War, New York, 1961. External links | George_William,_Elector_of_Brandenburg |@lemmatized george:11 william:14 elector:7 brandenburg:12 november:1 december:1 hohenzollern:1 dynasty:1 margrave:3 duke:6 prussia:9 reign:1 mark:1 ineffective:2 governance:1 thirty:4 year:5 war:6 biography:1 early:1 life:1 bear:1 cölln:1 spree:1 son:3 john:4 sigismund:2 anna:3 maternal:7 grandfather:7 albert:3 frederick:6 married:1 elisabeth:1 charlotte:2 palatinate:1 later:2 become:1 know:1 great:12 two:1 daughter:1 eldest:1 louise:1 marry:2 jacob:1 kettler:1 courland:1 young:1 hedwig:1 sophie:1 vi:1 landgrave:1 hesse:2 kassel:1 cassel:1 rule:2 inherit:1 margravate:1 duchy:2 try:1 remain:1 neutral:1 roman:2 catholic:3 force:3 holy:1 empire:1 protestant:5 principality:1 sister:1 maria:2 eleonora:1 queen:1 sweden:2 maneuver:1 request:1 assistance:1 brother:2 law:2 king:1 gustavus:3 adolphus:2 counsellor:1 one:1 side:1 chancellor:1 count:1 adam:1 von:1 schwarzenberg:3 despite:1 attempt:1 neutrality:1 join:1 largely:1 weak:1 however:1 much:1 government:2 responsibility:1 leave:2 country:1 suffer:1 greatly:1 troop:1 alike:1 burn:1 plunder:1 region:2 population:1 decimate:1 throughout:1 german:1 state:1 conflict:1 dead:1 goorge:1 stay:1 swedish:2 alliance:1 defeat:1 battle:1 nordlingen:1 september:1 withdrew:1 sign:1 peace:1 prague:1 emperor:1 ferdinand:1 ii:2 may:1 charge:1 retreat:1 relatively:1 safe:1 live:1 retirement:1 death:1 königsberg:1 succeed:1 legacy:1 grandson:1 late:1 write:1 unluckiest:1 time:1 shame:1 georg:1 wilhelm:2 put:1 army:1 combatant:1 destroy:1 land:1 ravage:1 still:1 witness:1 many:1 ancestor:2 three:1 generation:1 father:1 paternal:6 joachim:1 grandmother:6 sofie:1 liegnitz:1 catherine:2 princess:1 küstrin:2 duchess:2 brunswick:2 wolfenbüttel:1 mother:1 marie:2 lüneburg:1 eleonore:1 clef:2 jülich:1 berg:1 habsburg:1 archduchess:1 austria:1 reference:1 wedgwood:1 cicely:1 v:1 new:1 york:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram elector_brandenburg:6 maternal_grandfather:2 landgrave_hesse:1 hesse_kassel:1 kassel_hesse:1 hesse_cassel:1 duchy_prussia:2 gustavus_adolphus:2 adolphus_sweden:1 brandenburg_prussia:1 georg_wilhelm:1 brandenburg_paternal:3 paternal_grandfather:1 joachim_frederick:1 paternal_grandmother:1 grandmother_catherine:2 brandenburg_küstrin:2 margrave_brandenburg:1 brunswick_wolfenbüttel:1 brunswick_lüneburg:1 maternal_grandmother:1 archduchess_austria:1 external_link:1 |
3,843 | Military_of_Gabon | Gabon has a small, professional military of about 5,000 personnel, divided into army, navy, air force, gendarmerie, and national police. Gabonese forces are oriented to the defense of the country and have not been trained for an offensive role. A well-trained, well-equipped 1,800-member guard provides security for the president. Military branches: Army, Navy, Air Force, Presidential (Republican) Guard (charged with protecting the president and other senior officials), National Gendarmerie, National Police Military manpower - military age: 20 years of age Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 284,358 (2002 est.) Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 146,908 (2002 est.) Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 11,304 (2002 est.) Military expenditures - dollar figure: $70.8 million (FY01) Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2% (FY01) Equipment APC: 1x Pandur II 8X8 (in testing), 12 EE-3 Jararaca, 12 EE-11 Urutu, 14 EE-9 Cascavel, 14 ERC, 20 Pandur, 9 V-150, 24 AML, 10 M3 Aircraft Inventory The Air Force operates 33 aircraft, including 9 combat jets and 5 helicopters. In addition to the Air Force, the Army operates its own fleet of 8 helicopters. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service Gabonese military aviation OrBat ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Aérospatiale SA 316 Alouette III || || utility helicopter || SA 316B || 3 || |----- | ATR-42 || || passenger transport || ATR 42 || 1 || |----- | Beechcraft T-34 Mentor || || trainer || T-34C || 4 || |----- | Bell 412 || || transport helicopter || 412SP || 1 || |----- | Douglas DC-8 || || VIP transport|| DC-8 || 1 || |----- | CASA CN-235 || || tactical transport || CN-235-200M || 1 || |----- | Cessna 152 || || utility || || 1 || |----- | Dassault Falcon 900 || || VIP transport || || 1 || |----- | Dassault Mirage F1 || || ground attack || F1AZ || 8 || ex SAAF |----- | Dassault Mirage V || || trainerfighter || >Mirage 5DGMirage 5G || 27 || Might be withdrawn from use |----- | Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante || || transportmaritime patrol || EMB-110P1EMB-111A || 31 || |----- | Eurocopter SA 332 Super Puma || || transport helicopter || SA-332F || 1 || |----- | Fouga Magister || || trainer || CM 170 || 4 || built by Valmet |----- | Lockheed C-130 Hercules || || tactical transport || C-130HL-100-20L-100-30 || 111 || |} ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15 2007. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Aérospatiale SA 342 Gazelle || || scout helicopter || SA-342L || 5 || |----- | Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma || || transport helicopter || SA-330 || 3 || |} References | Military_of_Gabon |@lemmatized gabon:1 small:1 professional:1 military:13 personnel:1 divide:1 army:3 navy:2 air:4 force:5 gendarmerie:2 national:3 police:2 gabonese:2 orient:1 defense:1 country:1 train:2 offensive:1 role:1 well:2 equip:1 member:1 guard:2 provide:1 security:1 president:2 branch:1 presidential:1 republican:1 charge:1 protect:1 senior:1 official:1 manpower:4 age:5 year:1 availability:1 male:3 est:3 fit:1 service:3 reach:1 annually:1 expenditure:1 dollar:1 figure:1 million:1 expenditures:1 percent:1 gdp:1 equipment:1 apc:1 pandur:2 ii:1 test:1 ee:3 jararaca:1 urutu:1 cascavel:1 erc:1 v:2 aml:1 aircraft:5 inventory:2 operate:2 include:1 combat:1 jet:1 helicopter:7 addition:1 fleet:1 style:12 text:12 align:12 left:12 background:12 aacccc:12 origin:2 type:2 version:2 aviation:2 orbat:1 note:2 aérospatiale:3 sa:8 alouette:1 iii:1 utility:2 atr:2 passenger:1 transport:8 beechcraft:1 mentor:1 trainer:2 bell:1 douglas:1 dc:2 vip:2 casa:1 cn:2 tactical:2 cessna:1 dassault:3 falcon:1 mirage:3 ground:1 attack:1 ex:1 saaf:1 trainerfighter:1 might:1 withdraw:1 use:1 embraer:1 emb:2 bandeirante:1 transportmaritime:1 patrol:1 eurocopter:1 super:1 puma:2 fouga:1 magister:1 cm:1 build:1 valmet:1 lockheed:1 c:2 hercules:1 world:1 aerospace:1 source:1 book:1 week:1 space:1 technology:1 january:1 gazelle:1 scout:1 reference:1 |@bigram manpower_availability:1 manpower_fit:1 military_expenditures:1 expenditures_percent:1 align_left:12 background_aacccc:12 aviation_orbat:1 aérospatiale_sa:3 sa_alouette:1 alouette_iii:1 utility_helicopter:1 douglas_dc:1 vip_transport:2 cessna_utility:1 dassault_mirage:2 inventory_aerospace:1 sa_puma:1 |
3,844 | Harwich,_Massachusetts | Harwich is a town on Cape Cod, in Barnstable County in the state of Massachusetts in the United States. Barnstable County is coextensive with Cape Cod. The town is a popular vacation spot, located near the Cape Cod National Seashore. Harwich's beaches are on "the Sound side" of Cape Cod; the shores that face Nantucket Sound. Harwich has 3 active harbors. Saquatucket, Wychmere and Allen Harbors are all in Harwich Port. The town is known for its many cranberry salt bogs, which produce cranberries that are commercially farmed. Harwich also contains the largest lake on the Cape, called Long Pond, which serves as a private airport for planes with the ability to land on water. In the summer, the town is host to the Harwich Mariners of the Cape Cod Baseball League.The Mariners are the 2008 league champions. The team plays at Whitehouse Field. For geographic and demographic information on specific parts of the town of Harwich, please see the articles on East Harwich, Harwich Center, Harwich Port, North Harwich and West Harwich. History Harwich was first settled in 1670 as the eastern parish of the town of Yarmouth. The town was officially incorporated in 1694, and originally included the lands of the current town of Brewster. Early industry involved fishing and farming. The town is considered by some to be the birthplace of the cranberry industry, with the first commercial operation opened in 1846. There are still many bogs in the town, although the economy is now more centered on tourism and as a residential/retirement community. The town is also the site of the start/finish line of the "Sail Around the Cape," which rounds the Cape counter-clockwise, returning via the Cape Cod Canal. Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket Street Atlas. South Easton, MA: Arrow Maps Inc., 2004, p. 60. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 33.2 square miles (85.9 km²), of which, 21.0 square miles (54.5 km²) of it is land and 12.1 square miles (31.4 km²) of it (36.53%) is water. The seven villages of Harwich are: Pleasant Lake, North Harwich, East Harwich, South Harwich, Harwich Center, Harwich Port and West Harwich. These villages are also referred to as the Harwiches. Harwich is on the southern side of Cape Cod, just west of the southeastern corner. It is bordered by Brewster to the north, Orleans and Chatham to the east, Nantucket Sound to the south, and Dennis to the west. Harwich is approximately twelve miles east of Barnstable, twenty-eight miles east of the Cape Cod Canal, thirty-five miles south of Provincetown, and eighty miles southeast of Boston. Cape Cod's largest inland body of water, Long Pond, lies on the Brewster border as well as several other smaller bodies of water. The shore is home to several harbors and rivers, including the Herring River, Allens Harbor, Wychmere Harbor, Saquatucket Harbor, and the Andrews River. The town is also the home to the Hawksnest State Park, as well as a marina and several beaches, including two on Long Pond. Demographics The First Congregational Church of Harwich, in Harwich Center. As of the census of 2000, there were 12,386 people, 5,471 households, and 3,545 families residing in the town. The population density was 588.6 people per square mile (227.3/km²). There were 9,450 housing units at an average density of 449.1/sq mi (173.4/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 95.41% White, 0.71% Black or African American, 0.19% Native American, 0.22% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 2.03% from other races, and 1.40% from two or more races. 0.96% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 5,471 households out of which 21.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.4% were married couples living together, 9.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.2% were non-families. 29.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.20 and the average family size was 2.72. In the town the population was spread out with 18.3% under the age of 18, 4.2% from 18 to 24, 22.1% from 25 to 44, 25.8% from 45 to 64, and 29.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 49 years. For every 100 females there were 84.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.7 males. The median income for a household in the town was $41,552, and the median income for a family was $51,070. Males had a median income of $38,948 versus $27,439 for females. The per capita income for the town was $23,063. About 2.9% of families and 5.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.4% of those under age 18 and 4.1% of those age 65 or over. Government Harwich is represented in the Massachusetts House of Representatives as a part of the Fourth Barnstable district, which includes (with the exception of Brewster) all the towns east and north of Harwich on the Cape. The town is represented in the Massachusetts Senate as a part of the Cape and Islands District, which includes all of Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket except the towns of Bourne, Falmouth, Sandwich and a portion of Barnstable. Index of Legislative Representation by City and Town, from Mass.gov The town is patrolled by the Second (Yarmouth) Barracks of Troop D of the Massachusetts State Police. Station D-2, SP Yarmouth On the national level, Harwich is a part of Massachusetts's 10th congressional district, and is currently represented by Bill Delahunt. The state's senior (Class I) member of the United States Senate, re-elected in 2006, is Ted Kennedy. The junior (Class II) Senator, up for re-election in 2008, is John Kerry. Harwich is governed by the open town meeting form of government, led by a town administrator and a board of selectmen. Harwich has its own police and fire departments, with two fire stations; Headquarters (next to the police station) in Harwich Center and Station Two East Harwich at the intersection on Routes 137 and 39. There are post offices, in Harwich Center, Harwich Port, South Harwich, West Harwich, and East Harwich. There are three libraries in the town. The municipal library, the Brooks Free Library in Harwich Center, is the largest and is a member of the Cape Libraries Automated Materials Sharing (CLAMS) network. There are two smaller non-municipal libraries - the Chase Library on Route 28 at the Dennis town line, and the Harwich Port Library on Lower bank St. in Harwich Port. Harwich is also the site of the Long Pong Medical Center, which serves the southeastern Cape region. Education Harwich operates its own school system for its approximately 1,400 students. Harwich Elementary School serves students from pre-kindergarten through fifth grade, Harwich Middle School serves grades 6-8, and Harwich High School serves grades 9-12. Harwich's teams are known as the Rough Riders, and their colors are blue and gold. Harwich is known for its excellent boys basketball, girls basketball, girls field hockey and baseball teams. In addition to public schools, Harwich is also the site of Cape Cod Regional Vocational Technical High School, which serves most of Cape Cod. The town is also home to Holy Trinity Regional School, a Catholic school which serves pre-kindergarten through fifth grades. Transportation Roadways Two of Cape Cod's major east-west routes, U.S. Route 6 and Route 28, cross the town. The town is also the southern termini of Routes 39 and 124 as well as a portion of Route 137, pass through the town. Cape Cod Rail Trail A portion of the Cape Cod Rail Trail, as well as several other bicycle routes, are in town. There is no rail service in town. Air Travel Other than the occasional sea plane landing on the pond, the nearest airport is in neighboring Chatham; the nearest regional service is at Barnstable Municipal Airport; and the nearest national and international air service is at Logan International Airport in Boston. CCRTA Bus Connections In recent years parts of Cape Cod have introduced bus service, especially during the summer to help cut down on traffic. The Flex Harwich Port - North Truro (Off Season Schedule) or Provincetown (Summer Schedule) via Brewster, Eastham, Orleans & Routes 137, 6 & 6A. Route H20 Hyannis, MA - Orleans, MA via West Dennis, Harwich Port, Chatham & Route 28 Notable Residents Shawn Fanning - Creator and Owner of MP3 music downloading application, Napster. Graduated from Harwich High School in 1998. References External links Town of Harwich official website Brooks Free Library Harwich Chamber of Commerce tourist information Harwich Public Schools Harwich Mariners Harwich Harbormaster & Natural Resources The Cape Cod Chronicle, Harwich's hometown newspaper Photos and Video of Weir Fishing in Harwich, MA Cape Cod Regional Transit Authority The Flex Bus Route | Harwich,_Massachusetts |@lemmatized harwich:57 town:34 cape:26 cod:19 barnstable:6 county:2 state:7 massachusetts:5 united:3 coextensive:1 popular:1 vacation:1 spot:1 locate:1 near:4 national:3 seashore:1 beach:2 sound:3 side:2 shore:2 face:1 nantucket:4 active:1 harbor:6 saquatucket:2 wychmere:2 allen:1 port:8 know:3 many:2 cranberry:3 salt:1 bog:2 produce:1 commercially:1 farm:1 also:8 contain:1 large:3 lake:2 call:1 long:4 pond:4 serve:4 private:1 airport:4 plane:2 ability:1 land:4 water:4 summer:3 host:1 mariner:3 baseball:2 league:2 champion:1 team:3 play:1 whitehouse:1 field:2 geographic:1 demographic:1 information:2 specific:1 part:5 please:1 see:1 article:1 east:9 center:7 north:5 west:7 history:1 first:3 settle:1 eastern:1 parish:1 yarmouth:3 officially:1 incorporate:1 originally:1 include:6 current:1 brewster:5 early:1 industry:2 involve:1 fishing:2 farming:1 consider:1 birthplace:1 commercial:1 operation:1 open:2 still:1 although:1 economy:1 centered:1 tourism:1 residential:1 retirement:1 community:1 site:3 start:1 finish:1 line:3 sail:1 around:1 round:1 counter:1 clockwise:1 return:1 via:3 canal:2 martha:2 vineyard:2 street:1 atlas:1 south:5 easton:1 arrow:1 map:1 inc:1 p:1 geography:1 accord:1 census:2 bureau:1 total:1 area:1 square:4 mile:8 seven:1 village:2 pleasant:1 refer:1 harwiches:1 southern:2 southeastern:2 corner:1 border:2 orleans:3 chatham:3 dennis:3 approximately:2 twelve:1 twenty:1 eight:1 thirty:1 five:1 provincetown:2 eighty:1 southeast:1 boston:2 inland:1 body:2 lie:1 well:4 several:4 small:2 home:3 river:3 herring:1 allens:1 andrew:1 hawksnest:1 park:1 marina:1 two:6 demographics:1 congregational:1 church:1 people:2 household:5 family:5 reside:1 population:4 density:2 per:2 housing:1 unit:1 average:3 sq:1 mi:1 racial:1 makeup:1 white:1 black:1 african:1 american:2 native:1 asian:1 pacific:1 islander:1 race:3 hispanic:1 latino:1 child:1 age:8 living:1 marry:1 couple:1 live:2 together:1 female:4 householder:1 husband:1 present:1 non:2 make:1 individual:1 someone:1 alone:1 year:4 old:2 size:2 spread:1 median:4 every:2 male:3 income:4 versus:1 capita:1 poverty:1 government:2 represent:3 house:1 representative:1 fourth:1 district:3 exception:1 senate:2 island:1 except:1 bourne:1 falmouth:1 sandwich:1 portion:3 index:1 legislative:1 representation:1 city:1 mass:1 gov:1 patrol:1 second:1 barrack:1 troop:1 police:3 station:4 sp:1 level:1 congressional:1 currently:1 bill:1 delahunt:1 senior:1 class:2 member:2 elect:1 ted:1 kennedy:1 junior:1 ii:1 senator:1 election:1 john:1 kerry:1 govern:1 meeting:1 form:1 lead:1 administrator:1 board:1 selectman:1 fire:2 department:1 headquarters:1 next:1 intersection:1 route:11 post:1 office:1 three:1 library:7 municipal:3 brook:2 free:2 libraries:1 automate:1 material:1 share:1 clam:1 network:1 chase:1 low:1 bank:1 st:1 pong:1 medical:1 region:1 education:1 operate:1 school:10 system:1 student:2 elementary:1 serf:3 pre:2 kindergarten:2 fifth:2 grade:4 middle:1 high:3 rough:1 rider:1 color:1 blue:1 gold:1 excellent:1 boy:1 basketball:2 girl:1 girls:1 hockey:1 addition:1 public:2 regional:4 vocational:1 technical:1 holy:1 trinity:1 catholic:1 transportation:1 roadways:1 major:1 u:1 cross:1 terminus:1 pas:1 rail:3 trail:2 bicycle:1 service:4 air:2 travel:1 occasional:1 sea:1 neighbor:1 international:2 logan:1 ccrta:1 bus:3 connection:1 recent:1 introduce:1 especially:1 help:1 cut:1 traffic:1 flex:2 truro:1 season:1 schedule:2 eastham:1 rout:1 hyannis:1 notable:1 resident:1 shawn:1 fan:1 creator:1 owner:1 music:1 download:1 application:1 napster:1 graduate:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 chamber:1 commerce:1 tourist:1 harbormaster:1 natural:1 resource:1 chronicle:1 hometown:1 newspaper:1 photo:1 video:1 weir:1 transit:1 authority:1 |@bigram cape_cod:19 harwich_harwich:3 counter_clockwise:1 martha_vineyard:2 census_bureau:1 southeastern_corner:1 density_sq:1 sq_mi:1 mi_racial:1 racial_makeup:1 pacific_islander:1 islander_race:1 hispanic_latino:1 latino_race:1 female_householder:1 householder_husband:1 male_median:2 median_income:3 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 congressional_district:1 board_selectman:1 rough_rider:1 external_link:1 chamber_commerce:1 |
3,845 | Geography_of_Jersey | This article describes the geography of Jersey, an island territory in the English Channel. The island of Jersey has an area of 116 square kilometres, with 70 kilometres of coastline. Jersey claims a territorial sea of 3 nautical miles and an exclusive fishing zone of 12 nm. Jersey is the largest and southernmost of the Channel Islands. It is located north of Brittany and west of the Cotentin Peninsula in Normandy. About 30% of the population of the island is concentrated in Saint Helier. Physical geography Besides the main island, the bailiwick includes other islets and reefs with no permanent population: Les Écréhous, Les Minquiers, Les Pierres de Lecq, Les Dirouilles. The climate in the island is temperate, with mild winters and cool summers. The terrain is generally low-lying on the south coast, with some rocky headlands, rising gradually to rugged cliffs along the north coast. On the west coast there are sand dunes. Small valleys run north to south across the island. Very large tidal variation exposes large expanses of sand and rock to the southeast at low tide. The lowest point in the island is the Atlantic Ocean, and the highest is Les Platons, at 143 metres. Natural resources The main natural resource on ths island is arable land. 66% of the island's land is used as such, and the remaining 34% is used for other purposes. Environment Current environmental issues for Jersey include waste disposal, air pollution and traffic. External links Jersey Tourism: Island Maps: all roads and features, and when magnified includes Parish borders Jersey Meteorological Department Jersey Tourism Coastal Microsite Prehistoric Jersey This exaggerated-colour image of Jersey was taken on September 23 2000, by NASA's Terra satellite. | Geography_of_Jersey |@lemmatized article:1 describe:1 geography:2 jersey:10 island:10 territory:1 english:1 channel:2 area:1 square:1 kilometre:2 coastline:1 claim:1 territorial:1 sea:1 nautical:1 mile:1 exclusive:1 fishing:1 zone:1 nm:1 large:3 southernmost:1 islands:1 located:1 north:3 brittany:1 west:2 cotentin:1 peninsula:1 normandy:1 population:2 concentrate:1 saint:1 helier:1 physical:1 besides:1 main:2 bailiwick:1 include:3 islet:1 reef:1 permanent:1 le:1 écréhous:1 les:4 minquiers:1 pierre:1 de:1 lecq:1 dirouilles:1 climate:1 temperate:1 mild:1 winter:1 cool:1 summer:1 terrain:1 generally:1 low:3 lie:1 south:2 coast:3 rocky:1 headland:1 rise:1 gradually:1 rugged:1 cliff:1 along:1 sand:2 dune:1 small:1 valley:1 run:1 across:1 tidal:1 variation:1 expose:1 expanse:1 rock:1 southeast:1 tide:1 point:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 high:1 platons:1 metre:1 natural:2 resource:2 th:1 arable:1 land:2 use:2 remain:1 purpose:1 environment:1 current:1 environmental:1 issue:1 waste:1 disposal:1 air:1 pollution:1 traffic:1 external:1 link:1 tourism:2 map:1 road:1 feature:1 magnify:1 parish:1 border:1 meteorological:1 department:1 coastal:1 microsite:1 prehistoric:1 exaggerated:1 colour:1 image:1 take:1 september:1 nasa:1 terra:1 satellite:1 |@bigram square_kilometre:1 nautical_mile:1 cotentin_peninsula:1 saint_helier:1 rugged_cliff:1 sand_dune:1 atlantic_ocean:1 arable_land:1 waste_disposal:1 external_link:1 |
3,846 | Adhesive | Nitrocellulose adhesive in a tube Adhesive or glue is a compound in a liquid or semi-liquid state that adheres or bonds items together. Adhesives may come from either natural or synthetic sources. Some modern adhesives are extremely strong, and are becoming increasingly important in modern construction and industry. The types of materials that can be bonded using adhesives is virtually limitless, but they are especially useful for bonding thin materials. Adhesives usually require a controlled temperature to cure or set. They can be electrically and thermally conductive or nonconductive. . History The first adhesives were natural gums and other plant resins or saps. It was believed that the Sumerian people were the first to use them until it was discovered that Neanderthals as far back as 80,000 years made adhesives from birch bark. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1766683.stm The discovery of 6000-year-old ceramics brought evidence to archaeologists about the first practical uses and ingredients of the first adhesives. Most early adhesives were animal glues made by rendering animal products such as horse teeth. During the times of Babylonia, tar-like glue was used for gluing statues. The Egyptians made much use of animal glues to adhere furniture, ivory, and papyrus. The Mongols also used adhesives to make their short bows, and the Native Americans of the eastern United States used a mixture of spruce gum and fat as adhesives to fashion waterproof seams in their birchbark canoes. In medieval Eurasia, egg whites were used as glue to decorate parchments with gold leaf. The first actual glue factory was founded in Holland in the early 1700s. In the 1750s, the English introduced fish glue. As the modern world evolved, several other patented materials, such as bones, starch, fish, and casein, were introduced as alternative materials for glue manufacture. Modern glues have improved flexibility, toughness, curing rate, and chemical resistance. Categories of adhesives Natural adhesives Natural adhesives are made from inorganic mineral sources, or biological sources such as vegetable matter, starch (dextrin), natural resins or from animals e.g. casein or animal glue. They are often referred to as bioadhesives. One example is a simple paste, made by mixing flour and water.Animal glues are traditionally used in bookbinding, wood joining, and many other areas but now are largely replaced by synthetic glues.Other form of natural adhesives is blood albumen (made from protein component of blood) and is used in plywood industry. Synthetic adhesives Elastomers, thermoplastics, Emulsion, and thermosetting adhesives are examples of synthetic adhesives. Drying adhesives These adhesives are a mixture of ingredients (typically polymers) dissolved in a solvent. White glue and rubber cements are members of the drying adhesive family. As the solvent evaporates, the adhesive hardens. Depending on the chemical composition of the adhesive, they will adhere to different materials to greater or lesser degrees. These adhesives are typically weak and are used for household applications. Contact adhesives Contact adhesives must be applied to both surfaces and allowed some time to dry before the two surfaces are pushed together. Some contact adhesives require as long as 24 hours to dry before the surfaces are to be held together. Information about contact adhesive Once the surfaces are pushed together, the bond forms very quickly, Definition of contact adhesive on About.com hence, it is usually not necessary to apply pressure for a long time. so there is no need to use clamps. Natural rubber and polychloroprene (Neoprene) are commonly used contact adhesives. Both of these elastomers undergo strain crystallization. Contact adhesives are used in strong bonds with high sheer-resistance like laminates, such as bonding Formica to a wooden counter, and in footwear, such as attaching an outsole to an upper. Hot adhesives A glue gun, an example of a hot adhesive Hot adhesives, also known as hot melt adhesives, are simply thermoplastics. They are thermoplastic materials applied in molten form (in the 65-180 C range), which solidify on cooling to form strong bonds between a wide range of materials. These adhesives have become popular for crafts because of their ease of use and the wide range of common materials to which they can adhere. A glue gun, pictured right, is one method of applying a hot adhesive. The glue gun melts the solid adhesive and then allows the liquid to pass through the "barrel" of the gun onto the material where it solidifies. Paul E. Cope is reputed to have invented thermoplastic glue around 1940 while working for Procter & Gamble as a chemical and packaging engineer. His invention solved a problem with water-based adhesives that were commonly used in packaging at that time. Water-based adhesives often released in humid climates, causing packages to open and become damaged. Emulsion adhesives Milky-white dispersions often based on polyvinyl acetate. Used extensively in the woodworking and packaging industries. Also used with fabrics and fabric-based components, and in engineered products such as loudspeaker cones. UV and light curing adhesives Ultraviolet (UV) light curing adhesives, also known as light curing materials (LCM), have become popular within the manufacturing sector due to their rapid curing time and strong bond strength. Light curing adhesives can cure in as little as a second and many formulations can bond dissimilar substrates and withstand harsh temperatures. These qualities make UV curing adhesives essential to the manufacturing of items in many industrial markets such as electronics, telecommunications, medical, aerospace, glass, and optical. Unlike traditional adhesives, UV light curing adhesives not only bond materials together but they can also be used to seal and coat products. Pressure sensitive adhesives Pressure sensitive adhesives (PSA) form a bond by the application of light pressure to marry the adhesive with the adherend. They are designed with a balance between flow and resistance to flow. The bond forms because the adhesive is soft enough to flow (i.e. "wet") the adherend. The bond has strength because the adhesive is hard enough to resist flow when stress is applied to the bond. Once the adhesive and the adherend are in close proximity, molecular interactions, such as Van der Waals forces, become involved in the bond, contributing significantly to its ultimate strength. PSAs are designed for either permanent or removable applications. Examples of permanent applications include safety labels for power equipment, foil tape for HVAC duct work, automotive interior trim assembly, and sound/vibration damping films. Some high performance permanent PSAs exhibit high adhesion values and can support kilograms of weight per square centimeter of contact area, even at elevated temperature. Permanent PSAs may be initially removable (for example to recover mislabeled goods) and build adhesion to a permanent bond after several hours or days. Removable adhesives are designed to form a temporary bond, and ideally can be removed after months or years without leaving residue on the adherend. Removable adhesives are used in applications such as surface protection films, masking tapes, bookmark and note papers, price marking labels, promotional graphics materials, and for skin contact (wound care dressings, EKG electrodes, athletic tape, analgesic and transdermal drug patches, etc.). Some removable adhesives are designed to repeatedly stick and unstick. They have low adhesion and generally can not support much weight. Pressure sensitive adhesives are manufactured with either a liquid carrier or in 100% solid form. Articles are made from liquid PSAs by coating the adhesive and drying off the solvent or water carrier. They may be further heated to initiate a cross-linking reaction and increase molecular weight. 100% solid PSAs may be low viscosity polymers that are coated and then reacted with radiation to increase molecular weight and form the adhesive; or they may be high viscosity materials that are heated to reduce viscosity enough to allow coating, and then cooled to their final form. Plastic wrap displays temporary adhesive properties as well. Mechanisms of adhesion The strength of attachment, or adhesion, between an adhesive and its substrate depends on many factors, including the means by which this occurs. Adhesion may occur either by mechanical means, in which the adhesive works its way into small pores of the substrate, or by one of several chemical mechanisms. In some cases an actual chemical bond occurs between adhesive and substrate. In others electrostatic forces, as in static electricity, hold the substances together. A third mechanism involves the van der Waals forces that develop between molecules. A fourth means involves the moisture-aided diffusion of the glue into the substrate, followed by hardening. Failure of the adhesive joint Failure of the adhesive joint can occur in different locations There are several factors that could contribute to the failure of two adhered surfaces. Sunlight and heat may weaken the adhesive. Solvents can deteriorate or dissolve adhesive. And physical stresses may cause the separation of surfaces. When subjected to loading, debonding may occur at different locations in the adhesive joint. The major fracture types are the following: Cohesive fracture Cohesive fracture is obtained if a crack propagates in the bulk polymer which constitutes the adhesive. In this case the surfaces of both adherents after debonding will be covered by fractured adhesive. The crack may propagate in the centre of the layer or near an interface. For this last case, the cohesive fracture can be said to be “cohesive near the interface”. Most quality control standards consider a good adhesive bond to be cohesive. Interfacial fracture The fracture is adhesive or interfacial when debonding occurs between the adhesive and the adherent. In most cases, the occurrence of interfacial fracture for a given adhesive goes along with a smaller fracture toughness. The interfacial character of a fracture surface is usually to identify the precise location of the crack path in the interphase. Other types of fracture Other types of fracture include: The mixed fracture type which occurs if the crack propagates at some spots in a cohesive and in others in an interfacial manner. Mixed fracture surfaces can be characterised by a certain percentage of adhesive and cohesive areas. The alternating crack path fracture type which occurs if the cracks jumps from one interface to the other. This type of fracture appears in the presence of tensile pre-stresses in the adhesive layer. Fracture can also occur in the adherent if the adhesive is tougher than the adherent. In this case the adhesive remains intact and is still bonded to one substrate and the remnants of the other. For example, when one removes a price label, adhesive usually remains on the label and the surface. This is cohesive failure. If, however, a layer of paper remains stuck to the surface, the adhesive has not failed. Another example is when someone tries to pull apart Oreo cookies and all the filling remains on one side. The goal in this case is an adhesive failure, rather than a cohesive failure. Design of adhesive joints Modes of failure A general design rule is a relation of the type is that the material properties are greater than the function required (i.e. geometry, loads, etc.). The engineering work will consist of having a good model to evaluate the function. For most adhesive joints, this can be achieved using fracture mechanics. Concepts such as the stress concentration factor and the strain energy release rate can be used to predict failure. In such models, the behavior of the adhesive layer itself is neglected and only the adherents are considered. Failure will also very much depend on the opening mode of the joint. Mode I is an opening or tensile mode where the loadings are normal to the crack. Mode II is a sliding or in-plane shear mode where the crack surfaces slide over one another in direction perpendicular to the leading edge of the crack. This is typically the mode for which the adhesive exhibits the higher resistance to fracture. Mode III is a tearing or antiplane shear mode. As the loads are usually fixed, an acceptable design will result from combination of a material selection procedure and geometry modifications, if possible. In adhesively bonded structures, the global geometry and loads are fixed by structural considerations and the design procedure focuses on the material properties of the adhesive and on local changes on the geometry. Increasing the joint resistance is usually obtained by designing its geometry so that: The bonded zone is large It is mainly loaded in mode II Stable crack propagation will follow the appearance of a local failure. Testing the resistance of the adhesive Testing devices A wide range of testing devices have been imagined to evaluate the fracture resistance of bonded structures in pure mode I, pure mode II or in mixed mode. Most of these devices are beam type specimens. We will very shortly review the most popular: Double cantilever beam tests (DCB) measure the mode I fracture resistance of adhesives in a fracture mechanics framework. These tests consist in opening an assembly of two beams by applying a force at the ends of the two beams. The test is unstable (i.e. the crack propagates along the entire specimen once a critical load is attained) and a modified version of this test characterised by a non constant inertia was proposed called the tapered double cantilever beam (TDCB) specimen. Peel tests measure the fracture resistance of a thin layer bonded on a thick substrate or of two layers bonded together. They consist in measuring the force needed for tearing an adherent layer from a substrate or for tearing two adherent layers one from another. Whereas the structure is not symmetrical, various mode mixities can be introduced in these tests. Wedge tests measure the mode I dominated fracture resistance of adhesives used to bond thin plates. These tests consist in inserting a wedge in between two bonded plates. A critical energy release rate can be derived from the crack length during testing. This test is a mode I test but some mode II component can be introduced by bonding plates of different thicknesses. Mixed-mode delaminating beam tests (MMDB) consist in a bonded bilayer with two starting cracks loaded on four points. The test presents roughly the same amount of mode I and mode II with a slight dependence on the ratio of the two layer thicknesses. End notch flexure tests consist in two bonded beams built-in on one side and loaded by a force on the other. As no normal opening is allowed, this device allows testing in essentially mode II condition. Crack lap shear tests (CLS) are application-oriented fracture resistance tests. They consist in two plates bonded on a limited length and loaded in tension on both ends. The test can be either symmetrical or dis-symmetrical. In the first case two cracks can be initiated and in the second only one crack can propagate. Cost factors Elements that affect the cost of using adhesives as a binding agent in a manufacturing setting include: . Time to set up Adhesive application time Load/Unload time Bonding time Curing time Materials cost Direct labor rates Overhead rates Amortization of equipment and tooling See also Animal glue Cyanoacrylate Glue stick Homemade glue Hot melt adhesive List of glues Pressure sensitive tape Solder References Notes Bibliography . External links Adhesives.org - Educational portal on adhesives and sealants | Adhesive |@lemmatized nitrocellulose:1 adhesive:92 tube:1 glue:23 compound:1 liquid:5 semi:1 state:2 adhere:4 bond:29 item:2 together:7 may:10 come:1 either:5 natural:7 synthetic:4 source:3 modern:4 extremely:1 strong:4 become:5 increasingly:1 important:1 construction:1 industry:3 type:9 material:17 use:23 virtually:1 limitless:1 especially:1 useful:1 thin:3 usually:6 require:3 controlled:1 temperature:3 cure:10 set:3 electrically:1 thermally:1 conductive:1 nonconductive:1 history:1 first:6 gum:2 plant:1 resin:2 sap:1 believe:1 sumerian:1 people:1 discover:1 neanderthal:1 far:2 back:1 year:3 make:9 birch:1 bark:1 http:1 news:1 bbc:1 co:1 uk:1 hi:1 science:1 nature:1 stm:1 discovery:1 old:1 ceramic:1 bring:1 evidence:1 archaeologist:1 practical:1 us:1 ingredient:2 early:2 animal:7 render:1 product:3 horse:1 teeth:1 time:10 babylonia:1 tar:1 like:2 statue:1 egyptian:1 much:3 furniture:1 ivory:1 papyrus:1 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3,847 | Jaguar | The jaguar, Panthera onca, is a big cat, a feline in the Panthera genus. It is the only Panthera species found in the Americas. The jaguar is the third-largest feline after the tiger and the lion, and the largest and most powerful feline in the Western Hemisphere. The jaguar's present range extends from Mexico across much of Central America and south to Paraguay and northern Argentina. Apart from a known and possibly breeding population in Arizona (southwest of Tucson), the cat has largely been extirpated from the United States since the early 1900s. There is, however, a high probability that (given the surveyed population in southwestern Arizona) populations of Jaguar exist in other unsurveyed regions within southern Arizona, New Mexico and possibly even Texas. This spotted cat most closely resembles the leopard physically, although it is usually larger and of sturdier build and its behavioral and habitat characteristics are closer to those of the tiger. While dense rainforest is its preferred habitat, the jaguar will range across a variety of forested and open terrain. It is strongly associated with the presence of water and is notable, along with the tiger, as a feline that enjoys swimming. The jaguar is a largely solitary, stalk-and-ambush predator, and is opportunistic in prey selection. It is also an apex and keystone predator, playing an important role in stabilizing ecosystems and regulating the populations of prey species. The jaguar has developed an exceptionally powerful bite, even relative to the other big cats. This allows it to pierce the shells of armoured reptiles and to employ an unusual killing method: it bites directly through the skull of prey between the ears to deliver a fatal blow to the brain. Rosa CL de la and Nocke, 2000. A guide to the carnivores of Central America: natural history, ecology, and conservation. The University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0292716049 The jaguar is a near threatened species and its numbers are declining. Threats include habitat loss and fragmentation. While international trade in jaguars or their parts is prohibited, the cat is still regularly killed by humans, particularly in conflicts with ranchers and farmers in South America. Although reduced, its range remains large; given its historical distribution, the jaguar has featured prominently in the mythology of numerous indigenous American cultures, including that of the Maya and Aztec. Etymology A jaguar at the Milwaukee County Zoological Gardens The word jaguar is or—especially in British English—. It comes to English from one of the Tupi-Guarani languages, presumably the Amazonian trade language Tupinambá, via Portuguese jaguar. The Tupian word, yaguara "beast", sometimes translated as "dog", is used for any carnivorous mammal; the specific word for jaguar was yaguareté, with the suffix -eté meaning "real" or "true". The first component of its taxonomic designation, Panthera, is Latin, from the Greek word for leopard, πάνθηρ, the type species for the genus. This has been said to derive from the παν- "all" and θήρ "beast", though this may be a folk etymology "panther", Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition —it may instead be ultimately of Sanskrit origin, from pundarikam, the Sanskrit word for "tiger". Onca is the Portuguese and Spanish word onça, with the cedilla dropped for typographical reasons, found in English as ounce for the Snow Leopard, Uncia uncia. It derives from the Latin lyncea lynx, with the letter L confused with the definite article (Italian lonza, Old French l'once). "ounce" 2, Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition In many Central and South American countries, the cat is referred to as el tigre ("the tiger"). Taxonomy The jaguar, Panthera onca, is the only extant New World member of the Panthera genus. DNA evidence shows that the lion, tiger, leopard, jaguar, snow leopard, and clouded leopard share a common ancestor and that this group is between six and ten million years old; the fossil record points to the emergence of Panthera just two to 3.8 million years ago. Phylogenetic studies generally have shown that the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) is basal to this group. The position of the remaining species varies between studies and is effectively unresolved. Many studies place the snow leopard within the genus Panthera but there is no consensus whether the scientific name of the snow leopard should remain Uncia uncia Felid Taxon Advisory Group: Alan H. Shoemaker (1996) Taxonomic and Legal Status of the Felidae or be moved to Panthera uncia. Based on morphological evidence, British zoologist Reginald Pocock concluded that the jaguar is most closely related to the leopard. However, DNA evidence is inconclusive and the position of the jaguar relative to the other species varies between studies. Fossils of extinct Panthera species, such as the European Jaguar (Panthera gombaszoegensis) and the American Lion (Panthera atrox), show characteristics of both the lion and the jaguar. Analysis of jaguar mitochondrial DNA has dated the species lineage to between 280,000 and 510,000 years ago, later than suggested by fossil records. Geographical variation While numerous subspecies of the jaguar have been recognized, recent research suggests just three. Geographical barriers, such as the Amazon river, limit gene flow within the species. The last taxonomic delineation of the jaguar subspecies was performed by Pocock in 1939. Based on geographic origins and skull morphology, he recognized eight subspecies. However, he did not have access to sufficient specimens to critically evaluate all subspecies, and he expressed doubt about the status of several. Later consideration of his work suggested only three subspecies should be recognized. Recent studies have also failed to find evidence for well defined subspecies, and are no longer recognized. Larson (1997) studied the morphological variation in the jaguar and showed that there is clinal north–south variation, but also that the differentiation within the supposed subspecies is larger than that between them and thus does not warrant subspecies subdivision. A genetic study by Eizirik and coworkers in 2001 confirmed the absence of a clear geographical subspecies structure, although they found that major geographical barriers such as the Amazon River limited the exchange of genes between the different populations. A subsequent, more detailed, study confirmed the predicted population structure within the Colombian jaguars. Pocock's subspecies divisions are still regularly listed in general descriptions of the cat. "Guidelines for Captive Management of Jaguars, Taxonomy, pp. 5–7, Jaguar Species Survival Plan Seymore grouped these in three subspecies. Panthera onca onca: Venezuela through the Amazon, including P. onca peruviana (Peruvian Jaguar): Coastal Peru P. onca hernandesii (Mexican Jaguar): Western Mexico – including P. onca centralis (Central American Jaguar): El Salvador to Colombia P. onca arizonensis (Arizonan Jaguar): Southern Arizona to Sonora, Mexico P. onca veraecrucis: Central Texas to Southeastern Mexico P. onca goldmani (Goldman's Jaguar): Yucatan Peninsula to Belize and Guatemala P. onca palustris (the largest subspecies, weighing more than 135 kg or 300 lb): The Pantanal regions of Mato Grosso & Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, along the Paraguay River into Paraguay and possibly northeastern Argentina. The Mammal Species of the World continues to recognize nine subspecies, the eight subspecies above and additionally P. o. paraguensis. Biology and behavior Physical characteristics The jaguar is a compact and well-muscled animal. There are significant variations in size: weights are normally in the range of 56–96 kilograms (124–211 lb). Larger males have been recorded at 159 kilograms (350 lb) (roughly matching a tigress or lioness), and smaller ones have extremely low weights of 36 kilograms (80 lb). Females are typically 10–20% smaller than males. The length of the cat varies from 1.62–1.83 meters (5.3–6 ft), and its tail may add a further 75 centimeters (30 in). It stands about 67–76 centimeters (27–30 in) tall at the shoulders. The head of the jaguar is robust and the jaw extremely powerful.The size of the jaguars tend to increase the farther south they are located. Further variations in size have been observed across regions and habitats, with size tending to increase from the north to south. A study of the jaguar in the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve on the Mexican Pacific coast, showed ranges of just 30–50 kilograms (66–110 lb), about the size of the cougar. By contrast, a study of the Jaguar in the Brazilian Pantanal region found average weights of 100 kilograms (220 lb) and weights of 300 lb or more are not uncommon in old males. Forest jaguars are frequently darker and considerably smaller than those found in open areas (the Pantanal is an open wetland basin), possibly due to the smaller numbers of large herbivorous prey in forest areas. Nowell, K. and Jackson, P. (compilers and editors) 1996. Wild Cats. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan (PDF). IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. (see Panthera Onca, pp 118–122) A short and stocky limb structure makes the jaguar adept at climbing, crawling and swimming. The head is robust and the jaw extremely powerful. It has been suggested that the jaguar has the strongest bite of all felids, and the second strongest of all mammals; this strength is an adaptation that allows the jaguar to pierce turtle shells. A comparative study of bite force adjusted for body size ranked it as the top felid, alongside the clouded leopard and ahead of the lion and tiger. It has been reported that "an individual jaguar can drag a 360 kg (800 lb) bull 8 m (25 ft) in its jaws and pulverize the heaviest bones". The jaguar hunts wild animals weighing up to 300 kilograms (660 lb) in dense jungle, and its short and sturdy physique is thus an adaptation to its prey and environment. A melanistic jaguar at the Henry Doorly Zoo. Melanism is result of a dominant allele and remains relatively rare in jaguars. The base coat of the jaguar is generally a tawny yellow, but can range to reddish-brown and black. The cat is covered in rosettes for camouflage in its jungle habitat. The spots vary over individual coats and between individual Jaguars: rosettes may include one or several dots, and the shape of the dots varies. The spots on the head and neck are generally solid, as are those on the tail, where they may merge to form a band. The underbelly, throat and outer surface of the legs and lower flanks are white. A condition known as melanism occurs in the species. The melanistic form is less common than the spotted form (it occurs at about six percent of the population) of jaguars in their South American range have been reported to possess it—and is the result of a dominant allele. Jaguars with melanism appear entirely black, although their spots are still visible on close examination. Melanistic Jaguars are informally known as black panthers, but do not form a separate species. Rare albino individuals, sometimes called white panthers, occur among jaguars, as with the other big cats. While the jaguar closely resembles the leopard, it is sturdier and heavier, and the two animals can be distinguished by their rosettes: the rosettes on a jaguar's coat are larger, fewer in number, usually darker, and have thicker lines and small spots in the middle that the leopard lacks. Jaguars also have rounder heads and shorter, stockier limbs compared to leopards. Reproduction and life cycle Jaguar females reach sexual maturity at about two years of age, and males at three or four. The cat is believed to mate throughout the year in the wild, although births may increase when prey is plentiful. "Guidelines", Reproduction, pp. 28–38 Research on captive male jaguars supports the year-round mating hypothesis, with no seasonal variation in semen traits and ejaculatory quality; low reproductive success has also been observed in captivity. Female estrous is 6–17 days out of a full 37-day cycle, and females will advertise fertility with urinary scent marks and increased vocalization. Both sexes will range more widely than usual during courtship. Mother about to pick up a cub by the neck Mating pairs separate after the act, and females provide all parenting. The gestation period lasts 93–105 days; females give birth to up to four cubs, and most commonly to two. The mother will not tolerate the presence of males after the birth of cubs, given a risk of infant cannibalism; this behaviour is also found in the tiger. "Guidelines", Natural History & Behavior, pp. 8–16 The young are born blind, gaining sight after two weeks. Cubs are weaned at three months but remain in the birth den for six months before leaving to accompany their mother on hunts. They will continue in their mother's company for one to two years before leaving to establish a territory for themselves. Young males are at first nomadic, jostling with their older counterparts until they succeed in claiming a territory. Typical lifespan in the wild is estimated at around 12–15 years; in captivity, the jaguar lives up to 23 years, placing it among the longest-lived cats. Social activity Like most cats, the jaguar is solitary outside mother-cub groups. Adults generally meet only to court and mate (though limited non-courting socialization has been observed anecdotally) and carve out large territories for themselves. Female territories, from 25 to 40 square kilometers in size, may overlap, but the animals generally avoid one another. Male ranges cover roughly twice as much area, varying in size with the availability of game and space, and do not overlap. Scrape marks, urine, and feces are used to mark territory. Overlapping male ranges are observed in this study in Belize. Note the overall size of ranges is about half of normal. Like the other big cats, the jaguar is capable of roaring (the male more powerfully) and does so to warn territorial and mating competitors away; intensive bouts of counter-calling between individuals have been observed in the wild. Their roar often resembles a repetitive cough, and they may also vocalize mews and grunts. Mating fights between males occur, but are rare, and aggression avoidance behaviour has been observed in the wild. When it occurs, conflict is typically over territory: a male's range may encompass that of two or three females, and he will not tolerate intrusions by other adult males. The jaguar is often described as nocturnal, but is more specifically crepuscular (peak activity around dawn and dusk). Both sexes hunt, but males travel farther each day than females, befitting their larger territories. The jaguar may hunt during the day if game is available and is a relatively energetic feline, spending as much as 50–60% of its time active. The jaguar's elusive nature and the inaccessibility of much of its preferred habitat make it a difficult animal to sight, let alone study. Hunting and diet Like all cats, the jaguar is an obligate carnivore, feeding only on meat. It is an opportunistic hunter and its diet encompasses 87 species. The jaguar prefers large prey and will take deer, capybara, tapirs, peccaries, dogs, foxes, and sometimes even anacondas and caiman. However, the cat will eat any small species that can be caught, including frogs, mice, birds, fish, sloths, monkeys, and turtles; a study conducted in Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary in Belize, for example, revealed that jaguars' diet there consisted primarily of armadillos and pacas Some jaguars will also take domestic livestock, including adult cattle and horses. The jaguar has developed an exceptionally powerful bite, even relative to the other big cats. It is an adaptation that allows it to pierce the shells of armoured reptiles. While the jaguar employs the deep-throat bite-and-suffocation technique typical among Panthera, it prefers a killing method unique amongst cats: it pierces directly through the temporal bones of the skull between the ears of prey (especially the Capybara) with its canine teeth, piercing the brain. This may be an adaptation to "cracking open" turtle shells; following the late Pleistocene extinctions, armoured reptiles such as turtles would have formed an abundant prey base for the jaguar. The skull bite is employed with mammals in particular; with reptiles such as caiman, the jaguar may leap on to the back of the prey and sever the cervical vertebrae, immobilizing the target. While capable of cracking turtle shells, the jaguar may simply reach into the shell and scoop out the flesh. With prey such as dogs, a paw swipe to crush the skull may be sufficient. The jaguar is a stalk-and-ambush rather than a chase predator. The cat will walk slowly down forest paths, listening for and stalking prey before rushing or ambushing. The jaguar attacks from cover and usually from a target's blind spot with a quick pounce; the species' ambushing abilities are considered nearly peerless in the animal kingdom by both indigenous people and field researchers, and are probably a product of its role as an apex predator in several different environments. The ambush may include leaping into water after prey, as a jaguar is quite capable of carrying a large kill while swimming; its strength is such that carcasses as large as a heifer can be hauled up a tree to avoid flood levels. On killing prey, the jaguar will drag the carcass to a thicket or other secluded spot. It begins eating at the neck and chest, rather than the midsection. The heart and lungs are consumed, followed by the shoulders. The daily food requirement of a 34 kilogram animal, at the extreme low end of the species' weight range, has been estimated at 1.4 kilograms. For captive animals in the 50–60 kilogram range, more than 2 kilograms of meat daily is recommended. "Guidelines", Hand-rearing, pp. 62–75 (see table 5) In the wild, consumption is naturally more erratic; wild cats expend considerable energy in the capture and kill of prey, and may consume up to 25 kilograms of meat at one feeding, followed by periods of famine. "Guidelines", Nutrition, pp. 55–61 Unlike all other species in the Panthera genus, jaguars very rarely attack humans. Most of the scant cases where jaguars turn to taking a human show that the animal is either old with damaged teeth or is wounded. Sometimes, if scared, jaguars in captivity may lash out at zookeepers. Ecology Distribution and habitat The jaguar has been attested in the fossil record for two million years and it has been an American cat since crossing the Bering Land Bridge during the Pleistocene epoch; the immediate ancestor of modern animals is Panthera onca augusta, which was larger than the contemporary cat. Its present range extends from Mexico, through Central America and into South America, including much of Amazonian Brazil. Detailed analysis of present range and terrain types provided here. The countries included in this range are Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica (particularly on the Osa Peninsula), Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, United States and Venezuela. The jaguar is now extinct in El Salvador and Uruguay. It occurs in the 400 km² Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary in Belize, the 5,300 km² Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve in Mexico, the approximately 15,000 km² Manú National Park in Peru, the approximately 26,000 km² Xingu National Park in Brazil, and numerous other reserves throughout its range. An image of a jaguar in the Milwaukee County Zoological Gardens in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The inclusion of the United States in the list is based on occasional sightings in the southwest, particularly in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. In the early 1900s, the jaguar's range extended as far north as the Grand Canyon, and as far west as Southern California. The jaguar is a protected species in the United States under the Endangered Species Act, which has stopped the shooting of the animal for its pelt. In 2004, wildlife officials in Arizona photographed and documented jaguars in the southern part of the state. For any permanent population to thrive, protection from killing, an adequate prey base, and connectivity with Mexican populations are essential. On February 25, 2009 a 118 lb Jaguar was caught, radio-collared and released in an area southwest of Tucson, Arizona; this is farther north than had previously been expected and represents a sign that there may be a permanent breeding population of Jaguars within southern Arizona. It was later confirmed that the animal is indeed the same male individual (known as 'Macho B') that was photographed in 2004 and is now the oldest known Jaguar in the wild (approximately 15 years old.) On Monday March 2, 2009, Macho B, which is the only jaguar spotted in the U.S. in more than a decade, was recaptured and euthanized after he was found to be suffering from kidney failure. Some experts believe that the stress from the repeated captures and sedation caused the weak kidney to fail. The death of Macho B is a significant blow to the recovery of the jaguar. Completion of the United States–Mexico barrier as currently proposed will reduce the viability of any population currently residing in the United States, by reducing gene flow with Mexican populations, and prevent any further northward expansion for the species. The jaguar can range across a variety of forested and open habitat, but is strongly associated with presence of water. The historic range of the species included much of the southern half of the United States, and in the south extended much farther to cover most of the South American continent. In total, its northern range has receded 1000 kilometers southward and its southern range 2000 km northward. Ice age fossils of the jaguar, dated between 40,000 and 11,500 years ago, have been discovered in the United States, including some at an important site as far north as Missouri. Fossil evidence shows jaguars of up to 190 kg (420 lb), much larger than the contemporary average for the animal. The habitat of the cat includes the rain forests of South and Central America, open, seasonally flooded wetlands, and dry grassland terrain. Of these habitats, the jaguar much prefers dense forest; the cat has lost range most rapidly in regions of drier habitat, such as the Argentinian pampas, the arid grasslands of Mexico, and the southwestern United States. The cat will range across tropical, subtropical, and dry deciduous forests (including, historically, oak forests in the United States). The jaguar is strongly associated with water and it often prefers to live by rivers, swamps, and in dense rainforest with thick cover for stalking prey. Jaguars have been found at elevations as high as 3800 m, but they typically avoid montane forest and are not found in the high plateau of central Mexico or in the Andes. Ecological role The adult jaguar is an apex predator, meaning that it exists at the top of its food chain and is not preyed on in the wild. The jaguar has also been termed a keystone species, as it is assumed, through controlling the population levels of prey such as herbivorous and granivorous mammals, apex felids maintain the structural integrity of forest systems. However, accurately determining what effect species like the jaguar have on ecosystems is difficult, because data must be compared from regions where the species is absent as well as its current habitats, while controlling for the effects of human activity. It is accepted that mid-sized prey species undergo population increases in the absence of the keystone predators and it has been hypothesized that this has cascading negative effects. However, field work has shown this may be natural variability and that the population increases may not be sustained. Thus, the keystone predator hypothesis is not favoured by all scientists. The jaguar also has an effect on other predators. The jaguar and the cougar, the next largest feline of the Americas, are often sympatric (related species sharing overlapping territory) and have often been studied in conjunction. Where sympatric with the jaguar, the cougar is smaller than normal and is smaller than the local jaguars. The jaguar tends to take larger prey and the cougar smaller, reducing the latter's size. This situation may be advantageous to the cougar. Its broader prey niche, including its ability to take smaller prey, may give it an advantage over the jaguar in human-altered landscapes; while both are classified as near-threatened species, the cougar has a significantly larger current distribution. Conservation status A melanistic jaguar Jaguar populations are currently declining. The animal is considered Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, meaning it may be threatened with extinction in the near future. The loss of parts of its range, including its virtual elimination from its historic northern areas and the increasing fragmentation of the remaining range, have contributed to this status. The 1960s saw particularly significant declines, with more than 15,000 jaguar skins brought out of the Brazilian Amazon yearly; the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of 1973 brought about a sharp decline in the pelt trade. Detailed work performed under the auspices of the Wildlife Conservation Society reveal that the animal has lost 37% of its historic range, with its status unknown in an additional 18%. More encouragingly, the probability of long-term survival was considered high in 70% of its remaining range, particularly in the Amazon basin and the adjoining Gran Chaco and Pantanal. The major risks to the jaguar include deforestation across its habitat, increasing competition for food with human beings, poaching, hurricanes in northern parts of its range, and the behaviour of ranchers who will often kill the cat where it preys on livestock. When adapted to the prey, the jaguar has been shown to take cattle as a large portion of its diet; while land clearance for grazing is a problem for the species, the jaguar population may have increased when cattle were first introduced to South America as the animals took advantage of the new prey base. This willingness to take livestock has induced ranch owners to hire full-time jaguar hunters, and the cat is often shot on sight. The Pantanal, Brazil, seen here in flood condition, is a critical jaguar range area. The jaguar is regulated as an Appendix I species under CITES: all international trade in jaguars or their parts is prohibited. All hunting of jaguars is prohibited in Argentina, Belize, Colombia, French Guiana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, the United States (where it is listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act), Uruguay and Venezuela. Hunting of jaguars is restricted to "problem animals" in Brazil, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico and Peru, while trophy hunting is still permitted in Bolivia. The species has no legal protection in Ecuador or Guyana. Current conservation efforts often focus on educating ranch owners and promoting ecotourism. The jaguar is generally defined as an umbrella species — a species whose home range and habitat requirements are sufficiently broad that, if protected, numerous other species of smaller range will also be protected. Umbrella species serve as "mobile links" at the landscape scale, in the jaguar's case through predation. Conservation organizations may thus focus on providing viable, connected habitat for the jaguar, with the knowledge that other species will also benefit. Given the inaccessibility of much of the species' range—particularly the central Amazon—estimating jaguar numbers is difficult. Researchers typically focus on particular bioregions, and thus species-wide analysis is scant. In 1991, 600–1,000 (the highest total) were estimated to be living in Belize. A year earlier, 125–180 jaguars were estimated to be living in Mexico's 4,000 square kilometer (2400 mi²) Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, with another 350 in the state of Chiapas. The adjoining Maya Biosphere Reserve in Guatemala, with an area measuring 15,000 square kilometers (9,000 mi²), may have 465–550 animals. "Guidelines", Protection and Population Status, p. 4. Work employing GPS-telemetry in 2003 and 2004 found densities of only six to seven jaguars per 100 square kilometers in the critical Pantanal region, compared with 10 to 11 using traditional methods; this suggests that widely used sampling methods may inflate the actual numbers of cats. On 7 January 2008 United States Fish and Wildlife Service Director H. Dale Hall approved an unprecedented decision by the George W. Bush Administration to abandon jaguar recovery as a federal goal under the Endangered Species Act. The decision is the first of its kind in the 34-year history of the Endangered Species Act. Some critics of the decision said that the jaguar is being sacrificed for the government's new border fence, which is to be built along many of the cat's typical crossings between the United States and Mexico. In the past, conservation of jaguars sometimes occurred through the protection of jaguar "hotspots". These hotspots were described as Jaguar Conservation Units, and were large areas populated by about 50 jaguars. However, some researchers recently determined that, in order to maintain a robust sharing of the jaguar gene pool necessary for maintaining the species, it is important that the jaguars be interconnected. To effect this, a new project, the Paseo del Jaguar, as been established to connect the jaguar hotspots. Path of the jaguars project In mythology and culture Pre-Columbian Americas Jaguar warrior in the Aztec culture Moche Jaguar. 300 A.D. Larco Museum Lima, Peru In pre-Columbian Central and South America, the jaguar has long been a symbol of power and strength. Among the Andean cultures, a jaguar cult disseminated by the early Chavín culture became accepted over most of what is today Peru by 900 BC. The later Moche culture of Northern Peru used the jaguar as a symbol of power in many of their ceramics. In Mesoamerica, the Olmec—an early and influential culture of the Gulf Coast region roughly contemporaneous with the Chavín—developed a distinct "were-jaguar" motif of sculptures and figurines showing stylized jaguars or humans with jaguar characteristics. In the later Maya civilization, the jaguar was believed to facilitate communication between the living and the dead and to protect the royal household. The Maya saw these powerful felines as their companions in the spiritual world, and a number of Maya rulers bore names that incorporated the Mayan word for jaguar (b'alam in many of the Mayan languages). The Aztec civilization shared this image of the jaguar as the representative of the ruler and as a warrior. The Aztecs formed an elite warrior class known as the Jaguar Knights. In Aztec mythology, the jaguar was considered to be the totem animal of the powerful deity Tezcatlipoca. National Animal of Brazil The jaguar is a national symbol of Brazil. The jaguar has always had a great importance in Brazil, where the Indians used its fat. They believed it would give them courage, as if it was magical. The fat was also rubbed onto the body of boys to make them strong and protect them against evil. Contemporary culture The jaguar and its name is widely used as a symbol in contemporary culture. It is the national animal of Guyana, and is featured in its coat of arms. Guyana, RBC Radio It is widely used as a product name, most prominently for a luxury car brand. The name has been adopted by sports franchises, including NFL's Jacksonville Jaguars and the Mexican national soccer league team the Jaguares de Chiapas. Grammy winning Mexican rock band "Jaguares" were also influenced by the magnificent animal to choose their band name. The crest of Argentina's national federation in rugby union features a jaguar; however, because of a historic accident, the country's national team is nicknamed Los Pumas. 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3,848 | History_of_Monaco | The early history of Monaco is primarily concerned with the protective and strategic value of the Rock of Monaco, the area's chief geological landmark, which served first as a shelter for ancient peoples and later as a fortress. From the 1200s to the early 1400s, the area was contested for primarily political reasons; since that point, excepting a period of French occupation, it has remained steadily under the control of the House of Grimaldi. Early history and Ligurian settlement The Rock of Monaco served as a shelter for the area's early inhabitants from the end of the Paleolithic period, approximately 300,000 BC, evidence of which has been found in a cave in St. Judist's Gardens. According to the accounts of historian Diodorus Siculus and geographer Strabo, the area's first permanent settlers were the mountain-dwelling Ligures, who emigrated from their native city of Genoa, Italy. However, the ancient Ligurian language, which was apparently not Indo-European, is not connected to the Italian dialect spoken by the modern inhabitants of Liguria, nor to the modern Monegasque language. Greek colonization and Herculean legend The Phocaeans of Massalia founded the colony of Monoikos, named for its Ligurian inhabitants, in the 6th century B.C. in the area now known as Monaco. Monoikos was associated with Hercules, venerated in this location alone as Hercules Monoecus (i.e. the lone-dweller). According to the "travels of Hercules" theme, also documented by Diodorus Siculus and Strabo, both Greeks and native Ligurian people asserted that Hercules passed through the area. The modern port is still sometimes called the "Port of Hercules". The 1907 Catholic Encyclopedia wrote, "From ancient times until the nineteenth century the port of Monaco was among the most important of the French Mediterranean coast, but now it has lost all commercial significance." Roman rule After the Gallic Wars, Monoecus, which served as a stopping-point for Julius Caesar on his way to campaign in Greece, fell under Roman control as part of the Maritime Alps province (Gallia Transalpina). The Roman poet Virgil called it "that castled cliff, Monoecus by the sea" (Aeneid, VI.830). The commentator Servius's use of the passage (in R. Maltby, Lexicon of Ancient Latin Etymologies, Leeds) asserts, under the entry portus, that the epithet was derived: dictus autem Monoecus vel quod pulsis omnibus illic solus habitavit ("either because Hercules drove off everyone else and lived there alone"), vel quod in eius templo numquam aliquis deorum simul colitur ("or because in his temple no other of the gods is worshipped at the same time"). No temple to Hercules has been found at Monaco (see also Lucan 1.405.), although the rocky ground and dense conurbation make future excavations unlikely. The port is mentioned in Pliny the Elder's Natural History (III.v) and in Tacitus' Histories (III.42), when Valens was forced to put into the port (Fabius Valens e sinu Pisano segnitia maris aut adversante vento portum Herculis Monoeci depellitur). mfg Middle Ages Monaco remained under Roman control until the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476, from which point the area was ravaged by Saracens and various barbarian tribes. Though these raids left the area almost entirely depopulated, the Saracens were expelled in 975, and by the 11th century the area was again populated by Ligurians. In 1191, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI granted suzerainty over the area to the city of Genoa, the native home of the Ligurians. On June 10, 1215, a detachment of Genoese Ghibellines led by Fulco del Cassello began the construction of a fortress atop the Rock of Monaco. This date is often cited as the beginning of Monaco's modern history. As the Ghibellines intended their fortress to be a strategic military stronghold and center of control for the area, they set about creating a settlement around the base of the Rock to support the garrison; in an attempt to lure residents from Genoa and the surrounding cities, they offered land grants and tax exemption to new settlers. Rise of the Grimaldis The Grimaldis, descended from Otto Canella and taking their name from his son Grimaldo, were an ancient and prominent Guelphic Genoese family who, in the course of the civil strife in Genoa between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, took refuge in Monaco, accompanied by various other Guelphic families, most notably the Fieschis. François Grimaldi seized the Rock of Monaco in 1297; the area remained under the control of the Grimaldi family to the present day, except when under French control from 1793 to May 17, 1814. Designated as a protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna after Napoleon's defeat, Monaco's sovereignty was confirmed by the Franco-Monegasque Treaty of 1861. The Prince of Monaco was an absolute ruler until a constitution was promulgated in 1911. The famous Casino of Monte Carlo opened in 1863, organized by the Societé des Bains de Mer ("Sea-bathing Society"), which also ran the Hotel de Paris; taxes paid by the S.B.M. have been plowed into Monaco's infrastructure. Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with a railway link to France. In July 1918, a treaty was signed providing for limited French protection over Monaco. The treaty, written into the Treaty of Versailles, established that Monegasque policy would be aligned with French political, military, and economic interests. One of the motivations for the treaty was the upcoming Monaco Succession Crisis of 1918. While Prince Louis II's sympathies were strongly pro-French, he tried to keep Monaco neutral during World War II but supported the Vichy French government of his old army colleague, Marshall Philippe Pétain. Nonetheless, his tiny principality was tormented by domestic conflict partly as a result of Louis' indecisiveness, and also because the majority of the population was of Italian descent; many of them supported the fascist regime of Italy's Benito Mussolini. In 1943, the Italian Army invaded and occupied Monaco, setting up a fascist puppet government. Soon after, following Mussolini's fall in Italy, the German Army occupied Monaco and began the deportation of the Jewish population. Among them was René Blum, founder of the Opera, who died in a Nazi concentration camp. Under Prince Louis' secret orders, the Monaco police, often at great risk to themselves, warned people in advance that the Gestapo was planning on arresting them. The country was liberated as German troops retreated. The current ruler, Prince Albert II, succeeded his father Prince Rainier III in 2005. Prince Rainier, in turn, had acceded to the throne following the death of his grandfather, Prince Louis II, in 1949. The revised Constitution of Monaco, proclaimed in 1962, abolished capital punishment, provided for female suffrage, established a Supreme Court to guarantee fundamental liberties and made it difficult for a French national to transfer his or her residence there. In 1993, Monaco became an official member of the United Nations with full voting rights. In 2002, a new treaty between France and Monaco clarifies that if there are no heirs to carry on the dynasty, the Principality will remain an independent nation, rather than be annexed by France. Monaco's military defense, however, is still the responsibility of France. The principality's mild climate, attractive scenery, and gambling facilities have made Monaco world famous as a tourism and recreation centre. 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3,849 | Domitius_Afer | Domitius Afer (died 60) was a Roman orator and advocate, born at Nemausus (Nîmes) in Gallia Narbonensis. He flourished in the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. Afer was praetor in 25 AD, and gained the favor of Tiberius by accusing Claudia Pulchra, the second cousin of Agrippina, of adultery and the use of magic arts against the emperor, in 26 AD. Tacitus, Annales iv. 52 From this time he became one of the most celebrated orators in Rome, but sacrificed his character by conducting accusations for the government. In the following year, 27 AD, he is again mentioned by Tacitus as the accuser of Quinctilius Varus, the son of Claudia Pulchra. Tacitus, Annales iv. 66 In consequence of the accusation of Claudia Pulchra, and of some offense which he had given to Caligula, he was accused by the emperor in the senate, but by concealing his own skill in speaking, and pretending to be overpowered by the eloquence of Caligula, he not only escaped the danger, but was made consul suffectus in 39 AD. Cassius Dio, lix. 19, 20 In his old age Afer lost much of his reputation by continuing to speak in public, when his powers were exhausted. Quintilian, xii. 11. § 3 During the reign of Nero he became superintendent of the city's water supply, but died not long afterwards, in 60 AD, Tacitus, Annales xiv. 19 having eaten himself to death, according to Hieronymus in the Chronicon of Eusebius. Quintilian, when a young man, heard Domitius Afer, comp. Plin. Ep. ii. 14 and frequently speaks of him as the most distinguished orator of his age. He says that Domitius Afer and Julius Africanus were the best orators he had heard, and that he prefers the former to the latter, Quintilian, x. 1. § 118 Quintilian refers to a work of his On Testimony, Quintilian, v. 7. § 7 to one entitled Dicta, Quintilian, vi. 3. § 42 and to some of his orations, of which those on behalf of Domitilla, or Cloantilla, and Volusenus Catulus seem to have been the most celebrated. Quintilian, viii. 5. § 16, ix. 2. § 20, 3. § 66, 4. § 31, x. 1. § 24, &c. Respecting the will of Domitius Afer, see Plin. Ep. viii. 18. References | Domitius_Afer |@lemmatized domitius:4 afer:6 die:2 roman:1 orator:4 advocate:1 bear:1 nemausus:1 nîmes:1 gallia:1 narbonensis:1 flourish:1 reign:2 tiberius:2 caligula:3 claudius:1 nero:2 praetor:1 ad:5 gain:1 fa:1 vor:1 accuse:2 claudia:3 pulchra:3 second:1 cousin:1 agrippina:1 adultery:1 use:1 magic:1 art:1 emperor:2 tacitus:4 annales:3 iv:2 time:1 become:2 one:2 celebrated:2 rome:1 sacrifice:1 character:1 conduct:1 accusation:2 govern:1 ment:1 following:1 year:1 mention:1 accuser:1 quinctilius:1 varus:1 son:1 consequence:1 offense:1 give:1 senate:1 conceal:1 skill:1 speak:2 ing:1 pretend:1 overpower:1 eloquence:1 escape:1 danger:1 make:1 consul:1 suffectus:1 cassius:1 dio:1 lix:1 old:1 age:2 lose:1 much:1 reputation:1 continue:1 public:1 power:1 exhaust:1 quintilian:7 xii:1 superintendent:1 city:1 water:1 supply:1 long:1 afterwards:1 xiv:1 eat:1 death:1 accord:1 hieronymus:1 chronicon:1 eusebius:1 young:1 man:1 heard:1 comp:1 plin:2 ep:2 ii:1 frequently:1 speaks:1 distinguished:1 say:1 julius:1 africanus:1 best:1 hear:1 prefer:1 former:1 latter:1 x:2 refers:1 work:1 testimony:1 v:1 entitle:1 dictum:1 vi:1 oration:1 half:1 domitilla:1 cloantilla:1 volusenus:1 catulus:1 seem:1 viii:2 ix:1 c:1 respect:1 see:1 reference:1 |@bigram gallia_narbonensis:1 tiberius_caligula:1 claudius_nero:1 tacitus_annales:3 quinctilius_varus:1 cassius_dio:1 viii_ix:1 |
3,850 | Amr_Diab | Amr Abdel Basset Abdel Azeez Diab () (born October 11, 1961) is an Egyptian singer and composer of jeel music ; the contemporary face of Egyptian al-jeel pop music, according to World Music, and the most popular singer in the Middle East. Diab has endured as the best-selling Arab recording artist of all time, according to Let's Go Egypt. He was awarded "The World Music Award" 3 times; 1998, 2002 and 2007, as being the best selling Middle Eastern singer. Amr Diab is known as the Father of Mediterranean Music. He has created his own unique style known by Arabic music lovers as "Mediterranean Music", a blend of Western and Arabic rhythms. http://www.iranian.com/Music/Diab/index.html In The Mediterranean in Music, p. 117, David Cooper and Kevin Dawe referred to his music as "the new breed of Mediterranean music." In Mediterranean Mosaic by Goffredo Plastino, and in Some Meanings of the Spanish Tinge in Contemporary Egyptian music, Amr Diab has produced a new concept of Mediterranean music, especially in his international hit, Nour El Ain. http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/~michaelf/Some%20Meanings%20of%20the%20Spanish%20Tinge.pdf In the analysis of The Very Best of Amr Diab [Audio CD], Victor W. Valdivia [Allmusic], said: "His music melded traditional Arabic sounds and textures with Western rhythms and instruments. The mesh was dubbed Mediterranean music, and The Very Best of Amr Diab displays Diab's superb skill in creating it." http://www.google.com/products/catalog?qhl=en&cid=9868789627195130151&sa=image#ps-sellers According to BBC, Diab has ruled the Arab music world, especially Egypt and the Middle East, since the mid '80s, continually breaking sales records. http://www.bbc.co.uk/africabeyond/africaonyourstreet/hosts/jjc/17911.shtml Personal information Full Name: Amr Abdel Basset Abdel Azeez Diab عمرو عبد الباسط عبد العزيز دياب Birthday: October 11, 1961 11 أكتوبر تشرين الأول Zodiac: Libra بره Chinese Animal: Ox ثور Occupation: Singer مطرب Kind of Music: Arabic Pop بوب العربية Nationality: Egyptian مصري Early life Diab was born in Port Said, Egypt to a highly educated upper middle class family. His mother was a French teacher in the Lycee Francais school of Port-Said. Abdul Basset Diab, Amr’s Father, graduated from the faculty of commerce at the University of Alexandria in 1958. He joined the Suez Canal Corporation as an accountant and was promoted to top financial controller (from 1985 until 1989) for the maritime sector in the corporation. He encouraged young Diab to sing for the first time on Al-gala national day (evacuation of British forces from the Suez Canal area & Egypt) on June 18, 1968. Diab was only six years old, and that was Amr's first singing appearance to public. His first performance the National Anthem: Belady, Belady, was broadcasted to the Egyptian radio audience from the local broadcasting station. That day Amr was awarded by his Excellency Hassan Rushdie the Governor of Port Said, who also awarded him a guitar as a present after that concert. Career snapshot In 1983, Diab released his first studio album "Ya Tareeq". Diab released three more albums between 1984 and 1987. In 1988, Diab released "Mayaal" which garnered huge success all around the Middle East, and to this day it's known as one of Amr's best, and most successful songs ever. It was produced, arranged and remixed by German musicians, Frank Von Dem Bottlenberg and Jörg Evers, with various releases. More success followed in the following years including albums like, "Shawakkna", "Matkhafesh", and "We Yloumouni". Amr Diab quickly developed fame for his new style of "Pan-Mediterranean" Arabic music, fusing touches of Flamenco and Rai, western pop with traditional Arabic rhythms. By 1992, he became the first Arabic artist to start making high-tech music videos. "Habibi" from Diab's 1996 album, "Nour El Ein" internationally became a phenomenal hit worldwide, and was remixed by many of the world's top DJs at the time. A special CD named "Habibe: The Remix Album" was released later on with all the remixes made worldwide. Since then, Diab has remained at the top of the Arabic music scene, expanding reach to all parts of the Mediterranean with his 1999 release, "Amarain", that featured duets with Algeria's Khaled in a song called "Qalbi" and Greece's Angela Dimitriou in "Ana Bahibak Aktar" and "Eleos". "Tamally Maak" from Diab's 2000 album became a huge success. "Leily Nahari", Diab's first album with Rotana Records, was released in 2004. The album became Rotana's highest selling album of all-time and skyrocketed to the top of the charts across the Arab world, according to Egypt book. Diab's latest album, El Leila De was released in the summer of 2007, and saw a great success, in Egypt, and all around the Middle East and won the World Music Award. Ice Cream in Gleam (Ays Krim fi Glym, 1992), the movie in which he starred, was chosen as one of the best 5 Egyptian musical films by School of Theater, Film and Television], featured in the UCLA Film and Television Archive's new program "Music on the Nile: Fifty Years of Egyptian Musical Films" on James Bridges Theater, UCLA, April 6, 8 and 10. David Chute said in an article published on LA Weekly ,April 08, 1999, that that film is a big leap. Influences and contributions Diab revolutionized Egyptian show business in several respects, and some of his biographers have referred to him as rebellious, because he challenged everything in Middle Eastern show business, starting from the hairstyle and appearance and ending with the music style, presentation, and financial scale of his projects. Diab’s blending of Western rhythms with Mediterranean and Middle Eastern music styles created a new music style, referred to as Mediterranean music. His song “Tamalli Ma’ak”/“Always With You,” wherein he introduced Spanish guitar, is a good example of the genre. He became the first Arab singer to make a video to accompany his songs. Diab’s project Nur al-Ayn was the most expensive project in the music industry of the Middle East. The video for this song was the most lavish and expensive project in the Arab music production field and it set a new standard of video-making for his contemporaries. The world's perspective Diab is one of the most popular and acclaimed Arab pop singers of the modern age. In 1997 he won three awards at the Annual Arabic Festival: one for Best Video, for Best Song, and for Best Artist of the Year. The following year Diab received a Triple Platinum Award for the sales of Nur al-Ayn and also received the Worldwide Music Award in Monaco. Legacy Diab will be remembered as a giant of Egyptian and Arab pop music, one of the top male singers of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries Arab world. Hit albums Nour El Ain In 1996, Nour El Ain (Light of The Eye – Sight) was released, becoming a tremendous success not only in the Middle East but throughout the entire world. The song was composed by Nasser el-Mizdawi, lyrics were written by Ahmed Sheta and it was arranged by Hameed Elshaery. The title track, and its English version "Habibi", was an international phenomenon, becoming a massive crossover hit in countries such as Pakistan, India, Iran, Afghanistan performed by Sangeeth Wickremasinghe) and Malaysia (Malay version sung by Datuk Sharifah Aini).In a style reminiscent of the Aldo (musician) Franco-Arabic style, the song was remixed by several top European arrangers and has become a big pull on the dance floors of Europe. The video clip, also produced by Alam El Phan for the song "Nour El Ain", was one of the most lavish and expensive productions in the field of Egyptian song, and set a new standard for his contemporaries to aspire to. Nour El Ain has become the best selling album ever released by an Arabic artist. In 1997, Amr Diab won three Awards at the Annual Arabic Festival (for Best Video, Best Song and Artist of the Year). In the following year, he received a Triple Platinum Award for the sales of Nour El Ain, and received a World Music Award in Monaco on 6 May 1998, under the patronage of H.S.H. Albert II, Prince of Monaco, and attended by such International luminaries as Gloria Estefan, Céline Dion, Mariah Carey, The Backstreet Boys, Steven Segal and others. This award was the first of its kind for an Egyptian artist, emphasizing that his appeal is not just confined to the Middle East unlike the majority of his contemporaries. Awedooni His follow-up studio album entitled Awedooni was released in July 1998, and as with Nour El Ain it was produced with Hamid El Shaery and recorded in Cairo, Egypt. The first video from the album, the title track "Awedooni", was shot by the river Nile in Egypt and directed by Tareq Al Aryan. Like its predecessor, this album was a huge success for Amr and reinforced his popularity in the Arab world and abroad. The Best of Amr Diab released in early 1999 contained a brand new song "Maham Kibirt Sugheir" recorded as a tribute to the Legends of Arabic music such as Umm Kulthum and Abdel Halim Hafez that have influenced him. A strong ballad with a spectacular video of the concert footage inspired by Puff Daddy (whom he met at the Monaco Awards) it became another big hit for Diab. The album also contains a previously unreleased European remix of "Habibi", and the most popular songs from Amr's albums of the 1990s. Amarain Diab released his July 1999 new studio album Amarain, (two moons) which is hailed as the best work of his career to date. Amr is working on eagerly anticipated duets with the France based international Rai superstar, Khaled of "Didi" fame, and with the Greek singer, Angela Dimitrou, whose crossover smash "Marguerites" was a huge hit across the Middle East in 1998. The title track Amarain is the first video to be broadcast and the album seems certain to confirm Amr's position as the leading and most innovative artist from the Middle East. Tamally Ma'ak [Diab revolutionized Arab music when he issued Tamally Ma'ak. The song was composed by Mohammad Samara in London. He introduced the Spanish guitar in his song "Tammaly Ma'ak" and in other songs. The clip of this song was made in the Czech Republic with much success. The album contained songs like "El Allem Alla", "Ba'terf", "Sa'ban Alaea" and "We Heya Amla Eih". The song Tamally Ma'ak was even copied in the hit Bollywood song Kaho Na Kaho from the film Murder. Aktar Wahed On 1 August 2001, and after a great anticipation by the huge number of fans, Aktar Wahed was released. The album's name is a short for one of the songs "Aktar Wahed Beyhebbak". It contains 10 tracks and a bonus oriental remix for the song "Wala Ala Balo". "Wala Ala Balo", a well-studied mash up of both Trance/Techno rhythms and Oriental Arabic Music. The song featured the rapper SandMan. The video on the other hand was shot in London in a discothèque. An even newer style for Amr Diab designed by Mahmoud Rahmeh AKA DJ Crazy Moe, he received a number of Platinum Awards for the sales of the album, and received his second World Music Award in Monaco in 2001 for best selling album for middle-eastern singer, the album contains a good number of significant songs like "Adeeni Rege'telek", "Ya Habeeby La", "Sadda'ni Khalas" and "Ba'edd Ellayali". Allem Albi In February 2003, Diab released Allem Alby (Teach My Heart). The album's release date was arranged to be with the debut broadcast of Alam El Phan's (Allem Alby's Production Company, Owned by Mohsen Gaber) music channel "Mazzika". The album was a great success, with the release of the video "Ana Ayesh" which was directed by Stuart Gosling. The video was intensely broadcasted on Mazzika . The album contains other songs, like the album-titled "Allem Alby" which is a solid R&B influenced hit. Others that tend to be more oriental like "Kolohom", "Law Ash'any" and "Alli El Wadaa'". Leily Nahary In late summer of 2004, Diab's first album with Rotana was released, titled Leily Nahary (My Nights, My Days). The album's cover was from the promotional photo shoot of Pepsi. The video "Leily Nahari" directed by Casey Cameron which provided aid to give Amr his space in the record-exclusive music channels. It was still criticized because of its similarity to his previously unreleased video for "El Alem Allah" from the album Tamally Ma'ak. Kammel Kalamak Diab's album, Kammel Kalamak is the long anticipated follow up to Leily Nahary. It was rumoured to be released in the summer of 2005 but was pushed back to Eid. The album took a reported $4M to record, and is Rotana's biggest album of 2005. Full album releases appeared on many websites prior to its official release, which is speculated to be the reason why the album's release date was suddenly shortened to a few days prior to the previously mentioned release date. The love ballad "We Malo" was released as the single of the album, Kammel Kalamak. The music video was shot in London and was released on a late notice after the release of the album. Rumors surfaced in late 2005 and early 2006 stated that Amr is considering terminating his contract with Rotana due to the poor promotion of his latest album, Kammel Kalamak. It was released 14 December 2005, Thanks El Leila De (Tonight) The album was originally set to be released after Ramadan 2006. However, it was pushed back several times due to Diab's repeated changes in the musical producers he was dealing with. Diab attributes the changes to the producer's lack of new and strong styles. In early 2006, Music Arranger Fahd was supposed to work on this album; however, later that year Tarek Madkour joined Amr Diab, and they started together to work on it. On 25 March 2007, Madkour's official website announced that Amr Diab and Madkour had decided jointly to skip the collaboration on the album due to the lack of time and conflicting working schedules. Fahd and a new producer called Hasan Al Shafei are elected to produce the music in the album, which is supposed to hit the markets in July 2007. The title of the album was changed from Khaleek Ma'aya to El Leila De. After the release Amr, shot a new Pepsi advertisement in Europe. On June 21, 2007, two of the biggest sites (AmrDiabWorld.com & AmrDiab.info) for Amr Diab announced that the album, now entitled El Lilady, would hit the market on July 7, 2007. The album would contain 10 tracks; AL Shafei and Fahd shared the production Al Shaei 7 songs & Fahd 3 Songs. Before releasing his album, Diab traveled to Portugal to shoot the new Pepsi ad choosing "Inta El Ghaly" song from his upcoming album El Leila De as the ad music. Amr then traveled to the USA to film the music video for his upcoming album. The 10 tracks included in El Leila De are finalized and set in the following order on the upcoming album: 1. Ne2oul Eih 2. El Leila De 3. Toul Ma'Ana Shaifak 4. Hekayat 5. Inta El Ghaly 6. Rohy Mertahalak 7. Aletly Oul 8. We Fehmt Einak 9. Dekhet 10. Khalik Ma'aya The album master copy was given to Rotana, Amr Diab's CD production company, on the last week of June to meet the 07/07/07 release date he had planned earlier. Rotana however has delayed the release of the new CD for a couple of days for unknown reasons. The album has also been leaked but Diab's increasing fan base have impressively not allowed the leaked copy to be distributed on the internet although later on sadly, it actually got leaked. The album was officially released on July 11, 2007. The album has already become a huge hit in Egypt and all over the middle-east. The album sold over 1,000,000 copies in only 5 days of release. The video clip has been slated for a July 27 release. The song that Amr chose to film was N'eoul Eih, which is unique with the new style of House Music mixed with oriental Arabic music. The video clip was filmed in California's own Santa Monica & Malibu, and also near Hollywood. El Leila De has once again proved that Amr Diab is the Middle East's top singer. On July 27, Rotana News announced that "El Leila De" has sold over 2 million copies in less than two weeks in the Middle East, which gives the album a good chance to surpass Kammel Kalamak's 3 million copies in one month. On October 30, 2007, the management of the World Music Awards announced that Amr Diab was to receive an award for best selling artist in the Middle East for this album. Amr Diab received the award in the festival that was held in Monaco, Monte-Carlo, on the 4th of November 2007, with a total of three WMA's in his career. Music videos Amr Diab is one of the first singers to popularize music videos in the Arab world. With the exception of his very early albums, all albums had a song or two shot as music videos. Amr Diab cooperated with the top music videos directors in the Middle East including Tarek El-Erian and Sherif Sabri. N'eoul Eih video clip The most anticipated video clip of 2007, N'eoul Eih, was released on August 14, 2007. Released on Rotana TV for the first time, the video was a great success. It was released minutes later on an Egyptian program named "El Beit Betak", on EGYPT TV. The video was produced by The Company Pictures, a full production company based out of Santa Monica, California, directed by& who was featured also in Death Race (film). New album (2009) Work on Amr Diab's follow up to El Lilady began in late 2007, and continued for over a year and a half later. Amr has promised his fans that this new album will very different, and will open yet another revolutionary page in his history. In late January 2009, 4 songs were leaked on the internet from the new album, they were "Makontsh Nawi - Didn't intend to", "Be'edt Leih - Why you left?", "Youm Ma'abeltak (Leih) - The day I met you... Why?" and "Kollo Ella Habiby - Anything but my love". The song "Makontsh Nawi - Didn't intend to" has seen tremendous success around the Middle East, but has been axed from the upcoming album along with "Be'edt Leih - Why you left" and "Leih - The day I met you... Why?". But Amr himself has announced that "Kollo Ella Habiby" will be one of the new album surprises which is scheduled to be released on June 14, 2009. In the next couple of days, the new album title, tracks and the advertising campaign details will be announced. As Amr Diab fans around the world started to get confused more and more as any previous releases, willing to hear their most anticipated track-list for their megastar, Amr Diab. Recently Diab has shot two advertisements featuring two tracks from the new album, 45 seconds samples, the trance hit Allah Ala Hobbak Enta (Your Great Love) and the pop hit Tammeny (Make Me Rest) made a great success across the region, international fans as well. Up to now, the following tracks have make it to the final track-list: Yehemmak Fi Eih (Do You Really Care?), Kollo Ella Habiby (Anything But My Love!), Yama (Not Only Once), Allah Ala Hobbak Enta (Your Great Love) and Tammeny (Make Me Rest). El Helm/The Dream The Dream or "El Helm" is a TV production produced by Amr Afefy that gives viewers the true story of Amr Diab's life, but of the revolution he started and lead in Middle Eastern music. The show consists of 12 episodes and began airing on December 24, 2008. The show saw great success, and was preceded with one of the biggest advertising campaigns in the history of Middle Eastern music. You may see the show on rotana tv. Through out the Episodes of "El Helm", the viewer discovers the hardships Amr Diab went through to become one of the worlds biggest and most well known musical figures. The story is told through Amr Diab and the people who worked with him during each period of his 30 year history. Ezzat Abou El Ouf also lead the official commentary of the show. Film career Diabs' fame in the music industry has led him to experiment with other forms of media, such as film. Amr's first film was released in 1989, called 'El Afareet', in which he played himself with "Madiha Kamel". His second movie was released in 1993, and was named "Deahk We La'ab" (Laughter & Fun). The film premiered in the Egyptian Film Festival in 1993. Amr played alongside International Egyptian movie star Omar Sharif (Lawrence of Arabia, Doctor Zhivago) and "Yosra", in the movie. His third and final movie, "Ice Cream fi Gleem" with "Simone" and "Ashraf Abdelbaki", was also released in '90's. The movie was much more successful than Deahk We La'ab. Overall Amr didn't experience the same success he had with his music career, he definitely lack the talent of being an actor, Amr Diab set his acting career aside since then and focused on his singing career. Endorsements Amr Diab has taken part in an internationally known Pepsi commercial featuring four other pop musicians; Beyoncé Knowles, Pink, Jennifer Lopez, and Britney Spears. In the US version, Enrique Iglesias takes the role of Caesar. But in the pan Arab version, the four American singers were retained but the male figure was replaced with Diab. This was not the first Pepsi commercial Diab has done; he also filmed commercials featuring his songs "Ana Aktar wahed" (I'm the most), "Allem Alby" (teach my heart) and "Khad Alby Ma'aa" (She took my heart with her). Diab also appeared in a commercial along side Jennifer Lopez, singing The Troggs hit "Wild Thing". Future In 2008, Amr renewed his contract with Rotana for another 5 years. Local record labels Amr's earliest albums were released by Delta Sound. In 1996 Amr moved to Alam Al Phan were he released his greatest hits. In between 2003 and 2004, and after a long successful career with Alam El Phan, Diab officially announced the termination of his contract with Mohsen Gaber (owner of Alam El Phan). Rumors were spread around about the tense situation going on between Gaber and Diab. Then other rumors circulated that Saudi Prince Waleed Bin Talal (owner of Rotana) has lured Amr with offering a better deal. International record labels Over 18 international companies have produced studio albums, compilations and exclusive music for Amr Diab across the globe. Ariola - Germany Hot Records - Germany EMI Music - Greece EMI Music - Arabia EMI Music - Turkey EMI Music - Canada [Hemisphere] EMI Music - Europe EMI Music - International World Music Network - USA George V Records - France Putumayo World Music - USA Wagram Music - France Virgin - International Nascent - UK Milano 2000 - Italy Reverb Music - UK Toast Records - Italy Warner Bros. - France Cooperation with international musicians High-profile international musicians have touched Amr Diab music. Stuart Crichton (The founder of Progressive House) Frank Von Dem Bottlenberg - Germany Jorg Evers - Germany Shazz [Didier Delesalle] - France Klubbheads [Koen Groeneveld & Addy van der Zwan] - Dutch Phunk Phorce [Leon & Matthew Roberts] - UK Rhythm Masters [Robert Bruce Chetcuti & Steve McGuinness] - UK Pete Beachill - UK Simon Gardner - UK Andy Greenwood - UK Kevan Gallagher - UK Jon Bishop - UK Juan Cerro - Spain Amr Diab in academic studies Leeds University Duckingham Browne & Nichols School Osmangazi University Alberta University PennState University Oxford University Duke University Southern Methodist University Amr Diab in world movies Amr Diab soundtracks are the guests of worldwide movies and TV series: Ranging from France, Spain, Portugal and Brazil to The United States of America. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0274428/soundtrack 'Wala Ala Baloh' soundtrack in http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0274428/ Divine Intervention movie, released on 2 October 2002 (France). http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0118926/soundtrack 'Awedouni' soundtrack in http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0118926/ The Dancer Upstairs movie, released on 20 September 2002 (Spain). http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0289800/soundtrack 'El Alem Alah' and http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0289800/soundtrack 'Nour El Ain' soundtracks in http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0289800/ Clone, O TV series, released on 1 October 2001 (Brazil). http://movies.yahoo.com/movie/contributor/1809493507 'Nafs El Makan' soundtrack in http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/237116/Double-Whammy/overview Double Whammy movie, released on 3 August 2001 (USA). Tamally Ma'ak and Nour El Ain in the French movie, Coco, released on 18 March 2009. 'Nour El Ain' sound track in Malcolm in the Middle TV series (Season 4, Episode 4, Episode name : Stupid Girl), released on 9 January 2000 (USA). World figures paid tribute to Amr Diab Brian Eno: The father of ambient music said http://www.britishcouncil.org/china-arts-music-satc_be.htm during an interview, that Amr Diab is one of his favourite singers. Ethical Futurist, Jamais Cascio said http://www.worldchanging.com/archives/003602.html in an article, that amr Diab has tribute bands performing in Japan. Scientist, Thomas P. Hopp thanked Amr Diab in the acknowledgments of http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=mZdDLEqJJN4C&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=amr+diab&ots=eFtg2BYZVP&sig=97K6zhnVNf3AWgSY30djyMzWINc his novel 'The Jihad Virus', for awesome Egyptian music, which set the backdrop for many long hours at the keyboard. Australian based World Football powerhouse Habib's Gift have honored Amr Diab by adopting his song 'Noor El Ain (Habibi)' as their official anthem. Many books depicting Amr Diab worldwide Mediterranean Mosaic By Goffredo Plastino Egypt By Virginia Maxwell, Mary Fitzpatrick, Siona Jenkins, Anthony Sattin World Music By Simon Broughton, Mark Ellingham, Richard Trillo, Orla Duane, Vanessa Dowell Teens in Egypt By Barbara A. Somervill Syria & Lebanon By Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, Andrew Humphreys, Damien Simonis World Music By Richard Nidel The Mediterranean in Music By David Cooper, Kevin Dawe The Middle East By Library Information and Research Service Let's Go Egypt By Let's Go, Inc., Joey Shabot, Dave Newman, Elizabeth Ogburn, Charlotte Houghteling Discography New Album 2009 - Coming Soon (June, 14th 2009) El Leila De (Tonight) (2007) Kammel Kalamak (Keep Talking) (2005) Greatest Hits (1996-2003) (2005) Lealy Nahary (Cd-Single) (2004) Leily Nahary (My Night, My Day) (2004) Greatest Hits (1986-1995) (2004) Allem Alby (Teach My Heart) (2003) Aktar Wahed (The Most One) (2001) Tamally Maak (Always With You) (2000) Amarein (Two Moons) (1999) The Best Of Amr Diab (1999) Awedoony (They Got Me Used To) (1998) Nour El-Ain (Light Of The Eye - Habibi) (1996) Ragaeen (We'll Be Back) (1995) Zekrayat (Memories) (1994) W Ylomoony (And They Blame Me) (1994) Ya Omrena (Our Life) (1993) Ice Cream Fi Gleam (Ice Cream In Gleam) (1992) Ayamna (Our Days) (1992) Habiby (My Love) (1991) Matkhafeesh (Don't Worry) (1990) Shawaana (Missing You) (1989) Mayyal (In Love) (1988) Ya Helwa (Hey Pretty) (1988) Khalseen (We're Even) (1987) Hala Hala (Welcome, Welcome) (1986) We Mneen Ageeb Nas (To whom I Complain?) (1985) Ghanny Men Albak (Sing From Your Heart) (1984) Ya Tareea (O Road) (1983) Commercials Amr has starred in Pepsi commercials with Britney Spears, P!nk, Beyonce and Jennifer Lopez. References Amr Diab International Encyclopedia in Arabic, Part 1. Amr Diab International Encyclopedia in Arabic, Part 2. Amr Diab International Encyclopedia in Arabic, Part 3. External links Your Big World for Amr Diab aka. 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3,851 | Cave | Lechuguilla Cave, New Mexico A cave is a natural underground void large enough for a human to enter. Some people suggest that the term cave should only apply to cavities that have some part that does not receive daylight; however, in popular usage, the term includes smaller spaces like sea caves, rock shelters, and grottos. Speleology is the science of exploration and study of all aspects of caves and the environment which surrounds the caves. Exploring a cave for recreation or science may be called caving, potholing, or, in Canada and the United States, spelunking (see Caving). Types and formation The formation and development of caves is known as speleogenesis. Caves are formed by various geologic processes. These may involve a combination of chemical processes, erosion from water, tectonic forces, microorganisms, pressure, atmospheric influences, and even digging. Most caves are formed in limestone by dissolution. Speleothems in Hall of the Mountain King, Ogof Craig a Ffynnon, South Wales. Solutional caves form in rock that is soluble, such as limestone, but can also form in other rocks, including chalk, dolomite, marble, salt, and gypsum. The largest and most abundant solutional caves are located in limestone. Limestone dissolves under the action of rainwater and groundwater charged with H2CO3 (carbonic acid) and naturally occurring organic acids. The dissolution process produces a distinctive landform known as karst, characterized by sinkholes, sinking streams, and underground drainage. Limestone caves are often adorned with calcium carbonate formations produced through slow precipitation. These include: flowstones, stalactites, stalagmites, helictites, draperies, soda straws and columns. These secondary mineral deposits in caves are called speleothems. The world's most spectacularly decorated cave is generally regarded to be Lechuguilla Cave in New Mexico. Lechuguilla and nearby Carlsbad Cavern are now believed to be examples of another type of solutional cave. They were formed by H2S (hydrogen sulfide) gas rising from below, where reservoirs of oil give off sulfurous fumes. This gas mixes with ground water and forms H2SO4 (sulfuric acid). The acid then dissolves the limestone from below, rather than from above, by acidic water percolating from the surface. Exploring a lava tube in Hawaii Some caves are formed at the same time as the surrounding rock. These are sometimes called primary caves. Lava tubes are formed through volcanic activity and are the most common 'primary' caves. The lava flows downhill and the surface cools and solidifies. The hotter lava continues to flow under that crust, and if most of the liquid lava beneath the crust flows out, a hollow tube remains, thus forming a cavity. Examples of such caves can be found on Tenerife, Big Island, and many other places. Kazumura Cave near Hilo is a remarkably long and deep lava tube; it is long. Lava caves, include but are not limited to lava tubes. Other caves formed through volcanic activity include rift caves, lava mold caves, open vertical volcanic conduits, and inflationary caves. Painted Cave, a large sea cave, Santa Cruz Island, California Sea caves are found along coasts around the world. A special case is littoral caves, which are formed by wave action in zones of weakness in sea cliffs. Often these weaknesses are faults, but they may also be dykes or bedding-plane contacts. Some wave-cut caves are now above sea level because of later uplift. Elsewhere, in places such as Thailand's Phang Nga Bay, solutional caves have been flooded by the sea and are now subject to littoral erosion. Sea caves are generally around to in length but may exceed . Corrasional or erosional caves are those that form entirely by erosion by flowing streams carrying rocks and other sediments. These can form in any type of rock, including hard rocks such as granite. Generally there must be some zone of weakness to guide the water, such as a fault or joint. A subtype of the erosional cave is the wind or aeolian cave, carved by wind-borne sediments. Note that many caves formed initially by solutional processes often undergo a subsequent phase of erosional or vadose enlargement where active streams or rivers pass through them. Glacier caves occur in ice and under glaciers and are formed by melting. They are also influenced by the very slow flow of the ice, which tends to close the caves again. (These are sometimes called ice caves, though this term is properly reserved for caves that contain year-round ice formations). Fracture caves are formed when layers of more soluble minerals, such as gypsum, dissolve out from between layers of less soluble rock. These rocks fracture and collapse in blocks. Talus caves are the openings between rocks that have fallen down into a pile, often at the bases of cliffs. Anchihaline caves are caves, usually coastal, containing a mixture of freshwater and saline water (usually sea water). They occur in many parts of the world, and often contain highly specialized and endemic faunas. Patterns Branchwork caves resemble surface dentritic stream patterns; they are made up of passages that join downstream as tributaries. Branchwork caves are the most common of cave patterns and are formed near sinkholes where groundwater recharge occurs. Each passage or branch is fed by a separate recharge source and converges into other higher order branches downstream. Easterbrook, Don, 1999, Surface Processes and Landforms [2nd edition], New Jersey, Prentice Hall, pp. 207 Angular Network caves form from intersecting fissures of carbonate rock that have had fractures widened by chemical erosion. These fractures form high, narrow, straight passages that persist in widespread closed loops. Anastomotic caves largely resemble surface braided streams with their passages separating and then meeting further down drainage. They usually form along one bed or structure, and only rarely cross into upper or lower beds. Spongework caves are formed as solution cavities are joined by mixing of chemically diverse water. The cavities form a pattern that is three-dimensional and random, resembling a sponge. Ramiform caves form as irregular large rooms, galleries, and passages. These randomized three-dimensional rooms form from a rising water table that erodes the carbonate rock with hydrogen-sulfide enriched water. Geographic distribution Caves are found throughout the world, but only a portion of them have been explored and documented by cavers. The distribution of documented cave systems is widely skewed toward countries where caving has been popular for many years (such as France, Italy, Australia, the UK, the United States, etc.). As a result, explored caves are found widely in Europe, Asia, North America, and Oceania but are sparse in South America, Africa, and Antarctica. This is a great generalization, as large expanses of North America and Asia contain no documented caves, whereas areas such as the Madagascar dry deciduous forests and parts of Brazil contain many documented caves. As the world’s expanses of soluble bedrock are researched by cavers, the distribution of documented caves is likely to shift. For example, China, despite containing around half the world's exposed limestone - more than - has relatively few documented caves. Record lengths, depths, pitches and volumes Canyon passage in Mammoth Cave, the world's longest cave. The cave system with the greatest total length of surveyed passage is Mammoth Cave (Kentucky, USA) at in length. This record is unlikely to be surpassed in the near future, as the next most extensive known cave is Jewel Cave near Custer, South Dakota, at . World’s Longest Caves List from The National Speleological Society The deepest known cave (measured from its highest entrance to its lowest point) is Voronya Cave (Abkhazia, Georgia), with a depth of . World’s Deepest Caves List from The National Speleological Society This was the first cave to be explored to a depth of more than . (The first cave to be descended below was the famous Gouffre Berger in France.) The Illyuzia-Mezhonnogo-Snezhnaya cave in Abkhazia, Georgia, () and the Lamprechtsofen Vogelschacht Weg Schacht in Austria () are the current second- and third-deepest caves. The deepest cave record has changed several times in recent years. The deepest vertical shaft in a cave is in Vrtoglavica Cave in Slovenia. The second deepest is Patkov Gušt at in the Velebit mountain, Croatia. The largest room ever discovered is the Son Doong Cave in Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park in Quang Binh Province, Vietnam. Explored by British cave scientists of the British Cave Research Association, it is now regarded as the largest cave passage in the world. The biggest passage of Son Doong is over five kilometers in length, 200 meters high and 150 meters wide. Explorers find world's largest cave in Vietnam, http://vietnewsonline.vn/News/Society/5914/Explorers-find-worlds-largest-cave-in-Vietnam.htm Ecology Townsend's Big-eared bats in a cave Cave-inhabiting animals are often categorized as troglobites (cave-limited species), troglophiles (species that can live their entire lives in caves, but also occur in other environments), trogloxenes (species that use caves, but cannot complete their life cycle wholly in caves) and accidentals (animals not in one of the previous categories). Some authors use separate terminology for aquatic forms (e.g., stygobites, stygophiles, and stygoxenes). Of these animals, the troglobites are perhaps the most unusual organisms. Troglobitic species often show a number of characteristics, termed troglomorphies, associated with their adaptation to subterranean life. These characteristics may include a loss of pigment (often resulting in a pale or white coloration), a loss of eyes (or at least of optical functionality), an elongation of appendages, and an enhancement of other senses (such as the ability to sense vibrations in water). Aquatic troglobites (or stygobites), such as the endangered Alabama cave shrimp, live in bodies of water found in caves and get nutrients from detritus washed into their caves and from the feces of bats and other cave inhabitants. Other aquatic troglobites include cave fish, the Olm, and cave salamanders such as the Texas Blind Salamander. Cave insects such as Oligaphorura (formerly Archaphorura) schoetti are troglophiles, reaching in length. They have extensive distribution and have been studied fairly widely. Most specimens are female but a male specimen was collected from St Cuthberts Swallet in 1969. Bats, such as the Gray bat and Mexican Free-tailed Bat, are trogloxenes and are often found in caves; they forage outside of the caves. Some species of cave crickets are classified as trogloxenes, because they roost in caves by day and forage above ground at night. Because of the fragile nature of the cave ecosystem, and the fact that cave regions tend to be isolated from one another, caves harbor a number of endangered species, such as the Tooth cave spider, Liphistiidae Liphistius trapdoor spider, and the Gray bat. Caves are visited by many surface-living animals, including humans. These are usually relatively short-lived incursions, due to the lack of light and sustenance. Archaeological and cultural importance Taino petroglyphs in a cave in Puerto Rico Throughout history, primitive peoples have made use of caves for shelter, burial, or as religious sites. Since items placed in caves are protected from the climate and scavenging animals, this means caves are an archaeological treasure house for learning about these people. Cave paintings are of particular interest. One example is the Great Cave of Niah, in Malaysia, which contains evidence of human habitation dating back 40,000 years. National Geographic. James Shreeve. "The Greatest Journey". March 2006. In the animal kingdom, caves offer shelter, including specialized uses such as maternity dens. In Germany some experts found signs of cannibalism in the caves at the Hönne. Caves are also important for geological research because they can reveal details of past climatic conditions in speleothems and sedimentary rock layers. Caves are frequently used today as sites for recreation. Caving, for example, is the popular sport of cave exploration. For the less adventurous, a number of the world's prettier and more accessible caves have been converted into show caves, where artificial lighting, floors, and other aids allow the casual visitor to experience the cave with minimal inconvenience. Caves have also been used for BASE jumping and cave diving. Caverns of Magic by Hal G. P. Colebatch surveys some of the instances of cave stories in literature and mythology. Caves are also used for the preservation or aging of wine and cheese. The constant, slightly chilly temperature and high humidity that most caves possess makes them ideal for such uses. See also Subterranean isle in Križna jama Karst cave with underground river exiting at Tolantongo, Mexico. Cave Conservancies Cave Research Foundation Cenote Flowstone List of caves National Speleological Society Pit cave Speleology Speleothem References External links Australian Speleological Federation (ASF), AU British Caving Association (BCA), UK Classification of Caves A list of cave types with links to further information Journal of Cave and Karst Studies National Speleological Society (NSS), US International Union of Speleology (UIS). Speleological Abstract (SA/BBS) An annual review of the world's speleological literature. The Virtual Cave Photographs of many types of caves. cave-biology.org Cave biology (biospeleology) in India. Biospeleology; The Biology of Caves, Karst, and Groundwater, by Texas Natural Science Center, The University of Texas at Austin and the Missouri Department of Conservation. Tour Caves A Google Map of Commercial Tour Caves in the US. French Caves List of Commercial Caves in France. Caves of Croatia List and details about longest and deepest caves and pits in Croatia. Cathedral Cave Preserve A privately owned speleological research and educational park. 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3,852 | John_the_Evangelist | St John the Evangelist, imagined by Jacopo Pontormo, ca 1525 (Santa Felicita, Florence) Saint John the Evangelist (d. ca. 110; יוחנן "The LORD is merciful", Standard Hebrew Yoḥanan, Tiberian Hebrew Yôḥānān), or the Beloved Disciple, is traditionally the name used to refer to the author of the Gospel of John and the First Epistle of John. Traditionally he has been identified with John the Apostle. The identification with the author of the Second and Third Epistle of John and the author of the Book of Revelation is a long-held tradition (see John the Presbyter and John of Patmos). The Gospel of John refers to an unnamed "Beloved Disciple" of Jesus who bore witness to the gospel's message. Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition). Chapter 2. Christian sources about Jesus. The editors of the Gospel, who record the Beloved Disciple's death, seem interested in the author's anonymity. Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition) Apparently this disciple of Jesus had not been well known, but had greatly outlived Peter. The apostle John was a historical figure, one of the "pillars" of the Jerusalem church after Jesus' death. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "John" p. 302-310 Many scholars believe that John was martyred along with his brother, as Jesus predicts in Mark (Mark 10:39, Acts 12:1-2). The tradition that John lived to old age in Ephesus and that he wrote this gospel date from the late second century. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. Modern scholars generally do not regard John to have authored any of the texts ascribed to him. In the Bible Christian tradition says that John the Evangelist was one of Christ's original twelve apostles; the only one to live into old age; and not martyred for his faith. John the Evangelist is associated with Ephesus, where he is said to have lived and been buried. Some believe that after a short life he was exiled to Patmos, where he wrote the Book of Revelation. However this is a matter of debate, with some attributing authorship to John of Patmos or John the Presbyter. It also debated whether John the Evangelist is the same as St. John the Apostle. Statue of John the Evangelist outside St. John's Seminary, Boston John was the son of Zebedee and Salome, and the brother of James the Greater. In the Gospels the two brothers are often called after their father "the sons of Zebedee" and received from Christ the honourable title of Boanerges, i.e. "sons of thunder" (). Originally they were fishermen and fished with their father in the Lake of Genesareth. According to the usual and entirely probable explanation they became, however, for a time disciples of John the Baptist, and were called by Christ from the circle of John's followers, together with Peter and Andrew, to become His disciples (). The first disciples returned with their new Master from the Jordan to Galilee and apparently both John and the others remained for some time with Jesus (cf. John ii, 12, 22; iv, 2, 8, 27 sqq.). Yet after the second return from Judea, John and his companions went back again to their trade of fishing until he and they were called by Christ to definitive discipleship (; ). In the lists of the Apostles John has the second place (Acts 1:13), the third (), and the fourth (; ), yet always after James with the exception of a few passages (; 9:28 in the Greek text; Acts 1:13). From James being thus placed first, the conclusion is drawn that John was the younger of the two brothers. In any case John had a prominent position in the Apostolic body. Peter, James, and he were the only witnesses of the raising of Jairus's daughter (), of the Transfiguration (), and of the Agony in Gethsemani (). Only he and Peter were sent into the city to make the preparation for the Last Supper (). At the Supper itself his place was next to Christ on Whose breast he leaned (John 13:23, 25). According to the general interpretation John was also that "other disciple" who with Peter followed Christ after the arrest into the palace of the high-priest (John 18:15). John alone remained near his beloved Master at the foot of the Cross on Calvary with the Mother of Jesus and the pious women, and took the desolate Mother into his care as the last legacy of Christ (John 19:25-27). After the Resurrection John with Peter was the first of the disciples to hasten to the grave and he was the first to believe that Christ had truly risen (John 20:2-10). When later Christ appeared at the Lake of Genesareth John was also the first of the seven disciples present who recognized his Master standing on the shore (John 21:7). The Fourth Evangelist has shown us most clearly how close the relationship was in which he always stood to his Lord and Master by the title with which he is accustomed to indicate himself without giving his name: "the disciple whom Jesus loved". After Christ's Ascension and the Descent of the Holy Spirit, John took, together with Peter, a prominent part in the founding and guidance of the Church. We see him in the company of Peter at the healing of the lame man in the Temple (Acts 3:1 sqq.). With Peter he is also thrown into prison (Acts 4:3). Again, we find him with Peter visiting the newly converted in Samaria (Acts 8:14). We have no positive information concerning the duration of this activity in Palestine. Apparently John in common with the other Apostles remained some twelve years in this first field of labour, until the persecution of Herod Agrippa I led to the scattering of the Apostles through the various provinces of the Roman Empire (cf. Acts 12:1-17). Notwithstanding the opinion to the contrary of many writers, it does not appear improbable that John then went for the first time to Asia Minor and exercised his Apostolic office in various provinces there. In any case a Christian community was already in existence at Ephesus before Paul's first labours there (cf. "the brethren", Acts 18:27, in addition to Priscilla and Aquila), and it is easy to connect a sojourn of John in these provinces with the fact that the Holy Ghost did not permit the Apostle Paul on his second missionary journey to proclaim the Gospel in Asia, Mysia, and Bithynia (Acts 16:6 sq.). There is just as little against such an acceptation in the later account in Acts of St. Paul's third missionary journey. But in any case such a sojourn by John in Asia in this first period was neither long nor uninterrupted. He returned with the other disciples to Jerusalem for the Apostolic Council (about A.D. 51). St. Paul in opposing his enemies in Galatia names John explicitly along with Peter and James the Just (the brother of Jesus) as a "pillar of the Church", and refers to the recognition which his Apostolic preaching of a Gospel free from the law received from these three, the most prominent men of the old Mother-Church at Jerusalem (Galatians 2:9). When Paul came again to Jerusalem after the second and after the third journey (Acts 18:22; 21:17 sq.) he seems no longer to have met John there. Some wish to draw the conclusion from this that John left Palestine between the years 52 and 55. Of the other New-Testament writings, it is only from the three Epistles of John and the Apocalypse that anything further is learned concerning the person of the Apostle. We may be permitted here to take as proven the unity of the author of these three writings handed down under the name of John and his identity with the Evangelist. Both the Epistles and the Apocalypse, however, presuppose that their author John belonged to the multitude of personal eyewitnesses of the life and work of Christ (cf. especially 1 John 1:1-5; 4:14), that he had lived for a long time in Asia Minor, was thoroughly acquainted with the conditions existing in the various Christian communities there, and that he had a position of authority recognized by all Christian communities as leader of this part of the Church. Moreover, the Apocalypse tells us that its author was on the island of Patmos "for the word of God and for the testimony of Jesus", when he was honoured with the heavenly Revelation contained in the Apocalypse (Revelation 1:9). Authorship Collectively, the Gospel, the three Epistles, and Revelation are known as Johannine literature. Traditional Christian thought on the subject points to St. John the Apostle as the author of the Gospel, the three Epistles and the Book of Revelation that bear his name, Catholic Encyclopedia: St. John the Evangelist and there is some internal textual evidence to suggest they may have been authored by the same person (see textual criticism). Of the Johannine literature, Revelation bears the least grammatical similarity to the Gospel. Modern scholars hold that the Apostle John wrote none of these texts. "Although ancient traditions attributed to the Apostle John the Fourth Gospel, the Book of Revelation, and the three Epistles of John, modern scholars believe that he wrote none of them." Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible (Palo Alto: Mayfield, 1985) p. 355 Numerous modern scholars dispute that these works were by the same person. Thomas F. Jefferson, "New International Biblcal Commentary; 1,2 & 3 John; page 1'' The most widely accepted view is that - whether or not the same man wrote all the Johannine literature - it all came out of the same community in Asia Minor, which had some connection to John the Evangelist, John of Patmos, and John the Presbyter. The author of the Gospel of John never identifies himself by name, but the text identifies him as the "beloved disciple" repeatedly referred to in the Gospel. The author of this Gospel is also sometimes presumed to be the author of 1 John, and also, more rarely, of 2 John and 3 John. The 4th century Council of Rome decreed that the author of 1 John and that of 2 and 3 John should be regarded as distinct individuals. Evangelical Christians, orthodox Roman Catholic scholarship, and the entire Eastern Orthodox Church attributes all of the Johannine literature to the same individual, the "Holy Apostle and Evangelist, John the Theologian", whom it identifies with the "Beloved Disciple" in the Gospel of John. Feast Day The feast day of Saint John in the Roman Catholic Church, which calls him "Saint John, Apostle and Evangelist", is on 27 December. In the Tridentine Calendar he was commemorated also on each of the following days up to and including 3 January, the Octave of the 27 December feast. This Octave was abolished by Pope Pius XII in 1955. General Roman Calendar of Pope Pius XII]] The 27 December feast is found in the Syriac Breviary of the end of the fourth century and the Martyrology of Jerome. But at present Saint John is celebrated on a wide variety of dates in Eastern rites: 29 December for Armenians, 30 December for Copts, 7 May for Syrians and 26 September for Christians of Byzantine Rite. Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 19690, p. 111 The Tridentine Calendar also had on 6 May a feast of "St John before the Latin Gate", associated with a tradition recounted by Saint Jerome that St John was brought to Rome during the reign of the Emperor Domitian, and was thrown in a vat of boiling oil, from which he was miraculously preserved unharmed. A church, San Giovanni a Porta Latina, dedicated to him was built near the Latin Gate (Porta Latina) of Rome, the traditional scene of this event. "Saint Andrew Daily Missal with Vespers for Sundays and Feasts" by Dom. Gaspar LeFebvre, O.S.B., Saint Paul, MN: The E.M. Lohmann Co., 1952, p.1325-1326 The feast is supposed to commemorate the dedication of this church, and is first mentioned in the Sacramentary of Adrian I (772-95). Pope John XXIII removed this feast from the General Roman Calendar in 1960, along with various other second feasts of a single saint. General Roman Calendar of 1962 Patron Saint St. John the Evangelist is (along with St. John the Baptist) a Patron Saint of the fraternal society of Free and Accepted Masons (better known as the Freemasons). Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry Christian art usually represents St John with an eagle, symbolizing the heights to which he rises in the first chapter of his Gospel. The chalice as symbolic of St John, which, according to some authorities, was not adopted until the thirteenth century, is sometimes interpreted with reference to the Last Supper, again as connected with the legend according to which St. John was handed a cup of poisoned wine, from which, at his blessing, the poison rose in the shape of a serpent. Perhaps the most natural explanation is to be found in the words of Christ to John and James "My chalice indeed you shall drink" (). See also Names of John Four Evangelists Gospel of Mark Gospel of Matthew Gospel of Luke Mark the Evangelist Luke the Evangelist Matthew the Evangelist References External links Answers.com Catholic Encyclopedia: St. John the Evangelist | John_the_Evangelist |@lemmatized st:15 john:83 evangelist:18 imagine:1 jacopo:1 pontormo:1 ca:2 santa:1 felicita:1 florence:1 saint:10 יוחנן:1 lord:2 merciful:1 standard:1 hebrew:2 yoḥanan:1 tiberian:1 yôḥānān:1 beloved:6 disciple:14 traditionally:2 name:6 use:1 refer:2 author:14 gospel:20 first:12 epistle:7 identify:3 apostle:14 identification:1 second:7 third:4 book:4 revelation:8 long:4 hold:2 tradition:5 see:4 presbyter:3 patmos:5 refers:2 unnamed:1 jesus:12 bore:1 witness:2 message:1 theissen:2 gerd:2 annette:2 merz:2 historical:3 comprehensive:2 guide:2 fortress:2 press:2 translate:2 german:2 edition:2 chapter:2 christian:9 source:1 editor:1 record:1 death:2 seem:2 interested:1 anonymity:1 apparently:3 well:2 know:3 greatly:1 outlive:1 peter:11 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3,853 | Continuous_function | In mathematics, a continuous function is a function for which, intuitively, small changes in the input result in small changes in the output. Otherwise, a function is said to be discontinuous. A continuous function with a continuous inverse function is called bicontinuous. An intuitive though imprecise (and inexact) idea of continuity is given by the common statement that a continuous function is a function whose graph can be drawn without lifting the chalk from the blackboard. Continuity of functions is one of the core concepts of topology, which is treated in full generality in a more advanced article. This introductory article focuses mainly on the special case where the inputs and outputs of functions are real numbers. In addition, this article discusses the definition for the more general case of functions between two metric spaces. In order theory, especially in domain theory, one considers a notion of continuity known as Scott continuity. Other forms of continuity do exist but they are not discussed in this article. As an example, consider the function h(t) which describes the height of a growing flower at time t. This function is continuous. In fact, there is a dictum of classical physics which states that in nature everything is continuous. By contrast, if M(t) denotes the amount of money in a bank account at time t, then the function jumps whenever money is deposited or withdrawn, so the function M(t) is discontinuous. (However, if one assumes a discrete set as the domain of function M, for instance the set of points of time at 4:00 PM on business days, then M becomes continuous function, as every function whose domain is a discrete subset of reals is.) Real-valued continuous functions Suppose we have a function that maps real numbers to real numbers and whose domain is some interval, like the functions h and M above. Such a function can be represented by a graph in the Cartesian plane; the function is continuous if, roughly speaking, the graph is a single unbroken curve with no "holes" or "jumps". In general, we say that the function f is continuous at some point c of its domain if, and only if, the following holds: The limit of f(x) as x approaches c through domain of f does exist and is equal to f(c); in mathematical notation, . If the point c in the domain of f is not a limit point of the domain, then this condition is vacuously true, since x cannot approach c through values not equal c. Thus, for example, every function whose domain is the set of all integers is continuous. We call a function continuous, if, and only if, it is continuous at every point of its domain. More generally, we say that a function is continuous on some subset of its domain if it is continuous at every point of that subset. The notation C(Ω) or C0(Ω) is sometimes used to denote the set of all continuous functions with domain Ω. Similarly, C1(Ω) is used to denote the set of differentiable functions whose derivative is continuous, C²(Ω) for the twice-differentiable functions whose second derivative is continuous, and so on. In the field of computer graphics, these three levels are sometimes called g0 (continuity of position), g1 (continuity of tangency), and g2 (continuity of curvature). The notation C(n, α)(Ω) occurs in the definition of a more subtle concept, that of Hölder continuity. Cauchy definition (epsilon-delta) of continuous functions Without resorting to limits, one can define continuity of real functions as follows. Again consider a function f that maps a set of real numbers to another set of real numbers, and suppose c is an element of the domain of f. The function f is said to be continuous at the point c if the following holds: For any number ε > 0, however small, there exists some number δ > 0 such that for all x in the domain of f with c − δ < x < c + δ, the value of f(x) satisfies Alternatively written: Given subsets I, D of R, continuity of f : I → D at c ∈ I means that for all ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that for all x ∈ I : A form of this epsilon-delta definition of continuity was first given by Bernard Bolzano in 1817, then independently by Cauchy, though the formal definition and the distinction between pointwise continuity and uniform continuity were first given by Karl Weierstrass. More intuitively, we can say that if we want to get all the f(x) values to stay in some small neighborhood around f(c), we simply need to choose a small enough neighborhood for the x values around c, and we can do that no matter how small the f(x) neighborhood is; f is then continuous at c. In modern terms, this is generalized by the definition of continuity of a function with respect to a basis for the topology, here the metric topology. Heine definition of continuity The following definition of continuity is due to Heine. A real function f is continuous if for any sequence (xn) such that it holds that (We assume that all the points xn as well as L belong to the domain of f.) One can say, briefly, that a function is continuous if, and only if, it preserves limits. Cauchy's and Heine's definitions of continuity are equivalent on the reals. The usual (easier) proof makes use of the axiom of choice, but in the case of global continuity of real functions it was proved by Wacław Sierpiński that the axiom of choice is not actually needed. In more general setting of topological spaces, the concept analogous to Heine definition of continuity is called sequential continuity. In general, the condition of sequential continuity is weaker than the analogue of Cauchy continuity, which is just called continuity (see continuity (topology) for details). However, if instead of sequences one uses nets (sets indexed by a directed set, not only the natural numbers), then the resulting concept is equivalent to the general notion of continuity in topology. Definition in nonstandard analysis Non-standard analysis is a way of making Newton-Leibniz-style infinitesimals mathematically rigorous. The real line is augmented by the addition of infinite and infinitesimal numbers to form the hyperreal numbers. In nonstandard analysis, continuity can be defined as follows. A function ƒ from the reals to the reals is continuous if its generalization to the hyperreals has the property that for real x and infinitesimal dx, is infinitesimal. http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html Examples All polynomial functions are continuous. If a function has a domain which is not an interval, the notion of a continuous function as one whose graph you can draw without taking your pencil off the paper is not quite correct. Consider the functions f(x) = 1/x and g(x) = (sin x)/x. Neither function is defined at x = 0, so each has domain R \ {0} of real numbers except 0, and each function is continuous. The question of continuity at x = 0 does not arise, since x is neither in the domain of f nor in the domain of g. The function f cannot be extended to a continuous function whose domain is R, since no matter what value is assigned at 0, the resulting function will not be continuous. On the other hand, since the limit of g at 0 is 1, g can be extended continuously to R by defining its value at 0 to be 1. The rational functions, exponential functions, logarithms, square root function, trigonometric functions and absolute value function are continuous. An example of a discontinuous function is the function f defined by f(x) = 1 if x > 0, f(x) = 0 if x ≤ 0. Pick for instance ε = ½. There is no δ-neighborhood around x = 0 that will force all the f(x) values to be within ε of f(0). Intuitively we can think of this type of discontinuity as a sudden jump in function values. Another example of a discontinuous function is the signum or sign function. A more complicated example of a discontinuous function is Thomae's function. Dirichlet's function is continuous at only one point, namely x = 0. Facts about continuous functions If two functions f and g are continuous, then f + g, fg, and f/g are continuous. (Note. The only point(s) x of possible discontinuity of f/g is(are) the solution(s) of the equation g(x) = 0; but then any such x does not belong to the domain of the function f/g. Hence f/g is continuous on its entire domain, or - in other words - is continuous.) The composition f o g of two continuous functions is continuous. If a function is differentiable at some point c of its domain, then it is also continuous at c. The converse is not true: a function that's continuous at c need not be differentiable there. Consider for instance the absolute value function at c = 0. Intermediate value theorem The intermediate value theorem is an existence theorem, based on the real number property of completeness, and states: If the real-valued function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and k is some number between f(a) and f(b), then there is some number c in [a, b] such that f(c) = k. For example, if a child grows from 1m to 1.5m between the ages of 2 years and 6 years, then, at some time between 2 years and 6 years of age, the child's height must have been 1.25m. As a consequence, if f is continuous on [a, b] and f(a) and f(b) differ in sign, then, at some point c in [a, b], f(c) must equal zero. Extreme value theorem The extreme value theorem states that if a function f is defined on a closed interval [a,b] (or any closed and bounded set) and is continuous there, then the function attains its maximum, i.e. there exists c ∈ [a,b] with f(c) ≥ f(x) for all x ∈ [a,b]. The same is true of the minimum of f. These statements are not, in general, true if the function is defined on an open interval (a,b) (or any set that is not both closed and bounded), as, for example, the continuous function f(x) = 1/x, defined on the open interval (0,1), does not attain a maximum, being unbounded above. Directional continuity A function may happen to be continuous in only one direction, either from the "left" or from the "right". A right-continuous function is a function which is continuous at all points when approached from the right. Technically, the formal definition is similar to the definition above for a continuous function but modified as follows: The function ƒ is said to be right-continuous at the point c if the following holds: For any number ε > 0 however small, there exists some number δ > 0 such that for all x in the domain with , the value of ƒ(x) will satisfy Notice that x must be larger than c, that is on the right of c. If x were also allowed to take values less than c, this would be the definition of continuity. This restriction makes it possible for the function to have a discontinuity at c, but still be right continuous at c, as pictured. Likewise a left-continuous function is a function which is continuous at all points when approached from the left, that is, . A function is continuous if and only if it is both right-continuous and left-continuous. Continuous functions between metric spaces Now consider a function f from one metric space (X, dX) to another metric space (Y, dY). Then f is continuous at the point c in X if for any positive real number ε, there exists a positive real number δ such that all x in X satisfying dX(x, c) < δ will also satisfy dY(f(x), f(c)) < ε. This can also be formulated in terms of sequences and limits: the function f is continuous at the point c if for every sequence (xn) in X with limit lim xn = c, we have lim f(xn) = f(c). Continuous functions transform limits into limits. This latter condition can be weakened as follows: f is continuous at the point c if and only if for every convergent sequence (xn) in X with limit c, the sequence (f(xn)) is a Cauchy sequence, and c is in the domain of f. Continuous functions transform convergent sequences into Cauchy sequences. The set of points at which a function between metric spaces is continuous is a Gδ set – this follows from the ε-δ definition of continuity. Continuous functions between topological spaces Continuity of a function at a point The above definitions of continuous functions can be generalized to functions from one topological space to another in a natural way; a function f : X → Y, where X and Y are topological spaces, is continuous if and only if for every open set V ⊆ Y, the inverse image is open. However, this definition is often difficult to use directly. Instead, suppose we have a function f from X to Y, where X,Y are topological spaces. We say f is continuous at x for some if for any neighborhood V of f(x), there is a neighborhood U of x such that . Although this definition appears complex, the intuition is that no matter how "small" V becomes, we can always find a U containing x that will map inside it. If f is continuous at every , then we simply say f is continuous. In a metric space, it is equivalent to consider the neighbourhood system of open balls centered at x and f(x) instead of all neighborhoods. This leads to the standard ε-δ definition of a continuous function from real analysis, which says roughly that a function is continuous if all points close to x map to points close to f(x). This only really makes sense in a metric space, however, which has a notion of distance. Note, however, that if the target space is Hausdorff, it is still true that f is continuous at a if and only if the limit of f as x approaches a is f(a). At an isolated point, every function is continuous. Continuous functions between partially ordered sets In order theory, continuity of a function between posets is Scott continuity. Let X be a complete lattice, then a function f : X → X is continuous if, for each subset Y of X, we have sup f(Y) = f(sup Y). Continuous binary relation A binary relation R on A is continuous if R(a, b) whenever there are sequences (ak)i and (bk)i in A which converge to a and b respectively for which R(ak, bk) for all k. Clearly, if one treats R as a characteristic function in two variables, this definition of continuous is identical to that for continuous functions. See also Absolute continuity Bounded linear operator Classification of discontinuities Continuous functor Continuous stochastic process Equicontinuity Lipschitz continuity Normal function Piecewise Scott continuity Semicontinuity Symmetrically continuous function Uniform continuity Notes References Visual Calculus by Lawrence S. Husch, University of Tennessee (2001) | Continuous_function |@lemmatized mathematics:1 continuous:81 function:103 intuitively:3 small:8 change:2 input:2 result:3 output:2 otherwise:1 say:10 discontinuous:5 inverse:2 call:5 bicontinuous:1 intuitive:1 though:2 imprecise:1 inexact:1 idea:1 continuity:38 give:4 common:1 statement:2 whose:8 graph:4 draw:2 without:3 lift:1 chalk:1 blackboard:1 one:12 core:1 concept:4 topology:5 treat:2 full:1 generality:1 advanced:1 article:4 introductory:1 focus:1 mainly:1 special:1 case:3 real:21 number:18 addition:2 discuss:2 definition:20 general:6 two:4 metric:8 space:13 order:3 theory:3 especially:1 domain:25 consider:7 notion:4 know:1 scott:3 form:3 exist:7 example:7 h:2 describe:1 height:2 grow:2 flower:1 time:4 fact:2 dictum:1 classical:1 physic:1 state:3 nature:1 everything:1 contrast:1 denote:3 amount:1 money:2 bank:1 account:1 jump:3 whenever:2 deposit:1 withdraw:1 however:7 assume:2 discrete:2 set:15 instance:3 point:23 pm:1 business:1 day:1 becomes:2 every:9 subset:5 value:18 suppose:3 map:4 interval:6 like:1 represent:1 cartesian:1 plane:1 roughly:2 speak:1 single:1 unbroken:1 curve:1 hole:1 f:69 c:41 following:4 hold:4 limit:11 x:62 approach:5 equal:3 mathematical:1 notation:3 condition:3 vacuously:1 true:5 since:4 cannot:2 thus:1 integer:1 generally:1 ω:6 sometimes:2 use:5 similarly:1 differentiable:4 derivative:2 twice:1 second:1 field:1 computer:1 graphic:1 three:1 level:1 position:1 tangency:1 curvature:1 n:1 α:1 occur:1 subtle:1 hölder:1 cauchy:6 epsilon:2 delta:2 resort:1 define:8 follow:5 another:4 element:1 ε:9 δ:10 satisfy:4 alternatively:1 write:1 r:8 mean:1 first:2 bernard:1 bolzano:1 independently:1 formal:2 distinction:1 pointwise:1 uniform:2 karl:1 weierstrass:1 want:1 get:1 stay:1 neighborhood:7 around:3 simply:2 need:3 choose:1 enough:1 matter:3 modern:1 term:2 generalize:2 respect:1 basis:1 heine:4 due:1 sequence:10 xn:7 well:1 l:1 belong:2 briefly:1 preserve:1 equivalent:3 usual:1 easy:1 proof:1 make:4 axiom:2 choice:2 global:1 prove:1 wacław:1 sierpiński:1 actually:1 setting:1 topological:5 analogous:1 sequential:2 weak:1 analogue:1 see:2 detail:1 instead:3 net:1 index:1 directed:1 natural:2 nonstandard:2 analysis:4 non:1 standard:2 way:2 newton:1 leibniz:1 style:1 infinitesimal:4 mathematically:1 rigorous:1 line:1 augment:1 infinite:1 hyperreal:1 ƒ:3 generalization:1 hyperreals:1 property:2 dx:3 http:1 www:1 math:1 wisc:1 edu:1 keisler:1 calc:1 html:1 examples:1 polynomial:1 take:2 pencil:1 paper:1 quite:1 correct:1 g:12 sin:1 neither:2 except:1 question:1 arise:1 extend:2 assign:1 hand:1 continuously:1 rational:1 exponential:1 logarithm:1 square:1 root:1 trigonometric:1 absolute:3 pick:1 force:1 within:1 think:1 type:1 discontinuity:4 sudden:1 signum:1 sign:2 complicated:1 thomae:1 dirichlet:1 namely:1 fg:1 note:3 possible:2 solution:1 equation:1 hence:1 entire:1 word:1 composition:1 also:5 converse:1 intermediate:2 theorem:5 existence:1 base:1 completeness:1 closed:3 b:12 k:3 child:2 age:2 year:4 must:3 consequence:1 differ:1 zero:1 extreme:2 bound:3 attain:2 maximum:2 e:1 minimum:1 open:5 close:3 unbounded:1 directional:1 may:1 happen:1 direction:1 either:1 leave:2 right:7 technically:1 similar:1 modify:1 notice:1 large:1 allow:1 less:1 would:1 restriction:1 still:2 picture:1 likewise:1 left:2 dy:2 positive:2 formulate:1 lim:2 transform:2 latter:1 weaken:1 convergent:2 gδ:1 v:3 image:1 often:1 difficult:1 directly:1 u:2 although:1 appear:1 complex:1 intuition:1 always:1 find:1 containing:1 inside:1 neighbourhood:1 system:1 ball:1 center:1 lead:1 really:1 sense:1 distance:1 target:1 hausdorff:1 isolated:1 partially:1 posets:1 let:1 complete:1 lattice:1 sup:2 binary:2 relation:2 ak:2 bk:2 converge:1 respectively:1 clearly:1 characteristic:1 variable:1 identical:1 linear:1 operator:1 classification:1 functor:1 stochastic:1 process:1 equicontinuity:1 lipschitz:1 normal:1 piecewise:1 semicontinuity:1 symmetrically:1 reference:1 visual:1 calculus:1 lawrence:1 husch:1 university:1 tennessee:1 |@bigram input_output:1 ω_ω:1 epsilon_delta:2 karl_weierstrass:1 axiom_choice:2 topological_space:5 nonstandard_analysis:2 newton_leibniz:1 http_www:1 wisc_edu:1 exponential_function:1 trigonometric_function:1 ε_δ:3 closed_interval:2 cauchy_sequence:2 |
3,854 | IBM_AIX | AIX (Advanced Interactive eXecutive) is the name given to a series of proprietary operating systems sold by IBM for several of its computer system platforms, based on UNIX System V with 4.3BSD-compatible command and programming interface extensions. AIX runs on 32-bit or 64-bit IBM POWER or PowerPC CPUs (depending on version) and can address up to 32 terabytes (TB) of random access memory. The JFS2 file system—first introduced by IBM as part of AIX—allows computer files and partitions over 4 petabytes in size. History AIX Version 1, introduced in 1986 for the IBM 6150 RT workstation, was based on UNIX System V Releases 1 and 2. In developing AIX, IBM and INTERACTIVE Systems Corporation (whom IBM contracted) also incorporated source code from 4.2 and 4.3 BSD UNIX. Among other variants, IBM later produced AIX Version 3 (also known as AIX/6000), based on System V Release 3, for their IBM POWER-based RS/6000 platform. Since 1990, AIX has served as the primary operating system for the RS/6000 series (later renamed IBM eServer pSeries, then IBM System p, and now IBM Power Systems). AIX Version 4, introduced in 1994, added symmetric multiprocessing with the introduction of the first RS/6000 SMP servers and continued to evolve through the 1990s, culminating with AIX 4.3.3 in 1999. Version 4.1, in a slightly modified form, was also the standard operating system for the Apple Network Server systems sold by Apple Computer to complement the Macintosh line. In the late 1990s, under Project Monterey, IBM and the Santa Cruz Operation planned to integrate AIX and UnixWare into a single 32-bit/64-bit multiplatform UNIX with particular emphasis on running on Intel IA-64 (Itanium) architecture CPUs. A beta test version of AIX 5L for IA-64 systems was released, but according to documents released in SCO vs. IBM, less than forty licenses for the finished Monterey Unix were ever sold before the project was terminated in 2002. AIX 6 was announced in May 2007 and ran an open beta from June 2007 until the general availability (GA) of AIX 6.1 on November 9th, 2007. Major new features in AIX 6.1 included full role-based access control, workload partitions (which enable application mobility), enhanced security (Addition of AES encryption type for NFS v3 and v4) and live partition mobility on the POWER6 hardware. SCO lawsuit In the SCO v. IBM lawsuit filed in 2003, the SCO Group alleged that (among other infractions) IBM had misappropriated licensed source code from UNIX System V Release 4 for incorporation into AIX; SCO subsequently withdrew IBM's license to develop and distribute AIX. IBM maintains that their license was irrevocable, and continued to sell and support the product until the litigation was adjudicated. On 2007-08-10 the U.S. district court ruled that SCO does not own the copyrights to the Unix operating system. Supported hardware platforms IBM 6150 RT The original AIX (sometimes called AIX/RT) was developed for the IBM 6150 RT workstation by IBM in conjunction with INTERACTIVE Systems Corporation, who had previously ported UNIX System III to the IBM PC for IBM as PC/IX. Installation media consisted of eight 1.2M floppy disks. The RT was based on the ROMP chip, the first commercial RISC chip, based on a design, the IBM 801, pioneered at IBM Research. One of the novel aspects of the RT design was the use of a microkernel, called Virtual Resource Manager (VRM). The keyboard, mouse, display, disk drives and network were all controlled by a microkernel. One could "hotkey" from one operating system to the next using the Alt-Tab key combination. Each OS in turn would get possession of the keyboard, mouse and display. Besides AIX v2, the PICK OS also utilized this microkernel. Much of the AIX v2 kernel was written in the PL/I programming language, which proved troublesome during the migration to AIX v3. AIX v2 included full TCP/IP networking, as well as SNA and two networking file systems: NFS, licensed from Sun Microsystems, and Distributed Services (DS). DS had the distinction of being built on top of SNA, and thereby being fully compatible with DS on the IBM midrange AS/400 and mainframe systems. For the graphical user interfaces, AIX v2 came with the X10R3 and later the X10R4 and X11 versions of the X Window System from MIT, together with the Athena widget set. Compilers for Fortran and C were available. One of the more popular desktop applications was the PageMaker desktop publishing software. IBM PS/2 series AIX PS/2 (also known as AIX/386) was developed by Locus Computing Corporation under contract to IBM. AIX PS/2, first released in 1989, ran on IBM PS/2 personal computers with Intel 386 and faster processors. IBM mainframes In 1988, IBM announced AIX/370, also developed by Locus Computing. AIX/370 was IBM's first attempt to offer Unix-like functionality for their mainframe line, specifically the System/370. AIX/370 was released in 1990 with functional equivalence to System V Release 2 and 4.3BSD as well as IBM enhancements. With the introduction of the ESA/390 architecture, AIX/370 was replaced by AIX/ESA in 1991, which was based on OSF/1, and also ran on the System/390 platform. This development effort was made partly to allow IBM to compete with Amdahl UTS. Unlike AIX/370, AIX/ESA ran both natively as the host operating system, and as a guest under VM. AIX/ESA, while technically advanced, had little commercial success, partially because UNIX functionality was added as an option to the existing mainframe operating system, MVS, which became MVS/ESA OpenEdition in 1999. POWER/PowerPC-based systems The release of AIX version 3 (sometimes called AIX/6000) coincided with the announcement of the first IBM RS/6000 models. The RS/6000 was unique in that it not only outperformed all other machines in integer compute performance, but also beat the competition by a factor of 10 in floating-point performance. Releases of AIX version 3 also took advantage of the developments in the POWER architecture. AIX v3 innovated in several ways on the software side. It was the first operating system to introduce the idea of a journalling file system, JFS, which allowed for fast boot times by avoiding the need to fsck the disks on every reboot. Another innovation was the introduction of shared libraries, which avoided the need for an application to statically link to the libraries it used. The resulting smaller binaries used less of the hardware RAM, to run, and used less of the disk space to install. Besides improving performance, it was a boon to developers: executable binaries could be in the 10s of kilobytes instead of a megabyte for an executable statically linked to the C library. AIX v3 also ditched the microkernel of AIX v2, a contentious move that resulted in v3 being somewhat more "pure" (and containing no PL/1 code) than v2. Other notable subsytems included: IRIS GL, a 3D rendering library, the progenitor of OpenGL. IRIS GL was licensed by IBM from SGI, then a small company which had sold only one thousand machines to date. SGI also provided the low-end graphics card for the RS/6000, capable of drawing 20,000 gouraud-shaded triangles per second. The high-end graphics card was designed by IBM, a follow-on to the mainframe-based IBM 5080, capable of rendering 990K vectors per second. PHIGS, another 3D rendering API, popular in automotive CAD/CAM circles, and at the core of CATIA. Full implementation of version 11 of the X Window System, together with Motif as the recommended widget collection and window manager. Network file systems: NFS from Sun; AFS, the Andrew File System; and DFS, the Distributed File System. NCS, the Network Computing System, licensed from Apollo Computer (later acquired by HP) DPS on-screen display system. This was notable as a "plan B", in case the X11+Motif combination failed in the marketplace. However, it was highly proprietary: it hadn't been licensed to any other Unix vendor. This, in the face of the open systems challenge of X11+Motif and its lack of 3D capability, cemented its failure in the marketplace. As of 2007, the current release of AIX runs on the RS/6000 and System p, BladeCenter JS-series, IntelliStation POWER, and System i5 platforms. Apple Network Servers The Apple Network Server systems were PowerPC-based systems designed by Apple Computer to have numerous high-end features that standard Apple hardware did not have, including swappable hard drives, redundant power supplies, and external monitoring capability. These systems were more or less based on the Power Macintosh hardware available at the time but were designed to use AIX (versions 4.1.4 or 4.1.5) as their native operating system in a specialized version specific to the ANS. AIX was only compatible with the Network Servers and was not ported to standard Power Macintosh hardware. Not to be confused is A/UX, Apple's earlier version of Unix for 68k-based Macintoshes. IA-64 systems As part of Project Monterey, a beta test version of AIX 5L was released for the IA-64 (Itanium) architecture in 2001, but this was abandoned before it became an official product due to the lack of interest in the finished Project Monterey system, as well as the overall lack of uptake of the IA-64 architecture by a skeptical marketplace, which largely gravitated towards the Project Trillian port of Linux as the primary platform OS. Versions POWER/PowerPC releases AIX 6.1, November 9, 2007 http://www-03.ibm.com/systems/p/os/aix/v61/index.html Workload Partitions (WPARs) operating system-level virtualization Live Application Mobility Live Partition Mobility Security Role Based Access Control RBAC AIX Security Expert - A system and network security hardening tool Encrypting JFS2 filesystem Trusted AIX Trusted Execution Integrated Electronic Service Agent(tm) for auto error reporting Concurrent Kernel Maintenance Kernel exploitation of POWER6 storage keys ProbeVue dynamic tracing Systems Director Console for AIX Integrated filesystem snapshot AIX 5L 5.3, August 13, 2004 http://www-306.ibm.com/software/support/systemsp/lifecycle/ NFS Version 4 Advanced Accounting Virtual SCSI Virtual Ethernet Exploitation of Simultaneous multithreading (SMT) Micro-Partitioning enablement POWER5 exploitation JFS2 quotas Ability to shrink a JFS2 filesystem kernel scheduler has been enhanced to dynamically increase and decrease the use of virtual processors. AIX 5L 5.2, October 18, 2002 http://www-306.ibm.com/software/support/systemsp/lifecycle/ , end of support April 30, 2009 http://www-01.ibm.com/software/support/systemsp/lifecycle/#GA Ability to run on the IBM BladeCenter JS20 with the PowerPC 970. Minimum level required for POWER5 hardware MPIO for Fibre Channel disks iSCSI Initiator software Participation in Dynamic LPAR Concurrrent I/O (CIO) feature introduced for JFS2 released in Maintenance Level 01 in May 2003 Improving Database Performance With AIX Concurrent I/O - White Paper AIX 5L 5.1, May 4, 2001 (Support discontinued April 1, 2006) IBM Software Support Lifecycle (XML) Ability to run on an IA-64 architecture processor, although this never went beyond beta Unigroup Next Meeting Announcement Minimum level required for POWER4 hardware and the last release that worked on the Micro Channel architecture 64-bit kernel, installed but not activated by default JFS2 Ability to run in a Logical Partition on POWER4 The L stands for Linux affinity Trusted Computing Base (TCB) Support for mirroring with striping AIX 4.3.3, September 17,1999 Online backup function Workload Manager (WLM) Introduction of topas utility AIX 4.3.2, October 23,1998 AIX 4.3.1, April 24,1998 AIX 4.3, October 31,1997 Ability to run on 64-bit architecture CPUs IPv6 Web-based System Manager AIX 4.2.1, April 25,1997 NFS Version 3 AIX 4.2, May 17,1996 AIX 4.1.5, November 8,1996 AIX 4.1.4, October 20,1995 AIX 4.1.3, July 7,1995 CDE 1.0 became the default GUI environment, replacing Motif X Window Manager. AIX 4.1.1, October 28,1994 AIX 4.1, August 12,1994 AIX 4.0, 1994 Run on RS/6000 systems with PowerPC processors and PCI busses. AIX 3.2 1992 AIX 3.1, February 1990 Journaled File System (JFS) filesystem type AIX 3.0 1989 LVM (Logical Volume Manager) was incorporated into OSF/1, and in 1995 for HP-UX http://www.byte.com/art/9504/sec14/art2.htm , and the Linux LVM implementation is similar to the HP-UX LVM implementation. http://www.usenix.org/events/usenix01/freenix01/full_papers/teigland/teigland_html/index.html SMIT was introduced. IBM PS/2 releases AIX PS/2 v1.1, 1989 last version was 1.3, 1992. IBM 6150 RT releases AIX v1.0, 1986 AIX v2.0 last version was 2.2.1. User interfaces Graphical The Common Desktop Environment (CDE) is AIX's default graphical user interface. As part of Linux Affinity and the free AIX Toolbox for Linux Applications (ATLA), open-source KDE and GNOME desktop are also available. System Management Console SMIT is the System Management Interface Tool for AIX. It allows a user to navigate a menu hierarchy of commands, rather than using the command line. Invocation is typically achieved with the command smit. Experienced system administrators make use of the F6 function key which generates the command line that SMIT will invoke to complete the proposed task. SMIT also generates a log of commands that are performed in the smit.script file. The smit.script file automatically records the commands with the command flags and parameters used. The smit.script file can be used as an executable shell script to rerun system configuration tasks. SMIT also creates the smit.log file, which contains additional detailed information that can be used by programmers in extending the SMIT system. smit and smitty refer to the same program, though smitty invokes the text-based version, while smit will invoke an X Window System based interface if possible; however, if smit determines that X Window System capabilities are not present, it will present the text-based version instead of failing. Determination of X Window System capabilities is typically performed by checking for the existence of the DISPLAY variable. See also AOS, IBM's educational-market port of 4.3BSD List of Unix systems Nmon, a popular performance monitoring tool for AIX. Operating systems timeline References External links AIX & UNIX dW Zone AIX fixes AIX Forum AIX User Groups Submit AIX Requirements AIX Toolbox for Linux Applications AIX version 4.3 General Programming Concepts: Writing and Debugging Programs AIX version 5.3 Documentation AIX version 6.1 information center AIX version 6.1 overview AIX Wiki AIX/ESA V2R2 General Information IBM AIX page IBM Electronic Service Agent Rootvg.net - Independent Portal for AIX & POWER pSeriesTech.Org AIX Support Forum | IBM_AIX |@lemmatized aix:91 advanced:2 interactive:3 executive:1 name:1 give:1 series:4 proprietary:2 operate:6 system:61 sell:5 ibm:48 several:2 computer:6 platform:6 base:19 unix:14 v:7 compatible:3 command:8 program:5 interface:6 extension:1 run:13 bit:6 power:11 powerpc:6 cpu:3 depend:1 version:25 address:1 terabyte:1 tb:1 random:1 access:3 memory:1 file:13 first:7 introduce:6 part:3 allow:4 partition:7 petabyte:1 size:1 history:1 rt:7 workstation:2 release:17 develop:5 corporation:3 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3,855 | Douglas_Hofstadter | Douglas Richard Hofstadter (born February 15, 1945 in New York, New York) is an American academic whose research focuses on consciousness, thinking and creativity. He is best known for Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid, first published in 1979, for which he was awarded the 1980 Pulitzer Prize for general non-fiction. A bedside book of paradoxes, New York Times Early life and education Hofstadter is the son of Nobel Prize-winning physicist Robert Hofstadter. Douglas grew up on the campus of Stanford University, where his father was a professor. Douglas attended the International School of Geneva for a year. He graduated with Distinction in Mathematics from Stanford in 1965. He spent a few years in Sweden in the mid 1960's. He continued his education and received his Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Oregon in 1975. Academic career Hofstadter is College of Arts and Sciences Distinguished Professor of Cognitive Science at Indiana University in Bloomington, where he directs the Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition which consists of himself and his graduate students, forming the "Fluid Analogies Research Group" (FARG). He was initially appointed to the Indiana University's Computer Science Department faculty in 1977, and at that time he launched his research program in computer modeling of mental processes (which at that time he called "artificial intelligence research", a label that he has since dropped in favor of "cognitive science research"). In 1984, he moved to the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, where he was hired as a professor of psychology and was also appointed to the Walgreen Chair for the Study of Human Understanding. In 1988 he returned to Bloomington as "College of Arts and Sciences Professor" in both Cognitive Science and Computer Science, and also was appointed Adjunct Professor of History and Philosophy of Science, Philosophy, Comparative Literature, and Psychology, but he states that his involvement with most of these departments is nominal. IU pages as faculty, IU distinguished faculty (see this announcement on March 21, 2007) and as speaker A Day in the Life of... Douglas Hofstadter 2004 Seminar: AI: Hope and Hype 1999 In April, 2009, Hofstadter was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences American Academy Announces 2009 Class of Fellows and Foreign Honorary Members and a Member of the American Philosophical Society. American Philosophical Society: Members Hofstadter's many interests include music, visual art, the mind, creativity, consciousness, self-reference, translation and mathematics. He has numerous recursive sequences and geometric constructions named after him. Douglas Hofstadter's sequences Java applet 2002 Hofstadter items at the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences: Q-sequence, Hofstadter-Conway $10000 sequence, G-sequence, H-sequence, type, another type, Reg Allenby, K. Pinn : A chaotic cousin of Conway's recursive sequence, S. M. Tanny : A well-behaved cousin of the Hofstadter sequence, Hofstadter-type sequence Hofstadter items at Wolfram MathWorld: Hofstadter-Conway $10,000 Sequence, G-Sequence, H-Sequence, Q-Sequence, Male-Female Sequences, Figure-Figure Sequence and geometric constructs: Hofstadter Point, Hofstadter Triangle, Hofstadter Ellipse At the University of Michigan and Indiana University, he co-authored, with Melanie Mitchell, a computational model of "high-level perception" — Copycat — and several other models of analogy-making and cognition. The Copycat project was subsequently extended under the name "Metacat" by Hofstadter's doctoral student James Marshall. An overview of Metacat 2003 The Letter Spirit project, implemented by Gary McGraw and John Rehling, aims to model the act of artistic creativity by designing stylistically uniform "gridfonts" (typefaces limited to a grid). Other more recent models are Phaeaco (implemented by Harry Foundalis) and SeqSee (Abhijit Mahabal), which model high-level perception and analogy-making in the microdomains of Bongard problems and number sequences, respectively. By Analogy: A talk with the most remarkable researcher in artificial intelligence today, Douglas Hofstadter, the author of Gödel, Escher, Bach Wired Magazine, November 1995 Analogy as the Core of Cognition Review of Stanford lecture, Feb 2, 2006 Hofstadter collects and studies cognitive errors (largely but not solely speech errors), "bon mots" (spontaneous humorous quips), and analogies of all sorts, and his long-time observation of these diverse products of cognition, and his theories about the mechanisms that underlie them, have exerted a powerful influence on the architectures of the computational models developed by himself and FARG members. Hofstadter, Douglas, To Err is Human; to Study Error-making is Cognitive Science. Together with David Moser. Michigan Quarterly Review, Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, 1989, pp. 185-215. All FARG computational models share certain key principles, among which are: that human thinking is carried out by thousands of independent small actions in parallel, biased by the concepts that are currently activated; that activation spreads from activated concepts to less activated "neighbor concepts"; that there is a "mental temperature" that regulates the degree of randomness in the parallel activity; that promising avenues tend to be explored more rapidly than unpromising ones. FARG models also have an overarching philosophy that all cognition is built from the making of analogies. The computational architectures that share these precepts are called "active symbols" architectures. Provoked by predictions of a technological singularity (the hypothetical moment at which artificial intelligence will surpass human intelligence), Hofstadter has both organized and participated in several public discussions of the topic. At Indiana University in 1999 he organized such a symposium, and in April 2000, he organized a larger symposium entitled "Spiritual Robots" at Stanford University, in which he moderated a panel consisting of Ray Kurzweil, Hans Moravec, Kevin Kelly, Ralph Merkle, Bill Joy, Frank Drake, John Holland, John Koza. Hofstadter was also an invited panelist at the first "Singularity Summit," held at Stanford in May 2006. Hofstadter expressed doubt about the likelihood of the singularity coming to pass in the foreseeable future. Will Spiritual Robots Replace Humanity By 2100? April 1, 2000 Note: as of 2007, videos seem to be missing. “Moore’s Law, Artificial Evolution, and the Fate of Humanity.” In L. Booker, S. Forrest, et al. (eds.), Perspectives on Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. The Singularity Summit at Stanford 2006 Trying to Muse Rationally about the Singularity Scenario 35 minute video, May 13, 2006 Quotes from his 2006 Singularity Summit presentation “Staring EMI Straight in the Eye — and Doing My Best Not to Flinch.” In David Cope, Virtual Music: Computer Synthesis of Musical Style, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2001. Hofstadter's thesis about consciousness, first expressed in GEB but also present in several of his later books, is that it is an emergent consequence of seething lower-level activity in the brain. In GEB he draws an analogy between the social organization of a colony of ants and the mind seen as a coherent "colony" of neurons. In particular, Hofstadter claims that our sense of having (or being) an "I" comes from the abstract pattern he terms a "strange loop", which is an abstract cousin of such concrete phenomena as audio and video feedback, and which Hofstadter has defined as "a level-crossing feedback loop". The prototypical example of this abstract notion is the self-referential structure at the core of Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Hofstadter's 2007 book I Am a Strange Loop carries his vision of consciousness considerably further, including the idea that each human "I" is distributed over numerous brains, rather than being limited to precisely one brain. Consciousness In The Cosmos: Perspective of Mind: Douglas Hofstadter Public image Hofstadter has said that he feels "uncomfortable with the nerd culture that centers on computers." He admits that "a large fraction [of his audience] seems to be those who are fascinated by technology," but when it was suggested that his work "has inspired many students to begin careers in computing and artificial intelligence" he replied that he has "no interest in computers." The Mind Reader New York Times Magazine, April 1, 2007 In that interview he also mentioned a course he has twice given at Indiana University, in which he took a "skeptical look at a number of highly-touted AI projects and overall approaches". For example, upon the defeat of Kasparov by Deep Blue, he commented that "It was a watershed event, but it doesn't have to do with computers becoming intelligent." Mean Chess-Playing Computer Tears at Meaning of Thought by Bruce Weber, February 19, 1996, New York Times In April 2007, while replying to the following question by Deborah Solomon in Questions for Douglas Hofstadter: "Your entry in Wikipedia says that your work has inspired many students to begin careers in computing and artificial intelligence," he replied "The entry is filled with inaccuracies, and it kind of depresses me." When asked why he didn't fix it, he replied, "The next day someone will fix it back." Use with caution: The perils of Wikipedia In 1988 Dutch director Piet Hoenderdos created a docudrama about Hofstadter and his ideas entitled "Victim of the Brain" based on The Mind's I. It includes interviews with Hofstadter about his work. Victim of the Brain - 1988 docudrama about the ideas of Douglas Hofstadter In 2010: Odyssey Two, Arthur C. Clarke's first sequel to 2001: A Space Odyssey, HAL 9000 is described by Dr. Chandra as being caught in a "Hofstadter-Moebius loop". Hofstadter's book Fluid Concepts & Creative Analogies: Computer Models of the Fundamental Mechanisms of Thought was the first book sold by Amazon.com. Amazon.com's company timeline July 1995 Columnist When Martin Gardner retired from writing his "Mathematical Games" column for Scientific American magazine, Hofstadter succeeded him in 1981-1983 with a column entitled Metamagical Themas (an anagram of "Mathematical Games"). An idea he introduced in one of these columns was the concept of "Reviews of This Book", a book containing nothing but cross-referenced reviews of itself which has an online implementation. Online implementation of his Reviews of this Book idea One of Hofstadter's columns in Scientific American concerned the damaging effects of sexist language, and two chapters of his book Metamagical Themas are devoted to that topic, one of which is a biting analogy-based satire entitled "A Person Paper on Purity in Language", in which the reader's presumed revulsion at racism and racist language is used as a lever to motivate an analogous revulsion to sexism and sexist language. A Person Paper on Purity in Language by William Satire (alias Douglas R. Hofstadter), 1985 - a satirical piece, on the subject of sexist language Another reported on an iterated Prisoner's Dilemma computer strategies tournament developed with Indiana University graduate student Marek Lugowski. These columns ranged vastly in theme and subject matter, and included patterns in Frederic Chopin's piano music (the Études), the concept of superrationality (cooperating or defecting when the other party/adversary is assumed to be acting as maximally rational), as well as game theory within law (Nomic), to name three. Metamagical Themas, Douglas R. Hofstadter, Basic Books, New Yoork (1985), see preface, introduction, contents listing. Personal Hofstadter was married to Carol Ann Brush. They met in Bloomington, and married in Ann Arbor in 1985. They had two children, Danny and Monica, but Carol died in 1993 from the sudden onset of a brain tumor — glioblastoma multiforme — when their children were five and two. The Carol Ann Brush Hofstadter Memorial Scholarship for Bologna-bound IU students was established in 1996 in her name. French and Italian Spring 1996, Vol. X Hofstadter's book "Le Ton beau de Marot" is dedicated to their two children and its dedication reads "To M. & D., living sparks of their Mommy's soul". Both inside and outside his professional work, Hofstadter is driven by a pursuit of beauty. He seeks beautiful mathematical patterns, beautiful explanations, beautiful typefaces, beautiful sonic patterns in poetry, and so forth. Hofstadter has said of himself, "I'm someone who has one foot in the world of humanities and arts, and the other foot in the world of science." He has had several exhibitions of his artworks in various university art galleries. These shows have featured large collections of his gridfonts, his ambigrams (pieces of calligraphy created with two readings, either of which is usually obtained from the other by rotating or reflecting the ambigram, but sometimes simply by "oscillation", like the Necker Cube or the rabbit/duck figure of Joseph Jastrow), and his "Whirly Art" (music-inspired visual patterns realized using shapes based on various alphabets from India). (The term "ambigram" was invented by Hofstadter in 1984 and has since been taken up by many ambigrammists all over the world.) Sounds like Bach Hofstadter has composed numerous pieces for piano, and a few for piano and voice. He created an audio CD with the title DRH/JJ, which includes all these compositions performed primarily by pianist Jane Jackson, but with a few performed by Brian Jones, Dafna Barenboim, Gitanjali Mathur and himself. Piano Music by Douglas Hofstadter (Audio CD) ISBN 1576771431, 2000 Hofstadter's writing is characterized by an intense interaction between form and content, as is exemplified by the 20 dialogues in GEB, many of which simultaneously talk about and imitate strict musical forms used by Bach, such as canons and fugues. Most of Hofstadter's books are characterized by some kind of structural alternation: in GEB between dialogues and chapters, in The Mind's I between selections and reflections, in Metamagical Themas between Chapters and Postscripts, and so forth. Both in his writing and in his teaching, Hofstadter stresses the concrete, constantly using examples and analogies, and avoids the abstract. Typical of the courses he teaches is his seminar "Group Theory and Galois Theory Visualized", in which abstract mathematical ideas are rendered as concretely as possible. He puts great effort into making ideas clear and visual, and asserts that when he teaches, if his students do not understand something, it is never their fault but always his own. Hofstadter is passionate about languages. He has studied many of them, and speaks them to varying degrees. In addition to English, his mother tongue, he speaks French and Italian fluently (the language spoken at home with his children is Italian). At various times in his life, he has studied (in descending order of level of fluency reached) German, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, Mandarin, Dutch, Polish, and Hindi. His love of sounds pushes him to strive to minimize, and ideally get rid of, any foreign accent. Le Ton beau de Marot: In Praise of the Music of Language is a long book devoted to language and translation, especially poetry translation, and one of its leitmotifs is a set of some 88 translations of "Ma Mignonne", a highly constrained poem by sixteenth-century French poet Clément Marot. In this book, Hofstadter jokingly describes himself as "pilingual" (meaning that the sum total of the varying degrees of mastery of all the languages that he's studied comes to 3.14159...), as well as an "oligoglot" (someone who speaks "a few" languages). Hofstadter, Douglas R. Le Ton Beau de Marot. New York: Basic Books, 1997, pp. 16-17. Hofstadter, Douglas R. Le Ton Beau de Marot. New York: Basic Books, 1997, p. 627 In 1999, the bicentennial year of Russian poet and writer Alexander Pushkin, Hofstadter published a verse translation of Pushkin's classic novel-in-verse Eugene Onegin. It is highly constrained and filled with many types of sonic pattern. Aside from Eugene Onegin, Hofstadter has translated many other poems (always respecting their formal constraints), and two other novels (in prose): La Chamade (That Mad Ache) by French writer Françoise Sagan, and La Scoperta dell'Alba (The Discovery of Dawn) by Walter Veltroni, the then head of the Partito Democratico in Italy. Both of these translated novels are slated for imminent publication. Hofstadter is related by marriage to the evolutionary theorist Stephen Jay Gould: Hofstadter's paternal aunt was married to Gould's maternal uncle. Hofstadter is a vegetarian. The dedication for I Am A Strange Loop is: "To my sister Laura, who can understand, and to our sister Molly, who cannot." Hofstadter explains in the Preface that his younger sister Molly never developed the ability to speak or understand language. Published works Books The books published by Hofstadter are (the ISBNs refer to paperback editions, where available): Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid (ISBN 0-465-02656-7) Metamagical Themas (ISBN 0-465-04566-9) (collection of Scientific American columns and other essays, all with postscripts) Ambigrammi: un microcosmo ideale per lo studio della creatività (in Italian only) ISBN 88-7757-006-7 Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies (ISBN 0-465-02475-0) Rhapsody on a Theme by Clement Marot. The Grace A. Tanner Lecture in Human Values, 1995. (Published 1996) Le Ton beau de Marot: In Praise of the Music of Language (ISBN 0-465-08645-4) Eugene Onegin: A Novel Versification (ISBN 0-465-02094-1) I Am a Strange Loop (ISBN 0-465-03078-5) (2007) Papers Hofstadter wrote, among many others, the following papers: "Energy levels and wave functions of Bloch electrons in rational and irrational magnetic fields", [http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRB/v14/i6/p2239_1Phys. Rev. B 14 (1976) 2239]. Written while he was at the University of Oregon, this paper was enormously influential in directing further research. Hofstadter predicted that the allowed energy level values of an electron in a crystal lattice, as a function of a magnetic field applied to the lattice, formed a fractal set. That is, the distribution of energy levels for large-scale changes in the applied magnetic field repeat patterns seen in the small-scale structure. This fractal structure is generally known as "Hofstadter's butterfly",which was the first fractal ever found in physics, and it has recently been confirmed in transport measurements in two-dimensional electron systems with a superimposed nano-fabricated lattice. "A non-deterministic approach to analogy, involving the Ising model of ferromagnetism", in E. Caianiello (ed.), The Physics of Cognitive Processes. Teaneck, NJ: World Scientific, 1987. "Speechstuff and thoughtstuff: Musings on the resonances created by words and phrases via the subliminal perception of their buried parts", in Sture Allen (ed.), Of Thoughts and Words: The Relation between Language and Mind. Proceedings of the Nobel Symposium 92, London/New Jersey: World Scientific Publ., 1995, 217-267. "On seeing A's and seeing As.", Stanford Humanities Review 4,2 (1995) pp. 109-121. "Analogy as the Core of Cognition", in Dedre Gentner, Keith Holyoak, and Boicho Kokinov (eds.) The Analogical Mind: Perspectives from Cognitive Science, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press/Bradford Book, 2001, pp. 499-538. "To Err is Human; To Study Error-making is Cognitive Science", Michigan Quarterly Review, Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, 1989, pp. 185-215. Hofstadter wrote over 50 papers that were published through the Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition CRCC Publications offline Involvement in other books Hofstadter wrote forewords for or edited the following books: Sparse Distributed Memory by Pentti Kanerva (Bradford Books/MIT Press, 1988). (ISBN 0262111322) The Mind's I: Fantasies and Reflections on Self and Soul (co-edited with Daniel Dennett) (ISBN 0-465-03091-2 and ISBN 0-553-01412-9) (ISBN 0-553-34584-2) 1981 Alan Turing: The Enigma by Andrew Hodges. (Preface) Gödel's Proof (2002 revised edition) by Ernest Nagel and James R. Newman, edited by Hofstadter (ISBN 0-8147-5816-9). Hofstadter claimed the book (originally published in 1958) was highly influential to his thinking during his early years. Who invented the computer? The legal battle that changed computing history. (2003) by Alice Rowe Burks. Alan Turing: Life and Legacy of a Great Thinker by Christof Teuscher (Editor) Jason Salavon: Brainstem Still Life (ISBN 981-05-1662-2) 2004 (Introduction) Masters of Deception: Escher, Dali & the Artists of Optical Illusion 2004 by Al Seckel. Hofstadter wrote the foreword. King of Infinite Space: Donald Coxeter, the Man Who Saved Geometry by Siobhan Roberts, Walker and Company, 2006. Hofstadter wrote the foreword. Are Quanta Real? A Galilean Dialogue by J.M. Jauch (ISBN 0-253-20545-X) 1989 Indiana University Press; Hofstadter wrote the foreword. Students Some of Hofstadter's former students include: David Chalmers - philosopher of mind Melanie Mitchell - creator of Copycat Robert French - researches analogies Scott A. Jones - inventor of voicemail Harry Foundalis - creator of Phaeaco, an architecture to solve Bongard Problems See also Platonia dilemma Egbert B. Gebstadter BlooP and FlooP Hofstadter's law Superrationality Notes External links Stanford University Presidential Lecture - site dedicated to Hofstadter and his work Entry at Google Directory Profile at c2.com Profile at Resonance Publications NF Reviews - bibliographic page with reviews of several of Hofstadter's books Radio interview on Philosophy Talk | Douglas_Hofstadter |@lemmatized douglas:15 richard:1 hofstadter:76 born:1 february:2 new:10 york:8 american:8 academic:2 whose:1 research:9 focus:1 consciousness:5 think:3 creativity:3 best:2 know:2 gödel:5 escher:4 bach:5 eternal:2 golden:2 braid:2 first:6 publish:6 award:1 pulitzer:1 prize:2 general:1 non:2 fiction:1 bedside:1 book:24 paradox:1 time:7 early:2 life:5 education:2 son:1 nobel:2 win:1 physicist:1 robert:3 grow:1 campus:1 stanford:8 university:16 father:1 professor:5 attend:1 international:1 school:1 geneva:1 year:4 graduate:3 distinction:1 mathematics:2 spend:1 sweden:1 mid:1 continue:1 receive:1 ph:1 physic:3 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3,856 | Demographics_of_Guatemala | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Guatemala, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. According to the CIA World Fact Book, Mestizos (mixed Amerindian-Spanish - in local Spanish called Ladino) and Europeans comprise 22.0% of the population and Amerindians comprise 65.0% of the population (K'iche 9.1%, Kaqchikel 8.4%, Mam 7.9%, Q'eqchi 6.3%, other Mayan 8.6%, indigenous non-Mayan 0.2%, other 0.1%). Pure Europeans comprise 5.0% of the population. CIA World Fact Book. Most of Guatemala's population is rural, though urbanization is accelerating. The predominant religion is Roman Catholicism, once the main faith of the population, into which many indigenous Guatemalans have incorporated traditional forms of worship. Protestantism and traditional Maya religions are practiced by an estimated 40% and 1% of the population, respectively. Though the official language is Spanish, it is often the second language among the indigenous population. However, the Peace Accords signed in December 1996 provide for the translation of some official documents and voting materials into several indigenous languages (see summary of main substantive accords). Racial stratification is complex and fluid in Guatemalan politics, culture and identity. Guatemala City, the largest city in Central America, is home to over 7 million inhabitants - more than half of Guatemala's population. Other racial groups include small numbers of black Africans and Garifuna of mixed African and indigenous Caribbean origins who live in the country's Eastern end. Asians, mostly of Chinese descent are descendants of farm workers and railroad laborers in the early 20th century. And thousands who are Middle Easterner descendants: Arabs, Lebanese, Palestinians, Syrians and Turks came to Guatemala after World War I. In 1900, Guatemala had a population of just 885,000 . Over the course of the twentieth century, the population of the country grew by a factor of fourteen. No other western hemisphere country saw such rapid growth.{ This has brought on difficulties for Guatemala as more people puts pressure in the nation's economic progress in a country where 70% live in dire poverty, and political stability was weakened by an inability to have effective population growth programs. Over a million Guatemalan emigrants went to the US in the 1980s and 1990's for a better life mostly because Civil War, the largest national subgroup of Central Americans in the US followed by Hondurans, Nicaraguans and Salvadorans. The largest population of Guatemalans is in Los Angeles, but there are also established Guatemalan communities in Dallas, Houston, Miami, New York city, San Diego, San Francisco area, and Washington, DC. There are also Guatemalan immigrants living abroad in Canada, Europe, Australia, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Egypt. Population growth 1961-2003, as reported by FAO, 2005. Population numbers are in thousands. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 12,727,566 (July 2007 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 40.8% (male 2,641,179/female 2,556,397) 15-64 years: 55.5% (male 3,426,376/female 3,642,157) 65 years and over: 3.6% (male 213,801/female 248,201) (2007 est.) Population growth rate 2.152% (2007 est.) Birth rate 29.09 births/1,000 population (2007 est.) Death rate 5.27 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.) Net migration rate -2.31 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.033 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.941 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.861 male(s)/female total population: 0.974 male(s)/female (2007 est.) Infant mortality rate 29.77 deaths/1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth total population: 69.69 years male: 67.94 years female: 71.52 years (2007 est.) Total fertility rate 4.4 children born/woman (2007 est.) Nationality noun: Guatemalan(s) adjective: Guatemalan Ethnic groups Mestizo (mixed Amerindian-Spanish - in local Spanish called Ladino) and European Including Arabics 59.4%, Quiche 9.1%, Kaqchikel 8.4%, Mam 7.9%, Q'eqchi 6.3%, other Mayan 8.6%, indigenous non-Mayan 0.2%, other 0.1% (2001) Religions Roman Catholic, Protestant, indigenous Mayan beliefs Languages Spanish 60%, Amerindian languages 40% (23 officially recognized Amerindian languages, including Quiché, Cakchiquel, Kekchi, Mam, Garifuna, and Xinca). Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 76.03% male: 79.89% female: 72.54% (2002 census) | Demographics_of_Guatemala |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:25 guatemala:7 include:4 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:2 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 accord:3 cia:4 world:5 fact:2 book:2 mestizo:2 mixed:3 amerindian:5 spanish:6 local:2 call:2 ladino:2 europeans:2 comprise:3 k:1 iche:1 kaqchikel:2 mam:3 q:2 eqchi:2 mayan:5 indigenous:7 non:2 pure:1 rural:1 though:2 urbanization:1 accelerate:1 predominant:1 religion:3 roman:2 catholicism:1 main:2 faith:1 many:1 guatemalan:8 incorporate:1 traditional:2 form:1 worship:1 protestantism:1 maya:1 practice:1 estimate:1 respectively:1 official:2 language:4 often:1 second:1 among:1 however:1 peace:1 sign:1 december:1 provide:1 translation:1 document:1 vote:1 material:1 several:1 see:1 summary:1 substantive:1 racial:2 stratification:1 complex:1 fluid:1 politics:1 culture:1 identity:1 city:3 large:3 central:2 america:1 home:1 million:2 inhabitant:1 half:1 group:2 small:1 number:2 black:1 african:2 garifuna:2 caribbean:1 origin:1 live:4 country:4 eastern:2 end:1 asian:1 mostly:2 chinese:1 descent:1 descendant:2 farm:1 worker:1 railroad:1 laborer:1 early:1 century:2 thousand:2 middle:1 arab:1 lebanese:1 palestinian:1 syrian:1 turk:1 come:1 war:2 course:1 twentieth:1 grow:1 factor:1 fourteen:1 western:1 hemisphere:1 saw:1 rapid:1 growth:4 bring:1 difficulty:1 people:1 put:1 pressure:1 nation:1 progress:1 dire:1 poverty:1 political:1 stability:1 weaken:1 inability:1 effective:1 program:1 emigrant:1 go:1 u:2 good:1 life:2 civil:1 national:1 subgroup:1 american:1 follow:1 honduran:1 nicaraguan:1 salvadoran:1 los:1 angeles:1 also:2 establish:1 community:1 dallas:1 houston:1 miami:1 new:1 york:1 san:2 diego:1 francisco:1 area:1 washington:1 dc:1 immigrant:1 abroad:1 canada:1 europe:1 australia:1 palestine:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 egypt:1 report:1 fao:1 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:9 age:2 structure:1 year:9 male:10 female:10 rate:6 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 ethnic:1 european:1 arabic:1 quiche:1 catholic:1 protestant:1 belief:1 languages:2 officially:1 recognize:1 quiché:1 cakchiquel:1 kekchi:1 xinca:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 census:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 mestizo_mixed:2 mixed_amerindian:2 roman_catholicism:1 twentieth_century:1 los_angeles:1 san_diego:1 san_francisco:1 washington_dc:1 saudi_arabia:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 literacy_definition:1 |
3,857 | Limited_overs_cricket | The Melbourne Cricket Ground hosts an ODI match between Australia and India. The two players in yellow are the batsmen and those in blue are the fielding team. Limited overs cricket, also known as one-day cricket and in a slightly different context as List A cricket, is a version of the sport of cricket in which a match is generally completed in one day, whereas Test and first-class matches can take up to five days to complete. The name reflects the rule that in the match each team bowls a set maximum number of overs, usually between 20 and 50, although shorter and longer forms of limited overs cricket have been played. Important one-day matches, international and domestic, often have two days set aside, the second day being a "reserve" day to allow more chance of the game being completed if a result is not possible on the first day (for instance if play is prevented or interrupted by rain). Structure Each team bats only once, and each innings is limited to a set number of overs, usually fifty in a One Day International and between forty and sixty in a List A. List A is a classification of the limited-overs (one-day) form of cricket, technically as the domestic level One-day cricket is popular with spectators as it can encourage aggressive, risky, entertaining batting, often results in cliffhanger endings, and ensures that a spectator can watch an entire match without committing to five days of continuous attendance. However, many devotees of Test match cricket belie the relative skills of the teams. In modern one-day tactics, batsmen take few risks outside the first and last few overs, thus diminishing the claimed excitement. Bowling restrictions As mentioned above, in almost all competitive one-day games, a restriction is placed on the number of overs that may be bowled by any one bowler. This is to prevent a side playing two top-class bowlers with extremely good stamina who can bowl throughout their opponents' innings. The usual limitation is set so that a side must include at least five players who bowl. For example, the usual limit for twenty-over cricket is four overs per bowler, for forty-over cricket eight per bowler and for fifty-over cricket ten per bowler. There are exceptions: Pro Cricket in the United States restricts bowlers to five overs each, thus leaving a side requiring only four bowlers. History One-day cricket began between English county teams on 2 May 1962. Leicestershire beat Derbyshire and Northamptonshire beat Nottinghamshire over 65 overs in the "Midlands Knock-Out Cup", which Northamptonshire went on to win a week later. The following year, the first full-scale one-day competition between first-class teams was played, the knock-out Gillette Cup, won by Sussex. League one-day cricket also began in England, when the John Player Sunday League was started in 1969. Both these competitions have continued every season since inauguration, though the sponsorship has changed. The knock-out cup is now the Friends Provident Trophy. The league is not exclusive to Sundays, with the competition now over 40 overs. It is now called the Natwest Pro40. The first Limited Overs International (LOI) or One-Day International (ODI) match was played in Melbourne in 1971, and the quadrennial cricket World Cup began in 1975. Many of the "packaging" innovations, such as coloured clothing, were as a result of World Series Cricket, a "rebel" series set up outside the cricketing establishment by Australian entrepreneur Kerry Packer. For more details, see History of cricket. Twenty20, a curtailed form of one-day cricket with 20 overs per side, was first played in England in 2003. It has proven very popular, and several Twenty20 matches have been played between national teams. It makes several changes to the usual laws of cricket, including the addition of a "bowl-out" (similar to a penalty shoot-out in football) to decide the result of tied matches. One Day Internationals One Day International matches are usually played in brightly coloured clothing often in a "day-night" format where the first innings of the day occurs in the afternoon and the second occurs under stadium lights. One Day International tournaments Every four years, the Cricket World Cup involves all the Test-playing nations and other national sides who qualify through the ICC World Cup Qualifier. It usually consists of round-robin stages, followed by semi-finals and a final. The International Cricket Council (ICC) determines the venue far in advance. The ICC Champions Trophy also involves all the Test-playing nations, and is held between World Cups. It usually consists of a round-robin group stage, semifinals, and a final. Each Test-playing country often hosts triangular tournaments, between the host nation and two touring sides. There is usually a round-robin group stage, and then the leading two teams play each other in a final, or sometimes a best-of-three final. When there is only one touring side, there is still often a best-of-five or best-of-seven series of limited overs matches. Domestic one-day competitions Domestic one-day competitions exist in almost every country where cricket is played. List A status List A cricket is a classification of the limited-overs (one-day) form of the sport of cricket. Much as domestic first-class cricket is the level below international Test match cricket, so List A cricket is the domestic level of one-day cricket below One Day Internationals. Twenty20 matches do not qualify for the present. Most cricketing nations have some form of domestic List A competition. The number of overs in List A cricket ranges from forty to sixty overs per side. The Association of Cricket Statisticians and Historians created this category for the purpose of providing an equivalent to first-class cricket, to allow the generation of career records and statistics for comparable one-day matches. Only the more important one-day competitions in each country, plus matches against a touring Test team, are included. The categorization of cricket matches as "List A" was not officially endorsed by the International Cricket Council until 2006, when the ICC announced that it and its member associations would be determining this classification in a manner similar to that done for first class matches. ICC clarifies what counts and what doesn't, from Cricinfo, 30 July 2006 Matches that qualify as List A: One Day Internationals (ODIs) Other international matches Premier one-day tournaments in each country Official matches of a touring Test team against main first-class teams Matches that do not qualify as List A: World Cup warm-up matches Other Tourist matches (for example, against first-class teams that are not part of the main domestic first-class competition, such as universities) Festival and friendly matches Australia Queensland Bulls versus Victorian Bushrangers in a one-day match at the Brisbane Cricket Ground (The Gabba), Queensland, Australia The Ford Ranger One Day Cup. The sides that compete are the following: New South Wales Blues, representing New South Wales Victoria Bushrangers, representing Victoria Southern Redbacks, representing South Australia Tasmanian Tigers, representing Tasmania Queensland Bulls, representing Queensland Western Warriors, representing Western Australia In 2006 Cricket Australia introduced the KFC Twenty20 Big Bash which is amongst the state teams (as above) and are divided into Pool A (Western Australia, South Australia and Victoria) and Pool B (Tasmania, Queensland and New South Wales) and a home and away format is played. Each team plays one home and one away game. The winner of each pool plays against each other to determine the champion. Bangladesh The National One Day Cricket League is sponsored by Ispahani Mirzapore Tea. It currently runs from November to March, with each team playing the other home and away once in a round robin format. These six teams compete for the League title: Barisal Division Chittagong Division Dhaka Division Khulna Division Rajshahi Division Sylhet Division England The Friends Provident Trophy As of 2008, a new format has been introduced for the competition. The 18 first-class counties, plus Scotland and Ireland, are split into 4 groups of 5. Each team plays the other in the group home once and away once, with the top 2 counties in the group going into the quarter finals. Previously (2006-07) the competition had a first round consisting of 2 divisions of 10 teams - 9 counties plus Scotland in the North and 9 counties in the South plus Ireland. The top 2 of each division proceeded to the semi-finals. Prior to that, the tournament had existed as a straight knock-out competition since beginning in 1963. This format of the tournament was played in whites and included minor counties in the early stages. Friends Provident Trophy matches have List A status. The Nat West Pro 40 - played annually in two divisions contained the 18 first class counties and a team representing Scotland. The first division had 9 teams and the second 10 teams. Each division was played as a double round-robin (home and away). The 3 bottom-ranked teams in the first division were relegated to the second, with the top 3 teams in the second replacing them. Games were played to ODI rules over 45 overs, with 4 points awarded for a win, 2 for a tie or no result, and 0 for a loss. Most games were played as day games, although there were a number of day-night matches. The league was replaced in 2006 by the Pro 40 League, with the major differences being the matches reverted to one innings of 40 overs per side, and each division consisted of nine teams (the Scottish Saltires no longer taking part). Pro 40 games have List A status. The Twenty20 Cup - introduced in 2003 and played annually in three equal regional divisions. Each division is played as a single round-robin (so each team plays 5 matches before the knockout stage), with 2 points awarded for a win, 1 point for a tie or no result, and 0 points for a loss. Played over only 20 overs, but using normal ODI rules, with the only amendment being that players are 'timed out' if they are not ready to face a delivery within 90 seconds of the previous player being dismissed. In 2003, the top team in each division plus the best-rated runner-up qualified for the knockout stage (semi-final and final). In 2004, the top two teams in each division plus the two best-rated third-placed teams qualified for the knockout stage (quarter-final, semi-final and final). The 20 overs a side format has proved very popular with the public, with many games being sold out, which is highly unusual for any English county game that isn't a final. India Ranji Trophy onedays - The teams in the five zones play each other and the zonal winners play in a round-robin format. Deodhar Trophy - Played amongst the five zones: East Zone, West Zone, North Zone, South Zone and Central Zone NKP Salve Challenger Trophy - Three teams are involved - each team comprising a motley of players picked from across the country. The three teams are named India seniors, India A and India B or India Reds, India Greens and India Blues. Indian Cricket League - A Twenty20 league bankrolled by billionaire Subhash Chandra and run independently of the country's governing body, the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI). Launched in 2007 with teams in Mumbai, Chennai, Chandigarh, Hyderabad, Kolkata and Delhi. Indian Premier League - The BCCI's response to the Indian Cricket League, this Twenty20 league launched in 2008 with teams in Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Kolkata, Mohali and Mumbai, and in its first season had the second-highest average per-game attendance of any domestic professional sports league in the world, trailing only the National Football League of American football. The league is explicitly designed to operate on a North American model of privately owned franchises. New Zealand Men's: The State Shield (formerly the Shell Cup) - played annually between six teams based upon the first class associations: The Northern Knights, Auckland Aces, Central Stags, Wellington Firebirds, Canterbury Wizards and Otago Volts. Currently played as a double round-robin (home and away) with team 1 gaining direct entry to the final and teams 2 and 3 contesting a semi-final. Games played to ODI rules with many day-night matches. The winners in the 2008-09 season were the Northern Districts Knights. Women's: The State League - played annually between six teams based upon the first-class associations: Northern Spirit, Auckland Hearts, Central Hinds, Wellington Blaze, Canterbury Magicians, Otago Sparks. The format is a double-round-robin with the winner determined by points. The winners in the 2003-04 season were the Canterbury Magicians. Pakistan The Pakistani domestic competition changes regularly, but for 2005-06 there are plans for three one-day tournaments for men: ABN-AMRO Cup: A two-week tournament in February and March between city teams, divided into the Gold League (with seven teams) and Silver League (with six teams). The teams play each other once, with the top two teams qualifying for the final in each individual League, so no team from the Gold League will meet a Silver League team. Gold League teams: Faisalabad Wolves Karachi Zebras Lahore Eagles Multan Tigers Peshawar Panthers Sialkot Stallions Rawalpindi Rams Silver League teams: Abbottabad Hyderabad Hawks Islamabad Karachi Dolphins Lahore Eagles Quetta Bears ABN-AMRO Patron's Cup: A two-week tournament running just before the ABN-AMRO Cup, with one group of five teams and another group of six teams. The top two teams from each group proceed to the semi-final. The teams that compete are: Allied Bank Limited Pakistan Customs Habib Bank Limited Khan Research Laboratories National Bank of Pakistan Pakistan International Airlines Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited Service Industries Sui Northern Gas Pipelines Limited Water and Power Development Authority Zarai Taraqiati Bank Limited ABN-AMRO Twenty20 Cup: A tournament running one week in mid-March. The same groups apply as in the ABN-AMRO Cup, and there will be two semi-finals and a final following the group stages. The tournament will be held in Karachi and Lahore. South Africa The local competition in South Africa is the Standard Bank Cup (formerly Benson & Hedges Series) played between 6 teams: Dolphins (Durban, KwaZulu-Natal) Eagles (Bloemfontein, Free State) Lions (Johannesburg, Gauteng) Titans (Pretoria, Gauteng) Warriors (Port Elizabeth and East London, Eastern Cape) Cape Cobras (Cape Town and Paarl, Western Cape) The games are 45-overs, and based on a home-and-away round-robin match system (each team plays ten matches) with semi-finals and a final. The Eagles were the winners of the 2004/2005 and 2005/2006 competitions. Sri Lanka 20 teams compete in the Premier Limited-Overs Tournament, which is an expansion from 16 in the last season. Games are played over 50 overs per side, and the teams are divided into two groups, where each team meets the other once over a period of a month. The four top teams from each group qualify for the quarter-finals, and there is then a direct knock-out system until a winner is found after three knock-out stages. The competing teams are: Badureliya Sports Club Bloomfield Cricket and Athletic Club Burgher Recreation Club Chilaw Marians Cricket Club Colombo Cricket Club Colts Cricket Club Galle Cricket Club Kurunegala Youth Cricket Club Lankan Cricket Club Moors Sports Club Nondescripts Cricket Club Panadura Sports Club Police Sports Club Ragama Cricket Club Saracens Sports Club Sebastianites Cricket and Athletic Club Singha Sports Club Sinhalese Sports Club Sri Lanka Air Force Sports Club Tamil Union Cricket and Athletic Club West Indies The KFC Cup is the main regional one-day competition in the West Indies, named after its chief sponsor, the fast food chain KFC. In recent years, it has been run over a week's time as a group stage followed by knock-out stages. Guyana are the current holders, after they beat Barbados in the final, and they are also the team to have won it most, with nine titles, although two of them have been shared. Trinidad and Tobago are second in that history, having won seven titles. In the 2005–06 edition of the KFC Cup, the six permanent first class regions of the West Indies contested the tournament: Barbados Guyana Jamaica Leeward Islands Trinidad and Tobago Windward Islands Zimbabwe With Zimbabwe Cricket, the organising body of the sport, in leadership turmoil and undergoing frequent player strikes, no schedule has been announced for the 2005-06 season. In the Inter-Provincial One Day competition for 2004-05, however, five teams took part, including the separate country of Namibia. The five teams played each other once, and the winner of the round robin league won the competition. The competing teams were: Manicaland Mashonaland Matabeleland (current holders) Midlands Namibia One-day records The world record for the highest innings total in any List A limited overs match is 496 for 4 by Surrey against Gloucestershire in their Friends Provident Trophy 50-overs match at the Oval, London on April 29th, 2007. That surpassed the 443 for nine by Sri Lanka against the Netherlands in their One Day International 50-overs match at Amstelveen on July 4th, 2006, which is currently the highest ODI score. The lowest ever total is 23 by Yorkshire against Middlesex at Headingley in 1974 in a 40-overs match. The most runs scored by both sides in any List A limited overs match is 872: Australia, batting first, scored 434 for four in 50 overs, and yet were beaten by South Africa who scored 438 for nine with a ball to spare during their One Day International at Johannesburg in 2006. The highest individual innings is 268 by Ali Brown for Surrey against Glamorgan in a 50-overs match at The Oval in 2002. The best bowling figures are eight for 15 by Rahul Sanghvi for Delhi against Himachal Pradesh in a 50-overs match at Una in 1997. The highest score in any formal limited overs match is believed to be United's 630 for five against Bay Area in a 45 overs match at Richmond, California in August 2006. The most runs in an over was scored by Herschelle Gibbs of the South African cricket team when, in the 2007 Cricket World Cup in the West Indies, he hit 6 sixes in one over bowled by Daan van Bunge of the Netherlands. content-usa.cricinfo.com/wc2007/content/current/story/285608.html This record is shared by Yuvraj Singh of India who achieved this feat in the 2007 ICC World Twenty20 in South Africa, he hit 6 sixes in an over bowled by Stuart Broad of England. See also Cricket terminology List of ODI cricketers World Series Cricket References External links List A records at CricketArchive Cricket Blog Interesting Cricket Stats Official ECB website Online Cricket News Updates Sight Screen - Cricket Discussions The "Silly Point" |||. 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3,858 | Carl_Meinhof | Carl Friedrich Michael Meinhof (July 23, 1857 – February 11, 1944) was a German linguist and one of the first linguists to study African languages. Early years and career Meinhof was born in Barzwitz near Rügenwalde in the Province of Pomerania. He studied at the University of Tübingen and at the University of Greifswald. In 1905 he became professor at the School of Oriental Studies in Berlin. Works His most notable work was developing comparative grammar studies of the Bantu languages, building on the pioneering work of Wilhelm Bleek. In his work, Meinhof looked at the common Bantu languages such as Swahili and Zulu to determine similarities and differences. In his work, Meinhof looked at noun classes with all Bantu languages having at least 10 classes and with 22 classes of nouns existing throughout the Bantu languages, though his definition of noun class differs slightly from the accepted one. While no language has all 22 classes, Sesotho has 18. All Bantu languages have a noun class specifically for humans (sometimes including other animate beings). Meinhof also looked at other African languages, including the Kordofanian languages, Bushman, Khoikhoi and Hamitic languages. Meinhof developed a comprehensive classification scheme for African languages. His classification was the standard one for many years (Greenberg 1955:3). It was superseded by those of Joseph Greenberg in 1955 and especially in 1963. In 1902, Meinhof made recordings of East African music. These are among the first recordings made of traditional African music. Family Carl Meinhof was the brother of Ulrike Meinhof's grandfather and thus the great-uncle of the woman who would be a founding member of the German Red Army Faction (RAF). References Greenberg, Joseph H. 1955. Studies in African Linguistic Classification. New Haven: Compass Publishing Company. Greenberg, Joseph H. 1963. The Languages of Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Meinhof, Carl. 1906. Grundzüge einer vergleichenden Grammatik der Bantusprachen. Berlin: Reimer. Pugach, Sara. 2004. "Images of race and redemption: The Protestant missionary contribution to Carl Meinhof's Zeitschrift für Kolonialsprachen", Le Fait Missionaire: Social Sciences and Missions 15 (December 2004), 59-96. | Carl_Meinhof |@lemmatized carl:4 friedrich:1 michael:1 meinhof:11 july:1 february:1 german:2 linguist:1 one:3 first:2 linguists:1 study:5 african:6 language:9 early:1 year:2 career:1 bear:1 barzwitz:1 near:1 rügenwalde:1 province:1 pomerania:1 university:3 tübingen:1 greifswald:1 become:1 professor:1 school:1 oriental:1 berlin:2 work:5 notable:1 develop:2 comparative:1 grammar:1 bantu:5 languages:3 build:1 pioneering:1 wilhelm:1 bleek:1 look:3 common:1 swahili:1 zulu:1 determine:1 similarity:1 difference:1 noun:4 class:6 least:1 exist:1 throughout:1 though:1 definition:1 differs:1 slightly:1 accepted:1 sesotho:1 specifically:1 human:1 sometimes:1 include:2 animate:1 also:1 kordofanian:1 bushman:1 khoikhoi:1 hamitic:1 comprehensive:1 classification:3 scheme:1 standard:1 many:1 greenberg:4 supersede:1 joseph:3 especially:1 make:2 recording:2 east:1 music:2 among:1 traditional:1 family:1 brother:1 ulrike:1 grandfather:1 thus:1 great:1 uncle:1 woman:1 would:1 founding:1 member:1 red:1 army:1 faction:1 raf:1 reference:1 h:2 linguistic:1 new:1 compass:1 publishing:1 company:1 africa:1 bloomington:1 indiana:1 press:1 grundzüge:1 einer:1 vergleichenden:1 grammatik:1 der:1 bantusprachen:1 reimer:1 pugach:1 sara:1 image:1 race:1 redemption:1 protestant:1 missionary:1 contribution:1 zeitschrift:1 für:1 kolonialsprachen:1 le:1 fait:1 missionaire:1 social:1 science:1 mission:1 december:1 |@bigram carl_friedrich:1 bantu_languages:3 carl_meinhof:2 bloomington_indiana:1 grammatik_der:1 zeitschrift_für:1 |
3,859 | Free_Methodist_Church | The Free Methodist Church is a Methodist denomination that is a part of the Holiness Movement. The church is Evangelical in nature and has its roots in the Arminian-Wesleyan tradition. The Free Methodist Church has nearly 732,000 members worldwide in 82 nations. Light & Life magazine is the official publication. The Free Methodist Church World Ministries Center is in Indianapolis, Indiana. Mission Statement The mission of the Free Methodist Church is to make known to all people everywhere God’s call to wholeness through forgiveness and holiness in Jesus Christ, and to invite into membership and to equip for ministry all who respond in faith. 2007 Book of Discipline, Free Methodist Church of North America History The Free Methodist Church was organized at Pekin, New York, in 1860. The founders had been members of the Methodist Episcopal Church but were excluded from its membership for too earnestly advocating the doctrines and usages of primitive Methodism. Under the leadership of Benjamin Titus (B. T.) Roberts, a graduate of Wesleyan University and an able and eloquent preacher, the movement spread rapidly. Societies were organized, churches built and the work established. At the 1910 session of the Genesee Conference of the Methodist Church at Rochester, New York, a full acknowledgement was made of the wrong done Rev. B. T. Roberts fifty years before, and the credentials unjustly taken from him were restored in a public meeting to his son, Rev. Benson Roberts. Editorial, Free Methodist, May 1941 Before the founding of the church B.T. Roberts began publication of a monthly journal, The Earnest Christian. In 1868 The Free Methodist (now Light and Life) was begun. A publishing house was established in 1886 to produce books, periodicals and Sunday school curriculum and literature. Light & Life magazine, July 1995 The name "Methodist" was retained for the newly organized church because the founders felt that their misfortunes (expulsion from the Methodist Episcopal Church) had come to them because of their adherence to doctrines and standards of Methodism. The word "Free" was suggested and adopted because the new church was to be an anti-slavery church (slavery was a issue in those days); because seats in the churches were to be free to all rather than sold or rented (as was common); and because the new church hoped for the freedom of the Spirit in the services rather than a stifling formality. A Brief Story of Our Church, C.L. Howland, Winona Lake, In. Recent History Free Methodist headquarters were located in Winona Lake, Indiana until 1990 when the denomination moved its headquarters to Indianapolis. The church has about 77,000 members http://www.freemethodistchurch.org/sections/about_us/faqs.shtml in the United States and an average attendance of [107,000] at its Sunday services. Worldwide its membership is over 800,000 with large segments of membership in the Democratic Republic of Congo, India, and Rwanda. Beliefs In doctrine, Free Methodists’ beliefs are the standard beliefs of evangelical, Arminian Protestantism, with distinctive emphasis on the scriptural teaching of entire sanctification as held by John Wesley, to whom the Free Methodist Church traces its origins to. In experience, Free Methodists stress the reality of an inner cleansing and power that attests the doctrine of entire sanctification, both in the inward consciousness of believers and in their outward life. Their worship is characterized by simplicity and freedom of the Holy Spirit, untrammeled by elaborate ritual. Free Methodists maintain a life of daily devotion to Jesus Christ that springs from inward holiness and separates the Christian from the world, even while he/she lives in the world. They believe the best way to keep worldliness from invading the church is for the church to invade the world with redemptive purpose. They practice a complete consecration of every power and possession to the service of God and all people everywhere. They believe so strongly in the mission of the church that they are committed to responsible stewardship in finance. Therefore, they do not need to resort to commercial efforts to support the cause of Christ. Free Methodists recognize that God gives spiritual gifts of service and leadership to both men and women. Since male and female are both created in the image of God, that image is most fully reflected when both women and men work in concert at all levels of the church. Therefore, all positions in the church are accessible to any whom God has called. Free Methodists sense a special obligation to preach the Gospel to the poor. The provisions of the gospel are for all. The “glad tidings” must be proclaimed to every individual of the human race. God sends the true light to illuminate and melt every heart. Jesus set the example. Of His ministry it was reported, “The blind receive their sight, and the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed, and the deaf hear, the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them.” This preaching to the poor was the crowning proof that He was the one who should come. In this respect the Church must follow in the footsteps of Jesus. Free Methodists are committed to the New Testament ideals of simplicity and modesty as a style of life. They wish to call attention, not to themselves, but to their Lord. These distinctives of the Free Methodist Church from its origin are still living issues. In every era and every land these distinctives are the witnesses of the church, needing utterance clear and strong that they may be heard and heeded amidst the world’s confusing and misleading voices. 2007 Book of Discipline, Free Methodist Church of North America Practices The difference between "United Methodist" and "Free Methodist" Many question the difference between the United Methodist Church and the Free Methodist Church. Both denominations share a common heritage linked to the Methodist revival in England during the 1700s. There is very little difference in doctrine. There are more differences in practice and polity. Free Methodist Church of North America Women in Ministry From its beginning the Free Methodist Church struggled with the issue of the ordination of women. The first general superintendent, B.T. Roberts, was in favor of ordaining women, but never saw it take place in his lifetime. Out of his own conviction he wrote Ordaining Women: Biblical and Historical Insights. The impact of his writings eventually prevailed in the church. The Free Methodist Church affirmed the ordination of women in 1911. The Female Pastor: Is There Room for She in Shepherd As of June 2008, out of 2,011 ordained clergy, 216 were women (11%). Twenty-six percent of all ministerial candidates are women. Free Methodist Church of North America Balance in Leadership Free Methodists recognize and license unordained persons for particular ministries. They mandate lay representation in numbers equal to clergy in the councils of the church. 2007 Book of Discipline, Free Methodist Church of North America Organization The Free Methodist Church's highest governing body is the World Conference, World Conference which is composed of representatives, both lay and clergy, from all countries with a Free Methodist General Conference. As the church in each country develops, its status progresses from Mission District to Annual Conference to General Conference. There are currently 13 General Conferences in the world, which are linked together through the articles of religion and common constitution of the first two chapters of the Book of Discipline and the World Conference. membership World Missions International Child Care Ministries (ICCM) A child sponsorship program Free Methodist World Missions, serving in 26 countries around the world. Through education, meals and medical care, children in need are given an opportunity for a better life. SEED (Serving, Encouraging, Equipping, Discipling) A micro-enterprise and livelihood ministry of Free Methodist World Missions. Facilitates self-sustaining businesses, training in business skills and Christian discipleship. Focused on economically vulnerable members of the Free Methodist world family. Provides an international market for products produced by Free Methodist artisans. VISA Ministries (Volunteers in Service Abroad) Connects volunteers from the Free Methodist Church in the U.S. and U.K. with Free Methodist World Missions for hands-on ministry internationally. The church currently has ministry in 82 countries around the world. Free Methodist World Missions These are: AFRICAASIAEUROPELATIN AMERICAMIDDLE EASTNORTH AMERICAAngolaAustraliaBelgiumAntiguaEgyptCanadaBeninCambodiaBulgariaArgentinaIraqUnited StatesBotswanaHong KongFranceBahamasJordan BurundiIndiaGreeceBolivia CamaroonJapanHungaryBrazil Democratic Republic of CongoMalaysiaItalyChileEthiopiaMyanmarPortugalColombia GabonNepalRomaniaCosta Rica GhanaPhilippinesSpainDominican Republic KenyaSouth KoreaUkraineEcuador LiberiaSri LankaUnited KingdomEl Salvador MalawiTaiwan French Guiana MozambiqueThailand Guatemala Nigeria Haiti Republic of Congo (Brazzaville) Honduras Rawanda Mexico South Africa Nicaragua Swaziland Panama Tanzania Paraguay Togo PeruUganda Puerto Rico Zambia Uruguay Zimbabwe Venezuela Higher Education B.T. Roberts began what is now Roberts Wesleyan College in 1866. Spring Arbor College followed in 1873, Seattle Pacific University in 1891 and Greenville College in 1892. Central College began in 1914, a continuation of Orleans Seminary begun in 1884. Azusa Pacific University was formed by a merger with Los Angeles Pacific College and other small denominational colleges. Light & Life magazine, July 1995 The denomination currently maintains a relationship with the following educational institutions: Central Christian College, McPherson, KS Greenville College, Greenville, IL Roberts Wesleyan College, Rochester, NY Spring Arbor University, Spring Arbor, MI Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, WA Azusa Pacific University, Azusa, CA In addition, the Free Methodist Church is one of several denominations supporting Azusa Pacific University(Azusa, CA). Wessington Springs College is a former, now closed institution which was located in South Dakota. Internationally, there is Osaka Christian College of the Japanese Free Methodist Church, Hope Africa University, Hope Africa University a recently founded school in Bujumbura, Burundi, and the Faculdade Teológica Metodista Livre, São Paulo, Brazil. Through the John Wesley Seminary Foundation(JWSF) graduate students who are preparing for full time ministry in the Free Methodist Church are provided a grant/loan at the following (JWSF) affiliated schools: Asbury Theological Seminary – Wilmore, KY and Orlando, FL campuses Azusa Pacific University Graduate School of Theology, Azusa, CA George Fox Evangelical Seminary, Portland, OR Northeastern Seminary at Roberts Wesleyan College, Rochester, NY Wesley Biblical Seminary, Jackson, MS Publishing Both John Wesley and B. T. Roberts recognized the Christian’s unavoidable responsibility for publishing. Before the founding of the church in 1860, B.T. Roberts began publication of a monthly journal, The Earnest Christian. In 1868 The Free Methodist (now Light & Life magazine) began. A publishing house was established in 1886 to produce books, periodicals and Sunday school curriculum and literature. Light & Life magazine, July 1995 Beginnings Early leaders, T. B. Arnold and B. T. Roberts privately financed and produced several publications. The official publishing institution was established by the church at the 1886 General Conference. The church purchased the publishing business built by Rev. T. B. Arnold for $8,000. Arnold was named first publisher and B. T. Roberts was elected editor of The Free Methodist. The Free Methodist Publishing House is recognized under its trade name Light and Life Press. Growth and Development The Publishing House operated at three locations in Chicago, Illinois. In February 1935, the Publishing House moved along with Free Methodist Headquarters to Winona Lake, Indiana. During its history, the Publishing House built up a plant and accumulated property worth several hundred thousand dollars. It also contributed thousands of dollars out of its profits to other activities of the church. B.H. Gaddis, publisher, 1933-1954 Over the years, as the ministry of the Free Methodist Church expanded, various departments of the general church gradually moved into Publishing House accommodations. This was provided at vast cost and without the investment of any capital by the general church. In 1960, the Publishing House board issued a deed in favor of the general church, whereby the church became the owner of the old Publishing House property, plus nearly eight acres of land. For this the general church paid nothing, but agreed to make payments of $5,000 per year over a ten-year period to the Publishing House. Ministry Arnold’s Commentary was published from 1894-1980. In the late 1950s and early 60s the church pioneered fully graded church school materials. In 1960 the Aldersgate Biblical Series was developed as the only inductive curriculum of its time. Snapshots, Donald E. Demaray, 1985,229-230 A fully equipped printing area consisting of letterpresses, offset press, cutters, folders, bindery, linotypes etc. contributed toward making the church independent of commercial printers for the production for its printing needs at that time. Acting on the recommendation of its executive committee, the board voted in 1988 to phase out printing operations. Light and Life magazine, January 1989 This decision and the 1989 General Conference decision to move the Press and Headquarters from Winona Lake to Indianapolis in 1990 shifted the focus of the Press. Where formerly, the Press produced and published Sunday school curriculum, this venture is now carried on in cooperation with other holiness denominations. Beginning in 2008, the Wesleyan Publishing House, publishing arm of the Wesleyan Church, began serving the distribution and customer service needs of Light and Life Press. Mission Statement Light and Life Press, the official publishing aim of the Free Methodist Church, is a not-for- profit corporation that exists to serve in partnership with its parent body, the Free Methodist Church. Its primary purpose is to publish and distribute materials which enable the church to fulfill its stated mission. Light and Life Press also offers its services and materials to all who seek to make Christ known. Light and Life Press, 1993 Publications Free Methodist Communications is the publishing division of the Free Methodist Church. Publications may also be printed or distributed under the name Light & Life Communications. Light and Life is the official magazine of the Free Methodist Church in the United States and is also available online Light & Life . Free Methodist World Mission People is a quarterly magazine about world missions offered free of charge upon request World Mission People . FM Flashpoints is a monthly publication about news items within the church available online FM Flashpoints . Taglines is a weekly e-mail to pastors for the purpose of giving weekly encouragement. References External links Official site Free Methodist World Missions Northeastern Seminary Roberts Wesleyan College Spring Arbor University | Free_Methodist_Church |@lemmatized free:53 methodist:58 church:65 denomination:6 part:1 holiness:4 movement:2 evangelical:3 nature:1 root:1 arminian:2 wesleyan:8 tradition:1 nearly:2 member:4 worldwide:2 nation:1 light:16 life:19 magazine:8 official:5 publication:7 world:21 ministry:13 center:1 indianapolis:3 indiana:3 mission:15 statement:2 make:5 know:2 people:4 everywhere:2 god:6 call:3 wholeness:1 forgiveness:1 jesus:4 christ:4 invite:1 membership:5 equip:3 respond:1 faith:1 book:6 discipline:4 north:5 america:5 history:3 organize:3 pekin:1 new:5 york:2 founder:2 episcopal:2 exclude:1 earnestly:1 advocate:1 doctrine:5 usage:1 primitive:1 methodism:2 leadership:3 benjamin:1 titus:1 b:12 robert:12 graduate:3 university:11 able:1 eloquent:1 preacher:1 spread:1 rapidly:1 society:1 build:3 work:2 establish:4 session:1 genesee:1 conference:10 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3,860 | Blissymbols | Blissymbols or Blissymbolics were conceived of as an ideographic writing system consisting of several hundred basic symbols, each representing a concept, which can be composed together to generate new symbols that represent new concepts. Blissymbols differ from all the world's major writing systems in that the characters do not correspond at all to the sounds of any spoken language. They were invented by Charles K. Bliss (1897-1985) after the Second World War. Bliss wanted to create an easy-to-learn international auxiliary language to allow communication between people who do not speak the same language. He was inspired by Chinese characters (which are not ideograms), with which Bliss became familiar while in Shanghai as a refugee from Nazi anti-semitic persecution. His system World Writing was explained in his work Semantography (1949). This work laid out the language structure and vocabulary for his utopian vision of easy communication, but it failed to gain popularity. However, since the 1960s, Blissymbols have become popular as a method of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) for non-speaking people with cerebral palsy or other disorders, for whom it can be impossible to otherwise communicate with spoken language. Practitioners of Blissymbolics (that is, speech and language therapists and users) maintain that some users who have learned to communicate with Blissymbolics find it easier to learn to read and write traditional orthography in the local spoken language than do users who did not know Blissymbolics. Whether Blissymbolics constitutes an unspoken language, whatever its practical utility may be, is a controversial question. Some linguists, such as John DeFrancis (The Chinese Language 1984, Visible Speech 1989) and J. Marshall Unger (Ideogram 2004) have argued that genuine ideographic writing systems with the same capacities as natural languages do not exist. Blissymbolics Communication International is an international group of people who act as an authority regarding the standardization of the Blissymbolics language. It has taken responsibility for any extensions of the Blissymbolics language as well as any maintenance needed for the language. BCI has coordinated usage of the language since 1971 for augmentative and alternative communication. BCI received a licence and copyright through legal agreements with Charles K. Bliss in 1975 and 1982. Limiting the count of Bliss-characters (there are currently about 900) is very useful to help the user community. It also helps when implementing Blissymbolics using technology such as computers. An example of Blissymbolics is, blissymbols I want to go to the cinema. Blissymbolics was first used in 1971 to help children at the Ontario Crippled Children’s Centre (OCCC, now the Bloorview-MacMillan Children’s Centre) in Toronto, Canada. Since it was important that the children see consistent pictures, OCCC had a draftsman named Jim Grice draw the symbols. Both Charles K. Bliss and Margrit Beesley at the OCCC worked with Grice to ensure consistency. In 1975, a new organization named Blissymbolics Communication Foundation directed by Shirley McNaughton led this effort. Over the years, this organization changed its name to Blissymbolics Communication Institute, Easter Seal Communication Institute, and ultimately to Blissymbolics Communication International. External links Blissymbolics Communication International Blissymbol Communication UK Blissymbolics Resources An Introduction to Blissymbols (PDF file) Michael Everson's Proposed Unicode encoding of Blissymbolics | Blissymbols |@lemmatized blissymbols:5 blissymbolics:17 conceive:1 ideographic:2 writing:2 system:4 consist:1 several:1 hundred:1 basic:1 symbol:3 represent:2 concept:2 compose:1 together:1 generate:1 new:3 differ:1 world:3 major:1 write:3 character:3 correspond:1 sound:1 spoken:3 language:14 invent:1 charles:3 k:3 bliss:6 second:1 war:1 want:2 create:1 easy:3 learn:3 international:5 auxiliary:1 allow:1 communication:11 people:3 speak:2 inspire:1 chinese:2 ideograms:1 become:2 familiar:1 shanghai:1 refugee:1 nazi:1 anti:1 semitic:1 persecution:1 explain:1 work:3 semantography:1 lay:1 structure:1 vocabulary:1 utopian:1 vision:1 fail:1 gain:1 popularity:1 however:1 since:3 popular:1 method:1 augmentative:2 alternative:2 aac:1 non:1 cerebral:1 palsy:1 disorder:1 impossible:1 otherwise:1 communicate:2 practitioner:1 speech:2 therapist:1 user:4 maintain:1 find:1 read:1 traditional:1 orthography:1 local:1 know:1 whether:1 constitutes:1 unspoken:1 whatever:1 practical:1 utility:1 may:1 controversial:1 question:1 linguist:1 john:1 defrancis:1 visible:1 j:1 marshall:1 unger:1 ideogram:1 argue:1 genuine:1 capacity:1 natural:1 exist:1 group:1 act:1 authority:1 regard:1 standardization:1 take:1 responsibility:1 extension:1 well:1 maintenance:1 need:1 bci:2 coordinate:1 usage:1 receive:1 licence:1 copyright:1 legal:1 agreement:1 limit:1 count:1 currently:1 useful:1 help:3 community:1 also:1 implement:1 use:2 technology:1 computer:1 example:1 go:1 cinema:1 first:1 child:4 ontario:1 cripple:1 centre:2 occc:3 bloorview:1 macmillan:1 toronto:1 canada:1 important:1 see:1 consistent:1 picture:1 draftsman:1 name:3 jim:1 grice:2 draw:1 margrit:1 beesley:1 ensure:1 consistency:1 organization:2 foundation:1 direct:1 shirley:1 mcnaughton:1 lead:1 effort:1 year:1 change:1 institute:2 easter:1 seal:1 ultimately:1 external:1 link:1 blissymbol:1 uk:1 resource:1 introduction:1 pdf:1 file:1 michael:1 everson:1 propose:1 unicode:1 encoding:1 |@bigram anti_semitic:1 augmentative_alternative:2 cerebral_palsy:1 blissymbolics_communication:5 external_link:1 michael_everson:1 |
3,861 | Godzilla_vs._Biollante | is a 1989 kaiju film written and directed by Kazuki Omori. It was the seventeenth film to be released in the Godzilla franchise and the second in terms of the franchise's Heisei period. The film is set after the events of The Return of Godzilla. Plot A scientific team picks through the ruins of Tokyo, searching for tissue samples left behind by the mutant dinosaur Godzilla following his recent rampage. A team of American paramilitary soldiers working for a United States-based genetics research company called Bio-Major attempts to escape with a sample, but is overcome by a lone mercenary and the samples are stolen. Meanwhile, in the Middle East, researcher Genshiro Shiragami looks forward to returning home to Japan with his daughter, Erika. However, a terrorist bombing destroys his research facility and kills Erika. Five years later, Dr. Shiragami is now a haunted dreamer, who has lately turned most of his attention to the study of the psychic energy of roses. Psychic Miki Saegusa, who also heads an institution for intuitive children, aids him in his research. Dr. Shiragami is now seen as a harmless old man who uses his scientific knowledge to satisfy his own curiosity. However, two groups are watching Dr. Shiragami: a gang of thieves hired by Bio-Major and an assassin from a Middle Eastern country called Saradia. As it turns out, Dr. Shiragami is involved in the study of Godzilla cells. It is believed by Shiragami's employers that he is aiding them in figuring out how to utilize the cells' properties to create Anti-Nuclear Bacteria (ANB), which is supposed to be used as weapons against Godzilla. The bacteria are designed to devour all radioactive material, and should prove fatal to Godzilla, but Shiragami has been conducting his own secret experiments. When the thieves and the assassin catch each other breaking into Shiragami's laboratory, a gunfight ensues. It is interrupted by an attack of a giant, mobile plant that kills one man and nearly kills another. The surviving thief flees, and the assassin barely escapes from the plant's grasp. They do not realize that they have just encountered the result of Dr. Shiragami's secret experimentations. The next morning a giant flower is seen in a nearby lake, and Dr. Shiragami confesses that he combined the DNA of roses with Godzilla cells. Furthermore, he confesses privately to a young official that he had, in a fit of desperate grief, added Erika's DNA to the mutated genetic structure, so that some of the creature is composed of Erika as well. He names his creation Biollante. Meanwhile, Bio-Major anonymously sends a letter to the Diet of Japan, informing them that they have planted several bombs inside Mt. Mihara. If the Anti-Nuclear Bacteria is not handed over, the company threatens to detonate the bombs and release Godzilla. With the country held hostage, the Diet is forced to comply. The trade-off with the remaining thief goes well until Shiragami's assassin kills the thief. The thief dies before he can show Lieutenant Goro Gondo and Dr. Kazuhito Kirishima how to deactivate the timed explosives. Godzilla is released as Mt. Mihara erupts. Upon hearing Godzilla's roar, Biollante's blossom opens, and the monstrous plant begins calling out to Godzilla. Dr. Shiragami theorizes that this is because both Godzilla and Biollante are essentially the same being. With Godzilla's destination made clear, the Japan Self-Defense Forces, under the leadership of Major Sho Koruki, prepare their strategies for dealing with the King of the Monsters. The Super X II, a remote controlled and stronger version of the first Super X, is deployed, and though at first seems effective in combating Godzilla, is eventually overwhelmed by Godzilla's atomic breath, and is forced to retreat. Godzilla reaches Biollante. A huge battle ensues, and briefly it appears that there is a stalemate. However, Godzilla defeats Biollante with his atomic breath. With Biollante apparently dead, Godzilla continues on. Godzilla, running low on radioactive energy after his fights with the Super X II and Biollante, heads towards the nearest operational nuclear reactor, which is located in Tsuruga, on the other side of the country. The military is sent out to meet Godzilla at Iso Bay. Godzilla surfaces in Osaka Bay, avoiding a confrontation with the JSDF. Saegusa tries to help, attempting to make Godzilla turn away from Osaka. Her efforts distract Godzilla momentarily, but the force of Godzilla's will and his physic brainpower overwhelms her and faints. A plan is put into action, involving infecting Godzilla with the regained ANB. In its final battle, the Super X II is destroyed by Godzilla after luring it into Osaka's business district. Lieutenant Gondo and his soldiers use rocket launchers equipped with the ANB. The operation is initially successful, despite the death of Lieutenant Gondo, with ANB injected into Godzilla into three points in his body. Godzilla is unaffected by it, and continues on. The failure of the bacteria to work is attributed to Godzilla's low body temperature, which keeps the bacteria in a near-dormant state. If Godzilla can be heated, Shiragami theorizes, then the ANB should work. The JSDF develops another plan: force Godzilla onto a field of microwave-emitting plates during an artificial thunderstorm, where it will be heated by the microwaves. The operation begins, but it seems that Godzilla is not affected by the microwaves as he crushes it. Just as everything seems lost, a low rumble is heard and Biollante's spores rain down from the sky. Suddenly a larger, more Godzilla-like Biollante emerges from the ground. After destroying all nearby land forces, Biollante attacks Godzilla, and the two massive monsters fight to the death with Godzilla winning the battle by blasting his atomic breath into Biollante's mouth. However, Godzilla falls headfirst into the ocean because of the ANB. With Godzilla temporarily knocked out, Biollante returns to her spore form and retreats into outer space. As the monster's remains float upwards, Dr. Shiragami sees the image of his daughter among the spores. Calling out to her, he walks forward and gets killed by the Saradian agent, who is still after Godzilla's cells. Godzilla is dying and therefore will be unable to escape when the terrorist tries to get the cell. Dr. Kirishima chases the agent and fights him. The agent is at a disadvantage until he is able to grab his weapon again. The Saradian agent attempts to kill Kirishima, but Major Koruki disintegrates the terrorist. The characters celebrate their victory when Godzilla returns from the sea waters. The body of Dr. Shiragami is placed inside a tent, with his superior briefly mourning him before leaving. Erika is heard to comment on the events of the film, and the film concludes with a shot of Godzilla swimming away. Cast Kunihiko Mitamura as Kazuhito Kirishima Yoshiko Tanaka as Asuka Okouchi Masanobu Takashima as Major Sho Kuroki Megumi Odaka as Miki Saegusa Toru Minegishi as Lieutenant Goro Gondo Koji Takahashi as Doctor Genichiro Shiragami Toshiyuki Nagashima as Director Seiichi Yamamoto Ryunosuke Kaneda as Seikun Okouchi, Azuka's Father Kazuma Matsubara as Super X II Coordinator Yasunori Yuge as Prime Minister Yoshiko Kuga as Owada, Prime Minister's Wife Yasuka Sawaguchi as Erika Shiragami Brien Uhl as SSS9 Koichi Ueda as General Hyodo Kosuke Toyohara as Super X II Controller Haruko Sagara as TV Reporter Katsuhiko Sasaki as Soldier Hirohisa Nakata as Helicopter Onlooker Kenzo Hagiwara as Officer Kurt Cramer as Bio-Major Spy John Lee Derrick Homes as Bio-Major Spy Michael Low Beth Blatt as English Reporter Demon Kogure as Himself Abfallah Helal as Saradia Scientist Manjot Beoi as Saradia Plant Director Kenpachiro Satsuma as Godzilla Box office In Japan, the film sold approximately 2 million tickets, earning $7,000,000. Critical reaction Ed Godziszewski of Monster Zero said the film is "by no means a classic" but felt that "for the first time in well over 20 years, a [Godzilla] script is presented with some fresh, original ideas and themes." Review Ed Godziszewski, Monster Zero, June 10, 2002 Joseph Savitski of Beyond Hollywood said the film's music is "a major detraction," but added that it's "not only one of the most imaginative films in the series, but also the most enjoyable to watch." Review Joseph Savitski, Beyond Hollywood, August 2nd, 2004 Japan Hero said, "[T]his is definitely a Godzilla movie not to be missed." Review Japan Hero Production Godzilla vs. Biollante began as a winner of a contest by Toho. The concept was created by Shinichiro Kobayashi, a dentist. His script was widely different from the final film, the few parts that remained were Erika's death, Biollante's creation, a psychic girl, and for the most part, the ending. This first draft also had Dr. Shiragami first create a rat/fish hybrid monster named Deutalios who was quickly killed by Godzilla. This was cut and replaced by Godzilla's battles with Biollante's rose stage and the Super X II. In another ending, Biollante sacrifices herself to defeat Godzilla by turning into a wave of pure energy. Home video Godzilla vs. Biollante was released on home video on December 9, 1992 in the USA to cash in with the upcoming release of Godzilla and Mothra: The Battle for Earth in Japan. The only official DVD releases of Godzilla vs. Biollante were in Japan and Hong Kong. References External links | Godzilla_vs._Biollante |@lemmatized kaiju:1 film:10 write:1 direct:1 kazuki:1 omori:1 seventeenth:1 release:6 godzilla:51 franchise:2 second:1 term:1 heisei:1 period:1 set:1 event:2 return:4 plot:1 scientific:2 team:2 pick:1 ruin:1 tokyo:1 search:1 tissue:1 sample:3 leave:2 behind:1 mutant:1 dinosaur:1 follow:1 recent:1 rampage:1 american:1 paramilitary:1 soldier:3 work:3 united:1 state:2 base:1 genetics:1 research:3 company:2 call:4 bio:5 major:9 attempt:3 escape:3 overcome:1 lone:1 mercenary:1 steal:1 meanwhile:2 middle:2 east:1 researcher:1 genshiro:1 shiragami:18 look:1 forward:2 home:4 japan:8 daughter:2 erika:7 however:4 terrorist:3 bombing:1 destroy:3 facility:1 kill:7 five:1 year:2 later:1 dr:12 haunt:1 dreamer:1 lately:1 turn:4 attention:1 study:2 psychic:3 energy:3 rose:2 miki:2 saegusa:3 also:3 head:2 institution:1 intuitive:1 child:1 aid:2 see:3 harmless:1 old:1 man:2 use:3 knowledge:1 satisfy:1 curiosity:1 two:2 group:1 watch:2 gang:1 thief:6 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3,862 | Languages_of_Europe | Most of the many languages of Europe belong to the Indo-European language family. Another major family is the Finno-Ugric. The Turkic family also has several European members. The North and South Caucasian families are important in the southeastern extremity of geographical Europe. Basque is a language isolate and Maltese is the only national language in Europe that is Semitic. This list does not include languages spoken by relatively recently-arrived migrant communities. Main alphabets used in Europe, Cyprus and Turkey: Main alphabets used in the past in Europe (around 1900) Languages in Europe Indo-European languages Most European languages are Indo-European languages. This large language family is descended from Proto-Indo-European, spoken thousands of years ago. Slavic languages Slavic languages East Slavic languages Russian Ukrainian Belarusian Rusyn Carpatho-Rusyn (Ruthenian) Pannonian-Rusyn (Rusnak) West Slavic languages Polish Czech Slovak Sorbian Lower Sorbian Upper Sorbian Polabian (extinct) Pomeranian (extinct) South Slavic languages Serbian Bulgarian Croatian Slovene Bosnian Macedonian Montenegrin (no international standardization) Old Church Slavonic (a liturgical language) Romano-Serbian (a mixed language) Germanic languages The Germanic languages in Europe West Germanic German High German languages Standard German (High German) Central German East Central German West Central German Luxembourgish Lower Silesian Upper German Alemannic German Alsatian Austro-Bavarian Yiddish Low German West Low German East Low German Anglo-Frisian Anglo-Frisian Frisian West Frisian Saterland Frisian North Frisian Anglic (descending from Anglo-Saxon) Modern English Hiberno-English Modern Scots in Scotland and Ulster Yola (extinct 19th century) Shelta (mixed with Irish) Low Franconian Low Franconian Dutch North Germanic (descending from Old Norse) Continental Scandinavian Swedish Danish Norwegian Elfdalian Insular Scandinavian Icelandic Faroese Norn (extinct) East Germanic Gothic (extinct) Burgundian (extinct) Crimean Gothic (extinct in the 1800s) Lombardic (extinct) Vandalic (extinct) Romance languages Romance languages, 20th c. The Romance languages descended from the Vulgar Latin spoken across most of the lands of the Roman Empire. French is official in France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Monaco, Switzerland and the Channel Islands. It is also official in Canada, many African countries and overseas departments and territories of France. Italian is official in Italy, San Marino, Switzerland, Vatican and several regions of Croatia and Slovenia. Spanish (also termed Castilian) is official in Spain. It is also official in most Latin American countries. Romanian is official in Romania, Moldova (as Moldovan), Mount Athos (Greece) and Vojvodina (Serbia). Latin is usually classified as an Italic language of which the Romance languages are a subgroup. It is extinct as a spoken language, but it is widely used as a liturgical language by the Roman Catholic Church and studied in many educational institutions. It is also the official language of Vatican City. Latin was the main language of literature, sciences and arts for many centuries and greatly influenced all European languages. Portuguese is official in Portugal. It is also official in Brazil and several former Portuguese colonies in Africa and Eastern Asia (see Geographic distribution of Portuguese and Community of Portuguese Language Countries). Catalan is official in Andorra, and co-official in in the Spanish regions of Catalonia, Valencian Community (as Valencian), Balearic Islands. It is also natively spoken in France in the Languedoc-Rousillon region (Llengadoc-Rosselló) and in Sardinia, Italy (as Alguerese). Galician, akin to Portuguese, is co-official in Galicia, Spain. It is also spoken by Galician diaspora (more than local population). Occitan is spoken principally in France, but is only officially recognized in Spain as one of the three official languages of Catalonia (termed there Aranese). Its use was severely reduced due to the once de jure and currently de facto promotion of French; since 2008 it is among the regional languages recognised in the French constitution. Franco-Provençal, sometimes called "Arpitan," protected by statutes in the Aosta Valley Autonomous Region of Italy, also spoken alpine valleys of the province of Turin, two communities in province of Foggia, Romandy region of western Switzerland, and in east central France (i.e., between standard French and Occitan domains). It is in serious danger of extinction. Norman has been debatedly referred to as a language in its own right or a dialect of standard French with its own regional character. Its use is recognized in the Channel Islands, remnants of the historical Duchy of Normandy, and since 2008 it is among the regional languages recognised in the French constitution. Corsican is spoken exclusively on the French island of Corsica and is much more closely related to the Italian or northern Italian regional languages. Unlike other French minority languages, it has a healthier outlook, but still suffers from a lack of promotion. Romansh is an official language of Switzerland. Mirandese is officially recognized by the Portuguese Parliament. Asturian is recognized, but not official, in the Spanish region of Asturias. Aragonese is recognized, but not official, in Aragon (Spain). Leonese is recognized in Castile and León (Spain). Some of the above languages are official in the European Union and the Latin Union and the more prominent ones are studied in many educational institutions worldwide. This is due to the fact that just three of the Romance languages, French, Spanish, and Portuguese are spoken by close to a billion speakers. Many other Romance languages and their local varieties are spoken throughout Europe. Some of them are recognized as regional languages. Romance languages are divided into many subgroups and dialects. For an exhaustive list, see List of Romance languages. Greek Greek: official language of Greece and Cyprus; and Greek-speaking enclaves in Albania, Bulgaria, Italy, the Republic of Macedonia, Romania, Georgia, Ukraine, Lebanon, Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Turkey, and in Greek communities around the world. Dialects of modern Greek that originate from the Ionian Koine are Cappadocian, Pontic, Cretan, Cypriot, Katharevousa, and Yevanic. Tsakonian language: Doric dialect of the Greek language spoken in the lower Arcadia region of the Peloponnese around the village of Leonidio. Griko: Debatably a Doric dialect of the Greek Language spoken in the lower Calabria region and in the Salento region of Southern Italy. Albanian Albanian language is made up of two major dialects, Gheg and Tosk spoken in Albania, the Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo and Albanian speakers living in parts of Montenegro, Serbia, Turkey, also southern parts of Italy, northern part of Greece and many other European countries. Baltic languages Distribution of the Baltic languages in the Baltic (simplified). Lithuanian Latvian Curonian Latgalian Samogitian Galindian (extinct) Old Prussian (extinct) Selonian (extinct) Semigallian (extinct) Sudovian (extinct) Armenian The Armenian language is widely spoken as the majority language in Armenia. There are Armenian speakers in globally scattered communities of the Armenian diaspora in Europe, the Middle East, and the Americas (in North and South America). Indo-Iranian languages Indo-Aryan Languages Romany Iranian languages Kurdish Ossetian language Celtic languages The Celtic nations where most Celtic speakers are now concentrated Brythonic Welsh Breton Cornish Cumbric (extinct) Goidelic (Gaelic) Irish Scottish Gaelic Manx Finno-Ugric languages The Finno-Ugric languages are a subfamily of the Uralic language family. Ugric (Ugrian) Hungarian Hungarian Ob Ugric Khanty Mansi Finno-Permic Permic Komi Komi-Permyak Udmurt Finno-Volgaic Mari Mari Mordvinic Erzya Moksha Extinct Finno-Volgaic languages of uncertain position Merya Muromian Meshcherian Finno-Lappic Sami Western Sami Southern Sami Ume Sami Lule Sami Pite Sami Northern Sami Eastern Sami Kemi Sami (extinct) Inari Sami Akkala Sami (extinct) Kildin Sami Skolt Sami Ter Sami Baltic-Finnic Estonian South Estonian Võro (including Seto) Finnish (including Meänkieli or Tornedalian Finnish, Kven Finnish, and Ingrian Finnish) Ingrian Karelian Karelian proper Lude Olonets Karelian Livonian Veps Votic Altaic languages Distribution of the proposed Altaic languages across Eurasia The proposed but controversial Altaic language family is claimed to consist of three branches (Turkic, Mongolian, and Manchu-Tungus) that show similarities in vocabulary, morphological and syntactic structure, and certain phonological features. On the basis of systematic sound correspondences, they are generally considered to be genetically related. In Europe the Turkic branch prevail, though the Mongolic branch is represented also. Turkic languages Oghuz Western Azeri Gagauz Turkish Kypchak Western Karachay-Balkar Karaim Krymchak Kumyk Northern Bashkir Tatar Southern Kazakh Nogay Crimean Tatar Urum Oghur Chuvash Mongolic languages Kalmyk South Caucasian languages Georgian Laz Mingrelian Svan Northeast Caucasian languages Agul Avar Bats Chechen Dargin Ingush Khinalug Lak Lezgian Rutul Tabasaran Tsakhur Tsez Udi Northwest Caucasian languages Ethno-Linguistic groups in the Caucasus region Abaza Abhkaz Adyghe Kabardian Maltese Maltese is a Semitic language with Romance and Germanic influences, spoken in Malta. Journal of Semitic Studies 1958 3(1):58-79; doi:10.1093/jss/3.1.58 The Structure of Maltese by Joseph Aquilina Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 80, No. 3 (Jul. - Sep., 1960), pp. 267-268 It is based on Sicilian Arabic, with influences from Italian (particularly Sicilian), French, and more recently, English. It is unique in being the only Semitic language written in the Latin alphabet in its standard form. It is the smallest official language of the EU in terms of speakers, and the only official Semitic language within the EU. Basque The Basque language is a language isolate spoken at the western Pyrenees and directly related to ancient Aquitanian. The language is documented in form of short inscriptions since the Roman era and arguably may have been spoken in a wider area since Paleolithic times. The language is also spoken by immigrants in Australia, Costa Rica, Mexico, the Philippines, and the USA. UCLA — Language Materials Project General issues Linguas Francas—past and present Europe’s history is characterized by six linguas francas: Classical Greek then Koine Greek in the Mediterranean Basin and later the Roman Empire Koine Greek and Modern Greek, in the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire and other parts of the Balkans cf. Jireček Line; "...Greek, the lingua franca of commerce and religion, provided a cultural unity to the Balkans... Greek penetrated Moldavian and Wallachian territories as early as the fourteenth century.... The heavy influence of Greek culture upon the intellectual and academic life of Bucharest and Jassy was longer termed than historians once believed." James Steve Counelis, review of Ariadna Camariano-Cioran, Les Academies Princieres de Bucarest et de Jassy et leur Professeurs in Church History 45:1:115-116 (March 1976) at JSTOR (Medieval and Neo-) Latin (from the Roman Empire until 1867, with Hungary as the last country to give up Latin as an official language apart from the Vatican City), with a gradual decline as lingua franca since the late Middle Ages, when the vernacular languages gained more and more importance (first language academy in Italy in 1582/83), in the 17th c. even at universities). Spanish (from the times of the Catholic Kings and Columbus, ca. 1492 (i.e. after the Reconquista, till the times of Louis XIV, ca. 1648) French (from the times of Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV, ca. 1648 (i.e. after the Thirty Years' War, which had hardly affected France, thus free to prosper), till the end of World War I, ca. 1919) English (Since 1919, and especially since 1945, due to U.S. influence and subsequently due to lingua franca status internationally) Linguas francas that were characteristic of parts of Europe at some periods: Latin during and after the collapse of the Roman Empire until supplanted by French and then English. Old French in all the western European countries (England, Italy), and in the Crusader states Provençal (Occitan) (12th—14th century, due to Troubadour poetry) Czech, mainly during the reign of Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV but also during other periods of Bohemian control over the HRE. Middle Low German (14th – 16th century, during the heyday of the Hanseatic League) Polish (16th-18th century, because of the political, cultural, scientific and military influence of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) Sabir, a Romance-based lingua franca used around the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages and early Modern Age. German in Northern, Central, and Eastern Europe Jeroen Darquennes and Peter Nelde, "German as a Lingua Franca", Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 26:61-77 (2006) Russian in Eastern Europe from the Second World War to the breakup of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact First dictionaries and grammars The first type of dictionaries are glossaries, i.e. more or less structured lists of lexical pairs (in alphabetical order or according to conceptual fields). The Latin-German (Latin-Bavarian) Abrogans is among the first. A new wave of lexicography can be seen from the late 15th century onwards (after the introduction of the printing press, with the growing interest for standardizing languages). Language and identity, standardization processes In the Middle Ages the two most important definitory elements of Europe were Christianitas and Latinitas. Thus language—at least the supranational language—played an elementary role. This changed with the spread of the national languages in official contexts and the rise of a national feeling. Among other things, this led to projects of standardizing national language and gave birth to a number of language academies (e.g. 1582 Accademia della Crusca in Florence, 1617 Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft, 1635 Académie française, 1713 Real Academia de la Lengua in Madrid). “Language” was then (and still ist today) more connected with “nation” than with “civilization” (particularly in France). “Language” was also used to create a feeling of “religious/ethnic identity” (e.g. different Bible translations by Catholics and Protestants of the same language). Among the first standardization discussions and processes are the ones for Italian (“questione della lingua”: Modern Tuscan/Florentine vs. Old Tuscan/Florentine vs. Venetian > Modern Florentine + archaic Tuscan + Upper Italian), French (standard is based on Parisian), English (standard is based on the London dialect) and (High) German (based on: chancellery of Meißen/Saxony + Middle German + chancellery of Prague/Bohemia [“Common German”]). But also a number of other nations have begun to look for and develop a standard variety in the 16th century. Treatment of linguistic minorities The linguistic diversity of Europe is protected by e.g. the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The historical attitue towards diversity can be illustrated by two French laws, or decrees: the Ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts (1539), which says that every document in France should be written in French (i.e. not in Latin nor Occitan) and the Loi Toubon (1994), which aims to eliminate Anglicisms from official documents. Despite previous attempts to achieve national linguistic homogenization, like in France during the Revolution, Franco's Spain and Metaxas's Greece, the “one nation = one language” concept is hard on its way to become obsolete. As for now, France, Andorra and Turkey are the only European countries that have not yet signed the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, while Greece, Iceland and Luxembourg signed it, but haven't ratified it. This framework entered into force in 1998 and is now nearly compulsory to implement in order to be accepted in the European Union, which implies France would not qualify for EU entry were it to apply for membership now. Early promotion of linguistic diversity is attested at the translation school in Toledo, founded in the 12th century (in medieval Toledo the Christian, the Jewish and the Arab civilizations lived together remarkably peacefully). A minority language can be defined as a language used by a group that defines itself as an ethnic minority group, whereby the language of this group is typologically different and not a dialect of the standard language. In Europe some languages are in quite a strong position, in the sense that they are given special status, (e.g. Basque, Irish, Welsh, Catalan, Rhaeto-Romance/Romansh), whereas others are in a rather weak position (e.g. Frisian, Scottish Gaelic, Turkish)—especially allochthonous minority languages are not given official status in the EU (in part because they are not part of the cultural heritage of a civilization). Some minor languages don’t even have a standard yet, i.e. they have not even reached the level of an ausbausprache yet, which could be changed, e.g., if these languages were given official status. (cf. also next section). Official status and proficiency A more tolerant linguistic attitude is the reason why the EU’s general rule is that every official national language is also an official EU language. However Luxembourgish for instance is not an official EU language, because there are also other (stronger) official languages with “EU status” in the respective nation. Several concepts for an EU language policy are being debated: one official language (e.g. English, French, German) several official languages (e.g. English, French, German, Italian, Spanish + another topic-dependent language) all national languages as official languages, but with a number of relais languages for translations (e.g. English, French, German as relais languages). New immigrants in European countries are expected to learn the host nation's language, but are still speaking and reading their native languages (i.e. Arabic, Hindustani/Urdu, Mandarin Chinese, Swahili and Tahitian) in Europe's increasingly multiethnic/multicultural profile. But, those languages aren't native or indigenous to Europe, therefore aren't considered important in the issue of allowing them printed in European countries' official documents. The proficiency of languages is increasingly related to second or third language learning and has been subject to recent shifts caused by changing popularity and government policy. Notes See also List of living languages in Europe List of endangered languages in Europe Eurolinguistics Languages of the European Union Demography of Europe European ethnic groups Multilingual countries and regions of Europe External links Languages of Europe: A map and tabulated overview over the European languages spoken in Europe made by Urion Argador Linguistic map of Europe in native tongues from Muturzikin.com. 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3,863 | Colin_Powell | Official Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff portrait Colin Luther Powell (born April 5, 1937) is an American statesman and a former four-star general in the United States Army. He was the 65th United States Secretary of State (2001-2005), serving under President George W. Bush. He was the first African American appointed to that position. The first African American secretary of state, Colin Powell, The African American Registry Biographies - Colin Powell: United States Secretary of State, African American History Month, US Department of Defense Colin Powell, Britannica Online Encyclopedia Profile: Colin Powell, BBC News During his military career, Powell also served as National Security Advisor (1987–1989), as Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Army Forces Command (1989) and as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1989–1993), holding the latter position during the Gulf War. He was the first, and so far the only, African American to serve on the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Early life Colin Luther Powell was born on April 5, 1937 in Harlem, a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan to Jamaican immigrant parents Luther Theophilus Powell and Maud Arial McKoy and was raised in the South Bronx. He also has Scottish and Irish ancestry. http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2004/may/12/usa.world http://www.eogn.com/archives/news0420.htm#ColinPowellsScottishAncestry Powell attended Morris High School, a former public school in The Bronx, from which he graduated in 1954. While at school, he worked a local baby furniture store where he picked up Yiddish from the shopkeepers and some of the customers. He earned a bachelor's degree in geology from City College of New York, attaining a C average, according to his 2006 graduation address at Marymount University. He earned an MBA from The George Washington University, after his second tour in Vietnam in 1971. Powell pronounces his name "KOH-lin." Public officials and radio and television reporters have used Powell's preferred pronunciation. Military career Powell joined the Reserve Officers' Training Corps at City College and later described it as one of the happiest experiences of his life; discovering something he loved and could do well, he felt he had "found himself." Cadet Powell joined the Pershing Rifles, the ROTC fraternal organization and drill team begun by General John Pershing. Even after he had become a General, Powell kept on his desk a pen set he had won for a drill team competition. Graduating from City College in June 1958, he received a commission as an Army second lieutenant. He was a professional soldier for 35 years, holding a variety of command and staff positions and rising to the rank of General. While serving with the Third Armored Division in Germany as a lieutenant, he met Elvis Presley, who was serving in that unit. Powell was a captain during the Vietnam War, serving as a South Vietnamese Army adviser from 1962 to 1963. While on patrol in a Viet Cong-held area, he was wounded by stepping on a punji stake. He returned to Vietnam as a major in 1968, serving in the Americal Division (23rd Infantry Division), then as assistant chief of staff of operations for the Americal Division. He was charged with investigating a detailed letter by Tom Glen (a soldier from the 11th Light Infantry Brigade), which backed up rumored allegations of the My Lai Massacre. Powell wrote: "In direct refutation of this portrayal is the fact that relations between American soldiers and the Vietnamese people are excellent." Later, Powell's assessment would be described as whitewashing the news of the massacre, and questions would continue to remain undisclosed to the public. In May 2004 Powell said to Larry King, "I mean, I was in a unit that was responsible for My Lai. I got there after My Lai happened. So, in war, these sorts of horrible things happen every now and again, but they are still to be deplored." Powell served a White House fellowship, a highly selective and prestigious position, under President Richard Nixon from 1972 to 1973. In his autobiography, My American Journey, Powell named several officers he served under that inspired and mentored him. As a lieutenant colonel serving in South Korea, Powell was very close to General Henry "Gunfighter" Emerson. Powell said he regarded Emerson as one of the most caring officers he ever met. Emerson was reputedly eccentric; he insisted his troops train only at night and made them repeatedly watch the television film Brian's Song to promote racial harmony. Powell always professed, however, that what set Emerson apart was his great love of his soldiers and concern for their welfare. In the early 1980s, Powell served at Fort Carson, Colorado. There, he had a major clash with General John Hudachek, his commander, who said in an efficiency evaluation that Powell was a poor leader who should not be promoted. Powell's rising military career was unhindered by Hudachek's evaluation report. After he left Fort Carson, Powell became senior military assistant to Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger, whom he assisted during the 1983 invasion of Grenada and the 1986 airstrike on Libya. In 1986, he took over the command of V Corps in Frankfurt, Germany, from Robert Lewis "Sam" Wetzel. Following the Iran Contra scandal, Powell became Ronald Reagan's National Security Advisor, serving from 1987 to 1989. In 1989, Powell was promoted to General and briefly served as the Commander in Chief, Forces Command headquartered at Fort McPherson, Georgia. Later that year, Reagan selected him as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Dates of ranks Second Lieutenant: June 9, 1958 First Lieutenant: December 30, 1959 Captain: June 2, 1962 Major: May 24, 1966 Lieutenant Colonel: July 9, 1970 Colonel: February 1, 1976 Brigadier General: June 1, 1979 Major General: August 1, 1983 Lieutenant General: March 26, 1986 General: April 4, 1989 Awards and decorations Badges Combat Infantryman Badge Expert Infantryman Badge Ranger Tab Parachutist Badge Pathfinder Badge Air Assault Badge Presidential Service Badge Secretary of Defense Identification Badge Joint Chiefs of Staff Identification Badge Army Staff Identification Badge Military medals and ribbons Defense Distinguished Service Medal (with 3 Oak Leaf Clusters)Distinguished Service Medal, Army (with Oak Leaf Cluster)Defense Superior Service MedalLegion of Merit (with Oak Leaf Cluster)Soldier's MedalBronze StarPurple HeartAir MedalJoint Service Commendation MedalArmy Commendation Medal (with 2 Oak Leaf Clusters)Presidential Medal of Freedom (order of precedence, if worn)Presidential Citizens Medal (order of precedence, if worn)National Defense Service Medal (with 1 Bronze Service Star)Vietnam Service Medal (with 1 Silver Service Star)Army Service RibbonArmy Overseas Service Ribbon (with numeral 3) Foreign decorations Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal Honorary Order of the Bath (KCB) (United Kingdom) Légion d'honneur (France) Meritorious Service Cross (M.S.C.) (Canada) Order of Stara Planina in the First Order (Bulgaria) National Security Advisor President Ronald Reagan and National Security Advisor Powell in 1988 At the age of 49, Powell became Ronald Reagan's National Security Advisor, serving from 1987 to 1989 while retaining his Army commission as a lieutenant general. After his tenure with the National Security Council, Powell was promoted to a full general under President George H.W. Bush and briefly served as Commander-in-Chief (CINC) of the Army's Forces Command (FORSCOM), overseeing all Army, Army Reserve, and National Guard units in the Continental U.S., Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Colin Powell, Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff, waves from his motorcade during the Persian Gulf War, Welcome Home Parade, held in New York City, New York. His last military assignment, from October 1, 1989 to September 30, 1993, was as the 12th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the highest military position in the Department of Defense. At age 52, he became the youngest officer, and first Afro-Caribbean American, to serve in this position. In 1989, he joined Dwight D. Eisenhower and Alexander Haig as the third general since World War II to reach four-star rank without ever being a divisional commander. During this time, he oversaw 28 crises, including the invasion of Panama in 1989 to remove General Manuel Noriega from power and Operation Desert Storm in the 1991 Persian Gulf War. During these events, Powell earned his nickname, "the reluctant warrior." He rarely advocated military intervention as the first solution to an international crisis, and instead usually prescribed diplomacy and containment. Powell (left) sits alongside Paul Wolfowitz (right) and Norman Schwarzkopf (middle) listening as Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney hosts a press conference during the Gulf War. In his autobiography, Powell said he is haunted by the nightmare of the Vietnam War and felt that the leadership was very ineffective. Powell served a tour in Vietnam as a military adviser, and was mildly injured when he stepped on a bamboo "punji stick." The large infection made it difficult for him to walk, and caused his foot to swell for a short time, shortening his first tour. It was also during his Vietnam service, his second tour, that Powell was decorated for bravery. He single-handedly rescued several men from a burning helicopter, one of them being Maj. Gen. Charles Gettys, the commander of the Americal Division. Additionally, Powell has been critical of other instances of U.S. foreign policy in the past, such as its support for the 1973 Chilean coup d'état. From two separate interviews in 2003, Powell stated in one about the 1973 event "I can't justify or explain the actions and decisions that were made at that time. It was a different time. There was a great deal of concern about communism in this part of the world. Communism was a threat to the democracies in this part of the world. It was a threat to the United States." Remarks at the 2003 Groundhog Job Shadow Day Program, Secretary Colin L. Powell, Remarks and question and answer session with students, Washington, DC, January 31, 2003, excerpt on 1973 Chile coup, Federation of American Scientists In another interview, however, he also simply stated "With respect to your earlier comment about Chile in the 1970s and what happened with Mr. Allende, it is not a part of American history that we're proud of." Secretary of State Colin L. Powell, Interview On Black Entertainment Television's Youth Town Hall, February 20, 2003, excerpt on 1973 U.S. covert action in Chile, Federation of American Scientists As a military strategist, Powell has advocated an approach to military conflicts that maximizes the potential for success and minimizes casualties. A component of this approach is the use of overwhelming force, which he applied to Operation Desert Storm in 1991. His approach has been dubbed the "Powell Doctrine." Potential candidate Powell's experience in military matters made him a very popular figure with both American political parties. Many Democrats admired his moderate stance on military matters, while many Republicans saw him as a great asset associated with the successes of past Republican administrations. Put forth as a potential Democratic Vice Presidential nominee in the 1992 U.S. Presidential Election or even potentially replacing Vice President Dan Quayle as the Republican Vice Presidential nominee, Powell eventually declared himself a Republican and began to campaign for Republican candidates in 1995. He was touted as a possible opponent of Bill Clinton in the 1996 U.S. Presidential Election, possibly capitalizing on a split conservative vote in Iowa and even leading New Hampshire polls for the GOP nomination, but Powell declined, citing a lack of passion for politics. Powell defeated Clinton 50-38 in a hypothetical match-up proposed to voters in the exit polls conducted on Election Day. Despite not standing in the race, Powell won the New Hampshire Vice-Presidential primary on write-in votes. http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=330851 In 1997 Powell founded America's Promise with the objective of helping children from all socioeconomic sectors. Powell often wears the organization's logo in the form of a red wagon pin on his lapel. In the 2000 U.S. Presidential Election Powell campaigned for Senator John McCain and later Texas Governor George W. Bush after the latter secured the Republican nomination. Bush eventually won, and Powell was appointed Secretary of State. Secretary of State Powell, National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld listen to President George W. Bush speak. As Secretary of State in the Bush administration, Powell was perceived as moderate. Powell was unanimously voted in by the United States Senate. Over the course of his tenure he traveled less than any other U.S. Secretary of State in 30 years. On September 11, 2001, Powell was in Lima, Peru, meeting with President Alejandro Toledo and US Ambassador John Hamilton, and attending the special session of the OAS General Assembly that subsequently adopted the Inter-American Democratic Charter. After the terrorist attacks, Powell's job became of critical importance in managing America's relationships with foreign countries in order to secure a stable coalition in the War on Terrorism. Powell came under fire for his role in building the case for the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. In a press statement on February 24, 2001 he had said that sanctions against Iraq had prevented the development of any weapons of mass destruction by Saddam Hussein. As was the case in the days leading up to the Persian Gulf War, Powell was initially opposed to a forcible overthrow of Hussein, preferring to continue a policy of containment. However, Powell eventually agreed to go along with the Bush administration's determination to remove Hussein. He had often clashed with others in the administration, who were reportedly planning an Iraq invasion even before the September 11 attacks, an insight supported by testimony by former terrorism czar Richard Clarke in front of the 9/11 Commission. The main concession Powell wanted before he would offer his full support for the Iraq War was the involvement of the international community in the invasion, as opposed to a unilateral approach. He was also successful in persuading Bush to take the case of Iraq to the United Nations, and in moderating other initiatives. Powell was placed at the forefront of this diplomatic campaign. Computer-generated image of an alleged mobile production facility for biological weapons, presented by Powell at the UN Security Council. On May 27, 2003, US and UK experts examined the trailers and declared they had nothing to do with biological weapons. Powell's chief role was to garner international support for a multi-national coalition to mount the invasion. To this end, Powell addressed a plenary session of the United Nations Security Council on February 5, 2003 to argue in favor of military action. Citing numerous anonymous Iraqi defectors, Powell asserted that "there can be no doubt that Saddam Hussein has biological weapons and the capability to rapidly produce more, many more." Powell also stated that there was "no doubt in my mind" that Hussein was working to obtain key components to produce nuclear weapons. Most observers praised Powell's oratorical skills. However, Britain's Channel 4 News reported soon afterwards that a UK intelligence dossier that Powell had referred to as a "fine paper" during his presentation had been based on old material and plagiarized an essay by American graduate student Ibrahim al-Marashi. A 2004 report by the Iraq Survey Group concluded that the evidence that Powell offered to support the allegation that the Iraqi government possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) was inaccurate. A Senate report on intelligence failures would later detail the intense debate that went on behind the scenes on what to include in Powell's speech. State Department analysts had found dozens of factual problems in drafts of the speech. Some of the claims were taken out, but others were left in, such as claims based on the yellowcake forgery. The administration came under fire for having acted on faulty intelligence. Reports have indicated that Powell himself was skeptical of the evidence presented to him. Powell later recounted how Vice President Dick Cheney had joked with him before he gave the speech, telling him, "You've got high poll ratings; you can afford to lose a few points." Powell's longtime aide-de-camp, Colonel Lawrence B. Wilkerson, later characterized Cheney's view of Powell's mission as to "go up there and sell it, and we'll have moved forward a peg or two. Fall on your damn sword and kill yourself, and I'll be happy, too." In September 2005, Powell was asked about the speech during an interview with Barbara Walters and responded that it was a "blot" on his record. He went on to say, "It will always be a part of my record. It was painful. It's painful now." Wilkerson said that he participated in a hoax on the American people in preparing Powell's erroneous testimony before the United Nations Security Council. Because Powell was seen as more moderate than most figures in the administration, he was spared many of the attacks that have been leveled at more controversial advocates of the invasion, such as Donald Rumsfeld and Paul Wolfowitz. At times, infighting among the Powell-led State Department, the Rumsfeld-led Defense Department, and Cheney's office had the effect of polarizing the administration on crucial issues, such as what actions to take regarding Iran and North Korea. Secretary Powell with NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer. After Saddam Hussein had been deposed, Powell's new role was to once again establish a working international coalition, this time to assist in the rebuilding of post-war Iraq. On September 13, 2004, Powell testified before the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee, acknowledging that the sources who provided much of the information in his February 2003 UN presentation were "wrong" and that it was "unlikely" that any stockpiles of WMDs would be found. Claiming that he was unaware that some intelligence officials questioned the information prior to his presentation, Powell pushed for reform in the intelligence community, including the creation of a national intelligence director who would assure that "what one person knew, everyone else knew." Colin Powell holding a model vial of anthrax while giving a presentation to the United Nations Security Council Powell announced his resignation as Secretary of State on November 15, 2004. According to the Washington Post, he had been asked to resign by the president's chief of staff, Andrew Card. Powell announced that he would stay on until the end of Bush's first term or until his replacement's confirmation by Congress. The following day, Bush nominated National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice as Powell's successor. News of Powell's leaving the Administration spurred mixed reactions from politicians around the world — some upset at the loss of a statesman seen as a moderating factor within the Bush administration, but others hoping for Powell's successor to wield more influence within the cabinet. In mid-November, Powell stated that he had seen new evidence suggesting that Iran was adapting missiles for a nuclear delivery system. The accusation came at the same time as the settlement of an agreement between Iran, the IAEA, and the European Union. On December 31, 2004, Powell rang in the New Year by throwing the ball in Times Square with New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg, ushering in the year 2005. He appeared on the networks that were broadcasting New Year's Eve specials and talked about this honor, as well as being a native of New York City. Life after diplomatic service After retiring from the role of Secretary of State, Powell returned to private life. In April 2005, he was privately telephoned by Republican senators Lincoln Chafee and Chuck Hagel, at which time Powell expressed reservations and mixed reviews about the nomination of John R. Bolton as ambassador to the United Nations, but refrained from advising the senators to oppose Bolton (Powell had clashed with Bolton during Bush's first term). The decision was viewed as potentially dealing significant damage to Bolton's chances of confirmation. Bolton was put into the position via a recess appointment because of the strong opposition in the Senate. Powell with United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. On April 28, 2005, an opinion piece in the The Guardian by Sidney Blumenthal (a former top aide to President Bill Clinton) claimed that Powell was in fact "conducting a campaign" against Bolton because of the acrimonious battles they had had while working together, which among other things had resulted in Powell cutting Bolton out of talks with Iran and Libya after complaints about Bolton's involvement from the British. Blumenthal added that "The foreign relations committee has discovered that Bolton made a highly unusual request and gained access to 10 intercepts by the National Security Agency. Staff members on the committee believe that Bolton was probably spying on Powell, his senior advisors and other officials reporting to him on diplomatic initiatives that Bolton opposed." In July 2005, Powell joined Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield & Byers, a well-known Silicon Valley venture capital firm, with the title of "strategic limited partner." In September 2005, Powell criticized the response to Hurricane Katrina. Powell said that thousands of people were not properly protected, but because they were poor rather than because they were black. On January 5, 2006, he participated in a meeting at the White House of former Secretaries of Defense and State to discuss United States foreign policy with Bush administration officials. In September 2006, Powell sided with more moderate Senate Republicans in supporting more rights for detainees and opposing President Bush's terrorism bill. He backed Senators John Warner, John McCain and Lindsey Graham in their statement that U.S. military and intelligence personnel in future wars will suffer for abuses committed in 2006 by the U.S. in the name of fighting terrorism. Powell stated that "The world is beginning to doubt the moral basis of [America's] fight against terrorism." Also in 2006, Powell began appearing as a speaker at a series of motivational events called Get Motivated, along with former New York Mayor Rudy Giuliani. In his speeches for the tour, he openly criticized the Bush Administration on a number of issues. Powell has been the recipient of mild criticism for his role with Get Motivated which has been called a "get-rich-quick-without-much-effort, feel-good schemology." Most recently he joined the Board of Directors of Steve Case's new company Revolution Health. Powell also serves on the Council on Foreign Relations Board of directors. Powell, in honor of Martin Luther King Day, dropped the ceremonial first puck at a New York Islanders hockey game at Nassau Coliseum on January 21, 2008. On November 11, 2008, Powell again dropped the puck in recognition of Military Appreciation Day and Veterans Day. Recently, Powell has encouraged young people to continue to use new technologies to their advantage in the future. In a speech at the Center for Strategic and International Studies to a room of young professionals, he said, "That’s your generation…a generation that is hard-wired digital, a generation that understands the power of the information revolution and how it is transforming the world. A generation that you represent, and you’re coming together to share; to debate; to decide; to connect with each other." At this event, he encouraged the next generation to involve themselves politically on the upcoming Next America Project, which uses online debate to provide policy recommendations for the upcoming administration. In 2008, Powell served as a spokesperson for National Mentoring Month, a campaign held each January to recruit volunteer mentors for at-risk youth. Soon after Barack Obama's 2008 election, Powell began being mentioned as a possible cabinet member. http://www.usnews.com/blogs/washington-whispers/2008/11/11/al-gore-colin-powell-caroline-kennedy-in-obamas-administration.html Political views A moderate Republican, Powell is well known for his willingness to support liberal or centrist causes. Colin Powell's biography from 'On The Issues'. He is pro-choice regarding abortion, and in favor of "reasonable" gun control. He stated in his autobiography that he supports affirmative action that levels the playing field, without giving a leg up to undeserving persons because of racial issues. Powell was also instrumental in the implementation of the military's Don't ask, don't tell policy. The Vietnam War had a profound effect on Powell's views of the proper use of military force. These views are described in detail in the autobiography My American Journey. The Powell Doctrine, as the views became known, was a central component of US policy in the Gulf War (the first U.S. war in Iraq) and U.S. invasion of Afghanistan (the overthrow of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan following the events of 9/11). The hallmark of both operations was strong international cooperation, and the use of overwhelming military force. Powell was the subject of controversy in 2004 when, in a conversation with British Foreign Secretary, Jack Straw, he reportedly referred to neoconservatives within the Bush administration as "fucking crazies." In addition to being reported in the press (though generally, the expletive was censored in the U.S. press), the quote was used by James Naughtie in his book, The Accidental American: Tony Blair and the Presidency, and by Chris Patten in his book, Cousins and Strangers: America, Britain, and Europe in a New Century. In a letter to Sen. John McCain, General Powell expressed opposition to President Bush's push for military tribunals of those formerly and currently classified as enemy combatants. Specifically, he expressed concern of Bush's plan to "amend the interpretation of Article III of the Geneva Conventions." He also pointed out that perception of the War on Terror may be losing moral support saying, "The world is beginning to doubt the moral basis of our fight against terrorism." View of the U.S. war in Iraq In an interview in July 2007, Powell revealed that he had spent two and a half hours trying to persuade Bush not to invade Iraq, but that he did not prevail. At the Aspen Ideas Festival in Colorado See Official website: Aspen Ideas Festival Powell stated, "I tried to avoid this war. I took him [Bush] through the consequences of going into an Arab country and becoming the occupiers." Powell went on to say that he believed Iraq was in a state of civil war. "The civil war will ultimately be resolved by a test of arms. It's not going to be pretty to watch, but I don't know any way to avoid it. It is happening now." He further noted, "It is not a civil war that can be put down or solved by the armed forces of the United States," and suggested that all the U.S. military could do was put "a heavier lid on this pot of boiling sectarian stew." Role in presidential election of 2008 Powell donated the maximum amount to John McCain's campaign in the summer of 2007 and in early 2008, his name was listed as a possible running mate for Republican nominee McCain's bid during the 2008 U.S. presidential election. However, on October 19, 2008, Powell announced his endorsement of Barack Obama during a Meet the Press interview, citing "his ability to inspire, because of the inclusive nature of his campaign, because he is reaching out all across America, because of who he is and his rhetorical abilities," in addition to his "style and substance." He additionally referred to Obama as a "transformational figure." Powell further questioned McCain's judgment in appointing Sarah Palin as the vice presidential candidate, stating that despite the fact that she is admired, "now that we have had a chance to watch her for some seven weeks, I don't believe she's ready to be president of the United States, which is the job of the vice president." He pointed out how he thought Obama's choice for vice-president, Joe Biden, was ready to be president. He also added that he was "troubled" by the "false intimations that Obama was Muslim." Powell stated that "[Obama] is a Christian — he's always been a Christian... But the really right answer is, what if he is? Is there something wrong with being a Muslim in this country? The answer's no, that's not America." Powell then referenced Kareem Rashad Sultan Khan, a Muslim American soldier in the U.S. Army who served and died in the Iraq War. He later stated, "Over the last seven weeks, the approach of the Republican Party has become narrower and narrower [...] I look at these kind of approaches to the campaign, and they trouble me." Powell concluded his Sunday morning talk show comments, "It isn't easy for me to disappoint Sen. McCain in the way that I have this morning, and I regret that [...] I think we need a transformational figure. I think we need a president who is a generational change and that's why I'm supporting Barack Obama, not out of any lack of respect or admiration for Sen. John McCain." Colin Powell endorses Barack Obama for president Later in a December 12, 2008 CNN interview with Fareed Zakaria, Powell reiterated his belief that during the last few months of the campaign, Palin pushed the Republican party further to the right and had a polarizing impact on it. Powell on Rush Limbaugh Personal life Powell married Alma Johnson on August 25, 1962. Their son, Michael Powell, was the chairman of the FCC from 2001 to 2005. Civilian awards Powell's civilian awards include two Presidential Medals of Freedom, the President's Citizens Medal, the Congressional Gold Medal, the Secretary of State Distinguished Service Medal, the Secretary of Energy Distinguished Service Medal, and the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award. Several schools and other institutions have been named in his honor and he holds honorary degrees from universities and colleges across the country. In 1991, Powell was inducted into the Horatio Alger Association of Distinguished Americans, which "honors the achievements of outstanding individuals in U.S. society who have succeeded in spite of adversity and of encouraging young people to pursue their dreams through higher education." On November 9, 1993, Powell was awarded the second Ronald Reagan Freedom Award, by President Ronald Reagan. Powell served as Reagan's National Security Advisor from 1987-1989. ] On December 15, 1993, Colin Powell was made an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath by Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. In 1998, he was awarded the prestigious Sylvanus Thayer Award by the United States Military Academy for his commitment to the ideals of "Duty, Honor, Country." The 2002 Liberty Medal was awarded to Colin Powell on July 4 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In his acceptance speech, Powell reminded Americans that "It is for America, the Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave, to help freedom ring across the globe, unto all the peoples thereof. That is our solemn obligation, and we will not fail." The Coat of Arms of Colin Powell was granted by the Lord Lyon in Edinburgh on February 4, 2004. Technically the grant was to Powell's father (a British subject) to be passed on by descent. Scotland's King of Arms is traditionally responsible for granting arms to Commonwealth citizens. Blazoned as:Azure, two swords in saltire points downwards between four mullets Argent, on a chief of the Second a lion passant Gules. On a wreath of the Liveries is set for Crest the head of an American bald-headed eagle erased Proper. And in an escrol over the same this motto, "DEVOTED TO PUBLIC SERVICE."The swords and stars refer to the former general's career, as does the crest, which is the badge of the 101st Airborne (which he served as a brigade commander in the mid-1970s). The lion may be an allusion to Scotland. The shield can be shown surrounded by the insignia of an honorary Knight Commander of the Most honorable Order of the Bath (KCB), an award the General received after the first Gulf War. In 2005 Powell received the Bishop John T. Walker Distinguished Humanitarian Service Award for his contributions to Africa. AARP honored Powell with the 2006 AARP Andrus Award, the Association’s highest honor. This award, named in honor of AARP’s founder, Dr. Ethel Percy Andrus, is presented biennially to distinguished individuals who have generated positive social change in the world, and whose work and achievements reflect AARP’s vision of bringing lifetimes of experience and leadership to serve all generations. In 2005 Colin and Alma Powell were awarded the Woodrow Wilson Award for Public Service by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institution. Colin Powell was initiated as an honorary brother in Sigma Phi Epsilon. Powell is a recipient of the Silver Buffalo Award, the highest adult award given by the Boy Scouts of America. A street in Gelnhausen, Germany was named after him: "General-Colin-Powell-Straße". In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Colin Powell on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans. Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8. See also Pottery Barn rule Powell Doctrine Plame affair Henry "Gunfighter" Emerson Lawrence Wilkerson, Powell's Chief of Staff 1989-2003 References Further reading Powell, Colin A. and Joseph Persico, My American Journey, Ballantine Books, 1995. ISBN 0-345-40728-8 Excerpts from My American Journey, Time, September 18, 1995 DeYoung, Karen, Soldier: The Life of Colin Powell, Alfred A. Knopf, 2006. ISBN 1-4000-4170-8 Video Address to the National Summit on Africa - Washington, DC - February, 2000 - Technical Note: playback requires Flash 10 Player External links Colin Powell: America's Best Leaders from US News & World Report Remarks to the United Nations Security Council, February 5, 2003 Complete text, audio, video of Colin Powell's Remarks to the UN Security CouncilAmericanRhetoric.com "Colin Powell On the issues" African Americans in the U.S. Army "Curveball" Revelations Indicate falsified info used to start Iraq war and esp used for Powell's UN presentation on Iraq WMDs Colin Powell Quotes | Colin_Powell |@lemmatized official:6 chairman:7 joint:8 chief:16 staff:14 portrait:1 colin:26 luther:4 powell:159 bear:2 april:5 american:27 statesman:2 former:7 four:3 star:5 general:23 united:18 state:34 army:13 secretary:22 serve:22 president:20 george:5 w:4 bush:20 first:13 african:8 appoint:3 position:7 registry:1 biography:2 history:2 month:3 u:24 department:5 defense:11 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3,864 | Benzoic_acid | Benzoic Acid Crystals Benzoic acid, C7H6O2 (or C6H5COOH), is a colorless crystalline solid and the simplest aromatic carboxylic acid. The name derived from gum benzoin, which was for a long time the only source for benzoic acid. This weak acid and its salts are used as a food preservative. Benzoic acid is an important precursor for the synthesis of many other organic substances. History Benzoic acid was discovered in the 16th century. The dry distillation of gum benzoin first described by Nostradamus (1556), and subsequently by Alexius Pedemontanus (1560) and Blaise de Vigenère (1596). Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler determined the structure of benzoic acid in 1832. They also investigated how hippuric acid is related to benzoic acid. In 1875 Salkowski discovered the antifungal abilities of benzoic acid, which was used for a long time in the preservation of benzoate-containing cloudberry fruits. Production Industrial preparations Benzoic acid is produced commercially by partial oxidation of toluene with oxygen. The process is catalyzed by cobalt or manganese naphthenates. The process uses cheap raw materials, proceeds in high yield, and is considered environmentally green. toluene oxidation U.S. production capacity is estimated to be 126,000 tonnes per year (139,000 tons), much of which is consumed domestically to prepare other industrial chemicals. Laboratory synthesis Benzoic acid is cheap and readily available, so the laboratory synthesis of benzoic acid is mainly practiced for its pedagogical value. It is a common undergraduate preparation. For all syntheses, benzoic acid can be purified by recrystallization from water because of its high solubility in hot water and poor solubility in cold water. The avoidance of organic solvents for the recrystallization makes this experiment particularly safe. Other possible recrystallization solvents include acetic acid (anhydrous or aqueous), benzene, petroleum ether, and a mixture of ethanol and water. By hydrolysis Like any other nitrile or amide, benzonitrile and benzamide can be hydrolyzed to benzoic acid or its conjugate base in acid or basic conditions. From benzaldehyde The base-induced disproportionation of benzaldehyde, the Cannizzaro reaction, affords equal amounts of benzoate and benzyl alcohol; the latter can be removed by distillation. From bromobenzene Bromobenzene can be converted to benzoic acid by "carbonation" of the intermediate phenylmagnesium bromide: C6H5MgBr + CO2 → C6H5CO2MgBr C6H5CO2MgBr + HCl → C6H5CO2H + MgBrCl From benzyl alcohol Benzyl alcohol is refluxed with potassium permanganate or other oxidizing reagents in water. The mixture is hot filtered to remove manganese dioxide and then allowed to cool to afford benzoic acid. Historical preparations The first industrial process involved the reaction of benzotrichloride (trichloromethyl benzene) with calcium hydroxide in water, using iron or iron salts as catalyst. The resulting calcium benzoate is converted to benzoic acid with hydrochloric acid. The product contains significant amounts of chlorinated benzoic acid derivatives. For this reason, benzoic acid for human consumption was obtained by dry distillation of gum benzoin. Food-grade benzoic acid is now produced synthetically. Alkyl substituted benzene derivatives give benzoic acid with the stoichiometric oxidants potassium permanganate, chromium trioxide, nitric acid. Uses Feedstock Benzoic acid is used to make a large number of chemicals, important examples of which are: Benzoyl chloride, C6H5C(O)Cl, is obtained by treatment of benzoic with thionyl chloride, phosgene or one of the chlorides of phosphorus. C6H5C(O)Cl is an important starting material for several benzoic acid derivates like benzyl benzoate, which is used in artificial flavours and insect repellents. Benzoate plasticizers, such as the glycol-, diethylengylcol-, and triethyleneglycol esters, are obtained by transesterification of methyl benzoate with the corresponding diol. Alternatively these species arise by treatment of benzoylchloride with the diol. These plasticizers are used similarly to those derived from terephthalic acid ester. Phenol, C6H5OH, is obtained by oxidative decarboxylation at 300-400°C. The temperature required can be lowered to 200°C by the addition of catalytic amounts of copper(II) salts. The phenol can be converted to cyclohexanol, which is a starting material for nylon synthesis. Food preservative Benzoic acid and its salts are used as a food preservative, represented by the E-numbers E210, E211, E212, and E213. Benzoic acid inhibits the growth of mold, yeast and some bacteria. It is either added directly or created from reactions with its sodium, potassium, or calcium salt. The mechanism starts with the absorption of benzoic acid in to the cell. If the intracellular pH changes to 5 or lower, the anaerobic fermentation of glucose through phosphofructokinase is decreased by 95%. The efficacy of benzoic acid and benzoate is thus dependent on the pH of the food. Acidic food and beverage like fruit juice (citric acid), sparkling drinks (carbon dioxide), soft drinks (phosphoric acid), pickles (vinegar) or other acidified food are preserved with benzoic acid and benzoates. Typical levels of use for benzoic acid as a preservative in food are between 0.05 – 0.1%. Foods in which benzoic acid may be used and maximum levels for its application are laid down in international food law. GSFA Online Food Additive Group Details: Benzoates (2006) EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND COUNCIL DIRECTIVE No 95/2/EC of 20 February 1995 on food additives other than colours and sweeteners (Consleg-versions do not contain the latest changes in a law) Concern has been expressed that benzoic acid and its salts may react with ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in some soft drinks, forming small quantities of benzene. http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/245/indications_of_the_possible_formation_of_benzene_from_benzoic_acid_in_foods.pdf BfR article Medicinal Benzoic acid is a constituent of Whitfield's Ointment which is used for the treatment of fungal skin diseases such as tinea, ringworm, and athlete's foot. Whitfield Ointment Biology and health effects Benzoic acid occurs naturally free and bound as benzoic acid esters in many plant and animal species. Appreciable amounts have been found in most berries (around 0.05%). Ripe fruits of several Vaccinium species (e.g., cranberry, V. vitis idaea; bilberry, V. macrocarpon) contain as much as 300-1300 mg free benzoic acid per kg fruit. Benzoic acid is also formed in apples after infection with the fungus Nectria galligena. Among animals, benzoic acid has been identified primarily in omnivorous or phytophageous species, e.g., in viscera and muscles of the ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) as well as in gland secretions of male muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) or Asian bull elephants (Elephas maximus). Gum benzoin contains up to 20% of benzoic acid and 40% benzoic acid esters. Benzoic acid is present as part of hippuric acid (N-Benzoylglycine) in urine of mammals, especially herbivores (Gr. hippos = horse; ouron = urine). Humans produce about 0.44 g/L hippuric acid per day in their urine, and if the person is exposed to toluene or benzoic acid it can rise above that level. For humans, the WHO's International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) suggests a provisional tolerable intake would be 5 mg/kg body weight per day. Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 26: BENZOIC ACID AND SODIUM BENZOATE Cats have a significantly lower tolerance against benzoic acid and its salts than rats and mice. Lethal dose for cats can be as low as 300 mg/kg body weight. The oral LD50 for rats is 3040 mg/kg, for mice it is 1940-2263 mg/kg. Chemistry Reactions of benzoic acid can occur at either the aromatic ring or the carboxyl group: Aromatic ring benzoic acid aromatic ring reactions Electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction will take place mainly in 3-position due to the electron-withdrawing carboxylic group; i.e. benzoic acid is meta directing. The second substitution reaction (on the right) is slower because the first nitro group is deactivating. Conversely, if an activating group (electron-donating) was introduced (e.g., alkyl), a second substitution reaction would occur more readily than the first and the disubstituted product might not accumulate to a significant extent. Carboxyl group All the reactions mentioned for carboxylic acids are also possible for benzoic acid. Benzoic acid esters are the product of the acid catalysed reaction with alcohols. Benzoic acid amides are more easily available by using activated acid derivatives (such as benzoyl chloride) or by coupling reagents used in peptide synthesis like DCC and DMAP. The more active benzoic anhydride is formed by dehydration using acetic anhydride or phosphorus pentoxide. Highly reactive acid derivatives such as acid halides are easily obtained by mixing with halogenation agents like phosphorus chlorides or thionyl chloride. Orthoesters can be obtained by the reaction of alcohols under acidic water free conditions with benzonitrile. Reduction to benzaldehyde and benzyl alcohol is possible using DIBAL-H, LiAlH4 or sodium borohydride. The copper catalysed decarboxylation of benzoate to benzene may be effected by heating in quinoline. Also, Hunsdiecker decarboxylation can be achieved by forming the silver salt and heating. benzoic acid group reactions References Further reading External links International Chemical Safety Card 0103 ChemicalLand | Benzoic_acid |@lemmatized benzoic:51 acid:67 crystal:1 colorless:1 crystalline:1 solid:1 simple:1 aromatic:5 carboxylic:3 name:1 derive:2 gum:4 benzoin:4 long:2 time:2 source:1 weak:1 salt:8 use:16 food:12 preservative:4 important:3 precursor:1 synthesis:6 many:2 organic:2 substance:1 history:1 discover:2 century:1 dry:2 distillation:3 first:4 describe:1 nostradamus:1 subsequently:1 alexius:1 pedemontanus:1 blaise:1 de:2 vigenère:1 justus:1 von:1 liebig:1 friedrich:1 wöhler:1 determine:1 structure:1 also:4 investigate:1 hippuric:3 relate:1 salkowski:1 antifungal:1 ability:1 preservation:1 benzoate:11 containing:1 cloudberry:1 fruit:4 production:2 industrial:3 preparation:3 produce:3 commercially:1 partial:1 oxidation:2 toluene:3 oxygen:1 process:3 catalyze:1 cobalt:1 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3,865 | Cyborgs_in_fiction | Cyborgs are a prominent staple in the science fiction genre. This article summarizes notable instances of cyborgs in fiction. In 1966, Kit Pedler, a medical scientist, created the Cybermen for the TV program Doctor Who, based on his concerns about science changing and threatening humanity. The Cybermen had replaced much of their bodies with mechanical prostheses and were now supposedly emotionless creatures driven only by logic. Isaac Asimov's short story "The Bicentennial Man" explored cybernetic concepts. The central character is NDR, a robot who begins to modify himself with organic components. His explorations lead to breakthroughs in human medicine via artificial organs and prosthetics. By the end of the story, there is little physical difference between the body of the hero, now called Andrew, and humans equipped with advanced prosthetics, save for the presence of Andrew's artificial positronic brain. Asimov also explored the idea of the cyborg in relation to robots in his short story "Segregationist", collected in The Complete Robot. The 1972 science fiction novel Cyborg, by Martin Caidin, told the story of a man whose damaged body parts are replaced by mechanical devices. This novel was later adapted into a TV series, The Six Million Dollar Man, in 1973, and its spin-off, The Bionic Woman in 1976. Caidin also addressed bionics in his 1968 novel, The God Machine. In 1974, Marvel Comics writer Rich Buckler introduced the cyborg Deathlok the Demolisher, and a dystopian post-apocalyptic future, in Astonishing Tales #25. Buckler's character dealt with rebellion and loyalty, with allusion to Frankenstein's monster, in a twelve-issue run. Deathlok was later resurrected in Captain America. The 1982 film Blade Runner featured creatures called replicants, bio-engineered or bio-robotic beings. The Nexus series—genetically designed by the Tyrell Corporation—are virtually identical to an adult human, but have superior strength, agility, and variable intelligence depending on the model. Because of their physical similarity to humans a replicant must be detected by its lack of emotional responses and empathy to questions posed in a Voight-Kampff test. A derogatory term for a replicant is "skin-job," a term heard again extensively in Battlestar Galactica. In the opening crawl of the film, they are first said to be the next generation in robotics. The crawl also states genetics play some role in the creation of replicants. The original novel makes mention of the biological components of the androids, but also alludes to the mechanical aspects commonly found in other material relating to robots. The 1987 science fiction action film RoboCop features a cyborg protagonist. After being killed by a criminal gang, police officer Alex Murphy is transformed by a private company into a cyborg cop. The transformation is used to explore the theme of and identity. There are cyborg kaiju in the Godzilla films such as Gigan and Mechagodzilla. Although frequently referred to onscreen as a cyborg, The Terminator might be more properly an android. While it has skin and blood (cellular organic systems), these serve mainly as a disguise and are not symbiotic with the machine components, a trait of true cyborgs. The endoskeletons beneath are fully functional robots and have been seen operating independently, especially during the future segments of the Terminator movies. The T-1000 (which is said to be made completely of a liquid metal) of Terminator 2: Judgment Day is definitely an android. The Terminator Cameron Phillips seen in the 2008 TV series Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles is of a previously unseen model, and is once again referred to on screen (including once by another Terminator) as a cyborg. Cyborgs have also been present in real-time strategy video games. The "Command & Conquer" video game series had cyborgs as a part of its plot - specifically Cyborgs created by the "Brotherhood of Nod" via Tiberium Infusion experimentation. They were frequently used for anti-personnel, though the Cyborg Commando proved to be useful in most situations. Cyborgs were brought back by the AI named L.E.G.I.O.N., (a predecessor to CABAL) under direct orders from Kane. Also the Marked of Kane is reborned as well which is made up with Cyborgs. The Metal Gear Solid series of video games has a recurring character known as the "Cyborg Ninja" who is a person wearing a cybernetic exoskeleton (either worn as a suit or grafted directly to the character's body) and wielding a high-frequency blade. The cyborg ninja suit has been donned by multiple characters, most recently by the character Raiden in Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots. He became the newest incarnation of the Cyborg Ninja after he was captured by The Patriots after he stole the body of Big Boss for the Paradise Lost Army. His body was heavily experimented on for the purpose of creating the ultimate soldier and the only remaining organic parts of his original body are his head and spinal cord. His cyborg body is composed of artificial muscle, organs, bones, and blood( a "white" artificial blood that the PLA substituted for his old, nanomachine primed blood). His cyborg body was optimized for war and enabled him to fight on a superhuman level and withstand what would normally be considered fatal injuries. One of the most famous cyborgs is Darth Vader from the Star Wars films. Vader was once Anakin Skywalker, a famous Jedi turned to the Dark Side. After a furious battle with his former master, Obi-Wan Kenobi, Anakin is left for dead beside a lava flow on Mustafar, and is outfitted with an artificial life support system as well as robotic arms and legs. General Grievous, Lobot, and Luke Skywalker are the three other most prominent cyborgs in the Star Wars universe. In Akira Toriyama's manga and anime series Dragon Ball, a scientist named Dr. Gero created several cyborgs, including villain Cell, sibling cyborgs Android 17 and Android 18, as well as Android 20, who was built from Gero himself. A direct brain-to-computer interface is a valuable, but expensive, luxury in Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle's novel Oath of Fealty. In the manga and anime series Ghost in the Shell, Motoko Kusanagi lived in a world where the majority of adults are cyborgs and can connect wirelessly to the Internet for real-time communication and data research. The most common augmentation in the series were artificial brains called cyberbrains. Bruce Sterling in his universe of Shaper/Mechanist suggested an idea of alternative cyborg called Lobster, which is made not by using internal implants, but by using an external shell (e.g. a Powered Exoskeleton). Sterling, Bruce. Schismatrix. Arbor House. 1985. Unlike human cyborgs that appear human externally while being synthetic internally, a Lobster looks inhuman externally but contains a human internally. The computer game Deus Ex: Invisible War prominently featured the Omar, where "Omar" is a Russian translation of the word "Lobster" (since the Omar are of Russian origin in the game). In the Brain and Brawn series of novels series by Anne McCaffrey and others, beginning with The Ship Who Sang, a "brainship" is a human body, usually one that could not develop normally, encased in the strongest materials available in that universe, and mentally connected to the controls of a spacecraft. Later novels link the brainship to fully funcional humanoid androids, which are even capable of creating offspring. Written fiction In the story The Ablest Man in the World (1879), by Edward Page Mitchell, a computer is inserted into a man's head, turning him into a genius. The Tin Woodman from L. Frank Baum's Oz books (at least before he became entirely metal). Deirdre, a famous dancer who was burned nearly completely and whose brain was placed in a faceless but beautiful mechanical body, in C. L. Moore's short story of 1944, "No Woman Born". Collected in "The Best of C. L. Moore" in 1975 Jonas the (star) sailor in Gene Wolfe's Book of the New Sun novels. His near light speed ship had been gone so long that on its return to Urth, there were no space port facilities any more, and it crashed. Other crew members patched him up from available parts. (However, he started out as fully robotic, and was repaired with human parts, rather than the more usual reverse). Molly Millions, Henry Dorsett Case, and Peter Riviera all have some sort of cybernetic augmentation in William Gibson's Sprawl trilogy. Gibson, William. Neuromancer Professor Jameson, a cyborg pulp hero by Neil R. Jones, and his allies and benefactors, the Zoromes. Marge Piercy's He, She and It presents a rather feminist view on the cyborg issue with Yod who, however, is provided with some male attributes. Anne McCaffrey wrote short stories and novels known as The Ship Series where otherwise crippled humans live on as the brains of starships and large space stations. The genetically engineered and prosthetics-ready warriors of the planet Sauron in the CoDominium series of short stories and novels initiated by Jerry Pournelle and also written by guest authors. In Martin Caidin's novel, Cyborg, a test pilot is rebuilt after a horrendous crash, given new "bionic" limbs, and becomes a superspy. Followed by several sequel novels and also adapted as the TV series The Six Million Dollar Man. Angus Thermopylae, The Gap Cycle. Haberman and Scanners from Scanners Live in Vain by Cordwainer Smith. The Comprise, a computer-mediated hive mind which has taken over Earth, in the novel Vacuum Flowers by Michael Swanwick. Rat Things in Neal Stephenson's Snow Crash. They are attack-programmed guard dogs whose long hairless tails make them look less like dogs and more like rats. They are powered by nuclear engines that will fatally over-heat if they stop. Technology invented by Mr. Ng and, evidently, made exclusively for the defense of the franchise Mr. Lee's Greater Hong Kong. In William C. Dietz's Legion of the Damned the Legion is made up of a combination of humans and heavily armed cyborgs. Kage Baker has written a series of novels about The Company in which orphans from various eras (who fit certain physical requirements) are recruited by a time-traveling corporation, augmented and turned into immortal cyborgs, and trained to rescue valuable artifacts from history. Hannes Suessi from David Brin's Uplift novels is transformed into a cyborg by the time he re-appears in Infinity's Shore Comics and manga 8 Man, a manga and anime superhero created in 1963 by writer Kazumasa Hirai and artist Jiro Kuwata. He is considered Japan's earliest cyborg superhero, before even Kamen Rider (the same year, Shotaro Ishinomori created Cyborg 009), and was the inspiration for RoboCop. The Major in the Hellsing manga has recently been discovered to be a cyborg The characters Haine Rammsteiner in the manga Dogs and Dogs/ Bullets & Carnage was experimented on as a child, leaving him with augmented regenerative abilities as well as increased reflexes. Shirow Miwa. Dogs and Dogs/Bullets & Carnage. Published serially in Ultra Jump Baxter Stockman from Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles The Brain in DC Comics Cyborgirl Cyberforce is a group of mutant cyborgs in Image Comics. Many of the members of Section 9 in the Ghost in the Shell universe, specifically the main characters Major Motoko Kusanagi and Batou, are cyborgs dependent on regular maintenance; there are several manga (or graphic novel) and artbooks set in the GitS universe, as well as two feature-length anime, three television series and three video games. Masamune Shirow's other major work, Appleseed also contains a multitude of cyborg characters, with one of the main characters, Briareos Hecatonchires, the mercenary Sokaku Tatara and his war buddies, and the Mumna Holy Republic diplomat Kainisu, from the fourth chapter, are just a few. Vash the Stampede from Trigun has a prosthetic left arm, which he acquired after his brother Millions Knives shot it off. The arm has an automatic weapon inside. Cyborg of the Teen Titans comic book series is a superhero with massive implants and prosthetics. He also appeared in the animated TV series. Not to be confused with Superman supervillain Cyborg Superman, a technopathic entity who prefers cybernetic forms, who is occasionally referred to as merely "The Cyborg." Cy-Gor from the Spawn series Many of the characters of Battle Angel Alita (also known in Japan as GUNNM) are cyborgs, including the lead, Alita (Gally, Yoko). Cyborgs are a major way of life in the GUNNM universe, with sports, such as Motorball (and crimes, such as spine-stealing), contributing to a culture of cyborgs. The Metabarons. Metallo from DC Comics In WE3, a group of animals are turned into sentient living weapons. Cyborg 009 features a group of humans unwillingly turned into cyborg weapons by a crime syndicate. The Reavers, a group of villains that regularly clashes with the X-Men. They are led by Donald Pierce. Deathlok, the Demolisher, a series of military cyborgs in Marvel Comics. The original Deathlok was a former soldier in a dystopian future. All members of The Authority have a networking implant that allows for radio-telepathy, head-mail and other communication functions. Android 17 and Android 18, along with Android 20 from the anime-manga series Dragon Ball Z. Despite their confusing English dub names, they are indeed cyborgs. In the original Japanese version, these three (along with the rest of Dr. Gero's artificial creations) are referred to as jinzouningen, which is a blanket term in Japanese science fiction applying to robots and androids, as well as cyborgs. Jinzouningen is usually translated by fans to "artificial human". Frieza is also a cyborg after his defeat on Namek and is saved and rebuilt by his Father King Cold. Franky (also known as Cutty Flam), of the manga One Piece by Eiichirō Oda, rebuilt most of his body with scrap metal after sustaining serious injuries. Giving him abilities ranging from (but not limited to) air cannons in his hands and rear end, guns in his wrists, and the ability to extend the front part of his lower body outward, making him look like a backwards centaur. However, as Franky did these adjustments to himself, only the front part of his body is cyborg. His backside (which he couldn't reach) is as vulnerable as any human back, rendering this his weak point. His cyborg abilities are powered by cola, stored in a refrigeration unit in Franky's stomach. Death's Head II, MINION, Marvel Comics Karl Ruprecht Kroenen, from Hellboy Supremor, the Kree Supreme Intelligence, of Marvel Comics Spartan WildStorm Comics Tony Stark, better known as Iron Man injected himself with techno-organic virus "Extremis", which installed a computer interface into his nervous system and an Iron Man armor interface into his body. This allows him greater control of the armor. Stark can also remotely operate his armors (more than one Iron Man active at a time). Victor Mancha is an artificial life form with organic parts in Runaways. Cable, a mutant from the future in Marvel Comics. Roughly a third of his body is a "techno-organic" mesh. The Ultimate Marvel version of Deadpool is a cyborg. Bunnie Rabbot in the Sonic the Hedgehog Saturday morning TV series and US comic series. Several characters in Spriggan such as the Trident Corporation's agents (except Iwao Akatsuki), including ex-Machiner's Platoon agent Ironarm, have prosthetic limbs. These give them an advantage in combat since the limbs are outfitted with offensive weapons. One group of major antagonists in the manga Blame! are Silicon Creatures, humanoids of a silicon base that are similar to cyborgs. Film Various characters in Star Wars saga, notably Darth Vader, General Grievous, Dengar and Lobot The Cyberdyne Systems Model 101 Terminator model, portrayed by Arnold Schwarzenegger: assassins with robotic endoskeletons overlaid by living tissue. Doctor Claw in Inspector Gadget Dr. Julius No in the James Bond film Dr. No. The wives from the 2004 film version of The Stepford Wives. In the original book and film, they would be closer to androids or gynoids. Ria and various characters from Natural City. The girlfriend in Cyborg She. Del Spooner, from the movie I, Robot Various characters in the Matrix trilogy of movies Gigan from the Godzilla series Isaac from the film Cyborg Soldier. Wang the Perverted from the film Flesh Gordon Meets the Cosmic Cheerleaders (or as he's known for most of the film, "Evil Presence") was brought back from the dead with many cybernetic body parts including a hand that spontaneously flips the bird due to a malfunction Elgar in Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie RoboCop Zigesfeld, a henchman from the film If Looks Could Kill Kiryu, aka Mechagodzilla 3 Cyborg, a film featuring Jean-Claude Van Damme, tells the story of a post-apocalyptic Earth due to a nuclear disaster, and has a female cyborg as a central character. The sequel, Cyborg 2, stars Angelina Jolie as another cyborg. The second sequel Cyborg 3: The Recycler has Khrystyne Haje replacing Angelina Jolie. SkekTek the Skeksis scientist in The Dark Crystal Dr. Arliss Loveless from Wild Wild West is a steampunk cyborg, along with one of his minions John Silver in Disney's Treasure Planet is an alien cyborg. His robotic parts include an eye with enhanced vision, an arm with tools and weapons stored inside, a leg which stores a mini cannon, and a device where his ear should be. This character is based on Long John Silver from the book Treasure Island. The upcoming film The Terminators (no relation to The Terminator or any of its sequels) features an army of indestructible cyborgs fighting against humanity during a worldwide cybernetic revolt. D.A.R.Y.L. Television Astronema from Power Rangers in Space Steve Austin, The Six Million Dollar Man. Originally based on Martin Caidin's novel, Cyborg. The series was very successful, spawning followups The Bionic Woman (Jaime Sommers), and Max, the bionic dog. Another version of the cyborg Jaime Sommers is featured in a remake series, Bionic Woman, broadcast in 2007. The Daleks, Cybermen and Toclafane from Doctor Who. NOTE: Daleks are a marginal case, in that the artificial portions are actually vehicles for small and physically degenerate beings. Inspector Gadget, who is a cyborg with various "gadgets" built into his anatomy, such as Binoculars, Umbrella, Copter, Cuffs and so on. Cash from Ben 10: Alien Force Craab from Ben 10 Krang from Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Haxx from Extreme Dinosaurs Richard Nixon from Futurama Dr Robotnik from Sonic the Hedgehog Bob Oblong from The Oblongs Agent Z from Buzz Lightyear of Star Command Emperor Zurg from Buzz Lightyear of Star Command Max Tennyson from Ben 10 Bizarro Debbie and Bizarro Marco from Sealab 2021 Dillon from Power Rangers: RPM The Borg from Star Trek, including Seven of Nine from Star Trek: Voyager, a human who was assimilated into a drone and later severed from the collective. Geordi La Forge from Star Trek: The Next Generation, who was born blind and uses optical implants combined with a removable unit called a VISOR, to see. The VISOR was twice replaced temporarily with biological eyes and, in the films, permanently replaced with ocular implants. Jean-Luc Picard from Star Trek: The Next Generation, whose natural heart was irreparably damaged in a bar fight when he was younger and replaced with an artificial heart, which was later replaced twice due to defect or damage. However, the artificial heart is not a major part of his identity and is seldom mentioned, so that most viewers would not consider him a cyborg. He was also at one point briefly conscripted into the Borg (see above). A cyborg secret agent was featured in the "Fumble on the One" episode of The Misfits of Science. Jonas Venture Junior from The Venture Bros. Master Billy Quizboy from The Venture Bros. Mr. Freeze from The New Batman Adventures Curt Conners from The Spectacular Spider-Man The Jokerz from Justice League Unlimited Gadget Boy from Gadget Boy & Heather Morticon from Power Rangers: Mystic Force Adam in the series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, who is part human, part demon and part robot. In Neon Genesis Evangelion the Evangelion mecha are not robots but clones of aliens outfitted with cybernetics to allow their human pilots (or a backup computer, as in the Mass Production Eva series) to control them. Edward Elric (anime series and manga Fullmetal Alchemist) has two prosthetic limbs - the right arm and the left leg - the technology used to create them is called automail. Frank Archer and Paninya also have automail parts. Similar to above mentioned Edward Elric, Folken Fanel from the anime series The Vision of Escaflowne has a prosthetic right arm based on an unnamed technology of the Zaibach Empire. Kidou Keiji Jiban, a metal hero show in Japan, was influenced by RoboCop. The main difference is that Naoto Tamura can transform between his detective identity and his Jiban/Perfect Jiban identity on his own. The Humanoid Cylons, from the series Battlestar Galactica. Their synthetic brains are nearly indistinguishable from humans, but can transmit their programs to new bodies. The Cylon Raider craft also have organic components. Spike Spiegel and Jet Black respectively bearing prosthetic eye and arm, from the Cowboy Bebop anime and manga series. Various characters from The King of Braves GaoGaiGar and The King of Braves GaoGaiGar Final Casshern (formerly known as Tetsuya Azuma) from the Shinzo Ningen Casshern 1973 anime series and the 2004 live action movie. Bionic Six. Technomages, from the Babylon 5 universe, employing a high degree of "organic technology" Alan Gabriel, The Big O. Mechanikat, a villain from Krypto the Superdog. Antoine, Suspected Cyborg of the Upright Citizens Brigade. Bunnie Rabbot, in the Sonic The Hedgehog SatAM TV series and US comic books. The Irkens from the Nicktoon Invader Zim. Simulants from Red Dwarf, as well as Kryten, whose brain is part-organic. "Riders" from the "Ishinomori era" of the Kamen Rider franchise. Taurus Bulba in the "Steerminator" episode of Darkwing Duck. In the cartoon series Biker Mice from Mars, Modo has a cybernetic arm, Throttle artificial eyes and Stoker a cybernetic tail, all the product of Doctor Karbunkle's experiments. One of the villains, 'Lectromag, was also a Cyborg. In the anime series Afro Samurai, Afro's childhood friend Jinno returns years after his "death" as Kuma, a cybernetic samurai with a teddy bear mask. Kondoru no Joe (Joe Asakura) in the anime series Kagaku ninja tai Gatchaman, who is mortally wounded during the final battle of the first Gatchaman series and rescued by the mysterious Dr. Rafael, and returns to the team as a cyborg in the early episodes of Gatchaman II. In Smallville the character Victor Stone is incarnation of the comic book superhero Cyborg, appearing in two episodes. Technically, the entire Exofleet personnel in Exosquad were cyborgs, as special cybernetic implants were necessary to pilot combat E-frames. More extensive cybernetic enhancements were also seen in the series (e.g. James Burns in episode 2.18). In the Trapper Keeper episode of South Park a cyborg named Bill Cosby is sent back in time to prevent Cartman's Trapper Keeper from taking over the world. Also Chef like Vader was rebuilt into Darth Chef. Cameron Phillips, a new-model of Terminator featured in Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles, a 2008 television series, is explicitly referred to on screen several times as a cyborg, although it has not yet been made explicit that she has living tissue over her robotic endoskeletons like other Terminators. Blackarachnia from Transformers Animated Debbie Burwick from Phil of the Future Simmons from the machinima series Red vs. Blue Codename: Asero Video games SHODAN in System Shock builds a small army of cyborgs using human corpses. In the video game Quake III Arena, many of the characters feature 'Cybronic Implants'. In Konami's Metal Gear series, 3 characters become a "cyborg ninja". In Metal Gear Solid and Metal Gear Solid: VR Missions the ninja is Gray Fox; in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty it is Olga Gurlukovich; and in Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots, the ninja is Raiden. Captain Tobias Bruckner from Turok: Evolution Coton from Mirage Media's Rise of the Robots and Rise 2: Resurrection (the only cyborg, while all other characters are robots). Cyber-Akuma, final boss from Capcom's Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter (actually a variation on Akuma from the Street Fighter series). Mark IV Cyborg in the "Marathon Trilogy" Cyber Shredder, final boss from Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III: Radical Rescue Brad Fang from Contra: Hard Corps Dr. Brackman and the various Symbionts of the Cybran Nation and United Earth Federation from Supreme Commander.The Electrocutioner from Batman Radd (or Ladd) Spencer, lead character from Capcom's Bionic Commando. Brocken from ADK's World Heroes series. Dr. Crygor from the WarioWare, Inc. series of games. The Strogg, a race of cybernetic warriors from the first person shooters Quake II, Quake 4, and Enemy Territory: Quake Wars. Also, Matthew Kane, lead character from Quake 4. Cyrax, Sektor, and Smoke, the three cyborg ninja fighters in the fighting video game series Mortal Kombat. Kano and Major Jackson Briggs from Mortal Kombat. Doctor N. Gin of the Crash Bandicoot video game series. In Final Fantasy Legend III characters could shift between organic, cybernetic and robotic states by eating meat or installing parts. Barret Wallace from Final Fantasy VII The Combine from Half-Life 2 use transhuman cyborgs and biomechanical "synths" as their main weapons. Gordon Freeman from the Half-Life series uses a modified hazmat suit equipped with life support and several performance enhancing functions. Many characters from Deus Ex and Deus Ex: Invisible War, a few of whom are actually modified by nanotechnology. The Lopers and Super Soldiers from Return to Castle Wolfenstein Master Chief and the Spartan supersoldiers from Halo: Combat Evolved, Halo 2, and Halo 3. Xbox.com | Halo: Combat Evolved - Game Manual Download at www.xbox.com Nicole from Dead or Alive 4 The player characters as well as some monsters in the System Shock games. Grobyc ("Cyborg" spelled backwards), a cybernetic assassin in Chrono Cross. He joins the player's party after being defeated. Emerl from Sonic Battle. MegaMan.EXE from the Megaman Battle Network series, also known as Hub Hikari (Hikari Saito), brother to Lan. He was born human, but converted into a NetNavi form by Yuiichiro Hikari, due to his human body having the incurable HBD ailment. This would make him a data-based cyborg, as opposed to the standard machine/organic composite. Dr. Capek from the Red Faction series. Ghor from Metroid Prime 3: Corruption. Weavel from Metroid Prime Hunters. The wizard of Wor, the villain from the arcade game of the same name. Xenoborg, from the Aliens vs. Predator series. Yoshimitsu from the Soulcalibur and Tekken series. Bryan Fury from the Tekken games. Robo-Manus, Battletoads video game series. Cyborg Molotov and Molly Ryan from Empire Earth. Ziggurat 8 from Xenosaga. A number of enemies in the Doom series feature both organic and cybernetic parts. Xan Kriegor and a number of playable characters, from Unreal Tournament. Volkov, from Command & Conquer: Red Alert, is a cyborg supersoldier, integrating a large hand cannon in his arm as primary method of attack. He also has a cybernetic animal companion, the cybernetic Attack dog Chitzkoi'''. Nod's Cyborg units, from Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun. Also Awakened cyborgs are available in Command & Conquer 3: Kane's Wrath. Yuri, from Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2, appears to have been cybernetically enhanced to enhance his psychic skills. Cyber-Errol from Jak 3. The Protoss Dragoon from StarCraft and the Stalker and the Immortal in Starcraft II. Flotsam the Clown, from the later parts of Dark Chronicle. Karan S'jet and the Bentusi from the Homeworld universe. Virtual Woman, from the various Virtual Woman releases Lieutenant Jean Razac, commanding officer of Roughnecks in CGI animated television series Roughnecks: Starship Troopers Chronicles has a prosthetic arm. A few other minor characters are also shown with mechanized prosthetics. Godot in Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney Trials and Tribulations. In Syndicate Wars the player and enemy where cyber enhanced people kidnapped cybernetic implanted and reprogrammed to serve the syndicate In Space Siege,the player has the option to enhance his body with cybernetic augmentations and become less human and more machine till he is 5% human and 95% machine. also the Pilot had turned the people in the space ship to cyborgs. In one of the end options you can chose to go with pilot and turn all the people to cyborgs. The Grox in Spore Music Psychotron, a part human, part computer killing machine from Megadeth's song Psychotron. The I-Robots from various songs by Coheed and Cambria Radioheads albums OK Computer and Kid A both tell a chronological story in song-form about human cyborg-hybrid experiments Games and toys Several characters from the Masters of the Universe original line, including Extendar, Man-E-Faces (uncertain), Mekaneck, Rio Blast, Rotar, Sy-Klone, Trap-Jaw, Tri-Klops, and Twistoid. The Phyrexians, from Magic: The Gathering. The Rifts role-playing game makes extensive use of cybernetics in many Occupational Character Classes. Cybernetics are divided into normal cybernetics, realistic-looking bio-systems, and deadly, combat-oriented bionics. It also organizes Cyborgs into two categories: Partial Conversion, where most of a person's limbs are all that are replaced, and Full Conversion'', where the entire body, save for the brain, spinal cord, and a few other organs are replaced by bionics. Various individuals from the Warhammer 40,000 universe with bionic body parts, including 'servitors' as more extreme examples Almost every character in the Bionicle franchise by Lego Doctor Octopus from the Secret Wars toy line. Two Lego Agents sets included cyborg animals Remote controlled crocodilles (8632 swamp raid) and laser guided cyborg sharks (8633 Speadboat Rescue) The Spartans from the Halo series See also Robots in literature List of fictional cyborgs Notes | Cyborgs_in_fiction |@lemmatized cyborg:89 prominent:2 staple:1 science:6 fiction:6 genre:1 article:1 summarize:1 notable:1 instance:1 kit:1 pedler:1 medical:1 scientist:3 create:8 cybermen:3 tv:7 program:3 doctor:6 base:6 concern:1 changing:1 threatening:1 humanity:2 replace:8 much:1 body:22 mechanical:4 prosthesis:1 supposedly:1 emotionless:1 creature:3 drive:1 logic:1 isaac:2 asimov:2 short:5 story:10 bicentennial:1 man:13 explore:3 cybernetic:19 concept:1 central:2 character:32 ndr:1 robot:9 begin:2 modify:2 organic:12 component:4 exploration:1 lead:5 breakthroughs:1 human:24 medicine:1 via:2 artificial:13 organ:3 prosthetics:5 end:3 little:1 physical:3 difference:2 hero:5 call:6 andrew:2 equip:2 advanced:1 save:3 presence:2 positronic:1 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3,866 | Politics_of_Niue | Politics of Niue takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic dependency, whereby the Chief Minister is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Niue is self-governing in free association with New Zealand and is fully responsible for internal affairs. New Zealand retains some responsibility for external affairs, in consultation with Niue. The Niue Constitution Act 1974 (NZ) vests executive authority in Her Majesty the Queen in Right of New Zealand and the Governor-General of New Zealand. The constitution specifies that in everyday practice, it is exercised by a Cabinet of the Premier of Niue and three other ministers. The premier and ministers must be members of the Niue Assembly, the nation's legislative assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Executive branch |Queen |Elizabeth II | |6 February 1952 |- |Queen's Representative: The Governor-General of New Zealand |Anand Satyanand | |5 August 2006 |- |New Zealand High Commissioner |HE Mr Brian Smythe | |January 2008 |- |Premier of Niue |Toke Talagi | |19 June 2008 |} The monarch is hereditary; her representative in relation to Niue (the Governor-General of New Zealand) is appointed by the monarch. The New Zealand high commissioner is appointed by, and acts solely as a diplomatic agent of,the New Zealand Government. The cabinet is chosen by the premier and appointed by the Speaker of the Niue Assembly and collectively responsible to Parliament. Legislative branch The Assembly has 20 members elected for a three year term, 6 elected on a common roll and 14 representatives of the villages. Electors must be New Zealand citizens, resident for at least three months, and candidates must have been electors, resident for twelve months. The speaker is elected from among the members. Political parties and elections In Niue, political parties have never played an important role. There is, at present, no political party, and candidates to elections therefore run as independents. The only party ever to have existed, the Niue People's Party, disbanded in 2003. As there are no political parties, there is no formal parliamentary Opposition. However, independent member of the Assembly O'Love Jacobsen has been Premier Young Vivian's most regular opponent and critic. Latest election Past elections and referendums Judicial branch The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council sitting in the United Kingdom is the highest court, there is also a High Court of Niue. Administrative divisions Niue is divided in 14 villages each with its own village council whose members are elected and serve three-year terms. International organization participation ACP (Cotounu Convention), ESCAP (associate), Intelsat (nonsignatory user), PIF, Sparteca, SPC, UNESCO, WHO, WMO See also Electoral calendar Electoral system Index of political parties to browse parties by name List of political parties to browse parties by country List of political parties by ideology to browse parties by name Membership of internationals to browse parties by membership of internationals | Politics_of_Niue |@lemmatized politics:1 niue:13 take:1 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:2 representative:4 democratic:1 dependency:1 whereby:1 chief:1 minister:3 head:1 government:2 multi:1 party:14 system:2 self:1 governing:1 free:1 association:1 new:10 zealand:10 fully:1 responsible:2 internal:1 affair:2 retain:1 responsibility:1 external:1 consultation:1 constitution:2 act:2 nz:1 vest:1 executive:3 authority:1 majesty:1 queen:3 right:1 governor:3 general:3 specify:1 everyday:1 practice:1 exercise:1 cabinet:2 premier:5 three:4 must:3 member:5 assembly:5 nation:1 legislative:2 judiciary:1 independent:3 legislature:1 branch:3 elizabeth:1 ii:1 february:1 anand:1 satyanand:1 august:1 high:4 commissioner:2 mr:1 brian:1 smythe:1 january:1 toke:1 talagi:1 june:1 monarch:2 hereditary:1 relation:1 appoint:3 solely:1 diplomatic:1 agent:1 choose:1 speaker:2 collectively:1 parliament:1 elect:4 year:2 term:2 common:1 roll:1 village:3 elector:2 citizen:1 resident:2 least:1 month:2 candidate:2 twelve:1 among:1 political:7 election:4 never:1 play:1 important:1 role:1 present:1 therefore:1 run:1 ever:1 exist:1 people:1 disband:1 formal:1 opposition:1 however:1 love:1 jacobsen:1 young:1 vivian:1 regular:1 opponent:1 critic:1 late:1 past:1 referendums:1 judicial:2 committee:1 privy:1 council:2 sit:1 united:1 kingdom:1 court:2 also:2 administrative:1 division:1 divide:1 whose:1 serve:1 international:3 organization:1 participation:1 acp:1 cotounu:1 convention:1 escap:1 associate:1 intelsat:1 nonsignatory:1 user:1 pif:1 sparteca:1 spc:1 unesco:1 wmo:1 see:1 electoral:2 calendar:1 index:1 browse:4 name:2 list:2 country:1 ideology:1 membership:2 |@bigram dependency_whereby:1 self_governing:1 niue_niue:1 legislative_assembly:1 judiciary_independent:1 queen_elizabeth:1 legislative_branch:1 judicial_branch:1 committee_privy:1 privy_council:1 participation_acp:1 escap_associate:1 intelsat_nonsignatory:1 nonsignatory_user:1 |
3,867 | Imaginary_number | (repeats the pattern from blue area) (repeats the pattern from blue area) An illustration of the complex plane. The imaginary numbers are on the vertical coordinate axis. In mathematics, an imaginary number (or purely imaginary number) is a complex number whose squared value is a real number less than or equal to zero. Ahlfors, Lars V. Complex Analysis. 3rd Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979. Pages 1-4. The imaginary unit, denoted by i or j, is an example of an imaginary number. If y is a real number, then i·y is an imaginary number, because: Imaginary numbers were defined in 1572 by Rafael Bombelli. At the time, such numbers were regarded by some as fictitious or useless, much as zero and the negative numbers. Many other mathematicians were slow to adopt the use of imaginary numbers at first, including Descartes who wrote about them in his La Géométrie, where the term was meant to be derogatory. Albert A. Martinez, Negative Math: How Mathematical Rules Can Be Positively Bent (Princeton University Press, 2005), discusses ambiguities of meaning in imaginary expressions in historical context. Although Descartes originally used the term imaginary number to mean what is currently meant by the term complex number, the term imaginary number today usually means a complex number with a real part equal to 0, that is, a number of the form i·y. Zero (0) is the only number that is both real and imaginary. Geometric interpretation Geometrically, imaginary numbers are found on the vertical axis of the complex number plane, allowing them to be presented orthogonal to the real axis. One way of viewing imaginary numbers is to consider a standard number line, positively increasing in magnitude to the right, and negatively increasing in magnitude to the left. At 0 on this x-axis, a y-axis can be drawn with "positive" direction going up; "positive" imaginary numbers then "increase" in magnitude upwards, and "negative" imaginary numbers "decrease" in magnitude downwards. This vertical axis is often called the "imaginary axis" and is denoted , , or simply Im. In this representation, multiplication by −1 corresponds to a rotation of 180 degrees about the origin. Multiplication by i corresponds to a 90-degree rotation in the "positive" direction (i.e. counter-clockwise), and the equation is interpreted as saying that if we apply 2 90-degree rotations about the origin, the net result is a single 180-degree rotation. Note that a 90-degree rotation in the "negative" direction (i.e. clockwise) also satisfies this interpretation. This reflects the fact that −i also solves the equation — see imaginary unit. Applications of imaginary numbers For most human tasks, real numbers (or even rational numbers) offer an adequate description of data. Fractions such as ⅔ and ⅛ are meaningless to a person counting stones, but essential to a person comparing the sizes of different collections of stones. Negative numbers such as −3 and −5 are meaningless when measuring the mass of an object, but essential when keeping track of monetary debits and credits. Similarly, imaginary numbers have essential concrete applications in a variety of sciences and related areas such as signal processing, control theory, electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, cartography, vibration analysis and many others. In electrical engineering, for example, the voltage produced by a battery is characterized by one real number (called amplitude), such as +12 volts or −12 volts. But the "AC" voltage in a home requires two parameters. One is an amplitude, such as 120 volts, and the other is an angle (called phase). The voltage is said to have two dimensions. A 2-dimensional quantity can be represented mathematically as either a vector or as a complex number (known in the engineering context as phasor). In the vector representation, the rectangular coordinates are typically referred to simply as X and Y. But in the complex number representation, the same components are referred to as real and imaginary. When the complex number is purely imaginary, such as a real part of 0 and an imaginary part of 120, it means the voltage has an amplitude of 120 volts and a phase of 90°, which is physically very real. Some programming languages have built-in support for imaginary numbers. For example, in the Python interpreter, one may use them by appending a lowercase or uppercase J to the number The leading angle brackets in the first line are part of the interpreter's syntax and are not part of the equation. : >>> (5+2j) * (8+5j) (30+41j) Octave and Matlab examples: >> (5+2j) * (8+5j) ans = 30.0000 +41.0000i >> (5+i*2) * (8+5j) ans = 30.0000 +41.0000i >> History Descartes was the first to use the term “imaginary” number in 1637. However, imaginary numbers were invented much earlier by Gerolamo Cardano in the 1500s but they were not widely accepted until the work of Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855). In 1843 a mathematical physicist, William Rowan Hamilton, extended the idea of an axis of imaginary numbers in the plane to a three-dimensional space of quaternion imaginaries. With the development of quotients of polynomial rings, the concept behind an imaginary number became more substantial, but then one also finds other imaginary numbers such as the j of tessarines which has a square of +1. This idea first surfaced with the articles by James Cockle beginning in 1848. Powers of The powers of repeat in a cycle: This can be expressed with the following pattern where n is any integer: This leads to the conclusion that. See also Quaternion Octonion Imaginary unit Notes References Paul Nahin, An Imaginary Tale: the Story of the Square Root of -1 (Princeton University Press, 1998), explains many applications of imaginary expressions. External links Why imaginary numbers really do exist | Imaginary_number |@lemmatized repeat:3 pattern:3 blue:2 area:3 illustration:1 complex:9 plane:3 imaginary:34 number:41 vertical:3 coordinate:2 axis:8 mathematics:1 purely:2 whose:1 squared:1 value:1 real:10 less:1 equal:2 zero:3 ahlfors:1 lars:1 v:1 analysis:2 ed:1 new:1 york:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 page:1 unit:3 denote:2 j:3 example:4 define:1 rafael:1 bombelli:1 time:1 regard:1 fictitious:1 useless:1 much:2 negative:5 many:3 mathematician:1 slow:1 adopt:1 use:4 first:4 include:1 descartes:3 write:1 la:1 géométrie:1 term:5 mean:5 derogatory:1 albert:1 martinez:1 math:1 mathematical:2 rule:1 positively:2 bent:1 princeton:2 university:2 press:2 discuss:1 ambiguity:1 meaning:1 expression:2 historical:1 context:2 although:1 originally:1 currently:1 today:1 usually:1 part:5 form:1 geometric:1 interpretation:2 geometrically:1 find:2 allow:1 present:1 orthogonal:1 one:5 way:1 view:1 consider:1 standard:1 line:2 increase:3 magnitude:4 right:1 negatively:1 left:1 x:2 draw:1 positive:3 direction:3 go:1 upwards:1 decrease:1 downwards:1 often:1 call:3 simply:2 im:1 representation:3 multiplication:2 corresponds:2 rotation:5 degree:5 origin:2 e:2 counter:1 clockwise:2 equation:3 interpret:1 say:2 apply:1 net:1 result:1 single:1 note:2 also:4 satisfy:1 reflect:1 fact:1 solve:1 see:2 application:3 human:1 task:1 even:1 rational:1 offer:1 adequate:1 description:1 data:1 fraction:1 meaningless:2 person:2 count:1 stone:2 essential:3 compare:1 size:1 different:1 collection:1 measure:1 mass:1 object:1 keep:1 track:1 monetary:1 debit:1 credit:1 similarly:1 concrete:1 variety:1 science:1 related:1 signal:1 processing:1 control:1 theory:1 electromagnetism:1 quantum:1 mechanic:1 cartography:1 vibration:1 others:1 electrical:1 engineering:2 voltage:4 produce:1 battery:1 characterize:1 amplitude:3 volt:4 ac:1 home:1 require:1 two:2 parameter:1 angle:2 phase:2 dimension:1 dimensional:2 quantity:1 represent:1 mathematically:1 either:1 vector:2 know:1 phasor:1 rectangular:1 typically:1 refer:2 component:1 physically:1 programming:1 language:1 build:1 support:1 python:1 interpreter:2 may:1 append:1 lowercase:1 uppercase:1 lead:2 bracket:1 syntax:1 octave:1 matlab:1 history:1 however:1 invent:1 early:1 gerolamo:1 cardano:1 widely:1 accept:1 work:1 leonhard:1 euler:1 carl:1 friedrich:1 gauss:1 physicist:1 william:1 rowan:1 hamilton:1 extend:1 idea:2 three:1 space:1 quaternion:2 development:1 quotient:1 polynomial:1 ring:1 concept:1 behind:1 become:1 substantial:1 tessarines:1 square:2 surface:1 article:1 james:1 cockle:1 begin:1 power:2 cycle:1 express:1 following:1 n:1 integer:1 conclusion:1 octonion:1 reference:1 paul:1 nahin:1 tale:1 story:1 root:1 explain:1 external:1 link:1 really:1 exist:1 |@bigram purely_imaginary:2 mcgraw_hill:1 counter_clockwise:1 signal_processing:1 quantum_mechanic:1 gerolamo_cardano:1 leonhard_euler:1 carl_friedrich:1 friedrich_gauss:1 william_rowan:1 rowan_hamilton:1 external_link:1 |
3,868 | Economy_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia | The economic activity of the Federated States of Micronesia consists primarily of subsistence agriculture and fishing. The islands have few mineral deposits worth exploiting, except for high-grade phosphate. The potential for a tourist industry exists, but the remoteness of the location and a lack of adequate facilities hinder development. Financial assistance from the US is the primary source of revenue, with the US pledged to spend $1.3 billion in the islands in 1986-2001. Geographical isolation and a poorly developed infrastructure are major impediments to long-term growth. Under the terms of the Compact of Free Association, the United States provided FSM with around $2 billion in grants and services from 1986 to 2001. The Compact's financial terms are being renegotiated for an extension period. In 2001 the U.S. provided more than $84 million in Compact grants--an amount equivalent to over one-third of FSM's GDP--plus more than $20 million through other federal programs. Total official development assistance from all sources was more than $100 million in 2001, with nearly 90% of that total coming from the U.S. The FSM public sector plays a central role in the economy as the administrator of the Compact money. The national and state-level governments employ over one-half of the country's workers and provide services accounting for more than 40%of GDP. Faced with the potential decrease or cessation of some of the assistance programs upon the Compact's financial provisions' expiry in 2001, the Government of the FSM in 1996 began to implement a program of economic reforms designed to reduce the role of the public sector in the economy. Industries The fishing industry is highly important. Foreign commercial fishing fleets pay over $20 million annually for the right to operate in FSM territorial waters. These licensing fees account for nearly 30% of domestic budgetary revenue. Additionally, exports of marine products, mainly reexports of fish to Japan, account for nearly 85% of export revenue. The tourist industry is present but has been hampered by a lack of infrastructure. Visitor attractions include scuba diving in each state, World War II battle sites, and the ancient ruined city of Nan Madol on Pohnpei. Some 15,000 tourists visit the islands each year. The Asian Development Bank has identified tourism as one of FSM's highest potential growth industries. Farming is mainly subsistence, and its importance is declining. The principal crops are coconuts, bananas, betel nuts, cassava, and sweet potatoes. Less than 10% of the formal labor force and less than 7% of export revenue come from the agriculture sector. Manufacturing activity is modest, consisting mainly of a garment factory in Yap and production of buttons from trochus shells. Taxation and trade The large inflow of official assistance to FSM allows it to run a substantial trade deficit and to have a much lighter tax burden than other states in the region (11% of GDP in FSM compared to 18%-25% elsewhere). The government also borrowed against future Compact disbursements in the early 1990s, yielding an external debt of $111 million in 1997 (over 50% of GDP). There are no patent laws in Micronesia. Statistics GDP: purchasing power parity - $277 million (2002 est.) note: GDP is supplemented by grant aid, averaging perhaps $100 million annually GDP - real growth rate: 1% (2002 est.) GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3 900 (2002 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 50% industry: 4% services: 46% (2000 est.) Population below poverty line: 26.7% Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2% (2002 est.) Labor force: 37,410 (2000) Labor force - by occupation: two-thirds are government employees Unemployment rate: 22% (1999 estimate) Budget: revenues: $127.3 million ($69 million less grants expenditures: $144.2 million; including capital expenditures of $17.9 million (FY05 est.) Industries: tourism, construction, fish processing, craft items from shell, wood, and pearls Industrial production growth rate: NA% Electricity - production: 192 million kWh (2002) Electricity - consumption: 178.6 million kWh (2002) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2002) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2002) Agriculture - products: black pepper, tropical fruits and vegetables, coconuts, cassava (tapioca), sweet potatoes; pigs, chickens Exports: $22 million (f.o.b., FY99/2000 est.) Exports - commodities: fish, garments, bananas, black pepper Exports - partners: Japan, United States, Guam (2004) Imports: $82.5 million f.o.b. (FY99/00 est.) Imports - commodities: food, manufactured goods, machinery and equipment, beverages Imports - partners: US, Australia, Japan (2004) Debt - external: $53,1 million (FY02/03 est.) Economic aid - recipient: $79 million (1998); note - under terms of the Compact of Free Association, the US will provide $1.3 billion in grant aid during the period 1986-2001 Currency: 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents Exchange rates: US currency is used Fiscal year: 1 October - 30 September | Economy_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia |@lemmatized economic:3 activity:2 federated:1 state:7 micronesia:2 consist:2 primarily:1 subsistence:2 agriculture:4 fishing:2 island:3 mineral:1 deposit:1 worth:1 exploit:1 except:1 high:3 grade:1 phosphate:1 potential:3 tourist:3 industry:7 exist:1 remoteness:1 location:1 lack:2 adequate:1 facility:1 hinder:1 development:3 financial:3 assistance:4 u:8 primary:1 source:2 revenue:5 pledge:1 spend:1 billion:3 geographical:1 isolation:1 poorly:1 develop:1 infrastructure:2 major:1 impediment:1 long:1 term:4 growth:4 compact:7 free:2 association:2 united:3 provide:4 fsm:8 around:1 grant:5 service:3 renegotiate:1 extension:1 period:2 million:17 amount:1 equivalent:1 one:3 third:2 gdp:9 plus:1 federal:1 program:3 total:2 official:2 nearly:3 come:2 public:2 sector:4 play:1 central:1 role:2 economy:2 administrator:1 money:1 national:1 level:1 government:4 employ:1 half:1 country:1 worker:1 account:3 face:1 decrease:1 cessation:1 upon:1 provision:1 expiry:1 begin:1 implement:1 reform:1 design:1 reduce:1 highly:1 important:1 foreign:1 commercial:1 fish:4 fleet:1 pay:1 annually:2 right:1 operate:1 territorial:1 water:1 licensing:1 fee:1 domestic:1 budgetary:1 additionally:1 export:7 marine:1 product:2 mainly:3 reexports:1 japan:3 present:1 hamper:1 visitor:1 attraction:1 include:2 scuba:1 diving:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 battle:1 site:1 ancient:1 ruin:1 city:1 nan:1 madol:1 pohnpei:1 visit:1 year:2 asian:1 bank:1 identify:1 tourism:2 farming:1 importance:1 decline:1 principal:1 crop:1 coconut:2 banana:2 betel:1 nut:1 cassava:2 sweet:2 potato:2 less:3 formal:1 labor:3 force:3 manufacturing:1 modest:1 garment:2 factory:1 yap:1 production:3 button:1 trochus:1 shell:2 taxation:1 trade:2 large:1 inflow:1 allows:1 run:1 substantial:1 deficit:1 much:1 light:1 tax:1 burden:1 region:1 compare:1 elsewhere:1 also:1 borrow:1 future:1 disbursement:1 early:1 yield:1 external:2 debt:2 patent:1 law:1 statistic:1 purchasing:2 power:2 parity:2 est:9 note:2 supplement:1 aid:3 average:1 perhaps:1 real:1 rate:5 per:1 caput:1 composition:1 population:1 poverty:1 line:1 household:1 income:1 consumption:2 percentage:1 share:1 low:1 na:3 inflation:1 consumer:1 price:1 occupation:1 two:1 employee:1 unemployment:1 estimate:1 budget:1 expenditures:1 capital:1 expenditure:1 construction:1 processing:1 craft:1 item:1 wood:1 pearls:1 industrial:1 electricity:4 kwh:4 import:4 black:2 pepper:2 tropical:1 fruit:1 vegetable:1 tapioca:1 pig:1 chicken:1 f:2 b:2 commodity:2 partner:2 guam:1 food:1 manufacture:1 good:1 machinery:1 equipment:1 beverage:1 australia:1 recipient:1 currency:2 dollar:1 cent:1 exchange:1 use:1 fiscal:1 october:1 september:1 |@bigram subsistence_agriculture:1 licensing_fee:1 scuba_diving:1 sweet_potato:2 tax_burden:1 gdp_purchasing:1 purchasing_power:2 per_caput:1 caput_purchasing:1 household_income:1 unemployment_rate:1 kwh_electricity:3 electricity_consumption:1 export_kwh:1 import_kwh:1 kwh_agriculture:1 fruit_vegetable:1 cassava_tapioca:1 pig_chicken:1 export_commodity:1 |
3,869 | Demographics_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland | This article is about the demographic features of the population of the Republic of Ireland, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Demographics of the Republic of IrelandPopulation (in millions) from 1841 - 2006|Historical demographics of the Republic of Ireland, Data of CSO, year 2006; Number of inhabitants in millionsPopulation4,239,848 (2006 Census)4,339,000 (2007 est.)4,422,100 (2008 est.)Population density60.3/km² (2006)GrowthGrowth Rate2.61% (2008)Birth rate18.1 births/1,000 population (2008)Death rate6.1 deaths/1,000 population (2008)Net migration rate14.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008)Fertility rate1.85 children born/woman (2008)Life expectancy at birthTotal79.59 years (2005 est.)Male77.32 years (2005 est.)Female81.79 years (2005 est.) A graph of the populations of Ireland and Europe indexed against 1750 showing the disastrous consequence of the 1845—49 famine. Ireland has, throughout most of its history, had a relatively small population; until the 19th century this was comparable to other regions of similar area in Europe. Ireland experienced a major population boom in the 18th and early 19th centuries, as did the rest of Europe as a result of the Agricultural and Industrial revolutions, and at the time had comparable population densities to Britain and Western Europe. However this changed dramatically with the Great Famine of the mid-19th century, which created conditions of mass starvation and emigration. The famine was by far the most significant turning point in the demographics of the country, as not only did Ireland's population not grow for the next century, it continued a slow decline, the result of which is that the Republic of Ireland has a significantly smaller population today then would be expected for a western European country of its size. Only in the mid-20th century did the Republic's population start to grow once more, but emigration was still common until the 1990s. For centuries a relatively poor nation of emigrants, the Demographics of the country changed significantly from the 1990s onwards, as a result of the economic boom know as the Celtic Tiger. After this point, immigration far outweighed emigration and many former Irish Emigrants returned home. Ireland then became an attractive destination for immigrants from a number of nations, mainly from Eastern Europe, but also from Africa, Asia and elsewhere. The nation's population is the youngest in the European Union and its population is now predicted to grow for many decades into the future, bucking the trend of decline that is predicted for most European countries. A report in 2008 predicted that the population of the country would reach 6.7 million by 2060. RTÉ News - Irish population to hit 6.7m by 2060 Even more unique is that Ireland has been experiencing a baby boom for the past few years, with increasing birth rates and fertility rates. Irish Examiner - Baby boom as Irish births reach highest level since 1982 Celtic culture and language forms an important part of the Irish national identity. The Irish Travellers are a native ethnic minority group. In 2008, Ireland had the highest birth rate (18.1 per 1,000), lowest death rate (6.1 per 1,000) and highest net-migration rate (14.1 per 1,000) in the entire European Union - and the largest population growth rate (4.4%) in the 27-member bloc as a result. Irish Independent - Baby boom puts us on top of birth rate league Ireland is home to people from all over the globe, especially in Dublin. These countries include Poland, Great Britain, China, India, Brazil, Nigeria, and Russia. Even during the harsh years of the 2008 Economic Crisis, the immigration rate to Ireland is high, and is expected to grow rapidly by the 2011 National Census. Demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from Ireland's Central Statistics Office, Eurostat and the CIA World Factbook. 4,239,848 (2006 Census) 4,339,000 (2007 est.) 4,442,100 (2008 est.) 4,501,000 (2009 Eu est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 20.4% (male: 448,333 female: 418,476) (2006) 15-64 years: 68.6% (male: 1,400,222 female: 1,398,194) (2006) 65 years and over: 11.0% (male: 207,095 female: 260,831) (2006) Population growth rate 2.61% (2008) Birth rate 18.1 births/1,000 population (2008) Death rate 6.1 deaths/1,000 population (2008) Net migration rate 14.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008) Sex ratio at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.07 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.8 male(s)/female total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2008) Non-national groups with populations in Ireland of 10,000 or more in 2006. Non-European Union nationals are shown exploded. Infant mortality rate total: 4.61 deaths/1,000 live births (2008) Population Life expectancy at birth total population: 79.59 years (2008) male: 77.32 years (2008) female: 81.79 years (2008) Total fertility rate 1.85 children born/woman (2008) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate 0.1% (2001 est.) HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS 2,400 (2001 est.) Nationality noun: Irishman(men), Irishwoman(women), Irish (collective plural) adjective: Irish Nationalities in Ireland Irish (including dual-Irish/other): 88.9%, UK: 2.7%, Other EU 25: 3.9%, Other Europe: 0.6%, Africa: 0.8%, Asia: 1.1%, USA: 0.3%, Other countries: 0.5%, Multiple nationality: 0.1%, No nationality: 0.0%, Not stated: 1.1% (2006) Ethnic groups Irish (of largely Gaelic stock, with Norse, Norman, English, Scottish, Welsh, and French admixture), Irish Travellers, Ulster-Scots and various immigrant populations - the largest immigrant groups, with over 10,000 people, are the English and Welsh, Poles, Americans, Lithuanians, Scots, Nigerians, Latvians, Germans and the Chinese. CSO Ireland - Persons usually resident and present in the State on Census Night (2006), classified by place of birth and age group Ethnic backgrounds White: 94.8% (including 0.5% Irish Traveller), Asian: 1.3%, Black: 1.1%, Other/Mixed: 1.1%, Not Stated: 1.7% (2006) Religions Roman Catholic 87.4%, No Religion 6.2%, Church of Ireland 2.9%, Islam 0.8%, Presbyterian 0.6%, Orthodox 0.5%, Methodist 0.3%, Other 2.1% (2006). Geographic Population Distribution Urban population (areas with >1,500 people): 60.8% (2006) Rural population: 39.2% (2006) Population pyramid of Ireland, 2001 Languages English is the most commonly used language, with 94% Eurobarometer - Europeans and their languages of the population calling it their mother tongue. Irish, the first official language of the state, is spoken by 42% 2006 Census ; with 11% calling it their mother tongue. Irish is the main language of the Gaeltacht regions, where 91,862 people live. Shelta and Ulster Scots are also spoken by small communities. The main sign language used is Irish Sign Language. Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write Encyclopaedia Britannica See also Black people in Ireland Ireland Irish diaspora Lithuanians in Ireland Turks in Ireland Polish minority in Ireland Republic of Ireland Stamp 4 External links Irish Central Statistics Office Historical Census Data Marketing Ireland References Oppenheimer, S. 2006. Origins of the British. 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3,870 | Batman:_Year_One | "Batman: Year One" is the title of an American comic book story arc written by Frank Miller, illustrated by David Mazzucchelli, colored by Richmond Lewis, and lettered by Todd Klein. It originally appeared in issues #404 to #407 of DC Comics' Batman comic title in 1987. It is one of the first examples of the "limited series within a series" format that is now prevalent in American comic books. There have been several reprints of the story: a hardcover, multiple trade paperback editions (one in standard comics paper with simpler coloring and one deluxe version with rich detailing in the colors — both colored by Richmond Lewis) and it has been included in The Complete Frank Miller Batman hardcover. Synopsis The story recounts the beginning of Bruce Wayne's career as Batman and Jim Gordon's with the Gotham City Police Department. Bruce Wayne returns home from training abroad in martial arts, manhunting and science for the past 12 years. Once back in Gotham City, he bides his time, waiting for the right moment to strike, all the while preparing himself. Gordon, meanwhile, has moved to Gotham from Chicago with his pregnant wife, Barbara Kean-Gordon, and continues his career in law enforcement. His first time out patrolling reveals to him the disturbing nature of law enforcement in Gotham as a senior officer, Detective Flass, assaults an unsuspecting teenager for "staying out late." Gordon is disgusted with his partner's behavior towards all the "offenders". Jim feels that he has to straighten things out. Bruce makes preparations - registering at a hotel to provide an alibi, giving himself a fake scar to disguise himself - before going out for his first street mission. He enters the Red Light District of Gotham. A young prostitute named Holly Robinson tries to proposition him. Her pimp, suspecting that Wayne is a vice squad officer in disguise, drags her away. Bruce confronts him and gets into a fight, and a few others join in. Selina Kyle, a dominatrix in the slums of Gotham, jumps from her window and fights with Bruce; he is stabbed in the thigh by Holly. The police arrive on the scene, shoot Bruce and then throw him into the back seat of their car. On the way to the station, he manages to escape by causing the corrupt officers to wreck their squad car. After pulling the unconscious officers out of the car Bruce returns home, bleeding from his various wounds. There he sits, looking for inspiration, something he feels will strike fear into the hearts of criminals. A bat crashes into the room through a window and perches on a sculpture of his father, to which Bruce immediately responds. He has found what he is looking for, stating the words "Yes Father, I will become a bat." Gordon tries to clean up GCPD, but on the orders of the corrupt Commissioner Gillian B. Loeb, is attacked and threatened by fellow officers. After recovering, he visits the house of one of these officers, where they have gathered to play poker. He waits for Detective Flass, who he knows is responsible for organizing the attack. Flass is the last to leave, and Gordon tails him into the woods, where he proceeds to attack the drunken officer. Gordon overpowers Flass and leaves him in the woods, naked and handcuffed. Bruce goes out for the first time as Batman and stops a trio of teenagers from stealing a television. A brief struggle ensues, resulting in the Dark Knight's first victory. The legend quickly grows with Batman attacking criminals with increasing boldness, including Flass, who was present at one crime, receiving a payoff from the criminals. One night, when the corrupt city leaders and gangsters like Carmine Falcone gather for a dinner party, Commissioner Loeb explains why Batman is politically advantageous to themselves, assuming he would never bother them; meanwhile, Batman sneaks onto the grounds, puts the guards to sleep and sets up stage lights around the window that comprises one of the dining room walls. He cuts the electricity, throwing the room in darkness, blows a hole in the outside wall and then activates the lights. He gives the men and women a dire warning that he is just as determined to deliver them to justice as well, then leaves. Meanwhile, Selina Kyle is inspired to become a costumed cat burglar when she sees Batman in action and becomes Catwoman. The police try to capture Batman numerous times, but Bruce is too elusive and alert to fall for their traps. In addition, the maverick district attorney, Harvey Dent, becomes Batman's secret ally. After a night of following useless leads, Gordon and his partner, Detective Sarah Essen, see a truck barreling down the street. They give chase and Gordon hands the wheel over to Essen as he tries to get into the vehicle. An old, homeless woman stands in the way of the truck and is about to be run over just as soon as Batman jumps in and shoves her out of the way. The bus runs into a wall and Gordon briefly blacks out, only to awake moments later and find Essen holding Batman at gunpoint. She is momentarily distracted when she turns to ask if he is all right and Batman takes advantage to disarm her and flee into an abandoned building. When cops arrive on the scene, the commissioner is quick to call in the trigger-happy Branden and his squad to drop a bomb on the building, which the Commissioner claims has already been scheduled for demolition. While dodging the fire from the explosion, Batman's belt (which contained explosives) catches fire, and he is forced to discard it. After suffering two dizzying gun wounds, Batman escapes into the secure basement and survives the blast. A crowd gathers outside the building. Stuck with only a blow gun and 3 darts, Batman uses a small device in his boot to summon thousands of bats from his cave to the building. A battle occurs as the police storm into the building and hunt him down. He incapacitates some and even saves a cat, jumping out of the building (after throwing a police officer forcefully through a wall) and takes advantage of the chaos that occurs when the bat colony arrives to speed away on a police motorcycle and escape. Gordon has a brief affair with Essen, while Dent has Batman intimidate a mob drug dealer for information. The dealer comes to Gordon to testify against Flass. Gordon is soon confronted by the Commissioner, who threatens to inform his wife of the affair if he doesn't drop his charges on Flass. Gordon, after bringing his wife to an interview with Bruce Wayne, whom he and others suspect of being Batman, stops the car in the driveway on the way back and tells her about his affair. Essen later leaves for New York. Months pass and Batman overhears a local mafia boss planning revenge against Gordon. Selina Kyle, frustrated because she feels her petty crimes aren't enough, interferes and attacks the group. Batman does not appear, but helps Selina from the shadows, throwing small bat-shaped blades laced with tranquilizers at some of the men. Bruce, while working out, figures out the plan based on the part of the conversation he was able to record. Gordon is called away by the police to investigate a robbery. On his way out, a mysterious motorist entering his garage raises Gordon's suspicions, as Gordon has never seen the motorist. He returns to the garage only to find his wife and baby being pulled into a car. He shoots and kills the men trying to take his wife, who survives; however, one assailant is unharmed. The car leaves with Gordon's baby in it, and Gordon shoots the motorist, takes his motorcycle and follows. The motorist, Bruce, is unharmed thanks to a bullet-proof vest. He attempts to leave, but not before Barbara threatens to shoot him. She lets him go when he promises to save her baby, takes a bicycle from a passing stranger, and pursues Gordon and the car. Gordon shoots out a wheel on the car and it crashes into the side of a bridge. The don's hired knife, his nephew, exits the car, baby in hand. A struggle ensues and the baby is thrown off the bridge, followed by Gordon. However, Bruce had already arrived and dived after the baby before Gordon even falls over the rail. Gordon, having lost his glasses in the struggle with the hitman, thanks Bruce (whom he claims to not recognize due to his aforementioned missing glasses) and makes it clear that he won't turn him in. Dent and Batman's efforts bear fruit with Flass, who is persuaded to turn damaging state's evidence against his superiors, including a disgraced Commissioner Loeb, who is forced to resign. Although his immediate replacement, Jack Grogan, is apparently worse, Gordon is content for the moment with receiving a job promotion and family counseling with his wife. The story ends with the new Captain Gordon waiting on the rooftop of the GCPD headquarters for Batman, to discuss somebody called The Joker and his scheme to poison the reservoir. Critical reaction IGN Comics ranked Batman: Year One at the top of a list of the 25 greatest Batman graphic novels, saying that "no other book before or since has quite captured the realism, the grit and the humanity of Gordon and Batman so perfectly." The 25 Greatest Batman Graphic Novels, Hilary Goldstein, IGN, June 13, 2005 The website added, "It's not only one of the most important comics ever written, it's also among the best." Batman: Year One Review, IGN, June 17, 2005 Continuity Following Crisis on Infinite Earths, DC rebooted many of its titles. Year One was followed by Batman: Year Two, but the 1994 Zero Hour crossover erased Year Two from continuity. In another continuity re-arrangement, Catwoman: Year One (Catwoman Annual #2, 1998) posited that Selina Kyle had not actually been a prostitute, but, rather, a thief posing as one in order to commit crimes. The story was continued in the 2005 graphic novel Batman: The Man Who Laughs, following up on Gordon informing Batman about the Joker, and thus recounting their first official encounter. In 1998 Jeph Loeb and Tim Sale created Batman: The Long Halloween and Batman: Dark Victory, two 13-issue limited series that recounted Batman's first, second, and third years as a crime-fighter, also retelling the origins of Two-Face and Dick Grayson. Two other stories, Batman and the Monster Men and Batman and the Mad Monk tie into the same time period of Batman's career. Launched in 1989 following the success of the film Batman, the title Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight examines crime-fighting exploits from the first three to four years of Batman's career. This title rotated in creative teams and time placement, but several stories directly relate to the events of Year One, especially the first arc "Batman: Shaman". Following the title's 2007 cancellation, Batman Confidential began publication, depicting Batman sometime between Year One and The Long Halloween. Miller has stated that Batman: Year One exists in the same continuity as the other storylines in his "Dark Knight Universe", consisting of Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, its sequel Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again, Spawn/Batman, All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder, and the upcoming Holy Terror, Batman!. Comics in Context #119: All-Star Bats on IGN There is even an early scene in DKR where Wayne and Gordon are reminiscing on a scene in Batman Year One where the Lieutenant was introduced to the playboy in a state of mock intoxication, though all Wayne really drank was club soda. Needless to say, of these only Year One is considered to be part of mainstream DC continuity. However Earth-31, one of the alternate earths revealed in 52, is essentially the Frank Miller Dark Knight Universe. References to other media When Bruce is heading for the Red Light District, he makes references to the "Finger Memorial", "Sprang Mission" and "Robinson Park", all of which are named after Golden Age Batman writer Bill Finger, artist Dick Sprang, and artist Jerry Robinson. The nocturnal scene depicting Gordon and Essen in a bar called "Hopper's" is a graphic allusion to Edward Hopper's painting Nighthawks. The moment when Bruce decides which method he will use to fight crime is widely regarded as a reference to Edgar Allan Poe's poem The Raven, by the kind of chamber he is in and the bust over which the bat lands. The scene in itself is something of an elaboration on a classic scene from Detective Comics #33. Both share the line "I shall become a Bat". The image of Bruce sitting and bleeding while waiting for inspiration is reused in the Elseworlds tale In Darkest Knight, though instead of a bat flying through the window, a dying Green Lantern summons him and bestows him with the ring. The fact that Miller based Bruce on a young Gregory Peck is coincidental to a much-discussed hoax. In 2004, Mark Millar wrote about a failed attempt by Orson Welles to adapt a feature film of Batman in 1946. Although this has since been proven fictional, it is true that Welles attempted to star as The Shadow, whom Bill Finger cited as inspiration for his written portrayal of Batman, in a film adaptation, which never got off the ground. Frank Miller referenced many old-time Hollywood faces in the book. Harvey Dent was based on Alan Ladd, and Essen was clearly modeled on Lizabeth Scott. References External links Current edition at DC Comics ISBN 0-930289-33-1 Deluxe Hardcover edition at DC Comics ISBN 1-4012-0690-5 Ninth Art review Plot summary and review | Batman:_Year_One |@lemmatized batman:53 year:15 one:21 title:6 american:2 comic:11 book:4 story:7 arc:2 write:4 frank:4 miller:6 illustrate:1 david:1 mazzucchelli:1 color:3 richmond:2 lewis:2 letter:1 todd:1 klein:1 originally:1 appear:2 issue:2 dc:5 first:9 example:1 limited:2 series:3 within:1 format:1 prevalent:1 several:2 reprint:1 hardcover:3 multiple:1 trade:1 paperback:1 edition:3 standard:1 paper:1 simpler:1 coloring:1 deluxe:2 version:1 rich:1 detail:1 include:3 complete:1 synopsis:1 recount:3 beginning:1 bruce:19 wayne:6 career:4 jim:2 gordon:31 gotham:6 city:3 police:7 department:1 return:4 home:2 train:1 abroad:1 martial:1 art:2 manhunting:1 science:1 past:1 back:3 bid:1 time:7 wait:4 right:2 moment:4 strike:3 prepare:1 meanwhile:3 move:1 chicago:1 pregnant:1 wife:6 barbara:2 kean:1 continue:2 law:2 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jerry:1 nocturnal:1 bar:1 hopper:2 allusion:1 edward:1 painting:1 nighthawk:1 decide:1 method:1 widely:1 regard:1 edgar:1 allan:1 poe:1 poem:1 raven:1 kind:1 chamber:1 bust:1 land:1 elaboration:1 classic:1 share:1 line:1 shall:1 image:1 reuse:1 elseworlds:1 tale:1 darkest:1 instead:1 fly:1 die:1 green:1 lantern:1 summons:1 bestow:1 ring:1 fact:1 gregory:1 peck:1 coincidental:1 much:1 hoax:1 mark:1 millar:1 failed:1 orson:1 welles:1 adapt:1 feature:1 proven:1 fictional:1 true:1 cite:1 portrayal:1 adaptation:1 hollywood:1 alan:1 ladd:1 clearly:1 model:1 lizabeth:1 scott:1 external:1 link:1 current:1 isbn:2 ninth:1 plot:1 summary:1 |@bigram dc_comic:3 bruce_wayne:3 martial_art:1 selina_kyle:4 sneak_onto:1 dining_room:1 harvey_dent:2 dick_grayson:1 batman_robin:1 edgar_allan:1 allan_poe:1 green_lantern:1 gregory_peck:1 orson_welles:1 alan_ladd:1 external_link:1 |
3,871 | Grammatical_mood | Grammatical mood is one of a set of distinctive verb forms that are used to signal modality. It is distinct from grammatical tense or grammatical aspect, although these concepts are conflated to some degree in many languages, including English and most other modern Indo-European languages, insofar as the same word patterns are used to express more than one of these concepts at the same time. Currently identified moods include conditional, imperative, indicative, injunctive, optative, potential, subjunctive, and more. Infinitive is a category apart from all these finite forms, and so are gerunds and participles. Some Uralic Samoyedic languages have more than ten moods; Nenets has as many as sixteen. The original Indo-European inventory of moods was indicative, subjunctive, optative, and imperative. Not every Indo-European language has each of these moods, but the most conservative ones such as Avestan, Ancient Greek, and Sanskrit have them all. Italian has replaced optative with condizionale, which is a mix of conditional and optative mood. However, not all of the moods listed below are clearly conceptually distinct. Individual terminology varies from language to language, and the coverage of (e.g.) the "conditional" mood in one language may largely overlap with that of the "hypothetical" or "potential" mood in another. Even when two different moods exist in the same language, their respective usages may blur, or may be defined by syntactic rather than semantic criteria. For example, the subjunctive and optative moods in Ancient Greek alternate syntactically in many subordinate clauses, depending on the tense of the main verb. The usage of the indicative, subjunctive and jussive moods in Classical Arabic is almost completely controlled by syntactic context; the only possible alternation in the same context is between indicative and jussive following the negative particle lā. The distinction of affirmative and negative is not mood but polarity. Realis moods Realis moods are a category of grammatical moods that indicate that something is actually the case or actually not the case. The most common realis mood is the indicative mood or the declarative mood. Irrealis moods Irrealis moods indicate that something is not actually the case, such as necessity, possibility, requirement, wish or desire, fear, or as part of counter-factual reasoning. Irrealis verb forms are used when speaking of an event which has not happened; is not likely to happen; or is otherwise far removed from the real course of events. For example: If you had done your homework, you wouldn't have failed the class. had done is an irrealis verb form. Some languages have distinct grammatical forms that indicate that the event described by a specific verb is an irrealis verb. Many of the Indo-European languages preserve a subjunctive mood that functions as an irrealis; some also preserve an optative mood that describes events that are wished for or hoped for but not factual. Example (Italian): Ah! Come vorrei una casa!. (vorrei, conditional/optative mood of volere, to want). "Oh! How much I would like to own a home! (but I don't / I'm not likely to own one)". See also Evidentiality Grammatical conjugation Grammatical modality Mirative Polarity item :Category:Grammatical moods References External links Greek tenses Mood and Modality: Out of theory and into the fray From SIL: deontic modality epistemic modality | Grammatical_mood |@lemmatized grammatical:8 mood:26 one:5 set:1 distinctive:1 verb:6 form:5 use:3 signal:1 modality:5 distinct:3 tense:3 aspect:1 although:1 concept:2 conflate:1 degree:1 many:4 language:10 include:2 english:1 modern:1 indo:4 european:4 insofar:1 word:1 pattern:1 express:1 time:1 currently:1 identify:1 conditional:4 imperative:2 indicative:5 injunctive:1 optative:7 potential:2 subjunctive:5 infinitive:1 category:3 apart:1 finite:1 gerund:1 participle:1 uralic:1 samoyedic:1 ten:1 nenets:1 sixteen:1 original:1 inventory:1 every:1 conservative:1 avestan:1 ancient:2 greek:3 sanskrit:1 italian:2 replace:1 condizionale:1 mix:1 however:1 list:1 clearly:1 conceptually:1 individual:1 terminology:1 varies:1 coverage:1 e:1 g:1 may:3 largely:1 overlap:1 hypothetical:1 another:1 even:1 two:1 different:1 exist:1 respective:1 usage:2 blur:1 define:1 syntactic:2 rather:1 semantic:1 criterion:1 example:3 alternate:1 syntactically:1 subordinate:1 clause:1 depend:1 main:1 jussive:2 classical:1 arabic:1 almost:1 completely:1 control:1 context:2 possible:1 alternation:1 follow:1 negative:2 particle:1 lā:1 distinction:1 affirmative:1 polarity:2 realis:3 indicate:3 something:2 actually:3 case:3 common:1 declarative:1 irrealis:6 necessity:1 possibility:1 requirement:1 wish:2 desire:1 fear:1 part:1 counter:1 factual:2 reasoning:1 speaking:1 event:4 happen:2 likely:2 otherwise:1 far:1 remove:1 real:1 course:1 homework:1 fail:1 class:1 describe:2 specific:1 preserve:2 function:1 also:2 hop:1 ah:1 come:1 vorrei:2 una:1 casa:1 volere:1 want:1 oh:1 much:1 would:1 like:1 home:1 see:1 evidentiality:1 conjugation:1 mirative:1 item:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 theory:1 fray:1 sil:1 deontic:1 epistemic:1 |@bigram indo_european:4 mood_indicative:2 indicative_subjunctive:2 subordinate_clause:1 indicative_mood:1 counter_factual:1 subjunctive_mood:1 grammatical_conjugation:1 external_link:1 |
3,872 | Joshua_Jackson | Joshua Carter Jackson (born June 11, 1978) is a Canadian–American actor. He has appeared in primetime television and in over 32 film roles. He is known for playing Charlie Conway in The Mighty Ducks film series, the beloved badboy Pacey Witter in the television series Dawson's Creek and Peter Bishop in the television series Fringe. Biography Early life Jackson was born in Vancouver, British Columbia, the son of Fiona Jackson, a casting director, and John Carter. Joshua Jackson Biography (1978-) Jackson's father is from Texas and his mother is a native of Ballyfermot, Dublin, Ireland, having emigrated to North America in the late 1960s. RTÉ Television - Tubridy Tonight Fiona Jackson Coaching He has a sister, Aisleagh, http://movies.yahoo.com/movie/contributor/1800018811/bio and two half-brothers, Lyman and Jonathan Carter from his father's first marriage. Jackson grew up in California until the age of 8. Not long after his sister was born in California, his parents divorced and his and his sister's last name was changed from "Carter" to "Jackson" (his mother's maiden name). Josh, his mother and sister then moved to Seattle http://www.northernstars.ca/actorsjkl/jacksonjoshua.html where he attended Einstein Middle School in Shoreline, Washington. Shortly thereafter, he moved back to Vancouver with his mother and younger sister. He attended Ideal Mini School and later switched to Kitsilano Secondary School. In an interview with The New York Times, Jackson said he was kicked out of high school because of The Jon Stewart Show: "[The show] played, at least where I grew up, at 1:30 in the morning, so I would stay up at night to watch Jon Stewart, but then I'd be too tired - or too lazy - to go to school in the morning. So I'd take just take the first couple of classes off, 'cause I wanted to be fresh when I got there." http://video.nytimes.com/video/2009/03/01/style/1194838174488/screen-test-mens-cover-story.html?scp=1&sq=Bill%20Hader&st=cse Career Soon after he took up acting, Jackson landed the role of Charlie (#96) in the The Mighty Ducks series, a part for which Jake Gyllenhaal was also considered http://www.people.com/people/jake_gyllenhaal (years later both would also be amongst a small group of actors considered for the role of Bruce Wayne/Batman in Batman Begins, which eventually went to Christian Bale). Jackson went on to appear as Pacey Witter on Dawson's Creek, which ran on the defunct WB network from 1998-2003, and also starred James Van Der Beek, Michelle Williams and Katie Holmes. While the show was on hiatus, he appeared in several movies including The Skulls, The Safety of Objects, The Laramie Project and a short cameo in the remake of Ocean's Eleven where he appears as himself in a poker scene with Brad Pitt, George Clooney and Topher Grace, among others. In 2000, he also guest starred in Season 12 of The Simpsons, voicing the character of Jesse Grass, a "hunky environmentalist" and love interest for Lisa Simpson in the episode "Lisa the Tree Hugger". Shortly after Dawson's Creek ended in 2003, Jackson played the lead role in films alongside Dennis Hopper (Americano), Harvey Keitel (Shadows in the Sun), and Donald Sutherland (Aurora Borealis). In 2005, Jackson moved to the UK and made his stage debut on the London West End with Patrick Stewart in David Mamet's two-man play, A Life in the Theatre. The play was a critical and popular success, and ran from February to April of that year. Jackson has said in recent interviews that he would consider returning to the stage, this time trying his hand on Broadway. http://www.bookrags.com/highbeam/hats-off-to-hollywood-stars-in-the-west-20050203-hb/ His next film role was in the all-star ensemble drama Bobby, directed by Emilio Estevez, Jackson's co-star from The Mighty Ducks. He played a lead role in in a US remake of the Asian horror film Shutter. He has recently starred and acted as executive producer in the Canadian independent film One Week, which opened on March 6, 2009. Jackson currently plays Peter Bishop in J.J. Abrams' science-fiction series Fringe. BBC News The series appears on the FOX TV network and is the second-highest rated new show of the 2008-09 season after CBS' The Mentalist. Personal life In November 2002, Jackson was arrested by Raleigh, North Carolina police and charged with assaulting a security guard at a Carolina Hurricanes hockey game. Jackson registered a blood alcohol level of 0.14 when tested at the Wake County Security Centre. He posted a $1,000 bail and was released. He was later ordered to enter an alcohol education program, a fine of $150 and complete 24 hours of community service. Joshua Jackson (I) - News Jackson currently divides his time between New York City and Vancouver. Previously he lived in Wilmington, North Carolina, where the television program Dawson's Creek was filmed. He has dated Katie Holmes, http://www.usmagazine.com/news/joshua-jackson-of-course-ill-see-katie-holmes-on-broadway Brittany Daniel, http://movies.yahoo.com/movie/contributor/1802958080/bio Julia Stiles http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/a-bourne-star-the-rise-of-julia-stiles-461515.html and Rosario Dawson. http://www.people.com/people/rosario_dawson/biography He is currently dating model and actress Diane Kruger. http://www.hellomagazine.com/fashion/2009/01/30/jackson-kruger-dita/ Filmography Payoff (1991) Crooked Hearts (1991) The Mighty Ducks (1992) Digger (1993) D2: The Mighty Ducks (1994) Andre (1994) Magic in the Water (1995) D3: The Mighty Ducks (1996) Champs (1996) (TV series) Robin of Locksley (1996) Ronnie and Julie (1997) On the Edge of Innoncence (1997) (TV movie) Scream 2 (1997) Dawson's Creek (1998 - 2003) (TV series) Apt Pupil (1998) Urban Legend (1998) Cruel Intentions (1999) Muppets from Space (1999) (uncredited cameo with Katie Holmes) Gossip (2000) The Skulls (2000) Ocean's Eleven (2001) The Safety of Objects (2001) Lone Star State of Mind (2002) The Laramie Project (2002) I Love Your Work (2003) Cursed (2005) Racing Stripes (2005) (voice) Americano (2005) Aurora Borealis (2005) The Shadow Dancer (aka Shadows in the Sun) (2005) Bobby (2006) Battle in Seattle (2007) Shutter (2008) Fringe (2008-present) (TV series) One Week (2009) Awards Best Actor - Aurora Borealis - 2006 Ft. Lauderdale Film Festival Best Young International Actor - 2006 Golden Graal Awards Best TV Actor - Dawson's Creek - 2001 Teen Choice Awards Best TV Actor - Dawson's Creek - 2000 Teen Choice Awards Superstar of Tomorrow - 2000 Young Hollywood Award Best TV Actor - Dawson's Creek - 1999 Teen Choice Awards References External links Joshua Jackson Network Joshua Jackson Online Joshua Jackson on The Hour with George Stroumboulopoulos | Joshua_Jackson |@lemmatized joshua:7 carter:4 jackson:25 bear:3 june:1 canadian:2 american:1 actor:7 appear:5 primetime:1 television:5 film:9 role:6 know:1 play:7 charlie:2 conway:1 mighty:6 duck:6 series:9 beloved:1 badboy:1 pacey:2 witter:2 dawson:9 creek:8 peter:2 bishop:2 fringe:3 biography:3 early:1 life:3 vancouver:3 british:1 columbia:1 son:1 fiona:2 casting:1 director:1 john:1 father:2 texas:1 mother:4 native:1 ballyfermot:1 dublin:1 ireland:1 emigrate:1 north:3 america:1 late:1 rté:1 tubridy:1 tonight:1 coaching:1 sister:5 aisleagh:1 http:10 movie:6 yahoo:2 com:8 contributor:2 bio:2 two:2 half:1 brother:1 lyman:1 jonathan:1 first:2 marriage:1 grow:2 california:2 age:1 long:1 parent:1 divorce:1 last:1 name:2 change:1 maiden:1 josh:1 move:3 seattle:2 www:7 northernstars:1 ca:1 actorsjkl:1 jacksonjoshua:1 html:3 attend:2 einstein:1 middle:1 school:5 shoreline:1 washington:1 shortly:2 thereafter:1 back:1 young:3 ideal:1 mini:1 later:3 switch:1 kitsilano:1 secondary:1 interview:2 new:3 york:2 time:3 say:2 kick:1 high:2 jon:2 stewart:3 show:4 least:1 morning:2 would:3 stay:1 night:1 watch:1 tired:1 lazy:1 go:3 take:3 couple:1 class:1 cause:1 want:1 fresh:1 get:1 video:2 nytimes:1 style:1 screen:1 test:2 men:1 cover:1 story:1 scp:1 sq:1 bill:1 st:1 cse:1 career:1 soon:1 acting:1 land:1 part:1 jake:1 gyllenhaal:1 also:4 consider:3 people:4 year:2 amongst:1 small:1 group:1 bruce:1 wayne:1 batman:2 begin:1 eventually:1 christian:1 bale:1 run:2 defunct:1 wb:1 network:3 star:8 james:1 van:1 der:1 beek:1 michelle:1 williams:1 katie:4 holmes:4 hiatus:1 several:1 include:1 skull:2 safety:2 object:2 laramie:2 project:2 short:1 cameo:2 remake:2 ocean:2 eleven:2 poker:1 scene:1 brad:1 pitt:1 george:2 clooney:1 topher:1 grace:1 among:1 others:1 guest:1 season:2 simpson:2 voice:2 character:1 jesse:1 grass:1 hunky:1 environmentalist:1 love:2 interest:1 lisa:2 episode:1 tree:1 hugger:1 end:2 lead:2 alongside:1 dennis:1 hopper:1 americano:2 harvey:1 keitel:1 shadow:3 sun:2 donald:1 sutherland:1 aurora:3 borealis:3 uk:2 make:1 stage:2 debut:1 london:1 west:2 patrick:1 david:1 mamet:1 man:1 theatre:1 critical:1 popular:1 success:1 february:1 april:1 recent:1 return:1 try:1 hand:1 broadway:2 bookrags:1 highbeam:1 hat:1 hollywood:2 hb:1 next:1 ensemble:1 drama:1 bobby:2 direct:1 emilio:1 estevez:1 co:2 u:1 asian:1 horror:1 shutter:2 recently:1 act:1 executive:1 producer:1 independent:2 one:2 week:2 open:1 march:1 currently:3 j:2 abrams:1 science:1 fiction:1 bbc:1 news:3 fox:1 tv:8 second:1 rat:1 cbs:1 mentalist:1 personal:1 november:1 arrest:1 raleigh:1 carolina:3 police:1 charge:1 assault:1 security:2 guard:1 hurricane:1 hockey:1 game:1 register:1 blood:1 alcohol:2 level:1 wake:1 county:1 centre:1 post:1 bail:1 release:1 order:1 enter:1 education:1 program:2 fine:1 complete:1 hour:2 community:1 service:1 divide:1 city:1 previously:1 live:1 wilmington:1 date:2 usmagazine:1 course:1 ill:1 see:1 brittany:1 daniel:1 julia:2 stile:1 art:1 entertainment:1 feature:1 bourne:1 rise:1 stiles:1 rosario:1 model:1 actress:1 diane:1 kruger:2 hellomagazine:1 fashion:1 dita:1 filmography:1 payoff:1 crook:1 heart:1 digger:1 andre:1 magic:1 water:1 champ:1 robin:1 locksley:1 ronnie:1 julie:1 edge:1 innoncence:1 scream:1 apt:1 pupil:1 urban:1 legend:1 cruel:1 intention:1 muppets:1 space:1 uncredited:1 gossip:1 lone:1 state:1 mind:1 work:1 curse:1 race:1 stripe:1 dancer:1 aka:1 battle:1 present:1 award:6 best:5 ft:1 lauderdale:1 festival:1 international:1 golden:1 graal:1 teen:3 choice:3 superstar:1 tomorrow:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 stroumboulopoulos:1 |@bigram mighty_duck:6 dawson_creek:8 http_www:7 shortly_thereafter:1 jon_stewart:2 nytimes_com:1 scp_sq:1 bruce_wayne:1 van_der:1 katie_holmes:4 brad_pitt:1 george_clooney:1 lisa_simpson:1 dennis_hopper:1 harvey_keitel:1 donald_sutherland:1 aurora_borealis:3 bookrags_com:1 emilio_estevez:1 science_fiction:1 bbc_news:1 north_carolina:2 apt_pupil:1 external_link:1 |
3,873 | Microscopy | Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view samples or objects. There are three well-known branches of microscopy, optical, electron and scanning probe microscopy. Optical and electron microscopy involve the diffraction, reflection, or refraction of electromagnetic radiation/electron beam interacting with the subject of study, and the subsequent collection of this scattered radiation in order to build up an image. This process may be carried out by wide-field irradiation of the sample (for example standard light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy) or by scanning of a fine beam over the sample (for example confocal laser scanning microscopy and scanning electron microscopy). Scanning probe microscopy involves the interaction of a scanning probe with the surface or object of interest. The development of microscopy revolutionized biology and remains an essential tool in that science, along with many others including materials science and numerous engineering disciplines. Scanning electron microscope image of pollen. Optical microscopy Optical or light microscopy involves passing visible light transmitted through or reflected from the sample through a single or multiple lenses to allow a magnified view of the sample. The resulting image can be detected directly by the eye, imaged on a photographic plate or captured digitally. The single lens with its attachments, or the system of lenses and imaging equipment, along with the appropriate lighting equipment, sample stage and support, makes up the basic light microscope. The most recent development is the digital microscope which uses a CCD camera to focus on the exhibit of interest. The image is shown on a computer screen since the camera is attached to it via a USB port, so eye-pieces are unnecessary. Limitations Limitations of standard optical microscopy (bright field microscopy) lie in three areas; The technique can only image dark or strongly refracting objects effectively. Diffraction limits resolution to approximately 0.2 micrometre (see: microscope). Out of focus light from points outside the focal plane reduces image clarity. Live cells in particular generally lack sufficient contrast to be studied successfully, internal structures of the cell are colourless and transparent. The most common way to increase contrast is to stain the different structures with selective dyes, but this involves killing and fixing the sample. Staining may also introduce artifacts, apparent structural details that are caused by the processing of the specimen and are thus not a legitimate feature of the specimen. These limitations have all been overcome to some extent by specific microscopy techniques which can non-invasively increase the contrast of the image. In general, these techniques make use of differences in the refractive index of cell structures. It is comparable to looking through a glass window: you (bright field microscopy) don't see the glass but merely the dirt on the glass. There is however a difference as glass is a denser material, and this creates a difference in phase of the light passing through. The human eye is not sensitive to this difference in phase but clever optical solutions have been thought out to change this difference in phase into a difference in amplitude (light intensity). Techniques Bright field Bright field microscopy is the simplest of all the light microscopy techniques. Sample illumination is via transmitted white light, i.e. illuminated from below and observed from above. Limitations include low contrast of most biological samples and low apparent resolution due to the blur of out of focus material. The simplicity of the technique and the minimal sample preparation required are significant advantages. Oblique illumination The use of oblique (from the side) illumination gives the image a 3-dimensional appearance and can highlight otherwise invisible features. A more recent technique based on this method is Hoffmann's modulation contrast, a system found on inverted microscopes for use in cell culture. Oblique illumination suffers from the same limitations as bright field microscopy (low contrast of many biological samples; low apparent resolution due to out of focus objects), but may highlight otherwise invisible structures. Dark field Dark field microscopy is a technique for improving the contrast of unstained, transparent specimens. Dark field illumination uses a carefully aligned light source to minimize the quantity of directly-transmitted (unscattered) light entering the image plane, collecting only the light scattered by the sample. Darkfield can dramatically improve image contrast—especially of transparent objects – while requiring little equipment setup or sample preparation. However, the technique does suffer from low light intensity in final image of many biological samples, and continues to be affected by low apparent resolution. Rheinberg illumination is a special variant of dark field illumination in which transparent, colored filters are inserted just before the condenser so that light rays at high aperture are differently colored than those at low aperture (i.e. the background to the specimen may be blue while the object appears self-luminous yellow). Other color combinations are possible but their effectiveness is quite variable. Dispersion staining Dispersion staining is an optical technique that results in a colored image of a colorless object. This is an optical staining technique and requires no stains or dyes to produce a color effect. There are five different microscope configurations used in the broader technique of dispersion staining. They include brightfield Becke` line, oblique, darkfield, phase contrast, and objective stop dispersion staining. Phase contrast In electron microscopy: Phase-contrast imaging More sophisticated techniques will show proportional differences in optical density . Phase contrast is a widely used technique that shows differences in refractive index as difference in contrast. It was developed by the Dutch physicist Frits Zernike in the 1930s (for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1953). The nucleus in a cell for example will show up darkly against the surrounding cytoplasm. Contrast is excellent; however it is not for use with thick objects. Frequently, a halo is formed even around small objects, which obscures detail. The system consists of a circular annulus in the condenser which produces a cone of light. This cone is superimposed on a similar sized ring within the phase-objective. Every objective has a different size ring, so for every objective another condenser setting has to be chosen. The ring in the objective has special optical properties: it first of all reduces the direct light in intensity, but more importantly, it creates an artificial phase difference of about a quarter wavelength. As the physical properties of this direct light have changed, interference with the diffracted light occurs, resulting in the phase contrast image. Differential interference contrast Superior and much more expensive is the use of interference contrast. Differences in optical density will show up as differences in relief. A nucleus within a cell will actually show up as a globule in the most often used differential interference contrast system according to Georges Nomarski. However, it has to be kept in mind that this is an optical effect, and the relief does not necessarily resemble the true shape! Contrast is very good and the condenser aperture can be used fully open, thereby reducing the depth of field and maximizing resolution. The system consists of a special prism (Nomarski prism, Wollaston prism) in the condenser that splits light in an ordinary and an extraordinary beam. The spatial difference between the two beams is minimal (less than the maximum resolution of the objective). After passage through the specimen, the beams are reunited by a similar prism in the objective. In a homogeneous specimen, there is no difference between the two beams, and no contrast is being generated. However, near a refractive boundary (say a nucleus within the cytoplasm), the difference between the ordinary and the extraordinary beam will generate a relief in the image. Differential interference contrast requires a polarized light source to function; two polarizing filters have to be fitted in the light path, one below the condenser (the polarizer), and the other above the objective (the analyzer). Note: In cases where the optical design of a microscope produces an appreciable lateral separation of the two beams we have the case of classical interference microscopy, which does not result in relief images, but can nevertheless be used for the quantitative determination of mass-thicknesses of microscopic objects. Fluorescence When certain compounds are illuminated with high energy light, they then emit light of a different, lower frequency. This effect is known as fluorescence. Often specimens show their own characteristic autofluorescence image, based on their chemical makeup. This method is of critical importance in the modern life sciences, as it can be extremely sensitive, allowing the detection of single molecules. Many different fluorescent dyes can be used to stain different structures or chemical compounds. One particularly powerful method is the combination of antibodies coupled to a fluorochrome as in immunostaining. Examples of commonly used fluorochromes are fluorescein or rhodamine. The antibodies can be made tailored specifically for a chemical compound. For example, one strategy often in use is the artificial production of proteins, based on the genetic code (DNA). These proteins can then be used to immunize rabbits, which then form antibodies which bind to the protein. The antibodies are then coupled chemically to a fluorochrome and then used to trace the proteins in the cells under study. Highly-efficient fluorescent proteins such as the green fluorescent protein (GFP) have been developed using the molecular biology technique of gene fusion, a process which links the expression of the fluorescent compound to that of the target protein. This combined fluorescent protein is generally non-toxic to the organism and rarely interferes with the function of the protein under study. Genetically modified cells or organisms directly express the fluorescently-tagged proteins, which enables the study of the function of the original protein in vivo. Since fluorescence emission differs in wavelength (color) from the excitation light, a fluorescent image ideally only shows the structure of interest that was labeled with the fluorescent dye. This high specificity led to the widespread use of fluorescence light microscopy in biomedical research. Different fluorescent dyes can be used to stain different biological structures, which can then be detected simultaneously, while still being specific due to the individual color of the dye. To block the excitation light from reaching the observer or the detector, filter sets of high quality are needed. These typically consist of an excitation filter selecting the range of excitation wavelengths, a dichroic mirror, and an emission filter blocking the excitation light. Most fluorescence microscopes are operated in the Epi-illumination mode (illumination and detection from one side of the sample) to further decrease the amount of excitation light entering the detector. See also total internal reflection fluorescence microscope. Confocal laser scanning Confocal laser scanning (CLSM) generates the image by a completely different way than the normal visual bright field microscope. It gives slightly higher resolution, but most importantly it provides optical sectioning without disturbing out-of-focus light degrading the image. Therefore it provides sharper images of 3D objects. This is often used in conjunction with fluorescence microscopy. Deconvolution Fluorescence microscopy is extremely powerful due to its ability to show specifically labeled structures within a complex environment but also because of its inherent ability to provide three dimensional information of biological structures. Unfortunately this information is blurred by the fact, that upon illumination all fluorescently labeled structures emit light no matter if they are in focus or not. This means, that an image of a certain structure is always blurred by the contribution of light from structures which are out of focus. This phenomenon becomes apparent as a loss of contrast especially when using objectives with a high resolving power, typically oil immersion objectives with a high numerical aperture. Fortunately though, this phenomenon is not caused by random processes such as light scattering but can be relatively well defined by the optical properties of the image formation in the microscope imaging system. If one considers a small fluorescent light source (essentially a bright spot), light coming from this spot spreads out the further out of focus one is. Under ideal conditions this produces a sort of "hourglass" shape of this point source in the third (axial) dimension. This shape is called the point spread function (PSF) of the microscope imaging system. Since any fluorescence image is made up of a large number of such small fluorescent light sources the image is said to be "convolved by the point spread function". Knowing this point spread function means, that it is possible to reverse this process to a certain extent by computer based methods commonly known as deconvolution microscopy. There are various algorithms available for 2D or 3D Deconvolution. They can be roughly classified in non restorative and restorative methods. While the non restorative methods can improve contrast by removing out of focus light from focal planes, only the restorative methods can actually reassign light to it proper place of origin. This can be an advantage over other types of 3D microscopy such as confocal microscopy, because light is not thrown away but reused. For 3D deconvolution one typically provides a series of images derived from different focal planes (called a Z-stack) plus the knowledge of the PSF which can be either derived experimentally or theoretically from knowing all contributing parameters of the microscope. Sub-diffraction techniques It is well known that there is a spatial limit to which light can focus: approximately half of the wavelength of the light you are using. But this is not a true barrier, because this diffraction limit is only true in the far-field and localization precision can be increased with many photons and careful analysis (although two objects still cannot be resolved); and like the sound barrier, the diffraction barrier is breakable. This section explores some approaches to imaging objects smaller than ~250 nm. Most of the following information was gathered (with permission) from a chemistry blog's review of sub-diffraction microscopy techniques Part I and Part II. For a review, see also reference WEM News and Views . Near-field scanning Near-field scanning is also called NSOM. Probably the most conceptual way to break the diffraction barrier is to use a light source and/or a detector that is itself nanometer in scale. Diffraction as we know it is truly a far-field effect: the light from an aperture is the Fourier transform of the aperture in the far-field. But in the near-field, all of this is not necessarily the case. Near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM) forces light through the tiny tip of a pulled fiber—and the aperture can be on the order of tens of nanometers. When the tip is brought to nanometers away from a molecule, the resolution is not limited by diffraction but by the size of the tip aperture (because only that one molecule will see the light coming out of the tip). An image can be built by a raster scan of the tip over the surface to create an image. The main down-side to NSOM is the limited number of photons you can force out a tiny tip, and the minuscule collection efficiency (if you are trying to collect fluorescence in the near-field). Other techniques such as ANSOM (see below) try to avoid this drawback. Local enhancement / ANSOM / bowties Instead of forcing photons down a tiny tip, some techniques create a local bright spot in an otherwise diffraction-limited spot. ANSOM is apertureless NSOM: it uses a tip very close to a fluorophore to enhance the local electric field the fluorophore sees. Basically, the ANSOM tip is like a lightning rod which creates a hot spot of light. Bowtie nanoantennas have been used to greatly and reproducibly enhance the electric field in the nanometer gap between the tips two gold triangles. Again, the point is to enhance a very small region of a diffraction-limited spot, thus improving the mismatch between light and nanoscale objects—and breaking the diffraction barrier. Stimulated emission depletion Stefan Hell at the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry - Goettingen (Germany) developed STED microscopy (stimulated emission depletion), which uses two laser pulses. The first pulse is a diffraction-limited spot that is tuned to the absorption wavelength, so excites any fluorophores in that region; an immediate second pulse is red-shifted to the emission wavelength and stimulates emission back to the ground state before, thus depleting the excited state of any fluorophores in this depletion pulse. The trick is that the depletion pulse goes through a phase modulator that makes the pulse illuminate the sample in the shape of a donut, so the outer part of the diffraction limited spot is depleted and the small center can still fluoresce. By saturating the depletion pulse, the center of the donut gets smaller and smaller until they can get resolution of tens of nanometers. STED This technique also requires a raster scan like NSOM and standard confocal laser scanning microscopy. Fitting the point-spread function Fitting the point-spread function is also called PSF. The methods above (and below) use experimental techniques to circumvent the diffraction barrier, but one can also use crafty analysis to increase the ability to know where a nanoscale object is located. The image of a point source on a charge-coupled device camera is called a point-spread function (PSF), which is limited by diffraction to be no less than approximately half the wavelength of the light. But it is possible to simply fit that PSF with a Gaussian to locate the center of the PSF—and thus the location of the fluorophore. The precision by which this technique can locate the center depends on the number of photons collected (as well as the CCD pixel size and other factors). Webb paper Regardless, groups like the Selvin lab and many others have employed this analysis to localize single fluorophores to a few nanometers. This, of course, requires careful measurements and collecting many photons. PALM, STORM What fitting a PSF is to localization, photo-activated localization microscopy (PALM) is to "resolution"—this term is here used loosely to mean measuring the distance between objects, not true optical resolution. Eric Betzig and colleagues developed PALM; PALM Xiaowei Zhuang at Harvard used a similar techniques and calls it STORM: stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy. STORM Sam Hess at University of Maine developed the technique simultaneously. The basic premise of both techniques is to fill the imaging area with many dark fluorophores that can be photoactivated into a fluorescing state by a flash of light. Because photoactivation is stochastic, only a few, well separated molecules "turn on." Then Gaussians are fit to their PSFs to high precision (see section above). After the few bright dots photobleach, another flash of the photoactivating light activates random fluorophores again and the PSFs are fit of these different well spaced objects. This process is repeated many times, building up an image molecule-by-molecule; and because the molecules were localized at different times, the "resolution" of the final image can be much higher than that limited by diffraction. The major problem with these techniques is that to get these beautiful pictures, it takes on the order of hours to collect the data. This is certainly not the technique to study dynamics (fitting the PSF is better for that). Structured illumination There is also the wide-field structured-illumination (SI) approach to breaking the diffraction limit of light. Bailey, B.; Farkas, D. L.; Taylor, D. L.; Lanni, F. Enhancement of axial resolution in fluorescence microscopy by standing-wave excitation. Nature 1993, 366, 44–48. Gustafsson, M. G. L. Surpassing the lateral resolution limit by a factor of two using structured illumination microscopy. J. of Microsc. 2000, 198(2), 82–87. SI—or patterned illumination—relies on both specific microscopy protocols and extensive software analysis post-exposure. But, because SI is a wide-field technique, it is usually able to capture images at a higher rate than confocal-based schemes like STED. (This is only a generalization, because SI isn't actually super fast. I'm sure someone could make STED fast and SI slow!) The main concept of SI is to illuminate a sample with patterned light and increase the resolution by measuring the fringes in the Moiré pattern (from the interference of the illumination pattern and the sample). "Otherwise-unobservable sample information can be deduced from the fringes and computationally restored." Gustafsson, M. G. L. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0406877102 Nonlinear structured-illumination microscopy: Wide-field fluorescence imaging with theoretically unlimited resolution. PNAS 2005, 102(37), 13081–13086. SI enhances spatial resolution by collecting information from frequency space outside the observable region. This process is done in reciprocal space: the Fourier transform (FT) of an SI image contains superimposed additional information from different areas of reciprocal space; with several frames with the illumination shifted by some phase, it is possible to computationally separate and reconstruct the FT image, which has much more resolution information. The reverse FT returns the reconstructed image to a super-resolution image. But this only enhances the resolution by a factor of 2 (because the SI pattern cannot be focused to anything smaller than half the wavelength of the excitation light). To further increase the resolution, you can introduce nonlinearities, which show up as higher-order harmonics in the FT. In reference , Gustafsson uses saturation of the fluorescent sample as the nonlinear effect. A sinusoidal saturating excitation beam produces the distorted fluorescence intensity pattern in the emission. This nonpolynomial nonlinearity yields a series of higher-order harmonics in the FT. Each higher-order harmonic in the FT allows another set of images that can be used to reconstruct a larger area in reciprocal space, and thus a higher resolution. In this case, Gustafsson achieves less than 50-nm resolving power, more than five times that of the microscope in its normal configuration. The main problems with SI are that, in this incarnation, saturating excitation powers cause more photodamage and lower fluorophore photostability, and sample drift must be kept to below the resolving distance. The former limitation might be solved by using a different nonlinearity (such as stimulated emission depletion or reversible photoactivation, both of which are used in other sub-diffraction imaging schemes); the latter limits live-cell imaging and may require faster frame rates or the use of some fiduciary markers for drift subtraction. Nevertheless, SI is certainly a strong contender for further application in the field of super-resolution microscopy. Localization Microscopy/Spatially Structured Illumination Around 1995, Christoph Cremer commenced with the development of a light microscopic process, which achieved a substantially improved size resolution of cellular nanostructures stained with a fluorescent marker. This time he employed the principle of wide field microscopy combined with structured laser illumination (spatially modulated illumination, SMI Nano-structure analysis using Spatially Modulated Illumination microscopy: D. Baddeley, C. Batram, Y. Weiland, C. Cremer, U.J. Birk in NATURE PROTOCOLS, Vol 2, pp. 2640 – 2646 (2007) . Currently, a size resolution of 30 – 40 nm (approximately 1/16 – 1/13 of the wave length used) is being achieved. In addition, this technology is no longer subjected to the speed limitations of the focusing microscopy so that it becomes possible to undertake 3D analyses of whole cells within short observation times (at the moment around a few seconds). Also since around 1995, Christoph Cremer developed and realized new fluorescence based wide field microscopy approaches which had as their goal the improvement of the effective optical resolution (in terms of the smallest detectable distance between two localized objects) down to a fraction of the conventional resolution (spectral precision distance/position determination microscopy, SPDM). Combining SPDM and SMI, known as Vertico-SMI microscopy High precision structural analysis of subnuclear complexes in fixed and live cells via Spatially Modulated Illumination (SMI) microscopy: J. Reymann, D. Baddeley, P. Lemmer, W. Stadter, T. Jegou, K. Rippe, C. Cremer, U. Birk in CHROMOSOME RESEARCH, Vol. 16, pp. 367 –382 (2008) Christoph Cremer can currently achieve a resolution of approx. 10 nm in 2D and 40 nm in 3D in wide field images of whole living cells SPDM – Light Microscopy with Single Molecule Resolution at the Nanoscale: P. Lemmer, M.Gunkel, D.Baddeley, R. Kaufmann, A. Urich, Y. Weiland, J.Reymann, P. Müller, M. Hausmann, C. Cremer in APPLIED PHYSICS B, Vol 93, pp. 1-12 (2008). . Widefield 3D “nanoimages” of whole living cells currently still take about two minutes, but work to reduce this further is currently under way. Vertico-SMI is currently the fastest optical 3D nanoscope for the three dimensional structural analysis of whole cells world-wide. Extensions Most modern instruments provide simple solutions for micro-photography and image recording electronically. However such capabilities are not always present and the more experienced microscopist will, in many cases, still prefer a hand drawn image rather than a photograph. This is because a microscopist with knowledge of the subject can accurately convert a three dimensional image into a precise two dimensional drawing . In a photograph or other image capture system however, only one thin plane is ever in good focus. The creation of careful and accurate micrographs requires a microscopical technique using a monocular eyepiece. It is essential that both eyes are open and that the eye that is not observing down the microscope is instead concentrated on a sheet of paper on the bench besides the microscope. With practice, and without moving the head or eyes, it is possible to accurately record the observed details by tracing round the observed shapes by simultaneously "seeing" the pencil point in the microscopical image. Practicing this technique also establishes good general microscopical technique. It is always less tiring to observe with the microscope focused so that the image is seen at infinity and with both eyes open at all times. Other enhancements X-ray As resolution depends on the wavelength of the light. Electron microscopy has been developed since the 1930s that use electron beams instead of light. Because of the much smaller wavelength of the electron beam, resolution is far higher. Though less common, X-ray microscopy has also been developed since the late 1940s. The resolution of X-ray microscopy lies between that of light microscopy and the electron microscopy. Electron microscopy For light microscopy the wavelength of the light limits the resolution to around 0.2 micrometers. In order to gain higher resolution, the use of an electron beam with a far smaller wavelength is used in electron microscopes. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is principally quite similar to the compound light microscope, by sending an electron beam through a very thin slice of the specimen. The resolution limit in 2005 was around 0.05 nanometer and has not increased appreciably since that time. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) visualizes details on the surfaces of cells and particles and gives a very nice 3D view. It gives results much like the stereo light microscope and akin to that its most useful magnification is in the lower range than that of the transmission electron microscope. Atomic de Broglie The atomic de Broglie microscope is an imaging system which is expected to provide resolution at the nanometer scale using neutral He atoms as probe particles. Atom Optics and Helium Atom Microscopy. Cambridge University, http://www-sp.phy.cam.ac.uk/research/mirror.php3 . Such a device could provide the resolution at nanometer scale and be absolutely non-destructive, but it is not developed so well as optical microscope or an electron microscope. Scanning probe microscopy This is a sub-diffraction technique. Examples of scanning probe microscopes are the atomic force microscope (AFM), the Scanning tunneling microscope and the photonic force microscope. All such methods imply a solid probe tip in the vicinity (near field) of an object, which is supposed to be almost flat. Ultrasonic force Ultrasonic Force Microscopy (UFM) has been developed in order to improve the details and image contrast on "flat" areas of interest where the AFM images are limited in contrast. The combination of AFM-UFM allows a near field acoustic microscopic image to be generated. The AFM tip is used to detect the ultrasonic waves and overcomes the limitation of wavelength that occurs in acoustic microscopy. By using the elastic changes under the AFM tip, an image of much greater detail than the AFM topography can be generated. Ultrasonic force microscopy allows the local mapping of elasticity in atomic force microscopy by the application of ultrasonic vibration to the cantilever or sample. In an attempt to analyse the results of ultrasonic force microscopy in a quantitative fashion, a force-distance curve measurement is done with ultrasonic vibration applied to the cantilever base, and the results are compared with a model of the cantilever dynamics and tip-sample interaction based on the finite-difference technique. Infrared microscopy The term infrared microscope covers two main types of diffraction-limited microscopy. The first provides optical visualization plus IR spectroscopic data collection. The second (more recent and more advanced) technique employs focal plane array detection for infrared chemical imaging, where the image contrast is determined by the response of individual sample regions to particular IR wavelengths selected by the user. IR versions of sub-diffraction microscopy (see above) exist also. These include IR NSOM H M Pollock and D A Smith, The use of near-field probes for vibrational spectroscopy and photothermal imaging, in Handbook of vibrational spectroscopy, J.M. Chalmers and P.R. Griffiths (eds), John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Vol. 2, pp. 1472 - 1492 (2002) and photothermal microspectroscopy. Digital holographic microscopy In digital holographic microscopy (DHM), interfering wave-fronts from a coherent light-source are recorded on a sensor and the image digitally reconstructed by a computer. The image yielded provides a quantitative measurement of the optical thickness of the specimen. DHM can be used with many different optical set-ups. In reflecting DHM, the sensor is positioned on the same side of the specimen as the light source. In transmitting DHM, the sensor and the light source are positioned on opposite sides of the specimen. One unique feature of DHM is the ability to adjust focus after the image is recorded, since all focus planes are recorded simultaneously by the hologram. Digital Pathology (virtual microscopy) Digital Pathology is an image-based information environment enabled by computer technology that allows for the management of information generated from a digital slide. Digital pathology is enabled in part by virtual microscopy, which is the practice of converting glass slides into digital slides that can be viewed, managed, and analyzed. Amateur microscopy Amateur Microscopy is the investigation and observation of biological and non-biological specimens for recreational purposes. Collectors of minerals, insects, seashells and plants may use microscopes as tools to uncover features that help them classify their collected items. Other amateurs may be interested in observing the life found in pond water and of other samples. Microscopes may also prove useful for the water quality assessment for people that keep a home aquarium. Photographic documentation and drawing of the microscopic images are additional tasks that augment the spectrum of tasks of the amateur. There are even competitions for photomicrograph art. Participants of this pastime may either use commercially prepared microscopic slides or may engage in the task of specimen preparation. While microscopy is a central tool in the documentation of biological specimens, it is generally insufficient to justify the description of a new species based on microscopic investigations alone. Often genetic and biochemical tests are necessary to confirm the discovery of a new species. A laboratory and access to academic literature is a necessity, which is specialized and generally not available to amateurs. There is however one huge advantage that amateurs have above professionals: time to explore their surroundings. Often, advanced amateurs team up with professionals to validate their findings and (possibly) describe new species. In the late 1800s amateur microscopy became a popular hobby in the United States and Europe. Several 'professional amateurs' were being paid for their sampling trips and microscopic explorations by philanthropists, to keep them amused on the Sunday afternoon (e.g. the diatom specialist A. Grunow, being paid by (among others) a Belgian industrialist). Professor John Phin published "Practical Hints on the Selection and Use of the Microscope (Second Edition, 1878)," and was also the editor of the “American Journal of Microscopy.” In 1995, a loose group of amateur microscopists, drawn from several organizations in the UK and USA, founded a site for microscopy based on the knowledge and input of amateur (perhaps better referred to as 'enthusiast') microscopists. This was historically the first attempt to establish 'amateur' microscopy as a serious subject in the then emerging new media of the Internet. Today, it remains as a powerful established international resource for all ages, to input their findings and share information. It is a non-profit making web presence dedicated to the pursuit of science and understanding of the small-scale world: See also Acronyms in microscopy Digital Pathology Interferometric microscopy Köhler illumination Timeline of microscope technology Two-photon excitation microscopy References Further reading Advanced Light Microscopy vol. 1 Principles and Basic Properties by Maksymilian Pluta, Elsevier (1988) Advanced Light Microscopy vol. 2 Specialised Methods by Maksymilian Pluta, Elsevier (1989) Introduction to Light Microscopy by S. Bradbury, B. Bracegirdle, BIOS Scientific Publishers (1998) Video Microscopy by Shinya Inoue, Plenum Press (1986) Portraits of life, one molecule at a time, a feature article on sub-diffraction microscopy from the March 1, 2007 issue of Analytical Chemistry External links General Olympus Microscopy Resource Center Nikon MicroscopyU Andor Microscopy Techniques - Various techniques used in microscopy. Carl Zeiss "Microscopy from the very beginning", a step by step tutorial into the basics of microscopy. Microscopy in Detail - A resource with many illustrations elaborating the most common microscopy techniques Microscopy Information - Microscopy information and techniques for teachers, educators and enthusiasts. WITec SNOM System - NSOM/SNOM and Hybrid Microscopy techniques in combination with AFM, RAMAN, Confocal, Dark-field, DIC & Fluorescence Microscopy techniques. Manawatu Microscopy - first known collaboration environment for Microscopy and Image Analysis. Techniques Ratio-metric Imaging Applications For Microscopes Examples of Ratiometric Imaging Work on a Microscope Interactive Fluorescence Dye and Filter Database Carl Zeiss Interactive Fluorescence Dye and Filter Database. Images formed by simple microscopes - examples of observations with single-lens microscopes. 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3,874 | History_of_Europe | The history of Europe describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present day. For convenience sake, historians divide long periods into more manageable eras. The first evidence of Homo sapiens in Europe dates back to at least 35,000 BC, the European Paleolithic period. When settlements, agriculture, and domesticated livestock appear would be the start of the Neolithic, which in Europe would be around 7000 BC. From the earliest civilization with writing to the temporary disappearance of civilization around 1200 BC, the preferred metal for tools and weapons was bronze, and historians have labeled this the Bronze Age. Europe's classical antiquity dates from the reappearance of writing in Ancient Greece of around 700 BC. The Roman Republic was established in 509 BC. The Romans expanded their territorial control over Italy, then over the Mediterranean basin and western Europe. The Roman Empire reached its greatest extent around 150. The Christian religion became legal under the emperor Constantine in the early fourth century AD. Within a few generations, Christianity had become the official religion of the empire. The Vulgate Bible in Latin emerged just before the sack of Rome in 410 by a Germanic people, the Visigoths. These were the first of a number of tribes to move west and south from beyond Roman boundaries into former Roman territories. The last Roman emperor in the west was removed from power in 476. Southeastern Europe and some parts of the Mediterranean remained under the increasingly beleaguered Roman Empire, but ruled from Constantinople rather than Rome. Under the Emperor Justinian, Roman armies restored imperial rule to many parts of the Mediterranean, but this expansion began to erode in the later sixth century. As Constantinople's hold on western territories faltered, more Germanic peoples invaded and established kingdoms. Eastern Mediterranean territories remained largely in the hands of the Christian emperor in Constantinople through the sixth century. Historians generally label this remnant of the Roman Empire the Byzantine Empire. A serious threat to its power and lands was to emerge in the seventh century from an unexpected source: the Arabian peninsula and the newly united and converted peoples of Islam. In western Europe, many of the new states had only the Latin written language, some lingering Roman customs, and the Christian religion in common. Much of Christian territory in the west was brought under the rule of the Franks, particularly king Charlemagne, whom the pope crowned as western Emperor in 800. His territories were divided within two generations and Europe came under attack from three groups: Vikings of Scandinavia, Muslims from north Africa, and Magyars from Hungary. The response to these attacks differed; some regions united to deal with the threat, others divided. Starting in the mid-tenth century, the Muslim and Magyar threat to western Europe had diminished, but the Vikings remained entrenched or threatening for longest in the British Isles. A schism within the church in 1054 A.D. aggravated earlier divisions that emerged at the 451 Council of Chalcedon and was followed by the Crusades from the west to rescue the east from Muslim conquests that had begun to encroach on the Byzantines. However, the Crusades were not confined to recapturing Muslim lands taken in the East: Spain, southern France, Lithuania and other pagan regions were consolidated under the papal power at this time. Feudal society began to break down as Mongol invaders broke through frontier areas in Europe and growing trade with other regions brought Black Death to first southern and then most of Europe. The Great Famine (1315-1317) and the Black Death (1346-1351) . Complex feudal loyalties developed and nobles of most of the new nations were very closely related by intermarriage. Thanks largely to learning recovered from Muslim and Jewish scholars in Spain and the Mideast, and its own monastic traditions, Europe awoke from the medieval period through rediscovery of classical learning of the Greeks and Romans and a few key innovations from the Muslim world (including colleges, scientific medicine, copyright, guilds, the citation index and astronomy) - respected to this day by the wearing of caps and gowns originally derived from learned Muslim scholars' attire at graduations. After the Renaissance consolidation of knowledge began to challenge some traditional doctrines in both science and theology, the Protestant Reformation began, as German priest Martin Luther attacked Papal authority. Simultaneously the turbulent love life, desire for a son, and political ambitions of Henry VIII sundered the English Church from that same authority and let the English ally more flexibly in the ensuing religious wars between German and Spanish rulers. The Reconquista of Spain and Portugal in 1492 and opening of the Americas to European colonization by Christopher Columbus simultaneously ended the Crusades east and began European colonization of the Americas west. However, religious wars continued until the Thirty Years War, Thirty Years War , which was ended 1648 by the Peace of Westphalia; the Glorious Revolution consolidated that consensus. The combination of resource inflows from the New World and the Industrial Revolution, beginning in Great Britain, allowed the development of a new economy based more on manufacturing and trade and less on indigenous subsistence agriculture. The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England The early British Empire split as its colonies in America revolted to establish a representative government. Political change in continental Europe was spurred by the French Revolution, as people cried out for liberté, egalité, fraternité. The ensuing French leader, Napoleon Bonaparte, conquered and reformed the social structure of the continent through war up to 1815. As more and more small property holders were granted the vote, in France and the UK, socialist and trade union activity developed and revolution gripped Europe in 1848. The last vestiges of serfdom were abolished in Austria-Hungary in 1848. Russian serfdom was abolished in 1861. Serf. A Dictionary of World History The Balkan nations began to regain their independence from the Ottoman Empire. After the Franco-Prussian War, Italy and Germany were formed from the groups of principalities in 1870 and 1871. Conflict spread across the globe, in a chase for empires, until the search climaxed with the outbreak of World War I. In the desperation of war and extreme poverty, the Russian Revolution promised "peace, bread and land", and radically altered the politics of Eastern Europe, and the world, up to the present day. The defeat of Germany came at the price of economic destruction, codified into the Treaty of Versailles, manifested in the Great Depression and the return to a Second World War. With the victory of capitalism and communism over fascism Western Europe now formed a free trade area, divided by the former Iron Curtain of the Soviet Union, which had formed a complex of communist police states. When the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, Europe signed a new treaty of union, which, as of 2007, encompasses 27 European countries with a population of over 400 million people. Despite the end of the Cold War, tensions between post-Soviet Russia and Western Europe continue to the present day. NATO, a post World War II military organization, also expanded to include states up to the border of Russia - the most unified and militarily dominant Europe since the first century Roman Empire. Prehistory Europe's physical landscape Homo erectus and Neanderthals migrated from Africa to Europe after the emergence of modern humans, Homo sapiens. The bones of the earliest Europeans are found in Dmanisi, Georgia, dated at 1.8 million years ago. The earliest appearance of anatomically modern people in Europe has been dated to 35,000 BC. Evidence of permanent settlement dates from the 7th millennium BC in the Balkans. The Neolithic reached Central Europe in the 6th millennium BC and parts of Northern Europe in the 5th and 4th millennium BC. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture 5508-2750 BC was the first big civilization in Europe and among the earliest in the world. Starting from Neolithic we have the civilization of the Camunni in Valle Camonica, Italy, that left to us more than 350,000 petroglyphs, the biggest site in Europe. Also known as the Copper Age, European Chalcolithic is a time of changes and confusion. The most relevant fact is the infiltration and invasion of large parts of the territory by people originating from Central Asia, considered by mainstream scholars to be the original Indo-Europeans, although there are again several theories in dispute. Other phenomena are the expansion of Megalithism and the appearance of the first significant economic stratification and, related to this, the first known monarchies in the Balkan region. The first well-known literate civilization in Europe was that of the Minoans of the island of Crete and later the Mycenaens in the adjacent parts of Greece, starting at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. Though the use of iron was known to the Aegean peoples about 1100 BCE, it didn't reach Central Europe before 800 BCE, giving way to the Hallstatt culture, an Iron Age evolution of the culture of the Urn Fields. Probably as by-product of this technological peculiarity of the Indo-Europeans, soon after, they clearly consolidate their positions in Italy and Iberia, penetrating deep inside those peninsulas (Rome founded in 753 BCE). Classical Antiquity Roman expansion by stages from 264 BC to 180 AD The Greeks and the Romans left a legacy in Europe which is evident in current language, thought, law and minds. Ancient Greece was a collection of city-states, out of which the original form of democracy developed. Athens was the most powerful and developed city, and a cradle of learning from the time of Pericles. Citizens forums debated and legislated policy of the state, and from here arose some of the most notable classical philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, the last of whom taught Alexander the Great. The king of the Greek kingdom of Macedon, Alexander's military campaigns spread Hellenistic culture and learning to the banks of the River Indus. But the Roman Republic, strengthened through victory over Carthage in the Punic Wars was rising in the region. Greek wisdom passed into Roman institutions, as Athens itself was absorbed under the banner of the Senate and People of Rome (Senatus Populusque Romanus). The Romans expanded from Arabia to Britannia. In 44 BC as it approached its height, its leader Julius Caesar was murdered on suspicion of subverting the Republic, to become dictator. In the ensuing turmoil, Octavian usurped the reins of power and bought the Roman Senate. While proclaiming the rebirth of the Republic, he had in fact ushered in the transfer of the Roman state from a republic to an empire, the Roman Empire. Ancient Greece A mosaic showing Alexander the Great battling Darius III The Hellenic civilization took the form of a collection of city-states, or poleis (the most important being Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Corinth, and Syracuse), having vastly differing types of government and cultures, including what are unprecedented developments in various governmental forms, philosophy, science, mathematics, politics, sports, theatre and music. Athens, the most powerful city-state, governed itself with an early form of direct democracy founded by Athenian noble Cleisthenes. In Athenian democracy, the citizens of Athens themselves voted on legistlation and executive bills in their own right. From here arose Socrates, considered one of the founders of Western philosophy. Socrates also created the Socratic Method, or elenchus, a type of pedagogy used to this day in philosophical teaching, in which a series of questions are asked not only to draw individual answers, but to encourage fundamental insight into the issue at hand. Due to this philosophy, Socrates was put on trial and sentenced to death for "corrupting the youth" of Athens, as his discussions conflicted with the established religious beliefs of the time. Plato, a pupil of Socrates and founder of the Platonic Academy, recorded this episode in his writings, and went on to develop his own unique philosophy, Platonism. The Parthenon, an ancient Athenian Temple on the Acropolis (hill-top city) fell to Rome in 176 BC The Hellenic city-states founded a large number of colonies on the shores of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean sea, Asia Minor, Sicily and Southern Italy in Magna Graecia, but in the 5th century BC their eastward expansions led to retaliation from the Achaemenid Persian Empire. In the Greco-Persian Wars, the Hellenic city-states formed an alliance and defeated the Persian Empire at the Battle of Plataea, repelling the Persian invasions. The Greeks formed the Delian League to continue fighting Persia, but Athens' position as leader of this league led to Sparta forming the rival Peloponnesian League. The two leagues began the Peloponnesian War over leadership of Greece, leaving the Peloponnesian League as the victor. Discontent with the Spartan hegemony that followed led to the Corinthian War where an alliance led by Thebes crushed Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra. Continued Hellenic infighting made Greek city states easy prey for king Philip II of Macedon, who united all the Greek city states. The campaigns of his son Alexander the Great spread Greek culture into Persia, Egypt and India, but also favoured contact with the older learnings of those countries, opening up a new period of development, known as Hellenism. Alexander died in 323 BC, splitting his empire into many Hellenistic civilizations. The rise of Rome Cicero addresses the Roman Senate to denounce Catiline's conspiracy to overthrow the Republic, by Cesare Maccari Much of Greek learning was assimilated by the nascent Roman state as it expanded outward from Italy, taking advantage of its enemies' inability to unite: the only real challenge to Roman ascent came from the Phoenician colony of Carthage, and its defeat in the end of the 3rd century BC marked the start of Roman hegemony. First governed by kings, then as a senatorial republic (the Roman Republic), Rome finally became an empire at the end of the 1st century BC, under Augustus and his authoritarian successors. The Roman Empire had its centre in the Mediterranean Sea, controlling all the countries on its shores; the northern border was marked by the Rhine and Danube rivers. Under emperor Trajan (2nd century AD) the empire reached its maximum expansion, controlling approximately 5,900,000 km² (2,300,000 sq mi) of land surface, including Britain, Romania and parts of Mesopotamia. The empire brought peace, civilization and an efficient centralized government to the subject territories, but in the 3rd century a series of civil wars undermined its economic and social strength. In the 4th century, the emperors Diocletian and Constantine were able to slow down the process of decline by splitting the empire into a Western and an Eastern part. Whereas Diocletian severely persecuted Christianity, Constantine declared an official end to state-sponsored persecution of Christians in 313 with the Edict of Milan, thus setting the stage for the empire to later become officially Christian in about 380 (which would cause the Church to become an important institution). Late Antiquity and Migration period In 526 Europe under gothic control, and 600 with Byzantium at its height When Emperor Constantine had reconquered Rome under the banner of the cross in 312, he soon afterwards issued the Edict of Milan in 313, declaring the legality of Christianity in the Roman Empire. In addition, Constantine officially shifted the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to the Greek town of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople ("City of Constantine"). In 395 Theodosius I, who had made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, would be the last emperor to preside over a united Roman Empire, and from thenceforth, the empire would be split into two halves: the Western Roman Empire centered in Ravenna, and the Eastern Roman Empire (later to be referred to as the Byzantine Empire) centered in Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire was repeatedly attacked by marauding Germanic tribes (see: Migration Period), and in 476 finally fell to the Heruli chieftan Odoacer. Roman authority in the West completely collapsed and the western provinces soon became a patchwork of Germanic kingdoms. However, the city of Rome, under the guidance of the Roman Catholic Church, still remained a centre of learning, and did much to preserve classic Roman thought in Western Europe. In the meantime, the Roman emperor in Constantinople, Justinian I, had succeeded in codifying all Roman law into the Corpus Juris Civilis (529-534). For the duration of the 6th century, the Eastern Roman Empire was embroiled in a series of deadly conflicts, first with the Persian Sassanid Empire (see Roman-Persian Wars), followed by the onslaught of the arising Islamic Caliphate (Rashidun and Umayyad). By 650, the provinces of Egypt, Palestine and Syria were lost to the Muslim forces, followed by Hispania and southern Italy in the 7th and 8th centuries (see Muslim conquests). In Western Europe, a political structure was emerging: in the power vacuum left in the wake of Rome's collapse, localised hierarchies were based on the bond of common people to the land on which they worked. Tithes were paid to the lord of the land, and the lord owed duties to the regional prince. The tithes were used to pay for the state and wars. This was the feudal system, in which new princes and kings arose, the greatest of which was the Frank ruler Charlemagne. In 800, Charlemagne, reinforced by his massive territorial conquests, was crowned Emperor of the Romans (Imperator Romanorum) by Pope Leo III, effectively solidifying his power in western Europe. Charlemagne's reign marked the beginning of a new Germanic Roman Empire in the west, the Holy Roman Empire. Outside his borders, new forces were gathering. The Kievan Rus' were marking out their territory, a Great Moravia was growing, while the Angles and the Saxons were securing their borders. Decline of the Roman Empire Romulus Augustus surrendering to the Germanic in 476 The Roman Empire had been repeatedly attacked by invading armies from Northern Europe and in 476, Rome finally fell. Romulus Augustus, the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire surrendered to the Germanic King Odoacer. British historian Edward Gibbon argued in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776) that the Romans had become decadent, they had lost civic virtue. Gibbon said that the adoption of Christianity, meant belief in a better life after death, and therefore made people lazy and indifferent to the present. "From the eighteenth century onward", Glen W. Bowersock has remarked, Bowersock, "The Vanishing Paradigm of the Fall of Rome" Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 49.8 (May 1996:29-43) p. 31. "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears." It remains one of the greatest historical questions, and has a tradition rich in scholarly interest. Some other notable dates are the Battle of Adrianople in 378, the death of Theodosius I in 395 (the last time the Roman Empire was politically unified), the crossing of the Rhine in 406 by Germanic tribes after the withdrawal of the legions in order to defend Italy against Alaric I, the death of Stilicho in 408, followed by the disintegration of the western legions, the death of Justinian I, the last Roman Emperor who tried to reconquer the west, in 565, and the coming of Islam after 632. Many scholars maintain that rather than a "fall", the changes can more accurately be described as a complex transformation. Over time many theories have been proposed on why the Empire fell, or whether indeed it fell at all. Middle Ages The Middle Ages are commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire (or by some scholars, before that) in the 5th century to the beginning of the Early Modern Period in the 16th century, marked by the rise of nation-states, the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation, the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion which allowed for the Columbian Exchange. history of Europe:: The Middle Ages – Britannica Online Encyclopedia The Middle Ages witnessed the first sustained urbanization of northern and western Europe. Many modern European states owe their origins to events unfolding in the Middle Ages; present European political boundaries are, in many regards, the result of the military and dynastic achievements during this tumultuous period. Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages span roughly five centuries from 500 to 1000. Events used to mark the period's beginning include the sack of Rome by the Goths (410), the deposition of the last western Roman Emperor (476), the Battle of Tolbiac (496) and the Gothic War (535–552). Particular events taken to mark its end include the founding of the Holy Roman Empire by Otto I the Great (962), the Great Schism (1054) and the Norman conquest of England (1066). During this period, most of Europe was Christianized, and the "Dark Ages" following the fall of Rome took place. The establishment of the Frankish Empire by the 9th century gave rise to the Carolingian Renaissance on the continent. Europe still remained a backwater compared to the rising Muslim world, with its vast network of caravan trade, or India with its Golden Period under the Gupta Empire and the Pratiharas or China, at this time the world's most populous empire under the Song Dynasty. By AD 1000, Constantinople had a population of about 300,000, but Rome had a mere 35,000 and Paris 20,000. Islam had over a dozen major cities stretching from Córdoba, Spain, at this time the world's largest city with 450,000 inhabitants, to central Asia. A Byzantine light Constantine I and Justinian I offering their fealty to the Virgin Mary inside the Hagia Sophia Many consider Emperor Constantine I (reigned 306–337) to be the first "Byzantine Emperor". It was he who moved the imperial capital in 324 from Nicomedia to Byzantium, refounded as Constantinople, or Nova Roma ("New Rome"). Fletcher, Banister, "Sir Banister Fletcher's A History of Architecture", Architectural Press; 20 edition (11 September 1996), ISBN 978-0750622677, pp 172 The city of Rome itself had not served as the capital since the reign of Diocletian. Some date the beginnings of the Empire to the reign of Theodosius I (379–395) and Christianity's official supplanting of the pagan Roman religion, or following his death in 395, when the political division between East and West became permanent. Others place it yet later in 476, when Romulus Augustulus, traditionally considered the last western Emperor, was deposed, thus leaving sole imperial authority with the emperor in the Greek East. Others point to the reorganization of the empire in the time of Heraclius (ca. 620) when Latin titles and usages were officially replaced with Greek versions. In any case, the changeover was gradual and by 330, when Constantine inaugurated his new capital, the process of hellenization and increasing Christianization was already under way. The Empire is generally considered to have ended after the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Plague of Justinian was a pandemic that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital Constantinople, in the years 541–542. It is estimated that the Plague of Justinian killed as many as 100 million people across the world. The History of the Bubonic Plague Scientists Identify Genes Critical to Transmission of Bubonic Plague It caused Europe's population to drop by around 50% between 541 and 700. An Empire's Epidemic It also may have contributed to the success of the Arab conquests. Justinian's Flea The Great Arab Conquests Feudal Christendom In 814 the Frankish Empire reached its peak, while Byzantium had before Islamic conquest Pope Hadrian I asks Charlemagne, King of the Franks for assistance against invasion in 772 The Holy Roman Empire emerged around 800, as Charlemagne, king of the Franks, was crowned by the pope as emperor. His empire based in modern France, the Low Countries and Germany expanded into modern Hungary, Italy, Bohemia, Lower Saxony and Spain. He and his father received substantial help from an alliance with the Pope, who wanted help against the Lombards. The pope was officially a vassal of the Byzantine Empire, but the Byzantine emperor did (could do) nothing against the Lombards. To the east Bulgaria was established in 681 and became the first Slavic country. The powerful Bulgarian Empire was the main rival of Byzantium for control of the Balkans for centuries and from the 9th century became the cultural center of Slavic Europe. Two states, Great Moravia and Kievan Rus', emerged among the Western and Eastern Slavs respectively in the 9th century. In the late 9th century and 10th century, northern and western Europe felt the burgeoning power and influence of the Vikings who raided, traded, conquered and settled swiftly and efficiently with their advanced sea-going vessels such as the longships. The Hungarians pillaged mainland Europe, the Pechenegs raided eastern Europe and the Arabs the south. In the 10th century independent kingdoms were established in Central Europe, for example, Poland and Kingdom of Hungary. Hungarians had stopped their pillaging campaigns; prominent nation states also included Croatia and Serbia in the Balkans. The subsequent period, ending around 1000, saw the further growth of feudalism, which weakened the Holy Roman Empire. High Middle Ages In 1097, as the First Crusade to the Holy land commences The slumber of the Dark Ages was shaken by renewed crisis in the Church. In 1054, a schism, an insoluble split, between the two remaining Christian seats in Rome and Constantinople. The High Middle Ages of the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries show a rapidly increasing population of Europe, which brought about great social and political change from the preceding era. By 1250, the robust population increase greatly benefited the economy, reaching levels it would not see again in some areas until the 19th century. From about the year 1000 onwards, Western Europe saw the last of the barbarian invasions and became more politically organized. The Vikings had settled in the British Isles, France and elsewhere, whilst Norse Christian kingdoms were developing in their Scandinavian homelands. The Magyars had ceased their expansion in the 10th century, and by the year 1000, a Christian Kingdom of Hungary was recognized in central Europe. With the brief exception of the Mongol invasions, major barbarian incursions ceased. In the 11th century, populations north of the Alps began to settle new lands, some of which had reverted to wilderness after the end of the Roman Empire. In what is known as the "great clearances," vast forests and marshes of Europe were cleared and cultivated. At the same time settlements moved beyond the traditional boundaries of the Frankish Empire to new frontiers in eastern Europe, beyond the Elbe River, tripling the size of Germany in the process. Crusaders founded European colonies in the Levant, the majority of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered from the Moors, and the Normans colonized southern Italy, all part of the major population increase and resettlement pattern. The High Middle Ages produced many different forms of intellectual, spiritual and artistic works. This age saw the rise of modern nation-states in Western Europe and the ascent of the great Italian city-states. The still-powerful Roman Church called armies from across Europe to a series of Crusades against the Seljuk Turks, who occupied the Holy Land. The rediscovery of the works of Aristotle led Thomas Aquinas and other thinkers to develop the philosophy of Scholasticism. In architecture, many of the most notable Gothic cathedrals were built or completed during this era. A divided church The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Battle of Hastings and the events leading to it. The Great Schism between the Western and Eastern Christian Churches was sparked in 1054 by Pope Leo IX asserting authority over three of the seats in the Pentarchy, in Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria. Since the mid eighth century, the Byzantine Empire's borders had been shrinking in the face of Islamic expansion. Antioch had been wrested back into Byzantine control by 1045, but the resurgent power of the Roman successors in the West claimed a right and a duty for the lost seats in Asia and Africa. Pope Leo sparked a further dispute by defending the filioque clause in the Nicene Creed which the West had adopted customarily. Eastern Orthodox today state that the 28th Canon of the Fourth Ecumenical Council explicitly proclaimed the equality of the Bishops of Rome and Constantinople. The Orthodox also state that the Bishop of Rome has authority only over his own diocese and does not have any authority outside his diocese. There were other less significant catalysts for the Schism however, including variance over liturgical. The Schism of Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox followed centuries of estrangement between Latin and Greek worlds. Further changes were set afoot with a redivision of power in Europe. William the Conqueror, a Duke of Normandy invaded England in 1066. The Norman Conquest was a pivotal event in English history for several reasons. This linked England more closely with continental Europe through the introduction of a Norman aristocracy, thereby lessening Scandinavian influence. It created one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe and engendered a sophisticated governmental system. Being based on an island, moreover, England was to develop a powerful navy and trade relationships that would come to constitute a vast part of the world including India, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and many key naval strategic points like Bermuda, Suez, Hong Kong and especially Gibraltar. These strategic advantages grew and were to prove decisive until after World War II. Holy wars A mitred Adhémar de Monteil carrying the Holy Lance in one of the battles of the First Crusade After the East-West Schism, Western Christianity was adopted by newly created kingdoms of Central Europe: Poland, Hungary and Bohemia. The Roman Catholic Church developed as a major power, leading to conflicts between the Pope and Emperor. In 1129 AD the Roman Catholic Church established the Inquisition to make Western Europeans Roman Catholic by force. The Inquisition punished those who practised heresy (heretics) to make them repent. If they could not do so, the penalty was death. During this time many Lords and Nobles ruled the church. The Monks of Cluny worked hard to establish a church where there were no Lords or Nobles ruling it. They succeeded. Pope Gregory VII continued the work of the monks with 2 main goals, to rid the church of control by kings and nobles and to increase the power of the pope. The area of the Roman Catholic Church expanded enormously due to conversions of pagan kings (Scandinavia, Lithuania, Poland, Hungary), Christian reconquista of Al-Andalus, and crusades. Most of Europe was Roman Catholic in the 15th century. Early signs of the rebirth of civilization in western Europe began to appear in the 11th century as trade started again in Italy, leading to the economic and cultural growth of independent city states such as Venice and Florence; at the same time, nation-states began to take form in places such as France, England, Spain, and Portugal, although the process of their formation (usually marked by rivalry between the monarchy, the aristocratic feudal lords and the church) actually took several centuries. These new nation-states began writing in their own cultural vernaculars, instead of the traditional Latin. Notable figures of this movement would include Dante Alighieri and Christine de Pisan (born Christina da Pizzano), the former writing in Italian, and the latter although an Italian (Venice) relocated to France and wrote in French.(See Reconquista for the latter two countries.) On the other hand, the Holy Roman Empire, essentially based in Germany and Italy, further fragmented into a myriad of feudal principalities or small city states, whose subjection to the emperor was only formal. The 13th and 14th century, when the Mongol Empire came to power, is often called the Age of the Mongols. Mongol armies expanded westward under the command of Batu Khan. Their western conquests included almost all of Russia (save Novgorod, which became a vassal), The Destruction of Kiev Kipchak lands, Hungary, and Poland (Which had remained sovereign state). Mongolian records indicate that Batu Khan was planning a complete conquest of the remaining European powers, beginning with a winter attack on Austria, Italy and Germany, when he was recalled to Mongolia upon the death of Great Khan Ögedei. Most historians believe only his death prevented the complete conquest of Europe. In Russia, the Mongols of the Golden Horde ruled for almost 250 years. Late Middle Ages The Late Middle Ages span the 14th and 15th centuries. Around 1300, centuries of European prosperity and growth came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, such as the Great Famine of 1315–1317 and the Black Death, reduced the population by as much as half according to some estimates. Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare. France and England experienced serious peasant risings: the Jacquerie, the Peasants' Revolt, and the Hundred Years' War. To add to the many problems of the period, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Great Schism. Collectively these events are sometimes called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages. Cantor, p. 480. Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress within the arts and sciences. A renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman texts led to what has later been termed the Italian Renaissance. Toward the end of the period, an era of discovery began. The growth of the Ottoman Empire, culminating in the fall of Constantinople in 1453, cut off trading possibilities with the east. Europeans were forced to discover new trading routes, as was the case with Columbus’s travel to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gama’s circumnavigation of India and Africa in 1498. Monks infected with plague given a priest's blessing One of the largest catastrophes to have hit Europe was the Black Death. There were numerous outbreaks, but the most severe was in the mid-1300s and is estimated to have killed a third of Europe's population. Beginning in the 14th century, the Baltic Sea became one of the most important trade routes. The Hanseatic League, an alliance of trading cities, facilitated the absorption of vast areas of Poland, Lithuania and other Baltic countries into the economy of Europe. This fed the growth of powerful states in Eastern Europe including Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, and Muscovy. The conventional end of the Middle Ages is usually associated with the fall of the city Constantinople and of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Turks made the city the capital of their Ottoman Empire, which lasted until 1922 and also included Egypt, Syria and most of the Balkans. The Ottoman wars in Europe, also sometimes referred as the Turkish wars, marked an essential part of the history of southeastern Europe. Hanseatic League, Marco Polo, Lex Mercatoria, History of trade Western Schism (1378-1417) Hundred Years War, Joan of Arc Early Modern Europe Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man depicts his vision for the perfectly proportioned man. The Early Modern period spans the centuries between the Middle Ages and the Industrial Revolution, roughly from 1500 to 1800, or from the discovery of the New World in 1492 to the French Revolution in 1789. The period is characterized by the rise to importance of science and increasingly rapid technological progress, secularized civic politics and the nation state. Capitalist economies began their rise, beginning in northern Italian republics such as Genoa. The early modern period also saw the rise and dominance of the economic theory of mercantilism. As such, the early modern period represents the decline and eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of feudalism, serfdom and the power of the Catholic Church. The period includes the Protestant Reformation, the disastrous Thirty Years' War, the European colonization of the Americas and the European witch-hunts. Renaissance The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the north and west during a cultural lag of some two and a half centuries, its influence affected literature, philosophy, art, politics, science, history, religion, and other aspects of intellectual enquiry. The Italian Petrarch (Francesco di Petracco), deemed the first full-blooded Humanist, wrote in the 1330s: "I am alive now, yet I would rather have been born in another time." He was enthusiastic about Greek and Roman antiquity. In the 15th and 16th centuries the continuing enthusiasm for the ancients was reinforced by the feeling that the inherited culture was dissolving and here was a storehouse of ideas and attitudes with which to rebuild. Matteo Palmieri wrote in the 1430s: "Now indeed may every thoughtful spirit thank god that it has been permitted to him to be born in a new age." The renaissance was born: a new age where learning was very important. The Renaissance was inspired by the growth in study of Latin and Greek texts and the admiration of the Greco-Roman era as a golden age. This prompted many artists and writers to begin drawing from Roman and Greek examples for their works, but there was also much innovation in this period, especially by multi-faceted artists such as Leonardo da Vinci. Many Roman and Greek texts were already in existence in the European Middle Ages. The monks had copied and recopied the old texts and housed them for a millennium, but they had regarded them in another light. Many more flowed in with the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Fall of Constantinople while other Greek and Roman texts came from Islamic sources, who had inherited the ancient Greek and Roman texts and knowledge through conquest, even attempting to improve upon some of them. With the usual pride of advanced thinkers, the Humanists saw their repossession of a great past as a Renaissance—a rebirth of civilization itself. Important political precedents were also set in this period. Niccolò Machiavelli's political writing in The Prince influenced later absolutism and real-politik. Also important were the many patrons who ruled states and used the artistry of the Renaissance as a sign of their power. In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to thought—the immediate past being too "Gothic" in language, thought and sensibility. Reformation The Ninety-Five Theses of German monk Martin Luther which broke Papal autocracy During this period corruption in the Catholic Church led to a sharp backlash in the Protestant Reformation. It gained many followers especially among princes and kings seeking a stronger state by ending the influence of the Catholic Church. Figures other than Martin Luther began to emerge as well like John Calvin whose Calvinism had influence in many countries and King Henry VIII of England who broke away from the Catholic Church in England and set up the Anglican Church(Contrary to polular belief this only half true, his daughter Queen Elizabeth finished the organization of the church). These religious divisions brought on a wave of wars inspired and driven by religion but also by the ambitious monarchs in Western Europe who were becoming more centralized and powerful. The Protestant Reformation also led to a strong reform movement in the Catholic Church called the Counter-Reformation, which aimed to reduce corruption as well as to improve and strengthen Catholic Dogma. An important group in the Catholic Church who emerged from this movement were the Jesuits who helped keep Eastern Europe within the Catholic fold. Still, the Catholic Church was somewhat weakened by the Reformation, portions of Europe were no longer under its sway and kings in the remaining Catholic countries began to take control of the Church institutions within their kingdoms. Unlike Western Europe, the countries of Central Europe, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Hungary, were more tolerant. While still enforcing the predominance of Catholicism they continued to allow the large religious minorities to maintain their faiths. Central Europe became divided between Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox and Jews. Another important development in this period was the growth of pan-European sentiments. Eméric Crucé (1623) came up with the idea of the European Council, intended to end wars in Europe; attempts to create lasting peace were no success, although all European countries (except the Russian and Ottoman Empires, regarded as foreign) agreed to make peace in 1518 at the Treaty of London. Many wars broke out again in a few years. The Reformation also made European peace impossible for many centuries. Another development was the idea of European superiority. The ideal of civilization was taken over from the ancient Greeks and Romans: discipline, education and living in the city were required to make people civilized; Europeans and non-Europeans were judged for their civility, and Europe regarded itself as superior to other continents. There was a movement by some such as Montaigne that regarded the non-Europeans as a better, more natural and primitive people. Post services were founded all over Europe, which allowed a humanistic interconnected network of intellectuals across Europe, despite religious divisions. However, the Roman Catholic Church banned many leading scientific works; this led to an intellectual advantage for Protestant countries, where the banning of books was regionally organized. Francis Bacon and other advocates of science tried to create unity in Europe by focusing on the unity in nature.1 In the 15th century, at the end of the Middle Ages, powerful sovereign states were appearing, built by the New Monarchs who were centralizing power in France, England, and Spain. On the other hand the Parliament in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth grew in power, taking legislative rights from the Polish king. The new state power was contested by parliaments in other countries especially England. New kinds of states emerged which were cooperations between territorial rulers, cities, farmer republics and knights. Exploration and Conquest A seaport of the Villa Medici in 1638 by Claude Lorrain The numerous wars did not prevent the new states from exploring and conquering wide portions of the world, particularly in Asia (Siberia) and the newly-discovered Americas. In the 15th century, Portugal led the way in geographical exploration, followed by Spain in the early 16th century. They were the first states to set up colonies in America and trade stations on the shores of Africa and Asia, but they were soon followed by France, England and the Netherlands. In 1552, Russian tsar Ivan the Terrible conquered two major Tatar khanates, Kazan and Astrakhan, and the Yermak's voyage of 1580 led to the annexation of Siberia into Russia. Colonial expansion proceeded in the following centuries (with some setbacks, such as successful wars of independence in the British American colonies and then later Mexico, Brazil, and others surrounding the Napoleonic Wars). Spain had control of part of North America and a great deal of Central America and South America, the Caribbean and the Philippines; Britain took the whole of Australia and New Zealand, most of India, and large parts of Africa and North America; France held parts of Canada and India (nearly all of which was lost to Britain in 1763), Indochina, large parts of Africa and Caribbean islands; the Netherlands gained the East Indies (now Indonesia) and islands in the Caribbean; Portugal obtained Brazil and several territories in Africa and Asia; and later, powers such as Germany, Belgium, Italy and Russia acquired further colonies. This expansion helped the economy of the countries owning them. Trade flourished, because of the minor stability of the empires. By the late 16th century American silver accounted for one-fifth of the Spain's total budget. Conquest in the Americas The European countries fought wars that were largely paid for by the money coming in from the colonies. Nevertheless, the profits of the slave trade and of plantations of the West Indies, most profitable of all the British colonies at that time, amounted to less than 5% of the British Empire's economy (but was generally more profitable) at the time of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century. Enlightenment The Battle of Nördlingen in the Thirty Years' War. Throughout the early part of this period, capitalism (through Mercantilism) was replacing feudalism as the principal form of economic organization, at least in the western half of Europe. The expanding colonial frontiers resulted in a Commercial Revolution. The period is noted for the rise of modern science and the application of its findings to technological improvements, which culminated in the Industrial Revolution. Iberian (Spain and Portugal) exploits of the New World, which started with Christopher Columbus's venture westward in search of a quicker trade route to the East Indies in 1492, was soon challenged by English and French and less successful Swedish and Netherland colonization attempts. exploits in North America. New forms of trade and expanding horizons made new forms of government, law and economics necessary. The Reformation had profound effects on the unity of Europe. Not only were nations divided one from another by their religious orientation, but some states were torn apart internally by religious strife, avidly fostered by their external enemies. France suffered this fate in the 16th century in the series of conflicts known as the French Wars of Religion, which ended in the triumph of the Bourbon Dynasty. England avoided this fate for a while and settled down under Elizabeth to a moderate Anglicanism. Much of modern day Germany was made up of numerous small sovereign states under the theoretical framework of the Holy Roman Empire, which was further divided along internally drawn sectarian lines. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is notable in this time for its religious indifference and a general immunity to the horrors of European religious strife. The Thirty Years' War was fought between 1618 and 1648, principally on the territory of today's Germany, and involved most of the major European powers. Beginning as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire, it gradually developed into a general war involving much of Europe, for reasons not necessarily related to religion. Thirty Years' War, Encyclopædia Britannica The major impact of the war, in which mercenary armies were extensively used, was the devastation of entire regions scavenged bare by the foraging armies. Episodes of widespread famine and disease devastated the population of the German states and, to a lesser extent, the Low Countries and Italy, while bankrupting many of the regional powers involved. Between one-fourth and one-third of the German population perished from direct military causes or from illness and starvation related to the war. Germany - The Thirty Years' War - The Peace of Westphalia The war lasted for thirty years, but the conflicts that triggered it continued unresolved for a much longer time. After the Peace of Westphalia, Europe's borders were still stable in 1708 After the Peace of Westphalia which ended the war in favour of nations deciding their own religious allegiance, Absolutism became the norm of the continent, while parts of Europe experimented with constitutions foreshadowed by the English Civil War and particularly the Glorious Revolution. European military conflict did not cease, but had less disruptive effects on the lives of Europeans. In the advanced north-west, the Enlightenment gave a philosophical underpinning to the new outlook, and the continued spread of literacy, made possible by the printing press, created new secular forces in thought. Again, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth would be an exception to this rule, with its unique quasi-democratic Golden Freedom. Eastern Europe was an arena of conflict for domination between Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. This period saw a gradual decline of these three powers which were eventually replaced by new enlightened absolutist monarchies, Russia, Prussia and Austria. By the turn of the 19th century they became new powers, having divided Poland between them, with Sweden and Turkey having experienced substantial territorial losses to Russia and Austria respectively. Numerous Polish Jews emigrated to Western Europe, founding Jewish communities in places where they had been expelled from during the Middle Ages. 1789 to 1914 In 1815 Europe's borders were resettled, its roots shaken up by Napoleon's armies The "long nineteenth century", from 1789 to 1914 sees the drastic social, political and economic changes initiated by the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, and following the re-organization of the political map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the rise of Nationalism, the rise of the Russian Empire and the peak of the British Empire, paralleled by the decline of the Ottoman Empire. Finally, the rise of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire initiated the course of events that culminated in the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Industrial revolution London's chimney sky in 1870, by Gustave Doré The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, and transport had a profound effect on socioeconomic and cultural conditions in Britain and subsequently spread throughout Europe and North America and eventually the world, a process that continues as industrialisation. In the later part of the 1700s the manual labour based economy of the Kingdom of Great Britain began to be replaced by one dominated by industry and the manufacture of machinery. It started with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Once started it spread. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. The introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity. Business and Economics. Leading Issues in Economic Development, Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-511589-9 Read it The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous. Russell Brown, Lester. Eco-Economy, James & James / Earthscan. ISBN 1-85383-904-3 Read it Political revolution The storming of the Bastille in the French Revolution of 1789 French intervention in the American Revolutionary War had bankrupted the state. After repeated failed attempts at financial reform, Louis XVI was persuaded to convene the Estates-General, a representative body of the country made up of three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. The members of the Estates-General assembled in the Palace of Versailles in May 1789, but the debate as to which voting system should be used soon became an impasse. Come June, the third estate, joined by members of the other two, declared itself to be a National Assembly and swore an oath not to dissolve until France had a constitution and created, in July, the National Constituent Assembly. At the same time the people of Paris revolted, famously storming the Bastille prison on 14 July 1789. At the time the assembly wanted to create a constitutional monarchy, and over the following two years passed various laws including the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the abolition of feudalism, and a fundamental change in the relationship between France and Rome. At first the king went along with these changes and enjoyed reasonable popularity with the people, but as anti-royalism increased along with threat of foreign invasion, the king, stripped of his power, decided to flee along with his family. He was recognized and brought back to Paris. On 12 January 1793, having been convicted of treason, he was executed. On 20 September 1792 the National Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. Due to the emergency of war the National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety, controlled by Maximilien Robespierre of the Jacobin Club, to act as the country's executive. Under Robespierre the committee initiated the Reign of Terror, during which up to 40,000 people were executed in Paris, mainly nobles, and those convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal, often on the flimsiest of evidence. Elsewhere in the country, counter-revolutionary insurrections were brutally suppressed. The regime was overthrown in the coup of 9 Thermidor (27 July 1794) and Robespierre was executed. The regime which followed ended the Terror and relaxed Robespierre's more extreme policies. The Battle of Waterloo, where Napoleon was defeated by the Duke of Wellington in 1815 Napoleon Bonaparte was France's most successful general in the Revolutionary wars, having conquered large parts of Italy and forced the Austrians to sue for peace. In 1799 he returned from Egypt and on 18 Brumaire (9 November) overthrew the government, replacing it with the Consulate, in which he was First Consul. On 2 December 1804, after a failed assassination plot, he crowned himself Emperor. In 1805, Napoleon planned to invade Britain, but a renewed British alliance with Russia and Austria (Third Coalition), forced him to turn his attention towards the continent, while at the same time failure to lure the superior British fleet away from the English Channel, ending in a decisive French defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October put an end to hopes of an invasion of Britain. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz, forcing Austria's withdrawal from the coalition (see Treaty of Pressburg) and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, a Fourth Coalition was set up, on 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, marched through Germany and defeated the Russians on 14 June 1807 at Friedland, the Treaties of Tilsit divided Europe between France and Russia and created the Duchy of Warsaw. On 12 June 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia with a Grande Armée of nearly 700,000 troops. After the measured victories at Smolensk and Borodino Napoleon occupied Moscow, only to find it burned by the retreating Russian Army, he was forced to withdraw, on the march back his army was harassed by Cossacks, and suffered disease and starvation. Only 20,000 of his men survived the campaign. By 1813 the tide had begun to turn from Napoleon, having been defeated by a seven nation army at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813. He was forced to abdicate after the Six Days Campaign and the occupation of Paris, under the Treaty of Fontainebleau he was exiled to the Island of Elba. He returned to France on 1 March 1815 (see Hundred Days), raised an army, but was comprehensively defeated by a British and Prussian force at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Nations rising Cheering the Revolutions of 1848 in Berlin After the defeat of revolutionary France, the other great powers tried to restore the situation which existed before 1789. In 1815 at the Congress of Vienna, the major powers of Europe managed to produce a peaceful balance of power among the empires after the Napoleonic wars (despite the occurrence of internal revolutionary movements) under the Metternich system. However, their efforts were unable to stop the spread of revolutionary movements: the middle classes had been deeply influenced by the ideals of democracy of the French revolution, the Industrial Revolution brought important economical and social changes, the lower classes started to be influenced by socialist, communist and anarchistic ideas (especially those summarized by Karl Marx in The Communist Manifesto), and the preference of the new capitalists became Liberalism. Further instability came from the formation of several nationalist movements (in Germany, Italy, Poland, Hungary etc.), seeking national unification and/or liberation from foreign rule. As a result, the period between 1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and independence wars. Napoleon III, nephew of Napoleon I, returned from exile in England in 1848 to be elected to the French parliament, and then as "Prince President" in a coup d'état elected himself Emperor, a move approved later by a large majority of the French electorate. He helped in the unification of Italy by fighting the Austrian Empire and fought the Crimean War with England and the Ottoman Empire against Russia. His empire collapsed after an embarrassing defeat for France at the hands of Prussia in which he was captured. France then became a weak republic which refused to negotiate and was finished by Prussia in a few months. In Versailles, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed Emperor of Germany, and modern Germany was born. Even though the revolutionaries were often defeated, most European states had become constitutional (rather than absolute) monarchies by 1871, and Germany and Italy had developed into nation states. The 19th century also saw the British Empire emerge as the world's first global power due in a large part to the Industrial Revolution and victory in the Napoleonic Wars. Empires Paris with the World Fair of 1884 The peace would only last until the Ottoman Empire had declined enough to become a target for the others. (See History of the Balkans.) This instigated the Crimean War in 1854 and began a tenser period of minor clashes among the globe-spanning empires of Europe that set the stage for the First World War. It changed a third time with the end of the various wars that turned the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Kingdom of Prussia into the Italian and German nation-states, significantly changing the balance of power in Europe. From 1870, the Bismarckian hegemony on Europe put France in a critical situation. It slowly rebuilt its relationships, seeking alliances with Russia and Britain, to control the growing power of Germany. In this way, two opposing sides formed in Europe, improving their military forces and alliances year-by-year. 1914 to 1991 Trenches became one of the most striking symbols of World War I The "short twentieth century", from 1914 to 1991, sees World War I, World War II and the Cold War, including the rise and fall of Nazi Germany and of the Soviet Union. These disastrous events spell the end of the European Colonial empires and initiated widespread decolonization. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 to 1991 leaves the United States as the world's single superpower and triggers the fall of the Iron Curtain, the reunification of Germany and an accelerated process of a European integration that is ongoing. Apocalypse After the relative peace of most of the 19th century, the rivalry between European powers exploded in 1914, when World War I started. Over 60 million European soldiers were mobilized from 1914 – 1918. The Treaty of Versailles and its Consequences On one side were Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria (the Central Powers/Triple Alliance), while on the other side stood Serbia and the Triple Entente - the loose coalition of France, the United Kingdom and Russia, which were joined by Italy in 1915 and by the United States in 1917. Despite the defeat of Russia in 1917 (the war was one of the major causes of the Russian Revolution, leading to the formation of the communist Soviet Union), the Entente finally prevailed in the autumn of 1918. In the Treaty of Versailles (1919) the winners imposed relatively hard conditions on Germany and recognized the new states (such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Austria, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) created in central Europe out of the defunct German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, supposedly on the basis of national self-determination. Most of those countries engaged in local wars, the largest of them being the Polish-Soviet War (1919-1921). In the following decades, fear of communism and the Great Depression of 1929-1933 led to the rise of extreme nationalist governments sometimes loosely grouped under the category of fascism in Italy (1922), Germany (1933), Spain (after a civil war ending in 1939) and other countries such as Hungary. "Peace, Bread and Land" was the revolutionary message Bolshevik party and Lenin's message to a Russian people, ravaged by war After allying with Mussolini's Italy in the "Pact of Steel" and signing a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, the German dictator Adolf Hitler started World War II on 1 September 1939 attacking Poland and following a military build-up throughout the late 1930s. After initial successes (mainly the conquest of western Poland, much of Scandinavia, France and the Balkans before 1941) the Axis powers began to over-extend themselves in 1941. Hitler's ideological foes were the Communists in Russia but because of the German failure to defeat the United Kingdom and the Italian failures in North Africa and the Mediterranean the Axis forces were split between garrisoning western Europe and Scandinavia and also attacking Africa. Thus, the attack on the Soviet Union (which together with Germany had partitioned central Europe in 1939-1940) was not pressed with sufficient strength. Despite initial successes, the German army was stopped close to Moscow in December 1941. Over the next year the tide was turned and the Germans started to suffer a series of defeats, for example in the siege of Stalingrad and at Kursk. Meanwhile, Japan (allied to Germany and Italy since September 1940) attacked the British in Southeast Asia and the United States in Hawaii on 7 December 1941; Germany then completed its over-extension by declaring war on the United States. War raged between the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allied Forces (British Empire, Soviet Union, and the United States). Allied Forces won in North Africa, invaded Italy in 1943, and invaded occupied France in 1944. In the spring of 1945 Germany itself was invaded from the east by the Soviet Union and from the west by the other Allies respectively; Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered in early May ending the war in Europe. This period was marked also by industrialized and planned genocide. Germany began the systematic genocide of over 11 million people, including the majority of the Jews of Europe and Gypsies as well as millions of Polish and Soviet Slavs. Soviet system of forced labour, expulsions and great hunger in Ukraine had similar death toll. During and after the war millions of civilians were affected by forced population transfers. Cold War East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall, 20 November 1961 World War I and especially World War II ended the pre-eminent position of western Europe. The map of Europe was redrawn at the Yalta Conference and divided as it became the principal zone of contention in the Cold War between the two power blocs, the Western countries and the Eastern bloc. The United States and Western Europe (the United Kingdom, France, Italy, The Netherlands, West Germany, etc.) established the NATO alliance as a protection against a possible Soviet invasion. Later, the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the GDR, Hungary, Poland, and Romania) established the Warsaw Pact as a protection against a possible U.S. invasion. Meanwhile, Western Europe slowly began a process of political and economic integration, desiring to unite Europe and prevent another war. This process resulted eventually in the development of organizations such as the European Union and the Council of Europe. The Solidarność movement in the 1980s in weakened the Communist government in Poland. The Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev initiated perestroika and glasnost, which weakened Soviet influence in Eastern Europe. Soviet-supported governments collapsed, and by 1990 the Federal Republic of Germany had absorbed the GDR. In 1991 the Soviet Union itself collapsed, splitting into fifteen states, with Russia taking the Soviet Union's seat on the United Nations Security Council. The most violent breakup happened in Yugoslavia, in the Balkans. Four (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia) out of six Yugoslav republics declared independence and for most of them a violent war ensued, in some parts lasting until 1995. In 2006 Montenegro seceded and became an independent state, followed by Kosovo, formerly an autonomous province of Serbia, in 2008. In the post-Cold War era, NATO and the EU have been gradually admitting most of the former members of the Warsaw Pact. Recent history The European Flag In 1992, the Treaty on European Union was signed by members of the European Union (EU). This transformed the 'European Project' from being the Economic Community with certain political aspects, into the Union of deeper cooperation. In 1985 the Schengen Agreement created largely open borders without passport controls between those states joining it. A common currency for most EU member states, the euro, was established electronically in 1999, officially tying all of the currencies of each participating nation to each other. The new currency was put into circulation in 2002 and the old currencies were phased out. Only three countries of the then 15 member states decided not to join the euro (The United Kingdom, Denmark and Sweden). In 2004 the EU undertook a major eastward enlargement, admitting 10 new member states (eight of which were former communist states). Two more joined in 2007, establishing a union of 27 nations. A treaty establishing a constitution for the EU was signed in Rome in 2004, intended to replace all previous treaties with a new single document. However, it never completed ratification after rejection by French and Dutch voters in referenda. In 2007, it was agreed to replace that proposal with a new Reform Treaty, that would amend rather than replace the existing treaties. This treaty was signed on 13 December 2007, and will come in effect in January 2009 if ratified by that date. This will give the European union the first permanent President and foreign minister. The Balkans are the part of Europe most likely to join the EU next, with Croatia notably hoping to join in 2011. See also History of Western civilization References External links Historical maps of Europe Maps to be combined and compared Maps of Europe at Wikimedia An Atlas of European History at Wikimedia European History Primary Sources Online access to primary sources for historians | History_of_Europe |@lemmatized history:14 europe:109 describe:2 passage:1 time:23 human:2 inhabit:1 european:48 continent:6 present:5 day:8 convenience:1 sake:1 historian:6 divide:11 long:5 period:31 manageable:1 era:6 first:23 evidence:3 homo:3 sapiens:2 date:9 back:4 least:2 bc:18 paleolithic:1 settlement:3 agriculture:3 domesticate:1 livestock:1 appear:3 would:12 start:13 neolithic:3 around:8 early:20 civilization:12 write:7 temporary:1 disappearance:2 preferred:1 metal:2 tool:2 weapon:1 bronze:2 label:2 age:28 classical:4 antiquity:5 reappearance:1 ancient:8 greece:5 roman:78 republic:14 establish:13 expand:9 territorial:4 control:12 italy:28 mediterranean:7 basin:1 western:44 empire:87 reach:5 great:28 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3,875 | Connecticut | Connecticut () is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States. The state borders Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York to the west, and because various islands of New York span Connecticut's entire coast, New York as well to the south. Southwestern Connecticut is part of the New York metropolitan area, and three of Connecticut's eight counties—including the majority of the state's population—are in the New York City combined statistical area, commonly referred to as the Tri-State Region. The center of population of the state is in Cheshire, New Haven County. Connecticut is the 29th most populous state, with 3.4 million residents, and is ranked 48th in size by area, making it the 4th most densely populated state. Called the "Constitution State" or the "Nutmeg state", Connecticut has a long history dating from early colonial times and was influential in the development of the federal government. Connecticut is also the 5th U.S state to ratify to the United States constitution. Connecticut's first European settlers were Dutch and established a small, short-lived settlement in present-day Hartford at the confluence of the Park and Connecticut Rivers called Huys de Goede Hoop. Initially, half of Connecticut was a part of the Dutch colony, New Netherland, which included much of the land between the Connecticut and Delaware Rivers. The first major settlements were established in the 1630s by the English. Thomas Hooker led a band of followers overland from the Massachusetts Bay Colony and founded what would become the Connecticut Colony; other settlers from Massachusetts founded the Saybrook Colony and the New Haven Colony. Both the Connecticut and New Haven Colonies established documents of Fundamental Orders, considered the first constitutions in North America. In 1662, the three colonies were merged under a royal charter, making Connecticut a crown colony. This colony was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. Connecticut enjoys a temperate climate due to its long coastline on Long Island Sound. This has given the state a strong maritime tradition. Modern Connecticut is also known for its wealth. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Connecticut had ready access to raw materials which helped to develop a strong manufacturing industry, and financial organizations flourished: first insurance companies in Hartford, then hedge funds in Fairfield county. This prosperity has helped give Connecticut the highest per capita income, Human Development Index, and median household income in the country. Geography New Haven New London Hartford Stamford Connecticut is bordered on the south by Long Island Sound, on the west by New York State, on the north by Massachusetts, and on the east by Rhode Island. The state capital is Hartford, and the other major cities include Bridgeport, New Haven, Stamford, Waterbury, Norwalk, Danbury, New Britain, Norwich, and Milford. There are 169 incorporated towns in Connecticut. Bear Mountain, highest peak in Connecticut The highest peak in Connecticut is Bear Mountain in Salisbury in the northwest corner of the state. The highest point is just east of where Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York meet (42° 3' N; 73° 29' W), on the southern slope of Mount Frissell, whose peak lies nearby in Massachusetts. The Connecticut River cuts through the center of the state, flowing into Long Island Sound, Connecticut's outlet to the Atlantic Ocean. Highest point in Connecticut on slope of Mount Frissell, as seen from Bear Mountain Despite its size, the state has regional variations in its landscape and culture from the estates of Fairfield County's "Gold Coast" to the rolling mountains and horse-farms of the Litchfield Hills of northwestern Connecticut. Connecticut's rural areas and small towns in the northeast and northwest corners of the state contrast sharply with its industrial cities, located along the coastal highways from the New York border to New Haven, then northward to Hartford, as well as further up the coast near New London. Many towns center around a "green," (such as the New Haven Green), Litchfield Green, Simsbury Green, Lebanon Green (the largest in the state), and Wethersfield Green (the oldest in the state). Near the green typically stand historical visual symbols of New England towns, such as a white church, a colonial meeting house, a colonial tavern or "inne," several colonial houses, etc., establishing a scenic historic appearance maintained for both historic preservation and tourism. Due to the climate, degree of urbanization, and economic status of the state, it offers easily accessed forests, rivers, lakes, waterfalls and a coastline, all developed for recreation. The northern boundary of the state with Massachusetts is marked by the distinctive Southwick Jog or Granby Notch, an approximately 2.5 mile (4.0 km) square detour into Connecticut. The actual origin of this anomaly is clearly established in a long line of disputes and temporary agreements which was finally concluded in 1804, when southern Southwick, (whose residents sought to leave Massachusetts), was split in half. Although Connecticut has a long maritime history, and a reputation based on that history, Connecticut has no direct access to the sea. The jurisdiction of New York actually extends east at Fisher's Island, where New York shares a sea border with Rhode Island dividing Narragansett Bay. Although Connecticut has easy access to the Atlantic, between Long Island Sound and Block Island Sound, Connecticut has no direct ocean coast. Windsor's Town Hall and Fountain on the Town Green The southwestern border of Connecticut, where it abuts New York State, is marked by a panhandle in Fairfield County, containing the towns of Greenwich, Stamford, New Canaan, Darien and part of Norwalk. This irregularity in the boundary is the result of territorial disputes in the late 1600s, culminating with New York giving up its claim to the area, whose residents considered themselves part of Connecticut, in exchange for an equivalent area extending northwards from Ridgefield to the Massachusetts border as well as undisputed claim to Rye, New York. Areas maintained by the National Park Service include: Appalachian National Scenic Trail; Quinebaug & Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor; and Weir Farm National Historic Site. Climate Interior portions of Connecticut have a humid continental climate, while other parts, especially the Connecticut shoreline, have a humid subtropical climate with seasonal extremes tempered by proximity to the Atlantic Ocean. The city of Bridgeport (on Long Island Sound), like most other areas in metropolitan New York, has a humid subtropical climate under the Koppen Climate Classification system. Hartford (35 miles inland) has a humid continental climate. The coast of Southern Connecticut is often considered to be the farthest north on the U.S. east coast that subtropical "indicator" species such as the Dwarf Palmetto, Needle Palm, Crape Myrtle and the Southern Magnolia can be successfully cultivated. Winters are generally considered to be cold, with average temperatures ranging from 31°F (−1°C) in the maritime influenced southeast to 23°F (−5°C) in the northwest in January. The average yearly snowfall is about 25–100" (64–254 cm) across the state, with higher totals in the northwest. Spring has variable temperatures with frequent rainfall. Summer is hot and humid throughout the state, with average highs in New London of 81°F (27°C) and 87°F (31°C) in Windsor Locks. Fall months are mild and bring colorful foliage across the state in October and November. During hurricane season, tropical cyclones occasionally affect the region. Thunderstorms are most frequent during the summer, occurring on average 30 times annually. These storms can be severe, though tornadoes are rare. Monthly Normal High and Median Temperatures for Various Connecticut Cities City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Bridgeport 37/23 39/25 47/32 57/41 67/51 76/60 82/66 81/65 74/58 63/46 53/38 42/28 Hartford 34/17 38/20 48/28 60/38 72/48 80/57 85/62 82/61 74/52 63/41 51/33 39/23 http://www.ustravelweather.com/weather-connecticut/ History A map of the Connecticut, New Haven, and Saybrook colonies. The Connecticut region was inhabited by the Mohegan tribe prior to European colonization. The first European explorer in Connecticut was the Dutch explorer Adriaen Block. After he explored this region in 1614, Dutch fur traders sailed up the Connecticut River (then known by the Dutch as Versche Rivier - " Fresh River") and built a fort at Dutch Point near present-day Hartford, which they called "House of Hope" (). John Winthrop, then of Massachusetts, received permission to create a new colony at Old Saybrook at the mouth of the Connecticut River in 1635. This was the first of three distinct colonies that later would be combined to make up Connecticut. Saybrook Colony was a direct challenge to Dutch claims. The colony was not more than a small outpost and never matured. In 1644, the Saybrook Colony merged itself into the Connecticut Colony. The first English settlers came in 1633 and settled at Windsor and then Wethersfield in 1634. However, the main body of settlers came in one large group in 1636. The settlers were Puritans from Massachusetts, led by Thomas Hooker. Hooker had been prominent in England and was a professor of theology at Cambridge. He was also an important political writer and made a significant contribution to Constitutional theory. He broke with the political leadership in Massachusetts, and, just as Roger Williams created a new polity in Rhode Island, Hooker and his cohort did the same and established the Connecticut Colony at Hartford in 1636. This was the second of the three colonies. The third colony was founded in March 1638. New Haven Colony (originally known as the Quinnipiack Colony) was established by John Davenport, Theophilus Eaton and others at New Haven. The New Haven Colony had its own constitution, 'The Fundamental Agreement of the New Haven Colony,' which was signed on 4 June 1639. Because the Dutch were outnumbered by the flood of English settlers from Massachusetts, they left their fort in 1654. Neither the establishment of the Connecticut Colony or the Quinnipiack Colony was carried out with the sanction of the English Crown, and they were independent political entities. They naturally were presumptively English, but in a legal sense, they were only secessionist outposts of Massachusetts Bay. In 1662, Winthrop took advantage of this void in political affairs and obtained in England the charter by which the colonies of Connecticut and Quinnipiack were united. Although Winthrop's charter favored the Connecticut colony, New Haven remained a seat of government with Hartford until after the American Revolution. Winthrop was very politically astute and secured the charter from the newly restored Charles II, who granted the most liberal political terms. Historically important colonial settlements included: Windsor (1633), Wethersfield (1634), Saybrook (1635), Hartford (1636), New Haven (1638), Fairfield (1639), Stratford (1639), Farmington (1640), Stamford (1640), New London (1646), Middletown (1647) Vernon Its first constitution, the "Fundamental Orders," was adopted on January 14, 1639, while its current constitution, the third for Connecticut, was adopted in 1965. Connecticut is the fifth of the original thirteen states. The original constitutions influenced the US Constitution as one of the leading authors was Roger Sherman of New Haven. The western boundaries of Connecticut have been subject to change over time. According to the Hartford Treaty with the Dutch, signed on September 19, 1650, but never ratified by the British, the western boundary of Connecticut ran north from Greenwich Bay for a distance of 20 Miles Bowen, Clarence Winthrop: Boundary Disputes of Connecticut: Boston, Massachusetts: 1882. P. 17-18. Flick, Alexander C., Editor: History of the State of New York. Volume 2: New York, New York: Columbia University Press, 1933-1937: P. 50-57 "provided the said line come not within [16 km] of Hudson River. This agreement was observed by both sides until war erupted between England and The Netherlands in 1652. No other limits were found. Conflict over uncertain colonial limits continued until the Duke of York captured New Netherland in 1664. "... On the other hand, Connecticut's original Charter in 1662 granted it all the land to the "South Sea," i.e. the Pacific Ocean. Connecticut Colony Charter of 1662 Migration from Connecticut By Barbara Lacey, Connecticut's Heritage Gateway website. Most colonial royal grants were for long east-west strips. Connecticut took its grant seriously, and established a ninth county between the Susquehanna and Delaware Rivers, named Westmoreland County. This resulted in the brief Pennamite Wars with Pennsylvania. Connecticut's lands also extended across northern Ohio, called the Western Reserve lands. The Western Reserve section was settled largely by people from Connecticut, and they brought Connecticut place names to Ohio. Agreements with Pennsylvania and New York extinguished the land claims by Connecticut within its neighbors, and the Western Reserve lands were relinquished to the federal government, which brought the state to its present boundaries. Names and symbols The name "Connecticut" originates from the Mohegan word quinnitukqut, meaning "place of long tidal river". Connecticut's official nickname, adopted in 1959, is "The Constitution State," based on its colonial constitution of 1638–39. Unofficially (but popularly) Connecticut is also known as "The Nutmeg State". The origins of the nutmeg connection to Connecticut are unknown. It may have come from its sailors returning from voyages with nutmeg (which in the 18th and 19th centuries was a very valuable spice). It may have originated in the early machined sheet tin nutmeg grinders sold by early Connecticut peddlers. It is also facetiously said to come from Yankee peddlers from Connecticut who would sell small carved nobs of wood shaped to look like nutmeg to unsuspecting customers. George Washington gave Connecticut the title of "The Provisions State" because of the material aid the state rendered to the Revolutionary War effort. Connecticut is also known as "The Land of Steady Habits". According to Webster's New International Dictionary, 1993, a person who is a native or resident of Connecticut is a "Connecticuter". There are numerous other terms coined in print, but not in use, such as: "Connecticotian" - Cotton Mather in 1702. "Connecticutensian" - Samuel Peters in 1781. "Nutmegger" is sometimes used, as is "Yankee" (the official State Song is "Yankee Doodle"), though this usually refers someone from the wider New England region. See Yankee main article. Linguist Allen Walker Read reports a more playful term, 'connecticutie.' The traditional abbreviation of the state's name is "Conn."; the official postal abbreviation is CT. Commemorative stamps issued by the United States Postal Service with Connecticut themes include Nathan Hale, Eugene O'Neill, Josiah Willard Gibbs, Noah Webster, Eli Whitney, the whaling ship the Charles W. Morgan which is docked in Mystic Seaport, and a decoy of a broadbill duck. The Charter Oak The USS Nautilus (SSN-571) + Connecticut state insignia and historical figures except where notedState hero Nathan HaleState heroine Prudence CrandallState composer Charles Edward IvesState statues in Statuary Hall Roger Sherman and Jonathan Trumbull See National Statuary Hall Collection State poet laureate John HollanderConnecticut State Troubadour Pierce Campbell Connecticut State Troubadour; CT Commission on Culture & Tourism Arts Division website; retrieved January 4, 2007 State composer laureate Jacob Druckman Demographics Connecticut Population Density Map As of 2005, Connecticut has an estimated population of 3,510,297, which is an increase of 11,331, or 0.3%, from the prior year and an increase of 104,695, or 3.1%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 67,427 people (that is 222,222 births minus 154,795 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 41,718 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 75,991 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 34,273 people. Based on the 2005 estimates, Connecticut moves from the 29th most populous state to 30th. 6.6% of its population was reported as being under 5 years old, 24.7% under 18 years old, and 13.8% were 65 years of age or older. Females made up approximately 51.6% of the population, with 48.4% male. In 1790, 97% of the population in Connecticut was classified as "rural". The first census in which less than half the population was classified as rural was 1890. In the 2000 census, it was only 12.3%. Most of western and southern Connecticut is strongly associated with New York City; this area is the most affluent and populous region of the state. Eastern Connecticut is more culturally influenced by the greater New England area, including the cities of Boston and Providence. Some cite this cultural split when noting the state's lack of professional sports teams, ie., NHL hockey since the mid 1990s, NFL football, MLS soccer and men's basketball. The center of population of Connecticut is located in the town of Cheshire. Race, ancestry, and language As of 2004, 11.4% of the population (400,000) was foreign-born, and 10% of the foreign-born in the state were illegal aliens (about 1.1% of the population). In 1870, native-born Americans had accounted for 75% of the state's population, but that had dropped to 35% by 1918. As of 2000, 81.69% of Connecticut residents age 5 and older spoke English at home and 8.42% spoke Spanish, followed by Italian at 1.59%, French at 1.31% and Polish at 1.20%. The five largest reported ancestries in the state are: Italian (18.6%), Irish (16.6%), English (10.3%), German (9.9%), and French/French Canadian (9.9%). Connecticut has large Italian American, Irish American and English American populations, as well as German American and Portuguese American populations, second highest percentage of any state behind Rhode Island (19.3%). Italian is the largest ancestry group in five of the state's counties, while the Irish are the largest group in Tolland county, French Canadians the largest group in Windham county, and old stock New England Yankees are present throughout. African Americans and Hispanics (mostly Puerto Ricans) are numerous in the urban areas of the state. Like Ohio and New York, Connecticut is also known for its relatively large Hungarian American population, the majority of which live in and around Fairfield, Stamford, Naugatuck and Bridgeport. Connecticut also has a sizable Polish American population, with New Britain containing the largest Polish American population in the state. More recent immigrant populations include those from Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia, Mexico, Brazil, Guatemala, Panama, Jamaica and former Soviet countries. Religion A 2001 survey of Connecticut residents' religious self-identification showed the following distribution of affiliations: Roman Catholic – 32% Non-religious – 12% Baptist – 10% Other Christian – 7% Episcopal – 6% No answer – 6% Methodist – 4% Lutheran – 4% Other religions – 4% Other Protestant or general Protestant – 4% Jewish – 3% Congregational/United Church of Christ – 2% Latter-Day Saint – 2% Church of Christ – 2% Presbyterian – 1% Pentecostal – 1% Assembly of God – 1% Non-denominational – 1% Muslim – 1% Jewish congregations had 108,280 (3.2%) members in 2000; The Association of Religion Data Archives Maps & Reports - State Membership Report / Kansas / Denominational Groups, 2000 The Jewish population is concentrated in the towns near Long Island Sound between Greenwich and New Haven, in Greater New Haven and in Greater Hartford, especially the suburb of West Hartford. According to the Association of Religion Data Archives the largest Christian denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Catholic Church with 1,372,562; the United Church of Christ with 124,770; and the Episcopal Church with 73,550. Recent immigration has brought other non-Christian religions to the state, but the numbers of adherents of other religions are still low. Connecticut is also home to New England's largest Protestant Church The First Cathedral in Bloomfield, Connecticut located in Hartford County. Economy Connecticut welcome sign being updated as Rell takes office on July 1, 2004. Connecticut state welcome sign. Entering Enfield, CT Entering the Merritt Parkway from New York. Entering Greenwich, CT The total gross state product for 2006 was $204 billion. The per capita income for 2007 was $54,117, ranking first among the states. There is, however, a great disparity in incomes through the state; although New Canaan has one of the highest per capita incomes in America, Hartford is one of the ten cities with the lowest per capita incomes in America. As with Bridgeport, New Haven and other cities in the state, Hartford is surrounded by wealthier suburbs. New Canaan is the wealthiest town in Connecticut, with a per capita income of $85,459. Darien, Greenwich, Weston, Westport and Wilton also have per capita incomes over $65,000. Hartford is the poorest municipality in Connecticut, with a per capita income of $13,428 in 2000. Connecticut per capita income, median household income, and median family income at State, County and Town level: Census 2000 data There are other lower-income and blue-collar towns, mostly parts of towns, in the eastern part of the State. Taxation Prior to 1991, Connecticut had a highly populist income tax system. Income from employment was untaxed, but income from investments was taxed at the highest rate in the United States: 13%. And this burden was further increased by the method of calculation: no deductions were allowed for the cost (for example, interest on borrowing) of producing the investment income. Under Governor Lowell P. Weicker, Jr., an Independent, this was reformed to the present system. This system prior to 1991 made it an attractive haven for high-salaried earners fleeing the heavy taxes of New York State, but highly unattractive for members of Wall Street partnerships. It put an enormous burden on Connecticut property tax payers, particularly in the cities with their more extensive municipal services. With Weicker's 1991 tax reform, the tax on employment and investment income was equalized at a then-maximum of 4%. Since then, Greenwich, Connecticut, has become the headquarters of choice for a large number of America's largest hedge funds, and Connecticut income from that industry has soared. Today the income tax rate on Connecticut individuals is divided into two tax brackets of 3% and 5%. Connecticut income tax instructions All wages of a Connecticut resident are subject to the state's income tax, even when the resident works outside of the state. However, in those cases, Connecticut income tax must be withheld only to the extent the Connecticut tax exceeds the amount withheld by the other jurisdiction. Since New York state has higher tax rates than Connecticut, this effectively means that Connecticut residents that work in New York state pay no income tax to Connecticut. Connecticut levies a 6% state sales tax on the retail sale, lease, or rental of most goods. Some items and services in general are not subject to sales and use taxes unless specifically enumerated as taxable by statute. There are no additional sales taxes imposed by local jurisdictions. During the summer there is one week during which sales tax on certain items and quantities of clothing is not imposed in order to assist those with children returning to school. All real and personal property located within the state of Connecticut is taxable unless specifically exempted by statute. All assessments are at 70% of fair market value. Another 20% of the value may be taxed by the local government though. The maximum property tax credit is $500 per return and any excess may not be refunded or carried forward. Connecticut does not levy an intangible personal property tax. Real estate Homes in southwestern Connecticut (part of the New York City metropolitan area) are quite expensive. Many towns have median home prices over $500,000, with a good percentage of towns exceeding $1 million. By contrast, other counties have lower medians. The median value for a home in New London County, for example, is about $275,000. http://www.city-data.com/county/New_London_County-CT.html Fairfield County has the most expensive real estate market in Connecticut. Connecticut has the most multi-million dollar homes in the Northeast, and the second most in the nation after California, with 3.3% of homes in Connecticut priced over $1 million in 2003. In 2007, the median price for a house in Connecticut passed $300,000 for the first time, even though most of the country was mired in a real estate slump. UConn in the News: August 2007 Industries The agricultural produce of the state includes nursery stock; eggs; clams and lobster (shellfish); dairy products; cattle; and tobacco. Its industrial output includes transportation equipment, especially helicopters, aircraft parts, and nuclear submarines; heavy industrial machinery and electrical equipment; military weaponry; fabricated metal products; chemical and pharmaceutical products; and scientific instruments. Due to the prominence of the aircraft industry in the state, Connecticut has an official state aircraft, the F4U Corsair, and an official Connecticut Aviation Pioneer, Igor Sikorsky. The state officially recognizes aircraft designer Gustav Whitehead as "Father of Connecticut Aviation" for his research into powered flight in Bridgeport, Connecticut in 1901, two years before the Wright brothers at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Governor John Dempsey also declared August 15 to be "Gustave Whitehead Day". A report issued by the Connecticut Commission on Culture & Tourism on December 7, 2006, demonstrated that the economic impact of the arts, film, history and tourism generated more than $14 billion in economic activity and 170,000 jobs annually. This provides $9 billion in personal income for Connecticut residents and $1.7 billion in state and local revenue. The Economic Impact of the Arts, Film, History, and Tourism Industries in Connecticut (Highlights) Connecticut Commission on Culture and Tourism Transportation Map of Connecticut showing major highways Roads The Interstate highways in the state are I-95 (the Connecticut Turnpike) running southwest to northeast along the coast, I-84 running southwest to northeast in the center of the state, I-91 running north to south in the center of the state, and I-395 running north to south near the eastern border of the state. The other major highways in Connecticut are the Merritt Parkway and Wilbur Cross Parkway, which together form State Route 15, running from the Hutchinson River Parkway in New York State parallel to I-95 before turning north of New Haven and running parallel to I-91, finally becoming a surface road in Berlin, Connecticut. Route 15 and I-95 were originally toll roads; they relied on a system of toll plazas at which all traffic stopped and paid fixed tolls. A series of terrible crashes at these plazas eventually contributed to the decision to remove the tolls in 1988. Connecticut Turnpike (I-95) nycroads.com Other major arteries in the state include U.S. Route 7 in the west running parallel to the NY border, State Route 8 farther east near the industrial city of Waterbury and running north-south along the Naugatuck River Valley nearly parallel with U.S. 7, and State Route 9 in the east. See List of State Routes in Connecticut for an overview of the state's highway system. Between New Haven and the New York City, I-95 is one of the most congested highways in the United States. Many people now drive longer distances to work in the New York City area. This strains the three lanes of traffic capacity, resulting in lengthy rush hour delays. Frequently, the congestion spills over to clog the parallel Merritt Parkway. The state has encouraged traffic reduction schemes, including rail use and ride-sharing. ctrides.com Connecticut also has a very active bicycling community, with one of the highest rates of bicycling ownership and use in the United States. New Haven's cycling community, organized in a local advocacy group called ElmCityCycling, is particularly active. According to the U.S. Census 2006 American Community Survey, New Haven has the highest percentage of commuters who bicycle to work of any major metropolitan center on the East Coast. Public transportation Rail Southwestern Connecticut is served by MTA's Metro-North Railroad New Haven Line, providing commuter service to New York City and New Haven, with branches servicing New Canaan, Danbury, and Waterbury. Connecticut lies along Amtrak's Northeast Corridor which features frequent Northeast Regional and Acela Express service. Towns between New Haven and New London are also served by the Shore Line East commuter line. Operation of commuter trains from New Haven to Springfield on Amtrak's New Haven-Springfield Line is under consideration. http://www.nhhsrail.com/ Bus Statewide bus service is supplied by Connecticut Transit, owned by the Connecticut Department of Transportation, with smaller municipal authorities providing local service. Bus networks are an important part of the transportation system in Connecticut, especially in urban areas like Hartford, Stamford, Norwalk, Bridgeport and New Haven. A three-year construction project to build a busway from New Britain to Hartford will begin in August 2009. New Britain-Hartford Rapid Transit Project Schedule Air Bradley International Airport is located in Windsor Locks, 15 miles (24 km) north of Hartford. Regional air service is provided at Tweed-New Haven Airport. Larger civil airports include Danbury Municipal Airport and Waterbury-Oxford Airport in western Connecticut. The Westchester County Airport in Harrison, New York serves part of southwestern Connecticut. Law and government The Connecticut State Capitol in downtown Hartford Hartford has been the sole capital of Connecticut since 1875. Before then, New Haven and Hartford alternated as capitals. Constitutional history Connecticut is known as the "Constitution State". While the origin on this title is uncertain, the nickname is assumed to refer to the Fundamental Orders of 1638–39. These Fundamental Orders represent the framework for the first formal government written by a representative body in Connecticut. The government has operated under the direction of four separate documents in the course of Connecticut Constitutional History. After the Fundamental Orders, Connecticut was granted governmental authority by King Charles II of England through the Connecticut Charter of 1662. While these two documents acted to lay the ground work for the state’s government, either document could be altered simply by a majority vote of the General Assembly. Separate branches of government did not exist during this period, and the General Assembly acted as the supreme authority. A constitution similar to the modern U.S. Constitution was not adopted in Connecticut until 1818. Finally, the current state constitution was implemented in 1965. The 1965 constitution absorbed a majority of its 1818 predecessor, but incorporated a handful of important modifications. Another possible source of the nickname "constitution state" comes from Connecticut's pivotal role in the federal constitutional convention of 1787, during which Roger Sherman and Oliver Ellsworth helped to orchestrate what became known as the Connecticut Compromise, or the Great Compromise. This plan combined the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan to form a bicameral legislature, a form copied by almost every state constitution since the adoption of the federal constitution. Executive The governor heads the executive branch. The current Governor of Connecticut is M. Jodi Rell (Republican). The current Lieutenant Governor is Michael Fedele. From 1639 until the adoption of the 1818 constitution, the governor presided over the General Assembly. Connecticut was the first state in the United States to elect a woman as governor without electing her husband first, Ella Grasso in 1974. There are several executive departments: Administrative Services, Agriculture, Banking, Children and Families, Consumer Protection, Correction, Economic and Community Development, Developmental Services, Education, Environmental Protection, Higher Education, Information Technology, Insurance, Labor, Mental Health and Addiction Services, Military, Motor Vehicles, Public Health, Public Safety, Public Utility Control, Public Works, Revenue Services, Social Services, Transportation, Veterans Affairs. In addition to these departments, there are other independent bureaus, offices and commissions. In addition to the Governor and Lieutenant Governor, there are four other executive officers named in the state constitution that are elected directly by voters: Secretary of the State, Treasurer, Comptroller and Attorney General. All executive officers are elected to four year terms. Legislative The legislature is the General Assembly. The General Assembly is a bicameral body consisting of an upper body, the State Senate (36 senators); and a lower body, the House of Representatives (151 representatives). Bills must pass each house in order to become law. The governor can veto the bill, but this veto can be overridden by a two-thirds majority in each house. Senators and representatives, all of whom must be at least eighteen years of age, are elected to two-year terms in November on even-numbered years. The Lieutenant Governor presides over the Senate, except when absent from the chamber, when the President Pro Tempore presides. The Speaker of the House presides over the House; Chris Donovan is the current Speaker of the House of Connecticut. The Democrats currently hold a two-thirds super-majority in both houses of the General Assembly. Connecticut's U.S. senators are Christopher J. Dodd (Democrat) and Joseph I. Lieberman (Connecticut for Lieberman, Independent Democrat) who is part of the Democratic Caucus. Connecticut currently has five representatives in the U.S. House, all of whom are Democrats. Connecticut and Vermont remain the only two states with Independent Senators. Judicial The highest court of Connecticut's judicial branch is the Connecticut Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of Connecticut. The Supreme Court is responsible for deciding on the constitutionality of the law or cases as they relate to the law. Its proceedings are similar to those of the United States Supreme Court, with no testimony given by witnesses, and the lawyers of the two sides each present oral arguments no longer than thirty minutes. Following a court proceeding, the court may take several months to arrive at a judgment. The current Chief Justice is Chase T. Rogers. In 1818, the court became a separate entity, independent of the legislative and executive branches. History of the Connecticut Courts. Last retrieved 2007-02-20. The Appellate Court is a lesser state-wide court and the Superior Courts are lower courts that resemble county courts of other states. Local government and several lists: List of municipalities of Connecticut by population, List of towns in Connecticut, List of cities in Connecticut, Borough (Connecticut), List of counties in Connecticut Connecticut has 169 towns, which serve as the fundamental local political subdivision of the state; the entire state is divided into towns. Connecticut shares a local form of government with the rest of New England called the New England town. There are also 21 cities, most of which are coterminous with their namesake towns and have a merged city-town government. There are two exceptions: City of Groton, which is a subsection of the Town of Groton and the City of Winsted in the Town of Winchester. There are also nine incorporated boroughs which may provide additional services to a section of town. Connecticut's Boroughs and Cities. Connecticut State Library. Accessed 20 January 2007. One, Naugatuck, is a consolidated town and borough. Unlike most other states, Connecticut does not have county government. Connecticut county governments were mostly eliminated in 1960, with the exception of the sheriff system. In 2000, the county sheriff was abolished and replaced with the state marshal system, which has districts that follow the old county territories. The judicial system is divided, at the trial court level, into judicial districts which largely follow the old county lines. State of Connecticut Judicial Branch The eight counties are still widely used for purely geographical and statistical purposes, such as weather reports, and census reporting. The state is divided into 15 planning regions defined by the state Office of Planning and Management. Regional Planning Coordination at the CT Office of Planning and Management The Intragovernmental Policy Division of this Office coordinates regional planning with the administrative bodies of these regions. Each region has an administrative body known as either a regional council of governments, a regional council of elected officials, or a regional planning agency. The regions are established for the purpose of planning "coordination of regional and state planning activities; designation or redesignation of logical planning regions and promotion of the continuation of regional planning organizations within the state; and provision for technical aid and the administration of financial assistance to regional planning organizations." Politics + Presidential elections results Year Republican Democratic200838.77% 620,21061.23% 979,316200443.95% 693,82654.31% 857,488200038.44% 561,09455.91% 816,015199634.69% 483,10952.83% 735,740199235.78% 578,31342.21% 682,318198851.98% 750,24146.87% 676,584198460.73% 890,87738.83% 569,597198048.16% 677,21038.52% 541,732197652.06% 719,26146.90% 647,895197258.57% 810,76340.13% 555,498196844.32% 556,72149.48% 621,561196432.09% 390,99667.81% 826,269196046.27% 565,81353.73% 657,055 Connecticut recently leans strongly towards the Democratic Party. However, Connecticut has a high number of voters who are not registered with a major party. As of 2004, 33.7% of registered voters were registered Democratic, 22.0% were registered Republican, and 44.0% were unaffiliated with any party, with 0.2% registered with a minor party. Party Enrollment in Connecticut. Connecticut Office of the Secretary of State. Last retrieved 2007-02-22. Many Connecticut towns show a marked preference for moderate candidates of either party. Democrats hold a registration edge especially in the cities of Hartford; New Haven; and Bridgeport, where Democratic machines have held power since the great immigration waves of the 1800s. The state's Republican-leaning areas are the rural Litchfield County and adjoining towns in the west of Hartford County, the industrial towns of the Naugatuck River Valley, and some of the affluent Fairfield County towns near the New York border. The suburban towns of New Canaan and Darien in Fairfield County are considered the most Republican areas in the state. Westport, a wealthy town a few miles to the east, is often considered one of the most loyally-Democratic, liberal towns in Fairfield County. The historically Republican-leaning wealthy town of Wilton voted in the majority for Barack Obama in the 2008 Presidential Election. Norwalk and Stamford, two larger, affluent communities in Fairfield County, have in many elections favored moderate Republicans including former Governor John G. Rowland and former Congressman Chris Shays, however they have favored Democrats in recent US presidential candidates, the latter being defeated by Democrat Jim Himes in the 2008 election year. Waterbury has a Democratic registration edge, but usually favors conservative candidates in both parties. In Danbury unaffiliated voters outnumber voters registered with either major party. Other smaller cities including Meriden, New Britain, and Middletown favor Democratic candidates. Democrats hold veto-proof majorities in both houses of the Connecticut General Assembly. In 2008, Democrats controlled all five federal congressional seats. The remaining Republican, Chris Shays, lost his seat to Democrat Jim Hines in the Congressional Election of that year. Christopher Dodd and Joseph Lieberman are Connecticut's U.S. senators. The senior Dodd is a Democrat while the junior Lieberman serves as an Independent Democrat caucusing with Senate Democrats after his victory on the Connecticut for Lieberman ballot line in the 2006 general election. Lieberman's predecessor, Lowell P. Weicker, Jr., was the last Connecticut Republican to serve as Senator. Weicker was known as a liberal Republican. He broke with President Richard Nixon during Watergate and successfully ran for governor in 1990 as an independent, creating A Connecticut Party as his election vehicle. Before Weicker, the last Republican to represent Connecticut in the Senate was Prescott Bush, the father of former President George H.W. Bush and the grandfather of former President George W. Bush. He served from 1953–1963. Education Connecticut is well known as the home of Yale University (1701), which maintains a consistent ranking as one of the world's most renowned universities and has one of the most selective undergraduate programs of any university in the United States (a 7.5% acceptance rate in 2009). Yale is one of the largest employers in the state, and its research activity has recently spun off dozens of growing biotechnology companies. Connecticut is also the host of many other academic institutions, including Trinity College (1823), Wesleyan University (1832), University of Hartford (1877), Post University (1890), Connecticut College (1911), the United States Coast Guard Academy (1915), University of Bridgeport (1927), Quinnipiac University (1929), Fairfield University (1942), Sacred Heart University (1964), and the Connecticut State University System. The University of Connecticut (1881) has been the highest ranked public university in New England for eight years running, according to U.S. News and World Report. The state has many noted boarding schools, including Avon Old Farms (1927), Cheshire Academy (1794), Choate Rosemary Hall (1890), Ethel Walker School (1911), The Gunnery (1850), Hotchkiss School (1891), Kent School (1906), Loomis Chaffee (1874), Miss Porter's School (1843), Pomfret School (1894), Salisbury School (1901), Suffield Academy (1833), The Taft School (1890), and the Westminster School (1888), which draw students from all over the world. Connecticut has many noted private day schools such as Brunswick School (1902) in Greenwich, Fairfield College Preparatory School (1942) in Fairfield, Greens Farms Academy (1925) in Greens Farms, Hamden Hall Country Day School (1912) in Hamden, Holy Cross High School (1968) in Waterbury, Hopkins School (1660) in New Haven, Kingswood-Oxford School (1909) in West Hartford, Notre Dame Catholic High School (1955) in Fairfield, King and Low-Heywood Thomas School (1865) in Stamford, the Norwich Free Academy (1854) in Norwich, St. Lukes School (1928) in New Canaan, St. Joseph High School (1962) in Trumbull, and the Williams School (1891) in New London. Connecticut was also home to the nation's first law school, Litchfield Law School, which operated from 1773 to 1833 in Litchfield. Hartford Public High School (1638) is the third-oldest secondary school in the nation after the Collegiate School (1628) in Manhattan and the Boston Latin School (1635). The Hopkins School (1660) is the fifth-oldest after these three and the Roxbury Latin School (1645) in Boston. The Connecticut State Department of Education manages the state's public schools. Avon High School, Conard High School, Enfield High School, Farmington High School, Greenwich High School, Simsbury High School, and Staples High School have been nationally recognized for their excellence. for a comprehensive listing. Sports ClubSportLeagueBridgeport Sound TigersIce hockeyAmerican Hockey LeagueDanbury Mad HattersIce hockeyEastern Professional Hockey LeagueHartford Wolf PackIce hockeyAmerican Hockey LeagueConnecticut DefendersBaseballMinor League Baseball (AA)New Britain Rock CatsBaseballMinor League Baseball (AA)Bridgeport BluefishBaseballAtlantic LeagueManchester SilkwormsBaseballNew England Collegiate Baseball LeagueDanbury WesternersBaseballNew England Collegiate Baseball LeagueStamford RobinsBaseballAtlantic Collegiate Baseball LeagueTorrington TwistersBaseballNew England Collegiate Baseball LeagueConnecticut SunBasketballWomen's National Basketball AssociationConnecticut Roller GirlsFlat Track Roller DerbyWomen's Flat Track Roller Derby AssociationNew Haven WarriorsRugbyAmerican National Rugby LeagueConnecticut WildcatsRugbyAmerican National Rugby LeagueHartford WanderersRugbyNew England Rugby Football UnionNew Haven Old BlackRugby UnionNew England Rugby UnionConnecticut YankeesNew England Rugby Union and MetroNY (MetNY) Rugby Union From 1979 to 1997, the National Hockey League had a franchise in Hartford, the Hartford Whalers. Their departure to Raleigh, North Carolina, caused great controversy and resentment. The former Whalers are now known as the Carolina Hurricanes. Connecticut is a battleground between fans of the New York Yankees, Boston Red Sox, and New York Mets Where Do Rivals Draw the Line? - New York Times In 1876, Hartford had a franchise in baseball's National League known as the Hartford Dark Blues. In 1926, Hartford had a franchise in the National Football League known as the Hartford Blues. From 1975 to 1995, the Boston Celtics of the National Basketball Association played a number of home games at the Hartford Civic Center. Since 1952, a PGA Tour golf tournament has been played in the Hartford area. Originally called the "Insurance City Open" and later the "Greater Hartford Open," the event is now known as the Travelers Championship. The Pilot Pen Tennis Tournament is held annually at the Connecticut Tennis Center at Yale University. The Connecticut Interscholastic Athletic Conference (CIAC) is the state's sanctioning body for high school sports. Famous residents George Walker Bush, the forty-third President of the United States, was born in Connecticut. He is a member of the Bush political family, with roots in the state extending three generations. Other notable figures from the state span American political and cultural history, including Roger Sherman, Benedict Arnold, Nathan Hale, Eli Whitney, John Brown, Prudence Crandall, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Florence Griswold, Charles Ives, Wallace Stevens, Eugene O'Neill, Katharine Hepburn, Leroy Anderson, Joanne Woodward, Ralph Nader, Jacques Pépin, Phil Donahue, Marlo Thomas, Mia Farrow, Jane Curtin, Patti LuPone, Meryl Streep, Michael Bolton, and John Mayer. American author Mark Twain, who resided in his innovative Hartford home from 1871 until 1891, during which time he published The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. He lived in Redding from 1908 until his death in 1910. http://www.marktwainhouse.org/theman/timeline.shtml Meg Ryan lived in Bethel while growing up. Paul Newman, before his death in 2008, lived in Connecticut for most of his life and it is often referred to as his "adopted state". Many music stars, radio and television personalities, and athletes have made temporary homes in the wealthy suburbs of Fairfield County. Singer Gene Pitney was born in Hartford and grew up in Rockville. Noah Webster was born in Hartford in an area that is now part of West Hartford and was the author of the "Blue Backed Speller," now known as Webster's Dictionary. The Speller was used to teach spelling to five generations of Americans. Late Night host Conan O'Brien owns a house in Washington. Actor Dylan McDermott was born and raised in Waterbury. See also Index of Connecticut-related articles References External links Government State of Connecticut - Official state website Connecticut State Databases - Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Connecticut state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. Connecticut State Register & Manual - updated annually Directory of Web sites of Connecticut towns and cities Energy Data & Statistics for Connecticut- From the U.S. Department of Energy General Tourism CTVisit.com - Official state tourism website History Connecticut Historical Society Connecticut Society of Genealogists (Est. 1968) Connecticut State Facts U.S. Census Bureau USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Connecticut Civic and business organizations Connecticut Business & Industry Association Connecticut Junior Chamber (Jaycees) Connecticut Newspapers The Connecticut Business Hall Of Fame Small Businesses for Health Care Reform be-x-old:Канэктыкут | Connecticut |@lemmatized connecticut:210 state:137 locate:6 new:100 england:19 region:12 northeastern:1 united:14 border:9 rhode:5 island:14 east:11 massachusetts:15 north:13 york:35 west:8 various:2 span:2 entire:2 coast:9 well:5 south:6 southwestern:5 part:13 metropolitan:4 area:18 three:8 eight:3 county:32 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3,876 | Khmer_language | Khmer (ភាសាខ្មែរ), or Cambodian, is the language of the Khmer people and the official language of Cambodia. It is the second most widely spoken Austroasiatic language (after Vietnamese), with speakers in the tens of millions. Khmer has been considerably influenced by Sanskrit and Pali, especially in the royal and religious registers, through the vehicles of Hinduism and Buddhism. It is also the earliest recorded and earliest written language of the Mon-Khmer family, predating Mon and by a significant margin Vietnamese. As a result of geographic proximity, the Khmer language has affected, and also been affected by; Thai, Lao, Vietnamese and Cham many of which all form a pseudo-sprachbund in peninsular Southeast Asia, since most contain high levels of Sanskrit and Pali influences. Khmer has its own script, an abugida known in Khmer as Aksar Khmer. Khmer differs from neighboring languages such as Thai, Lao and Vietnamese in that it is not a tonal language. All its main dialects that are mutually intelligible: Battambang, spoken in northern Cambodia. Phnom Penh, the capital dialect and is also spoken in surrounding provinces. Northern Khmer, also known as Khmer Surin, spoken by ethnic Khmer native to Northeast Thailand Khmer Krom or Southern Khmer, spoken by the indigenous Khmer population of the Mekong Delta. Cardamom Khmer, an archaic form spoken by a small population in the Cardamom Mountains of western Cambodia. History Linguistic study of the Khmer language divides its history into four periods. Mon-Khmer Studies Paul Sidwell. Australian National University. Accessed February 23, 2007. Pre-Angkorian Khmer, the language after its divergence from Proto-Mon-Khmer until the ninth century, is only known from words and phrases in Sanskrit texts of the era. Old Khmer (or Angkorian Khmer) is the language as it was spoken in the Khmer Empire from the 9th century until the weakening of the empire sometime in the 13th century. Old Khmer is attested by many primary sources and has been studied in depth by a few scholars, most notably Saveros Pou, Phillip Jenner and Heinz-Jürgen Pinnow. Following the end of the Khmer Empire the language lost the standardizing influence of being the language of government and accordingly underwent a turbulent period of change in morphology, phonology and lexicon. The language of this transition period, from about the 14th to 18th centuries, is referred to as Middle Khmer and saw borrowing from Thai, Lao and, to a lesser extent, Vietnamese. The changes during this period are so profound that the rules of Modern Khmer can not be applied to correctly understand the Old Khmer. The language became recognizable as the Modern Khmer spoken today in the 19th century. Khmer is classified as a member of the Eastern branch of the Mon-Khmer language family, itself a subdivision of the larger Austro-Asiatic language group, which has representatives in a large swath of land from Northeast India down through Southeast Asia to the Malay Peninsula and its islands. As such, its closest relatives are the languages of the Pearic, Bahnaric, and Katuic families spoken by the hill tribes of the region. Shorto, Harry L. edited by Sidwell, Paul, Cooper, Doug and Bauer, Christian (2006). A Mon-Khmer comparative dictionary. Canberra: Australian National University. Pacific Linguistics. ISBN 0-85883-570-3 The Vietic languages have also been classified as belonging to this family. Phonology The phonological system described here is the inventory of sounds of the spoken language, not how they are written in the Khmer alphabet. Huffman, Franklin. 1970. Cambodian System of Writing and Beginning Reader. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-01314-0 Tone and phonation Most Cambodian dialects are not tonal. However, the colloquial Phnom Penh dialect has developed a marginal tonal contrast (a level vs. a peaking tone) to compensate for the elision of . Khmer once had a phonation distinction in its vowels, which was indicated in writing by choosing between two sets of letters for the preceding consonant according to the historical source of the phonation. However, phonation has been lost in all but the most obscure dialect of Cambodian (Western Khmer). For example, Old Khmer distinguished voiced and unvoiced pairs as in vs . The vowels after voiced consonants became breathy voiced and diphthongized: . When consonant voicing was lost, the distinction was maintained by the vowel: , and later the phonation disappeared as well: . Consonants Labial Coronal Palatal Velar GlottalPlosive Implosive Nasal Liquid Fricative Approximant Khmer is frequently described as having aspirated stops. However, these may be analyzed as consonant clusters, , as infixes can occur between the stop and the aspiration (phem, p<an>hem), or as non-distinctive phonetic detail in other consonant clusters, such as the khm in Khmer. and are occasional allophones of the implosives. In addition, the consonants , , and may occasionally occur in recent loan words in the speech of Cambodians familiar with French and other languages. These non-native sounds are not represented in the Khmer script, although combinations of letters otherwise unpronounceable are used to represent them when necessary. In the speech of those who are not bilingual, these sounds are approximated with natively occurring phonemes: Foreign Sound (IPA) Khmer Representation Khmer Approximation (IPA) ហ្គ ហ្ស ហ្វ or ហ្ស Vowel nuclei There is little agreement as to the vowels of Khmer. This may be in part because political centralization has not been achieved, so standard Khmer is not prevailing throughout Cambodia. As such, many speakers of even the same community may have different phonological inventories. Two proposals follow: +Khmer vowels ILong vowels Short vowels Long diphthongs Short diphthongs +Khmer vowels IILong vowels Short vowels Long diphthongs Short diphthongs The precise number and the phonetic value of vowel nuclei vary from dialect to dialect. Short and long vowels of equal quality are distinguished solely by duration. Syllable structure Khmer words are predominantly either monosyllabic or sesquisyllabic, with stress falling on the final syllable. }} Sesquisyllabic words are phonetically disyllabic, but the vowel of the first syllable is strictly epenthetic and predictable. All disyllabic words are either borrowed, or the result of affixation via non-productive morphological processes. There are 85 possible clusters of two consonants at the beginning of syllables and two three-consonant clusters with phonetic alterations as shown below: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Syllables begin with one of these consonants or consonant clusters, followed by one of the vowel nuclei. The aspiration in some clusters is allophonic. When the vowel nucleus is short, there has to be a final consonant. can exist in a syllable coda, while and become and respectively. The most common word structure in Khmer is a full syllable as described above, which may be preceded by an unstressed, “minor” syllable that has a consonant-vowel structure of CV-, CrV-, CVN- or CrVN- (N is any nasal in the Khmer inventory). The vowel in these preceding syllables is usually reduced in conversation to , however in careful or formal speech and in TV and radio, they are always clearly articulated. Words with three or more syllables exist, particularly those pertaining to science, the arts, and religion. However, these words are loanwords, usually derived from Pali, Sanskrit, or more recently, French. Grammar Khmer is generally a Subject Verb Object (SVO) language with prepositions. Huffman, Franklin. 1967. An outline of Cambodian Grammar. PhD thesis, Cornell University. Although primarily an isolating language, lexical derivation by means of prefixes and infixes is common. Adjectives, demonstratives and numerals follow their noun: ស្រីស្អាតនោះ (girl pretty that) = that pretty girl The noun has no grammatical gender or singular/plural distinction. Plurality can be marked by postnominal particles, numerals, or by doubling the adjective, which can also serve to intensify the adjective: ឆ្កែធំ (dog large) = large dog ឆ្កែធំណាស់ (dog large very) = large dogs or a very large dog ឆ្កែពីរ (dog two) = two dogs Classifying particles for use between numerals and nouns exist although are not always obligatory as in, for example, Thai. As is typical of most East Asian languages, East and Southeast Asian Languages: A First Look at Oxford University Press Online the verb does not inflect at all; tense and aspect can be shown by particles and adverbs or understood by context. Verbs are negated by putting "", "" or "" before them and "" at the end of the sentence or clause. ខ្ញុំជឿ - I believe ខ្ញុំមិនជឿទេ - I don't believe Dialects Dialects are sometimes quite marked. Notable variations are found in speakers from Phnom Penh (which is the capital city), the rural Battambang area, the areas of Northeast Thailand adjacent to Cambodia such as Surin province, the Cardamom Mountains, and in southern Vietnam. The dialects form a continuum running roughly north to south. The speech of Phnom Penh, considered the standard, is mutually intelligible with the others but a Khmer Krom speaker from Vietnam, for instance, may have great difficulty communicating with a Khmer native to Sisaket Province in Thailand. Northern Khmer, the dialect spoken in Thailand, is referred to in Khmer as Khmer Surin and, although it only began divergence from standard Khmer within the last 200 years, is considered by some linguists to be a separate language. This is due to its distinct accent influenced by the surrounding tonal language, Thai, lexical differences and its phonemic differences in both vowels and distribution of consonants. Final "r", which has become silent in other dialects of Khmer, is pronounced in Northern Khmer. Western Khmer, also called Cardamom Khmer, spoken by a small, isolated population in the Cardamom mountain range extending from Cambodia into Thailand, although little studied, is unique in that it maintains a definite system of vocal register that has all but disappeared in other dialects of modern Khmer. A notable characteristic of Phnom Penh casual speech is merging or complete elision of syllables, considered by speakers from other regions as a "relaxed" pronunciation. For instance, "Phnom Penh" will sometimes be shortened to "m'Penh". Another characteristic of Phnom Penh speech is observed in words with an "r" either as an initial consonant or as the second member of a consonant cluster (as in the English word "bread"). The "r", trilled or flapped in other dialects, is either pronounced as an uvular trill (similar to French) or not pronounced at all. This alters the quality of any preceding consonant causing a harder, more emphasized pronunciation. Another unique result is that the syllable is spoken with a low-rising or "dipping" tone much like the "hỏi" tone in Vietnamese. For example, some people pronounce (meaning "fish") as , the "r" is dropped and the vowel begins by dipping much lower in tone than standard speech and then rises, effectively doubling its length. Another example is the word ("study, learn"). It is pronounced , with the "uvular r" and the same intonation described above. Social registers Khmer employs a system of registers in which the speaker must always be conscious of the social status of the person spoken to. The different registers, which include those used for common speech, polite speech, speaking to or about royals and speaking to or about monks, employ alternate verbs, names of body parts and pronouns. This results in what appears to foreigners as separate languages and, in fact, isolated villagers often are unsure how to speak with royals and royals raised completely within the court do not feel comfortable speaking the common register. Another result is that the pronominal system is complex and full of honorific variations. As an example, the word for "to eat" used between intimates or in reference to animals is . Used in polite reference to commoners, it's . When used of those of higher social status, it's or . For monks the word is and for royals, . Writing system Khmer is written with the Khmer script, an abugida developed from the Pallava script of India before the 7th century. Khmer Alphabet at Omniglot.com The Khmer script is similar in appearance and usage to both Thai and Lao, which were based on the Khmer system, and is distantly related to the Burmese script. Khmer numerals, which were inherited from Indian numerals, are used more widely than Hindu-Arabic numerals. The Khmer script is also used within Cambodia to transcribe hill tribe languages that have no writing system. Numbers The numbers are: 0 ០ សូន្យ (son) 1 ១ មួយ (muŏy) 2 ២ ពីរ (pi) 3 ៣ បី (bei) 4 ៤ បួន (buŏn) 5 ៥ ប្រាំ (prăm) 6 ៦ ប្រាំមូយ (prăm muŏy) 7 ៧ ប្រាំពីរ (prăm pi) (also ) 8 ៨ ប្រាំបី (prăm bei) 9 ៩ ប្រាំបួន (prăm buŏn) 10 ១០ ដប់ (dâp) 100 ១០០ មួយរយ (muŏy rôy) 1,000 ១០០០ មួយពាន់ (muŏy péan) 10,000 ១០០០០ មួយម៉ឺន (muŏy mein) 100,000 ១០០០០០ មួយសែន (muŏy sên) 1,000,000 ១០០០០០០ មួយលាន (muŏy léan) References and notes Further reading Ferlus, Michel. 1992. Essai de phonétique historique du khmer (Du milieu du premier millénaire de notre ère à l'époque actuelle)", Mon-Khmer Studies XXI: 57-89) Headley, Robert et al. 1977. Cambodian-English Dictionary. Washington, Catholic University Press. ISBN 0813205093 Huffman, F. E., Promchan, C., & Lambert, C.-R. T. (1970). Modern spoken Cambodian. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300013159 Huffman, F. E., Lambert, C.-R. T., & Im Proum. (1970). Cambodian system of writing and beginning reader with drills and glossary. Yale linguistic series. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300011997 Jacob, Judith. 1974. A Concise Cambodian-English Dictionary. London, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0197135749 Jacob, J. M. (1996). The traditional literature of Cambodia: a preliminary guide. London oriental series, v. 40. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0197136125 Jacob, J. M., & Smyth, D. (1993). Cambodian linguistics, literature and history: collected articles. London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. ISBN 0728602180 Keesee, A. P. K. (1996). An English-spoken Khmer dictionary: with romanized writing system, usage, and indioms, and notes on Khmer speech and grammar. London: Kegan Paul International. ISBN 0710305141 Meechan, M. (1992). Register in Khmer the laryngeal specification of pharyngeal expansion. Ottawa: National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada. ISBN 0315750162 Sak-Humphry, C. (2002). Communicating in Khmer: an interactive intermediate level Khmer course. Manoa, Hawai'i: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, School of Hawaiian, Asian and Pacific Studies, University of Hawai'i at Manoa. OCLC: 56840636 Smyth, D. (1995). Colloquial Cambodian: a complete language course. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415100062 Stewart, F., & May, S. (2004). In the shadow of Angkor: contemporary writing from Cambodia. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0824828496 Tonkin, D. (1991). The Cambodian alphabet: how to write the Khmer language. Bangkok: Trasvin Publications. ISBN 9748867021 External links Learn Khmer (Cambodian) course online SEAlang Project: Mon-Khmer languages. The Khmeric Branch Ethnologue entry on Khmer Dictionary and SpellChecker open sourced and collaborative project based on Chuon Nath Khmer Dictionary How to install Khmer script on a Windows computer Khmer at UCLA Language Materials project English-Khmer-English online dictionary English-Khmer-English online dictionary English-Khmer dictionary English-Khmer dictionary | Khmer_language |@lemmatized khmer:86 ភ:1 ស:7 ខ:3 ម:9 រ:10 cambodian:14 language:31 people:2 official:1 cambodia:9 second:2 widely:2 speak:18 austroasiatic:1 vietnamese:6 speaker:6 ten:1 million:1 considerably:1 influence:4 sanskrit:4 pali:3 especially:1 royal:5 religious:1 register:7 vehicle:1 hinduism:1 buddhism:1 also:9 early:2 record:1 write:5 mon:8 family:4 predate:1 significant:1 margin:1 result:5 geographic:1 proximity:1 affect:2 thai:6 lao:4 cham:1 many:3 form:3 pseudo:1 sprachbund:1 peninsular:1 southeast:4 asia:2 since:1 contain:1 high:2 level:3 script:8 abugida:2 know:3 aksar:1 differs:1 neighbor:1 tonal:4 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3,877 | Lucrezia_Borgia | This article is about the historical person. For the biographical opera, see Lucrezia Borgia (opera). Lucrezia Borgia is also the name Buffalo Bill gave to his gun. Supposed portrait of Lucrezia Borgia assumed to be by Dosso Dossi A portrait assumed to be of Lucrezia's, especially because of her trademark long blonde hair Lucrezia Borgia (April 18, 1480 - June 24, 1519) was the daughter of Rodrigo Borgia, the powerful Renaissance Valencian who later became Pope Alexander VI, and Vannozza dei Cattanei. Her brothers included Cesare Borgia, Giovanni Borgia, and Gioffre Borgia. The Borgias by Ivan Cloulas page 52 Lucrezia's family later came to epitomize the ruthless Machiavellian politics and sexual corruption alleged to be characteristic of the Renaissance Papacy. Lucrezia was cast as a femme fatale, a role she has been portrayed as in many artworks, novels, and films. One painting, Portrait of a Youth by Dosso Dossi at the National Gallery of Victoria, was identified as a portrait of Lucrezia in November 2008. NGV's Renaissance mystery woman revealed. - The Age 25 November 2008, retrieved on 25 November 2008. Only known painting of Lucrezia Borgia discovered in Australian gallery The Times of London, November 25, 2008 Infamous Renaissance woman subject of mystery portrait - Australian Broadcasting Corporation 26 November 2008, retrieved on 26 November 2008. Gallery unveils portrait of infamy - The Sydney Morning Herald 26 November 2008, retrieved on 26 November 2008. Portrait of Renaissance femme fatale Lucrezia Borgia found at NGV - The Age 26 November 2008, retrieved on 26 November 2008. This painting may be the only surviving formal portrait of Lucrezia Borgia. However, doubts have been cast on that claim. Art detective says the brother did it - The Age, 27 November 2008 Several other paintings, such as Bartolomeo Veneziano's fanciful portrait, have also been said to depict her but none have been accepted by scholars at present. She is described as having heavy blonde hair which fell past her knees, a beautiful complexion, hazel eyes which constantly changed colour, a full, high bosom, and a natural grace which made her appear to "walk on air" George R. Marek "The Bed and The Throne" p.142 ; these were the physical attributes that were highly appreciated in Italy during that period. Not enough is known about the historical Lucrezia to be certain that the stories about her active involvement in her father's and brother's crimes are true. Her father and/or brother certainly arranged several marriages for her, to important or powerful men, in order to advance their own political ambitions. Lucrezia was married to Giovanni Sforza (Lord of Pesaro), Alfonso of Aragon (Duke of Bisceglie), and Alfonso d'Este (Duke of Ferrara). Tradition has it that Alfonso of Aragon was an illegitimate son of the King of Naples and that Cesare may have had him murdered after his political value waned. Marriages First marriage: Giovanni Sforza Lucrezia Borgia was born at Subiaco, near Rome. By the time she was thirteen, she had been betrothed twice, but her father called off both engagements. After Rodrigo became Pope Alexander VI, he had Lucrezia marry Giovanni Sforza to establish an alliance with that powerful Milanese family. The wedding was a scandalous event but was not much more extravagant than many other Renaissance celebrations. Before long, the Borgia family no longer needed the Sforzas, and the presence of Giovanni Sforza in the papal court was superfluous. The Pope needed new, more advantageous political alliances, so he may have covertly ordered the execution of Giovanni. The generally accepted version is that Lucrezia was informed of this by her brother Cesare, and she warned her husband, who fled Rome. Possibly Pope Alexander never made such an order, and it was a plot on the part of Cesare and Lucrezia to drive her boring husband away. Regardless, Alexander and Cesare were pleased with the chance to arrange another advantageous marriage for Lucrezia. But before that could occur, they needed to get rid of Giovanni Sforza. Alexander asked Giovanni's uncle, Cardinal Ascanio Sforza, to persuade Giovanni to agree to a divorce. Giovanni refused and accused Lucrezia of paternal and fraternal incest. Since the marriage had supposedly not been consummated, the Pope said that the marriage was invalid, and offered Giovanni Lucrezia's dowry to agree. The Sforza family threatened to withdraw their protection of Giovanni if he refused Alexander's offer. Having no choice, Giovanni Sforza signed confessions of impotence and documents of annulment before witnesses. Affair with Perotto Another possible portrait of Lucrezia There has been speculation that during the prolonged process of the annulment, Lucrezia consummated a relationship with someone, probably Alexander's messenger Perotto. The result was that she was actually pregnant when her marriage was annulled for non consummation, and this is one of the facts her detractors have cited to support their derogatory view of her character. The child, named Giovanni but known to historians as the Roman Infante, was born in secret (1498) before Lucrezia's marriage to Alfonso of Aragon. Some believe the child was her brother Cesare's, but that Perotto, due to his fondness for Lucrezia, claimed that it was his. During her pregnancy, she stayed away from Rome at a convent, so no one would know, and Perotto would bring her messages from her father in Rome. According to this theory, Lucrezia was worried that if news of her pregnancy reached the citizens of Rome, they would surely know it was Cesare's child. Cesare, at the time, was a Cardinal of the Holy Church; if he had been sharing an illicit sexual relationship with his sister during her marriage to Giovanni, it would have to be concealed from everyone, especially their father (the Pope). In 1501, two papal bulls were issued concerning the child, Giovanni Borgia. In the first, he was recognized as Cesare's child from an affair before his marriage. The second, contradictory, bull recognized him as the son of Alexander VI. Lucrezia's name is not mentioned in either, and rumours that she was his mother have never been proven. The second bull was kept secret for many years, and Giovanni was assumed to be Cesare's son. This is supported by the fact that in 1502, he became Duke of Camerino, one of Cesare's recent conquests, hence the natural inheritance of the Duke of Romagna's oldest son. However, some time after Alexander's death, Giovanni went to stay with Lucrezia in Ferrara, where he was accepted as her half-brother. Lucrezia Borgia, by an unknown artist. Tomb of Alfonso I d'Este and Lucrezia Borgia, Ferrara. A coin bearing Lucrezia's portrait. Second marriage: Alfonso of Aragon (Duke of Bisceglie) At his first meeting with Alfonso, before the marriage took place, Cesare was very impressed by his good looks and nature. This soon changed to jealousy and hatred. It was said that Cesare did not like Alfonso because Lucrezia was very happy with him and had, since her marriage to him, stopped giving Cesare as much attention. Also, Cesare himself had a bout of syphilis and many scars remained on his face, even after recovery. This made him very conscious of his appearance, and so he started wearing masks and dressing in black. His condition is said to have made him hate Alfonso of Aragon all the more, and once when the Prince was visiting them in Rome, Cesare's men had attacked him during the night. To retaliate, Alfonso's men shot arrows at Cesare one day while he strolled in the garden. This infuriated Cesare, and he had his servant(s) strangle Alfonso while in the recovery room. Lucrezia and Alfonso had only one child, Rodrigo, who predeceased his mother in August 1512 at the age of thirteen. While the reason for Alfonso's murder could have been jealousy, it did have a political background. Just like Lucrezia's first marriage, the second one soon became a useless alliance and a reason for embarrassment for the Pope and his son. Cesare had just allied himself with the King Louis XII of France, who claimed the duchy of Naples, which was in the hands of Alfonso's family at the time. Whatever the reasons for his murder, Lucrezia was genuinely fond of her husband and broken–hearted upon his death. Third marriage: Alfonso d'Este (Duke of Ferrara) After the death of her second husband, Lucrezia's father, Pope Alexander VI, wanted to arrange a third marriage. She then married Alfonso d'Este, Duke of Ferrara. She gave her third husband a number of children and proved to be a respectable and accomplished Renaissance duchess, effectively rising above her questionable past and surviving the fall of the Borgias following her father's death. Neither partner was faithful: Lucrezia enjoyed a long relationship with her bisexual brother-in-law, Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua Lucrezia Borgia: Life, Love and Death in Renaissance Italy, Sarah Bradford, Viking, 2004 Observer review of Lucrezia Borgia: Life, Love and Death in Renaissance Italy as well as a love affair with the poet Pietro Bembo. Francesco's wife was the cultured intellectual Isabella d'Este, the sister of Alfonso, to whom Lucrezia had made overtures of friendship to no avail. The affair between Francesco and Lucrezia was passionate, more sexual than sentimental as can be attested in the fevered love letters the pair wrote one another. The affair ended when Francesco contracted syphilis and had to perforce end sexual relations with Lucrezia. Marek.p.169 Lucrezia Borgia died in Ferrara on 24 June 1519 from complications after giving birth to her eighth child. She was buried in the convent of Corpus Domini. On 15 October 1816, the Romantic poet Lord Byron visited the Ambrosian Library of Milan. He was delighted by the letters between Borgia and Bembo ("The prettiest love letters in the world" Viragos on the march, The Spectator, June 25, 2005, by Ian Thomson, a review of Viragos on the march by Gaia Servadio. I. B. Tauris, ISBN 1850434212. Pietro Bembo: A Renaissance Courtier Who Had His Cake and Ate It Too, Ed Quattrocchi, Caxtonian: Journal of the Caxton Club of Chicago, Volume XIII, Nº. 10, October 2005. ) and claimed to have managed to steal a lock of her hair ("the prettiest and fairest imaginable.") held on display The Byron Chronology: 1816-1819 - Separation and Exile on the Continent. Byron by John Nichol. Letter to Augusta Leigh, Milan, October 15, 1816. Lord Byron's Letters and Journals, Chapter 5: Separation and Exile. . Children Lucrezia was mother to either seven or eight children: Giovanni Borgia, "infans Romanus" ("Child of Rome", c. 1498 - 1548). Paternity acknowledged by Perotto; however Alexander and Cesare have also been identified as the father. It is also possible that this child (identified in later life as Lucrezia's half-brother) was the result of a liaison between Rodrigo Borgia (Pope Alexander VI, Lucrezia's father) and an unknown mistress, as averred in a Papal Bull, and was not Lucrezia's child. Rodrigo Borgia of Aragon (November 1, 1499 - August, 1512). Son by Alfonso of Aragon. Ercole II d'Este, Duke of Ferrara (April 5, 1508 - October 3, 1559). Ippolito II d'Este (August 25, 1509 - December 1, 1572). Archbishop of Milan and later Cardinal. Alessandro d'Este (1514 - 1516). Leonora d'Este (July 3, 1515 - July 15, 1575). A nun. Francesco d'Este, Marchese di Massalombarda (November 1, 1516 - February 2, 1578). Isabella Maria d'Este (Born and deceased on June 14, 1519). Complications at birth caused the death of Lucrezia ten days later. Lucrezia is ancestress of many notable people including American Civil War general Pierre G.T. Beauregard Frances P.Keyes"Madame Castel's Lodger"pages 40-41 and actress Brooke Shields www.Worldroots.com Rumours Portrait of a Woman by Bartolomeo Veneziano, traditionally assumed to be Lucrezia Borgia. Several rumours have persisted throughout the years, primarily speculating as to the nature of the extravagant parties thrown by the Borgia family. Many of these concern allegations of incest, poisoning, and murder on her part; however, no historical basis for these rumors has ever been brought forward, beyond allegations made by the rivals of the Borgias. It is rumoured that Lucrezia was in possession of a hollow ring that she used frequently to poison drinks. Lucretia Borgia | guardian.co.uk:Philip Pank (February 5 2002) BBC - h2g2 - A Brief History of Poisoning:28th July 2005 An early 20th-century painting by Frank Cadogan Cowper that hangs in the London art gallery, Tate Britain, portrays Lucrezia taking the place of her father, Alexander VI at an official Vatican meeting. This apparently documents an actual event, although the precise moment depicted, (a Franciscan friar kissing Lucrezia's feet), was invented by the artist. Tate Collection | Lucretia Borgia Reigns in the Vatican in the Absence of Pope Alexander VI:Frank Cadogan Cowper 1877-1958 Biographies Lucrezia Borgia - Life, Love And Death In Renaissance Italy by Sarah Bradford; Viking 2004 ISBN 0-670-03353-7 Lucrezia Borgia: A Biography (©1978) by Rachel Erlanger (ISBN 0-8015-4725-3) External link to on-line biography The Borgias (1971) by Michael Mallett M.G. Scarsbrook's Lucrezia Borgia Research Page contains a detailed timeline and a documented profile for Lucrezia Borgia Plays, operas, films, and novels Plays and operas Victor Hugo's tragedy, loosely based on the stories of Lucrezia, was transformed into a libretto by Felice Romani for Donizetti's opera, Lucrezia Borgia (1834), first performed at La Scala, Milan, 26 December 1834. When it was produced in Paris, in 1840, Hugo obtained an injunction against further productions. The libretto was then rewritten and retitled La Rinegata, with the Italian characters changed to Turks, and the performances were resumed. The first English-language production was in London on 30 December 1843. David Copelin's dark comedy Bella Donna dramatized a quasi-fictional series of events in the Borgia legend. First performed at the Toronto Fringe Festival in July, 2005; published by Playwrights Canada Press, 2006. Joseph Aragon's musical Lucrezia Borgia portrayed the title character in a more charitable light than the accepted norm. First performed at the Winnipeg Fringe Theatre Festival by the Canadian Musical Theatre Development Group in July, 2007. Gytha Lodge's play, The Life of Lucrezia Borgia, performed by the Girton Players in November, 2008. "Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia" by Robert Lalonde at David Davalos' 2002 play Daedalus features Lucrezia Borgia involved in a secret love affair with Leonardo da Vinci, who is working as a military engineer for her brother Cesare. Songs Mentioned in the Roger Waters's song "Leaving Beirut". Lucretia Borgia (sic) is the title of a track on the Momus album The Little Red Songbook "Lucretia My Reflection" is the title of a song by The Sisters of Mercy partly inspired by Lucrecia Borgia Films Lucrezia Borgia; Or, Plaything of Power (1923) British film with Nina Vanna in the title role. Lucrezia Borgia (1922) a silent movie with Liane Haid, directed by Richard Oswald. Bride of Vengeance (1923) a silent movie again with Liane Haid Don Juan (1926), one of the first Vitaphone/Silent films starring John Barrymore features the Borgias as villains. Lucrèce Borgia (1935), a French film version with Edwige Feuillère, directed by Abel Gance. Lucrezia Borgia (1940), an Italian film with Isa Pola, directed by Hans Hinrich. Contes Immoraux (Immoral Tales, 1974), directed by Walerian Borowczyk, includes an entire segment focusing on Lucrezia Borgia's allegedly incestuous relationship to her father. Bride of Vengeance or A Mask for Lucretia (1949) starred Paulette Goddard as Lucretia (and Macdonald Carey as Cesare) in a fictionalized portrayal of her as her brother's tool who went straight once she had the chance, a view many historians endorse. Lucrèce Borgia (1953), a French color movie with Martine Carol, directed by Christian-Jaque , with Pedro Armendàriz as Cesare, and french actor Christian Marquand as Perotto. French spectators stood in long queues to see lush Martine Carol, fully frontly naked, emerge out of her bath-tub (a very unusual sight in those years movies) - or, in full Renaissance attire, sprawling under a severe whipping by his infuriated foaming brother. The Shaggy Dog (1958), a Walt Disney film features a ring that was owned by Lucretia Borgia that has the power to turn men into dogs when its inscription is read aloud. Lucrezia giovane (1974), an Italian film with actress Simonetta Stefanelli as Lucrezia, directed by Luciano Ercoli. Le Notti segrete di Lucrezia Borgia (1982), a Spanish-Italian film with Finnish actress Sirpa Lane as Lucrezia, directed by Roberto Bianchi Montero. Una stirpe maledetta di Lucrezia Borgia (1997) an Italian adult movie with Sarah Young, directed by Mario Bianchi. Los Borgia (2006), a Spanish-Italian film with María Valverde as Lucrezia. At different times both Scarlett Johansson and Christina Ricci have been slated to appear as Lucrezia in the as-yet-unmade film Borgia. Mario Puzo namechecks Borgia in his 1990 film The Godfather: Part 3 when Michael Corleone (Al Pacino) delivers the line "we’re back with the Borgias" to describe the situation he finds himself in. In the Three Stooges short If a Body Meets a Body, Moe says "get out of here, you Lucrezia Borgia !" to Curly after accusing him of trying to poison the Stooges with soup made from horse meat. Novels The historical novel, Prince of Foxes, made into a movie of the same name starring Orson Welles and Tyrone Power. F.M. Klinger´s 1791 novel Fausts Leben, Thaten und Höllenfahrt features an episode in which the Borgias figure, including an affair between Faust and Lucrezia. Rafael Sabatini's novel The Shame of Motley features Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia as supporting characters. Rafael Sabatini wrote a book, , that attempts to treat the Borgias historically. Gregory Maguire's novel Mirror, Mirror is a historical fantasy that retells the story of Snow White, in which Lucrezia figures prominently as the evil stepmother. She is depicted as a decadent, vain and beautiful woman with a mind for politics and little regard for others. Her affair with her father is hinted at but never confirmed, but her relationship with Cesare is a major plot point. Jeanne Kalogridis's book The Borgia Bride tells the story of Sancha of Aragon (sister of Alfonso who later married Lucrezia) married to Jofre Borgia about her life in Rome and her involvement with Cesare and Lucrezia. The latter is depicted as having an incestuous relationship with her father and brother but not as a vicious person. She's mostly manipulated by her family. Jean Plaidy's two novels, "Madonna of the Seven Hills" and "Light On Lucrezia" follow the story of Lucrezia and her entanglement with her father and brothers. Plaidy's writing is well-supported by research and her extensive knowledge of European history; based on her understanding, Plaidy portrays Lucrezia as a pawn of her father and brother Cesare. Kerri Hawkins' 2002 novel Blood Legacy: The Story of Ryan includes Lucrezia, her father and brother Cesare as minor characters. A novel The Family, written by Mario Puzo, was centered around the Borgia family. Although this novel was started early in his career, it was his last novel to be completed. Puzo called the Borgias "the first crime family" and incorporated many of their exploits and characteristics into his blockbuster novel, "The Godfather"; most prominently the notion that family loyalty was of primary importance above all else. She appears as a side character in the Dutch book De Scharlaken Stad, by Hella S. Haasse. The book tells the story of her brother Giovanni Borgia. A fictionalized version of Lucrezia, along with her brother Cesare, appeared as villains in the 2005 Buffyverse novel Queen of the Slayers. The novel Lucrezia Borgia and the Mother of Poisons, Roberta Gellis, Forge Books, 2004. Depicts Lucrezia as an amateur sleuth tracking down who is doing the poisoning and learning about the properties of aconite along the way. The novel Lucrezia Borgia, John Faunce, Three Rivers Press; Reprint edition 2004 The historical novel, Lucrezia Borgia, by Maria Bellonci, Mondadori, 2003, was first published in 1939, winning the Viarreggio Literary Award and the Galante Prize. An English translation, The Life and Times of Lucrezia Borgia, is available from Phoenix Press. In the novel Mandingo, Lucretia Borgia is the name of cook. Even though she is a black slave, she is portrayed as a strong, ambitious and extremely intelligent character who features prominently in many of the sequels in the Falconhurst series. Comic books Milo Manara, an Italian comic book creator, drew a comic book divided in three parts depicting the story of the Borgia family. The texts were written by Alejandro Jodorowsky. A fictionalized version of Lucrezia appeared in issues 98-100 of Avengers West Coast as the supervillain Cyana, a member of the fourth incarnation of the Lethal Legion. The manga, Cantarella, by You Higuri follows the life of Cesare Borgia, and in effect, Lucrezia Borgia as well. Currently on hiatus, the manga is at 10 books. Television Lucrezia Borgia animation short done on Shermon and Peabody part of the first season of the Rocky and Bullwinkle show. Lucrezia Borgia is mentioned in M*A*S*H by Charles Emerson Winchester (played by David Ogden Stiers). He discusses that gourmet cooking in the Army would be better served by Lucrezia than the Army cook. Lucrezia Borgia is mentioned in Blackadder with Rowan Atkinson. Blackadder says to Baldrick: If you were to serve up one of your meals in Staff HQ, you would be arrested for the greatest mass poisoning since Lucrezia Borgia invited 500 of her close friends round for a wine and anthrax party. Lucrezia Borgia appeared as the final villain in season 2 of Witchblade. She manages to get hold of the Witchblade and attempts to use it against Sara Pezzini. Lucrezia Borgia is mentioned in the "Darrin on a Pedestal" episode of Bewitched, when Samantha says her cousin Serena makes Lucrezia Borgia look like Shirley Temple. Lucrezia Borgia is mentioned by Dr. Frasier Crane in "The Peterson Principle", a 1986 episode of Cheers. See also Felice della Rovere References | Lucrezia_Borgia |@lemmatized article:1 historical:6 person:2 biographical:1 opera:5 see:3 lucrezia:100 borgia:82 also:6 name:5 buffalo:1 bill:1 give:4 gun:1 suppose:1 portrait:12 assume:4 dosso:2 dossi:2 especially:2 trademark:1 long:4 blonde:2 hair:3 april:2 june:4 daughter:1 rodrigo:5 powerful:3 renaissance:12 valencian:1 later:5 become:4 pope:10 alexander:14 vi:7 vannozza:1 dei:1 cattanei:1 brother:18 include:5 cesare:31 giovanni:20 gioffre:1 ivan:1 cloulas:1 page:3 family:12 come:1 epitomize:1 ruthless:1 machiavellian:1 politics:2 sexual:4 corruption:1 allege:1 characteristic:2 papacy:1 cast:2 femme:2 fatale:2 role:2 portray:4 many:9 artwork:1 novel:18 film:13 one:10 painting:5 youth:1 national:1 gallery:4 victoria:1 identify:3 november:14 ngv:2 mystery:2 woman:4 reveal:1 age:4 retrieve:4 known:1 discover:1 australian:2 time:7 london:3 infamous:1 subject:1 broadcasting:1 corporation:1 unveils:1 infamy:1 sydney:1 morning:1 herald:1 find:2 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3,878 | Julia_Roberts | Julia Fiona Roberts (born October 28, 1967) is an American actress. She became well known during the early 1990s after starring in the romantic comedy Pretty Woman opposite Richard Gere, which grossed $463 million worldwide. After receiving Academy Award nominations for Steel Magnolias in 1990 and Pretty Woman in 1991, she won the Academy Award for Best Actress in 2001 for her performance in Erin Brockovich. Her films, which also include romantic comedies such as My Best Friend's Wedding, Mystic Pizza, Notting Hill, Runaway Bride, and crime films such as The Pelican Brief and Ocean's Eleven and Twelve have collectively earned box office receipts of over $2 billion, making her the most successful actress in terms of box office receipts. Box Office Mojo - People Index Roberts had become one of the highest-paid actresses in the world, topping the Hollywood Reporter'''s annual "power list" of top-earning female stars from 2002 to 2005, until 2006, when Nicole Kidman won the top spot. Her fee for 1990's Pretty Woman was $300,000; in 2003, she was paid an unprecedented $25 million for her role in Mona Lisa Smile. As of 2007, Roberts's net worth was estimated to be $140 million. The 20 Richest Women In Entertainment - Forbes.com Roberts was the first actress to appear on the cover of Vogue and the first woman to land the cover of GQ. She has been named one of People magazine's "50 Most Beautiful People in the World" eleven times, tied with Halle Berry. In 2001 Ladies Home Journal ranked her as the 11th most powerful woman in America, beating out then national security advisor Condoleezza Rice and first lady Laura Bush. The power index Roberts has a production company called Red Om Films, formerly Shoelace Productions ("Moder" spelled backwards, after her husband's last name). Early life Roberts was born in Atlanta, Georgia at Crawford Long Hospital, which is now Emory Hospital Midtown. Her father, Walter Grady Roberts, was a vacuum cleaner salesman, and her Minneapolis, Minnesota-born mother, Betty Lou Motes (née Bredemus), was a one-time church secretary and real estate agent. Her parents, one-time actors and playwrights, met while performing theatrical productions for the armed forces and later co-founded the Atlanta Actors and Writers Workshop in Atlanta, Georgia off Juniper berry Street in Midtown; the two divorced in 1971. Julia Roberts Biography - Yahoo! Movies Her mother later married Michael Motes and had another daughter, named Nancy Motes who was born in 1976. Roberts's father died of cancer when she was ten. Her older brother, Eric Roberts, (from whom she was once estranged but reconciled since 2004) and sister, Lisa Roberts Gillan, are also actors. While Julia's mother was pregnant with Julia, she and her husband ran an acting school for children in Decatur, Georgia. The children of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Coretta Scott King attended the school. As a thank-you for their service, Mrs. King paid the hospital bill when Mrs. Roberts gave birth to Julia. Roberts moved to Smyrna, Georgia (a suburb of Atlanta) in 1972, where she attended Fitzhugh Lee Elementary School, Griffin Middle School and Campbell High School. http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-1517 The New Georgia Encyclopedia She played clarinet in the band. Roberts wanted to be a veterinarian as a child, but soon after graduating from Smyrna's Campbell High School, Menu1 she headed to New York to join her sister Lisa Roberts Gillan and pursue a career in acting. Once there, she signed with the Click modeling agency and enrolled in acting classes. She reverted to her original name "Julia Roberts" when she discovered that a "Julie Roberts" was already registered with the Screen Actors Guild. Her niece, Emma Roberts, whom Julia used to take to movie sets when she was a young girl, has joined her father and aunts in the acting business. Career 1986–1989 Roberts made her film debut playing a supporting role opposite her brother, Eric, in Blood Red (she has just two words of dialogue), which, although filmed in 1987 was not released until 1989 (She was just about to have her 19th birthday during the filming). Her first television appearance was as a juvenile rape victim in the initial season of the series Crime Story with Dennis Farina, in the episode titled "The Survivor", broadcast on February 13, 1987. She also once appeared on Sesame Street opposite the character Elmo, demonstrating her ability to change emotions. Roberts first caught the attention of moviegoers with her performance in the independent film Mystic Pizza in 1988; that same year, she had a role in the fourth season finale of Miami Vice. The following year, she was featured in Steel Magnolias as a young bride battling diabetes and garnered her first Oscar nomination (as Best Supporting Actress) for her performance. 1990–2000 Roberts became known to worldwide audiences when she co-starred with Richard Gere in the Cinderella/Pygmalionesque story Pretty Woman in 1990. Roberts won the role after the first two choices for the part, Molly Ringwald and Meg Ryan both turned it down. The role also earned her a second Oscar nod, this time as Best Actress. Her next box office success was the thriller Sleeping with the Enemy, playing a battered wife who escapes her demented husband, Patrick Bergin, and begins a new life in Iowa. She played Tinkerbell in Steven Spielberg's Hook in 1991, and also played a Nurse in the 1991 film Dying Young; which was followed by a two-year hiatus, during which she made no films other than a cameo appearance in Robert Altman's The Player (1992). In early 1993, she was the subject of a People magazine cover story asking, "What Happened to Julia Roberts?" In 1993, she co-starred with Denzel Washington in the successful The Pelican Brief, based on the John Grisham novel. She also starred alongside Liam Neeson in the 1996 film Michael Collins. In 1995 she appeared in season 2 of Friends (ep.13 "the one after the superbowl"). Over the next few years, she starred in a series of films that were critical and commercial failures, primarily because she was cast in roles that strayed too far from her film persona, such as Stephen Frears' Mary Reilly (1996) for which she earned a Razzie Worst Actress nomination. She starred with Hugh Grant in the 1999 film Notting Hill. That same year, she also starred in Runaway Bride, the second film with the Julia Roberts-Richard Gere duo. Roberts was a guest star on the Law & Order television series in an episode broadcast on May 5, 1999 entitled "Empire", with series regular Benjamin Bratt (at that time her boyfriend). Also in 1999, she starred in the critically panned film Stepmom alongside Susan Sarandon. 2001–2005 Brad Pitt, George Clooney, Matt Damon, Andy García, Roberts, cast of Ocean's Eleven along with director Steven Soderbergh in December 2001 In 2001, Roberts received the Best Actress Oscar for her portrayal of Erin Brockovich, who helped wage a successful lawsuit against energy giant Pacific Gas & Electric. While presenting the Best Actor Award to Denzel Washington the following year, she made a gaffe, saying she was glad that Tom Conti wasn't there. She meant the conductor Bill Conti, who had tried to hasten the conclusion of her Oscar speech the previous year, but instead named the Scottish actor. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0006015/news Julia Roberts criticized for behavior at Oscars Roberts would team up with Erin Brockovich director Steven Soderbergh for three more films: Ocean's Eleven (2001), Full Frontal (2002), and Ocean's Twelve (2004). Later in 2001 she starred in the road gangster comedy The Mexican giving her a chance to work with long time friend Brad Pitt. In 2005, she was featured in the music video for the hit single "Dreamgirl" by the Dave Matthews Band. 2006–present Roberts's two films released in 2006, The Ant Bully and Charlotte's Web, were both animated features for which she provided only voice acting. Her next film was Charlie Wilson's War, with Tom Hanks and Philip Seymour Hoffman, directed by Mike Nichols and based on the book by former CBS journalist George Crile; it was released on December 21, 2007. Fireflies in the Garden, also starring Ryan Reynolds and Willem Dafoe is currently in post-production, with release set for 2009. It has also been announced that Roberts will star in The Friday Night Knitting Club, based on the novel of the same name by Kate Jacobs. Her niece, Emma Roberts, is said to be considered for the role of her daughter. Broadway debut Roberts made her Broadway debut on April 19, 2006 as Nan in a revival of Richard Greenberg's 1997 play Three Days of Rain opposite Bradley Cooper and Paul Rudd. Although the play grossed nearly US$1 million dollars in ticket sales during its first week and was a commercial success throughout its limited run, most critics heavily criticized Roberts' performance. The New York Times' critic Ben Brantly, a self-proclaimed 'Juliaholic,' described her as being fraught with "self-consciousness (especially in the first act) [and] only glancingly acquainted with the two characters she plays." Brantley also criticized the production of “Greenberg's slender, elegant play,” writing that “it's almost impossible to discern its artistic virtues from this wooden and splintered interpretation, directed by Joe Mantello.” Three Days of Rain received two Tony Award nominations in stage design categories, but took home neither prize. Roberts did, however, receive a Broadway.com audience award (a minor theatrical prize) for her performance. American Girl Films Julia Roberts has brought to life some of the books from American Girl as movies and serves as Executive Producer, along with her sister Lisa. The company's product lines and services are focused on pre-teen-girl characters from various periods of American history, who are embodied as dolls and featured in narratives including books and movies. Its flagship line is a collection of historical 18-inch dolls that have books and accessories. Currently Julia Roberts has produced four movies. Julia Roberts' credits at IMDB Directors Directors Robert Altman, Mike Nichols, Joel Schumacher, Steven Soderbergh, and Garry Marshall have repeatedly cast Roberts in their films. But Steven Spielberg, after directing her in Hook (1991) for which she earned a Razzie Worst Supporting Actress nomination, never worked with her again. In a 1993 interview with Barbara Walters, Roberts said that she was confused by Spielberg's recollection of working with her, as she only has positive memories of working on his film. Julia Roberts on the WEB! - Interview - interview with Barbara Walters-1993 In 1993, The New York Times FILM; Julia Roberts, After the Layoff and With Lyle - New York Times wrote that Herbert Ross, the director of Steel Magnolias, criticized that Julia's acting was one-dimensional, despite the fact that she received her first Academy Award nomination for it. Although, Roberts eventually called for a truce, the two never worked together again. Influence As of February 2007, Roberts's films have grossed $2,204,631,930 at the American box office making her the biggest female movie star in history and achieving this feat with only 31 films to her name. Julia Roberts Movie Box Office Results She was also placed at the pinnacle of the Ulmer Scale, a comprehensive guide to the global star power of actors and directors in independent and studio films created by James Ulmer, ahead of such other luminaries as Tom Cruise and Tom Hanks. This was partly owing to her ability to attract filmgoers solely on the basis of her name's appearance above the title and without the support of a male co-star, something few other actresses have been able to do. Personal life Relationships Roberts's personal life has often been in the spotlight. She has had widely reported romantic relationships with numerous famous men, including Liam Neeson, Dylan McDermott, Kiefer Sutherland, David Warmee, Lyle Lovett, Matthew Perry, and Benjamin Bratt. She was briefly engaged to McDermott, her Steel Magnolias co-star. She met Sutherland in 1990, when he was her co-star in Flatliners; he left his wife and children to move in with Roberts. In August 1990, Roberts and Sutherland announced their engagement, with an elaborate studio-planned wedding scheduled for June 14, 1991. Roberts broke the engagement three days before the wedding when she discovered Sutherland had been meeting with a stripper named Amanda Rice. Roberts subsequently went to Ireland with Jason Patric, a friend of Sutherland's. On June 27, 1993, she married country singer Lyle Lovett; the couple had met only three weeks earlier. The wedding took place on 72-hours' notice and was held in Marion, Indiana, near where Lovett was appearing on tour with his band. Less than two years later, in March 1995, the couple separated, and subsequently divorced. In 1998, Roberts began dating Law & Order star Benjamin Bratt, and he was her escort for the March 25, 2001 Academy Awards ceremony at which she won her Oscar. Three months later, in June 2001, Roberts and Bratt announced that they were no longer a couple. "It's come to a kind and tenderhearted end," she said of their relationship. Julia Roberts Lays It on the Line - David Letterman, Julia Roberts : People.com Roberts met her current husband, cameraman Daniel Moder, on the set of her movie The Mexican in 2000 and they began an affair. Though at the time, Moder was married to Vera Steimberg Moder, he filed for divorce a little over a year later, and after it was finalized, he and Roberts wed on Fourth of July 2002, at her ranch in Taos, New Mexico. On November 28, 2004, they became the parents of fraternal twins, daughter Hazel Patricia and son Phinnaeus "Finn" Walter. Their third child, son Henry Daniel Moder, was born on June 18, 2007, in Los Angeles. http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070618/ap_on_en_mo/people_julia_roberts Julia Roberts Welcomes a Baby Boy - Birth, Julia Roberts : People.com Charities Roberts has given her time and resources to UNICEF as well as to other charitable organizations. In Spring 1995, Roberts, an enthusiastic supporter of UNICEF, asked if she could meet some of the relief agency's neediest recipients. On May 10, she arrived in Port-au-Prince, as she said, "to educate myself". The poverty she found was overwhelming. "My heart is just bursting", she said. UNICEF officials hoped that her six-day visit would trigger an outburst of giving: $10 million in aid was sought at the time . In 2000, Roberts narrated Silent Angels, a documentary about Rett syndrome, a neurodevelopmental disorder, which was shot in Los Angeles, Baltimore and New York. The documentary was designed to help raise public awareness about the disease. In July 2006, Earth Biofuels announced Roberts as a spokeswoman for the company and as chair of the company's newly formed Advisory Board promoting the use of renewable fuels. Filmography {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#CCCCCC" ! Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes |- | 1987 | Firehouse| Babs | |- |rowspan="5"| 1988 | Blood Red| Maria Collogero | |- | Miami Vice| Polly Wheeler | TV (season 4 episode 22: Mirror Image) |- | Mystic Pizza| Daisy Arujo |Independent Spirit Award Nomination: Best Lead Actress |- | Baja Oklahoma| Candy Hutchins | TV |- | Satisfaction| Daryle |Also known as Girls of Summer|- | 1989 | Steel Magnolias| Shelby Eatenton Latcherie | Academy Award nomination: Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe win: Best Supporting Actress |- |rowspan="2"| 1990 | Flatliners| Rachel Mannus | |- | Pretty Woman| Vivian Ward | Academy Award nomination: Best Actress BAFTA nomination: Best Actress Golden Globe win: Best Musical/Comedy Actress |- |rowspan="3"| 1991 | Hook| Tinkerbell |Razzie Award Worst Supporting Actress |- | Dying Young| Hilary O'Neil | |- | Sleeping with the Enemy| Sara Waters/Laura Burney | |- | 1992 | The Player| | Cameo |- | 1993 | The Pelican Brief| Darby Shaw | |- |rowspan="2"| 1994 | Prêt-à-Porter| Anne Eisenhower |Also known as Ready to Wear|- | I Love Trouble| Sabrina Peterson | |- | 1995 | Something to Talk About| Grace King Bichon | |- |rowspan="3"| 1996 | Everyone Says I Love You| Von Sidell | |- | Michael Collins| Kitty Kiernan | |- | Mary Reilly| Mary Reilly | Razzie Award Worst Actress |- |rowspan="2"| 1997 | Conspiracy Theory| Alice Sutton | |- | My Best Friend's Wedding| Julianne Potter | Golden Globe nomination: Best Musical/Comedy Actress |- | 1998 | Stepmom| Isabel Kelly | |- |rowspan="2"| 1999 | Runaway Bride| Maggie Carpenter | |- | Notting Hill| Anna Scott |Golden Globe nomination: Best Musical/Comedy Actress |- | 2000 | Erin Brockovich| Erin Brockovich | Academy Award win: Best Actress BAFTA win: Best Actress Golden Globe win: Best Drama Actress |- |rowspan="3"| 2001 | Ocean's Eleven| Tess Ocean | |- | America's Sweethearts| Kathleen "Kiki" Harrison | |- | The Mexican| Samantha Barzel | |- |rowspan="3"| 2002 | Confessions of a Dangerous Mind| Patricia Watson | |- | Grand Champion| Jolene | |- | Full Frontal| Catherine/Francesca | |- | 2003 | Mona Lisa Smile| Katherine Ann Watson | |- |rowspan="2"| 2004 | Ocean's Twelve| Tess Ocean | |- | Closer| Anna Cameron | |- |rowspan="3"| 2006 | Charlotte's Web| Charlotte the Spider (voice) | |- | Beslan: Three Days In September | Narrator |- | The Ant Bully | Hova (voice) | |- |2007 | Charlie Wilson's War | Joanne Herring | Golden Globe nomination - Best Supporting Actress |- |rowspan="1"| 2008 | Fireflies in the Garden | Lisa Waechter | |- |2009 | Duplicity | Claire Stenwick | |- |2010 | The Friday Night Knitting Club | Georgia Walker | forthcoming film |} Awards and nominations Year Award Category Film Result 1989 Academy Award Best Supporting Actress Steel Magnolias Golden Globe Award Best Supporting Actress - Motion Picture 1990 Academy Award Best Actress Pretty Woman BAFTA Award Best Actress Golden Globe Award Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy Saturn Award Best Supporting Actress Flatliners 1991 Saturn Award Best Actress Sleeping with the Enemy Razzie Award Worst Supporting Actress Hook 1994 NBR Award Best Cast Prêt-à-Porter 1996 Razzie Award Worst Actress Mary Reilly 1997 Golden Globe Award Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy My Best Friend's Wedding 1999 Emmy Award Outstanding Guest Actress - Drama Series Law & Order Golden Globe Award Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy Notting Hill 2000 Academy Award Best Actress Erin Brockovich BAFTA Award Best Actress Empire Award Best Actress Golden Globe Award Best Actress - Motion Picture Drama NBR Award Best Actress SAG Award Outstanding Actress - Motion Picture 2004 NBR Award Best Cast Closer 2007 Golden Globe Award Best Supporting Actress - Motion Picture Charlie Wilson's War |- |- |- |- |- Further reading Mark Bego. Julia Rica's Sweetheart (New York: AMI Books, 2003) Mark Bego's Home Page Paul Donnelley. Julia Roberts Confidential: The Unauthorised Biography (London: Virgin, 2003) PaulDonnelley.com - Home Frank Sanello. Julia Roberts: Pretty Superstar (Edinburgh: Mainstream 2000) Frank Sanello James Spada. Julia: Her Life (New York: St Martin's Press, 2004) James Spada References External links | Julia_Roberts |@lemmatized julia:25 fiona:1 robert:52 born:2 october:1 american:5 actress:43 become:4 well:2 know:4 early:3 star:19 romantic:3 comedy:9 pretty:7 woman:9 opposite:4 richard:4 gere:3 gross:3 million:5 worldwide:2 receive:5 academy:10 award:36 nomination:14 steel:6 magnolia:6 win:9 best:37 performance:5 erin:6 brockovich:6 film:26 also:14 include:3 friend:6 wedding:5 mystic:3 pizza:3 notting:4 hill:4 runaway:3 bride:4 crime:2 pelican:3 brief:3 ocean:8 eleven:5 twelve:3 collectively:1 earn:5 box:6 office:6 receipt:2 billion:1 make:6 successful:3 term:1 mojo:1 people:6 index:2 one:6 high:3 paid:1 actresses:1 world:2 top:3 hollywood:1 reporter:1 annual:1 power:3 list:1 female:2 nicole:1 kidman:1 spot:1 fee:1 pay:2 unprecedented:1 role:8 mona:2 lisa:6 smile:2 net:1 worth:1 estimate:1 rich:1 entertainment:1 forbes:1 com:7 first:10 appear:4 cover:3 vogue:1 land:1 gq:1 name:10 magazine:2 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3,879 | Enzyme | Human glyoxalase I. Two zinc ions that are needed for the enzyme to catalyze its reaction are shown as purple spheres, and an enzyme inhibitor called S-hexylglutathione is shown as a space-filling model, filling the two active sites. Enzymes are biomolecules that catalyze (i.e., increase the rates of) chemical reactions. Nearly all known enzymes are proteins. However, certain RNA molecules can be effective biocatalysts too. These RNA molecules have come to be known as ribozymes. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates, and the enzyme converts them into different molecules, called the products. Almost all processes in a biological cell need enzymes to occur at significant rates. Since enzymes are selective for their substrates and speed up only a few reactions from among many possibilities, the set of enzymes made in a cell determines which metabolic pathways occur in that cell. Like all catalysts, enzymes work by lowering the activation energy (Ea or ΔG‡) for a reaction, thus dramatically increasing the rate of the reaction. Most enzyme reaction rates are millions of times faster than those of comparable un-catalyzed reactions. As with all catalysts, enzymes are not consumed by the reactions they catalyze, nor do they alter the equilibrium of these reactions. However, enzymes do differ from most other catalysts by being much more specific. Enzymes are known to catalyze about 4,000 biochemical reactions. A few RNA molecules called ribozymes catalyze reactions, with an important example being some parts of the ribosome. Synthetic molecules called artificial enzymes also display enzyme-like catalysis. Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules. Inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity; activators are molecules that increase activity. Many drugs and poisons are enzyme inhibitors. Activity is also affected by temperature, chemical environment (e.g., pH), and the concentration of substrate. Some enzymes are used commercially, for example, in the synthesis of antibiotics. In addition, some household products use enzymes to speed up biochemical reactions (e.g., enzymes in biological washing powders break down protein or fat stains on clothes; enzymes in meat tenderizers break down proteins, making the meat easier to chew). Etymology and history Eduard Buchner As early as the late 1700s and early 1800s, the digestion of meat by stomach secretions and the conversion of starch to sugars by plant extracts and saliva were known. However, the mechanism by which this occurred had not been identified. Williams, H. S. (1904) A History of Science: in Five Volumes. Volume IV: Modern Development of the Chemical and Biological Sciences Harper and Brothers (New York) Accessed 4 April 2007 In the 19th century, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur came to the conclusion that this fermentation was catalyzed by a vital force contained within the yeast cells called "ferments", which were thought to function only within living organisms. He wrote that "alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells." In 1878, German physiologist Wilhelm Kühne (1837–1900) first used the term enzyme, which comes from Greek ενζυμον, "in leaven", to describe this process. The word enzyme was used later to refer to nonliving substances such as pepsin, and the word ferment was used to refer to chemical activity produced by living organisms. In 1897, Eduard Buchner began to study the ability of yeast extracts that lacked any living yeast cells to ferment sugar. In a series of experiments at the University of Berlin, he found that the sugar was fermented even when there were no living yeast cells in the mixture. Nobel Laureate Biography of Eduard Buchner at http://nobelprize.org Accessed 4 April 2007 He named the enzyme that brought about the fermentation of sucrose "zymase". Text of Eduard Buchner's 1907 Nobel lecture at http://nobelprize.org Accessed 4 April 2007 In 1907, he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his biochemical research and his discovery of cell-free fermentation". Following Buchner's example, enzymes are usually named according to the reaction they carry out. Typically, to generate the name of an enzyme, the suffix -ase is added to the name of its substrate (e.g., lactase is the enzyme that cleaves lactose) or the type of reaction (e.g., DNA polymerase forms DNA polymers). Having shown that enzymes could function outside a living cell, the next step was to determine their biochemical nature. Many early workers noted that enzymatic activity was associated with proteins, but several scientists (such as Nobel laureate Richard Willstätter) argued that proteins were merely carriers for the true enzymes and that proteins per se were incapable of catalysis. However, in 1926, James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was a pure protein and crystallized it; Sumner did likewise for the enzyme catalase in 1937. The conclusion that pure proteins can be enzymes was definitively proved by Northrop and Stanley, who worked on the digestive enzymes pepsin (1930), trypsin and chymotrypsin. These three scientists were awarded the 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. 1946 Nobel prize for Chemistry laureates at http://nobelprize.org Accessed 4 April 2007 This discovery that enzymes could be crystallized eventually allowed their structures to be solved by x-ray crystallography. This was first done for lysozyme, an enzyme found in tears, saliva and egg whites that digests the coating of some bacteria; the structure was solved by a group led by David Chilton Phillips and published in 1965. This high-resolution structure of lysozyme marked the beginning of the field of structural biology and the effort to understand how enzymes work at an atomic level of detail. Structures and mechanisms Ribbon diagram showing carbonic anhydrase II. The grey sphere is the zinc cofactor in the active site. Diagram drawn from PDB 1MOO. Enzymes are generally globular proteins and range from just 62 amino acid residues in size, for the monomer of 4-oxalocrotonate tautomerase, to over 2,500 residues in the animal fatty acid synthase. A small number of RNA-based biological catalysts exist, with the most common being the ribosome; these are referred to as either RNA-enzymes or ribozymes. The activities of enzymes are determined by their three-dimensional structure. However, although structure does determine function, predicting a novel enzyme's activity just from its structure is a very difficult problem that has not yet been solved. Most enzymes are much larger than the substrates they act on, and only a small portion of the enzyme (around 3–4 amino acids) is directly involved in catalysis. The Catalytic Site Atlas at The European Bioinformatics Institute Accessed 4 April 2007 The region that contains these catalytic residues, binds the substrate, and then carries out the reaction is known as the active site. Enzymes can also contain sites that bind cofactors, which are needed for catalysis. Some enzymes also have binding sites for small molecules, which are often direct or indirect products or substrates of the reaction catalyzed. This binding can serve to increase or decrease the enzyme's activity, providing a means for feedback regulation. Like all proteins, enzymes are made as long, linear chains of amino acids that fold to produce a three-dimensional product. Each unique amino acid sequence produces a specific structure, which has unique properties. Individual protein chains may sometimes group together to form a protein complex. Most enzymes can be denatured—that is, unfolded and inactivated—by heating or chemical denaturants, which disrupt the three-dimensional structure of the protein. Depending on the enzyme, denaturation may be reversible or irreversible. Specificity Enzymes are usually very specific as to which reactions they catalyze and the substrates that are involved in these reactions. Complementary shape, charge and hydrophilic/hydrophobic characteristics of enzymes and substrates are responsible for this specificity. Enzymes can also show impressive levels of stereospecificity, regioselectivity and chemoselectivity. Some of the enzymes showing the highest specificity and accuracy are involved in the copying and expression of the genome. These enzymes have "proof-reading" mechanisms. Here, an enzyme such as DNA polymerase catalyzes a reaction in a first step and then checks that the product is correct in a second step. This two-step process results in average error rates of less than 1 error in 100 million reactions in high-fidelity mammalian polymerases. Similar proofreading mechanisms are also found in RNA polymerase, aminoacyl tRNA synthetases and ribosomes. Some enzymes that produce secondary metabolites are described as promiscuous, as they can act on a relatively broad range of different substrates. It has been suggested that this broad substrate specificity is important for the evolution of new biosynthetic pathways. "Lock and key" model Enzymes are very specific, and it was suggested by Emil Fischer in 1894 that this was because both the enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another. This is often referred to as "the lock and key" model. However, while this model explains enzyme specificity, it fails to explain the stabilization of the transition state that enzymes achieve. The "lock and key" model has proven inaccurate, and the induced fit model is the most currently accepted enzyme-substrate-coenzyme figure. Induced fit model Diagrams to show the induced fit hypothesis of enzyme action. In 1958, Daniel Koshland suggested a modification to the lock and key model: since enzymes are rather flexible structures, the active site is continually reshaped by interactions with the substrate as the substrate interacts with the enzyme. As a result, the substrate does not simply bind to a rigid active site; the amino acid side chains which make up the active site are moulded into the precise positions that enable the enzyme to perform its catalytic function. In some cases, such as glycosidases, the substrate molecule also changes shape slightly as it enters the active site. The active site continues to change until the substrate is completely bound, at which point the final shape and charge is determined. Mechanisms Enzymes can act in several ways, all of which lower ΔG‡: Lowering the activation energy by creating an environment in which the transition state is stabilized (e.g. straining the shape of a substrate—by binding the transition-state conformation of the substrate/product molecules, the enzyme distorts the bound substrate(s) into their transition state form, thereby reducing the amount of energy required to complete the transition). Lowering the energy of the transition state, but without distorting the substrate, by creating an environment with the opposite charge distribution to that of the transition state. Providing an alternative pathway. For example, temporarily reacting with the substrate to form an intermediate ES complex, which would be impossible in the absence of the enzyme. Reducing the reaction entropy change by bringing substrates together in the correct orientation to react. Considering ΔH‡ alone overlooks this effect. Interestingly, this entropic effect involves destabilization of the ground state, and its contribution to catalysis is relatively small. Transition State Stabilization The understanding of the origin of the reduction of ΔG‡ requires one to find out how the enzymes can stabilize its transition state more than the transition state of the uncatalyzed reaction. Apparently, the most effective way for reaching large stabilization is the use of electrostatic effects, in particular, by having a relatively fixed polar environment that is oriented toward the charge distribution of the transition state. Such an environment does not exist in the uncatalyzed reaction in water. Dynamics and function The internal dynamics of enzymes is connected to their mechanism of catalysis. Internal dynamics are the movement of parts of the enzyme's structure, such as individual amino acid residues, a group of amino acids, or even an entire protein domain. These movements occur at various time-scales ranging from femtoseconds to seconds. Networks of protein residues throughout an enzyme's structure can contribute to catalysis through dynamic motions. Protein motions are vital to many enzymes, but whether small and fast vibrations, or larger and slower conformational movements are more important depends on the type of reaction involved. However, although these movements are important in binding and releasing substrates and products, it is not clear if protein movements help to accelerate the chemical steps in enzymatic reactions. These new insights also have implications in understanding allosteric effects and developing new drugs. Allosteric modulation Allosteric enzymes change their structure in response to binding of effectors. Modulation can be direct, where the effector binds directly to binding sites in the enzyme, or indirect, where the effector binds to other proteins or protein subunits that interact with the allosteric enzyme and thus influence catalytic activity. Cofactors and coenzymes Cofactors Some enzymes do not need any additional components to show full activity. However, others require non-protein molecules called cofactors to be bound for activity. Cofactors can be either inorganic (e.g., metal ions and iron-sulfur clusters) or organic compounds (e.g., flavin and heme). Organic cofactors can be either prosthetic groups, which are tightly bound to an enzyme, or coenzymes, which are released from the enzyme's active site during the reaction. Coenzymes include NADH, NADPH and adenosine triphosphate. These molecules act to transfer chemical groups between enzymes. An example of an enzyme that contains a cofactor is carbonic anhydrase, and is shown in the ribbon diagram above with a zinc cofactor bound as part of its active site. These tightly bound molecules are usually found in the active site and are involved in catalysis. For example, flavin and heme cofactors are often involved in redox reactions. Enzymes that require a cofactor but do not have one bound are called apoenzymes or apoproteins. An apoenzyme together with its cofactor(s) is called a holoenzyme (this is the active form). Most cofactors are not covalently attached to an enzyme, but are very tightly bound. However, organic prosthetic groups can be covalently bound (e.g., thiamine pyrophosphate in the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase). The term "holoenzyme" can also be applied to enzymes that contain multiple protein subunits, such as the DNA polymerases, here the holoenzyme is the complete complex containing all the subunits needed for activity. Coenzymes Space-filling model of the coenzyme NADH Coenzymes are small organic molecules that transport chemical groups from one enzyme to another. Some of these chemicals such as riboflavin, thiamine and folic acid are vitamins (compounds which cannot be synthesized by the body and must be acquired from the diet). The chemical groups carried include the hydride ion (H-) carried by NAD or NADP+, the acetyl group carried by coenzyme A, formyl, methenyl or methyl groups carried by folic acid and the methyl group carried by S-adenosylmethionine. Since coenzymes are chemically changed as a consequence of enzyme action, it is useful to consider coenzymes to be a special class of substrates, or second substrates, which are common to many different enzymes. For example, about 700 enzymes are known to use the coenzyme NADH. BRENDA The Comprehensive Enzyme Information System Accessed 4 April 2007 Coenzymes are usually regenerated and their concentrations maintained at a steady level inside the cell: for example, NADPH is regenerated through the pentose phosphate pathway and S-adenosylmethionine by methionine adenosyltransferase. Thermodynamics The energies of the stages of a chemical reaction. Substrates need a lot of energy to reach a transition state, which then decays into products. The enzyme stabilizes the transition state, reducing the energy needed to form products. As all catalysts, enzymes do not alter the position of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction. Usually, in the presence of an enzyme, the reaction runs in the same direction as it would without the enzyme, just more quickly. However, in the absence of the enzyme, other possible uncatalyzed, "spontaneous" reactions might lead to different products, because in those conditions this different product is formed faster. Furthermore, enzymes can couple two or more reactions, so that a thermodynamically favorable reaction can be used to "drive" a thermodynamically unfavorable one. For example, the hydrolysis of ATP is often used to drive other chemical reactions. Enzymes catalyze the forward and backward reactions equally. They do not alter the equilibrium itself, but only the speed at which it is reached. For example, carbonic anhydrase catalyzes its reaction in either direction depending on the concentration of its reactants. (in tissues; high CO2 concentration) (in lungs; low CO2 concentration) Nevertheless, if the equilibrium is greatly displaced in one direction, that is, in a very exergonic reaction, the reaction is effectively irreversible. Under these conditions the enzyme will, in fact, only catalyze the reaction in the thermodynamically allowed direction. Kinetics Mechanism for a single substrate enzyme catalyzed reaction. The enzyme (E) binds a substrate (S) and produces a product (P). Enzyme kinetics is the investigation of how enzymes bind substrates and turn them into products. The rate data used in kinetic analyses are obtained from enzyme assays. In 1902 Victor Henri proposed a quantitative theory of enzyme kinetics, but his experimental data were not useful because the significance of the hydrogen ion concentration was not yet appreciated. After Peter Lauritz Sørensen had defined the logarithmic pH-scale and introduced the concept of buffering in 1909 the German chemist Leonor Michaelis and his Canadian postdoc Maud Leonora Menten repeated Henri's experiments and confirmed his equation which is referred to as Henri-Michaelis-Menten kinetics (sometimes also Michaelis-Menten kinetics). English translation Accessed 6 April 2007 Their work was further developed by G. E. Briggs and J. B. S. Haldane, who derived kinetic equations that are still widely used today. The major contribution of Henri was to think of enzyme reactions in two stages. In the first, the substrate binds reversibly to the enzyme, forming the enzyme-substrate complex. This is sometimes called the Michaelis complex. The enzyme then catalyzes the chemical step in the reaction and releases the product. [[Image:Michaelis-Menten saturation curve of an enzyme reaction.svg|thumb|300px|right|Saturation curve for an enzyme reaction showing the relation between the substrate concentration (S) and rate (v).]] Enzymes can catalyze up to several million reactions per second. For example, the reaction catalyzed by orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase will consume half of its substrate in 78 million years if no enzyme is present. However, when the decarboxylase is added, the same process takes just 25 milliseconds. Enzyme rates depend on solution conditions and substrate concentration. Conditions that denature the protein abolish enzyme activity, such as high temperatures, extremes of pH or high salt concentrations, while raising substrate concentration tends to increase activity. To find the maximum speed of an enzymatic reaction, the substrate concentration is increased until a constant rate of product formation is seen. This is shown in the saturation curve on the right. Saturation happens because, as substrate concentration increases, more and more of the free enzyme is converted into the substrate-bound ES form. At the maximum velocity (Vmax) of the enzyme, all the enzyme active sites are bound to substrate, and the amount of ES complex is the same as the total amount of enzyme. However, Vmax is only one kinetic constant of enzymes. The amount of substrate needed to achieve a given rate of reaction is also important. This is given by the Michaelis-Menten constant (Km), which is the substrate concentration required for an enzyme to reach one-half its maximum velocity. Each enzyme has a characteristic Km for a given substrate, and this can show how tight the binding of the substrate is to the enzyme. Another useful constant is kcat, which is the number of substrate molecules handled by one active site per second. The efficiency of an enzyme can be expressed in terms of kcat/Km. This is also called the specificity constant and incorporates the rate constants for all steps in the reaction. Because the specificity constant reflects both affinity and catalytic ability, it is useful for comparing different enzymes against each other, or the same enzyme with different substrates. The theoretical maximum for the specificity constant is called the diffusion limit and is about 108 to 109 (M-1 s-1). At this point every collision of the enzyme with its substrate will result in catalysis, and the rate of product formation is not limited by the reaction rate but by the diffusion rate. Enzymes with this property are called catalytically perfect or kinetically perfect. Example of such enzymes are triose-phosphate isomerase, carbonic anhydrase, acetylcholinesterase, catalase, fumarase, β-lactamase, and superoxide dismutase. Michaelis-Menten kinetics relies on the law of mass action, which is derived from the assumptions of free diffusion and thermodynamically driven random collision. However, many biochemical or cellular processes deviate significantly from these conditions, because of macromolecular crowding, phase-separation of the enzyme/substrate/product, or one or two-dimensional molecular movement. In these situations, a fractal Michaelis-Menten kinetics may be applied. Some enzymes operate with kinetics which are faster than diffusion rates, which would seem to be impossible. Several mechanisms have been invoked to explain this phenomenon. Some proteins are believed to accelerate catalysis by drawing their substrate in and pre-orienting them by using dipolar electric fields. Other models invoke a quantum-mechanical tunneling explanation, whereby a proton or an electron can tunnel through activation barriers, although for proton tunneling this model remains somewhat controversial. Quantum tunneling for protons has been observed in tryptamine. This suggests that enzyme catalysis may be more accurately characterized as "through the barrier" rather than the traditional model, which requires substrates to go "over" a lowered energy barrier. Inhibition Competitive inhibitors bind reversibly to the enzyme, preventing the binding of substrate. On the other hand, binding of substrate prevents binding of the inhibitor. Substrate and inhibitor compete for the enzyme. Types of inhibition. This classification was introduced by W.W. Cleland. Enzyme reaction rates can be decreased by various types of enzyme inhibitors. Competitive inhibition In competitive inhibition, the inhibitor and substrate compete for the enzyme (i.e., they can not bind at the same time). Often competitive inhibitors strongly resemble the real substrate of the enzyme. For example, methotrexate is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase, which catalyzes the reduction of dihydrofolate to tetrahydrofolate. The similarity between the structures of folic acid and this drug are shown in the figure to the right bottom. Note that binding of the inhibitor need not be to the substrate binding site (as frequently stated), if binding of the inhibitor changes the conformation of the enzyme to prevent substrate binding and vice versa. In competitive inhibition the maximal velocity of the reaction is not changed, but higher substrate concentrations are required to reach a given velocity, increasing the apparent Km. Uncompetitive inhibition In uncompetitive inhibition the inhibitor can not bind to the free enzyme, but only to the ES-complex. The EIS-complex thus formed is enzymatically inactive. This type of inhibition is rare, but may occur in multimeric enzymes. Non-competitive inhibition Non-competitive inhibitors can bind to the enzyme at the same time as the substrate, i.e. they never bind to the active site. Both the EI and EIS complexes are enzymatically inactive. Because the inhibitor can not be driven from the enzyme by higher substrate concentration (in contrast to competitive inhibition), the apparent Vmax changes. But because the substrate can still bind to the enzyme, the Km stays the same. Mixed inhibition This type of inhibition resembles the non-competitive, except that the EIS-complex has residual enzymatic activity. In many organisms inhibitors may act as part of a feedback mechanism. If an enzyme produces too much of one substance in the organism, that substance may act as an inhibitor for the enzyme at the beginning of the pathway that produces it, causing production of the substance to slow down or stop when there is sufficient amount. This is a form of negative feedback. Enzymes which are subject to this form of regulation are often multimeric and have allosteric binding sites for regulatory substances. Their substrate/velocity plots are not hyperbolar, but sigmoidal (S-shaped). |The coenzyme folic acid (left) and the anti-cancer drug methotrexate (right) are very similar in structure. As a result, methotrexate is a competitive inhibitor of many enzymes that use folates. Irreversible inhibitors react with the enzyme and form a covalent adduct with the protein. The inactivation is irreversible. These compounds include eflornithine a drug used to treat the parasitic disease sleeping sickness. Poulin R, Lu L, Ackermann B, Bey P, Pegg AE. Mechanism of the irreversible inactivation of mouse ornithine decarboxylase by alpha-difluoromethylornithine. Characterization of sequences at the inhibitor and coenzyme binding sites. J Biol Chem. 1992 January 5;267(1):150–8. PMID 1730582 Penicillin and Aspirin also act in this manner. With these drugs, the compound is bound in the active site and the enzyme then converts the inhibitor into an activated form that reacts irreversibly with one or more amino acid residues. Uses of inhibitors Since inhibitors modulate the function of enzymes they are often used as drugs. An common example of an inhibitor that is used as a drug is aspirin, which inhibits the COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes that produce the inflammation messenger prostaglandin, thus suppressing pain and inflammation. However, other enzyme inhibitors are poisons. For example, the poison cyanide is an irreversible enzyme inhibitor that combines with the copper and iron in the active site of the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase and blocks cellular respiration. Biological function Enzymes serve a wide variety of functions inside living organisms. They are indispensable for signal transduction and cell regulation, often via kinases and phosphatases. They also generate movement, with myosin hydrolysing ATP to generate muscle contraction and also moving cargo around the cell as part of the cytoskeleton. Other ATPases in the cell membrane are ion pumps involved in active transport. Enzymes are also involved in more exotic functions, such as luciferase generating light in fireflies. Viruses can also contain enzymes for infecting cells, such as the HIV integrase and reverse transcriptase, or for viral release from cells, like the influenza virus neuraminidase. An important function of enzymes is in the digestive systems of animals. Enzymes such as amylases and proteases break down large molecules (starch or proteins, respectively) into smaller ones, so they can be absorbed by the intestines. Starch molecules, for example, are too large to be absorbed from the intestine, but enzymes hydrolyse the starch chains into smaller molecules such as maltose and eventually glucose, which can then be absorbed. Different enzymes digest different food substances. In ruminants which have herbivorous diets, microorganisms in the gut produce another enzyme, cellulase to break down the cellulose cell walls of plant fiber. Several enzymes can work together in a specific order, creating metabolic pathways. In a metabolic pathway, one enzyme takes the product of another enzyme as a substrate. After the catalytic reaction, the product is then passed on to another enzyme. Sometimes more than one enzyme can catalyze the same reaction in parallel, this can allow more complex regulation: with for example a low constant activity being provided by one enzyme but an inducible high activity from a second enzyme. Enzymes determine what steps occur in these pathways. Without enzymes, metabolism would neither progress through the same steps, nor be fast enough to serve the needs of the cell. Indeed, a metabolic pathway such as glycolysis could not exist independently of enzymes. Glucose, for example, can react directly with ATP to become phosphorylated at one or more of its carbons. In the absence of enzymes, this occurs so slowly as to be insignificant. However, if hexokinase is added, these slow reactions continue to take place except that phosphorylation at carbon 6 occurs so rapidly that if the mixture is tested a short time later, glucose-6-phosphate is found to be the only significant product. Consequently, the network of metabolic pathways within each cell depends on the set of functional enzymes that are present. Control of activity There are five main ways that enzyme activity is controlled in the cell.Enzyme production (transcription and translation of enzyme genes) can be enhanced or diminished by a cell in response to changes in the cell's environment. This form of gene regulation is called enzyme induction and inhibition (see enzyme induction). For example, bacteria may become resistant to antibiotics such as penicillin because enzymes called beta-lactamases are induced that hydrolyse the crucial beta-lactam ring within the penicillin molecule. Another example are enzymes in the liver called cytochrome P450 oxidases, which are important in drug metabolism. Induction or inhibition of these enzymes can cause drug interactions. Enzymes can be compartmentalized, with different metabolic pathways occurring in different cellular compartments. For example, fatty acids are synthesized by one set of enzymes in the cytosol, endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus and used by a different set of enzymes as a source of energy in the mitochondrion, through β-oxidation. Enzymes can be regulated by inhibitors and activators. For example, the end product(s) of a metabolic pathway are often inhibitors for one of the first enzymes of the pathway (usually the first irreversible step, called committed step), thus regulating the amount of end product made by the pathways. Such a regulatory mechanism is called a negative feedback mechanism, because the amount of the end product produced is regulated by its own concentration. Negative feedback mechanism can effectively adjust the rate of synthesis of intermediate metabolites according to the demands of the cells. This helps allocate materials and energy economically, and prevents the manufacture of excess end products. The control of enzymatic action helps to maintain a stable internal environment in living organisms. Enzymes can be regulated through post-translational modification. This can include phosphorylation, myristoylation and glycosylation. For example, in the response to insulin, the phosphorylation of multiple enzymes, including glycogen synthase, helps control the synthesis or degradation of glycogen and allows the cell to respond to changes in blood sugar. Another example of post-translational modification is the cleavage of the polypeptide chain. Chymotrypsin, a digestive protease, is produced in inactive form as chymotrypsinogen in the pancreas and transported in this form to the stomach where it is activated. This stops the enzyme from digesting the pancreas or other tissues before it enters the gut. This type of inactive precursor to an enzyme is known as a zymogen. Some enzymes may become activated when localized to a different environment (eg. from a reducing (cytoplasm) to an oxidising (periplasm) environment, high pH to low pH etc). For example, hemagglutinin in the influenza virus is activated by a conformational change caused by the acidic conditions, these occur when it is taken up inside its host cell and enters the lysosome. Involvement in disease Phenylalanine hydroxylase. Created from PDB 1KW0 Since the tight control of enzyme activity is essential for homeostasis, any malfunction (mutation, overproduction, underproduction or deletion) of a single critical enzyme can lead to a genetic disease. The importance of enzymes is shown by the fact that a lethal illness can be caused by the malfunction of just one type of enzyme out of the thousands of types present in our bodies. One example is the most common type of phenylketonuria. A mutation of a single amino acid in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, which catalyzes the first step in the degradation of phenylalanine, results in build-up of phenylalanine and related products. This can lead to mental retardation if the disease is untreated. Phenylketonuria: NCBI Genes and Disease Accessed 4 April 2007 Another example is when germline mutations in genes coding for DNA repair enzymes cause hereditary cancer syndromes such as xeroderma pigmentosum. Defects in these enzymes cause cancer since the body is less able to repair mutations in the genome. This causes a slow accumulation of mutations and results in the development of many types of cancer in the sufferer. Naming conventions An enzyme's name is often derived from its substrate or the chemical reaction it catalyzes, with the word ending in -ase. Examples are lactase, alcohol dehydrogenase and DNA polymerase. This may result in different enzymes, called isozymes, with the same function having the same basic name. Isoenzymes have a different amino acid sequence and might be distinguished by their optimal pH, kinetic properties or immunologically. Furthermore, the normal physiological reaction an enzyme catalyzes may not be the same as under artificial conditions. This can result in the same enzyme being identified with two different names. E.g. Glucose isomerase, used industrially to convert glucose into the sweetener fructose, is a xylose isomerase in vivo. The International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology have developed a nomenclature for enzymes, the EC numbers; each enzyme is described by a sequence of four numbers preceded by "EC". The first number broadly classifies the enzyme based on its mechanism: The top-level classification is EC 1 Oxidoreductases: catalyze oxidation/reduction reactions EC 2 Transferases: transfer a functional group (e.g. a methyl or phosphate group) EC 3 Hydrolases: catalyze the hydrolysis of various bonds EC 4 Lyases: cleave various bonds by means other than hydrolysis and oxidation EC 5 Isomerases: catalyze isomerization changes within a single molecule EC 6 Ligases: join two molecules with covalent bonds The complete nomenclature can be browsed at http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme/. Industrial applications Enzymes are used in the chemical industry and other industrial applications when extremely specific catalysts are required. However, enzymes in general are limited in the number of reactions they have evolved to catalyze and also by their lack of stability in organic solvents and at high temperatures. Consequently, protein engineering is an active area of research and involves attempts to create new enzymes with novel properties, either through rational design or in vitro evolution. These efforts have begun to be successful, and a few enzymes have now been desiged "from scratch" to catalyse reactions that do not occur in nature. ApplicationEnzymes usedUses Food processing Amylases catalyze the release of simple sugars from starchAmylases from fungi and plants.Production of sugars from starch, such as in making high-fructose corn syrup. In baking, catalyze breakdown of starch in the flour to sugar. Yeast fermentation of sugar produces the carbon dioxide that raises the dough. Proteases Biscuit manufacturers use them to lower the protein level of flour.Baby foodsTrypsinTo predigest baby foods. Brewing industry Germinating barley used for malt. Enzymes from barley are released during the mashing stage of beer production. They degrade starch and proteins to produce simple sugar, amino acids and peptides that are used by yeast for fermentation. Industrially produced barley enzymes Widely used in the brewing process to substitute for the natural enzymes found in barley. Amylase, glucanases, proteases Split polysaccharides and proteins in the malt. Betaglucanases and arabinoxylanases Improve the wort and beer filtration characteristics. Amyloglucosidase and pullulanases Low-calorie beer and adjustment of fermentability. Proteases Remove cloudiness produced during storage of beers. Acetolactatedecarboxylase (ALDC) Increases fermentation efficiency by reducing diacetyl formation. Fruit juices Cellulases, pectinases Clarify fruit juices Dairy industry Roquefort cheeseRennin, derived from the stomachs of young ruminant animals (like calves and lambs).Manufacture of cheese, used to hydrolyze protein. Microbially produced enzyme Now finding increasing use in the dairy industry. Lipases Is implemented during the production of Roquefort cheese to enhance the ripening of the blue-mould cheese. Lactases Break down lactose to glucose and galactose.Meat tenderizersPapainTo soften meat for cooking. Starch industry Amylases, amyloglucosideases and glucoamylases Converts starch into glucose and various syrups. Glucose isomerase Converts glucose into fructose in production of high fructose syrups from starchy materials. These syrups have enhanced sweetening properties and lower calorific values than sucrose for the same level of sweetness.Paper industryA paper mill in South Carolina.Amylases, Xylanases, Cellulases and ligninasesDegrade starch to lower viscosity, aiding sizing and coating paper. Xylanases reduce bleach required for decolorising; cellulases smooth fibers, enhance water drainage, and promote ink removal; lipases reduce pitch and lignin-degrading enzymes remove lignin to soften paper.Biofuel industryCellulose in 3DCellulasesUsed to break down cellulose into sugars that can be fermented (see cellulosic ethanol). Ligninases Use of lignin waste Biological detergentPrimarily proteases, produced in an extracellular form from bacteriaUsed for presoak conditions and direct liquid applications helping with removal of protein stains from clothes. Amylases Detergents for machine dish washing to remove resistant starch residues. Lipases Used to assist in the removal of fatty and oily stains. Cellulases Used in biological fabric conditioners.Contact lens cleanersProteasesTo remove proteins on contact lens to prevent infections.Rubber industryCatalaseTo generate oxygen from peroxide to convert latex into foam rubber.Photographic industryProtease (ficin)Dissolve gelatin off scrap film, allowing recovery of its silver content.Molecular biology Part of the DNA double helix.Restriction enzymes, DNA ligase and polymerasesUsed to manipulate DNA in genetic engineering, important in pharmacology, agriculture and medicine. Essential for restriction digestion and the polymerase chain reaction. Molecular biology is also important in forensic science. See also List of enzymes Enzyme assay Enzyme catalysis The Proteolysis Map RNA Biocatalysis SUMO enzymes Ki Database Proteonomics and protein engineering Immobilized enzyme Kinetic Perfection References Further reading Etymology and historyNew Beer in an Old Bottle: Eduard Buchner and the Growth of Biochemical Knowledge, edited by Athel Cornish-Bowden and published by Universitat de València (1997): ISBN 84-370-3328-4, A history of early enzymology. Williams, Henry Smith, 1863–1943. A History of Science: in Five Volumes. Volume IV: Modern Development of the Chemical and Biological Sciences, A textbook from the 19th century.Enzyme structure and mechanismPage, M. I., and Williams, A. (Eds.). Enzyme Mechanisms. Royal Society of Chemistry, 1987. ISBN 0-85186-947-5. Bugg, T. Introduction to Enzyme and Coenzyme Chemistry. (2nd edition), Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2004. ISBN 1-40511-452-5. Warshel, A. Computer Modeling of Chemical Reactions in enzymes and Solutions. John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1991. ISBN 0-471-18440-3.Thermodynamics"Reactions and Enzymes" Chapter 10 of on-line biology book at Estrella Mountain Community College.Kinetics and inhibitionCornish-Bowden, Athel. Fundamentals of Enzyme Kinetics. (3rd edition), Portland Press, 2004. ISBN 1-85578-158-1. Segel Irwin H. Enzyme Kinetics: Behavior and Analysis of Rapid Equilibrium and Steady-State Enzyme Systems. (New Ed edition), Wiley-Interscience, 1993. ISBN 0-471-30309-7. Baynes, John W. Medical Biochemistry. (2nd edition), Elsevier-Mosby, 2005. ISBN 0-7234-3341-0, p. 57.Function and control of enzymes in the cellPrice, N. and Stevens, L. Fundamentals of Enzymology: Cell and Molecular Biology of Catalytic Proteins. Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-19-850229-X. "Nutritional and Metabolic Diseases". Chapter of the on-line textbook Introduction to Genes and Disease from the NCBI.Enzyme-naming conventionsEnzyme Nomenclature, Recommendations for enzyme names from the Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Koshland, D. The Enzymes, v. I, ch. 7. Acad. Press, New York, 1959.Industrial applications''' "History of industrial enzymes", Article about the history of industrial enzymes from the late 1900s to the present times. External links Structure/Function of Enzymes, Web tutorial on enzyme structure and function. UC Berkeley video lecture on enzyme structure and function Enzymes in diagnosis Role of enzymes in diagnosis of diseases. Enzyme spotlight Monthly feature at the European Bioinformatics Institute on a selected enzyme. AMFEP, Association of Manufacturers and Formulators of Enzyme Products BRENDA database, a comprehensive compilation of information and literature references about all known enzymes; requires payment by commercial users. Enzyme Structures Database links to the known 3-D structure data of enzymes in the Protein Data Bank. ExPASy enzyme database, links to Swiss-Prot sequence data, entries in other databases and to related literature searches. KEGG: Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes Graphical and hypertext-based information on biochemical pathways and enzymes. MACiE database of enzyme reaction mechanisms. MetaCyc database of enzymes and metabolic pathways Face-to-Face Interview with Sir John Cornforth who was awarded a Nobel Prize for work on stereochemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions Freeview video by the Vega Science Trust Sigma Aldrich Enzyme Assays by Enzyme Name – Hundreds of assays sorted by enzyme name. | Enzyme |@lemmatized human:1 glyoxalase:1 two:8 zinc:3 ion:5 need:10 enzyme:244 catalyze:26 reaction:66 show:14 purple:1 sphere:2 inhibitor:28 call:19 hexylglutathione:1 space:2 filling:1 model:12 fill:2 active:19 site:23 biomolecules:1 e:17 increase:10 rate:17 chemical:18 nearly:1 know:9 protein:34 however:16 certain:1 rna:7 molecule:23 effective:2 biocatalyst:1 come:3 ribozymes:3 enzymatic:6 beginning:3 process:7 substrate:65 convert:7 different:16 product:26 almost:1 biological:8 cell:26 enzymes:12 occur:11 significant:2 since:6 selective:1 speed:4 among:1 many:9 possibility:1 set:4 make:6 determine:6 metabolic:9 pathway:16 like:5 catalyst:6 work:6 lower:4 activation:3 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3,880 | New_Amsterdam | New Amsterdam () was a 17th-century Dutch colonial settlement that later became New York City. The town developed outside of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island in the New Netherland territory (1614–1674) which was situated between 38 and 42 degrees latitude as a provincial extension of the Dutch Republic as of 1624. Provincial possession of the territory was accomplished with the first settlement which was established on Governors Island in 1624. A year later, in 1625, construction of a citadel comprising Fort Amsterdam was commenced on the southern tip of Manhattan and the first settlers were moved there from Governors Island. Earlier, the harbor and the river had been discovered, explored and charted by an expedition of the Dutch East India Company captained by Henry Hudson in 1609. From 1611 through 1614, the territory was surveyed and charted by various private commercial companies on behalf of the States General of the Dutch Republic and operated for the interests of private commercial entities prior to official possession as a North American extension of the Dutch Republic as a provincial entity in 1624. The town was founded in 1625 by New Netherland's second director, Willem Verhulst who, together with his council, selected Manhattan Island as the optimal place for permanent settlement by the Dutch West India Company. That year, military engineer and surveyor Krijn Frederiksz laid out a citadel with Fort Amsterdam as centerpiece. To secure the settlers' property and its surroundings according to Dutch law, Peter Minuit created a deed with the Manhattan Indians in 1626 which signified legal possession of Manhattan. He was appointed New Netherland's third director by the local council after Willem Verhulst returned home in November 1626. The city, situated on the strategic, fortifiable southern tip of the island of Manhattan was to maintain New Netherland's provincial integrity by defending river access to the company's fur trade operations in the North River, later named Hudson River. Furthermore, it was entrusted to safeguard the West India Company's exclusive access to New Netherland's other two estuaries; the Delaware River and the Connecticut River. Fort Amsterdam was designated the capitol of the province in 1625 and developed into the largest Dutch colonial settlement of the New Netherland province, now the New York Tri-State Region, and remained a Dutch possession until September 1664, when it fell provisionally and temporarily into the hands of the English. The Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. New Netherland was ceded permanently to the English in November 1674 by treaty. The 1625 date of the founding of New Amsterdam is now commemorated in the official Seal of New York City (formerly, the year on the seal was 1664, the year of the provisional Articles of Transfer, ensuring New Netherlanders that they "shall keep and enjoy the liberty of their consciences in religion", negotiated with the English by Petrus Stuyvesant and his council). History Early 20th century Dutch Revival buildings on S William Street in lower Manhattan recall the Dutch origins of the city. The original 17th century architecture of New Amsterdam has completely vanished (affected by the fires of 1776 and 1835), leaving only archaeological remnants. A map of the Hudson River valley c. 1635 (North is to the right) Early Settlement (1609–1625) The first recorded exploration by the Dutch of the area around what is now called New York Bay was in 1609 with the voyage of the ship Halve Maen or "Half Moon", captained by Henry Hudson, in the service of the Dutch Republic, as the emissary of Holland's stadholder Maurits. Hudson named the river the Mauritius River and was covertly attempting to find the Northwest Passage for the Dutch East India Company. Instead, he brought back news about the possibility of exploitation of beaver in the area, leading to private commercial interest by the Dutch who sent commercial, private missions to the area the following years. At the time, beaver pelts were highly prized in Europe, because the could be felted to make waterproof hats. A by-product of the trade in beaver pelts was castoreum—the secretion of the animals' anal glands—which was used for its supposed medicinal properties. The expeditions by Adriaen Block and Hendrick Christiansz in the years 1611, 1612, 1613 and 1614 resulted in the surveying and charting of the region from the 38th parallel to the 45th parallel. On their 1614 map, which gave them a four year trade monopoly under a patent of the States General, they named the newly discovered and mapped territory New Netherland for the first time. It also showed the first year-round, top-of-the-Hudson River, island-based trading presence in New Netherland, Fort Nassau, which years later, in 1624, would be replaced by Fort Orange on the main land which grew into the town of Beverwyck, now Albany. The territory of Novo Belgio http://users.skynet.be/newyorkfoundation/US/the_birth_of_new_york.html#Resume or New Netherland, comprising the Northeast's largest rivers with access to the beaver trade, was provisionally a private, profit-making commercial enterprise focusing on cementing alliances and conducting trade with the diverse Indian tribes. They enabled the serendipitous surveying and exploration of the region as a prelude to anticipated official settlement by the Dutch Republic which occurred in 1624. Immediately after the armistice period between the Dutch Republic and Spain (1609–1621), the founding of the Dutch West India Company took place in 1621. That year, as well as in 1622 and 1623, orders were given to the private, commercial traders to vacate the territory, thus opening up the territory to the transplantation of Dutch culture onto the North American continent whereon the laws and ordinances of the states of Holland would now apply. Previously, during the private, commercial period, only the law of the ship had applied. The mouth of the Hudson River was selected as the most perfect place for initial settlement as it had easy access to the ocean while securing an ice free lifeline to the beaver-rich, unexploited forests farther north where the company's traders could be in close contact with the American Indian hunters who supplied them with pelts in exchange for European-made trade goods for barter and wampum, which was soon being "minted" under Dutch auspices on Long Island. Thus in 1624 when the first group of families arrived on Governors Island to be followed by the second group of settlers to the island in 1625, in order to take possession of the New Netherland territory and to operate various trading posts, they were spread out to Verhulsten Island (Burlington Island) in the South River (Delaware River), to Kievitshoek (now Old Saybrook, Connecticut) at the mouth of the Verse River (Connecticut River) and at the top of the Mauritius or North River (Hudson River), now Albany. Fort Amsterdam (1625) The potential threat of attack from other interloping European colonial powers prompted the Directors of the Dutch West India Company to formulate a plan to protect the entrance to the Hudson River, and to consolidate the trading operations and the bulk of the settlers into the vicinity of a new fort. In 1625, most of the cattle and some settlers were moved from Noten Eylant, since 1784 named Governors Island, to Manhattan Island where a citadel to contain Fort Amsterdam was being laid out by Cryn Frederickz van Lobbrecht at the direction of Willem Verhulst who had been empowered by the Dutch West India Company to make that decision in his and his council's best judgment. For the location of the fort, company director Willem Verhulst and Military Engineer and Surveyor Cryn Fredericks chose a site just above the southern tip of Manhattan. The new fortification was to be called Fort Amsterdam. By the end of the year 1625, the site had been staked out directly south of Bowling Green on the site of the present U.S. Custom House; west of the fort's site, later landfill has now created Battery Park. 1625–1674 New Amsterdam in 1664 New Orange, c. 1674 Willem Verhulst, with his council responsible for the selection of Manhattan as permanent place of settlement and situating Fort Amsterdam, was replaced by Peter Minuit in 1626. To legally safeguard the settlers' investments, possessions and farms on Manhattan island, Minuit negotiated the "purchase" of Manhattan from the Manahatta band of Lenape for 60 guilders worth of trade goods. The deed itself has not survived so the conditions causing the negotiation and validation of the deed are unknown. A textual reference to the deed became a foundation for the legend that Minuit had purchased Manhattan from the Native Americans for 24 dollars' worth of trinkets. While the originally designed large fort, meant to contain the population as in a fortified city, was being constructed, the Mohawk—Mahican War at the top of the Hudson led the company to relocate the settlers from there to the vicinity of the new Fort Amsterdam. As the settlers were at peace with the Manahatta Indians, the fact that no large scale foreign powers were imminently trying to seize the territory, and that colonizing was a prohibitively expensive undertaking, only partly subsidized by the fur trade, led a scaling back of the original plans. By 1628, a smaller fort was constructed with walls containing a mixture of clay and sand, like in Holland. See also Wall Street. Upon first settlement on Noten Eylant (now Governors Island) in 1624, a fort and sawmill was built. The latter was constructed by Franchoys Fezard. The New Amsterdam settlement had a population of approximately 270 people, including infants. A pen-and-ink view of New Amsterdam, drawn on-the-spot and discovered in the map collection of the Austrian National Library of Vienna in 1991, provides a unique view of Nieuw Amsterdam as it appeared from Capske (small Cape) Rock in 1648. Capske Rock was situated in the water close to Manhattan between Manhattan and Noten Eylant (renamed Governors Island in 1784), which signaled the start of the East River roadstead. New Amsterdam received municipal rights on February 2, 1653 thus becoming a city. (Albany, then named Beverwyck, received its city rights in 1652) and was unilaterally reincorporated under English law as New York City in June 1665. On August 22, 1654, the first Ashkenazic Jews arrived with West India Company passports from Amsterdam to be followed in September by a sizable group of Sephardic Jews, without passports, fleeing from the Portuguese reconquest of Dutch possessions in Brazil. The legal-cultural foundation of toleration as the basis for plurality in New Amsterdam superseded matters of personal intolerance or individual bigotry. Hence, and in spite of certain persons private objections (including that of director-general Petrus Stuyvesant), the Sephardim were granted permanent residency on the basis of "reason and equity" in 1655. Nieuw Haarlem was formally recognized in 1658. On August 27, 1664, in a surprise incursion when England and the Dutch Republic were at peace, four English frigates sailed in New Amsterdam's harbor and demanded New Netherland's surrender, whereupon New Netherland was provisionally ceded by director-general Peter Stuyvesant. This resulted in the Second Anglo-Dutch War, between England and the Dutch Republic. In 1667, the Dutch did not press their claims on New Netherland (but did not relinquish them either) in the Treaty of Breda, in return for an exchange with the tiny Island of Run in North Maluku, rich in nutmegs and the guarantee for the factual possession of Suriname, that year captured by them. The New Amsterdam city was subsequently renamed New York, after the Duke of York (later King James II)—brother of the English King Charles II—who had been granted the lands with the kingly stroke of an armchair pen (similar to the Spanish claim to the entire western hemisphere). However, in the Third Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch recaptured New Netherland in August 1673 and installed Anthony Colve as New Netherland's first Governor (previously there had only been West India Company Directors), and the city was renamed "New Orange". After the signing of the Treaty of Westminster in November 1674 the city was relinquished to English rule and the name reverted to "New York"; Suriname became an official Dutch possession in return. Maps of New Amsterdam Redraft of the Castello Plan of New Amsterdam in 1660, drawn in 1916. Copyright New York Historical Society New Amsterdam's beginnings, unlike most other colonies in the New World, were thoroughly documented in maps. During the time of New Netherland's colonization the Dutch were Europe's pre-eminent cartographers. Moreover, as the Dutch West India Company's delegated authority over New Netherland was threefold, maintaining sovereignty on behalf of the States General, generating cash flow through commercial enterprise for its shareholders and funding the province's growth, its directors regularly required that censuses be taken. These tools to measure and monitor the province's progress were accompanied by accurate maps and plans. These surveys, as well as grassroots activities to seek redress of grievances, account for the existence of some of the most important of the early documents. Robert Augustyn, "Maps in the making of Manhattan" Magazine Antiques, September 1995. URL accessed on December 15, 2005. There is a particularly detailed map called the Castello Plan. Virtually every structure in New Amsterdam at the time is believed to be represented, and by a fortunate coincidence it can be determined who resided in every house from the Nicasius de Sille List of 1660, which enumerates all the citizens of New Amsterdam and their addresses. Several reproductions of the Castello plan can be found on-line: , . A colored version from 1916 can be found here: . An interactive map (you can click on the buildings) can be found here: . All URLs accessed on December 15, 2005. The map known as the Duke's Plan probably derived from the same 1660 census as the Castello Plan. The Duke's Plan includes the earliest suburban development on Manhattan (the two outlined areas along the top of the plan). The work was created for James (1633-1701), the duke of York and Albany, after whom New York City and New York State's capital Albany was named, just after the seizure of New Amsterdam by the English. An image of the Duke's map can be found on-line at the British Library site: . URL accessed on December 15, 2005. After that provisional relinquishment of New Netherland, Stuyvesant reported to his superiors that he "had endeavored to promote the increase of population, agriculture and commerce...the flourishing condition which might have been more flourishing if the now afflicted inhabitants had been protected by a suitable garrison...and had been helped with the long sought for settlement of the boundary, or in default thereof had they been seconded with the oft besought reinforcement of men and ships against the continual troubles, threats, encroachments and invasions of the English neighbors and government of Hartford Colony, our too powerful enemies." The existence of these maps has proven to be very useful in the archaeology of New York. For instance, the excavation of the Stadthuys (City Hall) of New Amsterdam had great help in finding the exact location of the building from the Castello map. A slideshow of the famous Stadt Huys dig, a landmark archaeological excavation of one of the central blocks of New Amsterdam, can be found here: . A 17-century picture of the Stadthuys can be found here: . Both URLs accessed on December 15, 2005. See also New York City Director-General of New Netherland Petrus Stuyvesant Roosevelt family References Hugh Morrison, Early American Architecture ISBN 0-486-25492-5 (Oxford University Press, 1952) [Dover Ed. 1987] Russell Shorto, The Island at the Center of the World, The Epic Story of Dutch Manhattan and the Forgotten Colony That Shaped America ISBN 0-385-50349-0 (New York, Doubleday, 2004) Jaap Jacobs (2005), New Netherland: A Dutch Colony in Seventeenth-Century America. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN90 04 12906 5. External links The New Amsterdam Trail, a downloadable audio walking tour of Lower Manhattan Nieuw Amsterdam to New York, an audio history from the National Parks of New York Harbor Conservancy New Amsterdam from the New Netherland Project From Van der Donck to Visscher: a 1648 view of New Amsterdam, discovered in Vienna in 1991 Background on the Native Americans of the area New Amsterdam on the Dutch Wikipedia New Amsterdam Images Online | New_Amsterdam |@lemmatized new:68 amsterdam:35 century:5 dutch:36 colonial:3 settlement:11 later:6 become:4 york:17 city:15 town:3 develop:2 outside:1 fort:17 manhattan:19 island:18 netherland:22 territory:9 situate:4 degree:1 latitude:1 provincial:4 extension:2 republic:9 possession:9 accomplish:1 first:9 establish:1 governor:7 year:12 construction:1 citadel:3 comprise:2 commence:1 southern:3 tip:3 settler:8 move:2 earlier:1 harbor:3 river:20 discover:4 explore:1 chart:2 expedition:2 east:3 india:10 company:15 captain:2 henry:2 hudson:10 survey:2 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3,881 | Christmas | Christmas (), also referred to as Christmas Day, is an annual holiday celebrated on December 25 that commemorates the birth of Jesus of Nazareth. Christmas, Merriam-Webster. Retrieved October 6, 2008."Christmas," MSN Encarta. Retrieved October 6, 2008. "Christmas", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1913. The day marks the beginning of the larger season of Christmastide, which lasts twelve days. The nativity of Jesus, which is the basis for the anno Domini system of dating, is thought to have occurred between 7 and 2 BC. Smith, Mark D. "Of Jesus and Quirinius." Catholic Biblical Quarterly; Apr2000, Vol. 62 Issue 2, pp292-293.Pearson, Brook W. R. "The Lucan Censuses, Revisited." Catholic Biblical Quarterly; Apr99, Vol. 61 Issue 2, p282. December 25 is not known to be Jesus' actual date of birth, and the date may have been chosen to correspond with either a Roman festival "Christmas", EncartaRoll, Susan K., Toward the Origins of Christmas, (Peeters Publishers, 1995), p.130.Tighe, William J., "Calculating Christmas". or the winter solstice. Newton, Isaac, Observations on the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John (1733). Ch. XI.A sun connection is possible because Christians consider Jesus to be the "sun of righteousness" prophesied in Malachi 4:2. Modern customs of the holiday include gift-giving, Church celebrations, and the display of various decorations—including the Christmas tree, lights, mistletoe, nativity scenes, and holly. Santa Claus (also referred to as Father Christmas, although the two figures have different origins) is a popular mythological figure often associated with bringing gifts at Christmas for children. Santa is generally believed to be the result of a syncretization between Saint Nicholas and elements from pagan Nordic and Christian mythology, and his modern appearance is believed to have originated in 19th century media. Christmas is celebrated throughout the Christian population, but is also celebrated by many non-Christians as a secular, cultural festival. Because gift-giving and several other aspects of the holiday involve heightened economic activity among both Christians and non-Christians, Christmas has become a major event for many retailers. Etymology |Adoration of the Magi by Bartolomé Esteban Murillo The word Christmas originated as a compound meaning "Christ's Mass". It is derived from the Middle English Christemasse and Old English Cristes mæsse, a phrase first recorded in 1038. "Cristes" is from Greek Christos and "mæsse" is from Latin missa. In Greek, the letter Χ (chi), is the first letter of Christ, and it, or the similar Roman letter X, has been used as an abbreviation for Christ since the mid-16th century. Oxford English Dictionary Hence, Xmas is often used as an abbreviation for Christmas. History For many centuries, Christian writers accepted that Christmas was the actual date on which Jesus was born. For example, Pope Benedict XIV argued in 1761 that the church fathers would have known the correct date of birth from Roman census records. (Roll, Susan K., Toward the Origins of Christmas, (Peeters Publishers, 1995), p. 129.) However, in the early eighteenth century, some scholars began proposing alternative explanations. Isaac Newton argued that the date of Christmas was selected to correspond with the winter solstice, which in ancient times was marked on December 25. "Bruma", Seasonal Festivals of the Greeks and RomansPliny the Elder, Natural History, 18:59 In 1743, German Protestant Paul Ernst Jablonski argued Christmas was placed on December 25 to correspond with the Roman solar holiday Dies Natalis Solis Invicti and was therefore a "paganization" that debased the true church. In 1889, Louis Duchesne suggested that the date of Christmas was calculated as nine months after the Annunciation on March 25, the traditional date of the conception of Jesus. Roll, pp. 88–90.Duchesne, Louis, Les Origines du Culte Chrétien, Paris, 1902, 262 ff. Dies Natalis Solis Invicti Dies Natalis Solis Invicti means "the birthday of the unconquered Sun." The use of the title Sol Invictus allowed several solar deities to be worshipped collectively, including Elah-Gabal, a Syrian sun god; Sol, the god of Emperor Aurelian; and Mithras, a soldiers' god of Persian origin. ""Mithraism", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1913. Emperor Elagabalus (218–222) introduced the festival, and it reached the height of its popularity under Aurelian, who promoted it as an empire-wide holiday. "Sol," Encyclopædia Britannica, Chicago (2006). This day had held no significance in the Roman festive calendar until it was introduced in the third century. William J. Tighe, "Calculating Christmas", The festival was placed on the date of the solstice because this was on this day that the Sun reversed its southward retreat and proved itself to be "unconquered." Several early Christian writers connected the rebirth of the sun to the birth of Jesus. "O, how wonderfully acted Providence that on that day on which that Sun was born...Christ should be born", Cyprian wrote. John Chrysostom also commented on the connection: "They call it the 'Birthday of the Unconquered'. Who indeed is so unconquered as Our Lord . . .?" Winter festivals Mosaic of Jesus as Christo Sole (Christ the Sun) in Mausoleum M in the pre-fourth-century necropolis under St Peter's Basilica in Rome. Kelly, Joseph F., The Origins of Christmas, Liturgical Press, 2004, p. 67-69. Christians consider Jesus to be the "sun of righteousness" prophesied in Malachi 4:2. A winter festival was the most popular festival of the year in many cultures. Reasons included the fact that less agricultural work needs to be done during the winter, as well as an expectation of better weather as spring approached. ""Christmas – An Ancient Holiday", The History Channel, 2007. Modern Christmas customs include: gift-giving and merrymaking from Roman Saturnalia; greenery, lights, and charity from the Roman New Year; and Yule logs and various foods from Germanic feasts. Coffman, Elesha. Why December 25? Christian History & Biography, Christianity Today, 2000. Pagan Scandinavia celebrated a winter festival called Yule, held in the late December to early January period. As Northern Europe was the last part to Christianize, its pagan traditions had a major influence on Christmas. Scandinavians still call Christmas Jul. In English, the word Yule is synonymous with Christmas, Yule. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved December 3, 2006. a usage first recorded in 900. Patristic developments Adoration of the Magi by Don Lorenzo Monaco (1422) The New Testament does not give a date for the birth of Jesus. "Christmas, Encyclopædia Britannica Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006. Around AD 200, Clement of Alexandria wrote that a group in Egypt celebrated the nativity on Pachon 25. This corresponds to May 20. Roll, p. 78, citing calculations by Roger Beckworth. Roll, pp. 79-80, then cites Roland Bainton to say that Clement may have used two separate calendars and the discrepancies between them eventually "yields 6 January, in 2 CE". Tertullian (d. 220) does not mention Christmas as a major feast day in the Church of Roman Africa. In Chronographai, a reference work published in 221, Sextus Julius Africanus suggested that Jesus was conceived on the spring equinox. Roll, p. 79, 80. Only fragments of Chronographai survive. In one fragment, Africanus referred to "Pege in Bethlehem" and "Lady Pege, Spring-bearer." See "Narrative Narrative of Events Happening in Persia on the Birth of Christ Narrative." The equinox was March 25 on the Roman calendar, so this implied a birth in December. Bradt, Hale, Astronomy Methods, (2004), p. 69.Roll p. 87. De Pascha Computus, a calendar of feasts produced in 243, gives March 28 as the date of the nativity. Roll p.81f In 245, the theologian Origen of Alexandria stated that, "only sinners (like Pharaoh and Herod)" celebrated their birthdays. Origen, "Levit., Hom. VIII"; Migne P.G., XII, 495."Natal Day", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1911. In 303, Christian writer Arnobius ridiculed the idea of celebrating the birthdays of gods, which suggests that Christmas was not yet a feast at this time. Feast established The earliest reference to the celebration of the nativity on December 25 is found in the Chronography of 354, an illuminated manuscript compiled in Rome in 354. This document was prepared privately for a Roman aristocrat. The reference in question states, "VIII kal. ian. natus Christus in Betleem Iudeæ". It is in a section copied from an earlier manuscript produced in 336. This document also contains the earliest known reference to the feast of Sol Invictus. In the East, early Christians celebrated the birth of Christ as part of Epiphany (January 6), and this festival included the celebration of the baptism of Jesus. Pokhilko, Hieromonk Nicholas, "History of Epiphany" Christmas was promoted in the Christian East as part of the revival of Catholicism following the death of the pro-Arian Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The feast was introduced to Constantinople in 379, and to Antioch in about 380. The feast disappeared after Gregory of Nazianzus resigned as bishop in 381, although it was reintroduced by John Chrysostom in about 400. Middle Ages In the Early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in the west focused on the visit of the magi. But the Medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin" (which began on November 11, the feast of St. Martin of Tours), now known as Advent. Murray, Alexander, "Medieval Christmas", History Today, December 1986, 36 (12), pp. 31 – 39. In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent. Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to the Twelve Days of Christmas (December 25 – January 5); a time that appears in the liturgical calendars as Christmastide or Twelve Holy Days. Excerpt from Josiah King's The Examination and Trial of Father Christmas (1686), published shortly after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in England. The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after Charlemagne was crowned Emperor on Christmas Day in 800. King Edmund the Martyr was anointed on Christmas in 855 and King William I of England was crowned on Christmas Day 1066. By the High Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas. King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which twenty-eight oxen and three hundred sheep were eaten. The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts. Caroling also became popular, and was originally a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form. "Misrule" — drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling — was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day, and there was special Christmas ale. Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival that incorporating ivy, holly, and other evergreens. Christmas gift-giving during the Middle Ages was usually between people with legal relationships, such as tenant and landlord. McGreevy, Patrick. "Place in the American Christmas," (JSTOR), Geographical Review, Vol. 80, No. 1. January 1990, pp. 32–42. Retrieved September 10, 2007. Reformation into the 19th century Scrooge and the Ghost of Christmas Present, by John Leech. Made for Charles Dickens's novel A Christmas Carol (1843). During the Reformation, some Puritans condemned Christmas celebration as "trappings of popery" and the "rags of the Beast." Durston, Chris, "Lords of Misrule: The Puritan War on Christmas 1642–60", History Today, December 1985, 35 (12) pp. 7 – 14. The Roman Catholic Church responded by promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. Following the Parliamentarian victory over King Charles I during the English Civil War, England's Puritan rulers banned Christmas, in 1647. Pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities, and for weeks Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans. The Restoration of Charles II in 1660 ended the ban, but many clergymen still disapproved of Christmas celebration. In Colonial America, the Puritans of New England disapproved of Christmas. Celebration was outlawed in Boston from 1659 to 1681. At the same time, Christian residents of Virginia and observed the holiday freely. Pennsylvania German Settlers, pre-eminently the Moravian settlers of Bethlehem, Nazareth and Lititz in Pennsylvania and the Wachovia Settlements in North Carolina, were enthusiastic celebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bethlehem had the first Christmas trees in America as well as the first Nativity Scenes. Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after the American Revolution, when it was considered an English custom. George Washington attacked Hessian mercenaries on Christmas during the Battle of Trenton in 1777. (Christmas being much more popular in Germany than in America at this time.) By the 1820s, sectarian tension had eased and British writers, including William Winstanly, began to worry that Christmas was dying out. These writers imagined Tudor Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration, and efforts were made to revive the holiday. Charles Dickens's book A Christmas Carol, published in 1843, played a major role in reinventing Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion as opposed to communal celebration and hedonistic excess. Rowell, Geoffrey, "Dickens and the Construction of Christmas", History Today, December 1993, 43 (12), pp. 17 – 24. In America, interest in Christmas was revived in the 1820s by several short stories by Washington Irving which appear in his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon and "Old Christmas", and by Clement Clarke Moore's 1822 poem A Visit From St. Nicholas (popularly known by its first line: Twas the Night Before Christmas). Moore's poem transferred the genuine old Dutch traditions celebrated at New Year in New York, including the exchange of gifts, family feasting, and tales of “sinterklass” (a derivation in Dutch from “Saint Nicholas,” from whence comes the modern “Santa Claus”) to Christmas.The history of Christmas: Christmas history in America, 2006 Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted holiday traditions he claimed to have observed in England. Although some argue that Irving invented the traditions he describes, they were widely imitated by his American readers. The poem A Visit from Saint Nicholas popularized the tradition of exchanging gifts and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance. usinfo.state.gov “Americans Celebrate Christmas in Diverse Ways” November 26, 2006 In reaction, this also started the cultural conflict of the holiday's spiritualism and its commercialism that some see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 book "The First Christmas in New England", Harriet Beecher Stowe includes a character who complains that the true meaning of Christmas was lost in a shopping spree. First Presbyterian Church of Watertown “Oh . . . and one more thing” December 11, 2005 Christmas was declared a United States Federal holiday in 1870, signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant. Nativity of Jesus German painting, 1457 The Nativity of Jesus refers to the Christian belief that the Messiah was born to the Virgin Mary. The story of Christmas is based on the biblical accounts given in the Gospel of Matthew, namely - and the Gospel of Luke, specifically -. According to these accounts, Jesus was born to Mary, assisted by her husband Joseph, in the city of Bethlehem. According to popular tradition, the birth took place in a stable, surrounded by farm animals, though neither the stable nor the animals are mentioned in the Biblical accounts. However, a manger is mentioned in Luke 2:7 where it states "She wrapped him in cloths and placed him in a manger, because there was no room for them in the inn." Early iconographic representations of the nativity placed the stable and manger within a cave (located, according to tradition, under the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem). Shepherds from the fields surrounding Bethlehem were told of the birth by an angel, and were the first to see the child. Luke 2:1–6 Many Christians believe that the birth of Jesus fulfilled prophecies from the Old Testament. Geza Vermes, The Nativity: History and Legend, London, Penguin, 2006, p22.; E. P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus, 1993, p.85. Remembering is a central way that Christians celebrate Christmas. There is a very long tradition of the Nativity of Jesus in art. The Eastern Orthodox Church practices the Nativity Fast in anticipation of the birth of Jesus, while much of the Western Church celebrates Advent. In some Christian denominations, children perform plays re-telling the events of the Nativity, or sing carols that reference the event. Some Christians also display a small re-creation of the Nativity, known as a Nativity scene or crib, in their homes, using figurines to portray the key characters of the event. Live Nativity scenes and tableaux vivants are also performed, using actors and live animals to portray the event with more realism. Krug, Nora. "Little Towns of Bethlehem", The New York Times, November 25, 2005. Nativity scenes traditionally include the Three Wise Men, Balthazar, Melchior, and Caspar, and who are said to have followed a star, known as the Star of Bethlehem, and arrive at his birth. Matthew 2:1–11 However, this conflicts with Biblical accounts in that their names and number are never mentioned nor is their arrival at his birth. (Matt. 2:7–8, 16). Likewise, the Bible makes no mention of farm animals, though their presence might be inferred because Mary laid her baby in a manger. In the U.S., Christmas decorations at public buildings once commonly included Nativity scenes. This practice has led to many lawsuits, as groups such as the American Civil Liberties Union believe it amounts to the government endorsing a religion, which is prohibited by the United States Constitution. In 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Lynch vs. Donnelly that a Christmas display (which included a Nativity scene) owned and displayed by the city of Pawtucket, Rhode Island did not violate the First Amendment. Lynch vs. Donnelly (1984) Santa Claus and other bringers of gifts Santa Claus hands out gifts during the American Civil War in Thomas Nast's first Santa Claus cartoon, Harper's Weekly, 1863 Originating from Western culture, where the holiday is characterized by the exchange of gifts among friends and family members, some of the gifts are attributed to a character called Father Christmas (also known as Santa Claus, Saint Nicholas or St. Nikolaus, Sinterklaas, Kris Kringle, Père Noël, Joulupukki, Babbo Natale, Weihnachtsmann, Saint Basil and Father Frost). The popular image of Santa Claus was created by the German-American cartoonist Thomas Nast (1840–1902), who drew a new image annually, beginning in 1863. By the 1880s, Nast's Santa had evolved into the form we now recognize. The image was standardized by advertisers in the 1920s. Mikkelson, Barbara and David P., "The Claus That Refreshes", Snopes.com, 2006. Father Christmas, who predates the Santa Claus character, was first recorded in the 15th century, but was associated with holiday merrymaking and drunkenness. In Victorian Britain, his image was remade to match that of Santa. The French Père Noël evolved along similar lines, eventually adopting the Santa image. In Italy, Babbo Natale acts as Santa Claus, while La Befana is the bringer of gifts and arrives on the eve of the Epiphany. It is said that La Befana set out to bring the baby Jesus gifts, but got lost along the way. Now, she brings gifts to all children. In some cultures Santa Claus is accompanied by Knecht Ruprecht, or Black Peter. In other versions, elves make the toys. His wife is referred to as Mrs. Claus. It is often claimed that the basis for the North American figure of Santa Claus is the Dutch holyman and bringer of gifts Sinterklaas. During the American War of Independence the inhabitants of New York City, a former Dutch colonial town (New Amsterdam) which had been swapped by the Dutch for other territories, reinvented their Sinterklaas tradition, as Saint Nicholas was a symbol of the city's non-English past. Saint Nicholas, Sinterklaas, Santa Claus The name Santa Claus supposedly is derived from older Dutch Sinte Klaas. However, the Saint Nicholas Society was not founded until 1835, almost half a century after the end of the American War of Independence. Moreover, a study of the "children's books, periodicals and journals" of New Amsterdam by Charles Jones revealed no references to Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas. . However, not all scholars agree with Jones's findings, which he reiterated in a booklength study in 1978; Charles W. Jones, Saint Nicholas of Myra, Bari, and Manhattan: Biography of a Legend (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1978). Howard G. Hageman, of New Brunswick Theological Seminary, maintains that the tradition of celebrating Sinterklaas in New York was alive and well from the early settlement of the Hudson Valley on. . The current tradition in several Latin American countries (such as Venezuela and Colombia) holds that while Santa makes the toys, he then gives them to the Baby Jesus, who is the one who actually delivers them to the children's homes. This story is meant to be a reconciliation between traditional religious beliefs and modern day globalization, most notably the iconography of Santa Claus imported from the United States. In Alto Adige/Südtirol (Italy), Austria, Czech Republic, Southern Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Slovakia and Switzerland, the Christkind (Ježíšek in Czech, Jézuska in Hungarian and Ježiško in Slovak) brings the presents. The German St. Nikolaus is not identical with the Weihnachtsman (who is the German version of Santa Claus). St. Nikolaus wears a bishop's dress and still brings small gifts (usually candies, nuts and fruits) on December 6 and is accompanied by Knecht Ruprecht. Although many parents around the world routinely teach their children about Santa Claus and other gift bringers, some have come to reject this practice, considering it deceptive. Matera, Mariane. "Santa: The First Great Lie", Citybeat, Issue 304 Decorations In many countries there are many different types of decorations used depending on the traditions and available resources. A Christmas tree ornament.The Christmas tree is often explained as a Christianisation of pagan tradition and ritual surrounding the Winter Solstice, which included the use of evergreen boughs, and an adaptation of pagan tree worship. The English language phrase "Christmas tree" is first recorded in 1835 Harper, Douglas, Christ, Online Etymology Dictionary, 2001. and represents an importation from the German language. The modern Christmas tree tradition is believed to have begun in Germany in the 18th century van Renterghem, Tony. When Santa was a shaman. St. Paul: Llewellyn Publications, 1995. ISBN 1-56718-765-X though many argue that Martin Luther began the tradition in the 16th century. From Germany the custom was introduced to Britiain, first via Queen Charlotte, wife of George III, and then more successfully by Prince Albert during the reign of Queen Victoria. Around the same time, German immigrants introduced the custom into the United States. Morris, Desmond. Christmas Watching. London: Mackays of Chatham, 1992. ISBN 0-224-03598-3 Christmas trees may be decorated with lights and ornaments. Since the 19th century, the poinsettia, a native plant from Mexico, has been associated with Christmas. Other popular holiday plants include holly, mistletoe, red amaryllis, and Christmas cactus. Along with a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along with garlands and evergreen foliage. A house decorated for Christmas Municipal holiday decorations, Toledo, Iowa. In Australia, North and South America, and to a lesser extent Europe, it is traditional to decorate the outside of houses with lights and sometimes with illuminated sleighs, snowmen, and other Christmas figures. Municipalities often sponsor decorations as well. Christmas banners may be hung from street lights and Christmas trees placed in the town square. Murray, Brian. "Christmas lights and community building in America," History Matters, Spring 2006. In the Western world, rolls of brightly colored paper with secular or religious Christmas motifs are manufactured for the purpose of wrapping gifts. The display of Christmas villages has also become a tradition in many homes during this season. Other traditional decorations include bells, candles, candy canes, stockings, wreaths, and angels. In many countries a representation of the Nativity Scene is very popular, and people are encouraged to compete and create most original or realistic ones. Within some families, the pieces used to make the representation are considered a valuable family heirloom. Christmas decorations are traditionally taken down on Twelfth Night, the evening of January 5. The traditional colours of Christmas are pine green (evergreen), snow white, and heart red. Christmas stamps Christmas stamp 2000 from Faroe Island, featuring quote from John , designed by Anker Eli Petersen A number of nations have issued commemorative stamps at Christmastime. Postal customers will often use these stamps to mail Christmas cards, and they are popular with philatelists. These stamps are regular postage stamps, unlike Christmas seals, and are valid for postage year-round. They usually go on sale some time between early October and early December, and are printed in considerable quantities. In 1898 a Canadian stamp was issued to mark the inauguration of the Imperial Penny Postage rate. The stamp features a map of the globe and bears an inscription "XMAS 1898" at the bottom. In 1937, Austria issued two "Christmas greeting stamps" featuring a rose and the signs of the zodiac. In 1939, Brazil issued four semi-postal stamps with designs featuring the three kings and a star of Bethlehem, an angel and child, the Southern Cross and a child, and a mother and child. The US Postal Service regularly issues both a religious-themed and a secular-themed stamp each year. Economics of Christmas Christmas display in a Brazilian shopping mall. Christmas is typically the largest annual economic stimulus for many nations. Sales increase dramatically in almost all retail areas and shops introduce new products as people purchase gifts, decorations, and supplies. In the U.S., the "Christmas shopping season" generally begins on Black Friday, the day after Thanksgiving, though many American stores begin selling Christmas items as early as October. Varga, Melody. "Black Friday, About:Retail Industry. In Canada, merchants begin advertising campaigns just before Halloween (October 31), and step up their marketing following Remembrance Day on November 11. In most areas, Christmas Day is the least active day of the year for business and commerce; almost all retail, commercial and institutional businesses are closed, and almost all industries cease activity (more than any other day of the year). In England and Wales, the Christmas Day (Trading) Act 2004 prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day. Scotland is currently planning similar legislation. Film studios release many high-budget movies in the holiday season, including Christmas films, fantasy movies or high-tone dramas with high production values. An economists analysis calculates that Christmas is a deadweight loss under orthodox microeconomic theory, due to the surge in gift-giving. This loss is calculated as the difference between what the gift giver spent on the item and what the gift receiver would have paid for the item. It is estimated that in 2001 Christmas resulted in a $4 billion deadweight loss in the U.S. alone. "The Deadweight Loss of Christmas", American Economic Review, December 1993, 83 (5) "Is Santa a deadweight loss?" The Economist December 20, 2001 Because of complicating factors, this analysis is sometimes used to discuss possible flaws in current microeconomic theory. Other deadweight losses include the effects of Christmas on the environment and the fact that material gifts are often perceived as white elephants, imposing cost for upkeep and storage and contributing to clutter. Reuters. "Christmas is Damaging the Environment, Report Says" December 16, 2005. See also Christmas time Christmas Eve Christmas Sunday Christmas worldwide Christmas controversy Holiday season Little Christmas Midwinter Christmas Midwinter Twelve days of Christmas Yuletide References Further reading Christmas in America: A History, by Penne L. Restad (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). ISBN 0-19-509300-3 The Battle for Christmas, by Stephen Nissenbaum (1996; New York: Vintage Books, 1997). ISBN 0-679-74038-4 The Origins of Christmas, by Joseph F. Kelly (August 2004: Liturgical Press) ISBN 978-0814629840 Christmas Customs and Traditions, by Clement A. Miles (1976: Dover Publications) ISBN 978-0486233543 The World Encyclopedia of Christmas, by Gerry Bowler (October 2004: McClelland & Stewart) ISBN 978-0771015359 Santa Claus: A Biography, by Gerry Bowler (November 2007: McClelland & Stewart) ISBN 978-0771016684 There Really Is a Santa Claus: The History of St. Nicholas & Christmas Holiday Traditions, by William J. Federer (December 2002: Amerisearch) ISBN 978-0965355742 St. Nicholas: A Closer Look at Christmas, by Jim Rosenthal (July 2006: Nelson Reference) ISBN 1418504076 Just say Noel: A History of Christmas from the Nativity to the Nineties, by David Comfort (November 1995: Fireside) ISBN 978-0684800578 4000 Years of Christmas: A Gift from the Ages, by Earl W. Count (November 1997: Ulysses Press) ISBN 978-1569750872 The Birth of Christ", by Peter Sammons (May 2006: Glory to Glory Publications) (UK) ISBN 0-9551790-1-7 External links Christmas: Its Origin and Associations'', by William Francis Dawson, 1902, from Project Gutenberg be-x-old:Божае Нараджэньне | Christmas |@lemmatized christmas:139 also:13 refer:4 day:27 annual:2 holiday:22 celebrate:13 december:20 commemorate:1 birth:15 jesus:22 nazareth:2 merriam:1 webster:1 retrieve:4 october:6 msn:1 encarta:1 catholic:6 encyclopedia:4 mark:4 beginning:1 large:3 season:5 christmastide:2 last:2 twelve:4 nativity:22 basis:2 anno:1 domini:1 system:1 dating:1 think:1 occur:1 bc:1 smith:1 quirinius:1 biblical:5 quarterly:2 vol:3 issue:8 pearson:1 brook:1 w:3 r:1 lucan:1 census:2 revisit:1 know:8 actual:2 date:10 may:8 choose:1 correspond:4 either:1 roman:11 festival:13 encartaroll:1 susan:2 k:2 toward:2 origin:7 peeters:2 publisher:2 p:13 tighe:2 william:6 j:3 calculate:5 winter:7 solstice:4 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3,882 | Computer_animation | An example of computer animation which is produced in the "motion capture" technique Computer animation (or CGI animation) is the art of creating moving images with the use of computers. It is a subfield of computer graphics and animation. Increasingly it is created by means of 3D computer graphics, though 2D computer graphics are still widely used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time rendering needs. Sometimes the target of the animation is the computer itself, but sometimes the target is another medium, such as film. It is also referred to as CGI (computer-generated imagery or computer-generated imaging), especially when used in films. To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer screen and repeatedly replaced by a new image that is similar to the previous image, but advanced slightly in the time domain (usually at a rate of 24 or 30 frames/second). This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television and motion pictures. Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to the art of stop motion animation of 3D models and frame-by-frame animation of 2D illustrations. For 3D animations, objects (models) are built on the computer monitor (modeled) and 3D figures are rigged with a virtual skeleton. For 2D figure animations, separate objects (illustrations) and separate transparent layers are used, with or without a virtual skeleton. Then the limbs, eyes, mouth, clothes, etc. of the figure are moved by the animator on key frames. The differences in appearance between key frames are automatically calculated by the computer in a process known as tweening or morphing. Finally, the animation is rendered. For 3D animations, all frames must be rendered after modeling is complete. For 2D vector animations, the rendering process is the key frame illustration process, while tweened frames are rendered as needed. For pre-recorded presentations, the rendered frames are transferred to a different format or medium such as film or digital video. The frames may also be rendered in real time as they are presented to the end-user audience. Low bandwidth animations transmitted via the internet (e.g. 2D Flash, X3D) often use software on the end-users computer to render in real time as an alternative to streaming or pre-loaded high bandwidth animations. A simple example Computer animation example The screen is blanked to a background color, such as black. Then a goat is drawn on the right of the screen. Next the screen is blanked, but the goat is re-drawn or duplicated slightly to the left of its original position. This process is repeated, each time moving the goat a bit to the left. If this process is repeated fast enough the goat will appear to move smoothly to the left. This basic procedure is used for all moving pictures in films and television. The moving goat is an example of shifting the location of an object. More complex transformations of object properties such as size, shape, lighting effects and color often require calculations and computer rendering instead of simple re-drawing or duplication. Explanation To trick the eye and brain into thinking they are seeing a smoothly moving object, the pictures should be drawn at around 12 frames per second (frame/s) or faster (a frame is one complete image). With rates above 70 frames/s no improvement in realism or smoothness is perceivable due to the way the eye and brain process images. At rates below 12 frame/s most people can detect jerkiness associated with the drawing of new images which detracts from the illusion of realistic movement. Conventional hand-drawn cartoon animation often uses 15 frames/s in order to save on the number of drawings needed, but this is usually accepted because of the stylized nature of cartoons. Because it produces more realistic imagery computer animation demands higher frame rates to reinforce this realism. The reason no jerkiness is seen at higher speeds is due to “persistence of vision.” From moment to moment, the eye and brain working together actually store whatever one looks at for a fraction of a second, and automatically "smooth out" minor jumps. Movie film seen in theaters in the United States runs at 24 frames per second, which is sufficient to create this illusion of continuous movement. Methods of animating virtual characters In this .gif of a 2D Flash animation, each 'stick' of the figure is keyframed over time to create motion. In most 3D computer animation systems, an animator creates a simplified representation of a character's anatomy, analogous to a skeleton or stick figure. The position of each segment of the skeletal model is defined by animation variables, or Avars. In human and animal characters, many parts of the skeletal model correspond to actual bones, but skeletal animation is also used to animate other things, such as facial features (though other methods for facial animation exist). The character "Woody" in Toy Story, for example, uses 700 Avars, including 100 Avars in the face. The computer does not usually render the skeletal model directly (it is invisible), but uses the skeletal model to compute the exact position and orientation of the character, which is eventually rendered into an image. Thus by changing the values of Avars over time, the animator creates motion by making the character move from frame to frame. There are several methods for generating the Avar values to obtain realistic motion. Traditionally, animators manipulate the Avars directly. Rather than set Avars for every frame, they usually set Avars at strategic points (frames) in time and let the computer interpolate or 'tween' between them, a process called keyframing. Keyframing puts control in the hands of the animator, and has roots in hand-drawn traditional animation. In contrast, a newer method called motion capture makes use of live action. When computer animation is driven by motion capture, a real performer acts out the scene as if they were the character to be animated. His or her motion is recorded to a computer using video cameras and markers, and that performance is then applied to the animated character. Each method has their advantages, and as of 2007, games and films are using either or both of these methods in productions. Keyframe animation can produce motions that would be difficult or impossible to act out, while motion capture can reproduce the subtleties of a particular actor. For example, in the 2006 film Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest, actor Bill Nighy provided the performance for the character Davy Jones. Even though Nighy himself doesn't appear in the film, the movie benefited from his performance by recording the nuances of his body language, posture, facial expressions, etc. Thus motion capture is appropriate in situations where believable, realistic behavior and action is required, but the types of characters required exceed what can be done through conventional costuming. Computer animation development equipment Computer animation can be created with a computer and animation software. Some impressive animation can be achieved even with basic programs; however the rendering can take a lot of time on an ordinary home computer. Because of this, video game animators tend to use low resolution, low polygon count renders, such that the graphics can be rendered in real time on a home computer. Photorealistic animation would be impractical in this context. Professional animators of movies, television, and video sequences on computer games make photorealistic animation with high detail. This level of quality for movie animation would take tens to hundreds of years to create on a home computer. Many powerful workstation computers are used instead. Graphics workstation computers use two to four processors, and thus are a lot more powerful than a home computer, and are specialized for rendering. A large number of workstations (known as a render farm) are networked together to effectively act as a giant computer. The result is a computer-animated movie that can be completed in about one to five years (this process is not comprised solely of rendering, however). A workstation typically costs $2,000 to $16,000, with the more expensive stations being able to render much faster, due to the more technologically advanced hardware that they contain. Pixar's Renderman is rendering software which is widely used as the movie animation industry standard, in competition with Mental Ray. It can be bought at the official Pixar website for about $5,000 to $8,000. It will work on Linux, Mac OS X, and Microsoft Windows based graphics workstations along with an animation program such as Maya and Softimage XSI. Professionals also use digital movie cameras, motion capture or performance capture, bluescreens, film editing software, props, and other tools for movie animation. The future One open challenge in computer animation is a photorealistic animation of humans. Currently, most computer-animated movies show animal characters (A Bug's Life, Finding Nemo, Ratatouille, Newt, Ice Age, Over the Hedge), fantasy characters (Monsters Inc., Shrek), anthropomorphic machines (Cars, WALL-E, Robots) or cartoon-like humans (The Incredibles, Up, Meet the Robinsons). The movie Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within is often cited as the first computer-generated movie to attempt to show realistic-looking humans. However, due to the enormous complexity of the human body, human motion, and human biomechanics, realistic simulation of humans remains largely an open problem. It is one of the "holy grails" of computer animation. Eventually, the goal is to create software where the animator can generate a movie sequence showing a photorealistic human character, undergoing physically-plausible motion, together with clothes, photorealistic hair, a complicated natural background, and possibly interacting with other simulated human characters. This could be done in a way that the viewer is no longer able to tell if a particular movie sequence is computer-generated, or created using real actors in front of movie cameras. Complete human realism is not likely to happen very soon, however such concepts obviously bear certain philosophical implications for the future of the film industry. For the moment it looks like three dimensional computer animation can be divided into two main directions; photorealistic and non-photorealistic rendering. Photorealistic computer animation can itself be divided into two subcategories; real photorealism (where performance capture is used in the creation of the virtual human characters) and stylized photorealism. Real photorealism is what Final Fantasy tried to achieve and will in the future most likely have the ability to give us live action fantasy features as The Dark Crystal without having to use advanced puppetry and animatronics, while Antz is an example on stylistic photorealism (in the future stylized photorealism will be able to replace traditional stop motion animation as in Corpse Bride). None of them are as mentioned perfected yet, but the progress continues. The non-photorealistic/cartoonish direction is more like an extension of traditional animation, an attempt to make the animation look like a three dimensional version of a cartoon, still using and perfecting the main principles of animation articulated by the Nine Old Men, such as squash and stretch. While a single frame from a photorealistic computer-animated feature will look like a photo if done right, a single frame vector from a cartoonish computer-animated feature will look like a painting (not to be confused with cel shading, which produces an ever simpler look). The 2010 movie Alice in Wonderland will be in 3D animation and motion capture. Detailed examples and pseudocode In 2D computer animation, moving objects are often referred to as “sprites.” A sprite is an image that has a location associated with it. The location of the sprite is changed slightly, between each displayed frame, to make the sprite appear to move. The following pseudocode makes a sprite move from left to right: var int x := 0, y := screenHeight / 2; while x < screenWidth drawBackground() drawSpriteAtXY (x, y) // draw on top of the background x := x + 5 // move to the right Modern (2001) computer animation uses different techniques to produce animations. Most frequently, sophisticated mathematics is used to manipulate complex three dimensional polygons, apply “textures”, lighting and other effects to the polygons and finally rendering the complete image. A sophisticated graphical user interface may be used to create the animation and arrange its choreography. Another technique called constructive solid geometry defines objects by conducting boolean operations on regular shapes, and has the advantage that animations may be accurately produced at any resolution. Let's step through the rendering of a simple image of a room with flat wood walls with a grey pyramid in the center of the room. The pyramid will have a spotlight shining on it. Each wall, the floor and the ceiling is a simple polygon, in this case, a rectangle. Each corner of the rectangles is defined by three values referred to as X, Y and Z. X is how far left and right the point is. Y is how far up and down the point is, and Z is far in and out of the screen the point is. The wall nearest us would be defined by four points: (in the order x, y, z). Below is a representation of how the wall is defined (0, 10, 0) (10, 10, 0) (0,0,0) (10, 0, 0) The far wall would be: (0, 10, 20) (10, 10, 20) (0, 0, 20) (10, 0, 20) The pyramid is made up of five polygons: the rectangular base, and four triangular sides. To draw this image the computer uses math to calculate how to project this image, defined by three dimensional data, onto a two dimensional computer screen. First we must also define where our view point is, that is, from what vantage point will the scene be drawn. Our view point is inside the room a bit above the floor, directly in front of the pyramid. First the computer will calculate which polygons are visible. The near wall will not be displayed at all, as it is behind our view point. The far side of the pyramid will also not be drawn as it is hidden by the front of the pyramid. Next each point is perspective projected onto the screen. The portions of the walls ‘furthest’ from the view point will appear to be shorter than the nearer areas due to perspective. To make the walls look like wood, a wood pattern, called a texture, will be drawn on them. To accomplish this, a technique called “texture mapping” is often used. A small drawing of wood that can be repeatedly drawn in a matching tiled pattern (like wallpaper) is stretched and drawn onto the walls' final shape. The pyramid is solid grey so its surfaces can just be rendered as grey. But we also have a spotlight. Where its light falls we lighten colors, where objects blocks the light we darken colors. Next we render the complete scene on the computer screen. If the numbers describing the position of the pyramid were changed and this process repeated, the pyramid would appear to move. Movies CGI short films have been produced as independent animation since 1976, though the popularity of computer animation (especially in the field of special effects) skyrocketed during the modern era of U.S. animation. The first completely computer-generated television series was ReBoot, and the first completely computer-generated animated movie was Toy Story (1995). See List of computer-animated films for more. Amateur animation The popularity of sites such as Newgrounds, which allows members to upload their own movies for others to view, has created a growing number of what is often considered amateur computer animators. With many free utilities available and programs such as Windows Movie Maker or iMovie, which are included in the operating system, anyone with the tools and a creative mind can have their animation viewed by thousands. Many high end animation software options are also available on a trial basis, allowing for educational and non-commercial development with certain restrictions. Several free software animation software applications exist as well, Blender 3D as an example. One way to create amateur animation is using the GIF format, which can be uploaded and seen on the web easily. Architectural animation Architects use services from animation companies to create a 3-dimensional models for both the customers and builders. It can be more accurate than traditional drawings. Architectural animation can also be used to see the possible relationship the building will have in relation to the environment and its surrounding buildings. See also Animation Computer-generated imagery (CGI) Ray Tracing Computer Graphics Lab DreamWorks Animation SKG National Centre for Computer Animation (UK) Wire frame model Virtual artifact Computer representation of surfaces Motion capture Avar (animation variable) Pixar Animation Studios Computer Animation Training Rhythm and Hues Studios Skeletal animation Morph target animation Timeline of CGI in film and television List of computer-animated films Blue Sky Studios Hand Over Animated images in Wikipedia Computer animation example An animated pentakisdodecahedron Animation of an MRI brain scan, starting at the top of the head and moving towards the base External links Animation lessons from Amazing-kids.org CG101: A Computer Graphics Industry Reference, Terrence Masson. ISBN 073570046X (Histories of early computer graphics production) 3D Tutorials WhichDimension.com GFX.3D Directory | Computer_animation |@lemmatized example:10 computer:63 animation:73 produce:7 motion:18 capture:10 technique:5 cgi:5 art:2 create:15 move:13 image:14 use:30 subfield:1 graphic:9 increasingly:1 mean:1 though:4 still:2 widely:2 stylistic:2 low:4 bandwidth:3 faster:2 real:8 time:10 render:20 need:3 sometimes:2 target:3 another:2 medium:2 film:14 also:10 refer:3 generated:3 imagery:3 generate:6 imaging:1 especially:2 illusion:4 movement:4 display:2 screen:8 repeatedly:2 replace:2 new:3 similar:1 previous:1 advance:1 slightly:3 domain:1 usually:4 rate:4 frame:26 second:4 identical:1 achieve:3 television:5 picture:3 essentially:1 digital:3 successor:1 stop:2 model:10 illustration:3 object:8 build:1 monitor:1 figure:5 rig:1 virtual:5 skeleton:3 separate:2 transparent:1 layer:1 without:2 limb:1 eye:4 mouth:1 clothes:2 etc:2 animator:9 key:3 difference:1 appearance:1 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3,883 | Kenyanthropus | Kenyanthropus platyops is a 3.5 to 3.2 million year old (Pliocene) extinct hominin species that was discovered in Lake Turkana, Kenya in 1999 by Justus Erus, who was part of Meave Leakey's team. Kenyanthropus platyops The fossil found features a broad flat face with a toe bone that suggests it probably walked upright. Teeth are intermediate between typical human and typical ape forms. Kenyanthropus platyops, which means "Flat faced man of Kenya", is the only described species in the genus. However, if some paleoanthropologists are correct, Kenyanthropus may not even represent a valid taxon, as the specimen (KNM-WT 40000) KNM-WT 40000 is short for: Kenya National Museum (where it is housed); West Turkana (where it was found); and 40000 (the museum acquisition number) is so distorted by matrix-filled cracks that meaningful morphologic characteristics are next to impossible to assess with confidence. It may simply be a specimen of Australopithecus afarensis, which is known from the same time period and geographic area. Other researches speculate that the flatter face position of the rough cranium is similar to KNM ER 1470 "Homo rudolfensis" and suspect it to be closer to the genus Homo, perhaps being a direct ancestor. However the debate has not been concluded and the species remains an enigma. kenyanthropus platyops The bones discovered at the site included more than 30 skull and tooth fragments in a stratum dated to between 3.5 and 3.2 million years ago. The fossil was named the Flat Faced Man of Kenya, or Kenyanthropus platyops, by Dr. Meave Leakey, of the National Museums of Kenya. Dr. Leakey believes that it belongs to an entirely new genus of ancestors, and is the oldest "reasonably complete" cranium found so far. Humans were once thought to have evolved from only one member of Australopithecus afarensis, the species made famous by the fossil Lucy. But now it seems Lucy may have been sharing the woods and grass plains of prehistoric Africa with a rival. Until more recent discoveries were made, it seemed as if the evolution of man might be “special” since there appeared to be only one single line of hominids leading from the most primitive to Modern Man of today. And since evolution normally proceeds in branches, multiplying as each branch divides, hominid evolution seemed for a while to be the one exception. Now, with the discovery of Kenyanthropus, the picture looks more “normal”. At present anthropologists aren’t sure how many branches there might have been 3 million years ago. Branches may have gone extinct that we haven’t yet found representatives for; but such fossils could be discovered at any time. When learning of the discovery, Daniel Lieberman, an anthropologist at George Washington University expressed his opinion that between 3.5 and 2 million years ago there were several human-like species, each of which were well adapted to life in their particular environments. Also that, like that of many other mammalian groups, humans evolved through a series of complex radiations, known as "adaptive radiation". BBC News (21 March 2001) http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1234006.stm The Kenyanthropus fossil has a small earhole, like those of chimpanzees. It also shares many features of other primitive hominids, such as a small brain, but it also has striking differences, including high cheek bones, and a flat plane beneath its nose bone, which gives it a flat face. See also List of fossil sites (with link directory) List of human evolution fossils (with images) References Further reading External links Kenyanthropus.com The flat faced man of Kenya (Nature) BBC Science article about importance of Kenyanthropus Platyops A picture of Kenyathropus-Platyops at the American Museum of Natural History | Kenyanthropus |@lemmatized kenyanthropus:10 platyops:7 million:4 year:4 old:2 pliocene:1 extinct:2 hominin:1 specie:5 discover:3 lake:1 turkana:2 kenya:6 justus:1 erus:1 part:1 meave:2 leakey:3 team:1 fossil:7 find:4 feature:2 broad:1 flat:6 face:6 toe:1 bone:4 suggest:1 probably:1 walk:1 upright:1 teeth:1 intermediate:1 typical:2 human:5 ape:1 form:1 mean:1 man:5 described:1 genus:3 however:2 paleoanthropologists:1 correct:1 may:4 even:1 represent:1 valid:1 taxon:1 specimen:2 knm:3 wt:2 short:1 national:2 museum:4 house:1 west:1 acquisition:1 number:1 distort:1 matrix:1 fill:1 crack:1 meaningful:1 morphologic:1 characteristic:1 next:1 impossible:1 assess:1 confidence:1 simply:1 australopithecus:2 afarensis:2 know:2 time:2 period:1 geographic:1 area:1 research:1 speculate:1 flatter:1 position:1 rough:1 cranium:2 similar:1 er:1 homo:2 rudolfensis:1 suspect:1 close:1 perhaps:1 direct:1 ancestor:2 debate:1 conclude:1 remain:1 enigma:1 site:2 include:2 skull:1 tooth:1 fragment:1 stratum:1 date:1 ago:3 name:1 dr:2 believe:1 belong:1 entirely:1 new:1 reasonably:1 complete:1 far:2 think:1 evolve:2 one:3 member:1 make:2 famous:1 lucy:2 seem:3 share:2 wood:1 grass:1 plain:1 prehistoric:1 africa:1 rival:1 recent:1 discovery:3 evolution:4 might:2 special:1 since:2 appear:1 single:1 line:1 hominid:3 lead:1 primitive:2 modern:1 today:1 normally:1 proceeds:1 branch:4 multiply:1 divide:1 exception:1 picture:2 look:1 normal:1 present:1 anthropologist:2 sure:1 many:3 go:1 yet:1 representative:1 could:1 learning:1 daniel:1 lieberman:1 george:1 washington:1 university:1 express:1 opinion:1 several:1 like:3 well:1 adapt:1 life:1 particular:1 environment:1 also:4 mammalian:1 group:1 series:1 complex:1 radiation:2 adaptive:1 bbc:3 news:2 march:1 http:1 co:1 uk:1 hi:1 sci:1 tech:1 stm:1 small:2 earhole:1 chimpanzee:1 brain:1 striking:1 difference:1 high:1 cheek:1 plane:1 beneath:1 nose:1 give:1 see:1 list:2 link:2 directory:1 image:1 reference:1 read:1 external:1 com:1 nature:1 science:1 article:1 importance:1 kenyathropus:1 american:1 natural:1 history:1 |@bigram kenyanthropus_platyops:6 australopithecus_afarensis:2 homo_rudolfensis:1 genus_homo:1 adaptive_radiation:1 bbc_news:1 uk_hi:1 hi_sci:1 sci_tech:1 tech_stm:1 external_link:1 |
3,884 | Brass_instrument | Image of a trumpet, foreground, a piccolo trumpet behind, and a flugelhorn in background. A brass instrument is a musical instrument whose tone is produced by vibration of the lips as the player blows into a tubular resonator. They are also called labrosones, literally meaning "lip-vibrated instruments" (Baines, 1993). There are two factors in changing the pitch on a valved brass instrument: pressing the valves to change the length of the tubing, and changing the player's lip aperture or "embouchure", which determines the frequency of the vibration into the instrument. The view of most scholars (see organology) is that the term "brass instrument" should be defined by the way the sound is made, as above, and not by whether the instrument is actually made of brass. Thus, as exceptional cases one finds brass instruments made of wood like the alphorn, the cornett, and the serpent, while some woodwind instruments are made of brass, like the saxophone. Families of brass instruments Modern brass instruments generally come in one of two families: Valved brass instruments use a set of valves (typically three or four but as many as seven or more in some cases) operated by the player's fingers that introduce additional tubing, or crooks, into the instrument, changing its overall length. This family includes all of the modern brass instruments except the trombone: the trumpet, horn (also called the French horn), euphonium, and tuba, as well as the cornet, flügelhorn, baritone horn, sousaphone, mellophone, and the old saxhorn. As valved instruments are predominant among the brasses today, a more thorough discussion of their workings can be found below. The valves are usually piston valves, but can be rotary valves. Rotary valves are the norm for the horn and are also prevalent on the tuba. Slide brass instruments use a slide to change the length of tubing. The main instruments in this category are the trombone family, though valve trombones are occasionally used, especially in jazz. The trombone family's ancestor, the sackbut, and the folk instrument bazooka are also in the slide family. There are two other families that have, in general, become functionally obsolete for practical purposes. Instruments of both types, however, are sometimes used for period-instrument performances of Baroque- or Classical-era pieces. In more modern compositions, they are occasionally used for their intonation or tone color. Natural brass instruments, on which only notes in the instrument's harmonic series are available. Such instruments include the bugle and older variants of the trumpet and horn. The trumpet was a natural brass instrument prior to about 1795, and the horn before about 1820. In the 18th century different-length interchangeable crooks were developed which enabled a single instrument to be used for more than one key. Natural instruments are still played for period performances and some ceremonial functions, and are occasionally found in more modern scores, such as those by Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss. Keyed or Fingered brass instruments used holes along the body of the instrument, which were covered by fingers or by finger-operated pads (keys) in a similar way to a woodwind instrument. These included the cornett, serpent, ophicleide and keyed trumpet. They are more difficult to play than valved instruments. Brass instruments may also be characterised by the geometry of the tubing, the bore. Definition of bore is not clear cut, as with woodwind instruments, due to brass instruments' bell. Cylindrical bore with approximately constant diameter tubing; cylindrical bore instruments have a bright projected tone. The trumpet, alto trombone and tenor trombone are cylindrical bore - the slide design of the trombone necessitates this. Conical bore with constantly increasing diameter tubing; conical bore instruments have a mellow tone. The "British brass band" group of instruments fall into this category. This includes the cornet, tenor horn (alto horn), French horn, euphonium and tuba. Brass instruments may also be divided into two classes depending on whether or not the fundamental tone or first harmonic is available: Whole-tube instruments are ones in which the fundamental tone can be played. Half-tube instruments are ones in which the fundamental tone cannot be played. The second harmonic is the lowest open note available on half-tube instruments, though this may be lowered in pitch through the use of valves. Some other brass instruments Alphorn (wood) Conch (shell) Didgeridoo (wood, Australia) Natural horn Shofar (horn) Vladimirskiy rozhok (wood, Russia) Wagner tuba Valves Piston valve Rotary valve Slide Valves are used to change the length of tubing of a brass instrument allowing the musician to change pitch. When pressed each valve changes the pitch by diverting the air stream through additional tubing, thus lengthening the instrument and lowering the harmonic series on which the instrument is vibrating. It is possible, although rare, for this behaviour to be reversed, i.e., pressing the valve removes a length of tubing rather than adding one). Valves are employed in combination to play different notes; a single standard had become almost universal. A particular combination of valves has an effect on pitch from any given harmonic, the effect may be seen below. This table is correct for almost any modern brass instrument. + Valve combination and effect on pitch on a given harmonic.Valve combinationEffect on harmonicIntervalTuning problemsSecond1/2 stepMinor secondFirst1 stepMajor secondFirst and second1 1/2 stepMinor thirdThird1 1/2 stepMinor thirdFlatSecond and third2 stepsMajor thirdFirst and third2 1/2 stepsPerfect fourthSharpFirst second and third3 stepsTritoneVery sharp The tuning of brass instruments is not perfect, the mentioned tuning deficiencies are unavoidable; they are inherent in the construction of the instrument. Playing notes using certain combinations of valves requires "compensation" to adjust the tuning appropriately. Valve tuning compensation The additional tubing for each valve usually features a short tuning slide of its own for fine adjustment of the valve's tuning, except when it is too short to make this practicable. For the first and third valves this is often designed to be adjusted as the instrument is played, to account for the deficiencies in the valve system. In most trumpets and cornets, the compensation must be provided by extending the third valve slide with the fourth finger, and the first valve slide with the left hand thumb, see "triggers and throws" below. This is used to lower the pitch of the 1-3 and 1-2-3 valve combinations. On the trumpet and cornet, these valve combinations correspond to low D, low C, low G, and low F, so chromatically, to stay in tune, one must use this method. In instruments with a fourth valve, such as tubas, euphoniums, and piccolo trumpets, that valve lowers the pitch by a perfect fourth; this is used to compensate for the sharpness of the valve combinations 1-3 and 1-2-3 (4 replaces 1-3, 2-4 replaces 1-2-3). All three normal valves may be used in addition to the fourth to increase the instrument's range downwards by a perfect fourth, although with increasingly severe intonation problems. When four-valved models without any kind of compensation play in the corresponding register, the sharpness becomes so severe that players must finger the note a half-step below the one they are trying to play. This eliminates the note a half-step above their open fundamental. Manufacturers of low brass instruments may choose one or a combination of four basic approaches to compensate for the tuning difficulties, whose respective merits are subject to debate: Compensation system In the Compensation system, each of the first two (or three) valves has an additional set of tubing extending from the back of the valve. When the third (or fourth) valve is depressed in combination with another one, the air is routed through both the usual set of tubing plus the extra one, so that the pitch is lowered by an appropriate amount. This allows compensating instruments to play with accurate intonation in the octave below their open second partial, which is critical for tubas and euphoniums in much of their repertoire. The compensating system was applied to French horns to serve a different purpose. It was used to allow a double horn in F and B flat to ease playing difficulties in the high register. In contrast to the system in use in tubas and euphoniums, the default 'side' of the horn is the longer F horn, with secondary lengths of tubing coming into play when the first, second or third valves are pressed; pressing the thumb valve takes these secondary valve slides and the extra length of main tubing out of play to produce a shorter B-flat horn. A later "full double" design has completely separate valve section tubing for the two sides, and is considered superior, although rather heavier in weight. Additional valves Initially, compensated instruments tended to sound stuffy and blow less freely due to the air being doubled back through the main valves. In early designs, this led to sharp bends in the tubing and other obstructions of the air-flow. Some manufacturers therefore preferred adding more 'straight' valves instead, which for example could be pitched a little lower than the 2nd and 1st valves and were intended to be used instead of these in the respective valve combinations. While no longer featured in euphoniums for decades, professional tubas are still built like this, with five valves being the norm on CC- and BB-tubas and five or six valves on F-tubas. Compensating double French horns can also suffer from the stuffiness resulting from the air being passed through the valve section twice, but as this really only affects the longer F side, a compensating double can be very useful for a 1st or 3rd horn player, who uses the F side less. Additional sets of slides on each valve Another approach was the addition of two sets of slides for different parts of the range. There used to be euphoniums and tubas built like this, but today, this approach has become highly exotic for all instruments - except French horns for which it is the norm, usually in a double, sometimes even triple configuration. Trigger or Throw Triggers or throws are sometimes provided on valved brass instruments allow manual, temporary, lengthening of the main tuning slide or a valve slide. These mechanisms are used to lower the pitch of notes that are naturally sharp in a specific register of the instrument, and are designed for speedy adjustment whilst playing. A trigger is a mechanical lever that lengthens a slide when pressed in a contrary direction. Triggers are sprung in such a way to that they return the slide to its original position when released. A throw is a simple metal grip for the player's finger or thumb, attached to a valve slide. The general term "throw" can be used to describe a u-hook, a saddle (u-shaped grips), or a ring (ring-shape grip) in which a player's finger or thumb rests. A player extends their finger or thumb to lengthen a slide, and retracts their finger to return the slide to its original position. Some examples of instruments that utilize triggers or throws are: Trumpet or Cornet Triggers or throws are sometimes found on the first valve slide. They are operated by the player's thumb and are used to adjust the higher F, D and B. Triggers or throws are often found on the third valve slide. They are operated by the player's fourth finger, and are used to adjust the lower D, C A, G, and F. Trumpets typically use throws, whilst cornets may have a throw or trigger. Euphoniums A euphonium occasionally has a trigger on valves other than 2 (especially 3), although many professional quality euphoniums, and indeed other brass band instruments, have a trigger for the main tuning slide. The Besson Prestige euphonium is one with such a trigger. Valve mechanism The two major types of valves are rotary valves and piston valves. The first piston valve instruments were developed just after the start of the 19th century. The Stölzel valve (invented by Heinrich Stölzel in 1814) was an early variety. In the mid 19th century the Vienna valve was an improved design. However most professional musicians preferred rotary valves for quicker, more reliable action, until better designs of piston valves were mass manufactured towards the end of the 19th century. Since the early decades of the 20th century, piston valves have been the most common on brass instruments. Sound production in brass instruments Because the player of a brass instrument has direct control of the prime vibrator (the lips), brass instruments exploit the player's ability to select the harmonic at which the instrument's column of air will vibrate. By making the instrument about twice as long as the equivalent woodwind instrument and starting with the second harmonic, players can get a good range of notes simply by varying the tension of their lips (see embouchure). Most brass instruments are fitted with a removable mouthpiece. Different shapes, sizes and styles of mouthpiece may be used to suit different embouchures, or to more easily produce certain tonal characteristics. Trumpets, trombones, and tubas are characteristically fitted with a cupped mouthpiece, while horns are fitted with a conical mouthpiece. One interesting difference between a woodwind instrument and a brass instrument is that woodwind instruments are non-directional. This means that the sound produced propagates in all directions with approximately equal volume. Brass instruments, on the other hand, are highly directional, with most of the sound produced traveling straight outward from the bell. This difference makes it significantly more difficult to record a brass instrument accurately. It also plays a major role in some performance situations, such as in marching bands. Materials Brass instruments are made of a lacquered or plated metal. Traditionally the instruments are normally made of brass, polished and then lacquered to prevent corrosion. Some higher quality and higher cost instruments use gold or silver plating to prevent corrosion. A few specialty instruments are made from wood. Alternatives to brass include other alloys containing significant amounts of copper or silver. These alloys are biostatic due to the oligodynamic effect, and thus suppress growth of molds, fungi or bacteria. Brass instruments constructed from stainless steel or aluminum have good sound quality but are rapidly colonized by microorganisms and become unpleasant to play. Most higher quality instruments are designed to prevent or reduce galvanic corrosion between any steel in the valves and springs, and the brass of the tubing. This may take the form of desiccant design, to keep the valves dry, sacrificial zincs, replaceable valve cores and springs, plastic insulating washers, or nonconductive or noble materials for the valve cores and springs. Some instruments use several such features. Ensembles Brass instruments are one of the major classical instrument families and are played across a range of musical ensembles. Orchestras include a varying number of brass instruments depending on music style and era, typically: Classical symphony orchestra: two to five trumpets two to eight french horns two tenor trombones one bass trombone one tuba Baroque orchestras may include valveless trumpets or bugles, or trumpets/cornets playing these parts. Romantic, modern, and contemporary orchestras may include larger numbers of brass including more exotic instruments. British brass bands are made entirely up of brass, mostly conical bore instruments. Typical membership is: one soprano cornet five to ten cornets one flugelhorn three to five tenor horns (alto horns) two to three tenor trombones one bass trombone two baritones two euphoniums two E♭ tubas two B♭ tubas quintets are common small brass ensembles, a quintet typically contains: two trumpets one French horn one trombone one tuba or bass trombone Big Bands and other jazz bands commonly contain cylindrical bore brass instruments A Big band typically includes: three to five trumpets three or four tenor trombones and sometimes a bass trombone Smaller jazz ensembles may include a single trumpet or trombone soloist. Concert bands have similar brass instrumentation to an orchestra, typically: two to four trumpets or cornets two to four french horns two to three tenor trombones (and occasionally an additional bass trombone) one or two baritones or euphoniums one or two tubas Single brass instruments are also often used to accompany other instruments or ensembles such as an organ, or a choir. See also List of 20th century brass instrumentalists Brass band Bandstand Concert band Drum and bugle corps (modern) Electronic tuner Marching band Military band Pitch of brass instruments Orchestra Horn section References Baines, Anthony (1993). External links Brass Instruments Information on individual Brass Instruments The traditional manufacture of brass instruments, a 1991 video (Real Player format) featuring maker Robert Barclay; from the web site of the Canadian Museum of Civilization. The Orchestra: A User's Manual - Brass Brass-Forum.co.uk UK based brass discussion forum. Brassmusic.Ru — Russian Brass Community Acoustics of Brass Instruments from Music Acoustics at the University of New South Wales Early Valve designs, John Ericson 3-Valve and 4-Valve Compensating Systems, David Werden Brass Instrument, Article | Brass_instrument |@lemmatized image:1 trumpet:20 foreground:1 piccolo:2 behind:1 flugelhorn:2 background:1 brass:60 instrument:93 musical:2 whose:2 tone:7 produce:5 vibration:2 lip:5 player:14 blow:2 tubular:1 resonator:1 also:10 call:2 labrosones:1 literally:1 mean:2 vibrated:1 baines:2 two:22 factor:1 change:8 pitch:12 valved:6 press:5 valve:69 length:8 tubing:10 aperture:1 embouchure:3 determine:1 frequency:1 view:1 scholar:1 see:5 organology:1 term:2 define:1 way:3 sound:6 make:11 whether:2 actually:1 thus:3 exceptional:1 case:2 one:24 find:5 wood:5 like:4 alphorn:2 cornett:2 serpent:2 woodwind:6 saxophone:1 family:8 modern:7 generally:1 come:2 use:28 set:5 typically:6 three:8 four:6 many:2 seven:1 operate:4 finger:10 introduce:1 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3,885 | Hemiparesis | Hemiparesis is weakness on one side of the body. Contrast with Hemiplegia, which is total paralysis of the arm, leg, and trunk on the same side of the body. Hemiparesis is generally caused by lesions of the corticospinal tract, which runs down from the cortical neurons of the frontal lobe to the motor neurons of the spinal cord (see the second paragraph of Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) and is responsible for the movements of the muscles of the body and its limbs. On its way the tract passes through several parts of the brain stem; namely the midbrain, pons and medulla, respectively. The tract crosses to the opposite side (or decussates) on the lowest portion of the medulla (forming an anatomical structure named as the pyramids) and goes down along the opposite side of the spinal cord to meet the contralateral motor neurons. For this reason, one side of the brain controls the muscle movements of the opposite side of the body, and thus the disruption of the right corticospinal tract on brain stem or upper brain structures causes a hemiparesis on the left side of the body and vice versa. On the other hand, the lesions of the tract on the spinal cord lead to a hemiparesis on the same side of the body. The facial muscles are also controlled by the same tract. The tract activates the facial nuclei (see ganglion) and the facial nerve emerging from these nuclei activate the facial muscles during voluntary facial muscle contraction. Since the facial nuclei are located in the pons above the decussation, the lesions of the tract on the pons or upper structures give rise to a hemiparesis on the opposite side of the body and a paresis on the same side of the face and that is called a crossed hemiparesis. If the patient's face is not involved, this is highly suggestive of a lesion of the tract on lower parts of the brain stem or spinal cord. Since the spinal cord is a very small structure, it is very unusual for only one side to be affected by a lesion and usually both tracts are affected. Therefore, the spinal cord lesions usually present with the paralysis of both arms and legs (quadriparesis) or both legs (paraparesis). Hemiplegia is similar to hemiparesis, but hemiparesis is considered less severe. Representative cases Case 1: Knife wound to the spinal cord A 25 year old male presented to the emergency room, transported by ambulance. He was stabbed in the posterior mid-thoracic region. Admission blood pressure was 90/60. Pulse was 120 per minute. He was ashen and appeared to be in shock. Two peripheral IVs were started, and he was typed and crossed for 6 units of blood. Chest x-ray showed a left sided pneumothorax (collapsed lung) and associated left sided hemothorax (bleeding in the chest). Examination revealed a 2 inch stab wound to the back at about the level of the T6. Neurologic exam revealed complete loss of left sided motor function below T6 and loss of sensation on the right below T6. Admission hemoglobin was 9.6 gms% and hematocrit is 37. He began to show signs of respiratory distress. The patient was intubated (breathing tube) and placed on an assisted ventilation respirator. The surgery resident placed a chest tube on the left side, and bright red blood immediately flowed from the chest tube. The chest was opened on an emergency basis. Lacerations to the left lung and aorta were encountered and repaired. Neurosurgery explored the spinal cord at the level of T6 and found a laceration of the cord on the left side at T6. The patient’s life was saved, but his neurologic deficit is permanent, due to the laceration of the spinal cord at the T6 level. This is a typical case presentation of Brown Sequard syndrome. Spinal Cord (2005) 43, 678-679 Anz. J. Surg. (2006) August 76 (8); 760-2 N. Eng. J. Med. 1999, 28, 340 (4), 295 Similar cases have been reported except without a demonstrable laceration of the spinal cord. Sometimes, a hematoma without laceration to the spinal cord can cause a Brown-Sequard syndrome. After the patient is stable, a neurosurgical procedure consisting of a laminectomy and evacuation of the hematoma at the effected level can be carried out. Many times, this can lead to a complete neurologic recovery. Spinal Cord (2005) 43, 678-679 ANZ J. Surg. (2006) August; 76 (8), 760-2 N. Eng. J. Med 1999; 28, 340 (4); 285 This case represents the rare situation whereby a full recovery can be accomplished when the spinal cord is not actually lacerated, and the Brown Sequard syndrome is caused by bleeding and pressure from a hematoma. Quick evacuation of the hematoma is necessary to achieve a good result. Hancock, J. B., etal. J. Emerg. Med. 15(3):309-12, 1997 Henderson, So >o, et al. ''J. Emerg. Med. //16(6):847-50, 1998 In a related case, the authors described the history of a patient who was stabbed in the back of his neck with a knife and who later presented with a Brown-Séquard syndrome attributable to cervical spinal cord damage. Myelography and CT revealed a compressive extradural lesion shown at exploratory operation to be a loculus of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The loculus had formed as a consequence of leakage of CSF through a dural tear caused by the knife. Evacuation of this loculus resulted in some neurological improvement. The necessity of obtaining a clear history and of performing a thorough clinical examination is explained. The need to admit patients in whom stab wounds of the neck have transgressed subcutaneous fat is reiterated. Early referral to a neurosurgeon is advised for those patients with neurological deficits. Arch. Emerg. Med. 1998 September; 6(3):225-229 Egido Herrero, J. A. et al. J. Neurosurg. Sci. 36(2):117-119, 1992 Case 2: Diving accident Drawing of lateral cervical spine fracture showing a wedge fracture of C6 with posterior dislocation of C5 on C6. An 18 year old male was brought to the emergency room by his friends with a history of diving into a local pond. He came to the surface and was noted to be unable to move his arms or legs. His friends reported that he had a head injury to the admitting clerk at the hospital. They said the water was shallow and he hit his head on the bottom. Because of what they perceived to be a head injury, they determined he was paralyzed. Careful examination revealed a motor loss below C6 on the right and a loss of sensation on the left. He had preservation of motor function on the left, but is was noted to be weak. Examination of the head revealed no focal neurologic signs. He was alert and awake, although anxious and sweating. His blood pressure was 80/40 and pulse was 160 and regular. Two peripheral IVs were started and rehydration was begun. He had no memory of the event, other than hitting his head and experiencing immediate pain in the neck. A drawing of his lateral cervical (neck) x-ray is shown at right. He was diagnosed with a wedge compression fracture of C6 with disruption of the posterior stabilizing elements of C5-6 and C6-7. There was a backwards (retrolisthesis) dislocation of C5 on C6. The normal anterior and posterior curves of the vertebra (shown in red) have been disrupted, indicating a fracture dislocation. He was diagnosed with Brown-Sequard syndrome. The fracture and dislocation of the cervical spine was determined to be unstable, and manipulation risked further loss of function by damaging the spinal cord to a greater extent. Traction was placed, and later and extensive anterior-posterior fusion was carried out between C4 and T1. After about 6 months, the patient had regained about 40% of his motor function and about 60% of sensation. His deficits remained permanent, although he could eventually walk with braces and hand-arm crutches. The hypotension (low blood pressure) observed in the emergency room was caused by blood pooling in the legs secondary to spinal shock. Bailey, R. W. J. Bone Joint Surg., 45A:461, 1963 (cervical fractures) Beatson, T. R. J. Bone Joint Surg, 45B: 21, 1963 (cervical fracture) Bedbrook, G. M. And Edibaum, R. C., Paraplegia 10:321, 1973 (paraplegia) Brav, E. A. et al. J. Trauma, 3:569, 1963 (Army experience of cervical fracture) Marar, B. C. J. Bone Joint Surg., 56A: 655, 1974 (Hyperextension injuries of the cervical spine) Case 3: Automobile accident A 17 year old girl was riding with her friends in a convertible car. Several of them were sitting on the top of the back seat without seatbelt restraint. The car was traveling in excess of 70 miles an hour, when the driver made a sudden swerving in turn. Several of the passengers were thrown from the car. One was noted to be unconscious at the scene. An ambulance was called. Upon admission to the hospital she was noted to have a laceration over the top of the head. She had lost a large amount of blood. She was wavering in and out of consciousness. Blood pressure was 90/70 with a pulse of 120. Peripheral IVs were started with rehydration carried out. Examination revealed an epidural bleed in the right side of the brain. Screening x-rays showed a C6 fracture dislocation. She was placed in traction. No other injuries were noted. Abdomen and chest were within normal limits. Since the epidural bleed was significant, it was surgically evacuated the night of admission. On the third day, she regained consciousness and was noted to have lost motor function on the left side of her body and loss of sensation on the right. A diagnosis of Brown-Sequard syndrome was made. Surgical stabilization of the cervical fracture was planned. This was carried out on the sixth hospital day, with an anterior-posterior fusion from C5 to T1 and stabilization of the C6 fracture. There was no improvement in her neurologic status after the surgery. At two weeks, she was noted to have progressed to a complete tetraplegia (paralysis of both arms and legs). She developed respiratory distress. A tracheotomy was performed and she was placed on a ventilator. On the 26th hospital day, she was noted to be in respiratory distress, blue and struggling. A diagnosis of pulmonary embolism was made. Her course was downward. On the 40th hospital day, she died from sepsis secondary to pneumonia. This case represents an unfortunate outcome of a severely injured patient. It illustrates that a Brown-Sequard syndrome can progress to a complete paraplegia, despite adequate treatment. van Middendorp, J. J., J. Trauma 2008, October 65(4) 964-5 J. Trauma 2008, February, 64 (2) 311-5 Instructional Course Lecture 2004; 53:341-58 Irwin, Z. N. et al., Spine 2004, April 1, 29 (7):796-802 Spine 1996, February 15; 21(4):492-9 Kerwin, A. J., et al. J. Trauma, 2005 January, 58(1):15-21 Kerwin, A. J., et al. J. Trauma, 2007, December 63 (6):1308-13 Case 4: Degenerative arthritis X-ray showing advanced degenerative arthritis of the cervical spine with osteophyte formation, which can bruise the spinal cord in a fall. A 72 year old woman experienced dizziness while taking a bath in her home. She fell in the tub, experiencing a contusion to the back of the head and neck. Her daughter heard the fall and called an ambulance. At the hospital, she was found to have partially lost motor function on the right below C6 with almost total paralysis of the right arm and partial paralysis of the right leg. She had lost sensation in the left arm, and had patchy loss of sensation in the left leg. X-ray revealed advanced degenerative arthritis of the cervical spine. MRI demonstrated a contusion of the spinal cord on the right at the C6 level. The cervical ridges secondary to the degenerative arthritis are called osteophytes, and in this case, caused a contusion (bruise) to the spinal cord when she fell in the bath. The diagnosis of Brown-Sequard Syndrome was made. She reported that she had pain in the neck for several years, although during the last few years, her pain had been less. She had seen a neurosurgeon ten years earlier, who had recommended a discectomy and fusion of C4-5 and C5-6. She had declined his recommendation. After a 6 week stay in the hospital, she was able to be discharged to a nursing facility With expectant therapy and physical therapy, she slowly gained back function over the next six months. Recovery was incomplete. After six months, she was able to ambulate with assistance and a walker. Originally, bowel and bladder function had been interrupted. These returned at six weeks after the injury. In a Japanese study of the postoperative prognosis of the hemihypalgesia (decreased sensation) in patients with Brown-Séquard-type myelopathy (BSM) caused by cervical lesions, it was discovered that all continued to have partial or complete loss, even if surgery was performed. They evaluated the prognosis of BSM in 16 (seven ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament [OPLL], 5 cervical spondylosis [CS], and 4 disc herniation patients) out of 233 surgically treated patients with cervical diseases. The mean follow-up duration was 2 years and 11 months. After surgery, none of these patients showed complete resolution of hemihypalgesia, although the most had an improvement in symptoms. In the Brown Sequard Myelopathy series, OPLL occurred most frequently and the anterior element compressing the spinal cord existed most frequently in the central area of the vertebra. Postoperative improvement in the motor function of the legs in the disc herniation group was significantly better than in the OPLL and CS groups There were no significant differences in the functional prognosis between the BSM and non-BSM patient groups. It was concluded Brown Sequard Myelopathy patients can expect almost the same functional outcome as non-Brown Sequard Myelopathy patients, with the exception of the disappearance of hemihypalgesia. Kohno, M., et al. Surg Neurol. 1999 March, 51 (3):241-6 Case 5: Unilateral facet dislocation Drawing of a lateral cervical spine x-ray showing a unilateral facet dislocation, with a <25% forward slipping of C5 on C6. A 25 year old rode his motorcycle into the side of a truck at an intersection. He lost consciousness and was noticed to have an open fracture of the left distal tibia and fibula above the level of the ankle. The neck was immobilized in the usual fashion. He was transported to the hospital. Exam showed motor paralysis of the left arm and leg with loss of sensation on the right side of his body. Routine screening x-ray showed a unilateral facet dislocation at C5-6. A drawing of the lateral cervical spine x-ray is shown at left. There is an interruption of the normal smooth anterior and posterior curve of the cervical vertebra, shown in red. The forward slipping of C5 on C6 of less than 25% the width of the vertebra suggests the diagnosis of unilateral facet dislocation. It was confirmed with an MRI. Neurosurgery was consulted, and traction applied to the head and neck. Over a period of five days, the unilateral facet dislocation was reduced. It was thought to be unstable, so a posterior fusion was carried out. The patient gained about 80% of his motor function and all of his sensation over the next six months. The open tibial-fibula (leg) fracture was treated with an external fixator afer irrigation. There was some skin loss over the fracture with an associated osteomyelitis (bone infection). This required several more surgeries, including debridement of the infected bone and skin grafting. Healing of the tibial and fibular fractures eventually occurred after 18 months. After healing, he still had some difficulty with ambulation and found it necessary to walk with arm crutches. He was markedly limited in his ability to walk or stand for any length of time. He had trouble finding employment and sought permanent disability because of his significant impairments. Wang, M. Y., et al. Neurosurgery2003 February, 52 (2) 444-7 Shapiro, S. A., et al. J. Neurosurgery, 1999 July 91(1 Suppl): 19-24 Shapiro, S. A. Neurosurgery 1993, November 33 (5) 832-7 Gunshot wounds A case of stray bullet injury in a child was reported who presented with Brown-Sequard syndrome and CSF leak from the wound at the nape of neck. Patient was assessed by plain radiography and CT scans showing bullet lying in the cervical spinal canal under the C1 and C2 laminae. Laminectomy at C1/C2 level was done and bullet was carefully removed. Patient improved neurologically and CSF discharge stopped. The case report indicated the atypical neurological presentation and possibility of survival in high cervical spinal firearm injury. J. Coll Physician Surg Pak. 2008 May, 18(5): 312-3 A patient with a gunshot wound to the spinal cord with an incomplete neurologic deficit presented to the emergency room where the neurologic examination revealed a combination of a central cord syndrome type injury and the Brown-Séquard Syndrome. It was speculated by the examining doctors that the Brown-Séquard portion of the syndrome was caused by compression of tracts within the spinal cord caused by the mass of the bullet and the central cord injury was produced by the kinetic energy of the bullet during penetration into the spinal canal. They conclude that with incomplete neurologic lesions following gunshot wounds the bullet be removed. J .Trauma, 1988 November 28(11): 1600-2 Cavernous malformation MRI of bleeding into a cavernous sinus within the spinal cord A 17 year-old boy presented with diabetes insipidus and delayed puberty. The authors reported the first case of demonstrated de novo formation of an intramedullary cavernous malformation (CM) following spinal radiation therapy. Analysis of the literature has suggested that cavernous malformations (CMs) of the brain may be an acquired pathogenesis and a dynamic pathophysiological composition, with documented appearance of new lesions in familial cases and following radiotherapy Evaluation of endocrine levels revealed hypopituitarism, and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging demonstrated an infundibular mass. The patient underwent a pterional craniotomy and removal of an infundibular germinoma. The MR image of the spine demonstrated normal results. The patient received craniospinal radiation therapy and did well. He presented 5 years later with acute onset of back pain, lower-extremity weakness and numbness, and difficulty with urination. An MR image obtained of the spine revealed an intramedullary T-7 lesion; its signal characteristics were consistent with a cavernous malformation. The patient was initially managed conservatively but developed progressive myelopathy and partial Brown-Séquard syndrome. Although he received high-dose steroids and bed rest, his symptoms worsened. He underwent a costotransversectomy and excision of a hemorrhagic vascular lesion via an anterolateral myelotomy. Pathological examination confirmed features of a CM. The patient has done well and was walking without assistance within 4 weeks of surgery. De novo genesis of CMs may be associated with prior radiation therapy to the spinal cord. J. Neurosurg. 1999 April: 90 (2 Supp) 124-8 Radiation therapy can cause cavernous malformations by destroying the malignant tissue, leaving an empty space which fills with blood or serous fluid. If these enlarge progressively, increasing pressure on the surrounding neurologic tissue causing various deficits in nerve patterns. In this case, the deficit fit the pattern of a partial Brown-Sequard syndrome. See infra for another report of cerebral-spinal germinoma causing a Brown Sequard syndrome. Germinoma Spinal cord germinoma causing Brown Sequard syndrome has been reported in the Japanese literature. No To Shinkei 1997, May 49 (5) 473-81 Testicular seminoma showing pathology similar to a germinoma. A 29-year-old man presented with diabetes insipidus and cerebellar ataxia who developed spinal cord swelling 15 years after the onset. He was well until 14 years of the age when he noted dizziness. Two years after there was an onset of gait disturbance and slurred speech. He also noted polydipsia and polyuria. He was evaluated at the neurosurgery service of our hospital when he was 17 years of the age. Neurologic examination at that time revealed memory loss, horizontal nystagmus, cerebellar ataxic gait, dysmetria and decomposition more on the left. Cranial CT scan revealed a mass lesion involving the left subthalamic region and the head of the caudate area. Spinal fluid was unremarkable, however, human chorionic gonadotropin was increased to 27 mIU/ml. He was treated by radiation therapy (3,000 rads for total brain area and 5,460 rads for focal region). His CT scan and memory loss improved, however, cerebellar ataxia was unchanged. Three years after the radiation, he started to show choreic movement in his neck and left upper extremity. Most seminomas originate in the testicle, however some can arise de novo in the brain as in this case. He was admitted to our service in August 14, 1995 when he was 29 years of the age. On admission, he was alert but disoriented to time; calculation was also poor. Higher cerebral functions were intact. The optic fundi were normal without papilledema. Visual field appeared intact. Gaze nystagmus was observed in all the directions, but more prominent in the horizontal direction. Speech was slurred. Otherwise, cranial nerves were unremarkable. Motor wise, he showed marked truncal and gait ataxia; he was unable to walk because of ataxia. Muscle atrophy and marked weakness was noted in both upper extremities more on the left side. Deep tendon reflexes were diminished in the upper extremities but active in the lower extremities. He was polyuric; urinary specific gravity was low. Spinal fluid contained 6 cells/cmm and 113 mg/ dl of protein; Queckenstedt was positive. MRI revealed swelling of the cervical cord; in addition, the entire cervical region and the medullar oblongata appeared as high signal intensity areas. No mass lesion was noted in the supratentorial structures but the third ventricle was markedly enlarged. Surgical biopsy was performed on the cervical lesion. The patient was discussed in neurologic CPC, and the chief discussant arrived at the conclusion that the patient had germinoma with syncytiotrophoblastic giant cells in the diencephalic region which appeared to have been cured by radiation therapy; he thought that the cervical lesion was the seeding of germinoma. Cerebellar ataxia was ascribed to the remote effect of germinoma. Most of the participants thought that the original tumor was germinoma and the cervical lesion was its spread. Some participants thought that his ataxia was caused by germinoma cells involving the medulla and the inferior cerebellar peduncles. Histologic observation of the biopsied tissue from the spinal cord revealed the typical two cell patterned germinoma. Most of the tumor cells were not stained for an antibody against HCG, but some tumor cells were positively stained. Germinoma is very radio-sensitive; this patient showed T2 high signal lesion involving the medulla oblongata and cervical cord continuously. Probably, tumor cells in the lower brain stem escaped radiation, and gradually spread to the spinal cord over many years. At the time of operation, the surface of the spinal cord was free from tumor cells. Therefore, tumor cells invaded the spinal cord continuously from the medulla oblongata. He was treated with cervical radiation, and his neurologic as well as radiologic findings showed marked improvement. Multiple Sclerosis Magnetic Resonance Image with enhancement showing multiple sclerosis of the cervical spine. Multiple Sclerosis presenting as Brown Sequard syndrome. A case of probable multiple sclerosis (MS) in the cervical cord without brain involvement, mimicking a tumor has been reported. The patient had a progressive left Brown-Séquard syndrome. The diagnosis was suggested by MRI. In spite of intensive corticotherapy, the neurological status worsened, in parallel with the radiological findings. Biopsy excluded an intramedullary tumour and supported the diagnosis of MS. Neuroradiology 1994; April, 36 (3) 234-5 The Brown-Séquard syndrome as spinal hemiplegia with contralateral sensory deficits has been related to a variety of underlying diseases. We describe the case of a 35-year-old right-handed white female presenting with a Brown-Séquard syndrome as the first and sole symptom of multiple sclerosis, underscoring the importance of multiple sclerosis as a rare condition for the Brown-Séquard syndrome. (MS) is an idiopathic inflammatory demyelinating disease of the CNS. Patients with MS commonly present with an individual mix of neuropsychological dysfunction, which tends to progress over years to decades. The diagnosis of MS is based on a classic presentation (ie, optic neuritis, transverse myelitis, internuclear ophthalmoplegia, paresthesias) and on the identification of other neurologic abnormalities, which may be indicated by the patient history and exam. Typical findings on an MRI also help establish a diagnosis of MS. By convention, the confidence in the diagnosis of MS is described as definite, probable, or possible MS. It includes a classification with respect to clinical presentation, which correlates somewhat with the prognosis and is useful in clinical trials. About 70% of patients present with the more favorable relapsing-remitting (RR) type, which is characterized by acute exacerbations with full or partial remissions. Therapy for those with chronic progressive MS is less satisfying than for those with RR. Patients with an inflammatory component may respond to corticosteroids, beta-interferons, or intravenous cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan), and one study found modest impact on disease progression when the patients were given a low dose of methotrexate. Mitoxantrone is sometimes recommended for patients with rapidly progressive symptoms. MS is regarded as an autoimmune disease. Most of what is known about MS is derived from its model in animal research, which is experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. The pathologic hallmark of MS is multicentric, multiphasic CNS inflammation and demyelination. Originally, each MS lesion was thought to evolve through episodes of demyelination and remyelination into a chronic burned-out plaque with relative preservation of axons and gliosis. Thus, the neuropsychological dysfunction occurred, despite an essentially intact neural network, until late in the disease course. However, recent studies have demonstrated that axonal transections do occur during acute exacerbations; furthermore, axonal damage, as measured by magnetic resonance spectroscopy, was found to correlate with clinical disability. For unclear reasons, lesions characteristically involve the optic nerve and periventricular white matter of the cerebellum, brain stem, basal ganglia, and spinal cord. Identifying MS lesions in gross specimens is difficult, as is identifying MS lesions in gray matter on radiographic images; hence, the predilection for white matter may not be disease related. The peripheral nervous system rarely is involved. Lazoff, M. emedicine “Multiple Sclerosis” This case represents an unusual presentation of Multiple Sclerosis because it occurred in the spinal cord without evidence of pathology in the central nervous system. Rev. Neurol. 1998, November 27 (159) 836-7 J. Neurol. Sci 1998, 156 (1) 112-3 Hematoma secondary to blood thinner 52 year old man on blood thinner developed motor paralysis below C7 on the left and loss of sensation and proprioception below C7 on the contralateral side was reported. MRI showed an epidural hematoma at C7-T1. A cervical laminectomy with accomplished on an emergency basis with evacuation of the hematoma, which was outside the spinal cord, but pressing on it. Post-operatively, there was a complete resolution of neurologic function. J. Emerg. Med. 2007, October 33 (3) 241-4 Neurol. India 2006, March; 54 (1) 107-8 J. Neurosurg. Spine. 2007, November 7(5) 571-4 Neurosurgery, 2007 July 61 (1) E170-1; Discussion E171 J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1992 March; 55(3): 239 Segelov, JN. Spinal epidural haematoma--a report of two cases. Pac Med Surg. 1967 75(3):169.May–June Russman, BS; Kazi, KH. Spinal epidural hematoma and the Brown-Séquard syndrome.Neurology. 1971 October;21(10):1066–1068 Mattle, H; Sieb, JP; Rohner, M; Mumenthaler, M. Nontraumatic spinal epidural and subdural hematomas. Neurology. 1987 August;37(8):1351–1356 Mustafa, MH; Bernstein, RA. Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma, Brown-Séquard syndrome, and factor XI deficiency. Ann Intern Med. 1987 March;106(3):477–478 Spinal cord infarction Posterior spinal cord infarction presenting Brown-Séquard syndrome has been reported in Japan. A 56 year-old-woman with spinal cord infarction (loss of blood supply) presented to the hospital. She experienced left-sided girdle pain without precipitating symptoms and she developed monoparesis (paralysis of one leg) of her left leg and urinary retention. She also presented the segmental loss of total sensations in the Thoracic 10-11 area of the left trunk, the disturbance of position and vibration senses in the left leg and the disturbance of pain and temperature senses in the right leg. T2-weighted MRI imagings showed high signal intensity lesion in the left half of the spinal posterior column at Th9-10 vertebral levels. Somatosensory evoked potentials confirmed that the loss of position and vibration senses was unilateral. Though she became able to walk with canes two months later, her sensory disturbance showed no improvement. This is a rare case of unilateral posterior spinal cord infarction presenting Brown-Séquard syndrome. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 2005 October, 45 (10):730-4 (Article in Japanese) Department of Neurology, National Hospital Organization Hyogo Chuo National Hospital Syringomyelia MRI demonstrating syringomyelia of the cervical spine, shown in the gray linear mass within the spinal cord. Syringomyelia is a pathologic condition which is caused by a fluid filled cavity within the center of the spinal cord. The sac is called a syrinx. These can enlarge, causing a myriad of neurologic presentations, including Brown Sequard syndrome and its variants. Two cases have been reported of syrinx associated with an intramedullary metastasis. The first presented with hyperaesthesia in the right arm and bilateral pyramidal leg weakness, the second with a partial right sided Brown Sequard syndrome with a sensory level at D6 (T6) . Possible mechanism are discussed. . Foster, O., Crockard, H. and Powell, M. J. Neurol. Neurosurg Psychiatry, 1987, August 50(8):1067-70 A third patient having intramedullary spinal cord metastasis associated with syringomyelia has been reported. The diagnosis was confirmed by magnetic resonance imaging, in a patient who had poorly differentiated carcinoma of the lung. The patient responded to treatment with steroids and radiotherapy, with complete resolution of neurologic symptoms and syringomyelia. Intramedullary spinal cord metastasis is relatively rare. Keung, Y. K., Cobos, E. et al., Am. J. Clin. Oncol. 1997, December, 20(6): 577-9 Based on examination of 19 patients with syringomyelia and on the related literature, including the differential diagnosis, postoperative evaluation and the dynamics of CSF and cyst fluids, using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. MRI is the preferred method of investigation for diagnosis and differential diagnosis of syringomyelia. 2. Using MRI, it is possible to study fluid flow in the vertebral canal and the movements of the syrinx fluid. The data are as yet limited, but in the future will form an important contribution to our understanding of the pathogenesis of syringomyelia and to the choice of a treatment method. 3. MRI is important for the postoperative follow-up of patients with syringomyelia, including tracking the cyst and detecting complications. Tanghe, H. L. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1995, 134 (1-2) 93-9 Syringomyelia causes progressive myelopathy. Most patients with syringomyelia have a Type I Arnold-Chiari malformation of the cerebellar tonsils. Pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the progression of syringomyelia are associated with the Chiari Type I malformation which are frequently seen with the condition. In a study of 20 adult patients with both Arnold-Chiari Type I malformation and symptomatic syringomyelia, testing before surgery included the following: clinical examination; evaluation of anatomy by using T1-weighted magnetic resonance (MR) imaging and evaluation of the syrinx. Compared with healthy volunteers, before surgery, the patients had decreased anteroposterior diameters of the ventral and dorsal CSF spaces at the foramen magnum. The maximum syrinx diameter decreased on MR imaging in all patients. Cine MR imaging documented reduced velocity and flow of the syrinx fluid. Clinical symptoms and signs improved or remained stable in all patients, and the tonsils resumed a normal shape. The progression of syringomyelia associated with Arnold-Chiari Type I malformation is produced by the action of the cerebellar tonsils, which partially occlude the subarachnoid space at the foramen magnum and act as a piston on the partially enclosed spinal subarachnoid space. This creates enlarged cervical subarachnoid pressure waves that compress the spinal cord from without, not from within, and propagate syrinx fluid caudally with each heartbeat, which leads to syrinx progression. The disappearance of the abnormal shape and position of the tonsils after simple decompressive extraarachnoidal surgery suggests that the Arnold-Chiari Type I malformation of the cerebellar tonsils is acquired, not congenital. Surgery limited to suboccipital craniectomy, C-I laminectomy, and duraplasty eliminates this mechanism and eliminates syringomyelia and its progression without the risk of more invasive procedures. Heiss, J. D., et al. J. Neurosurg 1999 October, 91 (4) 553-62 Renal Cell Carcinoma Any metastatic cancer to the spinal cord can cause a Brown-Sequard syndrome or its variants. In clinical practice, these are rare. A patient presented with a solitary neoplasm of the intramedullary spinal cord. The tumor caused findings of Brown-Séquard syndrome and was the initial presentation of widely metastatic renal cell carcinoma (RCC). Metastasis of the intramedullary spinal cord has been uncommonly reported and is extremely rare as the initial sign of a disseminated carcinoma. The tumor was resected, and the patient's neurologic deficits slowly improved. The histopathology suggested an epithelioid neoplasm. However, despite expert review, the diagnosis was nonspecific, and the tumor appeared benign. It soon recurred in the spinal cord, and repeat imaging studies showed numerous new metastases and a primary renal neoplasm. Biopsy and a repeat histopathologic analysis confirmed RCC, and the patient died of disseminated disease within another 2 months. Despite being uncommon, spinal cord metastases should be considered in some patients before surgery because it may expedite diagnosis, mitigate the need for surgery, and improve the quality of life for these patients. Clinical factors suggesting metastasis include a personal or family history of malignancy or conditions predisposing to it, the presence of multiple tumors in the spinal cord or elsewhere, nonspecific constitutional symptoms, such as weight loss or decreased appetite, and, specifically for RCC, an abnormally increased hematocrit. Donovan, D. J., and Freeman, J. H., Spine, 2006, June 15, 31(14):6460-3 In another case, the authors reported of a 70-year-old woman who developed a Brown-Sequard-syndrome within 6 weeks caused by an intramedullary spinal cord metastasis of an occult renal cell carcinoma. Intramedullary metastases are rare and represent only 4-8.5% of central nervous system metastases. An important feature of intramedullary metastases is the rapid progression of neurological deficits which necessitates rapid treatment. There are only eight earlier reports of intramedullary metastasis due to renal cell carcinoma Schiff D, O'Neill BP. Intramedullary spinal cord metastases: clinical features and treatment outcome. Neurology 1996;47:906-12; Belz P. Ein Fall von intramedullaerer Grawitz-Metastase im Lumbalmark. Frankfurt Z Pathol 1912;10:431-44; Gaylor JB, Howie JW. Brown-Sequard-syndrome. A case of unusual aetiology. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1938;1:301-5; Kawakami Y, Mair WGP. Haematomyelia due to secondary renal carcinoma. Acta Neuro Pathol 1973;26:85-92; Strang RR. Metastatic tumor of the cervical spinal cord. Med J Aust 1962;1:205-6; Von Pfungen. Uber einige Fälle von Haematomyelie nichttraumatischen Ursprungs. Wien Klin Rdsch 1906;20:44-50; Weitzner S. Coexistent intramedullary metastasis and syringomyelia of cervical spinal cord. Report of a case. Neurology 1960;674-8 The authors reported that to the best of their knowledge this was the first report on a patient in whom symptoms from the metastasis of a renal cell carcinoma preceded the detection of the primary tumor. This report presents the clinical, neuroradiological and histopathological findings of an intramedullary metastasis of a renal cell carcinoma and provides an overview of the literature on intramedullary spinal cord metastases. Schijns, et al., Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2000, December 102(4):249-254 However, there have been other cases where the presence of a metastasis causing a Brown Sequard syndrome, or a variation of it was the first sign of a renal cell carcinoma. In a Spanish case, a 69 year-old male without known antecedent presented with a clinical loss of distal force in his lower limbs during the last two months. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed an intramedullary spinal cord mass at the level of the medullaris cone. The patient was operated on; the histological diagnosis was clear cells carcinoma suggestive of metastasis from an unsuspected renal tumor that was later confirmed with an abdominal CT. When the patient's state is good, surgery can correct the neurological deficit produced by an intramedullary spinal cord lesion. The neurological state of the patient improved after the intervention, and 14 months after surgery, he had no neurological deficit in the lower limbs. Gomez de la Riva, et al. Neurocirugia (Astur) 2005, August; 16(4)359-64 Ann. Oncol 2001, August, 12(8):1173-7 Lung cancer Four patients with intramedullary spinal cord metastases from small cell carcinoma of the lung (SCCL) were described, with emphasis on clinical presentation and treatment. All patients developed the Brown-Séquard syndrome due to intramedullary tumor in the cervical spinal cord, three within 2 mo after combined modality treatment using chemotherapy and radiotherapy. One patient presented with a Brown-Séquard syndrome and an extradural spinal cord compression from tumor. The radiological and cerebrospinal fluid findings are presented and discussed. Radiation treatment was administered to the involved segments of spinal cord in each patient. All patients responded; two for 3 and 7 mo, two for 3 and 4 wk, respectively. There was significant improvement in the quality of life for three of the four patients. Murphy, et al., J. Clin. Onc. 1983 February 1 (2):99-106 Yamamoto, T. Gann. 1950, December 41 (24): 285-7 Intramedullary metastases are very rare. Four cases verified by autopsy were reported. The site of the primary tumor was the lung (three cases) and the breast (one case). One case was complicated by a Brown-Séquard syndrome. We found 96 cases of intramedullary metastases in the literature. The primary tumor sites were lung (49%), breast (14%), kidney (6%) and colo-rectal region (5%). Melanoma was noted in 6% and Hodgkin's disease in 4% of the cases. Other primary tumors comprised 9%. The intramedullary metastases were most commonly thoracic. Schwechheimer, K, Lemminger J., Clin Neuropathol. 1985, January-February, 4 (1):28-37 In another report, the authors reviewed records retrospectively from 1980 to 1993 to identify patients with histologically confirmed systemic cancer, clinical features of myelopathy, and either tissue-proven ISCM or abnormal neuroimaging findings consistent with ISCM. They identified 40 patients who fulfilled these criteria. In nine, ISCM was the initial presentation of cancer. Nineteen patients had lung primaries (small cell in 12). Twenty-one patients had pain, 35 had demonstrable sensory loss, 37 had weakness, and 25 had urinary incontinence at presentation. Nine patients had true Brown-Séquard syndrome and nine others had pseudo-Brown-Séquard syndrome. Median duration of symptoms at diagnosis was 28 days (range 3 days to 18 months). Thirteen patients had prior brain metastasis, nine had brain metastasis simultaneous with ISCM, and one had brain metastasis after ISCM; 11 had concomitant leptomeningeal metastases. Spinal magnetic resonance findings were abnormal in 30/30 patients, myelographic results were abnormal in 16/20, and eight had pathologic confirmation of ISCM. Thirty-five patients had radiotherapy and five had surgery; four were untreated or treated elsewhere. Median survival was 4 months for patients receiving radiotherapy and 2 months for patients not receiving radiotherapy. Eleven patients survived > 6 months. Twenty-three were ambulatory at ISCM diagnosis, and 21 were ambulatory at letest follow-up. We conclude that ISCM as the initial presentation of malignancy is not rare, and hemicord syndromes occur frequently. Although long-term survival is poor, treatment preserves ambulation in most patients still ambulatory at diagnosis. Focal radiotherapy is indicated in most patients. Schiff, D., O’Neill, B. P., Neurology, 1996 October; 47 (4): 906-12 Lorenzo, J. L., et al. Med. Clin. (Barc) 1996, February 10; 106(5) 199 [Spanish] Ashawesh, K., et al. Intern Med., 2008; 47(4):329-30 Tuberculosis A case from Korea reporting a Brown-Sequard syndrome secondary to tuberculosis of the spine in a systemic lupus erythematosis patient: A 25-year-old girl presented with progressive deterioration of right side weakness with decreased sensation on the left trunk. She had been treated with high dose steroid due to autoimmune thrombocytopenia for 2 months. Clinical, laboratory and immunologic studies revealed that she had systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), MRI of spinal cord showed marginal contrast enhancing and fluid containing mass in the cord of the C5-6 level, suggesting intramedullary abscess. She underwent surgery of mass removal with biopsy. The pathologic findings from cord tissues revealed numerous acid fast bacilli (AFB) in necrotic tissues. After surgery and anti-tuberculous treatment, her neurologic symptoms were markedly improved with restoration of right side motor weakness. To our knowledge, this is the first case report of intramedullary tuberculosis in a patient with SLE. Since intramedullary tuberculosis may sometimes mimic neurologic complication of SLE itself, it may pose diagnostic and therapeutic confusion for clinicians. We report a case of spinal cord tuberculosis affecting C5, 6 level which was manifested as Brown-Sequard syndrome in a patient with SLE. Kim, W. U., et al., Lupus, 2000, 9(2)147-50 A report from South Africa highlights reviewed cases of spinal tuberculosis with varying degrees of neurologic involvement. The incidence of tuberculosis (TB) is increasing in both developing and developed worlds, and children, in particular, represent a high-risk group for acquiring the disease. TB of the central nervous system is the most severe, life-threatening form of TB in infants and children. Approximately 10% of all patients with TB have central nervous system involvement. for this paper, the authoes selected four pediatric cases of unusual spinal TB that presented to their institution during the last 5 years. These include TB arachnoiditis, intramedullary spinal cord tuberculoma, TB spondylitis of the odontoid peg, and one child with tuberculous extradural abscess. TB may involve the intramedullary, extramedullary intrathecal compartment, or the extrathecal vertebral compartment in the form of an arachnoiditis, abscess, and spondylitis, respectively, often with unusual imaging presentations. du Plessis, J. et al., Childs Nerv Syst 2008, April, 24(4):453-7 Syphilis A man aged 31 presented to hospital with acute onset of weakness in the legs, sensory loss, and disturbance of bladder and bowel function. Incomplete Brown-Séquard syndrome secondary to meningovascular syphilis of the spinal cord was diagnosed after serological tests for syphilis gave positive results. His condition was probably caused by endarteritis of the arteria radicularis magna of Adamkiewicz. He was treated with procaine penicillin 1.8 MIU intramuscularly once a day and probenecid 0.5 g by mouth three times a day for 21 days followed by physiotherapy and rehabilitation. Considerable neurological recovery was expected. To our knowledge this association has not been reported previously in detail in an English publication. Genitourin Med. 1989, June, 65 (3): 189-191 References See also Paresis Stroke | Hemiparesis |@lemmatized hemiparesis:8 weakness:8 one:12 side:26 body:9 contrast:2 hemiplegia:3 total:4 paralysis:8 arm:10 leg:15 trunk:3 generally:1 cause:23 lesion:24 corticospinal:2 tract:11 run:1 cortical:1 neuron:3 frontal:1 lobe:1 motor:14 spinal:81 cord:71 see:6 second:2 paragraph:1 amyotrophic:1 lateral:5 sclerosis:9 responsible:1 movement:4 muscle:6 limb:3 way:1 pass:1 several:5 part:2 brain:15 stem:5 namely:1 midbrain:1 pons:3 medulla:5 respectively:3 cross:2 opposite:4 decussate:1 low:10 portion:2 form:5 anatomical:1 structure:5 name:1 pyramid:1 go:1 along:1 meet:1 contralateral:3 reason:2 control:2 thus:2 disruption:2 right:17 upper:5 left:25 vice:1 versa:1 hand:3 lead:3 facial:6 also:6 activate:2 nucleus:2 ganglion:2 nerve:4 emerge:1 nuclei:1 voluntary:1 contraction:1 since:4 locate:1 decussation:1 give:3 rise:1 paresis:2 face:2 call:5 crossed:1 patient:76 involve:7 highly:1 suggestive:2 small:3 unusual:5 affect:3 usually:2 therefore:2 present:23 quadriparesis:1 paraparesis:1 similar:3 consider:2 less:4 severe:2 representative:1 case:40 knife:3 wound:7 year:27 old:13 male:3 emergency:6 room:4 transport:2 ambulance:3 stab:4 posterior:12 mid:1 thoracic:3 region:6 admission:5 blood:12 pressure:7 pulse:3 per:1 minute:1 ashen:1 appear:5 shock:2 two:11 peripheral:4 iv:3 start:4 type:9 unit:1 chest:6 x:8 ray:8 show:28 pneumothorax:1 collapsed:1 lung:8 associate:7 hemothorax:1 bleed:5 examination:10 reveal:16 inch:1 back:6 level:13 neurologic:20 exam:3 complete:8 loss:20 function:13 sensation:12 hemoglobin:1 gm:1 hematocrit:2 begin:2 sign:5 respiratory:3 distress:3 intubate:1 breathe:1 tube:3 place:5 assist:1 ventilation:1 respirator:1 surgery:17 resident:1 bright:1 red:3 immediately:1 flow:3 open:3 basis:2 laceration:6 aorta:1 encounter:1 repair:1 neurosurgery:6 explore:1 find:7 life:4 save:1 deficit:11 permanent:3 due:5 typical:3 presentation:12 brown:43 sequard:23 syndrome:41 anz:2 j:41 surg:8 august:7 n:3 eng:2 med:12 report:28 except:1 without:11 demonstrable:2 sometimes:3 hematoma:10 stable:2 neurosurgical:1 procedure:2 consist:1 laminectomy:4 evacuation:4 effected:1 carry:5 many:2 time:6 recovery:4 represent:5 rare:9 situation:1 whereby:1 full:2 accomplish:2 actually:1 lacerate:1 quick:1 necessary:2 achieve:1 good:3 result:5 hancock:1 b:4 etal:1 emerg:4 henderson:1 et:18 al:18 related:2 author:5 describe:4 history:5 neck:10 later:5 séquard:20 attributable:1 cervical:35 damage:3 myelography:1 ct:5 compressive:1 extradural:3 exploratory:1 operation:2 loculus:3 cerebrospinal:2 fluid:12 csf:6 consequence:1 leakage:1 dural:1 tear:1 neurological:9 improvement:7 necessity:1 obtain:2 clear:2 perform:4 thorough:1 clinical:14 explain:1 need:2 admit:3 transgress:1 subcutaneous:1 fat:1 reiterate:1 early:2 referral:1 neurosurgeon:2 advise:1 arch:1 september:1 egido:1 herrero:1 neurosurg:8 sci:2 diving:1 accident:2 drawing:4 spine:16 fracture:15 wedge:2 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3,886 | Transport_in_Canada | Canada is a developed country whose economy includes the extraction and export of raw materials from its large area. Because of this, it has a transportation system which includes more than of roads, 10 major international airports, 300 smaller airports, 72,093 kilometres of functioning railway track, and more than 300 commercial ports and harbours that provide access to the Pacific, Atlantic and Arctic oceans as well as the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence Seaway. In 2005, the transportation sector made up 4.2% of Canada's GDP, compared to 3.7% for Canada's mining and oil and gas extraction industries. Transport Canada oversees and regulates most aspects of transportation within Canadian jurisdiction. Transport Canada is under the direction of the federal government's Minister of Transport. The Transportation Safety Board of Canada is responsible for maintaining transportation safety in Canada by investigating accidents and making safety recommendations. +Gross domestic product, transport industries, 2005IndustryShare oftransportation GDP (%) Air transportation 9 Rail transportation 13 Water transportation 3 Truck transportation 35 Transit and ground passenger transportation 12 Pipeline transportation 11 Scenic and sightseeing transport/Transport support 17 Total: 100 Roads The Trans-Canada highway in Chilliwack, BC There is a total of of road in Canada,of which are paved, including of expressways). As of 2006, were unpaved. In 2006, there were 19,499,843 road vehicles registered in Canada, of which 96.1% were vehicles under , 2.3% were vehicles between tonnes and 1.6% were or greater. These vehicles travelled a total of 326.14 billion kilometres, of which 296.9 billion was for vehicles under , 7.4 billion was for vehicles between and 21.8 billion was for vehicles over . For the trucks, 92.2% of vehicle-kilometres were intra-province trips, 4.5% were inter-province and 3.2% made between Canada and the US. For trucks over , 58% of vehicle-kilometres were intra-province trips, 18.4% inter-province trips, 15.4% Canada-US trips and 8.4% trips made outside of Canada. Ambassador Bridge between Windsor, Ontario and Detroit, Michigan has a quarter of US-Canada trade cross over it. Canada's vehicles consumed a total of of gasoline and of diesel. Trucking generated 35% of the total GDP from transport, compared to 25% for rail, water and air combined (the remainder being generated by the industry's transit, pipeline, scenic and support activities). Hence roads are the dominant means of passenger and freight transport in Canada. Roads and highways were managed by provincial and municipal authorities until construction of the Northwest Highway System (the Alaska Highway) and the Trans-Canada Highway project initiation. The Alaska Highway of 1942 was constructed during World War II for military purposes connecting Fort St. John, British Columbia with Fairbanks, Alaska. The transcontinental highway, a joint national and provincial expenditure, was begun in 1949 under the initiation of the Trans Canada Highway Act in December 10, 1949. The highway was completed in 1962 at a total expenditure of $1.4 billion. Internationally, Canada has road links with both the lower 48 US states and Alaska. The Ministry of Transportation maintains the road network in Ontario and also employs Ministry of Transport Enforcement Officers for the purpose of administering the Canada Transportation Act and related regulations. The Department of Transportation in New Brunswick performs a similar task in that province as well. Regulations enacted in regards to Canada highways are the 1971 Motor Vehicle Safety Act and the 1990 Highway Traffic Act The safety of Canada's roads is moderately good by international standards, and is improving both in terms of accidents per head of population and per billion vehicle kilometers . Air transport Air transportation made up 9% of the transport sector's GDP generation in 2005. Canada's largest air carrier and its flag carrier is Air Canada, which had 34 million customers in 2006 and operates 368 aircraft (including Air Canada Jazz). Transport Canada listing of aircraft owned by Air Canada and Air Canada Jazz (enter Air Canada (230 aircraft) or Jazz Air LP (138 aircraft) in the box titled "Owner Name") CHC Helicopter, one of the largest global commercial helicopter operators, is second with 144 aircraft Transport Canada listing of aircraft owned by CHC Helicopters (enter Canadian Helicopters in the box titled "Owner Name") and WestJet, a low-cost carrier formed in 1996, is third with 78 aircraft. Transport Canada listing of aircraft owned by WestJet (enter Westjet in the box titled "Owner Name") Canada's airline industry saw significant change following the signing of the US-Canada open skies agreement in 1995, when the marketplace became less regulated and more competitive. The Canadian Transportation Agency employs transportation enforcement officers to maintain aircraft safety standards, and conduct periodic aircraft inspections, of all air carriers. The Canadian Air Transport Security Authority is charged with the responsibility for the security of air traffic within Canada. In 1994 the National Airports Policy was enacted Principal airports Of over 1,700 registered Canadian aerodromes, certified airports, heliports, and floatplane bases, 26 are specially designated under Canada's National Airports System Airport Divestiture Status Report (NAS): these include all airports that handle 200,000 or more passengers each year, as well as the principal airport serving each federal, provincial, and territorial capital. However, airports such as Montréal-Mirabel International Airport, which has less that 200,000 passengers has not been removed from the list. The Government of Canada retains ownership of these airports and leases them to local authorities. The next tier consists of 64 regional/local airports formerly owned by the federal government, most of which have now been transferred to other owners (most often to municipalities). Below is a table of Canada's ten biggest airports by passenger traffic in 2009. Toronto Pearson International Airport, is the busiest airport in Canada, and was also the only Canadian airport ranked in the top 30 airports in the world by number of passengers in 2006 (although it dropped off the list in 2007). In 2009, 95.9 million passengers travelled through Canada's ten largest airports. Future projections see Toronto Pearson International Airport handling 55 million passengers by 2020. As of November 2008 NAV CANADA reported that there were 41 airports with an air traffic control tower and 59 airports with a flight service station (FSS). NAV CANADA - Facility Map Date accessed: 26 February 2008 Toronto Pearson, Canada's busiest airport. Vancouver International +Passengers statistics for Canada's busiest airports2008RankAirportLocationTotalPassengersAnnualIncrease1Toronto Pearson International Airport Toronto Pearson Passenger Statistics Toronto, Ontario32,334,8312.8%2Vancouver International Airport 2008 Vancouver Passenger Statistics Vancouver, British Columbia17,852,4592.0%3 Calgary International Airport 2008 Calgary Passenger Statistics Calgary, Alberta12,506,8932.0%4 Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport 2008 Aeroport de Montreal Passenger Statistics Montreal, Quebec12,379,843-0.2%5 Edmonton International Airport 2008 Edmonton Passenger Statistics Edmonton, Alberta6,437,3346.1%6 Ottawa Macdonald-Cartier International Airport 2008 Ottawa Passenger Statistics (Estimate from Graph) Ottawa, Ontario4,320,0005.5%7 Halifax Stanfield International Airport 2008 Halifax Passenger Statistics Halifax, Nova Scotia3,578,9313.2%8 Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport 2008 Winnipeg Passenger Statistics Winnipeg, Manitoba3,570,0330.1%9 Victoria International Airport 2008 Victoria Passenger Statistics Victoria, British Columbia1,538,4173.8%10 Kelowna International Airport 2008 Kelowna Passenger Statistics Kelowna, British Columbia1,389,8831.9% Ottawa Airport 2008 passenger number estimated from graph Rail A CPR freight train in Rogers Pass. In 2007, Canada had a total of of freight and passenger railway, of which is electrified. While intercity passenger transportation by rail is now very limited, freight transport by rail remains common. Total revenues of rail services in 2006 was $10.4 billion, of which only 2.8% was from passenger services. The Canadian National and Canadian Pacific Railway are Canada's two major freight railway companies, each having operations throughout North America. In 2007, 357 billion tonne-kilometres of freight were transported by rail, and 4.33 million passengers travelled 1.44 billion passenger-kilometres (an almost negligible amount compared to the 491 billion passenger-kilometres made in light road vehicles). 34,281 people were employed by the rail industry in the same year. Nation-wide passenger services are provided by the federal crown corporation Via Rail. Three Canadian cities have commuter rail services: in the Montreal area by AMT, in the Toronto area by GO Transit, and in the Vancouver area by West Coast Express. Smaller railways such as Ontario Northland, Rocky Mountaineer, and Algoma Central also run passenger trains to remote rural areas. In Canada railways are served by standard gauge, , rails. Canada has rail links with the lower 48 US States, but no connection with Alaska other than a train ferry service from Prince Rupert, British Columbia, although a line has been proposed. AlaskaCanadaRail.org There are no other international rail connections. Waterways The Port of Vancouver, Canada's busiest port. In 2005, 139.2 million tonnes of cargo was loaded and unloaded at Canadian ports. The Port of Vancouver is the busiest port in Canada, moving 68 million tonnes or 15% of Canada's total in domestic and international shipping in 2003. Transport Canada oversees most of the regulatory functions related to marine registration , safety of large vessel , and port pilotage duties. Many of Canada's port facilities are in the process of being divested from federal responsibility to other agencies or municipalities. Inland waterways comprise , including the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Transport Canada enforces acts and regulations governing water transportation and safety. +Container Traffic in Canadian Ports2006 RankPortProvinceTEUsBoxesContainerized Cargo(Tonnes)1VancouverBritish Columbia2,207,7301,282,80717,640,0242MontrealQuebec1,288,910794,73511,3393163 HalifaxNova Scotia530,722311,0654,572,0204 St. John'sNewfoundland and Labrador118,00855,475512,7875 Fraser RiverBritish Columbia94,651N/A742,7836 Saint JohnNew Brunswick44,56624,982259,4597 TorontoOntario24,58524,585292,834 Ferry services The Spirit of Ontario I, part of The Breeze fast ferry service. Passenger ferry service Vancouver Island to the mainland several Sunshine Coast communities to the mainland and to Alaska. Internationally to St. Pierre and Miquelon Automobile ferry service Nova Scotia to Newfoundland and Labrador, Quebec to Labrador Labrador and the island of Newfoundland. Train ferry service British Columbia to Alaska or Washington state. Canals Welland Canal, Port Weller, Lock #1 The St. Lawrence waterway was at one time the world's greatest inland water navigation system. The main route canals of Canada are those of the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes. The others are subsidiary canals. Saint Lawrence Seaway Welland Canal Soo Locks Trent-Severn Waterway Rideau Canal Ports and harbours The National Harbours board administers Halifax, Saint John, Chicoutimi, Trois-Rivières, Churchill, and Vancouver. Over 300 harbours across Canada are supervised by the Department of Transport. West coast Victoria, British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia New Westminster, British Columbia Prince Rupert, British Columbia East coast Halifax, Nova Scotia Saint John, New Brunswick St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador Sept-Îles, Quebec Sydney, Nova Scotia Botwood, Newfoundland and Labrador Northern and central Churchill, Manitoba Seaport Bécancour, Quebec Churchill, Manitoba Hamilton, Ontario Montreal, Quebec Quebec City, Quebec Trois-Rivières, Quebec Thunder Bay, Ontario Toronto, Ontario Windsor, Ontario Merchant marine Canada's merchant marine comprised a total of 173 ships ( or over) or at the end of 2007. Pipelines The TransCanada pipeline route Pipelines are part of the energy extraction and transportation network of Canada and are used to transport natural gas, natural gas liquids, crude oil, synthetic crude and other petroleum based products. Canada has of pipeline for transportation of crude and refined oil, and for liquefied petroleum gas. Urban transport Some North American cities arranged by size along the x-axis and public transportation use on the y axis. Canada has higher public transit use than American cities of similar size and less than New York and the large Mexican cities listed. Most Canadian cities have public transportation, if only a bus system. Six Canadian cities have rapid transit systems and three have commuter rail systems (see below). In 2006, 11% of Canadians used public transportation to get to work. This compares to 72.3% that got to work by car, 6.4% that walked and 1.3% that rode a bike. In general, Canadian cities have rates of public transit use which are two to three times as high as comparably sized U.S. cities; census data indicates 4.8% of Americans take public transit to work. This means that transportation planners must allow for higher passenger volumes on Canadian transit systems than American ones. As a result of lower government funding, Canadian cities have to recover a much higher share of their costs out of operating revenues than American counterparts. This lack of funding may explain why there is resistance to the high capital costs of rail systems and there are only a few light rail systems in Canada. Rapid transit systems There are six urban rapid transit systems operating in Canada: The Toronto Subway, the Montreal Metro, the Vancouver SkyTrain, the Calgary C-Train, the Edmonton Light Rail Transit and the O-Train in Ottawa. +Rapid transit in CanadaLocationTransitWeekday Daily RidershipSystem Length Toronto, OntarioToronto Subway/RT945,000 (as of 2007) TTC Operating Statistics. Retrieved on 2009-01-17. 68.3 km (as of 2007) Montreal, Quebecmetro or métro835,000+65.33 km Calgary, AlbertaC-Train297,500 (as of 2008) 44.9 km LRT Technical Data Retrieved on 2009-01-17. Vancouver, British ColumbiaSkyTrain271,000 (as of 2007) 49.5 km Edmonton, AlbertaEdmonton Light Rail Transit50,000 http://www.edmontonjournal.com/news/grows+towards+future/1533952/story.html 15.2 km Ottawa, OntarioO-Train10,0008 km Commuter train systems Commuter trains exist in Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver: +Commuter Train Systems in CanadaLocationTransitDaily RidershipSystem Length Montreal, QuebecAgence métropolitaine de transport51,900 (as of 2003) Portrait des Transports Collectifs dans la Région Métropolitaine de Montréal, Tableau 4.8. Retrieved on 2009-01-17. 201 km (as of 2003) Toronto, OntarioGO Transit170,000 Ridership Retrieved on 2009-01-17. 390 km GO by the numbers Retrieved on 2009-01-17. Vancouver, British ColumbiaWest Coast Express9,146 (as of 2006) West Coast Express facts and figures 2006. Retrieved on 2009-01-17. 65 km West Coast Express FAQ. Retrieved on 2009-01-17. History European contact Early European settlers and explorers in Canada introduced the wheel to North America's Aboriginal peoples, who relied on canoes, kayaks, umiaks and Bull Boats, in addition to the snowshoe, toboggan and sled in winter. Europeans adopted these technologies as they pushed deeper into the continent's interior, and were thus able to travel via the waterways that fed from the Saint Lawrence River and Hudson Bay. Virtual Vault, an online exhibition of Canadian historical art at Library and Archives Canada In the 1800s and early 1900s transportation relied on harnessing oxen to Red River ox carts or horse to waggon. Maritime transportation was via manual labour such as canoe or wind on sail. Water or land travel speeds was approximately . Settlement was along river routes. Agricultural commodities were perishable, and trade centres were within . Rural areas centred around villages, and they were approximately apart. The advent of steam railways and steamships connected resources and markets of vast distances in the late 1800s. Railways also connected city centres, in such a way that the traveller went by sleeper, railway hotel, to the cities. Crossing the country by train took four or five days, as it still does by car. People generally lived within of the downtown core thus the train could be used for inter-city travel and the tram for commuting. The advent of the interstate or Trans-Canada Highway in Canada in 1963 established ribbon development, truck stops, and industrial corridors along throughways. Evolution The Federal Department of Transport established November 2, 1936 supervised railways, canals, harbours, marine and shipping, civil aviation, radio and meteorology. The Transportation Act of 1938 and the amended Railway Act, placed control and regulation of carriers in the hands of the Board of Transport commissioners for Canada. The Royal Commission on Transportation was formed December 29, 1948 to examine transportation services to all areas of Canada to eliminate economic or geographic disadvantages. The Commission also reviewed the Railway Act to provide uniform yet competitive freight-rates. 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3,887 | Hercule_Poirot | Hercule Poirot ( in French) is a fictional Belgian detective created by Agatha Christie. Along with Miss Marple, Poirot is one of Christie's most famous and long-lived characters, appearing in 33 novels and 51 short stories that were published between 1920 and 1975 and set in the same era. Poirot has been portrayed on screen, for films and television, by various actors including Albert Finney, Peter Ustinov, Ian Holm, Tony Randall, Alfred Molina, and David Suchet. Overview Influences His name was derived from two other fictional detectives of the time: Marie Belloc Lowndes' Hercule Popeau and Frank Howel Evans' Monsieur Poiret, a retired Belgian police officer living in London. Hercule Poirot's initials replicate that of the sauce which he happens to like, HP Brown Sauce as he comments in Elephants Can Remember: "Ah yes, that is correct my initials do appear to be the same as such a fine delicacy, a good English creation." A more obvious influence on the early Poirot stories is that of Arthur Conan Doyle. In An Autobiography Christie admits that "I was still writing in the Sherlock Holmes tradition –eccentric detective, stooge assistant, with a Lestrade-type Scotland Yard detective, Inspector Japp." Reproduced as the "Introduction" to Christie, Agatha. Hercule Poirot: The complete short stories (Harper Collins, 1999) p. viii For his part Conan Doyle acknowledged basing Sherlock Holmes on the model of Edgar Allan Poe's fictional French detective C. Auguste Dupin, who in his use of "ratiocination" prefigures Poirot's reliance on his "little grey cells". See C. Auguste Dupin#Literary influence and significance. Poirot also bears a striking resemblance to A. E. W. Mason's fictional detective—Inspector Hanaud of the French Sûreté—who, first appearing in the 1910 novel At the Villa Rose, predates the writing of the first Poirot novel by six years. In chapter 4 of the second Inspector Hanaud novel, The House of the Arrow (1924), Hanaud declares sanctimoniously to the heroine, "You are wise, Mademoiselle… For, after all, I am Hanaud. There is only one." Christie's Poirot was Belgian. Unlike the models mentioned above, Christie's Poirot character was clearly the result of her early development of the detective in her first book written in 1916 (though only published in 1920). Not only was his Belgian nationality interesting because of Belgium's occupation by Germany (which provided a valid explanation of why such a skilled detective would be out of work and available to solve mysteries at an English country house The Mysterious Affair at Styles, Chapter 2 ), but also at the time of Christie's writing, it was considered patriotic to express sympathy with the Belgians H. C. Peterson (1939). Propaganda for War: The Campaign against American Neutrality, 1914-1917. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. , since the invasion of their country had constituted Britain's casus belli for entering World War I, and British wartime propaganda emphasized and exaggerated the "Rape of Belgium". Popularity His first published appearance was in The Mysterious Affair at Styles (published 1920) and his last was in Curtain (published 1975, the year before Christie died). On publication of this novel, Poirot was the only fictional character to be given an obituary in the New York Times; August 6, 1975 "Hercule Poirot is Dead; Famed Belgian Detective". By 1930, Agatha Christie found Poirot 'insufferable' and by 1960, she felt that he was a 'detestable, bombastic, tiresome, ego-centric little creep'. Yet the public loved him, and Christie refused to kill him off, claiming that it was her duty to produce what the public liked, and what the public liked was Poirot. Appearance and personal attributes Here is how Captain Arthur Hastings first describes Poirot: "He was hardly more than five feet four inches but carried himself with great dignity. His head was exactly the shape of an egg, and he always perched it a little on one side. His moustache was very stiff and military. Even if everything on his face was covered, the tips of moustache and the pink-tipped nose would be visible. The neatness of his attire was almost incredible; I believe a speck of dust would have caused him more pain than a bullet wound. Yet this quaint dandified little man who, I was sorry to see, now limped badly, had been in his time one of the most celebrated members of the Belgian police." The Mysterious Affair at Styles, Chapter 2 This is how Agatha Christie describes Poirot in The Murder on the Orient Express in the very initial pages: "By the step leading up into the sleeping-car stood a young French lieutenant, resplendent in uniform conversing, with a small lean man (Hercule Poirot) muffled up to the ears of whom nothing was visible but a pink-tipped nose and the two points of an upward-curled moustache." In the later books, the limp is not mentioned, which suggests it may have been a temporary wartime injury. Poirot has dark hair, which he dyes later in life as Hastings discovers in The A.B.C. Murders, Chapter 1 (though many of his screen incarnations are portrayed as bald or balding) and green eyes that are repeatedly described as shining "like a cat's" when he is struck by a clever idea. e.g. "For about ten minutes [Poirot] sat in dead silence […] and all the time his eyes grew steadily greener" The Mysterious Affair at Styles, Chapter 5 Frequent mention is made of his patent-leather shoes, damage to which is frequently a subject of (for the reader, comical) misery on his part. e.g. "Hercule Poirot looked down at the tips of his patent-leather shoes and sighed." "The Apples of the Hesperides" (1940) Poirot's appearance, regarded as fastidious during his early career, is hopelessly out of fashion later in his career. e.g. "And now here was the man himself. Really a most impossible person – the wrong clothes – button boots! an incredible moustache! Not his – Meredith Blake's kind of fellow at all." Five Little Pigs, Chapter 7. Among Poirot's most significant personal attributes is the sensitivity of his stomach: "The plane dropped slightly. "Mon estomac," thought Hercule Poirot, and closed his eyes determinedly." Death in the Clouds, Chapter 1. He suffers from sea sickness, "My stomach, it is not happy on the sea" Evil under the Sun, Chapter 8, iv and in Death in the Clouds believes that his air sickness prevents him from being more alert at the time of the murder. Later in his life, we are told: "Always a man who had taken his stomach seriously, he was reaping his reward in old age. Eating was not only a physical pleasure, it was also an intellectual research." Mrs. McGinty's Dead, Chapter 1 Poirot is extremely punctual and carries a turnip pocket watch almost to the end of his career. "he walked up the steps to the front door and pressed the bell, glancing as he did so at the neat wrist-watch which had at last replaced an old favourite – the large turnip-faced watch of early days. Yes, it was exactly nine-thirty. As ever, Hercule Poirot was exact to the minute." "The Dream" (1937) He is also fastidious about his personal finances, preferring to keep a bank balance of 444 pounds, 4 shillings, and 4 pence The Lost Mine . Methods In The Mysterious Affair at Styles, Poirot operates as a fairly conventional, clue-based detective, depending on logic, which is represented in his vocabulary by two common phrases: his use of "the little grey cells" and "order and method". Irritating to Hastings is the fact that Poirot will sometimes conceal from him important details of his plans, as in The Big Four where Hastings is kept in the dark throughout the climax. This aspect of Poirot is less evident in the later novels, partly because there is rarely a narrator so there is no one for Poirot to mislead. As early as Murder on the Links, where he still largely depends on clues, Poirot mocks a rival detective who focuses on the traditional trail of clues that had been established in detective fiction by the example of Sherlock Holmes: footprints, fingerprints and cigar ash. From this point on he establishes himself as a psychological detective who proceeds not by a painstaking examination of the crime scene, but by enquiring either into the nature of the victim or the murderer. Central to his behavior in the later novels is the underlying assumption that particular crimes are only committed by particular types of people. Poirot's methods focus on getting people to talk. Early in the novels, he frequently casts himself in the role of "Papa Poirot", a benign confessor, especially to young women. Later he lies freely in order to gain the confidences of other characters, either inventing his own reason for being interested in the case "It has been said of Hercule Poirot by some of his friends and associates, at moments when he has maddened them most, the he prefers lies to truth and will go out of his way to gain his ends by elaborate false statements, rather than trust to the simple truth." Five Little Pigs, Book One, Chapter 9 or a family excuse e.g. "After a careful study of the goods displayed in the window, Poirot entered and represented himself as desirous of purchasing a rucksack for a hypothetical nephew." Hickory Dickory Dock, Chapter 13 for pursuing a line of questioning. "To this day Harold is not quite sure what made him suddenly pour out the whole story to a little man to whom he had only spoken a few minutes before." "The Stymphalean Birds" (first published as "The Vulture Women" in 1939) Poirot is also willing to appear more foreign or vain than he really is in an effort to make people underestimate him. He admits as much: "It is true that I can speak the exact, the idiomatic English. But, my friend, to speak the broken English is an enormous asset. It leads people to despise you. They say – a foreigner – he can't even speak English properly. […] Also I boast! An Englishman he says often, "A fellow who thinks as much of himself as that cannot be worth much. […] And so, you see, I put people off their guard." Three Act Tragedy, final chapter In the later novels Christie often uses the word mountebank when Poirot is being assessed by other characters, showing that he has successfully passed himself off as a charlatan or fraud. All these techniques help Poirot attain his principal target: "For in the long run, either through a lie, or through truth, people were bound to give themselves away …" After the Funeral, Chapter 18. Recurring characters Arthur Hastings Hastings first meets Poirot during his years as a private detective in Europe and almost immediately after they both arrive in England, becomes his life-long partner and appears in many of the novels and stories. Poirot regarded Hastings as a poor private detective, not particularly intelligent, yet helpful in his way of being fooled by the criminal and for his tendency to unknowingly "stumble" onto the truth. He is married (although his wife dies before Curtain takes place) and has four children - two sons and two daughters. It must also be said that Hastings was a man who was capable of great bravery and courage when the road got rough, facing death unflinchingly when confronted by The Big Four and possessing unwavering loyalty towards Poirot. However, when forced to choose between Poirot and his wife in that novel, he initially chose to betray Poirot to the Big Four so that they would not torture and kill his wife. Later, though, he told Poirot to draw back and escape the trap. The two were an airtight team until Hastings met and married Dulcie Duveen, a beautiful music hall performer half his age. They later emigrated to Argentina leaving Poirot behind as a "very unhappy old man." Poirot and Hastings are at last reunited in Curtain: Poirot's Last Case. They are also reunited in The ABC Murders when Hastings arrives in England for business. Ariadne Oliver The frequently recurring detective novelist Ariadne Oliver is Agatha Christie's humorous self-caricature. Like Agatha Christie, she isn't overly fond of the detective she is most famous for creating – in Ariadne's case the Finnish sleuth Sven Hjerson. We never learn anything about her husband, but we do know that she hates alcohol and public appearances, and has a great fondness for apples until she is put off them by the events of Hallowe'en Party. She also has a habit of constantly changing her hairstyle and in every appearance by her much is made of the clothes and hats she wears. She has a maid called Maria who prevents the public adoration from becoming too much of a burden on her employer, but does nothing to prevent her from becoming too much of a burden on others. She has authored over fifty-six novels and she has a great dislike of people taking and modifying her story characters. She is also the only one in Poirot's universe to have noted that "It’s not natural for five or six people to be on the spot when B is murdered and all have a motive for killing B." She first met Poirot in the story Cards on the Table and has been bothering him ever since. Miss Lemon Poirot's secretary, Miss Felicity Lemon, has few human weaknesses. The only two mistakes she is ever recorded making are a typing error during the events of Hickory Dickory Dock and the mis-mailing of an electric bill, although in her defence she was worried about strange events surrounding her sister at the time. Poirot described her as being "Unbelievably charming and incredibly efficient. Anything that she mentioned as worth consideration usually was worth consideration." She is an expert on nearly everything and plans to create the perfect filing system. She also once worked for the government agent-turned-philanthropist, Parker Pyne. Whether this was during one of Poirot’s numerous retirements or before she entered his employment is unknown. Chief Inspector Japp Japp is an Inspector from Scotland Yard and appears in many of the stories, trying to solve the cases Poirot is working on. Japp is an outgoing, loud and sometimes inconsiderate man by nature and his relationship with the bourgeois Belgian is one of the stranger aspects of Poirot’s world. He first met Poirot in Belgium, 1904, during the Abercrombie Forgery and later that year joined forces again to hunt down a criminal known as Baron Altara. They also meet in England where Poirot often helps Japp solve a case and lets him take the credit in return for special favours. These favours usually entail being supplied with cases that would interest him. Captain Arthur Hastings in Chapter 9 of The Big Four Hercule Poirot's life Family and childhood "I suppose you know pretty well everything there is to know about Poirot's family by this time". Dr. Sheppard in Chapter 21 of The Murder of Roger Ackroyd It is difficult to draw any concrete conclusions about Poirot's family, due to the fact that Poirot often supplies false or misleading information about himself or his background in order to assist him in obtaining information relevant to a particular case. In chapter 21 of The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, for example, we learn that he has been talking about a mentally disabled nephew: this proves to be a ruse so that he can find out about homes for the mentally unfit. In Dumb Witness, he regales us with stories of his elderly invalid mother as a pretence to investigate the local nurses. In The Big Four Hastings believes that he meets Achille Poirot who (in an apparent parody of Mycroft Holmes) is evidently his smarter brother. On this occasion, Achille is almost certainly Poirot himself in disguise (Poirot speaks in Chapter 18 of having sent Achille "back to the land of myths"), but this does not conclusively demonstrate that Poirot does not have a brother, or even a brother called Achille. He may have had a twin brother who would have died long ago in Belgium. Any evidence regarding Poirot for which Poirot himself is the source is therefore most unreliable. Achille Poirot is also mentioned by Dr. Burton in the prelude to The Labours of Hercules. Here Hercule Poirot replies that he has had a brother called Achille "only for a short space of time", so the existence of this brother remains unconfirmed even by Hercule Poirot himself. "The Labours of Hercules", Foreword Based on the fact that he was active in the Brussels police force by 1893 as mentioned in Peril at End House, Chapter 15 , it can be assumed that he would have been born in the early to mid-1870s at the latest, and would therefore have been at least in his forties at the time of the outbreak of the First World War. A brief passage in The Big Four furnishes possible information about Poirot's birth or at least childhood in or near the town of Spa, Belgium: "But we did not go into Spa itself. We left the main road and wound into the leafy fastnesses of the hills, till we reached a little hamlet and an isolated white villa high on the hillside." The Big Four, Chapter 16 It is strongly implied that this "quiet retreat in the Ardennes"<ref>The Big Four, Chapter 17</ref> near Spa is the Poirot family home, and thus that Poirot may have been born or at least in part grew up there. On the other hand, Poirot was working undercover at the time and may have deliberately or unconsciously misled Hastings about his family connection to the area. This is all extremely vague, as Poirot is thought to be an old man in his dotage even in the early Poirot novels, and in An Autobiography Christie admitted that she already imagined him to be an old man in 1920. (At the time, of course, she had no idea she would be going on writing Poirot books for many decades to come.) Much of the suggested dating for Poirot's age is therefore retconning on the part of those attempting to make sense of his extraordinarily long career. Poirot is a Roman Catholic by birth, "Hercule Poirot was a Catholic by birth." "The Apples of the Hesperides" (1940) and retains a strong sense of Catholic morality later in life. In Taken at the Flood, Book II, Chapter 6 he goes into church to pray and happens across a suspect with whom he briefly discusses ideas of sin and confession. Not much is known of Poirot’s childhood other than he once claimed in Three Act Tragedy to have been from a large family with little wealth. In Taken at the Flood, he further claimed to have been raised and educated by nuns, raising the possibility that he (and any siblings) were orphaned. Poirot’s police years "Gustave […] was not a policeman. I have dealt with policemen all my life and I know. He could pass as a detective to an outsider but not to a man who was a policeman himself." — Hercule Poirot in "The Erymanthian Boar" (1940). As an adult, Poirot joined the Belgian police force. Very little mention is made in Christie's work about this part of his life, but in "The Nemean Lion" (1939) Poirot himself refers to a Belgian case of his in which "a wealthy soap manufacturer […] poisoned his wife in order to be free to marry his secretary". We do not know whether this case resulted in a successful prosecution or not; moreover, Poirot is not above lying in order to produce a particular effect in the person to whom he is speaking, so this evidence is not reliable. Inspector Japp gives some insight into Poirot's career with the Belgian police when introducing him to a colleague: "You've heard me speak of Mr Poirot? It was in 1904 he and I worked together – the Abercrombie forgery case – you remember he was run down in Brussels. Ah, those were the days Moosier. Then, do you remember "Baron" Altara? There was a pretty rogue for you! He eluded the clutches of half the police in Europe. But we nailed him in Antwerp – thanks to Mr. Poirot here." The Mysterious Affair at Styles, Chapter 7 Perhaps this is enough evidence to suggest that Poirot's police career was a successful one. In the short story The Chocolate Box (1923) Poirot provides Captain Arthur Hastings with an account of what he considers to be his only failure. Poirot admits that he has failed to solve a crime "innumerable" times: "I have been called in too late. Very often another, working towards the same goal, has arrived there first. Twice I have been struck down with illness just as I was on the point of success." Nevertheless, he regards the case in "The Chocolate Box", which took place in 1893, The date is given in Peril at End House, Chapter 15. as his only actual failure of detection. Again, Poirot is not reliable as a narrator of his personal history and there is no evidence that Christie sketched it out in any depth. It was also in this period that Poirot shot a man who was firing from a roof onto the public below. Curtain: Poirot's Last Case, Postscript Poirot had retired from the Belgian police force by the time he met Hastings in 1916 on the case retold in The Mysterious Affair at Styles. It should be noted that Poirot is a French-speaking Belgian, i.e. probably a Walloon or Bruxellois; but there can hardly be found any occasion where he refers to himself as such, or is so referred to by others. At the time of writing, at least of the earlier books where the character was defined, non-Belgians such as Agatha Christie were far less aware than nowadays of the deep linguistic divide in Belgian society, assuming that all Belgians were French-speaking. Career as a private detective "I had called in at my friend Poirot's rooms to find him sadly overworked. So much had he become the rage that every rich woman who had mislaid a bracelet or lost a pet kitten rushed to secure the services of the great Hercule Poirot." "Double Sin" (original version published in 1928) During World War I, Poirot left Belgium for Britain as a refugee. It was here, on 16 July 1916, that he again met his lifelong friend, Captain Arthur Hastings, and solved the first of his cases to be published: The Mysterious Affair at Styles. It is clear that Hastings and Poirot are already friends when they meet in Chapter 2 of the novel, because Hastings tells Cynthia that he has not seen him for "some years". The date of 1916 for the case, and the fact that Hastings had met Poirot in Belgium, is given in Curtain: Poirot's Last Case, Chapter 1. After that case Poirot apparently came to the attention of the British secret service, and undertook cases for the British government, including foiling the attempted abduction of the Prime Minister. Recounted in "The Kidnapped Prime Minister". The events in the story are immediately connected with the First World War, and feature an "Allied Conference" at Versailles that is probably meant to be understood as the Versailles Peace Conference of 1919. After the war Poirot became a free agent and began undertaking civilian cases. He moved into what became both his home and work address, 56B Whitehaven Mansions , Charterhouse Square,Smithfield London W1. Hastings first visits the flat at Whitehaven Mansions when he returns to England in June 1935 from South America. The A.B.C. Murders, Chapter 1 (It is a plot point in the novel that the flat is at Whitehaven Mansions because a letter to Poirot is misaddressed.) In Cat Among the Pigeons, Chapter 17, III, the address is given as "228 Whitehouse Mansions". Given the similarity in the names it is not impossible that the same address was meant. In The Clocks, Chapter 14, the address is given as 203, Whitehaven Mansions. It was chosen by Poirot for its symmetry. His first case was "The Affair at the Victory Ball", which saw Poirot enter the high society and begin his career as a private detective. Between the world wars, Poirot traveled all over Europe and the Middle East investigating crimes and murders. Most of his cases happened during this period and he was at the height of his powers at this point in his life. The Murder On the Links saw the Belgian pit his grey cells against a French murderer. In the Middle East he solved the cases of Death on the Nile, and Murder in Mesopotamia with ease and even survived An Appointment with Death. As he passed through Eastern Europe on his return trip, he solved The Murder on the Orient Express. However he did not travel to the Americas or Australia, probably due to his sea sickness. "It is this villainous sea that troubles me! The mal de mer – it is horrible suffering!" Poirot, in "The Kidnapped Prime Minister" (1923) It was during this time he met the Countess Vera Rossakoff, a glamorous jewel thief. The history of the Countess is, like Poirot's, steeped in mystery. She claims to have been a member of the Russian aristocracy before the Russian Revolution and suffered greatly as a result, but how much of that story is true is an open question. Even Poirot acknowledges that Rossakoff has told several wildly varying accounts of her early life. Poirot later became smitten with the woman and allowed her to escape justice. "It is the misfortune of small, precise men always to hanker after large and flamboyant women. Poirot had never been able to rid himself of the fatal fascination that the Countess held for him." "The Capture of Cerebus" (1947) The first sentence quoted is also a close paraphrase of something said to Poirot by Hastings in Chapter 18 of The Big Four. Although letting the Countess escape may be morally questionable, that impulse to take the law into his own hands was far from unique. In The Nemean Lion, he sided with the criminal, Miss Amy Carnaby, and saved her from having to face justice by blackmailing his client Sir Joseph Hoggins, who himself was plotting murder and was unwise enough to let Poirot discover this. Poirot even sent Miss Carnaby two hundred pounds as a final payoff before her dog kidnapping campaign came to an end. In The Murder of Roger Ackroyd he allowed the murderer to escape justice through suicide and then ensured the truth was never known to spare the feelings of the murderer's relatives. In The Augean Stables he helped the government to cover up vast corruption, even though it might be considered more honest to let the truth come out. After his cases in the Middle East, Poirot returned to Britain. Apart from some of the so-called "Labours of Hercules" (see next section) he very rarely traveled abroad during his later career. Retirement "That’s the way of it. Just a case or two, just one case more – the Prima Donna’s farewell performance won’t be in it with yours, Poirot." Dr. Burton in the Preface to The Labours of Hercules (1947). Poirot's last cases as a private detective There is a great deal of confusion about Poirot's retirement. Most of the cases covered by Poirot's private detective agency take place before his retirement to grow marrows, at which time he solves The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. It has been said that twelve cases related in The Labours of Hercules (1947) must refer to a different retirement, but the fact that Poirot specifically says that he intends to grow marrows indicates that these stories also take place before Roger Ackroyd, and presumably Poirot closed his agency once he had completed them. There is specific mention in "The Capture of Cerberus" to the fact that there has been a gap of twenty years between Poirot's previous meeting with Countess Rossakoff and this one. If the Labours precede the events in Roger Ackroyd, then the Roger Ackroyd case must have taken place around twenty years later than it was published, and so must any of the cases that refer to it. One alternative would be that having failed to grow marrows once, Poirot is determined to have another go, but this is specifically denied by Poirot himself. The Clocks, Chapter 13: in response to the suggestion that he might take up gardening in his retirement, Poirot answers "Once the vegetable marrows, yes – but never again" Another alternative would be to suggest that the Preface to the Labours takes place at one date but that the labours are completed over a matter of twenty years. None of the explanations is especially attractive. In terms of a rudimentary chronology, Poirot speaks of retiring to grow marrows in Chapter 18 of The Big Four (1927), which places that novel out of published order before Roger Ackroyd. He declines to solve a case for the Home Secretary because he is retired in Chapter One of Peril at End House (1932). He is certainly retired at the time of Three Act Tragedy (1935) but he does not enjoy his retirement and comes repeatedly out of it thereafter when his curiosity is engaged. Nevertheless, he continues to employ his secretary, Miss Lemon, at the time of the cases retold in Hickory Dickory Dock and Dead Man's Folly, which take place in the mid-1950s. It is therefore better to assume that Christie provided no authoritative chronology for Poirot's retirement, but assumed that he could either be an active detective, a consulting detective or a retired detective as the needs of the immediate case required. One thing that is consistent about Poirot's retirement is that his fame declines during it, so that in the later novels he is often disappointed when characters (especially younger characters) recognize neither him nor his name: "I should, perhaps, Madame, tell you a little more about myself. I am Hercule Poirot." The revelation left Mrs Summerhayes unmoved. "What a lovely name," she said kindly. "Greek, isn't it?" Mrs. McGinty's Dead, Chapter 4 Post World War II "He, I knew, was not likely to be far from his headquarters. The time when cases had drawn him from one end of England to the other was past." Hastings, in Chapter One of The Big Four Poirot is less active during the cases that take place at the end of his career. Beginning with Three Act Tragedy (1934), Christie had perfected during the inter-war years a sub-genre of Poirot novel in which the detective himself spent much of the first third of the novel on the periphery of events. In novels such as Taken at the Flood, After the Funeral and Hickory Dickory Dock he is even less in evidence, frequently passing the duties of main interviewing detective to a subsidiary character. In Cat Among the Pigeons Poirot's entrance is so late as to be almost an afterthought. Whether this was a reflection of his age or of the fact that Christie was by now heartily sick of him it is difficult to assess. There is certainly a case for saying that Crooked House (1949) and Ordeal by Innocence (1957), which are not Poirot novels at all but so easily could have been, represent a logical endpoint of the general diminution of Poirot himself within the Poirot sequence. Towards the end of his career it becomes clear that Poirot's retirement is no longer a convenient fiction. He assumes a genuinely inactive lifestyle during which he concerns himself with studying famous unsolved cases of the past and reading detective novels. He even writes a book about mystery fiction in which he deals sternly with Edgar Allan Poe and Wilkie Collins. The Third Girl, Chapter 1 In the absence of a more appropriate puzzle, he solves such inconsequential domestic problems as the presence of three pieces of orange peel in his umbrella stand. The Clocks, Chapter 14 Poirot (and, it is reasonable to suppose, his creator) In The Pale Horse, Chapter 1, the novel's narrator, Mark Easterbrook, disapprovingly describes a typical "Chelsea girl" in much the same terms that Poirot uses in Chapter 1 of Third Girl, suggesting that the condemnation of fashion is authorial. becomes increasingly bemused by the vulgarism of the up and coming generation's young people. In Hickory Dickory Dock, he investigates the strange goings on in a student hostel, while in the Third Girl he is forced into contact with the smart set of Chelsea youths. In the growing drug and pop culture of the sixties, he proves himself once again, but has become heavily reliant on other investigators (especially the private investigator, Mr. Goby) who provide him with the clues that he can no longer gather for himself. "You're too old. Nobody told me you were so old. I really don't want to be rude but – there it is. You're too old. I'm really very sorry." Norma Restarick to Poirot in Third Girl, Chapter 1 Death Poirot dies from complications of a heart condition at the end of Curtain: Poirot's Last Case, where he moves his amyl nitrite pills out of his reach. It is revealed at the end of Curtain that he fakes his need for a wheelchair (he wants to fool people into believing that he is suffering from arthritis). Major novels The Poirot books take readers through the whole of his life in England, from the first book (The Mysterious Affair at Styles), where he is a refugee staying at Styles, to the last Poirot book (Curtain), where he visits Styles once again before his death. In between, Poirot solves cases outside England as well, including his most famous case, Murder on the Orient Express (1934). Hercule Poirot became famous with the publication, in 1926, of The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, whose surprising solution proved controversial. The novel is still among the most famous of all detective novels: Edmund Wilson alludes to it in the title of his well-known attack on detective fiction, "Who Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?" Aside from Roger Ackroyd, the most critically-acclaimed Poirot novels appeared from 1932 to 1942, including such acknowledged classics as Murder on the Orient Express, The ABC Murders (1935), Cards on the Table (1936), and Death on the Nile (1937). The last of these, a tale of multiple homicide upon a Nile steamer, was judged by the celebrated detective novelist John Dickson Carr to be among the ten greatest mystery novels of all time. The 1942 novel Five Little Pigs (aka Murder in Retrospect), in which Poirot investigates a murder committed sixteen years before by analyzing various accounts of the tragedy, is a Rashomon-like performance that critic and mystery novelist Robert Barnard called the best of the Christie novels.For a list of novels and short stories featuring Hercule Poirot, please see Hercule Poirot in literature. Portrayals Stage The first actor to portray Hercule Poirot was Charles Laughton. He appeared on the West End in 1928 in the play Alibi which had been adapted by Michael Morton from the novel The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. Film Austin Trevor Austin Trevor debuted the role of Poirot on screen in the 1931 British film Alibi. The film was based on the stage play. Trevor reprised the role of Poirot twice, in Black Coffee and Lord Edgware Dies. Trevor said once that he was probably cast as Poirot simply because he could do a French accent. TV & Film page at the Hercule Poirot Central website. Leslie S. Hiscott directed the first two films, with Henry Edwards taking over for the third. Albert Finney Albert Finney played Poirot in 1974 in the cinematic version of Murder on the Orient Express. His portrayal was considered by many to be the definitive Poirot until David Suchet took up the role. It was a very faithful adaptation of the novel and was, at the time, the most successful British film ever made. It received the stamp of approval from Agatha Christie herself. Finney is, so far, the only actor to receive an Academy Award nomination for playing Poirot, though he did not win. Peter Ustinov Peter Ustinov as Poirot in Evil Under the Sun Peter Ustinov played Poirot a total of six times, starting with Death on the Nile (1978). He reprised the role in Evil Under the Sun (1982) and Appointment with Death (1988). When Christie's daughter, Rosalind Hicks, observed to Ustinov that Poirot did not look like him, Ustinov quipped "He does now!" Web page at mapdig.com He appeared again as Poirot in three made-for-television movies: Thirteen at Dinner (1985), Dead Man's Folly (1986), and Murder in Three Acts (1986). The first of these was based on Lord Edgware Dies and was made by Warner Brothers. It also starred Faye Dunaway and David Suchet as Inspector Japp, just before he himself began to play the famous detective. (Ironically, it is reputed that David Suchet highlights his performance as Japp to be "possibly the worst performance of [his] career.") Web page on David Suchet at strandmag.com Other Tony Randall, The Alphabet Murders (1965) (Film, also known as The ABC Murders). This was more a satire on Poirot than a straightforward adaptation, and was greatly changed from the original. It turned the sharp and observant detective into a blundering buffoon who solves the case almost by accident. Dudley Jones, The Strange Case of the End of Civilization as We Know It (1977), a spoof of Sherlock Holmes by John Cleese. Hugh Laurie, Spice World, 1997 Television David Suchet as Hercule Poirot David Suchet David Suchet has starred as the eponymous Agatha Christie's Poirot in the ITV series. Three of the four new episodes - Mrs McGinty's Dead, Cat Among the Pigeons, and Third Girl, were broadcast on UK television in September 2008. Other Ian Holm, Murder by the Book, 1986 (TV) Alfred Molina, Murder on the Orient Express, 2001 (TV) Animated In 2004, NHK (a Japanese TV network) produced a 39 episode anime series titled Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple, as well as a manga series under the same title released in 2005. The series, adapting several of the best-known Poirot and Marple stories, ran from July 4, 2004 through May 15, 2005, and is now being shown as re-runs on NHK and other networks in Japan. Poirot was voiced by Satomi Kōtarō and Miss Marple was voiced by Yachigusa Kaoru. Radio There have been a number of radio adaptations of the Poirot stories, most recently on BBC Radio 4 (and regularly repeated on BBC 7) starring John Moffatt. In 1939, "the Mercury Players dramatized The Murder of Roger Ackroyd on CBS's Campbell Playhouse". Cox, Jim, Radio Crime Fighters, 2002, p. 18, McFarland, Jefferson, NC, ISBN 0786413905 A 1945 radio series of at least 11 original half-hour episodes (none of which apparently adapt any Christie stories) transferred Poirot from London to New York and starred character actor Harold Huber A list of episodes of the half-hour 1945 radio program , perhaps better known for his appearances as a police officer in various Charlie Chan films. IMDB listing for Charlie Chan in Monte Carlo On February 22, 1945, "speaking from London, Agatha Christie introduced the initial broadcast of the Poirot series via shortwave." Cox, Jim, Radio Crime Fighters, 2002, p. 18, McFarland, Jefferson, NC, ISBN 0786413905 Parodies and references In Neil Simon's Murder By Death, James Coco plays a character named "Milo Perrier" who is a parody of Poirot. The film also features parodies of Charlie Chan, Sam Spade, Nick and Nora Charles, and Miss Marple. Poirot was also parodied in The Goodies episode "Daylight Robbery on the Orient Express". The British television show Count Duckula features a parody of Hercule Poirot (in passing) known as Mr. Hercules Parrot, arm in arm with a character called Miss Marbles. Although not strictly a reference to Poirot, the new series Christé and Doyle will feature a lead role similar to that of Hercule Poirot. With the name of the character being similar to that of Poirot's creator Agatha Christie and his being half Belgian, Christé also shares many of Poirot's methods and characteristics. The series is expected to begin filming in the late summer in Sandhurst. An episode of Animaniacs featured Yakko Warner as "Hercule Yakko". The episode involved the theft of a diamond on a train, involving much of the series' cast as suspects. In the movie Spiceworld, Hercule Poirot (Hugh Laurie) is about to blame a weapons-packing Emma Bunton, but after she flashes him an innocent smile, Poirot instead accuses an innocent man of the crime. In Sherlock Holmes: The Awakened, Poirot appears as a young boy on the train transporting Holmes and Watson. Holmes helps the boy in opening a puzzle-box, with Watson giving the boy advice about using his "little grey cells", giving the impression that Poirot first heard the line here. Poirot would go on to use the "little grey cells" line countless times throughout Agatha Christie's fiction. In an episode of Muppets Tonight, Jason Alexander played Hercule Poirot, believed by the Muppets to be Hercules Poirot, with superhuman powers. The Belgian brewery Brasserie Ellezelloise makes a highly rated stout called Hercule Brasserie Ellezeloise with a moustachioed caricature of Hercule Poirot on the label. Dave Stone has created two parodies of Poirot named Dupont. The first, Andre Dupont, appears in the Detective-Judge Armitage story Dowager Duchess of Ghent Armitage . The second, Emile Dupont, appears in the Bernice Summerfield novel Ship of Fools. The "decipherer of enigmas" in José Carlos Somoza's novel The Athenian Murders is named Herakles Pontor. In the English version of Geronimo Stilton series, the main protagonist has a friend named "Hercule Poirat". In the anime and manga series Detective Conan, Mouri Kogoro's detective agency is located above the Poirot cafè. A profile summary of Hercule appears at the end of volume 3 of the manga. In the Israeli sitcom The Pajamas, one of the characters of Kobi is a grotesque policeman named 'Marcel Fuero', as a reference to Poirot ('Poirot' and 'Fuero' are written the same way in Hebrew, פוארו). In the Portuguese New Year's special comedy show Crime na Pensão Estrelinha (starring Portuguese top comedian Herman José), there is a character named Hércules Pirô. Aside from the clear reference to Agatha Christie's character, 'Pirô' also is a misspelling of the word 'pirou', which is Portuguese slang for 'has gone crazy'. 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3,888 | History_of_the_Maldives | The Maldives is a nation consisting of 26 natural atolls, comprising 1192 islands Historical setting Since very ancient times, the Maldives were ruled by kings (Radun) sultans and occasionally queens (Ranin) sultanas. Historically Maldives has had a strategic importance because of its location on the major marine routes of the Indian Ocean. Maldives' nearest neighbors are Sri Lanka and India, both of which have had cultural and economic ties with Maldives for centuries. The Maldives provided the main source of cowrie shells, then used as a currency throughout Asia and parts of the East African coast. After the 16th century, when European colonial powers took over much of the trade in the Indian Ocean, first the Portuguese, and then the Dutch, and the French occasionally meddled with local politics. However, these interferences ended when the Maldive became a British Protectorate in the 19th century and the Maldivian monarchs were granted a good measure of self-governance. Maldives gained total independence in 1965. However, the British, continued to maintain an air base on the island of in the southernmost atoll until 1976. The British departure in 1976 at the height of the Cold War almost immediately triggered foreign speculation about the future of the air base. Apparently the Soviet Union made a move to request the use of the base, but the Maldives refused. The greatest challenge facing the republic in the early 1990s was the need for rapid economic development and modernization, given the country's limited resource base in fishing, agriculture and tourism. Concern was also evident over a projected long-term rise in sea level, which would prove disastrous to the low-lying coral islands. Early Age Comparative studies of Maldivian oral, linguistic and cultural traditions and customs confirm that the first settlers were Dravidian people Xavier Romero-Frias, The Maldive Islanders, A Study of the Popular Culture of an Ancient Ocean Kingdom from Kerala in the Sangam period (300 BCE - 300 CE), most probably fishermen from the southwest coasts of Tamilakam and the western shores of Eelam. One such community is the Giraavaru people descended from ancient Tamils. They are mentioned in ancient legends and local folklore about the establishment of the capital and kingly rule in Malé. They are considered to be the earliest community of settlers on the islands. A strong underlying layer of Tamil population and culture is present in Maldivian society, with a clear Tamil-Malayalam substratum in the language, which also appears in place names, kin terms, poetry, dance, and religious beliefs. Keralan rule of the North of Sri Lanka and sea faring led to Tamil settling of the Laccadives and the Maldives were evidently viewed as an extension of the archipelago. These first Maldivians didn't leave any archaeological remains. Their buildings were probably built of wood, palm fronds and other perishable materials, which would have quickly decayed in the salt and wind of the tropical climate. Moreover, chiefs or headmen didn't reside in elaborate stone palaces, nor did their religion require the construction of large temples or compounds. The Buddhist Kingdom of Maldives Despite being omitted or just mentioned briefly in most history books, the 1,400 year-long Buddhist period has a foundational importance in the history of the Maldives. It was during this period, that the culture of the Maldives, as we now know it, both developed and flourished. Clarence Maloney. People of the Maldive Islands. Orient Longman Buddhism probably spread to the Maldives in the third century BC, at the time of the Mauryan emperor Aśoka the Great, when it extended to the regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, as well as South to the island of Sri Lanka and the Maldive Islands. Serious studies of the archaeological remains of the Maldives began with the work of H. C. P. Bell, a British commissioner of the Ceylon Civil Service. Bell was shipwrecked on the islands in 1879, and returned several times to investigate the ancient Buddhist ruins. The Buddhist Stupa at Kuruhinna in Gan Island (Haddhunmathi Atoll). Western Side Early scholars like H.C.P. Bell, who resided in Sri Lanka most of his life, claim that Buddhism came to the Maldives from Sri Lanka. Since then, new archaeological discoveries point to Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhist influences, which are likely to have come to the islands straight from the Subcontinent. An urn discovered in Maalhos (Ari Atoll) in the 1980s has a Vishvavajra inscribed with Protobengali script. This text was in the same script used in the ancient Buddhist centres of learning in Nalanda and Vikramashila. There is also a small Porites stupa in the Museum where the directional Dhyani Buddhas (Jinas) are etched in its four cardinal points as in the Mahayana tradition. Some coral blocks with fearsome heads of guardians are also displaying Vajrayana Iconography. All these relatively recent archaeological discoveries are today exhibited in a side room of the small National Museum in Male' along with other artifacts. Buddhist remains have been also found in Minicoy Island, then part of the Maldive Kingdom, by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), in the latter half of the 20th century. Among these remains a Buddha head and stone foundations of a Vihara deserve special mention. Following the Islamic concept that before Islam there was the time of Jahiliya (ignorance), in the history books used by Maldivians the introduction of Islam at the end of the 12th century is considered the cornerstone of the country's history. Islam remains the state religion in the 1990s. And yet the Maldivian language, the first Maldive scripts, the architecture, the ruling institutions, the customs and manners of the Maldivians originated at the time when the Maldives were a Buddhist Kingdom. Buddhism became the dominant religion in the Maldives and enjoyed royal patronage for many centuries, probably as long as over one thousand and four hundred years. Practically all archaeological remains in the Maldives are from Buddhist stupas and monasteries, and all artifacts found to date display characteristic Buddhist iconography. Buddhist (and Hindu) temples were Mandala shaped, they are oriented according to the four cardinal points, the main gate being towards the east. Even today, many mosques in Maldives face the sun and not Mecca. Since building space and materials were scarce, Maldivians constructed their places of worship on the foundations of previous buildings. The ancient Buddhist stupas are called "havitta", "hatteli" or "ustubu" by the Maldivians according to the different atolls. These stupas and other archaeological remains, like foundations of Buddhist buildings Vihara, compound walls and stone baths, are found on many islands of the Maldives. They usually lie buried under mounds of sand and covered by vegetation. Local historian Hassan Ahmed Maniku counted as many as 59 islands with Buddhist archaeological sites in a provisional list he published in 1990. The largest monuments of the Buddhist era are in the islands fringing the eastern side of Haddhunmathi Atoll. In the mid-1980s, the Maldivian government allowed the popular Norwegian explorer Thor Heyerdahl, to excavate ancient sites. Despite the clear evidence that all the ancient ruins in Maldives are Buddhist, Heyerdahl claimed that early "sun-worshiping seafarers", called the "Redin", first settled on the islands. Keeping up with his sensationalist style, Heyerdahl argued that 'Redin' were people coming from somewhere else, whereas an ancient Maldivian poem (Fua Mulaku Rashoveshi) says: "Havitta uhe haudahau, Redin taneke hedi ihau". This poem gives us the clue about the name 'Redin'. According to Magieduruge Ibrahim Didi, a learned man from Fua Mulaku, it was merely the name which the converted Maldivians used to refer to their infidel (ghair dīn = 'redin') ancestors after the general conversion from Buddhism to Islam. It is generally said that the conversion of the Maldives to Islam was peaceful, but historical evidence suggests the contrary. For example, the 12th century copperplates found at Isdhoo Island state that the monks (Sangumanun) from the monastery at that island were brought to Male' and beheaded. H.A. Maniku & G.D. Wijayawardhana. Isdhoo Loamaafaanu. Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka. Colombo 1986. Introduction of Islam See also: Islam in Maldives The interest of Middle Eastern peoples in Maldives resulted from its strategic location and its abundant supply of cowrie shells, a form of currency that was widely used throughout Asia and parts of the East African coast since ancient times. Middle Eastern seafarers had just begun to take over the Indian Ocean trade routes in the tenth century A.D. and found Maldives to be an important link in those routes. The importance of the Arabs as traders in the Indian Ocean by the twelfth century A.D. may partly explain why the last Buddhist king of Maldives converted to Islam in the year 1153 (or 1193, for certain copper plate grants give a later date). The king thereupon adopted the Muslim title and name (in Arabic) of Sultan (besides the old Divehi title of Maha Radun or Ras Kilege or Rasgefānu) Muhammad al Adil, initiating a series of six Islamic dynasties consisting of eighty-four sultans and sultanas that lasted until 1932 when the sultanate became elective. The person responsible for this conversion was a Sunni Muslim visitor named Abu al Barakat. His venerated tomb now stands on the grounds of Hukuru Mosque, or miski, in the capital of Malé. Built in 1656, this is the oldest mosque in Maldives. Arab interest in Maldives also was reflected in the residence there in the 1340s of the well-known North African traveler Ibn Battutah. It is worth noticing that compared to the other areas of South Asia, the conversion of the Maldives to Islam happened relatively late. Arab Traders had converted populations in the Malabar coast since the 7th century, and the Arab invader Muhammad Bin Qāsim had converted large swathes of Sind to Islam at about the same time. The Maldives remained a Buddhist kingdom for another five hundred years (perhaps the westernmost Buddhist country) until the conversion to Islam. Era of colonial powers Portuguese In 1558 the Portuguese established a small garrison with a Viador (Viyazoru), or overseer of a trading warehouse in the Maldives, which they administered from their main colony in Goa. It is said that they tried to impose Christianity on the locals. Thus, fifteen years later, a local leader named Muhammad Thakurufaanu Al-Azam and his brother organized a popular revolt and drove the Portuguese out of Maldives. This event is now commemorated as National Day, and a small museum and memorial center honor the hero on his home island of Utheemu on South Thiladhummathi Atoll. Dutch In the mid-seventeenth century, the Dutch, who had replaced the Portuguese as the dominant power in Ceylon, established hegemony over Maldivian affairs without involving themselves directly in local matters, which were governed according to centuries-old Islamic customs. However, the British expelled the Dutch from Ceylon in 1796 and included Maldives as a British protected area. The status of Maldives as a British protectorate was officially recorded in an 1887 agreement in which the sultan accepted British influence over Maldivian external relations and defense. The British had no presence, however, on the leading island community of Malé. They left the islanders alone, as had the Dutch, with regard to internal administration to continue to be regulated by Muslim traditional institutions. British Britain got entangled with the Maldives as a result of domestic disturbances which targeted the settler community of Bora merchants who were British subjects. Rivalry between two dominant families, the Athireege clan and the Kakaage clan was resolved with former winning the favour of the British authorities in Ceylon, who concluded a Protection Agreement in 1887. During the British era, which lasted until 1965, Maldives continued to be ruled under a succession of sultans. It was a period during which the Sultan's authority and powers were increasingly and decisively taken over by the Chief Minister, much to the chagrin of the British Governor-General who continued to deal with the ineffectual Sultan. Consequently, Britain encouraged the development of a constitutional monarchy, and the first Constitution was proclaimed in 1932. However, the new arrangements favoured neither the aging Sultan nor the wily Chief Minister, but rather a young crop of British-educated reformists. As a result, angry mobs were instigated against the Constitution which was publicly torn up. Maldives remained a British crown protectorate until 1953 when the sultanate was suspended and the First Republic was declared under the short-lived presidency of Muhammad Amin Didi. This first elected president of the country introduced several reforms. While serving as prime minister during the 1940s, Didi nationalized the fish export industry. As president he is remembered as a reformer of the education system and a promoter of women's rights. Muslim conservatives in Malé eventually ousted his government, and during a riot over food shortages, Didi was beaten by a mob and died on a nearby island. Beginning in the 1950s, political history in Maldives was largely influenced by the British military presence in the islands. In 1954 the restoration of the sultanate perpetuated the rule of the past. Two years later, the United Kingdom obtained permission to reestablish its wartime airfield on Gan in the southernmost Addu Atoll. Maldives granted the British a 100 year lease on Gan that required them to pay £2,000 a year, as well as some 440,000 square metres on Hitaddu for radio installations. In 1957, however, the new prime minister, Ibrahim Nasir, called for a review of the agreement in the interest of shortening the lease and increasing the annual payment. But Nasir, who was theoretically responsible to then sultan Muhammad Farid Didi, was challenged in 1959 by a local secessionist movement in the southern atolls that benefited economically from the British presence on Gan. This group cut ties with the Maldives government and formed an independent state with Abdullah Afif as president. The short-lived state (1959-63), called the United Suvadive Republic, had a combined population of 20,000 inhabitants scattered in the southernmost atolls Huvadu, Addu and Fua Mulaku. In 1962 Nasir sent gunboats from Malé with government police on board to eliminate elements opposed to his rule. One year later the Suvadive republic was scrapped and Abdulla Afif went into exile to the Seychelles, where he died recently. Meanwhile, in 1960 Maldives allowed the United Kingdom to continue to use both the Gan and the Hitaddu facilities for a thirty-year period, with the payment of £750,000 over the period of 1960 to 1965 for the purpose of Maldives' economic development. Independence On July 26, 1965, Maldives gained independence under an agreement signed with United Kingdom. The British government retained the use of the and Hitaddu facilities. In a national referendum in March 1968, Maldivians abolished the sultanate and established a republic. Nasir The Second Republic was proclaimed in November 1968 under the presidency of Ibrahim Nasir, who had increasingly dominated the political scene. Under the new constitution, Nasir was elected indirectly to a four-year presidential term by the Majlis (legislature). He appointed Ahmed Zaki as the new prime minister. In 1973 Nasir was elected to a second term under the constitution as amended in 1972, which extended the presidential term to five years and which also provided for the election of the prime minister by the Majlis. In March 1975, newly elected prime minister Zaki was arrested in a bloodless coup and was banished to a remote atoll. Observers suggested that Zaki was becoming too popular and hence posed a threat to the Nasir faction. During the 1970s, the economic situation in Maldives suffered a setback when the Sri Lankan market for Maldives' main export of dried fish collapsed. Adding to the problems was the British decision in 1975 to close its airfield on in line with its new policy of abandoning defense commitments east of the Suez Canal. A steep commercial decline followed the evacuation of in March 1976. As a result, the popularity of Nasir's government suffered. Maldives's 20 year period of authoritarian rule under Nasir abruptly ended in 1978 when he fled to Singapore. A subsequent investigation revealed that he had absconded with millions of dollars from the state treasury. However there has been no evidence so far and as a result it was believed that it was act of the new government to get their popularity and support among the civilians. Gayoom Elected to replace Nasir for a five-year presidential term in 1978 was Maumoon Abdul Gayoom, a former university lecturer and Maldivian ambassador to the United Nations (UN). The peaceful election was seen as ushering in a period of political stability and economic development in view of Gayoom's priority to develop the poorer islands. In 1978 Maldives joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Tourism also gained in importance to the local economy, reaching more than 120,000 visitors in 1985. The local populace appeared to benefit from increased tourism and the corresponding increase in foreign contacts involving various development projects. Despite the popularity of Gayoom, those connected to the former President hired ex-SAS mercenaries in 1980 to carry out a coup to oust him. The attempt was sponsored by Ahmed Naseem, brother-in-law of Nasir and former junior Minister and was supported by a handful of Nasir loyalists. Naseem had objected to the emergence of Gayoom and had vowed to depose him within 6 months. Naseem's disaffection only increased when the parliament began investigating financial irregularities under Nasir as well as the murder of inmates and torture in Villingili Prison in the early 1970s, which implicated his brother-in-law, the erstwhile strongman Abdul Hannan Haleem who was Nasir's Minister for Public Safety. The small group of mercenaries arrived in the Maldives smuggling their light arms in diving equipment, but did not carry out the mission because Gayoom had been tipped about their arrival and they found that they had been misinformed about the popularity of Gayoom. In 1983, a local shipping businessman, Reeko Ibrahim Maniku made a bid to win the parliamentary nomination by offering bribes to members of parliament and to High Court judges. Reeko Ibrahim remained in self-imposed exile, returning to Maldives only in 2006 and has since registered a political party, Social Democratic Party. Despite coup attempts in 1980, 1983, and 1988, Gayoom's popularity remained strong, allowing him to win three more presidential terms. In the 1983, 1988, and 1993 elections, Gayoom received more than 90 % of the vote. Although the government did not allow any legal opposition, Gayoom was opposed in the early 1990s by Islamists (also seen as fundamentalists) who wanted to impose a religious way of life and by some powerful local business leaders. Whereas the 1980 and 1983 coup attempts against Gayoom's presidency were not considered serious, the third coup attempt in November 1988 alarmed the international community. About 80 armed Tamil mercenaries belonging to PLOTE landed on Malé before dawn aboard speedboats from a freighter. Disguised as visitors, a similar number had already infiltrated Malé earlier. Although the mercenaries quickly gained the nearby airport on Hulule, they failed to capture President Gayoom, who fled from house to house and asked for military intervention from India, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Indian prime minister Rajiv Gandhi immediately dispatched 1,600 troops by air to restore order in Malé. Less than 12 hours later, Indian paratroopers arrived on Hulele, causing some of the mercenaries to flee toward Sri Lanka in their freighter. Those unable to reach the ship in time were quickly rounded up. Nineteen people reportedly died in the fighting, and several taken hostage also died. Three days later an Indian frigate captured the mercenaries on their freighter near the Sri Lankan coast. In July 1989, a number of the mercenaries were returned to Maldives to stand trial. Gayoom commuted the death sentences passed against them to life imprisonment. The 1988 coup had been masterminded and sponsored by a few disgruntled businessmen, chiefly Sikka Ahmed Ismail Maniku and Abdulla Luthufi, who were operating a farm in Sri Lanka. Earlier, the two of them had also been caught in an attempt to assassinate Nasir when he was president and had been tried and imprisoned before being released in 1975. The captured mercenaries and their paymasters were put on trial. Sikka Maniku and Luthufee were sentenced to death in 1989, but Gayoom commuted their sentences to life imprisonment. In 1994, Gayoom pardoned and released Sikka Maniku on humanitarian grounds as he had developed cardiovascular complications, and Maniku went into self-imposed exile in Colombo. Ex-president Nasir denied any involvement in the coup. In fact, in July 1990, President Gayoom officially pardoned Nasir in absentia in recognition of his role in obtaining Maldives' independence. See also List of Sultans of the Maldives National Museum of the Maldives National Library of Maldives Maldivian Folklore Hinduism in Maldives Italian ship Ramb I External links Maldives History – original records, articles and translations History of Maldives Background Note: Maldives Sources and references H.C.P. Bell, The Maldive Islands, An account of the physical features, History, Inhabitants, Productions and Trade. Colombo 1883, ISBN 81 206 1222 1 Xavier Romero-Frias, The Maldive Islanders, A Study of the Popular Culture of an Ancient Ocean Kingdom. Barcelona 1999, ISBN 84 7254 801 5 Divehi Tārīkhah Au Alikameh. Divehi Bahāi Tārikhah Khidmaiykurā Qaumī Markazu. Reprint 1958 edn. Male’ 1990. Skjølsvold, Arne. 1991. Archaeological Test-Excavations On The Maldive Islands. The Kon-Tiki Museum Occasional Papers, Vol. 2. Oslo. 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3,889 | Census | A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population. The term is used mostly in connection with national 'population and door to door censuses' (to be taken every 10 years according to United Nations recommendations), agriculture, and business censuses. The term itself comes from Latin: during the Roman Republic the census was a list which kept track of all adult males fit for military service. The census can be contrasted with sampling in which information is obtained only from a subset of a population. Census data is commonly used for research, business marketing, and planning as well as a base for sampling surveys. In some countries, census data is used to apportion electoral representation (sometimes controversially so - see e.g. Utah v. Evans). It is widely recognized that population and housing censuses are vital for the planning of any society. Traditional censuses are, however, becoming more costly. A rule of thumb for census costs in developing countries has been $1 USD per enumerated person. More realistic figures today are around $3 USD. These approximations should be taken with great care since a variable number of activities are included in different countries (e.g. enumerators can either be hired or requested from civil servants). The cost in developed countries is far higher. The cost for the 2000 census in the U.S. was estimated to be $4.5 billion USD, more than $15 per enumerated person. Alternative possibilities for retrieving data are being investigated. Nordic countries Denmark, Finland and Norway have for several years used administrative registers. Partial and sample censuses are used in France and Germany. Census and privacy While the census provides a useful way of obtaining statistical information about a population, such information can sometimes lead to abuses, political or otherwise, made possible by the linking of individuals' identities to anonymous census data. The Census and Privacy. This consideration is particularly important when individuals' census responses are made available in microdata form, but even aggregate-level data can result in privacy breaches when dealing with small areas and/or rare subpopulations. For instance, when reporting data from a large city, it might be appropriate to give the average income for black males aged between 50 and 60. However, doing this for a town that only has two black males in this age group would be a breach of privacy: either of those people, knowing their own income and the reported average, could figure out the other person's income. It is typical for census data to be processed in a way so as to obscure individual information. Some censuses do this by intentionally introducing small statistical errors to prevent the identification of individuals in marginal populations; others swap variables for similar respondents. Whatever measures have been taken to reduce the privacy risk in census data, new technology in the form of better electronic analysis of data poses increasing challenges to the protection of sensitive individual information. Ancient and medieval censuses Censuses in Egypt are said to have been taken during the early Pharaonic period in 3340 BC and in 3050 BC. One of the earliest documented censuses was taken in 500-499 BC by the Persian Empire's military for issuing land grants, and taxation purposes. Kuhrt, A. (1995) The Ancient Near East c. 3000–330BC Vol 2 Routledge, London. p. 695. In India, censuses were conducted in the Mauryan Empire as described in Chanakya's (c. 350-283 BC) Arthashastra, which prescribed the collection of population statistics as a measure of state policy for the purpose of taxation. It contains a detailed description of methods of conducting population, economic and agricultural censuses. Indian Census. Rome conducted censuses to determine taxes (see Censor (ancient Rome)). The word 'census' origins in fact from ancient Rome, coming from the Latin word 'censere', meaning ‘estimate’. The Roman census was the most developed of any recorded in the ancient world and it played a crucial role in the administration of the Roman Empire. The Roman census was carried out every five years. It provided a register of citizens and their property from which their duties and privileges could be listed. The world's oldest extant census data comes from China during the Han Dynasty. Taken in the fall of 2 AD, it is considered by scholars to be quite accurate. At that time there were 59.6 million living in Han China, the world's largest population. H. Yoon (1985). "An early Chinese idea of a dynamic environmental cycle", GeoJournal 10 (2), pp. 211-212. The second oldest preserved census is also from the Han, dating back to 140 AD, when only a few more than 48 million people were recorded. Mass migrations into what is today southern China are believed to be behind this massive demographic decline. In the Middle Ages, the most famous census in Europe is the Domesday Book, undertaken in 1086 by William I of England so that he could properly tax the land he had recently conquered. In 1183, a census was taken of the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, to ascertain the number of men and amount of money that could possibly be raised against an invasion by Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria. A very interesting way to record census information was used in the Inca Empire in the Andean region from the 15th century until the Spaniards conquered their land. The Incas did not have any written language but recorded information collected during censuses and other numeric information as well as non-numeric data on quipus, strings from llama or alpaca hair or cotton cords with numeric and other values encoded by knots in a base-10 positional system. Modern censuses Afghanistan A partial and incomplete population census was taken in Afghanistan in 1980. A census was planned for 2007. UNFPA Projects in Afghanistan. Algeria Population and housing censuses have been carried out in Algeria in 1967, 1977, 1987, 1998, and 2008. The next census is in 2016. Antigua and Barbuda A Population & Housing Census was carried out in 2001. Argentina National population census are carried out in Argentina roughly every ten years, the last one being in 2001. More about census, see: National Institute of Statistics and Census of Argentina. Austria The Austrian census is run by the Statistik Austria. It is carried out every ten years, the last one being in 2001. Australia The Australian census is operated by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. It is currently conducted every five years, the last occurrence being on August 8, 2006. Past Australian censuses were conducted in 1911, 1921, 1933, 1947, 1954, and 1961 - 2006 every five years. In 2006, for the first time, Australians were able to complete their census online. Bangladesh Population censuses were conducted by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) in 1974, 1981, 1991 and 2001. Benin Population censuses have been taken in Benin in 1978, 1992 and 2002. Bolivia Population and housing censuses have been carried out in Bolivia in 1992 and 2001. Bosnia-Herzegovina A census was taken by apostolic vicar the bishop Pavao Dragicevic in 1743. Brazil The Brazilian census is carried out by IBGE, the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, every 10 years. The last one was in 2000. Earlier censuses were taken in 1872 (the first), 1900, 1920, 1941, 1950, 1960, 1970, 1980 and 1991. In Brazil, one of the most modern in the world Demographic Census. For the collection, there are hierarchies of collections of data. The hierarchies are: Brazil (Country), Major Regions, States, Macro-regions, micro-regions, municipalities, districts, sub-districts, Neighborhoods and census tracts. Depending on the administrative hierarchy, some types of data are not published to respect confidentiality. For example: 1. The lower area of data collection is the census tract, with approximately 300 households, and information is collected on age, condition of the home, gender, income, among others. 2. Districts: information on race, color, religion, disability, etc... 3. Municipalities (cities): in addition to the information already described, there is information of GDP, industrial production, agricultural production, migration between cities to study or work, to live migration, inflation, employment rates, number of industries, the quantity of trade, etc. Information is collected with handheld computers equipped with GPS receivers and digitized maps. For more information, see the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE). Bulgaria Bulgarian governors organized a national census soon after the liberation of the Bulgarian lands. In 1881 a census took place in the Principality, while in 1884 a census was organized in Eastern Rumelia. The first census covering the unified state took place in 1888. Since these first accounts Bulgarian authorities had organized several population censuses: 1892, 1900, 1905, 1910, 1920, 1926, 1934, 1946, 1956, 1965, 1975, 1985, 1992 and 2001. The data provided in the Bulgarian censuses from 1888 until WW-II is regarded as highly reliable according to the standards of the time. The Bulgarian leading statisticians of the period were generally educated in Western universities and participated vividly in the international cooperation, therefore insisted and succeeded in introducing the best practices of the time. The quality of the data provided of later censuses is a matter of debate. Canada The Canadian census is run by Statistics Canada. The first census conducted in Canada was conducted in 1666, by French intendant Jean Talon, when he took a census to ascertain the number of people living in New France. The individual provinces conducted censuses, in the 19th century and before, sometimes in conjunction with each other. In 1871, Canada's first formal census was conducted, which counted the population of Nova Scotia, Ontario, New Brunswick, and Quebec. Censuses in Canada are conducted in five-year intervals. The last two censuses were conducted in 2001 and 2006. Censuses taken in mid-decade (1976, 1986, 1996, etc.) are referred to as quinquennial censuses. Others are referred to as decennial censuses. The first quinquennial census was conducted in 1956. For the 2006 Census of Canada, respondents were able, for the first time, to choose to complete their census questionnaire online. Other options for answering the questionnaire include postal mail (using a pre-paid envelope) and telephone (using an 800 number). See also: Canada 2001 Census, Canada 2006 Census. Alberta In the Province of Alberta, Section 57 of its Municipal Government Act (MGA) enables municipalities to perform their own censuses on any given year. An official municipal census must be conducted no earlier than April 1 and no later than June 30 of the same year, according to the MGA's Determination of Population Regulation. If municipalities choose to make their census count official, the new population must be submitted to the Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing prior to September 1 of the year the census was performed. The latest census counts for Alberta's municipalities are released in the Ministry's annual Official Population List publication. AltaPop (Alberta Population) is a very useful website that builds upon the data provided by the Province and Statistics Canada. Visit AltaPop to compare municipal and federal census results by municipality, to analyse historic population trends by municipality, and to view detailed annual population summaries either by size of municipality or sorted alphabetically. Chile National population census are carried out in Chile every ten years, the last one being in 2002. China Population censuses have been taken in the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1913, 1944, 1972, 1999 and 2004. These were the world's biggest censuses as they attempted to count every man, woman and child in the most populous nation in the world. Some 6 million enumerators were engaged in the 2000 census. The first economic census was taken in 2004. Costa Rica Costa Rica carried out its 9th population census in 2000. INEC, National Institute of Statistics and Census is in charge of conduct these census. Past Costa Rican censuses were conducted in 1864, 1883, 1892, 1927, 1950, 1963, 1973 and 1984. Czech Republic Census in the Czech Republic is carried out every 10 years by the Czech Statistical Office. The last census was taken in 2001. Earlier censuses were taken in 1869, 1880, 1890, 1900, 1910, 1921, 1930, 1950, 1961, 1970, 1980 and 1991. Denmark The first Danish census was in 1700-1701, and contained statistical information about adult men. Only about half of it still exists. A census of school children was taken during the 1730s. Following these early undertakings, the first census to attempt completely covering all citizens (including women and children who had previously been listed only as numbers) of Denmark-Norway was taken in 1769. Census 1769. At that point there were 797 584 citizens in the kingdom. Georg Christian Oeder took a statistical census in 1771 which covered Copenhagen, Sjælland, Møn, and Bornholm. After that, censuses followed somewhat regularly in 1787, 1801, and 1834, and between 1840 and 1860, the censuses were taken every five years, and then every ten years until 1890. Special censuses for Copenhagen were taken in 1885 and 1895. In the 20th century, censuses were taken every five years from 1901 to 1921, and then every ten years from 1930. The last traditional census was taken in 1970. A limited population census based on registers was taken in 1976. From 1981 and each year onwards information that corresponds to a population and housing census is retrieved from registers. Denmark was the first country in the world to conduct these censuses from administrative registers. The most important registers are the population register (Det Centrale Personregister), a Building and Dwelling Register and an Enterprise Register. The central statistical office, Statistics Denmark is responsible for compiling these data. This information is available online in the Statbank Denmark. It is possible to search a portion of the Danish censuses online at Dansk Demografisk Database, and also view scanned versions at Arkivalier Online. Egypt The Statistical Department of the Ministry of Finance conducted the first census in 1882, which considered as a preparatory step; the first true population census was conducted in 1897. Thereafter, censuses were conducted at ten-year intervals in 1907, 1917, 1927 and so on. In 2006 the Central Agency For Public Mobilization and Statistics CAPMAS conducted the thirteenth census in the Egyptian census series where the Egypt's population hit 76.5 million inside and outside the country. Estonia Population censuses have been taken in Estonia in 1881, 1897, 1922, 1934, 1959, 1970, 1979, 1989 and 2000. Censuses in Estonia. The responsible institution is the Statistics Estonia. Ethiopia Three censuses have been taken in Ethiopia: 1984, 1994 and in 2007. The responsible institution is the Central Statistical Agency. Most of the census in 2007 was taken in August, while the Somali Region and the Afar Region were not covered. The northern Afar region is a remote, hot and arid area. The eastern Somali region (Ogaden) hosts a large nomadic Somali population and is a conflict area where Ethiopian regular forces are fighting against Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF). Finland The first population census was taken in 1749 when Finland was a part of Sweden. The most recent census took place on December 31, 2000. France Napoleon Bonaparte began the census in France as a means of determining the number of potential soldiers under his rule. Today, the census in France is carried out by INSEE. Since 2004, a partial census is carried out every year, and the results published as averages over 5 years. Germany The first systematic population on the European continent was taken in 1719 in Prussia (roughly corresponding to today's northern Germany and western Poland). The first large-scale census in the German Empire took place in 1895. Attempts at introducing a census in West Germany sparked strong popular resentment in the 1980s since many quite personal questions were asked. Some campaigned for a boycott. In the end the Constitutional Court stopped the census in 1980 and 1983. The last census was in 1987. Germany has since used population samples in combination with statistical methods, in place of a full census. Greece Census takes place every 10 years and is carried out by the National Statistical Service of Greece. Γενικη Γραμματεια Εσυε. Last census was in 2001. Guatemala Modern population censuses have been taken in Guatemala in 1930, 1950, 1964, 1973, 1981, 1994 and in 2002. Controversial cenuses were in particular the ones in 1950 and 1964 (misclassification of the Maya population) and the 1994 census (generally questioned). Relaciones Geográficas of Mexico and Guatemala, 1577-1585. On May 25, 1577, King Philip II of Spain ordered by royal cédula the preparation of a general description of Spain's holdings in the Indies. Instructions and a questionnaire, issued in 1577 by the Office of the Cronista Mayor-Cosmógrafo, were distributed to local officials in the Viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru to direct the gathering of information. The questionnaire, composed of fifty items, was designed to elicit basic information about the nature of the land and the life of its peoples. The replies, known as "relaciones geográficas," were written between 1579 and 1585 and were returned to the Cronista Mayor-Cosmógrafo in Spain by the Council of the Indies. Hong Kong Census takes place every 10 years and by-census between two censuses by the Census and Statistics Department of Hong Kong. The last census was conducted in 2001 and the last by-census was taken in 2006. Hungary Official decennial censuses have been taken in Hungary since 1870; the latest one – in line with the recommendations of the United Nations and the Statistical Office of the European Union – was carried out in 2001. Starting from 1880 the Hungarian census system was based on native language (the language spoken at home in the early life of the person and at the time of the survey), vulgar language (the most frequently used language in the family), and other spoken languages. Iceland The first Icelandic census took place in 1703, following upon the first Danish census of 1700–1701. Further censuses were carried out in 1801, 1845 and 1865. The 1703 exercise was the first ever census to cover all inhabitants of an entire country, mentioning the name, age and social position of each individual. All of the information still exists, although some of the original documents have been lost. The setting up, in 1952, of the National Registry (Þjóðskrá) eliminated the need for censuses. All those born in Iceland, and all new residents, are automatically registered. Individuals are identified in the registry by means of a national identification number (the so-called kennitala), a number composed of the date of birth in the format ddmmyy and four additional digits, the third of which is a control digit, and the last of which indicates the century in which the person was born (9 for the 1900s and 0 for the 2000s). The National Registry doubles as an electoral register. Likewise, all bank accounts are linked to the national identification of the owner (companies and institutions all have their own identification numbers). India The decennial census of India is the primary source of information about the demographic characteristics of the population of India, which is the second most populous country in the world. The first census in India in modern times is dated 1901. It started as far back as in 1860 and was finished in 1871. Starting from there, a population census has been carried out every 10 years, the latest being the fourteenth in February-March 2001. The census is carried out by the office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India, Delhi an office in the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, under the 1848 Census of India Act. The act gives Central Government many powers like to notify a date for Census, power to ask for the services of any citizen for census work. The law makes it compulsory for every citizen to answer the census questions truthfully. The Act provides penalties for giving false answers or not giving answers at all to the census questionnaire. One of the most important provisions of law is the guarantee for the maintenance of secrecy of the information collected at the census of each individual. The census records are not open to inspection and also not admissible in evidence. The census happens in two phases: first, house listing and house numbering operations; and second, the actual population enumeration phase. The census is carried out by the canvassing method. In this method, each and every household is visited and the information is collected by specially trained enumerators. 9 February 2001, the first day of the 2001 census was celebrated as the census day. Iran Main article: Demographics of Iran The Statistical Center of Iran carries out nationwide population and housing censuses every 10 years, the last of which occurred in 2006 (1385 AP). In the Islamic Republic of Iran, based on Article 4 of the Act of the Statistical Center of Iran (SCI), the census shall be implemented once every 10 years according to the Presidential decree. So far there have been 6 incidences of population census in Iran in the years 1956, 1966, 1976, 1986, 1996, and 2006; all taken in accordance with scientific methods. Web site of the Statistical Center of Iran. Ireland The census in Ireland is carried out by the Central Statistics Office. The census is carried out every five years, with more detailed information collected in years ending in 1 and less in the years ending in 6. The 1976 census was cancelled as a cost-saving measure, but a supplementary census was held in 1979 after it became apparent that the 1970s had seen major demographic changes. The census scheduled for 2001 was postponed until 2002 due to the outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease. The most recent census took place on 23 April 2006. According to the 2006 form, "any person who fails or refuses to provide information or who knowingly provides false information may be subject to a fine of up to €25,000," under the Central Statistics Act 1993. On the CSO website, instructions for non-English speaking residents of Ireland were available. They were mock copies of the census forms, with all headings/questions etc. being translated into a particular language. These were not to be filled out, but were only a guide on how to fill out the English or Irish form. This census also asked two new questions relating to ownership of PCs and Internet connection. Data from the 1911 Census for the island of Ireland was made publicly available in 1961, and are being published online. Subsequent census records will be made publicly available 100 years after collection. Questions relating to the ability to speak the Irish Language are included in the census. The figures obtained have been criticised as inflated by cognitive biases, such as response bias or wishful thinking. The 2006 census included an additional question on frequency of speaking Irish. Israel The first census in the state of Israel was held in November 1948, six months after its creation, to establish the population registry. Subsequent censuses were conducted by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (ICBS) in 1961, 1972, 1983 and 1995. In these, 20% of households completed a detailed survey and the remainder a shorter questionaire. There is no legal requirement to hold a census within a given interval; in practice, the ICBS requests and the government decides. The next Census to be held was postponed from 2006 to late 2008/early 2009. Only the detailed survey of 20% will be carried out, as a cost-saving measure. Italy The census in Italy is carried out by ISTAT every 10 years. The last four were in 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001. Japan see Demographics of Japan (previous pictures from below were deleted) Japan collects census information every five years. The figures show the English translation of the 2005 census form. The form solicits information on name, sex, relationship to head of household, year and month of birth, marital status, nationality, number of members of household, type and nature of dwelling, floor area of dwelling, number of hours worked during the week prior to October 1, employment status, name of employer and type of business, and kind of work. Jordan The first population census after the independence in 1946 was taken in 1952. It did only count the number of people in the households and could therefore be considered only to be a housing census. The first real complete census was taken in 1961. The following censuses have been taken in 1979, 1994 and 2004. The distribution of Palestinians and Jordanians within the population has been a politically sensitive issue since the Six-Day war in 1967. Kenya Census in Kenya was first held in 1948, when Kenya was still a Colony administrated by the British. Since 1969 census has been taken every ten years. The last census to date was in 1999. Central Bureaus of Statistics (Kenya): Census cartography: The Kenyan Experience. Kosovo Kosovo, administrated by the UN since 1999, declared independence in 2008. Kosovo government is planning a general population census for April 2009. Latvia The most recent census in Latvia was in 2000. Before that, it was about 6 censuses, most part of these previous censuses was undertaken during Soviet (USSR) control. The census in Latvia is carried out by Centrālā Statistikas Pārvalde (Central Statistical Bureau). Lebanon No census has been taken in Lebanon since 1932. Macedonia The foundation of the Republic of Macedonia followed the break up of the former Yugoslav Republic in 1991. The first population and housing census was taken in the summer 1994. The second census was taken in the autumn 2002. Both censuses were observed by international experts due to the sensitive issue regarding the ethnic distribution (Macedonian vs Albanian population). Mauritius Population and housing censuses for Mauritius was collected in 1972, 1983, and 2000; although respondents were asked to identify their race/ethnic origin in the 1972 census, this question was dropped from the following censuses because "the government felt that it was a divisive question". "2010 Round of Censuses: Learning from the 2000 Round Country position: Mauritius February 2006" (accessed 3 April 2009). The Statistics Act of 2000 directed that all official censuses be conducted by the Central Statistics Office of Mauritius, as well as serve as the central depository for this information. "Central Statistics Office: The Statistics Act 2000". Mexico Population censuses are taken every 10th year in Mexico. The latest have been in 1960, 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000 (the 12th census). Mozambique The first census was taken in 1980. The second in 1997. The third was taken 1-14 August, 2007. Netherlands The first census in the Netherlands was conducted in 1795, and the last in 1971. A law was produced on April 22 1879, ordering a census to be conducted every ten years. The census that was planned for 1981 was postponed and later cancelled. A call for privacy was responsible for the cancellation of any further census since 1991. Censuses are being conducted by the Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (Netherlands) since 1899. The censuses today are mostly (population, fiscal) register based, combined with surveying. New Zealand The census in New Zealand is carried out by Statistics New Zealand (Tatauranga Aotearoa), every five years. The last was on 7 March 2006. For the 2006 Census of New Zealand, respondents could choose to complete their census questionnaire online. See New Zealand Census of Population and Dwellings. Nepal Population censuses are taken every 10th year in Nepal. The latest were in 1981, 1991 and 2001 (the 6th census.) Nigeria Population censuses have been taken in Nigeria during colonial time in 1866, 1871, 1896, 1901, 1911, 1921 and 1952. The censuses covered only the southern part of the country except for the 1952 census which was country wide, and the censuses before 1921 were based on administrative estimates rather than on an actual enumeration. Censuses during the independence were taken 1963, 1973, 1991 and 2006. The results from 1973 were highly disputed. The preliminary results for 2006 indicates a population of 140,000,000. 700,000 enumerators were engaged in this operation. Norway The two first male censuses was conducted during the 1660s and 1701. Later statistical censuses were held in 1769, 1815, 1835, 1845, and 1855. Norway’s first nominative, complete census was taken in 1801, when Norway still was ruled by the Oldenburg dynasty of Denmark-Norway. The scope of the census followed the de jure principle, so military persons should be included as well as foreigners if they were residents. The 1865, 1875 and 1900 censuses are digitized, and are made searchable on the internet. The census records are made public available when 100 years have passed. Since 1900, a census has been conducted every ten years. (However, the 1940 census was postponed to 1946.) Since 2001 the population census has been combined with the housing statistics. Oman Censuses have been taken in the Sultanate of Oman in 1993 and 2003. Pakistan The first Pakistan Census after the proclamation of independence of Pakistan was conducted in 1951. It was decreed that censuses have to be carried out once in 10 years. The second census was conducted in 1961. However the third one was conducted in 1972 because of war with India. The fourth census was held in 1981.The fifth census was conducted delayed in March 1998. The sixth census of Pakistan is planned in October 2008. Pakistan Census process to begin in October, 2008. Peru The first census in Peru was carried out in 1836. The eleventh and latest one was the 2007 Census and was carried out by Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática in August 2007. Philippines The census of the Philippines is enumerated every 5 years (beginning on 1960, except in 2005 where it was moved to 2007 due to budgetary constraints) and the results are used to allocate Congressional seats (congressional apportionment) and government program funding. The census is performed by the National Statistics Office. The first official census in the Philippines was carried out by the Spanish government pursuant to a royal decree calling for the counting of persons living as of the midnight of December 31, 1877. The first door-to-door census was conducted in 1903 to fulfill Public Act 467 which was approved by the U.S. Congress in July 1902. The last national census was held in 2007 and the next census is scheduled for 2010. For years between the censuses, the NSO issues estimates made using surveys and statistical models. Poland The census in Poland is carried out by GUS every circa 10 years. The last one occurred in 2002 between May 21 and June 8. During the national census in 2002 the following censuses were conducted at the same time: National Population and Housing Census and National Agricultural Census. Portugal The first census in Portugal was carried out in 1864. The census in Portugal is carried out by Instituto Nacional de Estatística (INE) every 10 years. The last one occurred in 2001. Romania The first census in Romania was carried out in 1859. It is now carried out every ten years by the Institutul Naţional de Statistică (INSSE). The last census was in 2002; the next one will be in 2011. The next census will take place in 2011. Russia/USSR In Russia, the first census of the tax-payers was made in 1722-23 by the order of Peter the Great (only men were counted), and was ordered to be repeated every 20 years. The only complete Russian Empire Census was carried out in 1897. All-Union Population Censuses were carried out in the USSR (which included RSFSR and the other republics) in 1920 (urban only), 1926, 1937, 1939, 1959, 1970, 1979, and 1989. The first post-Soviet Russian Census was carried out in 2002. The next census is tentatively planned for 2010. Currently, the census is the responsibility of the Federal State Statistics Service. Saudi Arabia Population censuses have been taken in Saudi Arabia in 1962/63 (incomplete), 1974 (complete but not reliable), 1992 and 2004. An agriculture census was taken in 1999. Serbia The census takes place every 10 years. The last census was in 2002 (although having been planned for 2001), the previous one was in 1991 and the next is planned for 2011. Slovenia The first census of modern Slovenia was carried in 1991, after independence had been declared. The Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia (Statistični urad Republike Slovenije) conducted the second census in 2002. Further censuses are planned for every 10 years. South Africa The first census of South Africa was taken in 1911. Several enumerations have occurred since then, South Africa - Population. with the most recent two being carried out by Statistics South Africa in 1996 and 2001. Spain The census in Spain is carried out by INE every 10 years. The first modern census was carried out in 1768 by Conde de Aranda, under the reign of Carlos III. The last four were in 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001. Sudan Population censuses have been carried out in Sudan in 1955/56, 1973 (national), 1983 (national) and 1993 (only north). A census was conduced in April 2008. Some areas were difficult to measure (e.g. Darfur). Sweden The first population census in Sweden was carried out in 1749. The last population and housing census was carried out in 1990. It is planned to conduct population and housing censuses based on registers in the future. Switzerland In Switzerland, the Federal Population Census (, , ) has been carried out every 10 years starting in 1850. The census was initiated by Federal Councillor Stefano Franscini, who evaluated the data of the first census all by himself after Parliament failed to provide the necessary funds. History of the Federal Population Census, Swiss Federal Statistical Office, accessed October 2007. The census is now being conducted by the Swiss Federal Statistical Office, which makes most results available on its website. Data being collected include population data (citizenship, place of residence, place of birth, position in household, number of children, religion, languages, education, profession, place of work, etc.), household data (number of individuals living in the household, etc.), accommodation data (surface area, amount of rent paid, etc.) and building data (geocoordinates, time of construction, number of floors, etc.). Participation is compulsory and reached 99.87% of the population in 2000. Overview of the Federal Population Census, Swiss Federal Statistical Office, accessed October 2007. Starting in 2010, the census will cease to be conducted through written questionnaires distributed nationwide. Instead, data in existing population registers will be used. That data will be supplemented with a biannual questionnaire sample of 200,000 people as well as regular microcensuses. Syria The first population census in Syria was taken by the French Mandatory Regime in 1921-22. This is however not considered reliable. Censuses during independence have been taken 1947, 1960 (the first comprehensive demographic investigation), 1970, 1976 (a sample census), 1981, 1994 and 2004. Taiwan The first census in Taiwan was conducted in 1905, while Taiwan was under Japanese rule. The Modernization of Taiwan. Turkey The Turkish census is run by the Turkish Statistical Institute. The first census in Turkey was conducted in 1927. After 1935, it took place every 5 years until 1990. Now, the census takes place every 10 years. The last census was in 2000. It can be noted that the census enumeration takes place on one single day in Turkey (in other countries it takes 1–2 weeks). This required some 900,000 enumerators in 2000. The 15th census based on improved geographical information systems is planned for 2010. A census was taken in the Ottoman Empire 1831-38 by Sultan Mahmud II (1808-1839) as a part of the reform movement Tanzimat. Christian and Jewish men were counted but the female population was excluded. Uganda The first censuses in Uganda were taken 1911, 1921 and 1931. It was done in a rather primitive way. Enumeration unit was 'huts' and not individuals. More scientific censuses were taken 1948 and 1959 where the enumeration unit was persons. The census was however divided into two separate enumerations, one for Africans, and one for the non-African population. The censuses during independence 1969, 1980, 1991 were taken jointly for all races. The censuses 1980 and 1991 included housing information and in addition a larger questionnaire for a sample of the population. However, the questionnaires for the 1980 were lost and only provisional figures are available from this census. The census in 2002 involved some 50,000 enumerators and supervisors. It covered several topics including: population and housing; agriculture; and Micro- and small Enterprises administered at individual/household level. The Preliminary Results were published two weeks after the enumeration. The Final Results were released in March 2005, while the analytical findings and the district level results were scheduled to be released in the second quarter of 2006. "Country submission for Uganda: The 2010 World Programme on Population and Housing Censuses", Africa Symposium on the 2010 Round of Population and Housing Censuses (Cape Town, South Africa, 30 January - 2 February 2006 (accessed 3 April 2009). Ukraine The first post-Soviet Ukrainian Census was carried out by State Statistics Committee of Ukraine in 2001, twelve years after the last All-Union census in 1989. United Kingdom History of censuses in the UK In the 7th century, Dál Riata (now western Scotland and northern County Antrim in Northern Ireland) was the first territory in what is now the UK to conduct a census, with what was called the "Tradition of the Men of Alba" (Senchus fer n-Alban). The Domesday Book of 1086 in England contained listings of households but its coverage was not complete and its intent was not the same as modern censuses. Following the influence of Malthus and concerns stemming from his An Essay On The Principle Of Population the UK census as we know it today started in 1801. This was championed by John Rickman who managed the first four up to 1831, partly to ascertain the number of men able to fight in the Napoleonic wars. Rickman's 12 reasons - set out in 1798 and repeated in Parliamentary debates - for conducting a UK census included the following justifications: "the intimate knowledge of any country must form the rational basis of legislation and diplomacy" "an industrious population is the basic power and resource of any nation, and therefore its size needs to be known" "the number of men who were required for conscription to the militia in different areas should reflect the area"s population' "there were defence reasons for wanting to know the number of seamen" "the need to plan the production of corn and thus to know the number of people who had to be fed" "a census would indicate the Government"s intention to promote the public good' and "the life insurance industry would be stimulated by the results." The census has been conducted every ten years since 1801 and most recently in 2001. The first four censuses (1801-1831) were mainly headcounts and contained little personal information. The 1841 Census, conducted by the General Register Office, was the first to record the names of everyone in a household or institution. However, their relationship to the head of the household was not noted, although sometimes this can be inferred from the occupation shown (e.g. servant). Those under the age of 15 had their proper ages listed, but for those who were older the ages were supposed to be rounded down to the nearest five years, although this rule was not strictly adhered to. Precise birthplaces were not given - at best the birthplace can be narrowed down to the county in which the person was living. From 1851 onwards the census shows the exact age and relationship to the head of household for each individual; the place of birth was also listed, but with varying degrees of precision. Sometimes those who were born abroad have the annotation B.S. or British Subject. The censuses are reasonably accurate. However, ages in particular are frequently shown incorrectly, though often the difference is only one year; in general the younger the individual the more accurate the age shown. Birthplaces often vary from one census to the next: a common error is to show the place where the census was taken as the birthplace, but most of the variations in birthplace can be accounted for by changes in geographical scale (for example, the nearest town being shown instead of the precise village, or a city being shown instead of the relevant suburb). The censuses are also remarkably complete - though inevitably a small percentage of the population was not recorded for one reason or another, and in some cases the records are missing or damaged (notably in 1861). Furthermore, all censuses of Ireland before 1901 have been lost or destroyed. Because of World War II, there was no census in 1941. However, following the passage into law (on 5 September 1939) of the National Registration Act a population count was carried out on 29 September 1939, which was, in effect, a census. Censuses in the modern day The census of England & Wales is undertaken for the government by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) for policy and planning purposes, and statistical information is made available in published reports and on the ONS's website. The General Register Office for Scotland (GROS) conducts its own census, while the census in Northern Ireland is carried out by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA). Public access to the census returns is restricted under the terms of the 100-year rule; the most recent returns made available to researchers are those of the 1911 Census for England and Wales. The Scottish 1911 census will be available in 2011. The 2001 census was the first year in which the government asked about religion. Perhaps encouraged by a hoax chain letter that started in New Zealand, 390,000 people entered their religion as Jedi (more than Sikhs, Buddhists or Jews), with some areas registering up to 2.6% of people as "Jedi". It was wrongly implied in emails that stating "Jedi" on the form would cause it to become an "official religion". However, the director of reporting and analysis at the ONS stated that it may have helped with the collection process as it encouraged young people, who are often missed, to complete forms. (See Jedi census phenomenon.) All of the British censuses from 1841-1911 have been transcribed and indexed and are available online, although GROS will not be releasing the Scottish 1911 returns until 2011; there is a joint project between the National Archives of Ireland and Library and Archives Canada to digitize the 1901 and 1911 censuses for the whole of Ireland, and it is possible this will be completed by the end of 2007. The next UK census is planned for 2011. National Statistics Website. United States The United States Constitution mandates that a census be taken at least once every ten years, and that the number of members of the United States House of Representatives from each state be apportioned accordingly. Census statistics are also used for apportioning federal funding for many social and economic programs. The first U.S. Census was conducted in 1790 by Federal marshals. Census takers went door to door and recorded the name of the head of the household and the number of people in each household. Slaves were enumerated, but only three out of five were counted for apportionment. American Indians, being neither taxed nor considered during apportionment, were not counted in the census. The first census counted 3.9 million people, less than half the population of New York City in 2000; the 2000 census counted over 281 million people. In 1902, Congress established the Census Bureau as a federal agency. In recent times, there have been two forms of questionnaire, long and short. The long form and its additional questions about matters such as daily commute times, housing unit factors, etc. has been replaced by the American Community Survey (ACS). Computer algorithms (based on complex sampling rules) determined which form was mailed to a given household, with one in six receiving the long form. This was supplemented by census workers going door to door to talk to those who failed to return the forms. In addition to a simple count of residents, the Census Bureau collects a variety of statistics, on topics ranging from ethnicity to the presence of indoor plumbing. While some critics claim that census questions are an invasion of privacy, the data collected by every question is either required to enforce some federal law (such as the Voting Rights Act) or to administer some federal program. The United States Congress gives approval to every question asked on the census. Despite a massive effort, the Census Bureau has never been able to count every individual, leading to controversy about whether to use statistical methods to supplement the numbers for some purposes, as well as arguments over how to improve the actual head count. The Supreme Court ruled that only an actual head count can be used to apportion Congressional seats; however, cities and minority representatives have complained that urban residents and minorities are undercounted. In several cases, the Census Bureau has recounted an area with disputed figures, provided the local government paid for the time and effort. The state of Utah protested the figures of the 2000 decennial census because it stood to gain a seat in the House of Representatives, but North Carolina gained it instead. Had the Census Bureau been mandated to count the numbers of Utahns living overseas, including many Mormon missionaries, Utah might have gained the seat. Justices Deal Utah a Setback In Its Bid to Gain a House Seat. To minimize the burden on individuals and to provide improved data, the Bureau has prepared several alternate methods for gathering economic, demographic, and social information, including the American Community Survey and record linking of depersonalized administrative records with other administrative records and Census Bureau surveys. By law (92 Stat. 915, Public Law 95-416, enacted on October 5, 1978), individual census records are sealed for 72 years. U.S. Census Bureau | History | Legislation 1974 - 1983. This figure has remained unchanged since before the 1978 law, reflecting an era when life expectancy was under 60 years, and thus attempts to protect individuals' privacy by prohibiting the release of personal information during individuals' lifetimes. The individual census data most recently released to the public was the 1930 census, released in 2002. Aggregate census data are released when available. Local In addition to the decennial federal census, local censuses have also been conducted, for example, in Massachusetts, which conducted a statewide census every five years until 1985. Additionally, each community in Massachusetts takes a municipal census each year. Some states conducted limited censuses for various purposes, and these are typically located in state archives. See also Liber Censuum Notes References Bielenstein, Hans. "Wang Mang, the restoration of the Han dynasty, and Later Han." In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 1, eds. Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, 223-90 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978). Effects of UK 'Jedi' hoax on 2001 UK census from ONS. Kruger, Stephen, "The Decennial Census", 19 Western State Law Review 1 (1981). U.S. Census Press Release on 1930 Census. U.S. Census Press Release on Soundex and WPA. External links Census of Ireland 1911. Census at the U.S. National Archives. Census Dates for Countries of the World: 1945 to 2014 US Census Bureau. CensusScope Easy-to-navigate data, charts, maps, and graphs of U.S. Census Data. Links to the official websites of various national censuses. Online Historical Population Reports Project (OHPR). United States Decennial Censuses Research Guide from the Mississippi State University Libraries. 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3,890 | Cemetery_H_culture | The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BCE, in and around western Punjab region located in present-day Pakistan. It was named after a cemetery found in "area H" at Harappa. The Cemetery H culture is part of the Punjab Phase, one of three cultural phases that developed in the Localization Era of the Indus Valley Tradition. ; It is considered to be part of the Late Harrappan phase. The distinguishing features of this culture include: The use of cremation of human remains. The bones were stored in painted pottery burial urns. This is completely different from the Indus civilization where bodies were buried in wooden coffins. The urn burials and the "grave skeletons" were nearly contemporaneous. Reddish pottery, painted in black with antelopes, peacocks etc., sun or star motifs, with different surface treatments to the earlier period. Expansion of settlements into the east. Rice became a main crop. Apparent breakdown of the widespread trade of the Indus civilization, with materials such as marine shells no longer used. Continued use of mud brick for building. The Cemetery H culture also "shows clear biological affinities" with the earlier population of Harappa. ; The archaeologist Kenoyer noted that this culture "may only reflect a change in the focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of the earlier Harappan phase and not cultural discontinuity, urban decay, invading aliens, or site abandonment, all of which have been suggested in the past." Remains of the culture have been dated from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE. Together with the Gandhara grave culture and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, it is considered by some scholars a nucleus of Vedic civilization. See also Indus Valley Tradition Painted Grey Ware References http://www.harappa.com http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/3_1_01.html | Cemetery_H_culture |@lemmatized cemetery:4 h:4 culture:8 develop:2 northern:1 part:3 indus:6 valley:3 civilization:4 around:2 bce:3 western:1 punjab:2 region:1 locate:1 present:1 day:1 pakistan:1 name:1 find:1 area:1 harappa:3 phase:4 one:1 three:1 cultural:2 localization:1 era:1 tradition:2 consider:2 late:1 harrappan:1 distinguish:1 feature:1 include:1 use:3 cremation:1 human:1 remains:1 bone:1 store:1 painted:1 pottery:3 burial:2 urn:2 completely:1 different:2 body:1 bury:1 wooden:1 coffin:1 grave:2 skeleton:1 nearly:1 contemporaneous:1 reddish:1 paint:2 black:1 antelope:1 peacock:1 etc:1 sun:1 star:1 motif:1 surface:1 treatment:1 early:3 period:1 expansion:1 settlement:2 east:1 rice:1 become:1 main:1 crop:1 apparent:1 breakdown:1 widespread:1 trade:1 material:1 marine:1 shell:1 longer:1 continue:1 mud:1 brick:1 building:1 also:2 show:1 clear:1 biological:1 affinity:1 population:1 archaeologist:1 kenoyer:1 note:1 may:1 reflect:1 change:1 focus:1 organization:1 pattern:1 harappan:1 discontinuity:1 urban:1 decay:1 invade:1 alien:1 site:1 abandonment:1 suggest:1 past:1 remain:1 date:1 together:1 gandhara:1 ochre:1 colour:1 scholar:1 nucleus:1 vedic:1 see:1 grey:1 ware:1 reference:1 http:2 www:1 com:1 pubweb:1 cc:1 u:1 tokai:1 ac:1 jp:1 english:1 html:1 |@bigram indus_valley:3 mud_brick:1 http_www:1 |
3,891 | Motorola_68060 | A Motorola 68EC060 microprocessor The Motorola 68060 is a 32-bit microprocessor from Motorola released in 1994. It is the successor to the Motorola 68040 and is the highest performing member of the 680x0 family. Architecture It claimed to have three times the performance capability of the 68040 at the same clockrate. There is an LC (Low-Cost) version, without an MMU and EC - Embedded Controller, without MMU and FPU. The 68060 design was led by Joe Circello. The 68060 shares most architectural features with the original Pentium. Both have a very similar superscalar in-order dual instruction pipeline configuration, and an instruction decoder which breaks down complex instructions into simpler ones before execution. However, a significant difference is that the 68060 FPU is not pipelined and is therefore up to three times slower than the Pentium in floating point applications. In contrast to that, integer multiplications and bit shifting instructions are significantly faster on the 68060. An interesting feature of the 68060 is the ability to execute simple instructions in the address generation unit (AGU) and thereby supply the result two cycles before the ALU. Another point of interest is that large amounts of commercial compiled code were analyzed for clues as to which instructions would be the best candidates for performance optimization. Against the Pentium, the 68060 could perform better on mixed code, Pentium's decoder could not issue an FP instruction every opportunity and hence the FPU wasn't superscalar as the ALUs were. If the 68060's non-pipelined FPU could accept an instruction, it could be issued one by the decoder. This meant that optimizing for the 68060 was easier, no rules prevented FP instructions from being issued whenever was convenient for the programmer other than well understood instruction latencies. However, with properly optimized and scheduled code, the Pentium's FPU was capable of double the clock for clock throughput of the 68060's FPU. The 68060 was the last development of the 680x0 series for general purpose use, abandoned in favour of the PowerPC chips. It saw use in some late-model Amiga machines and Amiga accelerator cards as well as some Atari ST clones and a Falcon accelerator board (CT060), and very late models of the Alpha Microsystems multiuser computers before their migration to x86, but Apple Inc. and the Unix world had moved onto various RISC platforms. The 68060 was introduced at 50 MHz on Motorola's 0.6 µm manufacturing process. A few years later it was shrunk to 0.42 µm and bumped to 66 MHz and 75 MHz. Developments of the basic core continue, intended for embedded systems. Here they are combined with a number of peripheral interfaces to reduce the overall complexity and power requirements of a design. A number of chips, each with different sets of interfaces, are sold under the name ColdFire and DragonBall. For more information on the instruction set and architecture, see Motorola 68000. History The even numbers (68000, 68020, 68040, 68060) were reserved for major revisions to the 680x0 core architecture. The odd numbers (68010, 68030, 68050, 68070) were reserved for upgrades to the architecture of the previous chip. (No 68050 or 68070 was ever produced by Motorola. For example, the Motorola 68010 (and the obscure 68012) was a 68000 with improvements to the loop instruction and the ability to suspend then continue an instruction in the event of a page fault, enabling the use of virtual memory with the appropriate MMU hardware. There were, however, no major overhauls of the core architecture. Similarly, the Motorola 68030 was a process improvement on the 68020 with the MMU and a small data cache (256 bytes) moved on-chip. The 68030 was available in speed ratings up to 50MHz. The jump from the 68000/68010 to the 68020/68030, however, represented a major overhaul, with too many individual changes to list here. By the time the 68060 was in production, Motorola had abandoned development of the MC680x0-based chips in favour of PowerPC. Although the last Motorola version of the processor was the 68060, there was a 68070 processor. This device was produced by Signetics (Philips), and was a modestly improved 68000 series processor, with a simple, on-chip MMU and I²C bus support. It came out long before the 68060, and was used mostly as an embedded processor in some consumer electronics items. Usage Perhaps its most memorable use was in American broadcast television graphics. Chyron's Infinit!, Max!, and Maxine! series of television character generators used the 68060 as the main processor. These character generators were a fixture on many American television networks' affiliate stations. The 68060 was also used in Nortel Meridian 1 Option 51, 61 and 81 large office PBX systems, powering the CP3 and CP4 core processor boards. A pair of these boards each sporting a 68060 could be used to make the PBX fault tolerant. This was a logical application as previous Meridian 1 cores used other Motorola chips. Nortel has since changed the architecture to use Intel processors. Also Motorola Vanguard 6560 multiprotocol router used 50 MHz 68EC060 processor. Motorola MVME-17x and Force Computer SYS68K VMEbus systems also used 68060 CPU. Bibliography Notes and references External links A paper describing the 68060 architecture | Motorola_68060 |@lemmatized motorola:14 microprocessor:2 bit:2 release:1 successor:1 high:1 performing:1 member:1 family:1 architecture:7 claim:1 three:2 time:3 performance:2 capability:1 clockrate:1 lc:1 low:1 cost:1 version:2 without:2 mmu:5 ec:1 embed:1 controller:1 fpu:6 design:2 lead:1 joe:1 circello:1 share:1 architectural:1 feature:2 original:1 pentium:5 similar:1 superscalar:2 order:1 dual:1 instruction:13 pipeline:1 configuration:1 decoder:3 break:1 complex:1 simpler:1 one:2 execution:1 however:4 significant:1 difference:1 pipelined:2 therefore:1 slow:1 float:1 point:2 application:2 contrast:1 integer:1 multiplication:1 shifting:1 significantly:1 faster:1 interesting:1 ability:2 execute:1 simple:2 address:1 generation:1 unit:1 agu:1 thereby:1 supply:1 result:1 two:1 cycle:1 alu:1 another:1 interest:1 large:2 amount:1 commercial:1 compile:1 code:3 analyze:1 clue:1 would:1 best:1 candidate:1 optimization:1 could:5 perform:1 good:1 mixed:1 issue:3 fp:2 every:1 opportunity:1 hence:1 alus:1 non:1 accept:1 meant:1 optimize:2 easy:1 rule:1 prevent:1 whenever:1 convenient:1 programmer:1 well:2 understood:1 latency:1 properly:1 schedule:1 capable:1 double:1 clock:2 throughput:1 last:2 development:3 series:3 general:1 purpose:1 use:12 abandon:2 favour:2 powerpc:2 chip:7 saw:1 late:2 model:2 amiga:2 machine:1 accelerator:2 card:1 atari:1 st:1 clone:1 falcon:1 board:3 alpha:1 microsystems:1 multiuser:1 computer:2 migration:1 apple:1 inc:1 unix:1 world:1 move:2 onto:1 various:1 risc:1 platform:1 introduce:1 mhz:4 µm:2 manufacturing:1 process:2 year:1 later:1 shrink:1 bump:1 basic:1 core:5 continue:2 intend:1 embedded:2 system:3 combine:1 number:4 peripheral:1 interface:2 reduce:1 overall:1 complexity:1 power:2 requirement:1 different:1 set:2 sell:1 name:1 coldfire:1 dragonball:1 information:1 see:1 history:1 even:1 reserve:2 major:3 revision:1 odd:1 upgrade:1 previous:2 ever:1 produce:2 example:1 obscure:1 improvement:2 loop:1 suspend:1 event:1 page:1 fault:2 enable:1 virtual:1 memory:1 appropriate:1 hardware:1 overhaul:2 similarly:1 small:1 data:1 cache:1 byte:1 available:1 speed:1 rating:1 jump:1 represent:1 many:2 individual:1 change:2 list:1 production:1 base:1 although:1 processor:8 device:1 signetics:1 philip:1 modestly:1 improve:1 bus:1 support:1 come:1 long:1 mostly:1 consumer:1 electronics:1 item:1 usage:1 perhaps:1 memorable:1 american:2 broadcast:1 television:3 graphic:1 chyron:1 infinit:1 max:1 maxine:1 character:2 generator:2 main:1 fixture:1 network:1 affiliate:1 station:1 also:3 nortel:2 meridian:2 option:1 office:1 pbx:2 pair:1 sport:1 make:1 tolerant:1 logical:1 since:1 intel:1 vanguard:1 multiprotocol:1 router:1 mvme:1 force:1 vmebus:1 cpu:1 bibliography:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 paper:1 describe:1 |@bigram motorola_microprocessor:1 microprocessor_motorola:2 mhz_mhz:1 embedded_processor:1 consumer_electronics:1 fault_tolerant:1 external_link:1 |
3,892 | Mixmaster_Morris | Mixmaster Morris, real name, Morris Gould, (born in Brighton, England in 1965) is an ambient DJ and underground musician. History He was born in Brighton, grew up in Lincolnshire and went to school in Somerset. At 15 he founded a punk rock band, The Ripchords, with himself on guitar, Sean Dromgoole as lead singer, Mike Trei on drums and Jonathan Collins (aka Jonathan Jetlag) on bass guitar. The Ripchords' sole release, an eponymous EP with four tracks, was championed by John Peel and quickly sold out. After leaving university, he began working as a DJ in 1985 with his "Mongolian Hip Hop Show" on pirate radio in London, and eventually set aside an intended career as a computer programmer in favour of full-time life as a DJ and musician. After a year running the club The Gift in New Cross, Morris began releasing material as Irresistible Force in 1987, initially in collaboration with singer-songwriter Des de Moor. He became involved with the emerging UK acid house scene, playing at underground parties across the UK. A show with the band Psychic TV led to him becoming fulltime DJ with The Shamen, and touring with them Shamen (on their celebrated 'Synergy' Tours) for nearly two years. The first release as Irresistible Force was the single I Want To in 1988, but success came with the first album, Flying High, released in 1992 on Rising High Records. 1994 saw the second album Global Chillage with a holographic sleeve, which got a US release on Astralwerks. There followed a period of legal problems before the third album It's Tomorrow Already came out on Ninja Tunes. In 1990 he made one of the first chillout compilations, Give Peace a Dance 3: The Ambient Collection for the group Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), followed by the series Chillout or Die for Rising High Records. A mix tape for Mixmag shared with Alex Patterson was also released as a CD. The Morning After became his first major-label mix album, followed by Abstract Funk Theory for Obsessive. In 2003 he released another mix CD God Bless the Chilled for the Return to the Source label. He has produced many remixes since 1985, the most celebrated being Coldcut's "Autumn Leaves" which regularly tops polls of chillout classics. This remix was nominated by Norman Cook as his favorite chillout track of all time on BBC TV. Link at Epitonic for a free download of that song. His mix for INXS was a Top 20 hit in the UK as well. Other early remixes were of Lloyd Cole, Dave Howard Singers, Bang Bang Machine, Irish band Stump, Higher Intelligence Agency, Sven Vath, Rising High Collective etc. In the early 1990s he played a lot of pure ambient music as well as emerging styles of ambient electronica (see the ambient music article) and 60's electronic music . His key residencies at this time were alongside the Detroit masters at Lost, Megatripolis the original festival-in-a-club at London's Heaven, also the large Tribal Gathering parties. He became known for wearing holographic suits, produced by the company Spacetime, which he even modelled for Vogue magazine; as well as for his long eclectic sets of up to 12 hours. Throughout the 1990s he wrote extensively about electronic music for New Musical Express, Mixmag, and i-D. He was resident on Kiss FM for several years, and then a regular on Solid Steel, the Ninja Tune syndicated radio show. He made his movie debut in the cult film Modulations (Caipirinha Films), and his music can be heard in a number of other films including Groove and Hey Happy. Morris has played in over 50 countries at myriad clubs and parties, particularly outdoor festivals like the Full Moon parties in the Mojave Desert, Glastonbury Festival, Rainbow 2000 and Mother SOS in Japan, Chillits in Northern California, and Berlin's Love Parade. He also ran the successful downtempo night Nubient in Brixton, which continues 10 years later at the Big Chill Bar. In 1995 he played at the first The Big Chill which has grown into the UK's largest chill-out event, and has appeared at every one since except 2001. He collaborated with the German musician Pete Namlook under the name Dreamfish, recording two albums which sold surprisingly well. Also with SF-based musician Jonah Sharp and Haruomi Hosono of Yellow Magic Orchestra he made the album Quiet Logic for the Japanese label Daisyworld. In 1998 he joined the UK's Ninja Tune record label and multimedia collective, with whom he tours as a DJ and releases new material. 1999 saw him win 'Best Chillout DJ' at the Ibiza DJ Awards at Pacha, and play at Ibiza's famous chillout bars like Café del Mar, Cafe Mambo. Kumharas, Las Dalias. Morris also became friends with Ibiza chillout stalwarts like Rob da Bank, Chris Coco, Pathaan, Lenny Ibizarre, José Padilla. In 2001 he won the title for a second time, becoming the first DJ to achieve this (2008 saw him nominated for a third award). Two singles for Ninja Tune won him more friends and admirers. Morris has appeared in many lists of the worlds top DJ's including the Ministry of Sound book The Annual and 2003's DJs by Lopez, and URB Magazine'''s Top 100 DJ list. His most recent remixes have been the band 6th Sense and singer Anne Garner, and he also did some music for a new series of the BBC's Doctor Who. His club Nubient is still running at the Big Chill Bar in Brick Lane, and he records regular radio shows for Japanese internet radio station Samurai FM. In 2006 he started a new club Loft In Space at the Big Chill House in King's Cross, London, and did a guest mix for BBC Radio 1's The Blue Room show. In March 2007 together with Coldcut he organised a tribute show to writer and philosopher Robert Anton Wilson which they performed at the Queen Elizabeth Hall to a full house. He also played in Goa for the first time with The Big Chill, and started a new residency every Sunday at The Prince in Brixton. The compilation Nubient Nuggets vol 1 will be released in 2008 by TheAgriculture. May 2008 saw him again doing an ambient mix on Radio 1, being interviewed for Vibes The Movie, and putting a live Irresistible Force band together to play at The Big Chill. 2009 he compiled a podcast for Tate Britain to accompany their Altermodern exhibition, and opened a new video club called MMMTV. The mix CD Calm Down My Selector was released on January 15 by Wakyo records, and he made an extensive tour of Japan to promote it. Appearances in media The track "Power" from It's Tomorrow Already'' was used as bumper music during the 2009 Australian Open tennis tournament. External links Irresistible Force Myspace Page Mixmaster Morris RBMA video lecture session The Big Chill website MMM @ Samurai FM Ninja Tune record label References | Mixmaster_Morris |@lemmatized mixmaster:2 morris:7 real:1 name:2 gould:1 bear:2 brighton:2 england:1 ambient:6 dj:11 underground:2 musician:4 history:1 grow:2 lincolnshire:1 go:1 school:1 somerset:1 found:1 punk:1 rock:1 band:5 ripchords:2 guitar:2 sean:1 dromgoole:1 lead:2 singer:4 mike:1 trei:1 drum:1 jonathan:2 collins:1 aka:1 jetlag:1 bass:1 sole:1 release:10 eponymous:1 ep:1 four:1 track:3 champion:1 john:1 peel:1 quickly:1 sell:2 leave:2 university:1 begin:2 work:1 mongolian:1 hip:1 hop:1 show:6 pirate:1 radio:6 london:3 eventually:1 set:2 aside:1 intended:1 career:1 computer:1 programmer:1 favour:1 full:3 time:5 life:1 year:4 run:3 club:6 gift:1 new:7 cross:2 material:2 irresistible:4 force:4 initially:1 collaboration:1 songwriter:1 de:2 moor:1 become:6 involve:1 emerge:2 uk:5 acid:1 house:3 scene:1 play:7 party:4 across:1 psychic:1 tv:2 fulltime:1 shaman:2 tour:4 celebrate:1 synergy:1 nearly:1 two:3 first:7 single:2 want:1 success:1 come:2 album:6 fly:1 high:5 rise:3 record:7 saw:4 second:2 global:1 chillage:1 holographic:2 sleeve:1 get:1 u:1 astralwerks:1 follow:3 period:1 legal:1 problem:1 third:2 tomorrow:2 already:2 ninja:5 tune:5 make:4 one:2 chillout:7 compilation:2 give:1 peace:1 dance:1 collection:1 group:1 campaign:1 nuclear:1 disarmament:1 cnd:1 series:2 die:1 mix:7 tape:1 mixmag:2 share:1 alex:1 patterson:1 also:7 cd:3 morning:1 major:1 label:5 abstract:1 funk:1 theory:1 obsessive:1 another:1 god:1 bless:1 chill:9 return:1 source:1 produce:2 many:2 remixes:3 since:2 celebrated:1 coldcut:2 autumn:1 regularly:1 top:4 poll:1 classic:1 remix:1 nominate:2 norman:1 cook:1 favorite:1 bbc:3 link:2 epitonic:1 free:1 download:1 song:1 inxs:1 hit:1 well:4 early:2 lloyd:1 cole:1 dave:1 howard:1 bang:2 machine:1 irish:1 stump:1 intelligence:1 agency:1 sven:1 vath:1 collective:2 etc:1 lot:1 pure:1 music:7 style:1 electronica:1 see:1 article:1 electronic:2 key:1 residency:2 alongside:1 detroit:1 master:1 lose:1 megatripolis:1 original:1 festival:3 heaven:1 large:2 tribal:1 gathering:1 know:1 wear:1 suit:1 company:1 spacetime:1 even:1 model:1 vogue:1 magazine:2 long:1 eclectic:1 hour:1 throughout:1 write:1 extensively:1 musical:1 express:1 resident:1 kiss:1 fm:3 several:1 regular:2 solid:1 steel:1 syndicate:1 movie:2 debut:1 cult:1 film:3 modulation:1 caipirinha:1 hear:1 number:1 include:2 groove:1 hey:1 happy:1 country:1 myriad:1 particularly:1 outdoor:1 like:3 moon:1 mojave:1 desert:1 glastonbury:1 rainbow:1 mother:1 sos:1 japan:2 chillits:1 northern:1 california:1 berlin:1 love:1 parade:1 successful:1 downtempo:1 night:1 nubient:3 brixton:2 continue:1 later:1 big:7 bar:3 event:1 appear:2 every:2 except:1 collaborate:1 german:1 pete:1 namlook:1 dreamfish:1 surprisingly:1 sf:1 base:1 jonah:1 sharp:1 haruomi:1 hosono:1 yellow:1 magic:1 orchestra:1 quiet:1 logic:1 japanese:2 daisyworld:1 join:1 multimedia:1 win:3 best:1 ibiza:3 award:2 pacha:1 famous:1 café:1 del:1 mar:1 cafe:1 mambo:1 kumharas:1 la:1 dalias:1 friend:2 stalwart:1 rob:1 da:1 bank:1 chris:1 coco:1 pathaan:1 lenny:1 ibizarre:1 josé:1 padilla:1 title:1 achieve:1 admirer:1 list:2 world:1 ministry:1 sound:1 book:1 annual:1 lopez:1 urb:1 recent:1 sense:1 anne:1 garner:1 doctor:1 still:1 brick:1 lane:1 internet:1 station:1 samurai:2 start:2 loft:1 space:1 king:1 guest:1 blue:1 room:1 march:1 together:2 organise:1 tribute:1 writer:1 philosopher:1 robert:1 anton:1 wilson:1 perform:1 queen:1 elizabeth:1 hall:1 goa:1 sunday:1 prince:1 nugget:1 vol:1 theagriculture:1 may:1 interview:1 vibe:1 put:1 live:1 compile:1 podcast:1 tate:1 britain:1 accompany:1 altermodern:1 exhibition:1 open:2 video:2 call:1 mmmtv:1 calm:1 selector:1 january:1 wakyo:1 extensive:1 promote:1 appearance:1 medium:1 power:1 use:1 bumper:1 australian:1 tennis:1 tournament:1 external:1 myspace:1 page:1 rbma:1 lecture:1 session:1 website:1 mmm:1 reference:1 |@bigram punk_rock:1 bass_guitar:1 hip_hop:1 singer_songwriter:1 ninja_tune:5 nuclear_disarmament:1 bang_bang:1 mojave_desert:1 glastonbury_festival:1 anton_wilson:1 queen_elizabeth:1 external_link:1 myspace_page:1 |
3,893 | Classical_guitar | The classical guitar, is a plucked string instrument from the family of instruments called chordophones. It traditionally has 3 plain gut bass strings and 3 gut wound silk core treble strings and the modern adaption typically has 6 nylon strings (the 3 bass-strings additionally being wound with a thin metal thread). The basic characteristics of the shape of the modern classical guitar were established by the nineteenth century Spanish luthier Antonio Torres Jurado. Hence the modern classical guitar is sometimes called "Spanish guitar" — due to its origins. The classical guitar has a long history and one is able to distinguish various: instruments repertoire (composers and their compositions, arrangements, improvisations) Both instrument and repertoire can be viewed from a combination of various contexts: historical (chronological period of time) baroque guitar — 17th to mid 18th century early romantic guitars — 19th century (for music from the Classical and Romantic periods) modern classical guitars geographical e.g. in the 19th century: Spanish guitars (Torres), and French guitars (René Lacôte, ...), etc. cultural/stylistic and social aspects e.g. baroque court music, 19th century opera and its influences, 19th century folk songs, Latin American music, etc. Brief examples using the above classifications (historical, cultural/stylistic, social etc.), to show the colourful diversity of the classical guitar: Robert de Visée (ca. 1650 – 1725) with French Court music for baroque guitar and lute. He was the guitar player (maître de guitare du Roy) of Louis XIV of France at the court of Versailles. His works are influenced by hearing Jean-Baptiste de Lully (1632 – 1687) who was also engaged at the court of Louis XIV. Mauro Giuliani (1781 – 1829) with Italian/Viennese classical music for the 19th century so-called early romantic guitar. He was chamber-virtuoso of Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria . Some of his works include strong influences from his visits to 19th century opera performances. Agustín Barrios (1885 – 1944) from Paraguay, towards the end of his life using a modern classical guitar (his last instrument was a gift from Queen Eugenia of Spain in 1935 ). His music is romantic in style, with some works showing strong folkloric Paraguayan influences, shaped from his cultural background. Sergei Orekhov (Сергей Орехов) (1935 – 1998) with music for Russian 7-string guitar. In his compositions and arrangements he pulls inspiration from his intimate knowledge of traditional Russian folk music and folk songs. Interpretation of works of a specific composer in a specific style, requires an understanding of the historical cultural/stylistic and social aspects/influences, considering music an expressive art. This is often called the study of performance practice, with attempts at historically informed performance (sometimes abbreviated HIP). Note that some common (20th/21st century) studies and generally-accepted opinions of historical musical authenticity, with an unbalanced over-emphasis on written music-notes (as if "demanding strict rhythmic conformance with carefully notated written notes" leads to the composer's intentions and authenticity, so to speak) have been criticized, most notably by Richard Taruskin in his work Text and Act and numerous others . The classical guitar as instrument is characterized by: its shape, construction and material — modern classical guitar shape, or historic classical guitar shapes (e.g. early romantic guitars from France/Italy). A guitar family tree can be identified. . The flamenco guitar is derived from the modern classical, but has differences in material, construction and sound. . its strings — today primarily nylon; the bass-strings additionally being wound with a thin metal thread (traditionally they were made of gut - gut strings are still available today ) the instrumental technique — the individual strings are usually plucked with the fingers or the fingernails — plectra are rarely used its historic repertoire, though this is of lesser importance, since any repertoire can be and is played on the guitar. The name classical guitar does not mean that only classical repertoire is performed on it, although classical music is a part of the instrument's core repertoire (due to the guitar's long history); instead all kinds of music (folk, alternative, jazz, flamenco, etc.) can be and are performed on it. The term modern classical guitar is sometimes used to distinguish the classical guitar from older forms of guitar that are also sometimes called classical. Many luthiers today also build these older forms of "classical" guitars (e.g. replicas of romantic guitars, etc). Background information The evolution of the classical guitar and its repertoire spans more than four centuries. It has a history that was shaped by contributions from earlier instruments, such as the Renaissance guitar, vihuela, and the baroque guitar. The popularity of the classical guitar has been sustained over the years by many great players, arrangers, and composers. A very short list might include, Gaspar Sanz (1640-1710), Fernando Sor (1778-1839), Mauro Giuliani (1781-1829), Francisco Tárrega (1852-1909), Agustín Barrios Mangoré (1888-1944), Andrés Segovia (1893-1987), Alirio Diaz (1923), Presti-Lagoya Duo (active from 1955-1967: Ida Presti, Alexandre Lagoya), Julian Bream (1933), and John Williams (1941). Performance The right and left hand descriptions in this section are typical for right-handed guitarists. Plucking of the string Right-handed players usually use the fingers of the right hand to pluck the strings (with the thumb plucking from the top of a string downward, and the other fingers plucking from the bottom of string upward). The little finger is seldom used because of its small size. (Some guitarists such as Štěpán Rak compensate this with an extremely long fingernail on the little finger.) Changing a string's active vibrating length (frets) The fingers of the other hand are usually used to change the vibrating length of a string: the finger pushes the string towards a fret to achieve this. The shorter the string, the higher its pitch. Direct contact with strings As with other plucked instruments (such as the lute), the musician directly touches the strings (usually plucking) to produce the sound. This has important consequences: Different tone/timbre (of a single note) can be produced by plucking the string in different manners and in different positions. Tone production/variation and freedom of performance Guitarists have a lot of freedom within the mechanics of playing the instrument. Often these decisions influence the tone/timbre - factors include: Right Hand: At what position along the string the finger plucks the string (This is actively changed by guitarists since it is an effective way of changing the sound(timbre) from "soft"(dolce) plucking the string near its middle, to "hard"(ponticelo) plucking the string near its end) Use of nail or not: today almost all concert guitarists use their fingernails (which have to be smoothly and roundly filed) to pluck the string since it produces a sharper clearer sound, and also a better controlled loud sound is possible. When using the nail (of index, middle, ring or little finger) to pluck the string, the hand is usually held so that the left side of the nail makes the first contact with the string: this is not achieved by "rolling" the hand to the left, but rather by holding the hand in such a way that the outstretched fingers are angled slightly to the left relative to the strings (as opposed to perpendicular). Before plucking, usually both the left side of the nail and the fingertip touch the string; this enables the finger (and hand) to rest on the string in a balanced way. When the plucking motion is made, only the nail-contact remains: The curvature of the nail (starting from its left side) allows the string to be pulled back while the string slides towards the tip of the nail where it is released. This occurs so quickly that the gliding of the string over the fingernail is not perceived, but a smoothly filed nail is necessary.The "use of nail or not" is usually a fixed consistent decision of the player and not varied; the thumb is an exception and might actively be varied between using nail [sharper clearer sound] and using flesh. Which finger to use (the thumb may be able to produce a different tone than the other fingers) At what angle the wrist and fingers are held with respect to the strings (angle of attack), for plucking. This is varied by guitarists (however only minimally) and effects the produced tone. Modern guitarists (often use a fair amount of nail and thus) seldom hold their hand (such that the outstretched fingers are) at right angles to the strings (this produces excessive clicking noises), but use a more natural angled hand position (with variations), which produces a better tone. Often a tradeoff is involved: Some rich sounds that are achieved by having the finger rather parallel (if it were outstretched) to the string do not easily allow fast plucking. Rest-stroke (apoyando; having the finger that plucks a string come to a rest on the next string - traditionally used in single melody lines) versus free-stroke (tirando; plucking the string without coming to a rest on the next string): Usually influenced by the nails. Some guitarists with rather long nails avoid the rest-stroke altogether; others avoid it when they feel they have more control over the free-stroke. When two neighboring strings are to be plucked simultaneously, the rest-stroke cannot be used. Left Hand: Use of hammer-on and pull-off (Legato, slurs): This is where only the left hand is used in producing the sound - during hammer-on, the finger hits the already vibrating string down towards a fret, thus shortening the vibrating string and increasing the pitch. During pull-off, a finger that holds the string lengthened to a particular fret, is pulled off, resulting in a lengthening of the string either to its open length or to another finger-fret position, thus decreasing the pitch. Since the string is usually already vibrating prior to applying the hammer-on or pull-off, the change of pitch is very smooth: it is hence used for articulation purposes and fast note progressions (since only a single hand is involved). The technique is often used in trills, where e.g. the first finger remains pivoted at a lower fret and the 2nd finger might hammer-on and pull-off repeatedly resulting in the trill. Vibrato: Whilst a finger of the left-hand is pressing the string towards a fret, it can rapidly move the string slightly to and fro (along the string), resulting in a slight but fast-changing increase and decrease in the string's tension and thus a proportional change in pitch - giving the impression of a fuller tone. Both Hands/Other: One and the same note (in terms of pitch), can be played on many different strings (depending on the appropriate fret being used). Since the different strings have distinctive tones, the guitarist may choose to play on certain strings for particular tonal effects: The difference is greatest between the 3rd string (G - pure nylon) and the 4th string (D - nylon wound with thin metal). However at the same time this is also a great difficulty when a melody line (which should have a uniform sound) is played across the strings; since the guitarist has to adjust so as to emphasize tonal similarity, rather than difference. Another example for the use of strings is tone production is the cross-string trill, where the different pitches of the trill are plucked on neighboring strings : this can be used to create a rather dissonant trill (but with the benefit of better volume), since both strings may be allowed to sound simultaneously if the guitarist so chooses. Harmonics: The strings can be brought into different modes of vibration, where its overtones can be heard. This is achieved by laying a left-hand finger lightly at a position of an integer division of the string's length (1/2, 1/3, 2/3, etc.) and plucking the string with the other hand (followed by removing the left-hand finger). This causes separate string-parts to vibrate separately, with a "standing, motionless" point where the left-hand finger originally touched the string. Since it is the hands and fingers that pluck the string and every person has different fingers, there are great differences in playing between guitarists; who often spend a lot of time finding their own way of playing that suits them best in terms of specific objectives: tone-production ("beauty"/quality of tone), minimum noise (e.g. clicking), large dynamic range (from soft to controlled loud), minimum (muscle) effort, fast "motion-recovery" (fast plucking when desired), healthy movement in fingers, wrist, hand and arm There is not one definite way of reaching these goals (there is not a single definite optimal guitar technique): rather there are different ways of reaching these goals, due to differences in the hands and fingers (including nails) of guitarists. When guitarists are performing music (while playing), they continually search (by actively moving/changing their hands, fingers) for a good sound in terms of tone/timbre, to enhance the musical interpretation. John Williams has remarked that since guitarists find it superficially very easy to play even things such as melody with accompaniment (e.g. Giuliani), [some guitarists'] "approach to tone production is also superficial, with little or no consideration given to voice matching and tonal contrasts". See also Classical guitar technique. History The history of the classical guitar and its repertoire span over four centuries. Included in its ancestry is the baroque guitar. Throughout the centuries, the classical guitar has evolved principally from three sources: the lute, the vihuela, and the Renaissance five-string guitar. Origins Instruments similar to what we know as the guitar have been popular for at least 5,000 years. The ancestry of the modern guitar appears to trace back through many instruments and thousands of years to ancient central Asia. Guitar like instruments appear in ancient carvings and statues recovered from the old Iranian capital of Susa. This means that the contemporary Iranian instruments such as the tanbur and setar are distantly related to the European guitar, as they all derive ultimately from the same ancient origins, but by very different historical routes and influences. Overview of the classical guitar's history During the Middle Ages, guitars with three, four, and five strings were already in use. The Guitarra Latina had curved sides and is thought to have come to Spain from elsewhere in Europe. The so-called Guitarra Morisca, brought to Spain by the Moors, had an oval soundbox and many sound holes on its soundboard. By the 15th century, a four course double-string guitar called the vihuela de mano, half way between the lute and the guitar, appeared and became popular in Spain and spread to Italy; and by the sixteenth century, a fifth double-string had been added. During this time, composers wrote mostly in tablature notation. In the 17th century, influences from the vihuela and the renaissance five string guitar were combined in the baroque guitar. The baroque guitar quickly superseded the vihuela in popularity and Italy became the center of the guitar world. Leadership in guitar developments switched to Spain from the late 18th century, when the six string guitar quickly became popular at the expense of the five string guitars. During the 19th century, improved communication and transportation enabled performers to travel widely and the guitar gained greater popularity outside its old strongholds in Iberia, Italy and Latin America. During the 19th century the Spaniard, Antonio de Torres, gave the modern classical guitar its definitive form, with a broadened body, increased waist curve, thinned belly, improved internal bracing, single string courses replacing double courses, and a machined head replacing wooden tuning pegs. The modern classical guitar replaced older form for the accompaniment of song and dance called flamenco, and a modified version, known as the flamenco guitar, was created. Renaissance The Renaissance guitar The gittern, English for Renaissance guitar, is a musical instrument resembling a small lute or guitar. It is related to but is not a citole, another medieval instrument. The gittern was carved from a single piece of wood with a curved ("sickle-shaped") pegbox. An example has survived from around 1450. The Vihuela The written history of the classical guitar can be traced back to the early sixteenth century with the development of the vihuela in Spain. While the lute was then becoming popular in other parts of Europe, the Spaniards did not take to it well because of its association with the Moors . They turned instead to the four string guitarra, adding two more strings to give it more range and complexity. In its most developed form, the vihuela was a guitar-like instrument with six double strings made of gut, tuned like a modern classical guitar with the exception of the third string, which was tuned half a step lower. It has a high sound and is rather large to hold. There are few still around. Baroque guitar A guitar from the Baroque era. The Guitar Player (c. 1672), by Johannes Vermeer, guitar Voboam "Early romantic guitar" or "Guitar during the Classical music era" The earliest extant six string guitar was built in 1779 by Gaetano Vinaccia (1759 - after 1831) The Classical Mandolin by Paul Sparks (1995) Early Romantic Guitar in Naples, Italy. The Vinaccia family of luthiers is known for developing the mandolin. This guitar has been examined and does not show tell-tale signs of modifications from a double-course guitar. Stalking the Oldest Six String Guitar The authenticity of guitars allegedly produced before the 1790s is often in question. This also corresponds to when Moretti's 6-string method appeared, in 1792. Contemporary classical guitar Contemporary concert guitars occasionally follow the Smallman design which replaces the fan braces with a much lighter balsa brace attached to the back of the sound board with carbon fiber. The balsa brace has a honeycomb pattern and allows the (now much thinner) sound board to support more vibrational modes. This leads to greater volume and longer sustain. Multi-string classical guitar A multi-string classical guitar is a classical guitar with more than 6 strings, usually between 7 and 10. History of early (pre 1945) guitar recordings Putting sound recordings into perspective: The phonograph was invented by Thomas Edison on 18 July 1877 - it used phonograph cylinders as recording medium. In 1888, Emile Berliner patented the grammophone which used a flat disk - a gramophone record. The two mediums were at first both used, but by 1910 the disk replaced the cylinder as the most popular recording medium. (Today the words phonograph and grammophone are sometimes used interchangeably.) Other type of recordings were instrument-specific, such as the pianola (or reproducing piano), which used a piano roll as recording medium .Edwin Scott Votey produced the first true pianola in 1895. Early recordings often have low/limited audio quality, since recording technology was just in its beginning phases - it took many years to reach the high standards of audio fidelity known in today's recordings. At the time of writing, the earliest known guitar recording is by Mexican guitarist Octaviano Yañes performing his "Mexican Dance" (Habanera). The record, Victor 05662, is dated August 25, 1908 . Another version of this piece exists on Edison Foreign Series cylinder (catalogue number 20204) "Classic Record Collector", Autumn 2002 . Mario Maccaferri recorded 8 works in 1929 (Granados: Danza no. 5 (rec. 1929), Bach: Courante (rec. 1929), ref ref2) . The Paraguayan guitarist and composer Agustín Barrios (1885-1944) made recordings between 1913 and 1942, including performances of his own works . Spanish guitarist and composer Miguel Llobet (1878-1938) made recordings between 1925 and 1929 . Luigi Mozzani (1869–1943) recorded three 78 rpm LPs with much of his music . Andrés Segovia (1893–1987) made his earliest recordings in 1927 . Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887–1959) privately made recordings between mid-1920s and the early 1940s, including important performances of two of his guitar works . Italian guitarist Pasquale Taraffo (1887–1937) made recordings between 1926 and 1930 on a harp-guitar (Taraffo's Sonatina in A Major ) . Abel Fleury (1903-58) recorded ten pieces between 1935 and 1954 . There exists a recording of Italo Meschi from 1929 . Other early performers who have recorded include Emilio Pujol 12345678 , Josefina Robledo (Tárrega: Capricho Arabe, ref), Luise Walker (1910-1998) , Julio Martínez Oyanguren (1901-1973) from Uruguay (track - Jota ref), Guillermo Gómez (1880-1955), Maria Luisa Anido (1907-1996), Vicente Gomez (1911-2001), Francisco Salinas (1892-1993), Regino Sainz de la Maza (1896–1981) (Concierto de Aranjuez, rec. 1948 dedicated to Regino Sainz de la Maza), José Rey de la Torre (1917-1994), Nelly Ezcaray (1920-), etc. Some of the recordings have been reissued on CD . Julio Sagreras also made radio recordings, though it is not known if the tracks are still available, or if they have been released on CD. There are probably still more early guitar recordings of high value and historic importance, that can discovered (e.g. there seems to be a surprising lack of early recordings by Central and Eastern European guitarists, etc.) - possibly in archives of record companies (or discontinued record companies), or in early radio recordings, or in private collections. Repertoire The classical guitar repertoire in practical terms includes not only music written specifically for the classical guitar, but also music written for the guitar's predecessors and related instruments. These include the vihuela, popular in sixteenth-century Spain, and the lute used everywhere else in Europe in the Renaissance and Baroque eras. Music written specifically for the classical guitar dates from the addition of the sixth string (the baroque guitar normally had five pairs of strings) in the late 18th century. A guitar recital may include a variety of works, e.g. works written originally for the lute or vihuela by composers such as John Dowland (b. England 1563) and Luis de Narváez (b. Spain c. 1500), and also music written for the harpsichord by Domenico Scarlatti (b. Italy 1685), for the baroque lute by Sylvius Leopold Weiss (b. Germany 1687), for the baroque guitar by Robert de Visée (b. France c. 1650) or even Spanish-flavored music written for the piano by Isaac Albéniz (b. Spain 1860) and Enrique Granados (b. Spain 1867). The most important composer who did not write for the guitar but whose music is often played on guitar is Johann Sebastian Bach (b. Germany 1685) whose works for solo violin and solo cello as well as those written for baroque lute have proved to be highly adaptable for the guitar. Indeed, they have become core repertoire for guitarists. Of the music written originally for guitar the earliest important composers are from the classical period and include Fernando Sor (b. Spain 1778) and Mauro Giuliani (b. Italy 1781) both of whom wrote in a style strongly influenced by Viennese classicism. In the nineteenth century guitar composers such as Johann Kaspar Mertz (b. Slovakia, Austria 1806) were strongly influenced by the dominance of the piano. It is not until the end of the century that the guitar began to emerge with its own unique atmosphere. Francisco Tárrega (b. Spain 1852) was central to this, sometimes incorporating some stylized aspects of flamenco, which has Moorish influences, into his romantic miniatures. This was part of the phenomenon of musical nationalism that was part of the wider European mainstream in the late nineteenth century. The aforementioned piano composers Albéniz and Granados were central to this movement and their evocation of the guitar was so successful that guitarists have largely appropriated their music for piano to the guitar. Guitarists who were active at that time, such as Angel Barrios (Spain, 1882 - 1964) contributed to the incorporation of flamenco style (e.g. the Phrygian mode) and flamenco guitar techniques such as rasgueado. With the twentieth century and the wide-ranging performances of artists such as Andrés Segovia and Agustin Barrios-Mangore the guitar began to regain some of the popularity it had lost to the harpsichord and piano in the eighteenth century. It again became a popular instrument, but not always in its classical version. The steel-string and electric guitars, integral to the rise of rock and roll in the post-WWII era, became more widely played in North America and the English speaking world. The classical guitar also became widely popular again. Barrios composed many excellent works and brought into the mainstream the characteristics of Latin American music, as did the Brazilian composer Heitor Villa-Lobos. Andrés Segovia commissioned many works from Spanish composers such as Federico Moreno Torroba and Joaquin Rodrigo, Italians such as Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco and Latin American composers such as Manuel M. Ponce of Mexico, Agustin Barrios-Mangore of Paraguay, Leo Brouwer of Cuba, Antonio Lauro of Venezuela, Enrrique Solares of Guatemala. Julian Bream of Great Britain managed to get nearly every British composer from William Walton to Benjamin Britten to Peter Maxwell Davies to write significant works for guitar. Bream's collaborations with tenor Peter Pears also resulted in song-cycles by Britten, Lennox Berkeley and others. There are also significant works by composers such as Hans Werner Henze of Germany. The classical guitar also became widely used in popular music and rock & roll in the 1960s after guitarist Mason Williams popularized the instrument in his instrumental hit Classical Gas. Guitarist Christopher Parkening is quoted in the book Classical Gas: The Music of Mason Williams as saying that it is the most requested guitar piece besides Malagueña and perhaps the best known instrumental guitar piece today. Classical guitar making Physical characteristics The classical guitar is distinguished by a number of characteristics: It is an acoustic instrument. The sound of the plucked string is amplified by the soundboard of the guitar which acts as a resonator. It has six strings; however, a few classical guitars have eight or more strings to expand the bass range, and to expand the repertoire of the guitar. All six strings are made from nylon, as opposed to the metal strings found on other acoustic guitars. Nylon strings also have a much lower tension than steel strings, as do the predecessors to nylon strings, gut strings (made from ox gut). The lower three strings ('bass strings') are wound with metal, commonly silver plated copper. Because of the low tension of the strings the neck can be made entirely of wood, not requiring a steel truss rod. The interior bracing of the sound board can be lighter, due to the low tension of the strings. This can allow for more complex tonal qualities. A common classical guitar bracing pattern is the fan bracing. A center spruce brace is glued on the inside of the soundboard along the center line of the guitar to just before the bridge. Additional braces fan out on ether side of the first brace. A typical modern six-string classical guitar has a width of 48-54 mm at the nut, compared to around 42 mm for a modern electric guitar design. The classical fingerboard is normally flat and without inlays (Some have dot inlays on the side of the neck at the 5th and 7th frets), whereas the steel string fingerboard has a slight radius and inlays. Classical guitarists use their dominant hand fingers to pluck the strings. Players shape their fingernails, much the way a clarinetist will shape their reed to achieve a desired tone. Strumming is a less common technique in classical guitar, and is often referred to by the Spanish term "rasgueo", or for strumming patterns "rasgueado", and utilises the backs of the fingernails. Rasgueado is integral to Flamenco guitar. Tuning pegs (or "keys") at the head the fingerboard of a classical guitar point backwards (towards the player when the guitar is in playing position; perpendicular to the plane of the fretboard). This is in contrast to a traditional steel-string guitar design, in which the tuning pegs point outward (up and down from playing position; parallel to the plane of the fretboard). The overall design of a Classical Guitar is very similar to the slightly lighter and smaller Flamenco guitar. Parts of the guitar Parts of typical classical guitars, numbered 1 Headstock 2 Nut 3 Machine heads (or pegheads, tuning keys, tuning machines, tuners) 4 Fretwires 5 Truss rod (not shown) 7 Neck and 20 fretboard 8 Heel 9 Body 12 Bridge 14 Bottom deck 15 Face (top deck) 16 Body sides 17 Sound hole, with Rosette inlay 18 Strings 19 Bridge saddle (Bridge nut) 20 The Fretboard See also: An Illustrated Glossary (Fretted instrument terminology) Fretboard The fretboard (also called the fingerboard) is a piece of wood embedded with metal fretwires that constitutes the top of the neck. It is flat or slightly curved. The curvature of the fretboard is measured by the fretboard radius, which is the radius of a hypothetical circle of which the fretboard's surface constitutes a segment. The smaller the fretboard radius, the more noticeably curved the fretboard is. Pinching a string against the fretboard effectively shortens the vibrating length of the string, producing a higher tone (a string, unfingered, will vibrate from the saddle to the nut; once fingered, it will vibrate only along the distance between the saddle and the fretwire directly before the finger). Fretboards are most commonly made of ebony, but may also be made of rosewood or of phenolic composite ("micarta"). Frets Frets are the metal strips (usually nickel alloy or stainless steel) embedded along the fingerboard and placed at points that divide the length of string mathematically. The strings' vibrating length is determined when the strings are pressed down behind the frets. Each fret produces a different pitch and each pitch spaced a half-step apart on the 12 tone scale. The ratio of the widths of two consecutive frets is the twelfth root of two , whose numeric value is about 1.059463. The twelfth fret divides the string in two exact halves and the 24th fret (if present) divides the string in half yet again. Every twelve frets represents one octave. This arrangement of frets results in equal tempered tuning. For more on fret spacing, see the Strings and Tuning section. Frets are placed at fractions of the length of a string (the string midpoint is at the 12th fret; one-third the length of the string reaches from the nut to the 7th fret, the 7th fret to the 19th, and the 19th to the saddle; one-quarter reaches from nut to fifth to twelfth to twenty-fourth to saddle). This feature is helpful when playing harmonics. Frets are usually the first permanent part to wear out on a heavily played guitar. They can be re-shaped to a certain extent and can be replaced as needed. Frets are available in several different gauges, depending on the type of guitar and the player's requirements. Truss rod The truss rod is an adjustable metal rod that runs along the inside of the neck, adjusted by a hex key or an allen-wrench bolt usually located either at the headstock (under a cover) or just inside the body of the guitar, underneath the fretboard (accessible through the sound hole). Most classical guitars do not have truss rods, as the nylon strings do not put enough tension on the neck for one to be needed. The truss rod counteracts the immense amount of tension the strings place on the neck, bringing the neck back to a straighter position. The truss rod can be adjusted to compensate for changes in the neck wood due to changes in humidity or to compensate for changes in the tension of strings. Tightening the rod will curve the neck back and loosening it will return it forward. Adjusting the truss rod affects the intonation of a guitar as well as affecting the action (the height of the strings from the fingerboard). Some truss rod systems, called "double action" truss systems, will tighten both ways, allowing the neck to be pushed both forward and backward (most truss rods can only be loosened so much, beyond which the bolt will just come loose and the neck will no longer be pulled forward). Neck A classical guitar's frets, fretboard, tuners, headstock, and truss rod, all attached to a long wooden extension, collectively constitute its neck. The wood used to make the fretboard will usually differ from the wood in the rest of the neck. The bending stress on the neck is considerable, particularly when heavier gauge strings are used (see Strings and tuning), and the ability of the neck to resist bending (see Truss rod) is important to the guitar's ability to hold a constant pitch during tuning or when strings are fretted. The rigidity of the neck with respect to the body of the guitar is one determinant of a good instrument versus a poor one. The shape of the back of the neck can also vary, from a gentle "C" curve to a more pronounced "V" curve. Neck joint or 'heel' This is the point at which the neck meets the body of the guitar. In the traditional Spanish neck joint the neck and block are one piece with the sides inserted into slots cut in the block. Other necks are built separately and joined to the body either with a dovetail joint, mortise or flush joint. These joints are usually glued and can be reinforced with mechanical fasteners. Recently many manufacturers use bolt on fasteners. Bolt on neck joints were once associated only with less expensive instruments but now some top manufacturers and hand builders are using variations of this method. Some people believed that the Spanish style one piece neck/block and glued dovetail necks have better sustain, but testing has failed to confirm this. While most traditional Spanish style builders use the one piece neck/heel block, Fleta a prominent Spanish builder used a dovetail joint due to the influence of his early training in violin making. One reason for the introduction of the mechanical joints was to make it easier to repair necks. This is more of a problem with steel string guitars than with nylon strings which have about half the string tension. This is why nylon string guitars often don't include a truss rod either. Body The body of the instrument is a major determinant of the overall sound variety for acoustic guitars. The guitar top, or soundboard, is a finely crafted and engineered element often made of spruce, red cedar or mahogany. This thin (often 2 or 3 mm thick) piece of wood, strengthened by different types of internal bracing, is considered to be the most prominent factor in determining the sound quality of a guitar. The majority of the sound is caused by vibration of the guitar top as the energy of the vibrating strings is transferred to it. Different patterns of wood bracing have been used through the years by luthiers (Torres, Hauser, Ramírez, Fleta, and C.F. Martin being among the most influential designers of their times); to not only strengthen the top against collapsing under the tremendous stress exerted by the tensioned strings, but also to affect the resonation of the top. The back and sides are made out of a variety of woods such as mahogany, Indian rosewood and highly regarded Brazilian rosewood (Dalbergia nigra). Each one is chosen for its aesthetic effect and structural strength, and such choice can also play a significant role in determining the instrument's timbre. These are also strengthened with internal bracing, and decorated with inlays and purfling. The body of a classical guitar is a resonating chamber which projects the vibrations of the body through a sound hole, allowing the acoustic guitar to be heard without amplification. The sound hole is normally a round hole in the top of the guitar (under the strings), though some may have different placement, shapes or multiple holes. An instrument's maximum volume is determined by how much air it can move. Binding, purfling and kerfing The top, back and rim of a classical guitar body are very thin (1-2 mm), so a flexible piece of wood called kerfing (because it is often scored, or kerfed to allow it to bend with the shape of the rim) is glued into the corners where the rim meets the top and back. This interior reinforcement provides 5 to 20 mm of solid gluing area for these corner joints. During final construction, a small section of the outside corners is carved or routed out and then filled with binding material on the outside corners and decorative strips of material next to the binding, which are called purfling. This binding serves to seal off the endgrain of the top and back. Binding and purfling materials are generally made of either wood or high quality plastic materials. Bridge The main purpose of the bridge on a classical guitar is to transfer the vibration from the strings to the soundboard, which vibrates the air inside of the guitar, thereby amplifying the sound produced by the strings. The bridge holds the strings in place on the body. Also, the position of the saddle, usually a strip of bone or plastic across the bridge upon which the strings rest, determines the distance to the nut (at the top of the fingerboard). This distance defines the positions of the harmonic nodes for the strings over the fretboard, and is the basis of intonation. Intonation refers to the property that the actual frequency of each string at each fret matches what those frequencies should be according to music theory. Because of the physical limitations of fretted instruments, intonation is at best approximate; thus, the guitar's intonation is said to be tempered. The twelfth, or octave, fret resides directly under the first harmonic node (half-length of the string), and in the tempered fretboard, the ratio of distances between consecutive frets is approximately 1.06 (see "Frets" above). Sizes The modern full size classical guitar has a scale size of around 650 mm (25.6 inches), with an overall instrument length of 965-1016 mm (38-40 inches). The scale size has remained consistently between 640-650 mm (25.2- 25.6 inches) since 650 mm was chosen by the originator of the instrument, Antonio de Torres. This length was probably chosen as twice the length of a violin string. As the guitar is tuned to one octave below that of the violin, the same size gut could be used for the 1st strings of both instruments. Smaller scale instruments are produced to assist children in learning the instrument as the smaller scale leads to the frets being closer together making it easier for smaller hands. The scale size for the smaller guitars is usually in the range 484-578 mm (19-22.5 inches) with an instrument length of 785-915 mm (31-36 inches). Full size instruments are sometimes referred to as 4/4, while the smaller sizes are 3/4, 1/2 or 1/4. How to Choose the correct size & type of Guitar for a Child Scale size table These sizes are not absolute, as luthiers may choose variations around these nominal sizes. 4/4 650 mm (25.6 inches) 3/4 578 mm (22.75 inches) 1/2 522 mm (20.5 inches) 1/4 484 mm (19 inches) Tuning A variety of different tunings are used. The most common by far, which one could call the "standard tuning" is: eI - b - g - d - A - E The above order, is the tuning from the 1st string (highest-pitched string e', physically visible as the bottom string when correctly holding a guitar) to the 6th string (lowest-pitched string E, physically visible as the top string, and hence usually comfortable to be plucked with the thumb). String Sci. pitch Helmholtz pitch Interval from middle C Semitones from A440 Freq., if using an Equal temperament tuning (using ) 1st (highest pitch) E4 e' major third above -5 329.63 Hz 2nd B3 b minor second below -10 246.94 Hz 3rd G4 g perfect fourth below -14 196.00 Hz 4th D3 d minor seventh below -19 146.83 Hz 5th A2 A minor tenth below -24 110 Hz 6th (lowest pitch) E2 E minor thirteenth below -29 82.41 Hz This tuning is such that neighboring strings are at most 5 semitones apart and this has a pragmatic reason which is outlined below - see Rationale. A guitar using this tuning, enables one to properly tune the strings relative to one another, by the fact the 5th fret on one string is the same note as the next open string i.e. a 5th fret note on the 6th string is the same note as the 5th string, apart from between the third and second string, where the 4th fret note on the third string equals the second string. (The requirement is of course a well-crafted instrument with correct fret-placement.) This tuning has evolved to provide a good compromise between simple fingering for many chords and the ability to play common scales with minimal left hand movement. There are also a variety of commonly used alternate tunings. Rationale of the tuning, in relation to frets and the left hand The lateral position of the left hand determines which frets the fingers can reach (or more precisely: onto which frets the strings can be pushed down with the fingers). Keeping the left hand fixed, usually allows a span of 4 consecutive frets to be reachable (by using the following 4 consecutive left-hand fingers: index, middle, ring, small). The tuning of the strings, is such, that one can play all chromatic notes occurring between 2 consecutive strings, by using the frets of the lower-tuned string without having to change the hand-position (I): Thus to move progressively from the pitch of a open lower string to the next higher string, we can use 1st fret of the lower string (with index finger) then the 2nd fret (with middle finger) then the 3rd fret (with ring finger) then the 4th fret (with little finger) then finally we reach the higher-pitched string (open string). Since these are 5 steps (and consecutive frets are a semitone apart) it would be ideal if consecutive strings are tuned 5 semitones apart. In fact this is the very tuning that is most often used for the guitar, with the small exception that the 2nd and 3rd string are tuned 4 semitones apart: I open 1st fret (index) 2nd fret (middle) 3rd fret (ring) 4th fret (little) 1st string e' f' f' g' a' 2nd string b c' c' d' e' 3rd string g a a b ... 4th string d e e f f 5th string A B B c c 6th string E F F G A Chromatic note progression It is important to note that the relative harmonic ratio (e.g. semitones-steps) between neighboring strings, does not change when moving up the frets. For example when considering the 1st and 2nd strings: e' to b (open strings) is like f' to c' (1st fret) is like f' to c' (2nd fret) etc. The bass strings have a particular tuning which is harmonically related to the main typical keys in which most works are performed, since the bass strings can be plucked openly (providing a harmonic bass) at any time, irrespective of the lateral fret-position at which the left hand happens to be located. The "lowest" fret-position is position I: this is when the left hand is positioned such that the index finger is over the 1st fret (the small finger can comfortably reach the 4th fret) The next-higher fret-position is position II: this is when the left hand is positioned closer to the guitar's body, such that the index finger is now over the 2nd fret (the small finger can comfortably reach the 5th fret) etc. The higher the left hand's fret-position, the more a string is shortened when a string is pressed against an available higher fret: this results in a higher pitch from that string. Playable/Reachable notes of the guitar Important for the notes playable on the guitar, are the left-hand's position, since it determines the reachable frets the open strings, since they can always be played, irrespective of the left-hand's position. (This is of particular importance with regard to the bass strings.) When moving the hand to such a higher-pitched fret-position, previously played lower notes are still playable without having to move the lateral hand-position back: this is possible by pressing a lower-pitched string towards an appropriate higher fret in the new higher fret-position. e.g. f#' on the 1st string in position I is usually fretted with the left-hand's middle finger. The same f#' pitch can be played in e.g. position V by using the 2nd string and fretting the 7th fret with the 3rd finger. I 0 1 2 3 4 1st string e' f' f' g' ... ... 2nd string e' f' f' g' 1 2 3 4 V (1 = left-hand index finger; 2 = left-hand middle finger; etc.) Thus one and the same note (in terms of pitch) can be played on different strings (by using appropriate frets), because the pitches of consecutive strings are only at most 5 semitones apart. Bibliography The Guitar; Sinier de Ridder; Edizioni Il Salabue; ISBN 88-87618-09-7 La Chitarra, Quattro secoli di Capolavori (The Guitar: Four centuries of Masterpieces) by Giovanni Accornero, Ivan Epicoco, Eraldo Guerci; Edizioni Il Salabue Rosa sonora - Esposizione di chitarre XVII - XX secolo by Giovanni Accornero; Edizioni Il Salabue Summerfield, Maurice, The Classical Guitar: Its Evolution, Players and Personalities since 1800 - 5th Edition, Blaydon : Ashley Mark Publishing Company, 2002. Turnbull, Harvey: The Guitar: From the Renaissance to the Present Day, Published by Bold Strummer, 1991 ISBN 933224575,9780933224575 Various, Classical Guitar Magazine, Blaydon : Ashley Mark Publishing Company, monthly publication first published in 1982. Wade, Graham, Traditions of the Classical Guitar, London : Calder, 1980. Antoni Pizà: Francesc Guerau i el seu temps (Palma de Mallorca: Govern de les Illes Balears, Conselleria d'Educació i Cultura, Direcció General de Cultura, Institut d'Estudis Baleàrics, 2000) ISBN 84-89868-50-6 See also Brahms guitar Harp guitar References External links The Guitar Family Tree Thematic essay: The guitar Jayson Kerr Dobney, Wendy Powers (The Metropolitan Museum of Art) Early Romantic Guitar Homepage Guitar acoustics Scores (Sheetmusic) in the public domain Boije Collection (The Music Library of Sweden) includes Sor, Giuliani, autographs by J.K. Mertz, etc. Det Kongelige Bibliotek, Denmark (info) Advanced Search Usage example: Field "All fields": Sor, and Field "URL (www link)": http NOT sheetmusicnow NOT freehandmusic NOT hebeonline Rischel & Birket-Smith's Collection of guitar music: Index of guitar titles (alt.) Printed Music: Index of guitar titles Digitized Music: Index of guitar titles Musical Manuscripts: Index of guitar titles Top-level music catalogue: Index of guitar titles George C. Krick Collection of Guitar Music Gaylord Music Library, Washington University (Index - Online access to pdf, via "Connect to resource or more info") Catalan composers of the 19th century José Ferrer y Esteve (1835-1916), José Brocá y Codina (1805-1882), José Viñas y Diaz (1823-1888) - info IGRA Easley Scores (Scores are in those links, that have the form http://digital-library.csun.edu/cdm4/document.php?...) Photos and Images Photos of Romantic Guitars from 1796 to 1845 (Collection of Brigitte Zaczek, Vienna) Photos of historic guitars at the Museum Cité de la Musique in Paris Instruments et oeuvres d'art - search-phrase: Mot-clé(s) : guitare Facteurs d'instruments - search-phrase: Instrument fabriqué : guitare Photothèque - search-phrase: Instrument de musique, ville ou pays : guitare Instrumentarium Lipsiense Studia Instrumentorum Musicae Guitars at the Metropolitan Museum of Art Lutes, Guitars, and Related Instruments at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (Audio Tour) Musée pictural de la guitare Images, Paintings Iconography Articles and Texts The guitar and mandolin : biographies of celebrated players and composers for these instruments Philip James Bone (1914) Guitar And Lute Issues (Matanya Ophee) The 19th-Century Italian Guitar Guitar Articles (European Guitar Teachers Association) | Classical_guitar |@lemmatized classical:65 guitar:189 plucked:3 string:191 instrument:43 family:4 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3,894 | Eligible_receiver | In American football and Canadian football, not all players on offense are entitled to receive a forward pass. Only an eligible pass receiver may legally catch a forward pass, and only an eligible receiver may advance beyond the neutral zone if a forward pass which crosses the neutral zone is thrown. If the pass is received by a non-eligible receiver, the penalty for the foul "illegal touching" is assessed (the play is treated as an incomplete pass, unless the ball is downed behind the line of scrimmage — in either case a down is lost). If an ineligible receiver is beyond the neutral zone when a forward pass which crosses the neutral zone is thrown, a foul of "ineligible receiver downfield" (penalty--a loss of yardage, but not loss of down) is called. Each league has slightly different rules regarding who is and is not considered an eligible receiver. College football The NCAA rulebook defines eligible receivers for college football in Rule 7, Section 3, Article 3 . The determining factors are the player's position on the field at the snap and their jersey number. Specifically, any players on offense wearing numbers between 50 and 79 are always ineligible. All defensive players are eligible receivers and offensive players who are not wearing an ineligible number are eligible receivers if they meet one of the following three criteria: Player is at either end of the group of players on the line of scrimmage (usually the split end and tight end) Player is lined up at least one yard behind the line of scrimmage (running backs, fullbacks, etc.) Player is positioned to receive a hand-to-hand snap from the center (almost always the quarterback) Players may only wear eligible numbers at an ineligible position when it is obvious that a punt or field goal is to be attempted. A receiver loses his eligibility by leaving the field of play unless he was forced out by a defensive player and immediately attempts to get back inbounds (Rule 7-3-4). All players on the field become eligible as soon as the ball is touched by a defensive player or an official during play (Rule 7-3-5). Professional football In both American and Canadian professional football, every player on the defensive team is considered eligible. The offensive team must have at least seven players lined up on the line of scrimmage. Of the players on the line of scrimmage, only the two players on the ends of the line of scrimmage are eligible receivers. The four remaining players in the backfield (five in Canadian football), including the quarterback, are also eligible receivers—except in the National Football League, where a quarterback who takes the snap directly from the center is never eligible. However, a quarterback who receives a longer snap from the center, such as in a shotgun formation, is eligible even in the NFL. If, for example, eight men line up on the line of scrimmage, the team loses an eligible receiver. This can often happen when a flanker or slot receiver, who is supposed to line up behind the line of scrimmage, instead lines up on the line of scrimmage between the offensive line and a split end. In most cases where a pass is caught by an ineligible receiver, it is usually because the quarterback was under pressure and threw it to an offensive lineman out of desperation. In many leagues eligible receivers must wear certain uniform numbers, so that the officials can more easily distinguish between eligible and ineligible receivers. In the NFL running backs must wear numbers 20 to 49, tight ends must wear numbers 80 to 89 (or 40 to 49 if the numbers 80 to 89 have been exhausted), and wide receivers must wear numbers 10 to 19 or 80 to 89. In the CFL ineligible receivers must wear numbers 50 to 69; all other numbers (including 0 and 00) may be worn by eligible receivers. A player who is not wearing a number that corresponds to an eligible receiver is ineligible even if he lines up in an eligible position. However, in the American game, a player who reports to the referee that he intends to be eligible in the following play is allowed to line up and act as an eligible receiver. An example of this was a 1985 NFL game in which William Perry, wearing number 72 and normally a defensive lineman, was made an eligible receiver on an offensive play, and successfully caught a touchdown pass attempt. A more recent example, and more commonly used, has been former New England Patriots linebacker Mike Vrabel lining up as a tight end in goal line situations. In the Canadian game a player who wears an ineligible number may make himself an eligible receiver if the referee grants him permission to change his uniform to an eligible number at the team's bench. Before the snap of the ball, in the American game, eligible receivers may only move parallel to the line of scrimmage, only one eligible receiver may be in motion at any given time, and if forward motion has occurred, the receiver must be still for a full second before the snap. The receiver may be in motion laterally or away from the line of scrimmage at the snap. A breach of this rule results in a penalty for illegal procedure (five yards). However, in the Canadian game, eligible receivers may move in any direction before the snap, any number may be in motion at any one time, and there is no need to be motionless before the snap. The rules on eligible receivers only apply to forward passes, even those behind the line of scrimmage. However, any player may legally catch a backwards or lateral pass. In the American game, once the play has started, players can become ineligible and eligible depending on how the play develops. Any eligible receiver that goes out of bounds is no longer an eligible receiver and cannot receive a forward pass. Also, if a pass is touched by any eligible receiver (tipped by a defensive lineman, slips through a receiver's hands, etc.), every player on the field immediately becomes eligible. In the CFL all players become eligible receivers if a pass is touched by a member of the defensive team. High school In high school football, the rules of eligibility are roughly the same as the college game. However, as of February 2009, at least four players must wear numbers between 50 and 79 on first, second, or third down, which by rule would make them ineligible receivers. This was because of a change in the definition of a scrimmage-kick formation made by the NFHS. The change was intended to close a loophole in the rules which allowed teams to run an A-11 offense, in which a team could legally be exempted from eligibility numbering restrictions if the player receiving the snap was at least seven yards behind the line of scrimmage. See also A-11 offense Glossary of American football References | Eligible_receiver |@lemmatized american:6 football:10 canadian:5 player:27 offense:4 entitle:1 receive:6 forward:7 pas:13 eligible:35 receiver:36 may:11 legally:3 catch:4 advance:1 beyond:2 neutral:4 zone:4 cross:2 throw:3 non:1 penalty:3 foul:2 illegal:2 touch:4 assess:1 play:7 treat:1 incomplete:1 unless:2 ball:3 behind:5 line:23 scrimmage:14 either:2 case:2 lose:3 ineligible:12 downfield:1 loss:2 yardage:1 call:1 league:3 slightly:1 different:1 rule:9 regard:1 consider:2 college:3 ncaa:1 rulebook:1 defines:1 section:1 article:1 determining:1 factor:1 position:4 field:5 snap:10 jersey:1 number:18 specifically:1 wear:13 always:2 defensive:7 offensive:5 meet:1 one:4 following:2 three:1 criterion:1 end:7 group:1 usually:2 split:2 tight:3 least:4 yard:3 run:3 back:3 fullback:1 etc:2 hand:3 center:3 almost:1 quarterback:5 obvious:1 punt:1 goal:2 attempt:3 eligibility:3 leave:1 force:1 immediately:2 get:1 inbounds:1 become:4 soon:1 official:2 professional:2 every:2 team:7 must:8 seven:2 two:1 four:2 remain:1 backfield:1 five:2 include:2 also:3 except:1 national:1 take:1 directly:1 never:1 however:5 longer:2 shotgun:1 formation:2 even:3 nfl:3 example:3 eight:1 men:1 often:1 happen:1 flanker:1 slot:1 suppose:1 instead:1 pressure:1 lineman:3 desperation:1 many:1 certain:1 uniform:2 easily:1 distinguish:1 exhaust:1 wide:1 cfl:2 correspond:1 game:7 report:1 referee:2 intend:2 allow:2 act:1 william:1 perry:1 normally:1 make:4 successfully:1 touchdown:1 recent:1 commonly:1 use:1 former:1 new:1 england:1 patriot:1 linebacker:1 mike:1 vrabel:1 situation:1 grant:1 permission:1 change:3 bench:1 move:2 parallel:1 motion:4 give:1 time:2 occur:1 still:1 full:1 second:2 laterally:1 away:1 breach:1 result:1 procedure:1 direction:1 need:1 motionless:1 apply:1 pass:1 backwards:1 lateral:1 start:1 depend:1 develop:1 go:1 bound:1 cannot:1 tip:1 slip:1 member:1 high:2 school:2 roughly:1 february:1 first:1 third:1 would:1 definition:1 kick:1 nfhs:1 close:1 loophole:1 could:1 exempt:1 restriction:1 see:1 glossary:1 reference:1 |@bigram forward_pas:5 eligible_receiver:23 line_scrimmage:13 ineligible_receiver:6 offensive_lineman:1 defensive_lineman:2 touchdown_pas:1 |
3,895 | Kenneth_Noland | Kenneth Noland (born April 10, 1924) is an American abstract painter. He is identified today as one of the best-known contemporary American Color field painters, although in the 1950s he was thought of as an abstract expressionist and in the early 1960s he was thought of as a minimalist painter. Biography Kenneth Noland, Beginning, magna on canvas painting by Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, 1958 Noland was born in Asheville, North Carolina. A veteran of World War II he joined the U.S. Air Force in 1942. After his discharge four years later, Noland took advantage of the G.I. Bill to study art at Black Mountain College in his home state of North Carolina. Noland attended the experimental Black Mountain College and he studied with professor Ilya Bolotowsky who introduced him to Neo-plasticism and the work of Piet Mondrian. There he also studied Bauhaus theory and color with Josef Albers retrieved February 8, 2008 and he became interested in Paul Klee, specifically his sensitivity to color. retrieved December 30, 2007 In 1948 and 1949 he worked with Ossip Zadkine in Paris, and in the early 1950s met Morris Louis in Washington DC. He became friends with Louis, and after seeing her new paintings at her studio in New York City in 1953 they adopted Helen Frankenthaler's “soak-stain” technique of allowing thinned paint to soak into unprimed canvases. Terry Fenton, online essay about Kenneth Noland, and acrylic paint, accessed April 30th, 2007 Most of Noland's paintings fall into one of four groups: circles, or targets (see Beginning illustrated), chevrons, (see infobox), stripes (see Warm Above illustrated), and shaped canvases. His preoccupation with the relationship of the image to the containing edge of the picture led him to a series of studies of concentric rings, or bull’s-eyes, or as they were known - Targets - like the one reproduced here called Beginning from 1958, using unlikely color combinations. This also led him away from Louis in 1958. Noland pioneered the shaped canvas, initially with a series of symmetrical and asymmetrical diamonds or chevrons. In these paintings, the edges of the canvas become as structurally important as the center. During the 1970s and 1980s his shaped canvases were highly irregular and asymmetrical. These resulted in increasingly complex structures of highly sophisticated and controlled color and surface integrity. In 1964 Noland occupied half the American pavilion at the Venice Biennale. In 1965 his work was exhibited at the Washington Gallery of Modern Art and the Jewish Museum (New York). Further reading "Kenneth Noland." Contemporary Artists, 4th ed. St. James Press, 1996. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. 2005. "Kenneth Noland." Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. 2005. References Gowing, L (ed.) 1995, A Biographical Dictionary of Artists, Rev. edn, Andromeda Oxford Limited, Oxfordshire. External links kennethnoland.com The official website of Kenneth Noland Tate08 Series: Kenneth Noland: The Stripe Paintings exhibition at Tate Liverpool, England, 2006 Notes | Kenneth_Noland |@lemmatized kenneth:7 noland:13 bear:2 april:2 american:3 abstract:2 painter:3 identify:1 today:1 one:3 best:1 know:2 contemporary:2 color:5 field:1 although:1 think:2 expressionist:1 early:2 minimalist:1 biography:4 begin:2 magna:1 canvas:6 painting:5 hirshhorn:1 museum:2 sculpture:1 garden:1 asheville:1 north:2 carolina:2 veteran:1 world:2 war:1 ii:1 join:1 u:1 air:1 force:1 discharge:1 four:2 year:1 later:1 take:1 advantage:1 g:1 bill:1 study:4 art:2 black:2 mountain:2 college:2 home:1 state:1 attend:1 experimental:1 professor:1 ilya:1 bolotowsky:1 introduce:1 neo:1 plasticism:1 work:3 piet:1 mondrian:1 also:2 bauhaus:1 theory:1 josef:1 albers:1 retrieve:2 february:1 become:3 interested:1 paul:1 klee:1 specifically:1 sensitivity:1 december:1 ossip:1 zadkine:1 paris:1 meet:1 morris:1 louis:3 washington:2 dc:1 friend:1 see:4 new:3 studio:1 york:2 city:1 adopt:1 helen:1 frankenthaler:1 soak:2 stain:1 technique:1 allow:1 thin:1 paint:2 unprimed:1 terry:1 fenton:1 online:1 essay:1 acrylic:1 access:1 fall:1 group:1 circle:1 target:2 illustrated:1 chevron:2 infobox:1 stripe:2 warm:1 illustrate:1 shaped:3 preoccupation:1 relationship:1 image:1 contain:1 edge:2 picture:1 lead:2 series:3 concentric:1 ring:1 bull:1 eye:1 like:1 reproduce:3 call:1 beginning:1 use:1 unlikely:1 combination:1 away:1 pioneer:1 initially:1 symmetrical:1 asymmetrical:2 diamond:1 structurally:1 important:1 center:3 highly:2 irregular:1 result:1 increasingly:1 complex:1 structure:1 sophisticated:1 controlled:1 surface:1 integrity:1 occupy:1 half:1 pavilion:1 venice:1 biennale:1 exhibit:1 gallery:1 modern:1 jewish:1 far:1 reading:1 artist:2 ed:3 st:1 james:1 press:1 resource:2 farmington:2 hill:2 mich:2 thomson:2 gale:3 encyclopedia:1 vols:1 research:1 reference:1 gowing:1 l:1 biographical:1 dictionary:1 rev:1 edn:1 andromeda:1 oxford:1 limit:1 oxfordshire:1 external:1 link:1 kennethnoland:1 com:1 official:1 website:1 exhibition:1 tate:1 liverpool:1 england:1 note:1 |@bigram kenneth_noland:7 abstract_expressionist:1 north_carolina:2 piet_mondrian:1 josef_albers:1 paul_klee:1 washington_dc:1 helen_frankenthaler:1 acrylic_paint:1 shaped_canvas:3 concentric_ring:1 farmington_hill:2 hill_mich:2 thomson_gale:2 biographical_dictionary:1 external_link:1 |
3,896 | Mars_in_fiction | Fictional representations of Mars have been popular for over a century. Interest in Mars has been stimulated by the planet's dramatic red color, by early scientific speculations that its surface conditions might be capable of supporting life, and by the possibility that Mars could be colonized by humans in the future. Almost as popular as stories about Mars are stories about Martians engaging in activity (frequently invasions) away from their home planet. Mars in fiction before Mariner Before the Mariner 4 spacecraft arrived at Mars in July 1965 and dispelled some of the more exotic theories about the planet, the conventional image of Mars was shaped by the observations of the astronomers Giovanni Schiaparelli and Percival Lowell. Schiaparelli observed what he took to be linear features on the face of Mars, which he thought might be water channels. However, since the Italian for channels is canali, English translations tended to render the word as "canals", a word that implies artificial construction. Lowell's books on Mars expanded on this notion of Martian canals, and a standard model of Mars as a drying, cooling, dying world was established. It was frequently speculated that ancient Martian civilizations had constructed irrigation works that spanned the planet in an attempt at saving their dying world. This concept originated a large number of science fiction scenarios. The following works of fiction deal with the planet itself, and with any assumed Martian civilization as part of its planetary landscape. Novels and short stories First ventures Several early modern writers, including Athanasius Kircher and Emanuel Swedenborg, hypothesized contact with Mars. Early science fiction about Mars often involved the first voyages to the planet, sometimes as an invasion force, more often for the purposes of exploration. Early works to 1910 Across the Zodiac (1880) by Percy Greg. The narrator flies his craft, the "Astronaut," to visit diminutive beings on Mars. Unveiling a Parallel (1893) by Alice Ilgenfritz Jones and Ella Merchant. The authors use a journey to Mars as the frame for a utopian feminist novel. Journey to Mars (1894) by Gustavus W. Pope. An adventure story that may have influenced Edgar Rice Burroughs's later books. A Prophetic Romance (1896) by John McCoy. Reversing the usual pattern, the book brings a Martian visitor to Earth for a utopian novel. The War of the Worlds (1896) by H. G. Wells. The most famous Mars fiction of all. Edison's Conquest of Mars (1898) by Garrett P. Serviss. In this Edisonade, Earthmen respond to an attack from Mars with a successful genocide of the Martian race. Gullivar of Mars (1905) by Edwin Lester Linden Arnold. An Edwardian fantasy in which Gullivar Jones travels to Mars on a magic carpet and interacts with the slothful but innocent Hithers and the brutish but honorable Thithers. Doctor Omega (1906) by Arnould Galopin. A crew of explorers from Earth visit a Mars inhabited by reptilian mermen, savage dwarf-like beings with long, tentacled arms, bat-men and a race of civilized macrocephalic gnomes. Le prisonnier de la planète Mars (1908) and its sequel La guerre des vampires (1909) by Gustave Le Rouge. French engineer Robert Darvel is dispatched to Mars by the psychic powers of Hindu Brahmins. On the Red Planet, he runs afoul of hostile, bat-winged, blood-sucking natives, a once-powerful civilization now ruled by the Great Brain. Red Star (1908) by Alexander Bogdanov. The narrator is taken to Mars, which is imagined as a socialist utopia. 1910s and 1920s Le Mystère des XV (1911) by Jean de La Hire. De la Hire's hero, the Nyctalope helps a group of fifteen Earth scientists establish a permanent settlement on Mars. A Princess of Mars and another 10 Mars stories (1912–1943) by Edgar Rice Burroughs. These stories feature Virginia gentleman John Carter mysteriously transported to a Mars (called Barsoom by the natives) that is stocked with humanoid princesses, fierce warriors of several species, exotic animals, energy weapons and swords. Burroughs has had many imitators and inspired many nostalgic references. A 1927 Soviet poster advertising the 1924 movie Aelita: Queen of Mars, based on the novel by Aleksey Tolstoy. Aelita (1922) by A.N. Tolstoy, one of the first Soviet science fiction novels. It describes a Soviet expedition to Mars headed by the engineer Los. Los falls in love with the beautiful Aelita, daughter of the Martian Supreme Ruler, while Los' companion is trying to organize a communist revolution which is supposed to bring happiness and progress to the ancient and stagnating civilization. This was the source for the 1924 movie Aelita. 1930s The Swordsman of Mars and Outlaws of Mars (both 1933) by Otis Adelbert Kline. Voyages to Mars in the Burroughs style, but set on a Mars of the past. (In Kline's original work, his Mars and Venus stories were set in contemporary [1920s and 1930s] times. Only the reprints from the 1960s state the tales are set in the distant past.) "A Martian Odyssey" (1934), a short story by Stanley G. Weinbaum. A Martian named Tweel (one of several species encountered) is depicted as a sympathetic, intelligent being who thinks as well as or better than a human, but in a convincingly alien manner (a rare feat at any time, but especially striking for pulp science fiction of that era). The story was included in the Science Fiction Hall of Fame. Weinbaum also wrote a sequel called "Valley of Dreams" (1934). Out of the Silent Planet, by C. S. Lewis (1938), was written as a conscious answer and antithesis to the works of H. G. Wells and Olaf Stapledon. The first book of Lewis's Space Trilogy, a rare example of theological science fiction, it features a philologist named Ransom who arrives by accident on Mars (called Malacandra by the natives). Ransom is at first fearful of being killed in a barbaric rite by monstrous Martians. He discovers instead three highly sympathetic, intelligent Martian species, completely different from each other but living in harmony, complementing each other and extremely hospitable and generous to their human guest. As in the other books, Lewis' Mars is a dying world; in fact, large parts of it are already dead, and various species - such as an intelligent winged species - have become extinct. At the end of the book, it is disclosed that the Martians' ancestors had possessed the technology to build spaceships and invade Earth, but the righteous Martians voluntarily renounced that possibility and stoically resigned themselves to eventually dying out on their drying, cooling homeworld. 1940s The Master of Mars, a Flash Gordon episode - the kind of pulp magazine which Brown's book tried to satirise What Mad Universe (1949) by Frederick Brown depicts an alternate history where humans discovered anti-gravity in 1903 and launched a war to conquer Mars, which is inhabited by creatures with a culture equal to that of Earth, but militarily weaker. The Martians are decimated and finally accept human colonization. H.G. Wells writes a book denouncing the war and conquest of Mars as an act of unjustified aggression. Later, Martians are drawn into Earth's war with Arcturus. Marvin the Martian(1948) is one of Looney Tunes most prominent characters, whose mission throughout his appearances is to destroy Earth because it "Obstructs his view of Venus". 1950s The Martian Chronicles (1950) by Ray Bradbury. Features human-like Martians with copper-colored skin, human emotions, and telepathic abilities. They have an advanced culture, but the human explorers are greeted with incomprehension and eventually the Martian civilisation is accidentally destroyed by human disease. Bradbury wrote many other short stories set on Mars. Our Coming World (1950) by AC Michaud is a self-published utopian vision of a Mars that starts with the abduction of a B29 bomber crew. The Martians are humanoid, with many different colors, and can fly under their own power. These technically advanced Martians live an average of 300 years and have perfected a germ-free, socialist civilization that stresses communal living, centralized supply chains (think Bellamy's Looking Backward). A tour of Mars is interspersed with jeremiads against a morally decayed post-war Earth civilization. No Man Friday (1956) by Rex Gordon. A secret British Mars expedition crashes on Mars leaving one survivor who struggles to provide his basic needs from a hostile planet and is eventually discovered by very alien intelligent natives. Inspired the 1964 movie Robinson Crusoe on Mars. A World's Revival (Hebrew: תבל בתחיתה Tevel Be-Thiatah) (1955) by Tzvi Livneh. http://www.ithl.org.il/author_info.asp?id=165 Takes place some 500 years in the future. This story describes an expedition from a Utopian Socialist Earth arriving at a Mars which is divided between two oppressive, warring empires. The Earth people eventually succeed in formenting a Martian revolution and overthrowing both empires. The Earth expedition is headed by an Israeli scientist while a leading role among the revolutionaries is played by the "Yunodins", members of a dispersed and persecuted minority explicitly described as "The Jews of Mars". Livneh may have been influenced by Aelita; his story also involves interplanetary love. The Outward Urge (1959) by John Wyndham. Describes a comparatively realistic Mars landing, without any Martians. Living on Mars By the 1930s, stories about reaching Mars had become somewhat trite, and the focus shifted to Mars as an alien landscape. In the following stories, human contact and basic exploration had taken place sometime in the past; Mars is a setting rather than a goal. 1930s The Vaults of Yoh-Vombis (1932) and Vulthoom (1935) by Clark Ashton Smith. Weird tales of horror set on Mars. The Northwest Smith stories (1933–1936) by C. L. Moore. Most of these stories take place on a Mars populated by intelligent, humanoid Martians - and other things. Legion of Space Series (1934–1982) by Jack Williamson. In this future history, humans conquer and colonise Mars in a long series of wars with its inhabitants. All that is long in the past of the series' 30th century plot, where Mars is an established human-settled planet, humans living mainly "in the fertile canal areas" while most of the planet is desert. 1940s The Secret of Sinharat, People of the Talisman and another eleven stories published between 1940 and 1964 by Leigh Brackett. These planetary romances describe a desert Mars populated by barbarian warriors and citizens of decadent city-states, coming into explosive contact with Terran civilization. Brackett's The Sword of Rhiannon (1953) shows an oceanic Mars of the distant past, and comes close to pure fantasy. Robert A. Heinlein repeatedly used Mars as a setting for his novels and short stories, including: The Green Hills of Earth (1947). The space poet Rhysling cries out against fellow-humans who had torn down "the slender, fairy-like towers" of the native Martians and replaced them with ugly factories which pollute the Martian canals. Red Planet (1949). Young adult novel. Includes some very intelligent Martians similar to those mentioned in Stranger in a Strange Land, who help human colonists free themselves of tyrannical Earth authorities. The Rolling Stones (1952). Mars has a major role in the rather amusing and carefree adventures of a space-roving family. Seetee Ship (1949) and Seetee Shock (1950) by Jack Williamson. Mars is colonized by European Fascists and Neo-Nazis, and its main holiday is "Hitler Day", celebration of which often entails bloody riots. The Fascist Mars is one of the main powers contending for control of the mineral wealth of the Asteroid Belt. 1950s and early 1960s Genesis (story) (1951) by H. Beam Piper - The last survivors of the ancient humanoid culture on Mars flee their dying planet about at 100,000 B.C. Near Earth most of the ship's 1500 passengers are killed by meteors, and only two men and six women land in a lifeboat and become the ancestors of humanity. Later Piper "paratime" stories introduce timelines where more Martians survived, resulting in far more technologcally-advanced Earthes by the 20th Century (see , ). The Sands of Mars (1951) by Arthur C. Clarke involves a reporter who makes the long voyage to a desert Mars to write about the human colonists and along the way discovers there is life on Mars after all. David Starr, Space Ranger (1952) by Isaac Asimov writing as Paul French. A juvenile novel set in the distant future whose title character discovers an unsuspected Martian civilization deep beneath the Red Planet's surface. The Martian Way (1952) by Isaac Asimov. Arrogant Earth people are scornful of the Martian colonists, who barely survive by salvaging "space junk", yet their way of life is what fits the Martian colonists for further space exploration, reaching Saturn first and eventually (Asimov implies) leading the way to the stars. Outpost Mars (1952) by "Cyril Judd" (pen name for C.M. Kornbluth and Judith Merril). "Omnilingual" (1957) by H. Beam Piper. Short story in which archaeologists excavating the remains of a humanoid Martian civilization find an entire library, but lack a Rosetta Stone. "The Badge of Infamy" (1957) by Lester Del Rey. This novelette describes a colonized Mars run by earth lobbies, including a military-industrial lobby and a health lobby similar to the American Medical Association. A humanitarian doctor seeks to cure a disease that afflicts humans whose metabolisms been chemically altered for Mars adaptation. In the Perry Rhodan series (1961- ), Mars is the site of an ancient gateway to the "negative side" of the universe. Through this gateway, the planet becomes infested with death crystals whose life-destroying radiation threatens to spread to the Earth. "A Rose for Ecclesiastes" (1963) by Roger Zelazny. One of the last stories of this type, describing an Earth poet's study of Martian language and literature. The story is deliberately written as an elegiac farewell to the old conception of Mars, complete with canals and an ancient, dying Martian race, as "The Doors of His Face, the Lamps of His Mouth" (1965) was his farewell to the Venus of earlier science fiction. In Philip K. Dick's fiction, Mars is an almost empty, dry land, with isolated communities and individuals, most of whom do not want to be there. (Martian Time Slip (1964), The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch (1965)). The characters in these stories could be in small communities in the Arizona desert, but placing them on Mars emphasises their isolation, both from one another and from Earth. Radio, film and television The second series of the British radio science fiction program Journey Into Space (1954–1955) deals with a trip to Mars and what the astronauts find there. The Angry Red Planet (1959) – A low-budget horror/science fiction film. Space Patrol, 1962 puppet television series: "The Buried Spaceship" - 'Operation Ice Cube' is put into action when Marla suggests moving ice through space as a solution to a drought problem on Mars. Galasphere 347 is sent to assist but develops a fault in the Meson Power Unit forcing the craft to land for repairs... "The Wandering Asteroid" - The Space Patrol crew accept a dangerous mission to destroy an asteroid deflected from its orbit by a cometary collision and heading directly for the Martian capital Wotan. "Husky Becomes Invisible" - When Dart is sent to Mars to find the eggs of the Aba bird to help find a cure for a condition known as the "floats", he calls on Professor Zeller who has discovered that his new star-measuring apparatus can make objects disappear. "The Forgers" - Colonel Raeburn is baffled by a sudden influx of forged currency. Whilst investigating what appears to be a disease killing the vegetation on Mars. Dart and Husky stumble across the source of the forgeries... Robinson Crusoe on Mars (1964) – A pastiche of the classic Daniel Defoe novel. Santa Claus Conquers the Martians (1964) – Known as one of the worst movies ever made, as such it was made fun of on the TV series Mystery Science Theater 3000. Thunderbirds Are GO (1966) - followed the first manned mission to Mars aboard the Zero X. This is a notable depiction, which displays a pre-exploration idea of how Mars would look - rocky and desert-like. The crew encounter "rock snakes", which can live without water. Doctor Who - The Ice Warriors are Martians. The Twilight Zone featured several episodes that focused on Mars and/or Martians including Will the Real Martian Please Stand Up, People Are Alike All Over, and Mr. Dingle the Strong. Mars in fiction after Mariner Novels and short stories Beginning in 1965, the Mariner and Viking space probes revealed that the canals were an illusion, and that the Martian environment is extremely hostile to life. By the 1970s, the ideas of canals and ancient civilizations had to be abandoned. Authors soon began writing stories based on the new Mars (frequently treating it as a desert planet). Most of these works feature humans struggling to tame the planet, and some of them refer to terraforming (using technology to transform a planet's environment). A common theme, particularly among American writers, is that of a Martian colony fighting for independence from Earth. It appeared already in Heinlein's Red Planet and is a major plot element in Greg Bear's Moving Mars, Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy, and S.C. Sykes' books. It is also part of the plot of the movie Total Recall and the television series Babylon 5. Many video games also use this concept, such as the Red Faction and Zone of the Enders series. A historical rebellion of Mars against Earth is also mentioned in the Star Trek series of novels, which are not considered canon. In the decades following Mariner and Apollo, the once-popular subgenre of realistic stories about a first expedition to Mars fell out of fashion, possibly due to the failure of the Apollo Program to continue on to Mars. The early 1990s saw a revival and re-envisioning of realistic novels about Mars expeditions. Early novels in this renaissance were Jack Williamson's novel Beachhead and Ben Bova's novel Mars (both 1992), which envisioned large-scale expeditions to Mars according to the thinking of the 1990s. These were followed by Gregory Benford's The Martian Race (1999), Geoffrey A. Landis's Mars Crossing (2000), and Robert Zubrin's First Landing (2002), which took as their starting points the smaller and more focussed expedition strategies evolved in the late 1990s, mostly building on the concepts of Mars Direct. Late 1960s and the 1970s In Larry Niven's harsh Known Space stories (1964- ) Mars is a backwater bypassed by humans in their rush to the mineral wealth of the Asteroid Belt. A single attempt to colonise Mars ended disastrously, due to the combination of violent conflict between the would-be colonists and a confrontation with the native Martians — a shadowy race spending most of their time swimming under the surface of the Martian dust, and to whom water is a deadly poison. They are neither able nor interested in going into space, and humans are not really interested in Mars, so there seems no reason for conflict. Still, in the book Protector (1973), the Martians are brutally exterminated by a large water asteroid deliberately hurled at the planet, raising the water content in the atmosphere to a degree deadly to them, by Jack Brennan, a human who had turned into a Pak Protector — a creature completely devoted to protecting its descendants, or sometimes his entire species, and is unreasonably xenophobic towards anybody else. This act of interplanetary genocide in effect ties Niven's Mars with the older Wells/Stapledon tradition. Some of these Martians are thought to have survived on the Ringworld, however. See Ringworld Engineers, Ringworld Throne, and Ringworld's Children. Various Protectors set up traps against Niven Martians. In The Sirens of Titan by Kurt Vonnegut (1969), previously uninhabited Mars is populated by brainwashed transplants from Earth, leading to the invasion of Earth by the newly-created Martian army. In Die Erde is nah: die Marsexpedition (1970), by Ludek Pesek, published in English as The Earth is Near (1973), a crew of twenty men undertake the first manned mission to Mars, and after landing in the wrong area due to computer malfunction and/or human error, have to cope with vicious sand storms, and a long trek undertaken in vehicles to their original intended area of exploration. The story is told from the viewpoint of the expedition's psychologist, and tries to be (based on the knowledge then known about Mars when written) accurate and realistic as to the problems encountered due to the Martian environment, the technology they have, and the human emotional response to their situation. In Police Your Planet (1975) by Lester Del Rey, a disgraced, embittered Earth cop is exiled to a Mars that has been thoroughly corrupted by domed city life - he who controls the air machinery, makes the rules. The local police and city government are utterly corrupt, Chicago style. At first he tries to fit in, then his contact with other downtrodden outsiders renews his old idealism. Birth of Fire (1976) by Jerry Pournelle. The story of a troubled youth transported to Mars as a convict laborer who becomes involved with a rebellion by independent farmers and tradesmen who want to terraform Mars and break the stranglehold by the corporations and domed cities sponsored by Earth governments. In Man Plus (1976) by Frederik Pohl, an astronaut is transformed into a cyborg capable of living on Mars. The novel A Double Shadow (1978) by poet Frederick Turner tells a Martian mythology with gods living on the top of Olympus Mons (called Nix Olympica) and intervening in human affairs. In this book, the writing of the mythology is a penance that a poet chooses to inflict to himself for the death of a fellow crew member on a Martian terraforming site. 1980s "Ananke" (1982) by Stanisław Lem (a story in More Tales of Pirx the Pilot) Watchmen (1985) by Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons. Several Martian landmarks appear in a section of the famous graphic novel, visited by the superhuman Dr. Manhattan and human Laurie Juspeczyk. The Forge of God (1987) by Greg Bear. The only surviving humans, numbering in the thousands, and the only surviving Earth life, are resettled on Mars, after the annihilation of Earth. Desolation Road (1988) by Ian McDonald is a magic-realist science fiction novel set on a planet that's never explicitly named (though the name "Ares" makes frequent appearances in various contexts) but is clearly meant to be a terraformed Mars. The length of the Martian year is whimsically implied through characters' ages (for example, young people come of age at 10), and a 24-month year is implied using month names such as "Julaugust" and "Novodecember." Genesis (1988) by poet Frederick Turner is an epic poem that by internal chronology describes events earlier than his novel (above), including the terraforming of Mars, the rise of a truly Martian prophet, the Sibyl, and (in a way thematically similar to other modern writers) the efforts of Martian humans to gain their independence from a corrupt and venal Earth. Draka series (1989-), a dystopian alternate history by S. M. Stirling. Mars is colonised by the harsh Draka who create a slave society. To control their slaves there, they breed a special kind of artificial horrendous beast, the ghouloon, out of baboons. Lobster Man from Mars (1989) is a parody of 1950s science fiction films, and tells of a race of Martians who are dying due to a rapidly thinning atmosphere, and send an anthropomorphic lobster to investigate the possible colonisation of Earth. Venus Prime (1989) The third book of the series: Hide & Seek is set on Mars. 1990s In Terry Bisson's Voyage to the Red Planet (1990), the first expedition to Mars is organized by a Hollywood producer so he can film a science fiction movie on location. Red Genesis (1991) by S.C. Sykes, about a rebellion by human colonists. Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy (Red Mars, Green Mars, Blue Mars, 1992-1996) is concerned with a centuries-long program of terraforming the planet. In Robinson's companion book The Martians, the escarpment is the scene of an epic multi-pitched rock climb. His Icehenge (1984) also features a Mars in process of terraforming. Olympus Mons features as the site of an annual festival. Mars is also one of the terraformed worlds visited during the course of Robinson's The Memory of Whiteness (1985). Mars (1992), and Return to Mars (1999) by Ben Bova from the Grand Tour series. Moving Mars (1993) by Greg Bear depicts a colonised Mars gradually seeking independence from the control of Earth. Red Dust (1993) by Paul J. McAuley takes place against a backdrop of a failing attempt at terraforming Mars by the Chinese. Bright Messengers (1995) by Gentry Lee a novel set in the Arthur C. Clarke's Rama universe. A faithful priestess and an engineer who share the same vision of sparkling particules on Earth meet on Mars as civilization faces total collapse. This affects the Mars colony and during the threat of a global sand storm, they found escape of the doomed outpost inside an alien pod, which carried the fugitive humans into a gigantic and espherical spaceship orbiting Mars. Voyage (1996) by Stephen Baxter. An alternate history about the 20-year lead-up to a 3-person Mars expedition in 1986 using Apollo-derived technology. Mars Underground (1997) by William K. Hartmann Olympus Mons (1998) by Bud Sparhawk. the mountain is the setting for a 21st century downhill race. Beige Planet Mars (1998) by Lance Parkin and Mark Clapham, a novel in Virgin Publishing's New Adventures series is set on a terraformed Mars which has become a retirement home for Earth's wealthy elderly. The title is a deliberate play on the books of Robinson's Mars Trilogy. Semper Mars (1998) by Ian Douglas depicts the Cydonia region of Mars as home to ancient alien ruins where mummified early humans are found in 2040. The Martian Race (1999) by Gregory Benford Brian Aldiss and Roger Penrose wrote White Mars (1999) as a response to the terraforming science fiction of Kim Stanley Robinson and Paul J. MaCauley above. However, their work rejects terraforming and Mars has been designated as a "planet for science", analogously to Antarctica's current status as an ecologically preserved site for managed scientific experimentation. A Harlot of Venus (1996, Richard McGowan) is a lurid, erotic swashbuckler set on a low-tech Mars much in the adventurous spirit of Burroughs. The book features many place names that correspond with actual Martian geography. Recent Mars Crossing (2000) by Geoffrey A. Landis, about a stranded expedition. "The Great Wall of Mars" (2000) by Alastair Reynolds, in which the most technologically advanced faction of humans is based on Mars and embroiled in an interplanetary war; introduced some of the most important characters and groups in the Revelation Space universe. Several later Revelation Space novels add additional details of history of groups and characters on Mars. Cronin Mars trilogy: As It Is On Mars (2001), Give Us This Mars (2003), and Glory Be To Mars (2005) by William Thomas Cronin First Landing (2002) by Robert Zubrin Mars is the scene of the last of three recent space operas by John Barnes: In the Hall of the Martian King (2003). Barnes also sets one of the two Meme Wars novels on Mars: The Sky So Big and Black (2002). Ilium/Olympus series (2003- ) by Dan Simmons. Olympus Mons has become the Mount Olympos of Greek myth, home of beings playing the roles of the various Greek gods. The Empress of Mars (2003) by Kage Baker. Stories by Caitlín R. Kiernan: The Dry Salvages (2004). Mentions Mars colonists and Martian paleontology. "Bradbury Weather" (2005). Set entirely on a colonized Mars where a plague has made the planet uninhabitable by men, so that only women populate Mars, living alongside an ancient parasitic organism (perhaps also alien to Mars) referred to as "the Fenrir" and "the Wolf." "Excerpt from Memoirs of a Martian Demirep" (2007). Mass Effect: Revelation (2007) by Drew Karpyshyn talks of a discovery of ancient galactic technology on Mars, which revolutionized human space programs. Ben Bova's Mars Life (2008) is a sequel to his two earlier Mars novels (see 1990s above). Nostalgic Mars fiction Several post-Mariner works are homages to the older phase of Mars fiction, circumventing the scientific picture of a dry and lifeless Mars with an unbreathable atmosphere through such science fiction generic staples as positing its future terraforming, or creating alternateS history versions of Mars, where Burroughs' Barsoom, Bradbury's Martian Chronicles or The War of the Worlds are literal truth. Philip José Farmer's World of Tiers series (1965–1993) contains a nostalgic and ironic reminder of the Barsoom stories. Kickaha, the series' adventurer protagonist, asks his friend The Creator of Universes to create for him a Barsoom. The latter agrees only to make an empty world, since "It would go too far for me to create all these fabulous creatures only for you to amuse yourself by running your sword through them". Kickaha visits from time to time the empty Barsoom, complete with beautiful palaces in which nobody ever lived, but goes away frustrated. Some Sword and planet series, such as Michael Moorcock's Kane of Old Mars trilogy (1965) and Lin Carter's Mysteries of Mars (1973–1984) are deliberately anachronistic homages to earlier visions of Mars, particularly Burroughs'. In one of Robert A. Heinlein's last novels, The Number of the Beast (1980), the heroes flee Earth in a car capable of flight in six dimensions and find several alternate versions of Mars, one which had been colonised by the British and another which is an improbable combination of Burroughs' fabulous Barsoom with the home planet of the vicious Martians whose invasion of Earth was described by Wells. A World Of Difference (1990) by Harry Turtledove. In this alternate history, the fourth planet of our solar system - named Minerva instead of Mars - is larger, nearer to Earth and has conditions congenial to the existence of life, including intelligent creatures with their well-defined biology and culture (and wars with each other). Until the 1970s this makes no substantial difference to human history, beyond some minor differences in myths. But when a Viking space probe sends back the picture of an alien creature swinging a stick, a joint US/USSR mission is sent in a hurry to explore the planet, and things develop fast from there. S. M. Stirling's Lords of Creation series includes In the Courts of the Crimson Kings, in which Mars (as well as Venus) have been terraformed by unknown aliens over the course of hundreds of millions of years and seeded with all kinds of terrestrial life. Terran explorers arrive in the latter part of the 20th century to discover that Mars is home to a decaying but still highly advanced culture that was creating technological marvels back when Earthlings were still living in caves. The title Larry Niven's Rainbow Mars (1999) alludes to Robinson's three-colored Mars trilogy, and the plot concerns a time machine that is used to visit ancient Mars. The only problem is that time travel is impossible, and the machine actually travels back to a fictitious/alternate-universe Mars. The protagonist meets a wide variety of different Martians, including most of those from the pre-Mariner novels listed above. "Larklight" (2006), a story by Phillip Reeve is set in the 1700s, where Mars is inhabited by an elvin race, which formerly commanded great space empires. Humans are thought to be their descendants. They are describe as purple haired and russet skinned. Mars and most other planets have a breathable atmosphere for humanity in Larklight. Nostalgia for the older Mars also frequently appears in comics and role-playing games, particularly of the steampunk genre: The role-playing game Space: 1889 (1988) features an alternate history in which a heroic Mars, complete with natives, is being colonized by the European empires of the 19th century. The wargame Sky Galleons of Mars (1988) is set in the same alternate history as Space:1889. The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (1999-) takes place in a world where characters from various literary sources interact. A scene taking place on Mars features the Hithers from Gullivar of Mars, the Green Martians from Barsoom, and the Séroni from Out of the Silent Planet, with references to Kane of Old Mars. In the world of The League, the Martians from The War of the Worlds are not originally from Mars, but were invading aliens who moved on to try to conquer Earth. In the graphic novel Scarlet Traces- the Great Game (2002), Olympus Mons is the main base of the British Mars Expeditionary Force. Scarlet Traces is intended as a sequel to H. G. Wells' The War of the Worlds and centres on a counter-invasion of Mars, beginning about 1908 and continuing over the next three decades. Film and television Total Recall (1990) – Loosely based upon a Philip K. Dick short story, "We Can Remember It for You Wholesale." The protagonist (Arnold Schwarzenegger) must journey to Mars in order to uncover his past. Mars is shown as being previously inhabited by an ancient race of aliens who created a machine for producing a breathable atmosphere on the planet. Space Above and Beyond has scenes on Mars. Armitage III (1994) – An anime by Hiroyuki Ochi. RocketMan (1997) - A Mission to Mars with a wacky computer programer for 8 Months Cowboy Bebop (1998) - Many of Mars's impact craters were transformed into metropolitan areas following a Disaster that Destroyed the Surafce of Earth in 2021. The series protagonist, Spike Spiegal, is a native of Mars. Mission to Mars (2000) – A science fiction thriller adventure about a rescue mission of the first manned mission to Mars, which encountered a catastrophic and mysterious disaster. Red Planet (2000) – A group of astronauts try to make Mars suitable for human life. No relation to the Robert A. Heinlein novel of the same title. Ghosts of Mars (2001) – Director John Carpenter uses the planet as a science fiction setting for a remake of his earlier Assault on Precinct 13. Stranded: Náufragos (2002) - thriller adventure about the crew of the first manned mission to Mars getting stranded on the surface. Based on a script by the noted Spanish sci-fi writer Juan Miguel Aguilera. Avenger (2003) – a post-apocalyptic anime series. Mars is presented as the only planet colonized before the destruction of Earth and hence, the only humanity's hope to survive. However, after the Earth's Moon has been drawn by Mars' gravitation to become its third natural satellite, several catastrophic events rendered the planet practically uninhabitable. Transformers Armada: Mars Mars Daybreak (2004) – An anime based on a video game (Kenran Butohsai). The story is set on a water-flooded Mars. Space Odyssey: Voyage To The Planets (2004) - A documentary style series about a scientific voyage by the crew of the interplanetary ship Pegasus. Mars was one of the first planets visited, and the crew stayed on the surface for some time, finding water and experiencing a huge dust storm. Doom (2005) – Loosely based on the third installment of the Doom computer game series, a group of Marines are sent to the red planet via an ancient Martian portal called the Ark to deal with an outbreak of a mutagenic virus. Tom and Jerry Blast Off to Mars (2005) - Tom and Jerry unintentionally discover that we are not alone in the universe when they stow away on a rocket headed for Mars. Martians are depicted as small (Jerry-sized), green, with tentacles for "hair", and wearing various red-and-white uniforms. Race to Mars (2007) – a miniseries produced in 2007 by Discovery Channel Canada. Secondary references to Mars in film and television In the following works of fiction, the Martian setting is of secondary importance to the work as a whole. Doctor Who television series. Mars is the homeworld of the Ice Warriors, a recurring adversary of the Second and Third Doctors from 1967 to 1974. In Pyramids of Mars (1975) the Fourth Doctor defeats Sutekh, last of the Osirians, who had been imprisoned for his crimes beneath a Martian pyramid. The Super Dimension Fortress Macross (1982–1983) anime series, which was edited and adapted as the first part of Robotech (1985), in the episode "Bye Bye, Mars". The SDF-1 Macross lands on Mars to resupply, and must fight its way off the planet after being trapped there by an alien Zentradi ambush. Genesis Climber Mospeada (1983–1984) anime series, which was edited and adapted as the third part of Robotech (1985). The main character, Stick Bernard(Mospeada)/Scott Bernard (Robotech), is a Martian colonist and a soldier in the Mars Base Military. Blue Comet SPT Layzner (1985–1986) anime series. Several episodes take place on Mars. Exosquad (1993–1995) animated television series. Mars was one of the three Homeworlds and the industrial center of the Solar System before the war between Terrans and Neosapiens. During the war, the Neosapiens made it their stronghold. Olympus Mons was the location of the headquarters of the main villain Phaeton, as well as containing a breeding facility for the artificial Neosapiens. The mountain was destroyed during an attack on the facility by Able Squad at the climax of the first season of the show. The mountain is inaccurately depicted as a tall, narrow spire. Babylon 5 (1993–1998) television series. Mars is a human colony seeking independence from the Earth Alliance. Several of the major characters have close links to Mars and, alongside Centauri Prime and the White Star fleet, Mars is the most common setting for action other than the Babylon 5 space station itself. In addition, there is reference to a past Shadow presence on Mars, which left it's remains behind, along with the half-legendary memory of Mars having once harbored hostile alien sentients. seaQuest DSV television series. The episode "Better Than Martians" (1994) deals with the first manned mission to Mars returning to Earth, but, encountering difficulty upon re-entering Earth's atmosphere and splashing into the ocean, leaving seaQuest to find the capsule before an unfriendly foreign confederation can. Martian Successor Nadesico (1996). An anime series and manga by Kia Asamiya. Futurama (1999–2003) animated television series. By the year 3000, Mars has been completely terraformed to make it habitable for humans - the native Martian aliens are forced to live in specially designated areas, in a parody of the treatment of Native Americans. Amy Wong's parents own half of the planet, and it features its own university. Invader Zim (2001–2002) animated television series. In one episode, Zim finds that Mars is a giant spaceship and attempts to roll it over Earth in order to wipe out all human life. Star Trek television franchise. Some starships are assembled at Utopia Planitia region on Mars, particularly the Galaxy class starships featured in Star Trek: The Next Generation. In the Star Trek: Enterprise episodes Demons and Terra Prime (both 2005) it is revealed that Mars is in the process of being terraformed by use of the Verteron array which redirects comets to crashland on the planet's surface. The opening credits of this series feature real images of the "Sojourner" rover on Mars, being the first Star Trek production featuring real footage filmed on another world. In the Star Trek: Voyager episode One Small Step the Voyager discovers the fate of the Ares IV, the first manned expedition to Mars in 2032. In the Star Trek: Voyager episode The 37's Harry Kim says that Mars was colonized by Earth in 2103. Transformers (2007) movie. One of the Mars probes was attacked by Blackout after it landed. It also recorded the attack. Starhunter 2300 Canadian sci-tv series. Several episodes take place in the vicinity of Mars, known as "Mars Federation." It is a more populated and wealthier system than the Jupiter and Saturn Federations. One of the main characters, Callista Larkadia, is a bounty hunter who came from a wealthy family on Mars. She also used to be an officer for "Mars Special Ops." Comics In the Watchmen comic by Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons Dr. Manhattan character tours Mars and visits Olympus Mons, admiring its features. In the 2000 AD series The V.C.s Olympus Mons' crater is covered by a massive dome to retain an atmosphere as the main settlement on the planet. In the Mobile Suit Gundam F90 manga, Olympus Mons is where Principality of Zeon remnants called the Oldsmobile Army construct their base of operations. Included is an enormous cannon capable of firing shots at Earth. Several stories of the DC Comics character Martian Manhunter take place on Mars. The most recent issue of the webcomic Dr. McNinja features Dracula revealing that he discovered the cure for cancer and hid it on Mars. In the comic strip, Calvin and Hobbes: Weirdos From Another Planet! by Bill Watterson, Calvin and Hobbes travel to Mars because the Earth is too polluted. Computer and video games In the id Software game Commander Keen, Keen explores Mars in the first episode and keeps a Martian pet for the remainder of the series. In the turned-based tactics game X-COM: UFO Defense the alien invaders use Mars as a base of operations in which to launch UFO attacks on Earth. UFO: Afterlight, a game similar to the X-COM series, is set entirely on Mars and its moons. It involves a human colony struggling for survival against various hostile aliens and the harsh Martian environment. Strategic gameplay takes place on a 3-D rendered globe of Mars, which includes familiar landmarks such as Olympus Mons. The player has the option of altering the landscape through terraforming. The first-person shooter Red Faction tells the story of a Martian mining colony that leads a revolt to take control of the autocratic government. The computer game Elite 2 starts on Mars in one scenario. In the 1993 video game Doom, game events took place on military bases on both of Mars' moons, Phobos and Deimos. The 2004 sequel Doom 3 is set on Mars itself. Mars is the setting for Worlds of Ultima II: Martian Dreams RPG by Origin Systems released in 1991. The heroic Avatar travels first to the year 1887, then on to Mars to rescue many of Earth's scientists, celebrities, and politicians stranded there by accident. The Avatar will uncover the secrets of a lost Martian civilization. In the video game Airforce Delta Strike, the EDAF establishes a base on Mars to use as a rally point to finish off the OCC's remaining forces. Three levels of the computer game Descent are set in facilities on Mars. Level 8 is set in a processing station, while levels 9 and 10 are (appropriately) set in a military dig and military base. In the game's third installment, Descent³, the player's character is rescued and then assisted by a group of scientists whose base of operations is located on Mars, before the facility is destroyed at one particular game level by an invading Earth force. The next game level after that also takes place on Mars in an underground colony. The survival horror Martian Gothic: Unification is set on a research base on the surface of Mars, and a volcanic vent of Olympus Mons is also explored. Most of the 1986 Infocom game Leather Goddesses of Phobos occurs (despite the name) on Mars. The video game Armored Core 2 takes place on Mars while it is undergoing terraforming and colonization. The game's final mission however takes place on Phobos. Some of the missions in the video game Battlezone are set on Mars. It doesn't appear in the Soviet campaign, though. In the shoot 'em up game Terra Diver (SoukyouGurentai in Japan), the player's rival company sets up their attack HQ on Mars where the player's final mission takes place. In Darius II (arcade game), players travel to Mars to eliminate one of many underground enemy bases. In the shoot 'em up Mars Matrix, Martian colonists revolt turning their colony upside down and the players are ordered to stop them. One of the Stardroids is based on this planet, in fact it is named Mars. See this. In the Cave shoot em' up DoDonPachi, players control an Earth-bound pilot who is assigned to stop an attack on Earth initiated by an unknown race of highly skilled Martian pilots whereupon the second level in the game takes place on the Martian surface. In Mass Effect, an expedition launched by the European Space Agency discovers an ancient cache of advanced technology leftover from an alien race known as the Protheans. Role-playing games In Palladium Games' post-apocalyptic role-playing game Rifts, the Martian canals are mystical ley lines, magical tunnels of energy that create portals through space, time and dimension wherever they cross. In Palladium's After The Bomb Sourcebook 6: Mutants in Orbit, there is a section pertaining to Rifts that also says that there were several points where the ley lines create dimensional pockets (similar to the Bermuda Triangle) in which full-fledged jungles grow within the borders of three nearby Rifts. In the GURPS role-playing game Transhuman Space, Mars is in the process of being terraformed, while several million people live in colonies. China, the first nation to land on Mars and the leader of the most extensive colonies, has built a space elevator on Mars to speed colonization. The Transhuman Space sourcebook In The Well places a University town, "Nix Olympia" and a ski resort "Zeus Tourist Resort" on Olympus Mons. In the RPG Mutant Chronicles, Mars is the homeworld of Capitol Megacorporation. Space: 1889 portrays an arid, ageing Mars on the Lowellian model. Its native civilization is decadent and the various city-states and desert tribes squabble as the canal system slowly falls apart and Earthmen arrive to carve out colonial holdings. Wargames In the tabletop wargame Warhammer 40,000'' (set 40,000 years into the future), Mars is a vast, heavily colonized 'Forge World,' home to the Adeptus Mechanicus, the Tech-Priests of Mars. They are the engineers and technicians of the Imperium, who create most of the Imperium's more advanced weaponry. The planet is almost as well defended as the Holy planet Terra itself and home to those who worship the 'Machine Spirit.' In the tabletop wargame and fictional universe of BattleTech, Mars is the location of a military academy. Mars was held by the Terran Hegemony and the Star League before its collapse. Afterward it was controlled by the interstellar communication order known as ComStar. After ComStar split into two factions Mars was claimed along with Terra by the Word of Blake during Operation Odysseus. During the Word of Blake's jihad against the rest of the Inner Sphere the mercenary command Wolf's Dragoons launched a failed assault on Mars which resulted in the nuclear scouring of their base planet of Outreach. Other media In the second verse of the hit song Rocket Man (1972), Elton John sings "Mars ain't the kind of place to raise your kids/In fact it's cold as hell/And there's no one there to raise them/If you did". The cult American rock band the Pixies have an album track on their 1991 album Trompe le Monde named Bird Dream of the Olympus Mons, on an album filled with references to space, aliens and other 'out of this world' subjects. Pop Princess Britney Spears stars as a Mars princess during the video for her hit single Oops!... I Did It Again. Rock band The Flaming Lips perform the song Approaching Pavonis Mons by Balloon (Utopia Planitia) on their 2002 release Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots. The song won the 2002 Grammy for Best Instrumental Rock Performance. In the popular anime and manga series Sailor Moon, Rei Hino is Sailor Mars, the senshi of fire. Lego has two themes, one discontinued: Life on Mars and Mars Mission. Martians in fiction The Martian was a favorite character of classical science fiction; he was frequently found away from his home planet, often invading Earth, but sometimes simply a lonely character representing alienness from his surroundings. Martians, other than human beings transplanted to Mars, became rare in fiction after Mariner, except in exercises of deliberate nostalgia - more frequently in some genres, such as comics and animation, than in written literature. See also Mars (mythology) Martian canal A Hundred Years Retrospective of French Science Fiction about Mars References | Mars_in_fiction |@lemmatized fictional:2 representation:1 mar:270 popular:4 century:7 interest:1 stimulate:1 planet:52 dramatic:1 red:16 color:3 early:11 scientific:4 speculation:1 surface:8 condition:3 might:2 capable:4 support:1 life:13 possibility:2 could:2 colonize:6 human:40 future:6 almost:3 story:38 martian:92 engage:1 activity:1 frequently:6 invasion:5 away:4 home:9 fiction:28 mariner:8 spacecraft:1 arrive:5 july:1 dispel:1 exotic:2 theory:1 conventional:1 image:2 shape:1 observation:1 astronomer:1 giovanni:1 schiaparelli:2 percival:1 lowell:2 observe:1 take:20 linear:1 feature:17 face:3 think:5 water:7 channel:3 however:5 since:2 italian:1 canali:1 english:2 translation:1 tend:1 render:3 word:4 canal:10 imply:3 artificial:3 construction:1 book:15 expand:1 notion:1 standard:1 model:2 drying:2 cooling:1 die:6 world:19 establish:4 speculate:1 ancient:13 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3,897 | Commutator | In mathematics, the commutator gives an indication of the extent to which a certain binary operation fails to be commutative. There are different definitions used in group theory and ring theory. Group theory The commutator of two elements, g and h, of a group, G, is the element [g, h] = g−1h−1gh It is equal to the group's identity if and only if g and h commute (i.e., if and only if gh = hg). The subgroup of generated by all commutators is called the derived group or the commutator subgroup of G. Note that one must consider the subgroup generated by the set of commutators because in general the set of commutators is not closed under the group operation. Commutators are used to define nilpotent and solvable groups. N.B. The above definition of the commutator is used by group theorists. Many other mathematicians define the commutator as [g, h] = ghg−1h−1 Identities Commutator identities are an important tool in group theory, . The expression ax denotes x−1a x. and and and Identity 5 is also known as the Hall-Witt identity. It is a group-theoretic analogue of the Jacobi identity for the ring-theoretic commutator (see next section). N.B. The above definition of the conjugate of a by x is used by group theorists. Many other mathematicians define the conjugate of a by x as xax−1. This is usually written . Similar identities hold for these conventions. A wide range of identities are used that are true modulo certain subgroups. These can be particularly useful in the study of solvable groups and nilpotent groups. For instance, in any group second powers behave well If the derived subgroup is central, then Ring theory The commutator of two elements a and b of a ring or an associative algebra is defined by [a, b] = ab − ba It is zero if and only if a and b commute. In linear algebra, if two endomorphisms of a space are represented by commuting matrices with respect to one basis, then they are so represented with respect to every basis. By using the commutator as a Lie bracket, every associative algebra can be turned into a Lie algebra. The commutator of two operators defined on a Hilbert space is an important concept in quantum mechanics since it measures how well the two observables described by the operators can be measured simultaneously. The uncertainty principle is ultimately a theorem about these commutators via the Robertson-Schrödinger relation. Identities The commutator has the following properties: Lie-algebra relations: The second relation is called anticommutativity, while the third is the Jacobi identity. Additional relations: If is a fixed element of a ring , the first additional relation can also be interpreted as a Leibniz rule for the map given by . In other words: the map defines a derivation on the ring . The following identity involving commutators, a special case of the Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula, is also useful: Graded rings and algebras When dealing with graded algebras, the commutator is usually replaced by the graded commutator, defined in homogeneous components as Derivations Especially if one deals with multiple commutators, another notation turns out to be useful involving the adjoint representation: Then is a derivation and is linear, i.e., and , and a Lie algebra homomorphism, i.e, , but it is not always an algebra homomorphism, i.e the identity does not hold in general. Examples: Anticommutator The anticommutator of two elements a and b of a ring or an associative algebra is defined by {a, b} = ab + ba The anticommutator is used a lot less than the commutator, but can be used for example to define the Clifford Algebra. See also Anticommutativity Derivation (abstract algebra) Pincherle derivative Poisson bracket Moyal bracket Canonical commutation relation Associator References | Commutator |@lemmatized mathematics:1 commutator:21 give:2 indication:1 extent:1 certain:2 binary:1 operation:2 fail:1 commutative:1 different:1 definition:3 use:8 group:14 theory:5 ring:8 two:6 element:5 g:7 h:4 equal:1 identity:11 commute:3 e:4 gh:1 hg:1 subgroup:5 generate:2 call:2 derive:2 note:1 one:3 must:1 consider:1 set:2 general:2 close:1 define:9 nilpotent:2 solvable:2 n:2 b:7 theorist:2 many:2 mathematician:2 ghg:1 important:2 tool:1 expression:1 ax:1 denote:1 x:4 also:4 know:1 hall:1 witt:1 theoretic:2 analogue:1 jacobi:2 see:2 next:1 section:1 conjugate:2 xax:1 usually:2 write:1 similar:1 hold:2 convention:1 wide:1 range:1 true:1 modulo:1 particularly:1 useful:3 study:1 instance:1 second:2 power:1 behave:1 well:2 central:1 associative:3 algebra:12 ab:2 ba:2 zero:1 linear:2 endomorphisms:1 space:2 represent:2 matrix:1 respect:2 basis:2 every:2 lie:4 bracket:3 turn:2 operator:2 hilbert:1 concept:1 quantum:1 mechanic:1 since:1 measure:2 observables:1 describe:1 simultaneously:1 uncertainty:1 principle:1 ultimately:1 theorem:1 via:1 robertson:1 schrödinger:1 relation:6 identities:1 following:2 property:1 anticommutativity:2 third:1 additional:2 fixed:1 first:1 interpret:1 leibniz:1 rule:1 map:2 word:1 derivation:4 involve:2 special:1 case:1 baker:1 campbell:1 hausdorff:1 formula:1 grade:1 deal:2 graded:2 replace:1 homogeneous:1 component:1 especially:1 multiple:1 another:1 notation:1 adjoint:1 representation:1 homomorphism:2 always:1 example:2 anticommutator:3 lot:1 less:1 clifford:1 abstract:1 pincherle:1 derivative:1 poisson:1 moyal:1 canonical:1 commutation:1 associator:1 reference:1 |@bigram commutator_subgroup:1 jacobi_identity:2 associative_algebra:3 lie_bracket:1 lie_algebra:3 quantum_mechanic:1 adjoint_representation:1 algebra_homomorphism:2 clifford_algebra:1 abstract_algebra:1 canonical_commutation:1 commutation_relation:1 |
3,898 | Adoptionism | Adoptionism, also called dynamic monarchianism, was a minority Christian belief that Jesus was born merely human and that he became divine later in his life. By these accounts, Jesus earned the title Christ through his sinless devotion to the will of God, thereby becoming the perfect sacrifice to redeem humanity. Adoptionists typically portray two key points in Jesus' life as stages in Jesus' theosis: his baptism and his resurrection. They consider God to have given Jesus his miraculous power and divine authority after Jesus proved his holiness. Adoptionism arose among early Christians seeking to reconcile the claims that Jesus was the son of God with the monotheism of Judaism. Adoptionism was common before it was first declared heresy at the end of the 2nd century. Some scholars see adoptionist concepts in the Gospel of Mark and in the Pauline epistles. Adoptionism was condemned by the church as heresy at various times. The belief contradicts the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity, defined at the First Council of Nicaea, which identifies Jesus as eternally God. The term "adoptionism" is thus, through the influence of Harnack's Dogmengeschichte, applied to this heretical stream in early Greek theology, which regarded Christ as a man gifted with divine powers, a view first represented by the Ebionites and later developed by the Monarchians. It must be distinguished from adoptianism, the much later heresy, originating in eight-century Spain, according to which Christ, in his humanity, is not the true, but only the adoptive, Son of God. This teaching was condemned at a council held in Frankfurt in 794 and another held in Rome in 798. It was revived in a modified form in the twelfth century by Abelard and others. In later times Duns Scotus, Francisco Suárez and others attempted to interpret in an orthodox sense the statement that Jesus as man is the adopted Son of God, but these theories were all rejected as subversive of a sound Christology. Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press. 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Adoptianism Adoptionism and Christology Adoptionism is one of two main forms of monarchianism (the other is modalism, which regards "Father" and "Son" as two aspects of the same subject). Adoptionism (also known as dynamic monarchianism) denies the pre-existence of Christ and although it does not deny his deity many Trinitarians claim that it does. Under Adoptionism Jesus is currently divine and has been since his adoption, although he is not equal to the Father. Adoptionism was one position in a long series of Christian disagreements about the precise nature of Christ (see Christology) in the developing dogma of the Trinity, an attempt to explain the relationship between Jesus of Nazareth, both as man and (now) God, and God the Father while maintaining Christianity's monotheism. It differs significantly from the doctrine of the Trinity that was later affirmed by the ecumenical councils. History of adoptionism In The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture Bart D. Ehrman argues that the adoptionist view may date back almost to the time of Jesus and this view is shared by many other scholars. In academic circles some consider both Paul the Apostle and the Gospel of Mark to have adoptionist Christologies, although they differ in that Paul is generally said to have placed the adoption at the Resurrection while Mark places it at Jesus' Baptism (orthodox Christianity would accept neither of these interpretations as accurate). In the 2nd century, adoptionism was one of two competing doctrines about the nature of Jesus Christ, the other (as in the Gospel of John) being that he pre-existed as a divine spirit (Logos) "Jesus was either regarded as the man whom God hath chosen, in whom the Deity or the Spirit of God dwelt, and who, after being tested, was adopted by God and invested with dominion, (Adoptian Christology); or Jesus was regarded as a heavenly spiritual being (the highest after God) who took flesh, and again returned to heaven after the completion of his work on earth (pneumatic Christology)." Adolf von Harnack, History of Dogma . Historically, there were three waves of Adoptionist speculation if we exclude the hypothetical beliefs of the primitive church that cannot be determined with certainty. The first, which dates from the 2nd century, differs significantly from the subsequent two (dating respectively from the 8th and the 12th century), which follow the definition of the dogma of the Trinity and Chalcedonian Christology. Second century: pre-Nicene Christology The first known exponent of Adoptionism in the second century is Theodotus of Byzantium. He taught Hippolytus of Rome, Philosophumena, VII, xxxv. that Jesus was a man born of a virgin according to the counsel of the (???) he lived like other men, and was most pious; that at his baptism in the Jordan the Christ came down upon Him in the likeness of a dove, and therefore wonders (dynameis) were not wrought in Him until the Spirit (which Theodotus called Christ) came down and was manifested in Him. The belief was declared heretical by Pope Victor I. The second-century work Shepherd of Hermas also taught that Jesus was a virtuous man filled with the Holy Spirit and adopted as the Son "The Holy Pre-existent Spirit. Which created the whole creation, God made to dwell in flesh that he desired. This flesh, therefore, in which the Holy Spirit dwelt, was subject unto the Spirit, walking honorably in holiness and purity, without in any way defiling the Spirit. When then it had lived honorably in chastity, and had labored with the Spirit, and had cooperated with it in everything, behaving itself boldly and bravely, he chose it as a partner with the Holy Spirit; for the career of this flesh pleased [the Lord], seeing that, as possessing the Holy Spirit, it was not defiled upon the earth. He therefore took the son as adviser and the glorious angels also, that this flesh too, having served the Spirit unblamably, might have some place of sojourn, and might not seem to have lost the reward for its service; for all flesh, which is found undefiled and unspotted, wherein the Holy Spirit dwelt, shall receive a reward." . While Shepherd of Hermas was popular and sometimes bound with the canonical scriptures, it never achieved canonical status. In the 3rd century, Paul of Samosata, Patriarch of Antioch, promoted adoptionism. He said Jesus had been a man who kept himself sinless and achieved union with God. His views, however, did not neatly fit in either of the two main forms of Monarchianism. Adoptianism: Hispanicus error The movement of adoptianism, called the Hispanicus error, was espoused in the late 8th century by Elipandus, bishop of Toledo in the Caliphate of Cordoba, and by Felix, bishop of Urgell in the foothills of the Pyrenees. Ascaric, bishop of either Astorga or Braga in the Kingdom of Asturias, was also implicated in the heresy. Alcuin, the leading intellect at the court of Charlemagne, was called in to write refutations against both of the bishops. Against Felix he wrote: As the Nestorian impiety divided Christ into two persons because of the two natures, so your unlearned temerity divided Him into two sons, one natural and one adoptive. Beatus of Liébana, from the Kingdom of Asturias, also fought adoptianism, which was a cause of controversy between Christians under Muslim rule in the former Visigothic capital of Toledo and the peripherical kingdom. The doctrine was condemned as heresy by the Council of Frankfurt (794). 12th century and later: neo-adoptianism A third wave was the revived form ("Neo-Adoptianism") of Abelard in the 12th century. Later, various modified and qualified adoptianist tenets emerged from some theologians in the 14th century. Duns Scotus (1300) and Durandus of Saint-Pourçain (1320) admit the term Filius adoptivus in a qualified sense. In more recent times the Jesuit Gabriel Vásquez, and the Lutheran divines Georgius Calixtus and Johann Ernst Immanuel Walch, have defended adoptianism as essentially orthodox. Notes References Philip Schaff History of the Christian Church, Volume IV, 1882 See also Adoptivi Arianism Binitarianism External links Adoptionism in Catholic Encyclopedia Adoptionism in Christian Cyclopedia Chapter XI. Doctrinal Controversies, from Philip Schaff's History of the Christian Church | Adoptionism |@lemmatized adoptionism:16 also:7 call:4 dynamic:2 monarchianism:4 minority:1 christian:8 belief:4 jesus:19 bear:1 merely:1 human:1 become:2 divine:6 later:6 life:2 account:1 earn:1 title:1 christ:9 sinless:2 devotion:1 god:14 thereby:1 perfect:1 sacrifice:1 redeem:1 humanity:2 adoptionists:1 typically:1 portray:1 two:9 key:1 point:1 stage:1 theosis:1 baptism:3 resurrection:2 consider:2 give:1 miraculous:1 power:2 authority:1 prove:1 holiness:2 arise:1 among:1 early:2 seek:1 reconcile:1 claim:2 son:7 monotheism:2 judaism:1 common:1 first:5 declare:2 heresy:5 end:1 century:14 scholar:2 see:4 adoptionist:4 concept:1 gospel:3 mark:3 pauline:1 epistle:1 condemn:3 church:5 various:2 time:4 contradict:1 orthodox:5 doctrine:4 trinity:4 define:1 council:4 nicaea:1 identify:1 eternally:1 term:2 thus:1 influence:1 harnack:2 dogmengeschichte:1 apply:1 heretical:2 stream:1 greek:1 theology:1 regard:4 man:7 gift:1 view:4 represent:1 ebionite:1 develop:1 monarchians:1 must:1 distinguish:1 adoptianism:8 much:1 originate:1 eight:1 spain:1 accord:2 true:1 adoptive:2 teaching:1 hold:1 frankfurt:2 another:1 held:1 rome:2 revive:2 modified:1 form:4 twelfth:1 abelard:2 others:2 late:2 duns:1 scotus:2 francisco:1 suárez:1 attempt:2 interpret:1 sense:2 statement:1 adopted:1 theory:1 reject:1 subversive:1 sound:1 christology:8 cross:1 f:1 l:1 ed:1 oxford:2 dictionary:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:1 article:1 one:5 main:2 modalism:1 father:3 aspect:1 subject:2 know:1 deny:2 pre:4 existence:1 although:3 deity:2 many:2 trinitarian:1 currently:1 since:1 adoption:2 equal:1 position:1 long:1 series:1 disagreement:1 precise:1 nature:3 developing:1 dogma:3 explain:1 relationship:1 nazareth:1 maintain:1 christianity:2 differ:2 significantly:2 affirm:1 ecumenical:1 history:4 corruption:1 scripture:2 bart:1 ehrman:1 argue:1 may:1 date:3 back:1 almost:1 share:1 academic:1 circle:1 paul:3 apostle:1 generally:1 say:2 place:3 would:1 accept:1 neither:1 interpretation:1 accurate:1 compete:1 john:1 exist:1 spirit:13 logos:1 either:3 hath:1 chosen:1 dwelt:3 test:1 adopt:2 invest:1 dominion:1 adoptian:1 heavenly:1 spiritual:1 high:1 take:2 flesh:6 return:1 heaven:1 completion:1 work:3 earth:2 pneumatic:1 adolf:1 von:1 historically:1 three:1 wave:2 speculation:1 exclude:1 hypothetical:1 primitive:1 cannot:1 determine:1 certainty:1 differs:1 subsequent:1 respectively:1 follow:1 definition:1 chalcedonian:1 second:3 nicene:1 known:1 exponent:1 theodotus:2 byzantium:1 teach:2 hippolytus:1 philosophumena:1 vii:1 xxxv:1 born:1 virgin:1 counsel:1 live:2 like:1 men:1 pious:1 jordan:1 come:2 upon:2 likeness:1 dove:1 therefore:3 wonder:1 dynameis:1 manifest:1 pope:1 victor:1 shepherd:2 hermas:2 virtuous:1 fill:1 holy:6 existent:1 create:1 whole:1 creation:1 make:1 dwell:1 desire:1 unto:1 walk:1 honorably:2 purity:1 without:1 way:1 defile:2 chastity:1 labor:1 cooperate:1 everything:1 behave:1 boldly:1 bravely:1 choose:1 partner:1 career:1 please:1 lord:1 possess:1 adviser:1 glorious:1 angel:1 serve:1 unblamably:1 might:2 sojourn:1 seem:1 lose:1 reward:2 service:1 find:1 undefiled:1 unspotted:1 wherein:1 shall:1 receive:1 popular:1 sometimes:1 bind:1 canonical:2 never:1 achieve:2 status:1 samosata:1 patriarch:1 antioch:1 promote:1 keep:1 union:1 however:1 neatly:1 fit:1 hispanicus:2 error:2 movement:1 espouse:1 elipandus:1 bishop:4 toledo:2 caliphate:1 cordoba:1 felix:2 urgell:1 foothill:1 pyrenees:1 ascaric:1 astorga:1 braga:1 kingdom:3 asturias:2 implicate:1 alcuin:1 lead:1 intellect:1 court:1 charlemagne:1 write:2 refutation:1 nestorian:1 impiety:1 divide:2 person:1 unlearned:1 temerity:1 natural:1 beatus:1 liébana:1 fought:1 cause:1 controversy:2 muslim:1 rule:1 former:1 visigothic:1 capital:1 peripherical:1 neo:2 third:1 modify:1 qualify:1 adoptianist:1 tenet:1 emerge:1 theologian:1 dun:1 durandus:1 saint:1 pourçain:1 admit:1 filius:1 adoptivus:1 qualified:1 recent:1 jesuit:1 gabriel:1 vásquez:1 lutheran:1 georgius:1 calixtus:1 johann:1 ernst:1 immanuel:1 walch:1 defend:1 essentially:1 note:1 reference:1 philip:2 schaff:2 volume:1 iv:1 adoptivi:1 arianism:1 binitarianism:1 external:1 link:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 cyclopedia:1 chapter:1 xi:1 doctrinal:1 |@bigram pauline_epistle:1 council_nicaea:1 adopted_son:1 jesus_nazareth:1 ecumenical_council:1 bart_ehrman:1 jesus_christ:1 von_harnack:1 hippolytus_rome:1 shepherd_hermas:2 holy_spirit:5 patriarch_antioch:1 bishop_urgell:1 dun_scotus:1 philip_schaff:2 external_link:1 christian_cyclopedia:1 |
3,899 | Post_Office_Protocol | In computing, the Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) is an application-layer Internet standard protocol used by local e-mail clients to retrieve e-mail from a remote server over a TCP/IP connection. POP3 and IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol) are the two most prevalent Internet standard protocols for e-mail retrieval. Virtually all modern e-mail clients and servers support both. Overview POP3 has made earlier versions of the protocol, informally called POP1 and POP2, obsolete. In contemporary usage, the less precise term POP almost always means POP3 in the context of e-mail protocols. The design of POP3 and its procedures supports end-users with intermittent connections (such as dial-up connections), allowing these users to retrieve e-mail when connected and then to view and manipulate the retrieved messages without needing to stay connected. Although most clients have an option to leave mail on server, e-mail clients using POP3 generally connect, retrieve all messages, store them on the user's PC as new messages, delete them from the server, and then disconnect. In contrast, the newer, more capable Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) supports both connected (online) and disconnected (offline) modes of operation. E-mail clients using IMAP generally leave messages on the server until the user explicitly deletes them. This and other aspects of IMAP operation allow multiple clients to access the same mailbox. Most e-mail clients support either POP3 or IMAP to retrieve messages; however, fewer Internet Service Providers (ISPs) support IMAP. Clients with a leave mail on server option generally use the POP3 UIDL (Unique IDentification Listing) command. Most POP3 commands identify specific messages by their ordinal number on the mail server. This creates a problem for a client intending to leave messages on the server, since these message numbers may change from one connection to the server to another. For example if a mailbox contains five messages at last connect, and a different client then deletes message #3, the next connecting user will find the last two messages' numbers decremented by one. UIDL provides a mechanism to avoid these numbering issues. The server assigns a string of characters as a permanent and unique ID for the message. When a POP3-compatible e-mail client connects to the server, it can use the UIDL command to get the current mapping from these message IDs to the ordinal message numbers. The client can then use this mapping to determine which messages it has yet to download, which saves time when downloading. IMAP has a similar mechanism, a 32-bit unique identifier (UID) that must be assigned to messages in ascending (although not necessarily consecutive) order as they are received. Because IMAP UIDs are assigned in this manner, to retrieve new messages an IMAP client need only request the UIDs greater than the highest UID among all previously-retrieved messages, whereas a POP client must fetch the entire UIDL map. For large mailboxes, this difference can be significant. Whether using POP3 or IMAP to retrieve messages, e-mail clients typically use the SMTP_Submit profile of the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) to send messages. E-mail clients are commonly categorized as either POP or IMAP clients, but in both cases the clients also use SMTP. There are extensions to POP3 that allow some clients to transmit outbound mail via POP3 - these are known as "XTND XMIT" extensions. The Qualcomm qpopper and CommuniGate Pro servers and Eudora clients are examples of systems that optionally utilize the XTND XMIT methods of authenticated client-to-server e-mail transmission. MIME serves as the standard for attachments and non-ASCII text in e-mail. Although neither POP3 nor SMTP require MIME-formatted e-mail, essentially all Internet e-mail comes MIME-formatted, so POP clients must also understand and use MIME. IMAP, by design, assumes MIME-formatted e-mail. Like many other older Internet protocols, POP3 originally supported only an unencrypted login mechanism. Although plain text transmission of passwords in POP3 still commonly occurs, POP3 currently supports several authentication methods to provide varying levels of protection against illegitimate access to a user's e-mail. One such method, APOP, uses the MD5 hash function in an attempt to avoid replay attacks and disclosure of the shared secret. Clients implementing APOP include Mozilla Thunderbird, Opera, Eudora, KMail, Novell Evolution, Windows Live Mail, PowerMail, and Mutt. POP3 clients can also support SASL authentication methods via the AUTH extension. MIT Project Athena also produced a Kerberized version. POP3 works over a TCP/IP connection using TCP on network port 110. E-mail clients can encrypt POP3 traffic using TLS or SSL. A TLS or SSL connection is negotiated using the STLS command. Some clients and servers, like Google Gmail, instead use the deprecated alternate-port method, which uses TCP port 995 (POP3S). Dialog example RFC 1939 APOP support indicated by <[email protected]> here: S: <wait for connection on TCP port 110> C: <open connection></font> S: +OK POP3 server ready <[email protected]> C: APOP mrose c4c9334bac560ecc979e58001b3e22fb</font> S: +OK mrose's maildrop has 2 messages (320 octets) C: STAT</font> S: +OK 2 320 C: LIST</font> S: +OK 2 messages (320 octets) S: 1 120 S: 2 200 S: . C: RETR 1</font> S: +OK 120 octets S: <the POP3 server sends message 1> S: . C: DELE 1</font> S: +OK message 1 deleted C: RETR 2</font> S: +OK 200 octets S: <the POP3 server sends message 2> C: QUIT</font> S: +OK dewey POP3 server signing off (maildrop empty) C: <close connection></font> S: <wait for next connection> POP3 servers without the optional APOP command expect the client to log in with the USER and PASS commands: C: USER mrose S: +OK User accepted C: PASS mrosepass S: +OK Pass accepted POP4 While not yet an official standardized mail protocol, a proposal has been outlined for a POP4 specification, complete with a working server implementation. The proposed POP4 extension adds basic folder management, multipart message support, as well as message flag management, allowing for a light protocol which supports some popular IMAP features which POP3 currently lacks. No progress has been observed in the POP4 specification since 2003. SDPS Demon Internet introduced extensions to POP3 that allow multiple accounts per domain, and has become known as Standard Dial-up POP3 Service (SDPS). To access each account, the username includes the hostname, as john@hostname or john+hostname. Server implementations Apache James Citadel/UX Courier Mail Server Cyrus IMAP server Dovecot Eudora Internet Mail Server Nginx qmail-pop3d Qpopper RePOP UW IMAP Zimbra Related Requests For Comments (RFCs) RFC 1939 – Post Office Protocol - Version 3 (STD 53) RFC 1957 – Some Observations on Implementations of the Post Office Protocol (POP3) RFC 2195 – IMAP/POP AUTHorize Extension for Simple Challenge/Response RFC 2384 – POP URL Scheme RFC 2449 – POP3 Extension Mechanism RFC 2595 – Using TLS with IMAP, POP3 and ACAP RFC 3206 – The SYS and AUTH POP Response Codes RFC 5034 – The Post Office Protocol (POP3) Simple Authentication and Security Layer (SASL) Authentication Mechanism See also Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) E-mail client webmail POP3 clients: getmail, fetchmail email encryption External links IANA port number assignments POP3 Sequence Diagram (PDF) POP4 Proposal Website | Post_Office_Protocol |@lemmatized computing:1 post:4 office:4 protocol:16 version:4 application:1 layer:2 internet:10 standard:4 use:17 local:1 e:20 mail:30 client:29 retrieve:7 remote:1 server:24 tcp:5 ip:2 connection:10 message:30 access:6 two:2 prevalent:1 retrieval:1 virtually:1 modern:1 support:11 overview:1 make:1 earlier:1 informally:1 call:1 obsolete:1 contemporary:1 usage:1 less:1 precise:1 term:1 pop:7 almost:1 always:1 mean:1 context:1 design:2 procedure:1 end:1 user:9 intermittent:1 dial:2 allow:5 connect:5 view:1 manipulate:1 retrieved:1 without:2 need:2 stay:1 although:4 option:2 leave:4 generally:3 store:1 pc:1 new:3 delete:3 disconnect:2 contrast:1 capable:1 imap:17 online:1 offline:1 mode:1 operation:2 explicitly:1 aspect:1 multiple:2 mailbox:3 either:2 however:1 service:2 provider:1 isps:1 uidl:4 unique:3 identification:1 listing:1 command:6 identify:1 specific:1 ordinal:2 number:5 create:1 problem:1 intend:1 since:2 may:1 change:1 one:3 another:1 example:3 contain:1 five:1 last:2 different:1 next:2 connecting:1 find:1 decremented:1 provide:2 mechanism:5 avoid:2 numbering:1 issue:1 assign:3 string:1 character:1 permanent:1 id:2 compatible:1 connects:1 get:1 current:1 mapping:2 determine:1 yet:2 download:2 save:1 time:1 similar:1 bit:1 identifier:1 uid:2 must:3 ascend:1 necessarily:1 consecutive:1 order:1 receive:1 uids:2 manner:1 request:2 great:1 high:1 among:1 previously:1 whereas:1 fetch:1 entire:1 map:1 large:1 difference:1 significant:1 whether:1 typically:1 profile:1 simple:4 transfer:2 smtp:4 send:3 commonly:2 categorize:1 case:1 also:5 extension:7 transmit:1 outbound:1 via:2 know:2 xtnd:2 xmit:2 qualcomm:1 qpopper:2 communigate:1 pro:1 eudora:3 system:1 optionally:1 utilize:1 method:5 authenticated:1 transmission:2 mime:5 serf:1 attachment:1 non:1 ascii:1 text:2 neither:1 require:1 format:3 essentially:1 come:1 understand:1 assume:1 like:2 many:1 old:1 originally:1 unencrypted:1 login:1 plain:1 password:1 still:1 occur:1 currently:2 several:1 authentication:4 vary:1 level:1 protection:1 illegitimate:1 apop:5 hash:1 function:1 attempt:1 replay:1 attack:1 disclosure:1 share:1 secret:1 implement:1 include:2 mozilla:1 thunderbird:1 opera:1 kmail:1 novell:1 evolution:1 windows:1 live:1 powermail:1 mutt:1 sasl:2 auth:2 mit:1 project:1 athena:1 produce:1 kerberized:1 work:2 network:1 port:5 encrypt:1 traffic:1 tl:3 ssl:2 negotiate:1 stls:1 google:1 gmail:1 instead:1 deprecated:1 alternate:1 dialog:1 rfc:9 indicate:1 dbc:2 mtview:2 ca:2 u:2 wait:2 c:11 open:1 font:9 ok:10 ready:1 mrose:3 maildrop:2 octet:4 stat:1 list:1 retr:2 dele:1 deleted:1 quit:1 dewey:1 sign:1 empty:1 close:1 optional:1 expect:1 log:1 pas:3 accept:2 mrosepass:1 official:1 standardized:1 proposal:2 outline:1 specification:2 complete:1 implementation:3 propose:1 add:1 basic:1 folder:1 management:2 multipart:1 well:1 flag:1 light:1 popular:1 feature:1 lack:1 progress:1 observe:1 sdps:2 demon:1 introduce:1 account:2 per:1 domain:1 become:1 username:1 hostname:3 john:2 apache:1 james:1 citadel:1 ux:1 courier:1 cyrus:1 dovecot:1 nginx:1 qmail:1 repop:1 uw:1 zimbra:1 related:1 comment:1 rfcs:1 std:1 observation:1 authorize:1 challenge:1 response:2 url:1 scheme:1 acap:1 sys:1 code:1 security:1 see:1 webmail:1 getmail:1 fetchmail:1 email:1 encryption:1 external:1 link:1 iana:1 assignment:1 sequence:1 diagram:1 pdf:1 website:1 |@bigram tcp_ip:2 client_server:3 offline_mode:1 provider_isps:1 imap_client:3 protocol_smtp:2 mozilla_thunderbird:1 font_ok:8 multipart_message:1 imap_server:1 comment_rfcs:1 rfcs_rfc:1 external_link:1 |
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