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3,300	Dedham,_Massachusetts	Dedham /ˈdɛdəm/ is a town in and the county seat of Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 23,464 at the 2000 census. It is located on Boston's southwest border. On the northwest it is bordered by Needham, on the southwest by Westwood and on the southeast by Canton. History Dedham was settled in 1635 by people from Roxbury and Watertown and incorporated in 1636, and is the county seat of Norfolk County.The originally proposed name of the town, was "Contentment". When the Town was incorporated the residents wanted it to be named Contentment, but the Massachusetts General Court overruled them and named the town Dedham, after Dedham, Essex in England. Some of the original inhabitants, including Samuel Morse, were born in Dedham, Essex. The first public meeting was held on August 15, 1636 in which 18 men signed the town covenant. They swore that they would "in the fear and reverence of our Almighty God, mutually and severally promise amongst ourselves and each to profess and practice one truth according to that most perfect rule, the foundation whereof is ever lasting love." They also agreed that "we shall by all means labor to keep off from us all such as are contrary minded, and receive only such unto us as may be probably of one heart with us, [and such] as that we either know or may well and truly be informed to walk in a peacable conversation with all meekness of spirit, [this] for the edification of each other in the knowledge and faith of the Lord Jesus..." The covenant also stipulated that if differences were to arise between townsmen that they would submit the issue to between one and four other members of the town for resolution and that they would each pay their fair share for the common good. Dedham is home to the Fairbanks House, the oldest surviving timber frame house in the United States, scientifically dated to 1637. On January 1, 1643, by unanimous vote, Dedham authorized the first taxpayer-funded public school; "the seed of American education." Schools vie for honor of being the oldest Its first teacher, Rev. Ralph Wheelock, was paid 20 pounds annually to instruct the youth of the community. Descendants of these students would become presidents of Dartmouth College, Yale University and Harvard University. Other Dedham firsts include the first man-made canal in North America, Mother Brook, which links the Charles River to the Neponset River. Although they are both slow moving rivers, they are at different elevations. When Mother Brook connected them, the difference in elevation made the current swift enough to power several local mills. In 1818, though citizens were still at this time taxed for the support of ministers and other "public teachers of religion", Dedham set an important precedent towards the separation of church and state by selecting a different minister than that chosen by the church, a right of selection that was confirmed by the Supreme Judicial Court. The historic Sacco and Vanzetti trial in the 1920s was held in the Dedham Courthouse. Dedham pottery is a cherished class of antiques, characterized by a distinctive crackle glaze, blue-and-white color scheme, and a frequent motif of rabbits and other animals. Dedham is sometimes called the "mother of towns" because 14 present-day communities were within its original borders. Geography Dedham is located at (42.244609, -71.165531). On the northeast corner of High Street and Court Street the U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey, now the U.S. National Geodetic Survey, has placed a small medallion into a granite block showing an elevation of . According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 10.6 square miles (27.6 km²), of which, 10.4 square miles (27.1 km²) of it is land and 0.2 square miles (0.5 km²) of it (1.79%) is water. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 23,464 people, 8,654 households, and 6,144 families residing in the town. The population density was 2,244.6 people per square mile (866.9/km²). There were 8,908 housing units at an average density of 852.2/sq mi (329.1/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 94.51% White, 1.54% Black or African American, 0.16% Native American, 1.87% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.80% from other races, and 1.08% from two or more races. 2.42% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 8,654 households, of which 30.1% have children under the age of 18 living with them. 56.3% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.0% were non-families. 23.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.14. Dedham's population is spread out with 22.2% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 31.1% from 25 to 44, 24.2% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 93.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.0 males. The median income for a household in the town was $61,699, and the median income for a family was $72,330. Males had a median income of $46,216 versus $35,682 for females. The per capita income for the town was $28,199. About 3.2% of families and 4.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.9% of those under age 18 and 6.5% of those age 65 or over. Seal and flag The Town of Dedham's flag The town's seal has several features. In the center is a crest containing the Old Avery Oak. When the tree was finally felled the gavel used by the Moderator at Town Meeting was carved out of it. Above the tree are the scales of justice, representing Dedham as the county seat and home to Norfolk County's courts. On the left of the tree are agricultural instruments and on the right is a factory, showing Dedham's history first as a town of farmers and then a one with a number of mills and factories, particularly along Mother Brook. Below the tree is a banner with the word "Contentment." The town flag is red with the seal prominent and in the center. In the lower left corner is part of the Avery Oak and in the lower right is part of the Fairbanks House. It hangs in the selectmen's chambers at town hall and in the Great Hall of the Massachusetts State House. Government The most recent town charter, adopted in 1998, lays out the form of government for the Town. Town Meeting According to Dedham's Charter, the "administration of all the fiscal, prudential, and municipal affairs of the town, with the government thereof, shall be vested in a legislative branch, to consist of a representative town meeting." Town Meeting is to consist of no less than 270 members, but not more than necessary to achieve an equal number coming from each precinct. There are to be "not less than six nor more than nine convenient voting districts, so established as to consist of as nearly an equal number of inhabitants as is possible in compact and contiguous territory." The districts are to be drawn by the Board of Selectmen and the Registrars of Voters every ten years. Town Meeting sets its own rules and keeps a journal of proceedings. Votes are by voice unless members call for a standing or roll call vote. The Moderator may call for a role call vote at his discretion. All Town officers are required to attend Town Meeting and multiple member bodies must send at least one representative who have all the privileges of a Member except the right to vote. If 5% of Town voters petition the Board of Selectmen within 14 days of Town Meeting any action taken may be submitted to voters. The final result is to be determined by majority vote, but Town Meeting can not be overruled unless 20% of registered voters participate. Town Meeting members Currently Town Meeting consists of 273 members, or representatives, with each of the seven districts, or precincts, electing 39. Thirteen are elected from each precinct each year and serve a three year term. Each precinct elects from its own members a Chairman, Vice Chairman and Secretary. To be eligible, candidates must have 10 registered voters from their precinct sign nomination papers. Town Meeting Members can not serve on any other elected board or on the Finance Committee. Members who move from the district or are removed by redistricting may serve until the next Town Election, however any member who moves out of the Town immediately ceases to be a Member. In case of a vacancy, the remaining term is to be filled at the next town election. If no election is to take place within 120 days of the vacancy then the district chairman is to call together the members of the district and they are to elect a member who will serve until the next town election. Committees The Town Meeting may establish various ad-hoc and standing committees on which any Town Meeting Member or voter may serve. Warrant The Warrant at Town Meeting includes the articles to be voted on. Any elected or appointed board, committee, town officer or ten voters, may place an article on the warrant. Each article to be voted on is directed by the Board of Selectmen to an appropriate board or committee to hear and provide the original motion at Town Meeting. All articles expending funds are directed to the Finance Committee; articles dealing with planning and zoning to the Planning Board; articles relating to by-laws to the By-Law Committee. Mini Town Meeting While it is not called for in the Charter, there is a tradition in Dedham for the Chairmen of the several districts to elect from amongst themselves a chairman. This Chairman of the Chairmen hosts what is officially known as the District Chairmen's Warrant Review Meeting but is much more commonly referred to as Mini Town Meeting. The "Mini" is generally one week before the actual Town Meeting. The purpose of the Mini is to air out several of the contentious issues before bringing them to the floor of Town Meeting. Board of Selectmen The executive branch of the Town Government is to be "headed" by a Board of Selectmen. The Board of Selectmen have five members who are elected for three year terms and are the chief policy making body for the town. They appoint a Town Administrator who runs the day to day affairs of the Town. They also appoint constables, registrars of voters and other election officers, the board of appeals, conservation commission, historic district commission, and members of several other multiple member boards. They set policy for all agencies below it, but are not involved in the day to day affairs of the Town. They issue licenses and can investigate the affairs and the conduct of any town agency. Town Clerk The Elected Town Clerk serves a three year term and works full time for the Town. The Clerk is "the keeper of vital statistics of the town and the custodian of the town seal and all public records, administer[s] the oaths of office to all town officers... [and is] the clerk of the town meeting." In the role as clerk of town meeting he notifies the public and members of the Town Meeting and keeps a verbatim record of proceedings. Town Moderator Town Meetings are presided over by the Town Moderator, but he has no vote unless all the Members present and voting are equally divided. At the first Town Meeting following the annual town election he is to appoint, subject to Town Meeting's confirmation, a Deputy Moderator from the elected Members. The Deputy serves in case of the Moderator's absence or disability. Other boards and committees The seven members of the School Committee are elected for three year terms and appoint a Superintendent of Schools. They also set policy for the School Department. The three elected members of the Board of Assessors serve three year terms and annually make a fair cash valuation of all property within the town. The three elected members of the Board of Health are responsible for the formulation and enforcement of rules and regulations affecting the environment and the public health. The Board of Library Trustees has five members, each of whom serve three year terms, and have care of the Town's public library at the Endicott Branch and Main Branch. They are responsible for all library policy, the library budget, and hiring and firing the library director. The current Chairman is Joseph B. Craven. The five elected members of the Planning Board make studies and prepare plans concerning the resources, possibilities and needs of the town. It also prepares the Master Plan. There are five elected Commissioners of the Trust Funds who manage and control all funds left, given, bequeathed or devised to the town, and distribute the income in accordance with the terms of the respective trusts. There are five members of the Housing Authority. Four are elected by the Town and one is appointed by the Commonwealth Commissioner of Community Affairs. As a Board they have all of the powers and duties which are given to housing authorities under the constitution and laws of the Commonwealth. Community organizations Dedham is home to a number of community organizations, including The Knights of Columbus The Rotary Club The Friends of the Dedham Public Library The Dedham Junior Women's Club The American Legion The Veterans of Foreign Wars The Dedham Square Circle The Dedham Community House The James Joyce Ramble The Dedham Historical Society The Dedham High School Alumni Association The Freemasons The Boy Scouts of America The Society in Dedham for Apprehending Horse Thieves The Italian - American Citizens Club of Dedham Places of worship Allin Congregational Church (United Church of Christ) Calvary Baptist Church Dedham Temple (Haitian Seventh-Day Adventist Church) Fellowship Bible Church First Church and Parish in Dedham (Unitarian-Universalist) St. John of Damascus Orthodox Church St. John's Methodist Church St. Luke's Evangelical Lutheran Church Auxiliary Bishop St. Mary's Catholic Church, home of the LIFE TEEN program, and former church of John Anthony Dooher, Auxiliary Bishop of the Archdiocese of Boston St. Paul's Episcopal Church St. Susanna's Catholic Church The Church of the Good Shepherd, Episcopal Fountain of Grace Church Points of interest Dedham Historical Society Dedham Public Library Fairbanks House Museum of Bad Art Mother Brook (first man-made waterway in the United States) Noble & Greenough School Norfolk County Correctional Center, situated in the median of Route 128. Endicott House Transportation Commuter rail service from Boston's South Station is provided by the MBTA with stops at Endicott and Dedham Corporate Center on its Franklin Line. Notable residents Eliphalet Adams, (1677-1753), clergyman and missionary to the Native Americans Louisa May Alcott, author of Little Women, lived and worked for seven weeks during 1851 as a domestic helper in Dedham. Fisher Ames, U.S. Congressman Louis Brandeis, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States Timothy Bush, great-great-great-great-great-grandfather of president George W. Bush LeBaron Bradford Colt, U.S. Senator Jacques d'Amboise, ballet dancer and choreographer. Samuel Dexter, U.S. Congressman, Secretary of War, Secretary of the Treasury, administered the oath of office to Chief Justice John Marshall Leon A. Edney, Former Supreme Allied Commander, NATO Atlantic Forces Henry B. Endicott, founder of the Endicott Shoe Company, later Endicott-Johnson Shoes H. Wendell Endicott, ambassador and philanthropist, founder MIT Endicott House Samuel Endicott, American composer, faculty of New England Conservatory Jason Fairbanks, murderer Jonathan Fairbanks, builder of the Fairbanks House and ancestor of at least three US presidents, one vice president and two governors. Alvan Fisher, artist William B. Gould, Former slave and Union Navy Sailor Lilian Westcott Hale, Artist Philip Leslie Hale, Artist Pete Hamilton, NASCAR driver Dedham-native Hamilton recalls ’70 win Connie Hines, television actress Edward Keelan, (1922-2007), 262nd Commander of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts John Frederick Kiley outfielder for the Washington Nationals (1884) and Boston Beaneaters (1891) Horace Mann, American education reformer and abolitionist Roger Marino, former owner of the Pittsburgh Penguins Paul McCabe, notable American hockey player John Lothrop Motley, historian and ambassador to England and Austria James William Augustus Nicholson, Rear Admiral, U.S. Navy Katharine Pratt, Silversmith Anita Shreve, author Frederick J. Stimson, Ambassador-Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Argentina from 1914-1921, Assistant Attorney General of Massachusetts Paul Thurrott, author and tech reporter Richard Trethewey, plumber on This Old House Peter Reynolds (author), author and illustrator for children's books Stephen Minot Weld, Jr., Civil War hero George Fred Williams, U.S. Congressman, ambassador to Greece and Montenegro, known as "the sage of Dedham." A Handbook of New England Freddie Roach, professional boxer and world famous trainer. Fictional Dedham Residents: Alan Shore from Boston Legal and The Practice television series References Further reading Lockridge, Kenneth A. (1985). A New England Town: The First Hundred Years: Dedham, Massachusetts, 1636-1736 (2nd ed.). W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-95459-5. Cremin, Lawrence A., "American Education: The Colonial Experience 1607-1783," First Edition, New York, Harper & Row, Publishers, 1970. Hanson, Robert Brand, "Dedham, Massachusetts, 1635-1890," published by Dedham Historical Society, 1976 External links Dedham's official website "Taxation for Religion in Early Massachusetts" - Ronald Golini mentions the role of the 1818 "Dedham case"	Dedham,_Massachusetts \|@lemmatized dedham:42 ˈdɛdəm:1 town:73 county:7 seat:3 norfolk:4 massachusetts:8 united:6 state:7 population:5 census:3 locate:2 boston:5 southwest:2 border:3 northwest:1 needham:1 westwood:1 southeast:1 canton:1 history:2 settle:1 people:3 roxbury:1 watertown:1 incorporate:2 originally:1 propose:1 name:3 contentment:3 resident:3 want:1 general:2 court:5 overrule:2 essex:2 england:5 original:3 inhabitant:2 include:5 samuel:3 morse:1 bear:1 first:11 public:9 meeting:25 hold:2 august:1 men:1 sign:2 covenant:2 swear:1 would:4 fear:1 reverence:1 almighty:1 god:1 mutually:1 severally:1 promise:1 amongst:2 profess:1 practice:2 one:8 truth:1 accord:3 perfect:1 rule:3 foundation:1 whereof:1 ever:1 lasting:1 love:1 also:5 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3,301	Biosphere	A false-color composite of global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance, from September 1997 to August 2000. Provided by the SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center and ORBIMAGE. The biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems. It can also be called the zone of life on Earth. From the broadest biophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. This biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning through a process of biogenesis or biopoesis, at least some 3.5 billion years ago. Origin and use of the term The term "biosphere" was coined by geologist Eduard Suess in 1875, which he defined as: Seuss, E. (1875) Die Entstehung Der Alpen [The Origin of the Alps]. Vienna: W. Braunmuller. While this concept has a geological origin, it is an indication of the impact of both Darwin and Maury on the earth sciences. The biosphere's ecological context comes from the 1920s (see Vladimir I. Vernadsky), preceding the 1935 introduction of the term "ecosystem" by Sir Arthur Tansley (see ecology history). Vernadsky defined ecology as the science of the biosphere. It is an interdisciplinary concept for integrating astronomy, geophysics, meteorology, biogeography, evolution, geology, geochemistry, hydrology and, generally speaking, all life and earth sciences. Gaia hypothesis The concept that the biosphere is itself a living organism, either actually or metaphorically, is known as the Gaia hypothesis. James Lovelock, an atmospheric scientist from the United Kingdom, proposed the Gaia hypothesis to explain how biotic and abiotic factors interact in the biosphere. This hypothesis considers Earth itself a kind of living organism. Its atmosphere, geosphere, and hydrosphere are cooperating systems that yield a biosphere full of life. In the early 1970s, Lynn Margulis, a microbiologist from the United States, added to the hypothesis, specifically noting the ties between the biosphere and other Earth systems. For example, when carbon dioxide levels increase in the atmosphere, plants grow more quickly. As their growth continue, they remove more and more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Many scientists are now involved new fields of study that examine interactions between biotic and abiotic factors in the biosphere, such as geobiology and geomicrobiology. Ecosystems occur when communites and their physical environment work together as a system. The difference between this and a biosphere is simple, the biosphere is everything in general terms. Extent of Earth's biosphere Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Image is the Earth photographed from Apollo 17. Nearly every part of the planet, from the polar ice caps to the Equator, supports life of some kind. Recent advances in microbiology have demonstrated that microbes live deep beneath the Earth's terrestrial surface, and that the total mass of microbial life in so-called "uninhabitable zones" may, in biomass, exceed all animal and plant life on the surface. The actual thickness of the biosphere on earth is difficult to measure. Birds typically fly at altitudes of 650 to 1800 meters, and fish that live deep underwater can be found down to -8,372 meters in the Puerto Rico Trench. There are more extreme examples for life on the planet: Rüppell's Vulture has been found at altitudes of 11,300 meters; Bar-headed Geese migrate at altitudes of at least 8,300 meters (over Mount Everest); Yaks live at elevations between 3,200 to 5,400 meters above sea level; mountain goats live up to 3,050 meters. Herbivorous animals at these elevations depend on lichens, grasses, and herbs but the biggest tree is the Tine palm or mountain coconut found 3,400 meters above sea level. Microscopic organisms live at such extremes that, taking them into consideration puts the thickness of the biosphere much greater. Culturable microbes have been found in the Earth's upper atmosphere as high as 41 km (Wainwright et al., 2003, in FEMS Microbiology Letters). It is unlikely, however, that microbes are active at such altitudes, where temperatures and air pressure are extremely low and ultraviolet radiation very high. More likely these microbes were brought into the upper atmosphere by winds or possibly volcanic eruptions. Barophilic marine microbes have been found at more than 10 km depth in the Marianas Trench (Takamia et al., 1997, in FEMS Microbiology Letters). Microbes are not limited to the air, water or the Earth's surface. Culturable thermophilic microbes have been extracted from cores drilled more than 5 km into the Earth's crust in Sweden (Gold, 1992, and Szewzyk, 1994, both in PNAS), from rocks between 65-75C. Temperature increases rapidly with increasing depth into the Earth's crust. The speed at which the temperature increases depends on many factors, including type of crust (continental vs. oceanic), rock type, geographic location, etc. The upper known limit of microbial is 122C (Methanopyrus kandleri Strain 116), and it is likely that the limit of life in the "deep biosphere" is defined by temperature rather than absolute depth. Our biosphere is divided into a number of biomes, inhabited by broadly similar flora and fauna. On land, biomes are separated primarily by latitude. Terrestrial biomes lying within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles are relatively barren of plant and animal life, while most of the more populous biomes lie near the equator. Terrestrial organisms in temperate and Arctic biomes have relatively small amounts of total biomass, smaller energy budgets, and display prominent adaptations to cold, including world-spanning migrations, social adaptations, homeothermy, estivation and multiple layers of insulation. Specific biospheres When the word is followed by a number, it is usually referring to a specific system or number. Thus: Biosphere 1 - The planet Earth Biosphere 2 - A laboratory in Arizona which contains 3.15 acres (13,000 m²) of closed ecosystem. BIOS-3 was a closed ecosystem at the Institute of Biophysics in Krasnoyarsk, Siberia, in what was then the Soviet Union. Biosphere J (CEEF, Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities) - An experiment in Japan. Nakano et al.(1998)"Dynamic Simulation of Pressure Control System for the Closed Ecology Experiment Facility", Transactions of the Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers. 64:107-114. Institute for Environmental Sciences See also Back-contamination Biome Biosphere reserve Cryosphere Earth's atmosphere atmosphere Geosphere Homeostasis Hydrosphere Life support system Lithosphere Noosphere Shadow biosphere Simple Biosphere model Thomas Gold Montreal Biosphère Biosphere 2 References External links Article on the Biosphere at Encyclopedia of Earth GLOBIO.info, an ongoing programme to map the past, current and future impacts of human activities on the biosphere Paul Crutzen Interview Freeview video of Paul Crutzen Nobel Laureate for his work on decomposition of ozone talking to Harry Kroto Nobel Laureate by the Vega Science Trust.	Biosphere \|@lemmatized false:1 color:1 composite:1 global:3 oceanic:2 terrestrial:4 photoautotroph:1 abundance:1 september:1 august:1 provide:1 seawifs:1 project:1 nasa:1 goddard:1 space:1 flight:1 center:1 orbimage:1 biosphere:28 sum:1 ecosystem:5 also:2 call:2 zone:2 life:10 earth:17 broad:1 biophysiological:1 point:1 view:1 ecological:2 system:7 integrate:2 living:3 relationship:1 include:3 interaction:2 element:1 lithosphere:2 hydrosphere:3 atmosphere:8 postulate:1 evolve:1 begin:1 process:1 biogenesis:1 biopoesis:1 least:2 billion:1 year:1 ago:1 origin:3 use:1 term:4 coin:1 geologist:1 eduard:1 sue:1 define:3 seuss:1 e:1 die:1 entstehung:1 der:1 alpen:1 alps:1 vienna:1 w:1 braunmuller:1 concept:3 geological:1 indication:1 impact:2 darwin:1 maury:1 science:5 context:1 come:1 see:3 vladimir:1 vernadsky:2 precede:1 introduction:1 sir:1 arthur:1 tansley:1 ecology:4 history:1 interdisciplinary:1 astronomy:1 geophysics:1 meteorology:1 biogeography:1 evolution:1 geology:1 geochemistry:1 hydrology:1 generally:1 speak:1 gaia:3 hypothesis:5 organism:3 either:1 actually:1 metaphorically:1 know:2 james:1 lovelock:1 atmospheric:1 scientist:2 united:2 kingdom:1 propose:1 explain:1 biotic:2 abiotic:2 factor:3 interact:1 consider:1 kind:2 geosphere:2 cooperate:1 yield:1 full:1 early:1 lynn:1 margulis:1 microbiologist:1 state:1 add:1 specifically:1 note:1 tie:1 example:2 carbon:2 dioxide:2 level:3 increase:4 plant:3 grow:1 quickly:1 growth:1 continue:1 remove:1 many:2 involved:1 new:1 field:1 study:1 examine:1 geobiology:1 geomicrobiology:1 occur:1 communites:1 physical:1 environment:1 work:2 together:1 difference:1 simple:2 everything:1 general:1 extent:1 water:2 cover:1 surface:4 image:1 photograph:1 apollo:1 nearly:1 every:1 part:1 planet:3 polar:1 ice:1 cap:1 equator:2 support:2 recent:1 advance:1 microbiology:3 demonstrate:1 microbe:7 live:5 deep:3 beneath:1 total:2 mass:1 microbial:2 uninhabitable:1 may:1 biomass:2 exceed:1 animal:3 actual:1 thickness:2 difficult:1 measure:1 bird:1 typically:1 fly:1 altitude:4 meter:7 fish:1 underwater:1 find:5 puerto:1 rico:1 trench:2 extreme:2 rüppell:1 vulture:1 bar:1 head:1 geese:1 migrate:1 mount:1 everest:1 yak:1 elevation:2 sea:2 mountain:2 goat:1 herbivorous:1 depend:2 lichen:1 grass:1 herb:1 big:1 tree:1 tine:1 palm:1 coconut:1 microscopic:1 organisms:1 take:1 consideration:1 put:1 much:1 great:1 culturable:2 upper:3 high:2 km:3 wainwright:1 et:3 al:3 fems:2 letter:2 unlikely:1 however:1 active:1 temperature:4 air:2 pressure:2 extremely:1 low:1 ultraviolet:1 radiation:1 likely:2 bring:1 wind:1 possibly:1 volcanic:1 eruption:1 barophilic:1 marine:1 depth:3 marianas:1 takamia:1 limit:3 thermophilic:1 extract:1 core:1 drill:1 crust:3 sweden:1 gold:2 szewzyk:1 pnas:1 rock:2 rapidly:1 speed:1 type:2 continental:1 v:1 geographic:1 location:1 etc:1 methanopyrus:1 kandleri:1 strain:1 rather:1 absolute:1 divide:1 number:3 biome:6 inhabit:1 broadly:1 similar:1 flora:1 fauna:1 land:1 separate:1 primarily:1 latitude:1 lie:2 within:1 arctic:2 antarctic:1 circle:1 relatively:2 barren:1 populous:1 near:1 temperate:1 small:2 amount:1 energy:1 budget:1 display:1 prominent:1 adaptation:2 cold:1 world:1 spanning:1 migration:1 social:1 homeothermy:1 estivation:1 multiple:1 layer:1 insulation:1 specific:2 word:1 follow:1 usually:1 refer:1 thus:1 laboratory:1 arizona:1 contain:1 acre:1 closed:3 bios:1 institute:2 biophysics:1 krasnoyarsk:1 siberia:1 soviet:1 union:1 j:1 ceef:1 close:1 experiment:3 facility:2 japan:2 nakano:1 dynamic:1 simulation:1 control:1 transaction:1 society:1 mechanical:1 engineer:1 environmental:1 back:1 contamination:1 reserve:1 cryosphere:1 homeostasis:1 noosphere:1 shadow:1 model:1 thomas:1 montreal:1 biosphère:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 article:1 encyclopedia:1 globio:1 info:1 ongoing:1 programme:1 map:1 past:1 current:1 future:1 human:1 activity:1 paul:2 crutzen:2 interview:1 freeview:1 video:1 nobel:2 laureate:2 decomposition:1 ozone:1 talk:1 harry:1 kroto:1 vega:1 trust:1 \|@bigram die_entstehung:1 gaia_hypothesis:3 james_lovelock:1 biotic_abiotic:2 abiotic_factor:2 lynn_margulis:1 carbon_dioxide:2 puerto_rico:1 rico_trench:1 mount_everest:1 elevation_meter:1 et_al:3 fems_microbiology:2 ultraviolet_radiation:1 volcanic_eruption:1 earth_crust:2 flora_fauna:1 terrestrial_biome:1 arctic_antarctic:1 soviet_union:1 biosphere_reserve:1 external_link:1 paul_crutzen:2 freeview_video:1 nobel_laureate:2 harry_kroto:1
3,302	Body	With regard to living things, a body refers to physical body of an individual. "Body" often is used in connection with appearance, health issues and death. The study of the workings of the body is physiology. Human body The human body mostly consists of a head, neck, torso, two arms and two legs, as well as numerous internal organ groups such as respiratory, circulatory and a central nervous system. Limitation In some contexts, a superficial element of a body, such as hair may be regarded as not a part of it, even while attached. The same is true of excretable substances, such as stool, both while residing in the body and afterwards. Plants composed of no more then half of two that is of more than one cell are not normally regarded as possessing a body. Variations The dead body of a human is referred to as a cadaver, or corpse. The dead bodies of vertebrate animals, insects and humans are sometimes called carcasses. The study of the structure of the body is called anatomy. and to... Antonym In the views emerging from the mind-body dichotomy, the body is considered in behavior and therefore considered as little valued The mind-body problem by Robert M. Young and trivial. Many modern philosophers of mind maintain that the mind is not something separate from the body. See also Anatomy Antibody Body Art Battery Bodily harm Body image Body (metaphysics) Body painting Disability Disease Emergence General Fitness Training Healing Health Human physical appearance Human body Microtrauma Physical body Trauma Regarding corpses Autopsy Body Farm Burial Cremation Dead bodies and health risks Death Embalming Mummy Necrophilia References	Body \|@lemmatized regard:4 live:1 thing:1 body:24 refers:1 physical:3 individual:1 often:1 use:1 connection:1 appearance:2 health:3 issue:1 death:2 study:2 working:1 physiology:1 human:6 mostly:1 consist:1 head:1 neck:1 torso:1 two:3 arm:1 leg:1 well:1 numerous:1 internal:1 organ:1 group:1 respiratory:1 circulatory:1 central:1 nervous:1 system:1 limitation:1 context:1 superficial:1 element:1 hair:1 may:1 part:1 even:1 attach:1 true:1 excretable:1 substance:1 stool:1 reside:1 afterwards:1 plant:1 compose:1 half:1 one:1 cell:1 normally:1 possess:1 variation:1 dead:3 refer:1 cadaver:1 corpse:1 vertebrate:1 animal:1 insect:1 sometimes:1 call:2 carcass:1 structure:1 anatomy:2 antonym:1 view:1 emerge:1 mind:4 dichotomy:1 consider:2 behavior:1 therefore:1 little:1 valued:1 problem:1 robert:1 young:1 trivial:1 many:1 modern:1 philosopher:1 maintain:1 something:1 separate:1 see:1 also:1 antibody:1 art:1 battery:1 bodily:1 harm:1 image:1 metaphysics:1 paint:1 disability:1 disease:1 emergence:1 general:1 fitness:1 train:1 heal:1 microtrauma:1 trauma:1 corps:1 autopsy:1 farm:1 burial:1 cremation:1 risk:1 embalm:1 mummy:1 necrophilia:1 reference:1 \|@bigram bodily_harm:1
3,303	Politics_of_Ivory_Coast	The Politics of Cote d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President of Côte d'Ivoire is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The official capital since 1983 is Yamoussoukro; however, Abidjan remains the administrative center. Most countries maintain their embassies in Abidjan, although some (including the United Kingdom) have closed their missions because of the continuing violence and attacks on Europeans. The population continues to suffer because of an ongoing civil war. International human rights organizations have noted problems with the treatment of captive non-combatants by both sides and the re-emergence of child slavery among workers in cocoa production. Since the incident on September 19, 2002 (see History of Côte d'Ivoire), a civil war broke out, and the north part of the country has been seized by the rebels, the New Forces (FN). A new presidential election was expected to be held in October, 2005. However, this new election could not be held on time due to delay in preparation and has been postponed to October 2006 after an agreement was reached amongst the rival parties. Civil war In the early hours of September 19, 2002 troops, who were mainly originally from the north of the country, mutinied. They launched attacks in many cities, including Abidjan. By lunchtime they had control of the north of the country. Their principal claim relates to the definition of who is a citizen of Côte d'Ivoire (and so who can stand for election as president), voting rights and their representation in government in Abidjan. The events in Abidjan shows that it is not a tribal issue, but a crisis of transition from a dictatorship to a democracy, with the clashes inherent in the definition of citizenship. Forces involved in the conflict include: Official government forces, the National Army (FANCI), also called loyalists, formed and equipped essentially since 2003 The Young Patriots: nationalist groups aligned with President Laurent Gbagbo Mercenaries recruited by President Gbagbo: allegedly, Belarusians some former combatants of Liberia, including under-17 youths, forming the so-called "Lima militia" New Forces (Forces Nouvelles, FN), ex-northern rebels, who hold 60% of the country French forces: troops sent within the framework of Operation Unicorn and under UN mandate (UNOCI), 3000 men in February 2003 and 4600 in November 2004; Soldiers of the CEDEAO, White helmets, also under the UN. Executive branch \|President \|Laurent Gbagbo \|FPI \|26 October 2000 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Guillaume Soro \| \|4 April 2007 \|} Côte d'Ivoire's 1959 constitution provides for strong presidency within the framework of a separation of powers. The executive is personified in the president, elected for a five-year term. The president is commander in chief of the armed forces, may negotiate and ratify certain treaties, and may submit a bill to a national referendum or to the National Assembly. According to the constitution, the President of the National Assembly assumes the presidency in the event of a vacancy, and he completes the remainder of the deceased president's term. The cabinet is selected by and is responsible to the president. Changes are being proposed to some of these provisions, to extend term of office to 7 years, establish a senate, and make president of the senate interim successor to the president. Laurent Gbagbo took power following a popular overthrow of the interim leader Gen. Robert Guéï who had claimed a dubious victory in presidential elections; Gen. Guéï himself had assumed power on 25 December 1999, following a military coup against the government of former President Henri Konan Bédié. Gbagbo was elected president in 2000 in an election boycotted bt many oppositional forces. The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 26 October, 2000. The prime minister is usually appointed by the president. The present prime minister is appointed by the international community (South African President Thabo Mbeki, Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo and Niger President Mamadu Tandja.) as transitional Prime Minister following a resolution of the UN Security Council and a resolution of the African Union. Legislative branch The National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) has 225 members, elected for a five year term in single-seat constituencies. It passes on legislation typically introduced by the president although it also can introduce legislation. Côte d'Ivoire is a one party dominant state with the Ivorian People's Front in power. Political parties and elections Judicial branch The judicial system culminates in the Supreme Court. The High Court of Justice is competent to try government officials for major offenses. The Supreme Court or Cour Supreme consists of four chambers: Judicial Chamber for criminal cases, Audit Chamber for financial cases, Constitutional Chamber for judicial review cases, and Administrative Chamber for civil cases; there is no legal limit to the number of members. Administrative divisions For administrative purposes, Côte d'Ivoire is divided into 58 departments, each headed by a prefect appointed by the central government. There are 196 communes, each headed by an elected mayor, plus the city of Abidjan with ten mayors. The 58 departments (départements, singular - département) are listed in the article Départements of Côte d'Ivoire. International organization participation ACP, AfDB, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, ITUC, MONUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO External links and references CIA World Factbook 2003	Politics_of_Ivory_Coast \|@lemmatized politics:1 cote:1 ivoire:8 ivory:1 coast:1 take:2 place:1 framework:3 presidential:3 republic:1 whereby:1 president:20 côte:7 head:4 state:2 government:8 multi:1 party:4 system:2 executive:3 power:6 exercise:1 legislative:2 vest:1 parliament:1 official:3 capital:1 since:3 yamoussoukro:1 however:2 abidjan:6 remain:1 administrative:4 center:1 country:5 maintain:1 embassy:1 although:2 include:4 united:1 kingdom:1 close:1 mission:1 continue:2 violence:1 attack:2 european:1 population:1 suffer:1 ongoing:1 civil:4 war:3 international:3 human:1 right:2 organization:2 note:1 problem:1 treatment:1 captive:1 non:1 combatant:2 side:1 emergence:1 child:1 slavery:1 among:1 worker:1 cocoa:1 production:1 incident:1 september:2 see:1 history:1 break:1 north:3 part:1 seize:1 rebel:2 new:4 force:8 fn:2 election:7 expect:1 hold:4 october:4 could:1 time:1 due:1 delay:1 preparation:1 postpone:1 agreement:1 reach:1 amongst:1 rival:1 early:1 hour:1 troop:2 mainly:1 originally:1 mutiny:1 launch:1 many:2 city:2 lunchtime:1 control:1 principal:1 claim:2 relate:1 definition:2 citizen:1 stand:1 voting:1 representation:1 event:2 show:1 tribal:1 issue:1 crisis:1 transition:1 dictatorship:1 democracy:1 clash:1 inherent:1 citizenship:1 involve:1 conflict:1 national:5 army:1 fanci:1 also:3 call:2 loyalist:1 form:2 equip:1 essentially:1 young:1 patriot:1 nationalist:1 group:1 align:1 laurent:3 gbagbo:5 mercenary:1 recruit:1 allegedly:1 belarusians:1 former:2 liberia:1 youth:1 lima:1 militia:1 nouvelles:1 ex:1 northern:1 french:1 send:1 within:2 operation:1 unicorn:1 un:4 mandate:1 unoci:1 men:1 february:1 november:1 soldier:1 cedeao:1 white:1 helmet:1 branch:3 fpi:1 prime:4 minister:4 guillaume:1 soro:1 april:1 constitution:2 provide:1 strong:1 presidency:2 separation:1 personify:1 elect:4 five:3 year:4 term:5 commander:1 chief:1 armed:1 may:2 negotiate:1 ratify:1 certain:1 treaty:1 submit:1 bill:1 referendum:1 assembly:3 accord:1 assume:2 vacancy:1 complete:1 remainder:1 deceased:1 cabinet:1 select:1 responsible:1 change:1 propose:1 provision:1 extend:1 office:1 establish:1 senate:2 make:1 interim:2 successor:1 follow:3 popular:2 overthrow:1 leader:1 gen:2 robert:1 guéï:2 dubious:1 victory:1 december:1 military:1 coup:1 henri:1 konan:1 bédié:1 boycott:1 bt:1 oppositional:1 vote:1 last:1 usually:1 appoint:3 present:1 community:1 south:1 african:2 thabo:1 mbeki:1 nigerian:1 olusegun:1 obasanjo:1 niger:1 mamadu:1 tandja:1 transitional:1 resolution:2 security:1 council:1 union:1 assemblée:1 nationale:1 member:2 single:1 seat:1 constituency:1 pass:1 legislation:2 typically:1 introduce:2 one:1 dominant:1 ivorian:1 people:1 front:1 political:1 judicial:4 culminate:1 supreme:3 court:3 high:1 justice:1 competent:1 try:1 major:1 offense:1 cour:1 consist:1 four:1 chamber:5 criminal:1 case:4 audit:1 financial:1 constitutional:1 review:1 legal:1 limit:1 number:1 division:1 purpose:1 divide:1 department:2 prefect:1 central:1 commune:1 elected:1 mayor:2 plus:1 ten:1 départements:2 singular:1 département:1 list:1 article:1 participation:1 acp:1 afdb:1 eca:1 ecowas:1 entente:1 fao:1 fz:1 g:2 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icct:1 signatory:1 icrm:1 ida:1 idb:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 iso:1 itu:1 ituc:1 monuc:1 nam:1 oau:1 oic:1 opcw:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unhcr:1 unido:1 upu:1 wadb:1 regional:1 waemu:1 wco:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 external:1 link:1 reference:1 cia:1 world:1 factbook:1 \|@bigram cote_ivoire:1 ivoire_ivory:1 côte_ivoire:7 presidential_election:2 prime_minister:4 commander_chief:1 thabo_mbeki:1 president_olusegun:1 olusegun_obasanjo:1 legislative_branch:1 assembly_assemblée:1 assemblée_nationale:1 seat_constituency:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:2 participation_acp:1 acp_afdb:1 eca_ecowas:1 fao_fz:1 fz_g:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icct:1 icct_signatory:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_idb:1 idb_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_iso:1 iso_itu:1 itu_ituc:1 monuc_nam:1 nam_oau:1 oau_oic:1 oic_opcw:1 opcw_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unhcr:1 unhcr_unido:1 unido_upu:1 wco_wftu:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 external_link:1
3,304	Electronvolt	In physics, the electron volt (symbol eV; also written electronvolt according to the NIST, IUPAC, IUPAC Gold Book, p. 75 and BIPM SI brochure, Sec. 4.1 Table 7 ) is a unit of energy. By definition, it is equal to the amount of kinetic energy gained by a single unbound electron when it accelerates through an electrostatic potential difference of one volt. Thus it is 1 volt (1 joule divided by 1 coulomb) multiplied by the electron charge (). One electron volt is equal to . An in-depth discussion of how the CODATA constants were selected and determined. The electron volt is not an SI unit and its value must be obtained experimentally. http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/outside.html It is the most common unit of energy within physics, widely used in solid state, atomic, nuclear, and particle physics. It is commonly used with SI prefixes milli, kilo, mega, giga, tera, or peta (meV, keV, MeV, GeV, TeV and PeV respectively). In chemistry, it is often useful to have the molar equivalent, that is the kinetic energy that would be gained by a mole of electrons passing through a potential difference of one volt. This is equal to 96.48538(2) kJ/mol. Atomic properties like the ionization energy are often quoted in electron volts. As a unit of mass By mass-energy equivalence, the electron volt is also a unit of mass. It is common in particle physics, where mass and energy are often interchanged, to use eV/c2, or more commonly simply eV with c set to 1, as a unit of mass. For example, an electron and a positron, each with a mass of 0.511 MeV, can annihilate to yield 1.022 MeV of energy. The proton has a mass of 0.938 GeV, making a gigaelectronvolt a very convenient unit of mass for particle physics. 1 GeV/c2 = 1.783 kg The atomic mass unit, 1 gram divided by Avogadro's number, is almost the mass of a hydrogen atom, which is mostly the mass of the proton. To convert to megaelectronvolts, use the formula: 1 amu = 931.46 MeV = 0.93146 GeV 1 MeV = 1.074 amu In some older documents, and in the name Bevatron, the symbol "BeV" is used, which stands for "billion electron volts"; it is equivalent to the GeV. As a unit of energy Conversion factors: 1 eV = 1.602176487(40)×10−19 joules (the conversion factor is numerically equal to the elementary charge expressed in Coulombs). 1 eV/amu is 96.5 MJ/kg. For comparison: >1020 eV: highest energy cosmic ray Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray. 14 TeV: the combined energy of future protons before collision in the Large Hadron Collider. 210 MeV: average energy released in fission of one Pu-239 atom. 200 MeV: total energy released in nuclear fission of one U-235 atom (on average; depends on the precise break up); this is 82 terajoules per kilogram, or twenty thousand tonnes of TNT equivalent per kilogram. 17.6 MeV: total energy released in fusion of deuterium and tritium to form helium-4 (also on average); this is 0.41 PJ/kg of product produced. 4 MeV: amount of energy released by a snowflake hitting concrete pavement. 13.6 eV: energy required to ionize atomic hydrogen. Molecular bond energies are on the order of an eV per molecule. 1/40 eV: the thermal energy at room temperature. A single molecule in the air has an average kinetic energy 3/80 eV. Relation to units of time and distance In particle physics, a system of units in which the speed of light and the reduced Planck constant are dimensionless and equal to unity is widely used: . In these units, both distances and times are expressed in inverse energy units (while energy and mass are expressed in the same units, see Mass–energy equivalence). In particular, particle scattering lengths are often presented in units of inverse particle masses. Outside this system of units, the conversion factors between electronvolt, second, and nanometer are the following: C. Amsler et al., Review of Particle Physics, Phys. Lett. B667, 1 (2008) = 6.582 118 99(16) x 10-16 eV s; = 197.326 9631(49) eV nm (or MeV fm). The above relations also allow expressing the mean lifetime of an unstable particle (in seconds) in terms of its decay width (in eV) via . For example, the B0 meson has a mean lifetime of 1.542(16) picoseconds, or a decay width of 4.269(44)×10−4 eV, and its mean decay length is = 462 µm. As a unit of temperature In certain fields, such as plasma physics, it is convenient to use the electronvolt as a unit of temperature. The conversion to kelvins (symbol: uppercase K) is defined by using kB, the Boltzmann constant: For example, a typical magnetic confinement fusion plasma is 15 keV, or 170 megakelvins. Photon properties The energy E, frequency f, and wavelength λ of a photon are related by where h is Planck's constant, c is the Speed of light. For quick calculations, this reduces to A stream of photons with a wavelength of 532 nm (green light) would have an energy of approximately 2.33 eV. Similarly, 1 eV would correspond to a stream of infrared photons of wavelength 1240 nm, and so on. 1 eV = 8065.5447 cm^-1 References See also Orders of magnitude (energy) Thermodynamics External links BIPM's definition of the electronvolt http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants physical constants reference; CODATA data be-x-old:Электронвольт	Electronvolt \|@lemmatized physic:10 electron:10 volt:9 symbol:3 ev:17 also:5 write:1 electronvolt:4 accord:1 nist:3 iupac:2 gold:1 book:1 p:1 bipm:2 si:3 brochure:1 sec:1 table:1 unit:19 energy:26 definition:2 equal:5 amount:2 kinetic:3 gain:2 single:2 unbound:1 accelerate:1 electrostatic:1 potential:2 difference:2 one:5 thus:1 joule:2 divide:2 coulomb:2 multiply:1 charge:2 depth:1 discussion:1 codata:2 constant:6 select:1 determine:1 value:1 must:1 obtain:1 experimentally:1 http:2 gov:2 cuu:2 outside:2 html:1 common:2 within:1 widely:2 use:8 solid:1 state:1 atomic:4 nuclear:2 particle:8 commonly:2 prefix:1 milli:1 kilo:1 mega:1 giga:1 tera:1 peta:1 mev:11 kev:2 gev:5 tev:2 pev:1 respectively:1 chemistry:1 often:4 useful:1 molar:1 equivalent:3 would:3 mole:1 pass:1 kj:1 mol:1 property:2 like:1 ionization:1 quote:1 mass:14 equivalence:2 interchange:1 simply:1 c:3 set:1 example:3 positron:1 annihilate:1 yield:1 proton:3 make:1 gigaelectronvolt:1 convenient:2 kg:3 gram:1 avogadro:1 number:1 almost:1 hydrogen:2 atom:3 mostly:1 convert:1 megaelectronvolts:1 formula:1 amu:3 old:2 document:1 name:1 bevatron:1 bev:1 stand:1 billion:1 conversion:4 factor:3 numerically:1 elementary:1 express:4 mj:1 comparison:1 high:2 cosmic:2 ray:2 ultra:1 combined:1 future:1 collision:1 large:1 hadron:1 collider:1 average:4 release:4 fission:2 pu:1 total:2 u:1 depend:1 precise:1 break:1 terajoules:1 per:3 kilogram:2 twenty:1 thousand:1 tonne:1 tnt:1 fusion:2 deuterium:1 tritium:1 form:1 helium:1 pj:1 product:1 produce:1 snowflake:1 hit:1 concrete:1 pavement:1 require:1 ionize:1 molecular:1 bond:1 order:2 molecule:2 thermal:1 room:1 temperature:3 air:1 relation:2 time:2 distance:2 system:2 speed:2 light:3 reduced:1 planck:2 dimensionless:1 unity:1 inverse:2 see:2 particular:1 scatter:1 length:2 present:1 second:2 nanometer:1 following:1 amsler:1 et:1 al:1 review:1 phys:1 lett:1 x:2 nm:3 fm:1 allow:1 mean:3 lifetime:2 unstable:1 term:1 decay:3 width:2 via:1 meson:1 picosecond:1 µm:1 certain:1 field:1 plasma:2 kelvin:1 uppercase:1 k:1 define:1 kb:1 boltzmann:1 typical:1 magnetic:1 confinement:1 megakelvins:1 photon:4 e:1 frequency:1 f:1 wavelength:3 λ:1 relate:1 h:1 quick:1 calculation:1 reduce:1 stream:2 green:1 approximately:1 similarly:1 correspond:1 infrared:1 cm:1 reference:2 magnitude:1 thermodynamics:1 external:1 link:1 physical:1 data:1 электронвольт:1 \|@bigram kinetic_energy:3 nist_gov:2 si_prefix:1 kilo_mega:1 kj_mol:1 electron_positron:1 hydrogen_atom:1 mj_kg:1 cosmic_ray:2 hadron_collider:1 nuclear_fission:1 deuterium_tritium:1 concrete_pavement:1 reduced_planck:1 planck_constant:2 c_amsler:1 amsler_et:1 et_al:1 phys_lett:1 boltzmann_constant:1 confinement_fusion:1 wavelength_λ:1 wavelength_nm:2 external_link:1
3,305	Aster_CT-80	The very first "kit" version of the Aster CT-80 running Newdos/80. Note that the 64x16 TRS-80 mode screen uses only a small part of the monitor screen, because the letters are the same size as the 80x25 CP/M screen, this was one of the things that was soon after fixed with the redesign to a commercial product The Aster CT-80, an early home/personal computer developed by the small Dutch company MCP (later renamed to Aster Computers), was sold in its first incarnation as a kit for hobbyists. Later it was sold ready to use. It consisted of several Eurocard PCB's and a backplane. It was the first commercially available Dutch personal/home computer. Except perhaps for the Holborn System 9100 computer which was a few months earlier, but which was designed and sold as a minicomputer at ten times the price of the Aster . The Aster computer could use the software written for the popular Tandy TRS-80 computer while fixing many of the problems of that computer, but it could also run CP/M software, with a big amount of free memory and a full 80x25 display, and it could be used as a Videotext terminal. Models Three models were sold. The first model looked like the later IBM PC (which came on the market years later), a rectangular base unit with two floppy drives on the front, and a monitor on top with a separate detachable keyboard. The second incarnation was a much smaller unit the width of two 5 1/4" floppy drives stacked on top of each other, and the third incarnation looked like a flattened Apple ][ with a built-in keyboard. All units ran much faster than the original TRS-80, at 4 MHz, (with a software selectable throttle to the original speed for compatibility purposes) and the display supported upper and lower case, hardware snow suppression (video ram bus arbitration logic), and an improved character font set. The floppy disk interface supported dual density, and disk capacities up to 800 KB, more than four times the capacity of the original TRS-80. A special version of NewDos/80, (an improved TRS-DOS compatible Disk operating system) was used to support these disk capacities when using the TRS-80 compatibility mode. For the educational market a version of the first model was produced with a new plastic enclosure (the First Asters had an all-metal enclosure) that also had an opening on the top in which a cassette recorder could be placed. This model was used in a cluster with one Aster (with disk drives) for the teacher, and eight disk less versions for the pupils. The pupils could download software from the teachers computer through a network based on a fast serial connection, as well as sending back their work to the teachers computer. There was also hardware in place through which the teacher could see the display of each pupils screen on his own monitor. Working modes The Aster used 64KB of RAM memory and had the unique feature of supporting two fundamentally different internal architectures: when turned on without a boot floppy or with a TRS-DOS floppy, the Aster would be fully TRS-80 compatible, with 48KB or RAM. When the boot loader detected a CP/M floppy, the Aster would reconfigure its internal memory architecture on the fly to optimally support CP/M with 60 KB free RAM for programs and an 80 x 25 display. This dual-architecture capability only existed on one other TRS-80 clone, the LOBO Max-80. With a special configuration tool, the CT-80 could reconfigure its floppy drivers to read and write the floppies of about 80 other CP/M systems. A third mode was entered with a special boot floppy which turned the Aster into a Videotex terminal with a 40x25 display and a Videotex character set, The software used the built in RS232 interface of the Aster to control a modem through which it could contact a Prestel service provider. Sales Most Aster CT-80's (about 10 thousand of them) were sold to schools for computer education, in a project first known as the "honderd scholen project" (one hundred schools project), but which later involved many more than just one hundred schools. MCP received this order from the Dutch government because their computer met all the technical and other demands, including the demand that the computers should be of Dutch origin and should be built in the Netherlands. Another important demand was that the computers could be used in a network (Aster developed special software and hardware for that). Later however the Government turned around and gave 50% of the order to Philips and their P2000 homecomputer even though the P2000 did not meet all the technical demands, was made in Austria and did not have network hard nor software. The company Aster computers was based in the small town of Arkel near the town of Gorinchem. Initially Aster computer b.v. was called MCP (Music print Computer Product), because it was specialized in producing computer assisted printing of sheet music. The director of the company was interested in Microprocessor technology and noticed there was a market for selling kits to computer building amateurs, so they started selling electronic kits to hobbyists, and employed four persons at that time . They also assembled kits for people without soldering skills, especially the "junior Computer" from Elektor (a copy of the KIM-1), and the ZX80 from Sinclair. Among the kits sold there were also alternative floppy disk drives for TRS-80 computers. But these needed the infamous TRS-80 expansion interface, which was very expensive, and had a very unreliable floppy disk controller because it used the WD1771 floppy disc controller chip without an external "data separator". To fix this problem MCP developed a small plugin board which could be plugged into the socket for the WD1771, and which contained a data separator, and a socket for the WD1791 to support dual-density operation. Still, the expansion interface was expensive and due to its design it was also unreliable. So they decided to also develop their own alternative in the form of an improved floppy disk controller and printer interface that could be built right into a floppy disk enclosure. The lack of RAM expansion offered by this solution was solved by a service in which the 16 KB RAM chips inside the base unit would be replaced by 64 KB RAM chips. While this went on MCP renamed itself to MCP CHIP but ran into problems with the German computer magazine CHIP, and had to return to its former name. At that time MCP did also sell imported home computers like the TRS-80, the Video Genie, (another TRS-80 clone), the Luxor ABC 80 and the Apple II. They also sold the exotic Olivetti M20, a very early 16 bit personal computer that was one of the very few systems to use a Z8000 CPU. After designing their own fully functional replacement for the TRS-80 expansion interface (which was never commercialized) the company realized that they could do better than just re-designing the expansion interface. They observed that the TRS-80 was a great computer but it lacked in several areas. The display logic and resulting display 'snow' was irritating, as was the missing lower case support, the CPU speed could be improved, the quality and layout of the keyboard was bothersome, and the floppy disk capacity and reliability was low. Also the more interesting software offered for CP/M systems could not run well on a TRS-80. So they decided to designed a TRS-80 and CP/M software compatible computer system, which (following the lead of Apple Computer) they decided to name after a "typical Dutch flower". So they called it the Aster CT-80 (CP/M/Tandy-1980). Why they went with Aster, and not the more well known Tulip is unknown, perhaps they thought it would be to presumptuous, or perhaps the fact that "Aster" is also a Dutch girls name has something to do with it. Remarkably "Aster" was also the name given to a Dutch Supercomputer much later, in 2002. The first version of the Aster consisted of four "Eurocard's", one Z80 CPU card with 64KB memory, one Motorola MC6845 based video card, one double density floppy disk controller card and one "keyboard/RS232/cassette interface" card. Plus a "backplane card", (which connected all the other cards) and a keyboard. And was intended for hobbyists, to be sold as a kit consisting of the parts and the PCB's for the computer and attached keyboard. After selling a few kits, MCP became convinced there was a much bigger market for an improved model sold as a completed working system. However the original kit version lacked many features that prevented its use as a serious computer system. Because the original designer had left the company another employee completely redesigned most of the system, (adding a display snow remover circuit, true 80/64 column text mode support, (with different size letters for TRS-80 and CP/M mode, so that in TRS-80 mode the full screen was also used, not just a 64x16 portion of the 80x25 screen) with an improved font set (adding "gray scale" version of the TRS-80 mozaik graphics and many special PETSCII like characters), and a more flexible and reliable floppy disk controller and keyboard interface plus many other small improvements), also an enclosure was developed for the main computer system, (in the form of a 19-inch rack for the Eurocards) and for two floppy disk drives and the power supply. A software engineer was hired to write the special "dual boot mode" BIOS and the special CP/M BIOS. The "dual boot mode" BIOS actually discovered whether a TRS-DOS, or Aster CP/M disk was placed in the drive, and would, depending on the type of disk, reorganise the internal memory architecture of the system, to either be 100% TRS-80 compatible or optimally support CP/M, with as much "workspace" as possible, and the 80x25 video mode. It also was responsible for switching to ROM BASIC when the system was turned on with the break key pressed, and later supported a primitive LAN system, using the RS232 port with modified cabling. The very first of the ready made computers were sold with the "kit" versions of the euro cards, the version with redesigned cards came a month or so later. Soon the little shop became much too small and they moved to a much larger factory building nearby (formerly a window glass factory), and started mass producing the Aster for a period of a few years, in which time its staff grew twentyfold. After the Aster having been a few years on the Market Tandy released its own improved model, the TRS-80 Model 3 computer which solved many of the same problems that the Aster also had solved, but the model 3 still did not fully support CP/M as the Aster did. In the meantime IBM had released its original IBM PC, which incidentally looked remarkably like the Asters base with floppy drives + separate keyboard set-up. The aster was chosen for Dutch schools by the Dutch ministry of education, in a set-up with eight disk-less Asters, and one Aster with high capacity floppy drives all connected by a LAN based on the Asters high-speed serial port hardware, and special cables that permitted that any single computer on the LAN could broadcast to all other computers. The floppy based system was operated by the teacher who could send programs from his floppy disk, and data, to the student's disk-less systems thanks to the special BIOS in those systems. The students could send programs and data back to the teacher through the same LAN, or could save to a cassette recorder built into the disk-less units. Through a special "video-switch" the teacher was also able to see a copy of each students display on his own screen. About a thousand of such systems were sold for many hundreds of Dutch schools. Unfortunately, because of cash flow problems (resulting from growing too fast, insufficient financial backing, technical problems, and a sudden problem with Z80 processor deliveries) the company suddenly folded even before it came to full fruition. Perhaps the Aster computer inspired another Dutch computer firm to name their computer after another typical Dutch flower — the Tulip's Tulip system 1 which appeared about the same time Aster folded. Most of the engineers who designed the hard and software of the Aster went on to design hard and software for the (then new) MSX system for a company called "Micro Technology b.v.". Unreleased add ons To enhance and modernize the Aster CT-80 the company also designed three alternative video display adapters to supplement or replace the TRS-80 compatible video card, (due to the modular nature of the Aster it was simply a matter of changing the video card, and/or CPU card to upgrade the system). A very High resolution monochrome video card with blitter and hardware line drawing capability, was designed for CAD applications, based on a NEC chip designed for graphic terminals for supercomputers. A colour video card with sprite capability based on the same video chip (the TMS9918) as the TI99/4 and MSX computers, designed for gaming, and more creative and colorful educational software. A working prototype of this card was finished. A replacement card for the original TRS-80 compatible video card, software compatible to the original one, but with added color and very high resolution capabilities. was also on the drawing board. Based on a newer, slightly more flexible, version of the Asters original Motorola MC6845 video chip, the Rockwell 6545, it worked by adding a new video mode, one with the ability to reprogram an extended, (2048 characters instead of 256 characters) version of the character set, supported by an extended character memory of the video card that did not use one (8 bit) byte per character, but an 11 bit "word", so it could address each one of the available 2048 unique programmable characters. This meant it could provide a separate programmable character for all of the 1024 (64x16) or 2000 (80x25) characters on the screen. By filling the character pointer memory with values from zero to 1919 this essentially turned the text mode display into a very high resolution graphics mode, with the "font memory", acting as the high resolution Raster graphics video memory. Because the characters were 8 x 12 pixels this meant that video resolutions of 512 x 192 pixels (in 64x16 character mode), or 640 x 300 pixels (in 80x24 character mode) were created, which was quite high for the time. The "double width" mode of the TRS-80 was also supported, so 256 x 192 pixels (in 32x16 character mode), or 320 x 300 pixels (in 40x24 character mode) were also possible. The video card also supported 16 foreground and 16 background colors per character, by providing one byte per character position (2K) of "color ram". One nibble of such a byte then controlled the foreground color, and the other nibble controlled the background color, a system very similar to the Sinclair ZX Spectrum, in fact in the 256x192 mode the display mode was virtually identical to the video of the Sinclair ZX Spectrum. The color memory was also available in the "normal" TRS-80 and CP/M text modes, which meant that existing TRS-80 and CP/M software could be easily modified to add color. This video card would also support fast scrolling of high resolution color screens for games, because it had the indirection of the character pointers, so it was possible to quickly scroll the high resolution display, (or use other effects) by simply manipulating the 1920/1024 byte text video instead of the 24.576 bytes of high resolution video memory. A hard disk interface was also in the works, which would, add a SCSI interface, and the necessary software. A working prototype was developed that added a 40MB hard disk. Finally a replacement for the aging Z80 processor was being developed in the form of an Intel 8086 board, and additional 512K 16 bit memory boards. Such replacements of CPU and memory system components were possible because the Aster CT-80 was designed to use a backplane that was designed to support both 8 and 16 bit processors, and used a modular Eurocard based design with slots to spare for expansion. Unfortunately none of these extensions to the system became available because the company folded before any of them could be released. External links Pictures of the Aster CT-80 model one from a Spanish computer museum, the educational model with an opening for a cassette player is the one on the right A picture of the Aster CT-80 model two used for a business application Picture of a partially disassembled Aster CT-80 model three from computermuseum Groningen Notes	Aster_CT-80 \|@lemmatized first:9 kit:10 version:11 aster:41 ct:10 run:5 newdos:2 note:2 trs:28 mode:21 screen:9 use:20 small:7 part:2 monitor:3 letter:2 size:2 cp:15 one:19 thing:1 soon:2 fix:3 redesign:2 commercial:1 product:2 early:2 home:3 personal:3 computer:38 develop:7 dutch:12 company:9 mcp:8 later:7 rename:2 sell:15 incarnation:3 hobbyist:3 late:2 ready:2 consist:2 several:2 eurocard:3 pcb:2 backplane:3 commercially:1 available:4 except:1 perhaps:4 holborn:1 system:23 month:2 earlier:1 design:14 minicomputer:1 ten:1 time:7 price:1 could:22 software:16 write:3 popular:1 tandy:3 many:7 problem:7 also:25 big:2 amount:1 free:2 memory:13 full:3 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workspace:1 possible:4 responsible:1 switch:2 rom:1 basic:1 break:1 key:1 press:1 primitive:1 lan:4 port:2 modified:1 cabling:1 euro:1 redesigned:1 little:1 shop:1 move:1 large:1 factory:2 nearby:1 formerly:1 window:1 glass:1 mass:1 period:1 staff:1 grow:2 twentyfold:1 release:3 meantime:1 incidentally:1 choose:1 ministry:1 high:10 cable:1 permit:1 single:1 broadcast:1 student:3 le:2 thanks:1 save:1 able:1 unfortunately:2 cash:1 flow:1 insufficient:1 financial:1 backing:1 sudden:1 processor:3 delivery:1 suddenly:1 fold:3 fruition:1 inspire:1 firm:1 appear:1 msx:2 micro:1 unreleased:1 ons:1 enhance:1 modernize:1 adapter:1 supplement:1 modular:2 nature:1 simply:2 matter:1 change:1 upgrade:1 resolution:8 monochrome:1 blitter:1 line:1 draw:2 cad:1 application:2 nec:1 colour:1 sprite:1 gaming:1 creative:1 colorful:1 prototype:2 finish:1 added:1 color:8 newer:1 slightly:1 rockwell:1 ability:1 reprogram:1 extended:2 instead:2 byte:5 per:3 word:1 address:1 programmable:2 mean:2 provide:2 fill:1 pointer:2 value:1 zero:1 essentially:1 act:1 raster:1 pixel:5 meant:1 create:1 quite:1 foreground:2 background:2 position:1 nibble:2 similar:1 zx:2 spectrum:2 virtually:1 identical:1 normal:1 easily:1 modify:1 scrolling:1 game:1 indirection:1 quickly:1 scroll:1 effect:1 manipulate:1 scsi:1 necessary:1 finally:1 age:1 intel:1 additional:1 component:1 slot:1 spare:1 none:1 extension:1 link:1 picture:3 spanish:1 museum:1 player:1 business:1 partially:1 disassemble:1 computermuseum:1 groningen:1 \|@bigram aster_ct:9 ibm_pc:2 floppy_drive:4 floppy_disk:10 trs_compatible:5 cassette_recorder:2 boot_loader:1 kb_ram:2 financial_backing:1 add_ons:1 raster_graphic:1 sinclair_zx:2 zx_spectrum:2 external_link:1
3,306	Emoticon	Emoticons originated with text representations. An emoticon (pronounced e-moh-ti-kon) is a textual portrayal of a writer's mood or facial expression. They are often used to alert a responder to the tenor or temper of a statement, and can change and improve interpretation of plain text. The word is a portmanteau of the English words emotion (or emote) and icon. In web forums, instant messengers and online games, text emoticons are often automatically replaced with small corresponding images, which came to be called emoticons as well. Examples of widely known emoticons are the smiley face :) and the frowny face :( Early emoticons go back to the 1800s and commonly arose when casual/humorous writing was common. The emoticons on the Internet can largely be traced back to a proposal by Scott Fahlman in a message on 19 September 1982. History Antecedents [[Image:Emoticons Puck 1881.png\|thumb\|Emoticons published in the March 30 1881 issue of Puck.]] The National Telegraphic Review and Operators Guide in April 1857 documented the use of the number 73 in Morse code to express "love and kisses" (later reduced to the more formal "best regards"). Dodge's Manual in 1908 documented the reintroduction of "love and kisses" as the number 88. Gajadhar and Green comment that both Morse code abbreviations are more succinct than modern abbreviations such as LOL. A New York Times transcript from Abraham Lincoln's speech written in 1862 discovered by Bryan Benilous appears to contain a "winking" emoticon, but it is unclear whether it is an actual use, a typo or a legitimate punctuation construct. Is That an Emoticon in 1862? - City Room Blog - NYTimes.com Typographical emoticons were published in 1881 by the U.S. satirical magazine Puck. In 1912 Ambrose Bierce proposed "an improvement in punctuation — the snigger point, or note of cachinnation: it is written thus \___/! and presents a smiling mouth. It is to be appended, with the full stop, [or exclamation mark as Bierce's later example used] to every jocular or ironical sentence". Emoticons had already come into use in sci-fi fandom in the 1940s, Gregory Benford, A Scientist's Notebook: [email protected], The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, Vol. 90, No. 6 (June 1996), p. 90 although there seems to have been a lapse in cultural continuity between the communities. It has been widely reported and copied across the Internet that an early instance of using text characters to represent a sideways smiling (and frowning) face occurred in an ad for the MGM movie Lili in the New York Herald Tribune, March 10, 1953, page 20, cols. 4-6. (See "Creation of :-) and :-(" section below.) However, the above is incorrect. The advert does not in fact use text characters, but instead uses a hand-drawn "Smiley" with the normal orientation. This can be confirmed by visiting the New York City public library where a copy of the newspaper for that day is held on microfilm, which can be requested online at http://www.nypl.org/express/. In 1963 the "smiley face", a yellow button with two black dots representing eyes and an upturned thick curve representing a mouth, was created by freelance artist Harvey Ball. It was realized on order of a large insurance company as part of a campaign to bolster the morale of its employees and soon became a big hit. This smiley presumably inspired many later emoticons; the most basic graphic emoticon that depicts this is in fact a small yellow smiley face. In a New York Times interview in April 1969, Alden Whitman asked writer Vladimir Nabokov: "How do you rank yourself among writers (living) and of the immediate past?" Nabokov answered: "I often think there should exist a special typographical sign for a smile — some sort of concave mark, a supine round bracket, which I would now like to trace in reply to your question." Pre-1980 emoticons Teletype machine operators, as early as 1973, and probably long before that date, used "emoticons" to express themselves. Teletypes were limited to the keys of a standard typewriter keyboard plus a few special characters. Teletype operators developed a sort of shorthand to communicate among themselves. These shorthand notations became the foundation of "emoticons" as computers began to replace teletypes on university campuses. A common Plato emoticon created by typing O←←$ By the early 1970s, people on the PLATO System were using emoticons. They had many of the advantages of later character-based emoticons because they could be used anywhere that you could type text and new emoticons could be created whenever someone thought up a new one. They also had many of the advantages of later graphical emoticons because they used character overstriking which created graphical images. Several Internet websites —such as BT's Connected Earth Connected Earth: The growth of e-mail — assert that Kevin Mackenzie proposed -) as a joke-marker in April 1979, on the MsgGroup ARPANET mailing list. The idea was to indicate tongue-in-cheek — the hyphen represented a tongue, not a nose. Others used :-) for tongue-in-cheek, with the colon representing teeth. Also used was -:) to indicate sticking out your tongue, in derision or anger. Although similar to a sideways smiling face, the intended interpretation was different and this does not appear to have inspired the later smileys. In the late sixties the APL programming language and timesharing environment, with its rich character set with backspace and overstrike capability provided a fruitful arena for interactive and creative symbol invention. Union, backspace, overstrike Dierisis was a recognised and upright smiley in the early seventies. Creation of :-) and :-( The first person documented to have used the emoticons :-) and :-(, with a specific suggestion that they be used to express emotion, was Scott Fahlman; the text of his original proposal, posted to the Carnegie Mellon University computer science general board on 19 September 1982 (11:44), was thought to have been lost, but was recovered twenty years later by Jeff Baird from old backup tapes. See Fahlman's website for a reconstruction of the entire thread <pre.raw style="border: 0px;"> 19-Sep-82 11:44 Scott E Fahlman :-) From: Scott E Fahlman <Fahlman at Cmu-20c> I propose that the following character sequence for joke markers: -) Read it sideways. Actually, it is probably more economical to mark things that are NOT jokes, given current trends. For this, use -( </pre> Within a few months, it had spread to the ARPANET (the early Internet) and Usenet. Many variations on the theme were immediately suggested by Scott and others. Graphical replacement In web forums, instant messengers and online games, text emoticons are often automatically replaced with small corresponding images, which came to be called "Emoticons." Similarly, in some versions of Microsoft Word, the Auto Correct feature replaces basic smileys such as :-) and :-( with a single smiley-like character. Originally, these image emoticons were fairly simple and replaced only the most straightforward and common character sequences, but over time they became so complex that the more specialized emoticons are often input using a menu or popup windows, sometimes listing hundreds of items. Emoticons have also expanded beyond simple cartoon facial expressions to a variety of still or moving images. Some of these graphical emoticons do not actually represent faces or emotions; for example, an "emoticon" showing a guitar might be used to represent music. Further, some instant messaging software is designed to play a sound upon receiving certain emoticons. Many applications use text codes, which become replaced with a graphical emoticon. For example, :dance: or (dance) could be replaced with a graphical dancing emoticon. The first web forum software package to perform this transformation was Proxicom Forum, developed in 1996. An August 2004 issue of the Risks Digest (comp.risks on USENET) pointed out a problem with such features which are not under the sender's control: It's hard to know in advance what character-strings will be parsed into what kind of unintended image. A colleague was discussing his 401(k) plan with his boss, who happens to be female, via instant messaging. He discovered, to his horror, that the boss's instant-messaging client was rendering the "(k)" as a big pair of red smoochy lips. Many sites use GIF or PNG graphic files, because of their transparency and small file size capabilities. Files can be created using a raster graphics editor. Many emoticon artists design their emoticons pixel by pixel. Some emoticons are made in vector format, such as SVG, and automatically processed using a graphics library. This allows SVG files to be automatically rendered as a GIF or PNG file, which is compatible with most browsers, which SVG is not. Western style Traditionally, the emoticon in Western style is written from left to right, the way one reads and writes in most Western cultures. Thus, most commonly, emoticons have the eyes on the left, followed by the nose and mouth. To more easily recognize them, tilt your head toward your left shoulder (or occasionally toward your right shoulder if the "top" of the emoticon is toward the right). Common western examples The most basic emoticons are relatively consistent in form, but each of them can also be transformed by being rotated (making them tiny ambigrams), with or without hyphen (nose), and so on: IconMeaningIconMeaningIconMeaning:-):)=]=) Smiling, happy :-(=(:[:<=[frowning, Sad ;-););]Wink:D=DXDBDLarge grin or laugh :P=PXPTongue out, or after a joke, I'm an idiot <3:3 Love:O=OD: Shocked or surprised =I:/:-\O_o Bored, annoyed or awkward; concerned. :S=S:? Confused, embarrassed or uneasy Variation An equal sign is often used for the eyes in place of the colon, without changing the meaning of the emoticon. In these instances, the hyphen is almost always either omitted or, occasionally, replaced with an 'o' as in =O).In some circles it has become acceptable to omit the hyphen, whether a colon or an equal sign is used for the eyes. Denoser In other areas of usage, people prefer the larger, more traditional emoticon :-). In general, similar-looking characters are commonly substituted for one another: for instance, o, O, and 0 can all be used interchangeably, sometimes for subtly different effect. In some cases, one type of character may look better in a certain font and therefore be preferred over another. Some variants are also more common in certain countries because of reasons like keyboard layouts, for example the smiley =) is common in Scandinavia where the keys for = and ) are placed right beside each other. Also, sometimes, the user can replace the brackets used for the mouth with other, similar shapes, such as ] and [ instead of ) and ( . Diacritical marks are sometimes used. An O or U with an umlaut, Ö, Ü can be seen as an emoticon, as the upright version of :O (meaning that one is surprised) and :D (meaning that one is happy). Eastern style Users from East Asia popularized a style of emoticons that can be understood without tilting one's head to the left. This style arose on ASCII NET of Japan in 1986. The History of Smiley Marks Similar looking emoticons were used by Byte Information Exchange (BIX) around the same time. Jargon file, version, 2.6.1, february 12, 1991 These emoticons are usually found in a format similar to (_). The asterisks indicate the eyes, the central character, commonly an underscore, the mouth, and the parentheses, the outline of the face. A large number of different characters can be used to replace the eyes, which usually is where the emoticon derives its emotive aspect (contrasting the Western emoticons' emoting through the mouth). Different emotions can be expressed by changing the character representing the eyes, for example ' T ' can be used to express crying or sadness (T_T). The emphasis on the eyes is reflected in the common usage of emoticons that use only the eyes, e.g. ^^. Looks of embarrassment are either represented by (x_x) or (-_-;). Characters like hyphens or periods can replace the underscore; the period is often used for a smaller, "cuter" mouth or to represent a nose, e.g. (^.^). Alternatively, the mouth/nose can be left out entirely, e.g. (^^). The parentheses also can often be replaced with braces, e.g. {^_^}. Many times, the parentheses are left out completely, e.g. ^^, >.<, o_O, O.O, <.<; A quotation mark ", apostrophe ', or semicolon ; can be added to the emoticon to imply apprehension or embarrassment, in the same way that a sweat drop is used in anime culture. Many other characters can be appended to also indicate arms or hands, e.g. <(^_^)> or $^o^)/ or ⊂( ﾟヮﾟ)⊃ or (/.$ => (\^o^/) (peek-a-boo) or <(-.-<) or /(T_T)\.lml (>_<) lml Rock on! Microsoft IME 2002 (Japanese) or later supports the use of both forms of emoticons by enabling Microsoft IME Spoken Language Dictionary. In IME 2007, it was moved to Emoticons dictionary. Further variations of emoticons may be produced by using Combining characters, e.g. ̼⌂̺͛ᴖ̲̿ᴥ̲̿ᴖ̺͛⌂̼ Common eastern examples IconMeaningIconMeaningIconMeaning(^_^)smile(^o^)laughing out loudd(^_^)bthumbs up (not ears)(T_T) sad (crying face)(-.-)Zzz sleeping(Z.Z)sleepy person\(^_^)/cheers, "Hurrah!"(^^)shyness(-_-);sweating (as in ashamed), or exasperated.(_*)"Surprise !."(?_?)"Nonsense, I don't know."(^_~)wink(o.O)shocked/disturbed(<.<)shifty, suspiciousv(^_^)vPeace Korean Style In South Korea, emoticons using Korean Hangul letters have been getting popular lately as well. Korean styles of face emoticons are similar to those of Japan's, but they contain Korean jamos (letters) instead of other characters. There are countless number of emoticons that can be formed with such combinations of Korean jamos, but popular choices include letter ㅅ or ㅂ as the mouth/nose component and ㅇ,ㅎ,ㅍ for the eyes. For example: ㅇㅅㅇ, ㅇㅂㅇ, -ㅅ-. Faces such as 'ㅅ', "ㅅ", 'ㅂ' using quotation marks " and apostrophes ' are also commonly used combinations. Vowel jamos such as ㅜ,ㅠ can be used in substitute to T, when depicting a crying face. Example: ㅜ_ㅜ, ㅠ_ㅠ. Sometimes the underscore is omitted, and the two letters can be mixed together, as in ㅜㅠ. Single or multiple ; (Semicolons) are often used together with faces depicting embarrassment, for an added effect. Also, other characters may be added to indicate hands, similar to the Japanese emoticons; but usually they are only attached on the right. Example: -ㅅ-a (scratching one's head), 'ㅅ'b (Thumbs up), 'ㅅ'ㅗ (The finger) In some cases, like ㅎ_ㅎ, the emoticon can mean an emotion even when it is not depicting a face of any specific emotion. Letters ㅎ and ㅋ are widely used in Korean internet as a sign of laughter (similar to the usage of "w" in Japanese Web); and so the emoticons using those letters as the eye component can be interpreted as a laughing face. Also, ㅇㅈㄴ is a Korean version of "orz" mentioned above, depicting a man kneeling down. Western use of East Asian style English-language anime forums adopted those emoticons that could be used with the standard ASCII characters available on western keyboards. Because of this, they are often called "anime style" emoticons in the English-speaking Internet. They have since seen use in more mainstream venues, including online gaming, instant-messaging, and other non-anime related forums. Emoticons such as <(^.^)>,<(^_^<),<(o_o<),<( -'.'- )>,<('.'-^), which include the parentheses, mouth or nose, and arms (especially those represented by the inequality signs < or >) also are often referred to as "Kirbies" in reference to their likeness to Nintendo's video game character, Kirby. The parentheses are usually dropped when used in the English language context, and the underscore of the mouth may be extended as an intensifier, e.g. ^___^ for very happy. Mixture of western and East Asian style Exposure to both western and East Asian style emoticons or emoji through web blogs, instant messaging, and forums featuring a blend of Western and Asian pop culture, has given rise to emoticons that have an upright viewing format. The parentheses are similarly dropped in the English language context and the emoticons only use alphanumeric characters and the most commonly used English punctuation marks. Emoticons such as -O-, -3-, -w-, ' - ', ; - ;, :>, and .V., are used to convey mixed emotions that are more difficult to convey with traditional emoticons. Characters are sometimes added to emoticons to convey a anime or manga-styled sweat drop, for example: ^_^' or >_<!. There are also more faces along those lines like >o<; using the ; as a sweat mark, and the "o" as a mouth, and the inequality signs as the eyes, it shows stress, or slight confusion. The amount of emoticons that can be made are limitless, and all have their own meaning. Ideographic style The letter 囧 (U+56E7), which means 'bright' Baidu: 囧 , is also used in Chinese and Taiwanese community for frowning face. 生僻字大行其道 "囧"衍生出各種表情 It is also combined with posture emoticon Orz, such as 囧rz. The letter existed in Oracle bone script, but its use as emoticon was documented as early as 2005-01-20. 心情很orz嗎？網路象形文字幽默一下 Other ideographic variant for 囧 include 崮 (king 囧), 莔 (queen 囧), 商 (囧 with hat), 囧興 (turtle), 卣 (Bomberman). The letter 槑 (U+69D1), which means 'plum', is used to represent double of '呆' (dull), or further magnitude of dullness. Baidu: 槑 In Chinese, normally full characters (as opposed to the stylistic use of 槑) may be duplicated to express emphasis. 2channel style The Japanese language is usually encoded using double-byte character codes. As a result there is a bigger variety of characters that can be used in emoticons, many of which cannot be reproduced in ASCII. Most kaomoji contain Cyrillic and other foreign letters to create even more complicated expressions analogous to ASCII art's level of complexity. To type such emoticons, the input editor that is used to type Japanese on a user's system is equipped with a dictionary of emoticons, after which the user simply types the Japanese word (or something close to it) that represents the desired emoticon to convert the input into such complicated emoticons. Such expressions are known as Shift JIS art. Users of 2channel in particular have developed a wide variety of unique emoticons using obscure characters. Some have taken on a life of their own and become characters in their own right, like Mona. Posture emoticons Orz Orz (also seen as _\|￣\|o, OTL, Or2, Orz, OTZ, O7Z, Sto, Jto, _no, 囧rz) is a Japanese emoticon representing a kneeling or bowing person, with the "o" being the head, the "r" being the arms and part of the body, and the "z" being part of the body and the legs. This stick figure represents failure and despair. It is also commonly used for representing a great admiration for (sometimes with an overtone of sarcasm) someone else's view or action. It was first seen in late 2002. It was first used at the forum on Techside, Japanese personal website. At the "Techside FAQ Forum" (TECHSIDE教えて君BBS(教えてBBS) ), a poster asked about a cable cover, typing "＿\|￣\|○" to show a cable and its cover. Others commented that it looked like a kneeling person, and the symbol became popular. These comments were soon deleted as they were considered off-topic. However, one of the first corresponding reactions can be found on the thread on , on December 23, 2002, and spawned a subculture in late 2004. Orz is associated sometimes with the phrase "nice guy" — that is, the concept of males being rejected for a date by girls they are pursuing with a phrase like "You're a nice guy," or "I'd like to be your friend." Though people generally use the pictograph to show that they have failed and/or they are in despair, some users use it to imply being doubled over in laughter. It is not to be read phonetically; the letters are spelled out. Orz should not be confused with m(_ _)m, which means an apology. In the Chinese and Taiwanese community, Orz or orz can also be used as admiration towards one's accomplishment in addition to the Japanese meaning. Orz (also written in lower-case as 'orz') is sometimes used as a replacement for the popular humour phrases 'lol' & 'rofl' (Rolling on the floor laughing) as it can also appear as a figure knelt down holding his stomach which can be interpreted as laughter. Multimedia variations A portmanteau of emotion and sound, an emotisound is a brief sound transmitted and played back during the viewing of a message, typically an IM message or e-mail message. The sound is intended to communicate an emotional subtext. Many instant messaging clients automatically trigger sound effects in response to specific emoticons. Some services, such as MuzIcons, combine emoticons and Adobe Flash music player in a widget. In 2004, The Trillian chat application introduced an feature called "emotiblips", which allows Trillian users to stream files to their instant message recipients "as the voice and video equivalent of an emoticon". Cerulean Studios: The Creators of Trillian and Trillian Pro IM Clients In 2007, MTV and Paramount Home Entertainment promoted the "emoticlip" as a form of viral marketing for the second season of the show The Hills. The emoticlips were twelve short snippets of dialogue from the show, uploaded to YouTube, which the advertisers hoped would be distributed between web users as a way of expressing feelings in a similar manner to emoticons. The emoticlip concept is credited to the Bradley & Montgomery advertising firm, which hopes they would be widely adopted as "greeting cards that just happen to be selling something". AdWeek Article about Emoticlip In 2008 an emotion-sequence animation tool, called FunIcons was created. The Adobe Flash and Java-based application allows users to create a short animation. Users can then email or save their own animations to use them on similar social utility applications. Animated Faces and Emoticons / Digital Elite Inc. Emoticons and intellectual property rights Patented drop down menu for composing phone mail text message with emoticons. In 2000 Despair, Inc. obtained a U.S. trademark registration for the "frowny" emoticon :-( when used on "greeting cards, posters and art prints." In 2001, they issued a satirical press release, announcing that they would sue Internet users who typed the frowny; the joke backfired and the company received a storm of protest when its mock release was posted at technology news website Slashdot. Schwartz, John. "Compressed Data: Don't Mind That Lawsuit, It's Just a Joke," New York Times, January 29, 2001 They subsequently issued another press release a month later in response to the reaction their claim had generated. A number of patent applications have been filed on inventions that assist in communicating with emoticons. A few of these have issued as US patents. , for example, discloses a method developed in 2001 to send emoticons over a cell phone using a drop down menu. The advantage over the prior art was that the user saved on the number of keystrokes. In Finland, the emoticons :-), =), =(, :) and :( were trademarked in 2006 for use with various products and services. In 2008, Russian entrepreneur Oleg Teterin claimed to have been granted the trademark on the ;-) emoticon. A license wouldn't "cost that much - tens of thousands of dollars" for companies, but would be free of charge for individuals. BBC News: Russian hopes to cash in on ;-) See also ASCII art Emoji Hieroglyph Internet slang List of emoticons Kaoani Pixel art Smiley Text References Further reading Wolf, Alecia. 2000. "Emotional Expression Online: Gender Differences in Emoticon Use." CyberPsychology & Behavior 3'': 827-833. External links Examples List of AOL messenger emoticons List of GTalk emoticons List of MSN messenger emoticons List of Yahoo messenger emoticons How to insert few emoticons in Microsoft Office Japanese emoticons 2-byte Japanese emoticons Anikaos Japanese Anime emoticons list Article - A Guide to Anime Emoticons Western usage of kaomoji Koto Phone in Japan Flickr set - Example of default kaomoji on Japanese cell phone List of Microsoft Office Input Method Editor emoticons	Emoticon \|@lemmatized emoticon:104 originate:1 text:11 representation:1 pronounced:1 e:13 moh:1 ti:1 kon:1 textual:1 portrayal:1 writer:3 mood:1 facial:2 expression:5 often:11 use:68 alert:1 responder:1 tenor:1 temper:1 statement:1 change:3 improve:1 interpretation:2 plain:1 word:4 portmanteau:2 english:6 emotion:9 emote:2 icon:1 web:6 forum:9 instant:9 messenger:5 online:5 game:3 automatically:5 replace:11 small:5 corresponding:3 image:7 come:3 call:5 well:2 example:14 widely:4 know:4 smiley:12 face:18 frowny:3 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3,307	Persian_language	Persian (local names: فارسی, Farsi ; or پارسی, Parsi ; see Nomenclature), is an Iranian language within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is mainly spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Bahrain and also in surrounding areas; it has official-language status in the first three countries under different names. The Persian language has been a medium for literary and scientific contributions to the Islamic world as well as the Western. It has had an influence on certain neighboring languages, particularly the Turkic languages of Central Asia, Caucasus, and Anatolia as well as Urdu, Hindi, Saraiki and other Indian languages. It has had a lesser influence on Arabic and other languages of Mesopotamia. For five centuries prior to the British colonization, Persian was widely used as a second language in the Indian subcontinent; it took prominence as the language of culture and education in several Muslim courts in South Asia and became the "official language" under the Mughal emperors. Only in 1843 did the subcontinent begin conducting business in English. Evidence of Persian's historical influence there can be seen in the extent of its influence on the languages of the Indian subcontinent, as well as the popularity that Persian literature still enjoys in that region. Classification Persian belongs to the Western group of the Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family, and is of the Subject Object Verb type. The Western Iranian group contains other related languages such as Kurdish and Baluchi. The language is in the Southwestern Iranian group, along with and very similar to the Larestani and Luri languages. Nomenclature Local names (transliteration: ) is the local name of the language spoken in modern day Iran. Tajiki ( in the Cyrillic Tajik alphabet) is the local name in Central Asia, especially in Tajikistan. Dari (from "court") is the local name in Afghanistan. English names Persian, the more widely used name of the language in English, is an Anglicized form derived from Latin * < Latin < Greek , a Hellenized form of Old Persian . According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian seems to have been first used in English in the mid-16th century. Oxford English Dictionary online, s.v. "Persian", draft revision June 2007. Native Persian speakers call it "Fārsi" (local name) or Parsi. Farsi is the arabicized form of Parsi, due to a lack of the 'p' phoneme in Standard Arabic. In English, this language is historically known as "Persian". Some Persian-speakers migrating to the West (particularly to the USA) continued to use "Farsi" to identify their language in English and the word gained some currency in English-speaking countries. "Farsi" is encountered in some linguistic literature as a name for the language, used both by Iranian and by foreign authors. For example: A. Gharib, M. Bahar, B. Fooroozanfar, J. Homaii, and R. Yasami. Farsi Grammar. Jahane Danesh, 2nd edition, 2001. However, the Academy of Persian Language and Literature has declared in an official pronouncement Pronouncement of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature that the name "Persian" is more appropriate, as it has the longer tradition in the western languages and better expresses the role of the language as a mark of cultural and national continuity. Some Persian language scholars also have rejected the usage of "Farsi" in their articles. International The international language encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code "fa", as its coding system is based on the local names. The more detailed draft ISO 639-3 uses the name "Persian" (code "fas") for the larger unit ("macrolanguage") spoken across Iran and Afghanistan, but "Eastern Farsi" and "Western Farsi" for two of its subdivisions (roughly coinciding with the varieties in Afghanistan and those in Iran, respectively). Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: fas Ethnologue, in turn, includes "Farsi, Eastern" and "Farsi, Western" as two separate entries and lists "Persian" and "Parsi" as alternative names for each, besides "Irani" for the western and "Dari" for the eastern form. Ethnologue: Code PRS Ethnologue: Code PES A similar terminology, but with even more subdivisions, is also adopted by the LINGUIST List, where "Persian" appears as a subgrouping under "Southwest Western Iranian". Linguist List: Tree for Southwest Western Iranian Currently, VOA, BBC, DW, and RFE/RL use "Persian Service" for their broadcasts in the language. RFE/RL also includes a Tajik service, and an Afghan (Dari) service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, and many of the leading scholars of Persian language. Kamran Talattof Persian or Farsi? The debate continues... Dialects and closely-related languages There are three modern varieties of standard Persian: Persian or Farsi ? Simin Karimi, Department of Linguistics, University of Arizona Modern Iranian Persian is the variety of Persian spoken in Iran, also known as Farsi (in Persian) or Persian (in English). Henderson, M. M. T. (1994) "Modern Persian Verb Stems Revisited" in Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 114, No. 4. (October–December 1994), pp. 639–641. Keshavarz, M. H. (1988) "Forms of Address in Post-Revolutionary Iranian Persian: A Sociolinguistic Analysis" in Language in Society, Vol. 17 No. 4 p565-75 December 1988 Dari is the local name for the Persian language spoken in Afghanistan and Uzbekistan. Tajik is the variety of Persian used in Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Russia, but unlike the Persian used in Iran and Afghanistan, it is written in the Cyrillic script rather than Persian script. The three mentioned varieties are based on the classic Persian literature. There are also several local dialects from Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan which slightly differ from the standard Persian. Lari (in Iran), Hazaragi (in Afghanistan), Darwazi (In Afghanistan and Tajikistan) and Dehwari in Pakistan are examples of these dialects. The Ethnologue offers another classification for dialects of Persian language. According to this source, dialects of this language include the following: Ethnologue - Language Family Trees - Persian Western Persian, or Farsi (in Iran) Eastern Persian (in Afghanistan and Pakistan) Tajiki (in Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan, China (Xinjiang Autonomous Region)) Hazaragi (in Afghanistan) Aimaq (in Afghanistan) Bukharic (in Israel, Uzbekistan) Darwazi (in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tajikistan) Dzhidi (in Israel, Iran) The following are some closely related languages to Persian: Luri (or Lori), spoken mainly in the southwestern Iranian province of Lorestan and Khuzestan. Tat, spoken in parts of Azerbaijan, Russia, etc. It includes Judeo-Tat & Christian-Tat. Phonology Iranian Persian has six vowels and twenty-three consonants, including two affricates (ch) and (j). Vowels The vowel phonemes of Persian Historically, Persian distinguished length: the long vowels , , contrasting with the short vowels , , respectively. Persian dialects and varieties differ in their vowels, more so than in their consonants. Consonants Labial Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Uvular GlottalNasal Plosive Affricate Fricative Tap Trill Approximant (Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a voiced consonant. Allophones are in phonetic brackets.) Grammar Morphology Suffixes predominate Persian morphology, though there is a small number of prefixes. Verbs can express tense and aspect, and they agree with the subject in person and number. There is no gender in Persian, nor are pronouns marked for natural gender. Syntax Normal declarative sentences are structured as "(S) (PP) (O) V". This means sentences can comprise optional subjects, prepositional phrases, and objects, followed by a required verb. If the object is specific, then the object is followed by the word r: and precedes prepositional phrases: "(S) (O + "r:") (PP) V". Vocabulary Native word formation Persian makes extensive use of word building and combining affixes, stems, nouns and adjectives. Persian frequently uses derivational agglutination to form new words from nouns, adjectives, and verbal stems. New words are extensively formed by compounding – two existing words combining into a new one, as is common in German. Professor Mahmoud Hessaby demonstrated that Persian can derive 226 million words. FAREIRAN.COM / فرايران Influences There are many loanwords in the Persian language from Arabic, French, German and Russian. Persian has likewise influenced the vocabularies of other languages, especially other Indo-Iranian languages like Hindi, Urdu, etc, as well as Turkic languages like Turkish, Turkmen, Azeri and Uzbek, Afro-Asiatic languages like Assyrian and Arabic Bashgah , and even Dravidian languages especially Telugu and Brahui.Several languages of southwest Asia have also been influenced, including Armenian and Georgian. Persian has even influenced the Malay spoken in Malaysia and Swahili in Africa. Many Persian words have also found their way into other Indo-European languages including the English language. The extent of Persian words used in Urdu has made that language often understandable by Persian-speakers, especially in written form. See also: List of English words of Persian origin, List of French loanwords in Persian and Comparison Table of the Iranian Languages Orthography Example showing 's (Persian) proportion rules. Dehkhoda's personal handwriting; a typical cursive Persian script. The vast majority of modern Iranian Persian and Dari text is written in a form of the Arabic alphabet. Tajik, which is considered by some linguists to be a Persian dialect influenced by Russian and the Turkic languages of Central Asia, is written with the Cyrillic alphabet in Tajikistan (see Tajik alphabet). Persian alphabet Modern Iranian, Persian, and Dari are normally written using a modified variant of the Arabic alphabet (see Perso-Arabic script) with different pronunciation and more letters, whereas the Tajik variety is typically written in a modified version of the Cyrillic alphabet. After the conversion of Persia to Islam (see Islamic conquest of Iran), it took approximately 150 years before Persians adopted the Arabic alphabet in place of the older alphabet. Previously, two different alphabets were used, Pahlavi, used for Middle Persian, and the Avestan alphabet (in Persian, Dîndapirak or Din Dabire—literally: religion script), used for religious purposes, primarily for the Avestan language but sometimes for Middle Persian. In modern Persian script, vowels generally known as short vowels (a, e, o) are usually not written; only the long vowels (i, u, â) are represented in the text. This, of course, creates certain ambiguities. Consider the following: kerm "worm", karam "generosity", kerem "cream", and krom "chrome" are all spelled "krm" in Persian. The reader must determine the word from context. The Arabic system of vocalization marks known as harakat is also used in Persian, although some of the symbols have different pronunciations. For example, an Arabic damma is pronounced , while in Iranian Persian it is pronounced . This system is not used in mainstream Persian literature; it is primarily used for teaching and in some (but not all) dictionaries. It is also worth noting that there are several letters generally only used in Arabic loanwords. These letters are pronounced the same as similar Persian letters. As such, there are four functionally identical 'z' letters, three 's' letters, two 't' letters, etc. Additions The Persian alphabet adds four letters to the Arabic alphabet: Sound Isolated form Name [p] پ pe (ch) چ če (zh) ژ že [g] گ gāf (The že is pronounced as in "measure", "fusion", or "azure".) Variations The Persian alphabet also modifies some letters from the Arabic alphabet. For example, alef with hamza below ( إ ) changes to alef ( ا ); words using various hamzas get spelled with yet another kind of hamza (so that مسؤول becomes مسئول); and teh marbuta ( ة ) changes to heh ( ه ) or teh ( ت ). The letters different in shape are: Sound original Arabic letter modified Persian letter name [k] ك ک kāfvowel consonant ي ى ye Writing the letters in their original Arabic form is not typically considered to be incorrect, but is not normally done. Latin alphabet The International Organization for Standardization has published a standard for simplified transliteration of Persian into Latin, ISO 233-3, titled "Information and documentation -- Transliteration of Arabic characters into Latin characters -- Part 3: Persian language -- Simplified transliteration" ISO 233-3:1999 but the transliteration scheme is not in widespread use. Another Latin alphabet, based on the Uniform Turkic alphabet, was used in Tajikistan in the 1920s and 1930s. The alphabet was phased out in favour of Cyrillic in the late 1930s. Fingilish, or Penglish, is the name given to texts written in Persian using the Basic Latin alphabet. It is most commonly used in chat, emails and SMS applications. The orthography is not standardized, and varies among writers and even media (for example, typing 'aa' for the phoneme is easier on computer keyboards than on cellphone keyboards, resulting in smaller usage of the combination on cellphones). UniPers, short for the Universal Persian Alphabet (Pârsiye Jahâni) is a Latin-based alphabet popularized by Mohamed Keyvan, who used it in a number of Persian textbooks for foreigners and travellers. UniPers The International Persian Alphabet (Pársik) is another Latin-based alphabet developed in recent years mainly by A. Moslehi, a comparative linguist. IPA2 Tajik alphabet Tajik advertisement for an academy. The Cyrillic alphabet was introduced for writing the Tajik language under the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic in the late 1930s, replacing the Latin alphabet that had been used since the Bolshevik revolution and the Perso-Arabic script that had been used earlier. After 1939, materials published in Persian in the Perso-Arabic script were banned from the country. History Persian is an Iranian tongue belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages. The oldest records in Old Persian date back to the Persian Empire of the 6th century BC. The known history of the Persian language can be divided into the following three distinct periods: Old Persian Old Persian evolved from Proto-Iranian as it evolved in the Iranian plateau's southwest. The earliest dateable example of the language is the Behistun Inscription of the Achaemenid Darius I (r. 522 BC — ca. 486 BC). Although purportedly older texts also exist (such as the inscription on the tomb of Cyrus II at Pasargadae), these are actually younger examples of the language. Old Persian was written in Old Persian cuneiform, a script unique to that language and is generally assumed to be an invention of Darius I's reign. After Aramaic, or rather the Achaemenid form of it known as Imperial Aramaic, Old Persian is the most commonly attested language of the Achaemenid age. While examples of Old Persian have been found wherever the Achaemenids held territories, the language is attested primarily in the inscriptions of Western Iran, in particular in Parsa "Persia" in the southwest, the homeland of the tribes that the Achaemenids (and later the Sassanids) came from. In contrast to later Persian, written Old Persian had an extensively inflected grammar, with eight cases, each declension subject to both gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) and number (singular, dual, plural). Middle Persian In contrast to Old Persian, whose spoken and written forms must have been dramatically different from one another, written Middle Persian reflected oral use, and was thus much simpler than its ancestor. The complex conjugation and declension of Old Persian yielded to a simple internal structure of Middle Persian; the dual number disappeared, leaving only singular and plural, as did gender. Instead, Middle Persian used prepositions to indicate the different roles of words, for example an -i suffix to denote a possessive "from/of" rather than the multiple (subject to gender and number) genitive caseforms of a word. Although the "middle period" of Iranian languages formally begins with the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, the transition from Old- to Middle Persian had probably already begun before the 4th century. However, Middle Persian is not actually attested until 600 years later when it appears in Sassanid era (224 - 651) inscriptions, so any form of the language before this date cannot be described with any degree of certainty. Moreover, as a literary language, Middle Persian is not attested until much later, to the 6th or 7th century. And from the 8th century onwards, Middle Persian gradually began yielding to New Persian, with the middle-period form only continuing in the texts of Zoroastrian tradition. The native name of Middle Persian was Parsik or Parsig, after the name of the ethnic group of the southwest, that is, "of Pars", Old Persian Parsa, New Persian Fars. This is the origin of the name Farsi as it is today used to signify New Persian. Following the collapse of the Sassanid state, Parsik came to be applied exclusively to (either Middle or New) Persian that was written in Arabic script. From about the 9th century onwards, as Middle Persian was on the threshold of becoming New Persian, the older form of the language came to be erroneously called Pahlavi, which was actually but one of the writing systems used to render both Middle Persian as well as various other Middle Iranian languages. That writing system had previously been adopted by the Sassanids (who were Persians, i.e. from the southwest) from the preceding Arsacids (who were Parthians, i.e. from the northeast). While Rouzbeh (Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa, 8th century) still distinguished between Pahlavi (i.e. Parthian) and Farsi (i.e. Middle Persian), this distinction is not evident in Arab commentaries written after that date. New Persian Early New Persian Classic Persian The Islamic conquest of Persia marks the beginning of the new history of Persian language and literature. It saw world-famous poets and was for a long time the lingua franca of the eastern parts of Islamic world and of the Indian subcontinent. It was also the official and cultural language of many Islamic dynasties, including Samanids, Buyids, Tahirids, Ziyarids, the Mughal Empire, Timurids, Ghaznavid, Seljuq, Khwarezmids, Safavid, Afsharids, Zand, Qajar, Ottomans and also many Mughal successor states such as the Nizams etc. For example, Persian was the only oriental language known and used by Marco Polo at the Court of Kubla Khan and in his journeys through China. John Andrew Boyle, SOME THOUGHTS ON THE SOURCES FOR THE IL-KHANID PERIOD OF PERSIAN HISTORY, in Iran: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies, British Institute of Persian Studies, vol. 12 (1974), p. 175 The heavy influence of Persian on other languages can still be witnessed across the Islamic world, especially, and it is still appreciated as a literary and prestigious language among the educated elite, especially in fields of music (for example Qawwali) and art (Persian literature). After the Arab invasion of Persia, Persian began to adopt many words and structures from Arabic and as time went by, a few words were even taken from Altaic languages under the Mongol Empire and Turco-Persian society. Contemporary Persian A variant of the Iranian standard ISIRI 9147 keyboard layout for Persian. Since the nineteenth century, Russian, French and English and many other languages have contributed to the technical vocabulary of Persian. The Iranian National Academy of Persian Language and Literature is responsible for evaluating these new words in order to initiate and advise their Persian equivalents. The language itself has greatly developed during the centuries. Examples Persian IPA Glossهمهٔ افراد بشر آزاد به دنیا می‌آیند و از دید حیثیت و حقوق با هم برابرند، همه دارای اندیشه و وجدان هستند و باید در برابر یکدیگر با روح برادری رفتار کنند. hæmeje æfrɒd bæʃær ɒzɒd be donjɒ miɒjænd o æz dide hejsijæt o hoɢuɢ bɒ hæm bærɒbærænd ǁ hæme dɒrɒje ændiʃe o vedʒdɒn mibɒʃænd o bɒjæd dær bærɒbære jekdigær bɒ ruhe bærɒdæri ræftɒr konænd All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. —Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights See also Persian Alphabet Dari (Persian) Tajik language Southwestern Iranian dialects Persian literature Academy of Persian Language and Literature List of Persian poets and authors Persianate Persian mythology Iranian Languages vocabulary comparison table List of French loanwords in Persian‎ Notes Further reading External links PERSIAN FONT & KEYBOARD Persian language Persian.asia AriaDic Persian / English Dictionary with pronunciation Collection of Persian bilingual dictionaries UCLA Language Materials Project: Persian Academic Grammar of New Persian in Persian, English and German Persian-Farsi - site for studying persian (in Russian) Iran language Institute Navid Fazel, Descriptive Grammar of New Persian Pahlawi, Farsi and Dari Persian Culture & Language Free online written and audio beginners Persian course GlobalDic.Com the only dynamic Persian to English and German Dictionary Farsi To English and English to Farsi dictionary Farsi Dictionary with pronunciation A Persian Verb calculator Another Persian Verb Conjugator List of Verbs Boyle's Persian verb classifications The Persian Language	Persian_language \|@lemmatized persian:163 local:9 name:21 فارسی:1 farsi:21 پارسی:1 parsi:4 see:7 nomenclature:2 iranian:27 language:80 within:1 indo:7 branch:3 european:4 mainly:3 speak:8 iran:14 afghanistan:13 tajikistan:9 uzbekistan:5 bahrain:1 also:17 surround:1 area:1 official:4 status:1 first:2 three:6 country:3 different:7 medium:2 literary:3 scientific:1 contribution:1 islamic:6 world:4 well:5 western:11 influence:10 certain:2 neighboring:1 particularly:2 turkic:4 central:3 asia:6 caucasus:1 anatolia:1 urdu:3 hindi:2 saraiki:1 indian:4 less:1 arabic:20 mesopotamia:1 five:1 century:10 prior:1 british:3 colonization:1 widely:2 use:34 second:1 subcontinent:4 take:3 prominence:1 culture:2 education:1 several:4 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3,308	Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union	The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Russian: Коммунисти́ческая Па́ртия Сове́тского Сою́за, transliterated Kommunisticheskaya Partiya Sovetskogo Soyuza, acronym: КПСС (KPSS)) was the ruling and only legal political party in the Soviet Union and one of the largest communist organizations in the world. It emerged from the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin. The party led the 1917 October Revolution that overthrew the Russian Provisional Government and established the world's first socialist state. Given the central role under the Constitution of the Soviet Union, the party controlled all tiers of government in the Soviet Union and did not tolerate any opposition. Its organization was subdivided into communist parties of the constituent Soviet republics as well as the mass youth organization, Komsomol. The party was also the driving force of Comintern, maintained organizational links and supported communist movements in Eastern Europe, Asia and Africa. The party ceased to exist with the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt failure in 1991 and was succeeded by the Communist Party of the Russian Federation in Russia and the communist parties of the now-independent former Soviet republics. Structure CPSU The governing body of the CPSU was the Party Congress which was held once in 1-5 years, depending on the historical period, with an exception of a long break from 1939 to 1952. Party Congresses would elect a Central Committee which, in turn, would elect a Politburo. Under Stalin the most powerful position in the party became the General Secretary who was elected by the Politburo. In 1952 the title of General Secretary became First Secretary and the Politburo became the Presidium before reverting to their former names under Leonid Brezhnev in 1966. In theory, supreme power in the party was invested in the Party Congress. However, in practice, all executive power was in the hands of the General Secretary. At lower levels, the organizational hierarchy was managed by Party Committees, or partkoms (партком). A partkom was headed by the elected "partkom bureau secretary" ("partkom secretary", секретарь парткома). At enterprises, institutions, kolkhozes, etc., they were called as such, i.e., "partkoms". At higher levels the Committees were abbreviated accordingly: raikoms (райком) at raion level, obkoms (обком) at oblast levels (known earlier as gubkoms (губком) for guberniyas), gorkom (горком) it city level, etc. The bottom level of the Party was the "primary party organization" (первичная партийная организация) or "party cell" (партийная ячейка). It was created within any organizational entity of any kind where there were at least three communists. The management of a cell was called "party bureau" (партийное бюро, партбюро). A partbureau was headed by the elected "bureau secretary" (секретарь партбюро). At smaller party cells, secretaries were regular employees of the corresponding factory/hospital/school/etc. Sufficiently large party organizations were usually headed by an "exempt secretary" (освобожденный секретарь), who drew his salary from the Party money. Membership Membership in the party ultimately became a privilege, with a small subset of the general population of Party becoming an elite class or nomenklatura in Soviet society. Nomenklatura enjoyed many perquisites denied to the average Soviet citizen. Among those perks were shopping at well-stocked stores, access to foreign merchandise, preference in obtaining housing, access to dachas and holiday resorts, being allowed to travel abroad, sending their children to prestigious universities, and obtaining prestigious jobs (as well as party membership itself) for their children. It became virtually impossible to join the Soviet ruling and managing elite without being a member of the Communist Party. Membership had its risks, however, especially in the 1930s when the party was subjected to purges under Stalin. Membership in the party was not open. To become a party member one had to be approved by various committees and one's past was closely scrutinised. As generations grew up never having known anything but the USSR, party membership became something one generally achieved after passing a series of stages. Children would join the Young Pioneers and then, at the age of 14, may graduate to the Komsomol (Young Communist League) and ultimately, as an adult, if one had shown the proper adherence to party discipline or had the right connections one would become a member of the Communist Party itself. However, membership also had its obligations. Komsomol and CPSU members were expected not only to pay dues but also to carry out appropriate assignments and "social tasks" (общественные поручения). In 1918 it had a membership of approximately 200,000. In the late 1920s under Stalin, the party engaged in a heavy recruitment campaign (the "Lenin Levy") of new members from both the working class and rural areas. This was both an attempt to "proletarianize" the party and an attempt by Stalin to strengthen his base by outnumbering the Old Bolsheviks and reducing their influence in the party. By 1933, the party had approximately 3.5 million members but as a result of the Great Purge party membership was cut down to 1.9 million by 1939. In 1986, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union had over 19 million members or approximately 10% of the USSR's adult population. Over 44% of party members were classified as industrial workers, 12% were collective farmers. The CPSU had party organizations in fourteen of the USSR's 15 republics. In the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic itself there was no separate Communist Party until 1990 as affairs were controlled directly by the CPSU. History The Russian Social Democratic Labour Party () was formed in Minsk in 1889. The Russian Social Democratic Labour Party was finally divided in 1912, although the Bolshevik and Menshevik factions had de facto functioned as separate political blocs. Henceforth, the Bolshevik party was known as RSDLP (bolsheviks) () , РСДРП(б)). In 1918 the party took the name Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks) () , РКП(б)). In 1925 the party was renamed the All-Union Communist Party (bolsheviks) () , ВКП(б)). In 1952 the party was renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. End of Communist rule In 1989 Gorbachev allowed other political associations (de facto political parties) to coexist with the Communist Party and in 1990 obtained the repeal of Article Six of the USSR constitution which gave the party supremacy over all institutions in society, thus ending its vanguard status. The Communist Party's power over the state formally ended that same year with the newly-created Soviet Presidency, whose first and only President was Party General Secretary Gorbachev. The growing likelihood of the dissolution of the USSR itself led hardline elements in the CPSU to launch the August Coup in 1991 which temporarily removed Gorbachev from power. On August 19, 1991, a day before the New Union Treaty was to be signed devolving power to the republics, a group calling itself the "State Emergency Committee" seized power in Moscow declaring that Gorbachev was ill and therefore relieved of his position as president. Soviet vice-president Gennadiy Yanayev was named acting president. The committee's eight members included KGB chairman Vladimir Kryuchkov, Internal Affairs Minister Boris Pugo, Defense Minister Dmitriy Yazov, and Prime Minister Valentin Pavlov. The coup dissolved because of large public demonstrations and the efforts of Boris Yeltsin who became the real power in Russia as a result. Gorbachev returned to Moscow as president but resigned as General Secretary and vowed to purge the party of hardliners. Yeltsin had the CPSU formally banned within the Russian SFSR on August 26. The KGB was disbanded as were other CPSU-related agencies and organisations. Yeltsin's action was later declared unconstitutional but by this time the USSR had ceased to exist. The Communist Party in between Gorbachev's resignation and its suspension was politically impotent. By the time of the 28th Congress of the CPSU in July 1990, the party was largely regarded as being unable to lead the country and had, in fifteen republics, split into opposing factions favouring either independent republics or the continuation of the Soviet Union. Stripped of its leading role in society the party lost its authority to lead the nation or the cohesion that kept the party united. Its last General Secretary was Vladimir Ivashko, chosen on August 24, 1991. Actual political power lay in the positions of President of the Soviet Union (held by Gorbachev) and President of the Russian SFSR (held by Yeltsin). Ivashko remained for five days as acting General Secretary until August 29 when the party's activity was suspended by the Supreme Soviet. Archives of the Party are now preserved in a number of Russian state archives (Archive of the President of the Russian Federation, Russian State Archive of Contemporary History, Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History, State Archive of the Russian Federation), many of them remain classified. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russian adherents to the CPSU tradition, particularly as it existed before Gorbachev, reorganised themselves as the Communist Party of the Russian Federation. Today there are many parties in Russia claiming to be the successors of CPSU. Several of them used the name CPSU. However, CPRF is generally seen (because of its large size) as the inheritor of the CPSU in Russia. In other republics, communists established the Armenian Communist Party, Communist Party of Azerbaijan, Party of Communists of Kyrgyzstan, Communist Party of Ukraine, Party of Communists of Belarus, Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova, Communist Party of Kazakhstan and the Communist Party of Tajikistan. Along with the CPRF, these parties formed the Union of Communist Parties - Communist Party of the Soviet Union (SKP-KPSS). In Turkmenistan, the local party apparatus led by Saparmurat Niyazov was renamed the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan and abandoned communist ideology. In Uzbekistan, Islom Karimov changed the CPSU branch into the People's Democratic Party. In Georgia, the Socialist Labour Party was founded in 1992. This party would later evolve into the Communist Party of Georgia (SKP). Another communist faction in Georgia, which is larger than SKP, is the United Communist Party of Georgia (SEKP). In Estonia, the CPSU branch was in the hands of reformers, who converted it into the Estonian Democratic Labour Party (EDTP). A minority regrouped into the Communist Party of Estonia. In Lithuania, the CPSU was banned in 1991. A branch of "progressive" communists led by Algirdas Brazauskas established the Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania in 1992. In Latvia, communist organizations were officially banned and a major part of the party there had broken away in 1990 and formed the Latvian Social Democratic Party. The remnants of CPSU became the Union of Communists of Latvia, which went underground. Later, communists regrouped into the Socialist Party of Latvia. In Estonia The Communist Party of Estonia (, EKP) was the republic-level chapter of the CPSU in the Estonian SSR from 1940 to 1991. During that time, except for the period of 1941-1944, it was the sole legal political party in the republic. EKP split in 1990, when the pro-sovereignty majority faction of EKP separated itself from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and became the Estonian Democratic Labour Party. The minority faction of pro-Soviet hardliners opposing the separation formed a rump party called Communist Party of Estonia (CPSU) (EKP (NLKP)), which was outlawed by the government in 1991, just after Estonia declared independence. In Lithuania By the time of the formation of the Lithuanian SSR, the Communist Party of Lithuania (LKP) was headed by Antanas Sniečkus. In 1940 the LKP merged into the CPSU(b). The territorial organization of the party in Lithuania was called Communist Party of Lithuania (bolshevik) (LK(b)P). In the Lithuanian territorial organization, the first secretary of the Central Committee of the party (always a Lithuanian) was de facto governor of the country. The second secretary was always a Moscow-appointed Russian. In 1952 the name of the old Lithuanian party, LKP, was retaken. In 1989, during mass protests against Soviet Union in Lithuania the party declared itself independent from Communist Party of the Soviet Union. An alternative Communist Party of Lithuania ('on platform of Communist Party of the Soviet Union') existed in 1990-1991 under leadership of Mykolas Burokevičius. It was established after the "traditional" party declared its independence from its Soviet Union counterpart, and was eventually banned in 1991. In 1990 the Communist Party of Lithuania was renamed into Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania, which in turn was later merged with Social Democratic Party of Lithuania under the later's name, but with leadership dominated by ex-communists. In Moldova The Communist Party of Moldova (, PCM) was the republic-level chapter of the CPSU in the Moldavian SSR from 1940 to 1991. During that time, except for the period of 1941-1944, it was the sole legal political party in the republic. It was outlawed by the pro-Romanian Popular Front government in August 1991, just after Moldova declared independence. After the Communist party was legalised again by the Parliament of the Republic of Moldova on 7 September 1993, the PCM was reborn as the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova, which has governed Moldova since 2001. Branches Republic BranchRussian SFSRCommunist Party of the RSFSR (1990-1991)Ukrainian SSRCommunist Party (Bolsheviks) of UkraineBelarusian SSRCommunist Party of BelorussiaUzbek SSRCommunist Party of UzbekistanKazakh SSRCommunist Party of KazakhstanGeorgian SSRCommunist Party of GeorgiaAzerbaijan SSRCommunist Party of AzerbaijanLithuanian SSRCommunist Party of LithuaniaMoldovan SSRCommunist Party of MoldovaLatvian SSRCommunist Party of LatviaKirghiz SSRCommunist Party of KirghiziaTajik SSRCommunist Party of TajikistanArmenian SSRCommunist Party of ArmeniaTurkmen SSRCommunist Party of TurkmenistanEstonian SSRCommunist Party of EstoniaTurkestan ASSRCommunist Party of TurkestanBukharan SSR (1920–1925)Communist Party of BukharaKhorezm SSR (1920–1925)Communist Party of KhorezmKarelo-Finnish SSR (1940-1956)Communist Party of the Karelo-Finnish SSRTranscaucasian SFSR (1922-1936)Transcaucasian Regional Communist Party of the RKP(b)/VKP(b) 08980 See also Communist Party of the Russian Federation Communist Party Decommunization of Russia References External links Executive Bodies of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1917-1991) Program of the CPSU, 27th Party Congress (1986)	Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union \|@lemmatized communist:60 party:136 soviet:27 union:20 russian:19 коммунисти:1 ческая:1 па:1 ртия:1 сове:1 тского:1 сою:1 за:1 transliterate:1 kommunisticheskaya:1 partiya:1 sovetskogo:1 soyuza:1 acronym:1 кпсс:1 kpss:1 ruling:2 legal:3 political:8 one:6 large:5 organization:9 world:2 emerge:1 bolshevik:8 faction:6 social:6 democratic:11 labour:8 leadership:3 vladimir:3 lenin:2 lead:6 october:1 revolution:1 overthrow:1 provisional:1 government:4 establish:4 first:4 socialist:4 state:7 give:2 central:3 role:2 constitution:2 control:2 tier:1 tolerate:1 opposition:1 subdivide:1 constituent:1 republic:16 well:3 mass:2 youth:1 komsomol:3 also:4 drive:1 force:1 comintern:1 maintain:1 organizational:3 link:2 support:1 movement:1 eastern:1 europe:1 asia:1 africa:1 cease:2 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3,309	Beechcraft	The Beech Aircraft Corporation, previously the Beechcraft Division of Raytheon and now a unit of Hawker Beechcraft, is a United States manufacturer of general aviation and military aircraft, ranging from light single engine aircraft to business jets and light military transports. History 1978 Beech Bonanza F33C. Beechcraft was founded in Wichita, Kansas in 1932 by Walter H. Beech and his wife Olive Ann Mellor Beech. The company began operations in an idle Cessna factory. With designer Ted Wells, they developed their first aircraft, the classic Model 17 Staggerwing, which first flew in November 1932. Over 750 Staggerwings were built, with 270 manufactured for the United States Army Air Forces during World War II. In 1942 Beech won their first Army-Navy ‘E’ Award prodcution award became one of the elite five percent of war contracting firms in the country to win five straight awards for production efficiency. After the war, the Staggerwing was replaced by the revolutionary Beechcraft Bonanza with a distinctive V-tail. Perhaps the best known Beech aircraft, the single-engine Bonanza has been manufactured in various models since 1947. The Bonanza has had the longest production run of any airplane, past or present, in the world. Other important Beech planes are the King Air/Super King Air line of twin-engine turboprops, in production since 1964, Hawker Beechcraft production lists, 1945 - present retrieved 29 November 2008. the Baron, a twin-engine variant of the Bonanza and the Beech 18, originally a business transport and commuter airliner in the 1950s and 1960s, which remains in active service as a cargo transport. In 1950, Olive Ann Beech was installed as president and CEO of the company, after the sudden death of her husband from a heart attack on November 29 of that year. She continued as CEO until Beech was purchased by Raytheon Company on 8 February 1980. Ted Wells had been replaced as Chief Engineer by Herbert Rawdon, who remained at the post until his retirement in the early 1960s (he continued as a part-time consultant to Cessna President Dwane Wallace in Wichita until shortly before his death). In 1994, Raytheon merged Beechcraft with the Hawker product line it had acquired in 1993 from British Aerospace, forming Raytheon Aircraft Company. In 2002, the Beechcraft brand was revived to again designate the Wichita-produced aircraft. In 2007, Raytheon sold Raytheon Aircraft to Hawker Beechcraft. Since its inception Beechcraft has resided in Wichita, Kansas, also the home of chief competitor Cessna Aircraft Company, and the birthplace of the Learjet. Aircraft products 1943 Beech D.17S Staggerwing. Beechcraft Model 2000 Starship. Beechcraft 1900D. Civilian Model 16 Single-engine, all-metal training aircraft. Designed and flight tested in Liberal, KS in 1970. The wings and tail section were two feet shorter than the Model 19. It had a Lycoming O-235 engine rated at . Only one was ever built because Mrs. Beech did not like the aircraft. Model 17 Staggerwing Single-radial-engine fabric-covered biplane utility aircraft, tailwheel landing gear Model 18 Twin Beech Two-radial-engine all-metal utility aircraft, tailwheel landing gear Model 19 Sport Single-engine, all metal training aircraft, tricycle landing gear Model 23 Musketeer and Sundowner Single-engine all-metal training aircraft, nosewheel landing gear Model 24 Sierra Development of the Musketeer Model 34 Twin-Quad Prototype small airliner; the largest aircraft ever built by Beechcraft Model 33 Debonair Development of the Bonanza, with conventional empennage Model 35 Bonanza Single-engine utility aircraft, nosewheel landing gear, V-tail Model 36 Bonanza Single-engine utility aircraft, nosewheel landing gear, conventional tail Model 50 Twin Bonanza Two-engine utility aircraft; despite its name was not a development of the Bonanza Models 55, 56 and 58 Baron Two-engine high-performance utility aircraft; derived from the Model 95 Travel Air, Model 58 with fuselage derived from the Model 36 Bonanza Model 60 Duke Two-engine high-performance utility aircraft Models 65, 70, 80 and 88 Queen Air Two-engine transport aircraft; derived from the Model 50 Twin Bonanza Model 76 Duchess Two-engine development of the Musketeer Model 77 Skipper Single-engine two-seat primary trainer with fixed nosewheel landing gear Models 90 and 100 King Air Two-turboprop-engine transport aircraft, developed from the Queen Air Models 200 and 300 (Super) King Air Development of the King Air Model 95 Travel Air Two-engine development of the Model 33 Bonanza Model 99 Airliner Two-turboprop-engine small airliner; derived from the Queen Air Model 390 Premier Two-turbofan-engine utility aircraft (Entry Level Jet) Model 400 Beechjet Two-turbofan-engine utility aircraft, originally designed and manufactured by Mitsubishi Model 1900 Airliner Two-turboprop-engine airliner development of Model 200 Super King Air Model 2000 Starship Two-turboprop-engine utility aircraft with canard configuration and pusher propellers. Military A USAF T-6A Texan II out of Randolph Air Force Base. XA-38 Grizzly Two-radial-engine ground attack aircraft. Two prototypes were built (1944) AT-7 Navigator Military derivative of the Model 18 AT-10 Wichita Two-engine military trainer aircraft built primarily of wood AT-11 Kansan Military derivative of the Model 18 C-6 Ute Military derivative of the King Air C-12 Huron Military derivative of the Super King Air C-43 Traveler Military derivative of the Model 17 C-45 Expeditor Military derivative of the Model 18 CT-128 Expeditor Military derivative of the Model 18 CT-134 Musketeer Military derivative of the Musketeer CT-145 Super King Air Military derivative of the Super King Air CT-156 Harvard II trainer Single-turboprop-engine two-seat training aircraft RC-12 Guardrail Derivative of the C-12 T-1A Jayhawk Military derivative of the Model 400 T-6 Texan II Joint Primary Aircraft Training System - single-turboprop-engine two-seat training aircraft T-34 Mentor Single-engine two-seat training aircraft, derived from the Bonanza T-42 Cochise Military derivative of the Baron U-8 Seminole Military derivative of the Twin Bonanza and Queen Air U-21 Ute Military derivative of the King Air Drones AQM-37 Jayhawk Air-launched target drone aircraft with single rocket engine MQM-61A Cardinal Drone aircraft with single horizontally-opposed two-stroke piston engine and propeller References External links Beechcraft Division of Hawker Beechcraft web site Beech Aero Club (International Type Club for "Baby" Beeches) Beechcraft Heritage Museum Aerofiles - Beechcraft model information Aircraft-Info.net - Beechcraft RTP-TV AeroSpace Show: 1942 Beech C-45 Aerobatic Video	Beechcraft \|@lemmatized beech:16 aircraft:36 corporation:1 previously:1 beechcraft:17 division:2 raytheon:6 unit:1 hawker:5 united:2 state:2 manufacturer:1 general:1 aviation:1 military:17 range:1 light:2 single:14 engine:32 business:2 jet:2 transport:5 history:1 bonanza:15 found:1 wichita:5 kansa:2 walter:1 h:1 wife:1 olive:2 ann:2 mellor:1 company:5 begin:1 operation:1 idle:1 cessna:3 factory:1 designer:1 ted:2 well:2 develop:2 first:3 classic:1 model:41 staggerwing:4 fly:1 november:3 staggerwings:1 build:5 manufactured:1 army:2 air:20 force:2 world:2 war:3 ii:4 win:2 navy:1 e:1 award:3 prodcution:1 become:1 one:2 elite:1 five:2 percent:1 contracting:1 firm:1 country:1 straight:1 production:4 efficiency:1 replace:2 revolutionary:1 distinctive:1 v:2 tail:4 perhaps:1 best:1 know:1 manufacture:2 various:1 since:3 long:1 run:1 airplane:1 past:1 present:2 important:1 plane:1 king:11 super:6 line:2 twin:7 turboprop:7 list:1 retrieve:1 baron:3 variant:1 originally:2 commuter:1 airliner:6 remain:2 active:1 service:1 cargo:1 instal:1 president:2 ceo:2 sudden:1 death:2 husband:1 heart:1 attack:2 year:1 continue:2 purchase:1 february:1 chief:2 engineer:1 herbert:1 rawdon:1 post:1 retirement:1 early:1 part:1 time:1 consultant:1 dwane:1 wallace:1 shortly:1 merge:1 product:2 acquire:1 british:1 aerospace:2 form:1 brand:1 revive:1 designate:1 produce:1 sell:1 inception:1 reside:1 also:1 home:1 competitor:1 birthplace:1 learjet:1 starship:2 civilian:1 metal:4 training:7 design:2 flight:1 test:1 liberal:1 ks:1 wing:1 section:1 two:22 foot:1 short:1 lycoming:1 rat:1 ever:2 mr:1 like:1 radial:3 fabric:1 cover:1 biplane:1 utility:10 tailwheel:2 land:5 gear:7 sport:1 tricycle:1 musketeer:5 sundowner:1 nosewheel:4 sierra:1 development:7 quad:1 prototype:2 small:2 large:1 debonair:1 conventional:2 empennage:1 landing:2 despite:1 name:1 high:2 performance:2 derive:5 travel:2 fuselage:1 duke:1 queen:4 duchess:1 skipper:1 seat:4 primary:2 trainer:3 fixed:1 premier:1 turbofan:2 entry:1 level:1 beechjet:1 mitsubishi:1 canard:1 configuration:1 pusher:1 propeller:2 usaf:1 texan:2 randolph:1 base:1 xa:1 grizzly:1 ground:1 navigator:1 derivative:14 primarily:1 wood:1 kansan:1 c:6 ute:2 huron:1 traveler:1 expeditor:2 ct:4 harvard:1 rc:1 guardrail:1 jayhawk:2 joint:1 system:1 mentor:1 cochise:1 u:2 seminole:1 drone:3 aqm:1 launch:1 target:1 rocket:1 mqm:1 cardinal:1 horizontally:1 oppose:1 stroke:1 piston:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 site:1 aero:1 club:2 international:1 type:1 baby:1 heritage:1 museum:1 aerofiles:1 information:1 info:1 net:1 rtp:1 tv:1 show:1 aerobatic:1 video:1 \|@bigram hawker_beechcraft:4 wichita_kansa:2 landing_gear:2 turboprop_engine:6 turbofan_engine:2 piston_engine:1 external_link:1
3,310	Fuel	Wood was one of the first fuels used by humans and is still the primary energy source in much of the world. Fuel is any material that is burned or altered in order to obtain energy and to heat or to move an object. Fuel releases its energy either through a chemical reaction means, such as combustion, or nuclear means, such as nuclear fission or nuclear fusion. An important property of a useful fuel is that its energy can be stored to be released only when needed, and that the release is controlled in such a way that the energy can be harnessed to produce work. Examples: Methane, Petrol and Oil. All carbon-based life forms—from microorganisms to animals and humans—depend on and use fuels as their source of energy. Their cells engage in an enzyme-mediated chemical process called photosynthesis that converts energy from photons or light into a form that can be used to sustain life. "Metabolism," Encyclopaedia Britannica, retrieved August 17, 2006. Additionally, humans employ a variety of techniques to convert one form of energy into another, producing usable energy for purposes that go far beyond the energy needs of a human body. The application of energy released from fuels ranges from heat to cooking and from powering weapons to combustion and generation of electricity. Energy sources A large majority of currently-known fuels ultimately derive their energy from a small number of sources. Much of the chemical energy produced by life forms, such as fossil fuels, is derived from the utilization of solar energy through photosynthesis. Solar energy in turn is generated by the thermonuclear fusion process at the core of the Sun. The radioactive isotopes used as fuel to power nuclear plants were formed in supernova explosions. Chemical Chemical fuels are substances that generate energy by reacting with substances around them, most notably by the process of oxidation. These substances were the first fuels to be known and used by humans and are still the primary type of fuel used today. Biofuels Biofuel can be broadly defined as solid, liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or derived from biomass. Biomass can also be used directly for heating or power—known as biomass fuel. Biofuel can be produced from any carbon source that can be replenished rapidly e.g. plants. Many different plants and plant-derived materials are used for biofuel manufacture. Perhaps the earliest fuel that was employed by humans is wood. Evidence shows controlled fire was used up to 1.5 million years ago at Swartkrans, South Africa. It is unknown which hominid species first used fire, as both Australopithecus and an early species of Homo were present at the sites. As a fuel, wood has remained in use up until the present day, although it has been superseded for many purposes by other sources. Wood has an energy density of 10–20 MJ/kg. Recently biofuels have been developed for use in automotive transport (for example E10 fuel), but there is widespread public debate about how carbon efficient these fuels are. Fossil fuels Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid petroleum or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years . In common parlance, the term fossil fuel also includes hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not derived entirely from biological sources, such as tar sands. These latter sources are properly known as mineral fuels. Modern large-scale industrial development is based on fossil fuel use, which has largely supplanted water-driven mills, as well as the combustion of wood or peat for heat. With global modernization in the 20th and 21st centuries, the growth in energy production from fossil fuels, especially gasoline derived from oil, is one of the causes of major regional and global conflicts and environmental issues. A global movement toward the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help meet the increased global energy needs. The burning of fossil fuels by humans is the largest source of emissions of carbon dioxide, which is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming. The atmospheric concentration of CO2, a greenhouse gas, is increasing, raising concerns that solar heat will be trapped and the average surface temperature of the Earth will rise in response. Nuclear Nuclear fuel is any material that is consumed to derive nuclear energy. Technically speaking this definition includes all matter because any element will under the right conditions release nuclear energy, the only materials that are commonly referred to as nuclear fuels though are those that will produce energy without being placed under extreme duress. Fission Nuclear fuel pellets are used to create nuclear energy. The most common type of nuclear fuel used by humans is heavy fissile elements that can be made to undergo nuclear fission chain reactions in a nuclear fission reactor; nuclear fuel can refer to the material or to physical objects (for example fuel bundles composed of fuel rods) composed of the fuel material, perhaps mixed with structural, neutron moderating, or neutron reflecting materials. The most common fissile nuclear fuels are 235U and 239Pu, and the actions of mining, refining, purifying, using, and ultimately disposing of these elements together make up the nuclear fuel cycle, which is important for its relevance to nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons. Fusion Fuels that produce energy by the process of nuclear fusion are currently not utilized by man but are the main source of fuel for stars, the most powerful energy sources in nature. Fusion fuels tend to be light elements such as hydrogen which will combine easily. In stars that undergo nuclear fusion, fuel consists of atomic nuclei that can release energy by the absorption of a proton or neutron. In most stars the fuel is provided by hydrogen, which can combine together to form helium through the proton-proton chain reaction or by the CNO cycle. When the hydrogen fuel is exhausted, nuclear fusion can continue with progressively heavier elements, although the net energy released is lower because of the smaller difference in nuclear binding energy. Once iron-56 or nickel-56 nuclei are produced, no further energy can be obtained by nuclear fusion as these have the highest nuclear binding energies. World trade Fuel imports in 2005 World Bank reported that the USA was the top fuel importer in 2005 followed by the EU and Japan. Use over time The first use of fuel was the combustion of wood or sticks by Homo erectus near 2 million years ago. Throughout the majority of human history fuels derived from plants or animal fat were the only ones available for human use. Charcoal, a wood derivative, has been used since at least 6,000 BCE for smelting metals. It was only supplanted by coke, derived from coal, as the forests started to become depleted around the 18th century. Charcoal briquettes are now commonly used as a fuel for barbecue cooking. Coal was first used as a fuel around 1000 BCE in China. With the development of the steam engine in 1769, coal came into more common use as a power source. Coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th century, gas extracted from coal was being used for street lighting in London. In the 20th century, the primary use of coal is for the generation of electricity, providing 40% of the world's electrical power supply in 2005. See also Alcohol fuel Alternative fuels Ammonia Battery (electricity) Bitumen-based fuel Cryogenic fuel Fuel cell Fuel oil Fuel management systems Fuel poverty Hydrogen economy Hydrogen fuel Liquid fuels List of energy topics Marine fuel management Propellant Solid fuel World energy resources and consumption Footnotes References Further reading . Council Directive 80/1268/EEC Fuel consumption of motor vehicles. be-x-old:Паліва	Fuel \|@lemmatized wood:7 one:5 first:5 fuel:60 use:26 human:10 still:2 primary:3 energy:34 source:12 much:2 world:5 material:7 burn:1 alter:1 order:1 obtain:2 heat:6 move:1 object:2 release:7 either:1 chemical:5 reaction:3 mean:2 combustion:4 nuclear:25 fission:4 fusion:8 important:2 property:1 useful:1 store:1 need:3 control:2 way:2 harness:1 produce:7 work:1 example:3 methane:1 petrol:1 oil:3 carbon:4 base:3 life:3 form:7 microorganism:1 animal:3 depend:1 cell:2 engage:1 enzyme:1 mediated:1 process:4 call:1 photosynthesis:2 convert:2 photon:1 light:2 sustain:1 metabolism:1 encyclopaedia:1 britannica:1 retrieve:1 august:1 additionally:1 employ:2 variety:1 technique:1 another:1 usable:1 purpose:2 go:1 far:2 beyond:1 body:1 application:1 range:1 cooking:2 power:6 weapon:2 generation:4 electricity:3 large:3 majority:2 currently:2 know:4 ultimately:2 derive:9 small:2 number:1 fossil:7 utilization:1 solar:3 turn:1 generate:2 thermonuclear:1 core:1 sun:1 radioactive:1 isotope:1 plant:6 supernova:1 explosion:1 substance:3 react:1 around:3 notably:1 oxidation:1 type:2 today:1 biofuels:2 biofuel:3 broadly:1 define:1 solid:2 liquid:3 gas:5 consisting:1 biomass:3 also:3 directly:1 replenish:1 rapidly:1 e:1 g:1 many:2 different:1 manufacture:1 perhaps:2 early:2 evidence:1 show:1 fire:2 million:3 year:3 ago:2 swartkrans:1 south:1 africa:1 unknown:1 hominid:1 specie:2 australopithecus:1 homo:2 present:2 site:1 remain:1 day:1 although:2 supersede:1 density:1 mj:1 kg:1 recently:1 develop:1 automotive:1 transport:1 widespread:1 public:1 debate:1 efficient:1 hydrocarbon:2 primarily:1 coal:7 petroleum:2 natural:2 fossilized:1 remains:1 dead:1 exposure:1 pressure:1 earth:2 crust:1 hundred:1 common:4 parlance:1 term:1 include:2 contain:1 resource:2 entirely:1 biological:1 tar:1 sand:1 latter:1 properly:1 mineral:1 modern:1 scale:1 industrial:1 development:2 largely:1 supplant:2 water:1 driven:1 mill:1 well:1 peat:1 global:5 modernization:1 century:4 growth:1 production:1 especially:1 gasoline:1 cause:1 major:1 regional:1 conflict:1 environmental:1 issue:1 movement:1 toward:1 renewable:1 therefore:1 help:1 meet:1 increase:2 burning:1 emission:1 dioxide:1 greenhouse:2 enhances:1 radiative:1 forcing:1 contributes:1 warming:1 atmospheric:1 concentration:1 raise:1 concern:1 trap:1 average:1 surface:1 temperature:1 rise:1 response:1 consume:1 technically:1 speak:1 definition:1 matter:1 element:5 right:1 condition:1 commonly:2 refer:2 though:1 without:1 place:1 extreme:1 duress:1 pellet:1 create:1 heavy:2 fissile:2 make:2 undergo:2 chain:2 reactor:1 physical:1 bundle:1 compose:2 rod:1 mixed:1 structural:1 neutron:3 moderating:1 reflect:1 action:1 mining:1 refining:1 purifying:1 dispose:1 together:2 cycle:2 relevance:1 utilize:1 man:1 main:1 star:3 powerful:1 nature:1 tend:1 hydrogen:5 combine:2 easily:1 consists:1 atomic:1 nucleus:2 absorption:1 proton:3 provide:2 helium:1 cno:1 exhaust:1 continue:1 progressively:1 net:1 lower:1 difference:1 binding:2 iron:1 nickel:1 high:1 trade:1 import:1 bank:1 report:1 usa:1 top:1 importer:1 followed:1 eu:1 japan:1 time:1 stick:1 erectus:1 near:1 throughout:1 history:1 fat:1 available:1 charcoal:2 derivative:1 since:1 least:1 bce:2 smelt:1 metal:1 coke:1 forest:1 start:1 become:1 deplete:1 briquette:1 barbecue:1 china:1 steam:1 engine:1 come:1 later:1 drive:1 ship:1 locomotive:1 extract:1 street:1 lighting:1 london:1 electrical:1 supply:1 see:1 alcohol:1 alternative:1 ammonia:1 battery:1 bitumen:1 cryogenic:1 management:2 system:1 poverty:1 economy:1 list:1 topic:1 marine:1 propellant:1 consumption:2 footnote:1 reference:1 read:1 council:1 directive:1 eec:1 motor:1 vehicle:1 x:1 old:1 паліва:1 \|@bigram nuclear_fission:3 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 fossil_fuel:7 thermonuclear_fusion:1 radioactive_isotope:1 supernova_explosion:1 mj_kg:1 earth_crust:1 tar_sand:1 renewable_energy:1 carbon_dioxide:1 greenhouse_gas:2 radiative_forcing:1 global_warming:1 fission_reactor:1 nuclear_weapon:1 atomic_nucleus:1 proton_neutron:1 cno_cycle:1 homo_erectus:1
3,311	Linear_B	Linear B is a script that was used for writing Mycenaean Greek, an early form of Greek. It predated the Greek alphabet by several centuries (ca. 13th but perhaps as early as late 15th century BC) and seems to have died out with the fall of Mycenaean civilization. Most of the tablets inscribed in Linear B were found in Knossos, Cydonia, Pylos, Thebes and Mycenae. The succeeding period, known as the Greek Dark Ages, provides no evidence of the use of writing. The script appears to be related to Linear A, an undeciphered earlier script used for writing the Minoan language, and the later Cypriot syllabary, which recorded Greek. Linear B consists of around 87 syllabic signs and a large repertory of semantographic signs. These ideograms or "signifying" signs stand for objects or commodities, but do not have phonetic value and are never used as word signs in writing a sentence. The application of Linear B was confined to administrative contexts. In all the thousands of tablets, a relatively small number of different "hands" have been detected: 45 in Pylos (west coast of the Peloponnese, in southern Greece) and 66 in Knossos (Crete). From this fact it could be thought that the script was used only by some sort of guild of professional scribes who served the central palaces. Once the palaces were destroyed, the script disappeared. The script Linear B has roughly 200 signs, divided into syllabic signs with phonetic values and ideograms with semantic values. The representations and naming of these signs has been standardized by a series of international colloquia starting with the first in Paris in 1956. After the third meeting in 1961 at the Wingspread conference center in Racine, Wisconsin, a standard proposed primarily by Emmett L. Bennett, Jr., became known as the Wingspread Convention, which was adopted by a new organization, the Comité International Permanent des Études Mycéniennes (CIPEM), affiliated in 1970 by the fifth colloquium with UNESCO. Colloquia continue: the 13th is scheduled for 2010 in Paris. Many of the signs are identical or similar to Linear A signs; however, Linear A, which encoded the unknown Minoan language, remains undeciphered and we cannot be sure that similar signs had similar values. Ventris and Chadwick (1973), page 37, quotes Bennett: "where the same sign is used in both Linear A and B there is no guarantee that the same value is assigned to it." Syllabic signs The grid developed during decipherment by Ventris and Chadwick of phonetic values for syllabic signs is shown below. Ventris and Chadwick (1973), Fig. 4 on page 23 states the "Proposed values of the Mycenaean syllabary", which is mainly the same as the table included in this article. The "grid" from which it came, which was built up in "successive stages", is shown in Fig. 3 on page 20. Read the initial consonant in the left-most column and the vowel from the top row beneath the title. The transcription of the syllable (it may not have been pronounced that way) is listed next to the sign along with Bennett's identifying number for the sign preceded by an asterisk (as was Ventris' and Chadwick's convention). In the Unicode character names, Bennett's number has been rendered into a three-digit code by padding with initial zeros and preceding with a B (for "Linear B"). In cases where the transcription of the sign remains in doubt, Bennett's number serves to identify the sign. Ventris and Chadwick (1973), Fig. 9 on page 41 states Bennett's numbers from 1 through 87 opposite the signs being numbered. The table includes variants from Knossos, Pylos, Mycenae and Thebes opposite the same numbers. The signs on the tablets and other ancient artifacts often show considerable variation from each other and from the representations below. Discovery of the reasons for the variation and possible semantic differences is a topic of ongoing debate in Mycenaean studies. Recognised signs of shape V, CV In linguistics C and V in this type of context stand for consonant and vowel. -a-e-i-o-u 𐀀 a 08 𐀁 e 38 𐀂 i 28 𐀃 o 61 𐀄 u 10d- 𐀅 da 01 𐀆 de 45 𐀇 di 07 𐀈 do 14 𐀉 du 51j- 𐀊 ja 57 𐀋 je 46 𐀍 jo 36k- 𐀏 ka 77 𐀐 ke 44 𐀑 ki 67 𐀒 ko 70 𐀓 ku 81m- 𐀔 ma 80 𐀕 me 13 𐀖 mi 73 𐀗 mo 15 𐀘 mu 23n- 𐀙 na 06 𐀚 ne 24 𐀛 ni 30 𐀜 no 52 𐀝 nu 55p- 𐀞 pa 03 𐀟 pe 72 𐀠 pi 39 𐀡 po 11 𐀢 pu 50q- 𐀣 qa 16 𐀤 qe 78 𐀥 qi 21 𐀦 qo 32r- 𐀨 ra 60 𐀩 re 27 𐀪 ri 53 𐀫 ro 02 𐀬 ru 26s- 𐀭 sa 31 𐀮 se 09 𐀯 si 41 𐀰 so 12 𐀱 su 58t- 𐀲 ta 59 𐀳 te 04 𐀴 ti 37 𐀵 to 05 𐀶 tu 69w- 𐀷 wa 54 𐀸 we 75 𐀹 wi 40 𐀺 wo 42z- 𐀼 za 17 𐀽 ze 74 𐀿 zo 20 Special and unknown signs In addition to the grid, the first edition of Documents contained a number of other signs termed "homophones" because they appeared at that time to resemble the sounds of other syllables and were transcribed accordingly: pa2 and pa3 were presumed to be homophonous to pa. Many of these were identified by the second edition and are shown in the "special values" below. Ventris and Chadwick (1973), page 385. The second edition relates: "It may be taken as axiomatic that there are no true homophones." The unconfirmed identifications of 34 and 35 as ai2 and ai3 were removed. pa2 became qa. Ventris and Chadwick (1973), pages 391-392. Special values Character 𐁀 𐁁 𐂋 𐁃 𐁄 𐁅 𐁇 𐁆 𐁈 𐁉 𐁊 𐁋 𐁌 𐁍 Transcription a2 (ha) a3 (ai) au dwe dwo nwa pte pu2 (phu) ra2 (rya) ra3 (rai) ro2 (ryo) ta2 (tya) twe two Bennett's Number 25 43 85 71 90 48 62 29 76 33 68 66 87 91 Other values remain unknown, mainly because of scarcity of evidence concerning them. Sign 89 is not listed in Ventris & Chadwick's (1973) tables but it does appear in the appendix of Bennett (1964) as part of the Wingspread convention. Note that 34 and 35 are mirror images of each other but whether this graphic relationship indicates a phonetic one remains unconfirmed. Untranscribed and doubtful values Character 𐁐 𐁑 𐁒 𐁓 𐁔 𐁕 𐁖 𐁗 𐁘 𐀎 𐁙 𐁚 𐁛 𐁜 𐁝 Transcription 18 19 22 34 35 47 49 pa3? 63 swi? ju? zu? swa? 83 86 89 Bennett's Number 18 19 22 34 35 47 49 56 63 64 65 79 82 83 86 89 In recent times CIPEM has inherited the former authority of Bennett and the Wingspread Convention in deciding what signs are to be considered "confirmed" and how all the various categories of signs shall be officially represented. In editions of Mycenaean texts, those signs whose value has not been confirmed by CIPEM are always transcribed as numbers preceded by an asterisk (e.g. 64). CIPEM also allocates the numerical identifiers, and until such allocation, new signs (or obscured or mutilated signs) are transcribed as a bullet-point enclosed in square brackets: [•]. Spelling and pronunciation The signs are approximations―each may be used to represent a variety of about 70 distinct combinations of sounds, within rules and conventions. The grid presents a system of monosyllabic signs of the type V/CV. Clarification of the 14 or so special values tested the limits of the grid model but Chadwick in the end concluded that even with the ramifications the syllabic signs can unexceptionally be considered monosyllabic. Ventris & Chadwick (1973), pages 385-391. Possible exceptions, Chadwick goes on to explain, include the two diphthongs, (ai) and (au), as in Ai-ku-pi-ti-jo for Aiguptios (Αἰγὐπτιος) and Au-ke-wa for Augewās (Αὐγείας). Ventris and Chadwick use Roman characters for the reconstructed Mycenaean Greek and give the closest later literary word in Greek characters. Often the phonetics are the same but equally as often the reconstructed words represent an earlier form. Here the classical Greek was formed by dropping the w and lengthening the e to ei. However a diphthong is by definition two vowels united into a single sound and therefore might be typed as just V. Thus (rai), as in e-rai-wo for elaiwon (ἔλαιον), The w is dropped to form the classical Greek. is of the type CV. Diphthongs are otherwise treated as two monosyllables: a-ro-u-ra for arourans (accusative plural of ἄρουραι), of the types CV and V. Ventris and Chadwick (1973), page 43. Lengths of vowels and accents are not marked. (Twe), (two), (dwe), (dwo), (nwa) and the more doubtful (swi) and (swa) may be regarded as beginning with labialized consonants, rather than two consonants, even though they may alternate with a two-sign form: O-da-twe-ta and O-da-tu-we-ta for Odatwenta; A-si-wi-jo and A-swi-jo for Aswios (Ἄσιος). Similarly, (rya), (ryo) and (tya) begin with palatalized consonants rather than two consonants: -ti-ri-ja or -ti-rya for -trya (-τρια). The one sign Chadwick tags as the exception to the monosyllabic rule is (pte), but this he attributes to a development pte<pje as in kleptei<klep-yei. Linear B does not consistently distinguish between voiced and unvoiced stops (except in the dental series) and between aspirated and unaspirated stops even when these distinctions are phonemic in Mycenaean Greek. For example, The examples in this section except where otherwise noted come from the Mycenaean Glossary of Ventris & Chadwick (1973). pa-te is patēr (πατήρ), pa-si is phāsi (φησί. Classical words typically have the η of the Attic-Ionic dialect where Linear B represents the original α. p on the other hand never represents β: βασιλεύς is qa-si-re-u Representing guasileus, the b coming from gu ); ko-ru is korus (κόρυς), ka-ra-we is grāwes (plural of γρηύς), ko-no is skhoinos. Exceptionally, however, the dentals are represented by a t-series and a d-series for unvoiced and voiced: to-so for tosos (τόσος or τόσσος) but do-ra for dōra (plural of δῶρον); however, to-ra-ke for thōrākes (plural of θώραξ). In other cases aspiration can be marked but is optional: pu-te for phutēr ("planter", from φυτεύω), but phu-te-re for phutēres ("planters" ). Initial aspiration may be marked only in the case of initial a and rarely: ha-te-ro for hateron (masculine ἅτερος), Ventris & Chadwick (1973), pages 388-391. and yet a-ni-ja for hāniai (ἁνίαι). The j-series represents the semivowel equivalent to English "y", and is used word-initially and as an intervocalic glide after a syllable ending in i: -a-jo for -αῖος (-aios); a-te-mi-ti-jo for Ἀρτεμίτιος (Artemitios). The w-series similarly are semivowels used word-initially and intervocalically after a syllable ending in u: ku-wa-no for kuanos (κύανος). Ventris & Chadwick (1973), page 44. The r-series includes both the /r/ and /l/ phonemes: ti-ri-po for tripos (τρίπος) and tu-ri-so for Tulisos (Τυλισός). The q-series is used for monosyllables beginning with a class of consonants that disappeared from classical Greek by regular phonetic change: the labiovelars (see under Mycenaean Greek). These had entered the language from various sources: inheritance from Proto-Indo-European, assimilation, borrowing of foreign words, especially names. In Mycenaean they are /kʷ/, /gʷ/, and rarely /kʷh/ in names and a few words: Ventris & Chadwick (1973), page 45. The authors use q instead of k: qu, gu and quh, following the use of q- in transcription. a-pi-qo-ro for amphiquoloi (ἀμφίπολοι); qo-u-ko-ro for guoukoloi (βουκόλοι); -qo-i-ta for -φόντης. Some consonants in some contexts are not written (but are understood): word-initial s- and -w before a consonant, as in pe-ma for sperma (σπέρμα); syllable-final -l, -m, -n, -r, -s: a-to-ro-qo for anthrōquos (ἄνθρωπος). In the first example, the pe-, which was primarily used as its value pe of grid class CV, is being used for sper-, not in that class. This was not an innovative or exceptional use, but followed the stated rules. Similarly, a, being primarily of grid class V, is being used as an- and could be used for al, am, ar, and so on, or sal, sam, sar, and so on. Clusters of two or three consonants that do not follow the initial s- and w- rule or the double consonants: ξ (ks or x), ψ (ps) and qus (which latter did not exist in classical Greek) were represented by the same number of signs of type CV as the cluster had consonants: ko-no-so for Knōsos, Double letters, as in Knossos, were never represented; one was dropped. ku-ru-so for khrusos (χρυσός). The consonants were the same as in the cluster. The vowels so introduced have been called "empty", "null", "extra", "dead" and other terms by various writers as they represent no sound. The sign was not alphabetic: rules governed the selection of the vowel and therefore of the sign. The vowel had to be the same as the one of the first syllable following the cluster or if at the end of the word, preceding: ti-ri-po with ti- (instead of ta-, te- and so on) to match -ri-. Ideograms Linear B also uses a large number of ideograms. They express: The type of object concerned (e.g. a cow, wool, a spear) A unit of measure. They are typically at the end of a line before a number and appear to signify the object to which the number applies. Many of the values remain unknown or disputed. Some commodities such as cloth and containers are divided into many different categories represented by distinct ideograms. Livestock may be marked with respect to their sex. The numerical references for the ideograms were originally devised by Ventris and Bennett, divided into functional groups corresponding to the breakdown of Bennett's index. These groups are numbered beginning 100, 110, 120 etc., with some provision of spare numbers for future additions; the official CIPEM numberings used today are based on Ventris and Bennett's numbering, with the provision that three or four letter codes (written in small capitals), based on Latin words that seemed relevant at the time, are used where the meanings are known and agreed. Unicode (as of version 5.0) encodes 123 Linear B ideograms. The ideograms are symbols, not pictures of the objects in question - e.g. one tablet records a tripod with missing legs, but the ideogram used is of a tripod with three legs. In modern transcriptions of Linear B tablets it is typically convenient to represent an ideogram by its Latin or English name or by an abbreviation of the Latin name. Ventris and Chadwick generally used English; Bennett, Latin. Neither the English nor the Latin can be relied upon as an accurate name of the object; in fact, the identification of some of the more obscure objects is a matter of exegesis. + Ideograms Glyph Codepoint Note that the codes do not represent all the glyphs, only the major ones. Bennett This table follows the numbering scheme worked out by Ventris and Bennett and presented in Ventris and Chadwick (1973) in the table of Figure 10, pages 50-51. The superscript a refers to Bennett's "Editio a", "a hand from Pylos, of Class III." The superscript b refers to Bennett's "Editio b", "a hand of Knosses." The superscript c refers to Bennett's "Editio c", "a hand of Pylos, of Class I." The non-superscript letters represent the class of tablets, which precedes the individual tablet number; for example, Sa 787 is Tablet Number 787 of the class Sa, which concerns chariots and features the WHEEL ideogram. CIPEM Figure 10 in Ventris and Chadwick (1973) states only the English names of the ideograms where they exist but the Latin is given where it exists in The "m" and "f" superscript are male and female. English Given in capital letters if it repeats Ventris and Chadwick (1973) Figure 10; otherwise, in lowercase. Note that not all the CIPEM glyphs appear in Figure 10. People and Animals U+10080 100 Ventris and Chadwick (1973) page 391: "100 MAN is now used for all forms of the ideogram, so that 101 and 103 are now suppressed." A- VIRvir MAN U+10081 102 A- MULmulier WOMAN U+10082 104 Cn CERVcervus DEER 𐂃 U+10083 105 Ca S- EQUequus HORSE 𐂄 U+10084 105 Ca EQUf mare Ventris & Chadwick either edition do not follow the Wingspread Convention here but have 105a as a HE-ASS and 105c as a FOAL. 𐂅 U+10085 105 Ca EQUm stallion 𐀥 U+10025 106QI21 OVISovis SHEEP 𐀥 WE75 we-ka-taBous ergatēs "Adjunct to ox" (1973) The 1956 edition has "Kind of sheep" 𐂆 U+10086 106b C- D- OVISf EWE 𐂇 U+10087 106a C- D- OVISm RAM 𐁒 U+10052 107RA22 CAPcapra GOAT 𐂈 U+10088 107b C- Mc CAPf SHE-GOAT 𐂉 U+10089 107a C- CAPm HE-GOAT 𐁂 U+10042 108AU85 C- SUSsus PIG 𐂊 U+1008A 108b C- SUSf SOW 𐂋 U+1008B 108a C- SUSm BOAR 𐀘 U+10018 109MU23 C- BOSbos OX 𐂌 U+1008C 109b C- BOSf COW 𐂍 U+1008D 109a C- BOSm OX/BULL Units of Measurement 110Zkotylai VolumeCup Chadwick (1976) page 105. 111Vkhoinikes Volume 112 T Dry 113 S Liquid 114 Weight21Weight2Weight 115 P Weight 116 N Weight 117 Mdimnaion "Double mina", Chadwick (1976) page 102. Weight 118 Ltalanton TALENT 72 G- Bunch? 74 S- Pair 15 S- Single 61 Deficit By Dry Measure 𐂎 U+1008E 120 E- F- GRAgranum WHEAT 𐂏 U+1008F 121 F- HORDhordeum BARLEY 𐂐 U+10090 122 F- U- OLIVoliva OLIVES 𐀛 U+1001B NI30 F FICUS FIGS 𐀎 U+1000E 65 FARINA FLOUR"some kind of grain" Ventris & Chadwick (1973) page 392. 𐂑 U+10091 123 G- Un AROMaroma CONDIMENT KO70 G- Coriander 𐀭 U+1002D SA31 G- Sesame KU81 G- Cumin SE9 G- Celery MA80 G- Fennel 124 G- PYC cyperus 𐂒 U+10092 125 F- CYP cyperus? 126 F- CYP+KU cyperus+ku 𐂓 U+10093 127 Un KAPO fruit? 𐂔 U+10094 128 G- KANAKO safflower By liquid measure By weight By weight or in units Counted in units Vessels Ventris and Chadwick (1973) page 324 has a separate table. 𐃟 U+100DF 200 sartago BOILING PAN 𐃠 U+100E0 201 TRItripus TRIPOD CAULDRON 𐃡 U+100E1 202 poculum GOBLET? 𐃢 U+100E2 203 urceus WINE JAR? 𐃣 U+100E3 204 Ta hirnea EWER 𐃤 U+100E4 205 K Tn hirnula JUG 𐃥 U+100E5 206 HYDhydria HYDRIA 𐃦 U+100E6 207 TRIPOD AMPHORA 𐃧 U+100E7 208 PATpatera BOWL 𐃨 U+100E8 209 AMPHamphora AMPHORA 𐃩 U+100E9 210 STIRRIP JAR 𐃪 U+100EA 211 WATER BOWL? 𐃫 U+100EB 212 SITsitula WATER JAR? 𐃬 U+100EC 213 LANXlanx COOKING BOWL Furniture 𐃄 U+100C4 220 Ta scamnum FOOTSTOOL 𐃅 U+100C5 225 ALValveus Weapons 𐃆 U+100C6 230 R HAShasta SPEAR 𐃇 U+100C7 231 R SAGsagitta ARROW 𐃈 U+100C8 232 Ta *232 ? 𐃉 U+100C9 233 Ra DAGGER 𐃊 U+100CA 234 GLAgladius SWORD Chariots 𐃌 U+100CC 240 Sc BIGbiga WHEELED CHARIOT 𐃍 U+100CD 241 Sd Se CURcurrus WHEEL-LESS CHARIOT 𐃎 U+100CE 242 Sf Sg CAPScapsus CHARIOT FRAME 𐃏 U+100CF 243 Sa So ROTArota WHEEL Archives Corpus The tablets are classified by the location of their excavation. KN Knossos: ca. 4360 tablets (not counting finds of Linear A). PY Pylos : 1087 tablets. TH Thebes: 99 tablets + 238 published in 2002 (L. Godart and A. Sacconi, 2002; see under Thebes tablets) MY Mycenae: 73 tablets. TI Tiryns: 27 tablets. KH Chania: 4 tablets. another 170 inscriptions in Linear B were found on vessels. If it is genuine, the Kafkania pebble, dated to the 17th century BC, would be the oldest known Mycenean inscription, and hence the earliest preserved testimony of the Greek language. Chronology The main archives for Linear B are associated with these stages of Late Minoan and Helladic pottery: This table is heavily indebted to LM II (1425-1390 BC): Knossos, Room of the Chariot Tablets. LM IIIA2 (1370-1340 BC) or IIIB (1340-1190 BC): Knossos, main archive. LM IIIB: Chania, tablet Sq 1, 6659, KH 3 (possibly Linear B). LH/LM IIIB1 end: LM III is equivalent to LH III from a chronological perspective. Chania, tablets Ar 3, Gq 5, X 6. Mycenae, tablets from Oil Merchant group of houses. Thebes, Ug tablets and Wu sealings. LH IIIB2, end: Mycenae, tablets from the Citadel. Tiryns, all tablets. Thebes, Of tablets and new Pelopidou Street deposit. Pylos, all but five tablets. Controversy The Knossos archive was dated by Sir Arthur Evans to the destruction by conflagration at about 1400 BC (which baked and preserved the clay tablets), in the Late Minoan II (LM II) period. Evans made a career of excavating the Knossos site in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and creating the concept of Minoan civilization, which he believed was historically accurate. This view stood until Carl Blegen excavated the site of ancient Pylos in 1939 and uncovered tablets inscribed in Linear B, one of the two scripts discovered at Knossos and named by Evans. Those tablets were fired in the conflagration that destroyed Pylos about 1200 BC, at the end of Late Helladic IIIB (LHIIIB). With the decipherment of Linear B by Michael Ventris in 1952, serious questions about Evans' date began to be considered. Most notably, Blegen said that the inscribed stirrup jars (an oil flask with stirrup-shaped handles) imported from Crete around 1200 were of the same type as those dated by Evans to the destruction of 1400. Blegen found a number of similarities between 1200 BC Pylos and 1400 BC Knossos and suggested the Knossian evidence be reexamined, as he was sure of the 1200 Pylian date. The examination uncovered a number of difficulties. The Knossos tablets had been found at various locations in the palace and Evans had not kept exact records. Recourse was had to the day books of Evans' assistant, Duncan Mackenzie, who had conducted the day-to-day excavations. There were discrepancies between the notes in the day books and Evans' excavation reports. Worse, the two men had quarreled over the location and strata of the tablets, Mackenzie had called Evans a liar, and Evans had not only sacked him but made sure he did not excavate anywhere else. The results of the reinvestigation were eventually published in a definitive work: It consists of two works, Leonard Palmer's The Find-Places of the Knossos Tablets and John Boardman's The Date of the Knossos Tablets. In this book Palmer plays the role, so to speak, of prosecuting attorney and Boardman of defending attorney; consequently, the dispute was known for a time as "the Palmer-Boardman dispute". Like questions concerning the veracity of Heinrich Schliemann, the controversy soon escalated beyond the evidence, which set the world of classical scholarship looking for a way to resolve the question once and for all, a still unfulfilled hope. There appeared to be no "smoking gun" of Evans' mendacity; that is, he could in his excavation reports have simply been generalizing to resolve contradictions in the data. Moreover Blegen's arguments depended more on a preponderance of evidence rather than any single incontrovertible proof. No such incontrovertible proof has ever been found. The real issue is whether sufficient reason exists to question Evans, since there is as much evidence for 1400 as there is for 1200. Without a solid reason to doubt Evans, the community of classical scholars tends to support a date of 1400 by default; that is, LM IIIA:2. As for LH IIIB, it likely begins in the 1310s or 1300s BC, after Mursilis II's sack of Miletus; it ends around 1200 BC. The colours of the scholars can be identified by the dates they give for the tablets. This article utilizes an outline developed by Cynthia Shelmerdine, who is in the Boardman camp. While stating two possibilities for the main archive of Knossian tablets, she accepts a 1400 date for the Room of the Chariot Tablets. There still might have been two conflagrations and tablet firings, one in 1200 and one in 1400. As an example of a scholar who is in the Palmer camp, see Rutter relies on a similarity of scribal hand between one of the Chania tablets and the Knossos tablets and dates all the tablets from 1350-1300 to 1200 BC. Nearly every scholar presents his view as the generally accepted view or the one most proved by recent evidence. Regardless of how the scholars may present their perceptions, the issue is very much open and the search for evidence continues. Contents The major cities and palaces used Linear B for records of disbursements of goods. Wool, sheep, and grain were some common items, often given to groups of religious people and also to groups of "men watching the coastline." The tablets were kept in groups in baskets on shelves, judging by impressions left in the clay from the weaving of the baskets. When the buildings in which they were housed were destroyed by fires, many of the tablets were then fired. Decipherment Tablets. Arthur J. Evans The decipherment of Linear B began as an interest by the British archaeologist Arthur Evans in collecting and studying ancient engraved gemstones he had begun to obtain by purchase and by short-term excavations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, continuing the passion his father had for acquiring and investigating antiquarian artifacts. Between 1877 and 1882 he was Balkans correspondent of the Manchester Guardian there, reporting on a revolt of the Serbs and Bulgars assisted by the Russians against the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans lost control of the region in 1878 and its subsequent rulers, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, expelled Evans from the country after a 6-week sojourn in prison, claiming he had supported another rebellion against them. He and his new wife returned to live quietly in Oxford and after a tour of Greece and the Balkans in 1883 during which they favored archaeological sites and exhibits including Orchomenos and Athens Arthur became keeper of the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford in 1884, delivering an inaugural address advocating that the Ashmolean become a "home of archaeology in Oxford." Thus when presented by Greville Chester in 1886 with an engraved gemstone purchased in Athens but reportedly from Crete he began to study publications of these stones suspecting that the "hieroglyphs" with which they were said to be inscribed were part of a writing system. Ventris & Chadwick (1973) page 8. In 1893 after the death of his wife Margaret he visited Athens to view the exhibition of artifacts from Mycenae and try to acquire more gemstones. While there he received a tour conducted personally by Schliemann and noticed that a few of the signs occurred on Mycenaean artifacts. He began to call the supposed writing system "Mycenaean." Heinrich Schliemann had never identified the signs clearly as writing, relating in his major work on Mycenae that "of combinations of signs resembling inscriptions I have hitherto only found three or four ...." Evans also verified from the antiquarian dealers that the stones were coming from Crete. Losing no time Evans and a friend, John Myres, embarked for Crete and in 1893, 1895 and 1896 travelled over the entire island looking for the sources of the stones. They found that the stones were worn by Cretan women as amulets and were called γαλόπετρες (galopetres, "milk-stones") and had come from the extensive Mycenaean ruins. Starting in 1894 Evans published his theories that the signs evidenced various phases in the development of a writing system in the Journal of Hellenic Studies, the first article being the much-cited Primitive Pictographs and a Prae-Phoenician Script from Crete. JHS v. XIV 1894 pages 270 following. This volume is currently rare and unobtainable by the general public. In these articles Evans distinguished between "pictographic writing" and "a linear system of writing." He did not explicitly define these terms, causing some confusion among subsequent writers concerning what he meant but in 1898 he wrote . Downloadable Google Books. "These linear forms indeed consist of simple geometrical figures which unlike the more complicated pictorial class were little susceptible to modification," the idea being that the pictographs were communications of meaning by pictures, but the linear characters were mere outlines standing for sounds and strung out like alphabetic writing. Although he called the writing alphabetic Evans believed it also might be syllabic signs. At the conclusion of the 1898 article Evans asserted Page 394. "That the linear or quasi-alphabetic signs ... were in the main ultimately derived from the rudely scratched line pictures belonging to the infancy of art can hardly be doubted." The site at Knossos had been identified as a major one (even though underestimated) and excavation by part owners had begun twice previously in 1878 by Minos Kalokairinos and in 1890 by W.S. Stillman but were stopped in each case by the refusal of the Ottoman Empire to grant permission (firman). Evans began in 1894 to negotiate for its purchase in competition with French archaeologists. By 1896 he had Kephala Hill. In January, 1897, the Christian population of Crete revolted and for the next few years Crete was occupied by forces of Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, Austria, Greece and defending garrisons of Ottoman forces supported by the Muslim population of Crete. In 1898 Prince George of Greece was appointed high commissioner of a Crete of equivocal status: independent, under the king of Greece and still under Ottoman rule. The Ottomans agreed to withdraw and the last troops were ferried off the island by the British fleet on December 5, 1898. Downloadable Google Books. In that year also Evans completed the purchase of the rest of the site, although it still had to be paid for. Acquisition of the land was a complex series of transactions requiring several years to complete. The date when it was considered to have been acquired; that is, disposable by Evans and paid for, is therefore somewhat variable. Evans mentioned 1900 as a round date; however, he had exclusive rights for at least a few years before then. Although he had a reputation for being a "rich man" he had not yet inherited any money. The site and initial excavations were paid for by contributions, subscription and Evans' own limited personal funds. By 1899 the political context had stabilized, Evans sought and received permission to excavate from Prince George, again a series of complex transactions. His own round date given after excavation had begun is 1900; the dates of the completion of the sale and permission to dig are somewhat variable in various reports. the sale was completed and Evans had acquired sufficient resources to begin. He hired Duncan Mackenzie, a noted archaeologist, by telegram as director of excavation and on March 23, 1900, began to excavate. In Evans' report to the British School at Athens for that year, Downloadable Google Books. for which he admits relying on Mackenzie's day book, after scant finds on March 30, 1900, and four days later, of clay tablets marked with hieroglyphic writing, The dates may vary by a day or two in different authors or the Linear B finds may be attributed to the 30th. This is Evans's account soon after the close of excavations that year. on April 5 the excavators discovered the first large cache ever of Linear B tablets among the remains of a wooden box in a disused terracotta bathtub. Subsequently caches turned up at multiple locations (of later disputed date) including the Room of the Chariot Tablets (called that by Evans in the report) where over 350 pieces from four boxes were found. The tablets were to long by to wide and were scored with horizontal lines over which text was written in about 70 characters. Even in this earliest excavation report Evans could tell that "a certain number of quasi-pictorial characters also occur which seem to have an ideographic or determinative meaning." Page 57. The excavation was over for that year by June 2. Two acres had been uncovered, but intentionally not below the Mycenaean horizon. As for the fate of the tablets, Evans reported "only a comparatively small proportion of the tablets were preserved in their entirety," Page 56. the causes of destruction being rainfall through the leaky roof of the storage room, crumbling to powder or small pieces and being thrown away (Evans supposed) by workmen who failed to identify them. And yet, Evans supposed that such perishable objects could survive or be stored over long periods of time: "at least some of the tablets go back to the beginning of the fifteenth century BC." Page 58. Apparently the ones that survived did so by being baked in the conflagration that destroyed the palace or by being "sun-baked." A report on September 6 to the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Downloadable Google Books. began to use some of the concepts characteristic of Evans' later thought. The terms "palace of Knossos" and "palace of Minos" are used. Appleton's for that year Downloadable Google Books. notes that Evans took up Stillman's theme that the palace was the labyrinth of mythology in which the half-bovine son of King Minos lurked. In the report, the Linear B tablets (not yet known by that name) are now called a "linear script" as opposed to the "hieroglyphic or conventionalized pictographic script." The linear script has characters that are "of a free, upright, European character" and "seem to have been for the most part syllabic." Evans reasserts the ideographic idea: "a certain number are unquestionably ideographic or determinative." The years after 1900 were consumed by excavations at Knossos and the discovery and study by Evans of tablets there and elsewhere but nothing substantially new occurred. Evans planned a comprehensive work on Cretan scripts to be called Scripta Minoa. A year before the publication of volume I he began to drop hints that he now believed the linear script was two scripts, to be presented in the forthcoming book. In Scripta Minoa I, which appeared in 1909, he explained that the discovery of the Phaistos Disk in July, 1908, had caused him to pull the book from the presses so that he could include the disk by permission as it had not yet been published. On the next page Scripta Minoa I, page ix. he mentioned that he was also including by permission of Frederico Halbherr of the Italian Mission in Crete unpublished tablets from Haghia Triada written in a linear script of "Class A." To what degree if any Halbherr was responsible for Evans' division of the "linear script" into "Class A" and "Class B" is not stated. The Knossos tablets were of Class B, so that Evans could only have perceived Class A in tablets from elsewhere, and so recently that he needed permission to include the examples. Evans summarized the differences between the two scripts as "type" or "form of script;' that is, varieties in the formation and arrangement of the characters. For example, he says "the clay documents belonging to Class A show a certain approximation in their forms to those presenting the hieroglyphic inscriptions ... the system of numerals is also in some respects intermediate between that of the hieroglyphic documents and that of the linear Class B." Scripta Minoa I, page 36. The first volume covered "the Hieroglyphic and Primitive Linear Classes" in three parts: the "pre-Phoenician Scripts of Crete", the "Pictorial Script" and "the Phaistos Disk." One or two more volumes publishing the Linear A and Linear B tablets were planned but Evans ran out of time; the project required more than one man could bring to it. For a good many of the years left to him he was deeply enmeshed in war and politics in the Balkans. When he did return to Knossos completion and publication of the palace excavations took priority. His greatest work, Palace of Minos, came out in 1935. It did include scattered descriptions of tablets. His life was finished in 1941, during additional turmoil in the eastern Mediterranean. The Knossos tablets had remained in the museum at Irakleion, Crete, where many of them now were missing. The unpublished second volume consisted of notes by Evans and plates and fonts created by Clarendon Press. In 1939 Carl Blegen had uncovered the Pylos Tablets; pressure was mounting to finish Scripta Minoa II. After Evans' death, Alice Kober, assistant to John Myres and major transcriber of the Knossos tablets, prompted Myres to come back from retirement and finish the work. E.L. Bennett added more transcriptions. The second volume came out in 1952 with Evans cited as author and Myres as editor, just before the discovery that Linear B writes an early form of Greek. An impatient Ventris and Chadwick declared: "Two generations of scholars had been cheated of the opportunity to work constructively on the problem." Documents in Mycenaean Greek, page 11. Alice Kober About the same time, Alice Kober studied Linear B and managed to construct grids, linking symbols that seemed to have a strong grammatical relationship. Kober noticed that a number of Linear B words had common roots and suffixes. This led her to believe that Linear B represented an inflected language, with nouns changing their endings depending on their case. However, some characters in the middle of the words seemed to correspond with neither a root nor a suffix. Because this effect was found in other, known languages, Kober surmised that the odd characters were bridging syllables, with the beginning of the syllable belonging to the root and the end belonging to the suffix. This was a reasonable assumption, since Linear B had far too many characters to be considered alphabetic and far too few characters to be logographic; therefore, each character should represent a syllable. Using the knowledge that certain characters shared the same beginning or ending sounds, Kober built a table similar to the one above; her untimely death at age 43 in 1950 prevented her from possibly taking the final step or see others do it, namely to link the characters to actual phonetics. Emmett L. Bennett The convention for numbering the symbols still in use today was first devised by United States Professor Emmett L. Bennett, Jr., who, by 1950, had deciphered the metrical system. He was also an early proponent of the idea that Linear A and B represented different languages. Ventris and Chadwick Michael Ventris and John Chadwick performed the bulk of their decipherment of Linear B between 1951 and 1953. At first, Ventris chose his own numbering system, and agreed with Evans' hypothesis that Linear B was not Greek; however he later switched back to Bennett's system. Based on Kober's work, and after making some inspired assumptions, Ventris was able to deduce the pronunciation of the syllables. To the amazement of Ventris himself, the deciphering of Linear B proved that it was a written form of Greek, in direct contradiction to the general scientific views of the times. Chadwick, an expert in historical Greek, helped Ventris decipher the text and rebuild the vocabulary and grammar of Mycenaean Greek. Ventris' discovery was of immense significance, because it demonstrated a Greek-speaking Minoan-Mycenaean culture on Crete, and presented Greek in writing some 600 years earlier than what was thought at the time. Interestingly, in 1935, the British School at Athens was celebrating its fiftieth anniversary with an exhibition at Burlington House, London. Among the speakers was Sir Arthur Evans, then in his eighty-fourth year and the teenager Michael Ventris was present in the audience. http://www.mansfield.edu/~art/papyrus1_stephanie_stambaugh.htm Unicode Linear B is assigned Unicode range 10000–1007F for syllabograms and 10080–100FF for ideograms. Notes Sources Further reading has the Enkomi clay tablet, circa 1500 BCE., examples of Linear B tablets, and translated, the basic Linear B syllabary, the Cypriot syllabary and discussions thereof, and short sections on Linear A, and the Phaistos Disk. Chapter 6, Linear B, pp 108–119: discusses Arthur Evans, his work, the Cypriot clues, the syllabary, Alice Kober, the "Grid", and a sample tablet transliterated, and translated into English. for a general outline of the Linear B deciphering story, from Schliemman to Chadwick. See also Aegean civilization Linear A Linear C Mycenaean Greek Proto-Greek Trojan script External links . Unicode code pages for the Linear B syllabary and ideograms, including sample glyphs.	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3,312	Frivolous_litigation	Frivolous litigation is the practice of starting or carrying on law suits that are manifestly insufficient or futile. Such litigation may be based on absurd legal theories, may involve a superabundance or repetition of motions or additional suits, may be uncivil or harassing to the court, or may claim extreme remedies. In some usages, a plaintiff's action may not be technically frivolous because it has sound legal grounds, but is colloquially referred to as frivolous for its perceived value, such as in some medical malpractice cases that are the object of tort reform. The typical definition in United States law is very different from its colloquial or political meaning. United States courts usually define "frivolous litigation" as a legal claim or defense presented even though the party and the party's legal counsel had reason to know that the claim or defense had no merit. A claim or defense may be frivolous because it had no underlying justification in fact, or because it was not presented with an argument for a reasonable extension or reinterpretation of the law, In the context of litigation over U.S. federal taxation, the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit stated: "A petition to the Tax Court, or a tax return, is frivolous if it is contrary to established law and unsupported by a reasoned, colorable argument for change in the law. This is the standard applied under ... [Rule] 11 [of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure] for sanctions in civil litigation, and it is a standard we have used for the award of fees under 28 U.S.C. §1927 and the award of damages under . . .[Rule] 38 [of the Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure]." Coleman v. Commissioner, 791 F.2d 68, 86-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 9401 (7th Cir. 1986). or because laws are in place unequivocally prohibiting such a claim (see Good Samaritan law). In the United States, Rule 11 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and similar state rules require that an attorney perform a due diligence investigation concerning the factual basis for any claim or defense. Jurisdictions differ on whether a claim or defense can be frivolous if the attorney acted in good faith. Because such a defense or claim wastes the court's and the other parties' time, resources and legal fees, sanctions may be imposed by a court upon the party or the lawyer who presents the frivolous defense or claim. The law firm may also be sanctioned, or even held in contempt. Attorney Daniel Evans writes: Statutes and rules of court penalizing frivolous litigation In the United States Tax Court, frivolous arguments may result in a penalty of up to $25,000 under . Similarly, section 7482 of the Internal Revenue Code provides that the U.S. Supreme Court and the federal courts of appeals may impose penalties where the taxpayer's appeal of a U.S. Tax Court decision was "maintained primarily for delay" or where "the taxpayer's position in the appeal is frivolous or groundless." See paragraph (4) of subsection (c) of . In a non-criminal case in a United States district court, a litigant (or a litigant's attorney) who presents any pleading, written motion or other paper to the court is required, under Rule 11 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, to certify that, to the best of the presenter's knowledge and belief, the legal contentions "are warranted by existing law or by a nonfrivolous argument for the extension, modification, or reversal of existing law or the establishment of new law". Rule 11(b)(2), Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. Monetary civil penalties for violation of this rule may in some cases be imposed on the litigant or the attorney under Rule 11. Rule 11(c), Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. In one case, the Seventh Circuit issued an order giving such an attorney "14 days to show cause why he should not be fined $10,000 for his frivolous arguments". United States v. Patridge, 507 F.3d 1092, 1097 (7th Cir. 2007). A similar rule penalizing frivolous litigation applies in U.S. Bankruptcy Court under Rule 9011. Rule 9011(b)(2) and Rule 9011(c), Federal Rules of Bankruptcy Procedure. Congress has enacted section 1912 of title 28 of the United States Code providing that in the United States Supreme Court and in the various courts of appeals where litigation by the losing party has caused damage to the prevailing party, the court may impose a requirement that the losing party pay the prevailing party for those damages. See . Litigants who represent themselves (in forma pauperis and pro se) often make frivolous arguments due to their limited knowledge of the law and procedure. The particular tendency of prisoners to bring baseless lawsuits led to passage of the Prison Litigation Reform Act of 1995, which limits the ability of prisoners to bring actions without payment. When a litigant is "pro se", without a lawyer, no statements of fact or citations of law are needed to find "frivolousness". When a litigant has no lawyer, their summary judgment motions may be "struck" without hearing and ignored. http://www.steamboatpilot.com/news/2003/nov/03/sieverding_responds_to/ If the pro se litigant persists in arguing that their facts and claims should be recognized and goes to another court to file a related hearing or a Rule 60 motion, then they can be summarily jailed. No statutory basis is needed and no evidentiary hearing is required. This is called "direct contempt" because it involves disobeying of a direct order. When judges order pro se litigants to write what they are dictated and sign their names to it, the pro se litigants have no first amendment or due process rights. This is because courts are self regulating and the equal protection and other rights don't apply in court. The inherent powers of federal courts allow them to modify procedures and laws as they think best. see Edward Nottingham http://steamboatsprings.net/sites/default/files/2006/02/07/02_07_2006_ccmn.pdf) http://steamboatsprings.net/sites/default/files/2005/09/06/ccmn0906.pd http://www.rockymountainnews.com/drmn/local/article/0,1299,DRMN_15_4438023,00.html Court treatment of frivolous arguments An example of a Court's treatment of frivolous arguments is found in the case of Crain v. Commissioner,F.2d 1417 (1984), from the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit: Glenn Crain appeals from the dismissal of his Tax Court petition challenging the constitutional authority of that body and defying the jurisdiction of the Internal Revenue Service to levy taxes on his income. Crain asserts that he "is not subject to the jurisdiction, taxation, nor regulation of the state," that the "Internal Revenue Service, Incorporated" lacks authority to exercise the judicial power of the United States, that the Tax Court is unconstitutionally attempting to exercise Article III powers, and that jurisdiction over his person has never been affirmatively proven. We perceive no need to refute these arguments with somber reasoning and copious citation of precedent; to do so might suggest that these arguments have some colorable merit. The constitutionality of our income tax system--including the role played within that system by the Internal Revenue Service and the Tax Court--has long been established. We affirm the dismissal of Crain's spurious "petition" and the assessment of a penalty imposed by the Tax Court for instituting a frivolous proceeding. . The government asks us to assess penalties against Crain for bringing this frivolous appeal, as is authorized by Fed. R. App. P. 38. In Parker v. C. I. R., 724 F. 2d 469, 472 (5th Cir. 1984), we sounded "a cautionary note to those who would persistently raise arguments against the income tax which have been put to rest for years. The full range of sanctions in Rule 38 hereafter shall be summoned in response to a totally frivolous appeal." We are sensitive to the need for the courts to remain open to all who seek in good faith to invoke the protection of law. An appeal that lacks merit is not always--or often--frivolous. However, we are not obliged to suffer in silence the filing of baseless, insupportable appeals presenting no colorable claims of error and designed only to delay, obstruct, or incapacitate the operations of the courts or any other governmental authority. Crain's present appeal is of this sort. It is a hodgepodge of unsupported assertions, irrelevant platitudes, and legalistic gibberish. The government should not have been put to the trouble of responding to such spurious arguments, nor this court to the trouble of "adjudicating" this meritless appeal. Accordingly, we grant the government's request. The United States shall recover from appellant Crain twice its cost of this appeal. Additionally, we assess against Crain a damage award of $2000 in favor of the appellee United States. Crain v. Commissioner, 737 F.2d 1417, 84-2 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 9721 (5th Cir. 1984) (per curiam). Examples of frivolous court filings In Washington v. Alaimo 934 F. Supp. 1395 (S.D. Ga. 1996). the court listed more than seventy five frivolous "motions" (a request for a court to issue an order), all of which required the attention of the Court, that included: "Motion to Kiss My Ass" "Motion to Behoove an Inquisition" "Motion for Judex Delegatus" "Motion for Restoration of Sanity" "Motion for Deinstitutionalization" "Motion for Publicity" "Motion to Vacate Jurisdiction" "Motion for Cesset pro Cessus" "Motion for Nunc pro tunc" "Motion for Psychoanalysis" "Motion to Impeach Judge Alaimo" "Motion to Renounce Citizenship" "Motion to Exhume Body of Alex Hodgson" "Motion to Invoke and Execute Rule 15--Retroactive Note: The Court's School Days are Over" "Motion for Skin Change Operation" "Motion for Catered Food Services" Washington, an inmate from Georgia, was eventually prohibited from filing any future lawsuits or motions in any district court unless he first posted a contempt bond of $1,500. To be deemed frivolous, a litigant's arguments must truly strike beyond the pale. Weblogger Chris Pearson quotes more extensively from Washington v. Alaimo in . Pearson v. Chung, the case of a Washington, D.C. judge, Roy Pearson, who sued a dry cleaning business for $67 million (later lowered to $54 million), has been cited as an example of frivolous litigation. According to Pearson, the dry cleaners lost his pants (which he brought in for a $10.50 alteration) and refused his demands for a large refund. Pearson believed that a 'Satisfaction Guaranteed' sign in the window of the shop legally entitled him to a refund for the cost of the pants, estimated at $1,000. The $54 million total also included $2 million in "mental distress" and $15,000 which he estimated to be the cost of renting a car every weekend to go to another dry cleaners. See also Abuse of process Barratry Malicious prosecution Pearson v. Chung Stella Awards SLAPP Spamigation Tax protester (United States) Tax protester arguments Vexatious litigation Notes External links Lawsuit.no: Frivolous lawsuit archive	Frivolous_litigation \|@lemmatized frivolous:25 litigation:11 practice:1 start:1 carry:1 law:15 suit:2 manifestly:1 insufficient:1 futile:1 may:13 base:1 absurd:1 legal:6 theory:1 involve:2 superabundance:1 repetition:1 motion:22 additional:1 uncivil:1 harass:1 court:37 claim:11 extreme:1 remedy:1 usage:1 plaintiff:1 action:2 technically:1 sound:2 ground:1 colloquially:1 refer:1 perceived:1 value:1 medical:1 malpractice:1 case:6 object:1 tort:1 reform:2 typical:1 definition:1 united:14 state:17 different:1 colloquial:1 political:1 meaning:1 usually:1 define:1 defense:7 present:6 even:2 though:1 party:8 counsel:1 reason:2 know:1 merit:3 underlying:1 justification:1 fact:3 argument:14 reasonable:1 extension:2 reinterpretation:1 context:1 u:8 federal:10 taxation:2 appeal:14 seventh:2 circuit:3 petition:3 tax:15 return:1 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3,313	Coriolis_effect	Figure 1: In the inertial frame of reference (upper part of the picture), the black object moves in a straight line. However, the observer (red dot) who is standing in the rotating frame of reference (lower part of the picture) sees the object as following a curved path. In physics, the Coriolis effect is an apparent deflection of moving objects when they are viewed from a rotating reference frame. Newton's laws of motion govern the motion of an object in an inertial frame of reference. When transforming Newton's laws to a rotating frame of reference, the Coriolis force appears, along with the centrifugal force. If the rotation speed of the frame is not constant, the Euler force will also appear. All three forces are proportional to the mass of the object. The Coriolis and centrifugal forces are proportional to the rotation speed. The Coriolis force acts in a direction perpendicular to the rotation axis and to the velocity of the body in the rotating frame and is proportional to the object's speed in the rotating frame. The centrifugal force acts outwards in the radial direction and is proportional to the distance of the body from the axis of the rotating frame. These three additional forces are termed either inertial forces, fictitious forces or pseudo forces. These names are used in a technical sense, to mean simply that these forces vanish in an inertial frame of reference. The mathematical expression for the Coriolis force appeared in an 1835 paper by a French scientist Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis in connection with hydrodynamics, and also in the tidal equations of Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1778. Early in the 20th century, the term Coriolis force began to be used in connection with meteorology. Perhaps the most commonly encountered rotating reference frame is the Earth. Moving objects on the surface of the Earth experience a Coriolis force, and appear to veer to the right in the northern hemisphere, and to the left in the southern. Movements of air in the atmosphere and water in the ocean are notable examples of this behavior: rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure, as they would on a non-rotating planet, winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the equator, and to the left of this direction south of the equator. This effect is responsible for the rotation of large cyclones (see Coriolis effects in meteorology). History Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the energy yield of machines with rotating parts, such as waterwheels. The fictitious force arising from the cross product of the angular velocity of a coordinate system and the projection of a particle's velocity into a plane perpendicular to the system's axis of rotation was called by Coriolis the "compound centrifugal force". By the early 20th century the effect was known as the "acceleration of Coriolis." By 1919 it was referred by to as "Coriolis' force" and by 1920 as "Coriolis force". In 1856, William Ferrel proposed the existence of a circulation cell in the mid-latitudes with air being deflected by the Coriolis force to create the prevailing westerly winds. Retrieved on 2009-01-01. Understanding the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first. Late in the 19th century, the full extent of the large scale interaction of pressure gradient force and deflecting force that in the end causes air masses to move along isobars was understood. Formula In non-vector terms: at a given rate of rotation of the observer, the magnitude of the Coriolis acceleration of the object is proportional to the velocity of the object and also to the sine of the angle between the direction of movement of the object and the axis of rotation. The vector formula for the magnitude and direction the Coriolis acceleration is where (here and below) v is the velocity of the particle in the rotating system, and Ω is the angular velocity vector which has magnitude equal to the rotation rate ω and is directed along the axis of rotation of the rotating reference frame, and the × symbol represents the cross product operator. The equation may be multiplied by the mass of the relevant object to produce the Coriolis force: . See fictitious force for a derivation. The Coriolis effect is the behavior added by the Coriolis acceleration. The formula implies that the Coriolis acceleration is perpendicular both to the direction of the velocity of the moving mass and to the frame's rotation axis. So in particular: if the velocity is parallel to the rotation axis, the Coriolis acceleration is zero. if the velocity is straight inward to the axis, the acceleration is in the direction of local rotation. if the velocity is straight outward from the axis, the acceleration is against the direction of local rotation. if the velocity is in the direction of local rotation, the acceleration is outward from the axis. if the velocity is against the direction of local rotation, the acceleration is inward to the axis. The vector cross product can be evaluated as the determinant of a matrix: where the vectors i, j, k are unit vectors in the x, y and z directions. Causes The Coriolis effect exists only when using a rotating reference frame. In the rotating frame it behaves exactly like a real force (that is to say, it causes acceleration and has real effects). However, Coriolis force is a consequence of inertia, and is not attributable to an identifiable originating body, as is the case for electromagnetic or nuclear forces, for example. From an analytical viewpoint, to use Newton's second law in a rotating system, Coriolis force is mathematically necessary, but it disappears in a non-accelerating, inertial frame of reference. For a mathematical formulation see Mathematical derivation of fictitious forces. A denizen of a rotating frame, such as an astronaut in a rotating space station, very probably will find the interpretation of everyday life in terms of the Coriolis force accords more simply with intuition and experience than a cerebral reinterpretation of events from an inertial standpoint. For example, nausea due to an experienced push may be more instinctively explained by Coriolis force than by the law of inertia. See also Coriolis effect (perception). In meteorology, a rotating frame (the Earth) with its Coriolis force proves a more natural framework for explanation of air movements than a hypothetical, non-rotating, inertial frame without Coriolis forces. MIT essays by James F. Price, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (2006). See in particular §4.3 in theCoriolis lecture In long-range gunnery, sight corrections for the Earth's rotation are based upon Coriolis force. The claim is made that in the Falklands in WW I, the British failed to correct their sights for the southern hemisphere, and so missed their targets. . For set up of the calculations, see These examples are described in more detail below. The acceleration entering the Coriolis force arises from two sources of change in velocity that result from rotation: the first is the change of the velocity of an object in time. The same velocity (in an inertial frame of reference where the normal laws of physics apply) will be seen as different velocities at different times in a rotating frame of reference. The apparent acceleration is proportional to the angular velocity of the reference frame (the rate at which the coordinate axes change direction), and to the component of velocity of the object in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation. This gives a term . The minus sign arises from the traditional definition of the cross product (right hand rule), and from the sign convention for angular velocity vectors. The second is the change of velocity in space. Different positions in a rotating frame of reference have different velocities (as seen from an inertial frame of reference). In order for an object to move in a straight line it must therefore be accelerated so that its velocity changes from point to point by the same amount as the velocities of the frame of reference. The effect is proportional to the angular velocity (which determines the relative speed of two different points in the rotating frame of reference), and to the component of the velocity of the object in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation (which determines how quickly it moves between those points). This also gives a term . Length scales and the Rossby number The time, space and velocity scales are important in determining the importance of the Coriolis effect. Whether rotation is important in a system can be determined by its Rossby number, which is the ratio of the velocity, , of a system to the product of the Coriolis parameter,, and the length scale, , of the motion: . The Rossby number is the ratio of centrifugal to Coriolis accelerations. A small Rossby number signifies a system which is strongly affected by Coriolis forces, and a large Rossby number signifies a system in which centrifugal forces dominate. For example, in tornadoes, the Rossby number is large, in low-pressure systems it is low and in oceanic systems it is of the order of unity. As a result, in tornadoes the Coriolis force is negligible, and balance is between pressure and centrifugal forces. In low-pressure systems, centrifugal force is negligible and balance is between Coriolis and pressure forces. In the oceans all three forces are comparable. An atmospheric system moving at U = 10 m/s occupying a spatial distance of L = 1000 km, has a Rossby number of approximately 0.1. A man playing catch may throw the ball at U = 30 m/s in a garden of length L = 50 m. The Rossby number in this case would be about = 6000. Needless to say, one does not worry about which hemisphere one is in when playing catch in the garden. However, an unguided missile obeys exactly the same physics as a baseball, but may travel far enough and be in the air long enough to notice the effect of Coriolis. Long-range shells in the Northern Hemisphere landed close to, but to the right of, where they were aimed until this was noted. (Those fired in the southern hemisphere landed to the left.) In fact, it was this effect that first got the attention of Coriolis himself. Applied to Earth Rotating sphere Figure 2: Coordinate system at latitude φ with x-axis east, y-axis north and z-axis upward (that is, radially outward from center of sphere). Consider a location with latitude on a sphere that is rotating around the north-south axis. A local coordinate system is set up with the axis horizontally due east, the axis horizontally due north and the axis vertically upwards.The rotation vector, velocity of movement and Coriolis acceleration expressed in this local coordinate system (listing components in the order East (e), North (n) and Upward (u)) are: When considering atmospheric or oceanic dynamics, the vertical velocity is small and the vertical component of the Coriolis acceleration is small compared to gravity. For such cases, only the horizontal (East and North) components matter. The restriction of the above to the horizontal plane is (setting vu=0): where is called the Coriolis parameter. By setting vn = 0, it can be seen immediately that (for positive and ) a movement due east results in an acceleration due south. Similarly, setting , it is seen that a movement due north results in an acceleration due east. In general, observed horizontally, looking along the direction of the movement causing the acceleration, the acceleration always is turned 90° to the right and of the same size regardless of the horizontal orientation. That is: As a different case, consider equatorial motion setting φ = 0°. In this case, Ω is parallel to the North or n-axis, and: Accordingly, an eastward motion (that is, in the same direction as the rotation of the sphere) provides an upward acceleration known as the Eötvös effect, and an upward motion produces an acceleration due west. The Sun and distant stars The motion of the Sun as seen from Earth is dominated by the Coriolis and centrifugal forces. For ease of explanation consider the situation of a distant star (with mass m) located over the equator, at position , perpendicular to the rotation vector so . It is observed to rotate in the opposite direction as the Earth's rotation once a day, making its velocity . The fictitious force consisting of Coriolis and centrifugal forces is: This can be recognised as the centripetal force that will keep the star in a circular movement around the observer. The general situation for a star, not above the equator is more complicated. Just as for air flows on Earth's surface, on the northern hemisphere a star's trajectory will be deflected to the right. After rising at a certain angle, it will bend to the right, culminate and start setting. Meteorology Figure 12: This low pressure system over Iceland spins counter-clockwise due to balance between the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient force. Figure 13: Schematic representation of flow around a low-pressure area in the Northern hemisphere. The Rossby number is low, so the centrifugal force is negligible. The pressure-gradient force is represented by blue arrows, the Coriolis acceleration (always perpendicular to the velocity) by red arrows Perhaps the most important instance of the Coriolis effect is in the large-scale dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere. In meteorology and ocean science, it is convenient to use a rotating frame of reference where the Earth is stationary. The fictitious centrifugal and Coriolis forces must then be introduced. Their relative importance is determined by the Rossby number. Tornadoes have a high Rossby number, so Coriolis forces are unimportant, and are not discussed here. As discussed next, low-pressure areas are phenomena where Coriolis forces are significant. Flow around a low-pressure area If a low-pressure area forms in the atmosphere, air will tend to flow in towards it, but will be deflected perpendicular to its velocity by the Coriolis acceleration. A system of equilibrium can then establish itself creating circular movement, or a cyclonic flow. Because the Rossby number is low, the force balance is largely between the pressure gradient force acting towards the low-pressure area and the Coriolis force acting away from the center of the low pressure. Instead of flowing down the gradient, large scale motions in the atmosphere and ocean tend to occur perpendicular to the pressure gradient. This is known as geostrophic flow. On a non-rotating planet fluid would flow along the straightest possible line, quickly eliminating pressure gradients. Note that the geostrophic balance is thus very different from the case of "inertial motions" (see below) which explains why mid-latitude cyclones are larger by an order of magnitude than inertial circle flow would be. This pattern of deflection, and the direction of movement, is called Buys-Ballot's law. In the atmosphere, the pattern of flow is called a cyclone. In the Northern Hemisphere the direction of movement around a low-pressure area is counterclockwise. In the Southern Hemisphere, the direction of movement is clockwise because the rotational dynamics is a mirror image there. At high altitudes, outward-spreading air rotates in the opposite direction. Cloud Spirals and Outflow in Tropical Storm Katrina from Earth Observatory (NASA) Cyclones rarely form along the equator due to the weak Coriolis effect present in this region. Inertial circles Figure 14: Schematic representation of inertial circles of air masses in the absence of other forces, calculated for a wind speed of approximately 50 to 70 m/s. Note that the rotation is exactly opposite that normally experienced with air masses in weather systems around depressions. An air or water mass moving with speed subject only to the Coriolis force travels in a circular trajectory called an 'inertial circle'. Since the force is directed at right angles to the motion of the particle, it will move with a constant speed, and perform a complete circle with frequency . The magnitude of the Coriolis force also determines the radius of this circle: . On the Earth, a typical mid-latitude value for is 10−4 s−1; hence for a typical atmospheric speed of 10 m/s the radius is 100 km, with a period of about 14 hours. In the ocean, where a typical speed is closer to 10 cm/s, the radius of an inertial circle is 1 km. These inertial circles are clockwise in the northern hemisphere (where trajectories are bent to the right) and anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. If the rotating system is a parabolic turntable, then is constant and the trajectories are exact circles. On a rotating planet, varies with latitude and the paths of particles do not form exact circles. Since the parameter varies as the sine of the latitude, the radius of the oscillations associated with a given speed are smallest at the poles (latitude = ±90°), and increase toward the equator. Other terrestrial effects The Coriolis effect strongly affects the large-scale oceanic and atmospheric circulation, leading to the formation of robust features like jet streams and western boundary currents. Such features are in geostrophic balance, meaning that the Coriolis and pressure gradient forces balance each other. Coriolis acceleration is also responsible for the propagation of many types of waves in the ocean and atmosphere, including Rossby waves and Kelvin waves. It is also instrumental in the so-called Ekman dynamics in the ocean, and in the establishment of the large-scale ocean flow pattern called the Sverdrup balance. Eötvös effect The practical impact of the Coriolis effect is mostly caused by the horizontal acceleration component produced by horizontal motion. There are other components of the Coriolis effect. Eastward-traveling objects will be deflected upwards (feel lighter), while westward-traveling objects will be deflected downwards (feel heavier). This is known as the Eötvös effect. This aspect of the Coriolis effect is greatest near the equator. The force produced by this effect is similar to the horizontal component, but the much larger vertical forces due to gravity and pressure mean that it is generally unimportant dynamically. In addition, objects traveling upwards or downwards will be deflected to the west or east respectively. This effect is also the greatest near the equator. Since vertical movement is usually of limited extent and duration, the size of the effect is smaller and requires precise instruments to detect. Draining in bathtubs and toilets In a very carefully controlled experiment to remove all other forces from the system, rotation can play a role in bathtub dynamics. An article in the British "Journal of Fluid Mechanics" in the 1930s describes this. The key is to put a few drops of ink into the bathtub water, and observing when the ink stops swirling, meaning the viscosity of the water has dissipated its initial vorticity (or curl; i.e.) then, if the plug is extracted ever so slowly so as not to introduce any additional vorticity, then the tub will empty with a counterclockwise swirl in England. In reality the Coriolis effect is a few orders of magnitude smaller than various random influences on drain direction, such as the geometry of the container and the direction in which water was initially added to it. Most toilets flush in only one direction, because the toilet water flows into the bowl at an angle. Knew? The No-Spin Zone"from Berkeley Science Review (PDF) If water shot into the basin from the opposite direction, the water would spin in the opposite direction. "Flush Bosh"fromsnopes.com So popular culture is misconceived in stating that water in bathtubs or toilets always drains in one direction in the Northern Hemisphere, and in the other direction in the Southern Hemisphere as a consequence of the Coriolis effect. This idea has been perpetuated by several television programs, including an episode of The Simpsons and one of The X-Files. "X-Files coriolis error leaves viewers wondering" from Skeptical Inquirer In addition, several science broadcasts and publications (including at least one college-level physics textbook) have made this incorrect statement. "Bad Coriolis"fromPenn State College of Earth and Mineral Sciences The Rossby number can also tell us about the bathtub. If the length scale of the tub is about L = 1 m, and the water moves towards the drain at about U = 60 cm/s, then the Rossby number is about 6 000. Thus, the bathtub is, in terms of scales, much like a game of catch, and rotation is unlikely to be important. Some sources that incorrectly attribute draining direction to the Coriolis force also get the direction wrong. If the Coriolis force were the dominant factor, drain vortices would spin counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern. "Bad Coriolis" from Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Sciences When the water is being drawn towards the drain, the radius of its rotation around the drain decreases, so its rate of rotation increases from the low background level to a noticeable spin in order to conserve its angular momentum (the same effect as ice skaters bringing their arms in to cause them to spin faster). As shown by Ascher Shapiro in a 1961 educational video (Vorticity, Part 1), this effect can indeed reveal the influence of the Coriolis force on drain direction, but only under carefully controlled laboratory conditions. In a large, circular, symmetrical container (ideally over 1m in diameter and conical), still water (whose motion is so little that over the course of a day, displacements are small compared to the size of the container) escaping through a very small hole, will drain in a cyclonic fashion: counterclockwise in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern hemisphere—the same direction as the Earth rotates with respect to the corresponding poles. Ballistic missiles and satellites Ballistic missiles and satellites appear to follow curved paths when plotted on common world maps mainly because the earth is spherical and the shortest distance between two points on the Earth's surface (called a great circle) is usually not a straight line on those maps. Every two-dimensional (flat) map necessarily distorts the Earth's curved (three-dimensional) surface in some way. Typically (as in the commonly used Mercator projection, for example), this distortion increases with proximity to the poles. In the northern hemisphere for example, a ballistic missile fired toward a distant target using the shortest possible route (a great circle) will appear on such maps to follow a path north of the straight line from target to destination, and then curve back toward the equator. This occurs because the latitudes, which are projected as straight horizontal lines on most world maps, are in fact circles on the surface of a sphere, which get smaller as they get closer to the pole. Being simply a consequence of the sphericity of the Earth, this would be true even if the Earth didn't rotate. The Coriolis effect is of course also present, but its effect on the plotted path is much smaller. The Coriolis effects became important in external ballistics for calculating the trajectories of very long-range artillery shells. The most famous historical example was the Paris gun, used by the Germans during World War I to bombard Paris from a range of about 120 km (75 mi). Special cases Cannon on turntable Figure 3: Cannon at the center of a rotating turntable. To hit the target located at position 1 on the perimeter at time t = 0s, the cannon must be aimed ahead of the target at angle θ. That way, by the time the cannonball reaches position 3 on the periphery, the target also will be at that position. In an inertial frame of reference, the cannonball travels a straight radial path to the target (curve yA). However, in the frame of the turntable, the path is arched (curve yB), as also shown in the figure. Figure 1 is an animation of the classic illustration of Coriolis force. Another visualization of the Coriolis and centrifugal forces is this animation clip. Figure 3 is a graphical version. Here is a question: given the radius of the turntable R, the rate of angular rotation ω, and the speed of the cannonball (assumed constant) v, what is the correct angle θ to aim so as to hit the target at the edge of the turntable? The inertial frame of reference provides one way to handle the question: calculate the time to interception, which is tf = R / v . Then, the turntable revolves an angle ω tf in this time. If the cannon is pointed an angle θ = ω tf = ω R / v, then the cannonball arrives at the periphery at position number 3 at the same time as the target. No discussion of Coriolis force can arrive at this solution as simply, so the reason to treat this problem is to demonstrate Coriolis formalism in an easily visualized situation. 300px \|Figure 4: Successful trajectory of cannonball as seen from the turntable for three angles of launch θ. Plotted points are for the same equally spaced times steps on each curve. Cannonball speed v is held constant and angular rate of rotation ω is varied to achieve a successful "hit" for selected θ. For example, for a radius of 1 m and a cannonball speed of 1 m/s, the time of flight tf = 1 s, and ωtf = θ → ω and θ have the same numerical value if θ is expressed in radians. The wider spacing of the plotted points as the target is approached show the speed of the cannonball is accelerating as seen on the turntable, due to fictitious Coriolis and centrifugal forces. 300px \|Figure 5: Acceleration components at an earlier time (top) and at arrival time at the target (bottom) Figure 6: Coriolis acceleration, centrifugal acceleration and net acceleration vectors at three selected points on the trajectory as seen on the turntable. The trajectory in the inertial frame (denoted A) is a straight line radial path at angle θ. The position of the cannonball in ( x, y ) coordinates at time t is: In the turntable frame (denoted B), the x- y axes rotate at angular rate ω, so the trajectory becomes: and three examples of this result are plotted in Figure 4. To determine the components of acceleration, a general expression is used from the article fictitious force: in which the term in Ω × vB is the Coriolis acceleration and the term in Ω × ( Ω × rB) is the centrifugal acceleration. The results are (let α = θ − ωt): producing a centrifugal acceleration: Also: producing a Coriolis acceleration: Figure 5 and Figure 6 show these accelerations for a particular example. It is seen that the Coriolis acceleration not only cancels the centrifugal acceleration, but together they provide a net "centripetal", radially inward component of acceleration (that is, directed toward the center of rotation) : Here the description "radially inward" means "toward the axis of rotation". That direction is not toward the center of curvature of the path, however, which is the direction of the true centripetal force. Hence, the quotation marks on "centripetal". and an additional component of acceleration perpendicular to rB (t): The "centripetal" component of acceleration resembles that for circular motion at radius rB, while the perpendicular component is velocity dependent, increasing with the radial velocity v and directed to the right of the velocity. The situation could be described as a circular motion combined with an "apparent Coriolis acceleration" of 2ωv. However, this is a rough labeling: a careful designation of the true centripetal force refers to a local reference frame that employs the directions normal and tangential to the path, not coordinates referred to the axis of rotation. These results also can be obtained directly by two time differentiations of rB (t). Agreement of the two approaches demonstrates that one could start from the general expression for fictitious acceleration above and derive the trajectories of Figure 4. However, working from the acceleration to the trajectory is more complicated than the reverse procedure used here, which, of course, is made possible in this example by knowing the answer in advance. As a result of this analysis an important point appears: all the fictitious accelerations must be included to obtain the correct trajectory. In particular, besides the Coriolis acceleration, the centrifugal force plays an essential role. It is easy to get the impression from verbal discussions of the cannonball problem, which are focussed on displaying the Coriolis effect particularly, that the Coriolis force is the only factor that must be considered; emphatically, that is not so. A turntable for which the Coriolis force is the only factor is the parabolic turntable. A somewhat more complex situation is the idealized example of flight routes over long distances, where the centrifugal force of the path and aeronautical lift are countered by gravitational attraction. Tossed ball on a rotating carousel 300px \|Figure 7: A carousel is rotating counterclockwise. Left panel: a ball is tossed by a thrower at 12:00 o'clock and travels in a straight line to the center of the carousel. While it travels, the thrower circles in a counterclockwise direction. Right panel: The ball's motion as seen by the thrower, who now remains at 12:00 o'clock, because there is no rotation from their viewpoint. Figure 7 illustrates a ball tossed from 12:00 o'clock toward the center of a counterclockwise rotating carousel. On the left, the ball is seen by a stationary observer above the carousel, and the ball travels in a straight line to the center, while the ball-thrower rotates counterclockwise with the carousel. On the right the ball is seen by an observer rotating with the carousel, so the ball-thrower appears to stay at 12:00 o'clock. The figure shows how the trajectory of the ball as seen by the rotating observer can be constructed. On the left, two arrows locate the ball relative to the ball-thrower. One of these arrows is from the thrower to the center of the carousel (providing the ball-thrower's line of sight), and the other points from the center of the carousel to the ball.(This arrow gets shorter as the ball approaches the center.) A shifted version of the two arrows is shown dotted. On the right is shown this same dotted pair of arrows, but now the pair are rigidly rotated so the arrow corresponding to the line of sight of the ball-thrower toward the center of the carousel is aligned with 12:00 o'clock. The other arrow of the pair locates the ball relative to the center of the carousel, providing the position of the ball as seen by the rotating observer. By following this procedure for several positions, the trajectory in the rotating frame of reference is established as shown by the curved path in the right-hand panel. The ball travels in the air, and there is no net force upon it. To the stationary observer the ball follows a straight-line path, so there is no problem squaring this trajectory with zero net force. However, the rotating observer sees a curved path. Kinematics insists that a force (pushing to the right of the instantaneous direction of travel for a counterclockwise rotation) must be present to cause this curvature, so the rotating observer is forced to invoke a combination of centrifugal and Coriolis forces to provide the net force required to cause the curved trajectory. Bounced ball Figure 8: Bird's-eye view of carousel. The carousel rotates clockwise. Two viewpoints are illustrated: that of the camera at the center of rotation rotating with the carousel (left panel) and that of the inertial (stationary) observer (right panel). Both observers agree at any given time just how far the ball is from the center of the carousel, but not on its orientation. Time intervals are 1/10 of time from launch to bounce. Figure 8 describes a more complex situation where the tossed ball on a turntable bounces off the edge of the carousel and then returns to the tosser, who catches the ball. The effect of Coriolis force on its trajectory is shown again as seen by two observers: an observer (referred to as the "camera") that rotates with the carousel, and an inertial observer. Figure 8 shows a bird's-eye view based upon the same ball speed on forward and return paths. Within each circle, plotted dots show the same time points. In the left panel, from the camera's viewpoint at the center of rotation, the tosser (smiley face) and the rail both are at fixed locations, and the ball makes a very considerable arc on its travel toward the rail, and takes a more direct route on the way back. From the ball tosser's viewpoint, the ball seems to return more quickly than it went (because the tosser is rotating toward the ball on the return flight). On the carousel, instead of tossing the ball straight at a rail to bounce back, the tosser must throw the ball toward the right of the target and the ball then seems to the camera to bear continuously to the left of its direction of travel to hit the rail (left because the carousel is turning clockwise). The ball appears to bear to the left from direction of travel on both inward and return trajectories. The curved path demands this observer to recognize a leftward net force on the ball. (This force is "fictitious" because it disappears for a stationary observer, as is discussed shortly.) For some angles of launch, a path has portions where the trajectory is approximately radial, and Coriolis force is primarily responsible for the apparent deflection of the ball (centrifugal force is radial from the center of rotation, and causes little deflection on these segments). When a path curves away from radial, however, centrifugal force contributes significantly to deflection. The ball's path through the air is straight when viewed by observers standing on the ground (right panel). In the right panel (stationary observer), the ball tosser (smiley face) is at 12 o'clock and the rail the ball bounces from is at position one (1). From the inertial viewer's standpoint, positions one (1), two (2), three (3) are occupied in sequence. At position 2 the ball strikes the rail, and at position 3 the ball returns to the tosser. Straight-line paths are followed because the ball is in free flight, so this observer requires that no net force is applied. A video clip of the tossed ball and other experiments are found at youtube: coriolis effect (2-11), University of Illinois WW2010 Project (some clips repeat only a fraction of a full rotation), and youtube. Visualization of the Coriolis effect Figure 9: A fluid assuming a parabolic shape as it is rotating Figure 10: The forces at play in the case of a curved surface. Red : gravity Green : the normal force Blue : the resultant centripetal force.Figure 11: Object moving frictionlessly over the surface of a very shallow parabolic dish. The object has been released in such a way that it follows an ellipse-shaped trajectory. Left: The inertial point of view. Right: The co-rotating point of view. To demonstrate the Coriolis effect, a parabolic turntable can be used. On a flat turntable, the inertia of a co-rotating object would force it off the edge. But if the surface of the turntable has the correct parabolic bowl shape (see Figure 9) and is rotated at the correct rate, the force components shown in Figure 10 are arranged so the component of gravity tangential to the bowl surface will exactly equal the centripetal force necessary to keep the object rotating at its velocity and radius of curvature (assuming no friction). (See banked turn.) This carefully contoured surface allows the Coriolis force to be displayed in isolation. When a container of fluid is rotating on a turntable, the surface of the fluid naturally assumes the correct parabolic shape. This fact may be exploited to make a parabolic turntable by using a fluid that sets after several hours, such as a synthetic resin. For a video of the Coriolis effect on such a parabolic surface, see Geophysical fluid dynamics lab demonstration John Marshall, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. For a java applet of the Coriolis effect on such a parabolic surface, see Brian Fiedler School of Meteorology at the University of Oklahoma. Discs cut from cylinders of dry ice can be used as pucks, moving around almost frictionlessly over the surface of the parabolic turntable, allowing effects of Coriolis on dynamic phenomena to show themselves. To get a view of the motions as seen from the reference frame rotating with the turntable, a video camera is attached to the turntable so as to co-rotate with the turntable, with results as shown in Figure 11. In the left panel of Figure 11, which is the viewpoint of a stationary observer, the gravitational force in the inertial frame pulling the object toward the center (bottom ) of the dish is proportional to the distance of the object from the center. A centripetal force of this form causes the elliptical motion. In the right panel, which shows the viewpoint of the rotating frame, the inward gravitational force in the rotating frame (the same force as in the inertial frame) is balanced by the outward centrifugal force (present only in the rotating frame). With these two forces balanced, in the rotating frame the only unbalanced force is Coriolis (also present only in the rotating frame), and the motion is an inertial circle. Analysis and observation of circular motion in the rotating frame is a simplification compared to analysis or observation of elliptical motion in the inertial frame. Because this reference frame rotates several times a minute, rather than only once a day like the Earth, the Coriolis acceleration produced is many times larger, and so easier to observe on small time and spatial scales, than is the Coriolis acceleration caused by the rotation of the Earth. In a manner of speaking, the Earth is analogous such a turntable. The rotation has caused the planet to settle on a spheroid shape such that the normal force, the gravitational force, and the centrifugal force exactly balance each other on a "horizontal" surface. (See equatorial bulge.) The Coriolis effect caused by the rotation of the Earth can be seen indirectly through the motion of a Foucault pendulum. Coriolis effects in other areas Coriolis flow meter A practical application of the Coriolis effect is the mass flow meter, an instrument that measures the mass flow rate and density of a fluid flowing through a tube. The operating principle, introduced in 1977 by Micro Motion Inc., involves inducing a vibration of the tube through which the fluid passes. The vibration, though it is not completely circular, provides the rotating reference frame which gives rise to the Coriolis effect. While specific methods vary according to the design of the flow meter, sensors monitor and analyze changes in frequency, phase shift, and amplitude of the vibrating flow tubes. The changes observed represent the mass flow rate and density of the fluid. Molecular physics In polyatomic molecules, the molecule motion can be described by a rigid body rotation and internal vibration of atoms about their equilibrium position. As a result of the vibrations of the atoms, the atoms are in motion relative to the rotating coordinate system of the molecule. Coriolis effects will therefore be present and will cause the atoms to move in a direction perpendicular to the original oscillations. This leads to a mixing in molecular spectra between the rotational and vibrational levels. Insect flight Flies (Diptera) and moths (Lepidoptera) utilize the Coriolis effect when flying: their halteres, or antennae in the case of moths, oscillate rapidly and are used as vibrational gyroscopes. "Antennae as Gyroscopes", Science, Vol. 315, 9 Feb 2007, p. 771 See Coriolis effect in insect stability Halteres for the micromechanical flying insect (Wu, W.C. Wood, R.J. Fearing, R.S.)Dept. of Electr. Eng. & Comput. Sci., California Univ., Berkeley, CA; This paper appears in: Robotics and Automation, 2002. Proceedings. ICRA '02. IEEE International Conference on Publication Date: 2002 Volume: 1, On page(s): 60- 65 vol.1 ISBN 0-7803-7272-7 Date Published in Issue: 2002-08-07 00:46:34.0 . In this context, the Coriolis effect has nothing to do with the rotation of the Earth. See also Analytical mechanics Applied mechanics Centrifugal force (rotating reference frame) Centripetal force Classical mechanics Dynamics (physics) Earth's rotation Frenet-Serret formulas Geostrophic wind Gyroscope Kinetics (physics) Mass flow meter Mechanics of planar particle motion Reactive centrifugal force Secondary flow Statics Uniform circular motion Notes and references Further reading: physics and meteorology Coriolis, G.G., 1832: Mémoire sur le principe des forces vives dans les mouvements relatifs des machines. Journal de l'école Polytechnique, Vol 13, 268–302. (Original article [in French], PDF-file, 1.6 MB, scanned images of complete pages.) Coriolis, G.G., 1835: Mémoire sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps. Journal de l'école Polytechnique, Vol 15, 142–154 (Original article [in French] PDF-file, 400 KB, scanned images of complete pages.) Gill, AE Atmosphere-Ocean dynamics, Academic Press, 1982. Durran, D. R., 1993: Is the Coriolis force really responsible for the inertial oscillation?, Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 74, 2179–2184; Corrigenda. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 75, 261 Durran, D. R., and S. K. Domonkos, 1996: An apparatus for demonstrating the inertial oscillation, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 77, 557–559. Marion, Jerry B. 1970, Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems, Academic Press. Persson, A., 1998 How do we Understand the Coriolis Force? Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 79, 1373–1385. Symon, Keith. 1971, Mechanics, Addison-Wesley Phillips, Norman A., 2000 An Explication of the Coriolis Effect, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society: Vol. 81, No. 2, pp. 299–303. Akira Kageyama & Mamoru Hyodo: Eulerian derivation of the Coriolis force James F. Price: A Coriolis tutorial Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (2003) MIT essays by James F. Price, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (2006) Further reading: historical Grattan-Guinness, I., Ed., 1994: Companion Encyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences. Vols. I and II. Routledge, 1840 pp. 1997: The Fontana History of the Mathematical Sciences. Fontana, 817 pp. 710 pp. Khrgian, A., 1970: Meteorology—A Historical Survey. Vol. 1. Keter Press, 387 pp. Kuhn, T. S., 1977: Energy conservation as an example of simultaneous discovery. The Essential Tension, Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change, University of Chicago Press, 66–104. Kutzbach, G., 1979: The Thermal Theory of Cyclones. A History of Meteorological Thought in the Nineteenth Century. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 254 pp. External links The definition of the Coriolis effect from the Glossary of Meteorology The Coriolis Effect PDF-file. 17 pages. A general discussion by Anders Persson of various aspects of the coriolis effect, including Foucault's Pendulum and Taylor columns. Anders Persson The Coriolis Effect: Four centuries of conflict between common sense and mathematics, Part I: A history to 1885 History of Meteorology 2 (2005) 10 Coriolis Effect Videos and Games- from the About.com Weather Page Coriolis Force - from ScienceWorld Coriolis Effect and Drains An article from the NEWTON web site hosted by the Argonne National Laboratory. Do bathtubs drain counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere? by Cecil Adams. Bad Coriolis. An article uncovering misinformation about the Coriolis effect. By Alistair B. Fraser, Emeritus Professor of Meteorology at Pennsylvania State University Getting Around The Coriolis Force, an intuitive explanation Observe an animation of the Coriolis effect over Earth's surface Animation clip showing scenes as viewed from both an inertial frame and a rotating frame of reference, visualizing the Coriolis and centrifugal forces. 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3,314	Guernica	A tiled wall in Gernika claims "Guernica" Gernikara, "The Guernica (painting) to Gernika." Guernica ( in Spanish; official and ) is a town in the province of Biscay, in the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country, Spain. The town of Guernica is united in one municipality with neighbouring Luno ("Lumo" in Basque), Gernika-Lumo. The population of the municipality is 15,571 (2004). Outside of the Basque lands, Guernica is best known as the scene of the April 26, 1937 Bombing of Guernica, one of the first aerial bombings by Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe. This was used as a test by the Nazis of the ability of bombers to bomb civilian towns. Cultural importance Guernica is historically the seat of the parliament of the province of Biscay, whose executive branch is located in nearby Bilbao. In prior centuries, Lumo had been the meeting place of the traditional Biscayan assembly, Urduña and chartered towns like Guernica were under the direct authority of the Lord of Biscay, and Enkarterri and the Durango area had had separate assemblies. All would hold assemblies under local big trees. As time passed, the role of separate assemblies was superseded by the single assembly in Gernika, and by 1512, its oak, known as the Gernikako Arbola, became symbolic of the traditional rights of the Basque people as a whole. The trees are always renewed from their own acorns. One of these trees (the "Old Tree") lived until the 19th century, and may be seen, as a dry stump, near the assembly house. A tree planted in 1860 to replace it died in 2004 and was in turn replaced; the sapling that had been chosen to become the official Oak of Guernica is also sick so the tree will not be replaced until the earth around the site has been remedied. A hermitage was built besides the Gernikako Arbola to double as an assembly place, followed by the current house of assembly (Biltzar Jauregia in Basque), built in 1826. The Lords of Biscay, on receiving their title, would come to Lumo to make an oath of respect to the Biscayan laws. Later the lordship became attached to the title of the King of Castile, so the kings came to Lumo to take the oath soon after assuming the throne. History In 1882, Gernika - Lumo was formed, uniting the village of Lumo and the chartered town of Guernica . On April 26, 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, Guernica was the scene of the Bombing of Guernica by the Condor Legion of Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe. 300 civilian were killed in the bombing, after the german Bundeswehr Magazine (publishied in April 2007, page 94). The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of Francisco Franco to overthrow the Basque Government and the Spanish Republican government. The town was devastated, though the Biscayan assembly and the Oak of Guernica survived. Pablo Picasso painted his famous "Guernica" painting to commemorate the horrors of the bombing and René Iché made a violent sculpture the day after the bombing. In 1943, Ajangiz (opposite river Oka) was incorporated without any name change. In 1967 the municipalities of Arratzu, Kortezubi, Forua, Murueta and Nabarniz were annexed. Because of its symbolic value, the current Statute of Autonomy of the Basque Country was approved in Guernica 29 December 1978, with the support of the Basque Country government-in-exile, heirs to the 1936 Statute of Autonomy. Every Lehendakari (Basque President) takes his oath there. The annexations of 1967 have been re-established as standing municipalities. Sports Guernica is home to the Guernica Jai Alai, one of the main courts for the jai alai sport. Honors A minor planet 2293 Guernica discovered in 1977 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh is named after the town. Sister cities Pforzheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany Boise, Idaho, United States See also Municipal elections in Gernika-Lumo Notes and references External links Official site in English, Basque and Spanish _dk.htm Painter and art educator Dorothy Koppelman writes on "Aesthetic Realism and Picasso's Guernica : For Life" GERNIKA-LUMO in the Bernardo Estornés Lasa - Auñamendi Encyclopedia (Euskomedia Fundazioa)	Guernica \|@lemmatized tiled:1 wall:1 gernika:7 claim:1 guernica:19 gernikara:1 paint:2 spanish:4 official:3 town:7 province:2 biscay:4 autonomous:1 community:1 basque:10 country:3 spain:1 unite:2 one:4 municipality:4 neighbour:1 luno:1 lumo:9 population:1 outside:1 land:1 best:1 know:2 scene:2 april:3 bombing:6 first:1 aerial:1 nazi:3 germany:3 luftwaffe:2 use:1 test:1 ability:1 bomber:1 bomb:1 civilian:2 cultural:1 importance:1 historically:1 seat:1 parliament:1 whose:1 executive:1 branch:1 locate:1 nearby:1 bilbao:1 prior:1 century:2 meeting:1 place:2 traditional:2 biscayan:3 assembly:9 urduña:1 chartered:2 like:1 direct:1 authority:1 lord:2 enkarterri:1 durango:1 area:1 separate:2 would:2 hold:1 local:1 big:1 tree:6 time:1 pass:1 role:1 supersede:1 single:1 oak:3 gernikako:2 arbola:2 become:3 symbolic:2 right:1 people:1 whole:1 always:1 renew:1 acorn:1 old:1 live:1 may:1 see:2 dry:1 stump:1 near:1 house:2 plant:1 replace:3 die:1 turn:1 sapling:1 choose:1 also:2 sick:1 earth:1 around:1 site:2 remedied:1 hermitage:1 build:2 besides:1 double:1 follow:1 current:2 biltzar:1 jauregia:1 receive:1 title:2 come:2 make:2 oath:3 respect:1 law:1 later:1 lordship:1 attach:1 king:2 castile:1 take:2 soon:1 assume:1 throne:1 history:1 form:1 village:1 civil:1 war:1 condor:1 legion:1 kill:1 german:2 bundeswehr:1 magazine:1 publishied:1 page:1 attack:1 support:2 effort:1 francisco:1 franco:1 overthrow:1 government:3 republican:1 devastate:1 though:1 survive:1 pablo:1 picasso:2 famous:1 painting:1 commemorate:1 horror:1 rené:1 iché:1 violent:1 sculpture:1 day:1 ajangiz:1 opposite:1 river:1 oka:1 incorporate:1 without:1 name:2 change:1 arratzu:1 kortezubi:1 forua:1 murueta:1 nabarniz:1 annex:1 value:1 statute:2 autonomy:2 approve:1 december:1 exile:1 heirs:1 every:1 lehendakari:1 president:1 annexation:1 establish:1 stand:1 sport:2 home:1 jai:2 alai:2 main:1 court:1 honor:1 minor:1 planet:1 discover:1 soviet:1 astronomer:1 nikolai:1 stepanovich:1 chernykh:1 sister:1 city:1 pforzheim:1 baden:1 württemberg:1 boise:1 idaho:1 united:1 state:1 municipal:1 election:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 english:1 htm:1 painter:1 art:1 educator:1 dorothy:1 koppelman:1 write:1 aesthetic:1 realism:1 life:1 bernardo:1 estornés:1 lasa:1 auñamendi:1 encyclopedia:1 euskomedia:1 fundazioa:1 \|@bigram bombing_guernica:2 aerial_bombing:1 condor_legion:1 francisco_franco:1 pablo_picasso:1 statute_autonomy:2 baden_württemberg:1 boise_idaho:1 external_link:1
3,315	Orrorin	Orrorin tugenensis is considered to be the second-oldest known hominin ancestor that is possibly related to modern humans and is the only species classified in genus Orrorin. The name was given by the discoverers who found Orrorin fossils in the Tugen Hills of Kenya. By using radiometric dating techniques, the volcanic tuffs and lavas, faunal correlation and magneto-stratigraphy, the strata in which the fossils were found were estimated to date between 6.1 and 5.8 million years ago, during the Miocene. This find is important because it is possibly an early bipedal hominin. The fossils found so far come from at least five individuals. They include a proximal femur, which is insufficient evidence to prove that it was bipedal, though some scholars suggest that Orrorin walked upright; a right humerus shaft, suggestive of tree-climbing skills but not brachiation; and teeth that suggest a diet similar to Paranthropoids. The obturator externus groove on the posterior aspect of the neck of the fossil femur suggests that Orrorin tugenensis moved bipedally. The bunodont, microdont molars and small canines suggest that Orrorin ate mostly fruit and vegetables, with occasional meat. Orrorin was about the size of a modern chimpanzee. The team that found these fossils in 2000 was led by Brigitte Senut and Martin Pickford from the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle. The discoverers conclude that Orrorin is a hominin on the basis of its bipedal locomotion and dental anatomy; based on this, they date the split between hominins and African great apes to at least 7 million years ago, in the Messinian. This date is markedly different from those derived using the molecular clock approach, but has found general acceptance among paleoanthropologists. If Orrorin proves to be a direct human ancestor, then australopithecines such as Australopithecus afarensis ("Lucy") may be considered a side branch of the hominid family tree: Orrorin is both earlier, by almost 3 million years, and more similar to modern humans than is A. afarensis. The main similarity is that the Orrorin femur is morphologically closer to that of H. sapiens than is Lucy's; there is, however, some debate over this point. Other fossils (leaves and many mammals) found in the Lukeino Formation show that Orrorin lived in dry evergreen forest environment, not the savanna assumed by many theories of human evolution. Thus, the origins of bipedalism occurred in an arboreal precursor living in forest and not a quadrupedal ancestor living in open country. A recently published idea suggests that ancestral apes may have shared the technique used by modern orangutans of moving bipedally over small springy branches with the vertebral column oriented vertically (orthograde), using their arms for balance and keeping their legs straight. This kind of upright locomotion could have been used as a way of getting around on the ground when gaps opened in the forest canopy. Our closest extant relatives the gorillas and chimpanzees developed a flexed stance (with clinograde, (sloping) vertebral column) and are more adapted to tree climbing and to quadrupedal locomotion while on the ground. According to a minority of researchers, like humans, they have fused and strengthened wrist bones suggesting a shared period of knuckle walking. After the fossils were found in 2000, they were held at the Kipsaraman village community museum, but the museum was closed later. Since then, according to the Community Museums of Kenya chairman Eustace Kitonga, the fossils are stored at a secret bank vault in Nairobi May 19, 2009: Whereabouts of fossil treasure sparks row . References Orrorin Tugenensis: Pushing back the hominin line External links Martin Pickford answers a few questions about this month's fast breaking paper in field of Geosciences BBC News: First chimpanzee fossils found	Orrorin \|@lemmatized orrorin:13 tugenensis:3 consider:2 second:1 old:1 know:1 hominin:4 ancestor:3 possibly:2 relate:1 modern:4 human:5 specie:1 classify:1 genus:1 name:1 give:1 discoverer:2 find:9 fossil:10 tugen:1 hill:1 kenya:2 use:5 radiometric:1 date:4 technique:2 volcanic:1 tuff:1 lava:1 faunal:1 correlation:1 magneto:1 stratigraphy:1 stratum:1 estimate:1 million:3 year:3 ago:2 miocene:1 important:1 early:2 bipedal:3 far:1 come:1 least:2 five:1 individual:1 include:1 proximal:1 femur:3 insufficient:1 evidence:1 prove:1 though:1 scholar:1 suggest:6 walk:1 upright:2 right:1 humerus:1 shaft:1 suggestive:1 tree:3 climb:2 skill:1 brachiation:1 teeth:1 diet:1 similar:2 paranthropoids:1 obturator:1 externus:1 groove:1 posterior:1 aspect:1 neck:1 move:2 bipedally:2 bunodont:1 microdont:1 molar:1 small:2 canine:1 ate:1 mostly:1 fruit:1 vegetable:1 occasional:1 meat:1 size:1 chimpanzee:3 team:1 lead:1 brigitte:1 senut:1 martin:2 pickford:2 muséum:1 national:1 histoire:1 naturelle:1 conclude:1 basis:1 locomotion:3 dental:1 anatomy:1 base:1 split:1 hominins:1 african:1 great:1 ape:2 messinian:1 markedly:1 different:1 derive:1 molecular:1 clock:1 approach:1 general:1 acceptance:1 among:1 paleoanthropologists:1 prof:1 direct:1 australopithecine:1 australopithecus:1 afarensis:2 lucy:2 may:3 side:1 branch:2 hominid:1 family:1 almost:1 main:1 similarity:1 morphologically:1 closer:1 h:1 sapiens:1 however:1 debate:1 point:1 leaf:1 many:2 mammal:1 lukeino:1 formation:1 show:1 live:1 dry:1 evergreen:1 forest:3 environment:1 savanna:1 assume:1 theory:1 evolution:1 thus:1 origin:1 bipedalism:1 occur:1 arboreal:1 precursor:1 living:2 quadrupedal:2 open:2 country:1 recently:1 publish:1 idea:1 ancestral:1 share:1 orangutan:1 springy:1 vertebral:2 column:2 orient:1 vertically:1 orthograde:1 arm:1 balance:1 keep:1 leg:1 straight:1 kind:1 could:1 way:1 get:1 around:1 ground:2 gap:1 canopy:1 closest:1 extant:1 relatives:1 gorilla:1 develop:1 flexed:1 stance:1 clinograde:1 slop:1 adapted:1 accord:2 minority:1 researcher:1 like:1 fuse:1 strengthen:1 wrist:1 bone:1 shared:1 period:1 knuckle:1 walking:1 hold:1 kipsaraman:1 village:1 community:2 museum:3 close:1 later:1 since:1 chairman:1 eustace:1 kitonga:1 store:1 secret:1 bank:1 vault:1 nairobi:1 whereabouts:1 treasure:1 spark:1 row:1 reference:1 push:1 back:1 line:1 external:1 link:1 answer:1 question:1 month:1 fast:1 break:1 paper:1 field:1 geosciences:1 bbc:1 news:1 first:1 \|@bigram orrorin_tugenensis:3 radiometric_date:1 move_bipedally:2 fruit_vegetable:1 histoire_naturelle:1 australopithecus_afarensis:1 vertebral_column:2 forest_canopy:1 gorilla_chimpanzee:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1
3,316	Harthouse	Harthouse is a German record label specializing in techno music; during the early 1990s it was one of the biggest labels in the "techno-trance" scene that was the precursor to modern trance music. The label has been responsible for many success stories in the electronic world including Oliver Lieb, Eternal Basement, Hardfloor, Sven Väth and Koxbox. The company was founded by Sven Väth in the early 1990s. Harthouse took on the techno trend and explored the darker, more pulsating flavors of this music, soon becoming one of the front-figures of European techno. Like Väth, the Harthouse artists soon chose a more intellectual approach to music compared to some of the more rave- and party-oriented electronic music at that time. Tracks were long and abstract, with unpredictable rhythms and strange "alien" sounds. Harthouse CDs, like the vinyl records, came in a subtle glossed cardboard casing printed with color variations of the same dark, monochromatic science fiction themes, much in style with the music itself. Each publication sported a cryptic name. Experimentation seems to have been encouraged within the company, and Harthouse artists like jiri.ceiver took this angle to a funky extreme, approaching the level of abstract art. On the other hand, artists like Koxbox took the experiments in the dancefloor direction, and Harthouse, among others via Koxbox finally moved more and more towards the psychedelic trance genre, and many will probably consider Harthouse part of building up this genre. The development resulted in the later Harthouse CDs having a more "maximalist", energetic sound with emphasis on the distorted TB-303 lead. In the beginning of 1997 the future of the label was uncertain, sales were drooping in the wake of rising commercial trance labels, and Sven Vaeth had left the label in January, causing further confusion. The firm moved from its vast office in Offenbach to Berlin. Two months later the firm was insolvent, and filed for bankruptcy. The artists could not be paid or were put off with ridiculous sums. The managing directors proved unwilling to comment on the reasons for the bankruptcy. At the beginning of 1998 the Under Cover Music Group (UCMG) took over the rights to use the brand name of the label as well as the trade mark "Harthouse". For UCMG the essential point of this deal was the assurance of giving back the artists/authors the right of use on their titles - UCMG put together a "Retrospective Box", a collection of the most successful releases of Harthouse. In the few years from 1998 up to 2003, where Harthouse existed under UCMG, there only appeared 9 singles, a few albums and, what was new at Harthouse at all, a few DJ Mix-CDs mixed by various DJs like Oliver Bondzio, Frank Lorber and Plank. There also appeared one foreign release by Hardfloor under Harthouse UK, by the English UCMG department. In early 2003, UCMG started to get into financial problems. In the middle of 2003 Harthouse planned to re-release a set of old classic singles, but after some first test vinyls were made, UCMG was closed. In 2004 Daredo Music took over the rights of the Harthouse brand. They promise a return to the old Harthouse sound and mythos, including a return to pre-USMG style cover art, and introduction of new artists from the techno, acid techno and tech-trance scenes. See also List of record labels List of electronic music record labels External links Official site Harthouse at Discogs.com	Harthouse \|@lemmatized harthouse:17 german:1 record:4 label:9 specialize:1 techno:6 music:9 early:3 one:3 big:1 trance:5 scene:2 precursor:1 modern:1 responsible:1 many:2 success:1 story:1 electronic:3 world:1 include:2 oliver:2 lieb:1 eternal:1 basement:1 hardfloor:2 sven:3 väth:3 koxbox:3 company:2 found:1 take:5 trend:1 explore:1 darker:1 pulsating:1 flavor:1 soon:2 become:1 front:1 figure:1 european:1 like:5 artists:1 choose:1 intellectual:1 approach:2 compare:1 rave:1 party:1 orient:1 time:1 track:1 long:1 abstract:2 unpredictable:1 rhythm:1 strange:1 alien:1 sound:3 cd:3 vinyl:2 come:1 subtle:1 gloss:1 cardboard:1 case:1 print:1 color:1 variation:1 dark:1 monochromatic:1 science:1 fiction:1 theme:1 much:1 style:2 publication:1 sport:1 cryptic:1 name:2 experimentation:1 seem:1 encourage:1 within:1 artist:5 jiri:1 ceiver:1 angle:1 funky:1 extreme:1 level:1 art:2 hand:1 experiment:1 dancefloor:1 direction:1 among:1 others:1 via:1 finally:1 move:2 towards:1 psychedelic:1 genre:2 probably:1 consider:1 part:1 build:1 development:1 result:1 late:1 maximalist:1 energetic:1 emphasis:1 distort:1 tb:1 lead:1 beginning:2 future:1 uncertain:1 sale:1 droop:1 wake:1 rise:1 commercial:1 vaeth:1 leave:1 january:1 cause:1 confusion:1 firm:2 vast:1 office:1 offenbach:1 berlin:1 two:1 month:1 later:1 insolvent:1 file:1 bankruptcy:2 could:1 pay:1 put:2 ridiculous:1 sum:1 manage:1 director:1 prove:1 unwilling:1 comment:1 reason:1 cover:2 group:1 ucmg:7 right:3 use:2 brand:2 well:1 trade:1 mark:1 essential:1 point:1 deal:1 assurance:1 give:1 back:1 author:1 title:1 together:1 retrospective:1 box:1 collection:1 successful:1 release:3 year:1 exist:1 appear:2 single:2 album:1 new:2 dj:2 mix:2 various:1 bondzio:1 frank:1 lorber:1 plank:1 also:2 foreign:1 uk:1 english:1 department:1 start:1 get:1 financial:1 problem:1 middle:1 plan:1 set:1 old:2 classic:1 first:1 test:1 make:1 close:1 daredo:1 promise:1 return:2 mythos:1 pre:1 usmg:1 introduction:1 acid:1 tech:1 see:1 list:2 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 discogs:1 com:1 \|@bigram oliver_lieb:1 science_fiction:1 external_link:1
3,317	Politics_of_Lebanon	Lebanon is a parliamentary democracy within the overall framework of Confessionalism, a form of consociationalism in which the highest offices are proportionately reserved for representatives from certain religious communities. The constitution grants the people the right to change their government. However, from the mid-1970s until the parliamentary elections in 1992, civil war precluded the exercise of political rights. According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every 4 years. The last parliamentary election was in 2005. The Parliament, in turn, elects a President every 6 years to a single term. The President is not eligible for re-election. The last presidential election was in 2008. The president and parliament choose the Prime Minister. Political parties may be formed; most are based on sectarian interests. Syria was charged by Arab League with disentangling the combatants and restoring calm from the time of the second Lebanese civil war (which began in 1975) until 2005 when the Lebanese revolted against the Syrian presence and caused the withdrawal of Syrian troops with the support of the International community. Israel occupied parts of Lebanon in 1978 then withdrew from all Lebanese territories in 2000 although they still occupy Shebaa Farms, an area disputed between Syria, Israel and Lebanon. 2008 saw a new twist to Lebanese politics when the Doha Agreement set a new trend where the opposition is allowed a veto power in the Lebanese Council of Ministers and confirmed religious Confessionalism in the distribution of political power. Political developments since 1943 Since the emergence of the post-1943 state, national policy has been determined largely by a relatively restricted group of traditional regional and sectarian leaders. The 1943 National Pact, an unwritten agreement that established the political foundations of modern Lebanon, allocated political power on an essentially confessional system based on the 1932 census. Seats in parliament were divided on a 6-to-5 ratio of Christians to Muslims, until 1990 when the ratio changed to half and half. Positions in the government bureaucracy are allocated on a similar basis. The pact also by custom allocated public offices along religious lines, with the top three positions in the ruling "troika" distributed as follows: The President, a Maronite Christian; The Prime Minister, a Sunni Muslim, and The Speaker of the Parliament, a Shi'a Muslim. Efforts to alter or abolish the confessional system of allocating power have been at the center of Lebanese politics for decades. Those religious groups most favored by the 1943 formula sought to preserve it, while those who saw themselves at a disadvantage sought either to revise it after updating key demographic data or to abolish it entirely. Nonetheless, many of the provisions of the national pact were codified in the 1989 Ta'if Agreement, perpetuating sectarianism as a key element of Lebanese political life. Although moderated somewhat under Ta'if, the Constitution gives the President a strong and influential position. The President has the authority to promulgate laws passed by the Parliament, to issue supplementary regulations to ensure the execution of laws, and to negotiate and ratify treaties. The Parliament is elected by adult suffrage (majority age for election is 21) based on a system of proportional representation for the various confessional groups. Most deputies do not represent political parties as they are known in the West, and rarely form Western-style groups in the assembly. Political blocs are usually based on confessional and local interests or on personal/family allegiance rather than on political affinities. The parliament traditionally has played a significant role in financial affairs, since it has the responsibility for levying taxes and passing the budget. It also exercises political control over the cabinet through formal questioning of ministers on policy issues and by requesting a confidence debate. Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system has three levels--courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, e.g., rules on such matters as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Lebanese political institutions often play a secondary role to highly confessionalized personality-based politics. Powerful families also still play an independent role in mobilizing votes for both local and parliamentary elections. Nonetheless, a lively panoply of domestic political parties, some even predating independence, exists. The largest are all confessional based. The Free Patriotic Movement, although secular, mostly represents the Christians, according to the last elections in 2005. The Kataeb Party, also known as the Phalange Party, the National Bloc, National Liberal Party, Lebanese Forces and the Guardians of the Cedars (now outlawed) have their own base among Christians. Amal and Hezbollah are the main rivals for the organized Shi'a vote, and the PSP (Progressive Socialist Party) is the leading Druze party. While Shi'a and Druze parties command fierce loyalty to their leaderships, there is more factional infighting among many of the Christian parties. Sunni parties have not been the standard vehicle for launching political candidates, and tend to focus across Lebanon's borders on issues that are important to the community at large. Lebanon's Sunni parties include the Future Movement, Independent Nasserist Organization (INO), the Tawhid (Lebanon), and Ahbash. In addition to domestic parties, there are branches of pan-Arab secular parties (Ba'ath parties, socialist and communist parties) that were active in the 1960s and throughout the period of civil war. There are differences both between and among Muslim and Christian parties regarding the role of religion in state affairs. There is a very high degree of political activism among religious leaders across the sectarian spectrum. The interplay for position and power among the religious, political, and party leaders and groups produces a political tapestry of extraordinary complexity. In the past, the system worked to produce a viable democracy. Events over the last decade and long-term demographic trends, however, have upset the delicate Muslim-Christian-Druze balance and resulted in greater segregation across the social spectrum. Whether in political parties, places of residence, schools, media outlets, even workplaces, there is a lack of regular interaction across sectarian lines to facilitate the exchange of views and promote understanding. All factions have called for a reform of the political system. Some Christians favor political and administrative decentralization of the government, with separate Muslim and Christian sectors operating within the framework of a confederation. Muslims, for the most part, prefer a unified, central government with an enhanced share of power commensurate with their larger share of the population. The reforms of the Ta'if agreement moved in this direction but have not been fully realized. Palestinian refugees, predominantly Sunni Muslims, whose numbers are estimated at between 160,000-225,000, are not active on the domestic political scene. Nonetheless, they constitute an important minority whose naturalization/ settlement in Lebanon is vigorously opposed by most Lebanese, who see them as a threat to Lebanon's delicate confessional balance. On September 3, 2004, the Lebanese Parliament voted 96-29 to amend the constitution to extend President Émile Lahoud's six-year term (which was about to expire) by another three years. The move was supported by Syria, which maintained a large military presence in Lebanon. Following the withdrawal of Syrian troops in April 2005, Lebanon held parliamentary elections in four rounds, from 29 May to 19 June. The elections, the first for 33 years without the presence of Syrian military forces, were won by the Quadripartite alliance, whose was part the Rafik Hariri Martyr List, a coalition of several parties and organizations newly opposed to Syrian domination of Lebanese politics. Executive branch \|President \|Michel Sleiman \| \|25 May 2008 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Fouad Siniora \| \|19 July 2005 \|} The President is elected by the Parliament for a six-year term. The Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister are appointed by the President in consultation with the Parliament; the president is required to be a Maronite Christian, the prime minister a Sunni Muslim, and the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi'a Muslim. See also list of the ministers and their political affiliation for a list of ministers. This confessional system is based on 1932 census data which showed the Maronite Christians as having a substantial majority of the population, something which still holds. The Government of Lebanon continues to refuse to undertake a new census. Legislative branch Lebanese parliament building at Place d'Étoile in Beirut Lebanon's national legislature is called the Assembly of Representatives (Majlis al-Nuwab in Arabic). Since the elections of 1992 (the first since the reforms of the Taif Agreement of 1989 removed the built-in majority previously enjoyed by Christians and distributed the seats equally between Christians and Muslims), the Parliament has had 128 seats. The term was four years, but has recently been extended to five. Seats in the Parliament are confessionally distributed but elected by universal suffrage. Each religious community has an allotted number of seats in the Parliament. They do not represent only their co-religionists, however; all candidates in a particular constituency, regardless of religious affiliation, must receive a plurality of the total vote, which includes followers of all confessions. The system was designed to minimize inter-sectarian competition and maximize cross-confessional cooperation: candidates are opposed only by co-religionists, but must seek support from outside of their own faith in order to be elected. In practice, this system has led to gerrymandering. The opposition Qornet Shehwan Gathering, a group opposed to the former pro-Syrian regime, has claimed that constituency boundaries have been drawn so as to allow many Shi'a Muslims to be elected from Shi'a-majority constituencies (where the Hizbullah Party is strong), while allocating many Christian members to Muslim-majority constituencies, forcing Christian politicians to represent Muslim interests. (Similar charges, but in reverse, were made against the Chamoun administration in the 1950s). The following table sets out the confessional allocation of seats in the Parliament before and after the Taif Agreement. Political parties and elections Lebanon has numerous political parties, but they play a much less significant role in Lebanese politics than they do in most parliamentary democracies. Many of the "parties" are simply lists of candidates endorsed by a prominent national or local figure. Loose coalitions, usually organized locally, are formed for electoral purposes by negotiation among clan leaders and candidates representing various religious communities; such coalitions usually exist only for the election, and rarely form a cohesive bloc in the Parliament after the election. No single party has ever won more than 12.5 percent of the seats in the Parliament, and no coalition of parties has won more than 35 percent. Especially outside of the major cities, elections tend to focus more on local than national issues, and it is not unusual for a party to join an electoral ticket in one constituency while aligned with a rival party - even an ideologically opposite party - in another constituency. Judicial branch The judicial branch is of: Four Courts of Cassation (three courts for civil and commercial cases and one court for criminal cases) The Constitutional Council (called for in the Ta'if Accord) rules on constitutionality of laws The Supreme Council hears charges against the president and prime minister as needed. A system of military courts that also has jurisdiction over civilians for the crimes of espionage, treason, and other crimes that are considered to be security-related. Administrative divisions Lebanon is divided in 6 governorates (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Beirut, Mount Lebanon, North, Beqaa, South, Nabatiye. Ambassadors and Foreign Representation Farid Abboud Ambassador to United States (1999–2007), Tunisia (present) Lebanon in the News 1999 Conflict. Farid Abboud discusses rebuilding after Israeli attacks. Farid Abboud at LAWAC June 1999 Lebanon Will Fight Corruption by "Authority of Law" Ambassador of Lebanon Dr. Farid Abboud at Al-Hewar Center 2002 Fighting along the disputed Lebanese/Israeli border Interview With Lebanese Ambassador Farid Abboud & Wesley Clark 2002 Lebanese Post-reconstruction Efforts Ambassador Abboud discusses reconstruction success 2005 Assassination of former Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri WAMU and Farid Abboud discuss Hariri's assassination International organization participation ABEDA, ACCT, AFESD, AL, AMF, ESCWA, FAO, G24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, ITUC, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OIC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNRWA, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO. Notes External links News Sites Lebanon Files World Council of the Cedars Revolution Lebanon and Confessionalism Lebanon's Confessionalism: Problems and Prospects U.S. Institute of Peace Briefing, March 2006 Lebanon's Constitution and the Current Political Crisis Demography and Democracy in Lebanon	Politics_of_Lebanon \|@lemmatized lebanon:25 parliamentary:6 democracy:4 within:3 overall:1 framework:2 confessionalism:4 form:5 consociationalism:1 high:2 office:2 proportionately:1 reserve:1 representative:2 certain:1 religious:10 community:6 constitution:5 grant:1 people:1 right:2 change:2 government:5 however:3 mid:1 election:15 civil:4 war:3 preclude:1 exercise:2 political:25 accord:3 direct:1 must:3 hold:3 parliament:19 every:2 year:7 last:4 turn:1 elect:6 president:12 single:2 term:5 eligible:1 presidential:1 choose:1 prime:8 minister:12 party:29 may:3 base:9 sectarian:5 interest:3 syria:3 charge:3 arab:2 league:1 disentangle:1 combatant:1 restore:1 calm:1 time:1 second:1 lebanese:18 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news:2 conflict:1 discus:3 rebuild:1 israeli:2 attack:1 lawac:1 fight:2 corruption:1 dr:1 hewar:1 interview:1 wesley:1 clark:1 reconstruction:2 success:1 assassination:2 rafiq:1 wamu:1 participation:1 abeda:1 acct:1 afesd:1 amf:1 escwa:1 fao:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icc:1 icrm:1 ida:1 idb:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 inmarsat:1 ituc:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iso:1 correspondent:1 itu:1 nam:1 oas:1 observer:1 oic:1 pca:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unhcr:1 unido:1 unrwa:1 upu:1 wco:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wto:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 sit:1 file:1 world:1 revolution:1 problem:1 prospect:1 u:1 institute:1 peace:1 briefing:1 march:1 current:1 crisis:1 demography:1 \|@bigram parliamentary_democracy:2 presidential_election:1 prime_minister:8 shebaa_farm:1 sunni_muslim:3 shi_muslim:3 proportional_representation:1 court_cassation:2 ba_ath:1 medium_outlet:1 palestinian_refugee:1 émile_lahoud:1 fouad_siniora:1 legislative_branch:1 beirut_lebanon:1 majlis_al:1 taif_agreement:2 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3,318	Dhole	The Dhole (Cuon alpinus), also known as the Asiatic Wild Dog, Indian Wild Dog or Red Dog is a species of Asian canid, and the only member of the genus Cuon. Physiology Description The Dhole has many physical similarities to the African Wild Dog and the Bush Dog, most notably in the redundancy of the post-carnassial molars, though whether this is an example of convergence or close relationship is a matter of debate. The Dhole typically weighs 12-20 kilograms (26-44 pounds) and measures 90 centimeters (35 inches) in body length and 50 centimeters (20 inches) shoulder height. The tail measures 40-45 centimeters (16-18 inches) in length. There is little sexual dimorphism. The Dhole has a broad, domed skull and a short, broad muzzle. The bones of the forehead and upper jaw are "swollen", producing a dish-faced profile. The hooded eyes have amber or light brown irises, and the ears are large and rounded. The pelage of the back and flanks is red to brown in colour, while the foreneck, chest and undersides are white or lightly gingered. The fur of specimens from southern ranges is typically short and rusty red, while that of more northern subspecies is longer and more yellow or brown in colour. Dholes from Thailand are more uniform brown, and lack the typical lighter throat and chest, while those from Himalayan regions have more yellowish fur. Dhole dentition is unique among canids, by the fact that it has one fewer lower molars, amounting to 40 teeth rather than the more usual 42 of other species. Its lower carnassials also sport only one cusp (two is more usual for canids) an adaptation thought to improve shearing ability, thus allowing it to compete more successfully with kleptoparasites. Its front pawpads are fused at the base. Females have 6-7 pairs of mammae, as opposed to the more usual five present in other canid species. The chromosome number is 2n = 78. Reproduction Sexual dimorphism is not very distinct with no quantitative anatomical differences known. Both males and females become sexually active at one year old, though females usually breed at 2 years in captivity, and in the wild, for the first time at 3 years, possibly due to physiological and behavioural restraints. Females exhibit seasonal polyoestrus, with a cycle of around 4-6 weeks. Pups are born throughout the end of fall, winter, and the first spring months ( November - March ) - dens are earthen burrows, or are constructed amongst rocks and boulder structures, in rocky caverns, or close to streambeds. In East Java, the Dhole is thought to mate mainly between January and May. Unlike some other canid species, the Dhole does not engage in a copulatory tie when mating. Also, mating is not as restricted to certain individuals as it is in wolf packs, in which usually only the dominant pair can breed. After a gestation period of around 60-62 days, females usually give birth to about eight pups (though the range is 5-10, the record is 12, and sizes vary drastically within the same pack through different years), which weigh 200-350g. Dhole growth rate is faster than that of wolves, being similar in length to that of the coyote. At 10 days their body weight has doubled, and body length is 340mm. Pups are weaned between 6 and 9 weeks. In captivity, weaning is sometimes recorded later on in the range. By 8 weeks, younglings are less quarrelsome and aggressive, and more vigilant. At three months litters go on hunts, though the pack may not be fully mobile until eight months. Young reach sexual maturity at about a year, and full adult size at 15 months. After birth, a few other adults will help to feed the young of the dominant pair. The pups, as early as the age of three weeks, and the mother are fed regurgitated meat. When lone females breed, rearing the litters only results in limited success. Diseases Dholes are in danger of catching infectious diseases when they come in contact with other animals, especially canines – including feral and domestic dogs. They have been known to suffer from mange, canine distemper, and trypanosomiasis. Canine parvovirus was recorded in Dhole populations in Hodenhagen, Germany and Chennai, India zoos. Sporadically, the Dhole is a health risk for human beings, since their excreta contain transmittable pathogens (e.g. Toxocara canis). Dhole waste has also been found to contain roundworm, cestodes, and other endoparasites. Like other canines, the Dhole can catch rabies; in the 1940s, rabid Dholes bit and infected villagers in the Biligirirangan Hills in India. Taxonomy Evolution The Dhole is a glacial period survivor like the Gray Wolf. During the glacial period, the Dhole ranged across Eurasia and North America. A canid called the Sardinian Dhole (Cynotherium sardous) lived on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia during the Pleistocene, but it is not as closely related to the living species as its name would imply. A comparative study on dhole and other Canid mtDNA in 1997 showed that dholes diverged from the Lupus lupus lineage before the Black-backed Jackal (Canis mesomelas) and the Golden Jackal (Canis aureus) diverged, a couple of million years before the domestication of the dog. Molecular Systematics of the Canidae. Robert K. Wayne, Eli Geffen, Derek J. Girman, Klaus P. Koepfli, Lisa M. Lau and Charles R. Marshall Systematic Biology, Vol. 46, No. 4 (Dec., 1997), pp. 622-653 Subspecies There are three recognized subspecies of the Dhole, although several others have been proposed and described, spanning different sizes and colors. Cuon alpinus alpinus : includes populations adustus, antiquus, clamitans, dukhunensis, fumosus, grayiformis, infuscus, javanicus, laniger, lepturus, primaevus, rutilans alpinus: found in Eastern Russia (east of eastern Sayans), including Amur, has a thick tawny-red coat with a grayish neck and an ochre muzzle adustus: found in Northern Myanmar and Indo-China, has a reddish-brown coat dukhunensis: found South of the Ganges in India, has a red coat, short hair on the paws, and black whiskers fumosus: found in Western Szechuan, China, and Mongolia, has a luxuriant yellowish-red coat with a dark back and gray neck infuscus: found in Southern Myanmar, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam has a dark brown coat and distinctive cranial features javanicus: found in Java, has a short, bright red coat, though there are regional variations laniger: found in Kashmir and Southern Tibet, has a full yellow-gray coat lepturus: found South of the Yangze in China, has a uniform red coat with thick under-fur primaevus: found in Himalayan regions of Nepal, Sikkim (India), and Bhutan, has a longer, redder coat than dukhunensis, and has long hair on the paws sumatrensis: found in Sumatra, has a short, bright red coat and dark whiskers hesperius: found in Eastern Turkestan, Southern Siberia and Western China (Altai and Tienshan), has a long, bright yellow coat with a white underside and pale whiskers Range and habitat Dholes in Periyar National Park, India The Dhole originates from South Asia. Its range is latitude: 10° South to 55° North; Longitude: 70° East to 170° East. Its historical range extended from India to China, and down to Malaysia and Indonesia, with Java as the Southern limit. In recent decades, there has been huge habitat loss in this region, and restricted surveys indicate serious decline and fragmentation of the former range. The Dhole's current range extends from the borders of Russia and the Altai Mountains in Manchuria (Central and Eastern Asia) to Northern and Western Pakistan to the forest tracts of India, Burma, and the Malayan Archipelago. The best remaining populations are probably to be found in Central (especially in the Highlands), Western and Northern Pakistan and Southern India. The Dhole exploits a large variety of habitats. It normally inhabits dry and moist deciduous forests and thick jungles, as well as tropical rain forests, which all provide better cover for hunting. It inhabits areas of primary, secondary, degraded, evergreen, and semi-evergreen forms of vegetation, and dry thorn forests, as well as scrub-forest mosaics. It can also, however, survive in dense alpine forests, meadows and on the open steppes of Kashmir and Manchuria. As the second part of its Latin name, alpinus, suggests, the Dhole is often found in hilly or mountainous regions. The Dhole likes open spaces and during the day they can often be found on jungle roads and paths, river beds, and in jungle clearings. The Dhole inhabits in the widest range of climates in the canid family – from freezing cold to tropical heat, but is not recorded in deserts. Factors which influence habitat include water, the presence of other large predators (competition), sufficient prey (plentiful medium to large ungulate prey species), local human population, and suitable breeding sites. Behavior Social behavior The Dhole is a highly social and co-operative animal, like the Gray Wolf, the Amazonian Bush Dog, and the African Hunting Dog. Generally it lives in organized, extended-family packs of five to twelve individuals (this number rarely exceeds twenty five), with more males, sometimes twice as many more, than females, and usually just one breeding female. Sometimes pack members interact with other Dholes outside of their own group; these interactions may be positive or hostile (home ranges are often quite separate). Environmental conditions can affect group size and composition. Large packs of over forty Dholes have been sighted, possibly resulting from the temporary fusion of neighboring packs. Older Dholes of around 7–8 years sometimes vanish from the group. Within Dhole packs, there is almost never any aggression – there is a strict social hierarchy, so fighting is not needed - or bullying, save for play-fighting among cubs. Each pack contains a dominant monogamous pair, who are usually the sole breeders. However, junior males may display sexual interest in the dominant female, and sometimes father cubs. Pack members play together regularly, allow grooming, mock-fighting, and rolling around. Social rank is reinforced by shoving and holding, rarely by biting. Dispersal is female-biased. Within a group, members over-mark each other's waste, creating individual latrines in the home range. These latrines serve intra-group communication, for example, passing on information concerning sexual status. Video footage has been taken of a Dhole urinating while balancing only on the two front paws. Vocalizations The Dhole has some extraordinary vocal calls. It can make high-pitched screams, mew, hiss, squeak, yelp, chatter, and cluck like a chicken. Growl-barks and other noises alert pack-mates to danger; the large range of calls like these may have evolved to warn companions of different dangers - human, tiger, etc. Calls also act as threats to scare off enemies. Its best-known sound is its strange whistle, likened by early naturalists to the sound obtained when air is blown over an empty cartridge. These calls are used for contact within the pack. The repetitive whistles are so distinct that individual Dholes can be identified by it, and the source is easily located. Whistles travel well at ground level due to their frequency and structure. Dietary habits Dholes chasing a nilgai, as drawn by Robert Armitage Sterndale in Denizens of the Jungles, 1886 The Dhole is primarily a diurnal hunter, though it is not uncommon for it to hunt by night too. Solitary Dholes usually limit themselves to small prey such as Chital fawns and Indian Hares, while a pair or trio of Dholes suffices to kill medium sized ungulates such as deer in 2 minutes. Dholes will on rare occasions attack young gaur and water buffalo. Because of their thick skin around the neck, gaur and buffalo are killed through repeated bites to the muzzle, as well as dissembowelment. This method is also used in attacking tigers. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal By Asiatic Society (Calcutta, India), Asiatic Society of Bengal Published by Printed by G.H. Rouse, Baptist Mission Press, 1868 There is at least one account of a Dhole pack managing to pull down an Indian Elephant calf, despite ferocious defence from the mother resulting in multiple Dhole deaths. The Dhole manages to avoid competition with the Leopard and the Tiger by targeting smaller prey and hunting in daylight, unlike the nocturnal felids. The Dhole hunts by scent, and vocalises very little compared to wolves when attacking prey . It kills large prey in a manner similar to the African Wild Dog, disemboweling and eating the prey whilst it is still alive. The Dhole can eat up to 4 kilograms (8.8 pounds) of meat in an hour, and will compete with one another over a kill through speed of eating rather than fighting. It typically consumes the heart, liver, eyeballs, rump and fetus first. The Dhole drinks frequently after eating, and will actively search for a water source once it has eaten sufficiently. Seasonal scarcity of food is not as much an issue to the Dhole as it is to wolves, so there is less of a rigid dominance hierarchy during feeding. Unlike some canids, the Dhole does not cache its food. Though the majority of its food is obtained by hunting, it will occasionally scavenge from Leopard and Tiger kills. The Dhole has on occasion been observed hunting with pariah dogs. Possible relationship with the domestic dog Some researchers have doubted the predominant theory that domestic dogs are descended from wolves, and have put forward the dhole as a possible progenitor. The Origin of the Dog Revisited, Janice Koler-Matznick, © 2002. Anthrozoös 15(2): 98 - 118 In 1857 Brian Houghton Hodgson argued that the dhole was the dog's ancestor, since it is possible to tame dholes if they are caught young, while adults are untameable. Dogs: their origin and varieties: directions as to their general management, and simple instructions as to their treatment under disease, by H. D. Richardson, published by C.M. Saxton and company, 1857 Points raised in favour of the dhole ancestry cite the general domestic dog-like passiveness of the dhole in having its kills taken by humans, which contrasts with the behaviour of sympatric wolves, which will defend their prey aggressively against humans. It is also claimed that dhole skulls bear more similarities to dog skulls than wolves do, with the glaring exception of the dentition. Population pressures Sleeping Dhole, taken at the Toronto Zoo. It is estimated that 2,500 mature individuals remain in the wild (mainly in wildlife sanctuaries and protected national parks) and the declining population trend is expected to continue. One major threat to the Dhole is habitat destruction (and thus loss of prey which is aggravated by deer poaching). In India alone, over 40,000 square kilometers of forest has disappeared in the last 20 years. Also, in Vietnam, few natural forested areas over 50 square kilometers remain. The main factors in this were logging, firewood collection, flooding due to dam construction and agricultural expansion. Habitat deterioration fragments the Dhole population resulting in problems like disease (it is unclear whether this is a significant problem in Indo-China and Indonesia but definitely depletes the population in South Asia) and inbreeding, which have more permanent effects. Dhole habitat is also being transformed like in Sumatra. Human persecution also contributes to the Dhole's decline (medicinal uses of the Dhole in areas such as China should be looked into). Indiscriminate snaring ("by-catch") and other non-selective hunting techniques have devastating results. The Dhole is regarded as vermin – on rare occasions, Dholes attack livestock at the cost of the owner, e.g. in Arunachal Pradesh - and has therefore been shot, trapped and poisoned (e.g. from strychnine). British colonial hunters also shot and poisoned Dhole-killed prey-carcasses because the canine was seen as a threat to local wild ungulate densities. However, prejudice towards the Dhole still exists. Levels of persecution vary regionally depending on cultural principles, wildlife law enforcement and the intensity of livestock predation. Levels of persecution in Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia are especially high. Upset farmers have been known to club pups to death at den sites (breeding and pup-rearing is sometimes inadvertently disrupted too). Hunting and trapping for fur is not recorded as a significant contributor to the Dhole's decline perhaps because it is not numerous. In the 19th century, Dhole-fur was valuable in Ussuryisk Krai, and moving into the 20th century they were pricey in Manchuria. Now-a-days, the odd Dhole-skin is recorded as a curio. Currently, there is no known widespread exploitation of the pelts. Dhole mortalities as a result of road-kill are highest in India where many roads and trails cut through its habitat. With suitable areas steadily diminishing and cattle being grazed within the forests, livestock occasionally fall prey to the Dhole. If protection is not rigidly enforced, stockmen retaliate by excavating the den and clubbing the pups to death. Generally, Dholes ignore domestic animals, but when its natural prey is diminished, it is led to starving. In India, farmers get compensated if there is definitive proof that their livestock has been killed by Dholes outside core protected areas. The Dhole also sometimes preys on threatened species. For example, the Banteng numbers in Alas Purwo National Park (Java) were decreasing drastically due to Dhole predation. In the end, the Dhole population fell when Banteng were not numerous enough to support them. In Kanha, India, the Dhole preys on a rare, endemic subspecies of the Barasingha. Of course, it is primarily habitat loss that has pushed both these predators and prey towards endangerment and possible extinction. Depletion of the Dhole's prey animal populations is another problem. In much of the Dhole's habitat, even in protected areas, ungulate populations are low. In Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, many species larger in size than a hare have been reduced significantly because of hunting. Muntjacs and southern serow are some of the few species that haven’t been severely affected. Prey numbers in Indonesia are also low. Further pressures are applied by local villagers who steal the Dhole's kills for their own pot as Dholes do not attack humans and retreat at the sight of one. In this way, the Dhole has become an indirect food source for the people of the jungle. People who have been recorded scavenging Dhole-kills include Kuruma tribes of the Nilgiris in the south of India and at least one Mon Khmer-speaking tribe (Laos). In other regions such as Russia, poisons set out for wolves may be responsible for declines in the local Dhole population. Conservation In India, bounties were paid for carcasses right up until when the Dhole was declared a protected species under Schedule 1 of the Wildlife Act of 1972 which prohibits the killing of wildlife except in self-defense; or if the Dhole is a man-killer – and, even then, permission is required. Hunting of the Dhole in the Soviet Union had been prohibited since 1971; it received the status of ‘protected animal’ in 1974. In Vietnam, the Dhole is protected to a certain degree which limits extraction and utilization though levels of extraction and utilization are not quoted. In Cambodia, the Dhole is protected from hunting. A new forestry law is under preparation and a proposal to list the Dhole as a fully protected species is being discussed, although there appears to be no date set for its ratification. Also, large protected areas have been declared in Laos. The creation of Project Tiger Reserves has given some protection to the “dukhenesis” population. Project Tiger could potentially maintain Dhole prey-animal levels in Tiger-Dhole inhabited regions. There are about 110 dholes in captivity (including in Dresden, Beijing, Winnipeg, and Howletts), with an even ratio of males to females. There are no current research programs investigating dholes. There have been no attempts to reintroduce the Dhole yet. The conservation effort at Howletts was set back in 2009 when all of the Dholes managed to escape. The majority of them were recaptured, although several had to be shot by armed police. BBC News Report - http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/7885853.stm Fictional appearances An award-winning Indian film called Wild Dog Diaries, photographed by the duo Krupakar-Senani portrays the behaviour of a pack of Dholes. Dholes appear in Rudyard Kipling's 1895 children's story "Red Dog" (originally published as "Good Hunting", subsequently included in The Second Jungle Book) as a threat to Mowgli's wolf pack, appearing somewhat more aggressive in the story than in real life. The story was later adapted in Jungle Cubs with the Dholes being rather foolish and greedy. In an episode called "Alpha" in season six of The X-Files, a cryptid Dhole from China is blamed for multiple killings. Cited references Dhole Cuon alpinus (Pallas, 1811) Endangered – EN: C2a(i) (2004) L.S. Durbin, A.Venkataraman, S. Hedges and W. Duckwort in External links Dhole Home Page Dhole facts and pictures mapping the dhole in south east asia ARKive - images and movies of the dhole	Dhole \|@lemmatized dhole:105 cuon:4 alpinus:6 also:15 know:5 asiatic:4 wild:8 dog:20 indian:4 red:11 specie:11 asian:1 canid:9 member:4 genus:1 physiology:1 description:1 many:4 physical:1 similarity:2 african:3 bush:2 notably:1 redundancy:1 post:1 carnassial:1 molar:2 though:8 whether:2 example:3 convergence:1 close:2 relationship:2 matter:1 debate:1 typically:3 weigh:2 kilogram:2 pound:2 measure:2 centimeter:3 inch:3 body:3 length:4 shoulder:1 height:1 tail:1 little:2 sexual:5 dimorphism:2 broad:2 domed:1 skull:3 short:5 muzzle:3 bone:1 forehead:1 upper:1 jaw:1 swollen:1 produce:1 dish:1 face:1 profile:1 hooded:1 eye:1 amber:1 light:1 brown:6 iris:1 ear:1 large:9 round:1 pelage:1 back:4 flank:1 colour:2 foreneck:1 chest:2 underside:2 white:2 lightly:1 ginger:1 fur:5 specimen:1 southern:7 range:13 rusty:1 northern:4 subspecies:4 long:3 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3,319	GIMP	GIMP (GNU Image Manipulation Program, previously General Image Manipulation Program) is a free software, raster graphics editor used to process digital photographs and other graphics. Primarily GIMP is used for photo enhancement. Uses include resizing and cropping photos, altering colors, combining multiple images, removing unwanted image components, and converting between different image formats GIMP User Manual. Chapter 1. Introduction as well as creating graphics and logos. GIMP can also be used to create basic animated images in GIF format. It is often used as a replacement for Adobe Photoshop, the most widely used bitmap editor in the commercial printing and graphics industries; however, it is not designed to be a Photoshop clone. GIMP vision The project was started in 1995 by Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis and is maintained by a group of volunteers under the auspices of the GNOME Project. The current version of GIMP works with numerous operating systems, including most Unix variants, Mac OS X among them, as well as Microsoft Windows. Released under the terms of the GNU General Public License, GIMP is free software and included as standard in several open source operating systems, such as Ubuntu 9.04. The project's mascot is named Wilber. Features Brushes dialog in GNOME GIMP's manipulation tools can be accessed via the toolbox, menu paths, and dialog boxes (which can be grouped in docks). They include filters and brushes, as well as transformation, selection, layer and masking tools. Color support GIMP also has a palette with RGB, HSV, color wheel, CMYK, and mixing modes, plus tools to pick colors from the image with various averaging options. There is support for hexadecimal color codes (as used in HTML). "CMYK" colors are immediately translated into RGB when used; GIMP does not have any built-in support for CMYK mixtures that cannot be represented in RGB, such as rich blacks, though they can be simulated to a limited extent with third-party add-ons. GIMP supports gradients, which integrate into its other tools (such as brushes and fills) to shade image areas with automated color blending. It includes a variety of built-in gradients, and as with the brushes, also allows the user to customize and create their own gradient fills. Selection and masking tools Animation showing three docked and tabbed dialogs: layers, channels, and paths. GIMP can perform rectangular or circular selection, freehand selection, and "by color" selection. Alternatively, the Smart Selection tool, known as the "Magic Wand", can be used to select contiguous regions. The Intelligent Scissors (iScissors) tool can be used to auto-create paths between regions defined by strong color-changes. the 'Foreground select' tool is available since 2.4 uses Simple Interactive Object Extraction (SIOX) to select an object in the foreground with some few mouse strokes by the user. GIMP has support for layers, including transparent layers, which can be shown, hidden, or made semitransparent. It also supports transparent and semitransparent images. Channels add different types of opacity and color effects to images. Paths Paths containing line segments or Bézier curves can be created using the Path tool. Paths can be named, saved, and painted (or "stroked") with brushes, patterns, or various line styles. Paths can also be used to create complex selections. Effects, scripts, and filters GIMP has approximately 150 standard effects and filters, including Drop Shadow, Blur, Motion blur and Noise. GIMP operations can be automated with scripting languages. The Script-Fu extension language based on Scheme is built in (originally SIOD but switched to TinyScheme as of GIMP 2.4.), and external Perl, Python, or Tcl can be used. Ruby support is in experimental development. These scripts and plugins for GIMP can be used interactively, or combined non-interactively. Development GIMP is primarily developed by unpaid volunteers. The GIMP project has a development branch of GIMP where new features are added and a stable branch which only receives bug fixes between major versions. Adopting a scheme used by many other free software projects, the stable and development branches are denoted with even and odd numbers respectively after the first decimal point in the version number. , the current stable version of GIMP is 2.6.6. Major changes from version 1.2 to version 2.2 included a more polished user interface, further separation of the user interface and back-end and the ability to use brushes that would normally only be able to be used on Photoshop programs. Major changes from version 2.2 to version 2.4 included color management support, scalable brushes, new and rewritten selection tools and overall user interface changes. The final release of the 2.4.x series was 2.4.7. Major changes from version 2.4 to version 2.6 included a new layout of windows and tool palettes, new brush dynamics features, basic integration of the Generic Graphical Library (though users won't see any effect by default), improved free selection tool and a new PSD import plug-in that can read ICC color profiles. The use of GEGL addresses some fundamental design limitations of the previous version that prevented many enhancements such as native CMYK support. GIMP's user interface is built using GTK+, a widget toolkit originally written for the program. GTK+, as the GIMP Toolkit, was a part of the GIMP source tree, but has since been refactored due to its usefulness outside the scope of GIMP. GTK+ is also used as the widget toolkit for the GNOME desktop environment. GTK+ was intended as a replacement for Motif, a proprietary toolkit on which GIMP originally depended. GIMP and GTK+ were originally designed for the X Window System running on Unix-like operating systems, but have since been ported to Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and SkyOS. History Major version Minor version(s) Release date & Significant changes 0.x 0.54–0.99.31 February 15, 1996: ? 1.0.x 1.0.0–1.0.3 June 5, 1998: ? 1.2.x 1.2.0–1.2.5 December 25, 2000: Improvements of user interface, bug fixes. 2.0.x 2.0.0–2.0.6 March 23, 2004: Many new tool options, GIMP now using GTK+ 2.x graphical toolkit, not GTK+ 1.x. Tabs and Docks system introduced. Script-fu scripting support improved greatly. Allows already-created text to be edited. CMYK color support.2.2.x 2.2.0–2.2.17 December 19, 2004: New plugins support, keyboard shortcut editor, previews for transform tools. New GIMP hardware controllers support. Drag/drop and copy/paste from GIMP to other applications improved. 2.4.x 2.4.0-2.4.7 October 24, 2007: Color management support, scalable brushes, new and rewritten selection tools and overall user interface changes (new icon theme). Increased file format support. Full screen editing, and new crop tools. Improved printing quality. Improved interface for external device input. 2.6.x 2.6.0 October 1, 2008: GEGL, and first iteration of UI redesign 2.6.1 October 9, 2008: Bugfixes, updated translations. "One Window Gimp" option added. 2.6.2 October 30, 2008: Bugfixes, updated translations. 2.6.3 November 22, 2008: Bugfixes, updated translations. 2.6.4 January 1, 2009: Bugfixes, updated translations. 2.6.5 February 2, 2009: Bugfixes, updated translations. 2.6.6 March 17, 2009: Bugfixes, updated translations. GIMP originally stood for General Image Manipulation Program. Its creators, Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis, began developing GIMP as a semester-long project at the University of California, Berkeley in 1995. GIMP - Prehistory - Before GIMP 0.54 The name was changed to the GNU Image Manipulation Program in 1997, after Kimball and Mattis had graduated, when it became an official part of the GNU Project. GIMP - Documentation GIMP 0.54 GIMP 0.54 was released in January 1996. It required X11 displays, an X-server that supported the X shared memory extension and Motif 1.2 widgets. It supported 8, 15, 16 and 24-bit color depths, dithering for 8-bit displays and could view images as rgb color, grayscale or indexed color. It could simultaneously edit multiple images, zoom and pan in real-time, and supported GIF, JPEG, PNG, TIFF and XPM images. Even at this early stage of development GIMP functionality was extensive. It could select regions using rectangle, ellipse, free, fuzzy, bezier, and intelligent selection tools, and rotate, scale, shear and flip images. It had bucket, brush and airbrush painting tools, and could clone, convolve, and blend images. It had text tools, effects filters (such as blur and edge detect), and channel and color operations (such as add, composite, decompose). The plugin system allowed for addition of new file formats and new effect filters. It supported multiple undo and redo operations. It ran on Linux 1.2.13, Solaris 2.4, HP-UX 9.05, and SGI IRIX operating systems. It was rapidly adopted by users, who created tutorials, displayed artwork and shared techniques. An early success for GIMP was the Linux penguin Tux, as drawn by Larry Ewing using Gimp 0.54. By July 5, 1996 the volume of messages posted to the mailing list had risen and the mailing list was split into two lists, gimp-developer and gimp-user. Currently, user questions are directed to the gimpnet IRC channel. GIMP 0.60 GIMP 0.60 was released on June 6, 1997 using the GNU General Public License. According to the release notes, Peter Mattis was working for Hewlett-Packard and Spencer Kimball was working as a Java programmer. GIMP 0.60 no longer depended on the Motif toolkit. Improvements had been made to the painting tools, airbrush, channel operations, palettes, blend tool modes, image panning and transformation tools. The editing work flow was improved by enabling rulers, cutting and pasting between all image types, cloning between all image types and ongoing development of a layers dialog. New tools included new brushes (and a new brush file format), grayscale and RGB transparency,"Bucket fill" patterns and a pattern selection dialog, integrated paint modes, border, feather and color selectors, a pencil and eraser paint tool, gamma adjustments and a limited layer move tool. The new widgets were managed by Peter Mattis and were called GTK for GIMP toolkit and GDK for GIMP drawing kit. GIMP 0.99 The biggest change in the GIMP 0.99 release was in the GIMP toolkit (GTK). GTK was redesigned to be object oriented and renamed from GTK to GTK+. The pace of development slowed when Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis found employment. GIMP 1.0 GIMP 1.0.0 was released on June 2, 1998 GIMP and GTK+ split into separate projects during the GIMP 1.0 release. GIMP 1.0 included a new tile based memory management system which enabled editing of larger images and a change in the plug-in API (Application programming interface) allowed scripts to be safely called from other scripts and to be self documenting. GIMP 1.0 also introduced a native file format (xcf) with support for layers, guides and selections (active channels). An official website was constructed for GIMP during the 1.0 series, designed by Adrian Likins and Jens Lautenbacher, now found at classic.gimp.org which provided introductory tutorials and additional resources. On April 13 1997, GIMP News was started by Zach Beane, a site that announced plug-ins, tutorials and articles written about GIMP. May 1997, Seth Burgess started GIMP Bugs, the first 'electronic bug list'. Marc Lehmann developed a perl scripting plug-in. Web interfaces were possible with the GIMP 1.0 series, and GIMP Net-fu can still be used for online graphics generation. GIMP 1.1 The GIMP 1.1 series focused on fixing bugs and porting to Windows. No official release occurred during this series. Following this the odd numbered series (eg 1.1) of GIMP releases were considered unstable development releases and even numbered releases (eg 1.2) were considered stable releases. By this time, GTK+ had become a significant project and many of GIMP's original developers turned to GTK+ development. These included Owen Taylor (author of GIMP ifsCompose), Federico Mena, Tim Janik, Shawn Amundson and others. GNOME also attracted GIMP developers. The primary GIMP developers during this period were Manish Singh, Michael Natterer Sven Neumann and Tor Lillqvist who primarily fixed issues so that GIMP could run on Win32. GIMP 1.2 GIMP 1.2.0 was released on December 25, 2000. GIMP 1.2 had a new development team of Manish Singh, Sven Neumann and Mitch Natterer and others. GIMP 1.2 offered internationalization options, improved installation dialogs, many bug fixes (in GIMP and GTK+), overhauled plug-ins, reduced memory leaks and reorganized menus. New plug-ins included GIMPressionist, Sphere Designer, by Vidar Madsen, Image Map by Maurits Rijk GFlare by Eiichi Takamori, Warp by John P. Beale, Stephen Robert Norris and Federico Mena Quintero, Sample Colorize and Curve Bend by Wolfgang Hofer. New tools included a new path tool, a new airbrush tool, a resizable toolbox, enhanced pressure support, a measure tool, dodge, burn and smudge tools. New functionality included image pipes, jpeg save preview, a new image navigation window, scaled brush previews, selection to path, drag'n'drop, quickmask, a help browser, tear-off menus and the waterselect plug-in was integrated into the color-selector. The 1.2 series was the final GIMP 1 series. GIMP 2.0 GIMP 2.0.0 was released on March 23, 2004. The biggest visible change was the transition to the GTK+ 2.x toolkit. GIMP 2.4 Major revisions in interface and tools were made available with the GIMP 2.4.0 release on October 24, 2007. Rewritten selection tools, use of the Tango style guidelines for a polished UI on all platforms, a foreground selection tool, and support for the ABR brush filetype along with the ability to resize brushes were some of the many updates. Screenshot illustrating the new utility window hints introduced in GIMP 2.6 GIMP 2.6 More major revisions in interface and tools were made available with the 2.6.0 release on October 1 2008. There were large changes in the UI, free select tool and brush tools, and lesser changes in the code base. Also partial, tool level integration of GEGL was enacted that is supposed to lead to higher color depths as well as non-destructive editing in future versions. Starting from the first bugfix version, GIMP 2.6.1, the "The Utility Window Hint", otherwise known as the "One Window Gimp" became available for Microsoft Windows, as opposed to only being supported in GNOME. Distribution GIMP 2.4.5 running on Windows Vista GIMP is available for a variety of operating systems and computer architectures. There are a number of variations and derivative programs, including ports to other operating systems and forks with task- or OS-specific modifications. The GIMP website does not distribute compiled versions of GIMP, only the project's source code. GIMP 2.2.8 running under X11 on Mac OS X GIMP is included as the standard image editor on most general purpose Linux distributions, including Debian, Ubuntu, Mandriva, SUSE, and Fedora. A port of GIMP to Microsoft Windows was started by Finnish programmer Tor "tml" Lillqvist in 1997. The GIMP website links to binary installers compiled by Jernej Simončič for the platform. Variants GIMPVS is a GTK+ and GIMP Distribution compiled using Microsoft compilers. The Distribution aims at providing artists a stable GIMP on Microsoft platforms and developers access to GTK+ and GIMP development directly from Microsoft Visual Studio (2005 and 2008 editions). The latest GTK+ libraries are included GTK+ 2.15.0 comes ready to use in both Debug and Release versions GIMPVS: GIMP On Windows For Artists And Developpers Seashore is a program based on GIMP for Mac that uses the native Cocoa interface in Mac OS X. The program is currently in beta (0.1.9) and includes only a small subset of the many filters available in GIMP. Gimp.app provides a self-contained application bundle of GIMP for Mac OS X. Gimp.app has many features that Seashore does not have, but being built upon the GTK+ for its GUI features, it requires a version of Apple's X11 to run it. GIMP.app A project named osx-gimp provides native builds of GIMP on Mac OS X using GTK+ built for Quartz. It is mostly functional, but there is currently limited support for the Quartz backend of GTK+, and it is considered a beta version. Native GIMP for Mac OS X CinePaint, formerly known as "Film Gimp", is a fork of GIMP version 1.0.4, used for frame-by-frame retouching of feature film. The present "Film Gimp" version supports up to 32-bit IEEE-floating point color depth/channel. CinePaint supports color management and HDR. CinePaint is used primarily within the film industry due mainly to its support of high-fidelity image formats. GIMP Portable is a program based on GIMP but made to be completely portable. It is run by: John T. Haller and can be found at: GIMP Portable GIMPshop is a modification to GIMP, rearranging its user interface to mimic that of Adobe Photoshop by renaming functions and rearranging menus; on Windows this also includes the use of a multiple document interface. GimPhoto is an alternative to GIMPshop, based on a newer, though not the latest, version of GIMP. It can be found at GimPhoto Interface and usability As an application originally intended only for the X Window System, GIMP does not attempt to manage its own windows, but entirely delegates this responsibility to the window manager. GIMP uses a (controlled) single document interface, and it also uses multiple windows for its tools, color palette, and so forth. This behavior is not well supported on most platforms because most programs use either a multiple document interface or an SDI with integrated toolbars. The GIMP approach avoids the MDI problem of windows being constrained within a larger window, without requiring the additional code that most other applications use to solve this problem; but it is also a frequent cause of criticism. It generally leads to desktop clutter, and to the situation where the toolbox and layer windows end up hidden behind other unrelated applications, forcing users to manage the windows themselves. A partial solution is available by choosing a window manager that implements certain very particular functionality; however, this functionality is not available at all on Microsoft Windows, and is also not present in all Linux window managers. In recognition of these issues, the GIMP developers have been investigating other solutions, and future versions of the program are expected to introduce a different interface. GIMP is often criticized as having other usability problems. A special edition called Instrumented GIMP was created at the University of Waterloo, which tracks and reports user interaction with the program, to generate statistics to guide future improvements. Comparison and compatibility with Adobe Photoshop GIMP is sometimes suggested as a replacement for the Adobe Photoshop software product. Thus, comparisons between the two are often a topic of spirited debate. There are significant differences between the two packages. For example, GIMP plugins and scripts are not compatible with Photoshop. GIMP features offer no or (with the PSPI plug-in) very weak support for plugins designed for Photoshop, such as 8BF filters. There is a plugin called PSPI for Windows and Linux versions of GIMP, which allows the use of the 8bf Adobe Photoshop filters in GIMP. It however requires the Adobe Photoshop SDK to compile, the use of which must be requested from Adobe, but pre-compiled versions are freely distributable. GIMP's native XCF file format is not widely supported by other applications, but GIMP can read and write most Photoshop native PSD format files. GIMP features support for 8-bit per-channel images, compared to Photoshop's support for 8, 16, and 32-bit per-channel images. Its Intelligent Scissors are similar to Photoshop's Magnetic Lasso tool, and some basic tools and filters have identical functionality in both. GIMP and Photoshop differ in their color management features in ways that matter to some users. Photoshop has support for 16-bit, 32-bit, and floating point images, GIMP has limited support through LCMS; support for the Pantone color matching system, or spot color and support for color models other than RGB(A) and greyscale, such as CMYK and CIE XYZ. GIMP, like other open source applications, does not support Pantone numbers for spot colors; it has rudimentary CMYK support via a plugin. Basic, partial CMYK support is available via a Separate plug-in. Photoshop features extensive gamma correction support. In addition, Photoshop contains several productivity features and tools not supported by GIMP, such as native support for Adjustment layers, which are layers that act like filters, undo history "snapshots" that persist between sessions, the history brush tool, and folders in the layer window. GIMP also requires basic programming knowledge to build an automation upon it, usually Script-Fu (scheme) or Python-Fu, while Photoshop can record the user's actions and repeat them with a "Play" button. GIMP's open development model means that plugin development is not limited by developers; by comparison, access to Adobe Photoshop's SDK requires registration. Developer Resources File types Whilst GIMP has support for opening and saving to a large number of different file formats. GIMP supported image formats Its native format is XCF, and was created to store all information of an image state in GIMP as stored in memory; The GIMP xcf file format is named after the computing facility where GIMP was authored. Readable And Writable Formats GIMP has import/export support for popular image formats such as BMP, JPEG, PNG, GIF and TIFF, along with the file formats of several other applications such as Autodesk flic animations, Corel Paint Shop Pro images, and Adobe Photoshop Documents. Other formats with read/write support include PostScript documents, X bitmap image and Zsoft PCX. GIMP can also read and write path information from SVG files, and read/write ICO Windows icon files. Readable Only Formats GIMP can import Adobe PDF documents and the raw image formats used by many digital cameras, but cannot save to these formats. Writeable Only Formats GIMP can export to MNG layered image files (linux version only) and HTML (as a table with colored cells), C source code files (as an array) and ASCII Art (using a plugin to represent images with characters and punctuation making up images), though it cannot read these formats. Wilber Wilber, the mascot of GIMP Wilber is the official mascot of GIMP. Wilber was created sometime before September 25, 1997, by Tuomas Kuosmanen, known as tigert, with GIMP. He received additional accessories from other GIMP developers, which can be found in the Wilber Construction Kit, included in the GIMP source code as /docs/Wilber_Construction_Kit.xcf.gz. The category icon for GIMP stories on Slashdot uses Wilber which includes a subtle moving eyes animation. It is the only animated category icon on Slashdot. See also Cinepaint Comparison of raster graphics editors GIMPshop Krita Linux color management Paint.NET References External links Official GIMP website Largest community of Gimp users Grokking the GIMP, an online GIMP book GIMP for Mac OS X GIMP community project Digital art designed with GIMP GIMP video tutorials Meet the GIMP! - a weekly videopodcast about GIMP for photographers Beginning GIMP: From Novice to Professional, Second Edition--a new book covering 2.4 and previewing 2.6 Wilber links Wilber images at the GIMP homepage (near bottom) Wilber on GIMP splash screens, at tigert labs Wilber on the Bibliothèque nationale de France (photo taken at a Project Blinkenlights installation in Paris)	GIMP \|@lemmatized gimp:163 gnu:5 image:39 manipulation:5 program:15 previously:1 general:5 free:6 software:4 raster:2 graphic:6 editor:5 use:40 process:1 digital:3 photograph:1 primarily:4 photo:3 enhancement:2 us:3 include:25 resize:2 crop:2 alter:1 color:30 combine:2 multiple:6 remove:1 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3,320	Black_Sea	Map of the Black Sea. Illustration of the Black Sea, from NASA’s World Wind globe software. The Black Sea is an inland sea bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas and various straits. The Bosporus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects it to the Aegean Sea region of the Mediterranean. These waters separate eastern Europe and western Asia. The Black Sea also connects to the Sea of Azov by the Strait of Kerch. The Black Sea has an area of , Surface Area— a maximum depth of , Maximum Depth— and a volume of 547,000 km³ (133,500 cu mi). The Black Sea forms in an east-west trending elliptical depression which lies between Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine. Socio-economic indicators for the countries of the Black Sea basin. (2001). In UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. Retrieved 2 December 2006 from http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/sosio_economic_indicators_for_the_countries_of_the_black_sea_basin_giwa. It is constrained by the Pontic mountain range to the south, the Caucasus mountain range to the east and features a wide shelf to the north-west. The longest east-west extent is about 1,175 km. Important cities along the coast include: Constanţa (306,000 with a metropolitan area of 550,000), Istanbul (11,372,613), Odessa (1,001,000), Mangalia (41,153), Burgas (229,250), Varna (357,752 with a metropolitan area of 716,500), Kherson (358,000), Sevastopol (379,200), Yalta (80,552), Kerch (158,165), Novorossiysk (281,400), Sochi (328,809), Sukhumi (43,700), Năvodari (34,669), Poti (47,149), Batumi (121,806), Trabzon (275,137), Samsun (439,000) Ordu (190,143) and Zonguldak (104,276). Swallow's Nest The Black Sea has a positive water balance, which results in a net outflow of water 300 km³ per year through the Bosphorus into the Aegean Sea (part of the Mediterranean Sea). Mediterranean water flows into the Black Sea as part of a 2-way hydrological exchange. The Black Sea outflow is less salinated and cool, therefore floats over the warm, relatively more salinated Mediterranean inflow. The Black Sea also receives river water from large Eurasian fluvial systems to the north of the Sea, of which the Don, Dnieper and Danube are the most significant. In the past, the water level has varied significantly. Depending on the water level in the basin, more or less of the surrounding shelf and associated aprons are aerially exposed. At certain critical depths, it is possible for connections with surrounding water bodies to become established. It is through the most active of these connective routes, the Turkish Straits System (TSS), that the Black Sea joins the global ocean system. When this hydrological link is not present, the Black Sea is a lake, operating independently of the global ocean system. Currently the Black Sea water level is relatively high, thus water is being exchanged with the Mediterranean. The TSS connects the Black and Aegean Seas and comprises the Strait of Bosphorus (Strait of Istanbul), the Marmara sea and the Strait of Dardanelles (Hellespont, Strait of Canakkale). Name Modern names Current names of the Sea are equivalents of the English name, "Black Sea", including , Greek Mavri Thalassa (Μαύρη Θάλασσα), Bulgarian Cherno more (Черно море), Georgian Shavi zghva (შავი ზღვა), Laz Ucha Zuğa, or simply Zuğa 'Sea', Romanian Marea Neagră, Russian Chornoye more (Чёрное море), Turkish Karadeniz, Ukrainian Chorne more (Чорне море), Ubykh . This name cannot be traced to an earlier date than the twelfth century, but there are indications that it may be considerably older. Sunset on the Black Sea at Laspi The estuary of the Veleka in the Black Sea. Longshore drift has deposited sediment along the shoreline which has led to the formation of a spit, Sinemorets, Bulgaria The reason for this color term may be an ancient assignment of colors to the cardinal directions — black referring to the north, red referring to the south, and yellow to the east. Herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably. Schmitt 1996 A somewhat similar view shows the Turkish name: 'Kara (Black)' and 'Ak (White)' are respectively used to denote 'North' and 'South' in Medieval Turkish, as in Akhun Empire, Akkoyunlu and Karakoyunlu Empires, and Akdeniz (lit., 'White Sea', referring to the Mediterranean which lies south of Anatolia). Another possible explanation comes from the colour of the Black Sea's deep waters. Being further north than the Mediterranean Sea and much less saline, the microalgae concentration is much richer, causing the dark colour. Visibility in the Black Sea is on average approximately five meters (5.5 yd), as compared to up to thirty-five meters (38 yd) in the Mediterranean. Historical names Strabo's Geography (1.2.10) reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often just called "the Sea" (ho pontos). For the most part, Graeco-Roman tradition refers to the Black Sea as the 'Hospitable sea', Euxeinos Pontos (). This is a euphemism replacing an earlier 'Inhospitable Sea', Pontos Axeinos, first attested in Pindar (early fifth century BCE,~475 BC). Strabo (7.3.6) thinks that the Black Sea was called "inhospitable" before Greek colonization because it was difficult to navigate, and because its shores were inhabited by savage tribes. The name was changed to "hospitable" after the Milesians had colonized southern shoreline, the Pontus, making it part of Greek civilization. It is also possible that the name Axeinos arose by popular etymology from a Scythian Iranic axšaina- 'unlit,' 'dark'; the designation "Black Sea" may thus date from Antiquity. One Bulgarian understanding of the name is that the sea used to be quite stormy. Some sources stipulate that it goes back to the time of Noah's Ark. The Black Sea deluge theory is based on that idea. In naval science, the Black Sea is thought to have received its name because of its hydrogen sulphide layer that begins about 200 meters below the surface, and supports a unique microbial population which produces black sediments probably due to anaerobic methane oxidation. Geology and bathymetry Bay of Sudak. The geological origins of the basin can be traced back to two distinct relict back-arc basins which were initiated by to the splitting of an Albian volcanic arc and the subduction of both the Paleo-and Neo-Tethys Oceans, but the timings of these events remain controversial. McKenzie, D. P. (1970). "Plate Tectonics of the Mediterranean Region." Nature 226(5242): 239-243. McClusky, S., S. Balassanian, et al. (2000). "Global Positioning System constraints on plate kinematics and dynamics in the eastern Mediterranean and Caucasus." Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth 105(B3): 5695-5719. Since its initiation, compressional tectonic environments led to subsidence in the basin, interspersed with extensional phases resulting in large-scale volcanism and numerous orogenies, causing the uplift of the Greater Caucasus, Pontides, Southern Crimea and Balkanides mountain ranges. The ongoing collision between the Eurasian and African plates and westward escape of the Anatolian block along the North Anatolian Fault and East Anatolian Faults dictates the current tectonic regime, Shillington, D. J., N. White, et al. (2008). "Cenozoic evolution of the eastern Black Sea: A test of depth-dependent stretching models." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 265(3-4): 360-378. which features enhanced subsidence in the Black Sea basin and significant volcanic activity in the Anatolian region. Nikishin, A. M., M. V. Korotaev, et al. (2003). "The Black Sea basin: tectonic history and Neogene-Quaternary rapid subsidence modelling." Sedimentary Geology 156(1-4): 149-168. It is these geological mechanisms which, in the long term, have caused the periodic isolations of the Black Sea from the rest of the global ocean system. The modern basin is divided into 2 sub-basins by a convexity extending south from the Crimean Peninsula. The large shelf to the north of the basin is up to 190 km wide, and features a shallow apron with gradients between 1:40 and 1:1000. The southern edge around Turkey and the western edge around Georgia, however, are typified by a shelf that rarely exceeds 20 km in width and an apron that is typically 1:40 gradient with numerous submarine canyons and channel extensions. The Euxine abyssal plain in the centre of the Black Sea reaches a maximum depth of 2,212 m just south of Yalta on the Crimean Peninsula. "Remote Sensing of the European Seas" (2008) ISBN 1402067712, p. 17 The littoral zone of the Black Sea is often referred to as the Pontic littoral. Hydrology and hydrochemistry Satellite view of the Black Sea, taken by NASA MODIS. The Black Sea is the world’s largest meromictic basin where the deep waters do not mix with the upper layers of water that receive oxygen from the atmosphere. As a result, over 90% of the deeper Black Sea volume is anoxic water. The current hydrochemical configuration is primarily controlled by basin topography and fluvial inputs, which result in a strongly stratified vertical structure and a positive water balance. The upper layers are generally cooler, less dense and less salty than the deeper waters, as they are fed by large fluvial systems, whereas the deep waters originate from the warm, salty waters of the Mediterranean. This influx of dense water from Mediterranean is balanced by an outflow of fresher Black Sea surface-water into the Marmara Sea, maintaining the stratification and salinity levels. The surface water has an average salinity of 18 to 18.5 parts per thousand (compared to 30 to 40 for the oceans) and contains oxygen and other nutrients required to sustain biotic activity. These waters circulate in a basin-wide cyclonic shelfbreak gyre known as the Rim Current which transports water round the perimeter of the Black Sea. Within this feature, two smaller cyclonic gyres operate, occupying the eastern and western sectors of the basin. Outside the Rim Current, numerous quasi-permanent coastal eddies are formed due to upwelling around the coastal apron and ‘wind curl’ mechanisms. The intra-annual strength of these features is controlled by seasonal atmospheric and fluvial variations. The temperature of the surface waters varies seasonally from to . Directly beneath the surface waters the Cold Intermediate Layer (CIL) is found. This layer is composed of cool, salty surface waters, which are the result of localised atmospheric cooling and decreased fluvial input during the winter months. The production of this water is focussed in the centre of the major gyres and on the NW shelf and as the water is not dense enough to penetrate the deep waters, isopycnal advection occurs, dispersing the water across the entire basin. The base of the CIL is marked by a major thermocline, halocline and pycnocline at and this density disparity is the major mechanism for isolation of the deep water. Below the pycnocline, salinity increases to 22 to 22.5 ppt and temperatures rise to around . The hydrochemical environment shifts from oxygenated to anoxic, as bacterial decomposition of sunken biomass utilises all of the free oxygen. Certain species of extremophile bacteria are capable of using sulfate (SO42−) in the oxidation of organic material, which leads to the creation of hydrogen sulfide (H2S). This enables the precipitation of sulfides such as the iron sulphides pyrite, greigite and iron monosulphide, as well as the dissolution of carbonate matter such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3), found in shells. Organic matter, including anthropogenic artefacts such as boat hulls, are well preserved. During periods of high surface productivity, short-lived algal blooms form organic rich layers known as sapropels. Scientists have reported an annual phytoplankton bloom that can be seen in many NASA images of the region. Black Sea Becomes Turquoise earthobservatory.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2 December 2006. Modelling shows the release of hydrogen sulphide clouds in the event of an asteroid impact into the Black Sea would pose a threat to health—or even life—for people living on the Black Sea coast. R.D. Schuiling, R.B. Cathcart, V. Badescu, D. Isvoranu and E. Pelinovsky, "Asteroid impact in the Black Sea. Death by drowning or asphyxiation?", Natural Hazards (October 2006) DOI: 10.1007/s11069-006-0017-7 Ecology The Black Sea supports a complex ecology in its upper waters, characterised by quasi-endemic species which thrive in the fresher surface waters, as well as cosmopolitan stenohaline and euryhaline species. The fluvial systems draining Eurasia and central Europe introduce large volumes of nutrients in the Black Sea, but distribution of these nutrients is controlled by the degree of physiochemical stratification, which is in turn dictated by seasonal physiographic development. Oguz, T., H. W. Ducklow, et al. (1999). "A physical-biochemical model of plankton productivity and nitrogen cycling in the Black Sea." Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers 46(4): 597-636. Phytoplankton blooms occur in surface waters throughout the year, most reliably in the form of a Diatom bloom during March. Sorokin, Y. I. (1983). The Black Sea. Estuaries and Enclosed Seas. Ecosystem of the World. B. H. Ketchum. New York, Elsevier: 253-292. However, subsurface productivity is limited by nutrient availability, as the anoxic bottom waters act as a sink for reduced nitrate, in the form of ammonia. Some chemosynthetic productivity occurs in the bottom waters, estimated at ~10% of photosynthetic productivity. Deuser, W. G. (1971). "ORGANIC-CARBON BUDGET OF BLACK SEA." Deep-Sea Research 18(10): p995 The Black Sea underwent a catastrophic environmental collapse in the early 1990s caused by chronic nutrient pollution from farms, feed lots, and municipal sewers throughout its vast watershed. Massive algae blooms resulted in hypoxic conditions across the ecologically critical northwest shelf, wiping out much of the flora and fauna there. Perhaps because of the attendant ecological disruptions, an alien species – the warty comb jelly (Mnemiopsis leidyi) – was able to establish itself in the basin, exploding from a few individuals to an estimated biomass of one billion metric tons. Woodard, Colin, Ocean's End: Travels Through Endangered Seas, New York: Basic Books, 2000, pp. 1-28 Recently, scientists have noted signs of ecological recovery, in part due to the collapse of agriculture (and subsidized fertilizer usage) in much of the lower Danube basin and the construction of new sewage treatment plants in Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria in connection with membership in the European Union. Mnemiopsis leidyi populations have been checked with the arrival of another alien species which feeds on them. Woodard, Colin, "The Black Sea's Cautionary Tale," Congressional Quarterly Global Researcher, October 2007, pp. 244-245 Climate Short-term climatic variation in the Black Sea region is significantly influenced by the operation of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), which is a term used to describe the climatic mechanisms resulting from the interaction between the north Atlantic and mid-latitude air masses. Hurrell, J. W. (1995). "DECADAL TRENDS IN THE NORTH-ATLANTIC OSCILLATION - REGIONAL TEMPERATURES AND PRECIPITATION." SCIENCE 269(5224): 676-679. While the exact mechanisms causing the NAO remain unclear, Lamy, F. H. W. A. G. C. B. A. B. and J. PÃ¤tzold (2006). "Multicentennial-scale hydrological changes in the Black Sea and northern Red Sea during the Holocene and the Arctic/North Atlantic Oscillation." Paleoceanography 21: PA1008. it is thought the climate conditions established in western Europe mediate the heat and precipitation fluxes reaching Central Europe and Eurasia, regulating the formation of winter cyclones, which are largely responsible for regional precipitation inputs Turkes, M. (1996). "Spatial and temporal analysis of annual rainfall variations in Turkey." International Journal of Climatology 16(9): 1057-1076. and influence Mediterranean Sea Surface Temperatures (SST's). Cullen, H. M., A. Kaplan, et al. (2002). "Impact of the North Atlantic Oscillation on Middle Eastern climate and streamflow." Climatic Change 55(3): 315-338. The relative strength of these systems also limits the amount of cold air arriving from northern regions during winter. Ozsoy, E. and U. Unluata (1997). "Oceanography of the Black Sea: a review of some recent results." Earth-Science Reviews 42: 231-272. Other influencing factors include the regional topography, as depressions and storms systems arriving from the Mediterranean are funneled through the low land around the Bosphorus, Pontic and Caucasus mountain ranges acting as wave guides, limiting the speed and paths of cyclones passing through the region Brody, L. R., Nestor, M.J.R. (1980). Regional Forecasting Aids for the Mediterranean Basin. Handbook for Forecasters in the Mediterranean, Naval Research Laboratory. 2. Mediterranean connection during the Holocene The Bosporus, taken from the ISS. Map of the Dardanelles. The Black Sea is connected to the World Ocean by a chain of two shallow straits, the Dardanelles and the Bosporus. The Dardannelles are 55 m deep and the Bosporus is as shallow as 36 m. By comparison, at the height of the last Ice Age, sea levels were more than 100 m lower than they are now. There's also evidence that water levels in the Black Sea, too, were considerably lower at some point during the post-glacial period. Thus, for example, archeologists found fresh-water snail shells and man-made structures in roughly of water off the Black Sea coast of modern Turkey. Therefore it is agreed that the Black Sea has been a landlocked freshwater lake (at least in upper layers) during the last glaciation and for some time after. In the aftermath of the Ice Age, water levels in the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea rose independently until they were high enough to exchange water. The exact timeline of this development is still subject to debate. One possibility is that the Black Sea filled first, with excess fresh water flowing over the Bosporus sill and eventually into the Mediterranean Sea. There are also catastrophic scenarios, such as the "deluge theory" put forward by William Ryan and Walter Pitman. Deluge hypothesis In 1997, William Ryan and Walter Pitman from Columbia University published a hypothesis according to which a massive flood through the Bosporus occurred in ancient times. They claim that the Black and Caspian Seas were vast freshwater lakes, but then about 5600 BC, the Mediterranean spilled over a rocky sill at the Bosporus, creating the current communication between the Black and Mediterranean Seas. Subsequent work has been done both to support and to discredit this hypothesis, and archaeologists still debate it. This has led some to associate this catastrophe with prehistoric flood myths. William Ryan and Walter Pitman have a book on their theory. Noah's Flood: The New Scientific Discoveries About the Event That Changed History Published by Simon & Schuster Paperbacks New York, NY. Copyright 1998. History Medieval map of the Black Sea Ivan Aivazovsky. Black Sea Fleet in the Bay of Theodosia, just before the Crimean War. The Black Sea was a busy waterway on the crossroads of the ancient world: the Balkans to the West, the Eurasian steppes to the north, Caucasus and Central Asia to the East, Asia Minor and Mesopotamia to the south, and Greece to the south-west. The oldest processed gold in the world, arguably left by Old Europeans, was found in Varna, and the Black Sea was supposedly sailed by the Argonauts. The land at the eastern end of the Black Sea, Colchis, (now Georgia), marked for the Greeks an edge of the known world. The steppes to the north of the Black Sea have been suggested as the original homeland (Urheimat) of the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language, (PIE) the progenitor of the Indo-European language family, by some scholars (see Kurgan; others move the heartland further east towards the Caspian Sea, yet others to Anatolia). Numerous ancient ports line Black Sea's coasts, some older than the pyramids The Black Sea . Ancient trade routes in the region are currently being extensively studied by American, Bulgarian, and other scientists. It is widely believed that the Black Sea is packed with archaeology to be found. Perhaps the most promising areas in deepwater archaeology are the quest for submerged prehistoric settlements in the continental shelf and for ancient shipwrecks in the anoxic zone, which are expected to be exceptionally well preserved due to the absence of oxygen. The Black Sea has witnessed the rivalries of Hittites, Carians, Thracians, Greeks, Persians, Scythians, Romans, Byzantines, Goths, Huns, Avars, Bulgars, Slavs, Varangians, Crusaders, Venetians, Genovese, Tatars, Ottomans, and Russians. The Black Sea was a significant naval theatre of World War I and saw both naval and land battles during World War II. Holiday resorts and spas Photo of the Black Sea near Gagra, Georgia taken in 1915. Cities of the Black Sea. In the years following the end of the Cold War, the popularity of the Black Sea as a tourist destination has been steadily increasing. Overall, tourism at Black Sea resorts has become one of the region's growth industries. The following is a list of well-known Black Sea resorts: 1 Abkhazia has been a de facto independent republic since 1992, although remains a de jure autonomous republic of Georgia. Regional organizations Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic DevelopmentCommunity of Democratic Choice (CDC) Black Sea Forum for Partnership and Dialogue (BSF) See also the Balkans Regional organizations and Post-Soviet Regional organizations See also Anoxic event Black Sea deluge theory Bulgarian Black Sea Coast Romanian Black Sea Coast Ancomah Tourism 1927 Crimean earthquakes Black Sea Games Crimea References Bibliography Stella Ghervas, "Odessa et les confins de l'Europe: un éclairage historique", in Stella Ghervas et François Rosset (ed), Lieux d'Europe. Mythes et limites, Paris, Editions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme, 2008. ISBN 978-2-7351-1182-4 Charles King, The Black Sea: A History, 2004, ISBN 0-19-924161-9 William Ryan and Walter Pitman, Noah's Flood, 1999, ISBN 0-684-85920-3 Neal Ascherson, Black Sea (Vintage 1996), ISBN 0-09-959371-8 Özhan Öztürk. Karadeniz: Ansiklopedik Sözlük (Black Sea: Encyclopedic Dictionary). 2 Cilt (2 Volumes). Heyamola Publishing. Istanbul.2005 ISBN 975-6121-00-9. Rüdiger Schmitt, "Considerations on the Name of the Black Sea", in: Hellas und der griechische Osten (Saarbrücken 1996), pp. 219–224 West, Stephanie. "‘The Most Marvellous of All Seas’: the Greek Encounter with the Euxine", Greece & Rome, Vol. 50, Issue 2 (2003), pp. 151–167. </div> External links Black Sea Technical University Space Monitoring of the Black Sea Coastline and Waters Pictures of the Black sea coast all along the Crimean peninsula Black Sea Environment and Marine Life - Learning Pages The Center for Black Sea Archaeology The Black Sea Trade Project Earth from Space: Black Sea National Geographic Society Black Sea Environmental Internet Node Black Sea-Mediterranean Corridor during the last 30 ky: UNESCO IGCP 521 WG12 be-x-old:Чорнае мора	Black_Sea \|@lemmatized map:5 black:97 sea:126 illustration:1 nasa:4 world:9 wind:2 globe:1 software:1 inland:1 bound:1 europe:7 anatolia:3 caucasus:6 ultimately:1 connect:6 atlantic:6 ocean:8 via:1 mediterranean:22 aegean:5 various:1 strait:10 bosporus:7 marmara:3 dardanelles:4 region:9 water:43 separate:1 eastern:6 western:4 asia:3 also:8 azov:1 kerch:2 area:5 surface:11 maximum:3 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3,321	Collectible_card_game	A collectible card game (CCG), also called a trading card game (TCG) or customizable card game, is a game played using specially designed sets of playing cards. While trading cards have been around for longer, CCGs combine the appeal of collecting with strategic gameplay. The first collectible card game was The Base Ball Card Game produced by The Allegheny Card Co. and registered on April 5, 1904. Sports Collectors Digest (April 7, 2000) at 50. Description of the first known collectible card game, The Base Ball Card Game produced by The Allegheny Card Co. and registered on April 4, 1904 featuring 104 unique baseball cards with individual player attributes printed on the cards enabling each collector to build a team and play the game against another person. The modern concept of CCG games was first presented in Magic: The Gathering, designed by Richard Garfield and published by Wizards of the Coast in 1993. Gameplay Each CCG system has a fundamental set of rules that describes the players' objectives, the categories of cards used in the game, and the basic rules by which the cards interact. Each card will have additional text explaining that specific card's effect on the game. They also generally represent some specific element derived from the game's genre, setting, or source material. The cards are illustrated and named for these source elements, and the card's game function may relate to the subject. For example, Magic is based on the fantasy genre, so many of the cards represent creatures and magical spells from that setting. In the game, a dragon is illustrated as a reptilian beast, may have the flying ability, and have formidable game statistics compared to smaller creatures. The bulk of CCGs are designed around a resource system by which the pace of each game is controlled. Frequently, the cards which comprise a player's deck are considered a resource, with the frequency of cards moving from the deck to the play area or player's hand being tightly-controlled. Relative card strength is often balanced by the number or type of basic resources needed in order to play the card, and pacing after that may be determined by the flow of cards moving in and out of play. Resources may be specific cards themselves, or represented by other means (e.g., tokens in various resource pools, symbols on cards, etc.). Players select which cards will compose their deck from the available pool of cards; unlike traditional card games such as poker or UNO where the deck's content is limited and pre-determined. This allows a CCG player to strategically customize their deck to take advantage of favorable card interactions, combinations and statistics. During a game, players usually take turns playing cards and performing game-related actions. The order and titles of these steps vary between different game systems, but the following are typical: Restore - Make all in-play cards ready for the upcoming turn. Draw card(s) - Necessary in order to circulate cards in players' hands. Play card(s) - Use the cards in hand to interact with the game. Conflict - The primary method for victory in most games (combat is a very popular theme). Discard card(s) - Discard to a maximum hand size, or need to refresh for next turn. Internet play In addition to actual physical card games, collectible card games have also been developed that are played over the Internet and LAN lines. Instead of receiving physical cards, a player establishes a virtual collection that exists only as a set of data stored on a server. Such cards can be purchased (using real money) or traded within this environment. Titles include online versions of games that originated as physical CCGs (e.g., Magic: The Gathering Online), as well as games that exist solely online. The first online CCGs were Sanctum and Chron X, both developed in 1997. Both still exist, producing new expansions over a decade later. Chron X was developed by Genetic Anomalies, Inc, which later developed other online collectible card-style games based on licensed content. In some cases, new elements are added to the CCG - the online card games Sanctum and Star Chamber include game boards as well as animations and sound effects for some of their cards. The NOKs, on the other hand, offer talking figures and action-arcade game play. In a different case, The Eye of Judgement, a CCG that has been combined with a PlayStation 3 game, bringing innovation with the CyberCode matrix technology. It allows real cards bought in stores to be scanned with the PlayStation Eye and brought into the game with 3D creatures, animations, spell animations, etc. as representations. In a similar fashion, Chaotic, Bella Sara, and MapleStory allow online players to enter a unique alpha-numeric code found on each physical card. These codes allow access to online cards or other online features. A related concept is that of software programs which allow players to play CCGs over the Internet, but without relying on a central server or database. When utilizing such software, players don't need to purchase any (real or virtual) cards, and are instead free to create any deck they like using the cards supported by the client software. In some cases, these programs have limited rule enforcement engines, while others rely completely on players to interpret the complex interactions between the cards. Some of these software packages actually support the play of more than one virtual card game; for example, Magic Workstation was originally designed to play Magic, but can technically support additional games as well. The systems for online play that support the greatest variety of games are LackeyCCG and CCG Workshop. Offerings include many copyrighted games whose manufacturers are no longer publishing the game, most notably Decipher's Star Wars Customizable Card Game DECIPHER.com : Star Wars CCG and Precedence’s Babylon 5 Collectible Card Game. Distribution Specific game cards are most often produced in various degrees of scarcity, generally denoted as common (C), uncommon (U), and rare (R). Some games use alternate or additional designations for the relative rarity levels, such as super-, ultra-, or exclusive rares. Special cards may also only be available through promotions, events, purchase of related material, or redemption programs. The idea of rarity borrows somewhat from other types of collectible cards, such as baseball cards, but in CCGs, the level of rarity also denotes the significance of a card's effect in the game, i.e., in general the more powerful a card is in terms of the game, the greater its rarity. A powerful card whose effects were underestimated by the game's designers may increase in rarity due to those effects; in later editions of the game, such a card's level of rarity might increase to reduce its availability to players. Such a card might even be removed entirely from the next edition, to further limit its availability and its effect on gameplay. Most collectible card games are distributed as sealed packs containing a subset of the available cards, much like trading cards. Some of the most common distribution methods are: Starter set - This is an introductory product which contains enough cards for two players and includes instructional information on playing the game. In order to speed the learning process, the card content is typically fixed and designed around a theme, so that the new players can start playing right away. Tournament or starter deck - This contains enough game cards (usually 40 or more) for one player. It usually contains a random selection of cards, but with some basic elements so that it may be playable from the start. Theme deck - Most CCGs are designed with opposing factions, themes, or strategies. A theme deck is composed primarily of cards that will work well together and is typically non-random. Booster packs - This method of distribution is most similar to trading cards as the packs contain a random selection of roughly 8 to 15 cards. Patent A patent was granted to Wizards of the Coast in 1997 for "a novel method of game play and game components that in one embodiment are in the form of trading cards" that includes claims covering games whose rules include many of Magic's elements in combination, including concepts such as changing orientation of a game component to indicate use (referred to in the Magic and Vampire: The Eternal Struggle rules as "tapping") and constructing a deck by selecting cards from a larger pool. The patent has aroused criticism from some observers, who believe some of its claims to be invalid. In 2003, the patent was an element of a larger legal dispute between Wizards of the Coast and Nintendo, regarding trade secrets related to Nintendo's Pokémon Trading Card Game. The legal action was settled out of court, and its terms were not disclosed. Licensing While game themes are sometimes based on owned or completely original ideas, it is frequently the case that games make use of existing third-party fictional characters or worlds. If the company producing the game owns the rights to the game world and artwork, then the game is a proprietary game. If another entity owns the characters and/or world, then the game is licensed from that company. Any such licensing agreements have a start and end date, making it possible for the license to expire or move between companies over time. The advantages of a licensed collectible card game include the following: Automatic access to existing characters, concepts, and artwork. Name recognition and built-in fan base. Joint promotions between the two companies involved. The disadvantages include: Reduced profitability due to licensing fees. Potential loss of license after a time, making future expansions impossible. An example of a licensed game is the Buffy the Vampire Slayer Collectible Card Game from Score Entertainment, based on the television series. While this title may have been financially successful, Score lost the Buffy license in January 2004, prematurely ending game production. This also prevented Score from releasing the game in the United Kingdom, as with the Dragonball Z Trading Card Game, although this does not prevent resourceful individuals from importing foreign versions and selling them as well. The Kingdom Hearts Collectible Card game also suffers from the same issues and goes as far as the English language publishers, Fantasy Flight Games, canceling all orders that are attempted by non Canadian/USA/Mexican individuals on their own online store Kingdom Hearts TCG Chapter Pack - KH06 References See also List of collectible card games Collectible Miniatures Game Booster pack	Collectible_card_game \|@lemmatized collectible:13 card:81 game:71 ccg:8 also:8 call:1 trading:5 tcg:2 customizable:2 play:19 use:8 specially:1 design:6 set:6 around:3 long:1 ccgs:7 combine:2 appeal:1 collect:1 strategic:1 gameplay:3 first:4 base:7 ball:2 produce:5 allegheny:2 co:2 register:2 april:3 sport:1 collector:2 digest:1 description:1 know:1 feature:2 unique:2 baseball:2 individual:3 player:17 attribute:1 print:1 enable:1 build:2 team:1 another:2 person:1 modern:1 concept:4 present:1 magic:7 gathering:2 richard:1 garfield:1 publish:2 wizard:3 coast:3 system:4 fundamental:1 rule:5 describe:1 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3,322	Clock	Platform clock at King's Cross railway station, London. A clock is an instrument used for indicating and maintaining the time and passage thereof. The word clock is derived ultimately (via Dutch, Northern French, and Medieval Latin) from the Celtic words clagan and clocca meaning "bell". For horologists and other specialists the term clock continues to mean exclusively a device with a striking mechanism for announcing intervals of time acoustically, by ringing a bell, a set of chimes, or a gong. A silent instrument lacking such a mechanism has traditionally been known as a timepiece. see Baillie et al., p. 307; Palmer, p. 19; Zea & Cheney, p. 172 In general usage today, however, a "clock" refers to any device for measuring and displaying the time which, unlike a watch, is not worn on the person. Clock at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich History Replica of an ancient Chinese incense clock The clock is one of the oldest human inventions, meeting the need to consistently measure intervals of time shorter than the natural units, the day, the lunar month, and the year. Such measurement requires devices. Devices operating on several different physical processes have been used over the millennia, culminating in the clocks of today. Sundials and other devices The sundial, which measures the time of day by the direction of shadows cast by the sun, was widely used in ancient times. A well-designed sundial can measure local solar time with reasonable accuracy, and sundials continued to be used to monitor the performance of clocks until the modern era. However, it has practical limitations - it requires the sun to shine and does not work at all during the night - encouraged the use of other techniques for measuring time. In India, the King of Jaipur the Pink City, Jai Singh II constructed many instruments and sundials in the observatories in cities Jaipur, Varanasi, Ujjain, Mathura between 1724-1730 A.D. He had a good interest in astronomy and town planning. Candle clocks and sticks of incense that burn down at approximately predictable speeds have also been used to estimate the passing of time. In an hourglass, fine sand pours through a tiny hole at a constant rate and indicates a predetermined passage of an arbitrary period of time. Water clocks A scale model of Su Song's Astronomical Clock Tower, built in 11th century Kaifeng, China. It was driven by a large waterwheel, chain drive, and escapement mechanism. Water clocks, also known as clepsydrae (sg: clepsydra), along with the sundials, are possibly the oldest time-measuring instruments, with the only exceptions being the vertical gnomon and the day-counting tally stick. Given their great antiquity, where and when they first existed are not known and perhaps unknowable. The bowl-shaped outflow is the simplest form of a water clock and is known to have existed in Babylon and in Egypt around the 16th century BC. Other regions of the world, including India and China, also have early evidence of water clocks, but the earliest dates are less certain. Some authors, however, write about water clocks appearing as early as 4000 BC in these regions of the world. Greek astronomer, Andronicus of Cyrrhus, supervised the construction of the Tower of the Winds in Athens in the 1st century B.C. Tower of the Winds - Athens The Greek and Roman civilizations are credited for initially advancing water clock design to include complex gearing, The History of Clocks which was connected to fanciful automata and also resulted in improved accuracy. These advances were passed on through Byzantium and Islamic times, eventually making their way to Europe. Independently, the Chinese developed their own advanced water clocks, passing their ideas on to Korea and Japan. Some water clock designs were developed independently and some knowledge was transferred through the spread of trade. It is important to point out that the need for the common person to 'know what time it is' largely did not exist until the Industrial Revolution, when it became important to keep track of hours worked. In the earliest of times, however, the purpose for using a water clock was for astronomical and astrological reasons. These early water clocks were calibrated with a sundial. While never reaching the level of accuracy based on today's standards of timekeeping, the water clock was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for millennia, until it was replaced by the more accurate pendulum clock in 17th century Europe. In 797 (or possibly 801), the Abbasid caliph of Baghdad, Harun al-Rashid, presented Charlemagne with an Asian Elephant named Abul-Abbas together with a "particularly elaborate example" of a water clock. Early mechanical clocks None of the first clocks survived from 13th century Europe, but various mentions in church records reveal some of the early history of the clock. The first major advance in clock construction occurred in Europe during the 14th century when the first mechanical clock ever made was created by one Henry de Vick for King Charles V of France. Completed around 1360 and equipped with only an hour hand, Vick's design spread throughout Europe relatively quickly. Clocks Medieval religious institutions required clocks to measure and indicate the passing of time because, for many centuries, daily prayer and work schedules had to be strictly regulated. This was done by various types of time-telling and recording devices, such as water clocks, sundials and marked candles, probably used in combination. Important times and durations were broadcast by bells, rung either by hand or by some mechanical device such as a falling weight or rotating beater. The word horologia (from the Greek ὡρα, hour, and λεγειν, to tell) was used to describe all these devices, but the use of this word (still used in several romance languages) for all timekeepers conceals from us the true nature of the mechanisms. For example, there is a record that in 1176 Sens Cathedral installed a ‘horologe’ but the mechanism used is unknown. According to Jocelin of Brakelond, in 1198 during a fire at the abbey of St Edmundsbury (now Bury St Edmunds), the monks 'ran to the clock' to fetch water, indicating that their water clock had a reservoir large enough to help extinguish the occasional fire . These early clocks may not have used hands or dials, but “told” the time with audible signal, such as ringing a bell. A new mechanism The word clock (from the Latin word clocca, "bell"), which gradually supersedes "horologe", suggests that it was the sound of bells which also characterized the prototype mechanical clocks that appeared during the 13th century in Europe. Between 1280 and 1320, there is an increase in the number of references to clocks and horologes in church records, and this probably indicates that a new type of clock mechanism had been devised. Existing clock mechanisms that used water power were being adapted to take their driving power from falling weights. This power was controlled by some form of oscillating mechanism, probably derived from existing bell-ringing or alarm devices. This controlled release of power - the escapement - marks the beginning of the true mechanical clock. Outside of Europe, the escapement mechanism had been known and used in medieval China, as the Song Dynasty horologist and engineer Su Song (1020 - 1101) incorporated it into his astronomical clock-tower of Kaifeng in 1088 History of Song 宋史, Vol. 340 . However, his astronomical clock and rotating armillary sphere still relied on the use of flowing water (ie. hydraulics), while European clockworks of the following centuries shed this old habit for a more efficient driving power of weights, in addition to the escapement mechanism. The first description of a mechanical clock in a Muslim work appears in Taqi al-Din's The Brightest Stars for the Construction of Mechanical Clocks, written about AD 1565, where al-Din describes the construction of a weight-driven clock with verge-and-foliot escapement, a striking train of gears, an alarm, and a representation of the moon's phases. Ahmad Y al-Hassan & Donald R. Hill: “Islamic Technology”, Cambridge 1986, ISBN 0-521-422396, p.59 An earlier mercury clock, described in the Libros del saber, a Spanish work from AD 1277 consisting of translations and paraphrases of Arabic works, is sometimes quoted as evidence for Muslim knowledge of a weight-driven clock. However, the device was actually a compartmented cylindrical water clock, whose construction was credited by the Jewish author of the relevant section, Rabbi Isaac, to the Greek engineer Hero of Alexandria (fl. 1st century AD). Silvio A. Bedini: “The Compartmented Cylindrical Clepsydra”, Technology and Culture, Vol. 3, No. 2 (1962), pp. 115-141 (116-118) An elephant clock in a manuscript by Al-Jazari (1206 AD) from The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices. Ibn al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (ed. 1974), The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices. Translated and annotated by Donald Routledge Hill, Dordrecht/D. Reidel. In the 13th century, Al-Jazari, an engineer who worked for Artuqid king of Diyar-Bakr, Nasir al-Din, made numerous clocks of all shapes and sizes. The book described 50 mechanical devices in 6 categories, including water clocks. The most reputed clocks included the Elephant, the Castle and Scribe clocks, all of which were reconstructed by Muslim Heritage Consulting for Ibn Battuta Shopping Mall in Dubai (UAE), where they are fully functional. As well as telling the time, these grand clocks were symbols of status, grandeur and wealth of the Urtuq State. al-Hassani, Woodcok and Saoud (2007), 'Muslim Heritage in Our World', FSTC publishing pp.14-17 These mechanical clocks were intended for two main purposes: for signalling and notification (e.g. the timing of services and public events), and for modeling the solar system. The former purpose is administrative, the latter arises naturally given the scholarly interest in astronomy, science, astrology, and how these subjects integrated with the religious philosophy of the time. The astrolabe was used both by astronomers and astrologers, and it was natural to apply a clockwork drive to the rotating plate to produce a working model of the solar system. Simple clocks intended mainly for notification were installed in towers, and did not always require dials or hands. They would have announced the canonical hours or intervals between set times of prayer. Canonical hours varied in length as the times of sunrise and sunset shifted. The more sophisticated astronomical clocks would have had moving dials or hands, and would have shown the time in various time systems, including Italian hours, canonical hours, and time as measured by astronomers at the time. Both styles of clock started acquiring extravagant features such as automata. In 1283, a large clock was installed at Dunstable Priory; its location above the rood screen suggests that it was not a water clock . In 1292, Canterbury Cathedral installed a 'great horloge'. Over the next 30 years there are brief mentions of clocks at a number of ecclesiastical institutions in England, Italy, and France. In 1322, a new clock was installed in Norwich, an expensive replacement for an earlier clock installed in 1273. This had a large (2 metre) astronomical dial with automata and bells. The costs of the installation included the full-time employment of two clockkeepers for two years . Early astronomical clocks Richard of Wallingford pointing to a clock, his gift to St Albans Abbey Besides the Chinese astronomical clock of Su Song in 1088 mentioned above, in Europe there were the clocks constructed by Richard of Wallingford in St Albans by 1336, and by Giovanni de Dondi in Padua from 1348 to 1364. They no longer exist, but detailed descriptions of their design and construction survive, and modern reproductions have been made. They illustrate how quickly the theory of the mechanical clock had been translated into practical constructions, and also that one of the many impulses to their development had been the desire of astronomers to investigate celestial phenomena. Wallingford's clock had a large astrolabe-type dial, showing the sun, the moon's age, phase, and node, a star map, and possibly the planets. In addition, it had a wheel of fortune and an indicator of the state of the tide at London Bridge. Bells rang every hour, the number of strokes indicating the time. Dondi's clock was a seven-sided construction, 1 metre high, with dials showing the time of day, including minutes, the motions of all the known planets, an automatic calendar of fixed and movable feasts, and an eclipse prediction hand rotating once every 18 years. It is not known how accurate or reliable these clocks would have been. They were probably adjusted manually every day to compensate for errors caused by wear and imprecise manufacture. The Salisbury Cathedral clock, built in 1386, is considered to be the world's oldest surviving mechanical clock that strikes the hours Singer, Charles, et al. Oxford History of Technology: volume II, from the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution (OUP 1957)pg 650-1 . Later developments Clockmakers developed their art in various ways. Building smaller clocks was a technical challenge, as was improving accuracy and reliability. Clocks could be impressive showpieces to demonstrate skilled craftsmanship, or less expensive, mass-produced items for domestic use. The escapement in particular was an important factor affecting the clock's accuracy, so many different mechanisms were tried. Spring-driven clocks appeared during the 1400s, , p.305 , p.126-127 p.121 although they are often erroneously credited to Nürnberg watchmaker Peter Henlein (or Henle, or Hele) around 1511. , p.121 , p.440 The earliest existing spring driven clock is the chamber clock given to Peter the Good, Duke of Burgundy, around 1430, now in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum. Spring power presented clockmakers with a new problem; how to keep the clock movement running at a constant rate as the spring ran down. This resulted in the invention of the stackfreed and the fusee in the 1400s, and many other innovations, down to the invention of the modern going barrel in 1760. The first record of a minute hand on a clock is 1475, in the Almanus Manuscript of Brother Paul . During the 15th and 16th centuries, clockmaking flourished, particularly in the metalworking towns of Nuremberg and Augsburg, and in France, Blois. Some of the more basic table clocks have only one time-keeping hand, with the dial between the hour markers being divided into four equal parts making the clocks readable to the nearest 15 minutes. Other clocks were exhibitions of craftsmanship and skill, incorporating astronomical indicators and musical movements. The cross-beat escapement was developed in 1585 by Jost Burgi, who also developed the remontoire. Burgi's accurate clocks helped Tycho Brahe to observe astronomical events with much greater precision than before. A mechanical alarm clock was described by the Ottoman engineer Taqi al-Din in his book, The Brightest Stars for the Construction of Mechanical Clocks (Al-Kawākib al-durriyya fī wadh' al-bankāmat al-dawriyya), published in 1556-1559. It was capable of sounding at a specified time, achieved by placing a peg on the dial wheel. At the requested time, the peg activated a ringing device. In the same treatise, he described a mechanical astronomical clock called the "observational clock", which measured time in minutes. He made use of his mathematical knowledge to design three dials which showed the hours, degrees and minutes. He later improved the design of his observational clock to measure time in seconds in an astronomical treatise written at his Istanbul observatory of al-Din (1577-1580). He described his observational clock as "a mechanical clock with three dials which show the hours, the minutes, and the seconds." This was an important innovation in 16th-century practical astronomy, as previous clocks were not accurate enough to be used for astronomical purposes. He further improved the observational clock, using only one dial to represent the hours, minutes and seconds, describing it as "a mechanical clock with a dial showing the hours, minutes and seconds and we divided every minute into five seconds." (cf. ) Another early record of a second hand on a clock dates back to about 1560, on a clock now in the Fremersdorf collection. However, this clock could not have been accurate, and the second hand was probably for indicating that the clock was working. French rococo bracket clocks, (Museum of Time, Besançon) The next development in accuracy occurred after 1656 with the invention of the pendulum clock. Galileo had the idea to use a swinging bob to regulate the motion of a time telling device earlier in the 17th century. Christiaan Huygens, however, is usually credited as the inventor. He determined the mathematical formula that related pendulum length to time (99.38 cm or 39.13 inches for the one second movement) and had the first pendulum-driven clock made. In 1670, the English clockmaker William Clement created the anchor escapement, an improvement over Huygens' crown escapement . Within just one generation, minute hands and then second hands were added. A major stimulus to improving the accuracy and reliability of clocks was the importance of precise time-keeping for navigation. The position of a ship at sea could be determined with reasonable accuracy if a navigator could refer to a clock that lost or gained less than about 10 seconds per day. This clock could not contain a pendulum, which would be virtually useless on a rocking ship. Many European governments offered a large prize for anyone that could determine longitude accurately; for example, Great Britain offered 20,000 pounds, equivalent to millions of dollars today. The reward was eventually claimed in 1761 by John Harrison, who dedicated his life to improving the accuracy of his clocks. His H5 clock was in error by less than 5 seconds over 10 weeks. The excitement over the pendulum clock had attracted the attention of designers resulting in a proliferation of clock forms. Notably, the longcase clock (also known as the grandfather clock) was created to house the pendulum and works. The English clockmaker William Clement is also credited with developing this form in 1670 or 1671. It was also at this time that clock cases began to be made of wood and clock faces to utilize enamel as well as hand-painted ceramics.French decimal clock from the time of the French Revolution On November 17, 1797, Eli Terry received his first patent for a clock. Terry is known as the founder of the American clock-making industry. Alexander Bain, Scottish clockmaker, patented the electric clock in 1840. The electric clock's mainspring is wound either with an electric motor or with an electro-magnet and armature. In 1841, he first patented the electromagnetic pendulum. The development of electronics in the twentieth century led to clocks with no clockwork parts at all. Time in these cases is measured in several ways, such as by the vibration of a tuning fork, the behaviour of quartz crystals, the resonance of polycarbonates., or the quantum vibrations of atoms. Even mechanical clocks have since come to be largely powered by batteries, removing the need for winding. How clocks work The invention of the mechanical clock in the 13th century initiated a change in timekeeping methods from continuous processes, such as the motion of the gnomon's shadow on a sundial or the flow of liquid in a water clock, to repetitive oscillatory processes, like the swing of a pendulum or the vibration of a quartz crystal, which were more accurate. , p.31 All modern clocks use oscillation. Although the methods they use vary, all oscillating clocks, mechanical and digital and atomic, work similarly and can be divided into analogous parts. p.39 p.74 They consist of an object that repeats the same motion over and over again, an oscillator, with a precisely constant time interval between each repetition, or 'beat'. Attached to the oscillator is a controller device, which sustains the oscillator's motion by replacing the energy it loses to friction, and converts its oscillations into a series of pulses. The pulses are then added up in a chain of some type of counters to express the time in convenient units, usually seconds, minutes, hours, etc. Then finally some kind of indicator displays the result in a human-readable form. Power source This provides power to keep the clock going. In mechanical clocks, this is either a weight suspended from a cord wrapped around a pulley, or a spiral spring called a mainspring. In electric clocks, it is either a battery or the AC power line. Since clocks must run continuously, there is often a small secondary power source to keep the clock going temporarily during interruptions in the main power. In old mechanical clocks, a maintaining power spring provided force to turn the clock's wheels while the mainspring was being wound up. p.174-175 In quartz clocks a backup battery or capacitor is often included to keep the clock going if the power cord is unplugged. Oscillator The timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a physical object (resonator) that vibrates or oscillates repetitively at a precisely constant frequency. In mechanical clocks, this is either a pendulum or a balance wheel. In some early electronic clocks and watches such as the Accutron, it is a tuning fork. In quartz clocks and watches, it is a quartz crystal. In atomic clocks, it is the vibration of electrons in atoms as they emit microwaves. In early mechanical clocks before 1657, it was a crude balance wheel or foliot which was not a harmonic oscillator because it lacked a balance spring. As a result they were very inaccurate, with errors of perhaps an hour a day. Milham, 1945, p.85 The advantage of a harmonic oscillator over other forms of oscillator is that it employs resonance to vibrate at a precise natural resonant frequency or 'beat' dependent only on its physical characteristics, and resists vibrating at other rates. The possible precision achievable by a harmonic oscillator is measured by a parameter called its Q, Jespersen 1999, p.47-50 or quality factor, which increases (other things being equal) with its resonant frequency. p.9 This is why there has been a long term trend toward higher frequency oscillators in clocks. Balance wheels and pendulums always include a means of adjusting the rate of the timepiece. Quartz timepieces sometimes include a rate screw that adjusts a capacitor for that purpose. Atomic clocks are primary standards, and their rate cannot be adjusted. Synchronized or slave clocks Some clocks rely for their accuracy on an external oscillator; that is, they are automatically synchronized to a more accurate clock: Slave clocks, used in large institutions and schools from the 1860s to the 1970s, kept time with a pendulum, but were wired to a master clock in the building, and periodically received a signal to synchronize them with the master, often on the hour. Milham, 1945, p.325-328 Later versions without pendulums were triggered by a pulse from the master clock and certain sequences used to force rapid synchronization following a power failure. Synchronous electric clocks don't have an internal oscillator, but rely on the 50 or 60 oscillation of the AC power line, which is synchronized by the utility to a precision oscillator. This drives a synchronous motor in the clock which rotates once for every cycle of the line voltage, and drives the gear train. Computer real time clocks keep time with a quartz crystal, but are periodically (usually weekly) synchronized over the internet to atomic clocks (UTC), using a system called Network Time Protocol. Radio clocks keep time with a quartz crystal, but are periodically (often daily) synchronized to atomic clocks (UTC) with time signals from government radio stations like WWV, WWVB, CHU, DCF77 and the GPS system. Controller This has the dual function of keeping the oscillator running by giving it 'pushes' to replace the energy lost to friction, and converting its vibrations into a series of pulses that serve to measure the time. In mechanical clocks, this is the escapement, which gives precise pushes to the swinging pendulum or balance wheel, and releases one gear tooth of the escape wheel at each swing, allowing all the clock's wheels to move forward a fixed amount with each swing. In electronic clocks this is an electronic oscillator circuit that gives the vibrating quartz crystal or tuning fork tiny 'pushes', and generates a series of electrical pulses, one for each vibration of the crystal, which is called the clock signal. In atomic clocks the controller is an evacuated microwave cavity attached to a microwave oscillator controlled by a microprocessor. A thin gas of cesium atoms is released into the cavity where they are exposed to microwaves. A laser measures how many atoms have absorbed the microwaves, and an electronic feedback control system called a phase locked loop tunes the microwave oscillator until it is at the exact frequency that causes the atoms to vibrate and absorb the microwaves. Then the microwave signal is divided by digital counters to become the clock signal. Jespersen 1999, p.52-62 In mechanical clocks, the low Q of the balance wheel or pendulum oscillator made them very sensitive to the disturbing effect of the impulses of the escapement, so the escapement had a great effect on the accuracy of the clock, and many escapement designs were tried. The higher Q of resonators in electronic clocks makes them relatively insensitive to the disturbing effects of the drive power, so the driving oscillator circuit is a much less critical component. Counter chain This counts the pulses and adds them up to get traditional time units of seconds, minutes, hours, etc. It usually has a provision for setting the clock by manually entering the correct time into the counter. In mechanical clocks this is done mechanically by a gear train, known as the wheel train. The gear train also has a second function; to transmit mechanical power from the power source to run the oscillator. There is a friction coupling called the 'cannon pinion' between the gears driving the hands and the rest of the clock, allowing the hands to be turned by a knob on the back to set the time. Milham, 1945, p.113 In digital clocks a series of integrated circuit counters or dividers add the pulses up digitally, using binary logic. Often pushbuttons on the case allow the hour and minute counters to be incremented and decremented to set the time. Indicator This displays the count of seconds, minutes, hours, etc. in a human readable form. The earliest mechanical clocks in the 13th century didn't have a visual indicator and signalled the time audibly by striking bells. Many clocks to this day are striking clocks which chime the hours. Analog clocks, including almost all mechanical and some electronic clocks, have a traditional dial or clock face, that displays the time in analog form with moving hour and minute hand. In quartz clocks with analog faces, a 1 Hz signal from the counters actuates a stepper motor which moves the second hand forward at each pulse, and the minute and hour hands are moved by gears from the shaft of the second hand. Digital clocks display the time in periodically changing digits on a digital display. Talking clocks and the speaking clock services provided by telephone companies speak the time audibly, using either recorded or digitally synthesized voices. Types Clocks can be classified by the type of time display, as well as by the method of timekeeping. Time display methods Analog clocks A linear clock at London's Piccadilly Circus tube station. The 24 hour band moves across the static map, keeping pace with the apparent movement of the sun above ground, and a pointer fixed on London points to the current time Analog clocks usually indicate time using angles. The most common clock face uses a fixed numbered dial or dials and moving hand or hands. It usually has a circular scale of 12 hours, which can also serve as a scale of 60 minutes, and 60 seconds if the clock has a second hand. Many other styles and designs have been used throughout the years, including dials divided into 6, 8, 10, and 24 hours. The only other widely used clock face today is the 24 hour analog dial, because of the use of 24 hour time in military organizations and timetables. The 10-hour clock was briefly popular during the French Revolution, when the metric system was applied to time measurement, and an Italian 6 hour clock was developed in the 18th century, presumably to save power (a clock or watch chiming 24 times uses more power). Another type of analog clock is the sundial, which tracks the sun continuously, registering the time by the shadow position of its gnomon. Sundials use some or part of the 24 hour analog dial. There also exist clocks which use a digital display despite having an analog mechanism—these are commonly referred to as flip clocks. Alternative systems have been proposed. For example, the Twelve o'clock indicates the current hour using one of twelve colors, and indicates the minute by showing a proportion of a circular disk, similar to a moon phase. Digital clocks Digital clock outside Kanazawa Station displaying the time by controlling valves on a fountain Digital clocks display a numeric representation of time. Two numeric display formats are commonly used on digital clocks: the 24-hour notation with hours ranging 00–23; the 12-hour notation with AM/PM indicator, with hours indicated as 12AM, followed by 1AM–11AM, followed by 12PM, followed by 1PM–11PM (a notation mostly used in the United States). Most digital clocks use an LCD, LED, or VFD display; many other display technologies are used as well (cathode ray tubes, nixie tubes, etc.). After a reset, battery change or power failure, digital clocks without a backup battery or capacitor either start counting from 00:00, or stay at 00:00, often with blinking digits indicating that time needs to be set. Some newer clocks will actually reset themselves based on radio or Internet time servers that are tuned to national atomic clocks. Since the release of digital clocks in the mainstream, the use of analogue clocks has dropped dramatically. Basic digital clock radio Auditory clocks For convenience, distance, telephony or blindness, auditory clocks present the time as sounds. The sound is either spoken natural language, (e.g. "The time is twelve thirty-five"), or as auditory codes (e.g. number of sequential bell rings on the hour represents the number of the hour like the bell Big Ben). Most telecommunication companies also provide a Speaking clock service as well. Purposes Clocks are in homes, offices and many other places; smaller ones (watches) are carried on the wrist; larger ones are in public places, e.g. a train station or church. A small clock is often shown in a corner of computer displays, mobile phones and many MP3 players. The purpose of a clock is not always to display the time. It may also be used to control a device according to time, e.g. an alarm clock, a VCR, or a time bomb (see: counter). However, in this context, it is more appropriate to refer to it as a timer or trigger mechanism rather than strictly as a clock. Computers depend on an accurate internal clock signal to allow synchronized processing. (A few research projects are developing CPUs based on asynchronous circuits.) Some computers also maintain time and date for all manner of operations whether these be for alarms, event initiation, or just to display the time of day. The internal computer clock is generally kept running by a small battery. Many computers will still function even if the internal clock battery is dead, but the computer clock will need to be reset each time the computer is restarted, since once power is lost, time is also lost. Ideal clocks An ideal clock is a scientific principle that measures the ratio of the duration of natural processes, and thus will give the time measure for use in physical theories. Therefore, to define an ideal clock in terms of any physical theory would be circular. An ideal clock is more appropriately defined in relationship to the set of all physical processes. This leads to the following definitions: A clock is a recurrent process and a counter. A good clock is one which, when used to measure other recurrent processes, finds many of them to be periodic. An ideal clock is a clock (i.e., recurrent process) that makes the most other recurrent processes periodic. The recurrent, periodic process (e.g. a metronome) is an oscillator and typically generates a clock signal. Sometimes that signal alone is (confusingly) called "the clock", but sometimes "the clock" includes the counter, its indicator, and everything else supporting it. This definition can be further improved by the consideration of successive levels of smaller and smaller error tolerances. While not all physical processes can be surveyed, the definition should be based on the set of physical processes which includes all individual physical processes which are proposed for consideration. Since atoms are so numerous and since, within current measurement tolerances they all beat in a manner such that if one is chosen as periodic then the others are all deemed to be periodic also, it follows that atomic clocks represent ideal clocks to within present measurement tolerances and in relation to all presently known physical processes. However, they are not so designated by fiat. Rather, they are designated as the current ideal clock because they are currently the best instantiation of the definition.John Harrison's Chronometer H5 Navigation Navigation by ships and planes depends on the ability to measure latitude and longitude. Latitude is fairly easy to determine through celestial navigation, but the measurement of longitude requires accurate measurement of time. This need was a major motivation for the development of accurate mechanical clocks. John Harrison created the first highly accurate marine chronometer in the mid-18th century. The Noon gun in Cape Town still fires an accurate signal to allow ships to check their chronometers. Use of an atomic clock in radio signal producing satellites is fundamental to the operation of GPS (Global Positioning System) navigation devices. Seismology In determining the location of an earthquake, the arrival time of several types of seismic wave at least four dispersed observers is dependent upon each observer recording wave arrival times according to a common clock. Specific types of clocks by Mechanism: by Function: by Style: Astronomical clock Atomic clock Digital clock Candle clock Congreve clock Electric clock Flip clock Hourglass Incense clock Mechanical watch Oil-lamp clock Pendulum clock Projection clock Quartz clock Radio clock Rolling ball clock Spring drive watch Steam clock Sundial Torsion pendulum clock Water clock 10-hour clock Alarm clock Binary clock Chiming clock Chronometer watch Cuckoo clock Game clock Japanese clock Master clock Musical clock Railroad chronometer Slave clock Speaking clock Stopwatch Striking clock Talking clock Tide clock Time ball Time clock World clock American clock Balloon clock Banjo clock Bracket clock Carriage clock Cartel clock Cat clock Clock tower Doll's head clock Floral clock Grandfather clock Lantern clock Lighthouse clock Longcase clock (or tall-case clock) Mantel clock Skeleton clock Tower clock Turret clock Watch See also Allan variance American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute BaselWorld Biological clock Clock as herald of the Industrial Revolution (Lewis Mumford) Castle clock Clock face Clock network Clock of the Long Now Clockmaker Clock signal (digital circuits) Colgate Clock (New Jersey), the world's largest clock Corpus Clock Cox's timepiece Death Clock Department of Defense master clock (U.S.) Doomsday Clock Earth clock Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH Guard tour patrol system (Watchclocks) Humanclock Iron Ring Clock Jens Olsen's World Clock Jewel bearing Metrology National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors Replica watch Star clock System time Timeline of time measurement technology Timer Time to digital converter Watchmaker Notes References Baillie, G.H., O. Clutton, & C.A. Ilbert. Britten’s Old Clocks and Watches and Their Makers (7th ed.). Bonanza Books (1956). Bolter, David J. Turing's Man: Western Culture in the Computer Age. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, N.C. (1984). ISBN 0-8078-4108-0 pbk. Very good, readable summary of the role of "the clock" in its setting the direction of philosophic movement for the "Western World". Cf. picture on p. 25 showing the verge and foliot. Bolton derived the picture from Macey, p. 20. Bruton, Eric. The History of Clocks and Watches. London: Black Cat (1993). Edey, Winthrop. French Clocks. New York: Walker & Co. (1967). Kak, Subhash, Ph.D. Babylonian and Indian Astronomy: Early Connections. February 17, 2003. Kumar, Narendra "Science in Ancient India" (2004). ISBN 8126120568. Landes, David S. Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press (1983). Landes, David S. Clocks & the Wealth of Nations, Daedalus journal, Spring 2003. Lloyd, Alan H. “Mechanical Timekeepers”, A History of Technology, Vol. III. Edited by Charles Joseph Singer et al. Oxford: Clarendon Press (1957), pp. 648–675. Macey, Samuel L., Clocks and the Cosmos: Time in Western Life and Thought, Archon Books, Hamden, Conn. (1980). North, John. God's Clockmaker: Richard of Wallingford and the Invention of Time. London: Hambledon and London (2005). Palmer, Brooks. The Book of American Clocks, The Macmillan Co. (1979). Robinson, Tom. The Longcase Clock. Suffolk, England: Antique Collector’s Club (1981). Smith, Alan. The International Dictionary of Clocks. London: Chancellor Press (1996). Tardy. French Clocks the World Over. Part I and II. Translated with the assistance of Alexander Ballantyne. Paris: Tardy (1981). Yoder, Joella Gerstmeyer. Unrolling Time: Christiaan Huygens and the Mathematization of Nature. New York: Cambridge University Press (1988). Zea, Philip, & Robert Cheney. Clock Making in New England – 1725-1825. Old Sturbridge Village (1992). External links History of the Antique longcase clock National Association of Watch & Clock Collectors Museum Article, by a key figure in the development of quartz crystal clocks, on the history of timekeeping up to the late 1940s from The Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. XXVII, pp. 510-588, 1948 Clocks gallery that contain many varieties of vintage and contemporary clocks Information on Dutch clocks Science Museum - Time Measurement Oparin Clock Online alarm clock http://www.heirloomclockshop.com/article_info.php?articles_id=2	Clock \|@lemmatized platform:1 clock:324 king:4 cross:2 railway:1 station:5 london:8 instrument:4 use:48 indicate:12 maintain:3 time:93 passage:2 thereof:1 word:6 derive:3 ultimately:1 via:1 dutch:2 northern:1 french:7 medieval:3 latin:2 celtic:1 clagan:1 clocca:2 meaning:1 bell:13 horologist:2 specialist:1 term:3 continue:2 mean:2 exclusively:1 device:19 striking:2 mechanism:15 announce:2 interval:4 acoustically:1 ring:5 set:9 chime:3 gong:1 silent:1 lack:2 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3,323	Chinese_philosophy	Yin Yang symbol and Ba gua paved in a clearing outside of Nanning City, Guangxi province, China's. Chinese philosophy is philosophy written in the Chinese tradition of thought. Chinese philosophy has a history of several thousand years; its origins are often traced back to the Yi Jing (the Book of Changes), an ancient compendium of divination, which uses a system of 64 hexagrams to guide action. This system is attributed to King Wen around 1000 years BCE and the work reflects the characteristic concepts and approaches of Chinese philosophy. The Book of Changes evolved in stages over the next eight centuries, but the first recorded reference is in 672 BCE. page 60, Great Thinkers of the Eastern World, edited Ian McGreal Harper Collins 1995, ISBN 0062700855 The Tao Te Ching (Dào dé jīng, in pinyin romanisation) of Lao Tzu (Lǎo zǐ) <ref>{{cite book\|author=Lao Tze (Laozi)\|editor=Stephen Hodge (Translator)\|title=Tao Te Ching\|publisher=Barrons Educational Series\|year=2002}} ISBN 0-7641-2168-5</ref> and the Analects of Confucius (Kǒng fū zǐ; sometimes called Master Kong) ISBN 0-14-044348-7 both appeared around the 6th century BCE, slightly ahead of early Buddhist philosophy and pre-Socratic philosophy. Confucianism represents the collected teachings of the Chinese sage Confucius, who lived from 551 to 479 BC. His philosophy concerns the fields of ethics and politics, emphasizing personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, traditionalism, and sincerity. The Analects stress the importance of ritual, but also the importance of 'ren', which loosely translates as 'human-heartedness, Yuli Liu, 'Confucius', in Essentials of Philosophy and Ethics, Hodder Arnold 2006 ISBN 0340900288 Confucianism, along with Legalism, is responsible for creating the world’s first meritocracy, which holds that one's status should be determined by ability instead of ancestry, wealth, or friendship. Confucianism was and continues to be a major influence in Chinese culture, the state of China and the surrounding areas of Southeast Asia. Throughout history, Chinese philosophy has been molded to fit the prevailing schools of thought and circumstances in China. The Chinese schools of philosophy, except during the Qin Dynasty, can be both critical and yet relatively tolerant of one another. Even when one particular school of thought is officially adopted by the ruling bureaucracy, as in the Han Dynasty, there may be no move to ban or censor other schools of thought. Despite and because of the debates and competition, they generally have cooperated and shared ideas, which they would usually incorporate with their own. For example, Neo-Confucianism was a revived version of old Confucian principles that appeared around the Song Dynasty, with Buddhist, Taoist, and Legalist features in the religion. During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy had also began to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. By the time of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, there were many calls, such as the May Fourth Movement, to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China. There have been attempts to incorporate democracy, republicanism, and industrialism into Chinese philosophy, notably by Sun Yat-Sen (Sūn yì xiān, in one Mandarin form of the name) at the beginning of the 20th century. Mao Zedong blended Marxism with Confucianism and Taoism and other communist thought to create what is sometimes known today as "Maoism" 'Maoism', in Essentials of Philosophy and Ethics, Hodder Arnold 2006 ISBN 0340900288 . The government of the People's Republic of China encourage Socialism with Chinese characteristics. Although, officially, it does not encourage some of the philosophical practices of Imperial China, the influences of past are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture. As in Japan, philosophy in China has become a melting pot of ideas. It accepts new concepts, while attempting also to accord old beliefs their due.Chinese philosophy has spread around the world in forms such as the New Confucianism and New Age ideas (see for example Chinese traditional medicine). Many in the academic community of the West remain skeptical, and only a few assimilate Chinese philosophy into their own research, whether scientific or philosophical. However, it still carries profound influence amongst the people of East Asia, and even Southeast Asia. Brief history Early beliefs Early Shang Dynasty thought was based upon cyclicity. This notion stems from what the people of the Shang Dynasty could observe around them: day and night cycled, the seasons progressed again and again, and even the moon waxed and waned until it waxed again. Thus, this notion, which remained relevant throughout Chinese history, reflects the order of nature. In juxtaposition, it also marks a fundamental distinction from western philosophy, in which the dominant view of time is a linear progression. During the Shang, fate could be manipulated by great deities , commonly translated as Gods. Ancestor worship was present and universally recognized. There was also human and animal sacrifice. When the Shang were overthrown by the Zhou, a new political, religious and philosophical concept was introduced called the "Mandate of Heaven". This mandate was said to be taken when rulers became unworthy of their position and provided a shrewd justification for Zhou rule. During this period, archaeological evidence points to an increase in literacy and a partial shift away from the faith placed in Shangdi (the Supreme Being in traditional Chinese religion), with ancestor worship becoming commonplace and a more worldly orientation coming to the fore. Hundred Schools of Thought In around 500 BCE, after the Zhou state weakened and China moved in to the Spring and Autumn Period, the classic period of Chinese philosophy began (it is an interesting fact that this date nearly coincides with the emergence of the first Greek philosophers). This is known as the Hundred Schools of Thought (諸子百家; zhūzǐ bǎijiā; "various philosophers hundred schools"). Of the many schools founded at this time and during the subsequent Warring States Period, the four most influential ones were Confucianism, Daoism (often spelled "Taoism"), Mohism and Legalism. Imperial era The short founder Qin Dynasty, where Legalism was the official philosophy, quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools. Legalism remained influential until the emperors of the Han Dynasty adopted Daoism and later Confucianism as official doctrine. These latter two became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the 20th century, with the introduction Buddhist philosophy (mostly during Tang Dynasty) negotiated largely through perceived similarities with Daoism. Neo-Confucianism was a revived version of old Confucian principles that appeared around the Song Dynasty, with Buddhist, Taoist, and Legalist features. It was later popularized during the reign of the Ming Dynasty. The respective influences of Daoism and Confucianism are often described this way: "Chinese are Confucianist during the day, while they are Daoists at night". Moreover, many Chinese mandarins were government officials in the daily life and poets (or painters) in their spare time. Modern era During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy had also began to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. By the time of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, there were many calls, such as the May Fourth Movement, to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China. There have been attempts to incorporate democracy, republicanism, and industrialism into Chinese philosophy, notably by Sun Yat-Sen (Sūn yì xiān, in one Mandarin form of the name) at the beginning of the 20th century. Mao Zedong (Máo zé dōng) added Marxism, Stalinism, and other communist thought. When the Communist Party of China took over power, previous schools of thought, excepting notably Legalism, were denounced as backward, and later even purged during the Cultural Revolution. Their influence on Chinese thought, however, remains. The current government of the People's Republic of China is trying to encourage a form of market socialism. Since the radical movement of the Cultural Revolution, the Chinese government has become much more tolerant with the practice of traditional beliefs. The 1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China guarantees "freedom of religion" with a number of restrictions. Spiritual and philosophical institutions have been allowed to be established or re-established, as long they are not perceived to be a threat to the power of the CPC. (However, it should be noted that those organizations are heavily monitored by the state.) The influences of the past are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture. As in Japan, philosophy in China has become a melting pot of ideas. It accepts new concepts, while attempting also to accord old beliefs their due.See also: Chinese nationalism, Maoism, Culture of the People's Republic of China Main Schools of Thought Confucianism Kong Fuzi (Latin: Confucius) Confucianism is a philosophical school developed from the teachings of the sage Confucius (Kongzi 孔子, 551 479 BCE), collected in the Analects of Confucius. It is a system of moral, social, political, and religious thought that has had tremendous influence on Chinese history, thought, and culture down to the 21st century. Some Westerners have considered it to have been the "state religion" of imperial China. Its influence also spread to Korea and Japan. The major Confucian concepts include rén (humanity or humaneness), zhèngmíng (rectification of names; e.g. a ruler who rules unjustly is no longer a ruler and may be dethroned), zhōng (loyalty), xiào (filial piety), and lǐ (ritual). Confucius taught both positive and negative versions of the Golden Rule. The concepts Yin and Yang represent two opposing forces that are permanently in conflict with each other, leading to perpetual contradiction and change. The Confucian idea of "Rid of the two ends, take the middle" is a Chinese equivalent of Hegel's idea of "thesis, antithesis, and synthesis", which is a way of reconciling opposites, arriving at some middle ground combining the best of both. Neo-Confucianism Despite Confucianism losing popularity to Taoism and Buddhism, Neo-Confucianism combined those ideas into a more metaphysical framework. Its concepts include li (principle, akin to Plato's forms), qi (vital or material force), taiji (the Great Ultimate), and xin (mind). Taoism Chinese glazed stoneware statue of a Taoist deity, from the Ming Dynasty, 16th century. see also Xuanxue Taoism (Daoism) is a philosophy and later also developed into a religion based on the texts the Tao Te Ching (Dào Dé Jīng; ascribed to Laozi) and the Zhuangzi (partly ascribed to Zhuangzi). The character Tao 道 (Dao) literally means "path" or "way". However in Daoism it refers more often to a meta-physical term that describes a force that encompasses the entire universe but which cannot be described nor felt. All major Chinese philosophical schools have investigated the correct Way to go about a moral life, but in Taoism it takes on the most abstract meanings, leading this school to be named after it. It advocated nonaction (wu wei), the strength of softness, spontaneity, and relativism. Although it serves as a rival to Confucianism, a school of active morality, this rivalry is compromised and given perspective by the idiom "practise Confucianism on the outside, Taoism on the inside." But its main motto is: "If one must rule, rule young" Most of Taoism's focus is on the undeniable fact that human attempts to make the world better, actually make the world worse. Therefore it is better to strive for harmony. Legalism Legalism is a pragmatic political philosophy synthesized by Shang Yang and Han Fei. With an essential principle like "when the epoch changed, the ways changed", it upholds the rule of law and is thus a theory of jurisprudence. A ruler should govern his subjects by the following trinity: Fa (法 fǎ): law or principle. Shu (術 shù): method, tactic, art, or statecraft. Shi (勢 shì): legitimacy, power, or charisma. Legalism was the chosen philosophy of the Qin Dynasty. It was blamed for creating a totalitarian society and thereby experienced decline. Its main motto is: "Set clear strict laws, or deliver harsh punishment" Buddhism The Sakyamuni Buddha, by artist Zhang Shengwen, 1173-1176 CE, Song Dynasty. Buddhism is a religion, a practical philosophy, and arguably a psychology, focusing on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, who lived on the Indian subcontinent most likely from the mid-6th to the early 5th century BCE. When used in a generic sense, a Buddha is generally considered to be someone who discovers the true nature of reality. Although Buddhism originated in India, it has had a lasting effect on China. Since Chinese tradition focuses on ethics rather than metaphysics, it has developed several schools distinct from the originating Indian schools. The most prominent examples with philosophical merit are Sanlun, Tiantai, Huayan, and Chán (a.k.a. Zen). They investigate consciousness, levels of truth, whether reality is ultimately empty, and how enlightenment is to be achieved. Buddhism has a spiritual aspect that compliments the action of Neo-Confucianism, with prominent Neo-Confucians advocating certain forms of meditation. Mohism Mohism (Moism), founded by Mozi, promotes universal love with the aim of mutual benefit. Everyone must love each other equally and impartially to avoid conflict and war. Mozi was strongly against Confucian ritual, instead emphasizing pragmatic survival through farming, fortification, and statecraft. Tradition is inconsistent, and human beings need an extra-traditional guide to identify which traditions are acceptable. The moral guide must then promote and encourage social behaviors that maximize general benefit. As motivation for his theory, Mozi brought in the Will of Heaven, but rather than being religious his philosophy parallels utilitarianism. Logicians The logicians (School of Names) were concerned with logic, paradoxes, names and actuality (similar to Confucian rectification of names). The logician Hui Shi was a friendly rival to Zhuangzi, arguing against Taoism in a light-hearted and humorous manner. Another logician, Gongsun Long, told the famous When a White Horse is Not a Horse dialogue. This school did not thrive because the Chinese regarded sophistry and dialectic as impractical. Great philosophical figures Confucius, seen as the Great Master but sometimes ridiculed by Taoists. Mencius, Confucius' follower having idealist inspiration. [[Xun Zp ]], another Confucius' follower, closer to realism. Zhu Xi, founder of Neo-Confucianism Wang Yangming, most influential proponent of xinxue or "state of mind." Lao Zi, the chief of Taoist school. Zhuangzi, said to be the author of the Zhuangzi. Liezi, said to be the author of the Liezi. Mozi, the founder of Mohist school. Shang Yang, Legalist founder and reformer Han Fei, one of the most notable theoreticians of Legalism Li Si, proponent of Legalism Lin-chi, a great Buddhist Ch'an thinker and teacher, essentially shaped what would become one of the largest schools of Buddhism (Rinzai school of Zen) Concepts within Chinese philosophy Although the individual philosophical schools differ considerably, they nevertheless share a common vocabulary and set of concerns. Among the terms commonly found in Chinese philosophy are: Tao (the Way, or one's doctrine) De (virtue, power) Li (principle) Qi (vital energy or material force) The Taiji (Great Heavenly Axis) forms a unity, from which two antagonistic concepts, Yin and Yang originate. The word Yin originally referred to a hillside facing away from the sun. Philosophically, it stands the gloomy, passive, female concept, whereas Yang (the hillside facing the sun) stands for the bright, active, male concept. Both concepts, though antagonistic, are also complementary and the present domination of one implies the future rise of the other, as moon's phases (this is one of the meanings of the well-known Yin-Yang figures). Among the great controversies of Chinese philosophies are: The relation between matter and principle The method of discovering truth Human nature Among the commonalties of Chinese philosophies are: Epistemological optimism. The belief that the big questions can be answered even if the answers are not currently known. The tendency not to view man as separate from nature. The tendency not to invoke a unified and personified supernatural power. Questions about the nature and existence of God which have profoundly influenced Western philosophy have not been important in Chinese philosophies. The belief that the purpose of philosophy is primarily to serve as an ethical and practical guide. The political focus: most scholars of the Hundred Schools were trying to convince the ruler to behave in the way they defended. References Further reading A History of Chinese Philosophy (Princeton Paperbacks), Feng Youlan, tr. Derk Bodde, 1983. Disputers of the Tao; Philosophical Argument in Ancient China, A. C. Graham, 1989. Three Ways of Thought in Ancient China, Arthur Waley, 1983. Chinese Thought, from Confucius to Mao Zedong, Herrlee Glessner Creel, 1971. The Importance of Living, Lin Yutang, 1996. Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy, Antonio S. Cua (Editor), Routledge, 2003. Fung Yu-lan, A Short History of Chinese Philosophy (Macmillan, 1948). Introduction to Chinese Philosophy, Karyn Lai, Cambridge University Press, 2008. See also List of Chinese philosophers Culture of ChinaI ChingFive Elements Chinese classic texts Eastern philosophy Chinese history Chinese philosophers Taoism Confucianism External links Article "The Chinese Concept of Space" Article "The Chinese Concept of Time" The Hundred Schools of Thought Chinese Text Project - Chinese philosophy texts in classical Chinese with English and modern Chinese translations Chinese Philosophical Etext Archive Comparative Philosophy: Chinese and Western - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Modern Chinese Philosophy (1901-1949) - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Contesting Confucius Henry Zhao, New Left Review 44, March-April 2007 Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers'', 1751-1772, "“Philosophie des Chinois” [in French]	Chinese_philosophy \|@lemmatized yin:5 yang:7 symbol:1 ba:1 gua:1 pave:1 clearing:1 outside:2 nanning:1 city:1 guangxi:1 province:1 china:18 chinese:56 philosophy:47 write:1 tradition:4 thought:15 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3,324	Lindsay_Anderson	Lindsay Gordon Anderson (17 April 1923 – 30 August 1994) was an Indian-born English feature film, theatre and documentary director, film critic, and leading light of the Free Cinema movement and the British New Wave. He is most widely remembered for his 1968 film if...., which won the Grand Prix at Cannes Film Festival. Cannes Film Festival archives Career Of English ancestry and of Scottish descent, Anderson was the son of a British Army officer, he was born in Bangalore, South India, and educated at St. Ronan's School in Worthing and Cheltenham College, where he met his lifelong friend and biographer, the screenwriter and novelist Gavin Lambert; and later at Wadham College, Oxford, where he studied classics, and Magdalen College, Oxford where he studied English literature. After graduating, Anderson worked for the final year of the Second World War as a cryptographer for the Intelligence Corps, at the Wireless Experimental Centre in Delhi. Anderson assisted in nailing the Red flag to the roof of the Junior Officers mess in Annan Parbat, in August 1945, after the victory of the Labour Party in the general election was confirmed. Sight and Sound, Autumn 1956, reprinted in Paul Ryan (ed) Never Apologise: The Collected Writings, 2004, London: Plexus, p218-32, 228, 226. This article was reprinted in a shortened form in Universities and Left Review 1:1, Spring 1957, p44-48, 46, 46, and is online here, though only part of the second reference is reproduced. The colonel did not approve, he recalled a decade later, but no disciplinary action was taken against them. Before going into film-making, Anderson was a prominent film critic writing for the influential Sequence magazine (1947-52), which he co-founded with Gavin Lambert and Karel Reisz; later writing for the British Film Institute's journal Sight and Sound and the left-wing political weekly the New Statesman. In a 1956 polemical article, "Stand Up, Stand Up" for Sight and Sound, he attacked contemporary critical practices, in particular the pursuit of objectivity. Taking as an example some comments made by Alistair Cooke in 1935, where Cooke claimed to be without politics as a critic, Anderson responded: "The problems of commitment are directly stated, but only apparently faced. ...The denial of the critics moral responsibility is specific; but only at the cost of sacrificing his dignity. ... [These assumptions:] the holding of liberal, or humane, values; the proviso that these must not be taken too far; the adoption of a tone which enables the writer to evade through humour [mean] the fundamental issues are balked." Following a series of screenings which he and the National Film Theatre programmer Karel Reisz organized for the venue of independently-produced short films by himself and others, he developed a philosophy of cinema which found expression in what became known, by the late-1950s, as the Free Cinema movement. This was the belief that the British cinema must break away from its class-bound attitudes and that non-metropolitan Britain ought to be shown on the nation's screens. Along with Karel Reisz, Tony Richardson, and others he secured funding from a variety of sources (including Ford of Britain) and they each made a series of socially challenging short documentaries on a variety of subjects. One of Anderson's early short films, Thursday's Child (1953), concerning the education of deaf children, made in collaboration with Guy Brenton, a friend from his Oxford days, won an Oscar for Best Documentary Short in 1954. These films, influenced by one of Anderson' heroes, the French film maker Jean Vigo, and made in the tradition of the British documentaries of Humphrey Jennings, foreshadowed much of the social realism of British cinema that emerged in the next decade, with Reisz's Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960), Richardson's The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (1962) and Anderson's This Sporting Life (1963), produced by Reisz. Anderson's own film had mixed reviews at the time, and was not a commercial success. Anderson is best remembered as a film maker for his Mick Travis trilogy of feature films, all of which star Malcolm McDowell as Travis: If.... (1968), a satire on public schools; O Lucky Man! (1973) a Pilgrim's Progress inspired 'road movie' and Britannia Hospital (1982). Anderson developed an acquaintance from 1950 with John Ford, which led to what has come to be regarded as one of the standard books on that director, Anderson's About John Ford (1983). Based on half a dozen meetings over more than two decades, and a lifetime's study of the man's work, the book has been described as "One of the best books published by a film-maker on a film-maker". David Castell, Daily Telegraph, cited on back cover of UK paperback edition Anderson in 1985 was invited by producer Martin Lewis to chronicle the visit of Wham! to China, the first-ever visit by Western pop artists, which resulted in Anderson's film Foreign Skies: Wham! In China. Foreign Skies: Wham! In China, imdb credits He admitted in his diary on 31 March 1985, to having "no interest in Wham!", or China, and his motive for accepting the work was simply "'doing this for the money'". Paul Sutton (ed) Lindsay Anderson: The Diaries, 2004, London: Methuen, p434 Anderson was also a significant British theatre director. He was long associated with London's Royal Court Theatre, where he was Co-Artistic Director 1969-70, and Associate Artistic Director 1971-75, directing premiere productions of plays by David Storey, among others. In 1992, as a close friend of actress Jill Bennett, Anderson included a touching episode in his autobiographical BBC film Is That All There Is?, with a boat trip down the River Thames (several of her professional colleagues and friends aboard) to scatter her ashes on the waters while musician Alan Price sang the song "Is That All There Is?." Every year, the International Documentary Festival in Amsterdam (IDFA) gives an acclaimed filmmaker the chance to screen his or her personal Top 10 favorite films. In 2007, Iranian filmmaker Maziar Bahari selected O Dreamland and Every Day Except Christmas (1957), a record of a day in the old Covent Garden market, for his top ten classics from the history of documentary.[3] Personal life Gavin Lambert's memoir, Mainly About Lindsay Anderson, was seen as a betrayal by his other friends. Lambert claimed Anderson was sexually repressed. McDowell was quoted in 2006 as saying: "I know that he was in love with Richard Harris the star of Anderson's first feature, This Sporting Life. I am sure that it was the same with me and Albert Finney and the rest. It wasn't a physical thing. But I suppose he always fell in love with his leading men. He would always pick someone who was unattainable because he was heterosexual." Geoffrey Macnab "Malcolm McDowell: Lindsay Anderson and me", The Independent, 15 November 2006. Retrieved on 11 May 2009. For Anderson's rather tortured feelings about Richard Harris at the time This Sporting Life was in production during 1962, see Paul Sutton (ed) The Diaries: Lindsay Anderson, 2004, London: Methuen, Chapter 3, especially p77-80. Theatre productions All Royal Court, London, unless otherwise indicated: The Waiting of Lester Abbs (Kathleen Sully, 1957) The Long and the Short and the Tall (Willis Hal,1959) Progress to the Park (Alun Owen, 1959) The Trial of Cob and Leach/Jazzetry (Christopher Logue, 1959) Serjeant Musgrave's Dance (John Arden, 1959) The Lily White Boys (Harry Cookson and Christopher Logue, 1960) Trials by Logue: Antigone/Cob and Leach (Christopher Logue, 1960) Diary of a Madman (Gogol adaptation,1963) Box and Cox (John Maddison Morton, 1961) The Fire Raisers (Max Frisch, 1961) Julius Caesar (William Shakespeare, 1964) Andorra (Max Frisch, National Theatre at the Old Vic, 1964) The Cherry Orchard (Anton Chekhov, Chichester Festival Theatre, 1966 The Contractor (David Storey, 1969) Home (David Storey, also Morosco Theatre NY, 1970) The Changing Room (David Storey, 1971) The Farm (David Storey, 1973) Life Class (David Storey, 1974) In Celebration (David Storey 1974) What the Butler Saw (Joe Orton, 1975) The Seagull (Anton Chekhov, Lyric Theatre, 1975); in repertory with The Bed Before Yesterday (Ben Travers, Lyric Theatre, 1975) The Kingfisher (William Douglas Home, Lyric Theatre 1977, Biltmore NY, 1978) Alice's Boys (Felicity Brown and Jonathan Hayes, Savoy Theatre, 1978) Early Days (David Storey, National Cottesloe Theatre, 1980) The Holly and the Ivy (Wynyard Browne, Roundabout NY, 1982) The Cherry Orchard (Anton Chekhov, Theatre Royal Haymarket, 1983) The Playboy of the Western World (J M Synge, 1984) In Celebration revival (David Storey, Manhattan Theatre Club, NY, 1984) Holiday (Philip Barry, Old Vic, 1987) The March on Russia (David Storey, National Lyttelton Theatre, 1989) The Fishing Trip (Frank Grimes, Warehouse Theatre, 1991) Stages (David Storey, National Cottesloe Theatre, 1992) Filmography This Sporting Life (1963) The White Bus (1967) If.... (1968) O Lucky Man! (1973) In Celebration (1975) Look Back in Anger (1980) Britannia Hospital (1982) The Whales of August (1987) Documentary and TV Meet the Pioneers (1948) Idlers that Work (1949) Three Installations (1951) Wakefield Express (1952) Thursday's Children (1953) O Dreamland (1953) Trunk Conveyor (1954) Foot and Mouth (1955) A Hundred Thousand Children (1955) The Children Upstairs (1955) Green and Pleasant Land (1955) Henry (1955) £20 a Ton (1955) Energy First (1955) Every Day Except Christmas (1957) March to Aldermaston (1959) The Singing Lesson (1967) Home - (Film version of play) (1971) The Old Crowd, screenplay by Alan Bennett (LWT, 1979) Foreign Skies: Wham! In China (also known as "If You Were There") (1985) Glory! Glory! (1989) Is That All There Is? (Autobiographical film for BBC, 1993) See also Jill Bennett. References 25 Years of the English Stage Company at the Royal Court, Richard Findlater (ed) Amber Lane Press 1981. ISBN 090639922X Curtain Times: The New York Theater 1965-67, Otis L Guernsey Jr, Applause 1987 ISBN 0936839236 Theatre Record and Theatre Record indexes Who's Who in the Theatre (various editions) for both Lindsay Anderson's CV and the Playbill listings Bibliography About John Ford (1983) ISBN 0-85965-014-6 The Diaries of Lindsay Anderson ed. Paul Sutton (2004) ISBN 0-413-77397-3 Never Apologise: The Collected Writings of Lindsay Anderson (2004) ISBN 0-85965-317-X External links Lindsay Anderson - A Celebration The Lindsay Anderson Memorial Foundation Watch O Dreamland on FourDocs The BFI's "screenonline" on Free Cinema The BFI's "screenonline" for Lindsay Anderson The Lindsay Anderson Archive at Stirling University, Scotland Lindsay Anderson Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)	Lindsay_Anderson \|@lemmatized lindsay:13 gordon:1 anderson:32 april:1 august:3 indian:1 born:1 english:4 feature:3 film:23 theatre:21 documentary:7 director:5 critic:4 lead:3 light:1 free:3 cinema:6 movement:2 british:7 new:3 wave:1 widely:1 remember:2 win:2 grand:1 prix:1 cannes:2 festival:4 archive:2 career:1 ancestry:1 scottish:1 descent:1 son:1 army:1 officer:2 bear:1 bangalore:1 south:1 india:1 educate:1 st:1 ronan:1 school:2 worthing:1 cheltenham:1 college:3 meet:2 lifelong:1 friend:5 biographer:1 screenwriter:1 novelist:1 gavin:3 lambert:4 later:3 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3,325	Niger	Niger ( or ; ), officially the Republic of Niger, is a landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. It borders Nigeria and Benin to the south, Burkina Faso and Mali to the west, Algeria and Libya to the north and Chad to the east. Its size is almost 1,270,000 km², making it the largest nation in West Africa, with a population of just under 13,300,000, mostly clustered in the far south and west of the nation. The capital city is Niamey. Niger is one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world, with over 80% of its territory covered by the Sahara desert, and much of the rest threatened by periodic drought and desertification. The economy is concentrated around subsistence and some export agriculture clustered in the more fertile south, and the export of raw materials—especially uranium ore. Niger remains handicapped by its landlocked position, poor education, infrastructure, health care, and environmental degradation. Nigerien society reflects a great diversity drawn from the long independent histories of its several ethnic groups and regions and their relatively short period living in a single state. Historically, what is now Niger has been on the fringes of several large states. Since independence, Nigeriens have lived under five constitutions and three periods of military rule, but have maintained elected multiparty rule since 1999. The vast majority of the population practice Islam. A majority also live in rural areas, and have little access to advanced education. Geography The Erg of Bilma in the east of Niger. Niger is a landlocked nation in West Africa located along the border between the Sahara and Sub-Saharan regions. Its geographic coordinates are latitude 16°N and longitude 8°E. Its area is 1,267,000 square kilometres (489,000 sq mi) of which 300 square kilometres (115 sq mi) is water. This makes Niger slightly less than twice the size of the U.S. state of Texas, and the world's twenty-second largest country (after Chad). Niger is comparable in size to Angola. Niger borders seven countries on all sides and has a total of 5,697 kilometres (3,540 mi) of borders. The longest border is with Nigeria to the south (1,497 km; 930 mi). This is followed by Chad to the east, at 1,175 kilometres (730 mi), Algeria to the north-northwest (956 km; 594 mi), and Mali at 821 kilometres (510 mi). Niger also has small borders in its far southwest frontier with Burkina Faso at 628 kilometres (390 mi) and Benin at 266 kilometres (165 mi) and to the north-northeast (Libya at 354 kilometres (220 mi). Niger's subtropical climate is mainly very hot and dry, with much desert area. In the extreme south there is a tropical climate on the edges of the Niger River basin. The terrain is predominantly desert plains and sand dunes, with flat to rolling savanna in the south and hills in the north. The lowest point is the Niger River, with an elevation of 200 metres (722 ft). The highest point is Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès in the Aïr Massif at 2,022 metres (6,634 ft). History While most of what is now Niger has been subsumed into the inhospitable Sahara desert in the last two thousand years, five thousand years ago the north of the country was fertile grasslands. Populations of pastoralists have left paintings of abundant wildlife, domesticated animals, chariots, and a complex culture that dates back to at least 10,000 BCE. Early historical period The Songhai Empire expanded into what is modern Niger from the 1400s, reaching as far as Agadez before its collapse in 1591, from which the modern Djerma-Songhai people trace their history. At its fall, portions of the empire and refugees from modern Mali formed a series of Songhai states, with the Dendi Kingdom becoming the most powerful. From the 1200s, the nomadic Tuareg formed large confederations, pushed southward, into the Aïr Mountains, displacing some previous residents to the south. At their peak, the Tuareg confederations ruled most of what is now northern Niger, and extended their influence into modern Nigeria. In the 1700, Fula pastoralists moved into the Liptako area of the west, while smaller Djerma kingdoms, siding with various Hausa states, clashed with the expanding Fulani Empire of Sokoto from the south. The colonial border with British Nigeria was in part based on the rupture between the Sokoto Caliphate to the south, and Hausa ruling dynasties which had fled to the north. In the far east around the Lake Chad basin, the successive expansion of the Kanem Empire and Bornu Empire spread ethnically Kanuri and Toubou rulers and their subject states as far west as Zinder and the Kaouar Oases from the 10th to the 17th centuries. The Kaouar escarpment, forming an oasis in the Ténéré desert. In the 19th century, contact with the West began when the first European explorers—notably Mungo Park (British) and Heinrich Barth (German)—explored the area, searching for the source of the Niger River. Although French efforts at "pacification" began before 1900, dissident ethnic groups, especially the desert Tuareg, were not fully subdued until 1922, when Niger became a French colony. Niger's colonial history and development parallel that of other French West African territories. France administered its West African colonies through a governor general in Dakar, Senegal, and governors in the individual territories, including Niger. In addition to conferring French citizenship on the inhabitants of the territories, the 1946 French constitution provided for decentralization of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies. Early independence A further revision in the organization of overseas territories occurred with the passage of the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of July 23, 1956, followed by reorganizing measures enacted by the French Parliament early in 1957. In addition to removing voting inequalities, these laws provided for creation of governmental organs, assuring individual territories a large measure of self-government. After the establishment of the Fifth French Republic on December 4, 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within the French Community. Following full independence on August 3, 1960, however, membership was allowed to lapse. Single party and military rule (1961-1991) For its first fourteen years as an independent state, Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori. In 1974, a combination of devastating drought and accusations of rampant corruption resulted in a coup d'état that overthrew the Diori regime. Col. Seyni Kountché and a small military group ruled the country until Kountché's death in 1987. He was succeeded by his Chief of Staff, Col. Ali Saibou, who released political prisoners, liberalized some of Niger's laws and policies, and promulgated a new constitution, with the creation of a single party constitutional Second Republic. However, President Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of union and student demands to institute a multi-party democratic system. The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990. New political parties and civic associations sprang up, and a national peace conference was convened in July 1991 to prepare the way for the adoption of a new constitution and the holding of free and fair elections. The debate was often contentious and accusatory, but under the leadership of Prof. André Salifou, the conference developed a plan for a transition government. Third Republic This caretaker government was installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993. While the economy deteriorated over the course of the transition, certain accomplishments stand out, including the successful conduct of a constitutional referendum; the adoption of key legislation such as the electoral and rural codes; and the holding of several free, fair, and non-violent nationwide elections. Freedom of the press flourished with the appearance of several new independent newspapers. The results of the January 1995 parliamentary election meant cohabitation between a rival president and prime minister; this led to governmental paralysis, which provided Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara a rationale to overthrow the Third Republic in January 1996. Military rule and the Fourth Republic While leading a military authority that ran the government (Conseil de Salut National) during a 6-month transition period, Baré enlisted specialists to draft a new constitution for a Fourth Republic announced in May 1996. Baré organized a presidential election in July 1996. While voting was still going on, he replaced the electoral commission. The new commission declared him the winner after the polls closed. His party won 57% of parliament seats in a flawed legislative election in November 1996. When his efforts to justify his coup and subsequent questionable elections failed to convince donors to restore multilateral and bilateral economic assistance, a desperate Baré ignored an international embargo against Libya and sought Libyan funds to aid Niger's economy. In repeated violations of basic civil liberties by the regime, opposition leaders were imprisoned; journalists often arrested, and deported by an unofficial militia composed of police and military; and independent media offices were looted and burned. As part of an initiative started under the 1991 national conference, however, the government signed peace accords in April 1995 with all, meaning Tuareg and Toubou groups that had been in rebellion since 1990. The Tuareg claimed they lacked attention and resources from the central government. The government agreed to absorb some former rebels into the military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life. Mamadou Tandja, President of the Republic of Niger. Fifth Republic (1999 - present) On April 9, 1999, Baré was killed in a coup led by Maj. Daouda Malam Wanké, who established a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution for a Fifth Republic with a French style semi-presidential system. In votes that international observers found to be generally free and fair, the Nigerien electorate approved the new constitution in July 1999 and held legislative and presidential elections in October and November 1999. Heading a coalition of the National Movement for a Developing Society (MNSD) and the Democratic and Social Convention (CDS), Mamadou Tandja won the election. Politics Niger's new constitution was approved in July 1999. It restored the semi-presidential system of government of the December 1992 constitution (Third Republic) in which the president of the republic, elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term, and a prime minister named by the president share executive power. As a reflection of Niger's increasing population, the unicameral National Assembly was expanded in 2004 to 113 deputies elected for a 5 year term under a majority system of representation. Political parties must attain at least 5% of the vote in order to gain a seat in the legislature. The constitution also provides for the popular election of municipal and local officials, and the first-ever successful municipal elections took place on July 24, 2004. The National Assembly passed in June 2002 a series of decentralization bills. As a first step, administrative powers will be distributed among 265 communes (local councils); in later stages, regions and departments will be established as decentralized entities. A new electoral code was adopted to reflect the decentralization context. The country is currently divided into 8 regions, which are subdivided into 36 districts (departments). The chief administrator (Governor) in each department is appointed by the government and functions primarily as the local agent of the central authorities. The current legislature elected in December 2004 contains seven political parties. President Mamadou Tandja was re-elected in December 2004 and reappointed Hama Amadou as Prime Minister. Mahamane Ousmane, the head of the CDS, was re-elected President of the National Assembly (parliament) by his peers. The new second term government of the Fifth Republic took office on December 30, 2002. In August 2002, serious unrest within the military occurred in Niamey, Diffa, and Nguigmi, but the government was able to restore order within several days. In June 2007, Seyni Oumarou was nominated as the new Prime Minister after Hama Amadou was democratically forced out of office by the National Assembly through a motion of no confidence. From 2007 to 2008, the Second Tuareg Rebellion took place in northern Niger, worsening economic prospects and shutting down political progress. On the 26th May 2009, President Tandja dissolved parliament after the country's constitutional court ruled against plans to hold a referendum on whether to allow him a third term in office. According to the constitution, a new parliament will now have to be elected within three months. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2009/05/2009526174440137316.html Regions, Departments, and Communes Administrative subdivisions of the Republic of Niger, post 1992. Niger is divided into 7 Regions and one capital district. These Regions are subdivided into 36 departments. The 36 Departments are currently broken down into Communes of varying types. As of 2006 there were 265 communes, including communes urbaines (Urban Communes: as subdivisions of major cities), communes rurales (Rural Communes, in sparsely populated areas and postes administratifs (Administrative Posts) for largely uninhabited desert areas or military zones. Rural communes may contain official villages and settlements, while Urban Communes are divided into quarters. Niger subvisions were renamed in 2002, in the implementation of a decentralisation project, first begun in 1998. Previously, Niger was divided into 7 Departments, 36 Arrondissements, and Communes. These subdivisions were administered by officials appointed by the national government. These offices will be replaced in the future by democratically elected councils at each level. The departments and capital district are: Foreign relations Niger pursues a moderate foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with the West and the Islamic world as well as nonaligned countries. It belongs to the United Nations and its main specialized agencies and in 1980-81 served on the UN Security Council. Niger maintains a special relationship with former colonial power France and enjoys close relations with its West African neighbors. It is a charter member of the African Union and the West African Monetary Union and also belongs to the Niger Basin Authority and Lake Chad Basin Commission, the Economic Community of West African States, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organization of the Islamic Conference and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). The westernmost regions of Niger are joined with contiguous regions Mali and Burkina Faso under the Liptako-Gourma Authority. The border dispute with Benin, inherited from colonial times and concerning inter alia Lete Island in the River Niger was finally solved by the ICJ in 2005 to Niger's advantage. Military The Niger Armed Forces total 12,000 personnel with approximately 3,700 gendarmes, 300 air force, and 6,000 army personnel. The air force has four operational transport aircraft. The armed forces include general staff and battalion task force organizations consisting of two paratroop units, four light armored units, and nine motorized infantry units located in Tahoua, Agadez, Dirkou, Zinder, Nguigmi, N'Gourti, and Madewela. Since January 2003, Niger has deployed a company of troops to Côte d’Ivoire as part of the ECOWAS stabilization force. In 1991, Niger sent four hundred military personnel to join the American-led allied forces against Iraq during the Gulf War. Niger's defense budget is modest, accounting for about 1.6% of government expenditures. France provides the largest share of military assistance to Niger. Morocco, Algeria, China, and Libya have also provided military assistance. Approximately 15 French military advisers are in Niger. Many Nigerien military personnel receive training in France, and the Nigerien Armed Forces are equipped mainly with material either given by or purchased in France. In the past, U.S. assistance focused on training pilots and aviation support personnel, professional military education for staff officers, and initial specialty training for junior officers. A small foreign military assistance program was initiated in 1983. A U.S. Defense Attaché office opened in June 1985 and assumed Security Assistance Office responsibilities in 1987. The office closed in 1996 following a coup d'état. A U.S. Defense Attaché office reopened in July 2000. The United States provided transportation and logistical assistance to Nigerien troops deployed to Cote d’Ivoire in 2003. Additionally, the U.S. provided initial equipment training on vehicles and communications gear to a select contingent of Nigerien soldiers as part of the Department of State Pan Sahel Initiative. Transport Transport is crucial to the economy and culture of this vast landlocked nation, with cities separated by huge uninhabited deserts, mountain ranges, and other natural features. Niger's transport system was little developed during the colonial period (1899-1960), relying upon animal transport, human transport, and limited river transport in the far south west and south east. No railways were constructed in the colonial period, and roads outside the capitol remained unpaved. The Niger River is unsuitable for river transport of any large scale, as it lacks depth for most of the year, and is broken by rapids at many spots. Camel caravan transport was historically important in the Sahara desert and Sahel regions which cover most of the north. Road Road transport, especially shared taxis, buses, and trucks, are the primary form of long distance transport for most Nigeriens. There were 10,100 km of roads in the nation in 1996, but only 798 km were paved. Most of this total was in large cities and in two main highways. The first major paved highway was constructed in the 1970s and 80s to transport uranium from the far northern mining town of Arlit to the Benin border. Much of Niger's export economy relies upon ports in Cotonou, Lome, and Port Harcourt. This road, dubbed the Uranium Highway runs through Arlit, Agadez, Tahoua, Birnin-Konni, and Niamey, and is part of the Trans-Sahara Highway system. The paved RN1 ("Routes Nationale") runs east west across the south of the nation, from Niamey via Maradi and Zinder towards Diffa in the far east of the nation, although the stretch from Zinder to Diffa is only partially paved. Other roads range from all-weather laterite surfaces to grated dirt or sand Pistes, especially in the desert north. These form a more extensive numbered highway system. Air transport Niger's main international airport is Diori Hamani International Airport at Niamey. Other airports in Niger include Mano Dayak International Airport at Agadez and Zinder Airport near Zinder. Economy Niamey, Niger's capital and economic hub. The economy of Niger centers on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium deposits. Drought cycles, desertification, a 2.9% population growth rate, and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut the economy. Niger shares a common currency, the CFA franc, and a common central bank, the Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO), with seven other members of the West African Monetary Union. Niger is also a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund program for Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and concluded an agreement with the Fund for Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). Debt relief provided under the enhanced HIPC initiative significantly reduces Niger's annual debt service obligations, freeing funds for expenditures on basic health care, primary education, HIV/AIDS prevention, rural infrastructure, and other programs geared at poverty reduction. In December 2005, it was announced that Niger had received 100% multilateral debt relief from the IMF, which translates into the forgiveness of approximately $86 million USD in debts to the IMF, excluding the remaining assistance under HIPC. Nearly half of the government's budget is derived from foreign donor resources. Future growth may be sustained by exploitation of oil, gold, coal, and other mineral resources. Uranium prices have recovered somewhat in the last few years. A drought and locust infestation in 2005 led to food shortages for as many as 2.5 million Nigeriens. Agriculture The fertile south of Niger near the Niger river. The agricultural economy is based largely upon internal markets, subsistence agriculture, and the export of raw commodities: food stuffs and cattle to neighbors. Background Notes for Niger: January 2009 Bureau of African Affairs, United States State Department. Retrieved 2009-02-26. Portions of the "Economy" section are here used verbatim, as this document in in the Public Domain. Niger's agricultural and livestock sectors are the mainstay of all but 18% of the population. Fourteen percent of Niger's GDP is generated by livestock production (camels, goats, sheep and cattle), said to support 29% of the population. Thus 53% of the population is actively involved in crop production. The 15% of Niger's land that is arable is found mainly along its southern border with Nigeria. In these areas, Pearl millet, sorghum, and cassava are the principal rain-fed subsistence crops. Irrigated rice for internal consumption is grown in parts of the Niger River valley in the west. While expensive, it has, since the devaluation of the CFA franc, sold for below the price of imported rice, encouraging additional production. Cowpeas and onions are grown for commercial export, as are small quantities of garlic, peppers, potatoes, and wheat. Oasis farming in small patches of the north of the country produces onions, dates, and some market vegetables for export. But for the most part, rural residents engaged in crop tending are clustered in the south centre and south west of the nation, in those areas (the Sahel) which can expect to receive between 300mm to 600mm of rainfall annually. A small area in the southern tip of the nation, surrounding Gaya can expect to receive 700mm to 900mm or rainfall. Northern areas which support crops, such as the southern portions of the Aïr Massif and the Kaouar oasis rely upon oases and a slight increase in rainfall due to mountain effects. Large portions of the northwest and far east of the nation, while within the Sahara desert, see just enough seasonal rainfall to support semi-nomadic animal husbandry. The populations of these areas, mostly Tuareg, Wodaabe - Fula, and Toubou, travel south (a process called Transhumance) to pasture and sell animals in the dry season, north into the Sahara in the brief rainy season. Rainfall varies and when insufficient, Niger has difficulty feeding its population and must rely on grain purchases and food aid to meet food requirements. Rains, as in much of the Sahel, have been marked by annual variability. This has been especially true in the 20th century, with the most severe drought on record beginning in the late 1960s and lasting, with one break, well into the 1980s. The log term effect of this, especially to pastoralist populations remains in the 21st century, with those communities which rely upon cattle, sheep, and camels husbandry losing entire herds more than once during this period. Recent rains remain variable. For instance, the rains in 2000 were not good, those in 2001 were plentiful and well distributed. Exports Uranium is Niger's largest export. Foreign exchange earnings from livestock, although difficult to quantify, are second. Actual exports far exceed official statistics, which often fail to detect large herds of animals informally crossing into Nigeria. Some hides and skins are exported, and some are transformed into handicrafts. Substantial deposits of phosphates, coal, iron, limestone, and gypsum also have been found in Niger. Uranium The persistent uranium price slump has brought lower revenues for Niger's uranium sector, although uranium still provides 72% of national export proceeds. The nation enjoyed substantial export earnings and rapid economic growth during the 1960s and 1970s after the opening of two large uranium mines near the northern town of Arlit. When the uranium-led boom ended in the early 1980s, however, the economy stagnated, and new investment since then has been limited. Niger's two uranium mines—SOMAIR's open pit mine and COMINAK's underground mine—are owned by a French-led consortium and operated by French interests. However, as of 2007, many licences have been given to other companies from countries such as Canada and Australia in order to exploit new deposits. A farmer collecting millet in Koremairwa village in the Dosso department. Gold Exploitable deposits of gold are known to exist in Niger in the region between the Niger River and the border with Burkina Faso. On October 5, 2004, President Tandja announced the official opening of the Samira Hill Gold Mine in Tera Department and the first Nigerien gold ingot was presented to him. This marked a historical moment for Niger as the Samira Hill Gold Mine represents the first commercial gold production in the country. Samira Hill is owned by a company called SML (Societe des Mines du Liptako) which is a joint venture between a Moroccan company, Societe Semafo, and a Canadian company, Etruscan Resources. Both companies own 80% (40% - 40%) of SML and the Government of Niger 20%. The first year’s production is predicted to be 135,000 troy ounces (4,200 kg; 9,260 lb avoirdupois) of gold at a cash value of USD 177 per ounce ($5.70/g). The mine reserves for the Samira Hill mine total 10,073,626 tons at an average grade of 2.21 grams per ton from which 618,000 troy ounces (19,200 kg; 42,400 lb) will be recovered over a 6 year mine life. SML believes to have a number of significant gold deposits within what is now recognized as the gold belt known as the "Samira Horizon", which is located between Gotheye and Ouallam. Background Note:Niger, United States State Department, Bureau of Public Affairs: Electronic Information and Publications Office. Bureau of African Affairs. September 2008 Coal The parastatal SONICHAR (Societe Nigerienne de Charbon) in Tchirozerine (north of Agadez) extracts coal from an open pit and fuels an electricity generating plant that supplies energy to the uranium mines. There are additional coal deposits to the south and west that are of a higher quality and may be exploitable. Oil A test Oil well in the Tenere Desert, January 2008. Niger has oil potential. In 1992, the Djado permit was awarded to Hunt Oil, and in 2003 the Tenere permit was awarded to the China National Petroleum Company. An ExxonMobil-Petronas joint venture was sold sole rights to the Agadem block, in the Diffa Region north of Lake Chad, but never went beyond exploration. In June 2008, the government transferred the Agadem block rights to CNPC. Niger announced that in exchange for the USD$5 Billion investment, the Chinese company would build wells, 11 of which would open by 2012, a refinery near Zinder and a pipeline out of the nation. The government estimates the area has reserves of , and is seeking further oil in the Tenere Desert and near Bilma. Niger has said that it hopes to produce its first barrels of oil for sale by 2009. Niger in $5 million oil contract with China, Associated Press. June 4, 2008.CNPC Niger deal extends China energy role in Africa, Reuters, Abdoulaye Massalatchi. 3 June 2008. Growth rates The economic competitiveness created by the January 1994 devaluation of the Communaute Financiere Africaine (CFA) franc contributed to an annual average economic growth of 3.5% throughout the mid-1990s. But the economy stagnated due to the sharp reduction in foreign aid in 1999 (which gradually resumed in 2000) and poor rains in 2000. Reflecting the importance of the agricultural sector, the return of good rains was the primary factor underlying economic growth of 5.1% in 2000, 3.1% in 2001, 6.0% in 2002, and 3.0% in 2003. In recent years, the Government of Niger drafted revisions to the investment code (1997 and 2000), petroleum code (1992), and mining code (1993), all with attractive terms for investors. The present government actively seeks foreign private investment and considers it key to restoring economic growth and development. With the assistance of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), it has undertaken a concerted effort to revitalize the private sector. A market in Maradi. Economic restructuring and debt In January 2000, Niger's newly elected government inherited serious financial and economic problems including a virtually empty treasury, past-due salaries (11 months of arrears) and scholarship payments, increased debt, reduced revenue performance, and lower public investment. In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund program for Highly Indebted Poor Countries and concluded an agreement with the Fund on a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). In addition to changes in the budgetary process and public finances, the new government has pursued economic restructuring towards the IMF promoted privatization model. This has included the privatization of water distribution and telecommunications and the removal of price protections for petroleum products, allowing prices to be set by world market prices. Further privatizations of public enterprises are in the works. In its effort comply with the IMF's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility plan, the government also is taking actions to reduce corruption and, as the result of a participatory process encompassing civil society, has devised a Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan that focuses on improving health, primary education, rural infrastructure, and judicial restructuring. A long planned privitisation of the Nigerien power company, NIGELEC, failed in 2001 and again in 2003 due to inaudibility to line up buyers. SONITEL, the nation's telephone operator, hived of of the post office and privatised in 2001, was renationalised in 2009. Privatization and liberalization have however also been the subject of strong criticism. The UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, for instance, has noted that privatization affects the poorest and most vulnerable members of Niger's society. UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food:reports on Niger Critics have argued that the obligations to creditor institutions and governments have locked Niger in to a process of trade liberalization that is harmful for small farmers and in particular, rural women. report by 3D → Trade - Human Rights - Equitable Economy, on Agriculture trade liberalization and women's rights. Foreign Aid The most important donors in Niger are France, the European Union, the World Bank, the IMF and other United Nations agencies (UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, WFP, and UNFPA). Other principal donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Canada, and Saudi Arabia. While USAID does not have an office in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing nearly $10 million each year to Niger’s development. The U.S. also is a major partner in policy coordination in such areas as food security and HIV/AIDS. The importance of external support for Niger's development is demonstrated by the fact that about 45% of the government's FY 2002 budget, including 80% of its capital budget, derives from donor resources. In 2005 the UN drew attention to the increased need for foreign aid given severe problems with drought and locusts resulting in the 2005–06 Niger food crisis, endangering the lives around a million people. Demographics Population age of Niger. The largest ethnic groups in Niger are the Hausa, who also constitute the major ethnic group in northern Nigeria, the Djerma-Songhai, who also are found in parts of Mali. Both groups, along with the Gourmantche, are sedentary farmers who live in the arable, southern tier of the country. Nigerien Djerma-Songhai girls in traditional clothing. The remainder of Nigeriens are nomadic or semi-nomadic livestock-raising peoples—Fulani, Tuareg, Kanuri, Arabs, and Toubou. With rapidly growing populations and the consequent competition for meager natural resources, lifestyles of agriculturalists and livestock herders have come increasingly into conflict in Niger in recent years. Niger's high infant mortality rate is comparable to levels recorded in neighboring countries. However, the child mortality rate (deaths among children between the ages of 1 and 4) is exceptionally high (248 per 1,000) due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country's children. According to the organization Save the Children, Niger has the world's highest infant mortality rate . Nonetheless, Niger has the highest fertility rate in the world (7.2 births per woman); this means that nearly half (49%) of the Nigerien population is under age 15. Between 1996 and 2003, primary school attendance was around 30% , including 36% of males and only 25% of females. Additional education occurs through madrassas. Culture and religion Horsemen at the traditional Ramadan festival at the Sultan's Palace in the Hausa city of Zinder. Nigerien culture is marked by variation, evidence of the cultural crossroads which French colonialism formed into a unified state from the beginning of the 20th century. What is now Niger was created from four distinct cultural areas in the pre-colonial era: the Djerma dominated Niger River valley in the southwest; the northern periphery of Hausaland, made mostly of those states which had resisted the Sokoto Caliphate, and ranged along the long southern border with Nigeria; the Lake Chad basin and Kaouar in the far east, populated by Kanuri farmers and Toubou pastoralists who had once been part of the Kanem-Bornu Empire; and the Tuareg nomads of the Aïr Mountains and Saharan desert in the vast north. Each of these communities, along with smaller ethnic groups like the pastoral Wodaabe Fula, brought their own cultural traditions to the new state of Niger. While successive post-independence governments have tried to forge a shared national culture, this has been slow forming, in part because the major Nigerien communities have their own cultural histories, and in part because Nigerien ethnic groups such as the Hausa, Tuareg and Kanuri are but part of larger ethnic communities which cross borders introduced under colonialism. Until the 1990s, government and politics was inordinately dominated by Niamey and the Djerma people of the surrounding region. At the same time the plurality of the population, in the Hausa borderlands between Birni-N'Konni and Maine-Soroa, have often looked culturally more to Hausaland in Nigeria than Niamey. Religion A mosque in Niamey. Islam, spread from North Africa beginning in the 10th century, has greatly shaped the mores of the people of Niger. More than 90% of the population is Muslim, with small Animist and Christian communities, the latter a consequence of missionaries established during the French colonial years, as well as urban expatriate communities from Europe and West Africa. Islam Approximately 95% of Muslims are Sunni; 5% are Shi'a. International Religious Freedom Report 2007: Niger. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (September 14, 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Islam was spread into what is now Niger beginning in the 15th century, by both the expansion of the Songhai Empire in the west, and the influence of the Trans-Saharan trade traveling from the Maghreb and Egypt. Tuareg expansion from the north, culminating in their seizure of the far eastern oases from the Kanem-Bornu Empire in the 17th centuries, spread distinctively Berber practices. Both Djerma and Hausa areas were greatly influenced by the 18th and 19th century Fula led Sufi brotherhoods, most notably the Sokoto Caliphate (in today's Nigeria). Modern Muslim practice in Niger is often tied to the Tijaniya Sufi brotherhoods, although there are small minority groups tied to Hammallism and Nyassist Sufi orders in the west, and the Sanusiya in the far northeast James Decalo. Historical Dictionary of Niger. Scarecrow Press/ Metuchen. NJ - London (1979) ISBN 0810812290 pp. 156-7, 193-4. A small center Wahhabite followers have appeared in the last thirty years in the capital and in Maradi. Decalo (1997) p. 261-2, 158, 230 These small groups, linked to similar groups in Jos, Nigeria, came to public prominence in the 1990s during a series of religious riots Ramzi Ben Amara. The Development of the Izala Movement in Nigeria: Its Split, Relationship to Sufis and Perception of Sharia Implementation. Research Summary (n.d.) Nigeria Christian / Muslim Conflict, GlobalSecurity.org (n.d.) Dr. Shedrack Best. Summary: Nigeria, The Islamist Challenge, the Nigerian 'Shiite' Movement, Searching for Peace in Africa (1999). Despite this, Niger maintains a tradition as a secular state, protected by law. International Religious Freedom Report 2001: Niger. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (October 26, 2001). Interfaith relations are deemed very good, and the forms of Islam traditionally practiced in most of the country is marked by tolerance of other faiths and lack of restrictions on personal freedom. Islam is thriving in impoverished Niger. 6 December 1997 (Reuters) Divorce and Polygyny are unremarkable, women are not secluded, and headcoverings are not mandatory—they are often a rarity in urban areas. Dossier 17: The Muslim Religious Right ('Fundamentalists') and Sexuality. Ayesha M. Imam, WLUML, (November 1997) Alcohol, such as the locally produced Bière Niger, is sold openly in most of the country. Animism A small percentage of the population practices traditional indigenous religious beliefs. The numbers of Animist practitioners is a point of contention. As recently as the late 19th century much of the south centre of the nation was unreached by Islam, and the conversion of some rural areas has been only partial. There are still areas where animist based festivals and traditions (such as the Bori cult) are practiced by syncretic Muslim communities (in some Hausa areas as well as among some Toubou and Wodaabe pastoralists), as opposed to several small communities who maintain their pre-Islamic religion. These include the Hausa speaking Maouri (or Azna, the Hausa word for "pagan") community in Dogondoutci in the south-southwest and the Kanuri speaking Manga near Zinder. both of whom practice variations of the pre-Islamic Hausa Maguzawa religion. There are also some tiny Boudouma and Songhay animist communities in the southwest. See also Languages of Niger Music of Niger Cinema of Niger List of writers from Niger Media Niger began developing diverse media in the late 1990s. Prior to the Third Republic, Nigeriens only had access to tightly controlled state media. SEMINAIRE-ATELIER DE FORMATION ET DE SENSIBILISATION "Mission de service public dans les entreprises de presse d’Etat et privée". Historical introduction to Press Laws, in conference procedings, Organised by FIJ/SAINFO/LO-TCO CCOG. NIAMEY (June 2002). Now Niamey boasts scores of newspapers and magazines, some, lke Le Sahel government operated, many critical of the government. Media in Niger: the African Development Information Database. Medias Status Report:Niger. Summary document written for the African Media Partners Network. Guy-Michel Boluvi, Les Echos du Sahel Niamey. (January 2001). Radio is the most important medium, as television sets are beyond the buying power of many of the rural poor, and illiteracy prevents print media from becoming a mass medium. Jolijn Geels. Niger. Bradt UK/ Globe Pequot Press USA (2006) ISBN 9781841621524 In addition to the national and regional radio services of the state broadcaster ORTN, there are four privately owned radio networks which total more than 100 stations. Three of them—the Anfani Group, Sarounia and Tenere—are urban based commercial format FM networks in the major towns. U.S. Department of State. Report on Human Rights Practices - Niger. 1993-1995 to 2006. There is also a network of over 80 community radio stations spread across all seven regions of the country, governed by the Comité de Pilotage de Radios de Proximité (CPRP), a civil society organisation. The independent sector radio networks are collectively estimated by CPRP officials to cover some 7.6 million people, or about 73% of the population (2005). Aside from Nigerien radio stations, the BBC's Hausa service is listened to on FM repeaters across wide parts of the country, particularly in the south, close to the border with Nigeria. Radio France Internationale also rebroadcasts in French through some of the commercial stations, via satellite. Tenere FM also runs a national independent television station of the same name. Despite relative freedom at the national level, Nigerien journalists say they are often pressured by local authorities. Niger : Conseil de presse. Les journalistes refusent la mise sous tutelle. Ousseini Issa. Médi@ctions n°37, Institut PANOS Afrique de l’Ouest. March 2004. The state ORTN network depends financially on the government, partly through an addition to electricity bills and partly through direct subsidy.The sector is governed by the Conseil Supérieur de Communications, established as an independent body in the early 1990s, since 2007 headed by Daouda Diallo. International human rights groups have criticised government since at least 1996 as using regulation and police to punish criticism of the state. Attacks on the press: Niger 2006. Committee to Protect Journalists (2007). Retrieved 2009-02-23 Niger: Emergency legislation infringes non-derogable human rights. AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL Public Statement. AI Index: AFR 43/001/2007 (Public Document) Press Service Number: 181/07. 21 September 2007 See also: Communications in Niger A traditional home in Zinder References Samuel Decalo, Historical Dictionary of Niger, 3rd ed. (Scarecrow Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8108-3136-8) - a comprehensive collection of Niger topics CIA World Factbook (entry on Niger) US State Department (Note: This article contains material from the State Department website.) Unicef Niger statistics Unesco manuscript on child work and schooling in Niger External links Government Niger Assemblee Nationale official site Mission of Niger to the United Nations official site Chief of State and Cabinet Members General Country Profile from BBC News Niger from UCB Libraries GovPubs News National Le Républicain-Niger Daily Hasé Newspaper.bi-Monthly Liberation -Niger Bi-Monthly La Hache Newspaper Fofo Magazine - Music and Culture.Quarterly International allAfrica - Niger news headline links Nigerportal - Niger Web portal on Niger in French. ( News, pictures, information about Niger and culture...) Nigerdiaspora - Niger network for the Niger diaspora worldwide Infos Niger for exchanging information about Niger both in French and English Tourism Ministry of Tourism official government website be-x-old:Ніґер	Niger \|@lemmatized niger:140 officially:1 republic:16 landlocked:4 country:22 western:1 africa:10 name:3 river:12 border:14 nigeria:15 benin:4 south:20 burkina:4 faso:4 mali:5 west:23 algeria:3 libya:4 north:15 chad:7 east:9 size:3 almost:1 make:3 large:15 nation:18 population:18 mostly:3 cluster:3 far:13 capital:6 city:5 niamey:12 one:3 poor:8 least:4 developed:2 world:10 territory:6 cover:3 sahara:7 desert:14 much:5 rest:1 threaten:1 periodic:1 drought:6 desertification:2 economy:13 concentrate:1 around:4 subsistence:4 export:12 agriculture:4 fertile:3 raw:2 material:3 especially:6 uranium:15 ore:1 remain:5 handicap:1 position:1 education:6 infrastructure:3 health:4 care:2 environmental:1 degradation:1 nigerien:19 society:5 reflect:3 great:1 diversity:1 drawn:1 long:5 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3,326	Foreign_relations_of_Haiti	Haïti is one of the original members of the United Nations and several of its specialized and related agencies, as well as a member of the Organization of American States (OAS). It maintains diplomatic relations with 37 countries, mostly in Europe and Latin America. Haiti also has diplomatic relations with the Republic of China, commonly known as Taiwan, instead of the People's Republic of China. Taiwan is one of Haiti's major trading partners and the two countries maintain very friendly relations. Haiti has also re-established very warm relations with Cuba in which a major act of bilateral cooperation has resulted in Cuba's large contribution of doctors to the country. The Haitian government has publicly shown admiration to Fidel Castro and his administration. The international community rallied to Haïti's defense during the 1991-94 period of illegal military rule. Thirty-one countries participated in the U.S.-led Multinational Force (MNF) which, acting under UN auspices, intervened in September 1994 to help restore the legitimate government and create a secure and stable environment in Haïti. At its peak, the MNF included roughly 21,000 troops, mostly Americans, and more than 1,000 international police monitors. Within six months, the troop level was gradually reduced as the MNF transitioned to a 6,000 strong peacekeeping force, the UN Mission in Haiti (UNMIH). UNMIH was charged with maintaining the secure environment, which the MNF had helped establish, as well as nurturing Haïti's new police force through the presence of 900 police advisors. A total of 38 countries participated in UNMIH. In order to spur Haïti's social and economic recovery from 3 years of de facto military rule and decades of misrule before that, international development banks and donor agencies pledged in 1994 to provide over US$2 billion in assistance by 1999. Disbursements were largely conditioned on progress in economic reform. Parliamentary inaction, principally as a result of the political struggles and gridlock that plagued Haiti since 1996, resulted in the blockage of much of this assistance as disbursement conditions were not met. The electoral crisis that has brewed in the aftermath of the May 21, 2000 local and parliamentary elections has resulted in the blockage of most multilateral and bilateral assistance. Major donors are led by the United States, with the largest bilateral assistance program, and also include Canada, France, Germany, Japan, Republic of China (Taiwan). Multilateral aid is coordinated through an informal grouping of major donors under the auspices of the World Bank which, in addition to the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and the European Union, is also a major source of Haïtian development assistance. As a result of their recognition of Republic of China (Taiwan), the Haïtian government has made it a requirement for citizens of People's Republic of China to have visas to visit and conduct business in the country. Due to generous amount of foreign aid from Taiwan, this requirement is unlikely to change anytime in the near future. Visas are also required for citizens of Colombia and Panama due to the actions of nationals of those two countries in using Haïti as a drop-off point for narcotic drugs bound for the United States. Panama's proximity to Colombia and their thriving off-shore banking industry has lured many traffickers to use that nation and Haïti as bases for their activities. Citizens of the Dominican Republic also require visas to visit Haïti, not only due to the hostile, sometimes volatile relations between both nations, but also because since the late 1990s, the Dominican Republic has become another base for illicit drugs bound for the United States, which usually enter illegally via Puerto Rico. Once in Puerto Rico, drugs can easily reach the United States due to the absence of both immigration and customs between that island and the mainland. Disputes - international: claims US-administered Navassa Island Illicit drugs: major Caribbean transshipment point for cocaine en route to the US and Europe See also Haitian diplomatic missions Haiti-United States relations Haiti-Jamaica relations External links / Consulate General of Haïti in Chicago, USA Consulate General of Haïti in Montreal, Canada / Consulate General of Haïti in New York City, USA Embassy of France in Port-au-Prince, Haïti / Embassy of Haiti in Berlin, Germany / Embassy of Haïti in Havana, Cuba / Embassy of Haïti in Washington, D.C. / Permanent Mission of Haïti to the United Nations / United States Embassy in Port-au-Prince, Haïti	Foreign_relations_of_Haiti \|@lemmatized haïti:16 one:3 original:1 member:2 united:8 nation:4 several:1 specialize:1 relate:1 agency:2 well:2 organization:1 american:2 state:7 oas:1 maintain:3 diplomatic:3 relation:7 country:7 mostly:2 europe:2 latin:1 america:1 haiti:8 also:8 republic:7 china:5 commonly:1 know:1 taiwan:5 instead:1 people:2 major:6 trading:1 partner:1 two:2 friendly:1 establish:2 warm:1 cuba:3 act:2 bilateral:3 cooperation:1 result:5 large:2 contribution:1 doctor:1 haitian:2 government:3 publicly:1 show:1 admiration:1 fidel:1 castro:1 administration:1 international:4 community:1 rally:1 defense:1 period:1 illegal:1 military:2 rule:2 thirty:1 participate:2 u:4 lead:2 multinational:1 force:3 mnf:4 un:2 auspex:2 intervene:1 september:1 help:2 restore:1 legitimate:1 create:1 secure:2 stable:1 environment:2 peak:1 include:2 roughly:1 troop:2 americans:1 police:3 monitor:1 within:1 six:1 month:1 level:1 gradually:1 reduce:1 transition:1 strong:1 peacekeeping:1 mission:3 unmih:3 charge:1 nurture:1 new:2 presence:1 advisor:1 total:1 order:1 spur:1 social:1 economic:2 recovery:1 year:1 de:1 facto:1 decade:1 misrule:1 development:3 bank:3 donor:3 pledge:1 provide:1 billion:1 assistance:5 disbursement:2 largely:1 condition:2 progress:1 reform:1 parliamentary:2 inaction:1 principally:1 political:1 struggle:1 gridlock:1 plague:1 since:2 blockage:2 much:1 meet:1 electoral:1 crisis:1 brew:1 aftermath:1 may:1 local:1 election:1 multilateral:2 program:1 canada:2 france:2 germany:2 japan:1 aid:2 coordinate:1 informal:1 grouping:1 world:1 addition:1 inter:1 idb:1 european:1 union:1 source:1 haïtian:2 recognition:1 make:1 requirement:2 citizen:3 visa:3 visit:2 conduct:1 business:1 due:4 generous:1 amount:1 foreign:1 unlikely:1 change:1 anytime:1 near:1 future:1 require:2 colombia:2 panama:2 action:1 national:1 use:2 drop:1 point:2 narcotic:1 drug:4 bound:2 proximity:1 thriving:1 shore:1 banking:1 industry:1 lure:1 many:1 trafficker:1 base:2 activity:1 dominican:2 hostile:1 sometimes:1 volatile:1 late:1 become:1 another:1 illicit:2 usually:1 enter:1 illegally:1 via:1 puerto:2 rico:2 easily:1 reach:1 absence:1 immigration:1 custom:1 island:2 mainland:1 dispute:1 claim:1 administer:1 navassa:1 caribbean:1 transshipment:1 cocaine:1 en:1 route:1 see:1 jamaica:1 external:1 link:1 consulate:3 general:3 chicago:1 usa:2 montreal:1 york:1 city:1 embassy:5 port:2 au:2 prince:2 berlin:1 havana:1 washington:1 c:1 permanent:1 \|@bigram diplomatic_relation:2 trading_partner:1 fidel_castro:1 de_facto:1 bank_idb:1 narcotic_drug:1 dominican_republic:2 illicit_drug:2 puerto_rico:2 navassa_island:1 en_route:1 diplomatic_mission:1 external_link:1 havana_cuba:1
3,327	Andaman_Islands	Andaman Islands The Andaman Islands (Hindi: अण्डमान द्वीप समूह, ) are a group of archipelagic islands in the Bay of Bengal, and are part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Union Territory of India. Port Blair is the chief community on the islands, and the administrative centre of the Union Territory. The Andaman Islands form a single administrative district within the Union Territory, the Andaman district (the Nicobar district was separated and established as a new district in 1974). The population of the Andamans was 314,084 in 2001. Climate The climate is typical of tropical islands of similar latitude. It is always warm, but with sea-breezes. Rainfall is irregular, but usually dry during the north-east, and very wet during the south-west, monsoons. People For information on the indigenous languages, see Andamanese languages Hypothesized map of human migration based on mitochondrial DNA, depicting the route taken by mtDNA haplogroup M through the Indian mainland and the Andaman Islands, possibly on to Southeast Asia Of the slightly more than 300,000 people that live in the Andaman Islands, a small minority of about 1,000 are indigenous Adivasis of the Andamans. The rest are mainly divided between Hindi, Bengali, Tamil and Punjabi speaking people from the mainland. Andaman & Nicobar Islands at a glance The Andamanese is a collective term to describe the peoples who are the aboriginal inhabitants of the Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands, located in the Bay of Bengal. The term includes the Great Andamanese, Jarawa, Onge, Shompen, Sentinelese and the extinct Jangil. Anthropologically they are usually classified as Negritos, represented also by the Semang of Malaysia and the Aeta of the Philippines. The Andamans are theorized to be a key stepping stone in a great coastal migration of humans from Africa via the Arabian peninsula, along the coastal regions of the Indian mainland and towards Southeast Asia, Japan and Oceania. Genetic analysis indicates that male Onges and Jarawas almost exclusively belong to Haplotype D, which is also found in Tibet and Japan, but is rare on the Indian mainland and elsewhere in Asia. Y-DNA Haplogroup D and its Subclades - 2008 However, this is a subclade of the D haplogroup which has not been seen outside of the Andamans, marking the insularity of these tribes. The only other group that is known to predominantly belong to haplogroup D are the Ainu aboriginal people of Japan. Male Great Andamanese, unlike the Onge and the Jarawa, have a mixed presence of Y-chromosome halpgroups O, L, K and P, which places them between mainland Indian and Asian populations. The mtDNA distribution, which indicates maternal descent, describes all the Onge and a heavy majority of the Great Andamanese as belonging to haplogroup M, found ubiquitously in India, where it represents 60% of all maternal lineages. Revathi Rajkumar et al., Phylogeny and antiquity of M macrohaplogroup inferred from complete mt DNA sequence of Indian specific lineages, BMC Evolutionary Biology 2005, 5:26 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-5-26 Given the insularity of the Andamanese, this has led geneticists to believe that this haplogroup originated with the earliest settlers of India during the coastal migration that brought the ancestors of the Andamanese to the Indian mainland, the Andaman Islands and further afield to Southeast Asia. Some anthropologists postulate that Southern India and Southeast Asia was once populated largely by Negritos similar to those of the Andamans, and that some tribal populations in the south of India, such as the Irulas are remnants of that period. History comparative distributions of Andamanese indigenous peoples, pre-18C vs present-day The name "Andaman" first appears in the work of Arab geographers of the ninth century, though it is uncertain whether ancient geographers like Ptolemy also knew of the Andamans but referred to them by a different name. They were also described as being inhabited by fierce cannibalistic tribes by the Persian navigator Buzurg ibn Shahriyar of Ramhormuz in his tenth century book Ajaib al-Hind (The wonders of India), in which he also mentioned an island he called Andaman al-Kabir (Great Andaman). During the Chola dynasty period in South India (800-1200CE), which ruled an empire encompassing southeastern peninsular India, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Maldives, and large parts of current day Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Malaysia, the island group was referred to as Timaittivu (or impure islands). Marco Polo briefly mentions the Andamans (calling them by the name "Angamanain"), although it is doubtful that he visited the islands himself because he also claimed that the human inhabitants had dogs' heads. Another Italian traveler, Niccolò Da Conti (c. 1440), mentioned the islands and said that the name means "Island of Gold". A theory that became prevalent in the late nineteenth century, and has since gained momentum, is that the name of the islands derives from the Sanskrit language, by way of Malay, and refers to the monkey deity, Hanuman. In the Age of Exploration, travelers often noted the "ferocious hostility" of the Andamanese. The Maratha admiral Kanhoji Angre used the Andamans as a base and "fought the British off these islands until his death in 1729." In 1789 the government of Bengal established a penal colony on Chatham Island in the southeast bay of Great Andaman, now known as Port Blair (after the officer who founded it). After two years, the colony moved to the northeast part of Great Andaman and was named Port Cornwallis after Admiral William Cornwallis. However, there was much disease and death in the penal colony, and the government ceased operating it in May 1796. In 1824 Port Cornwallis was the rendezvous of the fleet carrying the army to the First Burmese War. In the 1830s and 1840s, shipwrecked crews who landed on the Andamans were often attacked and killed by the natives, alarming the British government. In 1855, the government proposed another settlement on the islands, including a convict establishment, but the Indian Rebellion of 1857 forced a delay in its construction. However, since the rebellion gave the British so many prisoners, it made the new Andaman settlement and prison an urgent necessity. Construction began in November 1857 at Port Blair, avoiding the vicinity of a salt swamp which seemed to have been the source of many of the old colony's problems. For some time sickness and mortality were excessively high, but swamp reclamation and extensive forest clearance apparently had a beneficial effect. The Andaman colony acquired notoriety following the murder of the Viceroy Richard Southwell Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo on a visit to the settlement (8 February 1872) by a Muslim convict, a Pathan from Afghanistan, named Shere Ali. In the same year the two island groups, Andaman and Nicobar, were united under a chief commissioner residing at Port Blair. Ross Island – during the British rule the main military base. The Andaman islands were later occupied by Japan during World War II. The islands were nominally put under the authority of the Arzi Hukumate Azad Hind (Provisional Government of Free India) headed by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose. Netaji visited the islands during the war, and renamed them as Shaheed (Martyr) & Swaraj (Self-rule). General Loganathan of the Indian National Army, was Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands which had been annexed to the Provisional Government. After the end of the war they briefly returned to British control, before becoming part of the newly independent state of India. The above accounts, written while Britain still controlled India, may leave the impression that these settlements were a model of progressive penal reform. Indian accounts, however, paint a different picture. From the time of its development in 1858 under the direction of James Pattison Walker, and in response to the mutiny and rebellion of the previous year, the settlement was first and foremost a repository for political prisoners. The Cellular Jail at Port Blair when completed in 1910 included 698 cells designed to better accommodate solitary confinement; each cell measured by with a single ventilation window above the floor. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar was one of the notable prisoners there. This was the second concentration camp in the world, the first being in South Africa after the Boer War, and was founded by the British to suppress the Indian independence movement; the Indians imprisoned here referred to the Island and its prison as "Kala Pani" (Black water) History of Andaman Cellular Jail (See also movie by the same name which deals with some of these events Kalapani Kala Pani (1996) ). While the exact number of prisoners who died in this camp is not fully known, it is estimated they number in the thousands (some of the names of the political prisoners who perished can be found here List of Revolutionaries - this list is predominantly of those from eastern India and is incomplete). Many more died of harsh treatment, as well as through the harsh living and working conditions, in this camp The Hindu : Opinion / News Analysis : Hundred years of the Andamans Cellular Jail . The Viper Chain Gang Jail on Viper Island was reserved for troublemakers, and was also the site of hangings. In the 20th century it became a convenient place to house prominent members of India's independence movement, and it was here that on December 30, 1943 during Japanese occupation, that Subhas Chandra Bose, who was controversially allied with the Japanese, first raised the flag of Indian independence. At the close of the Second World War the British government announced its intention to abolish the penal settlement. The government proposed to employ former inmates in an initiative to develop the island's fisheries, timber, and agricultural resources. In exchange inmates would be granted return passage to the Indian mainland, or the right to settle on the islands. The penal colony was eventually closed on August 15, 1947 when India gained its independence. It has since served as a museum to the independence movement. On 26 December 2004 the coast of the Andaman Islands was devastated by a high tsunami following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. Air transport The only airport in the islands is Vir Savarkar Airport in Port Blair, which has scheduled services to Kolkata and Chennai. The airport is under control of the Indian Air Force, so night flights are not allowed. Due to the length of these routes and the small number of airlines flying to the islands, fares have traditionally been relatively expensive, although cheaper for locals than visitors. Fares are high during peak seasons of spring and winter, but fares have been decreased over the time due to large expansion of aviation industry in India. Now going to Andaman through air is almost equal to the fares given via ship route. In popular culture The islands are prominently featured in Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes mystery, The Sign of the Four, as well as in M.M. Kaye's "Death in the Andamans." The magistrate in Lady Gregory's play Spreading the News had formerly served in the islands. A principal character in the book "Six Suspects" (ISBN 0385608152) by Vikas Swarup is from the Andaman Islands. Kala Pani, a 1996 Indian film by Priyadarshan on freedom struggle and the lives of prisoners in Andaman Islands. See also Endemic birds of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands References External links Website Designing Company in Andaman and Nicobar Islands First Business classified Portal of Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman District (official site) Andaman Andaman Association, Lonely Islands Informative and rare 2007 trip report Videos by Survival International News regarding the Andaman Islanders	Andaman_Islands \|@lemmatized andaman:33 islands:3 island:42 hindi:2 अण:1 डम:1 न:1 द:1 व:1 प:1 सम:1 ह:1 group:4 archipelagic:1 bay:3 bengal:3 part:4 nicobar:10 union:3 territory:3 india:15 port:8 blair:6 chief:2 community:1 administrative:2 centre:1 form:1 single:2 district:5 within:1 separate:1 establish:2 new:2 population:3 andamans:11 climate:2 typical:1 tropical:1 similar:2 latitude:1 always:1 warm:1 sea:1 breeze:1 rainfall:1 irregular:1 usually:2 dry:1 north:1 east:1 wet:1 south:4 west:1 monsoon:1 people:6 information:1 indigenous:3 language:3 see:4 andamanese:9 hypothesize:1 map:1 human:3 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niccolò:1 da:1 conti:1 c:1 say:1 mean:1 gold:1 theory:1 become:3 prevalent:1 late:1 nineteenth:1 since:3 gain:2 momentum:1 derive:1 sanskrit:1 way:1 malay:1 refers:1 monkey:1 deity:1 hanuman:1 age:1 exploration:1 often:2 note:1 ferocious:1 hostility:1 maratha:1 admiral:2 kanhoji:1 angre:1 use:1 fight:1 british:7 death:3 government:8 penal:5 colony:6 chatham:1 officer:1 found:2 two:2 year:4 move:1 northeast:1 cornwallis:3 william:1 much:1 disease:1 cease:1 operate:1 may:2 rendezvous:1 fleet:1 carry:1 army:2 burmese:1 war:6 shipwreck:1 crew:1 land:1 attack:1 kill:1 native:1 alarm:1 propose:2 settlement:6 convict:2 establishment:1 rebellion:3 force:2 delay:1 construction:2 many:3 prisoner:6 make:1 prison:2 urgent:1 necessity:1 begin:1 november:1 avoid:1 vicinity:1 salt:1 swamp:2 seem:1 source:1 old:1 problem:1 time:3 sickness:1 mortality:1 excessively:1 high:3 reclamation:1 extensive:1 forest:1 clearance:1 apparently:1 beneficial:1 effect:1 acquire:1 notoriety:1 follow:2 murder:1 viceroy:1 richard:1 southwell:1 bourke:1 earl:1 mayo:1 february:1 muslim:1 pathan:1 afghanistan:1 shere:1 ali:1 unite:1 commissioner:1 reside:1 ross:1 main:1 military:1 later:1 occupy:1 world:3 ii:1 nominally:1 put:1 authority:1 arzi:1 hukumate:1 azad:1 provisional:2 free:1 netaji:2 subhash:1 chandra:2 bose:2 rename:1 shaheed:1 martyr:1 swaraj:1 self:1 general:1 loganathan:1 national:1 governor:1 annex:1 end:1 return:2 control:3 newly:1 independent:1 state:1 account:2 write:1 britain:1 still:1 leave:1 impression:1 model:1 progressive:1 reform:1 paint:1 picture:1 development:1 direction:1 james:1 pattison:1 walker:1 response:1 mutiny:1 previous:1 foremost:1 repository:1 political:2 cellular:3 jail:4 cell:2 design:2 well:3 accommodate:1 solitary:1 confinement:1 measure:1 ventilation:1 window:1 floor:1 vinayak:1 damodar:1 savarkar:2 one:1 notable:1 second:2 concentration:1 camp:3 boer:1 suppress:1 independence:5 movement:3 imprison:1 kala:3 pani:3 black:1 water:1 movie:1 deal:1 event:1 kalapani:1 exact:1 number:3 die:1 fully:1 estimate:1 thousand:1 perish:1 list:2 revolutionary:1 eastern:1 incomplete:1 died:1 harsh:2 treatment:1 living:1 working:1 condition:1 hindu:1 opinion:1 news:3 hundred:1 viper:2 chain:1 gang:1 reserve:1 troublemaker:1 site:2 hanging:1 convenient:1 house:1 prominent:1 member:1 december:2 japanese:2 occupation:1 subhas:1 controversially:1 ally:1 raise:1 flag:1 close:2 announce:1 intention:1 abolish:1 employ:1 former:1 inmate:2 initiative:1 develop:1 fishery:1 timber:1 agricultural:1 resource:1 exchange:1 would:1 grant:1 passage:1 right:1 settle:1 eventually:1 august:1 serve:2 museum:1 coast:1 devastate:1 tsunami:1 ocean:1 earthquake:1 air:3 transport:1 airport:3 vir:1 schedule:1 service:1 kolkata:1 chennai:1 night:1 flight:1 allow:1 due:2 length:1 airline:1 fly:1 fare:4 traditionally:1 relatively:1 expensive:1 cheap:1 locals:1 visitor:1 peak:1 season:1 spring:1 winter:1 decrease:1 expansion:1 aviation:1 industry:1 go:1 equal:1 ship:1 popular:1 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3,328	Naraoiidae	The Naraoiidae is a family of soft-shelled trilobite-like arthropods that are known only from the early and middle Cambrian -- primarily from the Burgess Shale of British Columbia and the Maotianshan Shale of China. The taxonomic placement of the Naraoiidae is uncertain; Naraoiids are similar to trilobites in many ways but have several peculiar features unlike those of other trilobite groups, primarily their unmineralized exoskeleton and unsegmented . Some specialists consider the Naraoiidae true trilobites of the order Nectaspida, others consider them trilobites of uncertain ordinal status, and still others consider them a separate group of non-trilobite arthropods. There are several known genera, of which Naraoia was the first to be described and is the most widely known. The species Naraoia naraoia has an entirely unmineralized body covering and an unsegmented shield. Its maximum size is about 4 cm. A second softbodied trilobite - Tegopelte - is known from the same formations and is sometimes placed in the Naraoiidae and sometimes in its own family, the Tegopeltidae. External links Are Naraoids trilobites? Photographs of specimens and discussion of classification controversy	Naraoiidae \|@lemmatized naraoiidae:4 family:2 soft:1 shell:1 trilobite:8 like:1 arthropod:2 know:4 early:1 middle:1 cambrian:1 primarily:2 burgess:1 shale:2 british:1 columbia:1 maotianshan:1 china:1 taxonomic:1 placement:1 uncertain:2 naraoiids:1 similar:1 many:1 way:1 several:2 peculiar:1 feature:1 unlike:1 group:2 unmineralized:2 exoskeleton:1 unsegmented:2 specialist:1 consider:3 true:1 order:1 nectaspida:1 others:2 ordinal:1 status:1 still:1 separate:1 non:1 genus:1 naraoia:3 first:1 describe:1 widely:1 specie:1 entirely:1 body:1 cover:1 shield:1 maximum:1 size:1 cm:1 second:1 softbodied:1 tegopelte:1 formation:1 sometimes:2 place:1 tegopeltidae:1 external:1 link:1 naraoids:1 photograph:1 specimen:1 discussion:1 classification:1 controversy:1 \|@bigram burgess_shale:1 external_link:1
3,329	Forgetting	Forgetting (retention loss) refers to apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in an individual's long term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage. It is subject to delicately balanced optimization that ensures that relevant memories are recalled. Forgetting can be reduced by repetition and/or more elaborate cognitive processing of information. Reviewing information in ways that involve active retrieval seems to slow the rate of forgetting. Forgetting functions (amount remembered as a function of time since an event was first experienced) have been extensively analyzed. The most recent evidence suggests that a power function provides the closest mathematical fit to the forgetting function. History One to study the mechanisms of forgetting was the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus. Using himself as the sole subject in his experiment, he memorized lists of three letter nonsense syllable words—two consonants and one vowel in the middle. He then measured his own capacity to relearn a given list of words after a variety of given time period. He found that forgetting occurs in a systematic manner, beginning rapidly and then leveling off. Although his methods were primitive, his basic premises have held true today and have been reaffirmed by more methodologically sound methods. Theories of forgetting The four main theories of forgetting apparent in the study of psychology as follows; Cue-dependent forgetting Cue-dependent forgetting or retrieval failure, is the failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at the time the memory was encoded. It is one of five cognitive psychology theories of forgetting. It states that a memory is sometimes temporarily forgotten purely because it cannot be retrieved, but the proper cue can bring it to mind. A good metaphor for this is searching for a book in a library without the reference number, title, author or even subject. The information still exists, but without these cues retrieval is unlikely. Furthermore, a good retrieval cue must be consistent with the original encoding of the information. If the sound of the word is emphasized during the encoding process, the cue that should be used should also put emphasis on the phonetic quality of the word. Information is available however, just not readily available without these cues. Trace decay Trace decay focuses on the problem of availability caused when memories decay. Hebb said that incoming information creates a pattern of neurons to create a neurological memory trace in the brain which would fade with time. Repeated firing causes a structural change in the synapses. Rehearsal of repeated firing maintains the memory in STM until a structural change is made. Organic causes Forgetting that occurs through physiological damage or dilapidation to the brain are referred to as organic causes of forgetting. These theories encompass the loss of information already retained in long term memory or the inability to encode new information again. Examples include Alzheimer's, Amnesia, Dementia, consolidation theory and the gradual slowing down of the central nervous system due to aging. Interference theories Interference theory refers to the idea that forgetting occurs because the recall of certain items interferes with the recall of other items. In nature, the interfering items are said to originate from an over stimulating environment. Interference theory exists in two branches, Retroactive and Proactive inhibition each referring in contrast to the other. Retroactive interference is when the past memory interferes with the later memory, causing it to change in a particular extent. On the other hand, proactive interference is when the later memory interferes with the older memory, causing it to change. Decay theory Decay theory states that when something new is learned, a neurochemical, physical "memory trace" is formed in the brain and over time this trace tends to disintegrate, unless it is occasionally used. Definitions and controversy Forgetting can have very different causes than simply removal of stored content. Forgetting can mean access problems, availability problems, or can have other reasons such as amnesia caused by an accident. A debatable yet popular concept is "trace decay", which can occur in both short and long-term memory. This theory, applicable mostly to short-term memory, is supposedly contradicted by the fact that one is able to ride a bike even after not having done so for decades. "Flashbulb memories" are another piece of seemingly contradicting evidence. It is believed that certain memories "trace decay" while others don't. Sleep is believed to play a key role in halting trace decay, although the exact mechanism of this is unknown. See also Amnesia Cue-dependent forgetting Experience curve effects Educational psychology Memory References . External links Causes of Forgetting & Learning be-x-old:Забыцьцё	Forgetting \|@lemmatized forgetting:7 retention:1 loss:3 refers:2 apparent:2 information:9 already:2 encode:4 store:1 individual:1 long:3 term:4 memory:21 spontaneous:1 gradual:2 process:2 old:3 unable:1 recall:5 storage:1 subject:3 delicately:1 balanced:1 optimization:1 ensure:1 relevant:1 reduce:1 repetition:1 elaborate:1 cognitive:2 processing:1 review:1 way:1 involve:1 active:1 retrieval:4 seem:1 slow:2 rate:1 forget:13 function:4 amount:1 remember:1 time:5 since:1 event:1 first:1 experience:2 extensively:1 analyze:1 recent:1 evidence:2 suggest:1 power:1 provide:1 close:1 mathematical:1 fit:1 history:1 one:4 study:2 mechanism:2 german:1 psychologist:1 hermann:1 ebbinghaus:1 use:3 sole:1 experiment:1 memorize:1 list:2 three:1 letter:1 nonsense:1 syllable:1 word:4 two:2 consonant:1 vowel:1 middle:1 measure:1 capacity:1 relearn:1 give:2 variety:1 period:1 find:1 occurs:2 systematic:1 manner:1 begin:1 rapidly:1 level:1 although:2 method:2 primitive:1 basic:1 premise:1 hold:1 true:1 today:1 reaffirm:1 methodologically:1 sound:2 theory:11 four:1 main:1 psychology:3 follow:1 cue:9 dependent:3 failure:2 due:2 miss:1 stimulus:1 present:1 five:1 state:2 sometimes:1 temporarily:1 purely:1 cannot:1 retrieve:1 proper:1 bring:1 mind:1 good:2 metaphor:1 search:1 book:1 library:1 without:3 reference:2 number:1 title:1 author:1 even:2 still:1 exist:1 unlikely:1 furthermore:1 must:1 consistent:1 original:1 encoding:1 emphasize:1 also:2 put:1 emphasis:1 phonetic:1 quality:1 available:2 however:1 readily:1 trace:8 decay:8 focus:1 problem:3 availability:2 cause:9 hebb:1 say:2 incoming:1 create:2 pattern:1 neuron:1 neurological:1 brain:3 would:1 fade:1 repeat:2 firing:2 structural:2 change:4 synapsis:1 rehearsal:1 maintain:1 stm:1 make:1 organic:2 occur:2 physiological:1 damage:1 dilapidation:1 refer:2 encompass:1 retain:1 inability:1 new:2 example:1 include:1 alzheimer:1 amnesia:3 dementia:1 consolidation:1 central:1 nervous:1 system:1 age:1 interference:5 idea:1 certain:2 item:3 interfere:1 nature:1 interfering:1 originate:1 stimulating:1 environment:1 exists:1 branch:1 retroactive:2 proactive:2 inhibition:1 contrast:1 past:1 interferes:2 late:2 particular:1 extent:1 hand:1 something:1 learn:2 neurochemical:1 physical:1 form:1 tend:1 disintegrate:1 unless:1 occasionally:1 definition:1 controversy:1 different:1 simply:1 removal:1 stored:1 content:1 mean:1 access:1 reason:1 accident:1 debatable:1 yet:1 popular:1 concept:1 short:2 applicable:1 mostly:1 supposedly:1 contradict:2 fact:1 able:1 ride:1 bike:1 decade:1 flashbulb:1 another:1 piece:1 seemingly:1 believe:2 others:1 sleep:1 play:1 key:1 role:1 halt:1 exact:1 unknown:1 see:1 curve:1 effect:1 educational:1 external:1 links:1 x:1 забыцьцё:1 \|@bigram hermann_ebbinghaus:1 nonsense_syllable:1 cognitive_psychology:1 ride_bike:1 educational_psychology:1 external_links:1
3,330	Telecommunications_in_Haiti	Despite low literacy levels (52%) and wide-ranging poverty, Haiti managed to increase its cell phone coverage rate from 6% to 30% in just one year (May 2006 to May 2007). Haiti is now the driving force in the cell phone growth rate in the Caribbean. Radio still remains the primary information medium for most Haitians. Radio Radio broadcast stations: AM 41, FM 26, shortwave 0 (1999) Radios: 500,000 (1997) Television Television broadcast stations: 4 in Port-au-Prince (plus a cable TV system) (2005) Televisions: 38,120 (1997) Telephone Telephones - main lines in use: 115,060 (2005) () Télécommunications d'Haiti S.A.M. (Teleco), a 98%-government owned company, has a monopoly on the provision of landline services throughout the country. Teleco has been constantly hobbled by political interference which has affected its performance. A net generator of revenues for the government in the 1970s and early 1980s, Teleco's demise started with the Prosper Avril government which spent Teleco's profits on politically-motivated campaigns and outright graft. The practice continued with the Aristide government. Teleco is currently undergoing privatization. Telephones - mobile cellular: 2.4 million (May 2007) or 30% coverage rate. There are three major cell phone providers in Haiti: Digicel, Comcel, and Haitel. Comcel, a subsidiary of Trilogy International Partners LLC, was a TDMA company which launched its service in September 1999. Haitel, an independent company founded by Franck Ciné, a Haitian-American and former MCI/Worldcom executive, adopted CDMA technology. Digicel Haiti, an affiliate of the pan-Caribbean Digicel Group won Haiti's first GSM license in June 2005 and launched service in early 2006. In May 2006, Comcel and Haitel had a total of about 500,000 subscribers - that is a cell phone coverage rate of 6% for a population of 8.2 million. Then, Digicel entered the market in May 2006, and revolutionized the cell phone industry with low prices and attractive services so that after just one year of operations, May 2006-May 2007, Digicel went from zero to 1.4 millions subscribers. The other two cell phone providers, Comcel and Haitel, responded by cutting their prices and offering new services such as Voila, a GSM service by Comcel, and CDMA 2000 by Haitel. As a result, Comcel and Haitel increased their subscribers from 500,000 to 1 million. That's a grand total of 2.4 millions cell phone subscribers in Haiti. For a total population of about 8.2 million people, that's a cell phone coverage rate of 30% (a 5-fold increase in just one year) In May 2007, Digicel started offering two Blackberry services with Internet, one for enterprises and one for individuals. Telephone system: Domestic facilities are barely adequate. International facilities are slightly better domestic: coaxial cable and microwave radio relay trunk service international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) Internet Haiti's country code top-level domain is .ht. As of 2005, there were 5 Internet service providers serving the country.	Telecommunications_in_Haiti \|@lemmatized despite:1 low:2 literacy:1 level:2 wide:1 range:1 poverty:1 haiti:8 manage:1 increase:3 cell:8 phone:8 coverage:4 rate:5 one:5 year:3 may:8 drive:1 force:1 growth:1 caribbean:2 radio:5 still:1 remain:1 primary:1 information:1 medium:1 haitian:2 broadcast:2 station:3 fm:1 shortwave:1 television:3 port:1 au:1 prince:1 plus:1 cable:2 tv:1 system:2 telephone:4 main:1 line:1 use:1 télécommunications:1 teleco:5 government:4 company:3 monopoly:1 provision:1 landline:1 service:9 throughout:1 country:3 constantly:1 hobble:1 political:1 interference:1 affect:1 performance:1 net:1 generator:1 revenue:1 early:2 demise:1 start:2 prosper:1 avril:1 spend:1 profit:1 politically:1 motivate:1 campaign:1 outright:1 graft:1 practice:1 continue:1 aristide:1 currently:1 undergoing:1 privatization:1 mobile:1 cellular:1 million:6 three:1 major:1 provider:3 digicel:6 comcel:6 haitel:6 subsidiary:1 trilogy:1 international:3 partner:1 llc:1 tdma:1 launch:2 september:1 independent:1 found:1 franck:1 ciné:1 american:1 former:1 mci:1 worldcom:1 executive:1 adopt:1 cdma:2 technology:1 affiliate:1 pan:1 group:1 win:1 first:1 gsm:2 license:1 june:1 total:3 subscriber:4 population:2 enter:1 market:1 revolutionize:1 industry:1 price:2 attractive:1 operation:1 go:1 zero:1 two:2 respond:1 cut:1 offer:2 new:1 voila:1 result:1 grand:1 people:1 fold:1 blackberry:1 internet:3 enterprise:1 individual:1 domestic:2 facility:2 barely:1 adequate:1 slightly:1 well:1 coaxial:1 microwave:1 relay:1 trunk:1 satellite:1 earth:1 intelsat:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 code:1 top:1 domain:1 ht:1 serve:1 \|@bigram fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 politically_motivate:1 currently_undergoing:1 mobile_cellular:1 mci_worldcom:1 coaxial_cable:1 station_intelsat:1 intelsat_atlantic:1 atlantic_ocean:1
3,331	Australian_Capital_Territory	The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) is the capital territory of the Commonwealth of Australia and its smallest self-governing internal territory. It is an inland enclave in New South Wales, situated in bushland. The ACT was conceived during the Federation conventions of the late 19th century as a neutral location for a new national capital. Section 125 of the Australian Constitution provided that following Federation in 1901, land would be ceded freely to the new Federal Government. The territory was transferred to the Commonwealth by the state of New South Wales in 1911, and construction of the capital, Canberra, began in 1913. The floral emblem of the ACT is the Royal Bluebell and the faunal emblem is the Gang-gang Cockatoo. History When the constitution for the Commonwealth of Australia was being negotiated between the Australian colonies, the siting of the national capital was a point of contention, with Melbourne and Sydney claiming the right. A compromise was reached whereby a separate capital city would be created in New South Wales, provided it was no closer than to Sydney. Until such time as the new city was established, Melbourne was to be the temporary capital of Australia. The present site was for the National Capital was selected in 1908, National Archives of Australia - Seat of Government Act 1908 (Cth) with additional territory at Jervis Bay (now a naval base on the New South Wales coast) allocated so the national capital could have a seaport. In 1909 New South Wales transferred the land for the territory to federal control and in 1910 an act of parliament created the legal framework for the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). National Archives of Australia - Seat of Government Acceptance Act 1909 (Cth) National Archives of Australia - Seat of Government (Administration) Act 1910 (Cth) In 1911 Colonel David Miller, the Secretary of the Department of Home Affairs, announced an International competition "to obtain the very best design of the most modern lines for this city". The winner was American architect Walter Burley Griffin. Colonel Miller became Administrator of the FCT on 8 August 1912. Michael Hall, Early Administration in the Territory, from "Australia - 100 Years as a Nation", Canberra Times, 1 January 2001 Canberra was officially named on 12 March 1913, by Lady Denman, the wife of the governor-general Lord Denman; construction of the city began immediately. During the 1920s the first Federal public servants relocated to Canberra from Melbourne, housed initially in Government hostels while the first of Canberra's suburbs Westlake, Eastlake (now Kingston) and Forrest were constructed. With the official opening of the Provisional Parliament House on 9 May 1927, the seat of the Federal Government was transferred from Melbourne to Canberra. The following year of Federal Parliament repealed the prohibition laws, a law shepherded through parliament and into law 17 years earlier by King O'Malley, the then Minister of Home Affairs. In 1938, the Federal Capital Territory was formally renamed the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). In a 1978 referendum, Canberrans rejected self-government by 63% of the vote. Parliament@Work - At a Glance Australian Capital Territory Despite this, in December 1988, the ACT was granted full self-government through an Act of the Commonwealth Parliament that made the ACT a body politic under the crown. National Archives of Australia - Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988 (Cth) Following the first elections in February 1989, a 17-member Legislative Assembly sat at its offices in London Circuit, Civic, on 11 May 1989. The Australian Labor Party formed the ACT's first government, led by the Chief Minister Rosemary Follett, who made history as Australia's first female head of government. Geography Location of the ACT and Jervis Bay The ACT is bounded by the Goulburn-Cooma railway line in the east, the watershed of Naas Creek in the south, the watershed of the Cotter River in the west, and the watershed of the Molonglo River in the north-east. Apart from the city of Canberra, the Australian Capital Territory also contains agricultural land (sheep, dairy cattle, vineyards and small amounts of crops) and a large area of national park (Namadgi National Park), much of it mountainous and forested. Small townships and communities located within the ACT include Williamsdale, Naas, Uriarra, Tharwa and Hall. Tidbinbilla is a locality to the south-west of Canberra that features the Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve and the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex, operated by the United States’ National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as part of its Deep Space Network. There are a large range of mountains, rivers and creeks in the Namadgi National Park. These include the Naas and Murrumbidgee Rivers. In 1915 the Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915 created the Jervis Bay Territory as an annexe to the Australian Capital Territory. In 1988, when the ACT gained self-government, Jervis Bay became a separate territory administered by the Minister for Territories. Climate Because of its elevation (650 m) and distance from the coast, the Australian Capital Territory experiences four distinct seasons, unlike many other Australian cities whose climates are moderated by the sea. Canberra is notorious for hot, dry summers, and cold winters with occasional fog and frequent frosts. Many of the higher mountains in the territory’s south-west are snow-covered for at least part of the winter. Thunderstorms can occur between October and March, and annual rainfall is 623 millimetres (24.5 in), with rainfall highest in spring and summer and lowest in winter. The highest maximum temperature recorded in the ACT was 42.8 °C (109.0 °F) at Acton on 11 January 1939. The lowest minimum temperature was −14.6 °C (5.7 °F) at Gudgenby on 11 July 1971 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002 Yearbook of Australia, retrieved 22 July 2007 Geology Notable geological formations in the Australian Capital Territory include the Canberra Formation, the Pittman Formation, Black Mountain Sandstone and State Circle Shale. In the 1840s fossils of brachiopods and trilobites from the Silurian period were discovered at Woolshed Creek near Duntroon. At the time, these were the oldest fossils discovered in Australia, though this record has now been far surpassed. ACT Heritage Register — Woolshed Creek Fossil Site Other specific geological places of interest include the State Circle cutting and the Deakin anticline. Australian Heritage Database — State Circle Cutting National Trust of Australia — Deakin Anticline The oldest rocks in the ACT date from the Ordovician around 480 million years ago. During this period the region along with most of Eastern Australia was part of the ocean floor; formations from this period include the Black Mountain Sandstone formation and the Pittman Formation consisting largely of quartz-rich sandstone, siltstone and shale. These formations became exposed when the ocean floor was raised by a major volcanic activity in the Devonian forming much of the east coast of Australia. Governance The ACT Legislative Assembly building The ACT has internal self-government, but it does not have the full legislative independence of the Australian states. It is governed by a Ministry headed by a Chief Minister (currently Jon Stanhope, Australian Labor Party). Laws are made in a 17-member Legislative Assembly that has all state and local government functions. However, its decisions can be overruled by the Australian Governor-General (effectively the national government) under section 35 of the Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988. (See also Electoral systems of the Australian states and territories). The ACT Government is a member of the Council of Australian Governments. Unlike other self-governing Australian territories (e.g. Norfolk Island, Northern Territory), the ACT does not have an Administrator. The Crown is represented by the Governor-General of Australia in the government of the ACT. The Chief Minister performs many of the roles that a state governor normally holds in the context of a state, however the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly gazettes the laws and summons meetings of the Assembly. In Australia's Federal Parliament, the ACT is represented by four federal members: two members of the House of Representatives; the Division of Fraser and the Division of Canberra and is one of only two territories to be represented in the Senate with two Senators. The Member for Fraser and the ACT Senators also represent the (small number of) voters from the Jervis Bay Territory. Administration ACT Ministers implement their executive powers through the following government departments and agencies: ACT Health and ACT Planning and Land Authority the Chief Minister's Department the Department of Disability, Housing and Community Services the Department of Education and Training the Department of Justice and Community Safety the Department of Territory and Municipal Services the Department of Treasury Demographics In the 2006 census the population of the ACT was 333,667, of which only 869 were outside Canberra. The ACT median weekly income for people aged over 15 was in the range $600-$699 while the population living outside Canberra was at the national average of $400-$499. The average level of degree qualification in the ACT is higher than the national average. Within the ACT 4.5% of the population have a postgraduate degree compared to 1.8% across the whole of Australia. Education ANU school of art, originally built as Canberra High School Almost all educational institutions in the Australian Capital Territory are located within Canberra. The ACT public education system schooling is normally split up into Pre-School, Primary School (K-6), High School (7-10) and College (11-12) followed by studies at university or TAFE. Many private high schools include years 11 and 12 and are referred to as colleges. Children are required to attend school until they turn 15 years old, most finish year 10 (around 16 years old). In February 2004 there were 140 public and non-governmental schools in Canberra; 96 were operated by the Government and 44 are non-Government. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2005. Schools in the ACT In 2005 there were 60,275 students in the ACT school system. 59.3% of the students were enrolled in government schools with the remaining 40.7% in non-government schools. There were 30,995 students in primary school, 19,211 in high school, 9,429 in college and a further 340 in special schools. ACT Department of Education and Training. 2005. Enrolments in ACT Schools 1995 to 2005 As of May 2004, 30% of people in the ACT aged 15–64 had a level of educational attainment equal to at least an bachelor's degree, significantly higher that the national average of 19%. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2005. Education in the ACT The two main tertiary institutions are the Australian National University (ANU) in Acton and the University of Canberra (UC) in Bruce. There are also two religious university campuses in Canberra: Signadou is a campus of the Australian Catholic University and St Mark's Theological College is a campus of Charles Sturt University. The Australian International Hotel School offers degree and diploma level courses and operates the Hotel Kurrajong in Barton. Tertiary level vocational education is also available through the multi-campus Canberra Institute of Technology. The Australian Defence Force Academy (ADFA) and the Royal Military College, Duntroon (RMC) are in the suburb of Campbell in Canberra's inner northeast. ADFA teaches military undergraduates and postgraduates and is officially a campus of the University of New South Wales while Duntroon provides Australian Army Officer training. The Academy of Interactive Entertainment (AIE) offers courses in computer game development and 3D animation. 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3,332	Novel	A novel (from the Italian novella, Spanish novela, French nouvelle for "new", "news", or "short story of something new") is today a long narrative in literary prose. The genre has historical roots both in the fields of the medieval and early modern romance and in the tradition of the novella. The latter supplied the present generic term in the late 18th century. The definition of the term in the last two or three centuries has usually embraced several other criteria. These include artistic merit, fictional content, a design to create an epic totality of life, and a focus on history and the individual. Critics and scholars have related the novel to several neighboring genres. On the one hand, it is related to public and private histories, such as the non-fiction memoir and the autobiography. On the other hand, the novel can be viewed as a form of art, to be evaluated critically in terms of the history of literature and calling for a specific sensitivity on the part of the reader to fully understand and properly appreciate it. Definition A "novel" is defined by a combination of its substance, its scope, its style, and that it can be located along a certain arc of the history of literature in a certain culture. A fictional narrative Fictionality and the presentation in a narrative are the two features most commonly invoked to distinguish novels from histories. In a historical perspective they are problematic criteria. Histories were supposed to be narrative projects throughout the early modern period. Their authors could include inventions as long as they were rooted in traditional knowledge or in order to orchestrate a certain passage. Historians would thus invent and compose speeches for didactic purposes. The 17th and 18th centuries developed new histories that rather discussed data. The novel inherited the traditional narrative project under the premise that there is an art of narratives to be developed. Histories are demanded to be true—they will otherwise be lies, crypto- and pseudohistories, historical forgeries. "Romances" and "novels" are by contrast demanded to be equally valuable whether they are invented or accurate depictions of personal or collective realities. A "deeper," "eternal" truth is supposed to mark the work of art, the good novel, in contrast to its cheap and trivial rival. The narratives of novels are supposed to create suspense. Plots can develop other than expected, they can just as well unfold exactly as one had to fear; the suspense is then created in a process of identification. Novelists are supposed make their readers feel with the protagonists, whereas historians are expected to create a distance between evaluations and data. The public status of the narrative and its subject matter are important criteria differentiating histories from novels. Histories (officially) address a public of experts. Novels claim, by contrast, to make sense even if they find but a single private reader who enjoys the reading process. Early definitions of the genre tended to see the love plot as an essential feature: "I call them Fictions, to discriminate them from True Histories; and I add, of Love Adventures, because Love ought to be the Principal Subject of Romance, so Pierre Daniel Huet in 1670. Pierre Daniel Huet, Traitté de l'origine des romans (1670), Stephen Lewis' translation (1715), p.3-4. Satirical fictions widened the range of subject matter in the 17th and 18th centuries. The intended private appeal remained the novel's most important criterion. Length and the epic depiction of life The requirement that a novel be of a certain length The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America Nebula Award gives the following guidelines: Novel — 40,000 words or more; Novella — 17,500–39,999 words; Novelette — 7,500–17,499 words; Short Story — 7,499 words or fewer. dates only from the 19th century. It is connected today with the notion that novels (in contrast to the shorter novella) try to cope with the "totality of life". Georg Lukács separating drama from epic, p. 46 of his The Theory of the Novel: "Great epic writing gives form to the extensive totality of life, drama to the intensive totality of essence." The problem is, according to Lukács, that the ancient epic required a word view of equilibrium, coherence and unity, a sense the modern individual has lost. The novel becomes in this new situation the modern epic: "the forms of art [...] [39] carry the fragmentary nature of the world's structure into the world of forms". See Lucáks The Theory of the Novel. A historico-philosophical essay on the forms of great epic literature [first German edition 1920], transl. by Anna Bostock (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1971). 17th-century critics had called for modern romances that adopted the features of the short novel. This development led both the Spanish and the English markets to turn the word for the shorter genre into the central generic term. The 18th-century reevaluation of extended works eventually reintroduced features of the old romance with the paradoxical result that modern criticism needed a new term for what had once been a novel. The lost synonym "novella" was eventually reintroduced to fill that gap. The separation of both genres remains a problem. When Ian McEwan's On Chesil Beach was listed for the Booker Prize in 2007, critics stated that it had to be longer, and that it was at best a novella. cf. a rather unfavorable review in the Irish Independent: "Ian McEwan's new novel has been greeted with unqualified, sometimes ecstatic, praise from every reviewer in Britain, which may strike some readers here as a bit odd when they read the book. For a start, it's not a novel. It's barely even a novella. In some ways it's more a long short story, built around a single event and involving just two characters - if it was a play it would be a one-act two-hander." On the other hand, it is difficult to call the 214-word work known as "Snoopy's novel" anything else. The text's attempt to create a picture of life in its totality makes it (a parody of) a novel under the present package requirement of length and approach. See for Charles M. Schulz's comic strip first published on 12 July 1965 this page, the original illustration can be found here. See for an extended analysis the article on Bulwer-Lytton's (and Snoopy's) famous first words "It was a dark and stormy night". Prose Prose won the market over verse in Western Europe in the course of the 16th century. Huet's ground breaking approach towards a definition already notes that prose had not always defined the novel – Traitté de l'origine des romans (1670), Stephen Lewis' 1715 translation, p.4: "It is required to be in Prose by the Humour of the Times." Both romances and novellas could originally be written in verse or prose. Prose proved advantageous on the early modern book market decades before the arrival of the printing press: it was easier to translate; it was easier to read, especially if read in silence; it was stylistically less ambitious and hence less risked to develop hollow phrases; and it was more convenient in a period of rapid language developments. The great vowel shift destroyed Geoffrey Chaucer's rhymes, whereas one could easily modernize prose sentences. Composed and distributed in writing, using paper as the ideal medium Extended prose narratives needed a written form and spread with paper as a lightweight medium. Books one would read in demonstrative silence and seclusion—at home, on a journey or in a tumultuous coffee house—appeared in inexpensive editions the individual reader could readily buy for his or her exclusive use. The paper based book would be small and easy to carry around. Consequently, novels appeared mostly in handy formats such as duodecimo and octavo. Chapbooks would use quarto yet remain easy to carry as long as they did not exceed a hundred pages. The novel's intricate intimacy on the print market Whether in 11th-century Japan or 15th-century Europe, prose fiction tended to develop intimate reading situations. Verse epics had been recited to selected audiences (see the Troilus and Criseyde illustration below), a reception that had developed with the expensive illuminated parchment manuscripts one would like to display on such an occasion, and a reception that allowed already a greater intimacy than the performance of a play in a theatre or on a town's market place. The late medieval manuscript production brought forth prose histories to be read in privacy, yet they would still require the customer to contact a professional copyist with the book he or she wanted to have copied (see the Melusine illustration below). The invention of the printing press anonymised the bookseller-text-reader constellation. The bookseller could easily pretend not to have read the particular title. The customer would pretend to be as curious about its content. The situation was especially intricate with prose fiction, a subject matter literary journals would up into the 1750s review only on very special occasions. Reactions to novels were to be found within other novels, not in the public sphere. The early modern reader would buy novels to satisfy his or her private curiosity whilst he or she would could be fully aware of the fact that the very same book had reached other readers as part of the larger edition. One entered an anonymous public audience with the intention to share intimate experiences. The novel became in this intriguing situation the ideal carrier of individualistic fashions touching aspects like personal views, intimate feelings, secret anxieties, "conduct" and "gallantry". The reviewing of fiction created a public awareness of what people were actually reading in novels. It had at the same moment the potential to divide fiction into a sphere to be analysed and discussed and a production (of pornography and low public fiction) critics would only hint at. The novel became, once it was turned into literature, the text base to be reviewed, the platform of wider debates about morals and the public. The novel's special literary style The early modern book market created a demand for elegant written literary works under the rubric of belles lettres. This field included fiction, poetry and popular history in the modern languages, and was perceived as occupying a position between the realm of the sciences and that of lower popular books. Style was paramount. The essential features of what is today perceived as a literary style developed here and prose fiction—the romances and novels of the 17th century as well as the production of memoirs—set the fashions. Verse and rhetoric could hardly compete with fiction; the rules in both fields limited the room for experiments. Prose fiction was by contrast close to everyday language, to the private letter, to the art of refined "gallant" conversation. Huet summarised the stylistic ambition in his definition of modern prose fiction: "It must be compos'd with Art and Elegance, lest it should appear to be a rude undigested Mass, without Order or Beauty". Pierre Daniel Huet, Traitté de l'origine des romans (1670), Stephen Lewis' 1715 translation, p. 4. 18th-century authors eventually criticized the French ideals of elegance the modern novel had adopted. A less aristocratic style of English reformed novels became the ideal. The 19th and 20th centuries established a culture of public literary criticism and prestigious prizes to be granted to outstanding works and thus redefined the essential qualities of literary achievements. see James F. English, The Economy of Prestige (2005). Stylistic experiments were the result. Beginning around 1830, critics began to value open-endedness, the work of art that can legitimately be a point of discussion and disagreement: certain types of ambiguity take on a positive value. Literary historians came to define great literature as that which adheres to certain standards of quality and fits into the history of literature, variously creating or reinforcing literary tradition, reworking literary tradition, or even reacting against prior literary tradition. Literary awards play today a major role in the development of styles and canons. Most of these awards go to works by people of a particular nationality or works in a specific genre, thus reinforcing certain categories within the realm of the novel, creating separate canons. History Antecedents around the world A significant number of extended fictional prose works predate the novel, and have been cited as its antecedents. While these anticipate the novel in form and, to some extent, in substance, the early European novelists were almost entirely unaware of these works; instead they were influenced by novellas and verse epics. Early works of extended fictional prose include the 6th- or 7th-century Daśakumāracarita by Daṇḍin, 11th-century Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, the 12th-century Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (or Philosophus Autodidactus, the English 17th-century title) by Ibn Tufail, the 13th-century Theologus Autodidactus by Ibn al-Nafis, and the 14th-century Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong. Murasaki Shikibu's Tale of Genji (1010) shows essentially all the qualities for which works such as Marie de La Fayette's La Princesse de Clèves (1678) have been praised: individuality of perception, an interest in character development and psychological observation. Parallel European developments did not occur for centuries, and awaited the time when the availability of paper allowed similar opportunities for composition and reception, allowing explorations of individualistic subject matter. By contrast, Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and Ibn al-Nafis' Theologus Autodidactus are works of didactic philosophy and theology rather than private reading pleasure in the style of western novels. Nonetheless, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan is likely to have influenced Daniel Defoe with its story of a human outcast surviving on an island (the work was available in a new edition shortly before Defoe began his composition The latest edition was: The Improvement of Human Reason, exhibited in the life of Hai Ebn Yokdhan: written in Arabick above 500 Years ago, by Abu Jaafar Ebn Tophail [...] newly translated from the original Arabick, by Simon Ockley (London: W. Bray, 1711). ). Western traditions of the modern novel reach back into the field of verse epics, though again not in an unbroken tradition. The Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (1300-1000 BC), Indian epics such as the Ramayana (400 BCE and 200 CE) and Mahabharata (4th century BC) were as unknown in early modern Europe as the Anglo-Saxon epic of Beowulf (c. 750-1000 rediscovered in the late 18th and early 19th centuries). Homer's Iliad and Odyssey (9th or 8th century BC), Vergil's Aeneid (29-19 BC) were read by Western scholars since the Middle Ages. At the beginning of the 18th century, modern French prose translations brought Homer to a wider public, who accepted them as forerunners of the modern novel. Anne Dacier's translations, 1699 and 1708, turned Homer's verses into prose and generated an uproar among European intellectuals, who were surprised about the archaic tone they showed. Ancient prose narratives Good surveys are: John Robert Morgan, Richard Stoneman, Greek fiction: the Greek novel in context (Routledge, 1994), Niklas Holzberg, The ancient novel: an introduction (Routledge, 1995), Gareth L. Schmeling (hrsg.), The Novel in the Ancient World (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 1996) and Tim Whitmarsh (hrsg.) The Cambridge companion to the Greek and Roman novel (Cambridge: UP, 2008). included a didactic strand with Plato's dialogs, a satirical with Petronius' Satyricon, the incredible stories of Lucian of Samosata, and Lucius Apuleius' proto-picaresque The Golden Ass and a heroic production with the romances of Heliodorus and Longus. It is less easy to define the traditions of short fictions that led to the medieval novella. Jokes would fall into the broad history of the "exemplary story" that gave rise to the more complex forms of novelistic story telling. The Bible is filled with similes and stories to be interpreted. Fiction is, as Pierre Daniel Huet noted in his Traitté de l'origine des romans in 1670, a rather universal phenomenon, and at the same moment one that lacks a single cause. The problem of roots is matched by a problem of branches: the inventions of paper and movable type helped isolated genres come together into a single market of exchange and awareness. The first languages of this new market were Spanish, French, German, Dutch and English. The rise of the United States, Russia, Scandinavia and Latin America broadened the spectrum in the 19th century. A later wave of new literatures brought forth Asian and African novelists. The novel has become a global medium of national awareness, surrounded and encouraged in each country by a complex of literary criticism and literary awards. The relatively late emergence of the Russian, Latin American or African novel does not necessarily indicate lagging cultural progress leading only at a late date to the individuality that brought forth the modern novel: it may just as easily reflect late arrival of such necessary material factors as print, paper, and a marketplace. The medieval romance and its rivals of shorter works Romances, 1000–1500 Chaucer reciting Troilus and Criseyde: early 15th-century manuscript of the work at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge The European tradition of the novel as the genre of extended prose fiction is rooted in the tradition of medieval “romances”. Even today, most European languages make that clear by using the word roman roughly the way that English uses the word novel. The word novel claims roots in the European novella. Yet, epic length or the focus on a central hero giving the work its name (as in Robinson Crusoe or Oliver Twist) are features derived from the tradition of “romances”. The early modern novel had preferred titles that focused on curious examples of modern life, not on heroes. The word roman or romance had become a stable generic term by the beginning of the 13th century, as in the Roman de la Rose (c. 1230), famous today in English through Geoffrey Chaucer's late 14th-century translation. The term linked fictions back to the histories that had appeared in the Romance language of 11th and 12th-century southern France. The central subject matter was initially derived from Roman and Greek historians. Works of the Chanson de geste tradition revived the memory of ancient Thebes, Dido and Aeneas, and Alexander the Great. German and Dutch adaptations of the famous histories appeared in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. See Heinrich von Veldeke's Eneas Romance written around 1175 or Herbort von Fritzlar's Liet von troye (c. 1195). Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde (1380-87) is a late example of this European fashion. The subject matter which was to become the central theme of the genre in the 16th and 17th centuries was initially a branch of a broader genre. Arthurian histories became a fashion in the late 12th century thanks to their ability to glorify the northern European feudal system as an independent cultural achievement. The works of Chrétien de Troyes set an example, in that his plot construction subjected the northern European epic traditions to ancient Greek aesthetics. The typical Arthurian romance would focus on a single hero and lead him into a double course of episodes For the structural analysis see: Hugo Kuhn's 1948 article on Hartmann's von Aue, Erec reprinted in Dichtung und Welt im Mittelalter (Stuttgart, 1959). p.133-150. See also: Hans Fromm: "Doppelweg", in: Werk-Typ-Situation, ed. Ingeborg Glier et al. Festschrift Hugo Kuhn (Stuttgart, 1969), p.64-79. The structural analysis has been criticised by Elisabeth Schmid, "Weg mit dem Doppelweg. Wider eine Selbstverständlichkeit der germanistischen Artusforschung", in: Erzählstrukturen der Artusliteratur. Forschungsgeschichte und neue Ansätze, ed. Friedrich Wolfzettel (Tübingen, 1999), p.69-85 and by Friedrich Wolfzettel in his, "Doppelweg und Biographie" in: Erzählstrukturen der Artusliteratur. Forschungsgeschichte und neue Ansätze, ed. F. Wolfzettel (Tübingen, 1999), p.119-141. in which he would prove both his prowess as an independent knight and his readiness to function as a perfect courtier under King Arthur. The model invited religious redefinitions with the quest and the adventure as basic plot elements: the quest was a mission the knight would accept as his personal task and problem. Adventures (from Latin advenire “coming towards you”) were tests sent by God to the knight on the journey, whose course he (the knight) would no longer try to control. The plot framework survived into the world of modern Hollywood movies which still unite, separate and reunite lovers in the course of adventures designed to prove their love and value. Variations kept the genre alive: unexpected and peculiar adventures surprised the audience in romances like Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (c. 1380). Satirical parodies of knight errantry (and contemporary politics) appeared with works such as Heinrich Wittenwiler's Ring (c. 1410). The shift from verse to prose dates from the early 13th century. The Prose Lancelot or Vulgate Cycle includes passages of that period. The collection indirectly lead to Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur compilation of the early 1470s. Several factors made prose increasingly attractive: this “low” style was less prone to potentially annoying exaggerations; it linked the popular plots to the field of serious histories traditionally composed in prose (compilations such as Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur claimed to collect a historical sources for the sole purpose of instruction and national edification See William Caxton's preface to his 1485 edition. ). Prose had an additional advantage for translators, who could go directly for meaning, where verse had to be translated by people skilled as poets in the target language. And prose survived language changes: developments such as the Great vowel shift changed almost all the European languages during the 14th and 15th centuries. Copyists of prose had an easy job to deal with these shifts while those who copied verses saw that rhymes had broken and syllables got lost in almost every second line. Prose became the medium of the urban commercial book market in the 15th century. Monasteries sold edifying collections of saints' and virgins' lives composed in prose. The customers were mostly women (the interiors of many of the 14th- and 15th-century paintings of the annunciation show how far books had spread into the urban households that painters usually depicted as the blessed virgin's bourgeois environment. See the annunciations of Robert Campin (c. 1430) (Image) and Rogier van der Weyden (c. 1435) (Image). ) Prose became in this environment the medium of silent and private reading. It spread with the commercial book market that began to provide such reading materials even before the arrival of the first commercial printed histories in the 1470s. See for a survey of medieval reading practices: Jessica Brantley, Reading in the Wilderness: Private Devotion and Public Performance in Late Medieval England (University of Chicago Press, 2007). The tradition of the novella, 1200–1600 The Pilgrims diverting each other with tales; woodcut from Caxton's 1486 edition of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. The term novel refers back to the production of short stories that remained part of a European oral culture of storytelling into the late 19th century. Fairy tales, jokes, little funny stories designed to make a point in a conversation, the exemplum a priest would insert in a sermon belong into this tradition. Written collections of such stories circulated in a wide range of products from practical compilations of examples designed for the use of clerics to such poetic cycles as Boccaccio’s Decameron (1354) and Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales (1386-1400). The early modern genre conflict between “novels” and “romances” can be traced back to the 14th-century cycles. The standard scheme of stories the author claimed to have heard in a round of narrators promised variety of subject matter and it led to clashes of genres. Short romances appeared within the frame tales side by side with stories of the rivaling lower genres such as the fabliaux. On Chaucer's tendency to increase the romance's influence see: Joseph Mersand, Chaucer’s Romance Vocabulary (New York, 1939), on the competing novelistic fabliaux tradition see: Charles Muscatine, Chaucer and the French Tradition (Berkeley, Los Angeles, 1957). Individual story tellers would openly defend their tastes in a debate that grew into a metafictional consideration. The cycles themselves showed advantages over the production of rival extended epic-length romances. Romances presupposed a consensus in questions of style and heroism. The cycles shifted the problem of how fictions were to be justified onto the level of the individual storytellers: onto a level the author, Chaucer or Boccaccio, would see as out of his control. See on the authorial function: George Kane, "The Autobiographical Fallacy in Chaucer and Langland Studies," Chambers Memorial Lecture (London: HK Lewis, 1965). The narrators had, so Chaucer in his Canterbury Tales, See: David Lawton, Chaucer’s Narrators (Woodbridge, Eng., Dover, NH, 1985). offered these stories to make certain points in a lively conversation he had only chronicled. They attacked each other if they felt the stories of their opponents had missed their points. A competition among the genres developed. If one believes the medieval collections, differing tastes of people with different social statuses were decisive; the different professions fought a battle over precedent with satirical plots designed to ridicule individuals of the opposing trades. A cycle bound rival stories together and it offered the easiest way to keep a critical distance. The pluralistic discourse created here eventually developed into the 17th- and 18th-century debate of fiction and its genres. Much of this original conception of the genre is still alive whenever a short joke is told to make a certain humorous point in everyday conversation. The longer exploits left the sphere of oral traditions with the arrival of the printing press. The book eventually replaced the story teller and introduced the preface and the dedication as the paratexts in which the authors would continue the metafictional debate over the advantages of genres and the reasons why one published and read fictional stories. Before literature: The early market of printed books, 1470–1720 Looking back to the scope of early modern histories, mentalities seem to differ. The Enlightenment seems to separate the 21st-century observer from early modern authors and readers of histories and fictions. The grossest improbabilities pervade many historical accounts found in the early modern print market. William Caxton's 1485 edition of Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur (1471) was sold as a true history, though the story unfolded in a series of magical incidents and historical improbabilities. Witchcraft pervaded the medieval romance, which no one read as "romance" as long as it claimed to be a central text of Great Britain's national memory. Sir John Mandeville's Voyages, written in the 14th century, circulated in printed editions throughout the 18th century, The ESTC notes 29 editions published between 1496 and 1785 ESTC search result and was filled with natural wonders like the one-footed Ethiopians who use their extremity as an umbrella against the desert sun—again without becoming the subject of critical historical debates. Both works eventually came to be viewed a works of literature, fiction. The realm of history grew around 1700 into a field of comparatively sober argumentative rather than narrative projects. One can interpret this development as a sign of gradual enlightenment. It stands at the same moment for a new arrangement of discourses the Western nations established beginning with the 1660s. History became in the Western world a—secular—platform on which all parties, religions, and institutions agree to settle questions of unresolved responsibilities. Historical commissions such as the International Catholic-Jewish Historical Commission are temporarily established whenever conflicts call for historical decisions. Debates of state and religion had a comparable importance until the beginning of the 18th century. A new positioning of the sciences and a general interest of the 19th-century nation states in controllable and pluralistic secular debates stand behind the process that found its breakthrough with the American and the French revolutions and the 19th-century unification of Germany. The transformation of history from a narrative project designed to instruct and to delight into a platform of open controversies is the one larger process which redefined the place of prose fiction since the Middle Ages. The creation of "literature" as a compound of poetry and fiction is the other. The modern nations won with literature a second field of essentially pluralistic controversies in which the interpretation and collective appreciation of texts gained a new and wider importance. Two major incidents fueled the separation of historical and fictional literature in the 16th and 17th centuries. The invention of printing immediately created a new market of comparatively cheap entertainment and knowledge—the market of chapbooks. The more elegant production 17th- and 18th-century authors would propagate as the belles lettres—a market that would be neither low nor academic—defined its ideals of style in the course of the 17th century. It became the wider sphere in which the modern ensemble of "literary genres" of poetry and fiction gained greater cohesion in late 18th century. The second major development is fixed to a single title: The Portuguese Amadis de Gaula became the first best-seller of modern fiction—a title one would soon be reluctant to accept as part of the elegant belles lettres. The Amadis eventually became the archetypical "romance" against which the modern novel unfolded its successful wider pattern of genres in the 17th century. Trivializations: Chapbooks, 1470-1800 The invention of printing subjected the existing field of histories—whether allegedly true, romantic or novel—to a process of trivialization and commercialization. Romances had circulated in lavishly ornamented manuscripts to be read out to audiences. The printed book allowed a comparatively inexpensive alternative for the special purpose of silent reading. Abridgments of ancient historians, popular medieval histories of knights, stories of comical heroes, religious legends and collections of jests and fables were the principal historical subject matter. See Rainer Schöwerling, Chapbooks. Zur Literaturgeschichte des einfachen Lesers. Englische Konsumliteratur 1680-1840 (Frankfurt, 1980), Magaret Spufford, Small Books and Pleasant Histories. Pleasant Fiction and its Readership in Seventeenth-Century England (London, 1981) and Tessa Watt, Cheap Print and Popular Piety 1550-1640 (Cambridge, 1990). Offering suspense and stories the audience could accept as allegedly true, even if they were fantastic and unlikely, the new books reached the households of urban citizens and of country merchants who visited the cities as traders. Deteriorated design: early 18th-century chapbook edition of The Honour of Chivalry, first published in 1598. Literacy spread among the urban populations of Europe due to a number of factors: See Guglielmo Cavallo, Roger Chartier, A History of Reading in the West, transl. by Lydia G. Cochrane (University of Massachusetts Press, 2003), and Jennifer Andersen and Elizabeth Sauer, Books and Readers in Early Modern England: Material Studies (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001). Women of wealthier households had learned to read in the 14th and 15th centuries and had become customers of religious devotion. The Protestant Reformation enkindled propaganda and press wars that lasted into the 18th century. Broadsheets and newspapers became the new media of public information. The early modern customers would not necessarily be able to write, yet even writing skills spread among apprentices and women of the middle classes. Business owners were forced to adopt methods of written book-keeping and accounting. The personal letter became a favorite medium of communication among 17th-century men and women as many Dutch period paintings show. The prefaces, the escapist subject matter, and a number of satires on the early consumption of fiction show that cheap histories were especially popular among apprentices and younger urban readers of both sexes. See [Johann Friedrich Riederer] German satire on the wide spread reading of novels and romances: "Satyra von den Liebes-Romanen", in: Die abentheuerliche Welt in einer Pickelheerings-Kappe, vol. 2 ([Nürnberg,] 1718). online edition Norris' and Bettesworth's 1719 edition of The Seven Famous Champions of Christendom—itself a mixture of legend and romance—ended with a look on the entire spectrum of books the publishers would provide in their shops on London Bridge, a famous location where those who left the city provided themselves with reading materials: At the afore-mentioned Place, all Country Chapmen may be furnished with all Sorts of Bibles, Commonprayers, Testaments, Psalters, Primers and Horn-books; Likewise all Sorts of three Sheets Histories, Penny Histories, and Sermons; and Choice of new and old Ballads, at reasonable Rates. The Illustrious and Renown'd History of the Seven Famous Champions of Christendom (London: T. Norris/ A. Bettesworth, 1719), p.164-168. See :de:Volksbuch for a longer excerpt of the publisher's backlist. The new market was disregarded by scholars. The texts were offered with promises of great erudition—to an audience that would not know to distinguish between erudition and the misleading advertisement. The subject matter was extremely conservative. The bestsellers of this market—books like Till Eulenspiegel, The Seven Wise Masters, Don Belianis of Greece, Dr. Faustus, The London Prentice, or Sir John Mandeville's Voyages—went through innumerable editions between 1500 and 1800. One would not buy these books because they were modern and fashionable, but because they were the famous books one had always read and every one had heard of, so the prefaces. The design of these books deteriorated. The texts were copied without much editorship. Standard woodcut illustrations were repeated, often even within a single book, wherever the plot allowed such repetition. The illustrations began to show peculiar style mixes as the printer's stocks grew: Early 18th-century editions of 16th-century titles would mix woodcuts of 16th-century knights in armor with equally crude depictions 18th-century courtiers wearing wigs. The early modern modern market divide that created a field of low chapbooks and an alternative market segment of expensive fashionable, elegant belles lettres can be traced back into the 1530s and 1540s. The Amadis and Rablais' Gargantua and Pantagruel were the most important publications that lead into this divide—both books that specifically addressed the new customers of popular histories. The Amadis was a multi volume fictional history of style, so the advertisements, and aroused a debate of style and elegance as it fanned the first reading craze on the market of printed fiction. Gargantua and Pantagruel had the design of the modern popular history only to satirize its stylistic achievements. The ensuing debate created a gap between "truly elegant" fictions and the conservative bulk of chapbooks. The market divide became especially visible with books that appeared on both markets in the course of the 17th and 18th centuries: The low market eventually included abridgments of classy books from Miguel Cervantes' Don Quixote (1605/1615) The history of the ever-renowned knight Don Quixote de la Mancha containing his many wonderful and admirable atchievements and adventures (London: W.O./ H.) is an example here, Wing: 1522:14, today in the possession of the British Library. The title appeared around 1695 without a date, so that it could be sold over any period of time without appearing to be a shelf warmer. The plot was condensed to a mere 24 pages. The prestigious Peter Motteux edition published in 1706 consisted of (to show the contrast) four volumes each of 400 pages. to the mutilations of Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719), which infuriated the author with their claim to offer the entire plot without the tedious reflections for but half the price. The first of these editions was the so called "Amsterdam Coffee House Edition" published by T. Cox on on August 1, 1719. The original Publisher, Taylor, threatened to sue Cox and his customers in The St. James Post (7 August 1719), and repeated his threats in the 2nd edition of vol. 2. Cox replied in the The Flying Post (29 October 1719). See H. C. Hutchins, Robinson Crusoe and Its Printing (New York: Columbia University Press, 1925), p.99-100/ 142-45. The cheap abridgments openly addressed an audience that neither had the money nor the courage to buy books with engravings and fine print. The prefaces of the abridgements promised shorter sentences, more action and less reflection, and the title for half the money. The Contes des fées the Comtesse D'Aunois had published in 1698 sold in an English chapbook abridgment with all these promises of the simplified and cheaper reading matter—the translator in the preface: "I did not attempt this with a Design to follow exactly the French Copy, nor have any regard to our English Translation; which to me, are both tedious and irksome. Nor have I begun some of it many Years since: But to make it portable for your walking Diversion, and less Chargeable: and chiefly to set aside the Distances of Sentences and Words, which not only dissolve the Memory, but keep the most nice and material Intrigues, from a close Connexion." The History of the Tales of the Fairies. Newly done from the French (London: E. Tracy, 1716), fol. Arv. The gradual differentiation between fact and fiction that affected the market of the belles lettres in the 17th and 18th centuries barely touched the low market. One could wonder whether the apprentices and peasants who read such books cared about the status King Arthur, St. George or Julius Caesar had in the historian's eye. William Caxton’s preface to Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d'Arthur (1485) set the tone that would allow Sir John Mandeville's Voyages of the 1360s to continue to be published as a true account of Eastern wonders until the end of the 18th century. Heroic romances of style and fashion, 1530-1720 By the 1550s there existed a section of literature (scientific books) addressing the academic audience and a second market of books for the wider audience with a growing differentiation of class and style. Whilst the lowest strata created an extremely conservative market its antagonist the "belles lettres" showed a particular design aiming at elegance and style which neither chapbooks nor learned publications would aspire that clearly. The very term "belles lettres" spoke of the ambition to leave the field of low books and to reach the realm of the sciences, "literature", "les lettres". Polite literature, galante Wissenschaften (that is sciences addressing both sexes and all readers of taste) were the English and German terminological equivalents. The use of a French loan word marked the international aspect of the development. The belles lettres comprised poetry, memoirs, modern politics, books of fashion, journals, and such. Autobiographical memoirs, personal journals and prose fiction set the trend in the modern field as the genres that authors could most freely use for experiments of style and personal expression. The evolution of prose fiction needed the elegant market, a market of changing styles and fashions, and it found its central critical debate with the publication of the Amadis de Gaula in the 1530s. Two questions moved into the centre of the debate as Spanish, French and German translations and imitations flooded the European market. See Hilkert Weddige, Die "Historien vom Amadis auss Franckreich": Dokumentarische Grundlegung zur Entstehung und Rezeption (Beitrage zur Literatur des XV. bis XVIII. Jahrhunderts ; vol. 2) (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1975). The first was a question of style and fashion: the Amadis had moved back into the Arthurian Middle Ages, into a world of quests, knights and adventures, though it had turned its princes and princesses into paragons of style and elegance. Was this what one had to expect of modern prose fiction? The second problem was connected with the unprecedented public reaction: the Amadis became the object of a widespread reading craze. Could a market of style and distinguished taste allow such a development? By 1600 the Amadis had become the detested epitome of the modern romance. A search for alternative subject matters had begun. The biographies of Greek and Roman historians became the most important source here. Heliodorus' romances were to be followed in matters of style and composition, See on the early modern reception of Greek romances: Georges Molinié, Du roman grec au roman baroque. Un art majeur du genre narratif en France sous Louis XIII (Toulouse, Presses universitaires du Mirail, 1995). whilst the heroes turned from knights to princes and princesses acting now in ancient courts. The standard plot of adventures gave way to a new plot of love facing intrigues, attacks, rivalry and adversity. A new art of character observation unfolded. The works that gained the greatest fame—Honoré d'Urfé's L'Astrée (1607-27), John Barclay's Argenis (1625-26), Madeleine de Scudéry′s ‚Clelie or Anton Ulrich von Braunschweig's Römischer Octavia (Octavia the Roman, 1679-1714)—were esteemed both as explorations of the ancient world and as works one would read with an interest in modern life. They encapsulated present histories clad in ancient costumes and dove into the realm of the roman à clef, the novel readers would decipher with a key that betrayed who was who within this fictional world. The present fashions of courtly conduct could in the event be found nowhere in such perfection as in these seemingly historical romances. Readers used them as models for their own elegant compliments, letters, and speeches. The genre had much in common with the production of French and Italian operas in the same period. It found trivializations with a special brand of escapist "Asian" Romances which led into the ancient empires of Assyria, Persia, India. The latter were particularly fashionable among urban female French and German readers of the younger generation, who would dream of sharing the escapes of princesses from all sorts of adversities. The individual European markets reacted differently on these fashions. The craving had a particularly short life in England where it began in the 1650s only to end in the 1670s, as these romantic plots fell out of fashion. Satirical romances, 1500-1780 Stories of witty cheats were an integral part of the European novella with its tradition of fabliaux. Several collections knitted such stories to individual heroes who developed personal and national features. Germany’s Till Eulenspiegel (1510) was the hero of chapbooks in and outside Germany. The Spanish Lazarillo de Tormes (1554) represented a transition from a collection of episodes towards the story of the life of a central character, the hero of the work. Grimmelshausen’s Simplicissimus Teutsch (1666-1668) took a further step along this path, as its hero experienced recent world history, in this case the history of the Thirty Years' War that had devastated Germany. Richard Head's The English Rogue (1665) is rooted in this tradition (the English preface mentions the precedents; the German translation that appeared in 1672 sold the book as an English equivalent of the German Simplicissimus). The tradition that developed with these titles focused on a hero and his life. The adventures led to satirical encounters with the real world with the hero either becoming the pitiable victim or the rogue who exploited the vices of those he met. A second tradition of satirical romances can be traced back to Heinrich Wittenwiler’s Ring (c. 1410) and to François Rabelais’ Gargantua and Pantagruel (1532-1564). It was rather designed to parody and satirize heroic romances, and did this mostly by dragging them into the low realm of the burlesque. Cervantes’ Don Quixote (1606/1615) modified the satire of romances: its hero lost contact with reality by reading too many romances in the Amadisian tradition. Both branches of satirical production seem to have addressed a predominantly male audience (women are despicable victims in titles like Head’s The English Rogue). They found the appreciation of critics as long as they revealed the weaknesses of the Amadis. The critics otherwise deplored that the satires could not offer alternatives. Other important works of the tradition are Paul Scarron’s Roman Comique with its explicit discussions of the market of fictions, the anonymous French Rozelli with its satire on Europe’s religions, Alain-René Lesage’s Gil Blas (1715-1735), Henry Fielding’s Joseph Andrews (1742) and Tom Jones (1749), and Denis Diderot’s Jacques the Fatalist (1773, printed posthumously in 1796). Compare also: Günter Berger, Der komisch-satirische Roman und seine Leser. Poetik, Funktion und Rezeption einer niederen Gattung im Frankreich des 17. Jahrhunderts (Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, 1984), Ellen Turner Gutiérrez The reception of the picaresque in the French, English, and German traditions (P. Lang, 1995), and Frank Palmeri, Satire, History, Novel: Narrative Forms, 1665-1815 (University of Delaware Press, 2003). “Petites histoires” or “novels”, 1600-1740 William Congreve, Incognita (1692) The term novel—today in a twisted history (see below) connected with the appearance of Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1719)—has been present on the market since the 16th century. William Painter's Palace of Pleasure well furnished with pleasaunt Histories and excellent Novelles (1566) was the first English title to use it. Compared with "romances", "novelles", "novellas" or "novels" (all these words meant the same, "novel" became the standard term in the 1650s) had to be short. They had to give up all aspirations on grandeur, heroism and the style romantic heroes and their actions required. "Romances" focused on lonely heroes and their adventures, "novels" on revealing incidents that could serve as examples for moral maxims. The titles of "romances" put the their respective heroes' and heroines' names front and centre: "Artamene", "Clelie" were the heroes of "heroic romances". "Satirical romances" did the same with their lower class protagonists. The additional "Adventures of" would later emphasize the focus on acts of heroism. The titles of "novels" preferred a two part formula "[...] or [...]" in order to state the value of the incident related. William Congreve's Incognita or Love and Duty Reconcil'd (1692) was typical in this respect. The protagonists of "novels" were actors in a plot, in an intrigue, and it was the plot that gave the example and taught the vital lessons. These protagonists could be average human beings without any special signs of grandeur, neither comical nor imitable but of the same nature as their readers; they would by and large show problematic character traits. See Camille Esmein, "Construction et démolition du 'héros de roman' au XVIIe siècle", La fabrique du personnage ed. by Françoise Lavocat, Claude Murcia, Régis Salado (Paris: Honoré Champion éditeur, 2007). Unlike romances, the protagonists were not role models: instead, the surprising results of their actions taught the lessons. The rise of the "novel" as the major alternative to the antiquated "romance" began with the publication of Cervantes Novelas Exemplares (1613). It unfolded with Scarron’s Roman Comique, whose heroes noted a rivalry of French "romances" and the new Spanish genre. France had to find, Scarron wrote at the time, its own brand of short stories. See Paul Scarron, The Comical Romance, Chapter XXI. "Which perhaps will not be found very Entertaining" (London, 1700) with its call for the new genre. online edition Late 17th-century critics looked back onto the history of prose fiction proud of the generic shift towards the modern novel/novella. See [Du Sieur,] „Sentimens sur l’histoire“ in: Sentimens sur les lettres et sur l’histoire, avec des scruples sur le stile (Paris: C. Blageart, 1680) online edition and Camille Esmein's Poétiques du roman. Scudéry, Huet, Du Plaisir et autres textes théoriques et critiques du XVIIe siècle sur le genre romanesque (Paris, 2004). A wave of “petites histoires” or “nouvelles historiques” See: René Godenne, "L'association 'nouvelle – petit roman' entre 1650 et 1750", CAIEF, n°18, 1966, p.67-78, Roger Guichemerre, "La crise du roman et l'épanouissement de la nouvelle (1660-1690)", Cahiers de l'U.E.R. Froissart, n°3, 1978, p.101-106, Ellen J. Hunter-Chapco, Theory and practice of the “petit roman” in France (1656-1683): Segrais, Du Plaisir, Madame de Lafayette (University of Regina, 1978), and the two volumes of La Nouvelle de langue française aux frontières des autres genres, du Moyen-Âge à nos jours, vol. 1 (Ottignies: 1997), vol. 2 (Louvain, 2001). had replaced the old romances. The first perfect works in French were those of Scarron and Madame de La Fayette’s “Spanish history” Zayde (1670). The development finally led to her Princesse de Clèves (1678), the first novel with what would become characteristic French subject matter (Marie de LaFayette’s authorship remained a secret, though, over the next decades). Europe witnessed the generic shift with the titles Dutch francophone publishers supplied on the international market. English publishers exploited the novel/romance controversy in the 1670s and 1680s. See Robert Ignatius Letellier, The English novel, 1660-1700: an annotated bibliography (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997). The word “novel” began to replace the word “romance” on title pages in the 1680s. Contemporary critics listed the advantages of the new genre: brevity, a lack of ambition to produce epic poetry in prose. The style was fresh and plain; the focus was on modern life and on heroes who were neither good nor bad. One learned through their actions, not by imitating them. See the preface to The Secret History of Queen Zarah (Albigion, 1705)– the English version of Abbe Bellegarde, "Lettre à une Dame de la Cour, qui lui avoit demandé quelques Reflexions sur l’Histoire" in: Lettres curieuses de littérature et de morale (La Haye: Adrian Moetjens, 1702) online edition The novel’s potential to become the medium of urban gossip and scandal fueled the rise of the novel/novella. The authors of modern journalistic gossip spiced their works with short anonymized histories. The stories were offered as allegedly true recent histories, not for the sake of scandal but strictly for the moral lessons they gave. To prove this, one would read fictionalized names (and read the true names in separate keys). The Mercure Gallant set the fashion in the 1670s. DeJean, Joan. The Essence of Style: How the French Invented Fashion, Fine Food, Chic Cafés, Style, Sophistication, and Glamour (New York: Free Press, 2005). Collections of letters and memoirs appeared, and were filled with the intriguing new subject matter. The epistolary novel grew on this market and found its first full blown example of scandalous fiction with Aphra Behn’s Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister (1684/ 1685/ 1687). The development led to Eliza Haywood's epic length “novel” Love in Excess (1719/20) and then to Samuel Richardson's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1741), essentially a novel with its typical two part title: naming the story and promising its value as an example. Dubious and scandalous histories, 1660-1720 The entire market of early modern fiction remained part of the wider production of (potentially dubious) histories. A market of "literature" in the modern sense of the word, a market of fiction and poetry, did not exist. "History and politicks" was the rubric early 18th-century term catalogues had in stock for the entire production of pamphlets, memoirs, travel literature, political analysis, serious histories, romances and novels. That fictional histories could share the same space with academic histories and modern journalism had been criticized by historians since the end of the Middle Ages: fictions were "lies" and therefore hardly justifiable at all. The climate had, however, changed, in the 1670s. Paradoxically, the same historians who pleaded for a new era of academic research also pleaded for fiction to stay within the field of histories. The authors who advocated Pyrrhonism did not demand that fictions change. Instead, they demanded that historians should step from the old project of historical narratives to a new project of critical analysis and discussion of sources. See: Markus Völkel's study of the entire debate "Pyrrhonismus historicus' und "Fides historica" (Frankfurt: Lang, 1987). Pierre Bayle exemplified this with all the articles of his Dictionnaire Historique et Critique (1697) and with his statements on the legitimacy of fictions, especially those of the modern political market. See Martin Mulsow, “Pierre Bayles Beziehungen nach Deutschland. Mit einem Anhang: ein unveröffentlichtes Gespräch von Bayle”, Aufklärung 16 (2004), 233-242. online edition of Stolle's notes The production of novels, romances and dubious histories was, according to the modern advocates of the free press, not only embedded in the field of veritable critical histories: it had an important function to fulfill in that field. In a time when factuality was not a sufficient defence against a libel suit, it allowed the publication of histories that could not risk an unambiguous assertion of their truth. The question was not whether one should separate the markets of true and fictional histories but whether one would be able to establish critical discourses to evaluate all the interesting production. The market of the late 17th and early 18th centuries employed a simple pattern of options of how fictions could both be part of the historical production and reach out into the sphere of true histories. The fringes of this pattern flourished as cheap excuses. They allowed it authors to claim they had published fiction, not truth, if they ever faced outright allegations of libel: image positioning <center> <table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="15" width="750" style="margin-left:30px; margin-bottom:10px;"> Probably not that fictitious 3.1Heroical Romances:Fénelon's Telemach (1699) Probably not that factual <tr> <td width="18%" bgcolor="#F3F3F3" valign="top" width="18%" align="left">1Sold as romantic inventions, read as true histories of public affairs: Manley's The New Atalantis (1709)</td> 2Sold as romantic inventions, read as true histories of private affairs: Menantes' Satyrischer Roman (1706) 3.2Classics of the novel from the Arabian Nights to M. de La Fayette's Princesse de Clèves (1678) 4Sold as true private history, risking to be read as romantic invention: Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719) 5 Sold as true public history, risking to be read as romantic invention: La Guerre d'Espagne (1707) </tr> 3.3Satirical Romances:Cervantes' Don Quixote (1605) Olaf Simons: Marteaus Europa oder Der Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde (Amsterdam/ Atlanta: Rodopi, 2001), p.194. </table> </center> Romances of adventures: the title pages of both the English edition of Fénelon's Telemachus (London: E. Curll, 1715) and Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (London: W. Taylor, 1719). Prefaces and title pages of 17th- and early 18th-century fiction acknowledged this pattern: histories could claim to be romances, but threaten to relate true events, as in the roman à clef. Other works could, conversely, claim to be factual histories, yet earn the suspicion that they were wholly invented. A further differentiation was made between private and public history: Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe was, within this pattern, neither “romance” nor “novel”. It smelled—with its title page alluding to Fénelon’s Telemachus (1699/1700)—of romance, whilst the preface stated that one (most certainly) read a true private history: <blockquote> IF ever the Story of any private Man's Adventures in the World were worth making Pvblick, and were acceptable when Publish'd, the Editor of this Account thinks this will be so. The Wonders of this Man's Life exceed all that (he thinks) is to be found extant; the Life of one Man being scarce capable of a greater Variety. The Story is told with Modesty, with Seriousness, and with a religious Application of Events to the Uses to which wise Men always ap[p]ly them (viz.) to the Instruction of others by this Example, and to justify and honor the Wisdom of Providence in all the Variety of our Circumstances, let them happen how they will. The Editor That would be William Taylor, the publisher unless otherwise stated. believes the thing to be a just History of Fact; neither is there any Appearance of Fiction in it: And however thinks, because all such things are dispatch'd Changed to "disputed" in the third edition , that the Improvement of it, as well as the Diversion, as to the Instruction of the Reader, will be the same; Though Taylor has stated that he supposes the account to be "just history of fact" this is a direct rendering of what Horace has said about the aims of poetic fictions: "aut prodesse volunt aut delectare poetae", "to instruct and to delight, that is what poets are aiming at", Ars Poetica verse 333. and as such he thinks, without farther Compliment to the World, he does them a great Service in the Publication. Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe (London: W. Taylor, 1719) online edition. </blockquote> Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe did not use the twilight to spread political insinuations; the hardly credible account did, however, offer the alternative of a deeper allegorical reading. Other authors proved the practical value of the pattern. Delarivier Manley–under interrogation after the publication of her scandalous Atalantis (1709)–replied that she had written a work of sheer romance, a fairy tale located on the famous fictional island. If the ruling Whigs wanted to prove that all her stories matched a scandalous truth of their own actions, they might venture a libel case. The authoress was released and continued her insinuations with three more volumes of proclaimed romance published during the next two years. See Delarivier Manley's account of the affair in her Adventures of Rivella (London: E. Curl, 1714), p.114. online edition Whilst journalists continued to defend the dubious production (relying on the enlightened audience's ability to read with the necessary grain of skepticism if not with amusement), the defenders of public morals demanded an entirely new organization of the market, one that isolated fiction. This was the market the 18th century was to establish. From dubious history to literature: The 18th-century market reform The Rise of the Novel The 18th-century rise of the novel Ian Watt's, The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding (London, 1957) set the phrase and inspired a number of ensuing publications. Major titles are here John J. Richetti, Popular Fiction before Richardson. Narrative Patterns 1700-1739 (1969), Lennard J. Davis, Factual Fictions: The Origins of the English Novel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), J. Paul Hunter, Before Novels: The Cultural Contexts of Eighteenth-Century English Fiction (New York: Norton, 1990), Margaret Anne Doody, The True Story of the Novel (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), and the volumes Eighteenth Century Fiction brought out under the title "Reconsidering The Rise of the Novel" (the first of them appeared in January-April 2000, the second is supposed appear in 2009). Research in Aphra Behn, Dealrivier Manley and Eliza Haywood has changed the picture since the 1970s with a focus on the two generations of female authors who dominated the stage into the 1720s. Major studies and text editions have been provided here by Patricia Köster, Ros Ballaster, Janet Todd and Patrick Spedding. A compound story is here Josephine Donovan, Women and the Rise of the Novel, 1405-1726 revised edition (Palgrave Macmillan, 2000). is a compound of several stories. One is a story of statistics. English readers of the late 17th and early 18th centuries were offered a total of some 2,000 to 3,000 titles per year. The numbers had risen dramatically after the abolition of the Star Chamber in 1641. The simple title count gives, however, a distorted picture as it places theological and political pamphlets of short term effect on the same level with editions of books printed to sell over several years. Statistics of the French and German markets have their own distortions: French numbers are comparatively higher due to the fact that Dutch publishers (re-)printed French books for the international market. French was Europe’s lingua franca and the language of international politics and fashions. Germany’s book trade was large but divided between Protestant and Catholic states. The former had arranged for a wider exchange at Leipzig’s fairs. The academic production in Latin was comparatively large on the continent due to the importance continental universities had gained as providers of careers. Literature in the modern sense was of marginal importance all over Europe until the end of the 18th century. In the Western markets some two to five percent of the total production fell into the categories of poetry and dubious or elegant historical works that were later united under the new heading literature. To give the numbers for the English production: The fictional output remained here at 20 to 60 titles per year in the beginning of the 18th century depending on how one accounts for the wider market of histories. French, German and Dutch statistics are comparable. See the statistics Inger Leemans offers for the Dutch and French production, Het woord is aan de onderkant: radicale ideeën in Nederlandse pornografische romans 1670 - 1700 (Nijmegen: Vantilt, 2002), S.359-364. See also for an overview of the German and English early 18th-century production: The eastern and southern European neighbors largely subscribed to the international market. The Western European output of literature in the modern sense rose significantly in the course of the 18th century; the growth rates stabilised in the 1740s. A change in the public appreciation supported that growth and was reflected by the growing media coverage of new works. Cultural status and place Fiction was no longer a predominantly aristocratic entertainment around 1700. The Provençal 12th-century romances and their imitations had already attracted urban connoisseurs who had had the financial means to commission bigger manuscripts in the 14th and 15th centuries. Printed books had soon gained the power to reach readers of almost all classes, the reading habits differed. To follow fashions remained a privilege. Spain was a trendsetter into the 1630s; French authors superseded Cervantes, de Quevedo, and Alemán in the 1640s. As Huet was to note in 1670, the change was one of manners. "We owe (I believe) this Advantage to the Refinement and Politeness of our Gallantry; which proceeds, in my Opinion, from the great Liberty which the Men of France allow to the Ladies. They are in a manner Recluses in Italy and Spain; and separated from Men by so many Obstacles, that they are scarce to be seen, and not to be spoken with at all. Hence the Men have neglected the Art of Engaging the Tender Sex, because the Occasions of it are so rare. All the Study and Business there, is to surmount the Difficulties of Access; when this is effected, they make Use of the Time, without amusing themselves with Forms. But in France, the Ladies go at large upon their Parole; and being under no Custody but that of their own Heart, erect it into a Fort, more strong and secure than all the Keys, Grates, and Vigilance of the Douegnas. The Men are obliged to make a Regular and Formal Assault against this Fort, to employ so much Industry and Address to reduce it, that they have formed it into an Art scarce known to other Nations. 'Tis this Art which distinguishes the French from other Romances, and renders the Reading of them so Delicious, that they cause more Profitable Studies to be neglected." Pierre Daniel Huet, The History of Romances, transl. by Stephen Lewis (London: J. Hooke/ T. Caldecott, 1715), p.138-140. The new French works taught a new, on the surface freer, gallant exchange between the sexes as the essence of life at the French court. Aristocratic and bourgeois customers sought distinctly French authors to offer the authentic style of conversations in the 1660s. The situation changed again from 1660s into the 1690s: the French market split. Dutch publishers See for the following: Christiane Berkvens-Stevelinck, H. Bots, P. G. Hoftijzer (eds.), Le Magasin de L'univers: The Dutch Republic as the Centre of the European Book Trade: Papers Presented at the International Colloquium, Held at Wassenaar, 5-7 July 1990 (Leiden/ Boston, MA: Brill, 1992). began to sell works by French authors, published out of the reach of French censors. The publishing houses of The Hague and Amsterdam also pirated the entire Parisian production of fashionable books and thus created a new market of political and scandalous fictions and European fashions. Composers Corelli and Vivaldi sent their sheet music from Italy to Étienne Roger in Amsterdam in order to reach a wider European audience. The same Roger published Renneville's L'inquisition Françoise (1715). In the year of its publication, the latter work was available both in an English version published in London and a German version published in Nuremberg. Books of the period boasted of their fame on the international market and of the existence of intermediate translations. "Written originally in Italian and translated from the third edition of the French" one read in imitation of this craze on title page of Manley's New Atalantis in 1709. A market of European rather than French fashions had arrived in the early 18th century. See also the article on Pierre Marteau for a profile of the European production of (not only) political scandal. By the 1680s the fashionable political European production had inspired a second wave of private scandalous publications and generated new productions of local importance. Women authors reported on politics and on their private love affairs in The Hague and in London. German students imitated them and used the relative anonymity they enjoyed in far smaller towns like Jena, Halle and Leipzig, to boast of their private amours in fiction. See George Ernst Reinwalds Academien- und Studenten-Spiegel (Berlin: J. A. Rüdiger, 1720), p.424-427 and the novels written by such "authors" as Celander, Sarcander, and Adamantes at the beginning of the 18th century. The market of the metropolis London, the anonymous international market of the Netherlands, the urban markets of Hamburg and Leipzig generated new public spheres. The standard study, though problematic with its theory of historical delays, is here Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry Into a Category of Bourgeois Society [1962], translated by Thomas Burger (MIT Press, 1991). Once private individuals—students of university towns and daughters of London's upper class posing on the title pages anonymously under announcements like "Written by a Young Lady"—began to use the novel as platform on which they could openly reevaluate their questionable reputations, the public began to call for a reformation of manners. The Entertainments of Gallantry: or Remedies for Love. Familiarly discours'd, by a society of persons of quality (London: J. Morphew, 1712) celebrate how easy it has become for private individuals to write little novels—the entire book wants to prove this in the End. For criticism of the new production see the Entertainments p.74-77, Jane Barker's preface to her Exilius (London: E. Curll, 1715), online edition, and George Ernst Reinwalds Academien- und Studenten-Spiegel (Berlin: J. A. Rüdiger, 1720), p.424-427. The reform became the main goal of the second generation of 18th-century novelists who, by the mid-century, openly welcomed the change of climate that had first been promoted in journals such as The Spectator (No. 10 of The Spectator had stated the aim "to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality… to bring philosophy out of the closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables and coffeehouses"). Constructive criticism of novels had until then hardly left the world of fiction. See for a European perspective: Hugh Barr Nisbet, Claude Rawson (eds.), The Cambridge history of literary criticism, vol. IV (Cambridge: UP, 1997); for greater detail Ernst Weber, Texte zur Romantheorie: (1626-1781), 2 vols. (München: Fink, 1974/ 1981) and the individual volumes of Dennis Poupard (et al.), Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800: Critical Discussion of the Works of Fifteenth-, Sixteenth-, Seventeenth-, and Eighteenth-Century Novelists, Poets, Playwrights, Philosophers, and Other Creative Writers (Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research Co, 1984 ff.). The first treatise on the history of the novel had appeared as a preface to a novel, Marie de La Fayette's Zayde (1670). "Literary journals" devoted to the sciences could not easily switch to devote themselves to belles lettres. See: Siegfried Seifert, "The learned periodical as the medium of current literary criticism and information in 18th-century Germany", Transactions of the 7th International Congress on the Enlightenment, 2 (1988), p.661-63. A distinct secondary discourse developed with a wave of entertaining new journals like The Spectator and The Tatler at the beginning of the century. New "literary journals" like Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's Briefe, die neuste Literatur betreffend (1758) added to this production in the middle of the century with the offer of new, scientific reviews of art and fiction. By the 1780s, critical public reception constituted a new marketing platform for fiction, and authors and publishers recognized it as such. One could write to satisfy the old market or one could address the authors of secondary criticism and gain an audience through their discussions. It would take yet another generation for the novel to arrive in the curricula of school and university education. By the end of the 18th century, the public perception of the place of a particular novel was no longer supplied simply by social status and fashionable geographical provenance, but by critical media attention. Realism and art The term "literary realism" is regularly applied to 19th-century fiction. The novels Defoe, Richardson and Fielding wrote between 1719 and the 1750s can be read as precursors. Research of the last decades has, however, contested views that it was Robinson Crusoe's realism that ended the sway of "French baroque romances". Ian Watt's The Rise of the Novel (London, 1957) established the standard connections between Defoe, Richardson and Fielding and the 19th-century emergence of literary realism. J. Davis's, Factual Fictions: The Origins of the English Novel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983) and J. Paul Hunter's Before Novels: The Cultural Contexts of Eighteenth-Century English Fiction (New York: Norton, 1990) substantiated the connection. Feminist research on Defoe's precursors, research on female authors from Aphra Behn and Delarivier Manley revised the picture and coincided with research in the market of French late 17th century (fictional) memoirs and histories. See e.g. Gustave Reynier, Le Roman réaliste au XVIIe siècle [1914] (Genève: Slatkine Reprints, 1971), Roger Francillon, "Fiction et réalité dans le roman français de la fin du XVIIe siècle", Saggi e ricerche di letteratura francese, vol. XVII, (1978), p.99-130, and Günter Berger, "Histoire et fiction dans les pseudo-mémoires de l'âge classique: dilemme du roman ou dilemme de l'historiographie?", Perspectives de la recherche sur le genre narratif français du XVIIe siècle, actes du colloque de Pavie (octobre 1998), Pise-Genève, Edizioni Ets–Éditions Slatkine n° 8 (2000). p.213-226. Madeleine de Scudéry's "romances" had not been completely unrealistic; Keys had circulated with them. See on connections between the heroical romance and French historical fiction: Camille Esmein, "Le roman héroïque (1640-1680), première théorisation d'un roman historique" in Fiction narrative et hybridation générique dans la littérature française ed. by Hélène Baby (L'Harmattan, 2006). They had left the market nonetheless in the 1670s, defeated by the more realistic "novels" that appeared then. The ensuing production had broadly encroached upon the news market: Delarivier Manley's Atalantis was reviewed by a German academic journal in 1713 as work of contemporary public history. See the serious political review of Manley's New Atalantis the Deutsche Acta Eruditorum (1713), vol. 9, p.771-779, and vol. 14, p.112-115. online edition Christian Friedrich Hunold fled Hamburg in 1706 after his Satyrischer Roman had depicted the city's elegant urban life as a place of scandal. See Benjamin Wedel, Geheime Nachrichten und Briefe von Herrn Menantes Leben und Schriften (Cologne: Oelscher, 1731, reprint: Zentralantiquariat der DDR, Leipzig 1977). The French pseudo histories connected today with names such as Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras (1644-1712) had become even more radical in their realism: they had depicted the real world with a detail historians remain unable to deactivate as "merely fiction". Jean Lombard, Courtilz de Sandras et la crise du roman à la fin du Grand Siècle (Paris: PUF, 1980). It has been noted that Defoe's Robinson Crusoe followed Alexander Selkirk's "true" account. Compare John Howell, The life and adventures of Alexander Selkirk: Containing the Real Incidents Upon which the Romance of Robinson Crusoe is Founded (Oliver & Boyd, 1829) and Diana Souhami, Selkirk's Island: The True and Strange Adventures of the Real Robinson Crusoe (Harcourt, 2002). and that Crusoe's style of writing recycled modes of the Protestant spiritual autobiography. See George Alexander Starr, Defoe and Spiritual Autobiography (Princeton: University Press, 1964). The presentation of his book had its own models, however, much rather in the contemporary French pseudo histories. See Wilhelm Füger, Die Entstehung des historischen Romans aus der fiktiven Biographie in Frankreich und England, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von Courtilz de Sandras und Daniel Defoe (Munich, 1963). René Auguste Constantin de Renneville's report of his imprisonment in the Bastille had appeared in English with Defoe's publisher William Taylor four years earlier. Renneville had promised: "Lives and strange Adventures of several Prisoners", Crusoe risked the focus on himself: "The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe". An imprisonment of 11 years had been Renneville's bargain, Crusoe made it 28 years. Renneville's English translator had complained of an author who was "not always in a Temper; sometimes he is all Piety and Godliness, and then again flies out into a Romantick Strain." See: The French Inquisition: or, The History of the Bastille in Paris [...] written by Constantin de Renneville (London: A. Bell/ T. Varnham/ J. Osborne/ W. Taylor/ J. Baker, 1715), fol. A2r-v. Crusoe's "editor" Taylor repeated these complaints before the sailor himself raised his voice with the greatest inconsistencies imaginable, claiming that he was both, most real and healthy (though 84 years of age) and a man of an allegorical truth with which he stood on one level with Don Quixote, a hero of a roman à clef (so Crusoe), and Jesus Christ who had resorted to allegories and parables in order to reach his audience. See Crusoe's own preface to the third volume of his work. Robinson Crusoe was serialized as possibly true history by The Original London Post; Volume 1 was reprinted in The Original London Post, or Heathcot's Intelligence, numbers 125-202 (London: 7 October 1719 - 30 March 1720), volume 2 followed with numbers 203-89 (London, 1 April - 18 October 1720). The advertisement for W. Taylor's edition of the second part in no. 202 implies that this was no pirated edition. It is rather likely that Taylor and Defoe allowed the serialization to the disadvantage of the rival pirate publishers. and it became the work of creative literature Jean-Jacques Rousseau could finally praise in his Émile, ou De l'éducation in 1762. See Wyatt James Dowling, Science, "Robinson Crusoe", and judgment: A commentary on Book III of Rousseau's "Emile" [Boston College Dissertation] (2007). online edition. One can note a balance of opposing developments here: The 18th century witnessed the rise of increasingly realistic fictions while both, authors and critics defined the entire field of fictions as distinct from the historical. The development de-scandalised the market: Valuable fictions defended a higher truth, a truth beyond the flat, factual and historical truth of every-day experience. Theories of aesthetics praised the "imitation of nature" and the artist's almost divine power to create worlds of a deeper significance in the second half of the 18th century. The previous conflict between historians and romancers was thus finally resolved: Valuable Fictions and true histories became two fields the modern nations needed. Literary journals and literary histories became the privileged media of a new analysis of literary art—the development that has been noted above as one of status and that eventually caused the 19th century conceptual change of the word literature. See the beginning of the 19th-century chapter for a look back onto the process and for secondary literature. The market divide that led to the modern trivial production in the second half of the 18th century was the by product of this process. The rise of pornography beginning in the 1750s is an early sign for that divide. The words “novel” and “romance” The change of words, the rise of the word “novel” at the cost of the rivaling “romance”, remained a Spanish and English phenomenon. Readers all over western Europe had welcomed the novel(la) or short history as an alternative in the second half of the 17th century. Only the English and the Spanish had, however, openly discredited the old production. The change of taste remained a temporal phenomenon. Fénelon's Telemachus (1699/1700) already exploited a nostalgia for the old production of heroism and professed virtue. Jane Barker explicitly advertised her Exilius as "A new Romance", "written after the Manner of Telemachus" in 1715 to which she added a preface on the scandalous new production one had to get rid of. See the preface to her Exilius (London: E. Curll, 1715), online edition Robinson Crusoe spoke of his own book as a "romance" though he preferred, of course, readers to believe he was utterly real. See the preface to his third volume published in 1720 where he attacks all who said "that[..] the Story is feign'd, that the Names are borrow'd, and that it is all a Romance; that there never were any such Man or Place..." The term "novel" first peaked on the English market in the 1680s, when the novel(la) manifested itself as the alternative to the older "romance". It lost its attractiveness with ensuing scandalous production in the twilight between truth and fiction. The 1720s saw a second peak of "novels" with the first editions of classics of the genre and with new large scale "novels" in the style Eliza Haywood wrote. In the mid-18th century it was no longer clear whether the market had not simply developed two terms: "romance" as the generic term, "novel" as the term for the fashionable production that focused on modern life. The late 18th-century brought an answer with the "romantic" movement's readiness to reclaim the word "romance" as term for explicitly grotesque and distant fictional settings. Robinson Crusoe became a "novel" in that period The terminological fixation cannot be dated. John Howell used the word "romance" in 1829 in the title of his The life and adventures of Alexander Selkirk: Containing the Real Incidents Upon which the Romance of Robinson Crusoe is Founded (Oliver & Boyd, 1829). The word "novel" had by that time referred to Robinson Crusoe on the very same ground with the publication of Providence displayed: or, the remarkable adventures of Alexander Selkirk [...] whose adventures was founded the celebrated novel of Robinson Crusoe (Bristol: I. James etc., 1800). appearing now as a work of the new realism of fiction the 18th century had brought forth. The term "romance" was eventually restricted to love stories in the course of the 19th century. Legitimating the novel: World Classics, 1670-1830 Classics of the novel from the 16th century onwards: title page of A Select Collection of Novels (1720–22). Pierre Daniel Huet's Traitté de l'origine des romans (1670) laid the ground for the early 18th-century market in classics of the novel. The theologian had not only dared to praise fictions; he had also explained techniques of theological reading, the interpretation of fictions: The interpretation of worldly fictions was a novelty. Huet had gone, however, into this direction with a longer preparation. His De interpretatione libri duo, quorum prior est de optimo genere interpretandi alter de claris interpretibus (1661) had by 1670 become one of the greatest works in the field of theological interpretation. one could read novels and romances to gain insight into foreign and distant cultures (and into one’s own culture), once one viewed them as something produced to achieve aims and to satisfy consumers. Christ had used parables to teach; ancient Milesians had used them to arouse sexual fantasies; France produced them at present to test the options of a less inhibited conversation between the sexes. See the extended excerpt of Stephen Lewis 1715 edition at Traitté de l'origine des romans (1670) for the collection of these statements and further literature. The decades around 1700 saw the appearance of new editions of Petronius, The Works of T. Petronius Arbiter [...] second edition [...] made English by Mr. Wilson, Mr. Burnaby, Mr. Blount, Mr. Tho. Brown, Capt Ayloff, and several others (London: S. Briscoe/ J. Woodward/ J. Morphew, 1710). Lucian The Works of Lucian, translated from the Greek, by several eminent hands, 2 vols. (London: S. Briscoe/ J. Woodward/ J. Morphew, 1711). and Heliodorus of Emesa. See The Adventures of Theagenes and Chariclia [...] written originally in Greek by Heliodorus Bishop of Tricca, in the Fourth Century, 2 vols. (London: W. Taylor/ E. Curll/ R. Gosling/ J. Hooke/ J. Browne/ J. Osborn, 1717). The publishers equipped them with prefaces that referred to Huet’s treatise A tongue in cheek reference to Huet can be found in The German Rogue: or, The Life and Merry Adventures, Cheats, Stratagems, And Contrivances of Tiel Eulespiegle [...] Made English from the High-Dutch (London, 1720), a German chapbook offered in the new design of a classic according to Huet. and the canon it had established. Exotic fictions entered the market to give insight into the Islamic frame of mind. One read The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (first published in Europe from 1704 to 1715 in French, and translated immediately from this edition into English and German) as a contribution to Huet's history of romances. August Bohse's (alias Talander) preface to the German edition starting in 1710 offers the link between the Arabian Nights and Huet. See: Die Tausend und eine Nacht [...] erstlich vom Hrn. Galland, der Kön. Academie Mitgliede, aus der arabischen Sprache in die frantzösische, und aus selbiger anitzo ins Teutsche übersetzt: erster und anderer Theil. Mit einer Vorrede von Talandern (Leipzig: J. L. Gleditsch/ M. G. Weidmann, 1710). New classics added to the market: The English Select Collection of Novels in six volumes (1720–22) is a milestone in this development, including Huet's Treatise with the European tradition of the modern novel (that is, novella) from Machiavelli's to Marie de LaFayette's masterpieces. Aphra Behn's prose fictions had appeared as "novels" in the 1680s and were reprinted in collections of her works which turned the scandalous authoress into a modern classic. Fénelon's Telemachus (1699/1700) became a classic within three years after its publication. New authors entered the market ready to use their personal names as producers of fiction: Eliza Haywood thus followed the footsteps of Aphra Behn in 1719 using her name with unprecedented pride. "The reformation of manners", 1678–1790 Samuel Richardson's Pamela (1741). The production of classics allowed the novel to gain a past, prestige and a canon. It called at the same moment for a present production of equal merits. A wave of mid-18th-century works that proclaimed their intent to propagate improved moral values gave critics modern novels they could discuss publicly. Instead of banning novels, the efforts at reformation of manners that had begun in the 1690s now led to their reform. Female authors and heroines were the first affected by the development. Madame d'Aulnoy and Delarivier Manley became notorious examples of a bygone age of impudence. They had washed their dirty linen in public and used their novels to reinvent themselves and convert their own notoriety into fame. The new female heroines had to show intimacy and sensitivity where their early 18th century ancestors had been ready to appear in public in order to sanitize their reputations. Intimate confessions and blushes filled the new novels, feelings of guilt, even where suspicions were groundless (early 18th century heroines had defended their virtues and reputations flamboyantly even where they had gone astray). The modern heroines acted transparently, whereas their early 18th century counterparts had resorted to secret dealings in endless intrigues. See for novels teaching strategies: Vera Lee, Love and strategy in the eighteenth-century French novel (Schenkman Books, 1986), Anton Kirchhofer, Strategie und Wahrheit: Zum Einsatz von Wissen über Leidenschaften und Geschlecht im Roman der englischen Empfindsamkeit (München: Fink, 1995). online edition and the two first context chapters in Olaf Simons, Marteaus Europa, oder Der Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde (Amsterdam, 2001), p.200-207 and p.259-290. Madame de La Fayette’s La Princesse de Clèves (1678) can be read as the first novel that showed the new behavior. To become a fashion, if not the standard of modern behavior, the new personality features needed new social environments. Marie de La Fayette’s Princesse had fallen into a desperate situation as soon as she risked the outrageous transparency to confess her feelings for another man to her husband. Neither he nor his rival knew how to continue once all this was clear. Mid-18th-century novels created alternatives: protagonists acted transparently, their antagonists saw that as a weakness and exploited and ruined them—quite the early 18th century option—but now the moral balance shifted: the open-hearted heroines were no longer victims one could blame for a lack of virtue, but tragic (or melodramatic) figures who had defended a better world. Other novels placed the new transparent heroines into equally new caring environments. Their families resisted temptations to marry them off against their wills, and men around them resisted temptations to seduce them in moments of weakness. The message was that respect and care were to meet open-heartedness in a new age of sensibility. Other novels experimented with surprising acts of an enlightened rationality with which their protagonists could escape deadlock situations far worse than the one Marie de La Fayette’s Princesse had produced with her confessions. The last volume of Antoine François Prévost's Memoirs and Adventures of a Man of Quality, "Manon Lescaut" (1731), aroused a scandal with its melodramatic turns and its unresolved conflicts. Samuel Richardson’s Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740), composed “to cultivate the Principles of Virtue and Religion in the Minds of the Youth of Both Sexes” focused, by contrast, on the potential victim, a heroine of all the modern virtues vulnerable through her social status and her occupation as servant of the libertine who falls in love with her. Eventually, she shows the power to reform her antagonist. Christian Fürchtegott Gellert's Life of the Swedish Countess of G** (1747/48) tested the options of rationality. The titular countess had to decide between two husbands after her first, believed to be dead, returned from a Siberian war captivity. Both her husbands, former friends, had to come to terms with the rational problem her situation presented (and did it in a startling mixture of piety and modern philosophy). Male heroes adopted the new sentimental character traits in the 1760s. Laurence Sterne's Yorick, the hero of the Sentimental Journey (1768) did so with an enormous amount of humour. Oliver Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield (1766) and Henry Mackenzie's Man of Feeling (1771) produced the far more serious role models. The virtuous production inspired a sub- and counterculture of pornographic novels. Greek and Latin authors in modern translations had provided elegant transgressions on the market of the belles lettres for the last century. The elegant and clearly fashionable edition of The Works of Lucian (London: S. Briscoe/ J. Woodward/ J. Morphew, 1711), would thus include the story of "Lucian's Ass", vol.1 p.114-43. Satirical novels like Richard Head's English Rogue (1665) had led their heroes through urban brothels, women authors like Aphra Behn had offered their heroines alternative careers as precursors of the 19th-century femmes fatales—without creating a subculture. Aphra Behn’s Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister (1684/ 1685/ 1687)—with her heroine becoming a high-tier prostitute—had explicit sex scenes and nonetheless became a classic that male and female readers of taste could openly praise. The market for belles lettres had been openly transgressive as long as it did not find any reflections in other media. The new production beginning with works like John Cleland's Fanny Hill (1748) differed in that it offered almost exact reversals of the plot lines the virtuous production demanded. Fanny Hill is introduced to a life of prostitution, learns to enjoy her part and establishes herself as a free and economically independent individual—in editions one could only expect to buy under the counter. See Robert Darnton, The Forbidden Best-Sellers of Pre-Revolutionary France (New York: Norton, 1995), Lynn Hunt, The Invention of Pornography: Obscenity and the Origins of Modernity, 1500-1800 (New York: Zone, 1996), Inger Leemans, Het woord is aan de onderkant: radicale ideeën in Nederlandse pornografische romans 1670 - 1700 (Nijmegen: Vantilt, 2002), and Lisa Z. Sigel, Governing Pleasures: Pornography and Social Change in England, 1815-1914 (January: Scholarly Book Services Inc, 2002). Openly uncontrollable conflicts arrived in the 1770s with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774). The titular hero realised how impossible it had become for him to integrate into the new conformist society. Pierre Choderlos de Laclos's Les Liaisons dangereuses (1782) shows the other extreme, with a group of aristocrats playing games of intrigue and amorality. The sentimental protagonists of the 1740s had already surprised their readers and aroused a debate whether human nature was correctly depicted with these new novels. They discovered a truth of the heart one had not dared to deal with so far. The radical and lonely characters that appeared in the 1760s and 1770s broke with traditions and eventually needed entirely new back-stories to become plausible. Childhoods, and adolescences had to explain why these protagonists should have developed so differently. The concept of character development began to fascinate novelists in the 1760s. Jean Jacques Rousseau's novels focused on such developments in philosophical experiments. The German Bildungsroman offered quasi-biographical explorations and autobiographical self examinations of the individual and its personal development by the 1790s. A subcategory of the genre focused on the creation of an artist (if not the artist writing the novel). It led to the 19th-century production of novels exploring how modern times form the modern individual. Fiction as a new experimental field, 1700–1800 The new 18th-century status of the novel as an object of debate is particularly manifest in special development of philosophical See for the 17th- and 18th-century philosphical novel: The chapter "The Spinozistic Novel in French", in Jonathan Irvine Israel, Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650-1750 (Oxford: UP, 2002), p.591-599, Roger Pearson, The fables of reason: a study of Voltaire's "Contes philosophiques" (Oxford: UP, 1993), Dena Goodman, Criticism in action: Enlightenment experiments in political writing (Cornell: UP, 1989), Robert Francis O'Reilly, The Artistry of Montesquieu's Narrative Tales (University of Wisconsin., 1967), and René Pomeau and Jean Ehrard, De Fénelon à Voltaire (Flammarion, 1998). and experimental novels. Philosophical fiction was not exactly new. Plato's dialogues were embedded in fictional narratives. Utopias had added to this production with works from Thomas More's Utopia (1516) to Tommaso Campanella's City of the Sun (1602). Works such as these had not been read as novels or romances but as philosophical texts. The 1740s saw new editions of More's work under the title that created the tradition: Utopia: or the happy republic; a philosophical romance (1743). Voltaire utilised the romance to write philosophy with his Micromegas: a comic romance. Being a severe satire upon the philosophy, ignorance, and self-conceit of mankind (1752, English 1753). His Zadig (1747) and Candide (1759) became central texts of the French Enlightenment and of the modern novel. Jean-Jacques Rousseau bridged the genres with his less fictional Emile: or, On Education (1762) and his far more romantic Julie, or the New Heloise (1761). It made sense to publish these works as romances or novels, works of fiction, only because prose fiction had become an object of public discussion. The public reception provided by the new market of journals was both freer and wider than the discussion in journals of philosophy would have been. It had become attractive to step into the realm of fiction in order to provide matter for the ongoing debates. The genre's new understanding of itself resulted in the first metafictional experiment, pressing against its limitations. Laurence Sterne’s The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1759-1767) rejected continuous narration. It expanded the author-reader communication from the preface into the plot itself—Tristram Shandy develops as a conversation between the narrative voice and his audience. Besides narrative experiments, there were visual experiments: a marbled page, a black page to express particular sorrow, a page of little lines to visualize the plot lines of the book one was reading. Jonathan Swift's A Tale of a Tub (1704) is an early precursor in this field—a work that employs visual elements with similar ambition—yet hardly a text in the tradition of the original novel or its rival the romance. The novel as national literature, 19th-century developments By the beginning of the 19th century, prose fiction had moved from a field of questionable entertainment and precarious historicity into the centre of the new literary debate. The traditional task of literary historians, to review the sciences, was referred to professional academic journals. The evaluation of artistic merits and the interpretation of the fictions became the main work of the new literary historians who turned poetry, plays, novels and romances into "literature". In-depth studies are here Jürgen Fohrmann's Das Projekt der deutschen Literaturgeschichte (Stuttgart, 1989), giving the stucture of the following: Olaf Simons, Marteaus Europa, oder Der Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde (Amsterdam/ Atlanta: Rodopi, 2001), p.85-95, and p.116-193 and Lee Morissey's, The Constitution of Literature. Literacy, Democracy, and Early English Literary Criticism (Stanford UP, 2008). For the conceptual change see: Rainer Rosenberg, "Eine verworrene Geschichte. Vorüberlegungen zu einer Biographie des Literaturbegriffs", Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik, 77 (1990), p.36-65, Richard Terry, "The Eighteenth-Century Invention of English Literature: A Truism Revisited", Journal for Eighteenth Century Studies, 19.1 (1996), p.47-62. The change in status had been made possible partly by recent generations of authors who had provided such works to be reviewed. The audience was likely to buy what had been discussed and publicly evaluated in order to participate in the ongoing debates. New copyright laws See Mark Rose, Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright 3rd ed. (Harvard University Press, 1993) and Joseph Lowenstein, The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright (University of Chicago Press, 2002) and, with a special perspective on the censor's interest to establish copyright laws and thus to fix responsibilities: Lyman Ray Patterson, Copyright in Historical Perspective (Vanderbilt University Press, 1968). made the new production financially attractive. Early 18th-century authors had been paid for their manuscripts; they basically received a share of the immediate profits expected from a single edition. The new laws allowed long term strategies of literary fame: the publication of small first editions that critics would first have to evaluate before they could expect to find a wider and more permanent circulation. Authors could begin to wait for their breakthroughs with a reasonable chance to make their profits in years to come. The new public reception created a sphere of up-market works deserving to be read as "literature" whilst it allowed the ongoing fields of fiction to survive and to become the modern mass market of "popular fictions", "trivial literature". The developments resulted temporarily—at the beginning of the 19th century—in a division of three market levels: The old chapbooks survived into the 1820s. The modern trivial market had by that time evolved out of the once prestigious belles lettres. The celebrated great works of literature were on this market the new field that required new marketing platforms and an enormous amount of official and public support. The latter was provided profusely by the new institutions of literary life and national education the continental European nations established in the first half of the 19th century. What made "literature"—fiction and poetry—such an attractive topic to promote was the impact literary life could win in the modern nations' cultural life. See for the connection of criticism and the (early) modern nation building: Thomas Docherty, Criticism and Modernity: Aesthetics, Literature, and Nations in Europe and Its Academies (Oxford University Press, 1999) and Terry Eagleton, The Function of Criticism [1984] (Verso, 2005). Germany's states embraced the new field of education in the first decades of the 19th century. See for the project of a German "Nationalliteratur": Peter Uwe Hohendahl, Building a National Literature: The Case of Germany, 1830-1870 transl. by Renate Franciscono (Cornell University Press, 1989). That nation, which had neither a nationwide religion nor a unifying national political debate, had begun an intensified search for unifying topics a century earlier. The comparatively European decades of the Nine Years War (1689-1697), the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) and the Great Northern War (1700-1721) had left the intellectual elite disenchanted. At the end of the 1720s scholars from Gottsched to Bodmer and Breitinger had turned German-language poetry into a field that the entirety of German-speaking intellectuals could agree on as a common platform. By the 1750s it had become clear that the new debate was to become the essential activity of new "literary" journals and that it would include the modern novel. The events of the French Revolution finally turned the new object of debates into a serious secular alternative to the entire field of exchange that religions and territorial politics had previously dominated. The individual German states and France adopted the new subject as part of the national school curriculum during the first decades of the 19th century. Practical reasons spoke for the new field. Whatever one had previously done with religious texts at schools and universities could be done just as well, if not more fascinatingly, with plays, poems and prose fiction. One could interpret these texts, read them to improve one's personality, acquire new ideals and a strengthened sense of morals as a reader of good literature. School education could implement the new text base in a continuation of all the traditional text-oriented classroom and teacher-pupil activities. See Ian Hunter, Culture and Government. The Emergence of Literary Education (Basingstoke, 1988). The idea of a literary Western canon was a novelty and a transfer of the religious canon debates. See on the politics of the 19th and 20th century canon building: John Guillory, Cultural Capital: The Problem of Literary Canon Formation (University of Chicago Press, 1993) and Mihály Szegedy-Maszák, Literary Canons: National and International (Akadémiai Kiadó, 2001). Entirely new formats of appreciation of "literature" developed: authors were not only discussed in journals and newspapers. They began to give public readings of their latest novels See Susan Esmann, "Die Autorenlesung – eine Form der Literaturvermittlung", Kritische Ausgabe 1/2007 PDF; 0,8 MB. and eventually assumed new roles as public voices. The novelist as an outstanding artist and as an individual could better that the party politician or the religious dignitary dare to assume the role as the national sage, the far sighted judge, the voice of the nation. New histories of literature were written in order to formulate the fundamental lines of interpretation required by the new canons. They broke with the prior tradition of histories of the sciences and they broke with the traditions of previous histories of poetry. As narrative and interpretative projects they rather resembled Pierre Daniel Huet's 1670 History of Romances. What was different now was the national perspective: histories of literature would discuss the developments of the literary genres for individual nations and languages. The decisive history of German literature that created the model for numerous others, Georg Gottfried Gervinus' Geschichte der poetischen National-Literatur der Deutschen, appeared between 1835 and 1842. See: Jürgen Fohrmann, Das Projekt der deutschen Literaturgeschichte (Stuttgart, 1989). The decisive history of English literature was, by contrast, the work of a continental author Hippolyte Taine’s four volume Histoire de la littérature anglaise (1863) arriving in English in 1864. It opened with a look back on the new definition of literature and with a statement of the importance literature, fiction, had gained through the developments: HISTORY, within a hundred years in Germany, and within sixty years in France, has undergone a transformation owing to a study of literatures. The discovery has been made that a literary work is not a mere play of the imagination, the isolated caprice of an excited brain, but a transcript of contemporary manners and customs and the sign of a particular state of intellect. The conclusion derived from this is that, through literary monuments, we can retrace the way in which men felt and thought many centuries ago. This method has been tried and found successful. We have meditated over these ways of feeling and thinking and have accepted them as facts of prime significance. We have found that they were dependent on most important events, that they explain these, and that these explain them, and that henceforth it was necessary to give them their place in history, and one of the highest. .Hippolyte Taine, Histoire of English Literature [French 1863] (1864) online edition Great Britain had developed a commercial production of the belles lettres, independent from the Dutch and the Parisian trendsetting markets, at the beginning of the 18th century. It had turned Shakespeare into its author of supposedly eternal fame by the 1760s. A rediscovery of the past had followed, with such doubtful discoveries as the Ossian-fragments. Critics discussed fiction in the media. See: Edwin M. Eigner, George John Worth (hrsg.), Victorian criticism of the novel (Cambridge: CUP Archive, 1985). The English word "literature", however, hardly gained its modern meaning as a compound of poetry and fiction before the 1870s. England had traditionally united state and church under one head. It had for the last two centuries enjoyed an open political exchange. Hence, the continental secularisation, the search for new national topics of debate was uninteresting in England. In the USA, a national canon of literary works was impossible until the 1840s: there simply was not a large enough volume of material. Due to these special situations, the market divide between trivial and great literature remained rather indistinct in the English speaking world. The commercial importance of fiction on the book market, See for the English market: Richard Altick and Jonathan Rose, The English Common Reader: A Social History of the Mass Reading Public, 1800-1900, 2nd ed. (Ohio State University Press, 1998) and William St. Clair, The Reading Nation in the Romantic Period (Cambridge: CUP, 2004). its massive distribution through the new 19th century circulating libraries, the journalistic interest in discussing modern authors of plays and fiction, and the reforms of the educational systems of the second half of the 19th century remained incentives for the English speaking countries to follow the continental European path. Fiction eventually became "literature" in an arrangement of win-win situations. It suited the publishing houses. It suited the modern nations searching for new secular topics. It suited the advocates of improved morals—the new discussions of literature focused on questions of values and morals See: James Engell, The committed word: Literature and Public Values (Penn State Press, 1999). The 19th-century developments in Europe and the Americas preluded in all these aspects the 20th-century globalisation of Western literary life. It did, however, not culminate in comparable confrontations between "developed" secularised countries and "underdeveloped" religious regimes and downright dictatorships. The 19th-century European and North American implementation of literary life, and of fiction as its privileged platform, found hardly any resistance in the nations affected. They competed with each other as "Kulturnationen", as exporters of Western civilisation, and they shared the institutions that provided, monitored, evaluated and basically organised the new exchange. The new Literary life was rooted in the intellectual life which the early modern “republic of letters”, the “respublica literaria”, the early modern scientific community, had generated in discussions of its own subject "literature", the sciences, since the 16th century. See: Sebastian Neumeister und Conrad Wiedemann (eds.), Res publica litteraria: Die Institutionen der Gelehrsamkeit in der frühen Neuzeit (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1987) and Dena Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment (Cornell University Press, 1996). See also Lee Morissey, The Constitution of Literature. Literacy, Democracy, and Early English Literary Criticism (Stanford: Stanford UP, 2008). The 19th-century nations adopted the one public debate that had traditionally styled itself as free, democratic, "republican" throughout the last centuries. The material literary critics would discuss was new: a production of art. The discussion itself promised, however, to stay as open as it had always been. To change the topic from the sciences to plays, novels and poems was designed to generate a wider exchange and one of greater impact. The scientific organisation of the entire exchange promised all groups interested a say in the ensuing literary life. The adoption of modern national literature as an academic subject became with this organisational background one of the first steps in a larger rearrangement of the sciences as disciplines. From the Middle Ages into the 18th century four sciences had been taught at Europe's universities: theology, law, medicine and philosophy. The new system offered natural sciences, sciences of modern technologies, social sciences and the humanities. The latter became the institutional roof of all the discussions of history and culture—a realm new authors of literature would be aware of from now on. The developments did not lead to stable definitions of terms like "art", "literature" and "culture". They much rather utilised and institutionalised the controversies these words generated. To this day, scholars and critics continue to debate what literature should be, which works are the most important, what defines the true work of art etc. The controversies of "art", "literature" and "culture" define the nations who adopted the new cultural exchange while they serve within these societies as platforms on which all groups can be expected to voice their topics and demands, both in new works of art and in the critical analysis of these works. What was specific to the 19th-century debate was, in hindsight, its immense interest in fixing personal responsibilities. "Good works are those that will always leave room for new interpretations", is a common statement reflecting the strong link between literature and its public discussion. 19th-century artists would face a choice: to create works of higher quality, pursuing an eternal truth or merely to become mercenaries of present conflicts, functionaries of the commercial market fed by their works. The alternative of claiming one had to create "art for art's sake" Gene H. Bell-Villada, Art for Art's Sake & Literary Life: How Politics and Markets Helped Shape the Ideology & Culture of Aestheticism, 1790-1990 (University of Nebraska Press, 1996). also threatened to turn into a battleground over responsibilities. How does one handle art "responsibly"? What are the "demands" of art? Does the author truly act on behalf of art, or is this a cheap excuse for otherwise offensive and irresponsible behavior? Aestheticists, promoters of "art for arts sake" such as Algernon Charles Swinburne and Oscar Wilde, eventually headed the lists of irresponsible authors produced by 19th-century defenders of public morals. Pushing art to its limits: Romanticism, 1770-1850 The very word romanticism made direct reference to the art of romances. The genre, as opposed to the modern novel, experienced a revival with gothic fiction from Ann Radcliffe’s “romance” The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) to M.G. Lewis’ “romance” The Monk (1795). See for the following Gerald Ernest Paul Gillespie, Manfred Engel, and Bernard Dieterle, Romantic prose fiction (John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2008). The new romances not only attacked the modern novel's “natural” depictions of life, they destabilized the very differentiation modern critics had been trying to establish between serious classical art and popular fiction. Gothic romances were grotesque. See Geoffrey Galt Harpham, On the Grotesque: Strategies of Contradiction in Art and Literature, 2nd ed. (Davies Group, Publishers, 2006). Their subject matter deserved less credit than the worst medieval tales of Arthurian knighthood. If the Amadis had troubled Don Quixote with curious fantasies, the new romantic tales were worse: they became nightmares, they explored sexual fantasies, they led to the end of human civilization. The authors of this new type of fiction could be (and were) accused of exploiting all available topics to thrill, arouse or horrify their audience. These new romantic novelists could, at the same time, claim to explore the entire realm of fictionality. New–psychological–interpreters would read these works as encounters with the deeper hidden truth of the human imagination or the collective mind with all its recesses: sexual motives, anxieties, and insatiable desires. Under a psychological reading, novels were said to explore our deeper motives by moving into the field of art and by trying to reach and transgress its limitations. Artistic freedom would reveal what had not previously been openly visible: a theory that turned Huet's retrospective cultural description into an exploration of our options. The fragment was allowed to become art surpassing all the works of intricate composition. Terror and kitsch entered the productions with explorations of the trivial. The romantic fiction of de Sade, Poe, Mary Shelley and E. T. A. Hoffmann, their works from Les 120 Journées de Sodome (1785/1904), Die Elixiere des Teufels (1815), to Frankenstein (1818), and the Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque (1840) would later attract 20th-century psychoanalysts and supply the images of 20th and 21st century horror films, love romances, fantasy novels, role-playing computer games and surrealist art. "Realism" and the reevaluation of the past and the present, 1790-1900 The ancient romancers most commonly wrote fiction about the remote past. The present had been the object of “curious” explorations in the hands of satirists like Grimmelshausen and Richard Head and in the hands of scandalous authors from de Courtilz de Sandras to the anonymous author of La Guerre d'Espagne (Cologne: Pierre Marteau, 1707). Walter Scott's historical novel Waverley (1814) broke with these traditions. Scott did not write to satisfy the audience with temporal escapism, nor did he threaten the boundaries between fact and fiction with his works, as Constantin de Renneville had done with his French Inquisition (1715). Scott's work remained a novel, a work of art. The early reviews immediately argued in this direction. See John Wilson Croker's criticism in his article "Waverley; or, 'tis Sixty Years since", Quarterly Review (November 1814), 354-77. He used the art of imagination to reevaluate history by rendering things, incidents and protagonists as only the novelist was allowed to do. His work remained historical fiction, yet it questioned existing historical perceptions. The special power was partly gained through research: Scott the novelist, resorted to documentary sources as any historian would have done, but as an artist he gave things a deeper significance. Attracting a far wider market than any historian could address, and rendering the past vividly, his work destabilized public perceptions of that past. Most 19th-century authors hardly went beyond illustrating and supporting widespread historical views. For the wider context of 19th century encounters with history see: Hayden White, Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Baltimore: John Hopkins University, 1977). The more interesting titles won fame by doing what no historian nor journalist would do: make the reader experience another life. Émile Zola’s novels depicted the world of which Marx and Engels wrote in a non-fictional mode. Slavery in the United States, abolitionism and racism became topics of far broader public debate thanks to Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852), as whose characters provided personifications for topics that had previously been discussed mainly in the abstract. Charles Dickens led the audience into contemporary British workhouses: his novels imitated firsthand accounts of child labour. War changed with Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace (1868/69) from historical fact to a world of personal fate. Crime became a personal reality with Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s Crime and Punishment (1866). Women authors had dominated the production of fiction from the 1640s into the early 1700s, but few before George Eliot so openly questioned the position of women, the precepts of their education, and their social position. As the novel became the most interesting platform of modern debates–allegedly free, as art could claim to be in the modern secular western societies–a race began between nations to (re-)establish their national literatures with novels as the essential production that could link the present with the past. Alessandro Manzoni’s, I Promessi Sposi (1827) did this for Italy; Russia and the surrounding Slavonic brought forth their first novels; the Scandinavian countries entered the race. With the new appreciation of history, the future also became a topic for fiction. Samuel Madden’s Memoirs of the Twentieth Century (1733) had been a satire, presenting a future that was basically the present age, but with the Jesuits secretly ruling the globe. Louis-Sébastien Mercier‘s L'An 2440 (1771) had gone a step further and created an enlightened future, that one could establish immediately if only one dared to live according to better moral precepts. The step into a different future began with Mary Shelley’s The Last Man (1826): a work whose plot culminated in the catastrophic last days of a mankind extinguished by the plague, even if it remained an autobiographical allegory of the authoress deploring her personal losses. Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward (1887) and H. G. Wells’s The Time Machine (1895) were, by contrast, marked by the idea of long term technological and biological developments. Industrialization, Darwin’s theory of evolution and Marx’s theory of class divisions shaped these works and turned historical processes into a subject matter of wide debate: Bellamy’s Looking Backward became the second best selling book of the 19th century after Harriet Beecher-Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin. See Scott Donaldson and Ann Massa American Literature: Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (David & Charles, 1978), p. 205. On the publishing history of Uncle Tom's Cabin: Claire Parfait, The Publishing History of Uncle Tom's Cabin, 1852-2002 (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007). Such works of scientific reflection inspired a whole genre of popular science fiction as the 20th century approached. Explorations of the self and the modern individual, 1790-1930 The individual, the potentially isolated hero, had stood at the centre of romantic fictions since the Middle Ages. The early novel(l)a had placed the story itself at the centre: it was driven by plot, by incident and accident, rather than being the story of a single larger-than-life figure. And yet, the individual had returned with a wave of satirical romances and historical pseudo romances. Individuals such as Robinson Crusoe, Moll Flanders, Pamela, and Clarissa reintroduced the old romantic focus on the individual as the centre of what was to become the modern novel. Ancient, medieval and early modern fictional characters lacked certain features that modern readers expect. Epics and romances created heroes, individuals who would fight against knight after knight, change (as an Assyrian princess) into men’s clothes, survive alone on an island – whilst it would never see its personal experience as an individualizing factor. The early modern novelist had remained a historian as much as the author(ess) of the most personal French contemporary memoir. As soon as it came to relating the facts and experiences, it became a question of proper writing skills. The modern individual changed. The rift can first be seen in the works of medieval mystics and early modern Protestant autobiographers: See D. Bruce Hindmarsh, The Evangelical Conversion Narrative: Spiritual Autobiography in Early Modern England (Oxford University Press, 2005), Owen C. Watkins, The Puritan Experience: Studies in Spiritual Autobiography (Routledge & K. Paul, 1972). moments in which they witnessed a change in their very experience of things, an inner isolation they would only be able to communicate to someone who had experienced the same. The sentimental experience created a new field of – secular, rather than religiously motivated – individualizations which immediately invited followers to join. Werther’s step out of the value systems that surrounded him, his desperate search for the one and only soul to understand him, inspired an instantaneous European fashion. Napoleon told Goethe he had read the volume about a dozen times; See Gustav Seibt, Goethe und Napoleon. Eine historische Begegnung (München: C. H. Beck, 2008). others were seen wearing breeches in Werther’s color to signal that they were experiencing the same exceptionalism. The novel proved the ideal medium for the new movements as it was ultimately written from an individual’s point of view with the aim to unfold in the silence of another’s individual mind. The late 18th-century exploration of personal developments created room for depictions of personal experiences; it gained momentum with the romantic exploration of fictionality as a medium of creative imagination; and it gained a political edge with the 19th-century focus on history and the modern societies. The rift between the individual and his or her social environment had to have roots in personal developments which this individual shared with those around him or her, with his or her class or the entire nation. Any such rift had the power to criticize the collective histories the modern nations were just then producing. The new personal perceptions the protagonists of novels offered were on the other hand interesting as they could easily become part of the collective experience the modern nation had to create. The novel’s individual perspective allowed for personal reevaluations of the public historical perceptions and it allowed for personal developments that could still lead back into modern societies. The 19th-century Bildungsroman became the arena of such explorations of personal developments that separated the individual from, and then reunited it with, his or her social environment. Outsider perspectives became the field of mid-19th-century explorations. The artist’s life had been an interesting topic before with the artist being by public definition the exceptional individual whose perceptions naturally enabled him to produce different views. Novels from Goethe's Wilhelm Meister (1795) to Marcel Proust’s In Search of Lost Time (1913-1927) and James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) created an entire genre of the Künstlerroman. Jane Austen’s Emma (1815), Gustave Flaubert’s Madame Bovary (1856), Leo Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina (1873-77), and George Eliot’s Middlemarch (1871-72) brought female protagonists into the role of the outstanding observer. Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist (1839) and Gottfried Keller’s Green Henry (1855) focused on the perspectives of children, Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s Crime and Punishment (1866) added a drop-out student who became a murderer to the spectrum of special observers whose views would promise reinterpretations of modern life. The exploration of the individual’s perception eventually revolutionized the very modes of writing fiction. The search for one’s personal style stood in the centre of the competition among authors in the 19th century, now that novelists had become publicly celebrated minds. The destabilization of the author-text connection, which 20th century criticism was to propose later on, finally led to experiments with what had been the individual’s voice so far – speaking through the author or portrayed by him. These options were to be widened with new concepts of what texts actually were with the beginning of the 20th century. The novel and the global market of texts: 20th- and 21st-century developments Berlin, May 10, 1933, Nazi book burning. Given the number of new editions and the place of the modern novel among the genres sold in bookshops today, the novel is far from the crisis predicted by critics such as John Barth (himself a novelist) or, more recently, Alvin Kernan. Literature has not ended in “exhaustion” John Barth "The Literature of Exhaustion" (1967) or in a silent "death"; Alvin Kernan, The Death of Literature (Yale University Press, 1990). nor have bound paper books been superseded by such new media as cinema, television or such new channels of distribution as the Internet The entire English book production from 1473 to 1700 became available to experts through Early English Books Online and the production from 1700 to 1800 through Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gallica France provides similar services for all French readers. Google is currently scanning massive numbers of 19th-century books. Html databases such as Project Gutenberg offer classic fiction. Modern Internet fiction exists on numerous platforms, with a special emphasis on graphic novels. or e-books. Novels such as the Harry Potter (1997-2007) sequels have created public sensation among an audience critics had seen as lost. As of June 2008, the Potter series has sold more than 400 million copies and has been translated into 67 languages. Novels were among the first material artifacts the Nazis burnt in public celebrations of their power in 1933; Jan-Pieter Barbian, Literaturpolitik im "Dritten Reich". Institutionen, Kompetenzen, Betätigungsfelder, new edition (Stuttgart: dtv, 1995). and they remained the very last thing they allowed their publishers to print as World War II ended in the devastation of central Europe: fiction could still be employed to keep the retreating troops in dream worlds of an idyllic homeland waiting for them. See the chapters on the war production of the most important German publisher of the period in Saul Friedländer, Norbert Frei, Trutz Rendtorff and Reinhard Wittmann (eds.), Bertelsmann im Dritten Reich (Gütersloh: Bertelsmann, 2002). See also: Hans-Eugen and Edelgard Bühler, Der Frontbuchhandel 1939-1945. Organisationen, Kompetenzen, Verlage, Bücher (Frankfurt am Main: Buchhändler-Vereinigung, 2002). Novels were in the pockets of American soldiers who went to Vietnam and in the pockets of those who protested against the Vietnam War: Hermann Hesse’s Steppenwolf and Carlos Castaneda’s Journey to Ixtlan (1972) had become cult classics of inner resistance. Whilst it was difficult to learn anything about Siberia’s concentration camps in the strictly censored Soviet media, it was a novel, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn’s One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962) and its proto-historic expansion The Gulag Archipelago (1973) that eventually gave the world an inside view. The novel remains both public and private. It is a public product of modern print culture even where it circulates in illegal samizdat copies. It remains difficult to target. Totalitarian regimes can close down Internet service providers, and control theatres, cinemas, radio and television stations, whilst individual paper copies of a novel can be smuggled into countries, defying strict censorship, and read there in cafés and parks almost as safely as at home. Its covers can be as inconspicuous as those of Iranian editions of Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses (1988). An Orwellian regime would have to search households and to burn every retrievable copy: an engagement of utopian dimensions that only a novel, Ray Bradbury’s Fahrenheit 451 (1953), would envisage. The artifact that constituted one of the earliest flashpoints in the current cultural confrontation between the secular West and the Islamic East, Rushdie’s Satanic Verses (1988), exemplifies almost all the advantages the modern novel has over its rivals. It is a work of epic dimensions no film maker could achieve, a work of privacy and individuality of perspective wherever it leads into the dream worlds of its protagonists, a work that uniquely anticipated ensuing political debates, and a work many Western critics classified as one of the greatest novels ever written. It is postmodernist in its ability to play with the entire field of literary traditions without ever sacrificing its topicality. See: Sabrina Hassumani, Salman Rushdie: a postmodern reading of his major works (Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 2002). The democratic West depicted itself as the advocate of literature as the freest form of self-expression. The Islamic fundamentalist interpretation of the same confrontation has its own historical validity. This interpretation sees a conflict between Western secular nations and a postsecular religious world. See e.g. Malise Ruthven, A satanic affair: Salman Rushdie and the rage of Islam (Chatto & Windus, 1990), Girja Kumar, The book on trial: fundamentalism and censorship in India (Har-Anand Publications, 1997) and Madelena Gonzalez, Fiction After the Fatwa: Salman Rushdie and the Charm of Catastrophe (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2005). In this view, the West has severed its religious roots and begun to idolize an arrangement of secular "pluralistic" debates. “Literature”, “art”, and "history"—the subject matter of the humanities—have become a Western substitute for religion. The Islamic republic eventually demonstrated how far the West had created its own inviolable if not sacred spheres in this development: Westerners can become atheists, they can admire any "blasphemy" as "art", but they cannot act with the same freedom in the field of history. Holocaust denial is crimininalised in several Western nations in defence of secular pluralism. The Islamic nations protect, so goes the rationale, at the heart of the conflict a different hierarchy of discourses. In a longer perspective, the conflict arose with the worldwide expansion of Western literary and cultural life in the 20th century. To look back, around 1700 fiction had been a small but virulent market of fashionable books in the sphere of public history. By contrast, in 19th century Europe the novel had become the center of a new literary debate. The 20th century began with the Western export of new global conflicts, new technologies of telecommunication and new industries. The new arrangement of the academic disciplines became a world standard. Within this system the humanities are the ensemble of subjects that evaluate and organise public debate, from art and literature to history. See: Donovan R. Walling, Under Construction: The Role of the Arts and Humanities in Postmodern Schooling (Bloomington, Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1997). Former colonies and modern third world nations adopted this arrangement in their educational systems in order to pursue equal footing with the "leading" industrial nations. Literature entered their public spheres almost automatically as the arena of free personal expression and as a field of national pride in which one had to search for one's historical identity, as the Western nations had done before. A number of literatures could challenge the West with traditions of their own: Chinese novels are older than any comparable Western works. Other regions of the world had to begin their traditions as the Slavonic and Scandinavian nations had done in the 19th-century's European competition: South Asia See Paul Brian, Modern South Asian Literature in English (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press, 2003). and Latin America joined the production of world literature at the beginning of the 20th century. The run for the first black African novel to be written by a black African author is today a topic of research in postcolonialist literary studies. See for the rise of postcolonial literatures Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, Helen Tiffin (eds.), The empire writes back: theory and practice in post-colonial literatures, 2nd edition (Routledge, 2002). The race was fueled by Western theories of cultural superiority: 20th-century critics such as Georg Lukács and Ian Watt saw the novel as the form of self expression characteristic of the "modern Western individual". The worldwide spread of the novel was monitored and mentored by such Western institutions as the Nobel Prize in Literature. The list of its laureates can be read as a chronicle of the gradual expansion of Western literary life. See: Kjell Espmark, The Nobel Prize in literature: a study of the criteria behind the choices (G.K. Hall, 1991), Julia Lovell, The politics of cultural capital: China's quest for a Nobel Prize in literature (University of Hawaii Press, 2006) und Richard Wires, The Politics of the Nobel Prize in Literature: How the Laureates Were Selected, 1901-2007 (Edwin Mellen Press, 2009). Rabindranath Tagore was the first Indian poet and novelist to receive the prize in 1913, Japanese Yasunari Kawabata received it in 1968, Colombian Gabriel García Márquez in 1982; the Nigerian Wole Soyinka, honoured in 1986, became the first black African author to receive the award; the Egyptian Naguib Mahfouz became the first novelist of the Arab world to do so in 1988; Orhan Pamuk, honoured in 2006, is a Turkish novelist. The awards to Mahfouz and Pamuk were seen in their home countries as open interference by the Swedish Academy into their respective national politics. Mahfouz, one of the most important Muslim authors who defended Rushdie's Satanic Verses, was almost killed in an assassination attempt outside his home. Pamuk continues to criticize the official Turkish position towards the Armenian Genocide, a question relevant to the present debate over Accession of Turkey to the European Union. The contemporary novel defends the significance it had won by the 1860s, and it has stepped beyond, into a new awareness of its public outreach. Nationwide debates can become international debates at any given moment. Today's novelists can address a worldwide public, with international institutions, prestigious prizes, and such far-reaching associations as the worldwide association of writers P.E.N.. The exiled author, See: Andrew Gurr, Writers in exile: the identity of home in modern literature (Brighton, Sussex: Harvester Pr., 1981); John Glad (ed.), Literature in exile (Durham: Duke Univ. Pr., 1990); David Bevan (ed.), Literature and exile (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1990); James Whitlark and Wendell Aycock (eds.) The literature of emigration and exile (Lubbock, Tex: Texas Tech University Press, 1992); and Guy Stern, Literarische Kultur im Exil: gesammelte Beiträge zur Exilforschung (1989 - 1997) (Dresden: Dresden Univ. Press, 1998). who is celebrated by the international audience whilst he or she is persecuted at home is a 20th-century (and now 21st-century) figure. The author as keeper of his or her nation’s conscience is a new cultural icon of the age of globalization. Back in the early 18th century some 20-60 titles per year, that is between one and three percent of the total annual English production of about 2,000 titles, could be reckoned as fiction—a total of 20,000-60,000 copies on the assumption of standard print runs of about 1,000 copies. In 2001 fiction made about 11% of the 119,001 titles published in the UK consumer book market. The percentage has remained relatively stable over the past 20 years, though the total numbers doubled from 5,992 in 1986 to 13,076 in 2001. Data published in The Bookseller and made available at Book Marketing Ltd. The press output and the money made with fiction have risen disproportionately since the 18th century: According to Nielsen BookScan statistics published in 2009 See the Press Release issued of February 9, 2009. UK publishers sold an estimated 236.8 million books in 2008. Adult fiction (an estimated 75.3 million copies) made 32% of this market. Children's, young adult and educational books, a section comprising best-sellers such as the Harry Potter volumes, made another 63.4 million copies, 27%. The total UK consumer market is supposed to have had a value £1,773m in 2008. Adult fiction made roughly a quarter of that value: £454m. A vibrant literary life fuels the market. It unfolds in a complex interaction between authors, their publishing houses, the reading public, and a literary criticism of immense diversity voiced in the media and in the nation's educational systems. The latter provide through their branches of academic criticism many of the topics, the modes of discussion and to a good extent the experts themselves who teach and discuss literature in schools and in the media. Modern marketing of fiction reflects this complex interaction with an awareness of the specific reverberations a new title must find in order to reach a wider audience. See titles like David Cole, The Complete Guide to Book Marketing 2nd edition (Allworth Communications, Inc., 2004) and Alison Baverstock, How to Market Books: The Essential Guide to Maximizing Profit and Exploiting All Channels to Market, 4th edition (Kogan Page Publishers, 2008). Different levels of communication mark successful modern novels as a result of the genre’s present position in (or outside) literary debates. An elite exchange has developed between novelists and literary theorists, allowing for direct interactions between authors and critics. Authors who write literary criticism can eventually modify the very criteria under which theorists discuss their works. Literary recognition can also be gained when novels influence thinking about non-literary controversies. A third option remains with novels that find their audiences without the help of critical debate. Even serious novels can become the object of direct marketing strategies along the lines publishers usually reserve for "popular fiction". Writing literary theory Many of the techniques the novel developed over the past 100 years can be understood as the result of competition with the new 20th- (and 21st-) century mass media: film, comics and the World Wide Web shaped the novel. Shot and sequence, focus and perspective have moved from film editing to literary composition. Experimental 20th-century fiction is, at the same time, influenced by literary theory. Literary theory, arising in the 20th century, questioned key factors that had been matters of agreement in 19th-century literary criticism: the author wrote the text, he was influenced by his period, by an intellectual climate the nation provided and by his personality. The work of art eventually reflected all these aspects, and literary critics recreated them. The ensuing debate identified a canon of the truly great works brought forth by each nation. 20th-century literary theory challenged all these notions. It moved along with what philosophers called the linguistic turn: the artifact to be read was primarily a text. The text unfolded a meaning in the reading process. The question was, what made the literary text so special? Its complexity: a simple answer that immediately called for a complex science to describe and to understand these complexities. The literary theorists argued that the literary criticism of the 19th century had not truly seen the text. It had concentrated on the author, his or her period, the culture that surrounded him or her, his or her psyche—factors outside the text, that had allegedly shaped it. Strict theorists argued that even the author, hitherto considered the central figure, whose message one wanted to understand, did not even have privileged access to the meaning and significance of his or her own work. Once the text was written it began to unfold associations, no matter whether one was its author or another reader. The theory debate stepped forth in redefinitions of its project: Formalism (1900-1920), New Criticism (1920-1965), Structuralism (1950-1980) and Poststructuralism (late 1960s through 1990s) became the major schools. The modes of analysis changed with each of these schools. All assumed that the text had its own meaning, independent of all authorial intentions and period backgrounds. If a monkey were to use a typewriter without any understanding of his actions, he would sooner or later produce a Shakespearean sonnet among his random texts, a text whose beauty and meaning we would be able to appreciate. Each of these schools proposed a criticism that directed its attention to an understanding of this inherent meaning. James Joyce, Ulysses (1922) James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922) became the central text that explored the potential of the new theoretical options. The 19th-century narrator left the stage; what remained was a text one could read as a reflex of thoughts. The “stream of consciousness” The term was first used by William James in 1890 and entered the terminology of literary criticism with the discussions of Woolf and Joyce, as well as Faulkner. See Erwin R. Steinberg (ed.) The Stream-of-consciousness technique in the modern novel (Port Washington, N.Y: Kennikat Press, 1979). On the extra-European usage of the technique see also: Elly Hagenaar/ Eide, Elisabeth, "Stream of consciousness and free indirect discourse in modern Chinese literature", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 56 (1993), p.621 and P. M. Nayak (ed.), The voyage inward: stream of consciousness in Indian English fiction (New Delhi: Bahri Publications, 1999). replaced the authorial voice. The characters endowed with these new voices had no firm ground from which to narrate. Their audiences had to re-create what was purposefully broken. One of the aims was to represent the reality of thoughts, sensations and conflicting perspectives. William Faulkner was particularly concerned with recreating real life, an undertaking which he said was unattainable. Once the classical authorial voice was gone, the classical composition of the text could be questioned: Ulysses did that. The argumentative structure with which a narration used to make its points lost its importance. Each sentence connected to sentences readers recalled. Words reverberated in a worldwide circulation of texts and language. Critics would understand more of the possible allusions and supply them in footnotes. Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway (1925), Samuel Beckett’s trilogy Molloy (1951), Malone Dies (1951) and The Unnamable (1953), Julio Cortázar’s Rayuela (1963) and Thomas Pynchon’s Gravity's Rainbow (1973) all explore this new narrative technique. Alfred Döblin went in a slightly different direction with his Berlin Alexanderplatz (1929), where interspersed non-fictional text fragments enter the fictional sphere to create a new form of realism. Authors of the 1960s–Robert Coover is an example–fragmented their stories and challenged time and sequentiality as fundamental structuring concepts. Postmodern authors See for a first survey Brian McHale, Postmodernist Fiction (Routledge, 1987) and John Docker, Postmodernism and popular culture: a cultural history (Cambridge University Press, 1994). subverted the serious debate with playfulness. The new theorists' claim that art could never be original, that it always played with existing materials, that language basically recalled itself had been an accepted truth in the world of trivial literature. A postmodernist could reread trivial literature as the essential cultural production. The creative avant-garde of the 1960s and 1970s "closed the gap" See Leslie Fiedler's "Cross the border, close the gap!" Playboy (December 1969). and recycled popular knowledge, conspiracy theories, comics and films to recombine these materials in what was to become art of entirely new qualities. Roland Barthes’ 1950s analysis of popular culture, Roland Barthes, Mythologies [1957] (New York: Hill & Wang, 1987). his late 1960s claim that the author was dead whilst the text continued to live, Roland Barthes "The Death of the Author" [1969] in Image, Music, Text (London: Fontana, 1977). became standards of postmodern theory. Novels from Thomas Pynchon’s The Crying of Lot 49 (1966), to Umberto Eco’s The Name of the Rose (1980) and Foucault's Pendulum (1989) opened themselves to a universe of intertextual references See Gérard Genette, Palimpsests, trans. Channa Newman & Claude Doubinsky (Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press) and Graham Allan, Intertextuality (London/New York: Routledge, 2000). while they thematized their own constructedness in a new postmodern metafictional awareness. See Linda Hutcheon, Narcissistic Narrative. The Metafictional Paradox (London: Routledge, 1984) and Patricia Waugh, Metafiction. The Theory and Practice of Self-conscious Fiction (London: Routledge 1988). What separated these authors from 18th- and 19th-century predecessors who had invited other textual worlds into their own compositions, was the interaction the new authors sought with the field of literary criticism. 20th-century metafictional works expect literary historians to deal with them; literary critics and theorists become the privileged first readers that the new texts need in order to unfold. James Joyce is said to have said this about the reception he designed for his Ulysses (1922): "I've put in so many enigmas and puzzles that it will keep the professors busy for centuries arguing over what I meant, and that's the only way of insuring one's immortality." The statement was allegedly made by Joyce in October 1921, recalled by Jacques Benoist-Mechin in 1956 before it became a standard with Richard Ellman's biography, James Joyce (New York: Oxford UP, 1982) p.521. —a statement to which Salman Rushdie referred in 1999, according to Paul Brians's Notes for Satanic Verses: Asked about the possibility of "Cliff's Notes" to his writings, Rushdie answered that although he didn't expect readers to get all the allusions in his works, he didn't think such notes would detract from the reading of them: "James Joyce once said after he had published Ulysses that he had given the professors work for many years to come; and I'm always looking for ways of employing professors, so I hope to have given them some work too." Paul Brians in his Notes for Salman Rushdie,The Satanic Verses (1988) (Version February 13, 2004), p.5.] Novelists such as John Barth, Raymond Federman and Umberto Eco crossed the borders into criticism. Mixed forms of criticism and fiction appeared: “critifiction”, a term Raymond Federman attempted to coin in 1993. Raymond Federman, Critifiction: Postmodern Essays, (Suny Press, 1993). Whilst the postmodern movement has been criticized at times as theoretical if not escapist, it successfully unfolded in several films of the 1990s and 2000s: Pulp Fiction (1994), Memento (2000), and The Matrix (1999-2003) can be read as new textual constructs designed to prove that we are surrounded by virtual realities, by realities we construct out of circulating fragments, of images, concept, a language of cultural materials the new filmmakers explore. Writing world history On the one hand, media and institutions of criticism enable the modern novel to become the object of global debate. On the other hand, novels themselves, individual books, continue to arouse attention with unique personal and subjective narratives that challenge all circulating views of world history. Novels remain personal. Their authors remain independent individuals even where they become public figures, in contrast to historians and journalists who tend, by contrast, to assume official positions. The narrative style remains free and artistic, whereas modern history has by contrast almost entirely abandoned narration and turned to the critical debate of interpretations. Novels are seen as part of the realm of "art", defended as a realm of free and subjective self-expression. Crossovers into other genres—the novel as film, the film as novel, the amalgam of the novel and the comic book that led to the evolution of the graphic novel—have strengthened the genre's influence on the collective imagination and the arena of ongoing debates. Personal realities have attracted 20th- and 21st-century novelists: first in an explicit reaction to the new science of psychology, later, far more importantly, in a renewed interest in subject matter that almost automatically destabilizes and marginalizes the realities of "common sense" and collective history. Personal anxieties, daydreams, magic and hallucinatory experiences mushroomed in 20th-century novels. What would be a clinical psychosis if stated as a personal experience—in one extreme example, Gregor Samsa, the point of view character of Kafka's Metamorphosis, awakes to find that he has become a giant cockroach—will, as soon as it is transformed into a novel, become the object of competing literary interpretations, a metaphor, an image of the modern experience of personal instability and isolation. The term “Kafkaesque” has joined the term “Orwellian” in common parlance to refer not only to aspects of literature, but of the world. Each generation of the 20th century saw its unique aspects expressed in novels. Germany's lost generation of World War I veterans identified with the hero of Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front (1928) (and with the tougher, more existentialist rival Thor Goote created as a national socialist alternative). The Jazz Age found a voice in F. Scott Fitzgerald, the Great Depression and the incipient Cold War in George Orwell. France's existentialism was prominently voiced in Jean Paul Sartre's Nausea (1938) and Albert Camus' The Stranger (1942). The counterculture of the 1960s gave Hermann Hesse's Steppenwolf (1927) a new reception, while producing such iconic works of its own as Ken Kesey's One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow. Chuck Palahniuk's Fight Club (1996) became (with the help of the film adaptation) an icon of late 20th-century manhood and a reaction to the 20th-century production of female voices. Virginia Woolf, Simone de Beauvoir, Doris Lessing, Elfriede Jelinek became prominent female and feminist voices. Questions of racial and gender identities, the option to reclaim female heroines of a predominantly male cultural industry See, for example, Susan Hopkins, Girl Heroes: The New Force In Popular Culture (Annandale NSW:, 2002). have fascinated novelists over the last two decades with their potential to destabilize the preceding confrontations. The major 20th-century social processes can be traced through the modern novel: the history of the sexual revolution See: Charles Irving Glicksberg, The Sexual Revolution in Modern American Literature (Nijhoff, 1971) and his The Sexual Revolution in Modern English Literature (Martinus Nijhoff, 1973). On recent trends: Elizabeth Benedict, The Joy of Writing Sex: A Guide for Fiction Writers (Macmillan, 2002). Very interesting with its focus on trivial literature written for the female audience: Carol Thurston, The Romance Revolution: Erotic Novels for Women and the Quest for a New Sexual Identity (University of Illinois Press, 1987). can be traced through the reception of sexually frank novels: D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley’s Lover had to be published in Italy in 1928; British censorship lifted its ban as late as 1960. Henry Miller's Tropic of Cancer (1934) created the comparable US scandal. Transgressive fiction from Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita (1955) to Michel Houellebecq’s Les Particules élémentaires (1998) entered a literary field that eventually opened itself to the production of frankly pornographic works such as Anne Desclos' Story of O (1954) to Anaïs Nin's Delta of Venus (1978). Crime became a major subject of 20th- and 21st-century novelists. The extreme confrontations of crime fiction reach into the very realities that modern industrialized, organized societies try and fail to eradicate. Crime is also an intriguing personal and public subject: criminals each have their personal motivations and actions. Detectives, too, see their moral codes challenged. Patricia Highsmith's thrillers became a medium of new psychological explorations. Paul Auster's New York Trilogy (1985-1986) crossed the borders into the field of experimental postmodernist literature. The major political and military confrontations of the 20th and 21st centuries have inspired novelists. The events of World War II found their reflections in novels from Günter Grass' The Tin Drum (1959) to Joseph Heller's Catch-22 (1961). The ensuing cold war lives on in a bulk of spy novels that reach out into the realm of popular fiction. Latin American self awareness in the wake of the (failing) left revolutions of the 1960s and 1970s resulted in a "Latin American Boom", connected today with the names of Julio Cortázar, Mario Vargas Llosa and Gabriel García Márquez and the invention of a special brand of postmodern magic realism. The unstable status of Israel and the Middle East have become the subject of Israeli and Arab perceptions. Contemporary fiction has explored the realities of the post-Soviet nations and those of post-Tiananmen China. Arguably, though, international perceptions of these events have been shaped more by images than words. The wave of modern media images has, in turn, merged with the novel in the form of graphic novels that both exploit and question the status of circulating visual materials. Art Spiegelman's two-volume Maus and, perhaps more important in its new theoretical approach, his In the Shadow of No Towers (2004)—a graphic novel questioning the reality of the images the 9/11 attacks have produced—are interesting artifacts here. The extreme options of writing alternative histories have created genres of their own. Fantasy has become a field of commercial fiction branching into the worlds of computer-animated role play and esoteric myth. Its center today is J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings (1954/55), a work that mutated from a book written for young readers in search of openly fictionalised role models into a cultural artifact of epic dimensions. Tolkien successfully revived northern European epic literature from Beowulf and the North Germanic Edda to the Arthurian Cycles and turned their incompatible worlds into an epic of global confrontations that magically preceded all known confrontations. Science fiction has developed a broad variety of genres from the technological adventure Jules Verne had made fashionable in the 1880s to new political and personal compositions. Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World (1932) has become a touchpoint for debate of Western consumerist societies and their use of modern technologies. George Orwell’s 1984 (1949) focuses on the options of resistance under the eyes of public surveillance. Stanisław Lem, Isaac Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke became modern classical authors of experimental thought with a focus on the interaction between men and machines. A new wave of authors has added post-apocalyptic fantasies and explorations of virtual realities in crossovers into the commercial production of quickly mutating sci-fi genres. William Gibson's Neuromancer (1984) became a cult classic here and founded a new brand of cyberpunk science fiction. Writing for the market of popular fiction The contemporary market for trivial literature and popular fiction is connected to the market of "high" literature through the numerous genres that both fields share. The historic advantage of genres is to allow the direct marketing of fiction. Whilst the reader of "high" literature will follow public discussions of novels, the low production has to employ the traditionally more direct and short-term marketing strategies of open declarations of their content. Genres fill the gap the critic leaves and work as direct promises of a foreseeable reading pleasure. The very lowest stratum of trivial fiction is based entirely on genre expectations, which it fixes with serializations and identifiable brand names. Ghost writers hide behind collective pseudonyms to ensure the steady supply of fictions that will have the very same hero, the very same story arc, and the very same number of pages, issue after issue. Though a production not promoted by secondary criticism it is trivial literature that holds the big market share. Romance fiction had an estimated $1.375 billion share in estimated revenue of the US book market in 2007. Religion/inspirational followed with $819 million, science fiction/fantasy with $700 million, mystery with $650 million and classic literary fiction with $466 million according to data supplied by the Romance Writers of America homepage. See the page Romance Literature Statistics: Overview (visited March 16, 2009) of Romance Writers of America homepage. The subpages offer further statistics for the years since 1998. The most important subgenres were in this period, according to Romance Writers of America data given on the basis of numbers of releases: Contemporary series romance: 25.7% Contemporary romance: 21.8% Historical romance: 16% Paranormal romance: 11.8% Romantic suspense: 7.2% Inspirational romance: 7.1% Romantic suspense (series): 4.7% Other (chick-lit, erotic romance, women's fiction): 2.9% Young adult romance: 2.8% In a historical perspective one could be tempted to see modern trivial literature as the successor of the early modern chapbook. Both fields share a focus on readers in search of accessible reading satisfaction. Early modern booksellers stated a reduced vocabulary and a focus on plots as the advantages of the abridgements they sold. The market of chapbooks disappeared, however, in the course of the 19th century. The German rediscovery of chapbooks in the 1840s and their new identification as an extinct though truly original production of "Volksbücher", books the people had brought forth, is symptomatic here. See Karl Joseph Simrock's edition Sammlung deutscher Volksbücher, 13 vols. (Frankfurt, 1845-67) and Jan Dirk Müller (ed.) in his Romane des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts, vol. 1 (Frankfurt a. M., 1990). The modern trivial production had by that time developed out of the once so elegant—early modern belles lettres. John J. Richetti was the first to point out the various similarities within the spectrum of genres. See his Popular Fiction before Richardson. Narrative Patterns 1700-1739 (Oxford: OUP, 1969). The 20th-century love romance is a successor of the novels Madeleine de Scudéry, Marie de La Fayette, Aphra Behn, and Eliza Haywood wrote from the 1640s into the 1740s. The modern adventure novel goes back to Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1719) and its immediate successors. Modern pornography has no precedent in the chapbook market; it goes back, again, to the libertine and hedonistic belles lettres, to John Clelands Fanny Hill (1749) and its companions of the elegant 18th-century market. Ian Flemming’s James Bond is a descendant of the anonymous yet extremely sophisticated and stylish narrator who mixed his love affairs with his political missions in La Guerre d'Espagne (1707). Marion Zimmer Bradley’s The Mists of Avalon exploits Tolkien, as well as Arthurian literature and its romantic 19th-century reflections. Modern horror fiction also has no precedent on the market of chapbooks—it goes back into the high market of early 19th-century romantic literature. Modern popular science fiction has an even shorter history, hardly dating past the 1860s. The modern trivial production can be said to be the result of the 19th-century constitution of “high literature”. Where “high literature” rose under the critical debates of literature, the production that failed to receive the same critical attention had to survive on the existing markets. The emerging field of popular fiction immediately created its own stratifications with a production of bestselling authors such as Raymond Chandler, Barbara Cartland, Ian Fleming, Johannes Mario Simmel, Rosamunde Pilcher, Stephen King, Ken Follett, Patricia Cornwell, Dan Brown who enjoy the potential to attract fans and who appear as role models in author-fan relationships. The lowest market segment does not develop any mythologies of authorship. It hardly differentiates between hero and author: one buys the new Perry Rhodan, Captain Future, or Jerry Cotton. Trivial literature has been accused of promoting escapism and reactionary politics. It is supposedly designed to reinforce present divisions of class, power and gender. Nonetheless, popular fiction has dealt with almost any topic the modern public sphere has provided. Class and gender divisions are omnipresent in love stories: the majority of them harp on tragic confrontations that arise wherever a heroine of lower social status falls in love with a doctor, the wealthy heir of an estate or company, or just the Alpine farmer whose maid she happens to be. It is not said that these aspirations lead to happy endings. They can be read as escapist dreams of how one could change ones social status by marriage; they are at the same time constant indicators of existing or imaginary social barriers. All major political confrontations of the past one hundred years have become the scenery of trivial exploits, whether they focused on soldiers, spies or on civilians fighting between the lines. Conspiracy theories have mushroomed under the covers of trivial fictions from Robert Ludlum’s The Bourne Identity (1980) to Dan Brown’s The Da Vinci Code (2003): they mirror a widespread feeling that the electorate of the Western democracies receive at best an illusion of freedom, a omnipresent picture presented in the media, whilst those who pull the strings hide in the dark. See Timothy Melley, Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000). The authors of trivial fictions–and that is the essential functional difference between them and their counterparts in the sphere of “high” literature–tend to proclaim that they have simply exploited the controversial topics. Dan Brown does this on his website answering the question whether his Da Vinci Code could be called an “anti-Christian” novel: No. This book is not anti-anything. It's a novel. I wrote this story in an effort to explore certain aspects of Christian history that interest me. The vast majority of devout Christians understand this fact and consider The Da Vinci Code an entertaining story that promotes spiritual discussion and debate. Even so, a small but vocal group of individuals has proclaimed the story dangerous, heretical, and anti-Christian. While I regret having offended those individuals, I should mention that priests, nuns, and clergy contact me all the time to thank me for writing the novel. Many church officials are celebrating The Da Vinci Code because it has sparked renewed interest in important topics of faith and Christian history. It is important to remember that a reader does not have to agree with every word in the novel to use the book as a positive catalyst for introspection and exploration of our faith Dan Brown on his website visited February 3, 2009]. The author of popular fictions has a fan community to serve and satisfy. He or she can risk rebuffing both the critical public and its literary experts in their search for interesting readings (as Dan Brown effectively does with his statement on possible readings of his novel). The trivial author’s position towards his text is generally supposed to be relaxed. Authors of great literature are by contrast supposed to be compelled to write. They follow (says the popular mythology) their inner voices, a feeling for injustice, an urge to face a personal trauma, an artistic vision. The authors of trivial fictions have their own call: they must not fail the expectations of their audiences. A covenant of loyalty and mutual respect is the basis on which the author of popular fictions continues his or her work. The lower branches of the production have no contact to mythologies of authorship. The boundaries between the so-called high and low have blurred in recent years through the explorations of postmodern and poststructuralist critics and through the exploitation of trivial works by the film industry. The present landscape of media—with television and the Internet indiscriminately reaching the entire audience—has a potential to destabilize boundaries between the fields. The division lines are, on the other hand, likely to stay intact as the critical discourse continues to need and to produce privileged objects of debate. Notes See also Genres of the novel Campus Comic Crime fiction Fantasy Gothic Horror Romance Science fiction Speculative Spy Thriller Westerns Literature Fiction Novelette Novella Romance (genre) Short story Fiction writing List of literary movements Literature Essay Street Literature Novels-related articles Byzantine novel Chain novel First novel in English List of best-selling books Lists of books List of historical novels List of novels, the action of which takes place within 24 hours Live novel NaNoWriMo The Internet Book Database Further reading Contemporary views 1651: Paul Scarron, The Comical Romance, Chapter XXI. "Which perhaps will not be found very Entertaining" (London, 1700). Scarron's plea for a French production rivalling the Spanish "Novels". online edition 1670: Pierre Daniel Huet, "Traitté de l'origine des Romans", Preface to Marie-Madeleine Pioche de La Vergne comtesse de La Fayette, Zayde, histoire espagnole (Paris, 1670). A world history of fiction. pdf-edition Gallica France 1683: [Du Sieur], "Sentimens sur l’histoire" from: Sentimens sur les lettres et sur l’histoire, avec des scruples sur le stile (Paris: C. Blageart, 1680). The new novels as published masterly by Marie de LaFayette. online edition 1702: Abbe Bellegarde, "Lettre à une Dame de la Cour, qui lui avoit demandé quelques Reflexions sur l’Histoire" in: Lettres curieuses de littérature et de morale (La Haye: Adrian Moetjens, 1702). Paraphrase of Du Sieur's text. online edition 1705/1708/1712: [Anon.] In English, French and German the Preface of The Secret History of Queen Zarah and the Zarazians (Albigion, 1705). Bellegarde's article plagiarised. online edition 1713: Deutsche Acta Eruditorum, German review of the French translation of Delarivier Manley's New Atalantis 1709 (Leipzig: J. L. Gleditsch, 1713). A rare example of a political novel discussed by a literary journal. online edition 1715: Jane Barker, preface to her Exilius or the Banish’d Roman. A New Romance (London: E. Curll, 1715). Plea for a "New Romance" following Fénlon's Telmachus. online edition 1718: [Johann Friedrich Riederer], "Satyra von den Liebes-Romanen", from: Die abentheuerliche Welt in einer Pickelheerings-Kappe, 2 ([Nürnberg,] 1718). German satire about the wide spread reading of novels and romances. online edition 1742: Henry Fielding, preface to Joseph Andrews (London, 1742). The "comic epic in prose" and its poetics. online edition Secondary literature Erwin Rohde Der Griechesche Roman und seine Vorläufer (1876) [un-superseded history of the ancient novel] Bakhtin, Mikhail. About novel. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1981. [written during the 1930s] Watt reads Robinson Crusoe as the first modern "novel" and interprets the rise of the modern novel of realism as an achievement of English literature, owed to a number of factors from early capitalism to the development of the modern individual. Ben Edwin Perry The Ancient Romances (Berkeley, 1967) review: Burgess, Anthony (1970). "Novel, The" – classic Encyclopædia Britannica entry. Miller, H. K., G. S. (1970) Rousseau and Eric Rothstein, The Augustan Milieu: Essays Presented to Louis A. Landa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970). ISBN 0-19-811697-7 Arthur Ray Heiserman The Novel Before the Novel (Chicago, 1977) ISBN 0226325725 Updated edition of pioneering typology and history of over 50 genres; index of types and technique, and detailed chronology. Spufford, Magaret, Small Books and Pleasant Histories (London, 1981). Spencer, Jane, The Rise of Woman Novelists. From Aphra Behn to Jane Austen (Oxford, 1986). Relihan, Constance C. (ed.), Framing Elizabethan fictions: contemporary approaches to early modern narrative prose (Kent, Ohio/ London: Kent State University Press, 1996). ISBN 0873385519 Reconsidering The Rise of the Novel: Eighteenth Century Fiction, Volume 12, Number 2-3, ed. David Blewett (January-April 2000). McKeon, Michael, Theory of the Novel: A Historical Approach (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000). Josephine Donovan, Women and the Rise of the Novel, 1405-1726 revised edition (Palgrave Macmillan, 2000). A market study of the novel around 1700 interpreting contemporary criticism. Inger Leemans, Het woord is aan de onderkant: radicale ideeën in Nederlandse pornografische romans 1670 - 1700 (Nijmegen: Vantilt, 2002). ISBN 90-75697-89-9. from Leah Price Rousseau, George (2004). Nervous Acts: Essays on Literature Culture and Sensibility (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). ISBN 1-4039-3454-1 Mentz, Steve, Romance for sale in early modern England: the rise of prose fiction (Aldershot [etc.]: Ashgate, 2006). ISBN 0-7546-5469-9 Schultz, Lydia, "Flowing against the traditional stream: consciousness in Tillie Olsen's 'Tell Me a Riddle.'" Melus, 1997. Rubens, Robert, "A hundred years of fiction: 1896 to 1996. (The English Novel in the Twentieth Century, part 12)." Contemporary Review, December 1996. Anderson, John Dennis, "Student Companion to William Faulkner". Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. 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3,333	Lyman_Abbott	Lyman Abbott (December 18 1835 - October 22 1922) was an American Congregationalist theologian, editor, and author. Abbott, Lyman in the Christian Cyclopedia Biography Abbott was born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, the son of the prolific author, educator and historian Jacob Abbott. Lyman Abbott grew up in Farmington, Maine and later in New York City. Van Doren, Charles and Robert McHenry, ed., Webster's American Biographies. (Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster, 1984) p. 4 He graduated from the New York University in 1853, where he was a member of the Eucleian Society, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1856; but soon abandoned the legal profession, and, after studying theology with his uncle, John Stevens Cabot Abbott, was ordained a minister of the Congregational Church in 1860. He was pastor of the Congregational Church in Terre Haute, Indiana, in 1860-1865, and of the New England Church in New York City in 1865-1869. From 1865 to 1868 he was secretary of the American Union Commission (later called the American Freedmen's Bureau). In 1869 he resigned his pastorate to devote himself to literature. He was an associate editor of Harper's Magazine, was editor of the Illustrated Christian Weekly for six years, and was co-editor (1876-1881) of The Christian Union with Henry Ward Beecher, whom he succeeded in 1888 as pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. From this pastorate he resigned ten years later. From 1881 he was editor-in-chief of The Christian Union, renamed The Outlook in 1893; this periodical reflected his efforts toward social reform, and, in theology, a liberality, humanitarian and nearly unitarian. The latter characteristics marked his published works also. Abbott's opinions differed from those of Beecher. Abbott was a constant advocate of social reform, and was an advocate of Theodore Roosevelt's progressivism for almost 20 years. He would later adopt a pronouncedly liberal theology. He was also a pronounced Christian Evolutionist. His son, Lawrence Fraser Abbott, accompanied President Roosevelt on a tour of Europe and Africa (1909-10). In 1913 Lyman Abbott was expelled from the American Peace Society because military preparedness was vigorously advocated in the Outlook, New International Encyclopedia which he edited, and because he was a member of the Army and Navy League. During the War he was a strong supporter of the government's war policies. Lyman Abbott died on October 22 1922 and was buried in the New Windsor Cemetery in Cornwall-on-Hudson, New York. Works Jesus of Nazareth (1869); Illustrated Commentary on the New Testament (4 vols., 1875); A Study in Human Nature (1885); Life of Christ (1894); Evolution of Christianity (Lowell Lectures, 1896); The Theology of an Evolutionist (1897); Christianity and Social Problems (1897); Life and Letters of Paul, (1898); The Life that Really is (1899); Problems of Life (1900); The Rights of Man (1901); Henry Ward Beecher (1903); The Christian Ministry (1905); The Personality of God (1905); Industrial Problems (1905); Christ's Secret of Happiness (1907); The Home Builder (1908); The Temple (1909); The Spirit of Democracy (1910); America in the Making (Yale lectures on the responsibility of citizenship, 1911); Letters to Unknown Friends (1913); Reminiscences (1915); The Twentieth Century Crusade (1918); and What Christianity Means to Me (1921). He edited Sermons of Henry Ward Beecher (2 vols., 1868). In two of these works, The Evolution of Christianity and The Theology of an Evolutionist, Abbott applied the concept of evolution in a Christian theological perspective. Although he himself objected to being called an advocate of Darwinism, he was an obtimistic advocte of evolution who though that "what Jesus saw, humanity is becoming." Notes References Reid, Daniel G., et al. Dictionary of Christianity in America. Downers Grove, IL:InterVarsity Press, 1990. ISBN 0-8308-1776-X. External links Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography, edited by James Grant Wilson, John Fiske and Stanley L. Klos. Six volumes, New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1887-1889	Lyman_Abbott \|@lemmatized lyman:5 abbott:12 december:1 october:2 american:6 congregationalist:1 theologian:1 editor:5 author:2 christian:7 cyclopedia:2 biography:3 bear:1 roxbury:1 massachusetts:2 son:2 prolific:1 educator:1 historian:1 jacob:1 grow:1 farmington:1 maine:1 later:4 new:9 york:5 city:2 van:1 doren:1 charles:1 robert:1 mchenry:1 ed:1 webster:2 springfield:1 merriam:1 p:1 graduate:1 university:1 member:2 eucleian:1 society:2 study:3 law:1 admit:1 bar:1 soon:1 abandon:1 legal:1 profession:1 theology:5 uncle:1 john:2 stevens:1 cabot:1 ordain:1 minister:1 congregational:2 church:4 pastor:2 terre:1 haute:1 indiana:1 england:1 secretary:1 union:3 commission:1 call:2 freedman:1 bureau:1 resign:2 pastorate:2 devote:1 literature:1 associate:1 harper:1 magazine:1 illustrated:1 weekly:1 six:2 year:3 co:1 henry:3 ward:3 beecher:4 succeed:1 plymouth:1 brooklyn:1 ten:1 chief:1 rename:1 outlook:2 periodical:1 reflect:1 effort:1 toward:1 social:3 reform:2 liberality:1 humanitarian:1 nearly:1 unitarian:1 latter:1 characteristic:1 mark:1 publish:1 work:3 also:2 opinion:1 differ:1 constant:1 advocate:4 theodore:1 roosevelt:2 progressivism:1 almost:1 would:1 adopt:1 pronouncedly:1 liberal:1 pronounced:1 evolutionist:3 lawrence:1 fraser:1 accompany:1 president:1 tour:1 europe:1 africa:1 expel:1 peace:1 military:1 preparedness:1 vigorously:1 international:1 encyclopedia:1 edit:3 army:1 navy:1 league:1 war:2 strong:1 supporter:1 government:1 policy:1 die:1 bury:1 windsor:1 cemetery:1 cornwall:1 hudson:1 jesus:2 nazareth:1 illustrate:1 commentary:1 testament:1 vols:2 human:1 nature:1 life:4 christ:2 evolution:4 christianity:5 lowell:1 lecture:2 problem:3 letter:2 paul:1 really:1 right:1 man:1 ministry:1 personality:1 god:1 industrial:1 secret:1 happiness:1 home:1 builder:1 temple:1 spirit:1 democracy:1 america:2 making:1 yale:1 responsibility:1 citizenship:1 unknown:1 friend:1 reminiscence:1 twentieth:1 century:1 crusade:1 mean:1 sermon:1 two:1 apply:1 concept:1 theological:1 perspective:1 although:1 object:1 darwinism:1 obtimistic:1 advocte:1 though:1 saw:1 humanity:1 become:1 note:1 reference:1 reid:1 daniel:1 g:1 et:1 al:1 dictionary:1 downer:1 grove:1 il:1 intervarsity:1 press:1 isbn:1 x:1 external:1 link:1 appleton:2 james:1 grant:1 wilson:1 fiske:1 stanley:1 l:1 klos:1 volume:1 company:1 \|@bigram lyman_abbott:4 christian_cyclopedia:1 jacob_abbott:1 van_doren:1 springfield_massachusetts:1 merriam_webster:1 terre_haute:1 haute_indiana:1 freedman_bureau:1 theodore_roosevelt:1 jesus_nazareth:1 twentieth_century:1 et_al:1 downer_grove:1 intervarsity_press:1 external_link:1 l_klos:1
3,334	Neo_Geo_CD	The Neo Geo system, with Four games (Including Driver for Playstation on the Right) The Neo Geo CD was released in 1994, four years after its cartridge-based equivalent, in an effort to reduce manufacturing costs. The system was originally priced at US$300 new. The unit's 1X CD-ROM drive was slow, making loading times very long with the system loading up to 56 Mbit of data between loads. Neo Geo CD game prices were low at $50, in contrast to Neo-Geo AES game cartridges which cost as much as $300. The system could also play Audio CDs. All three versions of the system have no region-lock. The Neo Geo CD was bundled with a control pad instead of a joystick like the AES version. Models Three versions of the Neo Geo CD were released: A "front-loading" version; only distributed in Japan, 25,000 total units were built. A "top-loading" version that was marketed worldwide; it is the most common model. The Neo Geo CDZ; this was also in Japan only CDZ The CDZ was released in 1996 as the Japanese market replacement for SNK's previous efforts (the "front loader" and the "top loader"). The Neo Geo CD had met with limited success due to it being plagued by slow loading times that could vary from 30 to 60 seconds between levels, depending on the game. Although SNK's American home entertainment division quickly acknowledged that the system simply wasn't capable of competing with 3D-capable powerhouse systems of the day like Sega's Saturn and Sony's PlayStation, SNK corporate of Japan felt they could continue to maintain profitable sales in the Japanese home market by shortening the previous system's load-times. Popular speculation suggests that SNK made several changes to the CD hardware to end up with the CDZ, most prominent is the rumor that they increased the CD-ROM drive speed from 1x to 2x. The truth of the matter is that the CDZ had a larger amount of cache. Though the CD-ROM motor in the CDZ may have been more efficient than the one in the original, it was still a 1x speed CD-ROM. The console had a design flaw which sometimes caused it to overheat after certain periods of time, breaking the console in the process and making it hard to repair. This was a result of a lack of ventilation in the cramped housing of the smaller unit and the inability to dissipate heat generated by the newer drive, which could damage the circuit board. CDZ availability The CDZ was only officially sold in Japan during its production. However, its lack of a "region lock," and the fact that it could play older CD software, made it a popular import item for enthusiasts in Europe and North America. Today they can be found sporadically on the internet, especially through auction sites such as eBay. Technical specifications Main Processor: Motorola 68000 running at 12 MHz Although the 68000 CPU was designed by Motorola, there were many other clones of this CPU found in the Neo Geo hardware. The most common CPU is the TMP68HC000 manufactured by Toshiba. This is essentially a Motorola 68000 clone. Co-Processor: Zilog Z80 running at 4 MHz Colors On Screen: 4,096 Colors Available: 65,536 Resolution: 304 x 224 Max Sprites: 380 Max Sprite Size: 16 x 512 Number of Planes: 3 The system is also capable of reading Redbook standard compact disc audio. In addition to the multi-AV port (exact same one as used on the Sega Genesis model 1) all Neo Geo CD models had composite RCA A/V and S-Video out jacks on the rear of the console. The CD system's 58 Mbit / 7 MB of RAM was split accordingly: 68000 Program Memory: 2 MB Fix Layer Memory: 128 KB Graphics Memory: 4 MB Sound Sample Memory: 1 MB Z80 Program Memory: 64 kB VRAM: 512Kb (For graphics attributes) SRAM: 2 KB (For high scores / general save data) Exclusive games While the Neo Geo CD library consisted primarily of ports of MVS and AES titles, there were a few MVS arcade games which were not officially released for the Neo Geo AES and ported instead to the Neo Geo CD. This includes Puzzle Bobble, Janshin Densetsu (a Mahjong game also released for the PC Engine), Power Spike II, Neo Driftout and Futsal - 5-on-5 Mini Soccer. A few games which were unreleased in MVS and AES formats were also released exclusively for the Neo Geo CD. These includes Iron Clad, Crossed Swords 2, Oshidashi Zentrix, ADK World, Neo Geo CD Special, The King of Fighters '96 Neo Collection and Shinsetsu Samurai Spirits: Bushido Retsuden (an RPG spinoff of the Samurai Shodown series that also released for the PlayStation and Sega Saturn). Idol Mahjong Final Romance II, an arcade game which was not an MVS game, was also ported to the Neo Geo CD. See also Neo Geo (console) 3DO Interactive Multiplayer Turbo Duo Sega CD Sega CDX External links NeoGeoSpain.com - Spanish NeoGeo CD Site NeoGeoCD.net - Dedicated to the Neo Geo CD System, Games, and Accessories: Neogeocd.net	Neo_Geo_CD \|@lemmatized neo:20 geo:18 system:11 four:2 game:11 include:3 driver:1 playstation:3 right:1 cd:22 release:7 year:1 cartridge:2 base:1 equivalent:1 effort:2 reduce:1 manufacturing:1 cost:2 originally:1 price:2 u:1 new:1 unit:3 rom:4 drive:3 slow:2 make:4 load:6 time:4 long:1 mbit:2 data:2 low:1 contrast:1 aes:5 much:1 could:5 also:8 play:2 audio:2 three:2 version:5 region:2 lock:2 bundle:1 control:1 pad:1 instead:2 joystick:1 like:2 model:4 front:2 distribute:1 japan:4 total:1 build:1 top:2 market:3 worldwide:1 common:2 cdz:8 japanese:2 replacement:1 snk:4 previous:2 loader:2 meet:1 limited:1 success:1 due:1 plague:1 loading:1 vary:1 second:1 level:1 depend:1 although:2 american:1 home:2 entertainment:1 division:1 quickly:1 acknowledge:1 simply:1 capable:3 compete:1 powerhouse:1 day:1 sega:5 saturn:2 sony:1 corporate:1 felt:1 continue:1 maintain:1 profitable:1 sale:1 shorten:1 popular:2 speculation:1 suggest:1 several:1 change:1 hardware:2 end:1 prominent:1 rumor:1 increase:1 speed:2 truth:1 matter:1 large:1 amount:1 cache:1 though:1 motor:1 may:1 efficient:1 one:2 original:1 still:1 console:4 design:2 flaw:1 sometimes:1 cause:1 overheat:1 certain:1 period:1 break:1 process:1 hard:1 repair:1 result:1 lack:2 ventilation:1 cramped:1 housing:1 small:1 inability:1 dissipate:1 heat:1 generate:1 newer:1 damage:1 circuit:1 board:1 availability:1 officially:2 sell:1 production:1 however:1 fact:1 old:1 software:1 import:1 item:1 enthusiast:1 europe:1 north:1 america:1 today:1 find:2 sporadically:1 internet:1 especially:1 auction:1 site:2 ebay:1 technical:1 specification:1 main:1 processor:2 motorola:3 running:1 mhz:2 cpu:3 many:1 clone:2 manufacture:1 toshiba:1 essentially:1 co:1 zilog:1 run:1 color:2 screen:1 available:1 resolution:1 x:2 max:2 sprite:2 size:1 number:1 plane:1 read:1 redbook:1 standard:1 compact:1 disc:1 addition:1 multi:1 av:1 port:4 exact:1 use:1 genesis:1 composite:1 rca:1 v:1 video:1 jack:1 rear:1 mb:4 ram:1 split:1 accordingly:1 program:2 memory:5 fix:1 layer:1 kb:3 graphic:2 sound:1 sample:1 vram:1 attribute:1 sram:1 high:1 score:1 general:1 save:1 exclusive:1 library:1 consist:1 primarily:1 mv:3 title:1 arcade:2 puzzle:1 bobble:1 janshin:1 densetsu:1 mahjong:2 pc:1 engine:1 power:1 spike:1 ii:2 driftout:1 futsal:1 mini:1 soccer:1 unreleased:1 format:1 exclusively:1 iron:1 clad:1 cross:1 sword:1 oshidashi:1 zentrix:1 adk:1 world:1 special:1 king:1 fighter:1 collection:1 shinsetsu:1 samurai:2 spirit:1 bushido:1 retsuden:1 rpg:1 spinoff:1 shodown:1 series:1 idol:1 final:1 romance:1 mvs:1 see:1 interactive:1 multiplayer:1 turbo:1 duo:1 cdx:1 external:1 link:1 neogeospain:1 com:1 spanish:1 neogeo:1 neogeocd:2 net:2 dedicate:1 accessory:1 \|@bigram neo_geo:18 geo_cd:12 cd_rom:4 sega_saturn:2 sony_playstation:1 compact_disc:1 sega_genesis:1 mbit_mb:1 mb_ram:1 external_link:1
3,335	Chemotaxis	Chemotaxis, a kind of taxis, is the phenomenon in which bodily cells, bacteria, and other single-cell or multicellular organisms direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. This is important for bacteria to find food (for example, glucose) by swimming towards the highest concentration of food molecules, or to flee from poisons (for example, phenol). In multicellular organisms, chemotaxis is critical to early (e.g. movement of sperm towards the egg during fertilization) and subsequent phases of development (e.g. migration of neurons or lymphocytes) as well as in normal function. In addition, it has been recognized that mechanisms that allow chemotaxis in animals can be subverted during cancer metastasis. Chemotaxis is called positive if movement is in the direction of a higher concentration of the chemical in question, and negative if the direction is opposite. History of chemotaxis research Although migration of cells was detected from the early days of the development of microscopy (Leeuwenhoek), erudite description of chemotaxis was first made by T.W. Engelmann (1881) and W.F. Pfeffer (1884) in bacteria and H.S. Jennings (1906) in ciliates. The Nobel Prize Laureate E. Metchnikoff also contributed to the study of the field with investigations of the process as an initial step of phagocytosis. The significance of chemotaxis in biology and clinical pathology was widely accepted in the 1930s. The most fundamental definitions belonging to the phenomenon were also drafted by this time. The most important aspects in quality control of chemotaxis assays were described by H. Harris in the 1950s. In the 1960s and 1970s, the revolution of modern cell biology and biochemistry provided a series of novel techniques which became available to investigate the migratory responder cells and subcellular fractions responsible for chemotactic activity. The pioneering works of J. Adler represented a significant turning point in understanding the whole process of intracellular signal transduction of bacteria. On November 3, 2006, Dr. Dennis Bray of University of Cambridge was awarded the Microsoft Award for his work on chemotaxis on E. coli. http://research.microsoft.com/displayArticle.aspx?id=1572 retrieved November 6, 2006 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6113522.stm retrieved November 6, 2006 Phylogeny and chemotactic signalling Chemotaxis is one of the most basic cell physiological responses. Development of receptor systems for the detection of harmful and favorable substances in the environment was most essential to unicellular organisms from the very early stages of phylogeny. Comprehensive analysis of chemotactic activity of the eukaryotic protozoon Tetrahymena pyriformis and consensus sequences of appearance of amino acids in the primordial soup suggest that there was a good correlation between the chemotactic character of these relative simple organic molecules and their development on the Earth. In this way the earliest molecules are suggested to be highly chemoattractant (e.g. Gly, Glu, Pro), while latter ones are thought to be strongly chemorepellent (e.g. Tyr, Trp, Phe) amino acids. The 'Optimal' Chemotactic Ligand - Amino acids retrieved February 3, 2008 Bacterial chemotaxis Some bacteria, such as E. coli, have several flagella per cell (4–10 typically). These can rotate in two ways : Counter-clockwise rotation aligns the flagella into a single rotating bundle, causing the bacterium to swim in a straight line. Clockwise rotation breaks the flagella bundle apart such that each flagellum points in a different direction, causing the bacterium to tumble in place. The directions of rotation are given for an observer outside the cell looking down the flagella toward the cell. Correlation of swimming behaviour and flagellar rotation Behavior The overall movement of a bacterium is the result of alternating tumble and swim phases. If one watches a bacterium swimming in a uniform environment, its movement will look like a random walk with relatively straight swims interrupted by random tumbles that reorient the bacterium. Bacteria such as E. coli are unable to choose the direction in which they swim, and are unable to swim in a straight line for more than a few seconds due to rotational diffusion. In other words, bacteria "forget" the direction in which they are going. Given these limitations, it is remarkable that bacteria can direct their motion to find favorable locations with high concentrations of attractants (usually food) and avoid repellents (usually poisons). In the presence of a chemical gradient bacteria will chemotax, or direct their overall motion based on the gradient. If the bacterium senses that it is moving in the correct direction (toward attractant/away from repellent), it will keep swimming in a straight line for a longer time before tumbling. If it is moving in the wrong direction, it will tumble sooner and try a new direction at random. In other words, bacteria like E. coli use temporal sensing to decide whether life is getting better or worse. In this way, it finds the location with the highest concentration of attractant (usually the source) quite well. Even under very high concentrations, it can still distinguish very small differences in concentration. Fleeing from a repellent works with the same efficiency. It seems remarkable that this purposeful random walk is a result of simply choosing between two methods of random movement; namely tumbling and straight swimming. In fact, chemotactic responses such as forgetting direction and choosing movements resemble the decision-making abilities of higher life-forms with brains that process sensory data. The helical nature of the individual flagellar filament is critical for this movement to occur. As such, the protein that makes up the flagellar filament, flagellin, is quite similar among all flagellated bacteria. Vertebrates seem to have taken advantage of this fact by possessing an immune receptor (TLR5) designed to recognize this conserved protein. As in many instances in biology, there are bacteria that do not follow this rule. Many bacteria, such as Vibrio, are monoflagellated and have a single flagellum at one pole of the cell. Their method of chemotaxis is different. Others possess a single flagellum that is kept inside the cell wall. These bacteria move by spinning the whole cell, which is shaped like a corkscrew. Signal transduction Chemical gradients are sensed through multiple transmembrane receptors, called methyl accepting chemotaxis proteins (MCPs), which vary in the molecules that they detect. These receptors may bind attractants or repellents directly or indirectly through interaction with proteins of periplasmatic space. The signals from these receptors are transmitted across the plasma membrane into the cytosol, where Che proteins are activated. The Che proteins alter the tumbling frequency, and alter the receptors. Domain structure of chemotaxis receptor for Asp Flagellum regulation The proteins CheW and CheA bind to the receptor. The activation of the receptor by an external stimulus causes autophosphorylation in the histidine kinase, CheA, at a single highly conserved histidine residue. CheA in turn transfers phosphoryl groups to conserved aspartate residues in the response regulators CheB and CheY [ note: CheA is a histidine kinase and it does not actively transfer the phosphoryl group. The response regulator CheB takes the phosphoryl group from CheA]. This mechanism of signal transduction is called a two-component system and is a common form of signal transduction in bacteria. CheY induces tumbling by interacting with the flagellar switch protein FliM, inducing a change from counter-clockwise to clockwise rotation of the flagellum. Change in the rotation state of a single flagellum can disrupt the entire flagella bundle and cause a tumble. Receptor regulation CheB, when activated by CheA, acts as a methylesterase, removing methyl groups from glutamate residues on the cytosolic side of the receptor. It works antagonistically with CheR, a methyltransferase, which adds methyl residues to the same glutamate residues. The more methyl residues are attached to the receptor, the more sensitive the receptor. As the signal from the receptor induces demethylation of the receptor in a feedback loop, the system is continuously adjusted to environmental chemical levels, remaining sensitive for small changes even under extreme chemical concentrations. This regulation allows the bacterium to 'remember' chemical concentrations from the recent past, a few seconds, and compare them to those it is currently experiencing, thus 'know' whether it is traveling up or down a gradient. However, the methylation system alone cannot account for the wide range of sensitivity that bacteria have to chemical gradients. Additional regulatory mechanisms such as receptor clustering and receptor-receptor interactions also modulate the signalling pathway. Signalling pathways of E.coli Eukaryotic chemotaxis The mechanism by which eukaryotic cells chemotax is quite different from that in bacteria; however, sensing of chemical gradients is still a crucial step in the process. Due to their size, prokaryotes cannot detect effective concentration gradients, therefore these cells scan and evaluate their environment by a constant swimming (consecutive steps of straight swims and tumbles). In contrast to prokaryotes, the size of eukaryotic cells allows for the possibility of detecting gradients, which results in a dynamic and polarized distribution of receptors. Induction of these receptors by chemoattractants or chemorepellents results in migration towards or away from the chemotactic substance. Difference of gradient sensing in prokaryotes and eukaryotes Levels of receptors, intracellular signalling pathways and the effector mechanisms all represent diverse, eukaryotic type components. In eukaryotic unicellular cells, ameboid movement and cilium or the eukaryotic flagellum are the main effectors (e.g. Amoeba or Tetrahymena) . Some eukaryotic cells of higher vertebrate origin, such as immune cells also move to where they need to be. Besides immune competent cells (granulocyte, monocyte, lymphocyte) a large group of cells - considered previously to be fixed into tissues - are also motile in special physiological (e.g. mast cell, fibroblast, endothelial cells)or pathological conditions (e.g. metastases). Chemotaxis has high significance in the early phases of embryogenesis as development of germ layers is guided by gradients of signal molecules. Motility Unlike motility in bacterial chemotaxis, the mechanism by which eukaryotic cells physically move is unclear. There appear to be mechanisms by which an external chemotactic gradient is sensed and turned into an intracellular PIP3 gradient, which results in a gradient and the activation of a signaling pathway, culminating in the polymerisation of actin filaments. The growing distal end of actin filaments develops connections with the internal surface of the plasma membrane via different sets of peptides and results in the formation of pseudopods. Cilia of eukaryotic cells can also produce chemotaxis; in this case it is mainly a Ca2+ dependent induction of the microtubular system of the basal body and the beat of the 9+2 microtubules within cilia. The orchestered beating of hundreds of cilia is synchronized by a submembranous system built between basal bodies. The details of the signaling pathways are still not totally clear. Chemotaxis related migratory responses Although chemotaxis is the most frequently studied form of migration there are several other forms of locomotion in the cellular level. Chemokinesis is also induced by molecules of the liquid phase of the surrounding environment; however, the response elicited is a not vectorial, random taxis. Neither amplitude nor frequency of motion has characteristic, directional components as this behaviour provides more scanning of the environment than migration between two distinct points. In haptotaxis the gradient of the chemoattractant is expressed or bound on a surface, in contrast to the classical model of chemotaxis, in which the gradient develops in a soluble fluid. The most common biologically active haptotactic surface is the extracellular matrix (ECM); the presence of bound ligands is responsible for induction of transendothelial migration and angiogenesis. Necrotaxis embodies a special type of chemotaxis when the chemoattractant molecules are released from necrotic or apoptotic cells. Depending on the chemical character of released substances, necrotaxis can accumulate or repel cells, which underlines the pathophysiological significance of this phenomenon. Chemotaxis related migratory responses Receptors For the most part, eukaryotic cells sense the presence of chemotactic stimuli though the use of 7-transmembrane (or serpentine) heterotrimeric G-protein coupled receptors. This class of receptors is huge, representing a significant portion of the genome. Some members of this gene superfamily are used in eyesight (rhodopsins) as well as in olfaction (smelling). The main classes of professional chemotaxis receptors are triggered by formyl peptides - formyl peptide receptors (FPR), chemokines - chemokine receptors (CCR or CXCR) and leukotrienes - leukotriene receptors (BLT); however, induction of a wide set of membrane receptors (e.g. amino acids, insulin, vasoactive peptides) also elicit migration of the cell. Chemotactic selection While some chemotaxis receptors are expressed in the surface membrane with long-term characteristics as they are determined genetically, others have short-term dynamics as they are assembled ad hoc in the presence of the ligand. The diverse features of the chemotaxis receptors and ligands allows for the possibility of selecting chemotactic responder cells with a simple chemotaxis assay. By chemotactic selection we can determine whether a still uncharacterized molecule acts via the long- or the short-term receptor pathway. The term chemotactic selection is also used to designate a technique which separates eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells according to their chemotactic responsiveness to selector ligands. Chemotactic selection Chemotactic ligands The number of molecules capable of eliciting chemotactic responses is relatively high, and we can distinguish primary and secondary chemotactic molecules. The main groups of the primary ligands are as follows: Formyl peptides are di-, tri-, tetrapeptides of bacterial origin (see formyl group on the N terminus of the peptide). They are released from bacteria in vivo or after decomposition of the cell. A typical member of this group is the N-formylmethionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLF or fMLP in references). The bacterial origin fMLF as a key component of inflammation has characteristic chemoattractant effects in neutrophil granulocytes and monocytes. Complement 3a (C3a) and complement 5a (C5a) are intermediate products of complement cascade. Their synthesis is joined to the three alternative pathways (classical, lectin dependent and alternative) of complement activation by a convertase enzyme. The main target cells of these derivaties are neutrophil granulocytes and monocytes as well. Chemokines belong to a special class of cytokines. Their groups (C, CC, CXC, CX3C chemokines) represent not only structurally related molecules with a special arrangement of disulfide bridges, but their target cell specificity is also diverse: CC chemokines are acting on monocytes (e.g. RANTES), CXC chemokines are neutrophil granulocyte specific (e.g. IL-8). Structure of chemokine classes Investigations of the three-dimensional structures of chemokines proved that a characteristic composition of beta-sheets and an alpha helix provides expression of sequences required for interaction with the chemokine receptors. Formation of dimers and their increased biological acitvity was demonstrated by crystallography of several chemokines e.g. IL-8. Three dimensional structure of chemokines Leukotrienes belong to the group eicosanoids. They are significant lipid mediators of the arachidonic acid cascade converted by 5-lipoxigenase. Their predominant member is leukotriene B4 (LTB4) which elicits adhesion, chemotaxis and aggregation of leukocytes. The characteristic chemoattractant effect of LTB4 is induced via G-protein linked seven-transmembrane spanning leukotriene receptors which are highly expressed in inflammation and allergy. Chemotactic range fitting (CRF) Chemotactic responses elicited by the ligand-receptor interactions are distinguished generally upon the optimal effective concentration(s) of the ligand. Nevertheless, correlation of the amplitude elicited and ratio of the responder cells compared to the total number are also characteristic features of the chemotactic signaling. Investigations of ligand families (e.g. amino acids or oligo peptides) proved that there is a fitting of ranges (amplitudes; number of responder cells) and chemotactic activities: chemoattractant moiety is accompanied by wide ranges, while chemorepellent character by narrow ranges. Chemotactic range fitting Clinical significance A changed migratory potential of cells has relatively high importance in the development of several clinical symptoms and syndromes. Altered chemotactic activity of extracellular (e.g. Escherichia coli) or intracellular (e.g. Listeria monocytogenes) pathogens itself represents a significant clinical target. Modification of endogenous chemotactic ability of these microorganisms by pharmaceutical agents can decrease or inhibit the ratio of infections or spreading of infectious diseases. Apart from infections, there are some other diseases where impaired chemotaxis is the primary etiological factor, as in Chediak-Higashi syndrome where giant intracellular vesicles inhibit normal migration of cells. + Chemotaxis (Chtx.) in diseases Type of disease Chtx. increased Chtx. decreased Infections inflammations AIDS, Brucellosis Chtx. results the disease - Chediak-Higashi syndrome, Kartagener syndrome Chtx. is affected atherosclerosis, arthritis, periodontitis, psoriasis, reperfusion injury, metastatic tumorsmultiple sclerosis, Hodgkin disease, male infertility Intoxications asbestos, benzpyrene salts of Hg and Cr, ozone (O3) Mathematical models Several mathematical models of chemotaxis were developed depending on the type of migration (e.g. basic differences of bacterial swimming, movement of unicellular eukaryotes with cilia/flagellum and ameboid migration); physicochemical characteristics of the chemicals (e.g. diffusion) working as ligands; biological characteristics of the ligands (attractant, neutral and repellent molecules; assay systems applied to evaluate chemotaxis (see incubation times, development and stability of concentration gradients); other environmental effects possessing direct or indirect influence on the migration (lighting, temperature, magnetic fields etc.) However, interaction of the factors listed above make modelling rather complex, dealing with some basic factors we can also start to describe chemotactic behaviour of cells. Mathematically a material density gradient expressed with and the chemotaxis in their simplest form as , where J is a fluxus vector and an x is the so-called ’Chemotactic coefficient’. In the mirror of publications Research of cell migration – as it was shown in the chapter ’History of chemotaxis research’ – requires complementary application of classic and modern techniques. The field provides the possibility to present novel and valuable data in the basic research as well as in applied sciences. In the last 20–25 years, due to the factors mentioned above, there was an increase in number of publications dealing with itself the phenomenon chemotaxis. Nevertheless, other publications written in genetics, biochemistry, cell-physiology, pathology and clinical sciences could also incorporate data about migration or especially the chemotaxis of cells. A curiosity of migration research is that among several works investigating taxes (e.g.thermotaxis, geotaxis, phototaxis) chemotaxis research shows a significantly high ratio, which point to the underlined importance of chemotaxis research both in biology and medicine. Chemotactic range fitting Measurement of chemotaxis A wide range of techniques is available to evaluate chemotactic activity of cells or the chemoattractant and chemorepellent character of ligands. The basic requirements of the measurement are as follows: concentration gradients can develop relatively fast and persist for a long time in the system chemotactic and chemokinetic activities are distinguished migration of cells is free towards and away on the axis of the concentration gradient detected responses are the results of active migration of cells Despite the fact that an ideal chemotaxis assay is still not available, there are several protocols and pieces of equipment which offer good correspondence with the conditions described above. The most commonly used are: Agar plate assays E.g. PP-chamber Two-chamber techniques E.g. Boyden-chamber - Zigmond chamber - Dunn chambers - Multi-well chambers - Capillary techniques Others E.g. T-maze technique - Opalescence technique - Orientation assays (A more detailed chapter you can find under Chemotaxis assay) References External links Chemotaxis (a book) Chemotaxis Neutrophil Chemotaxis Cell Migration Gateway Global Existence for Chemotaxis with Finite Sampling Radius Bacterial Chemotaxis Depends on a Two-Component Signaling Pathway Activated by Histidine-Kinase-associated Receptors, Molecular Biology of the Cell 4th Edition © 2002 by Bruce Alberts, Alexander Johnson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, and Peter Walter. Figure 15-69. The two-component signaling pathway that enables chemotaxis receptors to control the flagellar motor during bacterial chemotaxis, Molecular Biology of the Cell 4th Edition © 2002 by Bruce Alberts, Alexander Johnson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, and Peter Walter.	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3,336	Foreign_relations_of_Egypt	Egypt's foreign policy operates along a non-aligned level. Factors such as population size, historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographical position give Egypt extensive political influence in the Middle East, Africa, and within the Non-Aligned Movement as a whole. Cairo has been a crossroads of Arab commerce and culture for millennia, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development. Relations with the European Union European Union relations with Egypt are based on a partnership relation within the Euro – Mediterranean and Middle East area, which is of vital strategic importance and a key external relations priority for the EU. The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership launched at the 1995 Barcelona Conference between the European Union and its originally 12 Mediterranean Partners: Algeria, Cyprus, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Malta, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, and the Palestinian Authority. Libya currently has observer status at certain meetings. Since the enlargement, in May 2004 and January 2007, the co-operation covers 35 countries, the EU of 27, including Cyprus and Malta and the 10 Mediterranean Partners. Egypt has also taken an active role regarding Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, such as its participation in the technical meeting of which it was the speaker for the Arab group. Additionally, the first meeting of the Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary assembly was co-chaired by an Egyptian. Egypt has been one of the leading recipients among the Mediterranean partners in terms of total funds received from the MEDA programme, the principal financial instrument of the European Union for the implementation of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership. It is focused on policy-led, national structural reform and liberalisation programmes with a sector-wide approach. The EU is Egypt’s biggest trading partner currently accounting for 42% of Egyptian exports and 37% of imports, with the balance of trade still in the EU's favour. Trade between the EU and Egypt has risen by more than 5% in the last five years to reach around 11.6 billion euro in 2004. Egypt’s main exports to the EU in 2004 were energy (39%), textiles and clothing (15%), agricultural products (9%), and chemicals (5%). Major imports from the EU were power generating machinery (21%), chemicals (16%), transport equipment (16%), and food and agricultural products (10%). Egypt has a serious but improving trade deficit that has put considerable pressure on the Egyptian Pound. Trade relations with the EU are good although there are several outstanding trade and phyto-sanitary issues. These range from specific market access issues and difficulties for businesses facing a highly regulated and complex system through to restrictions in the export of agricultural goods (potatoes) and fishery products because they do not conform with EU quality norms. Relations in the Middle East Arab relations The Arab League headquarters is in Cairo, and the Secretary General of the League is traditionally an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Amr Moussa is the present Secretary General of the Arab League. Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996. Egypt is on good terms with Libya and Sudan, its African neighbors, although it has a land dispute with Sudan over the Hala'ib Triangle, a small area of land on the Egypt-Sudan border on the Red Sea coast. Sudan claims the area, although the Egyptian military currently occupies it. Egypt's policy on Sudan is that it is in favor of a united Sudan. As such Egypt was not directly involved in the Sudan Peace Process that was hosted in Kenya under the auspices of IGAD and that gave the peoples of south Sudan the right to secede and form an independent state in 2001 after the long and brutal Sudanese civil war that cumulatively lasted more than 40 years and claimed over 2 million lives. Relations with Africa In the twenty-first century, Egypt has encountered a major problem with immigration, as millions of Africans attempt to enter Egypt fleeing poverty and war. Border control methods can be "harsh, sometimes lethal." This has strained relations with Egypt's southern neighbors, and with Israel and the members of the EU as these immigrants attempt to move on to wealthier countries. Desperate on the Border, ALASDAIR SOUSSI, Jerusalem Report, Nov. 9, 1953, http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1225910074439&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull Egypt currently disputes sovereignty of the Hala'ib Triangle with Sudan, an area of land located on the Red Sea coast, between the political borders (at the 22nd circle of latitude) and the administrative boundary between the two countries. Relations with Israel Being a pioneer of peace making in the region and driven from its belief that a peaceful Middle East is the best solution for the development of Egypt, the third Egyptian President Anwar Sadat's groundbreaking trip to Israel in 1977, the 1978 Camp David Accords, and the 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty represented a fundamental shift in the politics of the region; from a strategy of confrontation to one of peace as a strategic choice. Egypt was subsequently ostracized by other Arab states and ejected from the Arab League from 1979 to 1989. However, due to circumstances of today's Israeli-Palestinian conflict, full normalization of relations between these two countries is still halted and sometimes fought against in both countries. The Egyptian ambassador to Tel Aviv is often withdrawn, and the peace has been called a cool peace due to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Israeli-Palestinian conflict Egypt is a key partner in the search for peace in the Middle East and resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Egypt played an important role in the negotiations leading to the Madrid Peace Conference in 1991, which, under United States and Russian sponsorship, brought together all parties in the region to discuss Middle East peace. This support has continued to the present, with President Hosni Mubarak often intervening personally to promote peace negotiations. In 1996, he hosted the Sharm El-Sheikh "Summit of the Peacemakers" attended by President Bill Clinton and other world leaders. In 2000, he hosted two summits at Sharm El-Sheikh and one at Taba in an effort to resume the Camp David negotiations suspended in July 2000, and in June 2003, Mubarak hosted President George W. Bush for another summit on Middle East peace process. Another summit was convened in Sharm El Sheik in early 2005, which was attended by Egypt, Israel, the Palestinian Authority and Jordan. The Egyptian Chief of Intelligence, General Omar Suleiman, has played a substantial role in negotiations between the Israeli and Palestinian sides and is highly respected on both sides. Relations with Iran See: Foreign relations of Iran#Egypt (different wording) Since the Islamic Revolution, Egypt's diplomatic relations with Iran have mostly been strained. Contentious issues include Egypt's signing of the Camp David Accords with Israel in 1979, its support for Iraq in Iran's eight-year conflict, the Islamic Republic's hailing of Khalid Islambouli, the late President Anwar Sadat's assassin as a religious hero, seeing as there was both a street and mural named after him (however, the honorer was changed to Muhammad al-Durrah, the 12-year-old Palestinian boy shot and killed by the IDF during the outset of the Second Infitada), and close Egyptian relations with the United States, and most of the Western European countries. In 2007, relations between the two have thawed in the fields of diplomacy and economic trade, only to collapse during the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict when the Iranian and Egyptian politicians exchanged blames over inaction towards the escalation. Despite wavering tensions between Tehran and Cairo, the two countries are members of the OIC and the Developing 8 Relations with India Modern Egypt-India relations go back to the contacts between Saad Zaghloul and Mohandas Gandhi on the common goals of their respective movements of independence. In 1955, Egypt under Gamal Abdul Nasser and India under Jawaharlal Nehru became the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement. During the 1956 War, Nehru stood supporting Egypt to the point of threatening to withdraw his country from the British Commonwealth. In 1967, following the Arab-Israeli war, India supported Egypt and the Arabs. In 1977, New Delhi described the visit of President Anwar al-Sadat to Jerusalem as a "brave" move and considered the peace treaty between Egypt and Israel a primary step on the path of a just settlement of the Middle East problem. Major Egyptian exports to India include raw cotton, raw and manufactured fertilizers, oil and oil products, organic and non-organic chemicals, leather and iron products. Major imports into Egypt from India are cotton yarn, sesame, coffee, herbs, tobacco, lentils, pharmaceutical products and transport equipment. The Egyptian Ministry of Petroleum is also currently negotiating the establishment of a natural gas-operated fertilizer plant with another Indian company. In 2004 the Gas Authority of India Limited, bought 15% of Egypt Nat Gas distribution and marketing company. Relations with the United States After the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, Egyptian foreign policy began to shift as a result of the change in Egypt's leadership from President Gamal Abdel-Nasser to Anwar Sadat and the emerging peace process between Egypt and Israel. Sadat realized that reaching a settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict is a precondition for Egyptian development. To achieve this goal, Sadat ventured to enhance US-Egyptian relations to foster a peace process with Israel. Military cooperation Between 1979 and 2003, the US has provided Egypt with about $19 billion in military aid, making Egypt the second largest non-NATO recipient of US military aid after Israel. Also, Egypt received about $30 billion in economic aid within the same time frame. Military cooperation between the US and Egypt is probably the strongest aspect of their strategic partnership. General Anthony Zinni, the former Commandant of the US Central Command (CENTCOM), once said, "Egypt is the most important country in my area of responsibility because of the access it gives me to the region." Egypt was also described during the Clinton Administration as the most prominent player in the Arab world and a key US ally in the Middle East. US military assistance to Egypt was considered part of the administration's strategy to maintaining continued availability of Persian Gulf energy resources and to secure the Suez Canal, which serves both as an important international oil route and as critical route for US warships transiting to the Persian Gulf. The Egyptian military provides indirect support for the foreign policy of Egypt in the region. Egypt is the strongest military power on the African continent, and according to Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies' annual Middle East Strategic Balance the second largest in the Middle East, after Israel. War on terrorism Despite differences and periods of friction in relations between the two countries, the US-Egyptian relations under Mubarak have evolved moving beyond the Middle East peace process towards an independent bilateral friendship. It was in the US interest that Egypt was able to present moderate voice in Arab councils and persuade other Arab states to join the peace process and to normalize their relations with the US. However lately Egyptian-American relations have become a little tense. This is due to a great extent to the Egyptian unwillingness to send troops to Afghanistan and Iraq in peace stabilization missions. Egypt strongly backed the US in its war against international terrorism after 11 September attacks, but refused to send troops to Afghanistan neither during the war nor after it. Egypt also opposed US military intervention of March 2003 in Iraq, continued to oppose US occupation of the country after the war and further refused to comply with US requests to send troops to the country even under a UN umbrella. The issue of participation in the post-war construction efforts in Iraq has been controversial in Egypt and in the Arab world as a whole. Opponents say that the war was illegal and it is necessary to wait until Iraq has legal representative government to deal with it. On the other hand supporters of participation argued that the responsibility to protect Iraqis and to help them in time of crisis should prevail and guide the Egyptian action in Iraq, despite the fact that the Iraqis do not agree. Islamic Republic of Pakistan Pakistan and Egypt, both being Muslim countries, share cordial relations. Both are also members of the OIC (Oraganization of Islamic Conference), as well as "the next eleven" and "D8". International involvement Egypt played a key role during the 1990-91 Persian Gulf crisis. President Mubarak helped assemble the international coalition and deployed 35,000 Egyptian troops against Iraq to liberate Kuwait. The Egyptian contingent was one of the largest in the coalition forces, along with the U.S., U.K. and Saudi Arabia. In the aftermath of the Gulf War, Egypt signed the Damascus declaration with Syria and the Persian Gulf states to strengthen Persian Gulf security. Egypt continues to contribute regularly to United Nations peacekeeping missions, most recently in East Timor, Sierra Leone, and Liberia. Following the September 11 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, Egypt, which has itself been the target of terrorist attacks, has been a key supporter of the U.S. war against terrorists and terrorist organizations such as Osama bin Ladin and al-Qaeda, and has supported the Iraqi Governing Council. On December 25, 2006, the Egyptian Foreign Minister Ahmed Abul Gheit called for end to "nuclear double standards" where sanctions are imposed on Iran for enriching uranium, but the Israeli nuclear program is not subject to any control by the International Atomic Energy Agency. Egypt is member of ABEDA, ACC, ACCT (associate), AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AU, BSEC (observer), CAEU,CTBT, EBRD, ECA, ESCWA, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OAPEC, OAS(observer), OAU, OIC, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNTAET, UPU, WCO,EFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, and WTrO Relations by country Egypt has established bilateral relations with various countries including the following: Country Formal Relations Began Notes 1947See Argentina–Egypt relations Argentina has an embassy in Cairo Egypt has an embassy in Buenos Aires. List of Treaties ruling relations Argentina and Egypt (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish) Egyptian-Argentinean relations - From the Egypt State Information Service 1992-03-01 Egypt was one of the first countries in the Arab world which recognized the independent Armenia in 1991. In May 1992, the first diplomatic mission of the Republic of Armenia in the Arab East was inaugurated in Cairo. Armenian embassy in Cairo Egypt has an embassy in Yerevan. 1950See Australia–Egypt relations Australia has an embassy in Cairo. Australian embassy Cairo Egypt has an embassy in Canberra and 2 Consulates-General (in Melbourne and Sydney). Egyptian embassy in Canberra Egyptian Consulate-General in Sydney Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with EgyptSee Austria–Egypt relationsSee Bulgaria–Egypt relationsSee Canada–Egypt relationsSee Croatia–Egypt relationsSee Cyprus–Egypt relationsSee Denmark–Egypt relations Denmark has an embassy in Cairo and an honorary consulate in Alexandria. Danish embassy in Cairo Egypt has an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean. 1947-02-15 Finland recognised Egypt on April 8, 1922. Egypt broke off diplomatic relations on January 5, 1942 but diplomatic relations were re-established on February 15, 1947. Egypt has an embassy in Helsinki. Finland has an embassy in Cairo (since July 1, 1959) and an honorary consulate general in Alexandria. Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland about Egypt 1992-05-11 Egypt is represented in Georgia through its embassy in Yerevan (Armenia). Georgia has an embassy in Cairo. Georgian embassy in Cairo Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Egypt Georgian foreign minister visits EgyptSee Egypt–Germany relationsSee Egypt–Greece relationsSee Egypt–India relationsSee Egypt-Iraq relationsSee Egypt–Ireland relationsSee Egypt–Israel relationsSee Egypt–Italy relationsSee Egypt-Japan relationsSee Egypt–Kazakhstan relationsSee Egypt–Malta relationsSee Egypt–Mongolia relationsSee Morocco-Egypt relationsSee Egypt–Pakistan relationsSee People's Republic of China–Egypt relationsSee Egypt–Romania relationsSee Egypt–Russia relationsSee Egypt–Serbia relationsSee Egypt–Slovenia relationsSee Egypt – South Africa relationsSee Egypt – South Korea relationsSee Egypt-Sudan relationsSee Egypt–Switzerland relationsSee Egyptian–Turkish relationsSee Egypt–Ukraine relations Egypt has an embassy in Montevideo. Uruguayan Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction of the Egyptian embassy in Montevideo Uruguay has an embassy in Cairo and an honorary consulate in Alexandria. Uruguayan Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction of the Uruguayan missions to Egypt 1963-09-01 Egypt was the first Arabian country to establish bilateral relations with Vietnam. Egypt and Vietnam Relations Vietnam Ministry of Foreign Affairs Vietnam first opened its commercial representative office in Egypt in 1958, and opened an embassy in Cairo in 1963. Egypt's Embassy in Hanoi was opened in 1964. See also Diplomatic missions of Egypt List of Foreign ministers of Egypt Iran-Arab Relations (Egypt) Egyptian-Pakistani relations List of Ambassadors from Egypt List of diplomatic missions in Egypt Ministry of Foreign Affairs References External links EU-Egyptian Relations Assessing the United States-Egyptian Military and Security Relations The Future of American-Egyptian relations Deniers of Egypt's dark past An article exploring Egypt's Africanness	Foreign_relations_of_Egypt \|@lemmatized egypt:113 foreign:16 policy:5 operate:1 along:2 non:5 align:2 level:1 factor:1 population:1 size:1 historical:1 event:1 military:11 strength:1 diplomatic:7 expertise:1 strategic:6 geographical:1 position:1 give:3 extensive:1 political:2 influence:1 middle:12 east:14 africa:3 within:3 aligned:1 movement:3 whole:2 cairo:15 crossroad:1 arab:18 commerce:1 culture:1 millennium:1 intellectual:1 islamic:5 institution:1 center:2 region:6 social:1 cultural:1 development:3 relation:45 european:5 union:5 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3,337	Michael_Faraday	Michael Faraday, FRS (22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867) was an English chemist and physicist (or natural philosopher, in the terminology of the time) who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. Faraday studied the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a DC electric current, and established the basis for the electromagnetic field concept in physics. He discovered electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and laws of electrolysis. He established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena. Michael Faraday entry at the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica hosted by LovetoKnow Retrieved January 2007. Institution of Engineering and Technology, London Archives, Michael Faraday His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in technology. As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine, invented an early form of the bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and popularized terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion. Although Faraday received little formal education and knew little of higher mathematics, such as calculus, he was one of the most influential scientists in history. Some historians of science refer to him as the best experimentalist in the history of science. "best experimentalist in the history of science." Quoting Dr Peter Ford, from the University of Bath’s Department of Physics. Accessed January 2007. The unit of capacitance, the farad, is named after him, as is the Faraday constant, the charge on a mole of electrons (about 96,485 coulombs). Faraday's law of induction states that a magnetic field changing in time creates a proportional electromotive force. Faraday was the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a position to which he was appointed for life. Faraday was highly religious; he was a member of the Sandemanian Church, a Christian sect founded in 1730 which demanded total faith and commitment. Biographers have noted that "a strong sense of the unity of God and nature pervaded Faraday's life and work." Early life Michael Faraday, portrait by Thomas Phillips c1841-1842 See National Portrait gallery NPG 269 Faraday was born in Newington Butts, now part of the London Borough of Southwark; but then a suburban part of Surrey, one mile south of London Bridge. His family was not well off. His father, James, was a member of the Sandemanian sect of Christianity. James Faraday had come to London around 1790 from Outhgill in Westmorland, where he had been the village blacksmith. The young Michael Faraday, one of four children, having only the most basic of school educations, had to largely educate himself. "Michael Faraday." History of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 4 June 2007 At fourteen he became apprenticed to a local bookbinder and bookseller George Riebau and, during his seven-year apprenticeship, he read many books, including Isaac Watts' The Improvement of the Mind, and he enthusiastically implemented the principles and suggestions that it contained. He developed an interest in science, especially in electricity. In particular, he was inspired by the book Conversations in Chemistry by Jane Marcet. At the age of twenty, in 1812, at the end of his apprenticeship, Faraday attended lectures by the eminent English chemist Humphry Davy of the Royal Institution and Royal Society, and John Tatum, founder of the City Philosophical Society. Many tickets for these lectures were given to Faraday by William Dance (one of the founders of the Royal Philharmonic Society). Afterwards, Faraday sent Davy a three hundred page book based on notes taken during the lectures. Davy's reply was immediate, kind, and favourable. When Davy damaged his eyesight in an accident with nitrogen trichloride, he decided to employ Faraday as a secretary. When John Payne, one of the Royal Institution's assistants, was sacked, Sir Humphry Davy was asked to find a replacement. He appointed Faraday as Chemical Assistant at the Royal Institution on 1 March 1813 . Sir Humphry Davy, 1830 engraving based on the painting by Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769-1830) In the class-based English society of the time, Faraday was not considered a gentleman. When Davy went on a long tour to the continent in 1813–15, his valet did not wish to go. Faraday was going as Davy's scientific assistant, and was asked to act as Davy's valet until a replacement could be found in Paris. Faraday was forced to fill the role of valet as well as assistant throughout the trip. Davy's wife, Jane Apreece, refused to treat Faraday as an equal (making him travel outside the coach, eat with the servants, etc.) and generally made Faraday so miserable that he contemplated returning to England alone and giving up science altogether. The trip did, however, give him access to the European scientific elite and a host of stimulating ideas. His sponsor and mentor was John 'Mad Jack' Fuller, who created the Fullerian Professorship of Chemistry at the Royal Institution. Faraday was a devout Christian and a member of the small Sandemanian denomination, an offshoot of the Church of Scotland. He later served two terms as an elder in the group's church at Glovers Hall, Barbican, which later moved to Barnsbury, Islington. Faraday married Sarah Barnard (1800-1879) on 2 June 1821, although they would never have children. Frank A. J. L. James, ‘Faraday, Michael (1791–1867)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004; online edn, Jan 2008 accessed 3 March 2009 They met through attending the Sandemanian church. He was elected a member of the Royal Society in 1824, appointed director of the laboratory in 1825; and in 1833 he was appointed Fullerian professor of chemistry in the institution for life, without the obligation to deliver lectures. Scientific achievements Chemistry Michael Faraday in his laboratory. c1850s by artist Harriet Jane Moore who documented Faraday's life in watercolours. Faraday's earliest chemical work was as an assistant to Humphry Davy. Faraday made a special study of chlorine, and discovered two new chlorides of carbon. He also made the first rough experiments on the diffusion of gases, a phenomenon first pointed out by John Dalton, the physical importance of which was more fully brought to light by Thomas Graham and Joseph Loschmidt. He succeeded in liquefying several gases; he investigated the alloys of steel, and produced several new kinds of glass intended for optical purposes. A specimen of one of these heavy glasses afterwards became historically important as the substance in which Faraday detected the rotation of the plane of polarisation of light when the glass was placed in a magnetic field, and also as the substance which was first repelled by the poles of the magnet. He also endeavoured, with some success, to make the general methods of chemistry, as distinguished from its results, the subject of special study and of popular exposition. He invented an early form of what was to become the Bunsen burner, which is used almost universally in science laboratories as a convenient source of heat. See page 127 of Faraday's Chemical Manipulation, Being Instructions to Students in Chemistry (1827) Faraday worked extensively in the field of chemistry, discovering chemical substances such as benzene (which he called bicarburet of hydrogen), inventing the system of oxidation numbers, and liquefying gases such as chlorine. In 1820 Faraday reported on the first syntheses of compounds made from carbon and chlorine, C2Cl6 and C2Cl4, and published his results the following year. Faraday also determined the composition of the chlorine clathrate hydrate, which had been discovered by Humphry Davy in 1810. Faraday also discovered the laws of electrolysis and popularised terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion, terms largely created by William Whewell. Faraday was the first to report what later came to be called metallic nanoparticles. In 1847 he discovered that the optical properties of gold colloids differed from those of the corresponding bulk metal. This was probably the first reported observation of the effects of quantum size, and might be considered to be the birth of nanoscience. Electricity and magnetism Faraday's greatest work was probably with electricity and magnetism. The first experiment which he recorded was the construction of a voltaic pile with seven halfpence pieces, stacked together with seven disks of sheet zinc, and six pieces of paper moistened with salt water. With this pile he decomposed sulphate of magnesia (first letter to Abbott, 12 July 1812). Electromagnetic rotation experiment of Faraday, ca. 1821 See plate 4. In 1821, soon after the Danish physicist and chemist, Hans Christian Ørsted discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetism, Davy and British scientist William Hyde Wollaston tried but failed to design an electric motor. Faraday, having discussed the problem with the two men, went on to build two devices to produce what he called electromagnetic rotation: a continuous circular motion from the circular magnetic force around a wire and a wire extending into a pool of mercury with a magnet placed inside would rotate around the magnet if supplied with current from a chemical battery. The latter device is known as a homopolar motor. These experiments and inventions form the foundation of modern electromagnetic technology. Faraday published his results without acknowledging his debt to Wollaston and Davy, and the resulting controversy caused Faraday to withdraw from electromagnetic research for several years. At this stage, there is also evidence to suggest that Davy may have been trying to slow Faraday's rise as a scientist (or natural philosopher as it was known then). In 1825, for instance, Davy set him onto optical glass experiments, which progressed for six years with no great results. It was not until Davy's death, in 1829, that Faraday stopped these fruitless tasks and moved on to endeavors that were more worthwhile. Two years later, in 1831, he began his great series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction. Joseph Henry likely discovered self-induction a few months earlier and both may have been anticipated by the work of Francesco Zantedeschi in Italy in 1829 and 1830. Michael Faraday - circa 1861 Faraday's breakthrough came when he wrapped two insulated coils of wire around an iron ring, and found that upon passing a current through one coil, a momentary current was induced in the other coil. This phenomenon is known as mutual induction. The iron ring-coil apparatus is still on display at the Royal Institution. In subsequent experiments he found that if he moved a magnet through a loop of wire, an electric current flowed in the wire. The current also flowed if the loop was moved over a stationary magnet. His demonstrations established that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field. This relation was modelled mathematically by James Clerk Maxwell as Faraday's law, which subsequently became one of the four Maxwell equations. These in turn have evolved into the generalisation known today as field theory. Faraday later used the principle to construct the electric dynamo, the ancestor of modern power generators. In 1839 he completed a series of experiments aimed at investigating the fundamental nature of electricity. Faraday used "static", batteries, and "animal electricity" to produce the phenomena of electrostatic attraction, electrolysis, magnetism, etc. He concluded that, contrary to scientific opinion of the time, the divisions between the various "kinds" of electricity were illusory. Faraday instead proposed that only a single "electricity" exists, and the changing values of quantity and intensity (voltage and charge) would produce different groups of phenomena. Near the end of his career Faraday proposed that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty space around the conductor. This idea was rejected by his fellow scientists, and Faraday did not live to see this idea eventually accepted. Faraday's concept of lines of flux emanating from charged bodies and magnets provided a way to visualise electric and magnetic fields. That mental model was crucial to the successful development of electromechanical devices which dominated engineering and industry for the remainder of the 19th century. Diamagnetism Michael Faraday holding a glass bar of the type he used in 1845 to show that magnetism can affect light in a dielectric material. Detail of an engraving by Henry Adlard, based on an earlier photograph by Maull & Polyblank ca. 1857. See National Portrait Gallery, UK In 1845, Faraday discovered that many materials exhibit a weak repulsion from a magnetic field, a phenomenon he named diamagnetism. Faraday also found that the plane of polarisation of linearly polarised light can be rotated by the application of an external magnetic field aligned in the direction the light is moving. This is now termed the Faraday effect. He wrote in his notebook, "I have at last succeeded in illuminating a magnetic curve or line of force and in magnetising a ray of light". This established that magnetic force and light were related. Late in life (1862), Faraday used a spectroscope to search for a different alteration of light, the change of spectral lines by an applied magnetic field. However, the equipment available to him was insufficient for a definite determination of a spectral change. Pieter Zeeman later used an improved apparatus to study the same phenomenon, publishing his results in 1897 and receiving the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics for his success. In both his 1897 paper and his Nobel acceptance speech , Zeeman referred to Faraday's work. Faraday cage James Clerk Maxwell In his work on static electricity, Faraday demonstrated that the charge only resided on the exterior of a charged conductor, and exterior charge had no influence on anything enclosed within a conductor. This is because the exterior charges redistribute such that the interior fields due to them cancel. This shielding effect is used in what is now known as a Faraday cage. Faraday was an excellent experimentalist who conveyed his ideas in clear and simple language. However, his mathematical abilities did not extend as far as trigonometry or any but the simplest algebra. It was James Clerk Maxwell who took the work of Faraday, and others, and consolidated it with a set of equations that lie at the base of all modern theories of electromagnetic phenomena. On Faraday's uses of the lines of force, Maxwell wrote that they show Faraday "to have been in reality a mathematician of a very high order--one from whom the mathematicians of the future may derive valuable and fertile methods." The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell Volume 1 page 360; Courier Dover 2003, ISBN 0486495604 Public service Michael Faraday meets Father Thames, from Punch (21 July 1855) Beyond his scientific research into areas such as chemistry, electricity, and magnetism at the Royal Institution, Faraday undertook numerous, and often time-consuming, service projects for private enterprise and the British government. This work included investigations of explosions in coal mines, being an expert witness in court, and the preparation of high-quality optical glass. In 1846, together with Charles Lyell, he produced a lengthy and detailed report on a serious explosion in the colliery at Haswell County Durham which killed 95 miners. Their report was a meticulous forensic investigation and indicated that coal dust contributed to the severity of the explosion. The report should have warned coal owners of the hazard of coal dust explosions, but the risk was ignored for over 60 years until the Senghenydd Colliery Disaster of 1913. As a respected scientist in a nation with strong maritime interests, Faraday spent extensive amounts of time on projects such as the construction and operation of light houses and protecting the bottoms of ships from corrosion. Michael Faraday delivering a Christmas Lecture in 1856. Faraday also was active in what would now be called environmental science, or engineering. He investigated industrial pollution at Swansea and was consulted on air pollution at the Royal Mint. In July 1855, Faraday wrote a letter to The Times on the subject of the foul condition of the River Thames, which resulted in an oft-reprinted cartoon in Punch. (See also The Great Stink.) Faraday assisted with planning and judging of exhibits for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. He also advised the National Gallery on the cleaning and protection of its art collection, and served on the National Gallery Site Commission in 1857. Education was another area of service for Faraday. He lectured on the topic in 1854 at the Royal Institution, and in 1862 he appeared before a Public Schools Commission to give his views on education in Great Britain. Faraday also weighed in, negatively, on the public's fascination with table-turning, mesmerism, and seances, chastising both the public and the nation's educational system. See The Illustrated London News, July 1853, for Faraday's comments. Faraday gave a successful series of lectures on the chemistry and physics of flames at the Royal Institution, entitled The Chemical History of a Candle. This was one of the earliest Christmas lectures for young people, which are still given each year. Between 1827 and 1860, Faraday gave the Christmas lecture a record nineteen times. Later life Faraday in old age. In June 1832, the University of Oxford granted Faraday a Doctor of Civil Law degree (honorary). During his lifetime, Faraday rejected a knighthood and twice refused to become President of the Royal Society. Faraday was one of eight foreign members elected to the French Academy of Sciences in 1844. In 1848, as a result of representations by the Prince Consort, Michael Faraday was awarded a grace and favour house in Hampton Court, Surrey free of all expenses or upkeep. This was the Master Mason's House, later called Faraday House, and now No.37 Hampton Court Road. In 1858 Faraday retired to live there. Twickenham Museum on Faraday and Faraday House, Accessed June 2006 When asked by the British government to advise on the production of chemical weapons for use in the Crimean War (1853-1856), Faraday refused to participate citing ethical reasons. Faraday died at his house at Hampton Court on 25 August 1867. He had previously turned down burial in Westminster Abbey, but he has a memorial plaque there, near Isaac Newton's tomb. Faraday was interred in the Sandemanian plot in Highgate Cemetery. Commemorations Michael Faraday - statue in Savoy Place, London. Sculptor John Henry Foley RA A statue of Faraday stands in Savoy Place, London, outside the Institution of Engineering and Technology. Also in London, the Michael Faraday Memorial, designed by brutalist architect Rodney Gordon and completed in 1961, is at the Elephant & Castle gyratory system, near Faraday's birthplace at Newington Butts. A hall at Loughborough University was named after Faraday in 1960. Near the entrance to its dining hall is a bronze casting, which depicts the symbol of an electrical transformer, and inside there hangs a portrait, both in Faraday's honour. A five-story building at the University of Edinburgh's science campus is named for Faraday, as is a recently-built hall of accommodation at Brunel University. The former UK Faraday Station in Antarctica was named after him. Streets named for Faraday can be found in many British cities (e.g., London, Fife, Swindon, Basingstoke, Nottingham, Whitby, Kirkby, Crawley, Newbury, Aylesbury and Stevenage) as well as in France (Paris), Germany (Hermsdorf), and Canada (Quebec). From 1991 until 2001, Faraday's picture featured on the reverse of Series E £20 banknotes issued by the Bank of England. He was shown conducting a lecture at the Royal Institution with the magneto-electric spark apparatus. Selected writings Faraday's books, with the exception of Chemical Manipulation, were collections of scientific papers or transcriptions of lectures. See page 220 of Hamilton's A Life of Discovery: Michael Faraday, Giant of the Scientific Revolution (2002) Since his death, Faraday's diary has been published, as have several large volumes of his letters and Faraday's journal from his travels with Davy in 1813 - 1815. 2nd ed. 1830, 3rd ed. 1842 - vol. iii., 1844; vol. iii. Richard Taylor and William Francis, 1855 - published in eight volumes; see also the 2009 publication of Faraday's diary - volume 2, 1993; volume 3, 1996; volume 4, 1999 Course of six lectures on the various forces of matter, and their relations to each other London ; Glasgow : R. Griffin, 1860. The liquefaction of gases Edinburgh: W. F. Clay, 1896. The letters of Faraday and Schoenbein 1836-1862. With notes, comments and references to contemporary letters London: Williams & Norgate 1899. Quotations "Nothing is too wonderful to be true if it be consistent with the laws of nature, and in such things as these, experiment is the best test of such consistency." From the entry of 19 March 1849 in Faraday's Diary "Work. Finish. Publish." — his advice to the young William Crookes "The important thing is to know how to take all things quietly." Regarding the hereafter, "Speculations? I have none. I am resting on certainties." "No wonder that my remembrance fails me, for I shall complete my 70 years next Sunday (the 22); -- and during these 70 years I have had a happy life; which still remains happy because of hope and content. Letter of Faraday to Christian Friedrich Schönbein, 19 September 1861. See also page 349 of The letters of Faraday and Schoenbein 1836-1862 (1899, London: Williams & Norgate) at this site. Above the doorways of the Pfahler Hall of Science at Ursinus College in Collegeville, Pennsylvania, there is a stone inscription of a quote attributed to Michael Faraday which reads "but still try, for who knows what is possible..." See but still try "One day sir, you may tax it." Faraday's reply to William Gladstone, then British Minister of Finance, when asked of the practical value of electricity. "If you would cause your view ... to be acknowledged by scientific men; you would do a great service to science. If you would even get them to say yes or no to your conclusions it would help to clear the future progress. I believe some hesitate because they do not like their thoughts disturbed." From Life and Letters, 2:389. Michael Faraday's grave at Highgate Cemetery See also Faraday rotator Homopolar generator Faraday's law of induction Faraday (Unit of electrical charge) Farad (Unit of electrical capacitance) Forensic engineering Lines of force Zeeman effect Timeline of hydrogen technologies Timeline of low-temperature technology Notes and references Further reading Biographies * Reprinted in 2005 by Adamant Media Corporation The British Electrical and Allied Manufacturers Association (1931). Faraday. R. & R. Clark, Ltd., Edinburgh, 1931. Others External links Biographies Biography at The Royal Institution of Great Britain Faraday as a Discoverer by John Tyndall, Project Gutenberg (downloads) The Christian Character of Michael Faraday Michael Faraday on the British twenty-pound banknote The Life and Discoveries of Michael Faraday by J. A. Crowther, London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1920 Others Interactive Java Tutorial on Faraday's 1821 Motor National High Magnetic Field Laboratory Interactive Java Tutorial on Faraday's Ice Pail Experiment National High Magnetic Field Laboratory "Faraday" at LoveToKnow 1911 Britannica Online Encyclopedia (downloads) "Experimental Researches in Electricity" by Michael Faraday Original text with Biographical Introduction by Professor John Tyndall, 1914, Everyman edition. Video Podcast with Sir John Cadogan talking about Benzene since Faraday The letters of Faraday and Schoenbein 1836-1862. 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3,338	Economy_of_New_Caledonia	Economy - overview: New Caledonia has more than 25% of the world's known nickel resources. In recent years, the economy has suffered because of depressed international demand for nickel, the principal source of export earnings. Only a negligible amount of the land is suitable for cultivation, and food accounts for about 20% of imports. In addition to nickel, the substantial financial support from France and tourism are keys to the health of the economy. The situation in 1998 was clouded by the spillover of financial problems in East Asia and by lower prices for nickel. Nickel prices jumped in 1999, and large additions were made to capacity. However, the need to respond to environmental concerns over the country's globally-recognised ecological heritage, may increasingly need to be factored into capitalisation of mining operations. GDP (nominal exchange rate): US$8.82 billion (in 2007) GDP - real growth rate: 4.6% (in 2007) GDP - per capita (nominal exchange rate): US$36,376 (in 2007) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 5% industry: 30% services: 65% (1997 est.) Population below poverty line: NA% Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% Inflation rate (consumer prices): -0.6% (2000 est.) Labor force: 78 990 (including 11 300 unemployed, 2004) Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 20%, industry 20%, services 60% (1999 est.) Unemployment rate: 17.1% (2004) Budget: revenues: US$856.3 million expenditures: US$836.5 million (1996 est.) Industries: nickel mining and smelting Industrial production growth rate: -0.6% (1996) Electricity - production: 1.581 billion kWh (2003) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 65.79% hydro: 34.21% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 1,47 billion kWh (2003) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) Agriculture - products: vegetables; beef, deer, other livestock products Exports: US$2.11 billion (in 2007) Exports - commodities: ferronickels, nickel ore, fish Exports - partners: Japan 22.4%, Metropolitan France 15.2%, China 14.2%, Taiwan 13.2%, other European countries 20.5%, Oceania 5.9%, Africa 4.8%, Americas 2.7%, other Asian countries 1.1% (2007) Imports: US$2.88 billion (in 2007) Imports - commodities: foods, machinery and equipment, fuels, minerals Imports - partners: Metropolitan France 26.6%, other European countries 16.1%, Singapore 13.6%, Australia 10.7%, New Zealand 4.0%, United States 3.2%, Japan 3.0%, other countries 22.7% (2007) Debt - external: US$79 million (1998 est.) / €62 million (exchange rate as of 2006-05-07) Economic aid - recipient: US$770 million from France (1998) / €605 million (exchange rate as of 2006-05-07) Currency: 1 CFP franc = 100 centimes Exchange rates: CFP franc per US$1 - 95.89 (2005), 96.04 (2004), 105.66 (2003), 126.71 (2002), 133.26 (2001), 117.67 (January 2000), 111.93 (1999), 107.25 (1998), 106.11 (1997), 93.00 (1996), 90.75 (1995); note - linked at the rate of 1000 CFP to 8.38 euro Fiscal year: calendar year References See also : New Caledonia	Economy_of_New_Caledonia \|@lemmatized economy:3 overview:1 new:3 caledonia:2 world:1 know:1 nickel:7 resource:1 recent:1 year:3 suffer:1 depressed:1 international:1 demand:1 principal:1 source:2 export:5 earnings:1 negligible:1 amount:1 land:1 suitable:1 cultivation:1 food:2 account:1 import:5 addition:2 substantial:1 financial:2 support:1 france:4 tourism:1 key:1 health:1 situation:1 cloud:1 spillover:1 problem:1 east:1 asia:1 low:2 price:3 jump:1 large:1 make:1 capacity:1 however:1 need:2 respond:1 environmental:1 concern:1 country:5 globally:1 recognised:1 ecological:1 heritage:1 may:1 increasingly:1 factor:1 capitalisation:1 mine:1 operation:1 gdp:4 nominal:2 exchange:5 rate:10 u:9 billion:5 real:1 growth:2 per:2 caput:1 composition:1 sector:1 agriculture:3 industry:3 service:2 est:5 population:1 poverty:1 line:1 na:3 household:1 income:1 consumption:2 percentage:1 share:1 high:1 inflation:1 consumer:1 labor:2 force:2 include:1 unemployed:1 occupation:1 unemployment:1 budget:1 revenue:1 million:6 expenditure:1 mining:1 smelt:1 industrial:1 production:3 electricity:5 kwh:4 fossil:1 fuel:2 hydro:1 nuclear:1 product:2 vegetable:1 beef:1 deer:1 livestock:1 commodity:2 ferronickels:1 ore:1 fish:1 partner:2 japan:2 metropolitan:2 china:1 taiwan:1 european:2 oceania:1 africa:1 americas:1 asian:1 machinery:1 equipment:1 mineral:1 singapore:1 australia:1 zealand:1 united:1 state:1 debt:1 external:1 economic:1 aid:1 recipient:1 currency:1 cfp:3 franc:2 centime:1 january:1 note:1 link:1 euro:1 fiscal:1 calendar:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 \|@bigram export_earnings:1 per_caput:1 household_income:1 unemployment_rate:1 billion_kwh:2 kwh_electricity:3 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 export_kwh:1 import_kwh:1 kwh_agriculture:1 export_commodity:1 cfp_franc:2 centime_exchange:1
3,339	Duke_Nukem_3D	Duke Nukem 3D is a first-person shooter computer game developed by 3D Realms and published by Apogee Software. It was released on January 29, 1996. Duke Nukem 3D features the adventures of Duke Nukem (voiced by Jon St. John), a character that had previously appeared in the platform games Duke Nukem and Duke Nukem II published by Apogee. Plot Taking on the role of Duke Nukem, an imperious action hero from Earth, players must fight through 28 levels spread over three chapters. A commercial upgrade, called The Plutonium Pak, later added a fourth episode of 11 additional levels, some new enemies, and one new modified weapon. As usual for a first-person shooter, players encounter a whole host of different enemies, and can engage them with a range of weaponry. Duke Nukem 3D is set "sometime in the early 21st century" in a broken and morally corrupt Los Angeles, and expands to locations such as lunar space stations. 3D Realms Site: Duke Nukem 3D Atomic Edition Through cutscenes and gameplay, the premise is that an alien transgenic species has infiltrated Earth in Duke's absence. Upon crash landing back to Earth, Duke finds most humans to be absent, with a few attractive women remaining as diversions for the aliens. American civilization has been reduced to a virtual wasteland while pornography has become the sole source of entertainment. As well as killing aliens to free Earth, players must also solve puzzles to progress through the various levels. Some puzzles allow access to hidden levels. Gameplay Level design The levels of Duke Nukem 3D take the player outdoors and indoors through rendered street scenes, military bases, deserts, flooded cities, space stations, moon bases and Japanese villas. Levels were also designed in a fairly non-linear manner such that players can advantageously use air ducts, back doors and sewers to avoid enemies or find hidden secrets, which also makes the levels well suited to deathmatch. These locations are also filled with objects with which the player can interact, that either benefit the player in some form (light switches make it easier to see, while water fountains and broken hydrants provide some health points) or simply provide a touch of diversion (tipping strippers provokes a humorous quote from Duke and sometimes a provocative reveal from the dancer). Weapons and equipment The game includes a range of lethal weapons, some of which, even today, are still unique to the Duke Nukem series. They range from Duke's "Mighty Foot", a basic melee attack, to a pistol, a Chain gun (similar in design to the Nordenfelt gun), pipe bombs, freeze- and shrink-rays, and laser trip mines. Aside from weapons, Nukem's inventory also includes a series of items that can be picked up during play. A portable medkit allows players to heal themselves whenever they choose to. Steroids speed up player movement making transit through hostile territory easier, as well as instantly reversing the effects of the shrinker. Nightvision goggles allow players to see enemies in the dark. The "HoloDuke" device projects a hologram of Duke that can be used to distract enemies. Protective boots allow the player to cross dangerously hot or toxic terrain. Where progress requires more aquatic legwork, scuba gear (an aqua-lung) allows the player to take longer trips away from air. Perhaps most impressively, Duke's trademark jetpack allows the player to range fully in 3D, often to reach hidden weapons caches or extra health. Monsters The game features a wide range of monsters, some of which are aliens, others mutated humans (the LAPD has been turned into "Pig-cops", a play on the derogatory term "pig" for police officers, with LARD emblazoned on their uniforms). As is usual for a first-person shooter, Nukem encounters a large number of lesser foes, and a small number of boss enemies (usually at the end of chapters). Like Duke, these enemies have access to a wide range of weapons and equipment (some weaker enemies have jet packs). Multiplayer Duke Nukem 3D features multiplayer. In 1996 at the time of its release, Internet-based gaming was just beginning. Duke Nukem 3D did not support the TCP/IP client/server model, instead basing its network play on the IPX LAN, modem or serial cable. Duke Nukem 3D players often either battled modem-to-modem, using the $20.00 IPX network utility Kali or the Total Entertainment Network (TEN) online pay service. Kali allowed users to connect to a chat room to host and join games. The Total Entertainment Network featured hundreds of Duke 3D players online at any given time and players had to pay a monthly fee for it (originally $5.00, gradually increased to $20.00). In 1996 TEN hosted a first of its kind, nationally participated in "online tournament" rewarding the champions with cash and prizes sparking an immediate surge in online gaming. Some of the first prizes were $500 cash and a lifetime membership to the service. The only Duke tournament was won by one of the first cyber athletes, Christopher S Carpentier, aka "Creamator", who battled over 14 thousand entries to claim the title of "One True Duke!" Most of these newly declared cyber athletes later went on to the PGL "Professional Gamers League" after TEN converted its business model to Pogo. Duke's levels were often used as the battlegrounds for these encounters and users were even able to create their own levels (or maps) via the in-game build engine. The game also features co-operative play (co-op) which allows players to complete the story based single player mode together. In the Atomic version, a new game play mode was introduced: Duke Tag, a "capture the flag" style mode. Technology Duke Nukem 3D graphic engine was a step forward from the Doom engine of 1993, though many of the advanced features of the game had appeared in intervening first-person shooter titles such as Marathon, Star Wars: Dark Forces, and others. While the levels were still defined as 2D maps, the capabilities of Ken Silverman's Build engine allowed more complex levels than Doom. The game supports diagonal slopes in the floors, though this had been seen as early as Ultima Underworld in 1992. http://archive.gamespy.com/halloffame/july01/underworld/ It also supports vertical mouse aiming (though aiming up and down distorts the graphics due to a lack of perspective correction), though vertical look had also appeared in Ultima Underworld and full mouse look appeared in Marathon. While Doom was limited to doors opening and closing only by sliding up and down, the Build engine also included doors/walls that can move sideways. The Doom engine usually only moved a single platform at a time in response to a player event, while the Build scripting system allows a whole string of moving and sliding actions, synchronized with sound effects, to create collapsing buildings, earthquakes, and walls that crumble apart when hit with explosives. One of the more advanced effects that went far beyond the limits of the Doom engine is the horizontal sliding platform that can move the player inside a small sliding room, to create subway cars moving in a timed sequence around a ring-shaped track. The Build engine solves this problem by allowing multiple overlapping 2D paths to cross through the same 2D location. The key is that while inside one of these spaces, it is not possible to see into the other space, and so the 2.5D engine has no problem rendering one space or the other even though the map data literally shows the two areas to be occupying the same place. Several Duke Nukem 3D maps exploit this engine feature to create bizarre mind-bending maps where multiple large rooms all seem to be occupying one 3D space. One secret level in particular ("Lunatic Fringe" from episode 2, Lunar Apocalypse) has a map where the player can travel 720 degrees around a circle and not cross their path. This would be much more difficult to duplicate with modern true-3D map editors and engines. An early version of the Octabrain, as shown in LameDuke To resolve the problem of not having balconies or bridges that the player can walk over or under, instead special objects are used by the Build engine that are not actually part of the flat 2D map design. Instead they are a special type of decorative sprite inserted into the world, similar to the breakable cameras, flowerpots, and lights. These special large sprites allow the player to walk over the object and under it as if it were an actual part of the map, to create the illusion of a true 3D space. However, these special objects have a highly restricted shape, typically as a perfectly square or rectangular non-sloping structure, greatly limiting their usefulness in the map design to simple bridges, balconies, or exposed rectangular air ducts. LameDuke is an early beta version of Duke Nukem 3D, which was released by 3D Realms as a "bonus" one year after the release of the official version. It has been released as is, with no support, and is currently available to download from the 3DRealms FTP . LameDuke features four episodes: Mrr Caliber, Mission Cockroach, Suck Hole and Hard Landing. Some weapons were removed and/or altered from the original versions. Content and controversy Duke Nukem 3D is often cited as one of the first videogames to merge irreverent humor and explicit sexual themes with gameplay, particularly within the first-person shooter genre . Several tongue-in-cheek jabs towards American consumerism, Hollywood culture, and sex in the media are prevalent. In a strip bar, players witness a white Ford Bronco fleeing from police on TV, a deliberate reference to the event preceding the O.J. Simpson trial, popular around the game's time of release. Fictional "Sister Act III" posters are visible throughout the game; the franchise now turned into an X-rated attraction. Additionally, quotes and visual nods to The Terminator, Army of Darkness, They Live, Indiana Jones, Dirty Harry, and Die Hard are evident throughout the levels. Most landscapes have gone without maintenance and virtually all forms of entertainment in its dystopian future have been reduced to pornography, where women are predominantly sex objects in the eyes of both the protagonist and his foes. All of such themes are presented in a gonzo-style matter of humor, with numerous quotes from Duke Nukem to add light to the situation ("Nobody steals our chicks, and lives"). The game has been heavily attacked by some critics, who allege that it promotes pornography and murder. Media Watch made the following comments about the game. "Duke Nukem 3D moves the 'shooter' through pornography stores, where Duke can use XXX sex posters for target practice. Duke throws cash at a prostituted woman telling her to 'Shake it, Baby' his gun ever ready. In the game bonus points are awarded for the murder of these mostly prostituted and partially nude women. Duke blows up stained glass windows in an empty church or goes to strip clubs where Japanese women lower their kimonos exposing their breasts. Duke is encouraged to kill defenseless, often bound women.<p style="text-align: right">— Media Watch, Teaching Boys To Kill Duke Nukem 3D was banned in Brazil, along with Quake, Doom and several other violent first-person shooters. As a response to the criticism encountered, censored versions of the game were released in certain countries to avoid having it banned altogether. In Australia, the game was originally refused classification on release. 3D Realms repackaged the game with the parental lock feature permanently enabled, although a patch available on the 3D Realms website allows the user to disable the lock and revert the game back to its original uncensored version. The OFLC then attempted to have the game pulled from the shelves, but it was discovered that the distributor had notified them of this fact and the rating could not be surrendered. Six months later, the game was reclassified and released uncensored with an MA15+ rating. In Germany, the BPjM placed the game on the List of Media Harmful to Young People. Add-ons Various spin-offs and modifications to the original Duke Nukem 3D were produced in the following years of the game's initial launch. Plutonium PAK/Atomic Edition: The Atomic Edition of Duke Nukem 3D was released in November 1996, and contained the original 3 episode game as well as a new eleven-level fourth episode. The Plutonium PAK was also released as an upgrade package to convert the original release of Duke Nukem 3D (v1.3d) to the new Atomic Edition (v1.4, later patched to v1.5). It introduces three enemies: the Protector Drone, the Pig Cop Tank, and a new boss known as The Alien Queen. It also includes a new weapon, the Microwave Expander, complete with its own ammo. It also has several improvements to the scripting language of the game, allowing the game's active modding community to create new enemies and items without overwriting the existing ones. A feature exclusive to the Atomic Edition is the Fake Multiplayer computer controlled bots which can be launched at the DOS prompt. These bots are capable of putting up a decent offline fight against the player to give a glimpse of what the player can find in real online games or if the player has no available connection. They can also be useful for testing DukeMatch sessions offline during the creation of a map. EDuke: Following the release of the Doom source code in 1997, many of those in the modding community began wishing for a similar source code release from 3D Realms. The last major game to make use of the Duke Nukem 3D source code was Team TNT's WWII GI in 1999. Its programmer, Matthew Saettler, expanded greatly upon the scripting language used by modders to change many aspects of the game. Saettler let it be known that he was willing to expand further upon WWII GIs scripting language, and shortly thereafter agreed to make his enhancements available for Duke Nukem 3D with the permission of 3D Realms. 3D Realms approved the project. Saettler was the sole programmer, working with several mod authors to beta-test the new addition that would carry the Duke Nukem 3D version numbering to v2.0 and be titled EDuke (Enhanced Duke Nukem 3D). EDuke was released as a patch for Atomic Edition users on July 28, 2000, and included a demo mod made by several beta testers. The demo included new sector-based effects, sprite-based elevators, ladders, a bouncing particle fountain, a personal teleporter, and a more sophisticated translucent water effect. Saettler has since archived his original Eduke site for reference.Duke Caribbean: Life's a Beach: This is an authorized add-on developed by Sunstorm Interactive. Duke relaxes on a tropical island when he discovers that the aliens are having their own "vacation". This unofficial add-on includes sunny Caribbean atmosphere and theme like beaches, vacation hotels and modifications from the original Duke Nukem 3D stuff to fit to the sunny theme. It features levels created by Charlie Wiederhold, who was later hired by 3D Realms to work on Duke Nukem Forever, the now cancelled sequel to 3D.Duke it out in D.C.: In this storyline, President Bill Clinton is captured by alien forces, and it is up to Nukem to save him. This expansion pack featured levels that were based on real-world locations, such as the White House, the FBI headquarters, the Smithsonian museum, and the Washington Monument and other places in Washington, D.C. This game was also developed by Sunstorm. While this was considered an unofficial add-on, it was included in an official compilation called Duke Nukem: Kill-A-Ton Collection through business deals with 3D Realms.Duke: Nuclear Winter: Unlike the previous add-ons, this one was developed by Simply Silly Software. In the storyline, Santa Claus is mind-controlled by aliens into causing trouble on Earth. Several of the levels take place near the North Pole. This game has sometimes been criticized for recycling content from the original game.Duke Xtreme: An add-on developed by Sunstorm and contained 50 levels and various utilities. It has sometimes been criticized due to its many technical problems.Duke!Zone: A product called Duke!ZONE was once sold by WizardWorks and had over 500 levels made by fans of Duke Nukem 3D.Duke!Zone II: WizardWorks later created an add-on called Duke!ZONE II, which contained three episodes of its own design.Duke Assault''': A further authorized add-on containing over 1500 levels for Duke Nukem 3D. Sold by WizardWorks and also created by fans of Duke Nukem 3D. CompilationsDuke Nukem 3D has been included in several compilations. A bundle called East Meets West included the full versions of Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic Edition and Shadow Warrior. 3D Realms News: East Meets West Released A bundle called Duke Nukem: Kill-A-Ton Collection featured Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic Edition, Duke Xtreme, Duke!ZONE II, Duke Nukem I (Duke Nukum), Duke Nukem II, and various other utilities. Both of these compilations are no longer sold. Earlier packages of Duke Nukem 3D also included the complete versions of Duke Nukem I and II as a bonus. In 1998, 3D Realms filed a lawsuit against Micro Star over its add-on pack Nuke It and won. Nuke It Gets Duked Source code The source code to the Duke Nukem 3D v1.5 executable, which uses the Build engine, was released as free software under the GPL on April 1, 2003. The game content remains under a proprietary license. The game was quickly ported by enthusiasts to modern OSes. , these projects gave the game a second life in multiplayer games through the Internet and a growing community is still actively playing. The first Duke Nukem 3D project was from icculus.org. It is a cross-platform project that allows the game to be played on BeOS, FreeBSD, Linux, Mac OS X, Solaris, and Windows rather than DOS. The icculus.org codebase would later be used in the Rancidmeat, and later, the xDuke projects. One popular project is Jonathon Fowler's JFDuke3D, which in December 2003 received backing from the original author of Build, programmer Ken Silverman. Fowler, in cooperation with Silverman, released a new version of JFDuke3D using Polymost, an OpenGL-enhanced renderer for Build, which allows hardware acceleration and 3D model support, along with 32-bit color high resolution textures. Another project based on JFDuke3D called xDuke (unrelated to the xDuke project based on icculus.org/duke3d) runs on the Xbox 360. Silverman has since helped Fowler with a large portion of other engine work, including updating the network code and continuing to maintain various other aspects of the engine. As of 2008, the following Duke Nukem 3D source code porting projects are commonly used to play the game, ordered by year of most recent release: icculus.org/duke3d – port to BeOS/FreeBSD/Linux/Mac OS X/Solaris/Windows/Other (2005) JFDuke3D – port to Windows/Linux/Other (2005) Duke3d_w32 – port to Windows (2006) xDuke – port to Windows (2006) EDuke32 – port to Windows/Linux/x86_64/Mac OS X (2008) Enhancement by fans Projects such as the Duke Nukem 3D High Resolution Pack Duke 3D High Resolution Pack http://hrp.duke4.net/ were started in order to take advantage of the various engine improvements and attempt to update Duke's graphical resources almost to the level of modern games. Plans are still in the works to include additional engine features as time goes on. However, JFDuke3D appears to be on hiatus as no new versions have appeared since late 2005. EDuke is a branch of Duke Nukem 3D that was officially released by 3D Realms in 2000; it focused primarily on enhancing the CON scripting language in ways which allowed those modifying the game to do much more with the scripting system than originally possible. Around May 2003, not long after the release of the Duke Nukem 3D source code, Blood project manager Matt Saettler released the source code for both EDuke 2.0, the version of EDuke released by 3D Realms, and EDuke 2.1, the test version of what was to become the next official EDuke release. A few projects emerged (most notably WinEDuke and EDuke 2.1.1), but it was not until the release of Richard Gobeille's EDuke32 (an extended version of JFDuke3D which incorporates Saettler's EDuke code) in 2004 that EDuke became a community focus. Among the various enhancements, support for OGG music was added in September 2007. A pack of digitized music was compiled and is planned to be included in future releases of the High Resolution Pack. Remade music to be included? - Page 3 - 3D Realms Forums In June 2008, EDuke32 became the first Duke Nukem 3D project to compile and run natively on 64-bit systems without the use of a 32-bit environment thanks to contributions from the DOSBox team. Console ports A screen of the little-known Mega Drive port In 1997, Duke Nukem 3D was ported to all the major consoles of the time. The PlayStation version, Duke Nukem: Total Meltdown (although titled simply as Duke Nukem in Europe), includes six extra levels and a secret level, the latter which was also included in the PC version. It also features remixed audio music, some rearranged from the PC version and some original, in streaming XA-Audio made by Mark Knight. IGN: Duke Nukem: Total Meltdown The Sega Saturn version was ported by Lobotomy Software and published by Sega. It retains the original name and uses Lobotomy's SlaveDriver engine. This version uses the Sega NetLink for online gaming, and has built-in support for the Saturn's analog pad. It also includes a hidden multiplayer mini-game called Death Tank Zwei. The Saturn version also has an exclusive bonus level called Urea 51, accessed through the main level Fahrenheit. The Nintendo 64 version was retitled Duke Nukem 64 and features a split screen 4-player mode. In-game music was removed from this version and many items have been renamed to avoid drug and sex references. Also, several of the levels were altered to include areas from the Plutonium Pak on the standard levels (such as a Duke Burger outlet being in the second level where there was not one in the original PC version) and the game levels were played sequentially instead of as separate "episodes". Other changes included a fully 3D model for the final boss and brand new in-game weaponry. The Alien Beast monster seen in the Plutonium Pak also pops up a few times in the standard levels where it wasn't in the original PC versions at all. In 1998, a Sega Mega Drive version was released by Tec Toy. The visuals were drastically simplified, being closer to early shooters like Wolfenstein 3D; also, it consists solely of Lunar Apocalypse, the second from the original game's three "episodes". This version was released in Brazil only, so it is very little known. Review: Duke Nukem 3D A version of Duke Nukem 3D'' was also released for the Game.com, Tiger's short lived handheld system. Most recently, the game was released on September 24, 2008 for Xbox Live. This version features the ability to "rewind" the game to any prior point upon dying, save clips of gameplay, and online co-operative play, as well as the standard "Dukematch" online mode. Notably, the music received a slight quality upgrade with modern MIDI tools. It is available for 800 Microsoft points. 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3,340	Geography_of_Costa_Rica	Political map of Costa Rica. Shaded relief map of Costa Rica. Map of Costa Rica. Topography of Costa Rica Costa Rica is located on the Central American Isthmus, surrounding the point 10° north of the Equator and 84° west of the Prime Meridian. It borders both the Caribbean Sea (to the east) and the North Pacific Ocean (to the west), with a total of 1,290 km of coastline (212 km on the Caribbean coast and 1,016 km on the Pacific). Costa Rica shares a border with Nicaragua to the north (309 km long border) and with Panama to the south (330 km long border). In total, Costa Rica comprises 51,100 km² of which 50,660 km² is land and 440 km² is water, making it slightly smaller than the U.S. state of West Virginia. Physical Geography The nation's terrain is coastal plain separated by rugged mountains, the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera de Talamanca, which form the spine of the country and separate the Pacific and Caribbean watersheds. Costa Rica claims an exclusive economic zone of 200 nautical miles (370 km) and a territorial sea of 12 nautical miles (22 km). The spine of the country produces many major river systems. Rivers draining into the Caribbean include: Rio Colorado Rio Pacuare Rio Parismina Rio Reventazon Rio Sixaola Rivers draining into the Lake Nicaragua or the San Juan River (whose waters eventually drains into the Caribbean) include: Rio Sapoá Rio Frío Rio San Carlos Rio Sarapiquí Rivers draining into the Pacific Ocean include: Rio Abangares Rio Guacimal Rio Sierpe Rio Tempisque Rio Terraba In the eastern half of the country, the Rio San Juan forms the northern border with Nicaragua. Mountain ranges Cordillera de Tilarán The Tilaran Range is part of the Continental Divide east of Lake Arenal and the nearby active volcano Arenal, and running into the Cordillera Central range further east. It is located in the Abangares district of the province of Guanacaste. At the edge of the range is the Monteverde cloud forest preserve, a major ecotourism destination. Cordillera Central The Central Range continues the Continental Divide east of Cordillera de Tilarán. It has four large volcanoes: Poás, Barva, Irazú and Turrialba. The highest peak is Irazú at 3,432 m. Cordillera de Guanacaste The Guanacaste Range is in northern Costa Rica near the border with Nicaragua. The range as forms part of the southern region of the Continental Divide, with the highest peak is the extinct stratovolcano Miravalles at 2,028 m. Peaks include: Miravalles Volcano (2,028 metres) Orosí Volcano (1,659 metres) Rincón de la Vieja Volcano (1,916 metres) Cordillera de Talamanca Much of the Talamanca Range is included in the La Amistad International Park, which also is shared between the two countries. Cerros de Escazú The Cerros de Escazú It borders the Central Valley to the south and is considered the northernmost portion of the Cordillera de Talamanca. Climate and ecology The country has a tropical and subtropical climate and is part of the Neotropic ecozone. It is part of many ecoregions, including Costa Rican seasonal moist forests, Bocas del Toro-San Bastimentos Island-San Blas mangroves, Mosquitia-Nicaraguan Caribbean Coast mangroves, Southern Dry Pacific Coast mangroves, Central American dry forests, and Talamancan montane forests. An inlet from the Pacific the Gulf of Nicoya contains several small islands, the largest of these being Chira Island with a population of around four thousand. Costa Rica's dry season in most places is from December to April, while the rainy season is from May to November. On the Caribbean coast, however, December is by far the wettest month. The highlands areas are always cooler. The lowest elevation level in the country is the Pacific Ocean at sea level, the highest point is Cerro Chirripó, a volcanic mountain with an elevation of 3,810 m (part of Chirripó National Park). On a clear day, it is possible to see both the Caribbean and the Pacific from the peak. Protected Areas The country is noted for its national park system, administered by SINAC (Sistema Nacional de Areas de Conservacion, or "National System of Conservation Areas"). This agency oversees the 26 national park, and more than 160 protected areas in Costa Rica. The other types of protected areas in Costa Rica are National Wildlife Refuges, Biological Reserves, Protection Zones, and Absolute Nature Reserves. Together the protected areas comprise over one-fourth of Costa Rican territory. Tortuguero National Park The creation of the Tortuguero National Park in 1970 gave much needed protection to one of the region's most important and unique natural resources: a 22-km. stretch of shoreline that serves as the principal nesting site throughout the western half of the Caribbean Sea for the Atlantic Green Sea Turtle. Watching these great reptiles emerge from the tropical sea and haul their 100+ kg. bodies ashore to lay their eggs under cover of darkness is truly a memorable spectacle. The nesting season for the green turtles extends from July to October. International Law Costa Rica is party to many environmental treaties, including the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention on Environmental Modification, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Montreal Protocol, the Ramsar Convention, the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, the Desertification Convention, the Endangered Species Convention, the Basel Convention, the Convention on the Law of the Sea, the Convention on Marine Dumping, the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. It has signed but not ratifed the Convention on Marine Life Conservation and the Kyoto Protocol. Central America gained independence from Spain on September 15, 1820. Natural resources: Hydropower from Lake Arenal, the largest lake in Costa Rica. Natural hazards: occasional earthquakes, hurricanes along Atlantic coast; frequent flooding of lowlands at onset of rainy season; active volcanoes (See Climate of Costa Rica). Environment - current issues: deforestation, largely a result of the clearing of land for cattle ranching; soil erosion; water pollution (rivers); fisheries protection; solid waste management See also Costa Rica Climate of Costa Rica Maps of Costa Rica Costa Rica Maps Digital maps of Costa Rica Map of Costa Rica // Interactive map with driving directions and driving times hello	Geography_of_Costa_Rica \|@lemmatized political:1 map:8 costa:23 rica:21 shaded:1 relief:1 topography:1 locate:2 central:8 american:2 isthmus:1 surround:1 point:2 north:3 equator:1 west:3 prime:1 meridian:1 border:7 caribbean:9 sea:7 east:4 pacific:8 ocean:3 total:2 km:8 coastline:1 coast:5 share:2 nicaragua:4 long:2 panama:1 south:2 comprise:2 land:2 water:3 make:1 slightly:1 small:2 u:1 state:1 virginia:1 physical:1 geography:1 nation:2 terrain:1 coastal:1 plain:1 separate:2 rugged:1 mountain:3 cordillera:9 de:11 talamanca:4 form:3 spine:2 country:7 watershed:1 claim:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 zone:2 nautical:2 mile:2 territorial:1 produce:1 many:3 major:2 river:6 system:3 drain:4 include:7 rio:15 colorado:1 pacuare:1 parismina:1 reventazon:1 sixaola:1 lake:4 san:5 juan:2 whose:1 eventually:1 sapoá:1 frío:1 carlos:1 sarapiquí:1 abangares:2 guacimal:1 sierpe:1 tempisque:1 terraba:1 eastern:1 half:2 northern:2 range:8 tilarán:2 tilaran:1 part:5 continental:3 divide:3 arenal:3 nearby:1 active:2 volcano:6 run:1 far:2 district:1 province:1 guanacaste:3 edge:1 monteverde:1 cloud:1 forest:4 preserve:1 ecotourism:1 destination:1 continue:1 four:2 large:3 poás:1 barva:1 irazú:2 turrialba:1 high:3 peak:4 near:1 southern:2 region:2 extinct:1 stratovolcano:1 miravalles:2 metre:3 orosí:1 rincón:1 la:2 vieja:1 much:2 amistad:1 international:3 park:6 also:2 two:1 cerros:2 escazú:2 valley:1 consider:1 northernmost:1 portion:1 climate:5 ecology:1 tropical:2 subtropical:1 neotropic:1 ecozone:1 ecoregions:1 rican:2 seasonal:1 moist:1 bocas:1 del:1 toro:1 bastimentos:1 island:3 blas:1 mangrove:3 mosquitia:1 nicaraguan:1 dry:3 talamancan:1 montane:1 inlet:1 gulf:1 nicoya:1 contains:1 several:1 chira:1 population:1 around:1 thousand:1 season:4 place:1 december:2 april:1 rainy:2 may:1 november:1 however:1 wet:1 month:1 highland:1 area:7 always:1 cooler:1 low:1 elevation:2 level:2 cerro:1 chirripó:2 volcanic:1 national:7 clear:1 day:1 possible:1 see:3 protect:1 note:1 administer:1 sinac:1 sistema:1 nacional:1 conservacion:1 conservation:2 agency:1 oversee:1 protected:3 type:1 wildlife:1 refuge:1 biological:2 reserve:2 protection:3 absolute:1 nature:1 together:1 one:2 fourth:1 territory:1 tortuguero:2 creation:1 give:1 need:1 important:1 unique:1 natural:3 resource:2 stretch:1 shoreline:1 serve:1 principal:1 nest:1 site:1 throughout:1 western:1 atlantic:2 green:2 turtle:2 watch:1 great:1 reptile:1 emerge:1 haul:1 kg:1 body:1 ashore:1 lay:1 egg:1 cover:1 darkness:1 truly:1 memorable:1 spectacle:1 nesting:1 extend:1 july:1 october:1 law:2 party:1 environmental:2 treaty:2 convention:11 diversity:1 modification:1 united:1 framework:1 change:1 montreal:1 protocol:2 ramsar:1 regulation:1 whaling:1 desertification:1 endanger:1 specie:1 basel:1 marine:2 dumping:1 comprehensive:1 test:1 ban:1 sign:1 ratifed:1 life:1 kyoto:1 america:1 gain:1 independence:1 spain:1 september:1 hydropower:1 hazard:1 occasional:1 earthquake:1 hurricane:1 along:1 frequent:1 flooding:1 lowland:1 onset:1 environment:1 current:1 issue:1 deforestation:1 largely:1 result:1 clearing:1 cattle:1 ranching:1 soil:1 erosion:1 pollution:1 fishery:1 solid:1 waste:1 management:1 digital:1 interactive:1 drive:2 direction:1 time:1 hello:1 \|@bigram costa_rica:21 rica_costa:2 pacific_ocean:3 coastline_km:1 coastal_plain:1 cordillera_central:3 de_talamanca:3 zone_nautical:1 nautical_mile:2 mile_km:2 san_juan:2 active_volcano:2 tropical_subtropical:1 subtropical_climate:1 costa_rican:2 del_toro:1 montane_forest:1 rainy_season:2 wildlife_refuge:1 ramsar_convention:1 endanger_specie:1 marine_dumping:1 kyoto_protocol:1 soil_erosion:1
3,341	Amide	Amide functional group Amides possess a conjugated system spread over the O, C and N atoms, consisting of molecular orbitals occupied by delocalized electrons. One of the π molecular orbitals in formamide is shown above. In chemistry, an amide is one of three kinds of compounds: (sometimes called acid amide) the organic functional group characterized by a carbonyl group (C=O) linked to a nitrogen atom (N), or a compound that contains this functional group (pictured to the right); or a kind of anion or any organic compound derived by the replacement of a hydroxyl group by an amino group. Amides are the most stable of all the carbonyl functional groups. Many chemists make a pronunciation distinction between the two, saying for the carbonyl-nitrogen compound and for the anion. Others substitute one of these with , while still others pronounce both , making them homonyms. In the first sense referred to above, an amide is an amine where one of the nitrogen substituents is an acyl group; it is generally represented by the formula: R1(CO)NR2R3 , where either or both R2 and R3 may be hydrogen. Specifically, an amide can also be regarded as a derivative of a carboxylic acid in which the hydroxyl group has been replaced by an amine or ammonia. Compounds in which a hydrogen atom on nitrogen from ammonia or an amine is replaced by a metal cation are also known as amides or azanides. The second sense of the word amide is the amide (or amino) anion NH2-, which is a deprotonated form of ammonia (NH3) or an amine. It is generally represented by the formula: [R1NR2]-, and is an extremely strong base, due to the extreme weakness of ammonia and its analogues as Brønsted acids. The remainder of this article is about the carbonyl-nitrogen sense of amide. For examples of the anionic amide, see the articles Sodium amide and Lithium diisopropylamide. Amide synthesis Amides are commonly formed from the reaction of a carboxylic acid with an amine. This is the reaction that forms peptide bonds between amino acids. These amides can participate in hydrogen bonding as hydrogen bond acceptors and donors, but do not ionize in aqueous solution, whereas their parent acids and amines are almost completely ionized in solution at neutral pH. Amide formation plays a role in the synthesis of some condensation polymers, such as nylon and Aramid (Twaron / Kevlar). In biochemistry peptides are synthesized in solid phase peptide synthesis. The Schotten-Baumann reaction describes the formation of amides from amines and acid chlorides. Amide bond formation Cyclic amides are synthesized in the Beckmann rearrangement from oximes. Amides also form from ketones and hydrazoic acid in the Schmidt reaction Amides can be prepared from aryl alkyl ketones, sulfur and morpholine in the Willgerodt-Kindler reaction Other amide-forming multicomponent reactions are the Passerini reaction and the Ugi reaction In the Bodroux reaction an amide RNHCOR' is synthesized from a carboxylic acid R-COOH and the adduct of a Grignard reagent with an aniline derivative ArNHR' Bodroux F., Bull. Soc. Chim. France, 1905, 33, 831; Bodroux reaction at the Institute of Chemistry, Skopje, Macedonia Link In the Chapman rearrangement (first reported in 1925 A. W. Chapman, "CCLXIX. - Imino-aryl ethers. Part III. The molecular rearrangement of N-phenylbenziminophenyl ether", Journal of the Chemical Society, Transactions, 127:1992-1998, 1925. ) an aryl imino ether is converted to a N,N-diaryl amide: Chapman rearrangement The reaction mechanism is based on a nucleophilic aromatic substitution. Advanced organic Chemistry, Reactions, mechanisms and structure 3ed. Jerry March ISBN 0-471-85472-7 The seemingly simple direct reaction between an alcohol and an amine to an amide was not tried until 2007 when a special ruthenium-based catalyst was reported to be effective in a so-called dehydrogenative acylation: Direct Synthesis of Amides from Alcohols and Amines with Liberation of H2 Chidambaram Gunanathan, Yehoshoa Ben-David, David Milstein Science 10 August 2007: Vol. 317. no. 5839, pp. 790 - 792 Synthesis of Amides from Alcohols and Amines with Liberation of H2 The generation of hydrogen gas compensates for unfavorable thermodynamics. The reaction is believed to proceed by one dehydrogenation of the alcohol to the aldehyde followed by formation of a hemiaminal and the after a second dehydrogenation to the amide. Elimination of water in the hemiaminal to the imine is not observed. Amide reactions Amide breakdown is possible via amide hydrolysis. Such hydrolysis can occur under basic or acidic conditions. Acidic conditions yield the carboxylic acid and the ammonium ion while basic hydrolysis yield the carboxylate ion and ammonia. In the Vilsmeier-Haack reaction an amide is converted into an imine. Hofmann rearrangement of primary amides to primary amines. Owing to their resonance stabilization, amides are relatively unreactive under physiological conditions, even less than similar compounds such as esters. Nevertheless, amides can undergo chemical reactions, usually through an attack of an electronegative atom on the carbonyl carbon, breaking the carbonyl double bond and forming a tetrahedral intermediate. When the functional group attacking the amide is a thiol, hydroxyl or amine, the resulting molecule may be called a cyclol or, more specifically, a thiacyclol, an oxacyclol or an azacyclol, respectively. The proton of an amide does not dissociate readily under normal conditions; its pKa is usually well above 15. However, under extremely acidic conditions, the carbonyl oxygen can become protonated with a pKa of roughly -1. Amides will react with nitrous acid (HONO) forming the carboxylic acid and yielding nitrogen. Nitrous acid is formed by addition of a strong acid to a nitrite salt in solution at temperatures of between 0 and 10 degrees. Amides undergo the Hofmann rearrangement in which an amine with one less carbon atom is produced upon reaction with bromine and sodium hydroxide. On the other hand, reacting the amide with the strong reducing agent lithium aluminium hydride yields an amine with the same number of carbon atoms. Amides are dehydrated with phosphorus (V) oxide forming the nitrile. Care should be taken when performing such a reaction since phosphorus (V) oxide smoulders when in contact with organic matter. Amide linkage (peptide bond) An amide linkage is kinetically stable to hydrolysis. However, it can be hydrolysed in boiling alkali, as well as in strong acidic conditions. Amide linkages in a biochemical context are called peptide linkages. Amide linkages constitute a defining molecular feature of proteins, the secondary structure of which is due in part to the hydrogen bonding abilities of amides. Amide properties Amide resonance:Compared to amines, amides are very weak bases. While the conjugate acid of an amine has a pKa of about 9.5, the conjugate acid of an amide has a pKa around -0.5. Therefore amides don't have as clearly noticeable acid-base properties in water. This lack of basicity is explained by the electron-withdrawing nature of the carbonyl group where the lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen is delocalized by resonance, thus forming a partial double bond with the carbonyl carbon and putting a negative charge on the oxygen. On the other hand, amides are much stronger bases than carboxylic acids, esters, aldehydes, and ketones (conjugated acid pKa between -6 and -10). It is estimated in silico that acetamide is represented by resonance structure A for 62% and by B for 28% "Amide Resonance" Correlates with a Breadth of C-N Rotation Barriers Carl R. Kemnitz and Mark J. Loewen J. Am. Chem. Soc.; 2007; 129(9) pp 2521 - 2528; (Article) . Resonance is largely prevented in the very strained quinuclidone. Solubility Amides contain C=O (carbonyl) and N-C dipoles arising from covalent bonding between electronegative oxygen and nitrogen atoms and electro-neutral carbon atoms. Primary and secondary amides also contain two- and one N-H dipoles, respectively. Because of the pi-bonding arrangement of the carbonyl and the greater electronegativity of oxygen, the carbonyl (C=O) is a stronger dipole than the N-C dipole. The presence of a C=O dipole and, to a lesser extent a N-C dipole, allows amides to act as H-bond acceptors. In primary and secondary amides, the presence of N-H dipoles allows amides to function as H-bond donors as well. Thus amides can participate in hydrogen bonding with water and other protic solvents; the oxygen and nitrogen atoms can accept hydrogen bonds from water and the N-H hydrogen atoms can donate H-bonds. As a result of interactions such as these, the water solubility of amides is greater than that of corresponding hydrocarbons While hydrogen bonding may enhance the water solubility of amides relative to hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and aromatic compounds), amides typically are regarded as compounds with low water solubility. They are significantly less water soluble than comparable acids or alcohols due to: 1). their non-ionic character 2). the presence of nonpolar hydrocarbon functionality, and 3). the inability of tertiary amides to donate hydrogen bonds to water (they can only be H-bond acceptors). Thus amides have water solubilities roughly comparable to esters. Typically amides are less soluble than comparable amines and carboxylic acids since these compounds can both donate and accept hydrogen bonds, and can ionize at appropriate pHs to further enhance solubility Derivatives Sulfonamides are analogues of amides in which the atom double-bonded to oxygen is sulfur rather than carbon. Cyclic amides are called lactams. Naming conventions Example: CH3CONH2 is named acetamide or ethanamide Other examples: propan-1-amide, N,N-dimethylpropanamide, acrylamide For more detail see IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry - Amines and Amides References External links IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology	Amide \|@lemmatized amide:68 functional:5 group:11 amides:2 posse:1 conjugated:1 system:1 spread:1 c:9 n:14 atom:11 consist:1 molecular:4 orbitals:2 occupy:1 delocalized:1 electron:3 one:7 π:1 formamide:1 show:1 chemistry:4 three:1 kind:2 compound:9 sometimes:1 call:5 acid:21 organic:5 characterize:1 carbonyl:12 link:3 nitrogen:9 contain:3 picture:1 right:1 anion:3 derive:1 replacement:1 hydroxyl:3 amino:3 stable:2 many:1 chemist:1 make:2 pronunciation:1 distinction:1 two:2 say:1 others:2 substitute:1 still:1 pronounce:1 homonym:1 first:2 sense:3 refer:1 amine:18 substituents:1 acyl:1 generally:2 represent:3 formula:2 co:1 either:1 may:3 hydrogen:12 specifically:2 also:4 regard:2 derivative:3 carboxylic:7 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3,342	Horned_God	Eliphas Levi's illustration of Baphomet, in his Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie, 1855. Levi's picture was both influenced by historical horned deities and provided iconography for the singular Horned God of Wicca. The Horned God is one of the two primary deities found in the neopagan religion of Wicca. He is often given various names and epithets, and represents the male part of the religion's duotheistic theological system, the other part being the female Triple Goddess. The term 'Horned God' itself predates Wicca, and is a 20th century syncretic term for a horned or antlered anthropomorphic god with pseudohistorical Michael D. Bailey Witchcraft Historiography (review) in Magic, Ritual, and Witchcraft - Volume 3, Number 1, Summer 2008, pp. 81-85 origins, who, according to Margaret Murray's 1921 The Witch-Cult in Western Europe, was the deity worshipped by a pan-European witchcraft-based cult, and was demonised into the form of the Devil by the Mediaeval Church. Horned and antlered figures appear in various religions and cultures, both ancient and modern, however the suggestion made by Murray that many or all of these represent a single pancultural deity is widely denied by contemporary historians. The Horned God has been analysed in several psychological theories, and it has also become a recurrent theme in fantasy literature since the 20th Century. Clute, John The Encyclopedia of Fantasy p. 872 Horned God of Wicca In the neopagan religion of Wicca, the God is seen as the masculine side of divinity, being both equal and opposite to the Goddess. The Wiccan God himself can be represented in many forms, including as the Sun God, the Sacrificed God and the Vegetation God. However it is the Horned God who is both the oldest aspect of the God to be followed by Wiccans, and the most popular. The pioneers of Wicca, and related forms of neopagan witchcraft, such as Gerald Gardner, Doreen Valiente and Robert Cochrane, all claimed that their religion was a continuation of the pagan religion of the Witch-Cult. Historians who had purported the Witch-Cult's existence, such as Jules Michelet and Margaret Murray, For Wiccans, the Horned God is "the personification of the life force energy in animals and the wild" "Starhawk" in News-Week On-faith 2006 and is associated with the wilderness, virility and the hunt. Barbara Jane Davy, Introduction to Pagan Studies p. 16 Doreen Valiente writes that the Horned God also carries the souls of the dead to the underworld. Neopagans generally tend to polarise the universe into male and female energies, however in most groups the symbolism of the Horned God is less developed than that of the Goddess. Hanegraaff, Wouter J. New Age Religion and Western Culture p 154. In Wicca the cycle of the seasons is imagined to follow the relationship between the Horned God and the Goddess. The Horned God impregnates the Goddess and then dies during the autumn and winter months and is then reborn by the Goddess in spring. Janet and Stewart Farrar, The Witches' Bible. The different relationships throughout the year are sometimes distinguished by splitting the god into aspects, the Oak King and the Holly King. The relationships between the Goddess and the Horned God are mirrored by Wiccans in seasonal rituals. For example, the Horned God dies on October 31, which Wiccans call Samhain, the ritual of which is focused on death. He is then reborn on Winter Solstice, December 21. Jone SalomonsenEnchanted Feminism p. 190 Other important dates for the Horned God include Candlemas when, according to Valiente, he leads a wild hunt. Greenwood, Susan. The Nature of Magic p.191 In Gardnerian Wicca, the Dryghten prayer is recited at the end of every ritual meeting contains the lines referring to the Horned God: In 1959's The Meaning of Witchcraft, Gerald Gardner, the founder of modern Wicca says that The Horned God as an Under-god, a mediator between an unknowable supreme deity and the people. Magliocco, Sabina Witching Culture p.28 Whilst the Horned God is the most common depiction of masculine divinity in Wicca, he is not the only representation. Other examples include the Green Man and the Sun God. Janet and Stewart Farrar - (1989) - Hale Wiccans believe that The Horned God (as Lord of Death), rules the "Underworld" where the souls of the dead reside. This is based on the Mesopotamian myth of Innana's decent into hell. Joanne Pearson, A Popular Dictionary of Paganism p.147 The similarities between images of the devil and the Horned God may encourage fundamentalist Christians to think that the object of worship by Wiccans is satan. Jean Sybil La Fontaine Speak of the Devil: Tales of Satanic Abuse in Contemporary England 1998 p.44 Names of the Horned God The Horned God is given different names and epithets by different Wiccan groups and traditions. Epithets for the Horned God include The Lord and the Old One. Another term used is Old Horny, in reference to the deity's horns and also to his sexual nature, and it was used as a title of a song by the Wiccan band Inkubus Sukkubus Belladonna and Aconite, Inkubus Sukkubus . Doreen Valiente, a former High Priestess of the Gardnerian tradition, claimed that Gerald Gardner's Bricket Wood coven referred to the god as Cernunnos, or Kernunno, which is a Gallo-Celtic meaning "the Horned One". There is no evidence for ancient Cernnunos worship in Britain. Valiente claimed that the coven also referred to the God as Janicot (pronounced Jan-e-co), which she theorised was of Basque origin, and Gardner also used this name in his novel High Magic's Aid. The Rebirth of Witchcraft, Doreen Valiente, page 52-53 Stewart Farrar, a High Priest of the Alexandrian tradition referred to the Horned God as Karnayna, which he believed was a corruption of the word Cernunnos What Witches Do, Stewart Farrar . The historian Ronald Hutton has suggested that it instead came from the Arabic term "Dhu'l Karnain" which meant "Horned One". This term had been used in the Qur'an to refer to Alexander the Great, who considered himself the son of the horned deity Ammon-Zeus, and wore horns as a part of his regalia. Margaret Murray had mentioned this information in her 1933 book The God of the Witches, and Hutton theorised that Alex Sanders had taken it from there, enjoying the fact that he shared his name with the ancient Macedonian emperor. In the tradition of Charles Cardell and Raymond Howard, the God was referred to as Atho. Howard had a wooden statue of Atho's head which he claimed was 2200 years old, but the statue was stolen in April 1967. Howard's son later admitted that his father had carved the statue himself. http://www.thewica.co.uk/coven_of_atho%20article.htm#_ednref22 In Cochrane's Craft, which was founded by Robert Cochrane, the Horned God was often referred to by a Biblical name; Tubal Cain, who was, according to mythology, the first blacksmith. Chapter One. In this tradition, the God is also referred to as Bran, a Welsh mythological figure, Wayland, the smith in Germanic mythology, and Herne, a horned figure from English folklore. Chapter One. Horned God in psychology Jungian analysis Sherry Salman considers the image of the Horned God in Jungian terms, as an archetypal protector and mediator of the outside world to the objective psyche. In her theory the male psyche's 'Horned God' frequently compensates for inadequate fathering. When first encountered, the figure is a dangerous, 'hairy chthonic wildman' possessed of kindness and intelligence. If repressed, later in life The Horned God appears as the lord of the Otherworld, or Hades. If split off entirely, he leads to violence, substance abuse and sexual perversion. When integrated he gives the male an ego 'in possession of its own destructiveness' and for the female psyche gives an effective animus relating to both the physical body and the psyche. Donald Kalsched, The Inner World of Trauma In considering the Horned God as a symbol recurring in women's literature, Richard Sugg suggests the Horned God represents the 'natural Eros', a masculine lover subjugating the social-conformist nature of the female shadow, thus encompassing a combination of the shadow and animus. One such example is Heathcliff from Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights. Sugg goes on to note that female characters who are paired with this character usually end up socially ostracised, or worse - in an inverted ending to the male hero-story. Richard Sugg, Jungian Literary Theory P. 162 Humanistic psychology Following the work of Robert Bly in the Mythopoetic men's movement, John Rowan proposes the Horned God as a "Wild Man" be used as a fantasy image or 'sub-personality' Rowan, John. Discover your sub-personalities (1993), p.38 helpful to men in humanistic psychology, and escaping from 'narrow societal images of masculinity Rowan, John. Healing the Male Psyche ()p. 249 encompassing deference to women and paraphillia. Rowan, John. Healing the Male Psyche ()p.56-57 Theories of historical origins Several theories have been created to establish historical roots for the worship of a Horned God. Margaret Murray Following the writings of suffragist Matilda Joslyn Gage "Woman, Church and State" and others, Margaret Murray, in her 1921 book The Witch-Cult in Western Europe, proposed the theory that the witches of the early-modern period were remnants of a pagan cult and that the Christian Church had declared the god of the witches was in fact the Devil. Without specific recourse to any specific representation of this deity Murray speculates that the head coverings common in inquisition-derived descriptions of the devil 'may throw light on one of the possible origins of the cult'. In 1931 Murray published a sequel, The God of the Witches, which tries to gather evidence in support of her witch-cult theory. In Chapter 1 "The Horned God" . Murray attempts to claim that various depictions of humans with horns from European and Indian sources, ranging from the paleolithic French cave painting of "The Sorcerer" to the Indic Pashupati to the modern English Dorset Ooser, are evidence for an unbroken, Europe-wide tradition of worship of a singular Horned God. Murray derived this model of a horned god cult from James Frazer and Jules Michelet. Purkiss, Diane. The Witch in History, p. 36 Routledge, 1996 In dealing with 'The Sorcerer", Murray, The God of the Witches pp. 23-4. the earliest evidence claimed, Murray based her observations on an drawing by Henri Breuil, which modern scholars such as Ronald Hutton claim is inaccurate. Hutton states that modern photographs show the original cave art lacks horns, a human torso or any other significant detail on its upper half. Breuil considered his drawing to represent a shaman or magician - an interpretation which gives the image its name. Murray having seen the drawing called Breuil's image 'the first depiction of a deity', an idea which Breuil and others later adopted. Hutton's theory led him to conclude that reliance on Bruiel's initial sketch resulted in many later scholars erroneously claiming that "The Sorcerer" was evidence that the concept of a Horned God dated back to Paleolithic times Hutton, Ronald Witches, Druids, Arthur. p.34 Murray also used an inaccurate drawing of a mesolithic rock-painting at Cogul in northeast Spain as evidence of group religious ceremony of the cult, although the central male figure is not horned. Murray, The God of the Witches p. 65 The illustration she used of the Cogul painting leaves out a number of figures, human and animal, and the original is more likely a sequence of superimposed but unrelated illustrations, rather than a depiction of a single scene. Hutton, Triumph of the Moon p. 197 The idea of a historical Horned God cult is widely regarded as being a fantasy. Despite widespread condemnation of her scholarship some minor aspects of her work continued to have supporters. "Other historians, like Byloff and Bonomo, have been willing to build upon the useful aspects of Murray's work without adopting its untenable elements, and the independent and careful researches of contemporary scholars have lent aspects of the Murray thesis considerable new strength." — J. B. Russell (1972) Witchcraft in the Middle Ages. Cornell University Press. p. 37. Influences from literature The popular image of the Greek god Pan was removed from its classical context in the writings of the Romantics of the 18th century and connected with their ideals of a pastoral England. This, along with the general public's increasing lack of familiarity of Greek mythology at the time led to the figure of Pan becoming generalised as a 'horned god', and applying connotations to the character, such as benevolence that were not evident in the original Greek myths which gave rise to Murray's appropriation of the figure of Pan when creating her horned god of the witches. Hutton, Ronald (1999) Triumph of the Moon Influences from occultism Eliphas Levi's image of "Baphomet" serves as an example of the transformation of the Devil into a benevolent fertility deity and provided the prototype for Murray's horned god. Murray's central thesis that images of the Devil were of actually of deities and that Christianity had demonised these worshippers as following Satan, is first recorded in the work of Levi in the fashionable 19th-century Occultist circles of England and France. Juliette Wood, "The Celtic Tarot and the Secret Traditions: A Study in Modern Legend Making": Folklore, Vol. 109, 1998 Levi created his image of Baphomet, published in his Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie (1855), by combining symbolism from diverse traditions, including the Diable card of the 16th and 17th century Tarot of Marseille. Gerald Gardner and Wicca Murray's theory of the historical origins of the Horned God has been used by Wiccans to create a myth of historical origins for their religion. Barbara Jane Davy, Introduction to Pagan Studies p.110 There is no real evidence to support claims that the religion originates earlier than the mid-20th century. The "father of Wicca", Gerald Gardner, who adopted Margaret Murray's thesis, claimed Wicca was a modern survival of an ancient pan-European pagan religion. Gardner states that he had reconstructed elements of the religion from fragments, incorporating elements from English folklore and contemporary influences such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, as well as eastern philosophies. Gardner supposes that the Horned God and The Goddess were of the ancient tribal gods of the Wiccan religion he was trying to reconstruct. Gardner, Gerald Witchcraft Today. These duo-theistic concepts have have no evidence in ancient cultures and simply represent a projection of modern concepts of romantic love onto history. Salomonsen, Jone Enchanted Feminism, p.95 According to Jenny Gibbons some Wiccans have begun to accept the ahistoricity of their religion. Jenny Gibbons Studying the Great European Witch Hunt The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies #5 Summer 1998 Horned figure on the Gundestrup cauldron. Romano-Celtic fusion Georg Luck, repeats part of Murray's theory, stating that the Horned God may have appeared in late antiquity, stemming from the merging of Cernunnos, a horned god of the Celts, with the Greco-Roman Pan/Faunus, a combination of gods which he posits created a new deity, around which the remaining pagans, those refusing to convert to Christianity, rallied and that this deity provided the prototype for later Christian conceptions of the devil, and his worshippers were cast by the Church as witches. Fantasy and science fiction In 1908's The Wind In The Willows by Kenneth Grahame, in Chapter 7, The Piper at the Gates of Dawn, Ratty and Mole meet a mystical horned being, both powerful, fearsome and kind. Chas S. Clifton, The Paganism Reader p.85 Grahame's work was a significant part of the cultural milleu which stripped the Greek god Pan of his cultural identity in favour of an unnamed, generic horned deity which led to Murrays thesis of historical origins. Outside of works that predate the publication of Murrays thesis, horned god motifs and characters appear in fantasy literature that draws upon her work and that of her followers. In the critically acclaimed and influential 1950's TV series created by Nigel Kneale, Quatermass and the Pit, depictions of supernatural horned entities, with specific reference to prehistoric cave-art and shamanistic horned head-dress are revealed to be a 'race-memory' of psychic Martian grasshoppers, manifested at the climax of the film by a fiery horned god. White, Eric "Once they were men: Now they're Landcrabs: Monsterous Becomings in Evolutionist Cinema" in Posthuman Bodies p.244 Murrays theories has been seen to have had influence on Blood on Satan's Claw (1971), where a murderous female-led cult worships a horned deity named 'Behemoth'. British Horror Cinema, Leon Hunt (Witchcraft and the Occult) p.94 Marion Zimmer Bradley, who acknowledges the influence of Murray, uses the figure of the 'horned god' in her feminist fantasy transformation of Arthurinian myth, Mists of Avalon (1984) and portrays ritualistic incest between King Arthur as the representative of the horned god and his sister Morgaine as the 'spring maiden'. Van Dyke, Annette Joy The Search for a Woman-centered Spirituality NYU Press, 1992. p.106 See also Horned helmet Gundestrup cauldron Triple Goddess References	Horned_God \|@lemmatized eliphas:2 levi:5 illustration:3 baphomet:3 dogme:2 et:2 rituel:2 de:2 la:3 haute:2 magie:2 picture:1 influence:6 historical:7 horned:37 deity:15 provide:3 iconography:1 singular:2 horn:30 god:71 wicca:13 one:8 two:1 primary:1 find:1 neopagan:3 religion:13 often:2 give:6 various:3 name:8 epithet:3 represent:6 male:8 part:5 duotheistic:1 theological:1 system:1 female:6 triple:2 goddess:9 term:6 predate:2 century:6 syncretic:1 antlered:2 anthropomorphic:1 pseudohistorical:1 michael:1 bailey:1 witchcraft:9 historiography:1 review:1 magic:3 ritual:4 volume:1 number:2 summer:2 pp:2 origin:7 accord:4 margaret:6 murray:25 witch:18 cult:12 western:3 europe:3 worship:6 pan:7 european:4 base:3 demonise:2 form:3 devil:8 mediaeval:1 church:4 figure:10 appear:4 culture:4 ancient:6 modern:9 however:3 suggestion:1 make:2 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3,343	Benedict_of_Nursia	"Saint Benedict" redirects here. This article is about the founder of Western monasticism; for other saints named Benedict, see Benedict. Benedict of Nursia () (480 - 547) was a saint from Italy, the founder of Western Christian monasticism, and a rule-giver for cenobitic monks. His purpose may be gleaned from his Rule, namely that "Christ ... may bring us all together to life eternal." RB 72.12 Benedict was canonized by Pope Honorius III in the year 1220. Benedict founded twelve communities for monks, the best known of which is his first monastery, at Monte Cassino in the mountains of southern Italy. There is no evidence that he intended to found a religious order. The Order of St Benedict is of modern origin and, moreover, not an "order" as commonly understood but merely a confederation of autonomous congregations. Called into existence by Pope Leo XIII's Apostolic Brief "Summum semper", 12 July 1893, see OSB-International website Benedict's main achievement is his "Rule", containing precepts for his monks. It is heavily influenced by the writings of John Cassian, and shows strong affinity with the Rule of the Master. But it also has a unique spirit of balance, moderation and reasonableness (επιεικεια, epieikeia), and this persuaded most religious communities founded throughout the Middle Ages to adopt it. As a result, the Rule of Benedict became one of the most influential religious rules in Western Christendom. For this reason Benedict is often called the founder of western Christian monasticism. Biography The only ancient account of Benedict is found in the second volume of Pope Gregory I's four-book Dialogues, written in 593. Book Two consists of a prologue and thirty-eight succinct chapters. 19th-century Roman historian Thomas Hodgkin praised Gregory’s life of St. Benedict as “the biography of the greatest monk, written by the greatest Pope, himself also a monk.” See Life and Miracles of St. Benedict (Book II, Dialogues), translated by Odo John Zimmerman, O.S.B. and Benedict R. Avery, O.S.B. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980), p. iv. Gregory’s account of this saint’s life is not, however, a biography in the modern sense of the word. It provides instead a spiritual portrait of the gentle, disciplined abbot. In a letter to Bishop Maximilian of Syracuse, Gregory states his intention for his Dialogues, saying they are a kind of floretum (an anthology, literally, ‘flowers’) of the most striking miracles of Italian holy men. See Ildephonso Schuster, Saint Benedict and His Times, Gregory J. Roettger, trans. (London: B. Herder, 1951), p. 2. Gregory did not set out to write a chronological, historically-anchored story of St. Benedict, but he did base his anecdotes on direct testimony. To establish his authority, Gregory explains that his information came from what he considered the best sources: a handful of Benedict’s disciples who lived with the saint and witnessed his various miracles. These followers, he says, are Constantinus, who succeeded Benedict as Abbot of Monte Cassino; Valentinianus; Simplicius; and Honoratus, who was abbot of Subiaco when St Gregory wrote his Dialogues. In Gregory’s day, history was not recognized as an independent field of study; it was a branch of grammar or rhetoric, and historia (defined as ‘story’) summed up the approach of the learned when they wrote what was, at that time, considered ‘history.’ See Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis, editor, Historiography in the Middle Ages (Boston: Brill, 2003), pp. 1-2. Gregory’s Dialogues Book Two, then, an authentic medieval hagiography cast as a conversation between the Pope and his deacon Peter, is designed to teach spiritual lessons. Early life Benedict was the son of a Roman noble of Nursia, the modern Norcia, in Umbria. A tradition which Bede accepts makes him a twin with his sister Scholastica. St Gregory's narrative makes it impossible to suppose him younger than 19 or 20. He was old enough to be in the midst of his literary studies, to understand the real meaning and worth of the dissolute and licentious lives of his companions, and to have been deeply affected himself by the love of a woman (Ibid. II, 2). He was capable of weighing all these things in comparison with the life taught in the Gospels, and chose the latter. He was at the beginning of life, and he had at his disposal the means to a career as a Roman noble; clearly he was not a child. If we accept the date 480 for his birth, we may fix the date of his abandonment of his studies and leaving home at about 500 AD. Benedict does not seem to have left Rome for the purpose of becoming a hermit, but only to find some place away from the life of the great city. He took his old nurse with him as a servant and they settled down to live in Enfide, near a church to St Peter, in some kind of association with "a company of virtuous men" who were in sympathy with his feelings and his views of life. Enfide, which the tradition of Subiaco identifies with the modern Affile, is in the Simbruini mountains, about forty miles from Rome and two from Subiaco. St Benedict orders Saint Maurus to the rescue of Saint Placidus, by Fra Filippo Lippi, 1445 A.D. . A short distance from Enfide is the entrance to a narrow, gloomy valley, penetrating the mountains and leading directly to Subiaco. Crossing the Aniene and turning to the right, the path rises along the left face off the ravine and soon reaches the site of Nero's villa and of the huge mole which formed the lower end of the middle lake; across the valley were ruins of the Roman baths, of which a few great arches and detached masses of wall still stand. Rising from the mole upon 25 low arches, the foundations of which can even yet be traced, was the bridge from the villa to the baths, under which the waters of the middle lake poured in a wide fall into the lake below. The ruins of these vast buildings and the wide sheet of falling water closed up the entrance of the valley to St Benedict as he came from Enfide; to-day the narrow valley lies open before us, closed only by the far-off mountains. The path continues to ascend, and the side of the ravine, on which it runs, becomes steeper, until we reach a cave above which the mountain now rises almost perpendicularly; while on the right, it strikes in a rapid descent down to where, in St Benedict's day, 500 feet below, lay the blue waters of the lake. The cave has a large triangular-shaped opening and is about ten feet deep. On his way from Enfide, Benedict met a monk, Romanus of Subiaco, whose monastery was on the mountain above the cliff overhanging the cave. Romanus had discussed with Benedict the purpose which had brought him to Subiaco, and had given him the monk's habit. By his advice Benedict became a hermit and for three years, unknown to men, lived in this cave above the lake. Later life, and veneration St Gregory tells us little of these years. He now speaks of Benedict no longer as a youth (puer), but as a man (vir) of God. Romanus, he twice tells us, served the saint in every way he could. The monk apparently visited him frequently, and on fixed days brought him food. During these three years of solitude, broken only by occasional communications with the outer world and by the visits of Romanus, Benedict matured both in mind and character, in knowledge of himself and of his fellow-man, and at the same time he became not merely known to, but secured the respect of, those about him; so much so that on the death of the abbot of a monastery in the neighbourhood (identified by some with Vicovaro), the community came to him and begged him to become its abbot. Benedict was acquainted with the life and discipline of the monastery, and knew that "their manners were diverse from his and therefore that they would never agree together: yet, at length, overcome with their entreaty, he gave his consent" (ibid., 3). The experiment failed; the monks tried to poison him, and he returned to his cave. The legend goes that they first tried to poison his drink. He prayed a blessing over the cup and the cup shattered. Then they tried to poison him with poisoned bread. When he prayed a blessing over the bread, a raven swept in and took the loaf away. From this time his miracles seem to have become frequent, and many people, attracted by his sanctity and character, came to Subiaco to be under his guidance. For them he built in the valley twelve monasteries, in each of which he placed a superior with twelve monks. In a thirteenth he lived with a few, such as he thought would more profit and be better instructed by his own presence (ibid., 3). He remained, however, the father, or abbot, of all. With the establishment of these monasteries began the schools for children; and among the first to be brought were Saint Maurus and Saint Placidus. St Benedict spent the rest of his life realizing the ideal of monasticism which he had drawn out in his rule. He died at Monte Cassino, Italy, according to tradition, on March 21, 547 and was named patron protector of Europe by Pope Paul VI in 1964. In the General Roman Calendar of 1962, his feast is kept on the day of his death, 21 March. The Roman Catholic Calendar of Saints transferred his feast day to 11 July, the date on which some monasteries commemorated the translation of his relics. The July 11th date was chosen as March 21st coincided with the observance of Lent, during which there are no obligatory Memorials "Calendarium Romanum" (Libreria Editrice Vaticana), pp. 97 and 119 Rule of St. Benedict “A lamb can bathe in it without drowning, while an elephant can swim in it”; this ancient saying refers to a work of only 73 short chapters. Its wisdom is of two kinds: spiritual (how to live a Christocentric life on earth) and administrative (how to run a monastery efficiently). More than half the chapters describe how to be obedient and humble, and what to do when a member of the community is not. About one-fourth regulate the work of God (the Opus Dei). One-tenth outline how, and by whom, the monastery should be managed. And another tenth specifically describe the abbot’s pastoral duties. The Saint Benedict Medal This medal originally came from a cross in honor of St Benedict. On one side, the medal has an image of St Benedict, holding the Holy Rule in his left hand and a cross in his right. There is a raven on one side of him, with a cup on the other side of him. Around the medal's outer margin are the words "Eius in obitu nostro praesentia muniamur" ("May we, at our death, be fortified by His presence"). The other side of the medal has a cross with the initials CSSML on the vertical bar which signify "Crux Sacra Sit Mihi Lux" ("May the Holy Cross be my light") and on the horizontal bar are the initials NDSMD which stand for "Non Draco Sit Mihi Dux" ("Let not the dragon be my overlord"). The initials 'CSPB stand for "Crux Sancti Patris Benedicti" ("The Cross of the Holy Father Benedict") and are located on the interior angles of the cross. Either the inscription "PAX" (Peace) or the Christogram "IHS" may be found at the top of the cross in most cases. Around the medal's margin on this side are the initials VRSNSMV which stand for "Vade Retro Satana, Nunquam Suade Mihi Vana" ("Begone Satan, do not suggest to me thy vanities") then a space followed by the initials SMQLIVB which signify "Sunt Mala Quae Libas, Ipse Venena Bibas" ("Evil are the things thou profferest, drink thou thy own poison"). "The Life of St Benedict," by St. Gregory the Great, Rockford, IL: TAN Books and Publishers, pp 60-62 Austria 50 euro 'The Christian Religious Orders' commemorative coin This medal was first struck in 1880 to commemorate the fourteenth centenary of St Benedict's birth and is also called the Jubilee Medal; its exact origin, however, is unknown. In 1647, during a witchcraft trial at Natternberg near Metten Abbey in Bavaria, the accused women testified they had no power over Metten, which was under the protection of the cross. An investigation found a number of painted crosses on the walls of the abbey with the letters now found on St Benedict medals, but their meaning had been forgotten. A manuscript written in 1415 was eventually found that had a picture of Saint Benedict holding a scroll in one hand and a staff which ended in a cross in the other. On the scroll and staff were written the full words of the initials contained on the crosses. Medals then began to be struck in Germany, which then spread throughout Europe. This medal was first approved by Pope Benedict XIV in his briefs of December 23, 1741, and March 12, 1742. "The Life of St Benedict," by St. Gregory the Great, Rockford, IL: TAN Books and Publishers, pp 60-62 Saint Benedict has been also the motive of many collector's coins around the world. One of the most prestigious and recent ones is the Austria 50 euro 'The Christian Religious Orders', issued in March 13, 2002. The influence of St. Benedict The early Middle Ages have been called "the Benedictine centuries." In April 2008, Pope Benedict XVI discussed the influence St Benedict had on Western Europe. The pope said that “with his life and work St Benedict exercised a fundamental influence on the development of European civilization and culture” and helped Europe to emerge from the "dark night of history" that followed the fall of the Roman empire. Benedict XVI, "Saint Benedict of Norcia" Homily given to a general audience at St Peter's Square on Wednesday, 9 April 2008 http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/audiences/2008/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20080409_en.html To this day, The Rule of St. Benedict is the most common and influential Rule used by monasteries and monks, more than 1400 years after its writing. The leaders of the Episcopal Cathedral of St. John the Divine, when choosing a single figure from each century of Christian History, chose Benedict of Nursia as the most important figure of the 6th Century. The influence of St Benedict produced "a true spiritual ferment" in Europe, and over the coming decades his followers spread across the continent to establish a new cultural unity based on Christian faith. In 1964, Pope Paul VI named St Benedict as patron saint of Europe. Catholic World News: St. Benedict and the key to European unity See also Anthony the Great Benedictine Order Camaldolese Hermit Poustinia References "The Life of St Benedict," by St. Gregory the Great, Rockford, IL: TAN Books and Publishers, ISBN 0-89555-512-3 Gallery of pictures related to St Benedict External links A Benedictine Oblate Priest - The Rule in Parish Life Guide to Saint Benedict Sacro speco, Grotta della Preghiera – general view – enlarged view The Holy Rule of St. Benedict - Online translation by Rev. 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3,344	Chris_Marker	Chris Marker (born 29 July 1921) is a French writer, photographer, film director, multimedia artist and documentary maker. He is best known for directing La Jetée (1962), as well as Sans Soleil (1983) and AK (1985), a documentary about Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa. Biography He was born Christian François Bouche-Villeneuve, in Ulan Bator, Mongolia, 1921. Thomson, David. A New Biographical Dictionary of Film, 4th ed. London: Little Brown, 2002. (p. 503) "The previous edition and other reference books give Belleville, France, as his place of birth—but Marker told me himself that Mongolia is correct." In World War II he joined the Maquis (FTP). After the war he began to write and make films. He traveled to many socialist countries and documented what he saw in films and books. Les statues meurent aussi (1953) which he codirected with Alain Resnais was one of the first anticolonial films. Anatole Dauman produced the first films of Chris Marker and later produced two more of his films Sunday in Peking and Letter from Siberia. He became internationally known for the short film La Jetée (1962). It tells the story of a post-nuclear war experiment in time travel by using a series of filmed photographs developed as a photomontage of varying pace with limited narration and sound effects. This film was the inspiration for Mamoru Oshii's debut live action feature The Red Spectacles (1987) (later for Avalon) and also inspired Terry Gilliam's Twelve Monkeys (1995). It also inspired many of director Mira Nair's shots of the recent film, The Namesake. In 1982 Marker finished Sans Soleil, stretching the limits of what could be called a documentary. It is an essay, a montage, mixing pieces of documentary with fiction and philosophical comments, creating an atmosphere of dream and science fiction. The main themes are Japan, Africa, (the erasing of) memory and travel. A sequence in the middle of the film takes place in San Francisco, and heavily references Alfred Hitchcock's Vertigo. Beginning with Sans Soleil he developed a deep interest in digital technology, which led to his film Level 5 (1996) and Immemory (1998, 2008), an interactive multimedia CD-ROM, produced for the Centre Pompidou (French language version) and from Exact Change (English version). Marker created a 19 minute multimedia piece in 2005 for The Museum of Modern Art in New York titled "Owls at Noon Prelude: The Hollow Men" which was influenced by T. S. Eliot's poem. Chris Marker lives in Paris and does not grant interviews. When asked for a picture of himself, he usually offers a photograph of a cat instead. His cat is named Guillaume-en-egypte. In the 2007 Criterion Collection release of La Jetée and Sans Soleil, Marker included a short essay entitled "Working on a shoestring budget". He confessed to shooting all of Sans Soleil with a silent film camera and recording all the audio on a primitive audio cassette recorder. Marker also reminds the reader that only one short scene in La Jetée is of a moving image, only being able to borrow a movie camera for one afternoon while working on the film. Complete filmography Olympia 52 (1952) Les Statues meurent aussi (1953 with Alain Resnais) Dimanche à Pekin (1956) Lettre de Sibérie (1957) Les Astronautes (1959 with Walerian Borowczyk) Description d'un combat (1960) ¡Cuba Sí! (1961) La Jetée (1962) Le joli mai (1963, 2006 re-cut) Le Mystère Koumiko (1965) Si j'avais quatre dromadaires (1966) Loin du Vietnam (1967) Rhodiacéta (1967) La Sixième face du pentagone (1968 with Reichenbach) Cinétracts (1968) À bientôt, j'espère (1968 with Marret) On vous parle du Brésil: Tortures (1969) Jour de tournage (1969) Classe de lutte (1969) On vous parle de Paris: Maspero, les mots ont un sens (1970) On vous parle du Brésil: Carlos Marighela (1970) La Bataille des dix millions (1971) Le Train en marche (1971) On vous parle de Prague: le deuxième procès d'Artur London (1971) Vive la baleine (1972) L'Ambassade (1973) On vous parle du Chili: ce que disait Allende (1973 with Littin) Puisqu'on vous dit que c'est possible (1974) La Solitude du chanteur de fond (1974) La Spirale (1975) Le Fond de l'air est rouge (1977, 1993 re-cut, 2008 2nd re-cut) Rot liegt in der Luft - ARTE Quand le siècle a pris formes (1978) Junkiopa (1981) Sans Soleil (1983) 2084 (1984) From Chris to Christo (1985) Matta (1985) A.K. (1985) Eclats (1986) Mémoires pour Simone (1986) Tokyo Days (1988) Spectre (1988) L'héritage de la chouette (1989) Bestiaire (three short video haiku) (1990) Bestiaire 1. Chat écoutant la musique Bestiaire 2. An owl is An owl is an owl Bestiaire 3. Zoo Piece Getting away with it (1990) Berlin 1990 (1990) Détour Ceausescu (1991) Théorie des ensembles (1991) Coin fenètre (1992) Azulmoon (1992) Le Tombeau d'Alexandre aka The Last Bolshevik (1992) Le 20 heurs dans les camps (1993) SLON Tango (1993) Bullfight in Okinawa (1994) Eclipse (1994) Haiku (1994) Haiku 1. Petite Ceinture Haiku 2. Chaika Haiku 3. Owl Gets in Your Eyes Casque bleu (1995) Silent Movie (1995) Level Five (1997) Un maire au Kosovo (2000) One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich (2000) Le facteur sonne toujours cheval (2001) Avril inquiet (2001) Le souvenir d'un avenir (with Bellon 2003) Chats Perchés (2004) - a documentary about M. Chat street art Leila Attacks (2006) Collaborations Nuit et Brouillard (Resnais 1955) Note: In a 1995 interview Resnais states that the final version of the commentary was a collaboration between Marker and Jean Cayrol (source: Film Comment). Les hommes de la baleine (Ruspoli 1956) Note: under the pseudonym "Jacopo Berenizi" Marker wrote the commentary for this short about whale hunters in the Azores. The two would return to this topic in 1972's Vive la Baleine (Film Comment). Le mystere de l'atelier quinze (Resnais et Heinrich 1957) Note: Marker wrote the commentary for this fictional short (Film Comment). Le Siècle a soif (Vogel 1958) Note: Marker wrote and spoke all the commentary for this short film about fruit juice in Alexandrine verse (Film Comment). La Mer et les jours (Vogel et Kaminker 1958) Note: Marker present commentary for this "somber work about the daily lives of fishermen on Brittany's Île de Sein" (Film Comment). L'Amérique insolite (Reichenbach 1958) Note: Marker was eventually credited as a writer for this one, apparently, he wrote the dialogue (Film Comment). Django Reinhardt (Paviot 1959) Note: Marker narrated this one (Film Comment). Jouer à Paris (Varlin 1962) Note: This was edited by Marker - essentially, this film is a 27-minute postscript to Le Joli Mai assembled from leftover footage and organized around a new commentary (Film Comment). A Valparaiso (Ivens 1963) Note: This gem was written by Marker. It feels like a Marker film. Les Chemins de la fortune (Kassovitz 1964) Note: Marker apparently helped edit and organise this Venezuela travelogue (Film Comment). La Douceur du village (Reichenbach 1964) Note: Edited by Marker. La Brûlure de mille soleils (Kast 1964) Note: Marker edited this (mostly) animated science-fiction exstentialist short and (possibly) collaborated on the script (Film Comment). Le volcan interdit (Tazieff 1966) Note: Marker narrates this volcano documentary. Europort-Rotterdam (Ivens 1966) Note: Marker did the textual adaptation (Film Comment. On vous parle de Flins (Devart 1970) Note: Marker helped film and edit this short (Film Comment). L'Afrique express (Tessier et Lang 1970) Note: Marker wrote the introductory text for this film under the name "Boris Villeneuve" (Film Comment). Kashima Paradise (Le Masson et Deswarte 1974) Note: Marker collaborated on the commentary on this documentary about the destruction of Kashima and Narita (Film Comment). La Batalla de Chile (Guzman, 1975-1976) Note: Marker helped produce and contributed to the screenplay for this, perhaps the greatest of all documentary films (Film Comment). One Sister and Many Brothers (Makavejev 1994) Note: Marker tapes Makavejev circulating among the guests of a party in his honor as much jovial backslapping abounds (Film comment). Bibliography (self-contained works by Marker) Le Cœur Net (1949, Editions du Seuil, Paris) Commentaires I (1961, Editions du Seuil, Paris) Coréennes (1962, photographs, Editions du Seuil, Paris) Commentaires II (1967, Editions du Seuil, Paris) Le Dépays (1982, Editions Herscher, Paris) Silent Movie (1995, Ohio State University Press) La Jetée ciné-roman (1996 / 2nd printing 2008, MIT Press, Cambridge; designed by Bruce Mau) Staring Back (2007, MIT Press, Cambridge) Immemory (1997,2008, Exact Change, Cambridge) References External links Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database Bibliography of books and articles about Marker via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center Chris Marker: Notes from the Era of Imperfect Memory Blog devoted to Chris Marker Chris Marker's "Owls at Noon Prelude: The Hollow Men" Description of the DVD release of La Jetee and Sans Soleil by Criterion Collection Description of Marker's book of photographs and essays titled Staring Back Description of Marker's 'cine roman' titled La Jetee, based on the film of the same name. The Wexner Center's "Chris Marker Store" Filmmaker As Socialist Anthologist by Williams Cole, The Brooklyn Rail, May 2009 Issue	Chris_Marker \|@lemmatized chris:8 marker:36 born:1 july:1 french:2 writer:2 photographer:1 film:37 director:3 multimedia:3 artist:1 documentary:8 maker:1 best:1 know:2 direct:1 la:22 jetée:6 well:1 sans:7 soleil:7 ak:1 japanese:1 filmmaker:2 akira:1 kurosawa:1 biography:1 bear:1 christian:1 françois:1 bouche:1 villeneuve:2 ulan:1 bator:1 mongolia:2 thomson:1 david:1 new:3 biographical:1 dictionary:1 ed:1 london:2 little:1 brown:1 p:1 previous:1 edition:6 reference:3 book:4 give:1 belleville:1 france:1 place:2 birth:1 tell:2 correct:1 world:1 war:3 ii:2 join:1 maquis:1 ftp:1 begin:2 write:7 make:1 travel:3 many:3 socialist:2 country:1 document:1 saw:1 le:21 statue:1 meurent:2 aussi:2 codirected:1 alain:2 resnais:5 one:7 first:2 anticolonial:1 anatole:1 dauman:1 produce:4 later:2 two:2 sunday:1 peking:1 letter:1 siberia:1 become:1 internationally:1 short:9 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3,345	Father_Ted	Father Ted is a situation comedy television programme produced by Hat Trick Productions for Channel 4. The show depicts the lives of three Irish Catholic priests on the remote fictional Craggy Island off the west coast of Ireland. It ran for three series, totalling 25 episodes, between 21 April 1995 and 1 May 1998 on the UK's Channel 4. Father Ted was written by two Irish writers, Arthur Mathews and Graham Linehan, who also co-created Big Train. All of the interior scenes were shot at The London Studios and all of the location footage was shot in Ireland. Graham Linehan, on his DVD commentary on the first episode, says that Father Ted was a character that Arthur Mathews came up with and who was played by third member of the group Paul Woodfull when they did standup gigs in Ireland, playing as a band, The Joshua Trio. Dermot Morgan was picked for the role because he had previously played a priest in standup. As "Father Trendy", Linehan appeared in the first episode of Father Ted wearing a red jacket and a white "bobble" hat. The series was responsible for propelling a number of actors and comedians into the limelight, including Ardal O'Hanlon, Pauline McLynn, Graham Norton, Tommy Tiernan, Patrick McDonnell, Don Wycherley, Joe Rooney, Jason Byrne, Pat Shortt, Ed Byrne and Brendan Grace. Dermot Morgan, who played the title role, died in 1998, aged 45, from a heart attack he suffered during a celebratory party the day after filming the final episode. Synopsis The show follows the exploits of three Roman Catholic priests who preside over a parish on Craggy Island, located off the west coast of Ireland. Father Ted Crilly, Father Dougal McGuire and the retired Father Jack Hackett live together in Craggy Island's parochial house, along with their housekeeper Mrs Doyle, who is often wanting to serve them tea. The three priests answer to Bishop Len Brennan, who assigned them the Craggy Island parish due to different incidents in their past: Father Crilly for alleged financial impropriety, Father McGuire for his incompetence from the "Blackrock Incident", and Father Hackett for his alcoholism and womanising. The show revolves around the priests' lives on Craggy Island, sometimes dealing with matters of the church but more often dealing with Father Ted's schemes to either resolve a situation with the parish or other Craggy Island residents, or to win gambling bets placed with Father Dick Byrne of the nearby Rugged Island parish. Major characters Ted Father Ted Crilly (Dermot Morgan) is the most normal of the priests on the island, although he still finds himself in very confusing situations. He is a bon vivant, exiled to Craggy Island for something referred to only as "that Lourdes thing" - an apparent misappropriation of church funds which had been intended to fund a poor child's pilgrimage to Lourdes, which Ted allegedly spent as part of a Las Vegas gambling spree. Ted's defense has always been that the money was "just resting in my account". Ted was previously a priest in Wexford, which is also the home town of the series director, Declan Lowney. His greatest desire is to escape Craggy Island and to find a wealthy parish and a life free of embarrassment, although he is also shown to be as easily seduced by fame as by money. Ted is the devious schemer of the series and most of the plots are driven by some plan or other that Ted, a fantastic liar, has hatched to either extricate himself from a bad situation or escape Craggy Island for fame and fortune. Often the pursuit of these schemes necessitate Ted hiding from or separating himself from the company of Mrs Doyle, Father Dougal or some other character on flimsy pretexts such as "I think actually I'll just stay here and have a quiet pray". Father Dougal has been shown to be suspicious of Father Ted when he says this though. In one episode when Father Ted tells him that he is going to have a quiet pray, Dougal looks at him and says in a good-humoured way: "What are you after Ted?". Father Ted looks surprised and replies that he is not up to anything, and that it is "not unusual for members of the clergy to sit and pray from time to time." Indeed the more devious Ted is being, the more likely he is to say something about prayer or wanting to pray. He frequently justifies his intended sins and schemes to Father Dougal. For example saying that by committing a small sin they are preventing a big sin. Ted is probably the most complex of all the characters and despite his cynicism he often seems to be genuinely disturbed when Father Dougal makes innocent, frequent and sometimes fairly philosophically damning statements or observations about the faith. Despite this, and despite not always seeming to take Catholicism seriously, in the episode "Hell", in reply to Dougal saying about Jesus "ahh he was great wasn't he", Ted adds, "ahh, he was brilliant", smiling and nodding at the same time. Despite his many negative qualities, Ted is often shown to be a natural leader who is often quite brilliant in a crisis. Time and again he extricates his fellow priests from dangerous situations, such as talking a would-be suicide off a ledge, leading a hopelessly lost troupe of clerics to safety through Ireland's biggest lingerie section undetected, and, perhaps most heroic of all, climbing out onto the wing of an airborne plane to fix a broken fuel tank with sticky tape. Ted also keeps a framed picture of Ireland's 1990 and 1994 World Cup manager, Jack Charlton, on the mantelpiece just beside a picture of The Sacred Heart. Dougal Father Dougal McGuire (Ardal O'Hanlon) is a very simple-minded soul, in exile for a mysterious incident - the "Blackrock incident" - involving a group of nuns whose lives were, allegedly, "irreparably damaged", presumably caused by his stupidity. His inability to grasp the simplest of everyday concepts provides much of the humour in the show. Dougal also regularly expresses doubts about the validity of Catholic Orthodoxy (indeed, he appears to have no religious belief whatsoever, even questioning the existence of God in front of a visiting Bishop, who eventually gives up the faith and becomes a hippie) and has trouble distinguishing dreams from reality. He also has an addiction to rollerblading, which proves his downfall when he tries to give it up for Lent ("Cigarettes and Alcohol and Rollerblading"). The sun is always shining in his world and he often doesn't understand what Ted means. Jack Father Jack Hackett (Frank Kelly) is an alcoholic, lecherous, violent and foul-mouthed old priest, who is basically incapable of functioning normally as a human being, let alone as a priest. He is on Craggy Island for all of the above, although one episode mentions the cause of Father Jack's exile as being a wedding he performed in Athlone. No details are given but a shot of his face shows a lecherous expression, suggesting he may have acted in a manner sexually inappropriate for a priest, or perhaps been carried away by his own alcoholism. His vocabulary is mostly restricted to four shouted words: "Drink!", "Feck!", "Arse!", "Girls!", though he has been known to yell other short phrases. He is also able to memorise phrases to say in certain circumstances: during a visit from members of the clergy Ted taught him to say "That would be an ecumenical matter!" Father Jack also has a fear of nuns. Father Jack is continuously drunk, rarely without an alcoholic beverage, and has even been known to drink other household liquids including floor polish, brake fluid, motor oil, castor oil, and Toilet Duck. In one episode he also drank a whole bottle of sleeping medicine and subsequently fell asleep for two weeks. In his younger days he was a fire and brimstone preacher and is said to have been the first priest to denounce The Beatles. According to one of Graham Linehan's former peers at Catholic University School (C.U.S.), Father Hackett was apparently based on one of the priests resident at his former secondary school. In the commentary to series two, Graham Linehan also suggests that Jack was the writers' acerbic response to the stereotype that the Irish are genial drinkers. During the episode, "Cigarettes and Alcohol and Rollerblading", Jack gave up alcohol and Ted remarked that he had been drunk for so long that sobriety must be like a strange, hallucinogenic drug to him. Mrs Doyle Mrs Doyle (Pauline McLynn) is the priests' manic housekeeper. Apart from being "Mrs" rather than "Miss" Doyle, the only reference to her marriage is her remark in the episode "Night of the Nearly Dead", "This reminds me of the time my husband...I've said too much." Her marriage also seems to have informed her attitude towards sex: in the episode "Cigarettes and Alcohol and Rollerblading", she describes marital intercourse as "a dirty, filthy thing" and exhorts Ted to "imagine your husband standing over you with his lad in his hand, wanting you to degrade yourself". Mrs Doyle gives Dougal a bath. Hospitality, especially serving tea (whenever a guest refuses the beverage, she repeatedly exhorts "Ahh, go on! - Go on, go on, go on, go on, go on, go on...") is Mrs Doyle's mission in life; other items served include a mountain of sandwiches, an array of cakes which after much persuading (mistakenly claiming they contain cocaine) she eventually withdraws from offer in spite of much protest, the lettuce and water she brings for Dougal's pet rabbit Sampras in "The Plague" and the cakejumper she bakes for her idol Eoin McLove in "Night of the Nearly Dead". She spends a significant amount of time trying to clean the large window in the living room, a task which usually sees her plummet to the ground upon trying to get back down from the sill without exposing her legs. She also has the occasional tendency to fall from the roof of the parochial house. Her first name is never mentioned in the series. The third series episode, "The Mainland", maintains the secret in a scene where her name was spoken twice but on both occasions is blocked out by a loud noise, preventing the audience from hearing what was said. However, Mrs Doyle's first name is given in the script for the episode "Competition Time" as "Joan". Linehan and Matthews describe it in their footnote as "a very good example of the kind of information one carelessly flings about in the early days of writing a sitcom, without realising that it has the potential to be a lovely dark secret for years and years." Father Ted: The Complete Scripts, p.52 Recurring characters Other priests and islanders have recurring roles in the series. Their details are given below. A number of priests, parishioners and other characters appear on the show on a one-off basis. For a complete list, see Father Ted minor characters. Clergy Bishop Brennan Bishop Leonard "Len" Brennan (Jim Norton) is Ted's boss, originally from Limerick (as Ted reveals when trying to stall him from entering his rabbit-infested bedroom). Len has little patience with Ted and his friends, to whom he refers as "the cast of Police Academy" and gets very angry when Dougal refers to him as simply "Len". In the episode The Plague it transpires that the bishop also has a terrible fear of rabbits, having been involved in an "horrific incident" inside an elevator, where "[the animals] "nibbled on my cape and everything" ". He has a secret mistress and son living in California, not unlike the real-life Eamon Casey, former Bishop of Galway. On his DVD commentaries Graham Linehan suggests that also in the Brennan mix is the public persona of Father Michael Cleary, Casey's friend, one of the most popular faces of the church and a regular guest on the RTÉ Late Late Show whenever there was a debate about religious matters. Cleary's stringently expressed views on sexual morality were famously exposed to be at odds with his own private life when a book about his 26-year secret affair with his housekeeper Phyllis Hamilton entitled Secret Love: My Life with Father Michael Cleary was published in 1995 (the year the series started). The book was co-written by Hamilton with Paul Williams. Ted is seen to be reading this book at the start of an episode in series 2 and it is referred to in many other ways throughout the series run. Dick Byrne, Cyril MacDuff and Jim Johnson Father Dick Byrne (Maurice O'Donoghue), Ted's opposite number and arch-nemesis on the nearby Rugged Island. Dick is forever up to no good. As Ted pithily states, "As priests go... he's a really bad priest." His two colleagues on Rugged Island, Father Jim Johnson (Chris Curran) and Father Cyril MacDuff (Don Wycherley), are similar characters to Jack and Dougal, respectively. Dick Byrne and Father Ted are eternally involved in continual games of oneupmanship and become engaged in many and various bitter competitions (frequently betting four pounds on the outcome), in which both are more than willing to cheat. For example in the episode about Lent, ("Cigarettes and Alcohol and Rollerblading"), Father Ted's motivation to give things up is cited as: "I'm not going to be beaten by Dick Byrne in a giving things up competition, and that's what this is... a giving things up competition." Noel Furlong Father Noel Furlong (Graham Norton) and his reluctant St Luke's Youth Group. Father Noel is overwhelmingly enthusiastic, regaling everyone in his company with song and dance. Even when buried under a large pile of heavy rocks, he continues to talk incessantly and cheerfully. His version of "Bohemian Rhapsody" was a high point of the series. His youth group eventually ran off to Paraguay to escape him. He appeared without the youth group once when, as the guardian of Father Faye (the Monkey Priest of Killybashangel) on the last episode of series two ("Flight Into Terror"), he was involved in an incident which almost resulted in the deaths of a plane full of priests returning from a pilgrimage. According to Graham Linehan's DVD commentary to the series two episode "Hell", Father Noel is a deeply closeted homosexual whose repression of his own sexuality has "driven him slightly mad", though Arthur Mathews stated in the series' scriptbook that he imagined Noel as being asexual. According to Linehan's DVD commentary, he is supposedly based on a real priest. Larry Duff Father Larry Duff (Tony Guilfoyle), a priest with a zest for life who Ted claims is "tremendous fun" around others. Ted often calls Larry for advice on his mobile phone. However, whenever Larry attempts to answer his phone, he suffers some unfortunate mishap or horrible accident (from which he apparently dies), only to return in the next episode. Over the course of the series he only answers his phone twice, once while being held at gunpoint by the Irish army; although Duff survives this phone call, it results in another priest being machine-gunned to death, and the second time in answer to Ted wanting to load off some rabbits to him, in which he claims he doesn't want rabbits anymore because he has now got rotweillers. When he puts the phone down on Ted, the dogs attack him. Islanders John and Mary O'Leary Local shop-owners Mary and John O'Leary (Rynagh O'Grady and Patrick Drury) who, while striving to appear sweetness and light to the clergy, are constantly at each other's throats and make numerous attempts to murder each other. As part of the continuing narrative, Ted and Dougal are constantly entering the store or encountering them on the island in the middle of a vicious argument. Ted always appears vaguely suspicious that all is not sweetness and light in their relationship, but to all intents and purposes Dougal appears entirely oblivious. Tom Tom (Pat Shortt) is an apparently insane resident of Craggy Island who appears whenever the need arises to highlight the surreal and manic nature of the island. He is always seen wearing an ancient, grubby t-shirt reading "I shot JR." Over the course of the series, he was implicated in a number of grisly and/or violent crimes, to which he either readily confessed ("I killed a man") or attempted to explain away ("Tis my money, I just didn't want to fill out the forms"). He reacts to most instructions or minor stimuli with outbursts of brutal violence, ranging from shotgunning a crow from three feet away to attempting to mutilate a family of rabbits with a katana after being asked to take care of them, this second instance being likened by Father Ted to Tom interpreting 'taking care of them' as doing so in the Al Pacino kind of way rather than the Julie Andrews kind of way that Father Ted had intended. Episodes Production details Conception Contrary to frequent rumours, Mathews and Linehan did not originally pitch the series to the Irish network RTÉ, but rather offered it directly to Hat Trick Productions and Channel 4 in the UK. Nevertheless, it is a rich irony that what went on to be one of the most popular TV shows in Ireland, performed largely by an Irish cast, and containing so many accurate (albeit comically exaggerated) depictions of national Irish eccentricities, was produced by a British broadcaster. The show later aired on RTÉ Two in Ireland and SBS in Australia. Filming Three series and one Christmas special were completed. In addition Morgan and O'Hanlon in character hosted an hour of Comic Relief, during which Kelly and McLynn made brief appearances as Father Jack and Mrs Doyle in one of the routines. After the completion of filming for series three, Dermot Morgan died of a heart attack, aged 45. As a result, series three was first broadcast a week later than originally planned, out of respect for Morgan. Both the writers and co-stars agree that the third series was always intended to be the last, regardless of Morgan's sudden death. It is probable that the name of the seminary known as St. Columb's, which Ted and a number of other priests in the show attended, was influenced by the name of St. Columb's College in Derry, Northern Ireland, of which Seamus Cassidy, a Channel 4 producer, was a past-pupil. In reality, Ireland's only remaining seminary is St Patrick's College, Maynooth. Theme The theme tune for the series was written and performed by Neil Hannon's band The Divine Comedy, and was later reworked into "Songs of Love", a track from the album Casanova. (The song "Woman of the World" from the same album was also offered as a potential theme tune, but rejected. As stated by Neil Hannon in the documentary Half Minute Melodies, BBC Radio 4, 3 February 2000. Hannon offered a choice of tunes to the producers; his personal preference was for "Woman of the World". ) The band also contributed the ridiculous "My Lovely Horse" (a B-side on Gin Soaked Boy) used in the episode "Song For Europe", with singer Neil Hannon providing Ted's vocal. Hannon also composed "My Lovely Mayo Mammy" for the episode "Night of the Nearly Dead" with the character Eoin McLove, as well as various other musical items heard in the show. Location Location shooting for Father Ted was done mostly in County Clare, including locations at Ennis, Kilfenora, Ennistymon, and Kilnaboy. The Parochial House is McCormack's at Glenquin, on the Boston road from Kilnaboy. McCormack's at Glenquin used for external shots of the parochial house in the Father Ted TV series http://www.feck.net/splange/ftfaq.html The cinema featured in "The Passion Of St Tibulus" was The Cinema by the Sea, Greystones, County Wicklow and "The Field", the location for Funland in "Good Luck, Father Ted", is in Portrane, North County Dublin. The opening sequence (including shots of the Plassey ship wreck) were filmed over Inis Oírr - the smallest of the Aran Islands. The interior scenes were filmed at LWT's The London Studios. History Hoax remake On 1 April 1998, rumours surfaced on the Internet about a new American remake of the show entitled Ted, consisting of the original characters in a younger form, Mrs Doyle's husband, Ted's ex-wife and their 5-year-old son, all living in a New York apartment. Other changes included a rather dull gag of Ted having to hide his ex-wife and son when Bishop Brennan arrives, and dramatic changes to Dougal, making him a streetwise rapping priest. The show was due to be broadcast in 1999 but was revealed to be an April Fool's hoax. Controversy In January 2007 a dispute arose between Inis Oírr (pop. 250) and Inis Mór (pop. 1,200) over which island can claim to be Craggy Island, and thereby host a three-day Friends of Ted Festival. It was decided that in appropriate Father Ted fashion the dispute would be settled by a five-a-side football match held on 25 February 2007. This was won by Inis Mór in a 2-0 match allowing them to use the title of Craggy Island until February 2008, whilst Inis Oírr was given the title of Rugged Island. Aftermath The show is currently being repeated on More4 and RTÉ Two. Only one series is available through the OnDemand service of Virgin Media in the UK as well as 4OD. In an unusual step for a Channel 4 programme, on November 8 2008 BBC Two showed an episode as part of its tribute night to producer Geoffrey Perkins, who had died just over two months before. http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00fn9ns Pauline McLynn reprised her role as Mrs Doyle in 2001 for a small set of adverts for the UK Inland Revenue, reminding people to get their taxes in on time by uttering her catchphrase ('Go on, go, on') over and over again. Not surprisingly, it was voted the most irritating advertising campaign of 2001, beating competition from the now-infamous Ferrero Rocher advert. Coincidentally, Mrs Doyle was also involved in a spoof of this confectionery-related ad in the episode "Tentacles of Doom". References Father Ted: The Complete Scripts by Graham Linehan and Arthur Mathews, 1999, Boxtree Press, UK, ISBN 0-7522-1850-6 Footnote External links Father Ted at Channel4.com Father Ted at EpisodeWorld.com Father Ted at British TV Resources Father Ted - the TV Series - h2g2 at bbc.co.uk	Father_Ted \|@lemmatized father:53 ted:60 situation:5 comedy:2 television:1 programme:3 produce:2 hat:3 trick:2 production:3 channel:5 show:18 depict:1 life:9 three:9 irish:7 catholic:4 priest:25 remote:1 fictional:1 craggy:13 island:22 west:2 coast:2 ireland:10 run:3 series:26 total:1 episode:24 april:3 may:2 uk:7 write:4 two:10 writer:3 arthur:4 mathews:5 graham:9 linehan:11 also:18 co:5 create:1 big:3 train:1 interior:2 scene:3 shoot:4 london:2 studio:2 location:5 footage:1 dvd:4 commentary:5 first:6 say:11 character:11 come:1 play:4 third:3 member:3 group:5 paul:2 woodfull:1 standup:2 gig:1 band:3 joshua:1 trio:1 dermot:4 morgan:7 pick:1 role:4 previously:2 trendy:1 appear:8 wear:2 red:1 jacket:1 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3,346	Bal_Thackeray	{{Infobox Indian politician \| bgcolour = Red \| name = Balasaheb Thackeray' \| birth_date = \| birth_place = Pune, India \| residence = Mumbai, India \| death_date = \| death_place = \| constituency = \| office = Founder and chief of the Shiv Sena \| salary = \| term = \| kutta = \| successor = \| party = Shiv Sena \| religion = Hinduism \| spouse = Minatai Thackeray \| children = Binda ThackerayJaidev ThackerayUddhav Thackeray \| website = \| email = \| footnotes = \| date = May 4 \| \| year = 2008 \| \| source = }} Balasaheb Keshav Thackeray () (born January 23, 1926), popularly known as Balasaheb Thackeray, is the controversial founder and chief of the Shiv Sena, a Hindu nationalist, Marathi ethnocentric and populist party active mainly in the western Indian state of Maharashtra. His influence has been viewed as highly divisive, achieved by dividing people along religious, communal, cultural and linguistic lines. His derogatory views about non-Hindus (especially Muslims) and also Hindus from a non-Marathi background have been widely documented. Early life and career Balasaheb Thackeray was born to Keshav Sitaram Thackeray (also known as Prabodhankar Thackeray Prabodhankar Thackeray because of his articles in his fortnightly magazine named Prabodhan or "Enlightenment") in a lower-middle class family. Keshav Thackeray was a progressive social activist and writer who was against caste biases and played a key role in the Samyukta Maharashtra Chalwal (literally, United Maharashtra Movement) in the 1950s to form the Marathi-speaking state of Maharashtra along with Mumbai as its capital. Balasaheb Thackeray started his career as a cartoonist in the Free Press Journal in Mumbai in the 1950s. His cartoons were also published in the Sunday edition of The Times of India. In 1960, he launched a cartoon weekly Marmik with his brother. He used it to campaign against the growing influence of non-Marathi people in Mumbai targeting Gujaratis and South Indian labor workers. He formed the Shiv Sena on June 19, 1966 with the intent of fighting for the rights of the natives of the state of Maharashtra (called Maharashtrians). Know your party: Shiv Sena - Rediff The early objective of the Shiv Sena was to ensure job security for Maharashtrians against immigrants from southern India, Gujaratis and Marwaris. Politically, the Shiv Sena was anti-Communist, and wrested control of major trade unions in Mumbai from the Communist Party of India and demanded protection money from mainly Gujarati and marwari business leaders. It later allied itself with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). The BJP-Shiv Sena combine won the 1995 Maharashtra State Assembly elections and came to power. During the tenure of the government from 1995 to 1999, Balasaheb Thackeray was nicknamed "remote control" since he played a major role in government policies and decisions from behind-the-scenes. Thackeray has claimed that the Shiv Sena has helped the Marathi manoos (the Marathi commoner) in Mumbai, especially in the public sector. Opposition leftist parties allege that the Shiv Sena has done little to solve the problem of unemployment facing a large proportion of Maharashtrian youth during its tenure, in contradiction to its ideological foundation of 'sons of the soil.' Controversies Thackeray is very vocal in his opposition to people who migrate to Mumbai, to non-Hindus (especially Muslims), and to illegal Muslim immigrants from Bangladesh. In the late 1970s, as part of his "Maharashtra is for Maharashtrians" campaign, Thackeray threatened migrants from South India with harm unless they left Mumbai. In 2002, Thackeray issued a call to form Hindu suicide squads to counter alleged Muslim violence: If such suicide squads are formed only then can we take on perpetrators of mindless violence. In reaction to Thackeray’s call, Maharashtra government registered a case against him for inciting enmity between different groups. Asia Times further reported on Thackeray’s rhetoric: "to take the Muslims head on". "Trouble-making Muslims should be wiped out from the country ... kick out the four crore [40 million] Bangladeshi Muslims and then the country will be secure," the Shiv Sena leader said. Urging Hindus to start calling India "Hindu rashtra" (Hindu nation), he maintained that only "our religion [Hinduism] is to be honored here" and then "we will look after other religions". At least two organizations founded and managed by the retired Indian Army officers namely Lt Col (retired) Jayant Rao Chitale and Lt Ge. P.N. Hoon (former commander-in-chief of the Western Command), answered Bal Thackeray’s call to set up the suicide squads in India. Lt Gen. Hoon claimed, Thackeray instructed him to set up the training camps. Thackeray continues to publish inflammatory editorials in his party's newsletter, Saamana (Confrontation). Views on Muslims Thackeray's views have typically been highly anti-Muslim, usually attacking them and occasionally sympathizing with them. He has declared that he is "not against every Muslim, but only those who reside in this country but do not obey the laws of the land...I consider such people traitors. His party is viewed as being anti-Muslim, though Shiv Sainiks officially reject this accusation. When explaining his views on Hindutva, he has conflated Islam with violence and has called for Hindus to "fight terrorism and fight Islam". Thackeray lashes out at Prez again,ibnlive In an interview in Suketu Mehta's book 'Maximum City', he advocates the hanging of Indian Muslims and mass expulsion of Muslim migrants from neighboring Bangladesh. In the 1980s he had stated that: "They [Muslims] were spreading like a cancer and should be operated on like a cancer. The ... country should be saved from the Muslims and the police should support them [Hindu Maha Sangh] in their struggle just like the police in Punjab were sympathetic to the Khalistanis." Bal Thackeray in India Today, June 15, 1984. Balasaheb Thackeray criticized and challenged Indian Muslims through his party newspaper, Sāmna, around the time the 16th century Babri Masjid was demolished by members of the Shiv Sena and the BJP in the northern town of Ayodhya, on December 6, 1992. Orthodox Hindus believe that the Babri Mosque was built on the demolished ruins of a Hindu temple in the 16th century, and consider it to be the Ram Janmabhoomi (birthplace of the Hindu God Rama, an avatar of Vishnu, one of the Trimurti of the Hindu Pantheon). The Justice Srikrishna Commission of Enquiry, which investigated the ensuing communal riots in Mumbai, indicted Thackeray for sparking anti-Muslim violence, which led to more than 1,000 deaths in several ensuing riots, many by having kerosene poured on their bodies while alive and then being burned to death. The death toll during the actual act of the demolition of the Mosque was zero. The Srikrishna Commission found that Thackeray was personally responsible, not only for inciting the mobs through his incendiary speeches, but also directly coordinating the movement of the rioters. At the time, Thackeray made allegations that the Commission was "biased" and "anti-Hindu". His views were not supported outside of the Shiv Sena party. The Shiv Sena indicted,The Hindu In a deposition before the Srikrishna Commission a witness alleged Thackeray coordinated much of the January 1993 Mumbai carnage. Yuvraj Mohite claimed, "Balasaheb was sitting and he was getting calls from various places. He would ask what was happening at that particular place (from where he got the call) and then he would say, 'Kill them. Send them to Allah.'" Mohite additionally told the commission that "Thackeray – Ordered that not one Muslim be left alive to stand in the witness box Asked his men to send the additional police commissioner, A A Khan, to his Allah. Ordered his men to retaliate to the Hindu killings in Jogeshwari." Later, in February 1993 Thackeray said, "I am proud of what my boys have done. We had to retaliate and we did. If it was not for us, no one would have controlled the Muslims." However, in an interview in 1998, he claims to have tempered his stance on many issues that the Shiv Sena had with Muslims, particularly regarding the Babri Mosque or Ram Janmabhoomi issue, The Rediff Election Interview/Bal Thackeray,Rediff.com saying: "We must look after the Muslims and treat them as part of us." He has since made more inflammatory statements regarding Muslims, and reiterated his desire for Hindus to unite across linguistic barriers and to see "a Hindustan for Hindus" and to "bring Islam to this country down to its knees". http://www.expressindia.com/election/fullestory.php?type=ei&content_id=80435 Hindustan of Hindus my dream: Thackeray, expressindia.com However, he has also expressed admiration for Muslims in Mumbai in the wake of the 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings perpetrated by Islamic fundamentalists. In response to threats made by the leader of the Samajwadi Party that accusations of terrorism directed at Indian Muslims would bring about communal strife, Thackeray said that the unity of Mumbaikars (residents of Mumbai) in the wake of the terrorist attacks was "a slap to fanatics of Samajwadi Party leader Abu Asim Azmi" and that Thackeray "salute(s) those Muslims who participated in the two minutes' silence on July 18 to mourn the blast victims". Mumbai's unity a slap to fanatics: Thackeray-India-The Times of India In 2008, Thackeray wrote "Islamic terrorism is growing and Hindu terrorism is the only way to counter it. We need suicide bomb squads to protect India and Hindus,". "If they kill one Hindu, we'll kill hundreds of them," he once said. "Islamic terrorism is growing and Hindu terrorism is the only way to counter it. We need suicide bomb squads to protect India and Hindus," Thackeray wrote in 2008. Views on People from North India On March 6, 2008, Bal Thackeray issued an editorial titled Ek Bihari, Sau Bimari (One Bihari, Hundred illnesses) in Saamna, Shiv Sena's political mouthpiece, saying Biharis were "an unwanted lot" in the Maharashtra. In what was termed as an apparent bid to recapture his party's Marathi sons of soil plank, which was being hijacked by the MNS leader Raj Thackeray, Bal Thackeray wrote about Biharis, "They [Biharis] are not wanted in southern India, Assam and also Punjab and Chandigarh. The Biharis have antagonised local population wherever they had settled. The UP-Bihari MPs have shown their ingratitude towards Mumbai and Maharashtra with an anti-Marathi tirade in Parliament." He also denounced Bihari MPs, saying they were "spitting in the same plate from which they ate" by criticising Mumbaikars and Maharashtrians. He also wrote, "They are trying to add fuel to the fire that has been extinguished, by saying that Mumbaikars have rotten brains." Additionally, he criticized a major holiday celebrated by people from Bihar, UP, and MP which happens sometimes after the Hindu New Year (Diwali) known as Chath Pooja. He said that it wasn't a real holiday. The outburst was apparently in response to MPs from Bihar who had disrupted the proceedings of the Lok Sabha in protest against the attacks on North Indians. Bihar chief minister, Nitish Kumar, upset with the remarks, demanded that the Prime Minister and the Centre intervene in the matter immediately. The Saamna editorial prompted at least 16 Lok Sabha MPs from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, belonging to the RJD, JD (U), SP and the Congress, to give notice for breach of privilege proceedings against Bal Thackeray. After the matter was raised in the Lok Sabha Speaker Somnath Chatterjee said: "If anybody has made any comment on our members’ functioning in the conduct of business in the House, not only do we treat that with the contempt that it deserves, but also any action that may be necessary will be taken according to procedure and well established norms. Nobody will be spared," On March 27, 2008 in protest against Balasaheb Thackeray's editorial, leaders of Shiv Sena in Delhi resigned citing its "outrageous conduct" towards non-Marathis in Maharashtra and announced that they will form a separate party. Addressing a press conference Shiv Sena's North India chief Jai Bhagwan Goyal said the decision to leave the party was taken because of the "partial attitude" of the party high command towards Maharashtrians. "Shiv Sena is no different from Khalistan and Jammu and Kashmir militant groups which are trying to create a rift between people along regional lines. The main aim of these forces is to split our country. Like the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena, the Shiv Sena too has demeaned North Indians and treated them inhumanely," he said. Views against Abdul Kalam, President of India Thackeray has been a vocal critic of the former President of India, Dr. Abdul Kalam. Thackeray said Kalam was a leading scientist of the country but had "lost the dignity of the post" after he became President. He has criticized Kalam's indecisiveness regarding the conviction of Mohammad Afzal, who has been sentenced to death following his conviction for the 2001 Indian Parliament attack. Thackeray criticizes the fact that a convicted terrorist's appeal for clemency is even being considered by Kalam. "Afzal was sentenced to death by the highest court in this country in October and yet the file has been sitting on the President's table for the past four months. I have not said anything wrong about Kalam. We all have supported him to become President. Afzal's clemency letter is still lying with the President. Give me another example where the President has not taken decision on a clemency petition for four months." His views on Kalam have been heavily criticized by Parliamentary Affairs Minister Priya Ranjan Dasmunsi as inappropriate and "violative of decorum". Dasmunsi flays Thackeray's comments on Kalam-The Times of India Accusation of admiration of Hitler Thackeray P. 90 India and the International System By Sisir Gupta, Mannaraswamighala Sreeranga Rajan, Shivaji Ganguly P. 201 Jawaharlal Nehru on Communalism By Nand Lal Gupta ) has attracted controversy for his praise of Adolf Hitler. Apparently he was quoted by Asiaweek as saying:I am a great admirer of Hitler, and I am not ashamed to say so! I do not say that I agree with all the methods he employed, but he was a wonderful organizer and orator, and I feel that he and I have several things in common ... What India really needs is a dictator who will rule benevolently, but with an iron hand." In an interview with the Indian Express that was printed on January 29, 2007, Thackeray remarked, Hitler did very cruel and ugly things. But he was an artist, I love him (for that). He had the power to carry the whole nation, the mob with him. You have to think what magic he had. He was a miracle ... The killing of Jews was wrong. But the good part about Hitler was that he was an artist. He was a daredevil. He had good qualities and bad. I may also have good qualities and bad ones. However, in the Star Talk talk show on channel Star Plus, he claimed himself not to admire Hitler. Star Talk 08/09/11/ Thackeray's supporters, such as columnist Varsha Bhosle, have defended Thackeray's position as necessary in what they claim is an atmosphere of religious extremism against Hindus. In defense of a statement by Thackeray that "If the Muslims of India behave as the Jews in Germany did, they will deserve the same treatment," Bhosle writes: Germany's Jews ...? What else is required for Hindus to shake off the stupor and consider protecting our civilisation and culture? If telling it like it is makes one a Nazi, I say: Fine, better that than the spineless, deaf, dumb, numb and blind state exalted as Nehruvian Secularism. I wouldn't even spit on it. In rod we trust, Varsha Bhosle In an article appearing in Newindpress.com on August 20, 2007, Thackeray is quoted as wanting to be a dictator and the Hitler of the whole of India: He is on record as having told the Navakal: "Yes, I am a dictator. It is a Hitler that is needed in India today." He was once asked in a television programme whether he wanted to be the Hitler of Mumbai. "Do not underestimate me," he is reported to have retorted. "I am (the Hitler) of the whole of Maharashtra and want to be of whole of India." The Hitler question was put to him in September 1996 by Outlook magazine as well during an interview. "Once you’d expressed admiration for certain facets of Hitler." "Comparison was inevitable," the interviewer prompted. Thackaray said: "I have not sent anybody to the gas chamber. If I’d been like that, you wouldn't have dared to come and interview me." Pro-Tamil Tiger Views Thackeray has admitted that he is pro-Tamil Tiger. He says, "I am proud of the Tigers for the gallant manner in which they are fighting." "Thackeray: I am proud of LTTE" He also wanted a ban on the LTTE lifted by the center-wing government. "Thackeray backs LTTE, wants ban lifted" Writers Pi. Ci Kaṇēcan̲ and P.C. Ganesan write, "The LTTE may not be a communal outfit but it derives a lot of support from the Hindu Diaspora living in different countries. That is the reason why even the Shiv Sena Chief Balasaheb Thackeray came out openly in support of the LTTE." Rift in party An increase in intra-party rivalry between Balasaheb Thackeray's son Uddhav Thackeray, and nephew Raj Thackeray led to divisions within the Shiv Sena. In addition to this, several old hands such as hard-line leader Narayan Rane were expelled or left the Sena. On December 18, 2005, Raj Thackeray announced his resignation as a primary member of the Shiv Sena. On March 19, 2006, Raj announced the formation of the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS). Valentine's Day protests Boycotting shops and restaurants that allow young people to celebrate the "western" holiday of Valentine's Day, interpreted as bestial, indecent and un-Bharatiya (un-Indian) by Thackeray, is one of his recent actions. These boycotts have often culminated in violence and the destruction of said shops. On February 14, 2006, Balasaheb Thackeray condemned and apologized for the violent attacks of Shiv Sena members upon a private Valentine's Day celebration in Mumbai. "It is said that women were beaten up in the Nallasopara incident. If that really happened, then it is a symbol of cowardice," Thackeray said, "I have always instructed Shiv Sainiks that in any situation women should not be humiliated and harassed." Thackeray and the Shiv Sena remain opposed to Valentine's Day celebrations, although they may support an "Indian alternative". Cultural references Thackery is satirized in Salman Rushdie's novel The Moor's Last Sigh as "Raman Fielding". Suketu Mehta interviews Thackeray in his critically acclaimed, Pulitzer-nominated, non-fiction 2004 book Maximum City. References External links Bal Thackeray Tries to Save his Maharathi Title Profile by BBC dated July 19, 2000 referring to him as the "uncrowned monarch of Maharashtra" "Bal Thackeray: The Tiger who can't be tamed" - HindustanTimes.com article dated September 8, 2004 Shav Sena Informational piece circulated during the 2004 election year	Bal_Thackeray \|@lemmatized infobox:1 indian:13 politician:1 bgcolour:1 red:1 name:2 balasaheb:12 thackeray:68 pune:1 india:25 residence:1 mumbai:17 constituency:1 office:1 founder:2 chief:6 shiv:27 sena:29 salary:1 term:2 kutta:1 successor:1 party:18 religion:3 hinduism:2 spouse:1 minatai:1 child:1 binda:1 thackerayjaidev:1 thackerayuddhav:1 website:1 email:1 footnote:1 date:3 may:5 year:3 source:1 keshav:3 bear:2 january:3 popularly:1 know:4 controversial:1 hindu:29 nationalist:1 marathi:9 ethnocentric:1 populist:1 active:1 mainly:2 western:3 state:6 maharashtra:15 influence:2 view:11 highly:2 divisive:1 achieve:1 divide:1 people:8 along:3 religious:2 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3,347	Internet_Relay_Chat	Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a form of real-time Internet text messaging (chat) or synchronous conferencing http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#section-1 . It is mainly designed for group communication in discussion forums, called channels http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#section-3.2 , but also allows one-to-one communication via private message http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2810#section-5.1 as well as chat and data transfers via Direct Client-to-Client http://www.irchelp.org/irchelp/rfc/dccspec.html . As of May 2009, the top 100 IRC networks served more than half a million users at a time, with hundreds of thousands of channels (the vast majority of which stand mostly vacant), operating on a total of roughly 1,500 servers world-wide. http://irc.netsplit.de/networks/top100.php IRC was created by Jarkko Oikarinen in August 1988 to replace a program called MUT (MultiUser Talk) on a BBS called OuluBox in Finland. Oikarinen found inspiration in a chat system known as Bitnet Relay, which operated on the BITNET. Founding IRC IRC was used to report on the Soviet coup attempt of 1991 throughout a media blackout. IRC logs 1991 IRC transcripts from the time of the 1991 Soviet coup attempt It was previously used in a similar fashion during the Persian Gulf War. http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/academic/communications/logs/Gulf-War/ Logs of these and other events are kept in the ibiblio archive. Index of /pub/academic/communications/logs IRC client software is available for virtually every computer operating system that supports networking. Technical information A Screenshot of XChat, a cross-platform IRC client. Xaric, a console based IRC client, in use on Mac OS X. Shown are two IRC channels and a private conversation with the software author. IRC is an open protocol that uses TCP http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#section-1 and optionally TLS. An IRC server can connect to other IRC servers to expand the IRC network. http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#section-1.1 Users access IRC networks by connecting a client to a server. http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2810#section-2.2 There are many client implementations (mIRC, Xchat) and server implementations (Bahamut IRCd). Most IRC servers do not require users to register an account but a user will have to set a nickname before being connected. http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#section-1.2 IRC was originally a plain text protocol (although later extended), IRC RFC which on request was assigned port 194/TCP by IANA http://www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers . However, the de facto has always been to run IRC on 6667/TCP http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#page-30 and nearby port numbers (for example TCP ports 6112-6119) to avoid having to run the IRCd software with root privileges. The protocol specified that characters were 8-bit but did not specify the character encoding the text was supposed to use. RFC 1459 This can cause problems when users using different clients and/or different platforms want to converse. All client-to-server IRC protocols in use today are descended from the protocol implemented in the irc2.4.0 version of the IRC2 server, and documented in RFC 1459. Since RFC 1459 was published, the new features in the irc2.10 implementation led to the publication of several revised protocol documents; RFC 2810, RFC 2811, RFC 2812 and RFC 2813, however these protocol changes have not been widely adopted among other implementations. Although many specifications on the IRC protocol have been published, there is no official specification, as the protocol remains dynamic. Virtually no clients and very few servers rely strictly on the above RFCs as a reference. Microsoft made an extension for IRC in 1998 IRCX Protocol Addition Specification via the proprietary IRCX. They later stopped distributing software supporting IRCX, instead developing the proprietary MSN .NET Messenger Service. The standard structure of a network of IRC servers is a tree. http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2810#section-3 Messages are routed along only necessary branches of the tree but network state is sent to every server http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2810#section-1 and there is generally a high degree of implicit trust between servers. This architecture has a number of problems. A misbehaving or malicious server can cause major damage to the network http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#section-9.3 and any changes in structure, whether intentional or a result of conditions on the underlying network, require a net-split and net-join. This results in a lot of network traffic and spurious quit/join messages to users http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2810#section-6.3 and temporary loss of communication to users on the splitting servers. Adding a server to a large network means a large background bandwidth load on the network and a large memory load on the server. Once established however, each message to multiple recipients is delivered by multicast which means each message travels a network link exactly once. http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2810#section-5.2.1 This is a strength in comparison to non-multicasting protocols such as SMTP or XMPP. For a discussion of the evolution of server-side IRC protocols and the various IRCd incarnations, see the separate article on IRC daemons. Commands and replies IRC is based on a line-based structure with the client sending single-line messages to the server http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#section-2.3.1 , receiving replies to those messages http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#section-2.4 and receiving copies of some messages sent by other clients. In most clients users can enter commands by prefixing them with /. Depending on the command, these may either be handled entirely by the client, or (generally for commands the client does not recognize) passed directly to the server, possibly with some modification. Due to the nature of the protocol automated systems cannot always correctly pair a sent command with its reply with full reliability and are subject to guessing. Channels The basic means of communication in an established IRC session is a channel. http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#section-3.2.2 Channels in a server can be displayed using the IRC command LIST http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#section-4.2.6 that lists all currently available channels. Users can join to a channel using the JOIN command http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#section-4.2.1 , in most clients available as /join #channelname. Messages sent to the joined channels are then relayed to all other users. http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#section-3.2.2 Channels that are available across an entire IRC network are prepended with a '#', while those local to a server use '&'. http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2811#section-2.2 Other non-standard and less common channel types include '+' channels — 'modeless' channels without operators — http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2811#section-2.3 and '!' channels, a form of timestamped channel on normally non-timestamped networks. http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2811#section-3 Modes Users and channels may have modes which are represented by single case-sensitive letters http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2811#section-4 and are set using the mode command http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#section-4.2.3 . User modes and channel modes are separate and can use the same letter to mean different things (e.g. usermode "i" is invisible mode whilst channelmode "i" is invite only http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#section-4.2.3.1 ). Modes are usually set and unset using the mode command which takes a target (user or channel), a set of modes to set (+) or unset (-) and any parameters the modes need. Some but not all channel modes take parameters and some channel modes apply to a user on a channel or add or remove a mask (e.g. a ban mask) from a list associated with the channel rather than applying to the channel as a whole. http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2811#section-4.3 Modes that apply to users on a channel have an associated symbol which is used to represent the mode in names replies http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#page-51 (sent to clients on first joining a channel http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#page-20 and use of the names command) and in many clients also used to represent it in the client's displayed list of users in a channel or to display an own indicator for a user's modes. In order to correctly parse incoming mode messages and track channel state the client must know which mode is of which type and for the modes that apply to a user on a channel which symbol goes with which letter. In early implementations of IRC this had to be hard-coded in the client but there is now a de-facto standard extension to the protocol which sends this information to the client at connect time. http://www.irc.org/tech_docs/005.html There is a small design fault in IRC regarding modes that apply to users on channels, the names message used to establish initial channel state can only send one such mode per user on the channel http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1459#page-51 , but multiple such modes can be set on a single user. For example, if a user holds both operator status (+o) and voice status (+v) on a channel, a new client will be unable to know the less precedented mode (voice). Workarounds for this are possible on both the client and server side but none are widely implemented. Standard (RFC1459) modes User modes Channel modes Letter Description Letter Symbol Parameter Description i Invisible — cannot be seen without a common channel or knowing the exact name o @ Name of affected user Channel operator — can change channel modes and kick users out of the channel among other things s Receives server notices p None None Private channel — listed in channel list as "prv" according to rfc1459 w Receives wallops s None None Secret channel — not shown in channel list or user whois except to users already on the channel o User is an IRC operator (ircop) i None None Invite only — users can only join if invited by another user on that specific channel t None None Topic only settable by channel operators n None None Users cannot send external messages from outside the channel m None None Channel is moderated (only those who hold operator or voice status on the channel can send messages to it) l None Limit number Limits number of users able to be on channel (when full, no new users can join) b None Ban mask (nick!user@host with wildcards allowed) Bans hostmasks from channel v + Name of affected user Gives a user voice status on channel (see +m above) k None New channel key Sets a channel key such that only users knowing the key can enter Many IRCd programmers have added extra modes or modified the behavior of modes in the above list so it is strongly advisable to check the documentation of the IRC network or IRCd (though note that the network may have patched the IRCd) for more detailed information on what the modes do on a particular server or network. IRC operators There are also users who maintain elevated rights on their local server, or the entire network; these are called IRC Operators, sometimes shortened to IRCops. On some IRC implementations, IRC operators are also given channel operator status in every channel, although many people believe that administration of channels and administration of the network should be kept separate, and that IRC operator status does not confer the right to interfere with a particular channel's operation. However in most networks, IRC operators usually do not interfere with channel administrations unless they violate the network's terms of service. Challenges Issues in the original design of IRC were the amount of shared state data http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1324#section-2.5.1 http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2810#section-6.1 being a limitation on its scalability, Functionality Provided by Systems for Synchronous Conferencing, 1.2.1 Growth, Loesch 1992-2003 the absence of unique user identifications leading to the nickname collision problem, RFC 1324 5.4.1 User identification lack of protection from netsplits by means of cyclic routing, RFC 1324 5.4.2 Trees and cycles Functionality Provided by Systems for Synchronous Conferencing, 1.2.2 Network failures, Loesch 1992-2003 the trade-off in scalability for the sake of real-time user presence information, RFC 1324 2.1 State Information problems protocol weaknesses providing a platform for abuse, Functionality Provided by Systems for Synchronous Conferencing, 1.2.3 Sociological and security aspects, Loesch 1992-2003 no transparent and optimizable message passing, RFC 1324 5.2.1 Message passing no encryption. RFC 1324 5.2.4 Conference security Some of these issues have been addressed in Modern IRC. Attacks Because IRC connections are usually unencrypted and typically span long time periods, they are an attractive target for malicious crackers. Because of this, careful security policy is necessary to ensure that an IRC network is not susceptible to an attack such as an IRC takeover war. IRC networks may also k-line or g-line users or networks that have a harming effect. A small number of IRC servers support SSL connections for security purposes. This helps stop the use of packet sniffer programs to obtain the passwords of IRC users, but has little use beyond this scope due to the public nature of IRC channels. SSL connections require both client and server support (which may require the user to install SSL binaries and IRC client specific patches or modules on their computers). IRC served as an early laboratory for many kinds of Internet attacks, such as using fake ICMP unreachable messages to break TCP-based IRC connections (nuking) to annoy users or facilitate takeovers. Abuse prevention One of the most contentious technical issues surrounding IRC implementations, which survives to this day, is the merit of "Nick/Channel Delay" vs. "Timestamp" protocols. Both methods exist to solve the problem of denial-of-service attacks, but take very different approaches. The problem with the original IRC protocol as implemented was that when two servers split and rejoined, the two sides of the network would simply merge their channels. If a user could join on a "split" server, where a channel which existed on the other side of the network was empty, and gain operator status, they would become a channel operator of the "combined" channel after the netsplit ended; if a user took a nickname which existed on the other side of the network, the server would kill both users when rejoining (i.e., 'nick-collision'). This was often abused to "mass-kill" all users on a channel, thus creating "opless" channels where no operators were present to deal with abuse. Apart from causing problems within IRC, this encouraged people to conduct denial of service attacks against IRC servers in order to cause netsplits, which they would then abuse. Nick/channel delay The nick/channel delay (abbreviated ND/CD) solution to this problem was very simple. After a user signed off and the nickname became available, or a channel ceased to exist because all its users left (as often happens during a netsplit), the server would not allow any user to use that nickname or join that channel, respectively, until a certain period of time (the delay) had passed. The idea behind this was that even if a netsplit occurred, it was useless to an abuser because they could not take the nickname or gain operator status on a channel, and thus no collision of a nickname or 'merging' of a channel could occur. To some extent, this inconvenienced legitimate users, who might be forced to briefly use a different name (appending an underscore was popular) after rejoining. Timestamping The alternative, the timestamp or TS protocol, took a different approach. Every nickname and channel on the network was assigned a timestamp – the date and time when it was created. When a netsplit occurred, two users on each side were free to use the same nickname or channel, but when the two sides were joined, only one could survive. In the case of nicknames, the newer user, according to their TS, was killed; when a channel collided, the members (users on the channel) were merged, but the channel operators on the "losing" side of the split lost their channel operator status. TS is a much more complicated protocol than ND/CD, both in design and implementation, and despite having gone through several revisions, some implementations still have problems with "desyncs" (where two servers on the same network disagree about the current state of the network), and allowing too much leniency in what was allowed by the 'losing' side. Under the original TS protocols, for example, there was no protection against users setting bans or other modes in the losing channel which would then be merged when the split rejoined, even though the users who had set those modes lost their channel operator status. Some modern TS-based IRC servers have also incorporated some form of ND and/or CD in addition to timestamping in an attempt to further curb abuse. Most networks today use the timestamping approach. The timestamp versus ND/CD disagreements caused several servers to split away from EFnet and form the newer IRCnet. After the split, EFnet moved to a TS protocol, while IRCnet used ND/CD. Networks There are thousands of running IRC networks in the world. They run various implementations of IRC servers, and are administered by various groups of IRC operators, but the protocol exposed to IRC users is very similar, and all IRC networks can be accessed by the same client software. One can join servers by clicking on an "irc://irc.network.example:port/channel" hyperlink. The largest IRC networks have traditionally been grouped in The Big Four — a designation for networks that top the statistics. The Big Four networks change periodically, but due to the community nature of IRC there are a large number of other networks for users to choose from. The Big Four : EFnet IRCnet QuakeNet Undernet For network statistics, rankings, and a list of smaller networks, see netsplit.de, Search IRC and Gogloom. Usage Share As of March 2009, the top 100 IRC networks served more than half a million users at a time, with hundreds of thousands of channels (the vast majority of which stand mostly vacant), operating on a total of roughly 1,500 servers world-wide. According to statistics by netsplit.de, the top 10 populated networks accounted for 66 per cent of usage in the top 100 populated networks. That is, more than 370,000 users at a time. These networks had an average of just less than 1,500 users per server. The top 20 populated networks, accounted for 77 per cent of usage (again, in the top 100 networks). That is, more than 430,000 users at a time. These networks had an average of a 1,000 users per server. According to this statistics, the top 100 networks served more than 560,000 users at a time, on 1,450 serves, with an average load of 390 users per server. Statistics from gogloom shows similar results, with more than 570,000 users served at a time. According to this statistics, 78 per cent of users were concentrated on the top 10 networks. That is, more than 450,000 users at a time. Further on, the top 20 networks house 86 per cent of users, with almost half a million users at a time. According to statistics by Search IRC, as of March 2009, it monitored more than 760,000 users on 650 different networks spread over 7,600 servers. Giving an over all server load of a 100 users per server. Here too 90 percent of the users were concentrated in 250 (a third) of the monitored networks, with the vast majority of networks being small/local with less than 200 users per network. Clients Client software Scheme of an IRC-Network with normal clients (green), bots (blue) and bouncers (orange) People most commonly will connect to an IRC network via an IRC client. The client takes the raw IRC traffic and turns it into an easy-to-use interface. There are many IRC clients available, and are mostly separated by operating system. On Windows-based systems, one of the most popular IRC clients is mIRC. However, with the recent introduction of new clients such as Miranda IM, Bersirc, KVIrc, Trillian, Pidgin, Visual IRC, ChatIRC and XChat, mIRC is beginning to see much more competition, especially with clients that are not commercial. Many people still use mIRC most likely due to the fact that it has been around for quite some time and has a wide variety of scripts available. One of said scripts is NoName Script (NNS) which is a common one to use due to its wide set of features. ircII is the canonical Unix and Linux IRC client, but its userbase has declined with the appearance of competing clients such as ircII-EPIC, BitchX, irssi, XChat, Konversation, etc. For Mac OS X, the most widely used clients are Snak, Ircle and Colloquy. OS X can also run most Unix-like command line and X11 IRC clients. Recently, X-Chat Aqua, a special build of XChat, has been gaining ground on OS X systems. Amiga IRC clients are AmIRC, WookieChat, BenderIRC. Amongst AmigaOS clones there is MomosIRC for MorphOS. There are a number of web browsers with IRC clients. Opera has a built in IRC client. Mozilla Firefox does not have a built-in IRC client, though ChatZilla, a Firefox add-on, can be installed to provide access to IRC in the browser. Chatzilla is part of the SeaMonkey internet suite. Built-in IRC is utilized by many computer games, such as War§ow, Unreal Tournament, Uplink, World of Warcraft, Zdaemon and EVE Online. The SoulSeek file sharing network is based on IRC. For novice users, mIRC and other large-window clients can seem unnecessarily large and complex. New users may prefer instant messaging clients like Miranda IM, Pidgin or Trillian that support IRC and provide a familiar interface to the application. Alternatively web based clients such as Mibbit and webirc provide an easy way for people to access IRC. Few clients exist for DOS, examples of which are LeetIRC, Trumpet and IRCjr. A client called ERC, written entirely in Emacs Lisp is included in v.22.3 of Emacs. Therefore, any platform that can run Emacs can run ERC. Bots Automated clients are called bots. As bots evolved, they began to serve as permanent points of contact for information exchange and protection agents for the channels they served, because of their superior speed when compared to humans. Presently, although many of these functions are often delegated to network-provided services which allow for registration and management of both nicknames and channels, bots remain popular and continue to be adapted to new and unexpected tasks. Bots have been written in a variety of languages, and a wide array of implementations exist. Most modern IRC services typically implement bot-like interfaces, through which users can communicate with and control the functionality. Bots have also been created for malevolent uses, such as flooding or taking over channels, ousting their rightful owners. Bouncer A program that runs as a daemon on a server and functions as a persistent proxy is known as a bouncer. A bouncer's purpose is to maintain a connection to an IRC server, acting as a relay between the server and client. Should the client lose network connectivity, the bouncer will archive all traffic for later delivery, allowing the user to resume his IRC session without disrupting their connection to the server. Furthermore, as a way of obtaining a bouncer-like effect, the old UNIX user's way of doing this is to run a (typically text-based) client on a remote server, inside a piece of screen-detaching software (e.g. GNU Screen), and using a secure shell to connect to this server, letting it relay all information, and thus letting the client archive all traffic should the connectivity be lost. Search engines There are numerous search engines available to aid the user in finding what they are looking for on IRC. Generally the search engine consists of two parts, a "back-end" (or "spider/crawler") and a front-end "search engine". The back-end (spider/crawler) is the work horse of the search engine. It is responsible for crawling IRC servers to index the information being sent across them. The information that is indexed usually consists solely of channel text (text that is publicly displayed in public channels). The storage method is usually some sort of relational database, like MySQL or Oracle. The front-end "search engine" is the user interface to the database. It supplies users with a way to search the database of indexed information to retrieve the data they are looking for. These front-end search engines can also be coded in numerous programming languages. The more popular languages for such search engines and indexing spiders are Perl, PHP and C. Most search engines have their own spider that is a single application responsible for crawling IRC and indexing data itself; however, others are "user based" indexers. The latter rely on users to install their "add-on" to their IRC client (like mIRC); the add-on is what sends the database the channel information of whatever channel[s] the user happens to be on. IRC search engines have completely automated the process of finding information on IRC and have thus contributed greatly to the popularity of IRC in recent years. Modern IRC IRC has changed much over its life on the Internet. New server software has added a multitude of new features. Services: Network-operated bots to facilitate registration of nicknames and channels, sending messages for offline users and network operator functions. Extra modes: While the original IRC system used a set of standard user and channel modes, new servers add many new modes for such features as removing color codes from text, or obscuring a user's hostmask ("cloaking") to protect from denial of service attacks. Proxy detection: Most modern servers support detection of users attempting to connect through an insecure (misconfigured or exploited) proxy server, which can then be denied a connection. An example is the Blitzed Open Proxy Monitor or BOPM. This proxy detection software used by several networks, although that real time list of proxies is defunct since early 2006. Additional commands: New commands can be such things as shorthand commands to issue commands to Services, to network operator only commands to manipulate a user's hostmask. Encryption: For the client-to-server leg of the connection SSL might be used (messages cease to be secure once they are relayed to other users on standard connections, but it makes eavesdropping on or wiretapping an individual's IRC sessions difficult). For client-to-client communication, SDCC (Secure DCC) can be used. Ident: Provides identification to the IRC server, but in modern Internet that RFC 1413 identification is almost useless. Connection protocol: IRC can be connected to via IPv4, the current standard version of the Internet Protocol, or by IPv6, the next-generation version of the Protocol. Character encoding IRC still lacks a single globally accepted standard convention for how to transmit characters outside the 7-bit ASCII repertoire. IRC servers normally transfer messages from a client to another client transparently, just as byte sequences, without any interpretation or recoding of characters. The IRC protocol (unlike e.g. MIME or HTTP) lacks mechanisms for announcing and negotiation character encoding options. This has put the responsibility for choosing the appropriate character codec on the client. In practice, IRC channels have largely used the same character encodings that were also used operating systems (in particular Unix derivatives) in the respective language communities: 7-bit era: In the early days of IRC, especially among Scandinavian and Finnish language users, national variants of ISO 646 were the dominant character encodings. These encode non-ASCII characters like Ä Ö Å ä ö å at code positions 0x5B 0x5C 0x5D 0x7B 0x7C 0x7D (US-ASCII: [ \ ] { \| }). That is why these codes are always allowed in nicknames. According to RFC 1459, { \| } in nicknames should be treated as lowercase equivalents of [ \ ] respectively. By the late 1990s, the use of 7-bit encodings had disappeared in favour of ISO 8859-1, and such equivalence mappings were dropped from some IRC daemons. 8-bit era: Since the early 1990s, 8-bit encodings such as ISO 8859-1 have become commonly used for European languages. Russian users had a choice of KOI8-R, ISO 8859-5 and CP1251, and since about 2000, modern Russian IRC networks convert between these different commonly used encodings of the Cyrillic alphabet. Multi-byte era: East Asian IRC channels with ideographic scripts in China, Japan, and Korea have used for a long time multi-byte encodings such as EUC or ISO 2022. With the common migration from ISO 8859 to UTF-8 on Linux and Unix platforms since about 2002, UTF-8 has become an increasingly popular substitute for many of the previously used 8-bit encodings in European channels. Some IRC clients are now capable of reading messages both in ISO 8859-1 or UTF-8 in the same channel, heuristically autodetecting which encoding is used. The shift to UTF-8 began in particular on Finnish-speaking IRC (:fi:IRC#Merkistö (Finnish)). Today, the UTF-8 encoding of Unicode/ISO 10646 would be the most likely contender for a single future standard character encoding for all IRC communication, if such standard ever relaxed the 510 bytes message size restriction. UTF-8 is ASCII compatible and covers the superset of all other commonly used coded character set standards. File sharing Using scripts like Sysreset, UPP, Sooplex, Polaris, users can create file servers that allow them to share files with others. Due to the large number of people who use IRC for file sharing , some think of IRC as a form of P2P file sharing. Conversely, many users try to defeat this view by persistently discouraging it or refusing to help with it. Technically, IRC provides no file transfer mechanisms itself; file sharing is implemented by IRC clients, typically using the Direct Client-to-Client (DCC) protocol, in which file transfers are negotiated through the exchange of private messages between clients. The vast majority of IRC clients feature support for DCC file transfers, hence the view that file sharing is an integral feature of IRC. See also Comparison of instant messaging protocols Comparison of IRC clients Comparison of IRC daemons Comparison of IRC services Chat room Client-To-Client Protocol Direct Client-to-Client Ident Instant messaging Internet slang IRC Bots IRC Server IRC Services List of IRC commands List of quote databases Serving channel vhost (IRC) References External links IRC.org - Technical and Historical IRC6 information; articles on the history of IRC. IRC/2 Numerics List of numeric replies for the IRC protocol. Large archive of IRC-related documents, somewhat EFnet biased. RFC 1459 - Technical Information about the IRC Protocol.	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3,348	Inheritance	William Hogarth's plate 1 from A Rake's Progress, "The Young Heir Takes Possession Of The Miser's Effects" as his inheritance. Inheritance is the practice of passing on property, titles, debts, and obligations upon the death of an individual. It has long played an important role in human societies. The rules of inheritance differ between societies and have changed over time. Terminology In common law jurisdictions, an heir is a person who is entitled to receive a share of the decedent's property via the rules of inheritance in the jurisdiction where the decedent died or owned property at the time of death. Strictly speaking, one becomes an heir only upon the death of the decedent. It is improper to speak of the "heir" of a living person, since the exact identity of the persons entitled to inherit are not determined until the time of death. In a case where an individual has such a position that only her/his own death before that of the decedent would prevent the individual from becoming an heir, the individual is called an heir apparent. There is a further concept of jointly inheriting, pending renunciation by all but one, which is called coparceny. In modern legal use, the terms inheritance and heir refer only to succession of property from a decedent who has died intestate (that is, without a will). It is a common mistake to refer to the recipients of property through a will as heirs when they are properly called beneficiaries, devisees, or legatees. History Detailed studies have been made in the Anthropological and sociological customs of patrilineal succession, also known as gavelkind, where only male children can inherit. Some cultures also employ matrilineal succession only passing property along the female line. Other practices include primogeniture, under which all property goes to the eldest child, or often the eldest son, or ultimogeniture, in which everything is left to the youngest child. Some ancient societies and most modern states employ partible inheritance, under which every child inherits (usually equally). Historically, there were also mixed systems: According to Islamic inheritance jurisprudence, sons inherit twice as much as daughters. The complete laws governing inheritance in Islam are complicated and take into account many kinship relations (so wills are usually recommended), but in principle males inherit twice as much as females. There is one interesting exception: The Indonesian Minangkabau people from West part of Sumatra island despite being strong Muslims employ only complete matrilineal succession with property and land passing down from mother to daughter. They find no contradiction between their culture and faith. Among ancient Israelites, the inheritance is patrilineal it come from the father whom bequeth only to the males descendants (the daughters don't inherit) the eldest son received twice as much as the other sons. Because this the father give his name to his children. Example: the sons of Israel are called Israelites, because the land belong to the father and every one of the his twelve sons give his name to his descendants Example: the sons of Judah are called Yehudi that is translated to the Latin like judaeus and jew in english Among Galician people it was typical that all children (both men and women) had a part of the inheritance, but one son (the one who inherited the house) inherited one-third of all the inheritance. This son was called the mellorado. In some villages the mellorado even received two-thirds of all the inheritance. This two-thirds would be all the family's lands, while other children received their part in money. In eastern Swedish culture, from the 13th century until the 19th century, sons inherited twice as much as daughters. This rule was introduced by the Regent Birger Jarl, and it was regarded as an improvement in its era, since daughters were previously usually left without. Employing differing forms of succession can affect many areas of society. Gender roles are profoundly affected by inheritance laws and traditions. Primogeniture has the effect of keeping large estates united and thus perpetuating an elite. With partible inheritance large estates are slowly divided among many descendants and great wealth is thus diluted, leaving higher opportunities to individuals to make a success. (If great wealth is not diluted, the positions in society tend to be much more fixed and opportunities to make an individual success are lower.) Inheritance can be organized in a way that its use is restricted by the desires of someone (usually of the decedent A decedent is a person who has died. The term decedent should not be confused with the term descendant. ). An inheritance may have been organized as a fideicommissum, which usually cannot be sold or diminished, only its profits are disposable. A fideicommissum's succession can also be ordered in a way that determines it long (or eternally) also with regard to persons born long after the original descendant. Royal succession has typically been more or less a fideicommissum, the realm not (easily) to be sold and the rules of succession not to be (easily) altered by a holder (a monarch). In more archaic days, the possession of inherited land has been much more like a family trust than a property of an individual. Even in recent years, the sale of the whole of or a significant portion of a farm in many European countries required consent from certain heirs, and/or heirs had the intervening right to obtain the land in question with same sales conditions as in the sales agreement in question. In the Bible The inheritance is patrilineal the father that is the owner of the land bequeath only to his males descendents so the Promess Land pass from one jewish father to his male sons. Because this the Promess Land is called "the Land of Israel" because belong to Israel and his sons are called Israelites denoting their connection with the Land of their father Inheritance Inequality The distribution of inherited wealth is drastically unequal in the United States. The majority receive little while only a small number inherit extremely large amounts. Davies, James B. "The Relative Impact of Inheritance and Other Factors on Economic InequalityThe Quarterly Journal of Economics", Vol. 97, No. 3, pp. 471 In terms of inheritance inequality, most economists and sociologists focus on the intergenerational transmission of income or wealth which has a direct impact on one’s mobility (or immobility) and class position in society. Nations differ on the political structure and policy options that govern the transfer of wealth. Angel, Jacqueline L. Inheritance in Contemporary America: The Social Dimensions of Giving across Generations. p. 35 Despite these differences in policies, a similarity is evident: there continues to be racial and economic discrimination and stratification in countries with the greatest disparities. Most sociologists would agree that the policies and socioeconomic conditions in various communities have a direct impact on intergenerational financial relationships and even the opportunities for wealth later in life. This is not only a fact in the United States, but most nations across the globe. According to the principle of testamentary freedom, individuals should be able to dispose of their accumulated property at death as they see fit. Inheritance and merit, however, are incompatible ways to distribute valued resources in society. To the extent that resources are distributed on the basis of inheritance, they are not distributed on the basis of merit. Miller, Robert K., McNamee, Stephen J. Inheritance and Wealth in America. p. 1 According to the American federal government statistics compiled by Mark Zandi, currently of “Moody’s Economy.com”, back in 1985, the average inheritance was $39,000. In subsequent years, the overall amount of total annual inheritance was more than doubled, reaching nearly $200 billion. By 2050, there is an estimated $25 trillion average inheritance transmitted across generations. Marable, Manning. “Letter From America: Inheritance, Wealth and Race.” http://frontierweekly.googlepages.com/inheritance-38-48.pdf Some researchers have attributed this rise to the baby boomer generation. Historically, the baby boomers were the largest influx of children conceived after WW2. For this reason, Thomas Shapiro suggests that this generation “is in the midst of benefiting from the greatest inheritance of wealth in history.” Shapiro, Thomas M. The Hidden Cost of Being African American: How Wealth Perpetuates Inequality. Oxford University Press. 2004. p. 5 Perhaps the baby boomer inheritance will not only fuel the growing gap between inheritances causing more inequality, but also may intensify and worsen racial inequality and race relations. The wealth inheritance will continue to worsen the already increasing (income and inheritance) inequality. Inheritance and Race Inheritances are transfers of the unconsumed material accumulations of previous generations. Inheritances therefore take on a special meaning with respect to black and white Americans: they directly link the disadvantaged economic position and prospects of today’s blacks to the disadvantaged positions of their parents’ and grandparents’ generations. Avery,Robert; Rendall,Michael S. “Lifetime Inheritances of Three Generations of Whites and Blacks”, The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 107, No. 5 pp. 1300 Depending on one’s race, one inherits an inevitable amount of privilege or disadvantage at the time of their birth. A number of possible explanations for this gap have been suggested, particularly differences in income and various socio-economic characteristics between black and white households. Menchik, Paul L., Jianakoplos, Nancy A. “Black-White Wealth Inequality: Is Inheritance the Reason?” Economic Inquiry. Volume XXXV, April 1997, p. 428 Research reveals that race could be serving as a proxy for other, more fundamental, determinants of differences in inheritance. Among the findings, it was stated that a “father’s education and variables indicating the economic conditions of childhood were the most important in predicting the size of inheritances.” Menchik, Paul L., Jianakoplos, Nancy A. “Black-White Wealth Inequality: Is Inheritance the Reason?” Economic Inquiry. Volume XXXV, April 1997, p. 432 Based on samples of households in 1976 and 1989, researchers found that white households are at least twice as likely to receive an inheritance (than black households). White households are almost three times as likely to expect to receive an inheritance in the future. Hence, controlling for other factors, these researchers found that race is important in explaining whether or not a household has received an inheritance and the size of the inheritance. Menchik, Paul L., Jianakoplos, Nancy A. Black-White Wealth Inequality: Is Inheritance the Reason? Economic Inquiry. Volume XXXV, April 1997, p. 441 Whites average both better health and inheritance than minority groups in the United States. Blacks and Hispanics are disadvantaged with respect to financial and human capital resources, more specifically, lower educational attainment, income, inheritances, and great concentrations in lower-skilled occupations. Flippen, Chenoa A. “Racial and Ethnic Inequality in Homeownership and Housing Equity.” The Sociological Quarterly, Volume 42, No. 2 p. 129 Additionally, due to employment discrimination and residential segregation, minority households “have historically been denied the opportunity to accumulate wealth” and thus, acquire inheritance. Inheritance and Social Stratification Inheritance inequality has a significant effect on stratification. Likewise, inheritance is an integral component of family, economic, and legal institutions, and a basic mechanism of class stratification. It also affects the distribution of wealth at the societal level. The total cumulative effect of inheritance on stratification outcomes takes three forms. The first form of inheritance is the inheritance of cultural capital (i.e. linguistic styles, higher status social circles, and aesthetic preferences). (Edited By) Miller, Robert K., McNamee, Stephen J. Inheritance and Wealth in America. p. 2 The second form of inheritance is through familial interventions in the form of inter vivos transfers (i.e. gifts between the living), especially at crucial junctures in the life courses. Examples include during a child’s milestone stages, such as going to college, getting married, getting a job, and purchasing a home. The third form of inheritance is the transfers of bulk estates at the time of death of the testators, thus resulting in significant economic advantage accruing to children during their adult years. (Edited By) Miller, Robert K., McNamee, Stephen J. Inheritance and Wealth in America. p. 4 The origin of the stability of inequalities is material (personal possessions one is able to obtain) and is also cultural, rooted either in varying child-rearing practices that are geared to socialization according to social class and economic position. Child-rearing practices among those who inherit wealth may center around favoring some groups at the expense of others at the bottom of the social hierarchy. Clignet, Remi. Death, Deeds, and Descendants: Inheritance in Modern America. p. 3 Sociological and Economic Effects of Inheritance Inequality The degree to which economic status and inheritance is transmitted across generations determines one’s life chances in society. Although many have linked one’s social origins and educational attainment to life chances and opportunities, education cannot serve as the most influential predictor of economic mobility. In fact, children of well-off parents generally receive better schooling and benefit from material, cultural, and genetic inheritances. Bowles, Samuel; Gintis, Herbert, “The Inheritance of Inequality.” Journal of Economic Perspectives Vol. 16, No. 3, 2002, p. 4 Likewise, schooling attainment is often persistent across generations and families with higher amounts of inheritance are able to acquire and transmit higher amounts of human capital. Lower amounts of human capital and inheritance can perpetuate inequality in the housing market and higher education. Research reveals that inheritance plays an important role in the accumulation of housing wealth. Those who receive an inheritance are more likely to own a home than those who do not regardless of the size of the inheritance. Flippen, Chenoa A. “Racial and Ethnic Inequality in Homeownership and Housing Equity.” The Sociological Quarterly, Volume 42, No. 2 p. 134 Oftentimes, minorities and individuals from socially disadvantaged backgrounds receive less inheritance and wealth. As a result, minorities are more likely to rent homes or live in poorer neighborhoods, as well as achieve lower educational attainment compared whites in America. Individuals with a substantial amount of wealth and inheritance often intermarry with others of the same social class in order to protect their wealth and ensure the continuous transmission of inheritance across generations; thus perpetuating a cycle of privilege. For this reason, it can even be argued that one’s inheritance places them in a specific social class position that requires a level of participation in certain activities that promote the oppression of lower-class individuals in terms of the social hierarchy and system of stratification. Nations with the highest income and wealth inequalities often have the highest rates of homicide and disease (such as obesity, diabetes, and hypertension). A New York Times article reveals that the U.S. is the world’s wealthiest nation, but “ranks 29th in life expectancy, right behind Jordan and Bosnia.” This is highly attributed to the significant gap of inheritance inequality in the country. Dubner, Stephen. “How Big of a Deal Is Income Inequality? A Guest Post”. The New York Times. August 27, 2008. For this reason, it is clear that when social and economic inequalities centered on inheritance are perpetuated by major social institutions such as family, education, religion, etc., these differing life opportunities are transmitted from each generation. As a result, this inequality becomes part of the overall social structure. Rokicka, Ewa. “Local policy targeted at reducing inheritance of inequalities in European countries.” May 2006. http://www.profit.uni.lodz.pl/pub/dok2/6ca34cbaf07ece58cbd1b4f24371c8c8/PROFIT_dissemination_ER_16th_IC_of%20_IT&FA.pdf Taxation Many states have inheritance taxes or death duties, under which a portion of any estate goes to the government. Furthermore, all inheritances are left tax free up until the first million dollars. Inheritance and Education The relationship between wealth and children's education, schooling, neighborhoods and social class has a direct correlation to inheritance. This has led many people who have received inheritance to a more prosperous and fulfilling educational life. Children’s education is affected in many ways by inheritance. People believe that education and test scoring is directly linked to the socio-economic situation that the children come from. This means that children who have been born into a family with greater wealth will perform better on standardized tests. There is an absolute correlation between socio-economic status and test scores Bird, Samuel, “Wealth, Education.” USA Today, 2007 and this is not a random occurrence, but in fact happens all the time, every time Bird, Samuel, “Wealth, Education.” USA Today, 2007 This has been a common belief in the studies done. There is every reason to believe that a child who comes from parents who are well off will receive a better education, however, when people take a closer look on how that child’s parents accumulated their wealth they will find two very different ways. If a family came into money through both parents working, hard work and dedication to work, that child is often successful. However, when a child has both parents working all the time, their day to day education and child raising is an afterthought. The other situation is a child who has been born into old money or inherited wealth. That child’s parents often do not work as many hours since they have money that has been inherited, so that leaves them more time to spend with their children. People who have inherited a great deal of wealth, one of the parents usually do not hold a job, so their focus is on their children and raising them. This provides many opportunities for that child to experience things that a child who’s parents work all the time. Families who have inherited wealth in the United States are much more likely to have their children attend prestigious colleges. It does not start in high school or college however. The middle and lower classes are getting edged out by the wealthier families because the education they are receiving since they are born. Wealthy parents are engaging in a new trend, hiring tutors for their preschoolers. Preschool tutoring, which costs $75 to $150 an hour, is especially popular in Manhattan, where entrance to certain private schools is extremely competitive. Marek, Fuchs, “Preschool Tutoring Gaining Popularity in Wealthy Communities.” New York Times, 2002 Many families can not afford such extreme measures, but this is another way wealthy families are taking that most can not afford. When a child is born into money he or she is presented with many opportunities to become successful. Private schools, boarding schools, prep schools and other high income schools are attended because their parents can afford it. More time is spent on teaching the children when they are young and academics are the foundation for these children. When parents are willing to spend $30,000 a year for their children’s education in high school it provides them with opportunities that many other children do not get to experience. Many people who pay that money are making an investment in their child’s education knowing that the structure they receive at one of these schools will not allow for their children to fail, and ensuring them acceptance to colleges. When they are at these preparatory schools, the main goal is to get the wealthy children into college. On the other hand, many public schools also prepare students for college, but the vast backgrounds, talents, and aspirations of students that attend many public schools are not as similar to those at the wealthy schools. These public schools do not always prepare their students for higher education. Public schools are controlled by the state, and they have to adhere to specific demands that are put on them. Graduation rates, dropout rates, test scoring are all different ways the government judges a school on how well it is doing. The main goal at these public schools is not to prepare the students for college; it is to prepare them for many different fields that the students could possibly go into. Many of these activities are for students that will not attend colleges. At many private schools and boarding schools, it has been found that nearly 100% of the students go on to college. The parents who can afford to send their children to this type of school expect nothing less and are basically promised that their child will go to college. As far as wealthy children going to college is one thing, going to some of the best colleges in the country is another. The wealthy parents are the reason that this is happening and experts say the change in the student population is a result of steep tuition increases. David, Leonhardt, “As Wealthy Fill Top Colleges, Concerns Grow Over Fairness.” New York Times, 2004 The phenomenal efforts many wealthy parents put into preparing their children to apply to the best schools is much higher than those who are not. David, Leonhardt, “As Wealthy Fill Top Colleges, Concerns Grow Over Fairness.” New York Times, 2004 This has been the college situation since colleges were founded, but many schools have tried taking action to help less fortunate students, who are academically suited to attend go to these colleges. Diversity and financial aid are two ways that colleges have tried to help these children attend college. However, the facts prove that wealthy children are occupying the biggest percentage of college students. The amount of students enrolled in top colleges whose parents are making the national median of $53,000 is becoming fewer and the number of students whose parents make $200,000 or more are getting accepted to these schools. David, Leonhardt, “As Wealthy Fill Top Colleges, Concerns Grow Over Fairness.” New York Times, 2004 The students who come from inherited wealth are benefiting from both their previous education as well as their and their parents inheritance. This is becoming an issue of problems for future social mobility because universities are worried that their universities are reproducing social advantage instead of serving as an engine of mobility. David, Leonhardt, “As Wealthy Fill Top Colleges, Concerns Grow Over Fairness.” New York Times, 2004 When the students at these top universities and colleges, public and private, are the wealthiest people in America, it gives them the fast track to success while the families who are not in the top tier of wealth are stuck going to worse colleges. Ivy League schools as well as other top private universities are taking all the steps to be the best, admit the best and wealthiest, hire the best teachers and have the best amenities a school could offer. The money these schools are able to obtain is due to tuition and monetary gifts. Many family who have inherited wealth in America want to send their children to the wealthiest and best schools and that is exactly what they are doing. The gilding of the Ivies offers a striking manifestation of the contemporary American tendency of the rich to get much richer. Anthony, Bianco, Sonal Rupani, “The Dangerous Wealth of the Ivy League.” Business Week, 2007 This is a problem because it is leading to the deterioration of public institutions in the United States and thus making a gap between the wealthy and everyone else even larger. Teachers as well as researchers are also choosing the Ivy League rather than public education institutions. For better or worse, the infusion of riches at the Ivy Plus schools has dramatically extended their lead over everyone else, especially the public colleges and universities that collectively serve the vast majority of American students. This dominance—and the inequities that it fosters—are likely only to grow. Anthony, Bianco, Sonal Rupani, “The Dangerous Wealth of the Ivy League.” Business Week, 2007 Families who have inherited money do not only just go to these schools for the education. Wealthy families who have children attending prestigious colleges also have the ability to make connections with other wealthy, successful and powerful people. Going to school with the grandchild or child of CEO of a Fortune 500 company provides contacts that will benefit them for the rest of their lives. An example of another way wealthy children make connections is through Greek life while at school. United States Presidents, Judges, and other political positions as well as CEO’s and other successful people were involved with Greek life while at college. Many wealthy people encourage their child to join a fraternity or a sorority because of the connections they will make with other wealthy students, and when looking for a job these connections will help them. The numbers certainly seem to back this theory up. A mere 8.5% of full-time university undergraduates are members of either a fraternity or a sorority. Not only have fraternities been the breeding ground of those 120 Forbes 500s chief executive officers, they also have spawned 48% of all U.S. presidents, 42% of U.S. senators, 30% of U.S. congressmen, and 40% of U.S. Supreme Court justices, according to data from The North-American Interfraternity Conference. David, Dukcevich, “Best Fraternities for Future CEO’s.” Forbes, 2003 This is not a luxury people who can not afford private or boarding high schools and prestigious colleges get to have. Former CEO of Wachovia Ken Thompson was a Beta Theta Pi at the University of North Carolina says, The opportunity to meet people from different backgrounds and places, and the connections have continued beyond my university years to my business life. David, Dukcevich, “Best Fraternities for Future CEO’s.” Forbes, 2003 Students that do not come from wealth can not afford Greek expenses on top of tuition and that is why you see these drastically differing numbers. The children who are born into money and are given inheritance are not only born with a leg up on others financially, they are born into more opportunity and are guaranteed a higher social class. There is little social mobility for these people because they will inherit wealth and pass that on to their children. Children born into wealth and inheritance grow up in wealthy neighborhoods. The people and children they are surrounded with while growing up are also from wealthy backgrounds. If the family in a wealthy neighborhood decides to send their child to a public school, they will be attending the same school as their wealthy neighbors. References See also Beneficiary Inheritance Tax (United Kingdom) Succession order Transformative assets Old money Digital Inheritance USA Today article on dilemma the rich face when leaving wealth to children	Inheritance \|@lemmatized william:1 hogarth:1 plate:1 rake:1 progress:1 young:3 heir:10 take:8 possession:3 miser:1 effect:5 inheritance:88 practice:4 pass:3 property:10 title:1 debt:1 obligation:1 upon:2 death:9 individual:11 long:3 play:2 important:4 role:3 human:4 society:8 rule:4 differ:5 change:2 time:20 terminology:1 common:3 law:3 jurisdiction:2 person:5 entitle:2 receive:15 share:1 decedent:8 via:1 die:3 strictly:1 speak:2 one:18 become:6 improper:1 living:2 since:5 exact:1 identity:1 inherit:20 determine:3 case:1 position:8 would:3 prevent:1 call:8 apparent:1 concept:1 jointly:1 pending:1 renunciation:1 coparceny:1 modern:3 legal:2 use:2 term:5 refer:2 succession:9 intestate:1 without:2 mistake:1 recipient:1 properly:1 beneficiary:2 devisee:1 legatee:1 history:2 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3,349	Culture_of_Canada	The Jack Pine, by Tom Thomson, 1916. Oil on Canvas, in the collection of the National Gallery of Canada Canadian culture is a term that encompasses the artistic, musical, literary, culinary, political and social elements that are representative of Canada, not only to its own population, but to people all over the world. Canada's culture (multiculturalist) has historically been influenced by European culture and traditions, especially British and French. Over time, elements of the cultures of Canada's Aboriginal peoples and immigrant populations have become incorporated into mainstream Canadian culture. It has also been strongly influenced by that of its linguistic, economic, and cultural neighbour, the United States. These four influences have combined over centuries to form the modern culture of Canada. Canada's federal government has influenced Canadian culture with programs, laws and institutions. It has created crown corporations to promote Canadian culture through media, such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) and the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and promotes many events which it considers to promote Canadian traditions. It has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content in many media using bodies like the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). Canada’s culture, like that of most any country in the world, is a product of its history, geography, and political system. Being a settler nation, Canada has been shaped by waves of migration that have combined to form a unique blend of customs, cuisine, and traditions that have marked the socio-cultural development of the nation. In this article, several aspects of Canadian culture will be discussed. Though this article attempts to feature a variety of subjects pertinent to the culture of Canada, it is in no way exhaustive, and to gain a much deeper knowledge of Canada and its culture, one must also consult the other articles pertaining to Canada and its peoples. Development of Canadian culture Canadian culture is a product of Canada's history and geography. Most of Canada's territory was inhabited and developed later than other European colonies in the Americas, with the result that themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders were important in the early development of Canadian culture. The British conquest of Canada in 1759 brought a large Francophone population under British rule, creating a need for compromise and accommodation, while the migration of United Empire Loyalists from the Thirteen Colonies brought in strong British and American influences. Although not without conflict, Canada's early interactions with native populations were relatively peaceful, compared to the experience of native peoples in the United States. Combined with relatively late economic development in many regions, this peaceful history has allowed Canadian native peoples to have a relatively strong influence on the national culture while preserving their own identity. Bilingualism and multiculturalism French Canada's early development was relatively cohesive during the 17th and 18th centuries, and this was preserved by the Quebec Act of 1774, which allowed Francophone culture to survive and thrive within Canada. In 1867, the British North America Act was designed to meet the growing calls for Canadian autonomy while avoiding the overly-strong decentralization that contributed to the Civil War in the United States. The compromises made by Macdonald and Cartier set Canada on a path to bilingualism, and this in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity that later led to both multiculturalism and tolerance of First Nations culture and customs. A Chinese gate in downtown Montreal. Multicultural heritage is enshrined in Section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. In parts of Canada, especially the major cities of Montreal, Vancouver, and Toronto (for example, in Toronto's Kensington Market area), multiculturalism itself is the cultural norm and diversity is the force that unites the community. In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many French-speaking Quebecer commentators speak of a Quebec culture as distinguished from English Canadian culture, but some also see Canada as a collection of several regional, aboriginal, and ethnic subcultures. While French Canadian culture is the most obvious example, Celtic influences have allowed survival of non-English dialects in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland; however, the influence of Ulster immigrants to Toronto has had the effect of minimizing Irish influences in Ontario's culture, and highlighting British influences instead, until the 1980s. Canada's Pacific trade has also brought a large Chinese influence into British Columbia and other areas. Canada's cultural diversity also creates an environment much more accepting of LGBT people than one finds in the United States or most other countries. Canada has always placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all people. For example, in 1995, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in Egan v. Canada that sexual orientation should be "read in" to Section Fifteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, a part of the Constitution of Canada guaranteeing equal rights to all Canadians. Following a series of decisions by provincial courts and the Supreme Court of Canada, on July 20, 2005, Bill C-38 received Royal Assent, legalizing same-sex marriage in Canada. Canada thus became the fourth country to officially sanction same-sex marriage worldwide, after The Netherlands, Belgium, and Spain. Furthermore, by 2005, sexual orientation was included as a protected status in the human rights laws of the federal government and of all provinces and territories. Aboriginal influences Many native icons have been adopted by Canadians as a whole. There were, and are, many distinct Aboriginal peoples across Canada, each with its own culture, beliefs, values, language, and history. Much of this legacy remains celebrated artistically, and in other ways, in Canada to this day. Part of the emblem of the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics is an inunnguaq, a rock sculpture that is made by stacking stones in the shape of a human figure, that is a part of Inuit culture. Multicultural elements Multiculturalism, officially endorsed in Section Twenty-seven of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, has a large influence on Canadian culture and the nation's perception of itself. According to the Department of Canadian Heritage. Canada's ethnic, racial and religious diversity is rapidly increasing. According to the 2001 census, more than 200 ethnic origins are represented in Canada. About 13.5 percent of the population is a member of a visible minority group and that proportion is expected to reach 20 percent by 2016. Immigration now accounts for more than 50 percent of Canada's population growth, with immigrants coming mainly from Asia and the Middle East. It is projected that, after 2025, Canada's population growth will be based solely on immigration. Influence of American culture Easy access to broadcast media has brought many American influences into Canadian culture since the mid-20th century. In reaction to this, Canadian broadcasters, in cooperation with the federal and provincial governments have attempted to emphasize Canadian culture and values on the airwaves. One example of this is the Heritage Minute commercials on television (which act as mini-history lessons). The Canadian government also gives money to programmers making Canadian TV shows. Defending and enhancing national culture is a major priority for the Canadian government. The Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) and the Department of Canadian Heritage having responsibility for promoting Canadian culture. In certain regards, Canada and the United States share a similar culture, which can be defined as "North American." Canadians are exposed to much American culture, due to the proximity of the United States, a common linguistic bond shared between a majority of Canadians and their neighbours to the south, and the fact that both countries are multi-ethnic immigrant societies that have shared populations for centuries. Most Canadians are familiar with American fast-food restaurants, television shows, movies, music, sports, and retail brands/stores. Some of these cultural elements (especially fast-food restaurants, movies, television, and music) are available in Canada, but their existence does not imply that equivalent domestic "Canadian versions" do not exist. Despite the close ties, Canadian culture can also sometimes seek to differentiate itself from that of the United States. This sometimes takes the form of mocking or insulting Americans, or embracing certain stereotypes of "American-ness" in the popular media, for example the television shows An American in Canada or Talking to Americans, or the popular "I am Canadian" ad campaign of Molson Breweries. The reverse is also practiced, with many Americans and American media mocking or insulting Canadians, or otherwise exaggerating stereotypes. A certain degree of rivalry—usually friendly in scope—often exists between the two countries. Regardless of American influence and a high level of cultural mixing, the vast majority of Canadians are fully aware of their cultural achievements. The Canadian music and television industries are strong and vibrant, and Canadian theatre and literature are very much respected, not only domestically, but internationally as well. Canadian shows such as Flashpoint and Degrassi: The Next Generation are becoming more and more popular not only within Canada, but slowly internationally as well. Canadian Bands such as Three Days Grace and Simple Plan also have a large international market as well as the Canadian market, proving that quality Canadian content has staying power. Canadian culture often has political overtones, though not necessarily of a partisan nature. Canadian idealism makes many Canadians critical of government, social, and cultural institutions and traditions, comparing the status quo to their idealized view of what Canada should and could become. Art Red Maple, 1914, by A. Y. Jackson of the Group of Seven. The arts have flourished in Canada since the 1900s, and especially since the end of World War II in 1945. Government support has played a vital role in their development, as has the establishment of numerous art schools and colleges across the country. Cornelius Krieghoff's Habitant Farm, 1856 The works of most early Canadian painters followed European trends. During the mid 1800s, Cornelius Krieghoff, a Dutch born artist in Quebec, painted scenes of the life of the habitants (French-Canadian farmers). At about the same time, the Canadian artist Paul Kane painted pictures of Indian life in western Canada. A group of landscape painters called the Group of Seven developed the first distinctly Canadian style of painting. All these artists painted large, brilliantly coloured scenes of the Canadian wilderness. Since the 1930s, Canadian painters have developed a wide range of highly individual styles. Emily Carr became famous for her paintings of totem poles in British Columbia. Other noted painters have included the landscape artist David Milne, the abstract painters Jean-Paul Riopelle and Harold Town and multi-media artist Michael Snow. The abstract art group Painters Eleven, particularly the artists William Ronald and Jack Bush, also had an important impact on modern art in Canada. Canadian sculpture has been enriched by the walrus ivory and soapstone carvings by the Inuit artists. These carvings show objects and activities from the daily life of the Inuit. Literature Canadian literature is often divided into French and English-language literature, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively, However, collectively this literature has become distinctly Canadian. Canada’s literature, whether written in English or French, often reflects the Canadian perspective on nature, frontier life, and Canada’s position in the world, Canadian identity is closely tied to its literature. Canadian literature is often categorised by region or province; by the status of the author (e.g., literature of Canadian women, Acadians, Aboriginal peoples in Canada, and Irish Canadians); and by literary period, such as "Canadian postmoderns" or "Canadian Poets Between the Wars." In the 1980s, Canadian literature began to be noticed around the world. By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best, and Canadian authors began to accumulate international awards. Robert Fulford's column about the international success of Canadian literature In 1992, Michael Ondaatje became the first Canadian to win the Booker Prize for The English Patient. Margaret Atwood won the Booker in 2000 for The Blind Assassin and Yann Martel won it in 2002 for The Life of Pi. Carol Shields's The Stone Diaries won the 1995 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, and in 1998. Canadian theatre Canada has a thriving stage theatre scene. Theatre festivals draw many tourists in the summer months, especially the Stratford Festival of Canada in Stratford, Ontario, and the Shaw Festival in Niagara On The Lake, Ontario. The Famous People Players are only one of many touring companies that have also developed an international reputation. Canada also boasts the world's second largest live theatre festival, the Edmonton Fringe Festival. Film and television The Canadian film market was dominated by the American film industry for decades, although that film industry has since inception seen a prominent role for actors, directors, producers and technicians of Canadian origin. In the 1960s Michel Brault, Pierre Perrault, Gilles Groulx, Jean-Pierre Lefebvre, Arthur Lamothe, Claude Jutra and other filmmakers from Quebec began to challenge Hollywood by making innovative and politically relevant documentary and feature films. Among the important English-speaking filmmakers from this period are Allan King, Norman Jewison and Robin Spry. Michael Snow continues to be one of the most respected experimental film makers in the world. Norman Jewison received an Irving Thalberg Academy Award in recognition for his lifetime achievement in film in 1999. Canada has developed a vigorous film industry that has produced a variety of well-known films, actors, and auteurs. In fact, this eclipsing may sometimes be creditable for the bizarre and innovative directions of the works of such auteurs as Atom Egoyan (The Sweet Hereafter, 1997) and David Cronenberg (The Fly, Naked Lunch, A History of Violence). Also, the distinct French-Canadian society permits the work of directors such as Denys Arcand and Denis Villeneuve; Arcand directed Canada's first film to win the Best Foreign Language Oscar, The Barbarian Invasions. However given Canada's small population and perhaps, because of the closeness of the giant American TV and film industries, distinctively Canadian productions such as those in the TIFF Canada's Top Ten Films of All Time are relatively thin on the ground, compared with the situations in the United Kingdom. However, Lion's Gates Films and Alliance Atlantis are two film production companies headquartered in Canada which have grown large enough to compete with larger American productions down south. In addition, because of the intricate relationship between the American and Canadian film industry, numerous films such as David Cronenberg's A History of Violence (2005) are often credited as both Canadian films by Canadian publications and as American films by American publications due to differing definitions of what constitutes a Canadian or American film by each country. A number of Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood significantly contributed to the creation of the motion picture industry in the early days of the 20th century. Over the years, many Canadians have made enormous contributions to the American entertainment industry, although they are frequently not recognized as Canadians. Canada's film industry is in full expansion as a site for Hollywood productions. Since the 1980s, Canada, and Vancouver in particular, has become known as Hollywood North. The American Queer as Folk was filmed in Toronto. Canadian producers have been very successful in the field of science fiction since the mid-1990s, with such shows as The X-Files, Stargate SG-1, the new Battlestar Galactica, Smallville, and The Outer Limits, all filmed in Vancouver. As with its southern counterpart in California, USA, many Canadians are employed in the film industry, and celebrity-spotting is frequent throughout many Canadian cities. Montreal, due to its European appearance, has served in a great variety of mainstream movies, attracting the loyalty of industry people such as Bruce Willis; there are plans to build the world's biggest film studio on the outskirts of the city. The choice of location is allegedly due to cost, rather than a requirement for a 'Canadian atmosphere'. The frequent question of a Canadian, seeing a film crew on his or her local streets, is 'Which bit of the States are we pretending to be today?'. Canadian television, especially supported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, is the home of a variety of locally-produced shows. French-language television, like French Canadian film, is buffered from excessive American influence by the fact of language, and likewise supports a host of home-grown productions. The relative success of French-language domestic television and movies in Canada often exceeds that of its English-language counterpart. The Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission's Canadian content regulations dictate that a certain percentage of a domestic broadcaster's transmission time must include content that is produced by Canadians, or covers Canadian subjects. This also applies to US cable television channels such as MTV and the Discovery Channel, which have local versions of their channels available on Canadian cable networks. Similarly, BBC Canada, while primarily showing BBC shows from the United Kingdom, also carries Canadian output. National Film Board of Canada , is 'a public agency that produces and distributes films and other audiovisual works which reflect Canada to Canadians and the rest of the world'. The agency helped to pioneer the concept of the documentary. The Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) is considered by many to be one of the most prevalent film festivals for Western cinema. It is the premiere film festival in North America from which the Oscars race begins. In addition, many popular documentaries such as The Corporation Nanook of the North, Final Offer (film), and Canada: A People's History are Canadian. Comedy The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation is noted for political satire such as This Hour Has 22 Minutes, Rick Mercer Report, and Royal Canadian Air Farce. Canada has produced many eminent national humorists. The Kids in the Hall were a popular Canadian sketch group. Also the Second City Television sketch-comedy series originated in the Toronto Second City troupe, which produced many prominent comedians including John Candy, Rick Moranis, Eugene Levy, Dave Thomas, and Catherine O'Hara. The team of creators for SCTV, including Lorne Michaels, was later transplanted in New York City to create Saturday Night Live. Other Canadian comics and comedy groups include the team of Wayne and Shuster, Russell Peters, Jim Carrey, Mike Myers, Martin Short, Colin Mochrie, Tom Green, Dan Aykroyd, Leslie Nielsen, CODCO (the precursors to This Hour Has 22 Minutes), Maggie Cassella, and Elvira Kurt. The Just for Laughs Festival in Montreal is the world's largest comedy festival. Music Canada has developed its own styles of traditional music, including the French, Irish, and Scottish-derived Cape Breton fiddle music of the Maritimes, the Franco-Celtic styles of Quebec that often include foot percussion and a scat style called turlutte, and other national styles from the Ottawa Valley to the west. Noted proponents are Buddy MacMaster and his niece Natalie of Cape Breton, and Madame Bolduc of Quebec, whose recordings in the 1930s lifted her people through depressing times. The Canadian music industry has been helped by government regulation designed to protect and encourage the growth of distinct Canadian culture. The Canadian Content (CANCON) regulations require all radio stations in Canada play at least 35% Canadian music. This has enabled Canadian artists to garner success on the airwaves which were once dominated by American and European acts. Due to these regulations, Canadian music has become much more prevalent on the airwaves. Canada has produced a variety of internationally successful performers and artist. These individuals are honoured at The Juno Awards, recognizing Canadian achievement in popular music. In addition, Canada is home to a number of popular summer-time folk festivals, including the Winnipeg Folk Festival. Canada has also produced many notable composers, who have contributed in a variety of ways to the history of Western classical music. Symbols Official symbols of Canada include the maple leaf, beaver, and the Canadian Horse . Many official symbols of the country such as the Flag of Canada have been changed or modified over the past few decades in order to 'Canadianize' them and de-emphasise or remove references to the United Kingdom. Symbols of the monarchy in Canada continue to be featured in, for example, the Coat of Arms of Canada and armed forces Her Majesty's Canadian Ship. The designation 'Royal' remains for institutions as varied as the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Royal Winnipeg Ballet, though with the 1968 unification of the three armed forces into the Canadian Forces, the Royal Canadian Air Force and Royal Canadian Navy ceased to exist. However, certain Canadian Forces Land Force Command (army) units carry "Royal" titles, Canadian Forces Maritime Command vessels are still styled "HMCS" and Canadian Forces Air Command squadrons still use a Royal Air Force-derived badge surmounted by the Queen's Crown as their official crests. See also Canadian cultural protectionism Culture of Quebec Culture of Alberta Culture of Saskatchewan References External links Canadian Heritage Culture.CA: Canadian cultural portal online Ontario Ministry of Culture CRTC Canadian Content Podcasts database on Culture.ca Peel's Prairie Provinces: A full-text, searchable database of digitized prairie Canadiana, including newspapers and other Western Canadian publications	Culture_of_Canada \|@lemmatized jack:2 pine:1 tom:2 thomson:1 oil:1 canvas:1 collection:2 national:7 gallery:1 canada:72 canadian:124 culture:42 term:1 encompass:1 artistic:1 musical:1 literary:3 culinary:1 political:4 social:2 element:4 representative:1 population:9 people:13 world:11 multiculturalist:1 historically:1 influence:17 european:5 tradition:5 especially:6 british:8 french:12 time:6 aboriginal:5 immigrant:4 become:9 incorporate:1 mainstream:2 also:19 strongly:1 linguistic:2 economic:2 cultural:11 neighbour:2 united:11 state:8 four:1 combine:3 century:5 form:3 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3,350	Penélope_Cruz	Penélope Cruz Sánchez (born April 28, 1974), better known as Penélope Cruz, is a Spanish actress. She gathered critical acclaim as a young actress for films such as Jamón, Jamón, La Niña de tus ojos, and Belle époque. She has also starred in several American films such as Blow, Vanilla Sky, and Vicky Cristina Barcelona. She is perhaps best known for her work with acclaimed Spanish director Pedro Almodóvar, in Volver and Todo sobre mi madre. Cruz has been awarded three Goyas, two European Film Awards, and the Best Actress Award at the Cannes Film Festival. In 2009, she won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, a Goya, and a BAFTA for her role in Vicky Cristina Barcelona. She is Spain's first female Oscar winner. Penelope Cruz: Hollywood learns a new film language Early life Penélope Cruz Sánchez was born in Alcobendas, Madrid, Spain, the daughter of Encarna Sánchez, a hairdresser and personal manager, and Eduardo Cruz, a retailer and auto mechanic. Penelope Cruz Biography (1974-) As a toddler, she was already a compulsive performer, re-enacting TV commercials for her family's amusement. Initially, Cruz decided to focus on dance. After studying classical ballet for nine years at Spain's National Conservatory, she continued her training under a series of prominent dancers. She received three years of Spanish Ballet training with Ángela Garrido. She also had jazz dance training with Raúl Caballero and studied at Cristina Rota (mother of Juan Diego Botto) school in Madrid. At 15, however, she followed another calling after beating more than 300 other girls at a talent agency audition. Career Cruz first achieved fame when she appeared in the video for "La fuerza del destino" for the Spanish synthpop group Mecano. She later started a relationship with Nacho Cano, a member of the group. A TV presenter for the teen-oriented program La Quinta Marcha, she also had early exposure in Série Rose, an erotic French TV serial. In one episode she played the role of a blind prostitute and in another played a young noblewoman pretending to be a young nobleman in a comedy of errors. She also directed Nacho Cano's video of "El waltz de los locos", in 1994. Cruz's first major films were Jamón, jamón and Belle Époque, a film which won an Academy Award for Foreign Language Film. In 1997, she starred as Sofía Pangia, alongside Eduardo Noriega, in Abre los ojos, directed by Alejandro Amenábar, while in 1999 she appeared in Pedro Almodóvar's Todo sobre mi madre (All About My Mother), which also won an Academy Award for Foreign Language Film. In 2000 she appeared with Matt Damon in All the Pretty Horses. For Cruz, the early 2000s were a period of mediocre reviews and mixed commercial success. In late 2001, she appeared in the film Vanilla Sky, the Hollywood remake of Abre los ojos. Returning to Europe, in 2004, Cruz learned Italian (she already spoke Spanish, French, and English) to star in the film Don't Move. She earned critical praise for her role and earned the coveted David di Donatello award, the Italian equivalent of the Oscar. In 2006, she co-starred with her best friend, Salma Hayek, in the film Bandidas. That same year, Cruz received highly favourable reviews for her performance in Pedro Almodóvar's Volver. She shared a Best Actress award at the Cannes Film Festival with five of her co-stars, and was nominated for the Golden Globe, the Screen Actors Guild Award, the BAFTA Award, and the Academy Award for Best Actress in a leading role. The latter of these nominations made her the first Spanish actress to be nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress. In May 2007, it was announced that Penélope and her sister Mónica would be designing a 25-piece collection for the Barcelona-based fashion chain Mango. On July 7, 2007, Cruz presented at Live Earth. In late 2007, she starred in the Jaume de Laiguana-directed video for her brother's first single, named "Cosas que contar", along with her friend Mía Maestro and her sister Mónica. Cruz had previously shown a keen interest in fashion and is a model for L'Oréal and its "Telescopic" mascara. In 2008, Cruz appeared with Sir Ben Kingsley in fellow Spaniard Isabel Coixet's film Elegy, earning her critical praise for an English-speaking role. The film was based on the Philip Roth story The Dying Animal. She was nominated for a Golden Satellite award for her performance. In 2008, she starred in Woody Allen's Vicky Cristina Barcelona as María Elena, Javier Bardem's mentally unstable ex-wife. Her performance received wide critical praise. For the role, Cruz received her second Academy Award Nomination, and later won for Best Supporting Actress, « Penélope Cruz nominated for Vicky Cristina Barcelona », peoplestar.co.uk, Retrieved on 2009-01-24. making her only the second Spanish actor to win an Academy Award, a year after her boyfriend, Javier Bardem, won for No Country for Old Men. She became the first Spanish actress to win an Academy Award, and one of the only actors besides Robert De Niro and Ingrid Bergman to win the Oscar for a role speaking two different languages. Besides the Oscar, Cruz won the BAFTA, the Independent Spirit Award, the National Board of Review Award, and the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actress in Vicky Cristina Barcelona. She also earned Golden Globe and Screen Actors Guild nominations for her role. Cruz again collaborated with Pedro Almodóvar in his film Los Abrazos Rotos, which is slated to be released in the U.S. in November 2009. She will also be featured in the film version of the musical Nine along with other Oscar winners Sophia Loren, Judi Dench, Daniel Day-Lewis, Nicole Kidman and Marion Cotillard. Personal life Cruz has a younger brother, Eduardo, a singer, and a younger sister, Mónica. Cruz claims to be a vegetarian since 2000. She speaks four languages: Spanish, Italian, French and English. Cruz has also donated a considerable amount of money and time to charity; in 1997 she volunteered in Uganda for two months. Penélope was raised as a Catholic, but the religion she feels closest to is Buddhism. After appearing in Vanilla Sky with Tom Cruise, they had a three-year relationship which ended in January 2004. During that time, she and Cruise were seen visiting several Church of Scientology locations in Hollywood, and there was published speculation that Cruise had convinced Cruz to join the church. After filming Sahara in February 2005, she began dating actor Matthew McConaughey. In May 2006, they released a joint statement to People, saying that they "have decided to take time off as a couple." Later that year they announced that they were "no longer intimate and separating was the best thing to do at this time". She has been dating actor Javier Bardem since 2007; the two appeared together in Jamón, Jamón, Live Flesh and 2008's Vicky Cristina Barcelona. In April 2007 Cruz, who was single at the time, stated that she would like to have children one day and she feels the need to adopt. "Of course I want to have kids," Cruz, told the Spanish edition of Marie Claire in its April issue. "I want to have my own kids, but also adopt. For a while I've had the feeling that my life won't be complete if I don't adopt". Penelope Cruz says she wants to adopt Filmography {\| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;" \|-style="background:#B0C4DE;" ! Year ! Film ! Role ! Notes \|- \| rowspan="2"\| 1992 \| Jamón, jamón \| Silvia \| Nominated — Goya Award for Best ActressNominated — Spanish Actors Union Newcomer Award \|- \| Belle Époque \| Luz \| Spanish Actors Union Award for Supporting Performance (Secundario Cine) \|- \| rowspan="3"\| 1993 \| For Love, Only for Love \| Mary \|Per amore, solo per amore \|- \| The Greek Labyrinth \| Elise \|El Laberinto griego \|- \| The Rebel \| Enza \|La Ribelle \|- \| rowspan="2"\| 1994 \| Alegre ma non troppo \| Salomé \| \|- \| Todo es mentira \| Lucía \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| 1995 \| Entre rojas \| Lucía \| \|- \| El Efecto mariposa \| Party guest \| \|- \| rowspan="3"\| 1996 \| La Celestina \| Melibea \| \|- \| Brujas \| Patricia \| \|- \| Más que amor, frenesí \| \| \|- \| rowspan="4"\|1997 \| Love Can Seriously Damage Your Health \| Younger Diana / Diana's daughter \|El amor perjudica seriamente la salud \|- \| Open Your Eyes \| Sofía \|Abre los ojos \|- \| Live Flesh \| Isabel Plaza Caballero \|Carne trémulaNominated — Spanish Actors Union Award for Performance in a Minor Role (Reparto Cine) \|- \| Hjørne af paradis, Et \| Doña Helena \| \|- \| rowspan="3"\|1998 \| The Girl of Your Dreams\| Macarena \|La niña de tus ojosGoya Award for Best ActressFotogramas de Plata Best Movie Actress (Mejor Actriz de Cine)Spanish Actors Union Award for Lead Performance (Protagonista Cine)Nominated — European Film Award for Best Actress \|- \|"The Hi-Lo Country" \| Josepha \| Nominated — ALMA Award for Outstanding Actress in a Feature Film \|- \| Don Juan\| Mathurine \| \|- \| 1999 \| All About My Mother\| Sister María Rosa Sanz \|Todo sobre mi madre\|- \| rowspan="2"\|2000 \| All the Pretty Horses\| Alejandra Villarreal \| \|- \| Woman on Top\| Isabella Oliveira \| \|- \| rowspan="4"\|2001 \| Blow\| Mirtha Jung \| \|- \| Don't Tempt Me\| Carmen Ramos \|Bendito infierno\|- \| Captain Corelli's Mandolin\| Pelagia \| Nominated — European Film Award - Audience Award for Best Actress \|- \| Vanilla Sky\| Sofia Serrano \| Nominated — ALMA Award for Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture \|- \|2002 \|\| Waking up in Reno\| Brenda \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\|2003 \| Fanfan la tulipe\| Adeline La Franchise \| Nominated — European Film Award - Audience Award for Best Actress \|- \| Gothika\| Chloe Sava \| \|- \| rowspan="3"\|2004 \| Head in the Clouds\| Mia \| \|- \| Don't Move\| Italia \|Non ti muovereDavid di Donatello Award for Best ActressEuropean Film Award - Audience Award for Best ActressNominated — European Film Award for Best ActressNominated — Goya Award for Best Actress \|- \| Noel\| Nina Vasquez \| \|- \| 2005 \| Sahara\| Eva Rojas \| \|- \| rowspan="3"\|2006 \| Chromophobia\| Gloria \| \|- \| Bandidas\| María Álvarez \| \|- \| Volver\| Raimunda \| European Film Award for Best ActressGoya Award for Best ActressCannes Award Best Actress shared with Carmen Maura, Lola Dueñas, Blanca Portillo, Yohana Cobo, Chus LampreaveFotogramas de Plata Best Movie Actress (Mejor Actriz de Cine)Spanish Actors Union Award for Lead Performance (Protagonista Cine)Nominated — Academy Award for Best ActressNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading RoleNominated — Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best ActressNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture DramaNominated — Satellite Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture DramaNominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Leading Female Actor \|- \| rowspan="2"\|2007 \| The Good Night\| Anna \| \|- \| Manolete\| Antoñita "Lupe" Sino \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\|2008 \| Elegy\| Consuela Castillo \| Santa Barbara International Film Festival Award for Outstanding Performer of the Year Award <small>also for Vicky Christina BarcelonaNominated — Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress - Motion Picture \|- \| Vicky Cristina Barcelona\| María Elena \| Academy Award for Best Supporting ActressBAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting RoleGoya Award for Best Supporting ActressIndependent Spirit Award for Best Supporting FemaleSanta Barbara International Film Festival Award for Outstanding Performer of the Year Award also for ElegyNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion PictureNominated — Critics Choice AwardNominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Supporting Female Actor \|- \|rowspan=3\| 2009 \| G-Force\| Juarez (voice) \| post-production\|- \| Broken Embraces\| Magdalena \| Los abrazos rotos\|- \| Nine\| Carla \| post-production\|} Other awards and nominations Blockbuster Entertainment Awards 2000 Nominated Blockbuster Entertainment Award Favorite Actress - Drama/Romance for: All the Pretty Horses (2000) Imagen Foundation Awards 2003 Creative Achievement Award MTV Movie Awards 2001 Nominated MTV Movie Award Breakthrough Female Performance for: Blow (2001) NAACP Image Awards 2006 Nominated NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture for: Volver (2006) Ondas Awards 1992 Won Ondas Film Award Best Acting (Mejor Interpretación) tied with Javier Bardem (no award category given officially). Peñíscola Comedy Film Festival 1994 Won Best Actress for: Todo es mentira'' (1994) See also List of Spanish Academy Award winners and nominees Lists of Hispanic Academy Award winners and nominees by country References External links Penélope Cruz Cannes Interview Penélope Cruz News and Photos	Penélope_Cruz \|@lemmatized penélope:8 cruz:29 sánchez:3 bear:2 april:3 well:1 know:2 spanish:16 actress:29 gather:1 critical:4 acclaim:1 young:6 film:32 jamón:8 la:9 niña:2 de:9 tus:2 ojos:4 belle:3 époque:3 also:12 star:6 several:2 american:1 blow:3 vanilla:4 sky:4 vicky:8 cristina:8 barcelona:8 perhaps:1 best:39 work:1 acclaimed:1 director:1 pedro:4 almodóvar:4 volver:4 todo:5 sobre:3 mi:3 madre:3 award:72 three:3 goya:4 two:4 european:6 cannes:3 festival:5 win:12 academy:12 support:11 bafta:4 role:10 spain:3 first:6 female:4 oscar:5 winner:4 penelope:3 hollywood:3 learn:2 new:2 language:5 early:3 life:3 alcobendas:1 madrid:2 daughter:2 encarna:1 hairdresser:1 personal:2 manager:1 eduardo:3 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3,351	David_Hume	David Hume (7 May 1711 – 25 August 1776) 26 April is Hume's birthdate in the Old Style Julian calendar, it is 7 May in New Style (Gregorian). England moved to the New Style in 1752, during Hume's liftetime. was a Scottish philosopher, economist, historian and a key figure in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment. Hume is often grouped with John Locke, George Berkeley, and a handful of others as a British Empiricist. The Empiricists: Critical Essays on Locke, Berkeley, and Hume, Margaret Atherton During Hume's lifetime, he was more famous as a historian; his six-volume History of England (London: Andrew Millar, 1754–1762). was a bestseller well into the nineteenth century and the standard work on English history for many years. Hume was heavily influenced by empiricists John Locke and George Berkeley, along with various French-speaking writers such as Pierre Bayle, and various figures on the English-speaking intellectual landscape such as Isaac Newton, Samuel Clarke, Francis Hutcheson (his teacher), and Joseph Butler (to whom he sent his first work for feedback). In the Introduction to his A Treatise of Human Nature, (New York: Dover, 2003 edition), p.xi.fn., Hume mentions "Mr Locke, Lord Shaftesbury, Dr Mandeville, Mr Hutcheson, Dr Butler, etc." as philosophers "who have begun to put the science of man on a new footing, and have engaged the attention, and excited the curiosity of the public." In the twentieth century, Hume has increasingly become a source of inspiration for those in political philosophy and economics as an early and subtle thinker in the liberal tradition, as well as an early innovator in the genre of the essay in his Essays Moral, Political, and Literary. Published in various editions, under several titles, between 1741 and 1777 in London and Edinburgh Life David Hume, originally David Home, son of Joseph Home of Chirnside, advocate, and Katherine Lady Falconer, was born on 26 April 1711 (Old Style) in a tenement on the north side of the Lawnmarket in Edinburgh. He changed his name in 1734 because the English had difficulty pronouncing 'Home' in the Scottish manner. Throughout his life Hume, who never married, spent time occasionally at his family home at Ninewells by Chirnside, Berwickshire. Hume was politically a Whig. Mossner, E. C. (2001). The life of David Hume. Oxford University Press. p. 179 Education Hume attended the University of Edinburgh at the unusually early age of twelve (possibly as young as ten) at a time when fourteen was normal. At first he considered a career in law, but came to have, in his words, "an insurmountable aversion to everything but the pursuits of Philosophy and general Learning; and while [my family] fanceyed I was poring over Voet and Vinnius, Cicero and Virgil were the Authors which I was secretly devouring." David Hume, My Own Life, in The Cambridge Companion to Hume, op.cit., p.351. He had little respect for professors, telling a friend in 1735, "there is nothing to be learned from a Professor, which is not to be met within Books." At the age of eighteen he fell in love with an outstanding lady by the name of Ruby Hoque, Hume made a philosophical discovery that opened up to him "a new Scene of Thought," which inspired him "to throw up every other Pleasure or Business to apply entirely to it". David Hume, A Kind of History of My Life, in The Cambridge Companion to Hume, ibid., p.346. He did not recount what this "Scene" was, and commentators have offered a variety of speculations. See Oliver A. Johnson, The Mind of David Hume, (University of Illinois Press, 1995), pp.8–9, for a useful presentation of varying interpretations of Hume's "scene of thought" remark. Due to this inspiration, Hume set out to spend a minimum of ten years reading and writing. He came to the verge of nervous breakdown, after which he decided to have a more active life to better continue his learning. Mossner, 193. Career As Hume's options lay between a traveling tutorship and a stool in a merchant's office, he chose the latter. In 1734, after a few months occupied with commerce in Bristol, he went to La Flèche in Anjou, France. There he had frequent discourse with the Jesuits of the College of La Flèche. As he had spent most of his savings during his four years there while writing A Treatise of Human Nature, he resolved "to make a very rigid frugality supply my deficiency of fortune, to maintain unimpaired my independency, and to regard every object as contemptible except the improvements of my talents in literature." A Kind of History of My Life, op. cit., p.352 He completed the Treatise at the age of twenty-six. Although many scholars today consider the Treatise to be Hume's most important work and one of the most important books in western philosophy, the critics in Great Britain at the time did not agree, describing it as "abstract and unintelligible." Mossner, 195. Despite the disappointment, Hume later wrote that "Being naturally of a cheerful and sanguine temper, I soon recovered from the blow and prosecuted with great ardour my studies in the country." Ibid., p.352. There, he wrote the Abstract. An Abstract of a Book lately Published; Entitled, A Treatise of Human Nature, &c. Wherein the Chief Argument of that Book is farther Illustrated and Explained, (London, 1740). Without revealing his authorship, he aimed to make his larger work more intelligible. After the publication of Essays Moral and Political in 1744, Hume applied for the Chair of Pneumatics and Moral Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh. However, the position was given to William Cleghorn, after Edinburgh ministers petitioned the town council not to appoint Hume due to his atheism. Douglas Nobbs, 'The Political Ideas of William Cleghorn, Hume's Academic Rival', in Journal of the History of Ideas, (1965), Vol. 26, No. 4: 575–586 During the 1745 Jacobite Rebellion, Hume tutored the Marquise of Annandale (1720–92), who was officially described as a "lunatic." Grant, Old and New Edinburgh in the 18th Century, (Glasgow, 1883), p.7. This engagement ended in disarray after about a year. But it was then that Hume started his great historical work The History of Great Britain, which would take fifteen years and run to over a million words, to be published in six volumes in the period between 1754 and 1762, while also involved with the Canongate Theatre. In this context, he associated with Lord Monboddo and other Scottish Enlightenment luminaries in Edinburgh. From 1746, Hume served for three years as Secretary to Lieutenant-General St Clair, and wrote Philosophical Essays Concerning Human Understanding, later published as An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. The Enquiry proved little more successful than the Treatise. Hume was charged with heresy, but he was defended by his young clerical friends, who argued that—as an atheist—he was outside the Church's jurisdiction. Despite his acquittal—and possibly due to the opposition of Thomas Reid of Aberdeen, who that year launched a Christian critique of his metaphysics—Hume failed to gain the Chair of Philosophy at the University of Glasgow. It was after returning to Edinburgh in 1752, as he wrote in My Own Life, that "the Faculty of Advocates chose me their Librarian, an office from which I received little or no emolument, but which gave me the command of a large library." Op. cit., p.353. This resource enabled him to continue historical research for The History of Great Britain. Hume achieved great literary fame as a historian. His enormous The History of Great Britain, tracing events from the Saxon kingdoms to the Glorious Revolution, was a best-seller in its day. In it, Hume presented political man as a creature of habit, with a disposition to submit quietly to established government unless confronted by uncertain circumstances. In his view, only religious difference could deflect men from their everyday lives to think about political matters. However, Hume's volume of Political Discourses (1752) was the only work he considered successful on first publication. David Hume (1776). My Own Life. Religion Tomb of David Hume in Edinburgh Hume's early essay Of Superstition and Religion laid the foundations for nearly all subsequent secular thinking about the history of religion. Critics of religion during Hume's time had to express themselves cautiously. Less than 15 years before Hume's birth, an 18-year-old University student named Thomas Aikenhead was tried, convicted, and hanged in Edinburgh for blasphemy for saying Christianity was nonsense. Hume followed the common practice of expressing his views obliquely, through characters in dialogues. He did not acknowledge authorship of Treatise until the year of his death, in 1776. Hume's essays On Suicide, On the Immortality of the Soul, and Dialogues concerning Natural Religion were not published until after his death, and even then bore neither author's nor publisher's name. Hume's atheism caused him to be passed over for many positions. Later life From 1763 to 1765, Hume was Secretary to Lord Hertford in Paris, where he was admired by Voltaire and lionised by the ladies in society. He made friends, and later fell out, with Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He wrote of his Paris life, "I really wish often for the plain roughness of The Poker Club of Edinburgh . . . to correct and qualify so much lusciousness." For a year from 1767, Hume held the appointment of Under Secretary of State for the Northern Department. In 1768, he settled in Edinburgh. James Boswell visited Hume a few weeks before his death (most likely of either bowel or liver cancer). Hume told him he sincerely believed it a "most unreasonable fancy" that there might be life after death. Boswell, J. Boswell in Extremes, 1776–1778 This meeting was dramatized in semi-fictional form for the BBC by Michael Ignatieff as Dialogue in the Dark. Hume wrote his own epitaph: "Born 1711, Died [—]. Leaving it to posterity to add the rest." It is engraved with the year of his death 1776 on the "simple Roman tomb" he prescribed, and which stands, as he wished it, on the Eastern slope of the Calton Hill overlooking his home in the New Town of Edinburgh at No. 1 St. David Street. Science of man Statue of David Hume in Edinburgh, Scotland In the introduction to A Treatise of Human Nature, Hume writes “the science of man is the only solid foundation for the other sciences,” and that the correct method for this science is “experience and observation”; i.e., the empirical method. Treatise, op.cit., p.xi. Because of this, Hume is broadly characterised as a champion of empiricism. But the form Hume’s empiricism takes is contested amongst scholars. Until quite recently, Hume was seen as a forerunner of the logical positivist movement; a form of anti-metaphysical empiricism. According to the logical positivists, unless a statement could be verified or falsified by experience, or else was true or false by definition (i.e. either tautological or contradictory), then it was meaningless (this is a summary statement of their verification principle). Hume, on this view, was a proto-positivist, who, in his philosophical writings, attempted to demonstrate how ordinary propositions about objects, causal relations, the self, and so on, are semantically equivalent to propositions about one’s experiences. See, e.g., A. J. Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, (Penguin, 2001 edition), pp.40.ff. However, many commentators have since rejected this understanding of Humean empiricism, stressing an epistemological, rather than a semantic reading of his project. See, e.g., Edward Craig, The Mind of God and the Works of Man, Ch.2; or Galen Strawson, The Secret Connexion, (Oxford: OUP, 1989); John Wright, The Sceptical Realism of David Hume, (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1983). According to this view, Hume’s empiricism consisted in the idea that it is our knowledge, and not our ability to conceive, that is restricted to what can be experienced. To be sure, Hume thought that we can form beliefs about that which extends beyond any possible experience, through the operation of faculties such as custom and the imagination, but he was skeptical about claims to knowledge on this basis. Induction The cornerstone of Hume’s epistemology is the so-called Problem of Induction: it has been argued that it is in this area of Hume’s thought that his skepticism about human powers of reason is the most pronounced. John D. Kenyon, 'Doubts about the Concept of Reason', in Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume, Vol. 59, (1985), 249–267. Understanding the problem of induction, then, is central to grasping Hume’s general philosophical system. The problem concerns the explanation of how we are able to make inductive inferences. Inductive inference is reasoning from the observed behaviour of objects to their behaviour when unobserved; as Hume says, it is a question of how things behave when they go “beyond the present testimony of the senses, and the records of our memory.” Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, op.cit., p.108. Hume notices that we tend to believe that things behave in a regular manner; i.e., that patterns in the behaviour of objects will persist into the future, and throughout the unobserved present (this persistence of regularities is sometimes called the Principle of the Uniformity of Nature). Hume’s argument is that we cannot rationally justify the claim that nature will continue to be uniform, as justification comes in only two varieties, and both of these are inadequate. The two sorts are: (1) demonstrative reasoning, and (2) probable reasoning. These are Hume’s terms. It has been argued that, in modern parlance, demonstration is deductive reasoning, and probability is inductive reasoning: see Dr. Peter J. R. Millican’s D.Phil thesis, Hume, Induction and Probability With regard to (1), Hume argues that the uniformity principle cannot be demonstrated, as it is “consistent and conceivable” that nature might stop being regular. See Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, op.cit., p.111. Turning to (2), Hume argues that we cannot hold that nature will continue to be uniform because it has been in the past, as this is using the very sort of reasoning (induction) that is under question: it would be circular reasoning. See ibid., p.115. Thus no form of justification will rationally warrant our inductive inferences. Hume’s solution to this skeptical problem is to argue that, rather than reason, it is natural instinct that explains our ability to make inductive inferences. He asserts that “Nature, by an absolute and uncountroulable necessity has determin'd us to judge as well as to breathe and feel”. Although many modern commentators have demurred from Hume’s solution, some have concurred with it, seeing his analysis of our epistemic predicament as a major contribution to the theory of knowledge: here, for example, is the Oxford Professor John D. Kenyon: “Reason might manage to raise a doubt about the truth of a conclusion of natural inductive inference just for a moment in the study, but the forces of nature will soon overcome that artificial skepticism, and the sheer agreeableness of animal faith will protect us from excessive caution and sterile suspension of belief.” Doubts about the Concept of Reason, op.cit., p.254. Causation The notion of causation is closely linked to the problem of induction. According to Hume, we reason inductively by associating constantly conjoined events, and it is the mental act of association that is the basis of our concept of causation. There are three main interpretations of Hume's theory of causation represented in the literature: (1) the logical positivist; (2) the skeptical realist; and (3) the quasi-realist. The logical positivist interpretation is that Hume analyses causal propositions, such as "A caused B," in terms of regularities in perception: "A caused B" is equivalent to "Whenever A-type events happen, B-type ones follow," where "whenever" refers to all possible perceptions. For this account of Hume's views on causation, see Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, op.cit., p.40–42. power and necessity... are... qualities of perceptions, not of objects... felt by the soul and not perceived externally in bodies Treatise, op.cit., p.168 This view is rejected by skeptical realists, who argue that Hume thought that causation amounts to more than just the regular succession of events. See Edward Craig, op. cit.; Galen Strawson, op. cit.; and John Wright, op. cit. When two events are causally conjoined, there is a necessary connection which underpins the conjunction: Shall we rest contented with these two relations of contiguity and succession? By no means… there is a NECESSARY CONNEXION to be taken into consideration. Treatise, op.cit., p.56 Hume held that we have no perceptual access to the necessary connection (hence skepticism), but we are naturally compelled to believe in its objective existence (hence realism). It has been argued that, whilst Hume did not think causation is reducible to pure regularity, he was not a fully fledged realist either: Professor Simon Blackburn calls this a quasi-realist reading. See S. Blackburn, ‘Hume and Thick Connexions,’ in Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, Vol. 50, Supplement. (Autumn, 1990), pp. 237–250. On this view, talk about causal necessity is an expression of a functional change in the human mind, whereby certain events are predicted or anticipated on the basis of prior experience. The expression of causal necessity is a “projection” of the functional change onto the objects involved in the causal connection: in Hume’s words, “nothing is more usual than to apply to external bodies every internal sensation which they occasion.” Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. op.cit., p.147, fn.17. The self According to the standard interpretation of Hume on personal identity, he was a Bundle Theorist, who held that the self is nothing but a bundle of interconnected perceptions linked by relations of similarity and causality; or, more accurately, that our idea of the self is just the idea of such a bundle. This view is forwarded by, for example, positivist interpreters, who saw Hume as suggesting that terms such as “self”, “person”, or "mind" referred to collections of “sense-contents”. See, e.g., A. J. Ayer’s account of Hume on the self, in Language, Truth and Logic, op.cit., p.135–6. A modern-day version of the bundle theory of the mind has been advanced by Derek Parfit in his Reasons and Persons. However, some philosophers have criticised the bundle-theory interpretation of Hume on personal identity. It is argued that distinct selves can have perceptions which stand in relations of similarity and causality with one another. Thus perceptions must already come parcelled into distinct "bundles" before they can be associated according to the relations of similarity and causality: in other words, the mind must already possess a unity that cannot be generated, or constituted, by these relations alone. Since the bundle-theory interpretation attributes Hume with answering an ontological or conceptual question, philosophers who see Hume as not very concerned with such questions have queried whether the view is really Hume's, or "only a decoy". See E. J. Craig, op.cit, Ch.2., for this criticism. Instead, it is suggested, Hume might have been answering an epistemological question, about the causal origin of our concept of the self. Practical reason Hume's anti-rationalism informed much of his theory of belief and knowledge, in his treatment of the notions of induction, causation, and the external world. But it was not confined to this sphere, and permeated just as strongly his theories of motivation, action, and morality. In a famous sentence in the Treatise, Hume circumscribes reason's role in the production of action: Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them. Treatise, p. 295. It has been suggested that this position can be lucidly brought out through the metaphor of "direction of fit": beliefs — the paradigmatic products of reason — are propositional attitudes that aim to have their content fit the world; conversely, desires — or what Hume calls passions, or sentiments — are states that aim to fit the world to their contents. The metaphor of direction of fit in this sense has been traced back to Elizabeth Anscombe's work on intention: Intention (2nd Edition), (1963, Oxford: Basil Blackwell). Though a metaphor, it has been argued that this intuitive way of understanding Hume's theory that desires are necessary for motivation "captures something quite deep in our thought about their nature". M. Smith, 'The Humean Theory of Motivation', Mind, New Series, Vol. 96, No. 381 (Jan., 1987), pp. 36–61. Hume's anti-rationalism has been very influential, and defended in contemporary philosophy of action by neo-Humeans such as Michael Smith M. Smith, ibid. and Simon Blackburn S. Blackburn, 'Practical Tortoise Raising', Mind, New Series, Vol. 104, No. 416 (Oct., 1995), pp. 695–711. The major opponents of the Humean view are cognitivists about what it is to act for a reason, such as John McDowell, J. McDowell, 'Non-Cognitivism and Rule-Following', in S. Holtzman and C. Leich, Wittgenstein: To Follow A Rule, (1981, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul). and Kantians, such as Christine Korsgaard. C. Korsgaard, 'Scepticism about Practical Reason', The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 83, No. 1 (Jan., 1986), pp. 5–25. Ethics Hume's views on human motivation and action formed the cornerstone of his ethical theory: he conceived moral or ethical sentiments to be intrinsically motivating, or the providers of reasons for action. Given that one cannot be motivated by reason alone, requiring the input of the passions, Hume argued that reason cannot be behind morality Morals excite passions, and produce or prevent actions. Reason itself is utterly impotent in this particular. The rules of morality, therefore, are not conclusions of our reason. Treatise, op. cit., p. 325. (See also is-ought problem.) Hume's sentimentalism about morality was shared by his close friend Adam Smith, Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), ed. K. Haakonssen, (Cambridge: CUP, 2002). and Hume and Smith were mutually influenced by the moral reflections of Francis Hutcheson. For Hutcheson's influence on Hume, see footnote 7. For his influence on Smith, see William L. Taylor, Francis Hutcheson and David Hume as Predecessors of Adam Smith, (Durham: Duke University Press, 1965). Hume's theory of ethics has been incredibly influential in modern day ethical theory, inspiring various forms of emotivism (see the work of A. J. Ayer Language, Truth and Logic, ch.6. and C. L. Stevenson Ethics and Language (1944), (Yale: Yale UP, 1960). ), error theory (see John Mackie's Ethics Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong (1977), (Penguin, 1990). ) and ethical expressivism and non-cognitivism (see the work of Simon Blackburn Ruling Passions: A Theory of Practical Reasoning, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998) and Alan Gibbard Wise Choices, Apt Feelings: A Theory of Normative Judgment, (Harvard: Harvard UP, 1990). ). Free will, determinism, and responsibility Hume, along with Thomas Hobbes, is cited as a classical compatibilist about the notions of freedom and determinism. See the Stanford Encyclopedia entry on Compatibilism. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/compatibilism/#3 The thesis of compatibilism seeks to reconcile human freedom with the mechanist belief that human beings are part of a deterministic universe, whose happenings are governed by the laws of physics. Hume argued that the dispute about the compatibility of freedom and determinism has been kept afloat by ambiguous terminology: From this circumstance alone, that a controversy has been long kept on foot... we may presume, that there is some ambiguity in the expression. Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, op. cit., p. 148. Hume defines the concepts of "necessity" and "liberty" as follows: Necessity: "the uniformity, observable in the operations of nature; where similar objects are constantly conjoined together..." Ibid., p. 149. Liberty: "a power of acting or not acting, according to the determinations of the will..." Ibid., p.159. Hume then argues that, according to these definitions, not only are the two compatible, but Liberty requires Necessity. For if our actions were not necessitated in the above sense, they would "have so little in connexion [sic] with motives, inclinations and circumstances, that one does not follow with a certain degree of uniformity from the other". But if our actions are not thus hooked up to the will, then our actions can never be free: they would be matters of "chance; which is universally allowed not to exist." Ibid., p.159. Moreover, Hume goes on to argue that in order to be held morally responsible, it is required that our behaviour be caused, i.e. necessitated, for Actions are, by their very nature, temporary and perishing; and where they proceed not from some cause in the character and disposition of the person who performed them, they can neither redound to his honour, if good; nor infamy, if evil." Ibid., p. 161. This argument has inspired modern day commentators. See, e.g., R. E. Hobart, ‘Free Will as Involving Determination and Inconceivable Without It’, Mind 43 (1934), pp. 1–27. However, it has been argued that the issue of whether or not we hold one another morally responsible does not ultimately depend on the truth or falsity of a metaphysical thesis such as determinism, for our so holding one another is a non-rational human sentiment that is not predicated on such theses. For this influential argument, which is still made in a Humean vein, see P. F. Strawson's essay, Freedom and Resentment. First published in 1962 and reprinted in Gary Watson, ed., Free Will (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 59–80; second edition 2003. The problem of miracles In his discussion of miracles in An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding (Section 10) Hume defines a miracle as "a transgression of a law of nature by a particular volition of the Deity, or by the interposition of some invisible agent." Given that Hume argues that it is impossible to deduce the existence of a Deity from the existence of the world (for he says that causes cannot be determined from effects), miracles (including prophesy) are the only possible support he would conceivably allow for theistic religions. Hume discusses everyday belief as often resulted from probability, where we believe an event that has occurred most often as being most likely, but that we also subtract the weighting of the less common event from that of the more common event. In the context of miracles, this means that a miraculous event should be labelled a miracle only where it would be even more unbelievable (by principles of probability) for it not to be. Hume mostly discusses miracles as testimony, of which he writes that when a person reports a marvellous event we [need to] balance our belief in their veracity against our belief that such events do not occur. Following this rule, only where it is considered, as a result of experience, less likely that the testimony is false than that a miracle occur should we believe in miracles. Although Hume leaves open the possibility for miracles to occur and be reported, he offers various arguments against this ever having happened in history: Hume, D (1748), ’Of miracles‘, in Enquiry concerning human understanding, LA Selby-Bigge (ed.), 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, (1902), Section X, pp.116-122. People often lie, and they have good reasons to lie about miracles occurring either because they believe they are doing so for the benefit of their religion or because of the fame that results. People by nature enjoy relating miracles they have heard without caring for their veracity and thus miracles are easily transmitted even where false. Hume notes that miracles seem to occur mostly in "ignorant" and "barbarous" nations and times, and the reason they don't occur in the "civilized" societies is such societies aren't awed by what they know to be natural events. The miracles of each religion argue against all other religions and their miracles, and so even if a proportion of all reported miracles across the world fit Hume's requirement for belief, the miracles of each religion make the other less likely. Despite all this Hume observes that belief in miracles is popular, and that "The gazing populace receive greedily, without examination, whatever soothes superstition and promotes wonder." Critics have argued that Hume's position assumes the character of miracles and natural laws prior to any specific examination of miracle claims, and thus it amounts to a subtle form of begging the question. They have also noted that it requires an appeal to inductive inference, as none have observed every part of nature or examined every possible miracle claim (e.g., those yet future to the observer), which in Hume's philosophy was especially problematic (see above). The design argument One of the oldest and most popular arguments for the existence of God is the design argument — that all the order and 'purpose' in the world bespeaks a divine origin. Hume gave the classic criticism of the design argument in Dialogues concerning Natural Religion and An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding. Here are some of his points: For the design argument to be feasible, it must be true that order and purpose are observed only when they result from design. But order is observed regularly, resulting from presumably mindless processes like snowflake or crystal generation. Design accounts for only a tiny part of our experience with order and "purpose". Furthermore, the design argument is based on an incomplete analogy: because of our experience with objects, we can recognise human-designed ones, comparing for example a pile of stones and a brick wall. But to point to a designed Universe, we would need to have an experience of a range of different universes. As we only experience one, the analogy cannot be applied. We must ask therefore if it is right to compare the world to a machine — as in Paley's watchmaker argument — when perhaps it would be better described as a giant inert animal. Even if the design argument is completely successful, it could not (in and of itself) establish a robust theism; one could easily reach the conclusion that the universe's configuration is the result of some morally ambiguous, possibly unintelligent agent or agents whose method bears only a remote similarity to human design. In this way it could be asked if the designer was God, or further still, who designed the designer? If a well-ordered natural world requires a special designer, then God's mind (being so well-ordered) also requires a special designer. And then this designer would likewise need a designer, and so on ad infinitum. We could respond by resting content with an inexplicably self-ordered divine mind but then why not rest content with an inexplicably self-ordered natural world? Often, what appears to be purpose, where it looks like object X has feature F in order to secure outcome O, is better explained by a filtering process: that is, object X wouldn't be around did it not possess feature F, and outcome O is only interesting to us as a human projection of goals onto nature. This mechanical explanation of teleology anticipated natural selection. (see also Anthropic principle) The design argument does not explain pain, suffering, and natural disasters. See Problem of evil. Political theory Many regard David Hume as a political conservative, sometimes calling him the first conservative philosopher . This is not strictly accurate, if the term conservative is understood in any modern sense. His thought contains elements that are, in modern terms, both conservative and liberal, as well as ones that are both contractarian and utilitarian, though these terms are all anachronistic. His central concern is to show the importance of the rule of law, and stresses throughout his political Essays the importance of moderation in politics. This outlook needs to be seen within the historical context of eighteenth century Scotland, where the legacy of religious civil war, combined with the relatively recent memory of the 1715 and 1745 Jacobite risings, fostered in a historian such as Hume a distaste for enthusiasm and factionalism that appeared to threaten the fragile and nascent political and social stability of a country that was deeply politically and religiously divided. He thinks that society is best governed by a general and impartial system of laws, based principally on the "artifice" of contract; he is less concerned about the form of government that administers these laws, so long as it does so fairly (though he thought that republics were more likely to do so than monarchies). Hume expressed suspicion of attempts to reform society in ways that departed from long-established custom, and he counselled people not to resist their governments except in cases of the most egregious tyranny. However, he resisted aligning himself with either of Britain's two political parties, the Whigs and the Tories, and he believed that we should try to balance our demands for liberty with the need for strong authority, without sacrificing either. He supported liberty of the press, and was sympathetic to democracy, when suitably constrained. It has been argued that he was a major inspiration for James Madison's writings, and the Federalist No. 10 in particular. He was also, in general, an optimist about social progress, believing that, thanks to the economic development that comes with the expansion of trade, societies progress from a state of "barbarism" to one of "civilisation". Civilised societies are open, peaceful and sociable, and their citizens are as a result much happier. It is therefore not fair to characterise him, as Leslie Stephen did, as favouring "that stagnation which is the natural ideal of a skeptic". (Leslie Stephen, History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, 2 vols. (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1876), vol. 2, 185.) Though it has been suggested Hume had no positive vision of the best society, he in fact produced an essay titled Idea of a Perfect Commonwealth, which lays out what he thought was the best form of government. His pragmatism shone through, however, in his caveat that we should only seek to implement such a system should an opportunity present itself, which would not upset established structures. He defended a strict separation of powers, decentralisation, extending the franchise to anyone who held property of value and limiting the power of the clergy. The Swiss militia system was proposed as the best form of protection. Elections were to take place on an annual basis and representatives were to be unpaid. Contributions to economic thought Through his discussions on politics, Hume developed many ideas that are prevalent in the field of economics. This includes ideas on private property, inflation, and foreign trade. Robbins, Lionel A History of Economic Thought: The LSE Lectures edited by Medema and Samuels. Ch 11 and 12 Hume does not believe, as Locke does, that private property is a natural right, but he argues that it is justified since resources are limited. If all goods were unlimited and available freely, then private property would not be justified, but instead becomes an "idle ceremonial". Hume also believed in unequal distribution of property, since perfect equality would destroy the ideas of thrift and industry, which leads to impoverishment. Hume, David An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751) Hume did not believe that foreign trade produced specie, but considered trade a stimulus for a country’s economic growth. He did not consider the volume of world trade as fixed because countries can feed off their neighbors' wealth, being part of a "prosperous community". The fall in foreign demand is not that fatal, because in the long run, a country cannot preserve a leading trading position. Hume was among the first to develop automatic price-specie flow, an idea that contrasts with the mercantile system. Simply put, when a country increases its in-flow of gold, this in-flow of gold will result in price inflation, and then price inflation will force out countries from trading that would have traded before the inflation. This results in a decrease of the in-flow of gold in the long run. Hume also proposed a theory of beneficial inflation. He believed that increasing the money supply would raise production in the short run. This phenomenon would be caused by a gap between the increase in the money supply and that of the price level. The result is that prices will not rise at first and may not rise at all. This theory was later developed by John Maynard Keynes. As historian of England Between Hume's death and 1894, there were at least 50 editions of his 6-volume History of England, a work of immense sweep. The subtitle tells us as much, "From the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688." There was also an often-reprinted abridgement, The Student’s Hume (1859). Hume's history was that of a Tory, in sharp contrast to the Whiggish works then prevailing. Another remarkable feature of the series was that it widened the focus of history, away from merely Kings, Parliaments, and armies, including literature and science as well. Works A Kind of History of My Life (1734) Mss 23159 National Library of Scotland. A letter to an unnamed physician, asking for advice about "the Disease of the Learned" that then afflicted him. Here he reports that at the age of eighteen "there seem'd to be open'd up to me a new Scene of Thought… " which made him "throw up every other Pleasure or Business" and turned him to scholarship. A Treatise of Human Nature: Being an Attempt to introduce the experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects. (1739–40) Hume intended to see whether the Treatise met with success, and if so to complete it with books devoted to Politics and Criticism. However, it did not meet with success (as Hume himself said, "It fell dead-born from the press, without reaching such distinction as even to excite a murmur among the zealots"), and so was not completed. An Abstract of a Book lately Published: Entitled A Treatise of Human Nature etc. (1740) Anonymously published, but almost certainly written by Hume in an attempt to popularise his Treatise. Of considerable philosophical interest, because it spells out what he considered "The Chief Argument" of the Treatise, in a way that seems to anticipate the structure of the Enquiry concerning Human Understanding. Essays Moral and Political (first ed. 1741–2 A collection of pieces written and published over many years, though most were collected together in 1753–4. Many of the essays are focused on topics in politics and economics, though they also range over questions of aesthetic judgement, love, marriage and polygamy, and the demographics of ancient Greece and Rome, to name just a few of the topics considered. The Essays show some influence from Addison's Tatler and The Spectator, which Hume read avidly in his youth. A Letter from a Gentleman to His Friend in Edinburgh: Containing Some Observations on a Specimen of the Principles concerning Religion and Morality, said to be maintain'd in a Book lately publish'd, intituled A Treatise of Human Nature etc. Edinburgh (1745). Contains a letter written by Hume to defend himself against charges of atheism and scepticism, while applying for a Chair at Edinburgh University. An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding (1748) Contains reworking of the main points of the Treatise, Book 1, with the addition of material on free will (adapted from Book 2), miracles, the Design Argument, and mitigated scepticism. Of Miracles section X of the Enquiry, often published separately An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751) A reworking of material from Book 3 of the Treatise, on morality, but with a significantly different emphasis. Hume regarded this as the best of all his philosophical works, both in its philosophical ideas and in its literary style. Political Discourses, (part II of Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary within vol. 1 of the larger Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects) Edinburgh (1752). Included in Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects (1753–6) reprinted 1758–77. Political Discourses/Discours politiques (1752-1758), My ovn life (1776), Of Essay writing, 1742. Bilingual English-French (translated by Fabien Grandjean). Mauvezin, France, Trans-Europ-Repress, 1993, 22 cm, V-260 p. Bibliographic notes, index. Four Dissertations London (1757). Included in reprints of Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects (above). The History of England (Originally titled The History of Great Britain) (1754–62) Freely available in six vols. from the On Line Library of Liberty. Online Library of Liberty — The History of England, 6 vols More a category of books than a single work, Hume's history spanned "from the invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution of 1688" and went through over 100 editions. Many considered it the standard history of England until Thomas Macaulay's History of England. The Natural History of Religion (1757) "My Own Life" (1776) Penned in April, shortly before his death, this autobiography was intended for inclusion in a new edition of "Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects". It was first published by Adam Smith who claimed that by doing so he had incurred "ten times more abuse than the very violent attack I had made upon the whole commercial system of Great Britain". (Ernest Campbell Mossner, The Life of David Hume) Dialogues concerning Natural Religion (1779) Published posthumously by his nephew, David Hume the Younger. Being a discussion among three fictional characters concerning the nature of God, and is an important portrayal of the argument from design. Despite some controversy, most scholars agree that the view of Philo, the most sceptical of the three, comes closest to Hume's own. William Crouch, "Which character is Hume in the "Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion"?" Hume's Influence Attention to Hume's philosophical works grew after the German philosopher Immanuel Kant credited Hume with awakening him from "dogmatic slumbers" (circa 1770). According to Schopenhauer, "There is more to be learned from each page of David Hume than from the collected philosophical works of Hegel, Herbart, and Schleiermacher taken together." The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 2, Ch. 46 A. J. Ayer (1936), introducing his classic exposition of logical positivism, claimed: "the views which are put forward in this treatise derive from the logical outcome of the empiricism of Berkeley and Hume". A. J. Ayer (1936). Language, Truth and Logic. London. Albert Einstein (1915) wrote that he was inspired by Hume's positivism when formulating his Special Theory of Relativity. Hume was called "the prophet of the Wittgensteinian revolution" by N. Phillipson, referring to his view that mathematics and logic are closed systems, disguised tautologies, and have no relation to the world of experience. Phillipson, N. (1989). Hume, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London. David Fate Norton (1993) asserted that Hume was "the first post-sceptical philosopher of the early modern period". Norton, D. F. (ed.) (1993). The Cambridge Companion to Hume, Cambridge University Press, pp. 90–116. See also Hume's principle Hume's Law The Missing Shade of Blue Liberalism Contributions to liberal theory Hume's fork Scientific scepticism Age of reason Human science Footnotes and references Footnotes References Anderson, R. F. (1966). Hume’s First Principles, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln. Ayer, A. J. (1936). Language, Truth and Logic. London. Bongie, L. L. (1998) David Hume — Prophet of the Counter-Revolution. Liberty Fund, Indianapolis, Broackes, Justin (1995). Hume, David, in Ted Honderich (ed.) The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, New York, Oxford University Press, Daiches D., Jones P., Jones J. (eds )The Scottish Enlightenment: 1730–1790 A Hotbed of Genius The University of Edinburgh, 1986. In paperback, The Saltire Society, 1996 ISBN 0-85411-069-0 Einstein, A. (1915) Letter to Moritz Schlick, Schwarzschild, B. (trans. & ed.) in The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, vol. 8A, R. Schulmann, A. J. Fox, J. Illy, (eds.) Princeton U. Press, Princeton, NJ (1998), p. 220. Flew, A. (1986). David Hume: Philosopher of Moral Science, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. Fogelin, R. J. (1993). Hume’s scepticism. In Norton, D. F. (ed.) (1993). The Cambridge Companion to Hume, Cambridge University Press, pp. 90–116. Garfield, Jay L. (1995) The Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way Oxford University Press Graham, R. (2004). The Great Infidel — A Life of David Hume. John Donald, Edinburgh. Harwood, Sterling (1996). "Moral Sensibility Theories," in The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Supplement) (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.). Hume, D. (EHU) (1777). An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding. Nidditch, P. N. (ed.), 3rd. ed. (1975), Clarendon Press, Oxford. Hume, D. (1751). An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals. David Hume, Essays Moral, Political, and Literary edited with preliminary dissertations and notes by T.H. Green and T.H. Grose, 1:1-8. London: Longmans, Green 1907. Hume, D. (1740). A Treatise of Human Nature (1967, edition). Oxford University Press, Oxford. Hume, D. (1752-1758). Political Discourses Bilingual English-French (translated by Fabien Grandjean). Mauvezin, France, Trans-Europ-Repress, 1993, 22 cm, V-260 p. Bibliographic notes, index. Husserl, E. (1970). The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology, Carr, D. (trans.), Northwestern University Press, Evanston. Kolakowski, L. (1968). The Alienation of Reason: A History of Positivist Thought, Doubleday, Garden City. Morris, William Edward, David Hume, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) Norton, D. F. (1993). Introduction to Hume’s thought. In Norton, D. F. (ed.), (1993). The Cambridge Companion to Hume, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–32. Penelhum, T. (1993). Hume’s moral philosophy. In Norton, D. F. (ed.), (1993). The Cambridge Companion to Hume, Cambridge University Press, pp. 117–147. Phillipson, N. (1989). Hume, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London. Popkin, Richard H. (1993) "Sources of Knowledge of Sextus Empiricus in Hume's Time" Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 54, No. 1. (Jan., 1993), pp. 137–141. Popkin, R. & Stroll, A. (1993) Philosophy. Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd, Oxford. Popper. K. (1960). Knowledge without authority. In Miller D. (ed.), (1983). Popper, Oxford, Fontana, pp. 46–57. Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy (2003). Introducing Political Philosophy. Icon Books. ISBN 1-84046-450-X. Russell, B. (1946). A History of Western Philosophy. London, Allen and Unwin. Robbins, Lionel (1998). A History of Economic Thought: The LSE Lectures. Edited by Steven G. Medema and Warren J. Samuels. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Spiegel, Henry William,(1991). The Growth of Economic Thought, 3rd Ed., Durham: Duke University Press. Stroud, B. (1977). Hume, Routledge, London & New York. Taylor, A. E. (1927). David Hume and the Miraculous, Leslie Stephen Lecture. Cambridge, pp. 53–4. Further reading Ardal, Pall (1966). Passion and Value in Hume's Treatise. Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press. Beauchamp, Tom and Rosenberg, Alexander, Hume and the Problem of Causation New York, Oxford University Press, 1981. Ernest Campbell Mossner. The Life of David Hume. Oxford University Press, 1980. (The standard biography.) Peter Millican. Critical Survey of the Literature on Hume and his First Enquiry. (Surveys around 250 books and articles on Hume and related topics.) David Fate Norton. David Hume: Commonsense Moralist, Skeptical Metaphysician. Princeton University Press, 1978. Garrett, Don (1996). Cognition and Commitment in Hume's Philosophy. New York & Oxford, Oxford University Press. J.C.A. Gaskin. Hume's Philosophy of Religion. Humanities Press International, 1978. Norman Kemp Smith.The Philosophy of David Hume. Macmillan, 1941. (Still enormously valuable.) Frederick Rosen, Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill (Routledge Studies in Ethics & Moral Theory), 2003. ISBN 0415220947 Russell, Paul (1995). Freedom and Moral Sentiment: Hume's Way of Naturalizing Responsibility. New York & Oxford, Oxford University Press. Russell, Paul (2008). The Riddle of Hume's Treatise: Skepticism, Naturalism and Irreligion New York & Oxford, Oxford University Press. Stroud, B. (1977). Hume, Routledge, London & New York. (Complete study of Hume's work parting from the interpretation of Hume's naturalistic philosophical programme). Hesselberg, A. Kenneth (1961). Hume, Natural Law and Justice. Duquesne Review Gilles Deleuze, Empirisme et subjectivité. Essai sur la Nature Humaine selon Hume (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1953) trans. Empiricism and Subjectivity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991) External links Online editions of Hume's work: David Hume at the Online Library of Liberty Works by David Hume in audio format at LibriVox Books by David Hume at the Online Books Page , biography and discussion of Hume by T.H. Huxley David Hume resources including books, articles, and encyclopedia entries Hume Society, an international scholarly society David Hume at James Boswell — a Guide 'Easier-to-read' versions of most of Hume's philosophical works by Jonathan Bennett David Hume Bibliography A Bibliography of Hume's Early Writings and Early Responses "A play reading at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe regarding Humes life and legacy" A podcast interview of Stewart Sutherland discussing Hume on the Argument from Design A podcast interview of Peter Millican discussing Hume's Significance 'The Empiricist Turn', a lecture on Hume's arguments against the existence of God given by Professor Keith Ward at Gresham College, 14 February 2008 [available for free audio, video or text download].	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3,352	Messiah	This article is about the concept of a Messiah in religion, notably in the Christian, Islamic and Jewish traditions. For other uses, see Messiah (disambiguation). Messiah (; in modern Jewish texts in English sometimes spelled Moshiach; Aramaic: , Syriac: , , , , Latin: Messias) literally means "anointed (one)". In Jewish messianic tradition and eschatology, messiah refers to a future King of Israel from the Davidic line, who will rule the people of united tribes of Israel Megillah 17b-18a, Taanit 8b , and herald the Messianic Age Sotah 9a of global peace. In Standard Hebrew, The Messiah is often referred to as מלך המשיח, (in the Tiberian vocalization pronounced ), literally meaning "the Anointed King." Christians believe that prophecies in the Hebrew Bible refer to a spiritual savior, partly evidenced in passages from the Isaiah (NIV) "Therefore the Lord himself will give you a sign: The virgin will be with child and will give birth to a son, and will call him Immanuel." and Isaiah (NIV) "But he was pierced for our transgressions, he was crushed for our iniquities; the punishment that brought us peace was upon him, and by his wounds we are healed." , and believe Jesus to be that Messiah (Christ). The (Greek) Septuagint version of the Old Testament renders all thirty-nine instances of the Hebrew word for anointed () as Khristós (Χριστός) Etymology Online . The New Testament records the Greek transliteration Μεσσίας, Messias, twice, in John and . In Islam, Isa (Jesus) is also called the Messiah (Masih), Arabic for Messiah but like in Judaism he is not considered to be the literal physical Son of God. Judaism The concept of the messiah is neither common nor unified in the Tanakh. The term is used in the Hebrew Bible to describe Israelite priests, prophets, and kings who were anointed with oil in consecration to their respective offices. For example, Cyrus the Great, the king of Persia, is referred to as "God's anointed" (Messiah) in the Bible. As explained by Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan, online here The Hebrew word for “Messiah” is “Moshiach” The literal and proper translation of this word is “anointed,” which refers to a ritual of anointing and consecrating someone or something with oil. (I Samuel 10:1-2) It is used throughout the Jewish Bible in reference to a wide variety of individuals and objects; for example, a Jewish king (I Kings 1:39), Jewish priests (Leviticus 4:3), prophets (Isaiah 61:1), the Jewish Temple and its utensils (Exodus 40:9-11), unleavened bread (Numbers 6:15), and a non-Jewish king (Cyrus king of Persia, Isaiah 45:1). The Tanakh contains a number (the number is debated) of prophecies concerning a future descendant of King David who will be anointed as the Jewish people's new leader (moshiach). Rabbi Kaplan states: To the Jew, the Messiah has a most important mission, namely to bring the world back to G-d, and make it a place of peace, justice and harmony. When Jesus failed to accomplish this, the early Christians had to radically alter the very concept of the Messiah. This, in turn, transformed Christianity from another Jewish Messianic sect into a religion that is quite alien to many basic Jewish teachings. online here . Jews believe that Daniel (Hebrew: דָּנִיֵּאל, or Daniyyel) was a prophet and gave an indication of when the Messiah, the prince mashiyach nagiyd, would come.() Daniel's prophecies refer to him as a descendant of King David who will rebuild the nation of Israel, destroy the wicked, and ultimately judge the whole world. As noted above, the Hebrew word for messiah translates to "anointed". See, e.g., Etymology Online Reform Jews believe there have been many messiahs—all the anointed kings and priests, including David, Solomon, Aaron, and Saul. Saul, the first king, is designated the "Anointed of the Lord". Israel H. Levinthal, Judaism: An Analysis and an Interpretation When speaking of the Messiah of the future, modern Jews speak of two potential messiahs: Moshiach ben Yossef (Messiah son of Joseph) and Moshiach ben David (Messiah son of David) Tutorial: Moshiach Ben Yossef (Moshiach.com) The Hebrew ben can mean either son or descendant. In this sense it can also mean "in the manner of," i.e., there will be a "suffering servant" messiah in the manner of Joseph, son of Israel/Jacob, and a different messiah in the manner of King David. A common modern rabbinic interpretation is that there is a potential messiah in every generation. The Talmud, which often uses stories to make a moral point (aggadah), tells of a highly respected rabbi who found the Messiah at the gates of Rome and asked him, "When will you finally come?" He was quite surprised when he was told, "Today." Overjoyed and full of anticipation, the man waited all day. The next day he returned, disappointed and puzzled, and asked, "You said messiah would come 'today' but he didn't come! What happened?" The Messiah replied, "Scripture says, 'Today, 'if you will but hearken to His voice.'" (Psalm ) Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism believe in a unique future physical messiah who will usher in the messianic age of war before peace to the world. Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism teach both the belief in a messiah or messiahs, or that there will be a time of peace (Messianic Era), etc. They believe such time will be the result of human efforts at tikkun olam (repair of the world) through working on social justice, not from one man alone. "Choice is the underlying reason the Reform Movement gave up the need for and belief in a single messiah who would one day bring judgment, and perhaps salvation, to the world. The fact that God imbues us with free choice mitigates the need for a messianic figure." Schwartzman, 2004 Christianity Christianity emerged in or around the year 30 AD as a movement among Jews and their Gentile converts who believed that Jesus was the Messiah; the very name of "Christian" refers to the Greek word for 'Messiah': Khristos (χριστος). Christians commonly refer to Jesus as either the "Christ" or the "Messiah;" in Christian theology the two words are synonymous. Christians believe Jesus to be the Messiah that Jews were expecting: The first thing Andrew did was to find his brother Simon and tell him, "We have found the Messiah" (that is, the Christ). And he brought him to Jesus. () However, the Christian concept of the Christ/Messiah as "the Word made Flesh" is fundamentally different from the Jewish and Islamic in that the majority of historical and mainline Christian theologies, as seen within the Nicene Creed, consider Jesus to be God. In Christian theology, the Christ/Messiah serves four main functions: Ankerberg & Weldon, pp. 218-223 He suffers and dies to make atonement before God for the sins of all humanity, because His justice requires that sins be punished, according to Penal substitution theology. See for examples and , which Christianity interprets as referring to Jesus. He serves as the pioneer, embodiment of the culture and living presence of the kingdom of God He will establish peace and rule the world for a long time. See Nicene Creeds of 325 and 381 A.D.; : "And I saw thrones, and they sat upon them, and judgment was given unto them: and I saw the souls of them that were beheaded for the witness of Jesus, and for the word of God, and which had not worshipped the beast, neither his image, neither had received his mark upon their foreheads, or in their hands; and they lived and reigned with Christ a thousand years. But the rest of the dead lived not again until the thousand years were finished. This is the first resurrection. Blessed and holy is he that hath part in the first resurrection: on such the second death hath no power, but they shall be priests of God and of Christ, and shall reign with him a thousand years." (see Millennialism). He is the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob and he came to earth as a human. John 1:1-2,14a: 1. In the beginning was the Word and the Word was with God and the Word was God. 2. He was with God in the beginning. 14a The Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us. John 8:58: "Very truly I tell you," Jesus answered, "before Abraham was born, I am."In the New Testament, Jesus often referred to himself as 'Son of Man' (; ), which Christianity interprets as a reference to (KJV): "I saw in the night visions, and, behold, one like the Son of man came with the clouds of heaven, and came to the Ancient of days, and they brought him near before him. And there was given him dominion, and glory, and a kingdom, that all people, nations, and languages, should serve him: his dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away, and his kingdom that which shall not be destroyed." Because Christians believe that Jesus is the Messiah, and that he claimed to be the Son of Man referred to by Daniel, Christianity interprets as a statement of the Messiah's authority and that the Messiah will have an everlasting kingdom. Jesus' use of this title is seen as a direct claim to be the Messiah. Some identified Jesus as the Messiah (), his opponents accused him of such a claim (), and he is recorded at least twice as asserting it himself directly (, . Christianity interprets a wide range of biblical passages in the Old Testament (Hebrew scripture) as predicting the coming of the Messiah (see Christianity and Biblical prophecy for examples), and believes that they are following Jesus' own explicit teaching: He said to them..."Then he said unto them, O fools, and slow of heart to believe all that the prophets have spoken: Ought not Christ to have suffered these things, and to enter into his glory? And beginning at Moses and all the prophets, he expounded unto them in all the scriptures the things concerning himself." (Luke 24: 25-27, KJV) "Then opened he their understanding, that they might understand the scriptures, And said unto them, Thus it is written, and thus it behooved Christ to suffer, and to rise from the dead the third day: And that repentance and remission of sins should be preached in his name among all nations, beginning at Jerusalem." (Luke 24:45-47, KJV). The book of Matthew repeatedly says, "This was to fulfill the prophecy…." Christianity believes many of the Messianic prophecies were fulfilled in the mission, death, and resurrection of Jesus, and seeks to spread throughout the world its interpretation that the Messiah is the only Saviour, and that Jesus will return to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy in human form. Islam The Qur'an states Jesus is the Messiah, and Muslims believe Jesus is alive in Heaven and will return to Earth to defeat the Dajjal, or Antichrist. A hadith in Abu Dawud () says: "Narrated Abu Hurayrah: The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: There is no prophet between me and him, that is, Jesus (peace be upon him). He will descend (to the earth). When you see him, recognise him: a man of medium height, reddish hair, wearing two light yellow garments, looking as if drops were falling down from his head though it will not be wet. He will fight for the cause of Islam. He will break the cross, kill swine, and abolish jizyah. God will perish all religions except Islam. He will destroy the Antichrist and will live on the earth for forty years and then he will die. The Muslims will pray behind him." Shia Muslims believe al-Mahdi will arrive first, and after him, Jesus. Jesus will proclaim that the true leader is al-Mahdi. A war, literally Jihad (Jihade Asghar) will be fought - the Dajjal (evil) against al-Mahdi and Jesus (good). This war will mark the approach of the coming of the Last Day. After Jesus slays al-Dajjāl at the Gate of Lud, Muslims believe he will marry, die, and be buried in the Masjid al Nabawi. During his life, he will have revealed that Islam is the last word of God. A hadith in Sahih Bukhari () says: "How will you be when the son of Mary descends amongst you and your Imam is from amongst you." A very few scholars outside of Orthodox Islam reject all the quotes (Hadith) attributed to Muhammad that mention the second return of Jesus, the Dajjal and Imam Mahdi, believing that they have no Qur'anic basis. These scholars believe that the verb mutawwafika in verse implies that God caused the bodily death of Jesus, thus (3:55) should read as "O Jesus, I terminate your life, raise you to Me." Others disagree with the implication of termination of Jesus’ life (for example Yusuf Ali’s translation reads: “O Jesus! I will take thee and raise thee to Myself”). Verses imply that Jesus was not killed physically but it appeared as such in some other sense; Verse implies that Jesus will die someday. The vast majority of Muslims, and the unified opinion of Orthodox Islam since Islam's coming, maintain that the bodily death of Jesus will happen after his second coming. Many classical commentators such as Ibn Kathir, At-Tabari, al-Qurtubi, Suyuti, al-Undlusi (Bahr al-Muhit), Abu al-Fadl al-Alusi (Ruh al-Maani) clearly mention that verse of the Qur'an refers to the descent of Jesus before the Day of Resurrection, indicating that Jesus would be the Sign that the Hour is close. "And (Jesus) shall be a Sign (for the coming of) the Hour (of Judgment): therefore have no doubt about the (Hour)..." ( Those that reject the second coming of Jesus argue that the knowledge of the Hour is only with God, and that the Hour will come suddenly. They maintain that if the second coming of Jesus were true, whenever it happens, billions of people would then be certain the Hour is about to come. The response given to this is that signs that the Last Hour is near have been foretold and given, including that of the second coming of Jesus, as signs indicating the Last Hour is near. They will not clarify when it is to come in any specific sense, and hence do not reveal it. Ahmadiyya (see also: Prophethood in Ahmadiyyan Islam) The Ahmadiyya faith, believes that the terms "Messiah" and "Mahdi" (Messiah of Islam) are synonymous terms for one and the same person. Like the term Messiah which, among other meanings, in essence means being anointed by God or appointed by God the term "Mahdi" means guided'' by God, thus both imply a direct ordainment and a spiritual nurturing by God of a divinely chosen individual. According to Ahmadiyya thought, Messiahship is a phenomenon, through which a special emphasis is given on the transformation of a people by way of offering suffering for the sake of God instead of giving suffering (i.e. refraining from revenge). Ahmadis believe that this special emphasis was given through the person of Jesus and Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Ask Islam: What is the different between a messiah and a prophet? among others. Ahmadis hold that the prophesied eschatological figures of various religions, the coming of the Messiah and Mahdi in fact were to be fulfilled in one person who was to represent all previous prophets. http://www.alislam.org/quran/tafseer/?page=2739&region=E1&CR= The prophecies concerning the Mahdi or the second coming of Jesus are seen by Ahmadis as metaphorical, in that one was to be born and rise within the dispensation of Muhammad, who by virtue of his similarity and affinity with Jesus of Nazareth, and the similarity in nature, temperament and disposition of the people of Jesus' time and the people of the time of the promised one (the Mahdi) is called by the same name. Numerous Hadith are presented by the Ahmadis in support of their view such as one from Sunan Ibn Majah which says: "There is No Mahdi but Jesus son of Mary" (Ibn Majah, Bab, Shahadatu-Zaman) Ahmadis believe that the prophecies concerning the Mahdi have been fulfilled in the person of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian (1835-1908) the founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement. Contrary to mainstream Islam the Ahmadis do not believe that Jesus is alive in heaven, but that he survived the crucifixion and migrated towards the east where he died a natural death and that Ghulam Ahmad was only the promised spiritual second coming and likeness of Jesus, the promised Messiah and Mahdi. Other traditions Adherents to the Unification Movement consider Rev. Dr. Sun Myung Moon to be the Second Coming of Jesus Christ figuratively, not literally. They believe he has the mission of Christ (whom they believe isn't God). The Shakers believed that Jesus was the male Messiah and Mother Ann Lee, the female Messiah. For the Rastafari movement, Haile Selassie of Ethiopia is the messiah. See also Claimed Messianic prophecies of Jesus Jewish Messiah claimants People claiming to be the Mahdi List of messiah claimants Notes References Kaplan, Aryeh. FROM MESSIAH TO CHRIST. 2004. Orthodox Union. New York, NY 10004. 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3,353	Auguste_and_Louis_Lumière	The Lumière BrothersLes frères LumièreAuguste Lumière (left) and Louis Lumière (right) Place of birth Besançon, France Auguste Auguste Marie Louis Nicolas Lumière (Lyon, France) Louis Louis Jean Lumière (Bandol, French Riviera) Occupation Filmmakers Education La Martiniere Lyon Parents Claude-Antoine Lumière (1840-1895) The Lumière brothers, Auguste Marie Louis Nicolas (19 October 1862, Besançon, France – 10 April 1954, Lyon) and Louis Jean (5 October 1864, Besançon, France – 6 June 1948, Bandol ), were among the earliest filmmakers. (Appropriately, "lumière" translates as "light" in English.) History The Lumière brothers were born in Besançon, France, in 1862 and 1864, and moved to Lyon in 1870, where both attended La Martiniere, the largest technical school in Lyon. Their father, Claude-Antoine Lumière (1840-1911), ran a photographic firm and both brothers worked for him: Louis as a physicist and Auguste as a manager. Louis had made some improvements to the still-photograph process, the most notable being the dry-plate process, which was a major step towards moving images. It was not until their father retired in 1892 that the brothers began to create moving pictures. They patented a number of significant processes leading up to their film camera - most notably film perforations (originally implemented by Emile Reynaud) as a means of advancing the film through the camera and projector. The cinématographe itself was patented on 13 February, 1895 and the first footage ever to be recorded using it was recorded on 19 March, 1895. This first film shows workers leaving the Lumière factory. First film screenings The Lumières held their first private screening of projected motion pictures March 22, 1895. Chardère (1985), p.71. This first screening on March 22 1895 took place in Paris, at the "Society for the Development of the National Industry", in front of an audience of 200 people - among which Léon Gaumont, then director of the Comptoir de la photographie. The main focus of this conference by Louis Lumière were the recent developments in the photograph industry, mainly the research on polychromy (color photography). It was much to Lumière's surprise that the moving black-and-white images retained more attention than the colored stills photographs. Their first public screening of films at which admission was charged was held on December 28, 1895, at Paris's Salon Indien du Grand Café. This history-making presentation featured ten short films, including their first film, Sortie des Usines Lumière à Lyon (Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory). "La première séance publique payante", Institut Lumière, http://www.institut-lumiere.org/francais/films/1seance/accueil.html . Each film is 17 meters long, which, when hand cranked through a projector, runs approximately 50 seconds. The world's first film poster, for 1895's L'Arroseur Arrosé It is believed their first film was actually recorded that same year (1895) Chardère (1987), p.70: The date of the recording of their first film is in dispute. In an interview with Georges Sadoul given in 1948, Louis Lumière tells that he shot the film in August 1894. This is questioned by historians (Sadoul, Pinel, Chardère) who consider that a functional Lumière camera didn't exist before the end of 1894, and that their first film was recorded March 19th 1895, and then publicly projected March 22nd at the Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale in Paris. with Léon Bouly's cinématographe device, which was patented the previous year. The cinématographe— a three-in-one device that could record, develop, and project motion pictures— was further developed by the Lumières. The public debut at the Grand Café came a few months later and consisted of the following ten short films (in order of presentation): La Sortie de l'Usine Lumière à Lyon (literally, "the exit from the Lumière factories in Lyon", or, under its more common English title, Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory), 46 seconds La Voltige ("Horse Trick Riders"), 46 seconds La Pêche aux poissons rouges ("fishing for goldfish"), 42 seconds Le Débarquement du Congrès de Photographie à Lyon ("the disembarkment of the Congress of Photographers in Lyon"), 48 seconds Les Forgerons ("Blacksmiths"), 49 seconds Le Jardinier (l'Arroseur Arrosé) ("The Gardener," or "The Sprinkler Sprinkled"), 49 seconds Le Repas (de bébé) ("Baby's Breakfast"), 41 seconds Le Saut à la couverture ("Jumping Onto the Blanket"), 41 seconds La Place des Cordeliers à Lyon ("Cordeliers Square in Lyon"--a street scene), 44 seconds La Mer (Baignade en mer) ("the sea [bathing in the sea]"), 38 seconds The Lumières went on tour with the cinématographe in 1896 - visiting Bombay, London and New York. The moving images had an immediate and significant influence on popular culture with L'Arrivée d'un Train en Gare de la Ciotat (literally, "the arrival of a train at La Ciotat Station", but more commonly known as Arrival of a Train at a Station). Their actuality films, or actualités, are often cited as the first, primitive documentaries. They also made the first steps towards comedy film with the slapstick of L'Arroseur Arrosé. Early color photography Autochrome color picture by Jean-Baptiste Tournassoud of North-African soldiers, Oise, France, 1917.link The brothers stated that "the cinema is an invention without any future" and declined to sell their camera to other filmmakers such as Georges Méliès. Consequently, their role in the history of film was exceedingly brief. They turned their attentions to colour photography and in 1903 they patented a colour photography process, the "Autochrome Lumière", launched on the market in 1907. Throughout much of the 20th century, the Lumière company was a major producer of photographic products in Europe, but the brand name, Lumière, disappeared from the marketplace following its merger with Ilford. The Lumières also developed other products such as a loudspeaker, "Lumière tulle gras" (a dressing to heal burns) and the homonoid forceps (a medical tool). Other early cinematographers Although often credited with the "invention" of cinema, the Lumière Brothers were not the only ones to claim that title. The scientific chronophotography devices developed by Eadweard Muybridge, Etienne-Jules Marey and Ottomar Anschütz in the 1880s were able to produce moving photographs, as was Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope, premiered in 1891. Since 1892, the projected drawings of Émile Reynaud's Théâtre Optique were attracting Paris crowds to the Museé Grevin. Louis Le Prince had been shooting moving picture sequences on paper film as soon as 1888, but had never performed a public demonstration. Max and Emil Skladanowsky, inventors of the Bioskope, had offered projected moving images to a paying public one month earlier (November 1, 1895, in Berlin). Nevertheless, film historians consider the Grand Café screening to be the true birth of the cinema as a commercial medium, because the Skladanowsky brothers' screening used an extremely impractical dual system motion picture projector that was immediately supplanted by the Lumiere cinematographe. Although the Lumière brothers were not the first inventors to develop techniques to create motion pictures, they are often credited as one of the first inventors of Cinema as a mass medium, and are among the first who understood how to use it. By comparison, it is argued that Thomas Edison may have meant his invention as a game or distraction for rich people, not as a movie to be seen in public. Michaël Abecassis, Revue de cinématrographie, 12, 2005, University of Rouen ed. See also 1895 in film 1896 in film 19th century in film History of film References Further reading Chardère, B.; Borgé, G. and M. (1985). Les Lumière, Paris: Bibliothèque des Arts. ISBN 2-85047-068-6 (Language: French) Chardère, B. (1995). Les images des Lumière, Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 2-07-011462-7 (Language: French) Rittaud-Hutinet, Jacques. (1985). Le cinéma des origines, Seyssel: Champ Vallon. ISBN 2-903528-43-8 (Language: French) External links Société d’encouragement pour l’industrie nationale The films shown at the first public screening (Quicktime format) — December 28, 1895. Also includes a program for the event. Le musée Lumière — Lumière Museum .	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3,354	Amino_acid	The general structure of an α-amino acid, with the amino group on the left and the carboxyl group on the right In chemistry, an amino acid is a molecule containing both amine and carboxyl functional groups. These molecules are particularly important in biochemistry, where this term refers to alpha-amino acids with the general formula H2NCHRCOOH, where R is an organic substituent. Proline is an exception to this general formula. It lacks the NH2 group because of the cyclization of the side chain. In the alpha amino acids, the amino and carboxylate groups are attached to the same carbon, which is called the α–carbon. The various alpha amino acids differ in which side chain (R group) is attached to their alpha carbon. They can vary in size from just a hydrogen atom in glycine through a methyl group in alanine to a large heterocyclic group in tryptophan. Amino acids are critical to life, and have a variety of roles in metabolism. One particularly important function is as the building blocks of proteins, which are linear chains of amino acids. Amino acids are also important in many other biological molecules, such as forming parts of coenzymes, as in S-adenosylmethionine, or as precursors for the biosynthesis of molecules such as heme. Due to this central role in biochemistry, amino acids are very important in nutrition. The amino acids are commonly used in food technology and industry. For example, monosodium glutamate is a common flavor enhancer that gives foods the taste called umami. Beyond the amino acids that are found in all forms of life, amino acids are also used in industry, with the production of biodegradable plastics, drugs and chiral catalysts being particularly important applications. Overview Alpha-amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Amino acids combine in a condensation reaction, that is, through dehydration synthesis, that releases water and the new "amino acid residue" that is held together by a peptide bond. Proteins are defined by their unique sequence of amino acid residues; this sequence is the primary structure of the protein. Just as the letters of the alphabet can be combined to form an almost endless variety of words, amino acids can be linked in varying sequences to form a vast variety of proteins. Twenty standard amino acids are used by cells in protein biosynthesis, and these are specified by the general genetic code. These 20 amino acids are biosynthesized from other molecules, but organisms differ in which ones they can synthesize and which ones must be provided in their diet. The ones that cannot be synthesized by an organism are called essential amino acids. History The first few amino acids were discovered in the early 1800s. In 1806, French chemist, Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin, isolated a compound in asparagus that proved to be the amino acid, asparagine. In 1812, William Hyde Wollaston found a substance in urine that he identified as a cystic oxide, and was later named cystine. And in 1820, another French chemist, Henri Miriam Braconnot, discovered the first two natural amino acids, glycine and leucine . General structure Lysine with the carbon atoms in the side chain labeled. In the structure shown at the top of the page, R represents a side chain specific to each amino acid. The carbon atom next to the carbonyl group is called the α–carbon and amino acids with a side chain bonded to this carbon are referred to as alpha amino acids. These are the most common form found in nature. In the alpha amino acids, the α–carbon is a chiral carbon atom (with the exception of glycine). In amino acids that have a carbon chain attached to the α–carbon, as in lysine on the right, the carbons are labeled in order as α, β, γ, δ, and so on. In some amino acids, the amine group is attached to the β or γ-carbon, and these are therefore referred to as beta or gamma amino acids. Amino acids are usually classified by the properties of their side chain into four groups. The side chain can make them behave like a weak acid, a weak base, a hydrophile if they are polar, and hydrophobe if they are nonpolar. The chemical structures of the 20 standard amino acids, along with their chemical properties, are catalogued in the list of standard amino acids. The phrase "branched-chain amino acids" or BCAA is sometimes used to refer to the amino acids having aliphatic side chains that are non-linear; these are leucine, isoleucine, and valine. Proline is the only proteinogenic amino acid whose side group links to the α-amino group and, thus, is also the only proteinogenic amino acid containing a secondary amine at this position. Proline has sometimes been termed an imino acid, but this is not correct in the current nomenclature. The two optical isomers of alanine, D-Alanine and L-Alanine Isomerism Of the standard α-amino acids, all but glycine can exist in either of two optical isomers (See also Chirality (biology)). While L-amino acids represent the vast majority of amino acids found in proteins, D-amino acids are found in some proteins produced by exotic sea-dwelling organisms, such as cone snails. They are also abundant components of the peptidoglycan cell walls of bacteria. and D-serine may act as a neurotransmitter in the brain. The L and D convention for amino acid configuration refers not to the optical activity of the amino acid itself, but rather to the optical activity of the isomer of glyceraldehyde from which that amino acid can theoretically be synthesized (D-glyceraldehyde is dextrorotary; L-glyceraldehyde is levorotary). Alternatively, the (S) and (R) designators are used to indicate the absolute stereochemistry. Almost all of the amino acids in proteins are (S) at the α carbon, with cysteine being (R) and glycine nonchiral. Cysteine is unusual since it has a sulfur atom at the first position in its side-chain, which has a larger atomic mass than the groups attached to the α-carbon in the other standard amino acids, thus the (R) instead of (S). An amino acid in its (1) unionized and (2) zwitterionic forms Zwitterions Amino acids have both an amine and a carboxylic acid functional group and are therefore both an acid and a base at the same time. At a certain compound-specific pH known as the isoelectric point, the number of protonated ammonium groups with a positive charge and deprotonated carboxylate groups with a negative charge are equal, resulting in a net neutral charge These ions are known as a zwitterion, which comes from the German word Zwitter meaning "hybrid". Amino acids are zwitterions in solid phase and in polar solutions such as water and depending on the pH, but not in the gas phase. Zwitterions have minimal solubility at their isolectric point and amino acids are often isolated by precipitation from water after adjusting the pH to their isolectric point. Occurrence and functions in biochemistry A polypeptide is a chain of amino acids. Standard amino acids Amino acids are the basic structural building units of proteins. They form short polymer chains called peptides or longer chains called either polypeptides or proteins. These polymers are linear and unbranched. The process of making proteins is called translation and involves the step-by-step addition of amino acids to a growing protein chain by a ribozyme that is called a ribosome. The order in which the amino acids are added is read through the genetic code from an mRNA template, which is a RNA copy of one of the organism's genes. Twenty amino acids are encoded by the standard genetic code and are called proteinogenic or standard amino acids. The amino acid selenocysteine Non-standard amino acids Aside from the twenty standard amino acids, there are a vast number of "non-standard" amino acids. Two of these can be specified by the genetic code, but are rather rare in proteins. Selenocysteine is incorporated into some proteins at a UGA codon, which is normally a stop codon. Pyrrolysine is used by some methanogenic archaea in enzymes that they use to produce methane. It is coded for with the codon UAG. Other non-standard amino acids found in proteins are formed by post-translational modification, which is modification after translation in protein synthesis. These modifications are often essential for the function or regulation of a protein; for example, the carboxylation of glutamate allows for better binding of calcium cations, and the hydroxylation of proline is critical for maintaining connective tissues. Another example is the formation of hypusine in the translation initiation factor EIF5A, through modification of a lysine residue. Such modifications can also determine the localization of the protein, e.g., the addition of long hydrophobic groups can cause a protein to bind to a phospholipid membrane. β-alanine and its α-alanine isomer. Examples of nonstandard amino acids that are not found in proteins include lanthionine, 2-aminoisobutyric acid, dehydroalanine and the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid. Nonstandard amino acids often occur as intermediates in the metabolic pathways for standard amino acids — for example ornithine and citrulline occur in the urea cycle, part of amino acid catabolism (see below). A rare exception to the dominance of α-amino acids in biology is the β-amino acid beta alanine (3-aminopropanoic acid), which is used in plants and microorganisms in the synthesis of pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), a component of coenzyme A. In human nutrition When taken up into the body in the diet, the 20 standard amino acids are either used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules or oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy. The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase, the amino group is then fed into the urea cycle. The other product of transamidation is a keto acid that enters the citric acid cycle. Glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis. Of the 20 standard amino acids, 8 are called essential amino acids because the human body cannot synthesize them from other compounds at the level needed for normal growth, so they must be obtained from food. However, the situation is quite complicated since cysteine, taurine, tyrosine, histidine and arginine are semiessential amino acids in children, because the metabolic pathways that synthesize these amino acids are not fully developed. The amounts required also depend on the age and health of the individual, so it is hard to make general statements about the dietary requirement for some amino acids. Essential Nonessential Isoleucine Alanine Leucine Asparagine Lysine Aspartate Methionine Cysteine* Phenylalanine Glutamate Threonine Glutamine* Tryptophan Glycine* Valine Proline* Serine* Tyrosine* Arginine* Histidine* (*) Essential only in certain cases. Several common mnemonics have evolved for remembering the essential amino acids. PVT TIM HALL ("Private Tim Hall") uses the first letter of each of these amino acids. Another mnemonic that frequently occurs in student practice materials beneath "AH TV TILL Past Midnight", is "These ten valuable amino acids have long preserved life in man". Non-protein functions In humans, non-protein amino acids also have important roles as metabolic intermediates, such as in the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid. Many amino acids are used to synthesize other molecules, for example: Tryptophan is a precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin. Glycine is a precursor of porphyrins such as heme. Arginine is a precursor of nitric oxide. Ornithine and S-adenosylmethionine are precursors of polyamines. Aspartate, glycine and glutamine are precursors of nucleotides. However, not all of the functions of other abundant non-standard amino acids are known, for example taurine is a major amino acid in muscle and brain tissues, but although many functions have been proposed, its precise role in the body has not been determined. Some non-standard amino acids are used as defenses against herbivores in plants. For example canavanine is an analogue of arginine that is found in many legumes, and in particularly large amounts in Canavalia gladiata (sword bean). This amino acid protects the plants from predators such as insects and can cause illness in people if some types of legumes are eaten without processing. The non-protein amino acid mimosine is found in other species of legume, particularly Leucaena leucocephala. This compound is an analogue of tyrosine and can poison animals that graze on these plants. Uses in technology Amino acids are used for a variety of applications in industry. The major use for these compounds is as an additive to animal feed, since many of the bulk components of these products, such as soybeans, either have low levels or lack some of the essential amino acids: lysine, methionine, threonine, and tryptophan are most important in the production of these feeds. The food industry is also a major consumer of amino acids, particularly glutamic acid, which is used as a flavor enhancer, and Aspartame (aspartyl-phenylalanine-1-methyl ester) as a low-calorie artificial sweetener. The remaining production of amino acids is used in the synthesis of drugs and cosmetics. Amino acid derivativePharmaceutical application5-HTP (5-hydroxytryptophan)Experimental treatment for depression. L-DOPA (L-dihydroxyphenylalanine)Treatment for Parkinsonism. EflornithineDrug that inhibits ornithine decarboxylase and is used in the treatment of sleeping sickness. Chiral catalysts In the chemical industry, amino acids are important as low-cost feedstocks in chiral synthesis. Here, these compounds are used in chiral pool synthesis as enantiomerically-pure building blocks that can be assembled into the desired chiral product. Alternatively, amino acids can be used to create chiral catalysts, such as by incorporating a ruthenium atom into proline to produce a catalyst that can carry out asymmetric hydrogenation reactions. Biodegradable plastics Amino acids are under development as components of a range of biodegradable polymers. These materials have applications as environmentally-friendly packaging and in medicine in drug delivery and the construction of prosthetic implants. These polymers include polypeptides, polyamides, polyesters, polysulfides and polyurethanes with amino acids either forming part of their main chains, or bonded as side chains to modify the physical properties and reactivities of the polymers. An interesting example of such materials is polyaspartate, a water-soluble biodegradable polymer that may have applications in disposable diapers and agriculture. Due to its solubility and ability to chelate metal ions, polyaspartate is also being used as a biodegradeable anti-scaling agent and a corrosion inhibitor. In addition, the aromatic amino acid tyrosine is being developed as a possible replacement for toxic phenols such as bisphenol A in the manufacture of polycarbonates. Reactions As amino acids have both a primary amine group and a primary carboxyl group, these chemicals can undergo most of the reactions associated with these functional groups. These include nucleophilic addition, amide bond formation and imine formation for the amine group and esterification, amide bond formation and decarboxylation for the carboxylic acid group. The multiple side chains of amino acids can also undergo chemical reactions. The types of these reactions are determined by the groups on these side chains and are discussed in the articles dealing with each specific type of amino acid. The Strecker amino acid synthesis Chemical synthesis Several methods exist to synthesize amino acids. One of the oldest uses the Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky halogenation to introduce a bromine atom on the α-carbon. Nucleophilic substitution of the bromine with ammonia then yields the amino acid. Alternatively, the Strecker amino acid synthesis involves the treatment of an aldehyde with potassium cyanide and ammonia, this produces an α-amino nitrile as an intermediate. Hydrolysis of the nitrile in acid then yields a α-amino acid. Using ammonia or ammonium salts in this reaction gives unsubstituted amino acids, while substituting primary and secondary amines will yield substituted amino acids. Likewise, using ketones, instead of aldehydes, gives α,α-disubstituted amino acids. The classical synthesis gives racemic mixtures of α-amino acids as products, but several alternative procedures using asymmetric auxiliaries or asymmetric catalysts have been developed. Peptide bond formation The condensation of two amino acids to form a peptide bond As both the amine and carboxylic acid groups of amino acids can react to form amide bonds, one amino acid molecule can react with another and become joined through an amide linkage. This polymerization of amino acids is what creates proteins. This condensation reaction yields the newly formed peptide bond and a molecule of water. In cells, this reaction does not occur directly; instead the amino acid is first activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond. This aminoacyl-tRNA is produced in an ATP-dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase. This aminoacyl-tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome, which catalyzes the attack of the amino group of the elongating protein chain on the ester bond. As a result of this mechanism, all proteins made by ribosomes are synthesized starting at their N-terminus and moving towards their C-terminus. However, not all peptide bonds are formed in this way. In a few cases, peptides are synthesized by specific enzymes. For example, the tripeptide glutathione is an essential part of the defenses of cells against oxidative stress. This peptide is synthesized in two steps from free amino acids. In the first step gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase condenses cysteine and glutamic acid through a peptide bond formed between the side-chain carboxyl of the glutamate (the gamma carbon of this side chain) and the amino group of the cysteine. This dipeptide is then condensed with glycine by glutathione synthetase to form glutathione. In chemistry, peptides are synthesized by a variety of reactions. One of the most used in solid-phase peptide synthesis, which uses the aromatic oxime derivatives of amino acids as activated units. These are added in sequence onto the growing peptide chain, which is attached to a solid resin support. The ability to easily synthesize vast numbers of different peptides by varying the types and order of amino acids (using combinatorial chemistry) has made peptide synthesis particularly important in creating libraries of peptides for use in drug discovery through high-throughput screening. Biosynthesis and catabolism In plants, nitrogen is first assimilated into organic compounds in the form of glutamate, formed from alpha-ketoglutarate and ammonia in the mitochondrion. In order to form other amino acids, the plant uses transaminases to move the amino group to another alpha-keto carboxylic acid. For example, aspartate aminotransferase converts glutamate and oxaloacetate to alpha-ketoglutarate and aspartate. Other organisms use transaminases for amino acid synthesis too. Transaminases are also involved in breaking down amino acids. Degrading an amino acid often involves moving its amino group to alpha-ketoglutarate, forming glutamate. In many vertebrates, the amino group is then removed through the urea cycle and is excreted in the form of urea. However, amino acid degradation can produce uric acid or ammonia instead. For example, serine dehydratase converts serine to pyruvate and ammonia. Nonstandard amino acids are usually formed through modifications to standard amino acids. For example, homocysteine is formed through the transsulfuration pathway or by the demethylation of methionine via the intermediate metabolite S-adenosyl methionine, while hydroxyproline is made by a posttranslational modification of proline. Microorganisms and plants can synthesize many uncommon amino acids. For example, some microbes make 2-aminoisobutyric acid and lanthionine, which is a sulfide-bridged alanine dimer. Both these amino acids are found in peptidic lantibiotics such as alamethicin. While in plants, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid is a small disubstituted cyclic amino acid that is a key intermediate in the production of the plant hormone ethylene. Hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acids Depending on the polarity of the side chain, amino acids vary in their hydrophilic or hydrophobic character. These properties are important in protein structure and protein-protein interactions. The importance of the physical properties of the side chains comes from the influence this has on the amino acid residues' interactions with other structures, both within a single protein and between proteins. The distribution of hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acids determines the tertiary structure of the protein, and their physical location on the outside structure of the proteins influences their quaternary structure. For example, soluble proteins have surfaces rich with polar amino acids like serine and threonine, while integral membrane proteins tend to have outer ring of hydrophobic amino acids that anchors them into the lipid bilayer, and proteins anchored to the membrane have a hydrophobic end that locks into the membrane. Similarly, proteins that have to bind to positively-charged molecules have surfaces rich with negatively charged amino acids like glutamate and aspartate, while proteins binding to negatively-charged molecules have surfaces rich with positively charged chains like lysine and arginine. Recently a new scale of hydrophobicity based on the free energy of hydrophobic association has been proposed. Hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions of the proteins do not have to rely only on the sidechains of amino acids themselves. By various posttranslational modifications other chains can be attached to the proteins, forming hydrophobic lipoproteins, or hydrophilic glycoproteins. Table of standard amino acid abbreviations and side chain properties Amino Acid 3-Letter 1-Letter Side chain polarity Side chain charge (pH 7) Hydropathy index Alanine Ala A nonpolar neutral 1.8 Arginine Arg R polar positive -4.5 Asparagine Asn N polar neutral -3.5 Aspartic acid Asp D polar negative -3.5 Cysteine Cys C nonpolar neutral 2.5 Glutamic acid Glu E polar negative -3.5 Glutamine Gln Q polar neutral -3.5 Glycine Gly G nonpolar neutral -0.4 Histidine His H polar positive -3.2 Isoleucine Ile I nonpolar neutral 4.5 Leucine Leu L nonpolar neutral 3.8 Lysine Lys K polar positive -3.9 Methionine Met M nonpolar neutral 1.9 Phenylalanine Phe F nonpolar neutral 2.8 Proline Pro P nonpolar neutral -1.6 Serine Ser S polar neutral -0.8 Threonine Thr T polar neutral -0.7 Tryptophan Trp W nonpolar neutral -0.9 Tyrosine Tyr Y polar neutral -1.3 Valine Val V nonpolar neutral 4.2 In addition to the specific amino acid codes, placeholders were used historically in cases where chemical or crystallographic analysis of a peptide or protein could not conclusively determine the identity of a residue. Ambiguous Amino Acids 3-Letter 1-Letter Asparagine or aspartic acid Asx B Glutamine or glutamic acid Glx Z Leucine or Isoleucine Xle J Unspecified or unknown amino acid Xaa X Unk is sometimes used instead of Xaa, but is less standard. See also Amino acid synthesis Beta amino acid Strecker amino acid synthesis Glucogenic amino acid Homochirality Table of codons, 3-nucleotide sequences that encode each amino acid List of standard amino acids (including chemical structures) Amino acid dating Degron Leucines References and notes Further reading Doolittle, R.F. (1989) Redundancies in protein sequences. In Predictions of Protein Structure and the Principles of Protein Conformation (Fasman, G.D. ed) Plenum Press, New York, pp. 599–623 David L. Nelson and Michael M. Cox, Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, 3rd edition, 2000, Worth Publishers, ISBN 1-57259-153-6 Meierhenrich, U.J.: Amino acids and the asymmetry of life, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, New York, 2008. ISBN 978-3-540-76885-2 External links Amino acids overview physical-chemistry properties, 3D structures, etc List of Standard Amino Acids The Detailed PDF List of Standard Amino Acids (including 3D depictions) Nomenclature and Symbolism for Amino Acids and Peptides IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN) Molecular Expressions: The Amino Acid Collection - Has detailed information and microscopy photographs of each amino acid. Amino acid properties - Properties of the amino acids (a tool aimed mostly at molecular geneticists trying to understand the meaning of mutations) Synthesis of Amino Acids and Derivatives Learn the 20 proteinogenic amino acids online	Amino_acid \|@lemmatized general:6 structure:13 α:18 amino:167 acid:179 group:32 left:1 carboxyl:4 right:2 chemistry:4 molecule:11 contain:2 amine:8 functional:3 particularly:7 important:10 biochemistry:4 term:2 refer:3 alpha:11 formula:2 r:8 organic:2 substituent:1 proline:8 exception:3 lack:2 cyclization:1 side:20 chain:31 carboxylate:2 attach:7 carbon:18 call:10 various:2 differ:2 vary:4 size:1 hydrogen:1 atom:7 glycine:10 methyl:2 alanine:10 large:3 heterocyclic:1 tryptophan:5 critical:2 life:4 variety:5 role:4 metabolism:1 one:8 function:6 building:3 block:3 protein:46 linear:3 also:14 many:7 biological:1 form:23 part:4 coenzyme:2 adenosylmethionine:2 precursor:6 biosynthesis:4 heme:2 due:2 central:1 nutrition:2 commonly:1 use:32 food:4 technology:2 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3,355	Demographics_of_Germany	This article is about the demographic features of the population of Germany, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Germany's population pyramid. Population from 1961–2003. In years before 1990, the figures of the FRG and the GDR are combined The demography of the Federal Republic of Germany is monitored by the "Statistisches Bundesamt" (Federal Statistical Office of Germany). The population of Germany is approximately 82,220,000, making it the 14th most populous country in the world. Germany's population is characterized by zero or declining growth , with an aging population and smaller cohort of youths. More than 16 million people are of non-German descent (first and second generation, including mixed heritage), about seven million of which are foreign residents. The largest ethnic group of non-German origin are the Turkish. Since the 1960s, West and later reunified Germany has been attracting migrants primarily from Southern and Eastern Europe as well as Turkey, many of which (or their children) over time acquired German citizenship. While most of these migrations had an economic background, Germany has also been a prime destination for refugees from many developing countries, in part because its constitution long had a clause giving a 'right' to political asylum, but restrictions over the years have since made it less attractive. Within Germany, there is a long history of East-to-West migrations, starting with the 19th century Ostflucht. After the World War II border shifts and expulsions, the Germans from Eastern Europe and the former eastern territories moved westward to post-war Germany. During the partition of Germany, many Germans from East Germany fled to West Germany for political and also economic reasons. Since Germany's reunification, there are ongoing migrations from the eastern New Länder to the western Old Länder for economic reasons. Germany has one of the world's highest levels of education, technological development, and economic productivity. Since the end of World War II, the number of students entering universities has more than tripled, and the trade and technical schools are among the world's best. With a per capita income of about $27,000, Germany is a broadly middle class society. Germans also are very mobile; millions travel abroad each year. A generous social welfare system provides for universal health care, unemployment compensation, and other social needs. Due to Germany's aging population and struggling economy, the welfare system came under a lot of strain from the 1990s. This led the government to push through a wide-ranging programme of belt-tightening reforms, Agenda 2010, including the labour market reforms known as Hartz I - IV. Major metropolitan areas In 2005 Germany had 82 cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants. City nameLocationDescriptionPopulation (2004)Largest German ethnic groupsLargest non-German ethnic groupsRhine-Ruhr Metropolitan RegionCologne is the largest city of the Rhineland, the very Western part of Germany. Particularly among young Germans, Cologne and Düsseldorf are known for its nightlife and open-minded atmosphere.10.2 millionRhinelanders, Westfalians and othersTurks, Poles, Italians, Dutch, French, Arabs, Iranians, South Asians like Indians, and Japanese (large Japanese community in Düsseldorf).Frankfurt Rhine-Main RegionFrankfurt is the economic and financial center both for Germany and the continental European Union. Frankfurt is arguably Germany's most international city. It boasts a large airport and numerous skyscrapers. Within Germany, the city has a reputation of being very business-oriented, perhaps at the expense of other pursuits.5.8 millionHessians and othersTurks, Italians, Arabs, Iranians, Greeks, Russians, Poles, Israelis, Koreans, and Pakistanis (mostly Pashtun & Panjabi's ethnic groups).Munich Metropolitan RegionMunich has Germany's highest standard of living. Countless sporting and leisure opportunities - both in the city and in its picturesque region. Munich is a powerhouse of the German economy and rich in Bavarian culture.4.7 millionBavarians, Franconians and othersTurks, Croats, Serbs, Greeks, Albanians, Macedonians, Italians, Bosnians, Hungarians, Spaniards and Romanians.Berlin/Brandenburg Metropolitan RegionBerlin is the capital of Germany and its largest city. Berlin lies in the eastern part of the country and has a reputation for cosmopolitan lifestyle, the German "city that never sleeps". But the city still has a high unemployment rate.4.3 millionBerliners, Brandenburgians and othersTurks, Arabs, Poles, Russians, Albanians, Serbs,Macedonians, Vietnamese, Chinese, rising number of Africans, Chileans and other Latin Americans.Hamburg Metropolitan RegionHamburg is a free city state and the second largest city in Germany. It has a long tradition for sea trade and civil establishment and is home to Europe's 2nd largest port. The city is proud of its diverse nightlife and music scene centered in and around the famous St. Pauli district. According to European Union Statistics (EUROSTAT) it is Germany's richest city.4.7 millionHamburgers, Schleswiger, Holsteiner, Lower Saxons and othersTurks, Russians, Albanians, Poles, Pakistanis, Iranians, Macedonians, Portuguese, Afghan people, AfricansLeipzig-Halle-Dresden (Saxon Triangle)Also dubbed "City of Heroes", Leipzig is where the 1989 revolution that brought down the Berlin Wall started. Today totally refurbished, it sports Europe's highest density of Art Nouveau architecture. Very lively bar scene, fastest growing economy in Germany.3.5 millionSaxons and othersVietnamese, Poles, Russians, Portuguese, Italians, Iranians, Turks, Arabs, Indians and Pakistanis.Stuttgart Metropolitan RegionStuttgart has a reputation for research, inventions and industry. The German headquarters of many international enterprises are in Stuttgart. This contrasts with the strong rural, down-to-earth attitude of the Stuttgarters throughout the classes. A popular slogan is "We are good at everything. Except speaking High (standard) German."3.5 millionSwabians and othersTurks, Greeks, Italians, Croats, Serbs, French, Chinese, Romanians, Americans and Spaniards.Bremen/Oldenburg Metropolitan Region-2.4 millionLower Saxons, Frisians and othersTurks, Russians, Poles, Albanians, Serbs, Portuguese, Iranians, Dutch, Americans and Britons. Ethnic groups In 2005: Total population = 82 million Germans and foreigners with an immigrant background by Federal Ministry of the Interior German citizens = (91%) Germans without immigrant background: (81%) 66.7 million German citizens with immigrant background (including ethnic German repatriates and people of partial immigrant background.): (10%) Foreigners: (9%) Turkish = (2.1%) 1,713,551 Other = (6.7%) Around 5 million (including Serb (468,218), Italian (528,318), Polish (384,808), Greek (294,891) and other http://www.serbien-montenegro.de/html/serbien_-_serben_in_deutschlan.html The largest ethnic minority is the Turks in Germany. Four other sizable groups of people are referred to as "national minorities" (nationale Minderheiten) because they have lived in their respective regions for centuries: Danes, Frisians, Roma and Sinti, and Sorbs. There is a Danish minority (about 50,000, according to government sources) in the northern-most state of Schleswig-Holstein. Eastern and Northern Frisians live at Schleswig-Holstein's western coast, and in the north-western part of Lower Saxony. They are part of a wider community (Frisia) stretching from Germany to the northern Netherlands. The Sorbs, a Slavic people with about 60,000 members (according to government sources), are located in the Lusatia region of Saxony and Brandenburg. They are the last remnants of the Slavs that lived in central and eastern Germany since the 7th century. Roma people have been in Germany since the Middle Ages. They were persecuted by the Nazis, and thousands of Roma living in Germany were killed by the Nazi regime. Nowadays, they are spread all over Germany, mostly living in major cities. It is difficult to estimate their exact number, as the German government normally does not keep information on the ethnicity of its citizens. There are also many assimilated Sinti and Roma. A vague figure given by the German Department of the Interior is about 70,000. In the 1990s, many Roma moved to Germany from former Yugoslavia. In contrast to the old-established Roma population, the majority of them do not have German citizenship, they are classified as immigrants or refugees. After World War II, there was an influx of 14 million ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe who were expelled or fled after Germany lost the war. Since the 1960s, ethnic Germans from the Soviet Union have come to Germany, especially from Kazakhstan, Russia, and Ukraine. During the time of Perestroika, and after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the number of immigrants increased heavily. Some of these immigrants are of mixed heritage. Germany now has Europe's third-largest Jewish population. In 2004, twice as many Jews from former Soviet republics settled in Germany as in Israel, bringing the total inflow to more than 200,000 since 1991. Jews have a voice in German public life through the Zentralrat der Juden in Deutschland. Some Jews from the former Soviet Union are of mixed heritage. There are also around 100,000 Afro-Germans and 150,000+ African nationals as well as nearly 50,000 Indian-Germans. See Also: Volga German Germany's foreign-born population by country of origin East-West migration With unification on October 3, 1990, Germany began the major task of bringing the standard of living of Germans in the former German Democratic Republic (GDR) up to that of western Germany. This will be a lengthy and difficult process because of the relative inefficiency of industrial enterprises in the former GDR, difficulties in resolving property ownership in eastern Germany, and the inadequate infrastructure and environmental damage that resulted from decades of communist rule. Since reunification, hundreds of thousands of former East Germans have migrated into western Germany to find work. Drastic changes in the socioeconomic landscape brought about by reunification have resulted in troubling social problems. Economic uncertainty in eastern Germany is often cited as one factor contributing to extremist violence, primarily from the political right. Confusion about the causes of the current hardships and a need to place blame have found expression in harassment and violence by some Germans directed toward foreigners, particularly non-Europeans. Immigration In its State of World Population 2006 report, the United Nations Population Fund lists Germany with hosting the third-highest percentage of the main international migrants worldwide, about 5% or 10 million of all 191 million migrants. United Nations Population Fund: State of World Population 2006 Agreements Germany had previously signed special visa agreements with several countries in times of severe labour shortages or when particular skills were deficient within the country. During the 60' & 70's, agreements were signed with the governments of Turkey, Yugoslavia and Spain to help Germany overcome its severe labour shortage. More recently, the German government has signed an agreement with Pakistan, to allow many Pakistani skilled professionals, IT personnel and engineers incentives to come to Germany. Religions Roman Catholic 31.4%, Evangelical Church in Germany 30.8%, Nonreligious 29.6%, Muslim 4%, Orthodox 2% Religionen in Deutschland - Mitglieder und Anhänger .::. REMID Roman Catholic is mainly in the South East (Southern Bavaria) and the Far West (Rheinland & Cologne). Strongholds of Protestants are in all Northern States. Muslim, Orthodox and Jewish minority communities are mainly in the big cities. Languages German is Germany's only official and most-widely spoken language. Standard German is understood throughout the country. Minority languages Danish, Low German, the Sorbian languages (Lower Sorbian and Upper Sorbian), and the two Frisian languages, Saterfrisian and North Frisian, are officially recognized and protected as minority languages by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in their respective regions. With speakers of Romany are living in all parts of Germany, the federal government has promised to take action to protect the language. Until now, only Hesse has followed Berlin's announcement, and agreed on implementing concrete measures to support Romany speakers. Implementation of the Charter is poor. The monitoring reports on charter implementation in Germany show many provisions unfulfilled. http://www.coe.int/t/e/legal_affairs/local_and_regional_democracy/regional_or_minority_languages/2_monitoring/2.3_Committee_of_Experts%27_Reports/Germany_2nd_report.pdf Minority language recognition + Protected Minority Languages in Germany Language StatesDanish Schleswig-HolsteinNorth Frisian Schleswig-HolsteinSaterland Frisian Lower SaxonyLow German Brandenburg, Bremen, Hamburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Schleswig-Holstein, North Rhine-WestphaliaUpper Sorbian SaxonyLower Sorbian BrandenburgRomany Hesse (see text) Dialects German dialects — some quite distinct from the standard language — are used in everyday speech, especially in rural regions. Many dialects, for example the Upper German varieties, are to some degree cultivated as symbols of regional identity and have their own literature, theaters and some few TV programming. While someone speaking dialect outside his home area might be frowned upon, in their original area some dialects can be spoken throughout all social classes. Nevertheless, partly due to Standard German media prevalence, their use has declined over the past century, especially in the younger population. The status of different German dialects can be very different. The Alemannic and Bavarian dialects of the south are positively valued by the speakers and can be used in almost all social circumstances. The Saxonian and Thuringian dialects have less prestige and are subject to derision. While Bavarian and Alemannic have kept much of their distinctiveness, the Middle German dialects, which are closer to Standard German, lost some of their distinctive lexical and grammatical features and tend to be only pronunciation variants of Standard German. Low Saxon dialects Low Saxon is officially recognized as a language on its own, but despite this fact, there's little official action taken on fostering the language. Historically one third of Germany's territory and population was Low Saxon speaking. No data was ever collected on the actual number of speakers, but today the number of speakers ranges around 5 million persons. Despite this relatively high number of speakers there is very few coverage in the media (mostly on NDR TV, no regular programming) and very few education in or on the language. The language is not fixed as part of the school curriculum and Low Saxon is used as a medium of instruction in one school only in the whole Germany (as a "model project" in primary school sided by education in Standard German). As a consequence the younger generation refused to adopt the native language of their parents. Language prevalence dropped from more than 90% (depending on the exact region) in the 1930s to less than 5% today. This accounts for a massive intergenerational gap in language use. Older people regularly use the language and take private initiative to maintain the language, but the lack of innovative potential of the younger generation hinders language maintenance. The language too has an own literature (around 150 published books every year) and there are many theatres (mostly lay stages, but some professional ones, like for example Ohnsorg-Theater). Use of Low Saxon is mainly restricted to use under acquaintances, like family members, neighbours and friends. A meeting of a village council can be held almost completely in Low Saxon if all participants know each other (as long as written protocols are written in Standard German), but a single foreigner can make the whole switching to Standard German. The Low Saxon dialects are different in their status too. There's a north-south gradient in language maintenance. The Southern dialects of Westfalian, Eastfalian and Brandenburgish have had much stronger speaker losses, than the northern coastal dialects of Northern Low Saxon. While Eastfalian has lost speakers to Standard German, Westfalian has lost speakers to Standard German and Standard German based regiolect of the Rhine-Ruhr area. Brandenburgish speakers mostly switched to the Standard German based regiolect of Berlin. Brandenburgish is almost completely replaced by the Berlin regiolect. Northern Low Saxon speakers switched mostly to pure Standard German. Foreign languages English is the most common foreign language and almost universally taught by the secondary level. Other languages taught are French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Russian. Dutch is taught in counties bordering the Netherlands and Polish in the case of the eastern provinces facing Poland. Latin and Greek are part of the classical education syllabus offered in many secondary schools. According to a 2004 survey, two-thirds of Germany's citizens have at least basic knowledge of English. About 20% consider themselves to be speakers of French, followed by speakers of Russian (7%), Italian (6.1%), and Spanish (5.6%). The relatively high number of Russian speakers is a result of massive immigration from the former Soviet Union to Germany for almost 10 consecutive years — more than half of the Germans in the East learnt Russian at school, but only few people can speak it. Literacy Over 99% of those of age 15 and above are estimated to be able to read and write. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Age structure (2007): 0-14 years: 13.9% (male 5,894,724/female 5,590,373) 15-64 years: 66.3% (male 27,811,357/female 26,790,222) 65 years and over: 19.8% (male 6,771,972/female 9,542,348) Population growth rate: -0.12% (2007 est.) Birth rate: 8.3 births/1,000 population (2007 est.) Death rate: 10.1 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.) Net migration rate: 0.49 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.) Sex ratio: \|- \|at birth: \|1.06 male(s)/female \|- \|under 15 years: \|1.05 male(s)/female \|- \|15-64 years: \|1.03 male(s)/female \|- \|65 years and over: \|0.62 male(s)/female \|- \|total population: \|0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate: 4.09 deaths (within one year) per 1,000 live births (2007) Life expectancy at birth (2007): \|- \|total population: \|78.6 years \|- \|male: \|76.2 years \|- \|female: \|82.0 years Total fertility rate: 1.41 children born/woman (2008) In 1996, TFR was 1.39 for ethnic Germans and 2.40 (down from 4.4 births per woman in 1970 Religiousness and fertility among European Muslims ) for ethnic Turks. http://paa2007.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=70869 References External links Homepage of the Federal Statistical Office Germany (in English) German demographics in Online-Databank HISTAT (in German, Registration needed) Dossier "The Aging Society" of the Goethe-Institut Demographic Profile Germany: United in Decline Allianz Knowledge	Demographics_of_Germany \|@lemmatized article:1 demographic:5 feature:2 population:25 germany:59 include:5 density:2 ethnicity:2 education:5 level:3 health:2 populace:1 economic:7 status:3 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 pyramid:1 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3,356	Maxwell's_equations	In electromagnetism, Maxwell's equations are a set of four partial differential equations that describe the properties of the electric and magnetic fields and relate them to their sources, charge density and current density. These equations are used to show that light is an electromagnetic wave. Individually, the equations are known as Gauss's law, Gauss's law for magnetism, Faraday's law of induction, and Ampère's law with Maxwell's correction. These four equations, together with the Lorentz force law are the complete set of laws of classical electromagnetism. The Lorentz force law itself was actually derived by Maxwell under the name of "Equation for Electromotive Force" and was one of an earlier set of eight Maxwell's equations. Conceptual description This section will conceptually describe each of the four Maxwell's equations, and also how they link together to explain the origin of electromagnetic radiation such as light. The exact equations can be found in the subsequent section. Gauss's law relates electric charge contained within a closed surface (Gaussian surface) to the surrounding electric field. It describes with mathematical clarity how the divergence of an electrical field is affected by charges (electric field lines diverge from positive charges and are drawn towards negative charges). It also states that the total electric flux through a Gaussian surface is unrelated to the shape and size of that surface. Gauss's law for magnetism states that the total magnetic flux through a Gaussian Surface is zero. This is due to the fact that real world magnetic charges come in pairs (referred to as dipoles) and the two charges create opposite magnetic field divergences; which cancel each other out. The theoretical single magnetic charge is referred to as a magnetic monopole. Gauss's Law for Magnetism is also used to state mathematically that magnetic monopoles do not exist. 250\|An Wang's magnetic core memory (1954) is an application of Ampere's law. Each core stores one bit of data. Faraday's law of induction describes how a changing magnetic field can create an electric field. This is, for example, the operating principle behind many electric generators: Mechanical force (such as the force of water falling through a hydroelectric dam) spins a huge magnet, and the changing magnetic field creates an electric field which drives electricity through the power grid. Ampère's law with Maxwell's correction states that magnetic fields can be generated in two ways: By electrical current (this was the original "Ampère's law") and by changing electric fields. The idea that a magnetic field can be induced by a changing electric field follows from the modern concept of displacement current which was introduced to maintain the solenoidal nature of Ampère's law in a vacuum capacitor circuit. This modern displacement current concept has the same mathematical form as Maxwell's original displacement current. Maxwell's original displacement current applies to polarization current in a dielectric medium and it sits adjacent to the modern displacement current in Ampère's law. Maxwell's correction to Ampère's law was particularly important: In 1864 Maxwell derived the electromagnetic wave equation by linking the displacement current to the time-varying electric field that is associated with electromagnetic induction. This is described in A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, where he commented: The agreement of the results seems to show that light and magnetism are affections of the same substance, and that light is an electromagnetic disturbance propagated through the field according to electromagnetic laws. See Maxwell 1864 5, page 499 of the article and page 1 of the pdf link The modern extension to displacement current applies in the pure vacuum. This is interpreted as meaning that a changing electric field can produce a magnetic field, and vice-versa. Under this modern interpretation, it follows that, even with no electric charges or currents present, it's possible to have stable, self-perpetuating waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields, with each field driving the other. The physical parameters of transverse elasticity and density, which Maxwell used to calculate the speed of these electromagnetic waves have now given way to two easily-measurable physical constants called the electric constant and the magnetic constant). The speed calculated for electromagnetic radiation exactly matches the speed of light; indeed, light is one form of electromagnetic radiation (as are X-rays, radio waves, and others). In this way, Maxwell unified the hitherto separate fields of electromagnetism and optics. General formulation The equations in this section are given in SI units. Unlike the equations of mechanics (for example), Maxwell's equations are not unchanged in other unit systems. Though the general form remains the same, various definitions get changed and different constants appear at different places. Other than SI (used in engineering), the units commonly used are Gaussian units (based on the cgs system and considered to have some theoretical advantages over SI ), Lorentz-Heaviside units (used mainly in particle physics) and Planck units (used in theoretical physics). See below for CGS-Gaussian units. Two equivalent, general formulations of Maxwell's equations follow. The first separates bound charge and bound current (which arise in the context of dielectric and/or magnetized materials) from free charge and free current (the more conventional type of charge and current). This separation is useful for calculations involving dielectric or magnetized materials. The second formulation treats all charge equally, combining free and bound charge into total charge (and likewise with current). This is the more fundamental or microscopic point of view, and is particularly useful when no dielectric or magnetic material is present. More details, and a proof that these two formulations are mathematically equivalent, are given in section 3. Symbols in bold represent vector quantities, whereas symbols in italics represent scalar quantities. The definitions of terms used in the two tables of equations are given in another table immediately following. Table 1: Formulation in terms of free charge and current Name Differential form Integral form Gauss's law: Gauss's law for magnetism: Maxwell-Faraday equation(Faraday's law of induction): Ampère's circuital law (with Maxwell's correction): Here V is a three-dimensional volume, S a two-dimensional oriented surface; Q(V) the electrical charge (free rsp. total) contained in V, and the electrical current flowing through S. is the flux of the magnetic field flowing through S. Table 2: Formulation in terms of total charge and current For the total quantities one has an analogous table; H and D no longer are present: Name Differential form Integral form Gauss's law: Gauss's law for magnetism: Maxwell-Faraday equation(Faraday's law of induction): Ampère's circuital law (with Maxwell's correction): The following table provides the meaning of each symbol and the SI unit of measure: Table 3: Definitions and units Symbol Meaning (first term is the most common) SI Unit of Measure electric field volt per meter or, equivalently, newton per coulomb magnetic field also called the magnetic induction also called the magnetic field density also called the magnetic flux density tesla, or equivalently, weber per square meter volt•second per square meter electric displacement field also called the electric flux density coulombs per square meter or, equivalently, newton per volt-meter magnetizing field also called auxiliary magnetic field also called magnetic field intensity also called magnetic field ampere per meter the divergence operator per meter (factor contributed by applying either operator) the curl operator partial derivative with respect to time per second (factor contributed by applying the operator) differential vector element of surface area A, with infinitesimally small magnitude and direction normal to surface S square meters differential vector element of path length tangential to the path/curve meters permittivity of free space, officially the electric constant, a universal constant farads per meter permeability of free space, officially the magnetic constant, a universal constant henries per meter, or Newtons per ampere squared free charge density (not including bound charge) coulombs per cubic meter total charge density (including both free and bound charge) coulombs per cubic meter free current density (not including bound current) amperes per square meter total current density (including both free and bound current) amperes per square meter net unbalanced free electric charge in the interior of anarbitrary closed surface (not including bound charge) coulombs net unbalanced electric charge in the interior of an arbitrary closed surface (including both free and bound charge) coulombs line integral of the electric field along the boundary ∂S(therefore necessarily a closed curve) of the surface S joules per coulomb line integral of the magnetic field over the closed boundary ∂S of the surface S tesla-meters the flux of the electric field through any closed surface joule-meter per coulomb the flux of the magnetic field through any closed surface tesla meters-squared or webers magnetic flux through any surface S (not necessarily closed) webers or equivalently, volt-seconds electric flux through any surface S, not necessarily closed joule-meters per coulomb flux of electric displacement field through any surface S, not necessarily closed coulombs net free electrical current passing throughthe surface S (not including bound current) amperes net electrical current passing through thesurface S (including both free and bound current) amperes Maxwell's equations are generally applied to macroscopic averages of the fields, which vary wildly on a microscopic scale in the vicinity of individual atoms (where they undergo quantum mechanical effects as well). It is only in this averaged sense that one can define quantities such as the permittivity and permeability of a material. At microscopic level, Maxwell's equations, ignoring quantum effects, describe fields, charges and currents in free space — but at this level of detail one must include all charges, even those at an atomic level, generally an intractable problem. History Although James Clerk Maxwell is said by some not to be the originator of these equations in modern notation, he nevertheless derived three of them again independently in conjunction with his molecular vortex model of Faraday's "lines of force", along with the full version of Faraday's law of induction. In doing so he made an important addition to Ampère's circuital law. In addition, all four of what are now described as Maxwell's equations can be found in recognisable form in vol. 2 of Maxwell's "A Treatise on Electricity & Magnetism", published in 1873, in Chapter IX, entitled "General Equations of the Electromagnetic Field". This book by Maxwell pre-dates publications by Heaviside, Hertz and others. Maxwell also developed Faraday's law of induction into another equation, which used to be listed as a 'Maxwell's equation' but is nowadays known as the Lorentz force law. Ironically it is an equation which Maxwell himself was absolutely responsible for even though it doesn't count as a "Maxwell's equation". This extra equation appeared in an original list of eight Maxwell's equations in his 1865 paper entitled A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field. Maxwell derived it from Faraday's law when Lorentz was still a young boy and he termed it the equation of electromotive force. The term Maxwell's equations Controversy has always surrounded the term Maxwell's equations concerning the extent to which Maxwell himself was involved in these equations. The term Maxwell's equations nowadays applies to a set of four equations that were grouped together as a distinct set in 1884 by Oliver Heaviside, in conjunction with Willard Gibbs. However it is perhaps difficult to see the basis of a controversy: if Heaviside and Gibbs selected and highlighted four of Maxwell's equations, they remain Maxwell's. Thus the 'controversy' appears somewhat artificial. The importance of Maxwell's role in these equations lies in the correction he made to Ampère's circuital law in his 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force. He added the displacement current term to Ampère's circuital law and this enabled him to derive the electromagnetic wave equation in his later 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field and demonstrate the fact that light is an electromagnetic wave. This fact was then later confirmed experimentally by Heinrich Hertz in 1887. The use of the term Maxwell's equations is sometimes disputed. It has been alleged that these equations were called by some the Hertz-Heaviside equations but that Einstein later referred to them as the Maxwell-Hertz equations. See pages 110-112 of Nahin's book However in 1940 Einstein referred to the equations as 'Maxwell's equations' in 'The Fundamentals of Theoretical Physics' published in the Washington periodical 'Science'. The equations are based on the works of James Clerk Maxwell, and were published by Maxwell in his 'A Treatise on Electricity & Magnetism' of 1873, and Heaviside made no secret of the fact that he was working from Maxwell's papers. Heaviside selected a symmetrical set of equations that were crucial as regards deriving the telegrapher's equations. The net result was a set of four equations, all of which had appeared in Maxwell's previous publications, in particular Maxwell's 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force and 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field. The fourth was a partial time derivative version of Faraday's law of induction that doesn't include motionally induced EMF. In this article, this version is termed the Maxwell-Faraday equation to keep clear the distinction from Faraday's law of induction. Of Heaviside's equations, the most important in deriving the telegrapher's equations was the version of Ampère's circuital law that had been amended by Maxwell in this 1861 paper to include what is termed the displacement current. Maxwell's On Physical Lines of Force (1861) (Alternate source.) Three of Heaviside's four equations appeared throughout Maxwell's 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force, but all appear in Maxwell's 'Treatise': (i) At equation (56) of Maxwell's 1861 paper we see . (ii) At equation (112) we see Ampère's circuital law with Maxwell's correction. It is this correction called displacement current which is the most significant aspect of Maxwell's work in electromagnetism as it enabled him to later derive the electromagnetic wave equation in his 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, and hence show that light is an electromagnetic wave. It is therefore this aspect of Maxwell's work which gives Heaviside's equations their full significance. (Interestingly, Kirchhoff derived the telegrapher's equations in 1857 without using displacement current. But he did use Poisson's equation and the equation of continuity which are the mathematical ingredients of the displacement current. Nevertheless, Kirchhoff believed his equations to be applicable only inside an electric wire and so he is not credited with having discovered that light is an electromagnetic wave). (iii) At equation (115) we see Gauss's law. (iv) Heaviside's fourth equation introduced a restricted partial time derivative version of Faraday's law of induction. (A full version of Faraday's law of induction had appeared at equation (54) of Maxwell's 1861 paper). It is important however to note that Heaviside's partial time derivative notation, as opposed to the total time derivative notation used by Maxwell at equations (54), resulted in the loss of the v × B term that appeared in Maxwell's equation (77). Nowadays, the v × B term appears in the force law F = q ( E + v × B ) which sits adjacent to Maxwell's equations and bears the name Lorentz force. The Lorentz Force corresponds in effect to Maxwell's equation (77), but it appeared in this paper when Lorentz was still a young boy. Maxwell's A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field (1865) Confusion over the term "Maxwell's equations" is exacerbated because it is also sometimes used for a set of eight equations that appeared in Part III of Maxwell's 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, entitled "General Equations of the Electromagnetic Field", http://www.zpenergy.com/downloads/Maxwell_1864_3.pdf (page 480 of the article and page 2 of the pdf link a confusion compounded by the writing of six of those eight equations as three separate equations (one for each of the Cartesian axes), resulting in twenty equations in twenty unknowns. (As noted above, this terminology is not common: Modern references to the term "Maxwell's equations" usually refer to the Heaviside restatements.) These original eight equations are nearly identical to the Heaviside versions in substance, but they have some superficial differences. In fact, only one of the Heaviside versions is completely unchanged from these original equations, and that is Gauss's law (Maxwell's equation G below). Another of Heaviside's four equations is an amalgamation of Maxwell's law of total currents (equation A below) with Ampère's circuital law (equation C below). This amalgamation, which Maxwell himself originally made at equation (112) in his 1861 paper "On Physical Lines of Force" (see above), is the one that modifies Ampère's circuital law to include Maxwell's displacement current. The eight original Maxwell's equations can be written in modern vector notation as follows: (A) The law of total currents (B) The equation of magnetic force (C) Ampère's circuital law (D) Electromotive force created by convection, induction, and by static electricity. (This is in effect the Lorentz force) (E) The electric elasticity equation (F) Ohm's law (G) Gauss's law (H) Equation of continuity Notation is the magnetizing field, which Maxwell called the "magnetic intensity". is the electric current density (with being the total current including displacement current). is the displacement field (called the "electric displacement" by Maxwell). is the free charge density (called the "quantity of free electricity" by Maxwell). is the magnetic vector potential (called the "angular impulse" by Maxwell). is called the "electromotive force" by Maxwell. The term electromotive force is nowadays used for voltage, but it is clear from the context that Maxwell's meaning corresponded more to the modern term electric field. is the electric potential (which Maxwell also called "electric potential"). is the electrical conductivity (Maxwell called the inverse of conductivity the "specific resistance", what is now called the resistivity). It is interesting to note the term that appears in equation D. Equation D is therefore effectively the Lorentz force, similarly to equation (77) of his 1861 paper (see above). When Maxwell derives the electromagnetic wave equation in his 1865 paper, he uses equation D to cater for electromagnetic induction rather than Faraday's law of induction which is used in modern textbooks. (Faraday's law itself does not appear among his equations.) However, Maxwell drops the term from equation D when he is deriving the electromagnetic wave equation, as he considers the situation only from the rest frame. Maxwell's equations and matter Bound charge and current If an electric field is applied to a dielectric material, each of the molecules responds by forming a microscopic electric dipole -- its atomic nucleus will move a tiny distance in the direction of the field, while its electrons will move a tiny distance in the opposite direction. This is called polarization of the material. In an idealized situation like that shown in the figure, the distribution of charge that results from these tiny movements turns out to be identical (outside the material) to having a layer of positive charge on one side of the material, and a layer of negative charge on the other side – a macroscopic separation of charge – even though all of the charges involved are "bound" to individual molecules. The volume polarization P is a result of bound charge. (Mathematically, once physical approximation has established the electric dipole density P based upon the underlying behavior of atoms, the surface charge that is equivalent to the material with its internal polarization is provided by the divergence theorem applied to a region straddling the interface between the material and the surrounding vacuum.) Somewhat similarly, in all materials the constituent atoms exhibit magnetic moments that are intrinsically linked to the angular momentum of the atoms' components, most notably their electrons. The connection to angular momentum suggests the picture of an assembly of microscopic current loops. Outside the material, an assembly of such microscopic current loops is not different from a macroscopic current circulating around the material's surface, despite the fact that no individual magnetic moment is traveling a large distance. The "bound currents" can be described using M. (Mathematically, once physical approximation has established the magnetic dipole density based upon the underlying behavior of atoms, the surface current that is equivalent to the material with its internal magnetization is provided by Stokes' theorem applied to a path straddling the interface between the material and the surrounding vacuum.) These ideas suggest that for some situations the microscopic details of the atomic and electronic behavior can be treated in a simplified fashion that ignores many details on a fine scale that may be unimportant to understanding matters on a grosser scale. That notion underlies the bound/free partition of behavior. Proof that the two general formulations are equivalent In this section, a simple proof is outlined which shows that the two alternate general formulations of Maxwell's equations given in Section 1 are mathematically equivalent. The relation between polarization, magnetization, bound charge, and bound current is as follows: where P and M are polarization and magnetization, and ρb and Jb are bound charge and current, respectively. Plugging in these relations, it can be easily demonstrated that the two formulations of Maxwell's equations given in Section 1 are precisely equivalent. Constitutive relations In order to apply Maxwell's equations (the formulation in terms of free/bound charge and current using D and H), it is necessary to specify the relations between D and E, and H and B. Finding relations between these fields is another way to say that to solve Maxwell's equations by employing the free/bound partition of charges and currents, one needs the properties of the materials relating the response of bound currents and bound charges to the fields applied to these materials. The free charges and currents respond to the fields through the Lorentz force law and this response is calculated at a fundamental level using mechanics. The response of bound charges and currents is dealt with using grosser methods subsumed under the notions of magnetization and polarization. Depending upon the problem, one may choose to have no free charges whatsoever. These relations may be empirical (based directly upon measurements), or theoretical (based upon statistical mechanics, transport theory or other tools of condensed matter physics). The detail employed may be macroscopic or microscopic, depending upon the level necessary to the problem under scrutiny. These material properties specifying the response of bound charge and current to the field are called constitutive relations, and correspond physically to how much polarization and magnetization a material acquires in the presence of electromagnetic fields. Once the responses of bound currents and charges are related to the fields, Maxwell's equations can be fully formulated in terms of the E- and B-fields alone, with only the free charges and currents appearing explicitly in the equations. Case without magnetic or dielectric materials In the absence of magnetic or dielectric materials, the relations are simple: where ε0 and μ0 are two universal constants, called the permittivity of free space and permeability of free space, respectively. Case of linear materials In a "linear", isotropic, nondispersive, uniform material, the relations are also straightforward: where ε and μ are constants (which depend on the material), called the permittivity and permeability, respectively, of the material. General case For real-world materials, the constitutive relations are not simple proportionalities, except approximately. The relations can usually still be written: but ε and μ are not, in general, simple constants, but rather functions. For example, ε and μ can depend upon: The strength of the fields (the case of nonlinearity, which occurs when ε and μ are functions of E and B; see, for example, Kerr and Pockels effects), The direction of the fields (the case of anisotropy, birefringence, or dichroism; which occurs when ε and μ are second-rank tensors), The frequency with which the fields vary (the case of dispersion, which occurs when ε and μ are functions of frequency; see, for example, Kramers–Kronig relations). If further there are dependencies on: The position inside the material (the case of a nonuniform material, which occurs when the response of the material varies from point to point within the material, an effect called spatial inhomogeneity; for example in a domained structure, heterostructure or a liquid crystal, or most commonly in the situation where there are simply multiple materials occupying different regions of space), The history of the fields — in a linear time-invariant material, this is equivalent to the material dispersion mentioned above (a frequency dependence of the ε and μ), which after Fourier transforming turns into a convolution with the fields at past times, expressing a non-instantaneous response of the material to an applied field; in a nonlinear or time-varying medium, the time-dependent response can be more complicated, such as the example of a hysteresis response, then the constitutive relations take a more complicated form: , in which the permittivity and permeability functions are replaced by integrals over the more general electric and magnetic susceptibilities. It may be noted that man-made materials can be designed to have customized permittivity and permeability, such as metamaterials and photonic crystals. Maxwell's equations in terms of E and B for linear materials Substituting in the constitutive relations above, Maxwell's equations in linear, dispersionless, time-invariant materials (differential form only) are: These are formally identical to the general formulation in terms of E and B (given above), except that the permittivity of free space was replaced with the permittivity of the material (see also displacement field, electric susceptibility and polarization density), the permeability of free space was replaced with the permeability of the material (see also magnetization, magnetic susceptibility and magnetic field), and only free charges and currents are included (instead of all charges and currents). Unless that material is homogeneous in space, ε and μ cannot be factored out of the derivative expressions on the left-hand sides. Calculation of constitutive relations The fields in Maxwell's equations are generated by charges and currents. Conversely, the charges and currents are affected by the fields through the Lorentz force equation: where q is the charge on the particle and v is the particle velocity. (It also should be remembered that the Lorentz force is not the only force exerted upon charged bodies, which also may be subject to gravitational, nuclear, etc. forces.) Therefore, in both classical and quantum physics, the precise dynamics of a system form a set of coupled differential equations, which are almost always too complicated to be solved exactly, even at the level of statistical mechanics. These complications show there is merit in separating the Lorentz force from the main four Maxwell equations. The four Maxwell's equations express the fields' dependence upon current and charge, setting apart the calculation of these currents and charges. As noted in this subsection, these calculations may well involve the Lorentz force only implicitly. Separating these complicated considerations from the Maxwell's equations provides a useful framework. This remark applies to not only the dynamics of free charges and currents (which enter Maxwell's equations directly), but also the dynamics of bound charges and currents, which enter Maxwell's equations through the constitutive equations, as described next. Commonly, real materials are approximated as "continuum" media with bulk properties such as the refractive index, permittivity, permeability, conductivity, and/or various susceptibilities. These lead to the macroscopic Maxwell's equations, which are written (as given above) in terms of free charge/current densities and D, H, E, and B ( rather than E and B alone ) along with the constitutive equations relating these fields. For example, although a real material consists of atoms whose electronic charge densities can be individually polarized by an applied field, for most purposes behavior at the atomic scale is not relevant and the material is approximated by an overall polarization density related to the applied field by an electric susceptibility. Continuum approximations of atomic-scale inhomogeneities cannot be determined from Maxwell's equations alone, but require some type of quantum mechanical analysis such as quantum field theory as applied to condensed matter physics. See, for example, density functional theory, Green–Kubo relations and Green's function (many-body theory). Various approximate transport equations have evolved, for example, the Boltzmann equation or the Fokker–Planck equation or the Navier-Stokes equations. Some examples where these equations are applied are magnetohydrodynamics, fluid dynamics, electrohydrodynamics, superconductivity, plasma modeling. An entire physical apparatus for dealing with these matters has developed. A different set of homogenization methods (evolving from a tradition in treating materials such as conglomerates and laminates) are based upon approximation of an inhomogeneous material by a homogeneous effective medium Aspnes, D.E., "Local-field effects and effective-medium theory: A microscopic perspective," Am. J. Phys. 50, p. 704-709 (1982). (valid for excitations with wavelengths much larger than the scale of the inhomogeneity). See, e.g.: N. Bakhvalov and G. Panasenko, Homogenization: Averaging Processes in Periodic Media (Kluwer: Dordrecht, 1989); V. V. Jikov, S. M. Kozlov and O. A. Oleinik, Homogenization of Differential Operators and Integral Functionals (Springer: Berlin, 1994). Theoretical results have their place, but often require fitting to experiment. Continuum-approximation properties of many real materials rely upon measurement, for example, ellipsometry measurements. In practice, some materials properties have a negligible impact in particular circumstances, permitting neglect of small effects. For example: optical nonlinearities can be neglected for low field strengths; material dispersion is unimportant where frequency is limited to a narrow bandwidth; material absorption can be neglected for wavelengths where a material is transparent; and metals with finite conductivity often are approximated at microwave or longer wavelengths as perfect metals with infinite conductivity (forming hard barriers with zero skin depth of field penetration). And, of course, some situations demand that Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz force be combined with other forces that are not electromagnetic. An obvious example is gravity. A more subtle example, which applies where electrical forces are weakened due to charge balance in a solid or a molecule, is the Casimir force from quantum electrodynamics. F Capasso, JN Munday, D. Iannuzzi & HB Chen Casimir forces and quantum electrodynamical torques: physics and nanomechanics The connection of Maxwell's equations to the rest of the physical world is via the fundamental charges and currents. These charges and currents are a response of their sources to electric and magnetic fields and to other forces. The determination of these responses involves the properties of physical materials. In vacuum Starting with the equations appropriate in the case without dielectric or magnetic materials, and assuming that there is no current or electric charge present in the vacuum, we obtain the Maxwell equations in free space: The term "vacuum" often is used in this connection. However, it should be noted that free space is meant, that is, an idealized, physically unobtainable reference state that is not the same as any physically realizable vacuum, such as terrestrial ultra-high vacuum or outer space, nor any vacuum realizable in principle, such as the quantum vacuum, or the QCD vacuum. One set of solutions to these equations is in the form of traveling sinusoidal plane waves, with the electric and magnetic field directions orthogonal to one another and the direction of travel, and with the two fields in phase, traveling at the speed The ISO recommends using c0 as the international standard symbol for the speed of light; see NIST Special Publication 330, Appendix 2, p. 45 . However, this article will follow the practice common among physicists and engineers and use c instead. In fact, Maxwell's equations explains specifically how these waves can physically propagate through space. The changing magnetic field creates a changing electric field through Faraday's law. That electric field, in turn, creates a changing magnetic field through Maxwell's correction to Ampère's law. This perpetual cycle allows these waves, known as electromagnetic radiation, to move through space, always at velocity c. Maxwell discovered that this quantity c equals the speed of light in vacuum (known from early experiments), and concluded (correctly) that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. With magnetic monopoles Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism relate the electric and magnetic fields to the motions of electric charges. The standard form of the equations provide for an electric charge, but posit no magnetic charge (in accordance with the fact that magnetic charge has never been seen and may not exist). Except for this, the equations are symmetric under interchange of electric and magnetic field. In fact, symmetric equations can be written when all charges are zero, and this is how the wave equation is derived (see immediately above). Fully symmetric equations can also be written if one allows for the possibility of "magnetic charges" analogous to electric charges. With the inclusion of a variable for these magnetic charges, say , there will also be "magnetic current" variable in the equations, . The extended Maxwell's equations, simplified by nondimensionalization via Planck units, are as follows: {\| class="wikitable" ! Name ! Without magnetic monopoles ! With magnetic monopoles (hypothetical) \|- \| Gauss's law: \| \| \|- \| Gauss's law for magnetism: \| \| \|- \| Maxwell-Faraday equation (Faraday's law of induction): \| \| \|- \| Ampère's law (with Maxwell's extension): \| \| \|- \|colspan=4 style="background-color:#FFFFFF"\|Note: the Bivector notation embodies the sign swap, and these four equations can be written as only one equation. \|} If magnetic charges do not exist, or if they exist but where they are not present in a region, then the new variables are zero, and the symmetric equations reduce to the conventional equations of electromagnetism such as . Classically, the question is "Why does the magnetic charge always seem to be zero?" Boundary conditions: using Maxwell's equations Although Maxwell's equations apply throughout space and time, practical problems are finite and solutions to Maxwell's equations inside the solution region are joined to the remainder of the universe through boundary conditions and started in time using initial conditions. In particular, in a region without any free currents or free charges, the electromagnetic fields in the region originate elsewhere, and are introduced via boundary and/or initial conditions. An example of this type is a an electromagnetic scattering problem, where an electromagnetic wave originating outside the scattering region is scattered by a target, and the scattered electromagnetic wave is analyzed for the information it contains about the target by virtue of the interaction with the target during scattering. See for example: , . In some cases, like waveguides or cavity resonators, the solution region is largely isolated from the universe, for example, by metallic walls, and boundary conditions at the walls define the fields with influence of the outside world confined to the input/output ends of the structure. In other cases, the universe at large sometimes is approximated by an artificial absorbing boundary, S. G. Johnson, Notes on Perfectly Matched Layers, online MIT course notes (Aug. 2007). or, for example for radiating antennas or communication satellites, these boundary conditions can take the form of asymptotic limits imposed upon the solution. In addition, for example in an optical fiber or thin-film optics, the solution region often is broken up into subregions with their own simplified properties, and the solutions in each subregion must be joined to each other across the subregion interfaces using boundary conditions. A particular example of this use of boundary conditions is the replacement of a material with a volume polarization by a charged surface layer, or of a material with a volume magnetization by a surface current, as described in the section Bound charge and current. Following are some links of a general nature concerning boundary value problems: Examples of boundary value problems, Sturm-Liouville theory, Dirichlet boundary condition, Neumann boundary condition, mixed boundary condition, Cauchy boundary condition, Sommerfeld radiation condition. Needless to say, one must choose the boundary conditions appropriate to the problem being solved. See also Kempel and the extraordinary book by Friedman. CGS units The above equations are given in the International System of Units, or SI for short. In a related unit system, called CGS (short for centimeter-gram-second), there are several ways of defining the unit of electric current in terms of the CGS base units (cm, g, s). In one of those variants, called Electrostatic CGS units (ESU CGS), the equations take the following form: where c is the speed of light in a vacuum. For the electromagnetic field in a vacuum, the equations become: In this system of units the relation between displacement field, electric field and polarization density is: And likewise the relation between magnetic induction, magnetic field and total magnetization is: In the linear approximation, the electric susceptibility and magnetic susceptibility can be defined so that: , (Note that although the susceptibilities are dimensionless numbers in both cgs and SI, they have different values in the two unit systems, by a factor of 4π.) The permittivity and permeability are: , so that , In vacuum, one has the simple relations , D=E, and B=H. The force exerted upon a charged particle by the electric field and magnetic field is given by the Lorentz force equation: where is the charge on the particle and is the particle velocity. This is slightly different from the -unit expression above. For example, here the magnetic field has the same units as the electric field . Special relativity Maxwell's equations have a close relation to special relativity: Not only were Maxwell's equations a crucial part of the historical development of special relativity, but also, special relativity has motivated a compact mathematical formulation of Maxwell's equations, in terms of covariant tensors. Historical developments Maxwell's electromagnetic wave equation only applied in what he believed to be the rest frame of the luminiferous medium because he didn't use the v×B term of his equation (D) when he derived it. Maxwell's idea of the luminiferous medium was that it comprised of aethereal vortices aligned solenoidally along their rotation axes. The American scientist A.A. Michelson set out to determine the velocity of the earth through the luminiferous medium aether using a light wave interferometer that he had invented. When the Michelson-Morley experiment was conducted by Edward Morley and Albert Abraham Michelson in 1887, it produced a null result for the change of the velocity of light due to the Earth's motion through the hypothesized aether. This null result was in line with the theory that was proposed in 1845 by George Stokes which suggested that the aether was entrained with the Earth's orbital motion. Hendrik Lorentz objected to Stokes' aether drag model and along with George FitzGerald and Joseph Larmor, he suggested another approach. Both Larmor (1897) and Lorentz (1899, 1904) derived the Lorentz transformation (so named by Henri Poincaré) as one under which Maxwell's equations were invariant. Poincaré (1900) analyzed the coordination of moving clocks by exchanging light signals. He also established mathematically the group property of the Lorentz transformation (Poincaré 1905). This culminated in Albert Einstein's revolutionary theory of special relativity, which postulated the absence of any absolute rest frame, dismissed the aether as unnecessary (a bold idea, which did not come to Lorentz nor to Poincaré), and established the invariance of Maxwell's equations in all inertial frames of reference, in contrast to the famous Newtonian equations for classical mechanics. But the transformations between two different inertial frames had to correspond to Lorentz' equations and not - as formerly believed - to those of Galileo (called Galilean transformations). Details can be found in U. Krey, A. Owen, Basic Theoretical Physics - A Concise Overview, Springer, Berlin and elsewhere, 2007, ISBN 978-3-540-36804-5 Indeed, Maxwell's equations played a key role in Einstein's famous paper on special relativity; for example, in the opening paragraph of the paper, he motivated his theory by noting that a description of a conductor moving with respect to a magnet must generate a consistent set of fields irrespective of whether the force is calculated in the rest frame of the magnet or that of the conductor. General relativity has also had a close relationship with Maxwell's equations. For example, Kaluza and Klein showed in the 1920s that Maxwell's equations can be derived by extending general relativity into five dimensions. This strategy of using higher dimensions to unify different forces continues to be an active area of research in particle physics. Covariant formulation of Maxwell's equations In special relativity, in order to more clearly express the fact that Maxwell's equations in vacuum take the same form in any inertial coordinate system, Maxwell's equations are written in terms of four-vectors and tensors in the "manifestly covariant" form. The purely spatial components of the following are in SI units. One ingredient in this formulation is the electromagnetic tensor, a rank-2 covariant antisymmetric tensor combining the electric and magnetic fields: and the result of raising its indices The other ingredient is the four-current: where is the charge density and J is the current density. With these ingredients, Maxwell's equations can be written: and The first tensor equation is an expression of the two inhomogeneous Maxwell's equations, Gauss's law and Ampere's law with Maxwell's correction. The second equation is an expression of the two homogeneous equations, Faraday's law of induction and Gauss's law for magnetism. The second equation is equivalent to where is the contravariant version of the Levi-Civita symbol, and is the 4-gradient. In the tensor equations above, repeated indices are summed over according to Einstein summation convention. We have displayed the results in several common notations. Upper and lower components of a vector, and respectively, are interchanged with the fundamental tensor g, e.g., g=η=diag(-1,+1,+1,+1). Alternative covariant presentations of Maxwell's equations also exist, for example in terms of the four-potential; see Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism for details. Potentials Maxwell's equations can be written in an alternative form, involving the electric potential (also called scalar potential) and magnetic potential (also called vector potential), as follows. (The following equations are valid in the absence of dielectric and magnetic materials; or if such materials are present, they are valid as long as bound charge and bound current are included in the total charge and current densities.) First, Gauss's law for magnetism states: By Helmholtz's theorem, B can be written in terms of a vector field A, called the magnetic potential: Second, plugging this into Faraday's law, we get: By Helmholtz's theorem, the quantity in parentheses can be written in terms of a scalar function , called the electric potential: Combining these with the remaining two Maxwell's equations yields the four relations: These equations, taken together, are as powerful and complete as Maxwell's equations. Moreover, the problem has been reduced somewhat, as the electric and magnetic fields each have three components which need to be solved for (six components altogether), while the electric and magnetic potentials have only four components altogether. On the other hand, these equations appear more complicated than Maxwell's equations using just the electric and magnetic fields. Many different choices of A and are consistent with a given E and B, making these choices physically equivalent – a flexibility known as gauge freedom. Suitable choice of A and can simplify these equations, or can adapt them to suit a particular situation. For more information, see the article gauge freedom. Differential forms In free space, where ε = ε0 and μ = μ0 are constant everywhere, Maxwell's equations simplify considerably once the language of differential geometry and differential forms is used. In what follows, cgs units, not SI units are used, however. The electric and magnetic fields are now jointly described by a 2-form F in a 4-dimensional spacetime manifold. Maxwell's equations then reduce to the Bianchi identity where d denotes the exterior derivative — a natural coordinate and metric independent differential operator acting on forms — and the source equation where the (dual) Hodge star operator * is a linear transformation from the space of 2-forms to the space of (4-2)-forms defined by the metric in Minkowski space (in four dimensions even by any metric conformal to this metric), and the fields are in natural units where . Here, the 3-form J is called the "electric current form" or "current 3-form" satisfying the continuity equation The current 3-form can be integrated over a 3-dimensional space-time region. The physical interpretation of this integral is the charge in that region if it is spacelike, or the amount of charge that flows through a surface in a certain amount of time if that region is a spacelike surface cross a timelike interval. As the exterior derivative is defined on any manifold, the differential form version of the Bianchi identity makes sense for any 4-dimensional manifold, whereas the source equation is defined if the manifold is oriented and has a Lorentz metric. In particular the differential form version of the Maxwell equations are a convenient and intuitive formulation of the Maxwell equations in general relativity. In a linear, macroscopic theory, the influence of matter on the electromagnetic field is described through more general linear transformation in the space of 2-forms. We call the constitutive transformation. The role of this transformation is comparable to the Hodge duality transformation. The Maxwell equations in the presence of matter then become: where the current 3-form J still satisfies the continuity equation dJ= 0. When the fields are expressed as linear combinations (of exterior products) of basis forms , . the constitutive relation takes the form where the field coefficient functions are antisymmetric in the indices and the constitutive coefficients are antisymmetric in the corresponding pairs. In particular, the Hodge duality transformation leading to the vacuum equations discussed above are obtained by taking which up to scaling is the only invariant tensor of this type that can be defined with the metric. In this formulation, electromagnetism generalises immediately to any 4-dimensional oriented manifold or with small adaptations any manifold, requiring not even a metric. Thus the expression of Maxwell's equations in terms of differential forms leads to a further notational and conceptual simplification. Whereas Maxwell's Equations could be written as two tensor equations instead of eight scalar equations, from which the propagation of electromagnetic disturbances and the continuity equation could be derived with a little effort, using differential forms leads to an even simpler derivation of these results. Conceptual insight from this formulation On the conceptual side, from the point of view of physics, this shows that the second and third Maxwell equations should be grouped together, be called the homogeneous ones, and be seen as geometric identities expressing nothing else than: the field F derives from a more "fundamental" potential A. While the first and last one should be seen as the dynamical equations of motion, obtained via the Lagrangian principle of least action, from the "interaction term" A J (introduced through gauge covariant derivatives), coupling the field to matter. Often, the time derivative in the third law motivates calling this equation "dynamical", which is somewhat misleading; in the sense of the preceding analysis, this is rather an artifact of breaking relativistic covariance by choosing a preferred time direction. To have physical degrees of freedom propagated by these field equations, one must include a kinetic term F *F for A; and take into account the non-physical degrees of freedom which can be removed by gauge transformation A→A' = A-dα: see also gauge fixing and Fadeev-Popov ghosts. Classical electrodynamics as the curvature of a line bundle An elegant and intuitive way to formulate Maxwell's equations is to use complex line bundles or principal bundles with fibre U(1). The connection on the line bundle has a curvature which is a two-form that automatically satisfies and can be interpreted as a field-strength. If the line bundle is trivial with flat reference connection d we can write and F = dA with A the 1-form composed of the electric potential and the magnetic vector potential. In quantum mechanics, the connection itself is used to define the dynamics of the system. This formulation allows a natural description of the Aharonov-Bohm effect. In this experiment, a static magnetic field runs through a long magnetic wire (e.g. an Fe wire magnetized longitudinally). Outside of this wire the magnetic induction is zero, in contrast to the vector potential, which essentially depends on the magnetic flux through the cross-section of the wire and does not vanish outside. Since there is no electric field either, the Maxwell tensor F = 0 throughout the space-time region outside the tube, during the experiment. This means by definition that the connection is flat there. However, as mentioned, the connection depends on the magnetic field through the tube since the holonomy along a non-contractible curve encircling the tube is the magnetic flux through the tube in the proper units. This can be detected quantum-mechanically with a double-slit electron diffraction experiment on an electron wave traveling around the tube. The holonomy corresponds to an extra phase shift, which leads to a shift in the diffraction pattern. (See Michael Murray, Line Bundles, 2002 (PDF web link) for a simple mathematical review of this formulation. See also R. Bott, On some recent interactions between mathematics and physics, Canadian Mathematical Bulletin, 28 (1985) no. 2 pp 129–164.)Curved spacetime Traditional formulation Matter and energy generate curvature of spacetime. This is the subject of general relativity. Curvature of spacetime affects electrodynamics. An electromagnetic field having energy and momentum will also generate curvature in spacetime. Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime can be obtained by replacing the derivatives in the equations in flat spacetime with covariant derivatives. (Whether this is the appropriate generalization requires separate investigation.) The sourced and source-free equations become (cgs units): , and Here, is a Christoffel symbol that characterizes the curvature of spacetime and is the covariant derivative. Formulation in terms of differential forms The formulation of the Maxwell equations in terms of differential forms can be used without change in general relativity. The equivalence of the more traditional general relativistic formulation using the covariant derivative with the differential form formulation can be seen as follows. Choose local coordinates which gives a basis of 1-forms in every point of the open set where the coordinates are defined. Using this basis and cgs units we define The antisymmetric infinitesimal field tensor , corresponding to the field 2-form F The current-vector infinitesimal 3-form J Here g is as usual the determinant of the metric tensor . A small computation that uses the symmetry of the Christoffel symbols (i.e. the torsion-freeness of the Levi Civita connection) and the covariant constantness of the Hodge star operator then shows that in this coordinate neighborhood we have: the Bianchi identity the source equation the continuity equation See also Electromagnetic wave equation Sinusoidal plane-wave solutions of the electromagnetic wave equation Nonhomogeneous electromagnetic wave equation Interface conditions for electromagnetic fields Photon dynamics in the double-slit experiment Photon polarization Computational electromagnetics Finite-difference time-domain method Jefimenko's equations Moving magnet and conductor problem Abraham-Lorentz force Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schrödinger equation Mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field Lorentz force Ampere's law Electrical generator Transformer Waveguide Antenna (radio) Photonic crystal Fresnel equations Laser Bremsstrahlung Linear response function Kramers–Kronig relation Green–Kubo relations Green's function (many-body theory) References Further reading Journal articles James Clerk Maxwell, "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 155, 459-512 (1865). (This article accompanied a December 8, 1864 presentation by Maxwell to the Royal Society.) The developments before relativity Joseph Larmor (1897) "On a dynamical theory of the electric and luminiferous medium", Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 190, 205-300 (third and last in a series of papers with the same name). Hendrik Lorentz (1899) "Simplified theory of electrical and optical phenomena in moving systems", Proc. Acad. Science Amsterdam, I, 427-43. Hendrik Lorentz (1904) "Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity less than that of light", Proc. Acad. Science Amsterdam, IV, 669-78. Henri Poincaré (1900) "La theorie de Lorentz et la Principe de Reaction", Archives Néerlandaises, V, 253-78. Henri Poincaré (1901) Science and Hypothesis Henri Poincaré (1905) "Sur la dynamique de l'électron", Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 140, 1504-8. see Macrossan, M. N. (1986) note on relativity before Einstein", Brit. J. Phil. Sci., 37, 232-234 University level textbooks Undergraduate Stevens, Charles F., 1995. The Six Core Theories of Modern Physics. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-69188-4. Krey, U., Owen, A. (2007), Basic Theoretical Physics - A Concise Overview, esp. part II, Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-36804-5 Hoffman, Banesh, 1983. Relativity and Its Roots. W. H. Freeman. Graduate J. D. Jackson, 1999. Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-30932-X. Lounesto, Pertti, 1997. Clifford Algebras and Spinors. Cambridge Univ. Press. Chpt. 8 sets out several variants of the equations, using exterior algebra and differential forms. Older classics James Clerk Maxwell, 1873. A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. Dover. ISBN 0-486-60637-6. Charles W. Misner, Kip Thorne, John Archibald Wheeler, 1973. Gravitation. W.H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0344-0. Sets out the equations using differential forms. Computational techniques External links Mathematical aspects of Maxwell's equation are discussed on the Dispersive PDE Wiki. Modern treatments Electromagnetism, B. Crowell, Fullerton College Lecture series: Relativity and electromagnetism, R. Fitzpatrick, University of Texas at Austin Electromagnetic waves from Maxwell's equations on Project PHYSNET. MIT Video Lecture Series (36 x 50 minute lectures) (in .mp4 format) - Electricity and Magnetism Taught by Professor Walter Lewin. Historical A Treatise on Electricity And Magnetism - Volume 1 - 1873 - Posner Memorial Collection - Carnegie Mellon University A Treatise on Electricity And Magnetism - Volume 2 - 1873 - Posner Memorial Collection - Carnegie Mellon University Original Maxwell Equations - Maxwell's 20 Equations in 20 Unknowns - PDF On Faraday's Lines of Force - 1855/56 Maxwell's first paper (Part 1 & 2) - Compiled by Blaze Labs Research (PDF) On Physical Lines of Force - 1861 Maxwell's 1861 paper describing magnetic lines of Force - Predecessor to 1873 Treatise Maxwell, James Clerk, "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field''", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 155, 459-512 (1865). (This article accompanied a December 8, 1864 presentation by Maxwell to the Royal Society.) Catt, Walton and Davidson. "The History of Displacement Current". Wireless World, March 1979. Other Feynman's derivation of Maxwell equations and extra dimensions Simple explanation of the equations and their physical implications - David Morgan-Mar - Irregular Webcomic! According to an article in Physicsweb, the Maxwell equations rate as "The greatest equations ever".	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3,357	German_Empire	The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of William I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a German republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of Wilhelm II (28 November 1918). During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire emerged to become one of the most powerful industrial economies in Europe and a formidable great power, until it collapsed following its military defeat in World War I and the concurrent November Revolution. The most important bordering states were the Russian Empire in the east, France in the west, and Austria-Hungary in the south. Bismarck's founding of the empire Under the guise of idealism giving way to realism, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848 to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarck's authoritarian Realpolitik. Bismarck wanted to unify the rival German states to achieve his aim of a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany. Three wars led to military successes and helped to convince German people to do this: the Second war of Schleswig against Denmark in 1864, the Austro-Prussian War against Austria in 1866, and the Franco-Prussian War against the Second French Empire in 1870–71. During the Siege of Paris in 1871, the North German Confederation, supported by its allies from southern Germany, formed the German Empire with the proclamation of the Prussian king Wilhelm I as German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, to the humiliation of the French, who ceased to resist only days later. Bismarck himself prepared a broad outline—the 1866 North German Constitution, which became the 1871 Constitution of the German Empire with some adjustments. Germany acquired some democratic features. The new empire had a parliament with two houses. The lower house, or Reichstag, was elected by universal male suffrage. However, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas. As a result, by the time of the great expansion of German cities in the 1890s and 1900s, rural areas were grossly overrepresented. Legislation also required the consent of the Bundesrat, the federal council of deputies from the states. Executive power was vested in the emperor, or Kaiser (Caesar), who was assisted by a chancellor responsible only to him. Officially, the chancellor was a one-man cabinet and was responsible for the conduct of all state affairs; in practice, the State Secretaries (bureaucratic top officials in charge of such fields as finance, war, foreign affairs, etc.) acted as unofficial portfolio ministers. While the Reichstag had the power to pass, amend or reject bills, it could not initiate legislation. The power of initiating legislation rested with the chancellor. Although nominally a league of equals, in practice the empire was dominated by the largest and most powerful state, Prussia. It contained three-fifths of Germany's territory and two-thirds of its population. The imperial crown was hereditary in the House of Hohenzollern, the kings of Prussia. With the exception of the years 1872–1873 and 1892–1894, the chancellor was always simultaneously the prime minister of Prussia. With 17 out of 58 votes in the Bundesrat, Berlin needed only a few votes from the small states to exercise effective control. The other states retained their own governments, but had only limited aspects of sovereignty. For example, postage stamps were issued for the empire as a whole, as was the currency and coinage through one mark. Higher valued pieces were issued by the states, but these were virtually commemorative coins and had limited circulation. While the states issued their own decorations, and some had their own armies, the military forces of the smaller ones were put under Prussian control. Those of the larger states, such as the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Saxony, were coordinated along Prussian principles and would in wartime be controlled by the federal government. Die Proklamation des Deutschen Kaiserreiches by Anton von Werner (1877), depicting the proclamation of the foundation of the German Reich (18 January 1871, Palace of Versailles).Left, on the podium (in black): Crown Prince Frederick (later Frederick III), his father Emperor William I, and Frederick I of Baden, proposing a toast to the new emperor.Centre (in white): Otto von Bismarck, first Chancellor of Germany, Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, Prussian Chief of Staff. The evolution of the German Empire is somewhat in line with parallel developments in Italy which became a united nation state shortly before the German Empire. Some key elements of the German Empire's authoritarian political structure were also the basis for conservative modernization in Imperial Japan under Meiji and the preservation of an authoritarian political structure under the Tsars in the Russian Empire. One factor in the social anatomy of these governments had been the retention of a very substantial share in political power by the landed elite, the Junkers, due to the absence of a revolutionary breakthrough by the peasants in combination with urban areas. Although authoritarian in many respects, the empire permitted the development of political parties. Bismarck's intention was to create a constitutional façade which would mask the continuation of authoritarian policies. In the process, he created a system with a serious flaw. There was a significant disparity between the Prussian and German electoral systems. Prussia used a highly restrictive three-class voting system in which the richest third of the population could choose 85 percent of the legislature, all but assuring a conservative majority. As mentioned above, the king and (with two exceptions) the prime minister of Prussia were also the emperor and chancellor of the empire—meaning that the same rulers had to seek majorities from legislatures elected from completely different franchises. Germany emerges as an industrial power Under the leadership of Prussia and Bismarck, Germany had emerged as a nation and as a world power. In 1871, her 39 separate states, after centuries of discord, had united at last. The kings of Saxony and Bavaria, the princes, dukes and electors, Brunswick, Baden, Hanover, Mecklenburg, Württemberg, Oldenburg, all paid allegiance to the king of Prussia, the Kaiser. This unity fulfilled a deep wish in German hearts; it gave them a sense of destiny, and with unity there came an extraordinary upsurge of energy and expansion. In 1871, there were 41 million citizens in the German Empire. In 1913 there were nearly 68 million, an increase of more than half. And more than half of them were living in towns and cities. But it was not merely an expansion of population. The foundations of economic strength at the turn of the century were steel and coal – Germany had made great strides with both: Steel production multiplied by 12 in 30 years Coal production multiplied by nearly five in 30 years Manufactures multiplied by four Exports multiplied by three Exports of chemicals multiplied by three Exports of machinery multiplied by five In 30 years, Germany’s share in world trade had risen by a third. Now, in 1914, Germany was the most powerful industrial nation in Europe. The epitome of her industrial might lay in the firm of Krupp, whose first factory was built in Essen. By 1902, the factory alone had become “A great city with its own streets, its own police force, fire department and traffic laws. There are 150 kilometres of rail, 60 different factory buildings, 8,500 machine tools, seven electrical stations, 140 kilometres of underground cable and 46 overhead.” Germany delighted in the prowess of Krupp’s. When Alfred Krupp died in that year, the Kaiser attended his lavish funeral and called him “a German of the Germans.” In 1914, the firm employed 80,000 workers. They lived in Krupp houses, their babies were delivered by Krupp doctors, their children educated in Krupp schools, they bought at Krupp stores, borrowed books from Krupp libraries, married in the Krupp church and were buried in the Krupp cemetery. Under Bismarck, Germany had come closer than any other state to modern conceptions of social welfare. German workers enjoyed sickness, accident and maternity benefits, canteens and changing rooms and a national pension scheme before these were even thought of in more liberal countries. Yet the life of the workers was hard. The steel mills operated a 12-hour day and an 80-hour week. Neither rest nor holidays were guaranteed. In Germany, as in every industrial state, there was poverty and protest. By 1912, the Marxist Social Democratic Party was the strongest party in the Reichstag, the German parliament. But the Reichstag did not rule Germany. The Kaiser ruled Germany through officials whom he personally appointed. “No one,” said Winston Churchill, “should judge Kaiser Wilhelm II without asking the question, ‘What should I have done in this position?’” “Imagine yourself brought up to believe that you were appointed by God to be the ruler of a mighty nation. Imagine succeeding in your twenties to the prizes of Bismarck’s three victorious wars. Imagine feeling the magnificent German race bounding beneath you in ever-swelling numbers, strength, wealth and ambition. And imagine on every side the thunderous tributes of the crowds and the skilled, unceasing flattery of the court.” With this background, subjected to these pressures, trying to hide a left arm withered from birth, for 30 years Wilhelm II vexed and perturbed the peace of Europe—but always short of war. His first public utterance when he came to the throne was addressed not to the people but to the army: We belong to each other, I and the army. We were born for each other and will indissolubly cleave to each other. I promise ever to bear in mind that from the world above the eyes of my forefathers look down on me, and that I shall one day have to stand accountably to them for the glory and honour of the army. Those were not empty words. The German Kaiser was also the King of Prussia, and it was for the sake of Prussian strength that the other Germany—the Germany of the merchants, the industrialists, the musicians, the philosophers—had accepted its rule. The Prussian influence was seeping in through the whole nation. It was above all a military influence, well described by one of its advocates, then-General of Infantry Paul von Hindenburg: The army trained and strengthened that mighty organising impulse which we found everywhere in the Fatherland. The conviction that the subordination of the individual to the good of the community was not only a necessity but a positive blessing had gripped the mind of the German army, and through it that of the nation. Constituent states of the Empire Member states of the German Empire (Prussia shown in blue). The German Colonial Empire in 1914. See also: States of the German Empire (1871) Before unification, German territory was made up of 26 constituent states. These states consisted of kingdoms, grand duchies, duchies, principalities, free Hanseatic cities and one imperial territory. The Kingdom of Prussia was the largest of the constituent states, covering some 60 percent of the territory of the German Empire. Several of these states had gained sovereignty following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. Others were created as sovereign states after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Territories were not necessarily contiguous - many existed in several parts, as a result of historical acquisition, or, in several cases, divisions of the ruling family trees. Each component of the German Empire sent representatives to the Imperial Council (Bundesrat) and the Imperial Diet (Reichstag). Relations between the Imperial centre and the Empire's components were somewhat fluid, and were developed on an ongoing basis. The extent to which the German Emperor could, for example, intervene on occasions of disputed or unclear succession was much debated on occasion - for example with the Lippe-Detmold inheritance crisis. Bismarck era Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck's domestic policies played a great role in forging the authoritarian political culture of the Kaiserreich. Less preoccupied by continental power politics following unification in 1871, Germany's semi-parliamentary government carried out a relatively smooth economic and political revolution from above that pushed them along the way towards becoming the world's leading industrial power of the time. Economy Industrialization progressed dynamically in Germany and German manufacturers began to capture domestic markets from British imports, and also to compete with British industry abroad, particularly in the United States. The German textiles and metal industries had by the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War surpassed those of Britain in organization and technical efficiency and usurped British manufacturers in the domestic market. Germany became the dominant economic power on the continent and was the second largest exporting nation after the US. By the turn of the century, the German metals and engineering industries would be producing heavily for the free trade market of Britain. By the time of World War I (1914–1918) the German economy had switched to supplying its military with the proper equipment needed to fight the war. This included the production of rifles (Gewehr 98), pistols (P08 Luger), machine guns (Maxim machine gun), mortars (Minenwerfer), and several other heavy and light artillery pieces. Additionally, Imperial Germany was leading in the sectors of physics and chemistry so that one third of all Nobel Prizes went to German inventors and researchers. Ideology After achieving formal unification in 1871, Bismarck devoted much of his attention to the cause of national unity under the ideology of Prussianism. Conservative Catholic activism and emancipation, conceptualized by the conservative turn of the Vatican under Pope Pius IX and its dogma of Papal Infallibility, and working class radicalism, represented by the emerging Social Democratic Party, in many ways both reacted to concerns of dislocation by very different segments of German society, brought by a rapid shift from an agrarian-based economy to modern industrial capitalism under nationalist tutelage. While out-and-out suppression failed to contain either socialists or Catholics, Bismarck's "carrot and stick" approach significantly mollified opposition from both groups. One can summarize Bismarck's ideology under four objectives: Kulturkampf, social reform, national unification, and Kleindeutschland. Kulturkampf Following the incorporation of the Catholic German states in the south and some areas in the east, Catholicism, represented by the Catholic Centre Party, was seemingly the principal threat to unification process. Southern Catholics, hailing from a much more agrarian base and falling under the ranks of the peasantry, artisans, guildsmen, clergy, and princely aristocracies of the small states more often than their Protestant counterparts in the North, initially had trouble competing with industrial efficiency and the opening of outside trade by the Zollverein. Roman Catholic institutions were obstructed and Catholic influence on society was fought by the Bismarck government. After 1878 however, the struggle against socialism would unite Bismarck with the Catholic Centre Party, bringing an end to the Kulturkampf, which had led to far greater Catholic unrest than existed beforehand and had strengthened rather than weakened Catholicism in Germany. Social reform To contain the working class and to weaken the influence of socialist groups, Bismarck reluctantly implemented a remarkably advanced welfare state. The social security systems installed by Bismarck (health care in 1883, accident insurance in 1884, invalidity and old-age insurance in 1889) at the time were the largest in the world and, to a degree, still exist in Germany today. National unification Bismarck's efforts also initiated the levelling of the enormous differences between the German states, which had been independent in their evolution for centuries, especially with legislation. Kleindeutschland Two visions of what the German Empire should territorially comprise were debated during Bismarck's tenure. One vision was of a Großdeutschland (Greater or Large Germany), and the other, preferred by Bismarck, was a Kleindeutschland (Lesser or Small Germany). Großdeutschland then especially espoused by German liberals and Pan-German nationalists was that Germany should be an all-encompassing state for all Germans including Austrian territory (some wanting all of Austro-Hungarian territory, some only wanting German Austrian lands). Kleindeutschland was an idea espoused by Bismarck and Prussian conservatives. While the Kleindeutschland concept included millions of non-Germans (mainly Poles) its believers thought that incorporating all of Austria-Hungary into Germany would result in the destabilization of the German state due to the even greater number of ethnic minorities in Austria-Hungary. Also, the largely Prussian supporters of Kleindeutschland feared that even the incorporation of German Austria alone excluding non-German territory, would weaken Prussia's control over the direction of Germany and substantially increase the number of Roman Catholics in a state which already had tensions with the Protestant north establishment and Catholic south which the state wanted to assimilate. Kleindeutschland was an important element of the German Empire's political affairs and stands in stark contrast to Nazi Germany which claimed itself to be a successor to the German Empire, even though Nazi Germany followed a Pan-German, Großdeutschland approach which dismantled Prussian hegemony in Germany in favour of a centralized and totalitarian state. Germanization One of the effects of the unification policies was the elimination of the use of non-German languages from public life, schools and academic settings with the intent of pressuring the non-German population to abandon their national identity or leave the country in what was called "Germanization". The strict Germanization policies had often the reverse effect of stimulating resistance, usually in the form of home schooling and tighter unity in the minority groups. The Germanization policies were targeted particularly against the significant Polish minority of the empire, gained by Prussia in the Partitions of Poland. Laws were made that denied Poles the right to build homes in territories acquired in the Partitions of Poland Imanuel Geiss, Der polnische Grenzstreifen 1914-1918. Ein Beitrag zur deutschen Kriegszielpolitik im Ersten Weltkrieg, Hamburg/Lübeck 1960 , restricted the right to speak Polish in public meetings, and in 1908 a law was made allowing for expulsion of Poles from their homes Imannuel Geiss, Der polnische Grenzstreifen 1914-1918. Ein Beitrag zur deutschen Kriegszielpolitik im Ersten Weltkrieg, Hamburg/Lübeck 1960 . A Settlement Commission was set up and funded by the government in 1885, with a mission to distribute Polish owned land among German colonists. However, the Poles founded an organization of their own to defend themselves against the German settlement commission. In the 1880s mass expulsion of some 24,000 Poles to Russian Poland that weren't granted German citizenship were organized by German authorities. This act was heavily criticized by leftist German political parties and Bismarck himself was sceptical about it but he was concerned about possible "revolutionary elements" among the Poles from Russian Poland. Polish associations tried to fight for their rights without success, and although some Polish deputies were elected to the Reichstag, they were greatly outnumbered by German representatives hostile to their cause. Law The completely different legal histories and judicial systems posed enormous complications, especially for national trade. While a common trade code had already been introduced by the Confederation in 1861 (which was adapted for the Empire and, with great modifications, is still in effect today), there was little similarity in laws otherwise. In 1871, a common Criminal Code (Reichsstrafgesetzbuch) was introduced; in 1877, common court procedures were established in the court system (Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz), civil procedures (Zivilprozessordnung) and criminal procedures (Strafprozessordnung). In 1873 the constitution was amended to allow the Empire to replace the various and greatly differing Civil Codes of the states (if they existed at all; for example, parts of Germany formerly occupied by Napoleon's France had adopted the French Civil Code, while in Prussia the Allgemeines Preußisches Landrecht of 1794 was still in effect). In 1881, a first commission was established to produce a common Civil Code for all of the Empire, an enormous effort that would produce the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (BGB), possibly one of the most impressive legal works of the world; it was eventually put into effect on 1 January 1900. It speaks volumes for the conceptual quality of these codifications that they all, albeit with many amendments, are still in effect today. Year of three emperors Frederick III, emperor for only 99 days (9 March 15 June 1888). On 9 March 1888, William I died shortly before his 91st birthday, leaving his son Frederick III as the new emperor. Frederick was a liberal and an admirer of the British constitution, while his links to the United Kingdom strengthened further with his marriage to Princess Victoria, eldest child of Queen Victoria. With his ascent to the throne, many hoped that Frederick's reign would lead to a liberalisation of the Reich and an increase of parliament's influence on the political process. The dismissal of Robert von Puttkamer, the highly-conservative Prussian interior minister, on 8 June was a sign in the expected direction and a blow to Bismarck's administration. However, by the time of his coronation, Frederick had developed incurable laryngeal cancer, which had been diagnosed the previous year on 12 November 1887 by British doctor Morell Mackenzie. Frederick died on the 99th day of his rule, on 15 June 1888. The death of Frederick III led to the crowning of his son Wilhelm II as emperor. Due to the rapid succession of these three monarchs, 1888 is known as the Year of Three Emperors (). Wilhelmine era Relegitimizing the royal chair and Bismarck's resignation William II, German Emperor.Oil painting by Max Koner, 1890. Wilhelm II intended to relegitimize the importance of the imperial throne at a time when other monarchies in Europe were being subordinated into figurehead positions. This decision led the ambitious Kaiser into conflict with Bismarck who was confident in his leadership and had no intention of relinquishing any powers to the young Kaiser and instead wanted Wilhelm II to be dependent on him. A major difference between Wilhelm II and Bismarck was their approaches to handling political crises, especially in 1889, when German coal miners went on strike in Upper Silesia. Bismarck demanded that the German Army be sent in to crush the strike, but Wilhelm II rejected this authoritarian measure, responding "I do not wish to stain my reign with the blood of my subjects." Instead of repression being used, Wilhelm had the government proceed with negotiations with a delegation sent from the coal miners which resulted in the strike coming to an end without violence. This was the beginning of a rift between Wilhelm II and Bismarck. Bismarck defied Wilhelm's demands for greater power by forming political coalitions with political parties which Wilhelm did not praise. The fractious relationship ended after Wilhelm II and Bismarck had a dispute, and the latter resigned days later in March 1890. With the departure of Bismarck as chancellor, Wilhelm II became the dominant leader of Germany. Unlike his grandfather, Wilhelm I, who was satisfied with leaving government affairs to the chancellor, Wilhelm II wanted to be active in the affairs of Germany and wanted to be a knowledgeable leader, not an ornamental figurehead. Kurtz, Harold (1970) 63 Wilhelm voluntarily received economics tutoring from the controversial Walther Rathenau. From Rathenau, Wilhelm learned about European economics and industrial and financial realities in Europe. In official appearances and photographs, Wilhelm II tried with some success to conceal his withered left arm which he had due to Erb's Palsy since his traumatic breech birth. Wilhelm would become internationally known for his aggressive foreign policy positions and strategic blunders which pushed the German Empire into political isolation and later into World War I. Domestic affairs The Reichstag in the 1890searly 1900s. Under Wilhelm II, Germany no longer had long-ruling strong chancellors like Bismarck. The new chancellors had difficulty in performing their roles, especially their additional role as Prime Minister of Prussia that was assigned to them in the German Constitution. Reforms made by Chancellor Caprivi involving trade liberalization which brought about a reduction in unemployment were supported by the Kaiser and many Germans, except for Prussian landowners, who feared loss of land and power and set up a number of anti-Caprivi campaigns against the reforms. Kurtz, Harold (1970) 67 . While Prussian aristocrats challenged the demands of a united German state, in the 1890s, a number of rebellious organizations were set up to challenge the authoritarian conservative Prussian militarism which was instilled on the country. Some educators acted in opposition of the German state-run schools which taught military education and set up their own independent liberal-minded schools which encouraged individuality and freedom. Kurtz, Harold (1970) 72 Nevertheless, the schools in Imperial Germany had a very high standard and dealt with modern developments. Lüke, Martina G.: Zwischen Tradition und Aufbruch. Deutschunterricht und Lesebuch im Deutschen Kaiserreich. Frankfurt am Main 2007, ISBN 978-3-631-56408-0. Artists began experimental art in opposition to Kaiser Wilhelm's demands for traditional art in which Wilhelm responded "art which transgresses the laws and limits laid down by me can no longer be called art […]." Kurtz, Harold (1970) 76 At the same time, a new generation of cultural producers emerged. Jefferies, Matthew: Imperial Culture in Germany, 1871–1918. New York and London: Palgrave, 2003. The most dangerous opposition to the monarchy came from the newly formed Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in the 1890s which advocated Marxism. The threat of the SPD towards the German monarchy and industrialists caused the state to both crack down on socialist supporters as well as initiating social reform to sooth tensions. Germany's large industries provided significant social welfare programmes and good care to their employees as long as they were not identified as socialists or members of a trade union. Pensions, sickness benefits and even housing were provided to employees by the big industries to reduce social unease. Wilhelm II, unlike Bismarck, set aside differences with the Roman Catholic Church and put the government's energy into opposing socialism at all cost. Kurtz, Harold (1970) 56 This policy failed when the Social Democrats won a third of the votes in the 1912 elections to the Reichstag (imperial parliament), and became the largest political party in Germany. The government remained in the hands of a succession of conservative coalitions supported by right-wing liberals or Catholic clerics and heavily dependent on the Kaiser's favour. The rising militarism under Wilhelm II caused many Germans to immigrate to the United States. During World War I, the Kaiser's powers were devolved to a two-man dictatorship in 1916 led by the German High Command leaders, future President of Germany, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and Generalquartiermeister Erich Ludendorff. The Kaiser was no longer seen as a hero figure to Germans, while Hindenburg and Ludendorff were seen as the nation's true heroic leaders. The Kaiser remained a figurehead for the remaining two years of the war until his abdication in 1918. Foreign affairs Wilhelm II wanted Germany to have her "place in the sun", not unlike the British with whom he constantly wished to compete and often emulate. With German traders and merchants already engaged world-wide, he encouraged colonial efforts in Africa and the Pacific ("new imperialism"), in essence for the German Empire to stand up to other European powers for the remaining “unclaimed” territories. Germany acquired German Southwest Africa (todays Namibia), German Kamerun (Cameroon), Togoland, and German East Africa (the mainland part of current Tanzania). Islands were gained in the Pacific through purchase and treaties, as well as a 99-year lease for the territory of Kiautschou in north east China. Only Togoland and German Samoa (after 1908) became self-sufficient and profitable, all other territories required subsidies from the Berlin treasury for building infrastructure, school systems, hospitals and other institutions. With the financial backing of Deutsche Bank, the Baghdad Railway was constructed with the cooperation of the Ottoman Empire with the intention of gaining a foothold in the Middle East. Stürmer, Michael (2000) 91 In an interview with Wilhelm II in 1899, Cecil Rhodes had tried “to convince the Kaiser that the future of the German empire abroad lay in the Middle East” and not in Africa; with a grand Middle-Eastern empire Germany could grant Britain the unhindered completion of her Cape to Cairo pursuits. Louis, Ruanda-Urundi 1884-1919, p. 163 Building the Baghdad Railway from 1900–1911 was initially supported by the United Kingdom. However, as time passed, the British increasingly saw Germany as a vigorous competitor in the region where it believed it alone should dominate and demanded retrenchment, a block to the expansion of the railway in 1911; this demand was acquiesced to by Germany and the Ottoman Empire. Colonial efforts were treated at first contemptuously by Bismarck; he engineered a Euro-centric foreign policy as shown by the treaty arrangements during his tenure in office. Since Germany was a latecomer to colonization, conflicts occurred with the established colonial powers on a number of occasions. Native insurrections in German territories became print media events, especially in Britain; the established powers had dealt with their uprisings decades before, often brutally, and had installed firm controls by then. The Boxer Rising in China with its later sponsorship by the Chinese authorities had its beginning in the Shandong province, in part because Germany, as colonizer at Kiautschou, was the sole untested power and only a short two years on the scene. When Wilhelm II spoke during departure ceremonies for the German contingent to the eight-nation international relief force in China, an impromptu, but intemperate and inopportune reference to the Hun invaders of continental Europe would later be resurrected by British propaganda to mock Germany during World War I and World War II. On two occasions, a French-German conflict over the fate of Morocco seemed inevitable. Upon acquiring Southwest Africa, German settlers were encouraged to cultivate land held by the Herero and Nama. Herero and Nama tribal lands were used for a variety of exploitive goals (much as the British did before in Rhodesia), including farming, ranching, and mining for minerals and diamonds. In 1904 the Herero and the Nama revolted against the colonists in Southwest Africa, killing farm families, their laborers and servants. In response to the attacks, troops were dispatched to quell the uprising which then resulted in the Herero and Namaqua Genocide. In total, some 65,000 Herero (80 percent of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Nama (50 percent of the total Nama population) perished. The commander of the punitive expedition, General Lothar von Trotha, was eventually relieved and reprimanded for his usurpation of orders and the cruelties he inflicted. These occurrences were sometimes referred to as "the first genocide of the twentieth century" and officially condemned by the United Nations in 1985. In 2004 a formal apology by a government minister of the Federal Republic of Germany followed. German attitudes and inattention in letting the Bismarck designed treaties lapse, and Germany's support of her ally Austria-Hungary in occupying Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, caused diplomatic relations to deteriorate with Tsarist Russia, and a potential alliance with Britain to evaporate. By 1914, the nation’s erratic foreign policy left Germany isolated with one loyal ally, Austria-Hungary. Germany's other official treaty partner, the Kingdom of Italy, remained an ally only pro forma, and saw more benefit in entering into alliances which could take eventually the largely German-speaking territory of South Tyrol from Austria-Hungary in a future conflict, which did occur. World War I and the end of the Empire German Empire 1871-1918 Following the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian Archduke of Austria-Este, Francis Ferdinand by Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip, Kaiser Wilhelm II offered Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph full support of Austro-Hungarian plans to invade the Kingdom of Serbia, which nation Austria-Hungary blamed for the assassination. This unconditional support for Austria-Hungary was called a blank cheque by historians. Subsequent interpretation - for example at the Versailles Peace Conference - was that this "blank cheque" licensed Austro-Hungarian aggression regardless of the diplomatic consequences, and thus Germany bore responsibility for starting the war, or at least provoking a wider conflict. The German perspective at the time was different, in that the German government expected Serbia to buckle under pressure from Austria-Hungary; and even if a war were to take place it would remain regional in that Russia, Serbia's main supporter, would not dare declare war on Austria-Hungary if it knew that this would mean war with Germany as well . These assumptions backfired when Russia declared war on Austria-Hungary, in which Germany backed Austria-Hungary. France and Britain went to the side of Russia, as the Triple Entente and the German Empire and Europe faced a massive war. Germany began the war by targeting its major rival, France. Germany saw France as its principal danger on the European continent as it could mobilize much faster than Russia and bordered Germany's industrial core in the Rhineland. Unlike Britain and Russia, the French were principally involved in the war for revenge against Germany, in particular, for France's loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871. The German high command knew that France would muster its forces to go into Alsace-Lorraine. Germany did not want to risk lengthy battles along the French-German border and instead adopted the Schlieffen Plan, a military strategy designed to cripple France by invading Belgium and Luxembourg, sweeping down towards Paris and encircling and crushing the French forces along the French-German border in a quick victory. After defeating France, Germany would turn to attack Russia. The plan required the violation of Belgium's and Luxembourg's official neutrality. At first the attack was successful: the German army swept down from Belgium and Luxembourg and was nearly at Paris, at the nearby Marne river. However the French army put up a strong resistance to defend their capital at the First Battle of the Marne resulting in the German army retreating. The aftermath of the First Battle of the Marne was a long-held stalemate between the German army and the Allies with the use of dug-in trench warfare. Further attempts to break through deeper into France failed at the two battles of Ypres with huge casualties. German Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn decided to break away from the Schlieffen Plan and instead focus on a war of attrition against France. Falkenhayn targeted the ancient city of Verdun because Verdun had been one of the last cities to hold out against the German army in 1870, and Falkenhayn knew that as a matter of national pride, the French would do anything to ensure that Verdun would not be taken. Falkenhayn anticipated that with correct tactics, French losses would be more than the Germans and that continued French recruits being sent to Verdun would cause the French army to "bleed white" and then allow the German army to take France easily. In 1916, the Battle of Verdun began, with the French positions in Verdun under constant shelling and poison gas attack and taking large casualties under the attack of an overwhelmingly large German forces. However Falkenhayn's prediction of a greater ratio of French killed proved to be wrong. With Falkenhayn's replacement by Erich Ludendorff and no success in sight at Verdun, the German army retreated in December 1916. Borders drawn up in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. While the western front was a stalemate for the German army, the eastern front proved to be a great success. The badly organized and supplied Russian army faltered and the German and Austro-Hungarian armies steadily advanced eastward. The Germans benefited from political instability in Russia and a desire to end the war. In 1916, the German government allowed Russia's communist Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin to travel through Germany from Switzerland into Russia. Germany believed that if Lenin could create further political unrest, Russia would no longer be able to continue its war with Germany, allowing the German army to focus on the western front. In 1917, the Tsar was ousted from the Russian throne and later a Bolshevik government was created under the leadership of Lenin. Facing political opposition to the Bolsheviks, Lenin decided to end Russia's campaign against Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria in order to redirect its energy to eliminating internal dissent. In 1918, at the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Bolshevik government gave Germany and the Ottoman Empire an enormous territorial settlement in exchange for an end to war on the eastern front. This settlement including all of modern-day Baltic nations (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) which were given to the German occupation authority Ober Ost, and Belarus and Ukraine also were given to Germany. As a result, Germany had at last achieved the long-wanted land of "Mitteleuropa", and now could fully focus on destroying the Allies on the western front. On the colonial front, German results were mixed. Much of Germany's colonies fell to the British and French armies, however in German East Africa, an impressive campaign was waged by the colonial army leader there, General Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck, who would remain long respected as a military commander then and after by the native Askaris whom he commanded. Lettow-Vorbeck used guerilla raids against British forces in Kenya and Rhodesia as well as invading Portuguese Mozambique to give his forces supplies and to pick up more Askari recruits. Upon his return to Germany, in March 1919, Lettow-Vorbeck led his repatriated soldiers through the decorated Brandenburg Gate in Berlin giving the defeated nation her only victory parade. Despite success on the Eastern Front in 1918, Germany was not making progress on the western front for three reasons. The first was war exhaustion; German soldiers had been on the battlefield constantly without relief and, after failing to break the British and French armies in offensives in March and April 1918 despite the transfer of large numbers of troops from the Eastern Front, had lost hope in the chance of a victory. The second was civil unrest because of the war effort. The concept of "total war" in World War I, meant that supplies had to be redirected towards the armed forces and, with German commerce being stopped by the British naval blockade, German civilians were forced to live in increasingly meagre conditions. Food prices were first limited, then rationing was introduced. The winter of 1916–17 was called the "turnip winter". During the war, about 750,000 German civilians died from malnutrition. Many Germans wanted an end to the war and increasing numbers of Germans began to associate with the political left, such as the Social Democratic Party and the more radical Independent Social Democratic Party which demanded an end to the war. The third reason was the entry of the United States into the war. With a surprise attack by a German U-Boat (submarine) against the liner RMS Lusitania in 1915 which was carrying American civilians (though the Germans suspected it was bringing supplies to Britain) and Germany's subsequent declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare against Britain in 1917, American public sentiment moved from neutrality to interventionism. While U.S. involvement was smaller than that of World War II, the American entry was devastating to the Germans because unlike Britain, France or Germany itself, the United States forces were not worn down by the war attrition which had affected the other countries. In November 1918, with internal revolution, a stalemated war, Austria-Hungary falling apart from multiple ethnic tensions, and pressure from the German high command, Emperor William II, who was by this time merely a figurehead, abdicated the throne along with the German high command, leaving the disastrous scenario to be blamed on the new government led by the German Social Democrats which called for and received an armistice on 11 November 1918 which marked the end of World War I and the end of the German Empire. It was succeeded by the democratic, yet flawed, Weimar Republic. Legacy The German Empire left a legacy of mixed fortunes for Germany and Europe. Under Bismarck, a united German state had finally been achieved, however, it remained a Prussian-dominated state and it did not have German Austria within it as Pan-German nationalists had desired. Influence of Prussian militarism, the Empire’s colonial efforts and its vigorous, competitive industrial prowess caused a negative view of the state. The German Empire enacted a number of progressive firsts, such as establishment of a system of public welfare (still in place today), other social reforms, as well as guaranteeing freedom of press. There was also a modern election system to the federal parliament, the Reichstag, which represented every adult man by one vote. This enabled the Socialists and the Catholic Centre Party to play remarkable roles in the empire's political life. The history of the German Empire is well remembered in Germany as a period when academic research and university life flourished as well as arts and literature. Thomas Mann published his novel Buddenbrooks in 1901. Theodor Mommsen was awarded the Nobel prize for literature a year later for his Roman history. Painters like the groups Der Blaue Reiter and Die Brücke made a significant contribution to modern art. The AEG turbine building in Berlin by Peter Behrens from 1909 can be regarded as a milestone in classic modern architecture and an outstanding example of emerging functionalism. The social, economic, and scientific successes of this Gründerzeit, or founding epoch, have led the Wilhelmine era to sometimes be regarded as a golden age. In the field of economics the "Kaiserzeit" lay the foundation of Germany being one of the world's leading economic powers. Especially the iron and coal industry of the Ruhr area, at the Saar Bassin and in Upper Silesia contributed much to that process. The first motorcar was constructed by Karl Benz in 1886. The enormous growth of industrial production and industrial potential also led to a rapid urbanisation of Germany, which turned the Germans into a nation of city dwellers. The empire's support of Austria–Hungary's invasion of Serbia against Russia's opposition has been seen by a number of historians as a major influence in what caused the clash of alliances in Europe which resulted in the massive war later known as World War I. The defeat and aftermath of World War I and the territorial and economic losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles caused enormous ramifications for the new German republic, such as defining what the German state was and how it should operate. Conservatives, liberals, socialists, nationalists, Catholics, and Protestants all had their own interpretations, which led to a fractious political and social climate in Germany in the aftermath of the empire's collapse. There is a considerable historical debate over the Sonderweg question, concerning whatever the nature of German politics and society during the German Empire made Nazi Germany inevitable. Some historians, such as Fritz Fischer, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, and Wolfgang Mommsen, have argued that during the German Empire, a "pre-modern" aristocratic elite became entrenched in German society and thus doomed the Weimar Republic to failure before it was even born. Other historians, such as Gerhard Ritter, have argued that it was only World War I and its aftermath that opened the doors to Nazism. Territorial legacy In addition to present-day Germany, large parts of what comprised the German Empire now belong to several other modern European countries: German name Country Region Elsass-Lothringen France The then-German-speaking départements of Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin (Alsace region) and Moselle (north-eastern part of the Lorraine region) The Eupen und Malmédy area (intentionally spelled with é only then) Belgium Eupen and Malmedy, two towns and surrounding municipalities in the province of Liège, on the German border Nordschleswig Denmark South Jutland County Hultschiner Ländchen (The Sudetenland which stretched along the border to Germany belonged to the Austro-Hungarian Empire) Czech Republic Hlučín Region, on the border to Poland in Silesia, from which Germans were deported following WWII (as from the whole Sudetenland) Central and eastern Pommern, Schlesien, Ostbrandenburg, Ermland, Masuren, Westpreußen, Southern OstpreußenAlso Posen (Wartheland). Poland the northern and western parts of the country, including Pomerania, Silesia, Lubusz Land, Warmia and Masuria, from all of which Germans were deported following WWII. Northern Ostpreußen with Königsberg Russia Kaliningrad Oblast exclave on the Baltic, from which Germans were deported following WWII. Memelland with Memel (city) Lithuania Klaipėda Region, including the Baltic coastal city of Klaipėda, from which Germans were deported following WWII. Claims to continued existence Since 1985, a number of German fringe groups and individuals – collectively labeled Kommissarische Reichsregierungen (KRR) – assert that the Empire continues to exist in its pre-World War II borders and that they are its government. References Further reading Aronson, Theo. The Kaisers. London: Cassell, 1971. Blackbourn, David and Eley, Geoff. The Peculiarities Of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics In Nineteenth-Century Germany. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984 ISBN 0-19-873058-6. Craig, Gordon. Germany: 1866-1945, Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1978 ISBN 0-19-822113-4. Fischer, Fritz. From Kaiserreich to Third Reich: Elements of Continuity in German History, 1871-1945. (translated and with an introduction by Roger Fletcher) London: Allen & Unwin, 1986. ISBN 0-04-943043-2. Fischer, Fritz. War of Illusions: German Policies from 1911 to 1914. (translated from the German by Marian Jackson) New York: Norton, 1975. ISBN 0-393-05480-2. Geiss, Imanuel. German Foreign Policy 1871-1914. USA: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976. ISBN 0-7100-8303-3 Jefferies, Mattew. Imperial Culture in Germany, 1871-1918. New York and London: Palgrave, 2003. 1-4039-0421-9. Louis, Wm. Roger. Ruanda-Urundi 1884-1919. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1963. Lüke, Martina G.: Zwischen Tradition und Aufbruch. Deutschunterricht und Lesebuch im Deutschen Kaiserreich. Frankfurt am Main 2007, ISBN 978-3-631-56408-0. Mommsen, Wolfgang. Imperial Germany 1867-1918: Politics, Culture, and Society in an Authoritarian Sate. (translated by Richard Deveson from Der Autoritäre Nationalstaat) London: Arnold, 1995. ISBN 0-340-64534-2. Nipperdey, Thomas. Deutsche Geschichte 1800 - 1918. Arbeitswelt und Bürgergeist. Machtstaat vor der Demokratie. 3 vols. Beck: München, 1998, ISBN 978-3-406-44038-0. Retallack, James. Germany In The Age of Kaiser Wilhelm II, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire : Macmillan ; New York : St. Martin's Press, 1996 ISBN 0-312-16031-3. Ritter, Gerhard. The Sword and the Scepter; the Problem of Militarism in Germany. (translated from the German by Heinz Norden) Coral Gables: University of Miami Press 1969-73. Schollgen, Gregor. Escape into War? The Foreign Policy of Imperial Germany. UK: Berg, 1990. ISBN 0-85496-275-1. Stürmer, Michael. The German Empire, 1870-1918. New York: Random House, 2000. ISBN 0-679-64090-8. Wehler, Hans-Ulrich. The German Empire, 1871-1918. (translated from the German by Kim Traynor) Leamington Spa, Warwickshire: Berg Publishers, 1985. ISBN 0-907582-22-2.	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3,358	Hearts	Hearts is an "evasion-type" trick-taking playing card game for four players, although variations can accommodate 3-6 players. The game is also known as Black Lady, Chase the Lady, Crubs, Black Maria, and Black Bitch, though any of these may refer to the similar but differently-scored game Black Lady. A standard deck of 52 playing cards is used. The objective of the game is to have the fewest points at the completion of the game. Tricks containing any heart and the queen of spades give points to the winner of the trick. There are no trumps. The game is regarded as a member of the Whist family of trick-taking games (which also includes Bridge and Spades), but the game is unique among Whist variants in that it is an evasion-type game. The game has become popular in live play among grade school students in the United States, and is enjoying more widespread popularity through Internet gaming sites and due to a Microsoft version of the game packaged with its popular Windows 3.1, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows XP and Windows Vista operating systems (see Hearts (Windows) for more information on the software game). History of ♥ The game of Hearts as currently known originated with a family of related games called Reverse, which became popular around 1750 in Spain Hearts History on MindZine . In this game, a penalty point was awarded for each trick won, plus additional points for capturing the Jack of Hearts or the Queen of Hearts. A similar game called Four Jacks centered around avoiding any trick containing a Jack, which were worth one penalty point, and the Jack of Spades worth two. Over time, additional penalty cards were added to Reverse, and around 1850, the game gave way to a simple variant of Hearts, where each Heart was worth 1 point. The Queen of Spades was introduced in a variant called Black Maria which then became known as the standard Hearts game, and soon thereafter, the idea of "shooting the moon" was introduced to the game to add depth to the gameplay. In the 1920s, the Jack of Diamonds variation (ten positive points) was introduced, and some time later the scoring was reversed so that penalty points were expressed as positive instead of negative. Passing cards, breaking Hearts, and leading the Two of Clubs are more recent additions. Methodology Dealing the cards Thirteen cards are dealt singly in turn to each of the four players. When there are only three players, the 2 or 2 is removed from the deck before play commences, and each player receives 17 cards. Alternately, two Jokers can be added, and count as an off-suit, non-Heart card. Each player then receives 18 cards. In another alternative, a randomly chosen card is set aside face down at the beginning of play; this card goes to whomever takes the first heart. When there are five players, the 2 and the 2 are both removed, and each player receives 10 cards. Alternately, three Jokers (usually the two from one deck plus one from a similar deck) can be added, and each player receives 11. Passing cards Before the first round commences, each player chooses three cards from his or her initial thirteen and passes them face down to the player on his or her right. The three cards are picked up and absorbed into the neighbor's hand. Players may not look at the cards they are to receive before passing their own cards. There are many variations on the passing rules: Cards may be passed to the left rather than to the right. In a four-player game, cards may be exchanged across table to the person opposite. On alternate deals the cards are passed to the left and then the right. On the first deal cards are passed to the left, on the second deal they are passed to the right, on the third deal they are passed to the player sitting opposite, this sequence being repeated for every three deals. On the first deal cards are passed to the left, on the second deal they are passed to the right, on the third deal they are passed to the player sitting opposite, on the fourth deal no cards are passed, this sequence being repeated for every four deals. (This is the sequence used by the Windows version of the game for PCs). In the basic game of Hearts, no cards are passed before play commences. Other variations on the passing rules include: Passing the Ace, King and/or Queen of Spades may be allowed or prohibited. When there are more than four players, only two cards are passed. The Dealer may choose how many cards and where to pass. The play of the game An example trick. South has led the J. West plays a penalty Heart, while the other two players slough Spades. South takes this trick and one point. The player to the left of the dealer leads to the first trick and the other players play a card in turn clockwise. Players must follow suit when they are able to, but may play a card from any other suit, including a penalty Heart or the Q♠, when they cannot. The player who plays the highest card of the led suit takes the trick, and any penalty cards it contains, and leads for the next trick. Common variants include: The player holding the 2 must lead it to begin the first trick. Kansil, p. 163 When playing with three or five players and the 2♣ has been removed, play starts with the 3 Kansil, p. 164 No penalty card (a Heart or the Queen of Spades) may be played on the first trick, however the player must follow suit and can play a penalty card if they would otherwise renege. The odds of being dealt a hand composed entirely of penalty cards is roughly 1 in 45 billion. However, the Hooligan Hearts variation which makes the 7 a penalty card, as well as variants in which the opening lead doesn't have to be a Club, present a far more likely situation in which a player might have only a penalty card in the opening trick's suit. Hearts may not be led until they have been "broken" (discarded on the lead of another suit), unless the player who must lead has nothing but Hearts remaining in his hand. In some variations, any play of a penalty card, including the spade Queen, "breaks hearts". If a player cannot follow suit, they must play a penalty card if they have one. Scoring Each heart won in a trick scores 1 penalty point against the player winning the trick, and the player winning a trick containing the queen of spades scores 13 penalty points. Therefore, there are 26 penalty points in each deal. The game ends either when one player reaches 100 points or after a predetermined number of deals or time has passed. In either case, the winning player is the one with the fewest penalty points. Simplified scoring with chips is possible: all players contribute one chip to a central pool of chips and the pool is divided equally between those players taking no penalty cards on a deal; if all players take penalty cards, the pool remains on the table and is added to the next pool; once one player has won all available chips, or once another player has run out, the game ends. There are many scoring variants including: The 10 or J is a "bonus" card, subtracting 10 penalty points from the player who captures it. This is called the "Omnibus" variant and is very popular in some regions. The 7 is another penalty card, worth 7 points, in a variant called Hooligan Hearts. A player reaching exactly 50 or 100 points subtracts 50 points from his score. Different points are allocated to each penalty card. The A can also be a penalty card, and sometimes also the K and 10. This is unpopular as it means any penalty Spade, not just the Queen, must be "sloughed" by playing off-suit. Higher penalties for the high hearts (e.g. A=5, K=4, Q=3, J=2). A player who takes no tricks in a deal subtracts 5 points from his score. A player may declare before the first card is played that he or she will not take any hearts on the upcoming hand. If they succeed in their pledge, they may subtract 10 penalty points, but if they take any hearts they are assessed 10 additional penalty points. Shooting the moon Shooting the moon, also known as getting control,capmangoe or running, is a very common scoring variant. If one player takes all the penalty cards on one deal, that player's score remains unchanged while 26 penalty points are added to the scores of each of the other three players. Attempting to shoot the moon is often a risky strategy, as failure to capture even one of the penalty cards will result in the remaining penalty points (as many as 25) being added to one's score. Strategy Strategy varies from hand to hand, according to the cards one is dealt. Because the Q is worth 13 points, strategy generally revolves around who will win this card. Although fundamentally a game between individuals, with each player attempting to ensure that the others get the penalty cards, teamwork is sometimes seen. As there is typically one leader and all the other players trailing, the most advanced strategy appears when the trailing players team up to give the leader points. Playing the Q and other penalty cards only when the player with the lowest score can take them, passing favorable cards to trailing players, and setting up the leader all require teamwork and unselfish play. Teamwork is especially important when one player is (or appears to be) trying to shoot the moon. For example, a player may find themselves with the choice of taking the Q for 13 points or risk getting 26 points if the other player shoots the moon. Passing Which cards to pass from one's hand is the first decision that must be made. It is an opportunity to rid oneself of cards that may become dangerous during the play. It is nearly always a mistake to pass low spades (jack or under). If one holds, or is passed, the Q it is important that it is well protected by other cards in the suit. A common strategy is to attempt to void oneself in clubs or diamonds, as this will give the player an opportunity to discard a penalty card, or a card that presents a danger, when that suit is led during the play. However, such a strategy can often be ruined if one receives high cards in the same suit. . Often a player will pass a mid-rank heart so as to deter an opponent from shooting the moon. One can also read passes from other players as unintended signals. A player passing ace, king or queen of spades is likely to be short of this suit. A player passing low cards may be attempting to shoot the moon. Play The simplest strategy is not to win any tricks, as this guarantees that one cannot take any penalty points. However, it is rare to be able to play an entire hand without taking any tricks at all, and when it is likely that some tricks will have to be taken, it is important to choose which tricks to win. This often means taking tricks early in the hand, when it is likely that all other players can follow suit and thus cannot discard penalty cards. This is especially true when one is the last to play to a trick, as it is then possible to see that a trick is penalty-free before capturing it. Players who take a trick then usually lead a card that is likely to lose the next trick, thus losing the lead. The general progression of play for a hand is normally to first attempt to empty one's hand of a particular suit, known as "voiding" that suit, and then use tricks in which that suit is led to play high-value off-suit cards, known as "sloughing". During this time, players also usually attempt to force the player holding the Queen of Spades to play it by playing a large number of Spade tricks. This is called "flushing the Queen," "hunting the bitch," or "smoking it out". The logic is that the player with the Queen, if they have few other Spades, will be forced to follow suit with the Queen, and is likely to take that trick and its points, known variously as "eating it" or "taking it to the grave". To avoid this, players generally hoard Spades when passing in case they are dealt or passed the Queen. If the player with the Queen has enough other Spades, he/she can avoid having to eat it, and can later slough it off onto another player, when this is not the case the best strategy is an aggressive approach to playing the other suits to open them up for "sloughing". As the winning of tricks is to be avoided, when a player must follow suit it is usually best to play the highest-value card that will not win the trick. For instance, if the Jack of Spades is the leading card in the trick and a player wishes to lose the trick, laying down the Ten, if available, is the best play. This allows the player to save lower-value cards in case they must try to lose a later trick in which they must follow suit. If the player cannot help but take the trick, this tactic changes; they should then lay down the highest-value card of that suit in order to get rid of it. This is especially true when playing last to a trick. The only exception is in Spade tricks when the Queen has not yet been played; players should avoid playing the King and Ace at all costs unless they can be sure the Queen cannot be played on the trick, which is generally one of four cases: when playing last to the trick, when holding the Q, when playing after the player known to hold the Q, or when all players yet to play have voided Spades. The decision to "break Hearts" by playing the first Heart should be contemplated carefully. The optimum time to do so varies by player and hand. Generally, the earlier Hearts is broken, the more difficult it is for all players to avoid taking penalty points, because players have less opportunity to void suits and slough high-value cards. However, a player who can void and slough early in the game due to a favorable deal might choose to break Hearts early as they are unlikely to be forced to take points. A player who holds the Ace, King or Queen of Hearts may also choose to break Hearts early in order to slough that card quickly. Conversely, players who do not hold a low Heart (2, 3 or 4) should avoid breaking Hearts for as long as possible unless they must slough a high Heart. Once Hearts are broken, the trick that frequently follows it involves leading a low Heart, and the player whose lowest Heart is a 5 or greater has a substantial risk of taking that trick (and four points). Sometimes it is preferable to take a trick containing one or two Hearts, rather than risk winning the Q in a later trick, especially as capturing a heart or two prevents other players from shooting the moon. Such a case might be when a player holds the Ace of Spades and is last to play on a Spade trick containing a Heart but not the Queen of Spades. Playing the Ace captures a point, but the player now cannot be forced to play the Ace over the Queen. It is a useful skill to be able to count how many cards remain in each suit, and to remember which players are void in which suit. This knowledge can influence a player's decision to play one card over the other, to their advantage. If a player knows that most or all other players are void in a suit, he or she will avoid leading a card in that suit and will instead try to slough that card. Leading Playing lead to a trick is risky, especially late in the hand when suits have been voided and Hearts are played freely. The risk is that the card led will take the trick because other players can undercut or play off-suit, which could be a penalty card. It is usually best to lead a card that must be topped by at least one other player (meaning at least one player is not void in that suit and doesn't have any cards that will undercut it). Keeping track of cards played becomes of foremost importance when making such a play. On the other hand, the player with the lead has the benefit of determining the suit for the coming trick. A low or middling spade (Jack or below) is often the safest lead, because it is not possible to win the Q with such a lead. It is possible however to take points and/or keep the lead. The strategy for the player holding the Q is usually different. Leading a low or middling spade can lead to the Queen becoming unprotected; in addition it might give the holder of the Ace or King the opportunity to get rid of that card, denying the holder of the Queen an opportunity to drop the Queen under one of those cards later in the hand. Instead, the holder of Q will often want to void himself in one of the other three suits in order to have an opportunity to discard Q on a subsequent lead. Unlike the other players, the holder of the Q can lead any card, even high cards in clubs and diamonds, safe in the knowledge that the Black Lady cannot be discarded on it. Besides taking into account the cards one might receive when leading, one must take into account the player one seat counter-clockwise from the leader, who will play last in the trick. The player to play last has the most options, and therefore guessing their intentions, and thus their play, is advantageous to each player. An example might be that halfway through a hand, with Hearts broken, a player currently second-place in points is contemplating their lead. The best choice for them individually, not knowing anything about any other hand, is a low Diamond to lose the lead. However, this player knows that the person to their right, who is in first place with the fewest points, has voided Diamonds. That player will likely play a Heart making it a penalty trick, which will likely be taken by one of the other players who already have high scores, hastening the end of the game. The lead player also knows the player to his right still has a high Club because it was passed from the leading player to his right, and it hasn't been played yet. The player has a middle Club they can lead; the other players have voided Clubs, and would thus likely play Hearts. Knowing that the last player must follow suit and is likely to have to play the high Club to take a trick with points, leading the middle Club is the better play than the low Diamond. "Team" play The previous point illustrates a point that is critical to Hearts game strategy; players other than the leader should seek to give points to the person with the fewest points, avoid giving points to the person with the most, and of course avoid getting points themselves. For the leader, this is almost exactly the opposite; the leader seeks to avoid points, and to give points to the second-place player (to widen the lead) and to the person in last place (to hasten the game's end). The common purpose of everyone except the leader creates an "all against one" mentality of the leader versus everyone else. These allegiances of course change as first place moves between players. This competition also tends to create roles for each player according to their points ranking. The leader, of course, is the target; everyone else attempts to play tricks that result in the leader taking points, while the leader attempts to defend against this and give points to others. The second-place person is the "challenger"; the leader seeks to give him points while the third and fourth-place people are either neutral to him or actively help him avoid points. The third-place player is the "sacrificial lamb"; when points must be taken, for instance to prevent another player shooting the moon, they are the player in the best strategic position to do so. The player in last place is the VIP; the more points that player takes, the sooner the game ends, thus everyone but the leader avoids giving the last-place player points. All ranking is disregarded when someone attempts to shoot the moon. All other players then attempt to stop him by ensuring at least one point goes to another player. As a player successfully shooting the moon gives 26 points to all other players, all players have a vested interest in taking at least a few. The only exception to this is when the leading player has a lead greater then 26 points over the person attempting to shoot the moon; in such a case the player would still be in the lead and the successful moon shot would hasten the game's end. Psychology As with most games of skill, reading a player's tendencies and cues are keys to success. With Hearts, one must also be concerned with vengeance, as well as lack of knowledge of the game. Players who take risks that result in a decrease in the probability for others to win is deemed as selfish (in a game that thrives on teamwork). Some players might retaliate against this player by distributing point cards to that player. A good rapport with the other players is always a plus, as it's nearly impossible for one player to beat three good players teamed up against the one. Variations Hearts (Windows) - the PC version of the game Complex hearts - scoring uses complex numbers, while trying to keep the absolute value of your score less than 100. Double Deck Cancellation Hearts – good for six or more players. Chinese Hearts (拱猪) (Pinyin - gŏng zhū, literally "chase the pig") – scoring works slightly differently as the Q and the hearts are worth different amounts of penalty points. In addition, the 10 and J both have functions. Shooting the moon now takes into consideration these two additional cards. Rules of Card Games: Gong Zhu Booster Nines – if a nine is played then an extra round in the suit is played. Card Games: Hearts Joker Hearts – adding the joker cards, which can be played any time and count for zero points. Rules of Card Games: Hearts Variations Shooting the Sun – taking all the tricks, not just all the points, gives all other players 52 points. Hearts: Hearts with Shooting the Sun \| Quamut: the go to how to Jack of Diamonds — the J becomes a point card. Unlike the normal practice of having the Q♠ add 13 points to one's score, the J subtracts 10. In these games, a player attempting to 'shoot the moon' may be required to capture the J as well in order to do so. Another variant of this game is to have the 10 as the point card. In Hooligan Hearts, the 7 is another penalty card, worth 7 points. Hearts — the Xbox version of the game including single player games & multi-player online games. The MSN version of hearts allows hearts to be played if the queen has been played first. Hearts do not have to be "broken". The IRC version of Hearts located at #hearts on irc.swiftirc.net allows operators to add bots to the game if the requirement of 4 players is not met. Hearts must be broken and shooting the moon is allowed. Royal Hearts A game produced by Parker Brothers (owned by Hasbro) by the name of Royal Hearts is a commercialization of the basic Hearts game. The deck can be used to play the classic Hearts game (and those rules are included), but was designed to center around new powers of the four Queens when scoring: The Queen of Spades ("Most Evil") is worth 26 points instead of 13. The Queen of Hearts ("Broken Hearted") doubles the point value of all Hearts captured by the player who takes it, and is itself also a Heart. The Queen of Diamonds ("Best Friend") subtracts 10 points from the score of the player taking it. However, this cannot result in a negative score. The Queen of Clubs ("Most Kind"), when captured by a player who has also taken the Queen of Spades, negates the Q's point value. Royal Hearts Instructions There are thus 52 total points per hand that can be taken (however that is a moon shot; the highest score any one player can take on a hand is 50), minus the value of the Q. The actual number of points awarded depends on who captures each Queen and how many other Hearts and/or previously-awarded points each of those players has. Shooting the moon is also different; it is defined as capturing all penalty cards as before, but the bonus to the player who shoots the moon, or the penalty to all others, is based on the total point count of that player, so capturing one or both of the two beneficial Queens actually reduces the benefit to the player; capturing the Q (-10) makes the benefit 42 points, the Q (-26 with Q) reduces it to 26, and both of these combined make the reward only 16 points. This gives players attempting to prevent a moon shot other options; the players could instead force him to take all four Queens in addition to all Hearts which drastically mitigates the value of a moon shot. The game can easily be played this way with a standard deck. However, as Royal Hearts introduced these new effects in the first place, the variant is not commonly seen when playing with a standard deck. The main advantage to the commercial Royal Hearts deck is that the effects of each card are on their faces; with this new variant easily translating to a standard deck (at half the price), the Hasbro Royal Hearts game did not sell well and was discontinued as of the 2008 Hasbro catalog. References Cited text	Hearts \|@lemmatized heart:77 evasion:2 type:2 trick:53 take:44 play:66 card:92 game:50 four:10 player:145 although:2 variation:8 accommodate:1 also:14 know:13 black:6 lady:4 chase:2 crubs:1 maria:2 bitch:2 though:1 may:16 refer:1 similar:3 differently:2 scored:1 standard:5 deck:10 playing:2 use:4 objective:1 point:76 completion:1 contain:6 queen:33 spade:27 give:14 winner:1 trump:1 regard:1 member:1 whist:2 family:2 include:8 bridge:1 unique:1 among:2 variant:12 become:6 popular:4 live:1 grade:1 school:1 student:1 united:1 state:1 enjoy:1 widespread:1 popularity:1 internet:1 gaming:1 site:1 due:2 microsoft:1 version:6 package:1 window:5 windows:3 xp:1 vista:1 operate:1 system:1 see:4 information:1 software:1 history:2 currently:2 originate:1 related:1 call:6 reverse:3 around:5 spain:1 mindzine:1 penalty:45 award:3 win:13 plus:3 additional:4 capture:13 jack:9 center:2 avoid:12 worth:8 one:42 two:10 time:6 add:10 way:2 simple:2 introduce:4 soon:1 thereafter:1 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3,359	Diamagnetism	Levitating pyrolytic carbon Diamagnetism is the property of an object which causes it to create a magnetic field in opposition of an externally applied magnetic field, thus causing a repulsive effect. Specifically, an external magnetic field alters the orbital velocity of electrons around their nuclei, thus changing the magnetic dipole moment in the direction opposing the external field. Diamagnets are materials with a magnetic permeability less than (a relative permeability less than 1). Consequently, diamagnetism is a form of magnetism that is only exhibited by a substance in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field. It is generally a quite weak effect in most materials, although superconductors exhibit a strong effect. Diamagnetic materials cause lines of magnetic flux to curve away from the material, and superconductors can exclude them completely (except for a very thin layer at the surface). __TOC__ Diamagnetic properties of materials +Notable diamagnetic materials Materialχm=Km-1 x 10-5Bismuth -16.6Carbon (diamond) -2.1Carbon (graphite) -1.6Copper -1.0Lead -1.8Mercury -2.9Silver -2.6Water -0.91Superconductor -105 All materials show a diamagnetic response in an applied magnetic field. In fact, diamagnetism is a very general phenomenon, because all paired electrons, including the core electrons of an atom, will always make a weak diamagnetic contribution to the material's response. However, for materials that show some other form of magnetism (such as ferromagnetism or paramagnetism), the diamagnetism is completely overpowered. Substances that mostly display diamagnetic behaviour are termed diamagnetic materials, or diamagnets. Materials that are said to be diamagnetic are those that are usually considered by non-physicists to be "non-magnetic", and include water, wood, most organic compounds such as petroleum and some plastics, and many metals including copper, particularly the heavy ones with many core electrons, such as mercury, gold and bismuth. Diamagnetic materials have a relative magnetic permeability that is less than 1, thus a magnetic susceptibility which is less than 0, and are therefore repelled by magnetic fields. However, since diamagnetism is such a weak property its effects are not observable in every-day life. For example, the magnetic susceptibility of diamagnets such as water is = −9.05×10−6. The most strongly diamagnetic material is bismuth, = −1.66×10−4 , although pyrolytic graphite may have a susceptibility of = −4.00×10−4 in one plane. Nevertheless these values are orders of magnitudes smaller than the magnetism exhibited by paramagnets and ferromagnets. A superconductor acts as an essentially perfect diamagnetic material when placed in a magnetic field and it excludes the field, and the flux lines avoid the region Superconductors may be considered to be perfect diamagnets ( = −1), since they expel all fields from their interior due to the Meissner effect. Additionally, all conductors exhibit an effective diamagnetism when they experience a changing magnetic field. The Lorentz force on electrons causes them to circulate around forming eddy currents. The eddy currents then produce an induced magnetic field which opposes the applied field, resisting the conductor's motion. History In 1778 S. J. Bergman was the first person to observe that bismuth and antimony were repelled by magnetic fields. However, the term "diamagnetism" was coined by Michael Faraday in September 1845, when he realized that all materials in nature possessed some form of diamagnetic response to an applied magnetic field. Demonstrations of diamagnetism Curving water surfaces If a thin (under 0.5 cm) layer of water is placed on top of a powerful magnet (such as a supermagnet) then the field of the magnet repels the water. This causes a slight dimple in the water's surface that may be seen by its reflection. Diamagnetic levitation A live frog levitates inside a 32 mm diameter vertical bore of a Bitter solenoid in a magnetic field of about 16 teslas at the Nijmegen High Field Magnet Laboratory. Movie Diamagnets may be levitated in stable equilibrium in a magnetic field, with no power consumption. Earnshaw's theorem seems to preclude the possibility of static magnetic levitation. However, Earnshaw's theorem only applies to objects with permanent moments m, such as ferromagnets, whose magnetic energy is given by m·B. Ferromagnets are attracted to field maxima, which do not exist in free space. Diamagnetism is an induced form of magnetism, thus the magnetic moment is proportional to the applied field B. This means that the magnetic energy of diamagnets is proportional to B², the intensity of the magnetic field. Diamagnets are also attracted to field minima, and there can be a minimum in B² in free space (in fact ). The important distinction is that the sign of the induced magnetization in a diamagnet opposes the applied field, hence the attraction to minima in the field strength. Other materials with magnetization proportional to the applied field, but with the opposite sign, called "paramagnets", also obey Earnshaw's theorem and cannot be levitated by any fixed combination of magnetic, electrical, and gravitational fields. A thin slice of pyrolytic graphite, which is an unusually strong diamagnetic material, can be stably floated in a magnetic field, such as that from rare earth permanent magnets. This can be done with all components at room temperature, making a visually effective demonstration of diamagnetism. The Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands, has conducted experiments where water and other substances were successfully levitated. Most spectacularly, a live frog (see figure) was levitated. HFML, Levitation Recent experiments with studying the growth of protein crystals has led to a technique that utilizes powerful magnets to allow growth in ways that counteract Earth's gravity. Magnetic gravity trick grows perfect crystals A simple homemade device for demonstration can be constructed out of bismuth plates and a few permanent magnets that will levitate a permanent magnet. Diamagnetic Levitation References External links Video of a museum-style magnetic elevation train model which makes use of diamagnetism Videos of frogs and other diamagnets levitated in a strong magnetic field Video of levitating pyrolytic graphite Video of Meissner-Ochsenfeld effect involving liquid nitrogen Video of a piece of neodymium magnet levitating between blocks of bismuth. Website about this device, with images (in Finnish). Diamagnetic levitation of NdFeB magnet between two blocks of graphite. See also Magnetic field Magnetic moment	Diamagnetism \|@lemmatized levitate:10 pyrolytic:4 carbon:1 diamagnetism:11 property:3 object:2 cause:5 create:1 magnetic:32 field:30 opposition:1 externally:2 applied:8 thus:4 repulsive:1 effect:6 specifically:1 external:3 alter:1 orbital:1 velocity:1 electron:5 around:2 nucleus:1 change:2 dipole:1 moment:4 direction:1 oppose:3 diamagnet:9 material:17 permeability:3 less:4 relative:2 consequently:1 form:5 magnetism:4 exhibit:4 substance:3 presence:1 generally:1 quite:1 weak:3 although:2 superconductors:3 strong:3 diamagnetic:16 line:2 flux:2 curve:2 away:1 exclude:2 completely:2 except:1 thin:3 layer:2 surface:3 notable:1 materialχm:1 km:1 x:1 diamond:1 graphite:5 show:2 response:3 fact:2 general:1 phenomenon:1 paired:1 include:3 core:2 atom:1 always:1 make:3 contribution:1 however:4 ferromagnetism:1 paramagnetism:1 overpower:1 mostly:1 display:1 behaviour:1 term:2 say:1 usually:1 consider:2 non:2 physicist:1 water:7 wood:1 organic:1 compound:1 petroleum:1 plastic:1 many:2 metal:1 copper:1 particularly:1 heavy:1 one:2 mercury:1 gold:1 bismuth:5 susceptibility:3 therefore:1 repel:3 since:2 observable:1 every:1 day:1 life:1 example:1 strongly:1 may:4 plane:1 nevertheless:1 value:1 order:1 magnitude:1 small:1 paramagnet:2 ferromagnets:3 superconductor:1 act:1 essentially:1 perfect:3 place:2 avoid:1 region:1 expel:1 interior:1 due:1 meissner:2 additionally:1 conductor:2 effective:2 experience:1 lorentz:1 force:1 circulate:1 eddy:2 current:2 produce:1 induced:3 resist:1 motion:1 history:1 j:1 bergman:1 first:1 person:1 observe:1 antimony:1 coin:1 michael:1 faraday:1 september:1 realize:1 nature:1 possess:1 demonstration:3 cm:1 top:1 powerful:2 magnet:9 supermagnet:1 slight:1 dimple:1 see:3 reflection:1 levitation:5 live:2 frog:3 inside:1 mm:1 diameter:1 vertical:1 bore:1 bitter:1 solenoid:1 tesla:1 nijmegen:2 high:1 laboratory:1 movie:1 stable:1 equilibrium:1 power:1 consumption:1 earnshaw:3 theorem:3 seem:1 preclude:1 possibility:1 static:1 applies:1 permanent:4 whose:1 energy:2 give:1 b:2 attract:2 maximum:1 exist:1 free:2 space:2 proportional:3 mean:1 intensity:1 also:3 minimum:2 important:1 distinction:1 sign:2 magnetization:2 hence:1 attraction:1 minima:1 strength:1 opposite:1 call:1 obey:1 cannot:1 fixed:1 combination:1 electrical:1 gravitational:1 slice:1 unusually:1 stably:1 float:1 rare:1 earth:2 component:1 room:1 temperature:1 visually:1 radboud:1 university:1 netherlands:1 conduct:1 experiment:2 successfully:1 spectacularly:1 figure:1 hfml:1 recent:1 study:1 growth:2 protein:1 crystal:2 lead:1 technique:1 utilize:1 allow:1 way:1 counteract:1 gravity:2 trick:1 grows:1 simple:1 homemade:1 device:2 construct:1 plate:1 reference:1 link:1 video:5 museum:1 style:1 elevation:1 train:1 model:1 use:1 ochsenfeld:1 involve:1 liquid:1 nitrogen:1 piece:1 neodymium:1 block:2 website:1 image:1 finnish:1 ndfeb:1 two:1 \|@bigram magnetic_field:17 magnetic_dipole:1 dipole_moment:1 magnetic_permeability:2 magnetic_flux:1 thin_layer:1 organic_compound:1 magnetic_susceptibility:2 pyrolytic_graphite:3 meissner_effect:1 michael_faraday:1 diamagnetic_levitation:3 preclude_possibility:1 magnetic_levitation:1 thin_slice:1 permanent_magnet:3 nijmegen_netherlands:1 external_link:1 neodymium_magnet:1
3,360	KDE	KDE (K Desktop Environment) () is a free software project based around its flagship product, a desktop environment for Unix-like systems. The goal of the project is to provide basic desktop functions and applications for daily needs as well as tools and documentation for developers to write stand-alone applications for the system. In this regard, the KDE project serves as an umbrella project for many standalone applications and smaller projects that are based on KDE technology. These include KOffice, KDevelop, Amarok, K3b and many others. KDE software is based on the Qt toolkit. The original GPL version of this toolkit only existed for the X11 platform, but with the release of Qt 4, GPL versions are available for all platforms. This allows KDE software based on Qt 4 to also be distributed to Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. History Origins KDE was founded in 1996 by Matthias Ettrich, who was then a student at the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen. At the time, he was troubled by certain aspects of the Unix desktop. Among his qualms was that none of the applications looked, felt, or worked alike. He proposed the formation of not only a set of applications, but rather a desktop environment, in which users could expect things to look, feel, and work consistently. He also wanted to make this desktop easy to use; one of his complaints with desktop applications of the time was that his girlfriend could not use them. His initial Usenet post spurred a lot of interest, and the KDE project was born. The name KDE was intended as a word play on the existing Common Desktop Environment, available for Unix systems. CDE was an X11-based user environment jointly developed by HP, IBM, and Sun, through the X/Open Company, with an interface and productivity tools based on the Motif graphical widget toolkit. It was supposed to be an intuitively easy-to-use desktop computer environment. The K was originally suggested to stand for "Kool", but it was quickly decided that the K should stand for nothing in particular. Additionally, one of the tips in certain versions of KDE 3 incorrectly states that the K currently is just meant to be the letter before L in the Latin alphabet, the first letter in the word Linux (which is where KDE is usually run). Matthias Ettrich chose to use the Qt toolkit for the KDE project. Other programmers quickly started developing KDE/Qt applications, and by early 1997, a few applications were being released. First series KDE 1.0 On 12 July 1998 KDE 1.0 was released. In the release announcement the KDE team outlined the project and its reasons for creation: In November 1998, the Qt toolkit was dual-licensed under the free/open source Q Public License (QPL) & a commercial-license for proprietary software developers. The same year, the KDE Free Qt foundation was created which guarantees that Qt would fall under a variant of the very liberal BSD license should Trolltech cease to exist or no free/open source version of Qt be released during 12 months. Debate continued about compatibility with the GNU General Public License (GPL), so in September 2000, Trolltech made the Unix version of the Qt libraries available under the GPL, in addition to the QPL, which eliminated the concerns of the Free Software Foundation. Trolltech continued to require licenses for developing proprietary software with Qt. The core libraries of KDE are collectively licensed under the GNU LGPL, but the only way for commercial software to make use of them was to be developed under the terms of the Qt commercial license. Second and third series KDE 2.0 The second series of releases, KDE 2, introduced significant technological improvements. KDE 2.0 Release Announcement These included DCOP (Desktop COmmunication Protocol), KIO, an application I/O library, KParts, a component object model, allowing an application to embed another within itself, and KHTML, an HTML rendering and drawing engine. KDE 3.2 with Konqueror and the About screen. This has been described as a watershed release. The third series was much larger than the previous series, consisting of six major releases. The API changes between KDE 2 and KDE 3 were comparatively minor, meaning that the KDE 3 can be seen as largely a continuation of the KDE 2 series. All releases of KDE 3 were built upon Qt 3, which was only released under the GPL for Linux and Unix-like operating systems, including Mac OS X. For that reason, KDE 3 was only available on Windows through ports involving an X server. Fourth series KDE 4.0 with Dolphin and System Settings KDE 4 is based on Qt 4 which is also released under the GPL for Windows and Mac OS X. Therefore KDE 4 applications can be compiled and run natively on these operating systems as well. KDE 4 includes many new technologies and technical changes. The centerpiece is a redesigned desktop and panels collectively called Plasma which replaces Kicker, KDesktop, and SuperKaramba by integrating their functionality into one piece of technology, and is intended to be more configurable for those wanting to update the decades-old desktop metaphor. There are a number of new frameworks, including Phonon, a new multimedia interface making KDE independent of any one specific media backend, Solid, an API for network and portable devices, and Decibel, a new communication framework to integrate all communication protocols into the desktop. Also featured is a metadata and search framework, incorporating Strigi as a full-text file indexing service, and NEPOMUK with KDE integration. NEPOMUK-KDE The release of KDE 4.0 was met with a mixed reception. While early adopters were tolerant of the lack of finish for some of its new features, the release was widely criticised because of a lack of stability and its "beta" quality. Many expected it to be an upgrade of KDE 3.5, when in fact features regressed due to its extensive changes - some of which are still works in progress. The criticism has emerged in spite of the environment being labelled as non-final in distributions such as openSUSE. On the other hand favourable reviews praised KDE 4.0 for its revolutionary changes. By the 4.2 release KDE 4 had nearly approached feature parity with KDE 3.5, so the release was generally well received. KDE 4.2, NVIDIA, SkyOS, Dead Like Me Starting with Qt 4.5, Qt was also made available under the LGPL version 2.1, a major step for KDE adoption in corporate and commercial environments. This allows KDE to better compete with GNOME, Xfce and EDE which use toolkits licensed under the LGPL, because the LGPL permits proprietary/closed source applications to link to libraries licensed under the LGPL. Organization Like many free/open source software projects, KDE is primarily a volunteer effort, although various companies, such as Novell (in the form of SuSE), Qt Software, and Mandriva, employ developers to work on the project. Since a large number of individuals contribute to KDE in various ways (e.g. code, translation, artwork), organization of such a project is complex. Most problems are discussed on a number of different mailing lists. Important decisions, such as release dates and inclusion of new applications, are made on the kde-core-devel list by core developers. These are developers who have made significant contributions to KDE over a long period of time. Decisions are not made by a formal voting process, but by discussion on the mailing lists. In most cases this seems to work well, and major debates (such as the question of whether the KDE 2 API should be broken in favour of KDE 3) are rare. The KDE project and related events are frequently sponsored by individuals, universities, and businesses. On 15 October 2006, it was announced that Mark Shuttleworth had become the first patron of KDE, the highest level of sponsorship available. On 2007-07-07, it was announced that Intel Corporation and Novell had also become patrons of KDE. While developers and users are now located all over the world, the project retains a strong base in Germany. The web servers are located at the universities of Tübingen and Kaiserslautern, a German non-profit organization (KDE e.V.) owns the trademark on KDE and KDE conferences often take place in Germany. Identity Konqi, mascot of the KDE project Kandalf the wizard Many KDE applications have a K in the name, mostly as an initial letter and capitalized. However, there are notable exceptions like kynaptic, whose K is not capitalized, and Amarok (formerly named amaroK). The K in many KDE applications is obtained by spelling a word which originally begins with C or Q differently, for example Konsole and Kuickshow. Also, some just prefix a commonly used word with a K, for instance KOffice. Among KDE 4 applications and technologies, however, the trend is not to have a K in the name at all, such as Plasma, Phonon and Dolphin. The KDE project's mascot is a green dragon named Konqi. Kandalf the wizard was the former mascot for the KDE project during its 1.x and 2.x versions, but he was dropped due to copyright issues (his resemblance to Gandalf). Development KDE is built using the Qt toolkit which runs on most Unix and Unix-like systems, Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows. Both KDE and GNOME now participate in freedesktop.org, an effort to standardize Unix desktop interoperability, although there is still some competition between them. A tale of two desktops Release cycle Timeline of major releasesDate ReleaseKDE 1 14 October 1996 Project announced by Matthias Ettrich Matthias Ettrich original posting 12 July 1998 KDE 1.0 released 6 February 1999 KDE 1.1 released KDE News Archive for February 1999 referring to the release of version 1.1 KDE 2 23 October 2000 KDE 2.0 released 26 February 2001 KDE 2.1 released KDE press release for version 2.1 15 August 2001 KDE 2.2 released KDE press release for version 2.2 KDE 3 3 April 2002 KDE 3.0 released KDE press release for version 3.0 28 January 2003 KDE 3.1 released KDE press release for version 3.1 3 February 2004 KDE 3.2 released KDE press release for version 3.2 19 August 2004 KDE 3.3 released KDE press release for version 3.3 16 March 2005 KDE 3.4 released KDE press release for version 3.4 29 November 2005 KDE 3.5 released KDE press release for version 3.5 KDE 4 11 January 2008 KDE 4.0 released 29 July 2008 KDE 4.1 released 27 January 2009 KDE 4.2 released The KDE team releases new versions on a regular basis. Platform releases Platform releases are major releases that begin a series (version number X.0). These releases are allowed to break both binary and source code compatibility with the predecessor, or to put it differently, all following releases (X.1, X.2, ...) will guarantee source & binary compatibility (API & ABI). This means, for instance, that software that was developed for KDE 3.0 will work on all (future) KDE 3 releases, in contrast to an application that was developed for KDE 2, which is not guaranteed to be able to make use of the KDE 3 libraries. KDE major version numbers follow the Qt release cycle, meaning that KDE 4 is based on Qt 4, while KDE 3 was based on Qt 3. Standard releases There are two main types of releases, major releases and maintenance releases. Major releases (with two version numbers, for example 3.5) contain new features. As soon as a major release is ready and announced, work on the next major release starts. A major release needs several months to be finished and many bugs that are fixed during this time are backported to the stable branch, meaning that these fixes are incorporated into the last stable release by maintenance releases. Starting with the KDE 4 series, KDE has a major release roughly every six months. Maintenance releases have three version numbers, e.g. KDE 1.1.1, and focus on fixing bugs, minor glitches and making small usability improvements. Maintenance releases in general do not allow new features although some releases include small enhancements. A shortened release schedule is used. Starting with the KDE 4 series, KDE has a maintenance release roughly every month, except during the month of a major release. Applications \|The Kontact personal information manager and Konqueror file manager/web browser running on KDE 3.5 Major applications for KDE include: Amarok - Audio player Dolphin - File manager K3b - Optical disc authoring software Kate - Text editor Kdenlive - Non-linear video editing KDevelop - Integrated development environment Konsole - Terminal emulator Kontact - Personal information manager featuring an e-mail client, a news client, a feed aggregator, To-do lists and more. Kopete - Instant messaging client Konqueror - Web browser KOffice - Office suite KTorrent - BitTorrent client For more applications, see list of KDE applications. Base technologies KDELibs KHTML - HTML engine KIO - extensible network-transparent file access Kiosk - allows disabling features within KDE to create a more controlled environment KParts - lightweight in-process graphical component framework KWin - window manager XMLGUI - allows defining UI elements such as menus and toolbars via XML files Technologies added in KDE 4 Plasma - desktop and panel widget engine Phonon - multimedia framework Solid - device integration framework Sonnet - spell checker ThreadWeaver - library to use multiprocessor systems more effectively Technologies superseded in KDE 4 aRts - sound server (replaced with Phonon) DCOP - inter-process communication system (replaced with D-Bus) See also Comparison of X Window System desktop environments List of KDE applications References External links The KDE website KDE.news KDE community forums KDE TechBase Wiki KDE UserBase Wiki Screenshots of KDE 2.0 showing Kandalf	KDE \|@lemmatized kde:114 k:9 desktop:17 environment:11 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3,361	Formant	Spectrogram of American English vowels showing the formants f1 and f2 A formant is an acoustic resonance, Titze, I.R. (1994). Principles of Voice Production, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0137178933. and, in speech science and phonetics, a resonance of the human vocal tract. It is often measured by a peak in the frequency spectrum of the sound, using a spectrogram (in the figure) or a spectrum analyzer, though in vowels spoken with a high fundamental frequency, as in a female or child voice, the formant may lie between the widely-spread harmonics and not be visible as a peak. In acoustics, it refers to resonance in sound sources, notably musical instruments, as well as that of sound chambers. However, it is equally valid to talk about the formant frequencies of a room, as exploited, for example, by Alvin Lucier in his piece I Am Sitting in a Room. Formants and phonetics Formants are the distinguishing or meaningful frequency components of human speech and of singing. By definition, the information that humans require to distinguish between vowels can be represented purely quantitatively by the frequency content of the vowel sounds. Formants are the characteristic partials that identify vowels to the listener. Most of these formants are produced by tube and chamber resonance, but a few whistle tones derive from periodic collapse of Venturi effect low-pressure zones. The formant with the lowest frequency is called f1, the second f2, and the third f3. Most often the two first formants, f1 and f2, are enough to disambiguate the vowel. These two formants determine the quality of vowels in terms of the open/close and front/back dimensions (which have traditionally, though not entirely accurately, been associated with the position of the tongue). Thus the first formant f1 has a higher frequency for an open vowel (such as [a]) and a lower frequency for a close vowel (such as [i] or [u]); and the second formant f2 has a higher frequency for a front vowel (such as [i]) and a lower frequency for a back vowel (such as [u]). Ladefoged, Peter (2006) A Course in Phonetics (Fifth Edition), Boston, MA: Thomson Wadsworth, p. 188. ISBN 1-4130-2079-8 Ladefoged, Peter (2001) Vowels and Consonants: An Introduction to the Sounds of Language, Maldern, MA: Blackwell, p. 40. ISBN 0-631-21412-7 Vowels will almost always have four or more distinguishable formants; sometimes there are more than six. However, the first two formants are most important in determining vowel quality, and this is often displayed in terms of a plot of the first formant against the second formant, Deterding, David (1997) 'The Formants of Monophthong Vowels in Standard Southern British English Pronunciation', Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 27, pp. 47-55. though this is not sufficient to capture some aspects of vowel quality, such as rounding. Hayward, Katrina (2000) Experimental Phonetics, Harlow, UK: Pearson, p. 149. ISBN 0-582-29137-2 Nasals usually have an additional formant around 2500 Hz. The liquid usually has an extra formant at 1500 Hz, while the English "r" sound () is distinguished by virtue of a very low third formant (well below 2000 Hz). Plosives (and, to some degree, fricatives) modify the placement of formants in the surrounding vowels. Bilabial sounds (such as 'b' and 'p' as in "ball" or "sap") cause a lowering of the formants; velar sounds ('k' and 'g' in English) almost always show f2 and f3 coming together in a 'velar pinch' before the velar and separating from the same 'pinch' as the velar is released; alveolar sounds (English 't' and 'd') cause less systematic changes in neighboring vowel formants, depending partially on exactly which vowel is present. The time-course of these changes in vowel formant frequencies are referred to as 'formant transitions'. If the fundamental frequency of the underlying vibration is higher than the formant frequency of the system, then the character of the sound imparted by the formant frequencies will be mostly lost. This is most apparent in the example of soprano opera singers, who sing high enough that their vowels become very hard to distinguish. Control of formants is an essential component of the vocal technique known as overtone singing, in which the performer sings a low fundamental tone, and creates sharp resonances to select upper harmonics, giving the impression of several tones being sung at once. Spectrograms are used to visualise formants. +Vowel formant centers Vowel IPA Formant f1 Formant f2 u 320 Hz 800 Hz o 500 Hz 1000 Hz 700 Hz 1150 Hz a 1000 Hz 1400 Hz ø 500 Hz 1500 Hz y 320 Hz 1650 Hz 700 Hz 1800 Hz e 500 Hz 2300 Hz i 320 Hz 2500 Hz +Vowel formants Vowel Main formant region 200–400 Hz 400–600 Hz 800–1200 Hz 400–600 and 2200–2600 Hz 200–400 and 3000–3500 Hz Singers' formant Studies of the frequency spectrum of trained singers, especially male singers, indicate a clear formant around 3000 Hz (between 2800 and 3400) that is absent in speech or in the spectra of untrained singers. It is this increase in energy at 3000Hz which allows singers to be heard and understood over an orchestra, which peak at much lower frequencies of around 500 Hz. This formant is actively developed through vocal training, for instance through so-called "voce di strega" or witch's voice exercises and is caused by a part of the vocal tract acting as a resonator. See also Praat Vocoder Linear predictive coding Human Voice References External links What are formants? Formants for fun and profit Formants and wah-wah pedals What is a formant? A discussion of the three different meanings of the word 'formant' Formant tuning by soprano singers from the University of New South Wales The acoustics of harmonic or overtone singing from the University of New South Wales Materials for measuring and plotting vowel formants	Formant \|@lemmatized spectrogram:3 american:1 english:5 vowel:26 show:2 formants:20 formant:25 acoustic:3 resonance:5 titze:1 r:2 principle:1 voice:4 production:1 prentice:1 hall:1 isbn:4 speech:3 science:1 phonetics:4 human:3 vocal:4 tract:2 often:3 measure:2 peak:3 frequency:16 spectrum:4 sound:10 use:2 figure:1 analyzer:1 though:3 speak:1 high:5 fundamental:3 female:1 child:1 may:1 lie:1 widely:1 spread:1 harmonic:3 visible:1 refer:2 source:1 notably:1 musical:1 instrument:1 well:2 chamber:2 however:2 equally:1 valid:1 talk:1 room:2 exploit:1 example:2 alvin:1 lucier:1 piece:1 sit:1 distinguishing:1 meaningful:1 component:2 sing:3 definition:1 information:1 humans:1 require:1 distinguish:3 represent:1 purely:1 quantitatively:1 content:1 characteristic:1 partial:1 identify:1 listener:1 produce:1 tube:1 whistle:1 tone:3 derive:1 periodic:1 collapse:1 venturi:1 effect:1 low:7 pressure:1 zone:1 call:2 second:3 third:2 two:3 first:4 enough:2 disambiguate:1 determine:2 quality:3 term:2 open:2 close:2 front:2 back:2 dimension:1 traditionally:1 entirely:1 accurately:1 associate:1 position:1 tongue:1 thus:1 u:3 ladefoged:2 peter:2 course:2 fifth:1 edition:1 boston:1 thomson:1 wadsworth:1 p:4 consonant:1 introduction:1 language:1 maldern:1 blackwell:1 almost:2 always:2 four:1 distinguishable:1 sometimes:1 six:1 important:1 display:1 plot:2 deterding:1 david:1 monophthong:1 standard:1 southern:1 british:1 pronunciation:1 journal:1 international:1 phonetic:1 association:1 pp:1 sufficient:1 capture:1 aspect:1 round:1 hayward:1 katrina:1 experimental:1 harlow:1 uk:1 pearson:1 nasal:1 usually:2 additional:1 around:3 hz:28 liquid:1 extra:1 virtue:1 plosive:1 degree:1 fricative:1 modify:1 placement:1 surrounding:1 bilabial:1 b:1 ball:1 sap:1 cause:3 lowering:1 velar:4 k:1 g:1 come:1 together:1 pinch:2 separate:1 release:1 alveolar:1 le:1 systematic:1 change:2 neighbor:1 depend:1 partially:1 exactly:1 present:1 time:1 transition:1 underlying:1 vibration:1 system:1 character:1 impart:1 mostly:1 lose:1 apparent:1 soprano:2 opera:1 singer:7 become:1 hard:1 control:1 essential:1 technique:1 know:1 overtone:2 singing:2 performer:1 create:1 sharp:1 select:1 upper:1 give:1 impression:1 several:1 sung:1 visualise:1 center:1 ipa:1 ø:1 e:1 main:1 region:1 study:1 trained:1 especially:1 male:1 indicate:1 clear:1 absent:1 untrained:1 increase:1 energy:1 allow:1 hear:1 understand:1 orchestra:1 much:1 actively:1 develop:1 training:1 instance:1 voce:1 di:1 strega:1 witch:1 exercise:1 part:1 act:1 resonator:1 see:1 also:1 praat:1 vocoder:1 linear:1 predictive:1 cod:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 fun:1 profit:1 wah:2 pedal:1 discussion:1 three:1 different:1 meaning:1 word:1 tuning:1 university:2 new:2 south:2 wales:1 wale:1 material:1 \|@bigram prentice_hall:1 formant_frequency:4 venturi_effect:1 ladefoged_peter:2 thomson_wadsworth:1 hz_hz:19 linear_predictive:1 external_link:1 wah_wah:1 wah_pedal:1 harmonic_overtone:1
3,362	Daoismâ%80%93Taoism_romanization_issue	In English, the words Daoism and Taoism are the subject of an ongoing controversy over the preferred romanization for naming this native Chinese philosophy and Chinese religion. The root Chinese word 道 "way, path" is romanized tao in the older Wade-Giles system and dào in the modern Pinyin system. The sometimes heated arguments over Taoism vs. Daoism involve sinology, phonemes, loanwords, and politics – not to mention whether Taoism should be or . First, some linguistic terminology and notations need to be introduced. Phonetic transcription (representing each distinct speech sound with a separate symbol) is shown with the International Phonetic Alphabet enclosed in square brackets [ ], and phonemic transcription (representing a small set of speech sounds that a particular language distinguishes) is enclosed within virgules or forward slashes / /. In articulatory phonetics, "aspiration" is an articulation that involves an audible release of breath. For example, the /t/ in tore is "aspirated" with a noticeable puff of breath, but the /t/ in store is "unaspirated." The IPA diacritic for aspiration (the word deriving from the Roman name for a Greek "rough breathing" diacritic, spiritus asper) is a superscript "h", (e.g., tʰ pʰ), and normal unaspirated consonants are not explicitly marked. "Voice" or "voicing" distinguishes whether a particular sound is either "voiced" (when the vocal cords vibrate) or "unvoiced" (when they do not). Examples of IPA phonation diacritics include voiceless , voiced , breathy voiced , and creaky voiced . Phonology of and its English approximations Disregarding tone, , in Mandarin, is pronounced . This pronunciation cannot be accurately reproduced by most untrained native English speakers. The argument between the proponents of Dao and Tao hinges on not which of the two is correct, but which of the two spellings read outloud will better approximate the original Chinese. The initial Chinese sound, a tenuis unvoiced alveolar plosive represented by the IPA symbol , exists in English -- but never as an initial. You can find it instead in words such as "stop" or "pat". An initial t, as in "tap", is in English pronounced as -- that is, an aspirated version of Ḍ , its complementary allophone. The natural English pronunciation of the word spelled Tao is therefore . In standard Mandarin phonology, however, and are not allophonic, but represent two distinct phonemes. In fact, does not merely sound wrong, it sounds like a different word -- 桃 "peach", or 套 "cover" (distinguished by tone contour). The alternative English spelling, Dao, results in another mispronunciation, . The initial consonant is , a voiced alveolar plosive. However, is not a phoneme in Mandarin, which has no voiced plosives, therefore the initial voicing of is not significant to the Chinese listener. What is significant is that, unlike the English , is not aspirated in word-initial position. Therefore the English-speaker's seems more similar to the desired Chinese than the alternative , even though both are technically equally incorrect, one because of voicing, the other because of aspiration. Only the aspiration error is phonemically important to the Chinese listener. The linguist Michael Carr explains: The provenance of the pronunciation with of Taoism is a gap in the English phonemic paradigm for the unvoiced unaspirated in dào 'way'. This Chinese phoneme is nearer to the pronunciation of English voiced unaspirated in Dow than the voiceless aspirated in Taos, but it is neither. The Chinese aspirated vs. non-aspirated phonemic contrast is almost the opposite of the English voiced vs. unvoiced contrast. In certain positions, English non-aspirated consonants can occur as variants of aspirated ones. Stops after initials in English *e.g., spy, sty, sky) are unvoiced unaspirated and close to the phoneme in 'way', but these are not highly voiced, and the English distinction can be analyzed as one of aspiration, with voicing redundant and predictable. (1990:60) Romanizations of The history of transcribing spoken Chinese is lengthy and inconsistent. Sinologist Paul Kratochvil describes how Westerners predictably misheard Chinese unvoiced consonants, such as the unvoiced unaspirated in 道 . Since the great majority of people who first attempted to transcribe Chinese were not linguists (and even if they were, the principles of modern phonemics were not discovered for another two centuries), their endeavour was marred by a lack of systematic approach and many contemporary European misconceptions about language. Even more than two hundred years later, during the last century, when Western specialists in Chinese, who had by that time created the discipline known as sinology, designed the early forms of numerous transcriptions used today, the first mistakes of enthusiastic missionaries, envoys and business men were not fully eliminated. In fact their traces can be seen even today. (1968:50-51) There are numerous rival systems for the Romanization of Chinese for Standard Mandarin pronunciation. Compare these transcriptions of Chinese 道 : Wade-Giles tao or tao4 (marking 4th tone), Legge romanization tâo, Latinxua Sin Wenz dau, Yale Romanization dàu, Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II dau, Hanyu Pinyin dào, Tongyong Pinyin daˋo, Gwoyeu Romatzyh or National Romanization daw, Zhuyin fuhao ㄉㄠ, and Cyrillic Palliday system дао. Romanization systems use one of two arbitrary ways to represent the Chinese phonemic opposition between aspirated and unaspirated consonants. Take for example, Chinese unaspirated 道 "way" and aspirated 桃 "peach". Some systems, like Wade-Giles tao 道 and t'ao 桃, introduce a special symbol for aspiration; others, like Pinyin dao 道 and tao 桃, use "d" and "t". In English and other languages, "d" and "t" indicate a voiced and unvoiced distinction, which is not phonemic in Chinese. From a theoretical perspective, both tao and dao transliterations if pronounced according to English spelling conventions are equally close to, or far from, the Standard Mandarin pronunciation of 道 . However in practice, most English speakers think the Chinese pronunciation sounds more like an English initial than an English initial because the Chinese pronunciation is unaspirated. Therefore, some argue that Dao is in that sense more "accurate" than Tao. An inherent problem with the arcane Wade-Giles use of apostrophes to differentiate aspiration is that many English readers do not understand it, which has resulted in the frequent mispronunciation of Taoism as instead of . Alan Watts (1975:xix) explains using Wade-Giles "in spite of its defects" but writes: "No uninitiated English-speaking person could guess how to pronounce it, and I have even thought, in a jocularly malicious state of mind, that Professors Wade and Giles invented it so as to erect a barrier between profane and illiterate people and true scholars." The Taoism/Daoism loanword In loanword terminology, English Taoism/Daoism is a "calque," "loan-rendering", or "hybrid" that blends a borrowed word with a native element, for example, chopstick) blends Chinese Pidgin English chop (< Cantonese kàp, pinyin kuài 快 "fast; quick") with English stick. Taoism/Daoism is one of a few Chinese -ism borrowings, along with Confucianism, Mohism, and Maoism. According to the Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.), the first recorded occurrences of the relevant words were Tao 1736, Tau 1747, Taouism and Taouist 1838, Taoistic 1856, Tao-ism 1858, Taoism 1903 [clearly wrong, at least antedated by Balfour (1881)], Daoism 1948, Dao and Daoist 1971. Carr (1990:66) contrasts the English pronunciations of gung-ho and kung-fu to differentiate borrowings deriving from spoken and written Chinese. The OED records the first usage of gung-ho in 1942 (referring to Evans Carlson's Marines) and of kung-fu in 1966 (referring to Bruce Lee's movies). Gung-ho (Pinyin gōnghé 工合 "work together", see Cohen 1989) is more "correctly" pronounced because it was first imported from spoken rather than written Chinese. Nevertheless, many English speakers read the Wade-Giles kung-ho as (the OED gives "kung-hou" [sic]). Kung-fu (Pinyin gōngfú 功夫 "ability", meaning "Chinese martial arts") is commonly mispronounced instead of owing to confusion over Wade-Giles romanization of unaspirated k vs. aspirated k''' . Many Anglo-Chinese borrowings besides Taoism are mispronounced because of romanization. A commonly heard example is the Yijing "Book of Changes" which, owing to Wade-Giles "I Ching," is usually cacologized as taking yi 'change; easy' in false analogy (ego?) with English I. In most cases, Pinyin romanization more accurately represents Chinese pronunciations than Wade-Giles; English speakers would read the martial art "Tai Ji Quan" closer to tàijíquán 'great ultimate fist' than "T'ai Chi Ch'üan." (Carr 1990:67-8) More generations of English speakers have learned about China through Wade-Giles (proposed in 1859, revised in 1892) than through Pinyin (approved in 1958, adopted in 1979). The English word Taoism is unquestionably older and more familiar than Daoism. However, Hanyu Pinyin has been gaining ground as the international standard for Chinese romanization. The system is widely used in Western study of the Chinese language and by international bodies such as the United Nations and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO 7098). It is the official system of romanization used by the governments of the People's Republic of China, Singapore and Taiwan. While sinologists increasingly prefer the term Daoism, traditionalists continue using the well-known Taoism. Some scholars consciously adopt "Daoism" in order to distinguish the Chinese philosophy and religion from what "Taoism" embodied in the 19th- and 20th-century Western imaginations. Girardot, Miller and Liu (2001: xxxi) explain, "earlier discussions of the Daoist tradition were often distorted and misleading - especially in terms of the special Western fascination with the 'classical' or 'philosophical' Daode jing and the denigration and neglect of the later sectarian traditions." Lexicography of Taoism English dictionaries provide some insights into the Daoism-Taoism problem. For over a century, British and American lexicographers glossed the pronunciation of Taoism as , but more recently they corrected it to , and added Daoism entries. Carr analyzes how English dictionaries gloss Taoisms pronunciation, comparing 12 published in Great Britain (1933-1989) and 11 published in the United States (1948-1987). Pronunciations are given in various dictionary respelling systems, rather than IPA, but for purposes of discussion, they are divisible into four types: , , , and . The first is strictly "correct," the second and third are partially so, depending upon descriptive/prescriptive policies, and the last is inaccurate. Since many, if not most, English speakers pronounce Taoism as , it can legitimately be listed as an alternate. Dictionaries are justified in glossing if they follow a convention of giving preferred pronunciation first, or as if they give common pronunciation first (and if they have some way to determine this). (1990:64) Within Carr's sample, most American dictionaries gloss , while most British ones gloss and have been slower to add the rectification. The respective first accurate glosses for Taoism were "douizm; tou-" (Webster's International Dictionary of the English Language, 2nd ed., 1934) and "Also Daoism' and with pronunc. (dau•iz'm)" (Oxford English Dictionary Supplement, 1986). Ramifications As detailed above, proponents for both sides of the Daoism-Taoism debate make valid arguments. Some prefer the Wade-based Taoism because it is more familiar than Daoism and because the borrowing is a fully assimilated English word anyway; such words are generally unaffected by later systems of romanization. However, many of these traditionalists will accept using pinyin for more recent Chinese borrowings. Others prefer pinyin-based Daoism because of growing acceptance internationally of Hanyu Pinyin as the standard romanization for Chinese, as reflected in other recent spelling changes such as the pinyin Beijing that replaced the Wade Pei-ching or Chinese Postal Map Romanization Peking. In conclusion, three illustrative outcomes of Daoism vs. Taoism are given from publishing, library, and Wikipedia spheres. First, publishing houses have profit concerns about changing romanizations of foreign books. Many more English translations are titled Tao Te Ching than Dao De Jing, making the former spelling more familiar to native speakers. Academic publishers are more likely than others to adopt pinyin; Columbia University Press changed the titles of Burton Watson's translations from "Chuang Tzu" to "Zhuangzi" and from "Han Fei Tzu" to "Hanfeizi". Second, libraries have independent concerns about revising legacy Wade-Giles catalogs to contemporary pinyin. After the Library of Congress converted to pinyin in 1997, librarian Jiajian Hu (1999:250-1) listed three reasons why they deemed Wade-Giles unsatisfactory and added four more. First, it had phonetically redundant syllables. Second, it failed to render the Chinese national standard pronunciation. Finally, it wasn't able to show the semantic distinctions between multiple readings of single characters. … The Pinyin system of romanization of Chinese is now generally recognized as standard. … Most users of American libraries are now familiar with pinyin romanization. … The use of pinyin romanization by libraries facilitates the exchange of data with foreign libraries. … Pinyin has more access points than Wade-Giles for online retrieval. References Balfour, Frederic Henry, tr. 1881. The Divine Classic of Nan-Hua; Being the Works of Chuang Tsze, Taoist Philosopher. Kelly & Walsh. Carr, Michael. 1990. "Whence the Pronunciation of Taoism?" Dictionaries 12:55-74. Cohen, Gerald. 1989. "Gung Ho Revisited, Part 1." Comments on Etymology 29.3:1-42. Girardot, N. J., James Miller and Liu Xiaogan, eds. 2001. Daoism and Ecology: Ways within a Cosmic Landscape. Harvard University Press. Hu, Jiajian. 1999. "Chinese Romanization in Library of Congress Cataloging". Illinois Periodicals Online. Kratochvil, Paul. 1968. The Chinese Language Today. Hutchinson. Watson, Burton, tr. 1964. Chuang Tzu: Basic Writings. 2003. Zhuangzi: Basic Writings. Columbia University Press. Watson, Burton, tr. 1996. Han Fei Tzu: Basic Writings. 2003. Han Feizi: Basic Writings. Columbia University Press. Watts, Alan. 1975. Tao: The Watercourse Way''. Pantheon. External links Daoism or Taoism?, James Miller, Queen's University Tao Te Ching Pronunciation Guide, True Tao	Daoismâ%80%93Taoism_romanization_issue \|@lemmatized english:39 word:12 daoism:18 taoism:23 subject:1 ongoing:1 controversy:1 preferred:2 romanization:18 name:2 native:4 chinese:38 philosophy:2 religion:2 root:1 道:7 way:8 path:1 romanize:1 tao:15 old:2 wade:16 giles:14 system:11 dào:3 modern:2 pinyin:21 sometimes:1 heated:1 argument:3 v:5 involve:2 sinology:2 phoneme:5 loanword:3 politics:1 mention:1 whether:2 first:12 linguistic:1 terminology:2 notation:1 need:1 introduce:2 phonetic:3 transcription:4 represent:6 distinct:2 speech:2 sound:7 separate:1 symbol:4 show:2 international:5 alphabet:1 enclose:2 square:1 bracket:1 phonemic:5 small:1 set:1 particular:2 language:6 distinguishes:2 within:3 virgule:1 forward:1 slash:1 articulatory:1 phonetics:1 aspiration:7 articulation:1 audible:1 release:1 breath:2 example:5 tore:1 aspirated:5 noticeable:1 puff:1 store:1 unaspirated:10 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3,363	Carol_Kane	Carolyn Laurie "Carol" Kane (born June 18, 1952) is an American actress, known for her work on stage, screen and television. Early life Kane was born in Cleveland, Ohio, the daughter of Joy, a jazz singer, teacher, dancer, and pianist, and Michael Kane, an architect who worked for the World Bank. Carol Kane Biography (1952-) Her family is Jewish, her grandparents having emigrated from Russia. http://www.open.org/glennab/carolkanefanbio.htm Her parents divorced when she was 12-years-old. http://www.open.org/glennab/cktvguidemay1983.htm She attended the Cherry Lawn School, a progressive boarding school in Darien, Connecticut, until 1965. Cherry Lawn School Cherry Lawn School Photo Of The Month She attended the Professional Children's School, in New York City, and made her professional theatre debut in a 1966 production of, The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, starring Tammy Grimes. Carol Kane Biography - Yahoo! Movies Career Kane is perhaps best-known for her portrayal of "Simka Dahblitz-Gravas," wife of "Latka Gravas" (Andy Kaufman), on the American television series, Taxi, from 1981 to 1983, and also for her role as, "Allison Portchnik," in Woody Allen's Annie Hall. Kane earned two Emmy Awards for her work in the series and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress for her role in the film Hester Street. She also appeared in The Princess Bride (1987) and Scrooged (1988), with Bill Murray, in which Variety called her, "unquestionably [the] pic's comic highlight." "Scrooged." Variety online. Accessed 24 December 2006. Available here Kane was a regular on the 1986 NBC series, All Is Forgiven, a regular on the 1990-1991 NBC series American Dreamer, guest-starred on a 1994 episode of Seinfeld and had a supporting role in the short-lived 1996-1997 sitcom, Pearl, which starred Rhea Perlman. In early 2006, Kane began a ten month run in the Broadway musical Wicked, playing Madame Morrible, a role which she had previously played in the show's first national tour. She also appeared in the NBC television live action production of The Year Without a Santa Claus in December 2006. She recently reprised the role of Madame Morrible in the open-ended Los Angeles production of Wicked, which opened on February 21, 2007 at the Pantages Theatre. She left the production on December 30, 2007 along with co-stars Eden Espinosa and Adam Wylie. Kane was replaced by Jo Anne Worley. Kane returned to the Los Angeles company of Wicked on August 26, 2008 to once again play the role of Madame Morrible and stayed with the production until it closed on January 11, 2009. She most recently played Madame Morrible again in the San Francisco production of Wicked which began performances January 27, 2009 at the Orpheum Theatre for a limited engagement. Garrison, Kane, Kassebaum, Wicks Set for San Francisco Wicked She ended her run on March 22, 2009 and was succeeded by Patty Duke. Academy Award Winner Duke to Join Cast of San Fran's Wicked In January of 2009, Kane appeared in the TV series Two and a Half Men as the mother of Alan Harper's receptionist. http://www.tv.com/two-and-a-half-men/thank-god-for-scoliosis/episode/1244269/summary.html Filmography Carnal Knowledge (1971) - Jennifer Wedding in White (1972) - Jeannie Dougall The Last Detail (1973) - Young Whore Hester Street (1975) - Gitl Dog Day Afternoon (1975) - Jenny Annie Hall (1977) - Allison Portchnik The World's Greatest Lover (1977) - Annie The Mafu Cage (1978) - Cissy When a Stranger Calls (1979) - Jill Johnson Pandemonium (1982) - Candy The Secret Diary of Sigmund Freud (1984) Transylvania 6-5000 (1985) - Lupi Jumpin' Jack Flash (1986) - Cynthia The Princess Bride (1987) - Valerie, Miracle Max's wife License to Drive (1988)- Mrs. Anderson Scrooged (1988) - The Ghost of Christmas Present Joe Versus the Volcano (1990) - Cassie My Blue Heaven (1990) - Shaldeen Flashback (1990) - Maggy In the Soup (1992) - Barbara Addams Family Values (1993) - Grandmama When a Stranger Calls Back (1993) - Jill Johnson Big Bully (1996) - Faith Bigger Trees Lounge (1996) - Connie The Pallbearer (1996) - Tom's Mother Office Killer (1997) - Dorine Gone Fishin' (1997) - Donna Waters Jawbreaker (1999) - Ms. Sherwood Man on the Moon (1999) - Herself/Simka Dahblitz My First Mister (2001) - Mrs. Benson The Shrink Is In (2001) - Dr. Louise Rosenberg Cosmopolitan (2003) - Mrs. Shaw Confessions of a Teenage Drama Queen (2004) - Ms. Baggoli The Pacifier (2005) - Helga Four Christmases (2008) Partial other works Wicked (2005-2009) - Madame Morrible (Various productions) The Happy Elf (2006) - Gilda (voice) Family Guy (2001) - Carol Pewterschmidt (voice) in episode: "Emission Impossible" Beggars and Choosers (1999-2000) - Lydia Ludden Homicide: Life on the Street (1997) - Gwen Munch, John Munch's ex-wife, in episode "All is Bright" Seinfeld (1994) - Corinne in episode: "The Marine Biologist" Tales from the Crypt (1990) - Judy in episode: "Judy, You're Not Yourself Today" Cheers (1984) - Amanda Boyer in episode: "A Ditch in Time" Tales From the Dark Side (1985) Witch in episode: "Snip Snip" Taxi'' (1980) - Simka Dahblitz References External links	Carol_Kane \|@lemmatized carolyn:1 laurie:1 carol:4 kane:13 bear:2 june:1 american:3 actress:2 know:1 work:4 stage:1 screen:1 television:3 early:2 life:2 cleveland:1 ohio:1 daughter:1 joy:1 jazz:1 singer:1 teacher:1 dancer:1 pianist:1 michael:1 architect:1 world:2 bank:1 biography:2 family:3 jewish:1 grandparent:1 emigrate:1 russia:1 http:3 www:3 open:4 org:2 glennab:2 carolkanefanbio:1 htm:2 parent:1 divorce:1 year:2 old:1 attend:2 cherry:3 lawn:3 school:5 progressive:1 boarding:1 darien:1 connecticut:1 photo:1 month:2 professional:2 child:1 new:1 york:1 city:1 make:1 theatre:3 debut:1 production:7 prime:1 miss:1 jean:1 brodie:1 star:4 tammy:1 grime:1 yahoo:1 movie:1 career:1 perhaps:1 best:2 known:1 portrayal:1 simka:3 dahblitz:3 gravas:2 wife:3 latka:1 andy:1 kaufman:1 series:5 taxi:2 also:3 role:6 allison:2 portchnik:2 woody:1 allen:1 annie:3 hall:2 earn:1 two:3 emmy:1 award:3 nominate:1 academy:2 film:1 hester:2 street:3 appear:3 princess:2 bride:2 scrooged:3 bill:1 murray:1 variety:2 call:3 unquestionably:1 pic:1 comic:1 highlight:1 online:1 access:1 december:3 available:1 regular:2 nbc:3 forgive:1 dreamer:1 guest:1 episode:8 seinfeld:2 supporting:1 short:1 lived:1 sitcom:1 pearl:1 rhea:1 perlman:1 begin:2 ten:1 run:2 broadway:1 musical:1 wicked:7 play:4 madame:5 morrible:5 previously:1 show:1 first:2 national:1 tour:1 live:1 action:1 without:1 santa:1 claus:1 recently:2 reprise:1 end:2 los:2 angeles:2 february:1 pantages:1 leave:1 along:1 co:1 eden:1 espinosa:1 adam:1 wylie:1 replace:1 jo:1 anne:1 worley:1 return:1 company:1 august:1 stay:1 close:1 january:3 san:3 francisco:2 performance:1 orpheum:1 limited:1 engagement:1 garrison:1 kassebaum:1 wick:1 set:1 march:1 succeed:1 patty:1 duke:2 winner:1 join:1 cast:1 fran:1 tv:2 half:2 men:2 mother:2 alan:1 harper:1 receptionist:1 com:1 thank:1 god:1 scoliosis:1 summary:1 html:1 filmography:1 carnal:1 knowledge:1 jennifer:1 wedding:1 white:1 jeannie:1 dougall:1 last:1 detail:1 young:1 whore:1 gitl:1 dog:1 day:1 afternoon:1 jenny:1 great:1 lover:1 mafu:1 cage:1 cissy:1 stranger:2 jill:2 johnson:2 pandemonium:1 candy:1 secret:1 diary:1 sigmund:1 freud:1 transylvania:1 lupi:1 jumpin:1 jack:1 flash:1 cynthia:1 valerie:1 miracle:1 max:1 license:1 drive:1 mr:3 anderson:1 ghost:1 christmas:2 present:1 joe:1 versus:1 volcano:1 cassie:1 blue:1 heaven:1 shaldeen:1 flashback:1 maggy:1 soup:1 barbara:1 addams:1 value:1 grandmama:1 back:1 big:2 bully:1 faith:1 tree:1 lounge:1 connie:1 pallbearer:1 tom:1 office:1 killer:1 dorine:1 go:1 fishin:1 donna:1 water:1 jawbreaker:1 sherwood:1 man:1 moon:1 mister:1 benson:1 shrink:1 dr:1 louise:1 rosenberg:1 cosmopolitan:1 shaw:1 confession:1 teenage:1 drama:1 queen:1 baggoli:1 pacifier:1 helga:1 four:1 partial:1 various:1 happy:1 elf:1 gilda:1 voice:2 guy:1 pewterschmidt:1 emission:1 impossible:1 beggar:1 chooser:1 lydia:1 ludden:1 homicide:1 gwen:1 munch:2 john:1 ex:1 bright:1 corinne:1 marine:1 biologist:1 tale:2 crypt:1 judy:2 today:1 cheer:1 amanda:1 boyer:1 ditch:1 time:1 dark:1 side:1 witch:1 snip:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 \|@bigram http_www:3 woody_allen:1 emmy_award:1 princess_bride:2 supporting_role:1 short_lived:1 rhea_perlman:1 madame_morrible:5 santa_claus:1 reprise_role:1 los_angeles:2 san_francisco:2 sigmund_freud:1 addams_family:1 tale_crypt:1 external_link:1
3,364	Dominion	A dominion, often Dominion, Merriam Webster's Online Dictionary (based on Collegiate vol., 11th ed.) 2006. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc. refers to one of a group of semi-autonomous polities that were nominally under British sovereignty, constituting the British Empire and British Commonwealth, from the late 19th century. They included (at varying times) Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, and the Irish Free State. After 1948, the term was used to note independent nations that retained the British monarch as head of state; these included India, Pakistan, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and Kenya. Definition In English common law, the dominions of the Crown referred to all the realms and territories under the sovereignty of the Crown, e.g. the Order-in-Council annexing Cyprus in 1914 provided that "... the said Island shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's Dominions and the said Island is annexed accordingly". Order-in-Council, 5 November 1914. Use of the word dominion, to refer to a particular territory, dates back to the 16th century, and was used to describe Wales from 1535 to around 1800. The Laws in Wales Act 1535 applies to the Dominion, Principality and Country of Wales Parliamentary questions, Hansard, 5 November 1934 Dominion, as an official title, was first conferred on Virginia, circa 1660 and the Dominion of New England in 1686. These dominions never had semi-autonomous or self-governing status. Canada received the title upon Confederation in 1867 of several British colonies in North America. The Imperial Conference of 1907 was the first time the self-governing colonies of Canada and the Commonwealth of Australia would be referred to collectively as "Dominions". Roberts, J.M.; The Penguin History of the World; Penguin Books; London; 1995; p. 777; ISBN 357910864 Two other self-governing colonies, New Zealand and Newfoundland, were also granted the title that year. They were followed by South Africa (1910) and the Irish Free State (1922). Dominion status was officially defined in the Balfour Declaration (1926) and in the Statute of Westminster (1931), which recognized these territories as "autonomous Communities within the British Empire," establishing these states as equals to the United Kingdom, making them essentially independent members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Following the Second World War, the decline of British colonialism led to Dominions generally being referred to as Commonwealth realms, the use of the word gradually diminished within these countries after this time. Nonetheless, though disused, it remains Canada's legal title; "Dominion". Youth Encyclopedia of Canada (based on Canadian Encyclopedia). Historica Foundation of Canada, 2008. Accessed 20 June 2008. "The word "Dominion" is the official title of Canada. ... The term is little used today." moreover, the phrase Her Majesty's Dominions continues occasionally in modern legal usage in the UK. National Health Service Act 2006 (c. 41), sch. 22 Historical development Overseas dominions Dominions originally referred to any possession of the British Empire. Oliver Cromwell's full title in the 1650s was "Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland, and the dominions thereto belonging". In 1660, King Charles II gave the Colony of Virginia the title "Dominion" in gratitude for Virginia's loyalty to the Crown during the English Civil War; the state still retains "Old Dominion" as its nickname. The name also occurred in the short-lived Dominion of New England (1686-1689). In all of these cases, dominion implied being a subject of the Empire. Responsible Government The foundation of "Dominion" status was the achievement of internal self-rule in the form of "responsible government". Responsible government in British colonies began to emerge in the 1840s (typically with Nova Scotia cited as the first colony to achieve it in early 1848) and was granted to most of the major settler colonies (British North America, Australia, and New Zealand) by 1856. Most of the territories of British North America were joined in a federal union between 1867 and 1873 under the authority of the British North America Act which termed the new entity a "Dominion" (section 3 of the British North America Act). Australia and New Zealand were also designated dominions in 1907. The Australian Constitutions Act 1850 Link to the Australian Constitutions Act 1850 on the website of the National Archives of Australia: established the machinery for the four then existing Australian colonies (namely New South Wales, Tasmania, Western Australia and South Australia) to establish Parliaments and responsible government once certain conditions had been met; it also provided for the separation of Victoria from New South Wales and its establishment as a separate colony (which occurred in 1851) with similar capacity to attain self-government. New South Wales, Link to the New South Wales Constitution Act 1855, on the website of the National Archives of Australia: Victoria, Link to the Victoria Constitution Act 1855, on the website of the National Archives of Australia: South Australia, Link to the Constitution Act 1855 (SA), on the website of the National Archives of Australia: and Tasmania, Link to the Constitution Act 185 (Tasmania), on the website of the National Archives of Australia: along with New Zealand, attained responsible government soon after in 1856; self-government for Western Australia was delayed until 1891, mainly because of continuing financial dependence on Britain. Link to the Constitution Act 1890, which established self-government in Western Australia: Queensland was separated from New South Wales and established as a separate colony in 1859. Link to the Order in Council of 6 June 1859 which established the Colony of Queensland, on website of the National Archives of Australia: This left a large piece of territory in northern Australia still technically part of NSW though physically separated from it. This territory was transferred in part to Queensland and the remainder to South Australia in 1863 Link to the "Letters Patent annexing the Northern Territory to South Australia, 1863" on the website of the Australian National Archives: – the South Australian section being eventually transferred to the Commonwealth of Australia as the federal Northern Territory in 1911. Link to the Northern Territory Acceptance Act 1910 (Cth), which transferred the NT from SA to Cth control, on the website of the Australian National Archives: South Africa became a dominion in 1910. Its colonies had become self-governing earlier, with the Cape Colony being the first in 1872; this was followed by Natal (1893), Transvaal (1906), and the Orange River Colony (1907). Canada and Confederation The 20th century usage of the term "Dominion" can be traced to 1867 with the confederation of the British North American colonies of Canada (subsequently the provinces of Ontario and Quebec), New Brunswick and Nova Scotia into "One Dominion under the Name of Canada", the first federation in the British Empire. The new Canadian government subsequently used "Dominion of Canada" to designate the new, larger colony. Neither Confederation nor the adoption of the Dominion title, however, granted extra autonomy or new powers to the new federal level of government. Senator Eugene Forsey documents that the powers acquired since the 1840s that established the system of Responsible Government would simply be transferred to the new Dominion government: "By the time of Confederation in 1867, this system had been operating in most of what is now central and eastern Canada for almost 20 years. The Fathers of Confederation simply continued the system they knew, the system that was already working, and working well." Constitutional scholar Andrew Heard establishes that Confederation did not legally change Canada's colonial status to anything approaching its later dominion status. At its inception in 1867, Canada's colonial status was marked by political and legal subjugation to British Imperial supremacy in all aspects of government - legislative, judicial, and executive. The Imperial Parliament at Westminster could legislate on any matter to do with Canada and could override any local legislation, the final court of appeal for Canadian litigation lay with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London, the Governor General had a substantive role as a representative of the British government, and ultimate executive power was vested in the British Monarch - who was advised only by British Ministers in its exercise. Canada's independence came about as each of these sub-ordinations was eventually removed. Heard goes on to document the sizable body of legislation passed by the British Parliament in the latter part of the 19th century that would uphold and expand its imperial supremacy to constrain its colonies, including the new Dominion government. When the Dominion of Canada was created in 1867 it was granted powers of self-government to deal with all internal matters, but Britain still retained overall legislative supremacy. This imperial supremacy could be exercised through several statutory measures. In the first place, the Constitution Act of 1867 provides in s.55 that the Governor General may reserve any legislation passed by the two Houses of Parliament for "the signification of Her Majesty's pleasure", which is determined according to s.57 by the (British) Queen in Council. Secondly, s.56 provides that the Governor General must forward to "one of Her Majesty's Principal Secretary's of State" in London a copy of any federal legislation that has been assented to; within two years after the receipt of this copy, the (British) Queen in Council can disallow an Act. Thirdly, four pieces of Imperial legislation constrained the Canadian legislatures. The Colonial Laws Validity Act of 1865 provided that no colonial law could validly conflict with, amend or repeal Imperial legislation which explicitly or by necessary implication applied directly to that colony; the Merchant Shipping Act, 1894 as well as the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act, 1890 required reservation of Dominion legislation on those topics for approval by the British Government; and, the Colonial Stock Act of 1900 provided for the dis-allowance of Dominion legislation which the British government felt would harm British stockholders of Dominion trustee securities. Most importantly, however, the British Parliament could exercise the legal right of supremacy it possessed at common law to pass any legislation on any matter affecting the colonies. However, as Heard later explains, the British government rarely invoked its powers over Canadian legislation. Indeed, in the Canadian context, British legislative powers over Canadian domestic policy were largely theoretical and their exercise was increasingly unacceptable in the 1870s and 1880s. The rise to dominion status and then full independence for Canada and other colonies would not occur by the granting of titles or similar recognition by the British Parliament, but by initiatives taken by colonial governments to assert their independence and establish legal constitutional precedents. What is remarkable about this whole process is that it was achieved with a minimum of legislative amendments. Much of Canada's independence arose from the development of new political arrangements, many of which have been absorbed into judicial decisions interpreting the constitution - with or without explicit recognition. Canada's passage from being an integral part of the British Empire to being an independent member of the Commonwealth richly illustrates the way in which fundamental constitutional rules have evolved through the interaction of constitutional convention, international law, and municipal statute and case law. The Imperial Conference of 1907 Issues of colonial self-government spilled into foreign affairs with the Boer War (1899-1902). The self-governing colonies contributed significantly to British efforts to stem the insurrection, but assured that they set the conditions for participation in these wars. Colonial governments repeatedly acted to assure that they determined the extent of their peoples' participation in imperial wars in the military build-up to the First World War. The assertiveness of the self-governing colonies was recognised in the Imperial Conference of 1907, which implicitly introduced the idea of the Dominion as a self-governing colony by referring to Canada and Australia as Dominions. It also retired the name "Colonial Conference" and mandated that meetings take place regularly to consult Dominions in the running the foreign affairs of the empire. The Colony of New Zealand, which chose not to take part in Australian federation, quickly became the Dominion of New Zealand on 26 September 1907; Newfoundland became a Dominion on the same day. The newly-created Union of South Africa would also be referred to as a Dominion in 1910. The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles The initiatives and contributions of British colonies to the British war effort in the First World War were recognized by Britain with the creation of the Imperial War Cabinet in 1917, which gave them a say in the running of the war. Dominion status as self-governing states, as opposed to symbolic titles granted various British colonies, would wait until 1919 when the self-governing Dominions signed the Treaty of Versailles independently of the British government and became distinct members of the League of Nations. This ended the purely colonial status of the dominions. "The First World War ended the purely colonial period in the history of the Dominions. Their military contribution to the Allied war effort gave them claim to equal recognition with other small states and a voice in the formation of policy. This claim was recognized within the Empire by the creation of the Imperial War Cabinet in 1917, and within the community of nations by Dominion signatures to the Treaty of Versailles and by separate Dominion representation in the League of Nations. In this way the "self-governing Dominions", as they were called, emerged as junior members of the international community. Their status defied exact analysis by both international and constitutional lawyers, but it was clear that they were no longer to be regarded simply as colonies of Britain." The Irish Free State Irish Free State in 1922, after the Anglo-Irish War. All retained the same monarch as head of state, represented locally by a governor-general appointed in consultation with the Dominion government. The Irish Free State, led by W. T. Cosgrave was the first Dominion to appoint a non-British, non-aristocratic Governor-General, when Timothy Michael Healy took the position in 1922. Dominion status was never popular in the Irish Free State/Ireland, where people saw it as a face-saving measure for a British government unable to countenance a republic in what had previously been the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Successive Irish governments undermined the constitutional links with Britain, until they were severed completely in 1949. In 1930, the Australian Prime Minister, James Scullin, reinforced the right of the overseas Dominions to appoint native-born governors-general, when he advised King George V to appoint Sir Isaac Isaacs as his representative in Australia, against the wishes of the opposition and officials in London. The Second Balfour Declaration and the Statute of Westminster The Balfour Declaration of 1926 (there'd been one in 1917), and the subsequent Statute of Westminster, 1931, ended Britain's ability to pass or affect laws outside of its own jurisdiction. Significantly, it was Britain which initiated the change to complete independence for the Dominions. World War I had left Britain saddled with enormous debts and the Great Depression had further reduced Britain's ability to pay for the defence of its empire. In spite of popular opinions of empires, the larger Dominions were reluctant to leave the protection of the then-superpower. For example, many Canadians felt that being part of the British Empire was the only thing that had prevented them from being absorbed into the United States. Until 1931, Newfoundland was referred to as a colony of the United Kingdom, as for example, in the 1927 reference to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council to delineate the Quebec-Labrador boundary. Full autonomy was granted by the United Kingdom parliament with the Statute of Westminster in December 1931. However, the government of Newfoundland "requested the United Kingdom not to have sections 2 to 6[—]confirming Dominion status[—]apply automatically to it[,] until the Newfoundland Legislature first approved the Statute, approval which the Legislature subsequently never gave." In any event, Newfoundland's letters patent of 1934 suspended self-government and instituted a "Commission of Government," which continued until Newfoundland became a province of Canada in 1949. It is the view of some constitutional lawyers that—although Newfoundland chose not to exercise all of the functions of a Dominion like Canada—its status as a Dominion was "suspended" in 1934, rather than "revoked" or "abolished". Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland and South Africa (prior to becoming a republic and leaving the Commonwealth in 1961), with their large populations of European descent, were sometimes collectively referred to as the "White Dominions." Today Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom are sometimes referred to collectively as the "White Commonwealth." The United Kingdom and its component parts never aspired to the title of "Dominion," remaining anomalies within the network of free and independent equal members of the empire and Commonwealth. However, the idea has on occasions been floated by some in Northern Ireland as an alternative to a United Ireland if they felt uncomfortable within the United Kingdom. The Dominions Australia Four colonies of Australia had enjoyed responsible government since 1856: New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia. B.Hunter (ed), The Stateman's Year Book 1996-1997, Macmillan Press Ltd, pp.130-156 Queensland had responsible government soon after its founding in 1859 Order in Council of the UK Privy Council, 6 June 1859, establishing responsible government in Queensland. See Australian Government's "Documenting a Democracy" website at this webpage: but, because of ongoing financial dependence on Britain, Western Australia became the last Australian colony to attain self-government in 1890. Constitution Act 1890 (UK), which came into effect as the Constitution of Western Australia when proclaimed in WA on 21 October 1890, and establishing responsible government in WA from that date. See Australian Government's "Documenting a Democracy" website at this webpage: During the 1890s, the colonies voted to unite and in 1901 they were federated under the British Crown as the Commonwealth of Australia by the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act.The Constitution of Australia had been drafted in Australia and approved by popular consent. Thus Australia is one of the few countries established by a popular vote. D.Smith, Head of State, MaCleay Press 2005, p.18 Under the second Balfour Declaration, the federal government was regarded as coequal with (and not subordinate to) the British and other Dominion governments, and this was given formal legal recognition in 1942 (when the Statute of Westminster was retroactively adopted to the commencement of the Second World War 1939). The governments of the states (called colonies before 1901) remained under the Commonwealth but retained vestigial links to the British Parliament until the passage of the Australia Act 1986. ibid., p.102 Canada See also: Name of Canada Dominion is the legal title conferred on Canada in the Constitution of Canada, namely the Constitution Act, 1867 (British North America Acts), and describes the resulting political union. Specifically, the preamble of the BNA Act indicates: Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their Desire to be federally united into One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom ... and, furthermore, sections 3 and 4 indicate that the provinces: ... shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada; and on and after that Day those Three Provinces shall form and be One Dominion under that Name accordingly. Unless it is otherwise expressed or implied, the Name Canada shall be taken to mean Canada as constituted under this Act. Usage of the term Dominion of Canada was sanctioned as the country's formal political name in 1867 and it predates the general use of the term 'dominion' as applied to the other autonmous regions of the British Empire in 1907. Some still read the BNA Act passage as specifying this phrase – rather than Canada alone – as the name. The term Dominion of Canada does not appear in the 1867 act nor in the Constitution Act, 1982 but does appear in the Constitution Act, 1871, other contemporaneous texts, and subsequent bills. References to the Dominion of Canada in later acts, such as the Statute of Westminster, do not clarify the point because all nouns were formally capitalised in British legislative style. Indeed, in the original text of the BNA Act, "One" and "Name" were also capitalised. Starting in the 1950s, the federal government began to phase out the use of Dominion, which had been used largely as a synonym of "federal" or "national" such as "Dominion building" for a post office, "Dominion-provincial relations", and so on. The last major change was renaming the national holiday from Dominion Day to Canada Day in 1982. Official bilingualism laws also contributed to the disuse of dominion, as it has no acceptable equivalent in French. While the term may be found in older official documents, and the Dominion Carillonneur still tolls at Parliament Hill, it is rarely used any more to distinguish the federal government from the provinces or (historically) Canada before and after 1867. Nonetheless, the federal government continues to produce publications and educational materials that specify the currency of these official titles. Defenders of the title Dominion — including monarchists who see signs of creeping republicanism in Canada — take comfort in the fact that the Constitution Act, 1982 does not mention and therefore does not remove the title, and that a constitutional amendment would be required to change it. J. E. Hodgetts. 2004. "Dominion". Oxford Companion to Canadian History, Gerald Hallowell, ed. (ISBN 0195415590) p. 183: "... Ironically, defenders of the title dominion who see signs of creeping republicanism in such changes can take comfort in the knowledge that the Constitution Act, 1982, retains the title and requires a constitutional amendment to alter it." The word Dominion has been used with other agencies, laws, and roles: Dominion Carillonneur – person responsible for playing the carillons at the Peace Tower since 1916 Dominion Day (1867-1982) – holiday marking Canada's national day; now called Canada Day Dominion Observatory (1905-1970) – weather observatory in Ottawa; now used as Office of Energy Efficiency, Energy Branch, Natural Resources Canada Dominion Lands Act (1872) – federal lands act; repealed in 1918 Dominion Bureau of Statistics (1918-1971) – superseded by Statistics Canada Dominion Police (1867-1920) – merged to form the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) Dominion Astrophysical Observatory (1918-1975); now operated as National Research Council (Canada) Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory (1960-present); now operated by National Research Council (Canada) Toronto-Dominion Bank (founded as the Bank of Toronto in 1855), the Dominion Institute (created in 1997), and Dominion Stores (founded in 1927, renamed as Metro stores beginning in August 2008) are notable Canadian corporations not affiliated with government that have used Dominion as a part of their corporate name. Ceylon/Sri Lanka Ceylon, which, as a crown colony, was originally promised "fully responsible status within the British Commonwealth of Nations", was formally granted independence as a Dominion in 1948. In 1972 it adopted a republican constitution to become the Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka. By a new constitution in 1978, it became the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. India and Pakistan India acquired responsible government in 1909, though the first Parliament did not meet until 1919. The Statesman's Year Book, p.635 India and Pakistan separated as independent dominions in 1947. India became a republic in 1950 ibid., p.635 and Pakistan adopted a republican form of government in 1956. ibid., p.1002 Irish Free State/Ireland The Irish Free State was a British Dominion between 1922 and 1949. In the 1930s the Irish stopped participating at Commonwealth conferences and events. In 1937 the Irish people established a new state with name Ireland under a new constitution. However, the United Kingdom and other members of the Commonwealth continued to regard Ireland as being a dominion owing to the unusual role accorded to the British Monarch under the Irish External Relations Act. Ultimately, however, Ireland's Oireachtas passed the Republic of Ireland Act which came into force in 1949 and unequivocally ended Ireland's links with the British Monarch and the Commonwealth. Upon the establishment of the Irish Free State on 6 December 1922, with dominion status to be in the likeness of Canada, provision was made for Northern Ireland to join the new dominion but with the right to opt out. However, as was widely expected at the time, on the day after the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the Parliament of Northern Ireland chose, under the terms of that treaty, to opt out. On 7 December 1922 (the day after the establishment of the Irish Free State) the Parliament resolved to make the following address to the King so as to opt out of the Irish Free State: ”MOST GRACIOUS SOVEREIGN, We, your Majesty's most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Senators and Commons of Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled, having learnt of the passing of the Irish Free State Constitution Act, 1922, being the Act of Parliament for the ratification of the Articles of Agreement for a Treaty between Great Britain and Ireland, do, by this humble Address, pray your Majesty that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland". Source: Northern Ireland Parliamentary Report, 7 December 1922 and Anglo-Irish Treaty, sections 11, 12 Newfoundland The colony of Newfoundland enjoyed responsible government from 1855-1934. The Statesman's Year Book, p.302 It was among the colonies to be declared dominions in 1907. Following the recommendations of a Royal Commission, parliamentary government was suspended in 1934. ibid., p.303 In 1949, the Dominion of Newfoundland joined Canada and the legislature was restored. ibid. New Zealand The New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 gave the colony of New Zealand its own Parliament (General Assembly) and home rule in 1852. HISTORY, CONSTITUTIONAL - The Legislative Authority of the New Zealand Parliament - 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand In 1907 New Zealand was proclaimed the Dominion of New Zealand. Dominion status \| NZHistory New Zealand, Canada, and Newfoundland actually used the word dominion in the official title of the nation, whereas Australia used the name Commonwealth of Australia and South Africa used the name Union of South Africa. New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster in 1947 ibid and in the same year, legislation was passed in London which gave New Zealand full powers to amend its own constitution. In 1986, the New Zealand parliament passed the Constitution Act 1986 which repealed the Constitution Act of 1852. ICL - New Zealand - Constitution Act 1986 South Africa The Union of South Africa was formed in 1910 from the four self-governing colonies of the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the Transvaal, and the Orange Free State (the last two were former Boer republics). The Stateman’s Year Book p.1156 The South Africa Act 1909 provided for a Parliament consisting of a Senate and a House of Assembly. The provinces had their own legislatures. In 1961, the Union of South Africa adopted a new constitution, left the Commonwealth, and became the present-day Republic of South Africa. Wikisource: South Africa Act 1909 Southern Rhodesia Southern Rhodesia was a special case in the British Empire. Although it was never a dominion, it was treated as a dominion in many respects. Southern Rhodesia was created in 1923 out of the territories of the British South Africa Company. It was created as a self governing colony with substantial autonomy on the model of the dominions. However, the imperial authorities in London continued to retain direct powers over native affairs. Southern Rhodesia was not included as one of the territories that were mentioned in the 1931 Statute of Westminster although matters in relation to Southern Rhodesia were administered in London through the dominion office as opposed to through the colonial office. When the dominions were first treated as foreign countries by London for the purposes of diplomatic immunity in 1952, Southern Rhodesia was also included in the list of territories concerned. This semi-dominion status continued in Southern Rhodesia even for the ten years, 1953-1963, when it was joined with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in the Central African Federation, even though the latter two continued with their own status as British protectorates. When Northern Rhodesia was given independence in 1964 it adopted the new name of Zambia, and Southern Rhodesia simply reverted to the name Rhodesia. Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from the UK in 1965 as a result of being pressurized into accepting the principles of black majority rule. This state of UDI (unilateral declaration of independence) was considered by London to be illegal, sanctions were applied, and Rhodesia was expelled from the sterling area. Nevetherless, Rhodesia continued with its dominion style constitution until 1970, and continued to issue British passports to its citizens. These Rhodesian issue British Passports were only recognized by Portugal and South Africa. In the period from 1965 to 1970, the Rhodesian government continued its loyalty to the Queen of England despite being in a state of rebellion against her Majesty's government in London. However, in 1970, Rhodesia finally decided to adopt a republican constitution and in 1980 it was finally granted legal independence by the UK following the transition to black majority rule. The new name of Zimbabwe was then adopted. Foreign relations Initially, the Foreign Office of the United Kingdom conducted the foreign relations of the Dominions. A Dominions section was created within the Colonial Office for this purpose in 1907. Canada set up its own Department of External Affairs in June 1909, but diplomatic relations with other governments continued to operate through the governors-general, Dominion High Commissioners in London (first appointed by Canada in 1880; Australia followed only in 1910) and British legations abroad. Britain deemed her declaration of war against Germany in August 1914 to extend without the need for consultation to all territories of the Empire, occasioning some displeasure in Canadian official circles and contributing to a brief anti-British insurrection by Afrikaner militants in South Africa later that year. A Canadian War Mission in Washington, D.C., dealt with supply matters from February 1918 to March 1921. Although the Dominions had had no formal voice in declaring war, each became a separate signatory of the June 1919 peace Treaty of Versailles, which had been negotiated by a British-led united Empire delegation. In September 1922, Dominion reluctance to support British military action against Turkey influenced Britain's decision to seek a compromise settlement. Diplomatic autonomy soon followed, with the U.S.-Canadian Halibut Fisheries Agreement (March 1923) marking the first international treaty negotiated and concluded entirely independently by a Dominion. The Dominions Section of the Colonial Office was upgraded in June 1926 to a separate Dominions Office. However, initially the same person was appointed as the Secretary of State for the Colonies. The principle of Dominion equality with Britain and independence in foreign relations was formally recognised by the Balfour Declaration adopted at the Imperial Conference of November 1926. Canada's first permanent diplomatic mission to a foreign country opened in Washington, DC in 1927. In 1928, Canada obtained the appointment of a British high commissioner in Ottawa, separating the administrative and diplomatic functions of the governor-general and ending the latter's anomalous role as the representative of the British government in relations between the two countries. The Dominions Office was given a separate secretary of state in June 1930, though this was entirely for domestic political reasons given the need to relieve the burden on one ill minister whilst moving another away from unemployment policy. The Balfour Declaration was enshrined in the Statute of Westminster 1931 when it was adopted by the British Parliament and subsequently ratified by the Dominion legislatures. Britain's declaration of hostilities against Germany on 3 September 1939 tested the issue. Most took the view that the declaration did not commit the Dominions. Ireland chose to remain neutral. At the other extreme, the conservative Australian government of the day, led by Robert Menzies, took the view that, since Australia had not adopted the Statute of Westminster, it was legally bound by the UK declaration of war—which had also been the view at the outbreak of World War I — although this was contentious within Australia. Between these two extremes, New Zealand declared that as Britain was or would be at war, so it was too. This was, however, a matter of political choice rather than legal necessity. Canada issued its own declaration of war after a recall of Parliament, as did South Africa after a delay of several days (South Africa - September 6, Canada - September 10). Ireland, which had negotiated the removal of British forces from its territory the year before, chose to remain neutral throughout the war. There were soon signs of growing independence from the other Dominions: Australia opened a diplomatic mission in the US in 1940, as did New Zealand in 1941, and Canada's mission in Washington gained embassy status in 1943. From Dominions to Commonwealth realms Initially, the Dominions conducted their own trade policy, some limited foreign relations and had autonomous armed forces, although the British government claimed and exercised the exclusive power to declare wars. However, after the passage of the Statute of Westminster the language of dependency on the Crown of the United Kingdom ceased, where the Crown itself was no longer referred to as the Crown of any place in particular but simply as "the Crown." Arthur Berriedale Keith, in Speeches and Documents on the British Dominions 1918-1931, stated that "the Dominions are sovereign international States in the sense that the King in respect of each of His Dominions (Newfoundland excepted) is such a State in the eyes of international law." After then, those countries that were previously referred to as "Dominions" became independent realms where the sovereign reigns no longer as the British monarch, but as monarch of each nation in its own right, and are considered equal to the UK and one another. World War II, which fatally undermined Britain's already weakened commercial and financial leadership, further loosened the political ties between Britain and the Dominions. Australian Prime Minister John Curtin's unprecedented action (February 1942) in successfully countermanding an order from Churchill that Australian troops be diverted to defend British-held Burma (the 7th Division was then en route from the Middle East to Australia to defend against an expected Japanese invasion) demonstrated that dominion governments might no longer subordinate their own national interests to British strategic perspectives. To ensure that Australia had full legal power to act independently, particularly in relation to foreign affairs, defence industry and military operations, and to validate its past independent action in these areas, Australia formally adopted the Statute of Westminster in October 1942 Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 (Act No. 56 of 1942). The long title for the Act was "To remove Doubts as to the Validity of certain Commonwealth Legislation, to obviate Delays occurring in its Passage, and to effect certain related purposes, by adopting certain Sections of the Statute of Westminster, 1931, as from the Commencement of the War between His Majesty the King and Germany." Link: and backdated the adoption to the start of the war in September 1939. The Dominions Office merged with the India Office as the Commonwealth Relations Office upon the independence of India and Pakistan in August 1947. The last country to be officially made a Dominion was Ceylon in 1948. The term "Dominion" fell out of general use thereafter. Ireland ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth on 1 April 1949, following proclamation of the Republic of Ireland Act. This formally signaled the end of the former dependencies' common constitutional connection to the British crown. India also adopted a republican constitution in January 1950. Unlike many dependencies which became republics, Ireland never re-joined the Commonwealth and agreed to accept the British Monarch as head of that association of independent states. The independence of the separate realms was emphasised after the accession of Queen Elizabeth II in 1952, when she was proclaimed not just as Queen of the UK, but also Queen of Canada, Queen of Australia, Queen of New Zealand, and of all her other "realms and territories" etc. This also reflected the change from Dominion to realm; in the proclamation of Queen Elizabeth II's new titles in 1953, the phrase "of her other Realms and Territories," replaced "Dominion" with another mediaeval French word with the same connotation, "realm" (from royaume). Thus, recently, when referring to one of those sixteen countries within the Commonwealth of Nations that share the same monarch, the term Commonwealth realm has come into common usage instead of Dominion to differentiate the Commonwealth nations that continue to share the monarch as head of state (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Jamaica, etc.) from those which do not (India, Pakistan, South Africa, etc.). The term "Dominion" is still to be found in the Canadian constitution where it appears numerous times; however, it is largely a vestige of the past, as the Canadian government does not actively use it (see Canada section). The term "realm" does not appear in the Canadian constitution. Present-day general usage prefers the term realm because it includes the United Kingdom as well, emphasising equality, and no one nation being subordinate to any other. Dominion, however, as a title, technically remains a term that can be used in reference those self-governing countries within the Commonwealth of Nations, other than the United Kingdom itself, that are in a personal union relationship with the UK. The generic language of dominion, however, did not cease in relation to the Sovereign. It was, and is, used to describe those territories in which the Monarch exercises her sovereignty, the phrase Her Majesty's dominions being a legal and constitutional term used to refer to all the realms and territories of the Sovereign, whether independent or not. Thus, for example, the British Ireland Act, 1949 recognised that the Republic of Ireland had "ceased to be part of His Majesty’s dominions." When dependent territories which had never been annexed (that is, were not colonies of the Crown), but were protectorates or trust territories (of the United Nations) were granted independence, the United Kingdom act granting independence always declared that such and such a territory "shall form part of Her Majesty’s dominions"; become part of the territory in which the Queen exercises sovereignty, not merely suzerainty. Many of the distinctive characteristics which once pertained only to Dominions are now shared by other states in the Commonwealth, whether they are republics, independent realms, self-governing colonies or Crown colonies. Even in a historical sense the differences between self-governing colonies and Dominions have often been formal rather than substantial. See also Name of Canada Commonwealth realm Crown Colony Self-governing colony Changes in British sovereignty Protectorate Notes References Choudry, Sujit. 2001(?). "Constitution Acts" (based on looseleaf by Hogg, Peter W.). Constitutional Keywords. University of Alberta, Centre for Constitutional Studies: Edmonton. Holland, R.F., Britain and the Commonwealth Alliance 1918-1939, MacMillan, 1981 Forsey, Eugene A. 2005. How Canadians Govern Themselves, 6th ed. (ISBN 0-662-39689-8) Canada: Ottawa. Hallowell, Gerald, ed. 2004. The Oxford Companion to Canadian History. (ISBN 0-19-541559-0) Oxford University Press: Toronto; p. 183-4. Marsh, James H., ed. 1988. "Dominion" et al. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Hurtig Publishers: Toronto. Martin, Robert. 1993(?). 1993 Eugene Forsey Memorial Lecture: A Lament for British North America. The Machray Review. Prayer Book Society of Canada.—A summative piece about nomenclature and pertinent history with abundant references. Rayburn, Alan. 2001. Naming Canada: stories about Canadian place names, 2nd ed. (ISBN 0-8020-8293-9) University of Toronto Press: Toronto.	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3,365	Djibouti_Armed_Forces	Djibouti's military consists of the Djibouti National Army (includes Navy and Air Force). Foreign military within Djibouti France France's 13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade and 5e RIAOM are currently stationed in Djibouti. United States of America There is also Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa, a U.S. force of more than 2,000, currently deployed in the country at Camp Lemonier. Aircraft Inventory ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"\|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"\|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"\|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"\|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"\|In service "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15 2007. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"\|Notes \|----- \| Cessna 206 Stationair \|\| \|\| utility \|\| \|\| 1 \|\| \|----- \| Dassault Falcon 50 \|\| \|\| VIP \|\| \|\| 1 \|\| \|----- \| Eurocopter AS 355 Ecureuil \|\| \|\| utility helicopter \|\| AS 355 \|\| 2 \|\| \|----- \| Let L-410 Turbolet \|\| \|\| transport \|\| L-410UVP \|\| 2 \|\| \|----- \| Mil Mi-8 Hip \|\| \|\| transport helicopter \|\| Mi-8 \|\| 3 \|\| \|} Army Armoured vehicles : - Panhard AML - BTR-60 - x12 including 1 fitted with 90 mm AML-90 gun in French Panhard AML (AML-245) turret. - ACMAT - Véhicule Blindé Léger - Casspir - x9 (refurbished SANDF units) - BM-21 Small arms : - FAMAS - AK-47 - Type 56 References A Djiboutian patrol boat moves through the Tadjoura Gulf. September 13, 2006	Djibouti_Armed_Forces \|@lemmatized djibouti:4 military:3 consists:1 national:1 army:2 include:2 navy:1 air:1 force:3 foreign:2 within:1 france:2 legion:1 demi:1 brigade:1 riaom:1 currently:2 station:1 united:1 state:1 america:1 also:1 combine:1 joint:1 task:1 horn:1 africa:1 u:1 deploy:1 country:1 camp:1 lemonier:1 aircraft:3 inventory:2 style:6 text:6 align:6 left:6 background:6 aacccc:6 origin:1 type:2 version:1 service:1 world:1 aerospace:1 source:1 book:1 aviation:1 week:1 space:1 technology:1 january:1 note:1 cessna:1 stationair:1 utility:2 dassault:1 falcon:1 vip:1 eurocopter:1 ecureuil:1 helicopter:2 let:1 l:2 turbolet:1 transport:2 mil:1 mi:2 hip:1 armour:1 vehicle:1 panhard:2 aml:4 btr:1 fit:1 mm:1 gun:1 french:1 turret:1 acmat:1 véhicule:1 blindé:1 léger:1 casspir:1 refurbish:1 sandf:1 unit:1 bm:1 small:1 arm:1 famas:1 ak:1 reference:1 djiboutian:1 patrol:1 boat:1 move:1 tadjoura:1 gulf:1 september:1 \|@bigram align_left:6 background_aacccc:6 inventory_aerospace:1 eurocopter_ecureuil:1 ecureuil_utility:1 utility_helicopter:1 mil_mi:1 panhard_aml:2 patrol_boat:1
3,366	Canadian_Shield	The Canadian Shield — also called the Laurentian Plateau, or Bouclier Canadien (French) — is a massive geological shield covered by a thin layer of soil that forms the nucleus of the North American or Laurentia craton. It has a deep, common, joined bedrock region in eastern and central Canada and stretches North from the Great Lakes to the Arctic Ocean, covering over half of Canada; it also extends south into the northern reaches of the United States. Population is scarce, and industrial development is minimal, Canadian Shield - Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2005 although the region has a large hydroelectric power potential. Geographical extent The Canadian shield is a physiographic division, consisting of 5 smaller physiographic provinces, the Laurentian Upland, Kazan, Davis, Hudson, and James. The shield extends into the United States as the Adirondack Mountains and the Superior Upland. The Canadian Shield is U-shaped, but almost semi-circular, which yields an appearance of a warrior's shield or a giant horseshoe, and is a subsection of the Laurentia craton signifying the area of greatest glacial impact (scraping down to bare rock) creating the thin soils. The Canadian Shield is a collage of Archean plates and accreted juvenile arc terranes and sedimentary basins of Proterozoic age that were progressively amalgamated during the interval 2.45 to 1.24 Ga, with the most substantial growth period occurring during the Trans-Hudson orogeny, between ca. 1.90 to 1.80 Ga. The Canadian Shield was the first part of North America to be permanently elevated above sea level and has remained almost wholly untouched by successive encroachments of the sea upon the continent. It is the Earth's greatest area of exposed Archaean rock. The metamorphic base rocks are mostly from the Precambrian Era (between 4.5 billion and 540 million years ago), and have been repeatedly uplifted and eroded. Today it consists largely of an area of low relief (1,000–2,000 ft/300–600 m above sea level) with a few monadnocks and low mountain ranges (including the Torngat and Laurentian Mountains) probably eroded from the plateau during the Cenozoic era. During the Pleistocene epoch, continental ice sheets depressed the land surface (see Hudson Bay), scooped out thousands of lake basins, and carried away much of the region's soil. When the Greenland section is included, the Shield is approximately circular bounded on the northeast by the northeast edge of Greenland, with Hudson Bay in the middle. It covers much of Greenland, Labrador, most of Quebec north of the St. Lawrence River, much of Ontario including northern sections of the southern peninsula between the Great Lakes, the Adirondack Mountains Peterson Field Guide to Geology of Eastern North America by Roberts, David & Roger Tory Peterson. of northern New York, the northernmost part of Lower Michigan and all of Upper Michigan, northern Wisconsin, and northeastern Minnesota, the central/northern portions of Manitoba away from Hudson Bay and the Great Plains, northern Saskatchewan, a small portion of northeastern Alberta, Alberta Heritage - Alberta Online Encyclopedia - The Canadian Shield Region of Alberta and the mainland northern Canadian territories to the east of a line extended north from the Saskatchewan/Alberta border (Northwest Territories and Nunavut). In total it covers approximately 8 million square kilometers. It covers even more area and stretches to the Western Cordillera in the west and Appalachians in the east, but the formations are still underground. The underlying rock structure does include Hudson Bay and the submerged area between North America and Greenland. Climate The Canadian shield is so large the climate varies across it. In the southern parts the climate is seasonal; the average temperature in the winter is , and in the summer it is . The growing season of about 120 days coincides with summer daylight averaging about 15 hours, while winter daylight averages about 8.5 hours. In the northern parts it is very cold. The average temperatures range from in the summer to in winter. The growing season is only 60 days. Winter daylight hours are about 5.5 hours, and in the summer the daylight hours are about 18.5 hours. Geology Weathered Precambrian pillow lava in the Temagami greenstone belt The multitude of rivers and lakes in the entire region is caused by the watersheds of the area being so young and in a state of sorting themselves out with the added effect of post-glacial rebound. The Shield was originally an area of very large mountains (about ) with much volcanic activity, but over the millennia the area was eroded to its current topographic appearance of relatively low relief. It contains some of the most ancient volcanoes on Earth. It has over 150 volcanic belts (now deformed and eroded down to nearly flat plains) that range from 600 to 1200 million years old. Each belt probably grew by the coalescence of accumulations erupted from numerous vents, making the tally of volcanoes in the hundreds. Many of Canada's major ore deposits are associated with Precambrian volcanoes. The Sturgeon Lake Caldera in Kenora District, Ontario is one of the world's best preserved mineralized Neoarchean caldera complexes, which is some 2.7 billion years old. Caldera Volcanoes Retrieved on 2007-07-20 The Canadian Shield also contains the Mackenzie dike swarm, which is the largest dike swarm known on Earth. Supressing Varying Directional Trends Retrieved on 2007-07-28 Typical Canadian Shield: pines, lakes, bogs, and rock. Mountains have deep roots and float on the denser mantle much like an iceberg at sea. As mountains erode, their roots rise and are eroded in turn. The rocks that now form the surface of the Shield were once far below the Earth's surface. The high pressures and temperatures at those depths provided ideal conditions for mineralization. Although these mountains are now heavily eroded, many large mountains still exist in Canada's far north called the Arctic Cordillera. This is a vast deeply dissected mountain range, stretching from northernmost Ellesmere Island to the northernmost tip of Labrador. The range's highest peak is Nunavut's Barbeau Peak at above sea level. Barbeau Peak in the Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia. Retrieved on 2007-11-10 Precambrian rock is the major component of the bedrock. The North American craton is the bedrock forming the heart of the North American continent and the Canadian Shield is the largest exposed part of the craton's bedrock. The Canadian Shield is part of an ancient continent called Arctica, which was formed about 2.5 billion years ago, during the Neoarchean era. It was split into Greenland, Laurentia, Scotland, Siberia, East Antarctica and is now roughly situated in the Arctic around the current North Pole. Ecology The current surface expression of the Shield is one of very thin soil lying on top of the bedrock, with many bare outcrops. This arrangement was caused by severe glaciation during the last ice age, which covered the Shield and scraped the rock clean. The lowlands of the Canadian shield have very dense soil that is not suitable for forestation, but it also contains many marshes and bogs. The rest of the region has coarse soil that does not retain moisture well and is frozen as permafrost year round. Forests are not as dense in the north. The Shield is covered in parts by vast boreal forests in the south which support important natural ecosystems as well as a major logging industry. Hydrographical drainage is generally poor, the effects of glaciation being one of the many reasons. Tundra typically prevails in the northern regions. Many mammals such as caribou, wolverines, weasels, mink, otters, grizzlies, polar bears and black bears are present. National Geographic - Northern Canadian Shield taiga In the case of polar bears (Ursus maritimus) the Shield area contains many of the denning locations such as the Wapusk National Park. C. Michael Hogan (2008) Polar Bear: Ursus maritimus, Globaltwitcher.com, ed. Nicklas Stromberg Mining and economics The Shield is one of the world's richest areas in terms of mineral ores. It is filled with substantial deposits of nickel, gold, silver, and copper. Throughout the Shield there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and one of the best known, is Sudbury, Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the Sudbury Basin is an ancient meteorite impact crater. The nearby, but less known Temagami Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. This suggests it could be a second metal-rich impact crater. 3-D Magnetic Imaging using Conjugate Gradients: Temagami anomaly Retrieved on 2008-03-12 In northeastern Quebec, the giant Manicouagan Reservoir is the site of a massive hydroeletric project (Manic-cinq, or Manic-5). This is one of the largest-known meteor impact craters on Earth. The Flin Flon greenstone belt in central Manitoba and east-central Saskatchewan is one of the largest Paleoproterozoic volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VMS) districts in the world, containing 27 copper-zinc-(gold) deposits from which more than 183 million tons of sulfide have been mined. The Shield, particularly the portion in the Northwest Territories, has recently been the site of several major diamond discoveries. The kimberlite pipes in which the diamonds are found are closely associated with cratons, which provide the deep lithospheric mantle required to stabilize diamond as a mineral. The kimberlite eruptions then bring the diamonds from over depth to the surface. Currently the Ekati and Diavik mines are actively mining kimberlite diamonds. See also Glacial history of Minnesota Platform Oldest rock Basement Platform basement Volcanism in Canada References	Canadian_Shield \|@lemmatized canadian:16 shield:28 also:5 call:3 laurentian:3 plateau:2 bouclier:1 canadien:1 french:1 massive:3 geological:1 cover:7 thin:3 layer:1 soil:6 form:5 nucleus:1 north:12 american:3 laurentia:3 craton:5 deep:3 common:1 joined:1 bedrock:5 region:7 eastern:2 central:4 canada:5 stretch:3 great:5 lake:6 arctic:3 ocean:1 half:1 extend:3 south:2 northern:10 reach:1 united:2 state:3 population:1 scarce:1 industrial:1 development:1 minimal:1 columbia:1 encyclopedia:3 sixth:1 edition:1 although:2 large:9 hydroelectric:1 power:1 potential:1 geographical:1 extent:1 physiographic:2 division:1 consist:2 small:2 province:1 upland:2 kazan:1 davis:1 hudson:6 james:1 adirondack:2 mountain:10 superior:1 u:1 shaped:1 almost:2 semi:1 circular:2 yield:1 appearance:2 warrior:1 giant:2 horseshoe:1 subsection:1 signify:1 area:10 glacial:3 impact:4 scrap:2 bare:2 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3,367	Telecommunications_in_Morocco	The following is an outline of communications technology in Morocco. Telephone system main lines in use: 2.394 million (2007) : estimation mobile cellular: 21 million (2007) : estimation source: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mo.html Domestic Telephone system Morocco has a good system composed of open-wire lines, cables, and microwave radio relay links. The internet is available but expensive. The principal switching centers are Casablanca and Rabat. The national network is nearly 100% digital using fiber-optic links. An improved rural service employs microwave radio relay. International Telephone System The system has seven submarine cables, three satellite earth stations, two Intelsat (over the Atlantic Ocean) and one Arabsat. There is a microwave radio relay to Gibraltar, Spain and the Western Sahara. Coaxial cables and microwave radio relays exist to Algeria. Morocco is a participant in Medarabtel and a fiber-optic cable links from Agadir to Algeria and Tunisia. Radio broadcast AM stations 25, FM stations 31, shortwave 11 (2007) Radio sets: 7.78 million (2007) Television Television broadcast stations: 36 (plus 35 repeaters) (2007) Televisions receivers: 5.6 million (2007) Internet Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 27 (1999) Country code (Top level domain): MA The country has more than 7,3 internet users in 2008. Africa Internet Statistics Broadband Internet access Operated by Maroc Telecom. The service started as a test in November 2002 before it was launched in October 2003. The service is offered by the subsidiary Menara. It offers the following options: Menara ADSL 128 kbit/s (around €11) Menara ADSL 256 kbit/s (around €13) Menara ADSL 512 kbit/s (around €17) Menara ADSL 1 Mbit/s (around €26) Menara ADSL 2 Mbit/s (around €34) Menara ADSL 4 Mbit/s (around €52) Menara ADSL2+ 8 Mbit/s (around €69) Menara ADSL2+ 20 Mbit/s (around €78) The installation is free, but the ADSL modem is not always free (only during promotions). Wana, formerly known as "Maroc Connect". Méditel 3.5 Mbit/s (around €50) See also Mincom References External links Morocco Telecom market Maroc Telecom IPO	Telecommunications_in_Morocco \|@lemmatized following:2 outline:1 communication:1 technology:1 morocco:4 telephone:3 system:5 main:1 line:2 use:2 million:4 estimation:2 mobile:1 cellular:1 source:1 http:1 www:1 cia:1 gov:1 library:1 publication:1 world:1 factbook:1 geos:1 mo:1 html:1 domestic:1 good:1 compose:1 open:1 wire:1 cable:4 microwave:4 radio:6 relay:4 link:4 internet:6 available:1 expensive:1 principal:1 switching:1 center:1 casablanca:1 rabat:1 national:1 network:1 nearly:1 digital:1 fiber:2 optic:2 improved:1 rural:1 service:4 employ:1 international:1 seven:1 submarine:1 three:1 satellite:1 earth:1 station:4 two:1 intelsat:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 one:1 arabsat:1 gibraltar:1 spain:1 western:1 sahara:1 coaxial:1 exist:1 algeria:2 participant:1 medarabtel:1 agadir:1 tunisia:1 broadcast:2 fm:1 shortwave:1 set:1 television:3 plus:1 repeater:1 receiver:1 provider:1 isps:1 country:2 code:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 user:1 africa:1 statistic:1 broadband:1 access:1 operate:1 maroc:3 telecom:3 start:1 test:1 november:1 launch:1 october:1 offer:2 subsidiary:1 menara:9 option:1 adsl:7 kbit:3 around:9 mbit:6 installation:1 free:2 modem:1 always:1 promotion:1 wana:1 formerly:1 know:1 connect:1 méditel:1 see:1 also:1 mincom:1 reference:1 external:1 market:1 ipo:1 \|@bigram mobile_cellular:1 http_www:1 cia_gov:1 factbook_geos:1 fiber_optic:2 intelsat_atlantic:1 atlantic_ocean:1 western_sahara:1 coaxial_cable:1 algeria_tunisia:1 shortwave_radio:1 plus_repeater:1 repeater_television:1 provider_isps:1 broadband_internet:1 maroc_telecom:2 menara_adsl:6 around_menara:7 adsl_modem:1 external_link:1
3,368	MPEG-1	MPEG-1 is a standard for lossy compression of video and audio. It is designed to compress VHS-quality raw digital video and CD audio down to 1.5 Mbit/s (26:1 and 6:1 compression ratios respectively) without excessive quality loss, making Video CDs, digital cable/satellite TV and digital audio broadcasting (DAB) possible. Today, MPEG-1 has become the most widely compatible lossy audio/video format in the world, and is used in a large number of products and technologies. Perhaps the best-known part of the MPEG-1 standard is the MP3 audio format it introduced. The MPEG-1 standard is published as ISO/IEC-11172. The standard consists of the following five Parts: Systems (storage and synchronization of video, audio, and other data together) Video (compressed video content) Audio (compressed audio content) Conformance testing (testing the correctness of implementations of the standard) Reference software (example software showing how to encode and decode according to the standard) __TOC__ History Modeled on the successful collaborative approach and the compression technologies developed by the Joint Photographic Experts Group and CCITT's Experts Group on Telephony (creators of the JPEG image compression standard and the H.261 standard for video conferencing respectively) the Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) working group was established in January 1988. MPEG was formed to address the need for standard video and audio formats, and build on H.261 to get better quality through the use of more complex encoding methods. Development of the MPEG-1 standard began in May 1988. 14 video and 14 audio codec proposals were submitted by individual companies and institutions for evaluation. The codecs were extensively tested for computational complexity and subjective (human perceived) quality, at data rates of 1.5 Mbit/s. This specific bitrate was chosen for transmission over T-1/E-1 lines and as the approximate data rate of audio CDs. The codecs that excelled in this testing were utilized as the basis for the standard and refined further, with additional features and other improvements being incorporated in the process. After 20 meetings of the full group in various cities around the world, and 4½ years of development and testing, the final standard (for parts 1-3) was approved in early November 1992 and published a few months later. The reported completion date of the MPEG-1 standard, varies greatly: a largely complete draft standard was produced in September 1990, and from that point on, only minor changes were introduced. The draft standard was publicly available for purchase. http://bmrc.berkeley.edu/research/mpeg/software/Old/mpegfa31.txt Q. Well, then how do I get the documents, like the MPEG I draft? A. MPEG is a draft ISO standard. It's exact name is ISO CD 11172. ... You may order it from your national standards body (e.g. ANSI in the USA) or buy it from companies like OMNICOM ... The standard was finished with the 6 November 1992 meeting International Organisation For Standardisation Organisation Internationale De Normalisation Iso . The Berkeley Plateau Multimedia Research Group developed a MPEG-1 decoder in November 1992. http://bmrc.berkeley.edu/research/publications/1992/101/101.html http://bmrc.berkeley.edu/frame/research/mpeg/ A Continuous Media Player, Lawrence A. Rowe and Brian C. Smith, Proc. 3rd Int. Workshop on Network and OS Support for Digital Audio and Video, San Diego CA (November 1992) In July 1990, before the first draft of the MPEG-1 standard had even been written, work began on a second standard, MPEG-2, intended to extend MPEG-1 technology to provide full broadcast-quality video (as per CCIR 601) at high bitrates (3 - 15 Mbit/s), and support for interlaced video. Due in part to the similarity between the two codecs, the MPEG-2 standard includes full backwards compatibility with MPEG-1 video, so any MPEG-2 decoder can play MPEG-1 videos. Notably, the MPEG-1 standard very strictly defines the bitstream, and decoder function, but does not define how MPEG-1 encoding is to be performed (although a reference implementation is provided in ISO/IEC-11172-5). This means that MPEG-1 coding efficiency can drastically vary depending on the encoder used, and generally means that newer encoders perform significantly better than their predecessors. The first three parts (Systems, Video and Audio) of ISO/IEC 11172 were published in August 1993. International Organisation For Standardisation Organisation Internationale De Normalisation Iso Patents MPEG-1 video and Layer I/II audio may be able to be implemented without payment of license fees. [homework] summary of the video (and audio) codec discussion from Dave Singer on 2007-11-09 ([email protected] from November 2007) MPEG-1 Video Coding (H.261) The ISO patent database lists one patent for ISO 11172, US 4,472,747, which expired in 2003. ISO Patent DatabaseISO JTC1 Patent Database Search for 11172 in page The near-complete draft of the MPEG-1 standard was publicly available as ISO CD 11172 by December 6, 1991. Performance of a Software MPEG Video Decoder Reference 3 in the paper is to Committee Draft of Standard ISO/IEC 11172, December 6, 1991 Due to its age, many of the patents on the technology have expired. Neither the Kuro5hin article "Patent Status of MPEG-1,H.261 and MPEG-2" Patent Status of MPEG-1,H.261 and MPEG-2 nor a thread on the gstreamer-devel Can a MPEG-1 with Audio Layers 1&2 plugin be in plugins-good (patentwise)? mailing list were able to list a single unexpired MPEG-1 video and Layer I/II audio patent. A full MPEG-1 decoder and encoder can not be implemented royalty free since there are companies that require patent fees for implementations of MPEG-1 Layer 3 Audio however. Applications Most popular computer software for video playback includes MPEG-1 decoding, in addition to any other supported formats. The popularity of MP3 audio has established a massive installed base of hardware that can playback MPEG-1 Audio (all 3 layers). "Virtually all digital audio devices" can playback MPEG-1 Audio. Many millions have been sold to-date. Before MPEG-2 became widespread, many digital satellite/cable TV services used MPEG-1 exclusively. The widespread popularity of MPEG-2 with broadcasters means MPEG-1 is playable by most digital cable and satellite set-top boxes, and digital disc and tape players, due to backwards compatibility. MPEG-1 is the exclusive video and audio format used on Video CD (VCD), the first consumer digital video format, and still a very popular format around the world. The Super Video CD standard, based on VCD, uses MPEG-1 Audio exclusively, as well as MPEG-2 video. The DVD-Video format uses MPEG-2 video primarily, but MPEG-1 support is explicitly defined in the standard. The DVD Video standard originally required MPEG-1 Layer II audio for PAL countries, but was changed to allow AC-3/Dolby Digital-only discs. MPEG-1 Layer II audio is still allowed on DVDs, although newer extensions to the format, like MPEG Multichannel, are rarely supported. Most DVD players also support Video CD and MP3 CD playback, which use MPEG-1. The international Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) standard primarily uses MPEG-1 Layer II audio, and MPEG-2 video. The international Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) standard uses MPEG-1 Layer II audio exclusively, due to MP2's especially high quality, modest decoder performance requirements, and tolerance of errors. Part 1: Systems Part 1 of the MPEG-1 standard covers systems, and is defined in ISO/IEC-11172-1. MPEG-1 Systems specifies the logical layout and methods used to store the encoded audio, video, and other data into a standard bitstream, and to maintain synchronization between the different contents. This file format is specifically designed for storage on media, and transmission over data channels, that are considered relatively reliable. Only limited error protection is defined by the standard, and small errors in the bitstream may cause noticeable defects. This structure was later named a program stream: "The MPEG-1 Systems design is essentially identical to the MPEG-2 Program Stream structure." This terminology is more popular, precise (differentiates it from a transport stream) and will be used here. Elementary Streams Elementary streams (ES) are the raw bitstreams of MPEG-1 audio and video, output by an encoder. These files can be distributed on their own, such as is the case with MP3 files. Additionally, elementary streams can be made more robust by packetizing them, i.e. dividing them into independent chunks, and adding a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) checksum to each segment for error detection. This is the Packetized Elementary Stream (PES) structure. System Clock Reference (SCR) is a timing value stored in a 33-bit header of each ES, at a frequency/precision of 90 kHz, with an extra 9-bit extension that stores additional timing data with a precision of 27 MHz. These are inserted by the encoder, derived from the system time clock (STC). Simultaneously encoded audio and video streams will not have identical SCR values, however, due to buffering, encoding, jitter, and other delay. Program Streams Program Streams (PS) are concerned with combining multiple packetized elementary streams (usually just one audio and video PES) into a single stream, ensuring simultaneous delivery, and maintaining synchronization. The PS structure is known as a multiplex, or a container format. Program time stamps (PTS) exist in PS to correct the inevitable disparity between audio and video SCR values (time-base correction). 90 kHz PTS values in the PS header tell the decoder which video SCR values match which audio SCR values. PTS determines when to display a portion of an MPEG program, and is also used by the decoder to determine when data can be discarded from the buffer. Either video or audio will be delayed by the decoder until the corresponding segment of the other arrives and can be decoded. PTS handling can be problematic. Decoders must accept multiple program streams that have been concatenated (joined sequentially). This causes PTS values in the middle of the video to reset to zero, which then begin incrementing again. Such PTS wraparound disparities can cause timing issues that must be specially handled by the decoder. Display Time Stamps (DTS), additionally, are required because of B-frames. With B-frames in the video stream, adjacent frames have to be encoded and decoded out-of-order (re-ordered frames). DTS is quite similar to PTS, but instead of just handling sequential frames, it contains the proper time-stamps to tell the decoder when to decode and display the next B-frame (types of frames explained below), ahead of its anchor (P- or I-) frame. Without B-frames in the video, PTS and DTS values are identical. Multiplexing To generate the PS, the multiplexer will interleave the (two or more) packetized elementary streams. This is done so the packets of the simultaneous streams can be transferred over the same channel and are guaranteed to both arrive at the decoder at precisely the same time. This is a case of time-division multiplexing. Determining how much data from each stream should be in each interleaved segment (the size of the interleave) is complicated, yet an important requirement. Improper interleaving will result in buffer underflows or overflows, as the receiver gets more of one stream than it can store (eg. audio), before it gets enough data to decode the other simultaneous stream (eg. video). The MPEG Video Buffer Verifier (VBV) assists in determining if a multiplexed PS can be decoded by a device with a specified data throughput rate and buffer size. This offers feedback to the muxer and the encoder, so that they can change the mux size or adjust bitrates as needed for compliance. The PS, additionally, stores aspect ratio information which tells the decoder how much to stretch the height or width of a video when displaying it. Different display devices (such as computer monitors and televisions) have different pixel heights/widths, which will result in video encoded for one appearing "squished" when played on the other, unless the aspect ratio information in the PS is used to compensate. Part 2: Video Part 2 of the MPEG-1 standard covers video and is defined in ISO/IEC-11172-2. It is heavily based on H.261. MPEG-1 Video exploits perceptual compression methods to significantly reduce the data rate required by a video stream. It reduces or completely discards information in certain frequencies and areas of the picture that the human eye has limited ability to fully perceive. It also utilizes effective methods to exploit temporal (over time) and spatial (across a picture) redundancy common in video, to achieve better data compression than would be possible otherwise. (See: Video compression) Color Space Example of 4:2:0 subsampling. The 2 overlapping center circles represent chroma blue and chroma red (color) pixels, while the 4 outside circles represent the luma (brightness). Before encoding video to MPEG-1, the color-space is transformed to Y'CbCr (Y'=Luma, Cb=Chroma Blue, Cr=Chroma Red). Luma (brightness, resolution) is stored separately from chroma (color, hue, phase) and even further separated into red and blue components. The chroma is also subsampled to 4:2:0, meaning it is decimated by one half vertically and one half horizontally, to just one quarter the resolution of the video. Because the human eye is much less sensitive to small changes in color than in brightness, chroma subsampling is a very effective way to reduce the amount of video data that needs to be compressed. On videos with fine detail (high spatial complexity) this can manifest as chroma aliasing artifacts. Compared to other digital compression artifacts, this issue seems to be very rarely a source of annoyance. Because of subsampling, Y'CbCr video must always be stored using even dimensions (divisible by 2), otherwise chroma mismatch ("ghosts") will occur, and it will appear as if the color is ahead of, or behind the rest of the video, much like a shadow. Y'CbCr is often inaccurately called YUV which is only used in the domain of analog video signals. Similarly, the terms luminance and chrominance are often used instead of the (more accurate) terms luma and chroma. Resolution/Bitrate MPEG-1 supports resolutions up to 4095×4095 (12-bits), and bitrates up to 100 Mbit/s. MPEG-1 videos are most commonly seen using Source Input Format (SIF) resolution: 352x240, 352x288, or 320x240. These low resolutions, combined with a bitrate less than 1.5 Mbit/s, make up what is known as a constrained parameters bitstream (CPB), later renamed the "Low Level" (LL) profile in MPEG-2. This is the minimum video specifications any decoder should be able to handle, to be considered MPEG-1 compliant. This was selected to provide a good balance between quality and performance, allowing the use of reasonably inexpensive hardware of the time. Frame/Picture/Block Types MPEG-1 has several frame/picture types that serve different purposes. The most important, yet simplest are I-frames. I-Frames I-frame is an abbreviation for Intra-frame, so-called because they can be decoded independently of any other frames. They may also be known as I-pictures, or keyframes due to their somewhat similar function to the key frames used in animation. I-frames can be considered effectively identical to baseline JPEG images. High-speed seeking through an MPEG-1 video is only possible to the nearest I-frame. When cutting a video it is not possible to start playback of a segment of video before the first I-frame in the segment (at least not without computationally-intensive re-encoding). For this reason, I-frame-only MPEG videos are used in editing applications. I-frame only compression is very fast, but produces very large file sizes: a factor of 3× (or more) larger than normally encoded MPEG-1 video, depending on how temporally complex a specific video is. I-frame only MPEG-1 video is very similar to MJPEG video. So much so that very high-speed and theoretically lossless (in reality, there are rounding errors) conversion can be made from one format to the other, provided a couple of restrictions (color space and quantization matrix) are followed in the creation of the bitstream. - (Requires clever reading: says quantization matrices differ, but those are just defaults, and selectable) The length between I-frames is known as the group of pictures (GOP) size. MPEG-1 most commonly uses a GOP size of 15-18. i.e. 1 I-frame for every 14-17 non-I-frames (some combination of P- and B- frames). With more intelligent encoders, GOP size is dynamically chosen, up to some pre-selected maximum limit. Limits are placed on the maximum number of frames between I-frames due to decoding complexing, decoder buffer size, recovery time after data errors, seeking ability, and accumulation of IDCT errors in low-precision implementations most common in hardware decoders (See: IEEE-1180). P-frames P-frame is an abbreviation for Predicted-frame. They may also be called forward-predicted frames, or inter-frames (B-frames are also inter-frames). P-frames exist to improve compression by exploiting the temporal (over time) redundancy in a video. P-frames store only the difference in image from the frame (either an I-frame or P-frame) immediately preceding it (this reference frame is also called the anchor frame). The difference between a P-frame and its anchor frame is calculated using motion vectors on each macroblock of the frame (see below). Such motion vector data will be embedded in the P-frame for use by the decoder. A P-frame can contain any number of intra-coded blocks, in addition to any forward-predicted blocks. If a video drastically changes from one frame to the next (such as a cut), it is more efficient to encode it as an I-frame. B-frames B-frame stands for bidirectional-frame. They may also be known as backwards-predicted frames or B-pictures. B-frames are quite similar to P-frames, except they can make predictions using both the previous and future frames (i.e. two anchor frames). It is therefore necessary for the player to first decode the next I- or P- anchor frame sequentially after the B-frame, before the B-frame can be decoded and displayed. This makes B-frames very computationally complex, requires larger data buffers, and causes an increased delay on both decoding and during encoding. This also necessitates the display time stamps (DTS) feature in the container/system stream (see above). As such, B-frames have long been subject of much controversy, they are often avoided in videos, and are sometimes not fully supported by hardware decoders. No other frames are predicted from a B-frame. Because of this, a very low bitrate B-frame can be inserted, where needed, to help control the bitrate. If this was done with a P-frame, future P-frames would be predicted from it and would lower the quality of the entire sequence. However, similarly, the future P-frame must still encode all the changes between it and the previous I- or P- anchor frame (a second time) in addition to much of the changes being coded in the B-frame. B-frames can also be beneficial in videos where the background behind an object is being revealed over several frames, or in fading transitions, such as scene changes. A B-frame can contain any number of intra-coded blocks and forward-predicted blocks, in addition to backwards-predicted, or bidirectionally predicted blocks. D-frames MPEG-1 has a unique frame type not found in later video standards. D-frames or DC-pictures are independent images (intra-frames) that have been encoded DC-only (AC coefficients are removed—see DCT below) and hence are very low quality. D-frames are never referenced by I-, P- or B- frames. D-frames are only used for fast previews of video, for instance when seeking through a video at high speed. Given moderately higher-performance decoding equipment, this feature can be approximated by decoding I-frames instead. This provides higher quality previews, and without the need for D-frames taking up space in the stream, yet not improving video quality. Macroblocks MPEG-1 operates on video in a series of 8x8 blocks for quantization. However, because chroma (color) is subsampled by a factor of 4, each pair of (red and blue) chroma blocks corresponds to 4 different luma blocks. This set of 6 blocks, with a resolution of 16x16, is called a macroblock. A macroblock is the smallest independent unit of (color) video. Motion vectors (see below) operate solely at the macroblock level. If the height and/or width of the video is not exact multiples of 16, a full row of macroblocks must still be encoded (though not displayed) to store the remainder of the picture (macroblock padding). This wastes a significant amount of data in the bitstream, and is to be strictly avoided. Some decoders will also improperly handle videos with partial macroblocks, resulting in visible artifacts. Motion Vectors To decrease the amount of spatial redundancy in a video, only blocks that change are updated, (up to the maximum GOP size). This is known as conditional replenishment. However, this is not very effective by itself. Movement of the objects, and/or the camera may result in large portions of the frame needing to be updated, even though only the position of the previously encoded objects has changed. Through motion estimation the encoder can compensate for this movement and remove a large amount of redundant information. The encoder compares the current frame with adjacent parts of the video from the anchor frame (previous I- or P- frame) in a diamond pattern, up to a (encoder-specific) predefined radius limit from the area of the current macroblock. If a match is found, only the direction and distance (i.e. the vector of the motion) from the previous video area to the current macroblock need to be encoded into the inter-frame (P- or B- frame). The reverse of this process, performed by the decoder to reconstruct the picture, is called motion compensation. A predicted macroblock rarely matches the current picture perfectly, however. The differences between the estimated matching area, and the real frame/macroblock is called the prediction error. The larger the error, the more data must be additionally encoded in the frame. For efficient video compression, it is very important that the encoder is capable of effectively and precisely performing motion estimation. Motion vectors record the distance between two areas on screen based on the number of pixels (called pels). MPEG-1 video uses a motion vector (MV) precision of one half of one pixel, or half-pel. The finer the precision of the MVs, the more accurate the match is likely to be, and the more efficient the compression. There are trade-offs to higher precision, however. Finer MVs result in larger data size, as larger numbers must be stored in the frame for every single MV, increased coding complexity as increasing levels of interpolation on the macroblock are required for both the encoder and decoder, and diminishing returns (minimal gains) with higher precision MVs. Half-pel was chosen as the ideal trade-off. (See: qpel) Because neighboring macroblocks are likely to have very similar motion vectors, this redundant information can be compressed quite effectively by being stored DPCM-encoded. Only the (smaller) amount of difference between the MVs for each macroblock needs to be stored in the final bitstream. P-frames have 1 motion vector per macroblock, relative to the previous anchor frame. B-frames, however, can use 2 motion vectors; one from the previous anchor frame, and one from the future anchor frame. Partial macroblocks, and black borders/bars encoded into the video that do not fall exactly on a macroblock boundary, cause havoc with motion prediction. The block padding/border information prevents the macroblock from closely matching with any other area of the video, and so, significantly larger prediction error information must be encoded for every one of the several dozen partial macroblocks along the screen border. DCT encoding and quantization (see below) also isn't nearly as effective when there is large/sharp picture contrast in a block. An even more serious problem exists with macroblocks that contain significant, random, edge noise, where the picture transitions to (typically) black. All the above problems also apply to edge noise. In addition, the added randomness is simply impossible to compress significantly. All of these effects will lower the quality (or increase the bitrate) of the video substantially. DCT Each 8x8 block is encoded by first applying a Forward Discrete Cosine Transform (FDCT) and then a quantization process. The FDCT process (by itself) is theoretically lossless, and can be reversed by applying an Inverse DCT (IDCT) to reproduce the original values (in the absence of any quantization and rounding errors). In reality, there are some (sometimes large) rounding errors introduced both by quantization in the encoder (as described in the next section) and by IDCT approximation error in the decoder. The minimum allowed accuracy of a decoder IDCT approximation is defined by ISO/IEC 23002-1. (Prior to 2006, it was specified by IEEE 1180-1990.) The FDCT process converts the 8x8 block of uncompressed pixel values (brightness or color difference values) into an 8x8 indexed array of frequency coefficient values. One of these is the (statistically high in variance) DC coefficient, which represents the average value of the entire 8x8 block. The other 63 coefficients are the statistically smaller AC coefficients, which are positive or negative values each representing sinusoidal deviations from the flat block value represented by the DC coefficient. An example of an encoded 8x8 FDCT block: Since the DC coefficient value is statistically correlated from one block to the next, it is compressed using DPCM encoding. Only the (smaller) amount of difference between each DC value and the value of the DC coefficient in the block to its left needs to be represented in the final bitstream. Additionally, the frequency conversion performed by applying the DCT provides a statistical decorrelation function to efficiently concentrate the signal into fewer high-amplitude values prior to applying quantization (see below). Quantization Quantization (of digital data) is, essentially, the process of reducing the accuracy of a signal, by dividing it into some larger step size (i.e. finding the nearest multiple, and discarding the remainder/modulus). The frame-level quantizer is a number from 0 to 31 (although encoders will usually omit/disable some of the extreme values) which determines how much information will be removed from a given frame. The frame-level quantizer is either dynamically selected by the encoder to maintain a certain user-specified bitrate, or (much less commonly) directly specified by the user. Contrary to popular belief, a fixed frame-level quantizer (set by the user) does not deliver a constant level of quality. Instead, it is an arbitrary metric that will provide a somewhat varying level of quality, depending on the contents of each frame. Given two files of identical sizes, the one encoded at an average bitrate should look better than the one encoded with a fixed quantizer (variable bitrate). Constant quantizer encoding can be used, however, to accurately determine the minimum and maximum bitrates possible for encoding a given video. A quantization matrix is a string of 64-numbers (0-255) which tells the encoder how relatively important or unimportant each piece of visual information is. Each number in the matrix corresponds to a certain frequency component of the video image. An example quantization matrix: Quantization is performed by taking each of the 64 frequency values of the DCT block, dividing them by the frame-level quantizer, then dividing them by their corresponding values in the quantization matrix. Finally, the result is rounded down. This significantly reduces, or completely eliminates, the information in some frequency components of the picture. Typically, high frequency information is less visually important, and so high frequencies are much more strongly quantized (drastically reduced). MPEG-1 actually uses two separate quantization matrices, one for intra-blocks (I-blocks) and one for inter-block (P- and B- blocks) so quantization of different block types can be done independently, and so, more effectively. This quantization process usually reduces a significant number of the AC coefficients to zero, (known as sparse data) which can then be more efficiently compressed by entropy coding (lossless compression) in the next step. An example quantized DCT block: Quantization eliminates a large amount of data, and is the main lossy processing step in MPEG-1 video encoding. This is also the primary source of most MPEG-1 video compression artifacts, like blockiness, color banding, noise, ringing, discoloration, et al. This happens when video is encoded with an insufficient bitrate, and the encoder is therefore forced to use high frame-level quantizers (strong quantization) through much of the video. Entropy Coding Several steps in the encoding of MPEG-1 video are lossless, meaning they will be reversed upon decoding, to produce exactly the same (original) values. Since these lossless data compression steps don't add noise into, or otherwise change the contents (unlike quantization), it is sometimes referred to as noiseless coding. Since lossless compression aims to remove as much redundancy as possible, it is known as entropy coding in the field of information theory. The DCT block tend to have the most important frequencies towards the top left corner. The coefficients tend to zero towards the bottom-right. Maximum compression can be achieved by a zig-zag scanning of the DCT block starting from the top left and using Run-length encoding techniques. The DC coefficients and motion vectors are DPCM-encoded. Run-length encoding (RLE) is a very simple method of compressing repetition. A sequential string of characters, no matter how long, can be replaced with a few bytes, noting the value that repeats, and how many times. For example, if someone were to say "five nines", you would know they mean the number: 99999. RLE is particularly effective after quantization, as a significant number of the AC coefficients are now zero (called sparse data), and can be represented with just a couple bytes. This is stored in a special 2-dimensional Huffman table that codes the run-length and the run-ending character. Huffman Coding is a very popular method of entropy coding, and used in MPEG-1 video to reduce the data size. The data is analyzed to find strings that repeat often. Those strings are then put into a special table, with the most frequently repeating data assigned the shortest code. This keeps the data as small as possible with this form of compression. Once the table is constructed, those strings in the data are replaced with their (much smaller) codes, which reference the appropriate entry in the table. The decoder simply reverses this process to produce the original data. This is the final step in the video encoding process, so the result of Huffman coding is known as the MPEG-1 video "bitstream." GOP configurations for specific applications I-frames store complete frame info within the frame and is therefore suited for random access. P-frames provide compression using motion vectors relative to the previous frame ( I or P ). B-frames provide maximum compression but requires the previous as well as next frame for computation. Therefore, processing of B-frames require more buffer on the decoded side. A configuration of the Group of Pictures(GOP) should be selected based on these factors. I-frame only sequences gives least compression, but is useful for random access, FF/FR and editability. I and P frame sequences give moderate compression but and a certain degree of random access, FF/FR functionality. I,P & B frame sequences give very high compression but also increases the coding/decoding delay significantly. Such configurations are therefore not suited for video-telephony or video-conferencing applications. The typical data rate of an I-frame is 1 bit per pixel while that of a P-frame is 0.1 bit per pixel and for a B-frame, 0.015 bit per pixel. http://bmrc.berkeley.edu/frame/research/mpeg/mpeg_overview.html Part 3: Audio Part 3 of the MPEG-1 standard covers audio and is defined in ISO/IEC-11172-3. MPEG-1 Audio utilizes psychoacoustics to significantly reduce the data rate required by an audio stream. It reduces or completely discards certain parts of the audio that the human ear can't hear, either because they are in frequencies where the ear has limited sensitivity, or are masked by other (typically louder) sounds. Channel Encoding: Mono Joint Stereo (intensity encoded) Stereo Dual (two uncorrelated mono channels) Sampling rates: 32000, 44100, and 48000 Hz Bitrates: 32, 48, 56, 64, 80, 96, 112, 128, 160, 192, 224, 256, 320 and 384 kbit/s MPEG-1 Audio is divided into 3 layers. Each higher layer is more computationally complex, and generally more efficient at lower bitrates than the previous. The layers are also backwards compatible, so a Layer II decoder can also play Layer I audio, but NOT Layer III audio. Layer I MPEG-1 Layer I is nothing more than a simplified version of Layer II. Layer I uses a smaller 384-sample frame size for very low-delay, and finer resolution. This is advantageous for applications like teleconferencing, studio editing, etc. It has lower complexity than Layer II to facilitate real-time encoding on the hardware available circa 1990. Layer I saw limited adoption in its time, and most notably was used on Philips' defunct Digital Compact Cassette at a bitrate of 384 kbit/s. With the substantial performance improvements in digital processing since its introduction, Layer I quickly became unnecessary and obsolete. Layer I audio files typically use the extension .mp1 or sometimes .m1a Layer II MPEG-1 Layer II (MP2—often incorrectly called MUSICAM) is a lossy audio format designed to provide high quality at about 192 kbit/s for stereo sound. Decoding MP2 audio is computationally simple, relative to MP3, AAC, etc. History/MUSICAM MPEG-1 Layer II was derived from the MUSICAM (Masking pattern adapted Universal Subband Integrated Coding And Multiplexing) audio codec, developed by Centre commun d'études de télévision et télécommunications (CCETT), Philips, and Institut für Rundfunktechnik (IRT/CNET) as part of the EUREKA 147 pan-European inter-governmental research and development initiative for the development of digital audio broadcasting. Most key features of MPEG-1 Audio were directly inherited from MUSICAM, including the filter bank, time-domain processing, audio frame sizes, etc. However, improvements were made, and the actual MUSICAM algorithm was not used in the final MPEG-1 Layer II audio standard. The widespread usage of the term MUSICAM to refer to Layer II is entirely incorrect and discouraged for both technical and legal reasons. Technical Details Layer II/MP2 is a time-domain encoder. It uses a low-delay 32 sub-band polyphased filter bank for time-frequency mapping; having overlapping ranges (i.e. polyphased) to prevent aliasing. The psychoacoustic model is based on the principles of auditory masking, simultaneous masking effects, and the absolute threshold of hearing (ATH). The size of a Layer II frame is fixed at 1152-samples (coefficients). Time domain refers to how analysis and quantization is performed: on short, discrete samples/chunks of the audio waveform. This offers low-delay as only a small number of samples are analyzed before encoding, as opposed to frequency domain encoding (like MP3) which must analyze many times more samples before it can decide how to transform and output encoded audio. This also offers higher performance on complex, random and transient impulses (such as percussive instruments, and applause), offering avoidance of artifacts like pre-echo. Visualization of the 32 sub-band filter bank used by MPEG-1 Audio, showing the disparity between the equal band-size of MP2 and the varying width of critical bands ("barks"). The 32 sub-band filter bank returns 32 amplitude coefficients, one for each equal-sized frequency band/segment of the audio, which is about 700 Hz wide (depending on the audio's sampling frequency). The encoder then utilizes the psychoacoustic model to determine which sub-bands contain audio information that is less important, and so, where quantization will be in-audible, or at least much less noticeable. Example FFT analysis on an audio wave sample. The psychoacoustic model is applied using a 1024-point Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). Of the 1152 samples per frame, 64 samples at the top and bottom of the frequency range are ignored for this analysis. They are presumably not significant enough to change the result. The psychoacoustic model uses an empirically determined masking model to determine which sub-bands contribute more to the masking threshold, and how much quantization noise each can contain without being perceived. Any sounds below the absolute threshold of hearing (ATH) are completely discarded. The available bits are then assigned to each sub-band accordingly. Typically, sub-bands are less important if they contain quieter sounds (smaller coefficient) than a neighboring (i.e. similar frequency) sub-band with louder sounds (larger coefficient). Also, "noise" components typically have a more significant masking effect than "tonal" components. Less significant sub-bands are reduced in accuracy by quantization. This basically involves compressing the frequency range (amplitude of the coefficient), i.e. raising the noise floor. Then computing an amplification factor, for the decoder to use to re-expand each sub-band to the proper frequency range. Layer II can also optionally use intensity stereo coding, a form of joint stereo. This means that the frequencies above 6 kHz of both channels are combined/down-mixed into one single (mono) channel, but the "side channel" information on the relative intensity (volume, amplitude) of each channel is preserved and encoded into the bitstream separately. On playback, the single channel is played through left and right speakers, with the intensity information applied to each channel to give the illusion of stereo sound. This perceptual trick is known as stereo irrelevancy. This can allow further reduction of the audio bitrate without much perceivable loss of fidelity, but is generally not used with higher bitrates as it does not provide very high quality (transparent) audio. Quality Subjective audio testing by experts, in the most critical conditions ever implemented, has shown MP2 to offer transparent audio compression at 256 kbit/s for 16-bit 44.1 kHz CD audio using the earliest reference implementation (more recent encoders should presumably perform even better). C.Grewin, and T.Ryden, Subjective Assessments on Low Bit-rate Audio Codecs, Proceedings of the 10th International AES Conference, pp 91 - 102, London 1991 That (approximately) 1:6 compression ratio for CD audio is particularly impressive because it is quite close to the estimated upper limit of perceptual entropy, at just over 1:8. J. Johnston, Estimation of Perceptual Entropy Using Noise Masking Criteria, in Proc. ICASSP-88, pp. 2524-2527, May 1988. J. Johnston, Transform Coding of Audio Signals Using Perceptual Noise Criteria, IEEE Journal Select Areas in Communications, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 314-323, Feb. 1988. Achieving much higher compression is simply not possible without discarding some perceptible information. MP2 remains a favoured lossy audio coding standard due to its particularly high audio coding performances on important audio material such as castanet, symphonic orchestra, male and female voices and particularly complex and high energy transients (impulses) like percussive sounds: triangle, glockenspiel and audience applause. More recent testing has shown that MPEG Multichannel (based on MP2), despite being compromised by an inferior matrixed mode (for the sake of backwards compatibility) rates just slightly lower than much more recent audio codecs, such as Dolby Digital (AC-3) and Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) (mostly within the margin of error—and substantially superior in some cases, such as audience applause). Wustenhagen et al., Subjective Listening Test of Multi-channel Audio Codecs, AES 105th Convention Paper 4813, San Francisco 1998 This is one reason that MP2 audio continues to be used extensively. The MPEG-2 AAC Stereo verification tests reached a vastly different conclusion, however, showing AAC to provide superior performance to MP2 at half the bitrate. The reason for this disparity with both earlier and later tests is not clear, but strangely, a sample of applause is notably absent from this test. Layer II audio files typically use the extension .mp2 or sometimes .m2a Layer III/MP3 MPEG-1 Layer III (MP3) is a lossy audio format designed to provide acceptable quality at about 64 kbit/s for monaural audio over single-channel (BRI) ISDN links, and 128 kbit/s for stereo sound. History/ASPEC Layer III/MP3 was derived from the Adaptive Spectral Perceptual Entropy Coding (ASPEC) codec developed by Fraunhofer as part of the EUREKA 147 pan-European inter-governmental research and development initiative for the development of digital audio broadcasting. ASPEC was adapted to fit in with the Layer II/MUSICAM model (frame size, filter bank, FFT, etc.), to become Layer III. ASPEC was itself based on Multiple adaptive Spectral audio Coding (MSC) by E. F. Schroeder, Optimum Coding in the Frequency domain (OCF) the doctoral thesis by Karlheinz Brandenburg at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Perceptual Transform Coding (PXFM) by J. D. Johnston at AT&T Bell Labs, and Transform coding of audio signals by Y. Mahieux and J. Petit at Institut für Rundfunktechnik (IRT/CNET). Technical Details MP3 is a frequency-domain audio transform encoder. Even though it utilizes some of the lower layer functions, MP3 is quite different from Layer II/MP2. MP3 works on 1152 samples like Layer II, but needs to take multiple frames for analysis before frequency-domain (MDCT) processing and quantization can be effective. It outputs a variable number of samples, using a bit buffer to enable this variable bitrate (VBR) encoding while maintaining 1152 sample size output frames. This causes a significantly longer delay before output, which has caused MP3 to be considered unsuitable for studio applications where editing or other processing needs to take place. MP3 does not benefit from the 32 sub-band polyphased filter bank, instead just using an 18-point MDCT transformation on each output to split the data into 576 frequency components, and processing it in the frequency domain. This extra granularity allows MP3 to have a much finer psychoacoustic model, and more carefully apply appropriate quantization to each band, providing much better low-bitrate performance. Frequency-domain processing imposes some limitations as well, causing a factor of 12 or 36 × worse temporal resolution than Layer II. This causes quantization artifacts, due to transient sounds like percussive events and other high-frequency events that spread over a larger window. This results in audible smearing and pre-echo. MP3 uses pre-echo detection routines, and VBR encoding, which allows it to temporarily increase the bitrate during difficult passages, in an attempt to reduce this effect. It is also able to switch between the normal 36 sample quantization window, and instead using 3× short 12 sample windows instead, to reduce the temporal (time) length of quantization artifacts. And yet in choosing a fairly small window size to make MP3's temporal response adequate enough to avoid the most serious artifacts, MP3 becomes much less efficient in frequency domain compression of stationary, tonal components. Being forced to use a hybrid time domain (filter bank) /frequency domain (MDCT) model to fit in with Layer II simply wastes processing time and compromises quality by introducing aliasing artifacts. MP3 has an aliasing cancellation stage specifically to mask this problem, but which instead produces frequency domain energy which must be encoded in the audio. This is pushed to the top of the frequency range, where most people have limited hearing, in hopes the distortion it causes will be less audible. Layer II's 1024 point FFT doesn't entirely cover all samples, and would omit several entire MP3 sub-bands, where quantization factors must be determined. MP3 instead uses two passes of FFT analysis for spectral estimation, to calculate the global and individual masking thresholds. This allows it to cover all 1152 samples. Of the two, it utilizes the global masking threshold level from the more critical pass, with the most difficult audio. In addition to Layer II's intensity encoded joint stereo, MP3 can use middle/side (mid/side, m/s, MS, matrixed) joint stereo. With mid/side stereo, certain frequency ranges of both channels are merged into a single (middle, mid, L+R) mono channel, while the sound difference between the left and right channels is stored as a separate (side, L-R) channel. Unlike intensity stereo, this process does not discard any audio information. When combined with quantization, however, it can exaggerate artifacts. If the difference between the left and right channels is small, the side channel will be small, which will offer as much as a 50% bitrate savings, and associated quality improvement. If the difference between left and right is large, standard (discrete, left/right) stereo encoding may be preferred, as mid/side joint stereo will not provide any benefits. An MP3 encoder can switch between m/s stereo and full stereo on a frame-by-frame basis. Unlike Layers I/II, MP3 uses variable-length Huffman coding (after perceptual) to further reduce the bitrate, without any further quality loss. Quality These technical limitations inherently prevent MP3 from providing critically transparent quality at any bitrate. This makes Layer II sound quality actually superior to MP3 audio, when it is used at a high enough bitrate to avoid noticeable artifacts. The term "transparent" often gets misused, however. The quality of MP3 (and other codecs) is sometimes called "transparent," even at impossibly low bitrates, when what is really meant is "good quality on average/non-critical material," or perhaps "exhibiting only non-annoying artifacts." MP3's more fine-grained and selective quantization does prove notably superior to Layer II/MP2 at lower-bitrates, however. It is able to provide nearly equivalent audio quality to Layer II, at a 15% lower bitrate (approximately). 128 kbit/s is considered the "sweet spot" for MP3; meaning it provides generally-acceptable quality stereo sound on most music, and there are diminishing quality improvements from increasing the bitrate further. MP3 is also regarded as exhibiting artifacts that are less-annoying than Layer II, when both are used at bitrates that are too low to possibly provide faithful reproduction. Layer III audio files use the extension .mp3. MPEG-2 Audio Extensions The MPEG-2 standard includes several extensions to MPEG-1 Audio. MPEG-2 Audio is defined in ISO/IEC-13818-3 MPEG Multichannel ISO/IEC 14496-3. Backward compatible 5.1-channel surround sound. Sampling rates: 16000, 22050, and 24000 Hz Bitrates: 8, 16, 24, 40, 48, and 144 kbit/s These sampling rates are exactly half that of those originally defined for MPEG-1 Audio. They were introduced to maintain higher quality sound when encoding audio at lower-bitrates. The even-lower bitrates were introduced because tests showed that MPEG-1 Audio could provide higher quality than any existing (circa 1994) very low bitrate (i.e. speech) audio codecs. Part 4: Conformance Testing Part 4 of the MPEG-1 standard covers conformance testing, and is defined in ISO/IEC-11172-4. Conformance: Procedures for testing conformance. Provides two sets of guidelines and reference bitstreams for testing the conformance of MPEG-1 audio and video decoders, as well as the bitstreams produced by an encoder. Part 5: Reference Software Part 5 of the MPEG-1 standard includes reference software, and is defined in ISO/IEC-11172-5. Simulation: Reference software. C reference code for encoding and decoding of audio and video, as well as multiplexing and demultiplexing. This includes the ISO Dist10 audio encoder code, which LAME and TooLAME were based upon. See also MPEG The Moving Picture Experts Group, developers of the MPEG-1 standard MP3 More (less technical) detail about MPEG-1 Layer III audio MPEG Multichannel Backwards compatible 5.1 channel surround sound extension to Layer II audio MPEG-2 The direct successor to the MPEG-1 standard. Implementations Libavcodec includes MPEG-1/2 video/audio encoders and decoders Mjpegtools MPEG-1/2 video/audio encoders TooLAME A high quality MPEG-1 Layer II audio encoder. LAME A high quality MP3 (Layer III) audio encoder. Musepack A format originally based on MPEG-1 Layer II audio, but now incompatible. References External links Official Web Page of the Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) a working group of ISO/IEC MPEG Industry Forum Organization Source Code to Implement MPEG-1 A simple, concise explanation from Berkeley Multimedia Research Center be-x-old:MPEG-1	MPEG-1 \|@lemmatized mpeg:120 standard:43 lossy:6 compression:27 video:106 audio:105 design:5 compress:8 vhs:1 quality:33 raw:2 digital:19 cd:11 mbit:5 ratio:4 respectively:2 without:9 excessive:1 loss:3 make:9 cable:3 satellite:3 tv:2 broadcasting:5 dab:2 possible:8 today:1 become:4 widely:1 compatible:4 format:16 world:3 use:60 large:17 number:14 product:1 technology:4 perhaps:2 best:1 know:12 part:19 introduce:6 publish:3 iso:22 iec:13 consist:1 follow:2 five:2 system:9 storage:2 synchronization:3 data:33 together:1 compressed:2 content:5 conformance:6 test:11 correctness:1 implementation:6 reference:14 software:8 example:7 show:6 encode:41 decode:16 accord:1 history:3 model:9 successful:1 collaborative:1 approach:1 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3,369	Planet	Top row: Mars and Mercury; bottom row: the Moon, dwarf planets Pluto and Haumea (to scale) A planet (from Greek , from the verb planōmai I wander), is a celestial body orbiting a star or stellar remnant that is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity, is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals. The term planet is ancient, with ties to history, science, myth, and religion. The planets were originally seen by many early cultures as divine, or as emissaries of the gods. Even today, many people believe in astrology, which holds that the movement of the planets affects people's lives, although such a causation is rejected by the scientific community. As scientific knowledge advanced, human perception of the planets changed, incorporating a number of disparate objects. Even now there is no uncontested definition of what a planet is. In 2006, the IAU officially adopted a resolution defining planets within the Solar System. This definition has been both praised and criticized, and remains disputed by some scientists. The planets were thought by Ptolemy to orbit the Earth in deferent and epicycle motions. Though the idea that the planets orbited the Sun had been suggested many times, it was not until the 17th century that this view was supported by evidence from the first telescopic astronomical observations, performed by Galileo Galilei. By careful analysis of the observation data, Johannes Kepler found the planets' orbits to be not circular, but elliptical. As observational tools improved, astronomers saw that, like Earth, the planets rotated around tilted axes, and some share such features as ice-caps and seasons. Since the dawn of the Space Age, close observation by probes has found that Earth and the other planets share characteristics such as volcanism, hurricanes, tectonics, and even hydrology. Since 1992, through the discovery of hundreds of extrasolar planets (planets around other stars), scientists are beginning to understand that planets throughout the Milky Way Galaxy share characteristics in common with our own. Planets are generally divided into two main types: large, low-density gas giants, and smaller, rocky terrestrials. Under IAU definitions, there are eight planets in the Solar System. In order from the Sun, they are the four terrestrials, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, then the four gas giants, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The Solar System also contains at least five dwarf planets: Ceres, Pluto (originally classified as the Solar System's ninth planet), Makemake, Haumea and Eris. With the exception of Mercury, Venus, Ceres and Makemake, all of these are orbited by one or more natural satellites. As of March 2009, there are 344 known extrasolar planets, ranging from the size of gas giants to that of terrestrial planets. History Printed rendition of a geocentric cosmological model from Cosmographia, Antwerp, 1539 The idea of planets has evolved over its history, from the divine wandering stars of antiquity to the earthly objects of the scientific age. The concept has also now expanded to include worlds not only in the Solar System, but in hundreds of other extrasolar systems. The ambiguities inherent in defining planets have led to much scientific controversy. In ancient times, astronomers noted how certain lights moved across the sky in relation to the other stars. Ancient Greeks called these lights "" (: wandering stars) or simply "" (: wanderers), H. G. Liddell and R. Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, ninth edition, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940). from which the today's word "planet" was derived. In ancient Greece, China, Babylon and indeed all pre-modern civilisations, it was almost universally believed that Earth was in the centre of the Universe and that all the "planets" circled the Earth. The reasons for this perception were that stars and planets appeared to revolve around the Earth each day, and the apparently common sense perception that the Earth was solid and stable, and that it is not moving but at rest. Babylon The first Western civilisation known to possess a functional theory of the planets were the Babylonians, who lived in Mesopotamia in the first and second millennia BC. The oldest surviving planetary astronomical text is the Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, a 7th century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus that probably dates as early as the second millennium BC. The Babylonians also laid the foundations of what would eventually become Western astrology. The Enuma anu enlil, written during the Neo-Assyrian period in the 7th century BC, comprises a list of omens and their relationships with various celestial phenomena including the motions of the planets. The Sumerians, predecessors of the Babylonians who are considered as one of the first civilizations and are credited with the invention of writing, had identified at least Venus by 1500 BC. Ancient Greece to Medieval Europe + Ptolemy's "planetary spheres" Modern Moon Mercury Venus the Sun Mars Jupiter Saturn Medieval Europe Cosmographia, Antwerp, 1539 "Celestial Orbs in the Latin Middle Ages", Isis, Vol. 78, No. 2. (Jun., 1987), pp. 152-173. ☾ LVNA ☿ MERCVRIVS ♀VENVS ☉ SOL ♂ MARS ♄ IVPITER ♃ SATVRNVS The ancient Greek cosmological system was taken from that of the Babylonians, from whom they began to acquire astronomical learning from around 600 BC, including the constellations and the zodiac. In the 6th century BC, the Babylonians' astronomical knowledge at the time was far in advance of the Greeks. The earliest known Greek sources, such as the Iliad and the Odyssey, do not mention the planets. By the first century BC, the Greeks had begun to develop their own mathematical schemes for predicting the positions of the planets. These schemes, which were based on geometry rather than the arithmetic of the Babylonians, would eventually eclipse the Babylonians' theories in complexity and comprehensiveness, and account for most of the astronomical movements observed from Earth with the naked eye. These theories would reach their fullest expression in the Almagest written by Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD. So complete was the domination of Ptolemy's model that it superseded all previous works on astronomy and remained the definitive astronomical text in the Western world for 13 centuries. To the Greeks and Romans there were seven known planets, each presumed to be circling the Earth according to the complex laws laid out by Ptolemy. They were, in increasing order from Earth (in Ptolemy's order): the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Note: select the Etymology tab European Renaissance + Renaissance planets Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn The five naked-eye planets may have been known since ancient times, and have had a significant impact on mythology, religious cosmology, and ancient astronomy. As scientific knowledge progressed, however, understanding of the term "planet" changed from something that moved across the sky (in relation to the star field); to a body that orbited the Earth (or that were believed to do so at the time); and in the 16th century to something that directly orbited the Sun when the heliocentric model of Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler gained sway. Thus the Earth became included in the list of planets, while the Sun and Moon were excluded. At first, when the first satellites of Jupiter and Saturn were discovered in the 17th century, the terms "planet" and "satellite" were used interchangeably – although the latter would gradually become more prevalent in the following century.<ref> Note: This journal became the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London in 1775. There may just be earlier publications within the .</ref> Until the mid-19th century, the number of "planets" rose rapidly since any newly discovered object directly orbiting the Sun was listed as a planet by the scientific community. 19th Century + Planets in early 1800s Mercury Venus Earth Mars Vesta Juno Ceres Pallas Jupiter Saturn Uranus In the 19th century astronomers began to realize that recently discovered bodies that had been classified as planets for almost half a century (such as Ceres, Pallas, and Vesta), were very different from the traditional ones. These bodies shared the same region of space between Mars and Jupiter (the Asteroid belt), and had a much smaller mass; as a result they were reclassified as "asteroids". In the absence of any formal definition, a "planet" came to be understood as any "large" body that orbited the Sun. Since there was a dramatic size gap between the asteroids and the planets, and the spate of new discoveries seemed to have ended after the discovery of Neptune in 1846, there was no apparent need to have a formal definition. 20th Century + Planets from late 1800s to 1930 Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune However, in the 20th century, Pluto was discovered. After initial observations led to the belief it was larger than Earth, the object was immediately accepted as the ninth planet. Further monitoring found the body was actually much smaller: in 1936, Raymond Lyttleton suggested that Pluto may be an escaped satellite of Neptune, and Fred Whipple suggested in 1964 that Pluto may be a comet. However, as it was still larger than all known asteroids and seemingly did not exist within a larger population, it kept its status until 2006. In the 1990s and early 2000s, there was a flood of discoveries of similar objects in the same region of the Solar System (the Kuiper belt). Like Ceres and the asteroids before it, Pluto was found to be just one small body in a population of thousands. A growing number of astronomers argued for it to be declassified as a planet, since many similar objects approaching its size were found. The discovery of Eris, a more massive object widely publicised as the "tenth planet", brought things to a head. The IAU set about creating the definition of planet, and eventually produced one in 2006. The number of planets dropped to the eight significantly larger bodies that had cleared their orbit (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune), and a new class of dwarf planets was created, initially containing three objects (Ceres, Pluto and Eris). Planets 1930-2006 Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto In 1992, astronomers Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail announced the discovery of planets around a pulsar, PSR B1257+12. This discovery is generally considered to be the first definitive detection of a planetary system around another star. Then, on October 6, 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star (51 Pegasi). The discovery of extrasolar planets led to another ambiguity in defining a planet; the point at which a planet becomes a star. Many known extrasolar planets are many times the mass of Jupiter, approaching that of stellar objects known as "brown dwarfs". Brown dwarfs are generally considered stars due to their ability to fuse deuterium, a heavier isotope of hydrogen. While stars more massive than 75 times that of Jupiter fuse hydrogen, stars of only 13 Jupiter masses can fuse deuterium. However, deuterium is quite rare, and most brown dwarfs would have ceased fusing deuterium long before their discovery, making them effectively indistinguishable from supermassive planets. As large Kuiper belt and scattered disc objects were discovered in the late 1990s and early years of the twenty-first century, a number including Quaoar, Sedna and Eris were heralded in the popular press as the 'tenth planet', however none of these received widespread scientific recognition as such, although Eris has now been classified as a Dwarf Planet. 21st Century Planets 2006- Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune With the discovery during the latter half of the 20th century of more objects within the Solar System and large objects around other stars, disputes arose over what should constitute a planet. There was particular disagreement over whether an object should be considered a planet if it was part of a distinct population such as a belt, or if it was large enough to generate energy by the thermonuclear fusion of deuterium. A number including Quaoar, Sedna and Eris were heralded in the popular press as the 'tenth planet', however none of these received widespread scientific recognition as such. Extrasolar planet definition In 2003, The International Astronomical Union (IAU) Working Group on Extrasolar Planets made a position statement on the definition of a planet that incorporated the following working definition, mostly focused upon the boundary between planets and brown dwarves: Dwarf Planets 2006- Ceres Pluto Makemake Haumea Eris Objects with true masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium (currently calculated to be 13 times the mass of Jupiter for objects with the same isotopic abundance as the Sun ) that orbit stars or stellar remnants are "planets" (no matter how they formed). The minimum mass and size required for an extrasolar object to be considered a planet should be the same as that used in the Solar System. Substellar objects with true masses above the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are "brown dwarfs", no matter how they formed or where they are located. Free-floating objects in young star clusters with masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are not "planets", but are "sub-brown dwarfs" (or whatever name is most appropriate). This definition has since been widely used by astronomers when publishing discoveries of exoplanets in academic journals. See for example the list of references for: Although temporary, it remains an effective working definition until a more permanent one is formally adopted. However, it does not address the dispute over the lower mass limit, and so it steered clear of the controversy regarding objects within the Solar System. 2006 definition The matter of the lower limit was addressed during the 2006 meeting of the IAU's General Assembly. After much debate and one failed proposal, the assembly voted to pass a resolution that defined planets within the Solar System as: Under this definition, the Solar System is considered to have eight planets. Bodies which fulfill the first two conditions but not the third (such as Pluto, Makemake and Eris) are classified as dwarf planets, provided they are not also natural satellites of other planets. Originally an IAU committee had proposed a definition that would have included a much larger number of planets as it did not include (c) as a criterion. After much discussion, it was decided via a vote that those bodies should instead be classified as dwarf planets. This definition is based in theories of planetary formation, in which planetary embryos initially clear their orbital neighborhood of other smaller objects. As described by astronomer Steven Soter: In the aftermath of the IAU's 2006 vote, there has been controversy and debate about the definition, and many astronomers have stated that they will not use it. Part of the dispute centres around the belief that point (c) (clearing its orbit) should not have been listed, and that those objects now categorised as dwarf planets should actually be part of a broader planetary definition. The next IAU conference is not until 2009, when modifications could be made to the IAU definition, also possibly including extrasolar planets. Beyond the scientific community, Pluto has held a strong cultural significance for many in the general public considering its planetary status since its discovery in 1930. The discovery of Eris was widely reported in the media as the tenth planet and therefore the reclassification of all three objects as dwarf planets has attracted a lot of media and public attention as well. Former classifications The table below lists Solar System bodies formerly considered to be planets: Bodies Notes Sun, Moon Classified as planets in antiquity, in accordance with the definition then used. Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto The four largest moons of Jupiter, known as the Galilean moons after their discoverer Galileo Galilei. He referred to them as the "Medicean Planets" in honor of his patron, the Medici family. Titan, Iapetus, Rhea, Tethys, and Dione Five of Saturn's larger moons, discovered by Christiaan Huygens and Giovanni Domenico Cassini. Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta The first known asteroids, from their discoveries between 1801 and 1807 until their reclassification as asteroids during the 1850s. Ceres has subsequently been classified as a dwarf planet. Astrea, Hebe, Iris, Flora, Metis, Hygeia, Parthenope, Victoria, Egeria, Irene, Eunomia More asteroids, discovered between 1845 and 1851. The rapidly expanding list of planets prompted their reclassification as asteroids by astronomers, and this was widely accepted by 1854. Pluto Trans-Neptunian object with a semi-major axis beyond Neptune. In 2006, Pluto was reclassified as a dwarf planet. Mythology The gods of Olympus, after whom the Solar System's planets are named The names for the planets in the Western world are derived from the naming practices of the Romans, which ultimately derive from those of the Greeks and the Babylonians. In ancient Greece, the two great luminaries the Sun and the Moon were called Helios and Selene; the farthest planet was called Phainon, the shiner; followed by Phaethon, "bright"; the red planet was known as Pyroeis, the "fiery"; the brightest was known as Phosphoros, the light bringer; and the fleeting final planet was called Stilbon, the gleamer. The Greeks also made each planet sacred to one of their pantheon of gods, the Olympians: Helios and Selene were the names of both planets and gods; Phainon was sacred to Kronos, the Titan who fathered the Olympians; Phaethon was sacred to Zeús, Kronos's son who deposed him as king; Pyroeis was given to Ares, son of Zeus and god of war; Phosphorus was ruled by Aphrodite, the goddess of love; and Hermes, messenger of the gods and god of learning and wit, ruled over Stilbon. The Greek practice of grafting of their gods' names onto the planets was almost certainly borrowed from the Babylonians. The Babylonians named Phosphorus after their goddess of love, Ishtar; Pyroeis after their god of war, Nergal, Stilbon after their god of wisdom Nabu, and Phaethon after their chief god, Marduk. There are too many concordances between Greek and Babylonian naming conventions for them to have arisen separately. The translation was not perfect. For instance, the Babylonian Nergal was a god of war, and thus the Greeks identified him with Ares. However, unlike Ares, Nergal was also god of pestilence and the underworld. Today, most people in the western world know the planets by names derived from the Olympian pantheon of gods. While modern Greeks still use their ancient names for the planets, other European languages, because of the influence of the Roman Empire and, later, the Catholic Church, use the Roman (or Latin) names rather than the Greek ones. The Romans, who, like the Greeks, were Indo-Europeans, shared with them a common pantheon under different names but lacked the rich narrative traditions that Greek poetic culture had given their gods. During the later period of the Roman Republic, Roman writers borrowed much of the Greek narratives and applied them to their own pantheon, to the point where they became virtually indistinguishable. When the Romans studied Greek astronomy, they gave the planets their own gods' names: Mercurius (for Hermes), Venus (Aphrodite), Mars (Ares), Iuppiter (Zeus) and Saturnus (Kronos). When subsequent planets were discovered in the 18th and 19th centuries, the naming practice was retained: Uranus (Ouranos) and Neptūnus (Poseidon). Some Romans, following a belief possibly originating in Mesopotamia but developed in Hellenistic Egypt, believed that the seven gods after whom the planets were named took hourly shifts in looking after affairs on Earth. The order of shifts went Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Moon (from the farthest to the closest planet). Therefore, the first day was started by Saturn (1st hour), second day by Sun (25th hour), followed by Moon (49th hour), Mars, Mercury, Jupiter and Venus. Since each day was named by the god that started it, this is also the order of the days of the week in the Roman calendar after the Nundinal cycle was rejected – and still preserved many modern languages. Sunday, Monday, and Saturday are straightforward translations of these Roman names. In English the other days were renamed after Tiw, (Tuesday) Wóden (Wednesday), Thunor (Thursday), and Fríge (Friday), the Anglo-Saxon gods considered similar or equivalent to Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, and Venus respectively. Since Earth was only generally accepted as a planet in the 17th century, there is no tradition of naming it after a god (the same is true, in English at least, of the Sun and the Moon, though they are no longer considered planets). The name originates from the 8th century Anglo-Saxon word erda, which means ground or soil and was first used in writing as the name of the sphere of the Earth perhaps around 1300. It is the only planet whose name in English is not derived from Greco-Roman mythology. Many of the Romance languages retain the old Roman word terra (or some variation of it) that was used with the meaning of "dry land" (as opposed to "sea"). However, the non-Romance languages use their own respective native words. The Greeks retain their original name, Γή (Ge or Yi); the Germanic languages, including English, use a variation of an ancient Germanic word ertho, "ground," as can be seen in the English Earth, the German Erde, the Dutch Aarde, and the Scandinavian Jorde.Non-European cultures use other planetary naming systems. India uses a naming system based on the Navagraha, which incorporates the seven traditional planets (Surya for the Sun, Chandra for the Moon, and Budha, Shukra, Mangala, and Shani for the traditional planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn) and the ascending and descending lunar nodes Rahu and Ketu. China and the countries of eastern Asia influenced by it (such as Japan, Korea and Vietnam) use a naming system based on the five Chinese elements: water (Mercury), metal (Venus), fire (Mars), wood (Jupiter) and earth (Saturn). Formation It is not known with certainty how planets are formed. The prevailing theory is that they are formed during the collapse of a nebula into a thin disk of gas and dust. A protostar forms at the core, surrounded by a rotating protoplanetary disk. Through accretion (a process of sticky collision) dust particles in the disk steadily accumulate mass to form ever-larger bodies. Local concentrations of mass known as planetesimals form, and these accelerate the accretion process by drawing in additional material by their gravitational attraction. These concentrations become ever denser until they collapse inward under gravity to form protoplanets. After a planet reaches a diameter larger than the Earth's moon, it begins to accumulate an extended atmosphere, greatly increasing the capture rate of the planetesimals by means of atmospheric drag. An artist's impression of protoplanetary disk When the protostar has grown such that it ignites to form a star, the surviving disk is removed from the inside outward by photoevaporation, the solar wind, Poynting-Robertson drag and other effects. (Astrophysics Data System entry) Thereafter there still may be many protoplanets orbiting the star or each other, but over time many will collide, either to form a single larger planet or release material for other larger protoplanets or planets to absorb. Those objects that have become massive enough will capture most matter in their orbital neighbourhoods to become planets. Meanwhile, protoplanets that have avoided collisions may become natural satellites of planets through a process of gravitational capture, or remain in belts of other objects to become either dwarf planets or small Solar System bodies. The energetic impacts of the smaller planetesimals (as well as radioactive decay) will heat up the growing planet, causing it to at least partially melt. The interior of the planet begins to differentiate by mass, developing a denser core. Smaller terrestrial planets lose most of their atmospheres because of this accretion, but the lost gases can be replaced by outgassing from the mantle and from the subsequent impact of comets. (Smaller planets will lose any atmosphere they gain through various escape mechanisms.) With the discovery and observation of planetary systems around stars other than our own, it is becoming possible to elaborate, revise or even replace this account. The level of metallicity – an astronomical term describing the abundance of chemical elements with an atomic number greater than 2 (helium) – is now believed to determine the likelihood that a star will have planets. Hence it is thought less likely that a metal-poor, population II star will possess a more substantial planetary system than a metal-rich population I star. Solar System The terrestrial planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars (Sizes to scale) The four gas giants against the Sun: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune (Sizes to scale) According to the IAU's current definitions, there are eight planets in the Solar System. In increasing distance from the Sun, they are: Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Jupiter is the largest, at 318 Earth masses, while Mercury is smallest, at 0.055 Earth masses. The planets of the Solar System can be divided into categories based on their composition: Terrestrials: Planets that are similar to Earth, with bodies largely composed of rock: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Gas giants (Jovians): Planets with a composition largely made up of gaseous material and are significantly more massive than terrestrials: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. Ice giants, comprising Uranus and Neptune, are a sub-class of gas giants, distinguished from gas giants by their significantly lower mass, and by depletion in hydrogen and helium in their atmospheres together with a significantly higher proportion of rock and ice. + Planetary attributesNameEquatorialdiameterMassOrbitalradius (AU)Orbital period(years)Inclination to Sun's equator (°)OrbitaleccentricityRotation period(days)NamedmoonsRingsAtmosphere Terrestrials Mercury 0.382 0.06 0.39 0.24 3.38 0.206 58.64 — no minimal Venus 0.949 0.82 0.72 0.62 3.86 0.007 -243.02 — no CO2, N2 Earth 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 7.25 0.017 1.00 1 no N2, O2 Mars 0.532 0.11 1.52 1.88 5.65 0.093 1.03 2 no CO2, N2 Gas giants Jupiter 11.209 317.8 5.20 11.86 6.09 0.048 0.41 49 yes H2, He Saturn 9.449 95.2 9.54 29.46 5.51 0.054 0.43 52 yes H2, He Uranus 4.007 14.6 19.22 84.01 6.48 0.047 -0.72 27 yes H2, He Neptune 3.883 17.2 30.06 164.8 6.43 0.009 0.67 13 yes H2, He Measured relative to the Earth. See Earth article for absolute values. Dwarf planets Before the August 2006 decision, several objects were proposed by astronomers, including at one stage by the IAU, as planets. However in 2006 several of these objects were reclassified as dwarf planets, objects distinct from planets. Currently five dwarf planets in the Solar System are recognized by the IAU: Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris. Several other objects in both the Asteroid belt and the Kuiper belt are under consideration, with as many as 50 that could eventually qualify. There may be as many as 200 that could be discovered once the Kuiper belt has been fully explored. Dwarf planets share many of the same characteristics as planets, although notable differences remain – namely that they are not dominant in their orbits. Their attributes are: + Dwarf planetary attributesNameEquatorialdiameterMassOrbitalradius (AU)Orbital period(years)Inclination to ecliptic (°)OrbitaleccentricityRotation period(days)MoonsRingsAtmosphere Ceres 0.08 0.000 2 2.5–3.0 4.60 10.59 0.080 0.38 0 no none Pluto 0.19 0.002 2 29.7–49.3 248.09 17.14 0.249 −6.39 3 no temporary Haumea 0.37×0.16 0.000 7 35.2–51.5 285.38 28.19 0.189 0.16 2 Makemake~0.120.000 738.5–53.1309.8828.960.159 ? 0 ? ? Eris 0.19 0.002 5 37.8–97.6 ~557 44.19 0.442 ~0.3 1 ? ? <div class="references-small" style="margin-bottom: 0em;"> Measured relative to the Earth. A temporary atmosphere is suspected but has not yet been directly observed by stellar occultation. By definition, all dwarf planets are members of larger populations. Ceres is the largest body in the asteroid belt, while Pluto and Makemake are members of the Kuiper belt and Eris is a member of the scattered disc. Scientists such as Mike Brown believe that there may soon be over forty trans-Neptunian objects that qualify as dwarf planets under the IAU's recent definition. Extrasolar planets The first confirmed discovery of an extrasolar planet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star occurred on 6 October 1995, when Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the detection of an exoplanet around 51 Pegasi. Of the 342 extrasolar planets discovered by February 2009, most have masses which are comparable to or larger than Jupiter's, though masses ranging from just below that of Mercury to many times Jupiter's mass have been observed. The smallest extrasolar planets found to date have been discovered orbiting burned-out star remnants called pulsars, such as PSR B1257+12. There have been roughly a dozen extrasolar planets found of between 10 and 20 Earth masses, such as those orbiting the stars Mu Arae, 55 Cancri and GJ 436. These planets have been nicknamed "Neptunes" because they roughly approximate that planet's mass (17 Earths). Another new category are the so-called "super-Earths", possibly terrestrial planets far larger than Earth but smaller than Neptune or Uranus. To date, six possible super-Earths have been found: Gliese 876 d, which is roughly six times Earth's mass, OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb and MOA-2007-BLG-192Lb, frigid icy worlds discovered through gravitational microlensing, COROT-Exo-7b, a planet with a diameter estimated at around 1.7 times that of Earth, (making it the smallest super-Earth yet measured), but with an orbital distance of only 0.02 AU, which means it probably has a molten surface at a temperature of 1000–1500 °C, http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEM7G6XPXPF_index_0.html and two planets orbiting the nearby red dwarf Gliese 581. Gliese 581 d is roughly 7.7 times Earth's mass, while Gliese 581 c is five times Earth's mass and was initially thought to be the first terrestrial planet found within a star's habitable zone. However, more detailed studies revealed that it was slightly too close to its star to be habitable, and that the farther planet in the system, Gliese 581 d, though it is much colder than Earth, could potentially be habitable if its atmosphere contained sufficient greenhouse gases. It is far from clear if the newly discovered large planets would resemble the gas giants in the Solar System or if they are of an entirely different type as yet unknown, like ammonia giants or carbon planets. In particular, some of the newly discovered planets, known as hot Jupiters, orbit extremely close to their parent stars, in nearly circular orbits. They therefore receive much more stellar radiation than the gas giants in the Solar System, which makes it questionable whether they are the same type of planet at all. There may also exist a class of hot Jupiters, called Chthonian planets, that orbit so close to their star that their atmospheres have been blown away completely by stellar radiation. While many hot Jupiters have been found in the process of losing their atmospheres, as of 2008, no genuine Chthonian planets have been discovered. More detailed observation of extrasolar planets will require a new generation of instruments, including space telescopes. Currently the COROT spacecraft is searching for stellar luminosity variations due to transiting planets. Several projects have also been proposed to create an array of space telescopes to search for extrasolar planets with masses comparable to the Earth. These include the proposed NASA's Kepler Mission, Terrestrial Planet Finder, and Space Interferometry Mission programs, the ESA's Darwin, and the CNES' PEGASE. The New Worlds Mission is an occulting device that may work in conjunction with the James Webb Space Telescope. However, funding for some of these projects remains uncertain. The first spectra of extrasolar planets were reported in February 2007 (HD 209458 b and HD 189733 b). The frequency of occurrence of such terrestrial planets is one of the variables in the Drake equation which estimates the number of intelligent, communicating civilizations that exist in our galaxy. Interstellar "planets" Several computer simulations of stellar and planetary system formation have suggested that some objects of planetary mass would be ejected into interstellar space. Some scientists have argued that such objects found roaming in deep space should be classed as "planets". However, others have suggested that they could be low-mass stars. The IAU's working definition on extrasolar planets takes no position on the issue. In 2005, astronomers announced the discovery of Cha 110913-773444, the smallest brown dwarf found to date, at only seven times Jupiter's mass. Since it was not found in orbit around a fusing star, it is a sub-brown dwarf according to the IAU's working definition. However, some astronomers believe it should be referred to as a planet. For a brief time in 2006, astronomers believed they had found a binary system of such objects, Oph 162225-240515, which the discoverers described as "planemos", or "planetary mass objects". However, recent analysis of the objects has determined that their masses are probably each greater than 13 Jupiter-masses, making the pair brown dwarfs. Attributes Although each planet has unique physical characteristics, a number of broad commonalities do exist between them. Some of these characteristics, such as rings or natural satellites, have only as yet been observed in planets in the Solar System, whilst others are also common to extrasolar planets. Dynamic characteristics Orbit The orbit of the planet Neptune compared to that of Pluto. Note the elongation of Pluto's orbit in relation to Neptune's (eccentricity), as well as its large angle to the ecliptic (inclination). All planets revolve around stars. In the Solar System, all the planets orbit in the same direction as the Sun rotates. It is not yet known whether all extrasolar planets follow this pattern. The period of one revolution of a planet's orbit is known as its sidereal period or year. A planet's year depends on its distance from its star; the farther a planet is from its star, not only the longer the distance it must travel, but also the slower its speed, as it is less affected by the star's gravity. Because no planet's orbit is perfectly circular, the distance of each varies over the course of its year. The closest approach to its star is called its periastron (perihelion in the Solar System), while its farthest separation from the star is called its apastron (aphelion). As a planet approaches periastron, its speed increases as it trades gravitational potential energy for kinetic energy, just as a falling object on Earth accelerates as it falls; as the planet reaches apastron, its speed decreases, just as an object thrown upwards on Earth slows down as it reaches the apex of its trajectory. Each planet's orbit is delineated by a set of elements: The eccentricity of an orbit describes how elongated a planet's orbit is. Planets with low eccentricities have more circular orbits, while planets with high eccentricities have more elliptical orbits. The planets in the Solar System have very low eccentricities, and thus nearly circular orbits. Comets and Kuiper belt objects (as well as several extrasolar planets) have very high eccentricities, and thus exceedingly elliptical orbits. Illustration of the semi-major axis The semi-major axis is the distance from a planet to the half-way point along the longest diameter of its elliptical orbit (see image). This distance is not the same as its apastron, as no planet's orbit has its star at its exact centre. The inclination of a planet tells how far above or below an established reference plane its orbit lies. In the Solar System, the reference plane is the plane of Earth's orbit, called the ecliptic. For extrasolar planets, the plane, known as the sky plane or plane of the sky, is the plane of the observer's line of sight from Earth. The eight planets of the Solar System all lie very close to the ecliptic; comets and Kuiper belt objects like Pluto are at far more extreme angles to it. The points at which a planet crosses above and below its reference plane are called its ascending and descending nodes. The longitude of the ascending node is the angle between the reference plane's 0 longitude and the planet's ascending node. The argument of periapsis (or perihelion in the Solar System) is the angle between a planet's ascending node and its closest approach to its star. Axial tilt Earth's axial tilt is about 23°. Planets also have varying degrees of axial tilt; they lie at an angle to the plane of their stars' equators. This causes the amount of light received by each hemisphere to vary over the course of its year; when the northern hemisphere points away from its star, the southern hemisphere points towards it, and vice versa. Each planet therefore possesses seasons; changes to the climate over the course of its year. The time at which each hemisphere points farthest or nearest from its star is known as its solstice. Each planet has two in the course of its orbit; when one hemisphere has its summer solstice, when its day is longest, the other has its winter solstice, when its day is shortest. The varying amount of light and heat received by each hemisphere creates annual changes in weather patterns for each half of the planet. Jupiter's axial tilt is very small, so its seasonal variation is minimal; Uranus, on the other hand, has an axial tilt so extreme it is virtually on its side, which means that its hemispheres are either perpetually in sunlight or perpetually in darkness around the time of its solstices. Among extrasolar planets, axial tilts are not known for certain, though most hot Jupiters are believed to possess negligible to no axial tilt, as a result of their proximity to their stars. Rotation The planets also rotate around invisible axes through their centres. A planet's rotation period is known as its day. All planets in the Solar System rotate in a counter-clockwise direction, except for Venus, which rotates clockwise (Uranus is generally said to be rotating clockwise as well though because of its extreme axial tilt, it can be said to be rotating either clockwise or anti-clockwise, depending on whether one states it to be inclined 82° from the ecliptic in one direction, or 98° in the opposite direction). There is great variation in the length of day between the planets, with Venus taking 243 Earth days to rotate, and the gas giants only a few hours. The rotational periods of extrasolar planets are not known; however their proximity to their stars means that hot Jupiters are tidally locked (their orbits are in sync with their rotations). This means they only ever show one face to their stars, with one side in perpetual day, the other in perpetual night. Orbital clearing The defining dynamic characteristic of a planet is that it has cleared its neighborhood. A planet that has cleared its neighborhood has accumulated enough mass to gather up or sweep away all the planetesimals in its orbit. In effect, it orbits its star in isolation, as opposed to sharing its orbit with a multitude of similar-sized objects. This characteristic was mandated as part of the IAU's official definition of a planet in August, 2006. This criterion excludes such planetary bodies as Pluto, Eris and Ceres from full-fledged planethood, making them instead dwarf planets. Although to date this criterion only applies to the Solar System, a number of young extrasolar systems have been found in which evidence suggests orbital clearing is taking place within their circumstellar discs. Physical characteristics Mass A planet's defining physical characteristic is that it is massive enough for the force of its own gravity to dominate over the electromagnetic forces binding its physical structure, leading to a state of hydrostatic equilibrium. This effectively means that all planets are spherical or spheroidal. Up to a certain mass, an object can be irregular in shape, but beyond that point, which varies depending on the chemical makeup of the object, gravity begins to pull an object towards its own centre of mass until the object collapses into a sphere. Mass is also the prime attribute by which planets are distinguished from stars. The upper mass limit for planethood is roughly 13 times Jupiter's mass, beyond which it achieves conditions suitable for nuclear fusion. Other than the Sun, no objects of such mass exist in the Solar System; however a number of extrasolar planets lie at that threshold. The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopedia'' lists several planets that are close to this limit: HD 38529c, AB Pictorisb, HD 162020b, and HD 13189b. A number of objects of higher mass are also listed, but since they lie above the fusion threshold, they would be better described as brown dwarfs. The smallest known planet, excluding dwarf planets and satellites, is PSR B1257+12 a, one of the first extrasolar planets discovered, which was found in 1992 in orbit around a pulsar. Its mass is roughly half that of the planet Mercury. Internal differentiation Illustration of the interior of Jupiter, with a rocky core overlaid by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen Every planet began its existence in an entirely fluid state; in early formation, the denser, heavier materials sank to the centre, leaving the lighter materials near the surface. Each therefore has a differentiated interior consisting of a dense planetary core surrounded by a mantle which either is or was a fluid. The terrestrial planets are sealed within hard crusts, but in the gas giants the mantle simply dissolves into the upper cloud layers. The terrestrial planets possess cores of magnetic elements such as iron and nickel, and mantles of silicates. Jupiter and Saturn are believed to possess cores of rock and metal surrounded by mantles of metallic hydrogen. Uranus and Neptune, which are smaller, possess rocky cores surrounded by mantles of water, ammonia, methane and other ices. The fluid action within these planets' cores creates a geodynamo that generates a magnetic field. Atmosphere Earth's atmosphere All of the Solar System planets have atmospheres as their large masses mean gravity is strong enough to keep gaseous particles close to the surface. The larger gas giants are massive enough to keep large amounts of the light gases hydrogen and helium close by, while the smaller planets lose these gases into space. The composition of the Earth's atmosphere is different from the other planets because the various life processes that have transpired on the planet have introduced free molecular oxygen. The only solar planet without a substantial atmosphere is Mercury which had it mostly, although not entirely, blasted away by the solar wind. Hunten D. M., Shemansky D. E., Morgan T. H. (1988), The Mercury atmosphere, In: Mercury (A89-43751 19–91). University of Arizona Press, pp. 562–612 Planetary atmospheres are affected by the varying degrees of energy received from either the Sun or their interiors, leading to the formation of dynamic weather systems such as hurricanes, (on Earth), planet-wide dust storms (on Mars), an Earth-sized anticyclone on Jupiter (called the Great Red Spot), and holes in the atmosphere (on Neptune). At least one extrasolar planet, HD 189733 b, has been claimed to possess such a weather system, similar to the Great Red Spot but twice as large. Hot Jupiters have been shown to be losing their atmospheres into space due to stellar radiation, much like the tails of comets. These planets may have vast differences in temperature between their day and night sides which produce supersonic winds, although the day and night sides of HD 189733b appear to have very similar temperatures, indicating that that planet's atmosphere effectively redistributes the star's energy around the planet. Magnetosphere Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere One important characteristic of the planets is their intrinsic magnetic moments which in turn give rise to magnetospheres. The presence of a magnetic field indicates that the planet is still geologically alive. In other words, magnetized planets have flows of electrically conducting material in their interiors, which generate their magnetic fields. These fields significantly change the interaction of the planet and solar wind. A magnetized planet creates a cavity in the solar wind around itself called magnetosphere, which the wind cannot penetrate. The magnetosphere can be much larger than the planet itself. In contrast, non-magnetized planets have only small magnetospheres induced by interaction of the ionosphere with the solar wind, which can't effectively protect the planet. Of the eight planets in the Solar System, only Venus and Mars lack such a magnetic field. In addition, the moon of Jupiter Ganymede also has one. Of the magnetized planets the magnetic field of Mercury is the weakest, and is barely able to deflect the solar wind. Ganymede's magnetic field is several times larger, and Jupiter's is the strongest in the Solar System (so strong in fact that it poses a serious health risk to future manned missions to its moons). The magnetic fields of the other giant planets are roughly similar in strength to that of Earth, but their magnetic moments are significantly larger. The magnetic fields of Uranus and Neptune are strongly tilted relative the rotational axis and displaced from the centre of the planet. In 2004, a team of astronomers in Hawaii observed an extrasolar planet around the star HD 179949, which appeared to be creating a sunspot on the surface of its parent star. The team hypothesised that the planet's magnetosphere was transferring energy onto the star's surface, increasing its already high 14,000 degree temperature by an additional 750 degrees. Secondary characteristics Several planets or dwarf planets in the Solar System (such as Neptune and Pluto) have orbital periods that are in resonance with each other or with smaller bodies (this is also common in satellite systems). All except Mercury and Venus have natural satellites, often called "moons." Earth has one, Mars has two, and the gas giants have numerous moons in complex planetary-type systems. Many gas giant moons have similar features to the terrestrial planets and dwarf planets, and some have been studied as possible abodes of life (especially Europa). The rings of Saturn The four gas giants are also orbited by planetary rings of varying size and complexity. The rings are composed primarily of dust or particulate matter, but can host tiny 'moonlets' whose gravity shapes and maintains their structure. Although the origins of planetary rings is not precisely known, they are believed to be the result of natural satellites that fell below their parent planet's Roche limit and were torn apart by tidal forces. No secondary characteristics have been observed around extrasolar planets. However the sub-brown dwarf Cha 110913-773444, which has been described as a rogue planet, is believed to be orbited by a tiny protoplanetary disc. "Planet"-derived terms Terms containing and related to the modern astronomical term 'planet', that are also a term for a type of celestial object. Double planet Dwarf planet Exoplanet - celestial body outside that solar system Mesoplanet Minor planet – celestial body smaller than a planet protoplanet Planemo planetesimal Planetoid Planetar (astronomy) See also Extraterrestrial skies Hypothetical planetary object Landings on other planets Planetary habitability Planetary science Exoplanetology Theoretical planetology Planets in astrology Planets in science fiction Notes This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations; a formal definition agreed by the Union in 2006, and an informal working definition established by the Union in 2003. The 2006 definition, while official, applies only to the Solar System, while the 2003 definition applies to planets around other stars. The extrasolar planet issue was deemed too complex to resolve at the 2006 IAU conference. Referred to by Huygens as a Planetes novus ("new planet") in his Systema Saturnium Both labelled nouvelles planètes (new planets) by Cassini in his Découverte de deux nouvelles planetes autour de Saturne Both once referred to as "planets" by Cassini in his An Extract of the Journal Des Scavans.... The term "satellite", however, had already begun to be used to distinguish such bodies from those around which they orbited ("primary planets"). Recently reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006. Regarded as a planet from its discovery in 1930 until redesignated as a trans-Neptunian dwarf planet in August 2006. References External links International Astronomical Union website Pictures of the Solar System NASA Planet Quest – Exoplanet Exploration Illustration comparing the sizes of the planets with each other, the Sun, and other stars "Regarding the criteria for planethood and proposed planetary classification schemes." article by Stern and Levinson be-x-old:Плянэта	Planet \|@lemmatized top:1 row:2 mar:25 mercury:28 bottom:2 moon:19 dwarf:36 planet:266 pluto:21 haumea:5 scale:3 greek:20 verb:1 planōmai:1 wander:3 celestial:6 body:21 orbit:49 star:53 stellar:9 remnant:3 massive:8 enough:8 round:1 gravity:7 cause:3 thermonuclear:5 fusion:7 clear:9 neighbouring:1 region:3 planetesimal:6 term:9 ancient:11 tie:1 history:3 science:3 myth:1 religion:1 originally:3 see:6 many:19 early:8 culture:3 divine:2 emissary:1 god:20 even:4 today:3 people:3 believe:12 astrology:3 hold:2 movement:2 affect:3 life:3 although:10 causation:1 reject:2 scientific:9 community:3 knowledge:3 advance:2 human:1 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3,370	Fahrenheit	Thermometer with Fahrenheit units on the outer scale and Celsius units on the inner scale Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after the physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736), who proposed it in 1724. Today, the scale has largely been replaced by the Celsius scale; it is still in use for non-scientific purposes in the United States and a few other countries such as Belize, and is sometimes given in weather forecasts and used by older people in the United Kingdom. In the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and the boiling point (at standard atmospheric pressure), placing the boiling and freezing points of water exactly 180 degrees apart. A degree on the Fahrenheit scale is of the interval between the freezing point and the boiling point. On the Celsius scale, the freezing and boiling points of water are 100 degrees apart, hence the unit of this scale. A temperature interval of 1 degree Fahrenheit is equal to an interval of degrees Celsius. The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales converge at −40 degrees (i.e. and represent the same temperature). Absolute zero is . The Rankine temperature scale was created to use degree intervals the same size as those of the Fahrenheit scale, such that a temperature difference of one Rankine is equal to a difference of , except that absolute zero is . History According to Fahrenheit himself in a journal article he wrote in 1724, his scale is based on three reference points of temperature. The zero point is determined by placing the thermometer in brine: he used a mixture of ice, water, and ammonium chloride, a salt. This is a type of frigorific mixture. The mixture automatically stabilizes its temperature at . He then put a thermometer into the mixture and let the liquid in the thermometer descend to its lowest point. The second point is the 32 degree found by putting the thermometer in still water as ice is just forming on the surface. The third point, the 96 degree, was the level of the liquid in the thermometer when held in the mouth or under the armpit. Fahrenheit noted that, using this scale, mercury boils at around 600 degrees. Later, work by other scientists observed that water boils about 180 degrees higher than the freezing point and decided to redefine the degree slightly to make it exactly 180 degrees higher. It is for this reason that normal body temperature is 98.6 on the revised scale (whereas it was 96 on Fahrenheit's original scale). According to a letter Fahrenheit wrote to his friend Herman Boerhaave, Ernst Cohen and W. A. T. Cohen-De Meester. Chemisch Weekblad, volume 33 (1936), pages 374–393, cited and translated in http://www.sizes.com:80/units/temperature_Fahrenheit.htm his scale built on the work of Ole Rømer, whom he had met earlier. In Rømer’s scale, the two fixed reference points are that brine also freezes at 0 degrees and water boils at 60 degrees. He observed that, on this scale, water freezes at 7.5 degrees. Fahrenheit multiplied each value by four in order to eliminate fractions and increase the granularity of the scale (resulting in 30 and 240 degrees, respectively). He then re-calibrated his scale between the freezing point of water and normal human body temperature (which he observed to be 96 degrees); he adjusted the scale so that the melting point of ice would be 32 degrees, so that 64 intervals would separate the two, allowing him to mark degree lines on his instruments by simply bisecting the interval six times (since 64 is 2 to the sixth power). Usage The Fahrenheit scale was the primary temperature standard for climatic, industrial and medical purposes in most English-speaking countries until the 1960s. In the late 1960's and 1970's, the Celsius (formerly centigrade) scale was adopted by most of these countries as part of the standardizing process called metrication. Only in the United States and a few other countries (such as Belize ) does the Fahrenheit system continue to be used, and only for non-scientific use. Most other countries have adopted Celsius as the primary scale in all use, although Fahrenheit continues to be the scale of preference for a minority of people in the UK, particularly when referring to summer temperatures. A lot of Britons are conversant with both Celsius and Fahrenheit. Resistance to the Celsius system was partly due to the larger size of each degree Celsius, resulting in the need for fractions, where integral Fahrenheit degrees were adequate for much technical work. The lower zero point in the Fahrenheit system reduced the number of negative signs when measurements such as weather data was averaged. Halsey, Frederick A., Dale, Sanuel S., "The metric fallacy," The American institute of weights and measures, Second Edition, 1919. Pages 165-166, 176-177. Retrieved May 19, 2009 The special Unicode "℉" character The Fahrenheit symbol has its own Unicode character: "℉" (U+2109). This is a compatibility character encoded for roundtrip compatibility with legacy CJK encodings (which included it to conform to layout in square ideographic character cells) and vertical layout. Use of compatibility characters is discouraged by the Unicode Consortium. The ordinary degree sign (U+00B0) followed by the Latin letter F ("°F") is thus the preferred way of recording the symbol for degree Fahrenheit. Temperatures and intervals As with the Celsius scale, the same symbol, "°", is used to denote both a point on the temperature scale, with a letter (C, F) indicating which scale is being used (e.g. "Gallium melts at "), and to denote a difference between temperatures or an uncertainty of temperature (e.g. "The output of the heat exchanger is hotter by " and "Our standard uncertainty is "). 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3,371	Iridium	Iridium () is the chemical element with atomic number 77, and is represented by the symbol Ir. A very hard, brittle, silvery-white transition metal of the platinum family, iridium is the second densest element and is the most corrosion-resistant metal, even at temperatures as high as 2000 °C. Although only certain molten salts and halogens are corrosive to solid iridium, finely divided iridium dust is much more reactive and can even be flammable. The most important iridium compounds in terms of use are the salts and acids it forms with chlorine, though iridium also forms a number of organometallic compounds used in catalysis and in research. 191Ir and 193Ir are the only two naturally occurring isotopes of iridium as well as the only stable isotopes; the latter is the more abundant of the two. Iridium was discovered in 1803 by Smithson Tennant among insoluble impurities in natural platinum from South America. It is one of the rarest elements in the Earth's crust, with annual production and consumption of only three tonnes. However, iridium does find a number of specialized industrial and scientific applications. Iridium is employed when high corrosion resistance and high temperatures are needed, as in spark plugs, crucibles for recrystallization of semiconductors at high temperatures, electrodes for the production of chlorine in the chloralkali process, and radioisotope thermoelectric generators used in unmanned spacecraft. Iridium compounds also find applications as catalysts for the production of acetic acid. Iridium has been linked with the extinction of the dinosaurs and many other species 65 million years ago. The unusually high abundance of iridium in the clays of the K–T geologic boundary was a crucial clue that led to the theory that the extinction was caused by the impact of a massive extraterrestrial object with Earth—the so-called Alvarez hypothesis. Iridium is found in meteorites with an abundance much higher than its average abundance in the Earth's crust. It is thought that due to the high density and siderophilic ("iron-loving") character of iridium, most of the iridium on Earth is found in the inner core of the planet. Characteristics One of the lesser-known members of the platinum group metals, iridium is white, resembling platinum, but with a slight yellowish cast. It possesses quite remarkable chemical and physical properties. Due to its hardness, brittleness, and very high melting point (the tenth highest of all elements), solid iridium is difficult to machine, form, or work, and thus powder metallurgy is commonly employed instead. It is the only metal to maintain good mechanical properties in air at temperatures above 1600 °C. Iridium has a very high boiling point (11th among all elements) and becomes a superconductor under 0.14 K. 1 troy ounce of arc-melted iridium Iridium is the most corrosion-resistant metal known: it is not attacked by any acid, by aqua regia, by any molten metals, or by silicates at high temperatures. It can, however, be attacked by some molten salts, such as sodium cyanide and potassium cyanide, as well as oxygen and the halogens (particularly fluorine) at higher temperatures. Iridium's modulus of elasticity is the second highest among the metals, only being surpassed by osmium. This, together with a high modulus of rigidity and a very low figure for Poisson's ratio (the relationship of longitudinal to lateral strain), indicate the high degree of stiffness and resistance to deformation that have rendered its fabrication into useful components a matter of great difficulty over the long period since its discovery. Despite these limitations and iridium's high cost, a number of applications have developed later where mechanical strength is an essential factor in some of the extremely severe conditions encountered in modern technology. The measured density of iridium is only slightly lower (by about 0.1%) than that of osmium, the densest element known. There has been some ambiguity regarding which element is denser, due to the small size of the difference in density and the difficulty in measuring it accurately, but the best available calculations from X-ray crystallographic data give densities of 22.56 g/cm3 for iridium and 22.59 g/cm3 for osmium. Isotopes Iridium has two naturally occurring, stable isotopes, 191Ir and 193Ir, with natural abundances of 37.3% and 62.7%, respectively. At least 34 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in mass number from 164 to 199. Twenty-seven of these are lighter than the stable isotopes, whereas only six are heavier. 192Ir, which falls between the two stable isotopes, is the most stable radioisotope, with a half-life of 73.827 days, and finds application in brachytherapy. Three other isotopes have half-lives of at least a day—188Ir, 189Ir, 190Ir. One of the least stable isotopes is 165Ir with a half-life of 1 µs. Isotopes with masses below 191 decay by some combination of β+ decay, α decay, and proton emission, with the exceptions of 189Ir, which decays by electron capture, and 190Ir, which decays by positron emission. Synthetic isotopes heavier than 191 decay by β− decay, although 192Ir also has a minor electron capture decay path. All known isotopes of iridium were discovered between 1934 and 2001; the most recent is 171Ir. At least 32 metastable isomers have been characterized, ranging in mass number from 164 to 197. The most stable of these is 192m2Ir, which decays by isomeric transition with a half-life of 241 years, making it more stable than any of iridium's synthetic isotopes in their ground states. The least stable isomer is 190m3Ir with a half-life of only 2 µs. The isotope 191Ir was the first one of any element to be shown to present a Mössbauer effect. This renders it useful for Mössbauer spectroscopy for research in physics, chemistry, biochemistry, metallurgy, and mineralogy. Compounds Oxidation statesof iridium Common oxidation states are in bold. −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 Iridium forms compounds in the oxidation states of −3 and all in the range from −1 to +6; the most common oxidation states are +3 and +4. Well-characterized examples of the highest oxidation state are rare, but include and two mixed oxides and . Iridium dioxide, , a brown powder, is the only well-characterized oxide of iridium. A sesquioxide, , has been described as a blue-black powder which is oxidized to by . The corresponding disulfides, diselenides, sesquisulfides and sesquiselenides are known and has also been reported. Iridium also forms iridates with oxidation states +4 and +5, such as K2IrO3 and KIrO3, which can be prepared from the reaction of potassium oxide or potassium superoxide with iridium at high temperatures. While no binary hydrides of iridium, are known, complexes are known that contain 4− and 3−, where iridium has the +1 and +3 oxidation states, respectively. The ternary hydride is believed to contain both the 4− and the 18-electron 5− anion. No monohalides or dihalides are known, whereas trihalides, IrX3, are known for all of the halogens. For oxidation states +4 and above, only the tetrafluoride, pentafluoride and hexafluoride are known. Iridium hexafluoride, IrF6, is a volatile and highly reactive yellow solid, composed of octahedral molecules. It decomposes in water and is reduced to IrF4, a crystalline solid, by iridium black. Iridium pentafluoride has similar properties but it is actually a tetramer, , formed by four corner-sharing octahedra. left\| Vaska's complex Hexachloroiridic(IV) acid, , and its ammonium salt are the most important iridium compounds from an industrial perspective. They are involved in the purification of iridium and used as precursors for most other iridium compounds, as well as in the preparation of anode coatings. The [IrCl6]2− ion has an intense dark brown color, and can be readily reduced to the lighter-colored [IrCl6]3− and vice versa. Iridium trichloride, IrCl3, which can be obtained in anhydrous form from direct oxidation of iridium powder by chlorine at 650 °C, or in hydrated form by dissolving Ir2O3 in hydrochloric acid, is often used as a starting material for the synthesis of other Ir(III) compounds. Another compound used as a starting material is ammonium hexachloroiridate(III), (. Iridium(III) complexes are diamagnetic (low-spin) and generally have an octahedral molecular geometry. Organoiridium compounds contain iridium–carbon bonds where the metal is usually in lower oxidation states. For example, oxidation state zero is found in tetrairidium dodecacarbonyl, , which is the most common and stable binary carbonyl of iridium. In this compound, each of the iridium atoms is bonded to the other three, forming a tetrahedral cluster. Some organometallic Ir(I) compounds are notable enough to be named after their discoverers. One is Vaska's complex, , which has the unusual property of binding to the dioxygen molecule, O2. Another one is Crabtree's catalyst, a homogeneous catalyst for hydrogenation reactions. These compounds are both square planar, d8 complexes, with a total of 16 valence electrons, which accounts for their reactivity. Occurrence The Willamette meteorite, the largest meteorite found in the U.S., has 4.7 ppm iridium. Iridium is one of the least abundant elements in the Earth's crust; with an average mass fraction of 0.001 ppm in crustal rock, it is 4 times less abundant than gold, 10 times less abundant than platinum, and 80 times less abundant than silver and mercury. Tellurium is about as abundant as iridium, and only three naturally occurring elements are less abundant: rhenium, ruthenium, and rhodium, the last two being 10 times less abundant than iridium. In contrast to its low abundance in crustal rock, iridium is relatively common in meteorites, with concentrations of 0.5 ppm or more. It is thought that the overall concentration of iridium on Earth is much higher than what is observed in crustal rocks, but because of the density and siderophilic ("iron-loving") character of iridium, it descended below the crust and into the Earth's core at a time when the planet was young and still molten. Iridium is found in nature as an uncombined element or in natural alloys; especially the iridium–osmium alloys, osmiridium (osmium rich), and iridiosmium (iridium rich). In the nickel and copper deposits the platinum group metals occur as sulfides (i.e. (Pt,Pd)S)), tellurides (i.e. PtBiTe), antimonides (PdSb), and arsenides (i.e. PtAs2), in all of these compounds platinum is exchanged by a small amount of iridium and osmium. As with all of the platinum group metals, iridium can be found naturally in alloys with raw nickel or raw copper. Within the Earth's crust, iridium is found at highest concentrations in three types of geologic structure: igneous deposits (crustal intrusions from below), impact craters, and deposits reworked from one of the former structures. The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld igneous complex in South Africa, though the large copper–nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia, and the Sudbury Basin in Canada are also significant sources of iridium. Smaller reserves can be found in the United States. Iridium is also found in secondary deposits, combined with platinum and other platinum group metals in alluvial deposits. The alluvial deposits used by pre-Columbian people in the Chocó Department, Colombia are still a source for platinum group metals. By 2003 the total world reserve amounts have not been estimated. K–T boundary presence The red arrow points to the K–T boundary. The K–T boundary of 65 million years ago, marking the temporal border between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods of geological time, was identified by a thin stratum of iridium-rich clay. A team led by Luis Alvarez proposed in 1980 an extraterrestrial origin for this iridium, attributing it to an asteroid or comet impact. Their theory, known as the Alvarez hypothesis, is now widely accepted to explain the demise of the dinosaurs. A large buried impact crater structure with an estimated age of about 65 million years was later identified under what is now the Yucatán Peninsula (the Chicxulub crater). Dewey M. McLean and others argue that the iridium may have been of volcanic origin instead, as the Earth's core is rich in iridium, and active volcanoes such as Piton de la Fournaise, in the island of Réunion, are still releasing iridium. History The Greek goddess Iris, after whom Iridium was named. The discovery of iridium is intertwined with that of platinum and the other metals of the platinum group. Native platinum used by ancient Ethiopians and by South American cultures always contained a small amount of the other platinum group metals, including iridium. Platinum reached Europe as platina ("small silver"), found in the 17th century by the Spanish conquerors in a region today known as Department of Chocó, in Colombia. The discovery that this metal was not an alloy of known elements, but instead a distinct new element, did not occur until 1748. Chemists who studied platinum dissolved it in aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids) to create soluble salts. They always observed a small amount of a dark, insoluble residue. Joseph Louis Proust thought that the residue was graphite. The French chemists Victor Collet-Descotils, Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin also observed the black residue in 1803, but did not obtain enough for further experiments. In 1803, British scientist Smithson Tennant analyzed the insoluble residue and concluded that it must contain a new metal. Vauquelin treated the powder alternatively with alkali and acids and obtained a volatile new oxide, which he believed to be of this new metal—which he named ptene, from the Greek word (ptènos) for winged. However, Tennant, who had the advantage of a much greater amount of residue, continued his research and identified the two previously undiscovered elements in the black residue, iridium and osmium. He obtained dark red crystals (probably of ]·n) by a sequence of reactions with sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid. He named iridium after Iris (), the Greek winged goddess of the rainbow and the messenger of the Olympian gods, because many of the salts he obtained were strongly colored. Iridium literally means "of rainbows". Discovery of the new elements was documented in a letter to the Royal Society on June 21, 1804. British scientist John George Children was the first to melt a sample of iridium in 1813 with the aid of "the greatest galvanic battery that has ever been constructed" (at that time). The first to obtain high purity iridium was Robert Hare in 1842. He found that it had a density of around 21.8 g/cm3 and noted that the metal is nearly unmalleable and very hard. The first melting in appreciable quantity was done by Henri Sainte-Claire Deville and Jules Henri Debray in 1860. They required burning more than 300 L of pure and for each kilogram of iridium. These extreme difficulties in melting the metal limited the possibilities for handling iridium. John Isaac Hawkins was looking to obtain a fine and hard point for fountain pen nibs and in 1834 managed to create an iridium-pointed gold pen. In 1880, John Holland and William Lofland Dudley were able to melt iridium by adding phosphorus and patented the process in the United States; British company Johnson Matthey later stated that they had been using a similar process since 1837 and had already presented fused iridium at a number of World Fairs. The first use of an alloy of iridium with ruthenium in thermocouples was made by Otto Feussner in 1933. These allowed for the measurement of high temperatures in air, up to 2000 °C. In 1957, Rudolf Mössbauer, in what has been called one of the "landmark experiments in twentieth century physics", discovered the resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption of gamma rays by atoms in a solid metal sample containing only 191Ir. This phenomenon, known as the Mössbauer effect, has since been observed for other nuclei, such as 57Fe, and, developed as Mössbauer spectroscopy, has made important contributions to research in physics, chemistry, biochemistry, metallurgy, and mineralogy. Mössbauer received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1961, just three years after he published his discovery. Production Year Price($/ozt) 2001 415.252002 294.622003 93.022004 185.332005 169.512006 349.452007 440.00 Iridium is obtained commercially as a by-product from nickel and copper mining and processing. During electrorefining of copper and nickel, noble metals such as silver, gold and the platinum group metals as well as selenium and tellurium settle to the bottom of the cell as anode mud, which forms the starting point for their extraction. In order to separate the metals, they must first be brought into solution. Several methods are available depending on the separation process and the composition of the mixture; two representative methods are fusion with sodium peroxide followed by dissolution in aqua regia, and dissolution in a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric acid. \|Iridium powder After it is dissolved, iridium is separated from the other platinum group metals by precipitating (NH4)2IrCl6 or by extracting [IrCl6]2− with organic amines. The first method is similar to the procedure Tennant and Wollastone used for their separation. The second method can be planned as continuous liquid–liquid extraction and is therefore more suitable for industrial scale production. In either case, the product is reduced using hydrogen, yielding the metal as a powder or sponge that can be treated using powder metallurgy techniques. Annual production of iridium circa 2000 was around 3 tonnes or about 100,000 troy ounces (ozt). Like other precious metals, iridium is customarily traded in troy ounces, which are equivalent to about 31.1 grams. The price of iridium as of 2007 was $440 USD/ozt, but the price fluctuates considerably, as shown in the table. The high volatility of the prices of the platinum group metals has been attributed to supply, demand, speculation, and hoarding, amplified by the small size of the market and instability in the producing countries. Applications The global demand for iridium in 2007 was 119,000 troy ounces (3,700 kg), out of which 25,000 ozt (780 kg) were used for electrical applications such as spark plugs; 34,000 ozt (1,100 kg) for electrochemical applications such as electrodes for the chloralkali process; 24,000 ozt (750 kg) for catalysis; and 36,000 ozt (1,100 kg) for other uses. Industrial The high melting point, hardness and corrosion resistance of iridium and its alloys determine most of its applications. Iridium and especially iridium–platinum alloys or osmium–iridium alloys have a low wear and are used, for example, for multi-pored spinnerets, through which a plastic polymer melt is extruded to form fibers, such as rayon. Osmium–iridium is used for compass bearings and for balances. Corrosion and heat resistance makes iridium an important alloying agent. Certain long-life aircraft engine parts are made of an iridium alloy and an iridium–titanium alloy is used for deep-water pipes because of its corrosion resistance. Iridium is also used as a hardening agent in platinum alloys. The Vickers hardness of pure platinum is 56 HV while platinum with 50% of iridium can reach over 500 HV. Devices that must withstand extremely high temperatures are often made from iridium. For example, high-temperature crucibles made of iridium are used in the Czochralski process to produce oxide single-crystals (such as sapphires) for use in computer memory devices and in solid state lasers. The crystals, such as gadolinium gallium garnet and yttrium gallium garnet, are grown by melting pre-sintered charges of mixed oxides under oxidizing conditions at temperatures up to 2100 °C. Its resistance to arc erosion makes iridium alloys ideal for electrical contacts for spark plugs. Iridium compounds are used as catalysts in the Cativa process for carbonylation of methanol to produce acetic acid. Iridium itself is used as a catalyst in a type of automobile engine introduced in 1996 called the direct-ignition engine. Iridium is commonly used in complexes like Ir(mppy)3 and other complexes in organic light emitting diode technology to increase the efficiency from 25% to almost 100% due to triplet harvesting. One of the major uses for these family of complexes have been the flat panel displays that are found in televisions or monitors. Scientific and medical thumb \| International prototype meter bar An alloy of 90% platinum and 10% iridium was used in 1889 to construct the International Prototype Meter and kilogram mass, kept by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris. The meter bar was replaced as the definition of the fundamental unit of length in 1960 by a line in the atomic spectrum of krypton, The definition of the meter was changed again in 1983. The meter is currently defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of of a second. but the kilogram prototype is still the international standard of mass. Iridium has been used in the radioisotope thermoelectric generators of unmanned spacecraft such as the Voyager, Viking, Pioneer, Cassini, Galileo, and New Horizons. Iridium was chosen to encapsulate the plutonium-238 fuel in the generator because it can withstand the operating temperatures of up to 2000 °C and for its great strength. Another use concerns X-ray optics, especially X-ray telescopes. The mirrors of the Chandra X-ray Observatory are coated with a layer of iridium 60 nm thick. Iridium proved to be the best choice for reflecting X-rays after nickel, gold, and platinum were tested. The iridium layer, which had to be smooth to within a few atoms, was applied by depositing iridium vapor under high vacuum on a base layer of chromium. Iridium is used in particle physics for the production of antiprotons, a form of antimatter. Antiprotons are made by shooting a high-intensity proton beam at a conversion target, which needs to be made from a very high density material. Although tungsten may be used instead, iridium has the advantage of better stability under the shock waves induced by the temperature rise due to the incident beam. An example of oxidative addition to hydrocarbons discovered in 1982 (Cp* = pentamethylcyclopentadienyl) Carbon–hydrogen bond activation (C–H activation) is an area of research that investigates reactions that cleave carbon–hydrogen bonds, which were traditionally regarded as unreactive. The first reported successes at activating C–H bonds in saturated hydrocarbons, published in 1982, used organometallic iridium complexes that undergo an oxidative addition with the hydrocarbon. Iridium complexes are being investigated as catalysts for asymmetric hydrogenation. These catalysts have been used in the synthesis of natural products and able to hydrogenate certain difficult substrates, such as unfunctionalized alkenes, enantioselectively (generationg only one of the two possible enantiomers). The radioisotope iridium-192 is used as a radiography source for non-destructive testing of materials. Additionally, 192Ir is used as a source of gamma radiation for the treatment of cancer using brachytherapy, a form of radiotherapy where a sealed radioactive source is placed inside or next to the area requiring treatment. Specific treatments include high dose rate prostate brachytherapy, bilary duct brachytherapy, and intracavitary cervix brachytherapy. Historical 150px \| thumb \| Fountain pen nib labeled Iridium Point Iridium–osmium alloys were used to tip fountain pen nibs. The first major use of iridium was in 1834 in nibs mounted on gold. Since 1944, the famous Parker 51 fountain pen was fitted with a nib tipped by a ruthenium and iridium alloy (with 3.8% iridium). The tip material in modern fountain pens is still conventionally called "iridium," although there is seldom any iridium in it; other metals such as tungsten have taken its place. An iridium–platinum alloy was used for the touch holes or vent pieces of cannons. According to a report of the Paris Exhibition of 1867, one of the pieces being exhibited by Johnson and Matthey "has been used in a Withworth gun for more than 3000 rounds, and scarcely shows signs of wear yet. Those who know the constant trouble and expense which are occasioned by the wearing of the vent-pieces of cannon when in active service, will appreciate this important adaptation". The pigment iridium black, which consists of very finely divided iridium, is used for painting porcelain an intense black; it was said that "all other porcelain black colors appear grey by the side of it". Precautions Iridium in bulk metallic form is not biologically important or hazardous to health due to its lack of reactivity with tissues; there are only about 20 parts per trillion of iridium in human tissue. However, finely divided iridium powder can be hazardous to handle, as it is an irritant and may ignite in air. Very little is known about the toxicity of iridium compounds because they are used in very small amounts, but soluble salts, such as the iridium halides, could be hazardous due to elements other than iridium or due to iridium itself. However, most iridium compounds are insoluble, which makes absorption into the body difficult. A radioisotope of iridium, 192Ir, is dangerous like other radioactive isotopes. The only reported injuries related to iridium concern accidental exposure to radiation from 192Ir used in brachytherapy. High-energy gamma radiation from 192Ir can increase the risk of cancer. External exposure can cause burns, radiation poisoning, and death. Ingestion of 192Ir can burn the linings of the stomach and the intestines. 192Ir, 192mIr, and 194mIr tend to deposit in the liver, and can pose health hazards from both gamma and beta radiation. Notes References External links WebElements.com: Iridium	Iridium \|@lemmatized iridium:138 chemical:2 element:16 atomic:2 number:7 represent:1 symbol:1 ir:4 hard:3 brittle:1 silvery:1 white:2 transition:2 metal:28 platinum:27 family:2 second:4 densest:1 corrosion:6 resistant:2 even:2 temperature:13 high:31 c:8 although:4 certain:3 molten:3 salt:7 halogen:3 corrosive:1 solid:6 finely:3 divide:2 dust:1 much:4 reactive:2 flammable:1 important:6 compound:17 term:1 use:40 acid:10 form:14 chlorine:4 though:2 also:10 organometallic:3 catalysis:2 research:5 two:9 naturally:4 occur:5 isotope:14 well:6 stable:10 latter:1 abundant:8 discover:4 smithson:2 tennant:4 among:3 insoluble:4 impurity:1 natural:4 south:3 america:1 one:12 rare:2 earth:9 crust:5 annual:2 production:7 consumption:1 three:6 tonne:2 however:5 find:15 specialized:1 industrial:4 scientific:2 application:8 employ:2 resistance:6 need:2 spark:3 plug:3 crucible:2 recrystallization:1 semiconductor:1 electrode:2 chloralkali:2 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3,372	Chemical_formula	A chemical formula is a way of expressing information about the atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound, and how the relationship between those atoms changes in chemical reactions. For molecular compounds it is also known as the molecular formula, and identifies each constituent element by its chemical symbol and indicates the number of atoms of each element found in each discrete molecule of that compound. If a molecule contains more than one atom of a particular element, this quantity is indicated using a subscript after the chemical symbol (although 19th-century books often used superscripts). For ionic compounds and other non-molecular substances, the subscripts indicate the ratio of elements in the empirical formula. The 19th-century Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius worked out this system for writing chemical formulas. Chemical formulas may be used in chemical equations to describe chemical reactions. Molecular geometry and structural formula The exact connectivity among the atoms in a molecule and/or the exact spacial arrangement of those atoms is of utmost importance. Two molecules composed of the same numbers of the same types of atoms might have completely different chemical and/or physical properties if the atoms are connected differently or in different positions. Thus, sometimes one needs to use a structural formula to illustrate which atoms are bonded to which other ones and somehow describe the resulting molecular geometry of the compound. For example methane, a simple molecule consisting of one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms, has the chemical formula: CH4 or H4C and glucose with six carbon atoms, twelve hydrogen atoms and six oxygen atoms has the chemical formula: C6H12O6. A chemical formula supplies information about the types and spatial arrangement of bonds in the chemical, though it does not necessarily specify the exact isomer. For example ethane consists of two carbon atoms single-bonded to each other, with each carbon atom having three hydrogen atoms bonded to it. Its chemical formula can be rendered as CH3CH3. In ethylene there is a double bond between the carbon atoms (and thus each carbon only has two hydrogens), therefore the chemical formula may be written: CH2CH2, and the fact that there is a double bond between the carbons is implicit because carbon has a valence of four. However, a more explicit and correct method is to write H2C=CH2 or less commonly H2C::CH2. The two lines (or two pairs of dots) indicate that a double bond connects the atoms on either side of them. A triple bond may be expressed with three lines or pairs of dots, and if there may be ambiguity, a single line or pair of dots may be used to indicate a single bond. Carbon chain Molecules with multiple functional groups that are the same may be expressed in the following way: (CH3)3CH. However, this implies a different structure from other molecules that can be formed using the same atoms (isomers). The formula (CH3)3CH implies a chain of three carbon atoms, with the middle carbon atom bonded to another carbon (see image of 4 carbon "C" atoms), and the remaining bonds on the carbons all leading to hydrogen atoms (hydrogen atoms are not shown in image). However, the same number of atoms (10 hydrogens and 4 carbons, or C4H10) may be used to make a straight chain: CH3CH2CH2CH3. The alkene but-2-ene has two isomers which the chemical formula CH3CH=CHCH3 does not identify. The relative position of the two methyl groups must be indicated by additional notation denoting whether the methyl groups are on the same side of the double bond (cis or Z) or on the opposite sides from each other (trans or E). Polymers For polymers, parentheses are placed around the repeating unit. For example, a hydrocarbon molecule that is described as: CH3(CH2)50CH3, is a molecule with fifty repeating units. If the number of repeating units is unknown or variable, the letter n may be used to indicate this: CH3(CH2)nCH3. Ions For ions, the charge on a particular atom may be denoted with a right-hand superscript. For example Na+, or Cu2+. The total charge on a charged molecule or a polyatomic ion may also be shown in this way. For example: hydronium, H3O+ or sulfate, SO42-. For more complex ions, brackets [ ] are often used to enclose the ionic formula, as in [B12H12]2-. Parentheses ( ) can be nested inside brackets to indicate a repeating unit, as in [Co(NH3)6]3+. Here (NH3)6 indicates that the ion contains six NH3 groups, and [ ] encloses the entire formula of the ion with charge +3. Isotopes Although isotopes are more relevant to nuclear chemistry or stable isotope chemistry than to conventional chemistry, different isotopes may be indicated with a left-hand superscript in a chemical formula. For example, the phosphate ion containing radioactive phosphorus-32 is 32PO43-. Also a study involving stable isotope ratios might include the molecule 18O16O. A left-hand subscript is sometimes used redundantly to indicate the atomic number. For example, 8O2 for dioxygen, and 168O2 for the most abundant isotopic species of dioxygen. This is convenient when writing equations for nuclear reactions, in order to show the balance of charge more clearly. Empirical formula In chemistry, the empirical formula of a chemical is a simple expression of the relative number of each type of atom or ratio of the elements in the compound. Empirical formulas are the standard for ionic compounds, such as CaCl2, and for macromolecules, such as SiO2. An empirical formula makes no reference to isomerism, structure, or absolute number of atoms. The term empirical refers to the process of elemental analysis, a technique of analytical chemistry used to determine the relative percent composition of a pure chemical substance by element. For example hexane has a molecular formula of C6H14, or structurally CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3, implying that it has a chain structure of 6 carbon atoms, and 14 hydrogen atoms. However, the empirical formula for hexane is C3H7. Likewise the empirical formula for hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, is simply HO expressing the 1:1 ratio of component elements. Trapped atoms The @ symbol ("at") indicates an atom or molecule trapped inside a cage but not chemically bound to it. This notation became popular in the 1990s with the discovery of fullerene cages, which can trap atoms such as La to form La@C60 or La@C82 for example. A non-fullerene example is [As@Ni12As20]3-, an ion in which one As atom is trapped in a cage formed by the other 32 atoms. Non-stoichiometric formulas Main article: Non-stoichiometric compound Chemical formulas most often use integers for each element. However, there is a whole class of compounds, called non-stoichiometric compounds, that cannot be represented by small integers. Such a formula might be written using decimal fractions, as in Fe0.95O, or it might include a variable part represented by a letter, as in Fe1–xO, where x is normally much less than 1. General forms for organic compounds Chemical formula used for a series of compounds that differ from each other by a constant unit is called general formula. Such a series is called the homologous series, while its members are called homologs. Hill System The Hill system is a system of writing chemical formulas such that the number of carbon atoms in a molecule is indicated first, the number of hydrogen atoms next, and then the number of all other chemical elements subsequently, in alphabetical order. When the formula contains no carbon, all the elements, including hydrogen, are listed alphabetically. This deterministic system enables straightforward sorting and searching of compounds. References Ralph S. Petrucci, William S. Harwood and F. Geoffrey Herring, General Chemistry, 8th Edition (Prentice-Hall 2002), chapter 3. See also Periodic table Element symbol Structural formula	Chemical_formula \|@lemmatized chemical:24 formula:32 way:3 express:4 information:2 atom:38 constitute:1 particular:3 compound:13 relationship:1 change:1 reaction:3 molecular:6 also:4 know:1 identifies:1 constituent:1 element:11 symbol:4 indicate:13 number:10 find:1 discrete:1 molecule:13 contain:4 one:5 quantity:1 use:14 subscript:3 although:2 century:2 book:1 often:3 superscript:3 ionic:3 non:5 substance:2 ratio:4 empirical:8 swedish:1 chemist:1 jöns:1 jakob:1 berzelius:1 work:1 system:5 write:6 may:11 equation:2 describe:3 geometry:2 structural:3 exact:3 connectivity:1 among:1 spacial:1 arrangement:2 utmost:1 importance:1 two:7 compose:1 type:3 might:4 completely:1 different:4 physical:1 property:1 connect:2 differently:1 position:2 thus:2 sometimes:2 need:1 illustrate:1 bond:13 somehow:1 result:1 example:10 methane:1 simple:2 consist:2 carbon:18 four:2 hydrogen:11 glucose:1 six:3 twelve:1 oxygen:1 supply:1 spatial:1 though:1 necessarily:1 specify:1 isomer:3 ethane:1 single:3 three:3 render:1 ethylene:1 double:4 therefore:1 fact:1 implicit:1 valence:1 however:5 explicit:1 correct:1 method:1 less:2 commonly:1 line:3 pair:3 dot:3 either:1 side:3 triple:1 ambiguity:1 chain:4 multiple:1 functional:1 group:4 following:1 imply:2 structure:3 form:4 implies:1 middle:1 another:1 see:2 image:2 c:1 remain:1 lead:1 show:3 make:2 straight:1 alkene:1 ene:1 identify:1 relative:3 methyl:2 must:1 additional:1 notation:2 denote:2 whether:1 ci:1 z:1 opposite:1 trans:1 e:1 polymer:2 parenthesis:2 place:1 around:1 repeat:3 unit:5 hydrocarbon:1 fifty:1 unknown:1 variable:2 letter:2 n:1 ion:8 charge:5 right:1 hand:3 na:1 total:1 polyatomic:1 hydronium:1 sulfate:1 complex:1 bracket:2 enclose:2 nest:1 inside:2 repeating:1 co:1 entire:1 isotope:5 relevant:1 nuclear:2 chemistry:6 stable:2 conventional:1 left:2 phosphate:1 radioactive:1 phosphorus:1 study:1 involve:1 include:3 redundantly:1 atomic:1 dioxygen:2 abundant:1 isotopic:1 specie:1 convenient:1 order:2 balance:1 clearly:1 expression:1 standard:1 macromolecule:1 reference:2 isomerism:1 absolute:1 term:1 refers:1 process:1 elemental:1 analysis:1 technique:1 analytical:1 determine:1 percent:1 composition:1 pure:1 hexane:2 structurally:1 likewise:1 peroxide:1 simply:1 ho:1 component:1 trap:4 cage:3 chemically:1 bound:1 become:1 popular:1 discovery:1 fullerene:2 la:3 stoichiometric:3 main:1 article:1 integer:2 whole:1 class:1 call:4 cannot:1 represent:2 small:1 decimal:1 fraction:1 part:1 xo:1 x:1 normally:1 much:1 general:3 organic:1 series:3 differ:1 constant:1 homologous:1 member:1 homologs:1 hill:2 first:1 next:1 subsequently:1 alphabetical:1 list:1 alphabetically:1 deterministic:1 enable:1 straightforward:1 sort:1 search:1 ralph:1 petrucci:1 william:1 harwood:1 f:1 geoffrey:1 herring:1 edition:1 prentice:1 hall:1 chapter:1 periodic:1 table:1 \|@bigram jöns_jakob:1 jakob_berzelius:1 utmost_importance:1 carbon_atom:9 hydrogen_atom:7 polyatomic_ion:1 stable_isotope:2 analytical_chemistry:1 hydrogen_peroxide:1 stoichiometric_compound:2 decimal_fraction:1 organic_compound:1 alphabetical_order:1 prentice_hall:1 periodic_table:1
3,373	Aromatic_hydrocarbon	An aromatic hydrocarbon (abbreviated as AH) or arene Definition IUPAC Gold Book Link is a hydrocarbon, of which the molecular structure incorporates one or more planar sets of six carbon atoms that are connected by delocalised electrons numbering the same as if they consisted of alternating single and double covalent bonds. The term 'aromatic' was assigned before the physical mechanism determining aromaticity was discovered, and was derived from the fact that many of the compounds have a sweet scent. The configuration of six carbon atoms in aromatic compounds is known as a benzene ring, after the simplest possible such hydrocarbon, benzene. Aromatic hydrocarbons can be monocyclic or polycyclic. Some non-benzene-based compounds called heteroarenes, which follow Hückel's rule, are also aromatic compounds. In these compounds, at least one carbon atom is replaced by one of the heteroatoms oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. Examples of non-benzene compounds with aromatic properties are furan, a heterocyclic compound with a five-membered ring that includes an oxygen atom, and pyridine, a heterocyclic compound with a six-membered ring containing one nitrogen atom. HighBeam Encyclopedia: aromatic compound Benzene ring model Benzene Benzene, C6H6, is the simplest AH and was recognized as the first aromatic hydrocarbon, with the nature of its bonding first being recognized by Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz in the 19th century. Each carbon atom in the hexagonal cycle has four electrons to share. One goes to the hydrogen atom, and one each to the two neighboring carbons. This leaves one to share with one of its two neighboring carbon atoms, which is why the benzene molecule is drawn with alternating single and double bonds around the hexagon. The structure is also illustrated as a circle around the inside of the ring to show six electrons floating around in delocalized molecular orbitals the size of the ring itself. This also represents the equivalent nature of the six carbon-carbon bonds all of bond order ~1.5. This equivalency is well explained by resonance forms. The electrons are visualized as floating above and below the ring with the electromagnetic fields they generate acting to keep the ring flat. General properties: Display aromaticity. The carbon-hydrogen ratio is high. They burn with a sooty yellow flame because of the high carbon-hydrogen ratio. They undergo electrophilic substitution reactions and nucleophilic aromatic substitutions. The circle symbol for aromaticity was introduced by Sir Robert Robinson in 1925 and popularized starting in 1959 by the Morrison & Boyd textbook on organic chemistry. The proper use of the symbol is debated, it is used to describe any cyclic pi system in some publications, or only those pi systems that obey Hückel's rule on others. Jensen The Origin of the Circle Symbol for Aromaticity by William B. Jensen 424 Journal of Chemical Education Vol. 86 No. 4 April 2009 argues that in line with Robinson's original proposal, the use of the circle symbol should be limited to monocyclic 6 pi-electron systems. In this way the circle symbol for a 6c–6e bond can be compared to the Y symbol for a 3c–2e bond. Arene synthesis Many laboratory methods exist for the organic synthesis of arenes from non-arene precursors: Alkyne trimerization, [2+2+2] cyclization of three alkynes Dötz reaction Diels-Alder reactions of alkynes with pyrone or cyclopentadienone with expulsion of carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide. Aromatization of cyclohexanes and other aliphatic rings: reagents are, catalysts used in hydrogenation such as platinum, palladium and nickel (reverse hydrogenation), quinones and the elements sulfur and selenium Jerry March Advanced Organic Chemistry 3Ed., ISBN 0-471-85472-7 . Bergman cyclization, enyne plus hydrogen donor Arene reactions The main arene reactions are Electrophilic aromatic substitution Nucleophilic aromatic substitution Many coupling reactions to biraryls Hydrogenation to saturated rings The compound 1-naphthol is completely reduced to a mixture of decalin-ol isomers. Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 6, p.371 (1988); Vol. 51, p.103 (1971). http://orgsynth.org/orgsyn/pdfs/CV6P0371.pdf 1-naphthol hydrogenation The compound resorcinol, hydrogenated with Raney nickel in presence of aqeous sodium hydroxide forms an enolate which is alkylated with methyl iodide to 2-methyl-1,3-cyclohexandione: Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 5, p.743 (1973); Vol. 41, p.56 (1961). http://orgsynth.org/orgsyn/pdfs/CV5P0567.pdf Resorcinol Hydrogenation Lesser-known reactions: Unusual thermal Diels-Alder reactivity of arenes can be found in the Wagner-Jauregg reaction Other photochemical cycloaddition reactions with alkenes through excimers. Benzene and derivatives of benzene Toluene Benzene derivatives have from one to six substituents attached to the central benzene core. Examples of benzene compounds with just one substituent are phenol, which carries a hydroxyl group and toluene with a methyl group. When there is more than one substituent present on the ring, their spatial relationship becomes important for which the arene substitution patterns ortho, meta, and para are devised. For example, three isomers exist for cresol because the methyl group and the hydroxyl group can be placed next to each other (ortho), one position removed from each other (meta), or two positions removed from each other (para). Xylenol has two methyl groups in addition to the hydroxyl group, and, for this structure, 6 isomers exist. Examples of benzene derivatives with alkyl substituents (alkylbenzenes): Ethylbenzene C6H5-CH2-CH3 Toluene C6H5-CH3 Xylene, m-Xylene, p-Xylene C6H4(-CH3)2 Mesitylene, Pseudocumene, Hemimellitene C6H3(-CH3)3 Prehnitene, Isodurene, Durene C6H2(-CH3)4 Pentamethylbenzene C6H(-CH3)5 Mellitene C6(-CH3)6 Examples of other aromatic compounds: Aniline C6H5-NH2 Acetylsalicylic acid C6H4(-O-C(=O)-CH3)(-COOH) Benzoic acid C6H5-COOH Biphenyl (C6H5)2 Chlorobenzene C6H5-Cl Nitrobenzene C6H5-NO2 Paracetamol C6H4(-NH-C(=O)-CH3)(-OH) Phenacetin C6H4(-NH-C(=O)-CH3)(-O-CH2-CH3) Phenol C6H5-OH Picric acid C6H2(-OH)(-NO2)3 Salicylic acid C6H4(-OH)(-COOH) Trinitrotoluene C6H2(-CH3)(-NO2)3 2-Phenylhexane The arene ring has an ability to stabilize charges. This is seen in, for example, phenol (C6H5-OH), which is acidic at the hydroxyl (OH), since a charge on this oxygen (alkoxide -O–) is partially delocalized into the benzene ring. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons Naphthalene Some important arenes are the polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH); they are also called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. They are composed of more than one aromatic ring. The simplest PAHs are benzocyclopropene (C7H6), benzocyclopropane (C7H8), benzocyclobutadiene (C8H6), and benzocyclobutene (C8H8). A simple synthesis of benzocyclopropene is published . Common examples are naphthalene with two fused rings, anthracene with three, tetracene with four, and pentacene with five linearly fused rings. Phenanthrene and triphenylene are examples of non-linear connections. More exotic examples are helicenes and corannulene. These compounds are one of the most widespread organic pollutants, remaining on beaches and marine environmentals for a long time after an oil spill. Recent investigations have concluced that their toxicity is up to 100 times worse than first assumed. See also Asphaltene Simple aromatic rings External links Carcinogenic FAC list in Portable Document Format. Toxicological profiles of PAH. LIST of PAH. Abiogenic Gas Debate 11:2002 (EXPLORER) References	Aromatic_hydrocarbon \|@lemmatized aromatic:16 hydrocarbon:9 abbreviate:1 ah:2 arene:7 definition:1 iupac:1 gold:1 book:1 link:2 molecular:2 structure:3 incorporate:1 one:14 planar:1 set:1 six:6 carbon:12 atom:8 connect:1 delocalised:1 electron:5 number:1 consist:1 alternate:2 single:2 double:2 covalent:1 bond:6 term:1 assign:1 physical:1 mechanism:1 determine:1 aromaticity:4 discover:1 derive:1 fact:1 many:3 compound:14 sweet:1 scent:1 configuration:1 know:2 benzene:15 ring:17 simple:5 possible:1 monocyclic:2 polycyclic:2 non:4 base:1 call:2 heteroarenes:1 follow:1 hückel:2 rule:2 also:5 least:1 replace:1 heteroatoms:1 oxygen:3 nitrogen:2 sulfur:2 example:9 property:2 furan:1 heterocyclic:2 five:2 membered:2 include:1 pyridine:1 contain:1 highbeam:1 encyclopedia:1 model:1 recognize:2 first:3 nature:2 bonding:1 friedrich:1 august:1 kekulé:1 von:1 stradonitz:1 century:1 hexagonal:1 cycle:1 four:2 share:2 go:1 hydrogen:4 two:5 neighboring:2 leave:1 molecule:1 draw:1 around:3 hexagon:1 illustrate:1 circle:5 inside:1 show:1 float:2 delocalized:1 orbitals:1 size:1 represent:1 equivalent:1 order:1 equivalency:1 well:1 explain:1 resonance:1 form:2 visualize:1 electromagnetic:1 field:1 generate:1 act:1 keep:1 flat:1 general:1 display:1 ratio:2 high:2 burn:1 sooty:1 yellow:1 flame:1 undergo:1 electrophilic:2 substitution:5 reaction:8 nucleophilic:2 symbol:6 introduce:1 sir:1 robert:1 robinson:2 popularize:1 start:1 morrison:1 boyd:1 textbook:1 organic:6 chemistry:2 proper:1 use:4 debate:2 describe:1 cyclic:1 pi:3 system:3 publication:1 obey:1 others:1 jensen:2 origin:1 william:1 b:1 journal:1 chemical:1 education:1 vol:5 april:1 argue:1 line:1 original:1 proposal:1 limit:1 way:1 compare:1 synthesis:5 laboratory:1 method:1 exist:3 arenes:3 precursor:1 alkyne:3 trimerization:1 cyclization:2 three:3 dötz:1 diels:2 alder:2 pyrone:1 cyclopentadienone:1 expulsion:1 dioxide:1 monoxide:1 aromatization:1 cyclohexanes:1 aliphatic:1 reagent:1 catalyst:1 hydrogenation:5 platinum:1 palladium:1 nickel:2 reverse:1 quinone:1 element:1 selenium:1 jerry:1 march:1 advance:1 isbn:1 bergman:1 enyne:1 plus:1 donor:1 reactions:1 main:1 couple:1 biraryls:1 saturate:1 naphthol:2 completely:1 reduce:1 mixture:1 decalin:1 ol:1 isomer:3 coll:2 p:5 http:2 orgsynth:2 org:2 orgsyn:2 pdfs:2 pdf:2 resorcinol:2 hydrogenate:1 raney:1 presence:1 aqeous:1 sodium:1 hydroxide:1 enolate:1 alkylated:1 methyl:5 iodide:1 cyclohexandione:1 lesser:1 unusual:1 thermal:1 reactivity:1 find:1 wagner:1 jauregg:1 photochemical:1 cycloaddition:1 alkene:1 excimers:1 derivative:3 toluene:3 substituents:2 attach:1 central:1 core:1 substituent:2 phenol:3 carry:1 hydroxyl:4 group:6 present:1 spatial:1 relationship:1 become:1 important:2 pattern:1 ortho:2 meta:2 para:2 devise:1 cresol:1 place:1 next:1 position:2 remove:2 xylenol:1 addition:1 alkyl:1 alkylbenzene:1 ethylbenzene:1 xylene:3 mesitylene:1 pseudocumene:1 hemimellitene:1 prehnitene:1 isodurene:1 durene:1 pentamethylbenzene:1 mellitene:1 aniline:1 acetylsalicylic:1 acid:4 c:3 cooh:3 benzoic:1 biphenyl:1 chlorobenzene:1 cl:1 nitrobenzene:1 paracetamol:1 nh:2 oh:6 phenacetin:1 picric:1 salicylic:1 trinitrotoluene:1 phenylhexane:1 ability:1 stabilize:1 charge:2 see:2 acidic:1 since:1 alkoxide:1 partially:1 delocalize:1 polyaromatic:2 naphthalene:2 pah:3 polynuclear:1 compose:1 pahs:1 benzocyclopropene:2 benzocyclopropane:1 benzocyclobutadiene:1 benzocyclobutene:1 publish:1 common:1 fused:1 anthracene:1 tetracene:1 pentacene:1 linearly:1 fuse:1 phenanthrene:1 triphenylene:1 linear:1 connection:1 exotic:1 helicenes:1 corannulene:1 widespread:1 pollutant:1 remain:1 beach:1 marine:1 environmentals:1 long:1 time:2 oil:1 spill:1 recent:1 investigation:1 concluced:1 toxicity:1 bad:1 assume:1 asphaltene:1 external:1 carcinogenic:1 fac:1 list:2 portable:1 document:1 format:1 toxicological:1 profile:1 abiogenic:1 gas:1 explorer:1 reference:1 \|@bigram aromatic_hydrocarbon:5 carbon_atom:5 covalent_bond:1 aromatic_compound:4 benzene_ring:3 nitrogen_sulfur:1 heterocyclic_compound:2 membered_ring:2 six_membered:1 hydrogen_atom:1 molecular_orbitals:1 aromatic_substitution:3 organic_chemistry:2 diels_alder:2 alder_reaction:1 carbon_dioxide:1 carbon_monoxide:1 synthesis_coll:2 coll_vol:2 pdfs_pdf:2 sodium_hydroxide:1 methyl_iodide:1 benzene_derivative:3 acetylsalicylic_acid:1 benzoic_acid:1 salicylic_acid:1 hydroxyl_oh:1 polycyclic_aromatic:1 aromatic_ring:2 organic_pollutant:1 oil_spill:1 external_link:1
3,374	Chromatography	Chromatography (from Greek χρώμα:chroma, color and γραφειν:graphein to write) is the collective term for a set of laboratory techniques for the separation of mixtures. It involves passing a mixture dissolved in a "mobile phase" through a stationary phase, which separates the analyte to be measured from other molecules in the mixture and allows it to be isolated. Chromatography may be preparative or analytical. The purpose of preparative chromatography is to separate the components of a mixture for further use (and is thus a form of purification). Analytical chromatography is done normally with smaller amounts of material and is for measuring the relative proportions of analytes in a mixture. The two are not mutually exclusive. History The history of chromatography begins during the mid-19th century. Chromatography, literally "color writing", was used—and named— in the first decade of the 20th century, primarily for the separation of plant pigments such as chlorophyll. New types of chromatography developed during the 1930s and 1940s made the technique useful for many types of separation process. Some related techniques were developed during the 19th century (and even before), but the first true chromatography is usually attributed to Russian botanist Mikhail Semyonovich Tsvet, who used columns of calcium carbonate for separating plant pigments during the first decade of the 20th century during his research of chlorophyll. Chromatography became developed substantially as a result of the work of Archer John Porter Martin and Richard Laurence Millington Synge during the 1940s and 1950s. They established the principles and basic techniques of partition chromatography, and their work encouraged the rapid development of several types of chromatography method: paper chromatography, gas chromatography, and what would become known as high performance liquid chromatography. Since then, the technology has advanced rapidly. Researchers found that the main principles of Tsvet's chromatography could be applied in many different ways, resulting in the different varieties of chromatography described below. Simultaneously, advances continually improved the technical performance of chromatography, allowing the separation of increasingly similar molecules. Chromatography terms The analyte is the substance that is to be separated during chromatography. Analytical chromatography is used to determine the existence and possibly also the concentration of analyte(s) in a sample. A bonded phase is a stationary phase that is covalently bonded to the support particles or to the inside wall of the column tubing. A chromatogram is the visual output of the chromatograph. In the case of an optimal separation, different peaks or patterns on the chromatogram correspond to different components of the separated mixture. Plotted on the x-axis is the retention time and plotted on the y-axis a signal (for example obtained by a spectrophotometer, mass spectrometer or a variety of other detectors) corresponding to the response created by the analytes exiting the system. In the case of an optimal system the signal is proportional to the concentration of the specific analyte separated. A chromatograph is equipment that enables a sophisticated separation e.g. gas chromatographic or liquid chromatographic separation. Chromatography is a physical method of separation in which the components to be separated are distributed between two phases, one of which is stationary (stationary phase) while the other (the mobile phase) moves in a definite direction. The effluent is the mobile phase leaving the column. An immobilized phase is a stationary phase which is immobilized on the support particles, or on the inner wall of the column tubing. The mobile phase is the phase which moves in a definite direction. It may be a liquid (LC and CEC), a gas (GC), or a supercritical fluid (supercritical-fluid chromatography, SFC). A better definition: The mobile phase consists of the sample being separated/analyzed and the solvent that moves the sample through the column. In one case of HPLC the solvent consists of a carbonate/bicarbonate solution and the sample is the anions being separated. The mobile phase moves through the chromatography column (the stationary phase) where the sample interacts with the stationary phase and is separated. Preparative chromatography is used to purify sufficient quantities of a substance for further use, rather than analysis. The retention time is the characteristic time it takes for a particular analyte to pass through the system (from the column inlet to the detector) under set conditions. See also: Kovat's retention index The sample is the matter analysed in chromatography. It may consist of a single component or it may be a mixture of components. When the sample is treated in the course of an analysis, the phase or the phases containing the analytes of interest is/are referred to as the sample whereas everything out of interest separated from the sample before or in the course of the analysis is referred to as waste. The solute refers to the sample components in partition chromatography. The solvent refers to any substance capable of solubilizing other substance, and especially the liquid mobile phase in LC. The stationary phase is the substance which is fixed in place for the chromatography procedure. Examples include the silica layer in Chromatography#Thin layer chromatography Techniques by chromatographic bed shape Column chromatography Column chromatography is a separation technique in which the stationary bed is within a tube. The particles of the solid stationary phase or the support coated with a liquid stationary phase may fill the whole inside volume of the tube (packed column) or be concentrated on or along the inside tube wall leaving an open, unrestricted path for the mobile phase in the middle part of the tube (open tubular column). Differences in rates of movement through the medium are calculated to different retention times of the sample. IUPAC Nomenclature for Chromatography IUPAC Recommendations 1993, Pure & Appl. Chem., Vol. 65, No. 4, pp.819-872, 1993. In 1978, W. C. Still introduced a modified version of column chromatography called flash column chromatography (flash). Still, W. C.; Kahn, M.; Mitra, A. J. Org. Chem. 1978, 43(14), 2923-2925. () The technique is very similar to the traditional column chromatography, except for that the solvent is driven through the column by applying positive pressure. This allowed most separations to be performed in less than 20 minutes, with improved separations compared to the old method. Modern flash chromatography systems are sold as pre-packed plastic cartridges, and the solvent is pumped through the cartridge. Systems may also be linked with detectors and fraction collectors providing automation. The introduction of gradient pumps resulted in quicker separations and less solvent usage. A spreadsheet that assists in the successful development of flash columns has been developed. The spreadsheet estimates the retention volume and band volume of analytes, the fraction numbers expected to contain each analyte, and the resolution between adjacent peaks. This information allows users to select optimal parameters for preparative-scale separations before the flash column itself is attempted. Fair, J. D.; Kormos, C. M. J. Chromatogr. A 2008, 1211(1-2), 49-54. () In expanded bed adsorption, a fluidized bed is used, rather than a solid phase made by a packed bed. This allows omission of initial clearing steps such as centrifugation and filtration, for culture broths or slurries of broken cells. Planar Chromatography Planar chromatography is a separation technique in which the stationary phase is present as or on a plane. The plane can be a paper, serving as such or impregnated by a substance as the stationary bed (paper chromatography) or a layer of solid particles spread on a support such as a glass plate (thin layer chromatography). Different compounds in the sample mixture travel different distances according to how strongly they interact with the stationary phase as compared to the mobile phase. The specific Retardation factor (Rf) of each chemical can be used to aid in the identification of an unknown substance. Paper Chromatography Paper chromatography is a technique that involves placing a small dot or line of sample solution onto a strip of chromatography paper. The paper is placed in a jar containing a shallow layer of solvent and sealed. As the solvent rises through the paper, it meets the sample mixture which starts to travel up the paper with the solvent. This paper is made of cellulose, a polar substance, and the compounds within the mixture travel farther if they are non-polar. More polar substances bond with the cellulose paper more quickly, and therefore do not travel as far. Thin layer chromatography Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is a widely-employed laboratory technique and is similar to paper chromatography. However, instead of using a stationary phase of paper, it involves a stationary phase of a thin layer of adsorbent like silica gel, alumina, or cellulose on a flat, inert substrate. Compared to paper, it has the advantage of faster runs, better separations, and the choice between different adsorbents. For even better resolution and to allow for quantitation, high-performance TLC can be used. Displacement Chromatography The basic principle of displacement chromatography is: A molecule with a high affinity for the chromatography matrix (the displacer) will compete effectively for binding sites, and thus displace all molecules with lesser affinities. Displacement Chromatography 101. Sachem, Inc. Austin, TX 78737 There are distinct differences between displacement and elution chromatography. In elution mode, substances typically emerge from a column in narrow, Gaussian peaks. Wide separation of peaks, preferably to baseline, is desired in order to achieve maximum purification. The speed at which any component of a mixture travels down the column in elution mode depends on many factors. But for two substances to travel at different speeds, and thereby be resolved, there must be substantial differences in some interaction between the biomolecules and the chromatography matrix. Operating parameters are adjusted to maximize the effect of this difference. In many cases, baseline separation of the peaks can be achieved only with gradient elution and low column loadings. Thus, two drawbacks to elution mode chromatography, especially at the preparative scale, are operational complexity, due to gradient solvent pumping, and low throughput, due to low column loadings. Displacement chromatography has advantages over elution chromatography in that components are resolved into consecutive zones of pure substances rather than “peaks”. Because the process takes advantage of the nonlinearity of the isotherms, a larger column feed can be separated on a given column with the purified components recovered at significantly higher concentrations. Techniques by physical state of mobile phase Gas chromatography Gas chromatography (GC), also sometimes known as Gas-Liquid chromatography, (GLC), is a separation technique in which the mobile phase is a gas. Gas chromatography is always carried out in a column, which is typically "packed" or "capillary" (see below) . Gas chromatography (GC) is based on a partition equilibrium of analyte between a solid stationary phase (often a liquid silicone-based material) and a mobile gas (most often Helium). The stationary phase is adhered to the inside of a small-diameter glass tube (a capillary column) or a solid matrix inside a larger metal tube (a packed column). It is widely used in analytical chemistry; though the high temperatures used in GC make it unsuitable for high molecular weight biopolymers or proteins (heat will denature them), frequently encountered in biochemistry, it is well suited for use in the petrochemical, environmental monitoring, and industrial chemical fields. It is also used extensively in chemistry research. Liquid chromatography Liquid chromatography (LC) is a separation technique in which the mobile phase is a liquid. Liquid chromatography can be carried out either in a column or a plane. Present day liquid chromatography that generally utilizes very small packing particles and a relatively high pressure is referred to as high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In the HPLC technique, the sample is forced through a column that is packed with irregularly or spherically shaped particles or a porous monolithic layer (stationary phase) by a liquid (mobile phase) at high pressure. HPLC is historically divided into two different sub-classes based on the polarity of the mobile and stationary phases. Technique in which the stationary phase is more polar than the mobile phase (e.g. toluene as the mobile phase, silica as the stationary phase) is called normal phase liquid chromatography (NPLC) and the opposite (e.g. water-methanol mixture as the mobile phase and C18 = octadecylsilyl as the stationary phase) is called reversed phase liquid chromatography (RPLC). Ironically the "normal phase" has fewer applications and RPLC is therefore used considerably more. Specific techniques which come under this broad heading are listed below. It should also be noted that the following techniques can also be considered fast protein liquid chromatography if no pressure is used to drive the mobile phase through the stationary phase. See also Aqueous Normal Phase Chromatography. Affinity chromatography Affinity chromatography Pascal Bailon, George K. Ehrlich, Wen-Jian Fung and Wolfgang Berthold, An Overview of Affinity Chromatography, Humana Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-89603-694-9, ISBN 978-1-60327-261-2. is based on selective non-covalent interaction between an analyte and specific molecules. It is very specific, but not very robust. It is often used in biochemistry in the purification of proteins bound to tags. These fusion proteins are labelled with compounds such as His-tags, biotin or antigens, which bind to the stationary phase specifically. After purification, some of these tags are usually removed and the pure protein is obtained. Supercritical fluid chromatography Supercritical fluid chromatography is a separation technique in which the mobile phase is a fluid above and relatively close to its critical temperature and pressure. Techniques by separation mechanism Ion exchange chromatography Ion exchange chromatography uses ion exchange mechanism to separate analytes. It is usually performed in columns but can also be useful in planar mode. Ion exchange chromatography uses a charged stationary phase to separate charged compounds including amino acids, peptides, and proteins. In conventional methods the stationary phase is an ion exchange resin that carries charged functional groups which interact with oppositely charged groups of the compound to be retained. Ion exchange chromatography is commonly used to purify proteins using FPLC. Size exclusion chromatography Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) is also known as gel permeation chromatography (GPC) or gel filtration chromatography and separates molecules according to their size (or more accurately according to their hydrodynamic diameter or hydrodynamic volume). Smaller molecules are able to enter the pores of the media and, therefore, take longer to elute, whereas larger molecules are excluded from the pores and elute faster. It is generally a low resolution chromatography technique and thus it is often reserved for the final, "polishing" step of a purification. It is also useful for determining the tertiary structure and quaternary structure of purified proteins, especially since it can be carried out under native solution conditions. Special techniques Reversed-phase chromatography Reversed-phase chromatography is an elution procedure used in liquid chromatography in which the mobile phase is significantly more polar than the stationary phase. Two-dimensional chromatography In some cases, the chemistry within a given column can be insufficient to separate some analytes. It is possible to direct a series of unresolved peaks onto a second column with different physico-chemical (Chemical classification) properties. Since the mechanism of retention on this new solid support is different from the first dimensional separation, it can be possible to separate compounds that are indistinguishable by one-dimensional chromatography. Simulated Moving-Bed Chromatography Pyrolysis gas chromatography Fast protein liquid chromatography Fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC) is a term applied to several chromatography techniques which are used to purify proteins. Many of these techniques are identical to those carried out under high performance liquid chromatography, however use of FPLC techniques are typically for preparing large scale batches of a purified product. Countercurrent chromatography Countercurrent chromatography (CCC) is a type of liquid-liquid chromatography, where both the stationary and mobile phases are liquids. It involves mixing a solution of liquids, allowing them to settle into layers and then separating the layers. Chiral chromatography Chiral chromatography involves the separation of stereoisomers. In the case of enantiomers, these have no chemical or physical differences apart from being three dimensional mirror images. Conventional chromatography or other separation processes are incapable of separating them. To enable chiral separations to take place, either the mobile phase or the stationary phase must themselves be made chiral, giving differing affinities between the analytes. Chiral chromatography HPLC columns (with a chiral stationary phase) in both normal and reversed phase are commercially available. See also Aqueous Normal Phase Chromatography Multicolumn countercurrent solvent gradient purification (MCSGP) Purnell equation Chromatography in blood processing Chromatography software References External links IUPAC Nomenclature for Chromatography ChromediaOn line database and community for chromatography practitioners Reversed phase chromatography article (dutch) Library 4 Science: Chrom-Ed Series Overlapping Peaks Program - Learning by Simulations Chromatography Videos - MIT OCW - Digital Lab Techniques Manual Chromatography Equations Calculators - MicroSolv Technology Corporation	Chromatography \|@lemmatized chromatography:109 greek:1 χρώμα:1 chroma:1 color:2 γραφειν:1 graphein:1 write:2 collective:1 term:3 set:2 laboratory:2 technique:25 separation:25 mixture:12 involve:5 pass:2 dissolve:1 mobile:23 phase:64 stationary:31 separate:18 analyte:8 measure:2 molecule:8 allow:7 isolate:1 may:6 preparative:5 analytical:4 purpose:1 component:9 use:23 thus:4 form:1 purification:6 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3,375	Claude_Shannon	Claude Elwood Shannon (April 30, 1916 – February 24, 2001), an American electronic engineer and mathematician, is known as "the father of information theory". Bell Labs website: "For example, Claude Shannon, the father of Information Theory, had a passion..." Shannon is famous for having founded information theory with one landmark paper published in 1948. But he is also credited with founding both digital computer and digital circuit design theory in 1937, when, as a 21-year-old master's student at MIT, he wrote a thesis demonstrating that electrical application of Boolean algebra could construct and resolve any logical, numerical relationship. It has been claimed that this was the most important master's thesis of all time. Poundstone, William: Fortune's Formula : The Untold Story of the Scientific Betting System That Beat the Casinos and Wall Street Biography Shannon was born in Petoskey, Michigan. His father, Claude Sr (1862–1934), a descendant of early New Jersey settlers, was a businessman and for a while, Judge of Probate. His mother, Mabel Wolf Shannon (1890–1945), daughter of German immigrants, was a language teacher and for a number of years principal of Gaylord High School, Michigan. The first sixteen years of Shannon's life were spent in Gaylord, Michigan, where he attended public school, graduating from Gaylord High School in 1932. Shannon showed an inclination towards mechanical things. His best subjects were science and mathematics, and at home he constructed such devices as models of planes, a radio-controlled model boat and a telegraph system to a friend's house half a mile away. While growing up, he worked as a messenger for Western Union. His childhood hero was Thomas Edison, who he later learned was a distant cousin. Both were descendants of John Ogden, a colonial leader and an ancestor of many distinguished people. MIT Professor Claude Shannon dies; was founder of digital communications, MIT - News office, Cambridge, Massachusetts, February 27, 2001 CLAUDE ELWOOD SHANNON, Collected Papers, Edited by N.J.A Sloane and Aaron D. Wyner, IEEE press, ISBN 0-7803-0434-9 Boolean theory In 1932 he entered the University of Michigan, where he took a course that introduced him to the works of George Boole. He graduated in 1936 with two bachelor's degrees, one in electrical engineering and one in mathematics, then began graduate study at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he worked on Vannevar Bush's differential analyzer, an analog computer. While studying the complicated ad hoc circuits of the differential analyzer, Shannon saw that Boole's concepts could be used to great utility. A paper drawn from his 1937 master's thesis, A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits, was published in the 1938 issue of the Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. It also earned Shannon the Alfred Noble American Institute of American Engineers Award in 1940. Howard Gardner, of Harvard University, called Shannon's thesis "possibly the most important, and also the most famous, master's thesis of the century." Victor Shestakov, at Moscow State University, had proposed a theory of electric switches based on Boolean logic a little bit earlier than Shannon, in 1935, but the first publication of Shestakov's result took place in 1941, after the publication of Shannon's thesis. In this work, Shannon proved that Boolean algebra and binary arithmetic could be used to simplify the arrangement of the electromechanical relays then used in telephone routing switches, then turned the concept upside down and also proved that it should be possible to use arrangements of relays to solve Boolean algebra problems. Exploiting this property of electrical switches to do logic is the basic concept that underlies all electronic digital computers. Shannon's work became the foundation of practical digital circuit design when it became widely known among the electrical engineering community during and after World War II. The theoretical rigor of Shannon's work completely replaced the ad hoc methods that had previously prevailed. Flush with this success, Vannevar Bush suggested that Shannon work on his dissertation at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, funded by the Carnegie Institution headed by Bush, to develop similar mathematical relationships for Mendelian genetics, which resulted in Shannon's 1940 PhD thesis at MIT, An Algebra for Theoretical Genetics. In 1940, Shannon became a National Research Fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. At Princeton, Shannon had the opportunity to discuss his ideas with influential scientists and mathematicians such as Hermann Weyl and John von Neumann, and even had the occasional encounter with Albert Einstein. Shannon worked freely across disciplines, and began to shape the ideas that would become information theory. Erico Marui Guizzo, “The Essential Message: Claude Shannon and the Making of Information Theory” (M.S. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Humanities, Program in Writing and Humanistic Studies, 2003), 14. Wartime research Shannon then joined Bell Labs to work on fire-control systems and cryptography during World War II, under a contract with section D-2 (Control Systems section) of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC). For two months early in 1943, Shannon came into contact with the leading British cryptanalyst and mathematician Alan Turing. Turing had been posted to Washington to share with the US Navy's cryptanalytic service the methods used by the British Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park to break the ciphers used by the German U-boats in the North Atlantic. He was also interested in the encipherment of speech and to this end spent time at Bell Labs. Shannon and Turing met every day at teatime in the cafeteria. Turing showed Shannon his seminal 1936 paper that defined what is now known as the "Universal Turing machine" which impressed him, as many of its ideas were complementary to his own. In 1945, as the war was coming to an end, the NDRC was issuing a summary of technical reports as a last step prior to its eventual closing down. Inside the volume on fire control a special essay titled Data Smoothing and Prediction in Fire-Control Systems, coauthored by Shannon, Ralph Beebe Blackman, and Hendrik Wade Bode, formally treated the problem of smoothing the data in fire-control by analogy with "the problem of separating a signal from interfering noise in communications systems." David A. Mindell, Between Human and Machine: Feedback, Control, and Computing Before Cybernetics, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press), 2004, pp. 319-320. ISBN 0801880572. In other words it modeled the problem in terms of data and signal processing and thus heralded the coming of the information age. His work on cryptography was even more closely related to his later publications on communication theory. David Kahn, The Codebreakers, rev. ed., (New York: Simon and Schuster), 1996, pp. 743-751. ISBN 0684831309. At the close of the war, he prepared a classified memorandum for Bell Telephone Labs entitled "A Mathematical Theory of Cryptography," dated September, 1945. A declassified version of this paper was subsequently published in 1949 as "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems" in the Bell System Technical Journal. This paper incorporated many of the concepts and mathematical formulations that also appeared in his A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Shannon said that his wartime insights into communication theory and cryptography developed simultaneously and "they were so close together you couldn’t separate them". quoted in Kahn, The Codebreakers, p. 744. In a footnote near the beginning of the classified report, Shannon announced his intention to "develop these results ... in a forthcoming memorandum on the transmission of information." quoted in Erico Marui Guizzo, "The Essential Message: Claude Shannon and the Making of Information Theory," unpublished MS thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2003, p. 21. Postwar contributions In 1948 the promised memorandum appeared as "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", an article in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journal. This work focuses on the problem of how best to encode the information a sender wants to transmit. In this fundamental work he used tools in probability theory, developed by Norbert Wiener, which were in their nascent stages of being applied to communication theory at that time. Shannon developed information entropy as a measure for the uncertainty in a message while essentially inventing the field of information theory. The book, co-authored with Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication, reprints Shannon's 1948 article and Weaver's popularization of it, which is accessible to the non-specialist. Shannon's concepts were also popularized, subject to his own proofreading, in John Robinson Pierce's Symbols, Signals, and Noise. Information theory's fundamental contribution to Natural language processing and Computational linguistics was further established in 1951, in his article "Prediction and Entropy of Printed English", proving that treating whitespace as the 27th letter of the alphabet actually lowers uncertainty in written language, providing a clear quantifiable link between cultural practice and probabilistic cognition. Another notable paper published in 1949 is "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems", a declassified version of his wartime work on the mathematical theory of cryptography, in which he proved that all theoretically unbreakable ciphers must have the same requirements as the one-time pad. He is also credited with the introduction of Sampling Theory, which is concerned with representing a continuous-time signal from a (uniform) discrete set of samples. This theory was essential in enabling telecommunications to move from analog to digital transmissions systems in the 1960s and later. He returned to MIT to hold an endowed chair in 1956. Hobbies and inventions Outside of his academic pursuits, Shannon was interested in juggling, unicycling, and chess. He also invented many devices, including rocket-powered flying discs, a motorized pogo stick, and a flame-throwing trumpet for a science exhibition. One of his more humorous devices was a box kept on his desk called the "Ultimate Machine", based on an idea by Marvin Minsky. Otherwise featureless, the box possessed a single switch on its side. When the switch was flipped, the lid of the box opened and a mechanical hand reached out, flipped off the switch, then retracted back inside the box. In addition he built a device that could solve the Rubik's cube puzzle. He is also considered the co-inventor of the first wearable computer along with Edward O. Thorp. The Invention of the First Wearable Computer Online paper by Edward O. Thorp of Edward O. Thorp & Associates The device was used to improve the odds when playing roulette. Legacy and tributes Shannon came to MIT in 1956 to join its faculty and to conduct work in the Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE). He continued to serve on the MIT faculty until 1978. To commemorate his achievements, there were celebrations of his work in 2001, and there are currently five statues of Shannon: one at the University of Michigan; one at MIT in the Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems; one in Gaylord, Michigan; one at the University of California, San Diego; and another at Bell Labs. After the breakup of the Bell system, the part of Bell Labs that remained with AT&T was named Shannon Labs in his honor. Robert Gallager has called Shannon the greatest scientist of the 20th century. According to Neil Sloane, an AT&T Fellow who co-edited Shannon's large collection of papers in 1993, the perspective introduced by Shannon's communication theory (now called information theory) is the foundation of the digital revolution, and every device containing a microprocessor or microcontroller is a conceptual descendant of Shannon's 1948 publication: C. E. Shannon: A mathematical theory of communication. Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27, pp. 379–423 and 623–656, July and October, 1948 "He's one of the great men of the century. Without him, none of the things we know today would exist. The whole digital revolution started with him." Bell Labs digital guru dead at 84 — Pioneer scientist led high-tech revolution (The Star-Ledger, obituary by Kevin Coughlin 27 February 2001) However, Shannon was oblivious to the marvels of the digital revolution because his mind was ravaged by Alzheimer's disease. His wife mentioned in his obituary that "he would have been bemused" by it all. Other work Shannon and his famous electromechanical mouse Theseus (named after Theseus from Greek mythology) which he tried to have solve the maze in one of the first experiments in artificial intelligence Shannon's mouse Theseus, created in 1950, was a magnetic mouse controlled by a relay circuit that enabled it to move around a maze of 25 squares. Its dimensions were the same as an average mouse. The maze configuration was flexible and it could be modified at will. The mouse was designed to search through the corridors until it found the target. Having travelled through the maze, the mouse would then be placed anywhere it had been before and because of its prior experience it could go directly to the target. If placed in unfamiliar territory, it was programmed to search until it reached a known location and then it would proceed to the target, adding the new knowledge to its memory thus learning. Shannon's mouse appears to have been the first learning device of its kind. Shannon's computer chess program In 1950 Shannon published a groundbreaking paper on computer chess entitled Programming a Computer for Playing Chess. It describes how a machine or computer could be made to play a reasonable game of chess. His process for having the computer decide on which move to make is a minimax procedure, based on an evaluation function of a given chess position. Shannon gave a rough example of an evaluation function in which the value of the black position was subtracted from that of the white position. Material was counted according to the usual relative chess piece relative value (1 point for a pawn, 3 points for a knight or bishop, 5 points for a rook, and 9 points for a queen). He considered some positional factors, subtracting ½ point for each doubled pawns, backward pawn, and isolated pawn. Another positional factor in the evaluation function was mobility, adding 0.1 point for each legal move available. Finally, he considered checkmate to be the capture of the king, and gave the king the artificial value of 200 points. Quoting from the paper: The coefficients .5 and .1 are merely the writer's rough estimate. Furthermore, there are many other terms that should be included. The formula is given only for illustrative purposes. Checkmate has been artificially included here by giving the king the large value 200 (anything greater than the maximum of all other terms would do). The evaluation function is clearly for illustrative purposes, as Shannon stated. For example, according to the function, pawns that are doubled as well as isolated would have no value at all, which is clearly unrealistic. The Las Vegas connection: Information theory and its applications to game theory Shannon and his wife Betty also used to go on weekends to Las Vegas with M.I.T. mathematician Ed Thorp, American Scientist online: Bettor Math, article and book review by Elwyn Berlekamp and made very successful forays in blackjack using game theory type methods co-developed with fellow Bell Labs associate, physicist John L. Kelly Jr. based on principles of information theory. John Kelly by William Poundstone website They made a fortune, as detailed in the book Fortune's Formula by William Poundstone and corroborated by the writings of Elwyn Berlekamp, Elwyn Berlekamp (Kelly's Research Assistant) Bio details Kelly's research assistant in 1960 and 1962. Shannon and Thorp also applied the same theory, later known as the Kelly criterion, to the stock market with even better results. William Poundstone website Shannon's maxim Shannon formulated a version of Kerckhoffs' principle as "the enemy knows the system". In this form it is known as "Shannon's maxim". Other trivia He met his wife Betty when she was a numerical analyst at Bell Labs. Awards and honors list Alfred Noble Prize, 1939 Morris Liebmann Memorial Award of the Institute of Radio Engineers, 1949 Yale University (Master of Science), 1954 Stuart Ballantine Medal of the Franklin Institute, 1955 Research Corporation Award, 1956 University of Michigan, honorary doctorate, 1961 Rice University Medal of Honor, 1962 Princeton University, honorary doctorate, 1962 Marvin J. Kelly Award, 1962 University of Edinburgh, honorary doctorate, 1964 University of Pittsburgh, honorary doctorate, 1964 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honor, 1966 National Medal of Science, 1966, presented by President Lyndon B. Johnson Golden Plate Award, 1967 Northwestern University, honorary doctorate, 1970 Harvey Prize, the Technion of Haifa, Israel, 1972 Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), foreign member, 1975 University of Oxford, honorary doctorate, 1978 Joseph Jacquard Award, 1978 Harold Pender Award, 1978 University of East Anglia, honorary doctorate, 1982 Carnegie Mellon University, honorary doctorate, 1984 Audio Engineering Society Gold Medal, 1985 Kyoto Prize, 1985 Tufts University, honorary doctorate, 1987 University of Pennsylvania, honorary doctorate, 1991 Eduard Rhein Prize, 1991 National Inventors Hall of Fame inducted, 2004 See also Shannon–Fano coding Shannon–Hartley theorem Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem Noisy channel coding theorem Rate distortion theory Information theory Channel Capacity Confusion and diffusion One-time pad Shannon switching game Shannon number Claude E. Shannon Award Shannon index Shannon's source coding theorem Information entropy Shannon's expansion Notes Further reading Claude E. Shannon: A Mathematical Theory of Communication, Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 27, pp. 379–423, 623–656, 1948. Claude E. Shannon and Warren Weaver: The Mathematical Theory of Communication. The University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois, 1949. ISBN 0-252-72548-4 Rethnakaran Pulikkoonattu - Eric W. Weisstein: Mathworld biography of Shannon, Claude Elwood (1916-2001) Claude E. Shannon: Programming a Computer for Playing Chess, Philosophical Magazine, Ser.7, Vol. 41, No. 314, March 1950. (Available online under External links below) David Levy: Computer Gamesmanship: Elements of Intelligent Game Design, Simon & Schuster, 1983. ISBN 0-671-49532-1 Mindell, David A., "Automation's Finest Hour: Bell Labs and Automatic Control in World War II", IEEE Control Systems, December 1995, pp. 72-80. David Mindell, Jérôme Segal, Slava Gerovitch, "From Communications Engineering to Communications Science: Cybernetics and Information Theory in the United States, France, and the Soviet Union" in Walker, Mark (Ed.), Science and Ideology: A Comparative History, Routledge, London, 2003, pp. 66-95. Poundstone, William, Fortune's Formula, Hill & Wang, 2005, ISNB-13 978-0-8090-4599-0 Shannon videos Shannon's video machines Shannon - father of the information age External links Shannon's math genealogy Shannon's NNDB profile A Mathematical Theory of Communication Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems Communication in the Presence of Noise Summary of Shannon's life and career Biographical summary from Shannon's collected papers Video documentary: "Claude Shannon - Father of the Information Age" Mathematical Theory of Claude Shannon In-depth MIT class paper on the development of Shannon's work to 1948. Retrospective at the University of Michigan Shannon's University of Michigan profile Notes on Computer-Generated Text Shannon's Juggling Theorem and Juggling Robots Color Photo of Shannon, Juggling Shannon's paper on computer chess, text Shannon's paper on computer chess, text, alternate source A Bibliography of His Collected Papers A Register of His Papers in the Library of Congress The Most Beautiful Machine. (aka the "Ultimate Machine") It's a communication based on the functions ON and OFF. 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3,376	Lossy_compression	Original Image (lossless PNG, 60.1 KiB size) — uncompressed is 108.5 KiB Low compression (84% less information than uncompressed PNG, 9.37 KiB) Medium compression (92% less information than uncompressed PNG, 4.82 KiB) High compression (98% less information than uncompressed PNG, 1.14 KiB) A lossy compression method is one where compressing data and then decompressing it retrieves data that may well be different from the original, but is close enough to be useful in some way. Lossy compression is most commonly used to compress multimedia data (audio, video, still images), especially in applications such as streaming media and internet telephony. By contrast, lossless compression is required for text and data files, such as bank records, text articles, etc. Transform coding More generally, lossy compression can be thought of as an application of transform coding – in the case of multimedia data, perceptual coding: it transforms the raw data to a domain that more accurately reflects the information content. For example, rather than expressing a sound file as the amplitude levels over time, one may express it as the frequency spectrum over time, which corresponds more accurately to human audio perception. While data reduction (compression, be it lossy or lossless) is a main goal of transform coding, it also allows other goals: one may represent data more accurately for the original amount of space “Although one main goal of digital audio perceptual coders is data reduction, this is not a necessary characteristic. As we shall see, perceptual coding can be used to improve the representation of digital audio through advanced bit allocation.” Masking and Perceptual Coding, Victor Lombardi – for example, in principle, if one starts with an analog or high-resolution digital master, an MP3 file of a given bitrate should provide a better representation than a raw WAV file of the same bitrate. Further, a transform coding may provide a better domain for manipulating or otherwise editing the data – for example, equalization of audio is most naturally expressed in the frequency domain (boost the bass, for instance) rather than in the raw time domain. From this point of view, perceptual encoding is not essentially about discarding data, but rather about a better representation of data. Another use is for backward compatibility and graceful degradation: in color television, encoding color via a luminance-chrominance transform domain (such as YUV) means that black-and-white sets display the luminance, while ignoring the color information. Another example is chroma subsampling: the use of color spaces such as YIQ, used in NTSC, allow one to reduce the resolution on the components to accord with human perception – humans have highest resolution for black-and-white (luma), lower resolution for mid-spectrum colors like yellow and green, and lowest for red and blues – thus NTSC displays approximately 350 pixels of luma per scanline, 150 pixels of yellow vs. green, and 50 pixels of blue vs. red, which are proportional to human sensitivity to each component. Information loss Lossy compression formats suffer from generation loss: repeatedly compressing and decompressing the file will cause it to progressively lose quality. This is in contrast with lossless data compression. Information-theoretical foundations for lossy data compression are provided by rate-distortion theory. Much like the use of probability in optimal coding theory, rate-distortion theory heavily draws on Bayesian estimation and decision theory in order to model perceptual distortion and even aesthetic judgment. Types There are two basic lossy compression schemes: In lossy transform codecs, samples of picture or sound are taken, chopped into small segments, transformed into a new basis space, and quantized. The resulting quantized values are then entropy coded. In lossy predictive codecs, previous and/or subsequent decoded data is used to predict the current sound sample or image frame. The error between the predicted data and the real data, together with any extra information needed to reproduce the prediction, is then quantized and coded. In some systems the two techniques are combined, with transform codecs being used to compress the error signals generated by the predictive stage. Lossy versus lossless The advantage of lossy methods over lossless methods is that in some cases a lossy method can produce a much smaller compressed file than any known lossless method, while still meeting the requirements of the application. Lossy methods are most often used for compressing sound, images or videos. This is because these types of data are intended for human interpretation where the mind can easily "fill in the blanks" or see past very minor errors or inconsistencies – ideally lossy compression is transparent (imperceptible), which can be verified via an ABX test. Transparency When a user acquires a lossily compressed file, (for example, to reduce download time) the retrieved file can be quite different from the original at the bit level while being indistinguishable to the human ear or eye for most practical purposes. Many compression methods focus on the idiosyncrasies of human physiology, taking into account, for instance, that the human eye can see only certain wavelengths of light. The psychoacoustic model describes how sound can be highly compressed without degrading perceived quality. Flaws caused by lossy compression that are noticeable to the human eye or ear are known as compression artifacts. Compression ratio The compression ratio (that is, the size of the compressed file compared to that of the uncompressed file) of lossy video codecs is nearly always far superior to that of the audio and still-image equivalents. Video can be compressed immensely (e.g. 100:1) with little visible quality loss; Audio can often be compressed at 10:1 with imperceptible loss of quality; Still images are often lossily compressed at 10:1, as with audio, but the quality loss is more noticeable, especially on closer inspection. Transcoding and Editing An important caveat about lossy compression is that converting (formally, transcoding) or editing lossily compressed files causes digital generation loss from the re-encoding. This can be avoided by only producing lossy files from (lossless) originals, and only editing (copies of) original files, such as images in raw image format instead of JPEG. Lossless editing Some lossless editing of lossily compressed files is possible, which consists of modifying the compressed data directly, without decoding and re-encoding. JPEG The primary programs for lossless editing of JPEGs are jpegtran, and the derived exiftran (which also preserves Exif information), and Jpegcrop (which provides a Windows interface). These allow one to crop, rotate, flip, and flop, or convert to grayscale (by dropping the chrominance channel). JPEGjoin allows one to join different JPEG images (which have the same encoding), without re-encoding. (See also: New jpegtran features.) One can also make some changes to the compression without re-encoding: optimize the compression (so it takes less space), convert between progressive and non-progressive encoding, There is also the freeware Windows-only IrfanView, which has some lossless JPEG operations in its JPG_TRANSFORM plugin. MP3 Splitting and joining Mp3splt and Mp3wrap (or AlbumWrap) allow one to split an MP3 file into pieces or join them losslessly. These are analogous to split and cat. Though the wrap programs do more, encoding the divisions between the original files. Gain Various Replay Gain programs such as MP3gain allow one to modify the gain (overall volume) of MP3 files losslessly. Metadata One can generally modify or remove metadata, such as ID3 tags, Vorbis comments, or Exif information, without modifying the underlying media. Downsampling / compressed representation scalability One may wish to downsample or otherwise decrease the resolution of the represented source signal and the quantity of data used for its compressed representation without re-encoding, as in bitrate peeling, but this functionality is not supported in all designs, as not all codecs encode data in a form that allows less important detail to simply be dropped. Some well known designs that have this capability include JPEG 2000 for still images and H.264/MPEG-4 AVC based Scalable Video Coding for video. Actually such schemes have also been standardized for older designs as well, such as JPEG images with progressive encoding, and MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 Part 2 video, although those prior schemes had limited success in terms of adoption into real-world common usage. Without this capacity, which is often the case in practice, to produce a representation with lower resolution or lower fidelity than a given one, one needs to start with the original source signal and encode, or start with a compressed representation and then decompress and re-encode it (transcoding), thought this latter tends to cause digital generation loss. On a related point, some audio formats feature a combination of a lossy format and a lossless correction; this allows stripping the correction to easily obtain a lossy file, though whether the lossy portion itself can be further stripped is a separate question. Such formats include MPEG-4 SLS (Scalable to Lossless), WavPack, and OptimFROG DualStream. meta data - data that describes data Methods Graphics Image Cartesian Perceptual Compression: Also known as CPC DjVu Fractal compression HAM, hardware compression of color information used in Amiga computers ICER, used by the Mars Rovers: related to JPEG 2000 in its use of wavelets JPEG JPEG 2000, JPEG's successor format that uses wavelets, for Lossy or Lossless compression. JBIG2 PGF, Progressive Graphics File (lossless or lossy compression) Wavelet compression S3TC texture compression for 3D computer graphics hardware Video H.261 H.263 H.264 MNG (supports JPEG sprites) Motion JPEG MPEG-1 Part 2 MPEG-2 Part 2 MPEG-4 Part 2 and Part 10 (AVC) Ogg Theora (noted for its lack of patent restrictions) Sorenson video codec VC-1 Audio Music AAC ADPCM ATRAC Dolby AC-3 MP2 MP3 Musepack Ogg Vorbis (noted for its lack of patent restrictions) WMA Speech CELP G.711 G.726 Harmonic and Individual Lines and Noise (HILN) AMR (used by GSM cell carriers, such as T-Mobile) Speex (noted for its lack of patent restrictions) Other data Researchers have (semi-seriously) performed lossy compression on text by either using a thesaurus to substitute short words for long ones, or generative text techniques , although these sometimes fall into the related category of lossy data conversion. Lowering resolution A general kind of lossy compression is to lower the resolution of an image, as in image scaling, particularly decimation. One may also remove less "lower information" parts of an image, such as by seam carving. Many media transforms, such as Gaussian blur, are, like lossy compression, irreversible: the original signal cannot be reconstructed from the transformed signal. However, in general these will have the same size as the original, and are not a form of compression. See also Data compression Lossless data compression Compression artifact Rate–distortion theory List of codecs Lenna Image scaling Seam carving Notes External links Lossy audio formats, comparing the speed and compression strength of five lossy audio formats. lossy PNG image compression (research) using lossy GIF/PNG compression for the web (article) JPG for Archiving, comparing the suitablity of JPG and lossless compression for image archives	Lossy_compression \|@lemmatized original:10 image:18 lossless:18 png:6 kib:5 size:3 uncompress:1 low:6 compression:39 less:6 information:12 uncompressed:4 medium:4 high:3 lossy:31 method:8 one:17 compress:16 data:28 decompress:3 retrieve:2 may:6 well:3 different:3 close:2 enough:1 useful:1 way:1 commonly:1 use:17 multimedia:2 audio:12 video:9 still:5 especially:2 application:3 stream:1 internet:1 telephony:1 contrast:2 require:1 text:4 file:19 bank:1 record:1 article:2 etc:1 transform:9 cod:5 generally:2 think:2 case:3 perceptual:7 coding:6 raw:4 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3,377	New_Jersey	New Jersey () is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north by New York, and to its east the Hudson River, Sandy Hook Bay, Long Island and the Atlantic Ocean. Delaware borders New Jersey only on the southwestern side and Pennsylvania lies to the west of New Jersey. New Jersey lies largely within the sprawling metropolitan areas of New York and Philadelphia. Inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, the first European settlements in the area were established by the Swedes and Dutch in the early 1600s. NJ History Outline The English later seized control of the region, naming it the Province of New Jersey, which was granted to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton as a colony. At this time, the name was taken from the largest of the English Channel Islands, Jersey. New Jersey was the site of several decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Paterson and Trenton helped to drive the Industrial Revolution. New Jersey's position at the center of the Northeast Corridor, between Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington, D.C., fueled its rapid growth through the suburban boom of the 1950s and beyond. Today, New Jersey has the highest population density and the second highest median income of any state in the United States. Only Maryland has a higher median income. Geography New Jersey is bordered on the north and northeast by New York; on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the south and southwest by Delaware across Delaware Bay; and on the west by Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. Metropolitan statistical areas and divisions of New Jersey; counties shaded in blue hues are in the New York City metro; counties shaded in green hues are in the Philadelphia metro. It should be noted that Mercer County and Warren County are located in the 'Greater' New York Metropolitan Area and that Atlantic, Cape May and Cumberland Counties are in the 'Greater' Philadelphia Metropolitan Area New Jersey can be thought of as five regions, based on natural geography and population. Northeastern New Jersey, the Gateway Region, lies within the New York metropolitan area, and some residents commute into the city to work. Northwestern New Jersey, or the "Skylands", is -- compared to the northeast -- more wooded, rural, and mountainous, but still a popular place to live. The "Shore" -- along the Atlantic Coast in the central-east and southeast -- has its own residence and lifestyle characteristics owing to the ocean. The central-west and southwest are within metropolitan Philadelphia, and are included in the Delaware Valley. The fifth region is the Pine Barrens in the interior of the southern part and is covered rather extensively by mixed pine and oak forest, and as such has a much lower population density than much of the rest of the state. New Jersey also can be broadly divided into three geographic regions: North Jersey, Central Jersey, and South Jersey. Some people do not consider Central Jersey a region in its own right, but many believe it is a separate geographic and cultural area from the North and South. The federal Office of Management and Budget divides New Jersey's counties into seven Metropolitan Statistical Areas, including sixteen counties in the New York City or Philadelphia metro areas. Four counties have independent metro areas, and Warren County joins another Pennsylvania-based metro area. (See Metropolitan Statistical Areas of New Jersey for details.) It is also at the center of the Boston to Washington megalopolis. Additionally, the New Jersey Commerce, Economic Growth, & Tourism Commission divides the state into six distinct regions to facilitate the state's tourism industry. The regions are: Gateway Region, encompassing Middlesex County, Union County, Essex County, Hudson County, Bergen County, and Passaic County. Skylands Region, encompassing Sussex County, Morris County, Warren County, Hunterdon County, and Somerset County. Shore Region, encompassing Monmouth County and Ocean County. Delaware River Region, encompassing Mercer County, Burlington County, Camden County, Gloucester County, and Salem County. Greater Atlantic City Region, encompassing Atlantic County. Southern Shore Region, encompassing Cumberland County and Cape May County. High Point, in Montague Township, Sussex County, is the highest elevation, at 1,803 feet (550 m). The Palisades are a line of steep cliffs on the lower west side of the Hudson River. Major rivers include the Hudson, Delaware, Raritan, Passaic, Hackensack, Rahway, Musconetcong, Mullica, Rancocas, Manasquan, Maurice, and Toms rivers. Sandy Hook, along the eastern coast, is a popular recreational beach. It is a barrier spit and an extension of the Barnegat Peninsula along the state's Atlantic Ocean coast. Long Beach Island ("LBI"), a barrier island along the eastern coast, has popular recreational beaches. The primary access point to the island is by a single bridge connection to the mainland. Barnegat Lighthouse is on the northern tip. Areas managed by the National Park Service include: Appalachian National Scenic Trail Delaware National Scenic River Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area Ellis Island National Monument Gateway National Recreation Area in Monmouth County Great Egg Harbor River Morristown National Historical Park in Morristown New Jersey Coastal Heritage Trail Route New Jersey Pinelands National Reserve Thomas Edison National Historical Park in West Orange Prominent geographic features include: Delaware Water Gap Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge The Highlands New Jersey Meadowlands Pine Barrens South Mountain Climate As with many other geographic features, New Jersey's climate divides into regions; the south, central, and northeast parts of the state have a humid subtropical climate, while the northwest has a humid continental climate, with slightly cooler temperatures due to higher elevation and mountains. Summers are typically hot and humid, with statewide average high temperatures of 82 - 88°F (28 - 31°C) and lows of 60 - 70°F (15 - 21°C), however temperatures exceed 90°F (32°C) on average of 18–25 days each summer, but rarely exceed 100°F (38°C). Winters are usually cold with average high temperatures of 38 - 46°F (3 - 8°C) and lows of 26 - 32 °F (-3 - 0 °C) for most of the state, but temperatures could for few days be as low as 10's to 20's°F (-12 to -6°C) and sometimes be as high as 50's or 60's°F (~10 - 15°C) during the winter. Northwestern parts of the state have slightly colder winters with average temperatures just below freezing. Spring and Autumn are erratic, and could range from chilly to warm, although they are usually pleasantly mild with low humidity. www.weather.com Average annual precipitation ranges from 43 to 51 inches (1,120 - 1,320 mm), fairly spread throughout the year. Average snowfall per winter season range from 10 - 15 inches (25 - 38 cm) in the south and near the seacoast, 15 - 30 inches (38 - 78 cm) in the northeast and central part of the state, to about 40 - 50 inches (1 - 1,27 m) in the northwestern highlands, but this often vary from year to year. Precipitations falls on an average of 120 days a year, with 25 to 30 thunderstorms that mostly occur during the summer. During winter and early spring, New Jersey can in some years experience nor'easters, which could cause blizzards or flooding in northeastern parts of the United States. New Jersey could also have drought and rain-free period for weeks. Hurricanes and tropical storms (such as Hurricane Floyd in 1999), and earthquakes are rare. Average high and low temperatures in various cities of New Jersey °C (°F) City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Sussex 1/-10(33/14) 3/-9(38/16) 8/-4(46/25) 15/2(59/36) 21/7(70/45) 26/12(78/54) 28/15(83/59) 28/14(82/57) 23/9(73/48) 17/3(63/38) 11/-1(52/30) 4/-6(39/21) Newark 3/-4(38/25) 5/-3(41/27) 10/1(50/34) 16/7(61/45) 22/12(72/54) 27/18(81/64) 29/21(84/70) 28/20(82/68) 24/16(75/61) 18/9(64/48) 12/4(54/39) 6/-1(43/30) Atlantic City 5/-2(42/28) 6/-1(44/30) 9/3(48/38) 14/7(57/45) 19/13(66/56) 24/18(75/64) 27/21(80/70) 27/21(80/70) 23/18(73/64) 18/12(64/54) 13/6(55/44) 8/1(46/34) Cape May 6/-3(43/27) 6/-2(43/28) 11/2(52/36) 16/6(61/43) 21/12(70/54) 26/17(79/63) 29/19(84/66) 28/19(82/66) 25/16(77/61) 19/9(66/48) 13/4(55/39) 8/-1(46/30)Weather.com History Around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains. Around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as many rivers, swamps, and gorges. Geological History by Great Swamp Watershed Association, retrieved December 22, 2005. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time Europeans arrived. The Lenape were loosely organized groups that practiced small-scale agriculture (mainly based on corn) in order to increase their largely mobile hunter-gatherer society in the region surrounding the Delaware River, the lower Hudson River, and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape society was divided into matrilinear clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign: Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf. They first encountered the Dutch in the early 1600s, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. Colonial era Since the state's inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic and religious diversity. New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scottish Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants from New York. While the majority of residents lived in towns with individual landholdings of , a few rich proprietors owned vast estates. English Quakers and Anglicans owned large landholdings. New Jersey remained agrarian and rural throughout the colonial era, and commercial farming only developed sporadically. Some townships, though, like Burlington and Perth Amboy, emerged as important ports for shipping to New York and Philadelphia. The colony's fertile lands and tolerant religious policy drew more settlers, and New Jersey boasted a population of 120,000 by 1775. Much of New Jersey was claimed by the Dutch. The Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern New York (New Amsterdam) and New Jersey. Although the European principle of land ownership was not recognized by the Lenape, Dutch policy required formal purchase of all land settled upon, and the first such purchase was of Manhattan, by Peter Minuit. The entire region became a territory of England in 1664, when an English fleet under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls sailed into what is today New York Harbor and took over the colony, against extremely low resistance. During the English Civil War the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the Crown and gave sanctuary to the King. It was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was first proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York (later King James II), the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony (as opposed to a royal colony). James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River (the land that would become New Jersey) to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War: Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton. The area was named the Province of New Jersey. Settlement for the first 10 years of English rule was in the Hudson River region and came primarily from New England. On March 18, 1673, Berkeley sold his half of the colony to Quakers in England (with William Penn acting as trustee for a time), who settled the Delaware Valley region as a Quaker colony. New Jersey was governed very briefly as two distinct provinces, East and West Jersey, for 28 years between 1674 and 1702. In 1702, the two provinces were reunited under a royal, rather than a proprietary, governor. Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, became the first governor of the colony as a royal colony. Lord Cornbury was an ineffective and corrupt ruler, taking bribes and speculating on land, so in 1708 he was recalled to England. New Jersey was then ruled by the governors of New York, but this infuriated the settlers of New Jersey, who accused those governors of favoritism to New York. Judge Lewis Morris led the case for a separate governor, and was appointed governor by King George II in 1738. Streissguth pg 30-36 Revolutionary War era The campuses of Rutgers University (originally chartered as Queen's College in 1766) include buildings of a variety of architectural styles. New Jersey was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. The New Jersey Constitution of 1776 was passed July 2, 1776, just two days before the Second Continental Congress declared American Independence from Great Britain. It was an act of the Provincial Congress, which made itself into the state Legislature. To reassure neutrals, it provided that it would become void if New Jersey reached reconciliation with Great Britain. New Jersey representatives Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, and Abraham Clark were among those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence. During the American Revolutionary War, British and American armies crossed New Jersey numerous times and several pivotal battles took place in the state. Because of this, New Jersey today is often referred to as "The Crossroads of the Revolution." The winter quarters of the revolutionary army were established there twice by General George Washington in Morristown, which was called the military capital of the revolution. On December 25, 1776, the Continental Army under George Washington crossed the Delaware River, which was depicted in the famous painting by Emanuel Leutze showing Washington crossing the Delaware River at the head of a rowboat. After the crossing, he surprised and defeated the unprepared Hessian troops in the Battle of Trenton. Slightly more than a week after victory at Trenton, on January 3, 1777, the American forces gained an important victory by stopping General Cornwallis's charges at the Second Battle of Trenton. By evading Cornwallis's army, Washington made a surprise attack on Princeton, and successfully defeated the British forces there. Later, American forces under Washington met the forces under General Henry Clinton at the Battle of Monmouth in an indecisive engagement. Washington attempted to take the British column by surprise; when the British army attempted to flank the Americans, the Americans retreated in disorder. The ranks were later reorganized and withstood the British charges. In the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall at Princeton University, making Princeton the nation's capital for four months. It was there that the Continental Congress learned of the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war. On December 18, 1787, New Jersey became the third state to ratify the United States Constitution, which was overwhelmingly popular in New Jersey, as it prevented New York and Pennsylvania from charging and keeping tariffs on goods imported from Europe. On November 20, 1789, the state became the first in the newly formed Union to ratify the Bill of Rights. The 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants" who had a certain level of wealth. This included women and blacks, but not married women, because they could not own property. Both sides, in several elections, claimed that the other side had had unqualified women vote, and mocked them for use of "petticoat electors" (entitled to vote or not); on the other hand, both parties passed Voting Rights Acts. In 1807, the legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal white male suffrage, excluding paupers. (This was less revolutionary than it sounds: the "constitution" was itself only an act of the legislature.) Klinghoffer and Elkis ("The Petticoat Electors: Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807." Journal of the Early Republic 12, no. 2 (1992): 159-193.) Nineteenth century On February 15, 1804, New Jersey became the last northern state to abolish new slavery and enacted legislation that slowly phased out existing slavery. This lead to a gradual scale-down of the slave population, but by the close of the Civil War about a dozen African-Americans in New Jersey were still apprenticed freedmen. New Jersey initially refused to ratify the Constitutional Amendments banning slavery and granting rights to America's Black population. In 1844, the second state constitution was ratified and brought into effect. Counties thereby became districts for the State Senate, and some realignment of boundaries (including the creation of Mercer County) immediately followed. This provision was retained in the 1947 Constitution, but was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1962 by the decision Baker v. Carr. While the Governorship was stronger than under the 1776 constitution, the constitution of 1844 created many offices that were not responsible to him, or to the people, and it gave him a three-year term, but he could not succeed himself. Unlike the Revolutionary War, no Civil War battles took place within the state. However, throughout the course of the Civil War, over 80,000 from New Jersey enlisted in the Northern army to defeat the Southern Confederacy. New Jersey was one of the few states to reject President Abraham Lincoln twice in national elections, and sided with Stephen Douglas (1860) and George B. McClellan (1864) during their campaigns. McClellan later became governor (1878-81). During the Civil War, the state was led first by Republican Governor Charles Smith Olden, then by Democrat Joel Parker. In the Industrial Revolution, cities like Paterson grew and prospered. Previously, the economy had been largely agrarian, which was problematically subject to crop failures and poor soil. This caused a shift to a more industrialized economy, one based on manufactured commodities such as textiles and silk. Inventor Thomas Edison also became an important figure of the Industrial Revolution, having been granted 1,093 patents, many of which for inventions he developed while working in New Jersey. Edison's facilities, first at Menlo Park, NJ and then in West Orange, NJ, are considered perhaps the first research centers in the U.S. Christie Street in Menlo Park was the first thoroughfare in the world to have electric lighting. Transportation was greatly improved as locomotion and steamboats were introduced to New Jersey. Iron mining was also a leading industry during the middle to late 1800s. Bog iron pits in central New Jersey were among the first sources of iron for the new nation. Mines such as Mt. Hope, Mine Hill and the Rockaway Valley Mines created a thriving industry, which spawned new towns and was one of the driving forces behind the need for the Morris Canal. Zinc mines were also a major industry, especially the Sterling Hill Mine. Twentieth century The Statue of Liberty and Jersey City Through both World Wars, New Jersey was a center for war production, especially in naval construction. Battleships, cruisers, and destroyers were all made in this state. In addition, Fort Dix (1917) (originally called "Camp Dix"), Our History Camp Merritt (1917) Camp Merritt and Camp Kilmer (1941) Camp Kilmer were all constructed to house and train American soldiers through both World Wars. New Jersey also became a principal location for defense in the Cold War. Fourteen Nike Missile stations were constructed, especially for the defense of New York City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. PT-109, a motor torpedo boat commanded by Lt. (j.g.) John F. Kennedy in World War II, was built at the Elco Boatworks in Bayonne. The aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CV-6) was briefly docked at the Military Ocean Terminal in Bayonne in the 1950s before she was sent to Kearney to be scrapped. In 1962, the world's first nuclear-powered cargo ship, the NS Savannah, was launched at Camden. New Jersey prospered through the Roaring Twenties. The first Miss America Pageant was held in 1921 in Atlantic City, the first drive-in movie was shown in 1933 in Camden, and the Holland Tunnel opened in 1927. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the state offered begging licenses to unemployed residents, Gerdes, Louise I. The 1930s, Greenhaven Press, Inc., 2000. the zeppelin airship Hindenburg crashed in flames over Lakehurst, and the SS Morro Castle beached itself near Asbury Park after going up in flames while at sea. In 1951, the New Jersey Turnpike opened, permitting fast travel by car and truck between North Jersey (and metropolitan New York) and South Jersey (and metropolitan Philadelphia). In the 1960s, race riots erupted in many of the industrial cities of North Jersey. The first race riots in New Jersey occurred in Jersey City on August 2, 1964. Several others ensued in 1967, in Newark and Plainfield. Other riots followed the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. in April 1968, just as in the rest of the country. A riot occurred in Camden in 1971. Demographics State population Residents of New Jersey are most commonly referred to as "New Jerseyans" or "New Jerseyites." The United States Census Bureau, as of July 1, 2008, estimated New Jersey's population at 8,682,661, which represents an increase of 268,301, or 3.2%, since the last census in 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 343,965 people (that is, 933,185 births minus 589,220 deaths) and a decrease due to net migration of 53,930 people out of the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 384,687 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 438,617 people. As of 2005, there were 1.6 million foreign-born living in the state (accounting for 19.2% of the population). As of 2006, New Jersey is the eleventh-most populous state, and the most densely populated, at 1,174 residents per square mile (453 per km²), although the density varies widely across the state. It is also the second wealthiest state according to the U.S. Census Bureau. The richest (and poorest) places in the U.S.: 2007 The center of population for New Jersey is located in Middlesex County, in the town of Milltown, just east of the New Jersey Turnpike (see map of location). Racial group, ethnicity, and ancestry New Jersey is one of the most religiously and ethnically diverse states in the country. It has the second largest Jewish population by percentage (after New York); the second largest Muslim population by percent (after Michigan); the third highest Asian population by percent; the third highest Italian-American population by percent according to the 2000 Census; and a large percentage of the population is Black American, White American, Hispanic American, Arab American, and Asian American. It has the third highest Indian American population of any state by absolute numbers. The Foreign Born from India in the United States, dated December 1, 2003 Mapping Census 2000: The Geography of U.S. Diversity (Microsoft Excel) Also, it has the third largest Korean American population, fourth largest Filipino American population, and fifth largest Chinese American population. The five largest ethnic groups are: Italian (17.9%), Irish (15.9%), African (13.6%), German (12.6%), Polish (6.9%). Newark and Camden are two of the poorest cities in America, but New Jersey as a whole has the second highest median household income. Md. is ranked as richest state This is largely because so much of New Jersey consists of suburbs, most of them affluent, of New York City and Philadelphia. New Jersey is also the most densely populated state, and the only state that has had every one of its counties deemed "urban" as defined by the Census Bureau's Combined Statistical Area. Metropolitan Areas and Components, 1999, with FIPS codes The state has very sizable enclaves of different language-speaking communities. Some of these include (by ranking): Spanish — spoken throughout the state, including many Hudson County towns, especially Union City. Portuguese — spoken throughout the state, especially in the Ironbound section of Newark. Italian — spoken throughout the state, especially in Hudson and Essex counties. New Jersey population distribution Each county's largest ethnic group, according to the 2000 Census, is: Italian — Passaic, Bergen, Union, Hudson, Morris, Somerset, Middlesex, Mercer, Monmouth, Ocean, Atlantic, Cumberland Census 2000 Brief Irish — Sussex, Burlington, Camden, Gloucester, Cape May German — Warren, Hunterdon, Salem 6.7% of its population was reported as under age 5, 24.8% under 18, and 13.2% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 51.5% of the population. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, 12.31% of the population aged 5 and over speak Spanish at home, while 1.48% speak Italian. Modern Language Association Religion +Distributions of religions in New Jersey (2001) Religious group%Catholic37None15Baptist8Methodist6Refused to identify5Christian(no denomination stated)4Jewish(by religion only)2Other4Presbyterian4Lutheran3Episcopalian/Anglican2Protestant2Jehovah's Witness1Mormon/LDS1Muslim/Islamic1Non-denominational1Pentecostal1Assemblies of GodBuddhistChurch of ChristChurch of GodCongregational/UCCEvangelicalSeventh Day Adventist* Less than 0.5% Economy The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that New Jersey's total state product in 2006 was $434 billion. Affluence Its per capita personal income in 2004 was $41,636, 2nd in the U.S. and 126% of the national average of $33,041. Bureau of Economic Analysis Its median household income is the highest in the nation with $55,146. The state also has the highest percentage of millionaire households. "New Jersey has most millionaires in country," Associated Press, January 10, 2008. It is ranked 2nd in the nation by the number of places with per capita incomes above national average with 76.4%. Nine of New Jersey's counties are in the wealthiest 100 of the country. Fiscal policy New Jersey faces a deficit that could be as large as 3 billion for the fiscal year that starts July 1, 2008. New Jersey Real Estate Report » NJ facing $3b budget deficit.. No new taxes? New Jersey has seven tax brackets for determining income tax rates. The rates range from 1.4 to 8.97%. The standard sales tax rate is 7%, applicable to all retail sales unless specifically exempt by law. Exemptions include most food items for at-home preparation, medicines, clothing (except fur items), footwear, and disposable paper products for use in the home. Approximately 30 New Jersey municipalities are designated as Urban Enterprise Zones and shoppers are charged a 3½% tax rate, half of the rate charged outside the UEZs. Sections of Elizabeth and Jersey City are examples of communities that are subject to the lower sales tax rate. All real property located in the state is subject to property tax unless specifically exempted by statute. New Jersey does not assess an intangible personal property tax, but it does impose an inheritance tax. Industry Cranberry harvest New Jersey's economy is centered on the pharmaceutical industry, chemical development, telecommunications, food processing, electric equipment, printing and publishing, and tourism. New Jersey's agricultural outputs are nursery stock, horses, vegetables, fruits and nuts, seafood, and dairy products. Although New Jersey is home to many energy-intensive industries, its energy consumption is only 2.7% of the U.S. total, and its carbon dioxide emissions are only 0.8% of the U.S. total. Its comparatively low greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to nuclear power. According to the Energy Information Administration, nuclear power dominates New Jersey’s electricity market, typically supplying more than one-half of State generation. New Jersey has three nuclear power plants, including the Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, which came online in 1969 and is the oldest operating nuclear plant in the country. New Jersey has a strong scientific economy. New Jersey is home to major pharmaceutical firms such as Johnson and Johnson, Sanofi-Aventis, Novartis, Pfizer, Merck, Wyeth, Hoffman-LaRoche, Bristol-Myers Squibb, and Schering-Plough. New Jersey is home to major telecommunications firms such as Verizon Wireless, Avaya, Alcatel-Lucent and AT&T Communications. Furthermore, New Jersey draws upon its large and well-educated labor pool which also supports the myriad of industries that exist today. New Jersey is the ultimate bedroom community since the state is right next to New York City and Philadelphia. Thus, there is a strong service economy in New Jersey serving residents who work in New York City or Philadelphia. Some of these industries include retail sales, education and real estate. Newark Liberty International Airport is ranked seventh among the nation's busiest airports and among the top 20 busiest airports in the world. Shipping is a strong industry in New Jersey because of the state's strategic location. The Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the world's first container port and is one of the world's largest container ports. New Jersey also has a strong presence in chemical development, refining and food processing operations. New Jersey hosts several business headquarters, including twenty-four Fortune 500 companies. Paramus is noted for having one of the highest retail sales per person ratios in the nation. Several New Jersey counties such as Somerset (7), Morris (10), Hunterdon (13), Bergen (21), Monmouth (42) counties are ranked among the highest-income counties in the United States. Four others are also in the top 100. Federal taxation disparity New Jersey has the highest imbalance of any state in the United States between what it gives to the federal government and what it receives. In fiscal year 2005, New Jersey taxpayers gave the federal government $77 billion dollars but only received $55 billion dollars back. This difference is higher than any other state and means that for every $1.00 New Jersey taxpayers send to Washington, the state only receives $0.61 dollars back. This calculation is applied correctly after making the federal government deficit neutral as sometimes the federal government spends more than it takes in. link Chart of State to Federal government spend/receive ratios, Tax Foundation As of 2005, New Jersey has never been above 48th in rank for per capita federal spending (with a rank of 50th for the majority of that time) since 1982 while being 2nd or 3rd in the per capita federal taxes paid to Washington. New Jersey runs into deficits frequently and has one of the highest tax burdens in the nation. link Tax Burdens in New Jersey Factors for this include the large federal tax liability which is not adjusted for New Jersey's higher cost of living and Medicaid funding formulas. As shown by the study, incomes tend to be higher in New Jersey, which puts those in higher tax brackets especially vulnerable to the alternative minimum tax. However, such higher salaries are negated by the high taxes when the large property and state/local income taxes, as well as the low rate of return by the federal government (which may cause those high taxes) is included. Natural resources New Jersey's greatest natural resource is its location, which has made the state a crossroads of commerce. Other commercial advantages include its extensive transportation system, which puts one quarter of all United States consumers within overnight delivery range. Lake and seaside resorts such as Atlantic City have contributed to New Jersey's rank of fifth among the states in revenues from tourism. Almost half of New Jersey is wooded. The chief tree of the northern forests is the oak. A large part of the southern section is in pine. Jersey oak has been used extensively in shipbuilding. The mineral resources in New Jersey are small. The state, however, does rank high in smelting and refining minerals from other states. Some mining activity does still take place in the area in and around the Franklin Furnace, which was long a center of zinc production (see New Jersey Zinc Company). Transportation Roadways Map of New Jersey showing major transportation networks and cities The George Washington Bridge connecting New Jersey to New York City is one of the world's busiest bridges in terms of vehicular traffic. New Jersey and Oregon are the only states that do not allow self-service gas stations. The New Jersey Turnpike is one of the best-known and most-trafficked roadways in the United States. This toll road carries interstate traffic between Delaware and New York, and the East Coast in general. Commonly referred to as simply "the Turnpike," it is known for its numerous rest-areas named after prominent New Jerseyans as diverse as inventor Thomas Edison; United States Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton; United States Presidents Grover Cleveland and Woodrow Wilson; writers James Fenimore Cooper, Joyce Kilmer, and Walt Whitman; patriot Molly Pitcher; Red Cross advocate Clara Barton; and football coach Vince Lombardi. The Garden State Parkway, or simply "the Parkway," carries more in-state traffic and runs from the town of Montvale along New Jersey's northern border to its southernmost tip at Cape May for . It is the trunk that connects the New York metropolitan area to Atlantic City and it is consistently one of the safest roads in the nation. New Jersey is connected to New York City via various bridges and tunnels. The George Washington Bridge carries one of the heaviest loads of traffic in the world George Washington Bridge turns 75 years old: Huge flag, cake part of celebration, Times Herald-Record, October 24, 2006. "The party, however, will be small in comparison to the one that the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey organized for 5,000 people to open the bridge to traffic in 1931. And it won't even be on what is now the world's busiest bridge for fear of snarling traffic." from New Jersey to the Washington Heights neighborhood in Upper Manhattan in New York City. The Lincoln Tunnel connects to Midtown Manhattan and the Holland Tunnel connects to Lower Manhattan. These are the three major Hudson River crossings that see heavy vehicular traffic. New Jersey is also connected to Staten Island by three bridges. From the southernmost to northernmost; the Outerbridge Crossing, Goethals Bridge, and Bayonne Bridge. The Goethals Bridge also provides a route from New Jersey to Brooklyn, New York. Other expressways in New Jersey include the Atlantic City Expressway, the Palisades Interstate Parkway, Interstate 76, Interstate 78, Interstate 80, Interstate 195, Interstate 280, Interstate 287, and Interstate 295. Other major roadways include U.S. 1, U.S. 9, U.S. Route 1/9. Non-major roadways include Interstate 676 and U.S. Route 46. New Jersey has interstate compacts with all three neighboring states. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the Delaware River Port Authority (with Pennsylvania), and the Delaware River and Bay Authority (with Delaware) operate most of the major transportation routes into and out of New Jersey. Bridge tolls are collected in one direction only — it is free to cross into New Jersey, but motorists must pay when exiting the state. Exceptions to this are the Dingman's Ferry Bridge and the Delaware River-Turnpike Toll Bridge where tolls are charged both ways. The Washington Crossing and Scudders Falls (on I-95) bridges near Trenton, as well as Trenton's Calhoun Street and Bridge Street ("Trenton Makes") bridges, are toll-free. In addition, Riverton-Belvidere Bridge, Northampton Street Bridge, Riegelsville Bridge, and Upper Black Eddy-Milford Bridge are free Delaware River bridges into and out of NJ. Uhlerstown-Frenchtown Bridge - (NJ 12) Lumberville-Raven Rock Bridge - (pedestrian) Centre Bridge-Stockton Bridge - (PA 263 / CR 523) New Jersey is one of only two states (along with Oregon) where self-service filling of gasoline is prohibited. Airports New York City skyline from Continental Terminal C in Newark Liberty Airport Newark Liberty International Airport is one of the busiest airports in the United States. Operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which runs the other two major airports in the New York metropolitan area (John F. Kennedy International Airport and LaGuardia Airport), it is one of the main airports serving the New York City area. Continental Airlines is the facility's largest tenant, operating an entire terminal at Newark, which it uses as one of its primary hubs. FedEx Express operates a large cargo hub. The adjacent Newark Airport railroad station provides access to the trains of Amtrak and New Jersey Transit along the Northeast Corridor Line. Two smaller commercial airports, Atlantic City International Airport and Trenton-Mercer Airport, also operate in other parts of New Jersey. Teterboro Airport, in Bergen County, is a general aviation airport popular with private and corporate aircraft, due to its proximity to New York City. Millville Municipal Airport, in Cumberland County, is a general aviation airport popular with private and corporate aircraft, due to its proximity to the shore. Rail and bus New Jersey Transit train in Elizabeth NJT bus in Woodbury The New Jersey Transit Corporation (N. J. Transit) operates extensive rail and bus service throughout the state. N. J. Transit is a state-run corporation that began with the consolidation of several private bus companies in North Jersey. In the early 1980s, it acquired the commuter train operations of Conrail that connect towns in northern and central New Jersey to New York City. NJ Transit has eleven lines that run throughout different parts of the state. Most of the trains start at various points in the state and most end at either Pennsylvania Station, in New York City, or Hoboken Terminal in Hoboken. NJ Transit began service between Atlantic City and Lindenwold in 1989 and extended it to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in the 1990s. Two Hudson-Bergen Light Rail trains in Jersey City, New Jersey N. J. Transit also operates three light rail systems in the state. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail connects Bayonne to North Bergen, with planned expansion into Bergen County communities. The Newark Light Rail is the only subway system entirely in the state, but it is only partially underground. Its Main Line connects Newark Penn Station in Downtown Newark with outer parts of the city, ending at Grove Street station in Bloomfield. The Broad Street Line of the subway, the first component of the Newark-Elizabeth Rail Link, connects Newark Broad Street Station to Newark Penn Station. The last of the three light rail lines is the River Line which connects Trenton and Camden. The PATH is a subway and above-ground railway which links Hoboken, Jersey City, Harrison and Newark with New York City. The PATH operates four lines that connect various points in North Jersey and New York. The lines all terminate in Hudson County, Essex County or Manhattan in New York City. The PATCO High Speedline links Camden County and Philadelphia. PATCO operates a single elevated and subway line that runs from Lindenwold to Center City Philadelphia. PATCO operates stations in Lindenwold, Voorhees, Cherry Hill, Haddonfield, Haddon Township, Collingswood, and Camden, along with four stations in Philadelphia. Amtrak also operates numerous long-distance passenger trains in New Jersey to and from neighboring states and around the country. In addition to the Newark Airport connection, other major Amtrak railway stations include Trenton Rail Station, Metropark, and the grand historic Newark Penn Station. SEPTA also has two lines that operate into New Jersey. The R7 lines terminates at the Trenton Rail Station, and the R3 lines terminates at the West Trenton Rail Station in Ewing. AirTrain Newark is a monorail connecting the Amtrak/NJ Transit station on the Northeast Corridor to the airport's terminals and parking lots. Some private bus carriers still remain in New Jersey. Most of these carriers operate with state funding to offset losses and state owned buses are provided to these carriers of which Coach USA companies make up the bulk. Other carriers include private charter and tour bus operators that take gamblers from other parts of New Jersey, New York City, Philadelphia, and Delaware to the casino resorts of Atlantic City. Ferries There are many ferry services that operate in New Jersey. On the Delaware Bay, the Delaware River and Bay Authority operates the Cape May-Lewes Ferry. The Delaware River and Bay Authority also operates ferries between Fort Mott in New Jersey and Fort Delaware and Fort DuPont in Delaware. The Delaware River Port Authority operates the RiverLink Ferry between the Camden waterfront and Penn's Landing in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. On the Hudson River, New York Waterway has numerous ferry terminals in Belford, Jersey City, Hoboken and Weehawken. The stops are at Port Liberte, Liberty Harbor, Colgate/Exchange Place in Jersey City, Belford, Port Imperial and Lincoln Harbor in Weehawken, Hoboken Terminal (Hoboken South) and 14th Street (Hoboken North) in Hoboken. These ferries run to one or several of the Manhattan stops at Wall Street, the World Financial Center or Midtown at 39th St. Liberty Landing in Jersey City has ferries from Portside in Paulus Hook and Liberty Landing in Liberty State Park. The Hornblower Cruises ferry has service from Liberty State Park to Ellis Island and the Statue of Liberty. Although there is a bridge from Ellis Island to Jersey City, it was built for renovations on the building on the island and is considered unsafe for public use. SeaStreak offers services from the Raritan Bayshore to Manhattan and during the Met's season Shea Stadium. The ferries on the Bayshore leave from Atlantic Highlands and two terminals in Highlands. New York Water Taxi also has seasonal service from Paulus Hook to Wall Street. Ferry service from Keyport and Perth Amboy have been proposed and ferry service from Elizabeth has been discussed with a proposed light rail connection to Newark Airport and Downtown Elizabeth. Private bus carriers Several private bus lines provide transportation service in the state of New Jersey. Below is a list of major carriers and their areas of operation: Academy--commuter bus service from Burlington, Middlesex, Monmouth, and Ocean counties to lower and midtown Manhattan Bergen Avenue IBOA—local bus service in Jersey City Broadway Bus—local bus service in Bayonne Coach USA Community Coach--commuter bus service from Essex and Morris counties ONE Bus/Olympia Trails--local bus service in Essex and Union counties, commuter bus service from the Raritan Valley to Manhattan Red & Tan in Hudson County--local bus service in Hudson County Rockland Coaches--commuter and local bus service from Bergen County to Manhattan Suburban Trails--commuter bus service from Middlesex County to Manhattan, local bus service in Middlesex County DeCamp Bus Lines--commuter bus service from Essex County to Manhattan Greyhound--interstate bus service from terminals in Newark, Atlantic City, and Mount Laurel Lakeland Bus Lines--commuter and local bus service from Morris, Somerset, Union, and Sussex counties to Manhattan Martz Trailways—service from Warren County to Manhattan Montgomery & West Side IBOA--local bus service in Jersey City Trans-Bridge Lines--service from the Skylands Region to and from Manhattan Law and government Executive Jon Corzine (Democrat) is the Governor. The Governor of New Jersey is considered one of the most powerful governorships in the nation, as it is the only state-wide elected office in the state and appoints many government officials. Formerly, an Acting Governor was even more powerful as he simultaneously served as President of the New Jersey State Senate, thus directing half of the legislative and all of the executive process. In 2002 and 2007, President of the State Senate Richard Codey held the position of Acting Governor for a short time, and from 2004 to 2006 Codey became a long-term Acting Governor due to Jim McGreevey's resignation. A 2005 amendment to the state Constitution prevents the Senate President from becoming Acting Governor in the event of a permanent gubernatorial vacancy without giving up her or his seat in the state Senate. The governor's mansion is Drumthwacket, located in Princeton Township. New Jersey is one of the few states that has no lieutenant governor. The first Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey will take office in January 2010 and will be elected conjointly with the Governor of New Jersey. The position was created as the result of a Constitutional amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution passed by the voters on November 8, 2005 and effective as of January 17, 2006. Legislative The New Jersey State House in Trenton The current version of the New Jersey State Constitution was adopted in 1947. It provides for a bicameral New Jersey Legislature, consisting of an upper house Senate of 40 members and a lower house General Assembly of 80 members. Each of the 40 legislative districts elects one State Senator and two Assembly members. Assembly members are elected for a two-year term in all odd-numbered years; State Senators are elected in the years ending in 1, 3, and 7 and thus serve either four- or two-year terms. New Jersey is one of only five states that elects its state officials in odd-numbered years. (The others are Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Virginia.) New Jersey holds elections for these offices every 4 years, in the year following each federal Presidential election year. Thus, the last year when New Jersey elected a Governor was 2005; the next gubernatorial election will occur in 2009, with future gubernatorial elections to take place in 2013, 2017, 2021, etc. Judicial The New Jersey Supreme Court Supreme Court of New Jersey consists of a Chief Justice and six Associate Justices. All are appointed by the Governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the State Senate. Justices serve an initial seven-year term, after which they can be reappointed to serve until age 70. Most of the day-to-day work in the New Jersey courts is carried out in the Municipal Courts, where simple traffic tickets, minor criminal offenses, and small civil matters are heard. More serious criminal and civil cases are handled by the Superior Court for each county. All Superior Court judges are appointed by the Governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the State Senate. Each judge serves an initial seven-year term, after which he or she can be reappointed to serve until age 70. New Jersey's judiciary is unusual in that it still has separate courts of law and equity, like its neighbor Delaware but unlike most other U.S. states. The New Jersey Superior Court is divided into Law and Chancery Divisions at the trial level. The Superior Court also has an Appellate Division, which functions as the state's intermediate appellate court. Superior Court judges are assigned to the Appellate Division by the Chief Justice. There is also a Tax Court, which is a court of limited jurisdiction. Tax Court judges hear appeals of tax decisions made by County Boards of Taxation. They also hear appeals on decisions made by the Director of the Division of Taxation on such matters as state income, sales and business taxes, and homestead rebates. Appeals from Tax Court decisions are heard in the Appellate Division of Superior Court. Tax Court judges are appointed by the Governor for initial terms of seven years, and upon reappointment are granted tenure until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 70. There are 12 Tax Court judgeships. Counties New Jersey is broken up into 21 counties; 13 date from the colonial era. New Jersey was completely divided into counties by 1692; the present counties were created by dividing the existing ones; most recently Union County in 1857. New Jersey is the only state in the nation where elected county officials are called "Freeholders," governing each county as part of its own Board of Chosen Freeholders. The number of freeholders in each county is determined by referendum, and must consist of three, five, seven or nine members. Depending on the county, the executive and legislative functions may be performed by the Board of Chosen Freeholders or split into separate branches of government. In 16 counties, members of the Board of Chosen Freeholders perform both legislative and executive functions on a commission basis, with each Freeholder assigned responsibility for a department or group of departments. In the other 5 counties (Atlantic, Bergen, Essex, Hudson and Mercer), there is a directly elected County Executive who performs the executive functions while the Board of Chosen Freeholders retains a legislative and oversight role. In counties without an Executive, a County Administrator (or County Manager) may be hired to perform day-to-day administration of county functions. Municipalities New Jersey has 566 municipalities; the number was 567 before Pahaquarry Township was absorbed by Hardwick Township in 1997. Unlike states in the west and south, all New Jersey land is part of a municipality. In 2008, Governor Jon Corzine proposed cutting state aid to all towns under 10,000 people, to encourage mergers to reduce administrative costs. Small Towns in N.J. Told to Merge or Face Cuts In May 2009, the Local Unit Alignment Reorganization and Consolidation Commission (LUARC) began a study of about 40 small communities in South Jersey to decide which ones might be good candidates for consolidation. "N.J. town mergers could start in 18 months" by Jan Hefler, The Philadelphia Inquirer, May 29, 2009. Retrieved on 2009-05-29 Types of government When the types of government were devised in the nineteenth century, the intention was that cities would be large built-up areas, with progressively smaller boroughs, towns, and villages; the rural areas in between would be relatively large townships. This is still often true, although Shrewsbury Township has been divided over the years; today it is less than a square mile, consisting only of a single housing development. Some townships — notably Brick, Hamilton, Middletown, and Toms River — have, without changing their boundaries, become large stretches of suburbia, as populous as cities, often focused around shopping centers and highways rather than traditional downtowns and main streets. Short Hills, Murray Hill, and many other locations in New Jersey are not municipalities but rather neighborhoods, with no exact boundaries. Often the cluster of houses, the traditional neighborhood, the postal district, and the Census designated place will differ. The federal government has often failed to understand that a New Jersey township is just another municipality, and some municipalities have changed forms to become the Township of Borough of Verona or the Township of South Orange Village to receive more federal aid. Forms of government The five types of municipality differ mostly in name. Originally, each type had its own form of government but more modern forms are available to any municipality, even though the original type is retained in its formal name. Only boroughs can (but are not required to) have the "borough form" of government. Starting in the 1900s, largely driven by reform-minded goals, a series of six modern forms of government was implemented. This began with the Walsh Act, enacted in 1911 by the New Jersey Legislature, which provided for a 3- or 5-member commission elected on a non-partisan basis. This was followed by the 1923 Municipal Manager Law, which offered a non-partisan council, provided for a weak mayor elected by and from the members of the council, and introduced Council-Manager government with an (ideally apolitical) appointed manager responsible for day-to-day administration of municipal affairs. The Faulkner Act, originally enacted in 1950 and substantially amended in 1981, offers four basic plans: Mayor-Council, Council-Manager, Small Municipality, and Mayor-Council-Administrator. The act provides many choices for communities with a preference for a strong executive and professional management of municipal affairs and offers great flexibility in allowing municipalities to select the characteristics of its government: the number of seats on the Council; seats selected at-large, by wards, or through a combination of both; staggered or concurrent terms of office; and a mayor chosen by the Council or elected directly by voters. Most large municipalities and a majority of New Jersey's residents are governed by municipalities with Faulkner Act charters. Municipalities can also formulate their own unique form of government and operate under a Special Charter with the approval of the New Jersey Legislature. While municipalities retain their names derived from types of government, they may have changed to one of the modern forms of government, or further in the past to one of the other traditional forms, leading to municipalities with formal names quite baffling to the general public. For example, though there are four municipalities that are officially named villages, Loch Arbour is the only one remaining with the village form of government. The three other villages—Ridgefield Park (now with a Walsh Act form), Ridgewood (now with a Faulkner Act Council-Manager charter), and most confusingly, South Orange (now the Township of South Orange Village)—have all migrated to other non-village forms. Politics Political parties New Jersey was once a politically competitive state in past federal elections but recently has become a Democratic stronghold. Currently, New Jersey Democrats hold the Governorship, have majority control of both houses of the Legislature (Senate: 22-18 & Assembly: 49-31), while federal Democrats hold both U.S. Senate seats and also 8 out of 13 of the state's delegation to the United States House of Representatives. No Republican has received a majority of the vote in a statewide election since George H. W. Bush's presidential victory in 1988, though the state had a Republican governor from 1994 to 2002, as Christie Todd Whitman won twice with vote percentages of 47 and 49 percent. In federal elections, the state leans heavily towards the national Democratic Party. It was, however, a Republican stronghold for years in the past, having given comfortable margins of victory to the Republican candidate in the close elections of 1948, 1968, and 1976. New Jersey was a crucial swing state in the elections of 1960, 1968, and 1992. The last elected Republican to hold a Senate seat from New Jersey was Clifford P. Case in 1979. (Nicholas F. Brady was appointed a U.S. Senator by Governor Thomas Kean in 1982 after Harrison A. Williams resigned the Senate seat following the Abscam investigations.) The state's Democratic strongholds include Mercer County around Trenton and Princeton; Essex County and Hudson County, the state's two most urban counties, around the state's two largest cities, Newark and Jersey City; Camden County and most of the other urban communities just outside of Philadelphia and New York; and more suburban northern counties in New York's orbit, such as Union County and Middlesex County. The more suburban northwestern and southeastern counties of the state are reliably Republican: Republicans have backing along the coast in Ocean County and in the mountainous northwestern part of the state, especially Sussex County, Morris County, and Warren County. Somerset County and Hunterdon County, other suburban counties in the region, are also Republican in local elections but can be competitive in national races. In the 2004 General Election, President George W. Bush received about 52% in Somerset and 60% in Hunterdon, while up in rural Republican Sussex County, Bush won with 64% of the vote. In 2008, John McCain comfortably won Sussex, Morris, Warren, and Hunterdon counties (but won all of them by smaller margins than Bush did in 2004), but Somerset County went for Barack Obama, who received about 52% of the vote. About half of the counties in New Jersey, however, are considered swing counties, but some go more one way than others. For example, Bergen County, which leans Republican in the northern half of the county, is mostly Democratic in the more populated southern parts, causing it to usually vote slightly Democratic. The same is true with Passaic County, with a highly populated Hispanic Democratic south and a rural, Republican north). Other "swing" counties like Cape May County tend to go Republican, as they also have population in conservative areas. To be eligible to vote in a U.S. election, all New Jerseyans are required to start their residency in the state 30 days prior to an election and register 29 days prior. Social attitudes and issues Socially, New Jersey is considered one of the most liberal states in the nation. Polls indicate two-thirds of the population are self-described as pro-choice; SurveyUSA Pro-Life vs. Pro Choice Sorted by State and in a 2009 Quinnipiac University poll of 2222 people, a plurality supported same-sex marriage 49% to 43% opposed. Poll: NJ voters support gay marriage In April 2004, New Jersey enacted a domestic partnership law, which is available to both same-sex and opposite-sex couples aged 62 and over. During 2006, the New Jersey Supreme Court voted 4 to 3 that state lawmakers must provide the rights and benefits of marriage to gay and lesbian couples. Moreover, effective February 19, 2007, New Jersey became the third state in the U.S. (the other two being Connecticut and Vermont) to offer civil unions to same-sex couples, conferring over 850 rights, privileges and responsibilities of marriage; legislators declined, however, to use the term "marriage" for same-sex unions. Thus, three separate government-recognized relationships are now in effect in the Garden State: domestic partnerships, civil unions, and marriage. New Jersey also has some of the most stringent gun-control laws in the U.S. These include bans on assault firearms, hollow-nose bullets and even slingshots. No gun offense in New Jersey is graded less than a felony. BB guns and black powder guns are all treated as modern firearms. Visitors to the state should beware of bringing any firearms into the state. New Jersey does not recognize out-of-state gun licenses and aggressively enforces its own gun laws. Capital punishment On December 17, 2007, Governor Corzine signed into law a bill that would eliminate the death penalty in New Jersey. New Jersey is the first state to pass such legislation since Iowa and West Virginia eliminated executions in 1965. Hester Jr., Tom (2007) N.J. Bans Death Penalty for Associated Press There are only a handful of people on Death Row in New Jersey. Corzine also recently signed a bill that would downgrade the Death Row prisoners' sentences from "Death" to "Life in Prison with No Parole." Prominent cities and towns Large cities (100,000 or greater) Broad Street in Newark Jersey City by night For its overall population and nation-leading density, New Jersey has a relative paucity of classic large cities. As of the United States 2000 Census, only four municipalities had populations in excess of 100,000. With the 2004 Census estimate, Woodbridge briefly surpassed Edison in population, as both joined the 100,000 club. The 2006 Census estimate states that both Edison and Woodbridge Township have dropped below the 100,000 mark (with Edison surpassing Woodbridge). Newark, Essex County: 273,546 (Census Estimate 2006: 281,402) Jersey City, Hudson County: 240,055 (Census Estimate 2006: 241,791) Paterson, Passaic County: 149,222 (Census Estimate 2006: 148,708) Elizabeth, Union County: 120,568 (Census Estimate 2006: 126,179) Edison, Middlesex County 97,687 (Census Estimate 2006: 99,523) Woodbridge Township, Middlesex County: 97,203 (Census Estimate 2006: 99,208) Towns and small cities (60,000 up to 100,000) Toms River Township, Ocean County: 89,706 (Census Estimate 2006: 94,660) Hamilton Township (Mercer County): 87,109 (Census Estimate 2006: 90,559) Trenton, Mercer County: 85,403 Camden: 79,904 Clifton: 78,672 Brick Township: 76,119 Cherry Hill Township: 69,965 East Orange: 69,824 Passaic: 67,861 Union City: 67,088 Middletown Township: 66,327 Gloucester Township: 64,350 Bayonne: 61,842 Irvington: 60,695 Old Bridge Township 60,456 Lakewood Township 60,352 Wealth of municipalities Wealth of municipalities and communities by per capita income: 1 Mantoloking, New Jersey $114,017 2 Saddle River, New Jersey $85,934 3 Far Hills, New Jersey $81,535 4 Essex Fells, New Jersey $77,434 5 Alpine, New Jersey $76,995698 New Hanover Township, New Jersey $12,140 699 Lakewood CDP, New Jersey $11,802 700 Bridgeton, New Jersey $10,917 701 Fort Dix, New Jersey $10,543 702 Camden, New Jersey $9,815 Education Although some problems exist in certain inner city neighborhoods, New Jersey overall is considered to have one of the best public education systems in the United States. 54% of high school graduates continue on to college, which is tied with Massachusetts for the second highest rate in the nation (North Dakota holds first place at 59%). New Jersey also has the highest average scores for advanced placement testing in public schools in the nation. Secretary of Education Rick Rosenberg, appointed by Governor Jon Corzine, has created the Education Advancement Initiative (EAI) to increase College admission rates by 10% for New Jersey's high school students, decrease dropout rates by 15%, and increase the amount of money devoted to schools by 10%. Rosenberg was since forced to retract this plan when publicly criticized for taking the money out of healthcare to fund this initiative. New Jersey is ranked first in the nation in funding K-12 education but is ranked last in higher-education funding. New Jersey is home to more scientists and engineers per square mile than anywhere else in the world. Delaware / Hudson Valley Hot Spot for biotechnology Recreation and entertainment Jersey Shore Asbury Park Allenhurst Atlantic City Avalon Avon-by-the-Sea Barnegat Bay Head Belmar Brigantine Cape May Cliffwood Beach Forked River Island Beach State Park Keansburg Keyport Long Beach Island Long Branch Longport Manasquan Margate Monmouth Beach Middletown Neptune Ocean City Ocean Grove Oceanport Point Pleasant Beach Red Bank Sandy Hook Sea Isle City Sea Bright Seaside Heights Seaside Park Spring Lake Stone Harbor Toms River Union Beach Wall "The Wildwoods": Diamond Beach North Wildwood West Wildwood Wildwood Wildwood Crest Kingda Ka, located at Six Flags Great Adventure in Jackson, New Jersey is the world’s tallest and fastest roller coaster. The Prudential Center Along the boardwalk in Ocean City The Tropicana along the Atlantic City boardwalk Theme parks Bowcraft Amusement Park Land of Make Believe Morey's Piers Six Flags Great Adventure Mountain Creek Waterpark Clementon Amusement Park Keansburg Amusement Park Historic sites The Indian King Tavern Edison National Historic Site Ellis Island National Monument Emilio Carranza Crash Site and Monument Grover Cleveland's Birthplace Long Pond Ironworks State Park Ringwood Manor Monmouth Battlefield State Park Morristown National Historical Park Ford Mansion Fort Nonsense Jockey Hollow New Bridge Landing Old Dutch Parsonage Princeton Battlefield St. Michael's Church and Churchyard, Trenton, NJ The USS New Jersey Wallace House Walt Whitman's Tomb and House Washington Crossing State Park Pomonah Hall Museums The Liberty Science Center The Montclair Art Museum The Morris Museum The Newark Museum The Thomas Edison Museum The Maywood Station Museum Performing arts New Jersey Performing Arts Center Paper Mill Playhouse PNC Bank Arts Center Prudential Center Camping and hiking The Appalachian Trail Camp Glen Gray South Mountain Reservation Nudism Gunnison Beach Rock Lodge Club Professional sports teams New Jersey currently has five teams from major professional sports leagues playing in the state, although the Major League Soccer team and two National Football League teams identify as being from New York. National Hockey League New Jersey Devils (Newark) National Basketball Association New Jersey Nets (East Rutherford) Major League Soccer Red Bull New York (East Rutherford) Major League Lacrosse New Jersey Pride (Piscataway) Bergen River Dogs (planned, expected to play at the Meadowlands Xanadu Complex) National Football League New York Giants (East Rutherford) New York Jets (East Rutherford) American Basketball Association Jersey Express (Madison)Great Lakes Indoor Football League New Jersey Revolution (Morristown) Minor League Baseball teams Lakewood BlueClaws New Jersey Jackals (Montclair) Sussex Skyhawks (Augusta) Trenton Thunder Atlantic City Surf Camden Riversharks Newark Bears Somerset Patriots (Bridgewater) Bergen Cliff Hawks (planned, expected to play at the Meadowlands Xanadu Complex) ECHL Trenton Devils MISL New Jersey Ironmen (Newark) Three of the state's four major professional sports teams play at the Meadowlands Sports Complex in East Rutherford. The Nets play in the Izod Center, and the Giants and Jets play in Giants Stadium. The Meadowlands and its sports venues are widely considered to be outdated by today's professional sports standards. This led to the Devils move away from the Meadowlands to the new Prudential Center in Newark at the start of the 2007-08 seasons. The Nets also have plans to leave the Meadowlands for Brooklyn as soon as the Barclays Center is completed for them. The Giants and Jets though announced in 2005 that they will be staying in the Meadowlands, and a new stadium for both teams should be ready by the 2010 season. The new stadium is part of the Xanadu Project taking shape at the sports complex. The Xanadu Project, when completed in 2008, will be the largest retail and entertainment complex in New Jersey. The sports complex is also home to the Meadowlands Racetrack one of three major horse racing tracks in the state. The Meadowlands Racetrack along with Freehold Raceway in Freehold are two of the major harness racing tracks in North America. Monmouth Park Racetrack in Oceanport, is also a popular spot for thoroughbred racing in New Jersey and the northeast. It hosted the Breeders' Cup in 2007, and its turf course was renovated in preparation. Collegiate sports teams New Jersey's collegiate allegiances are more or less split among the three major Division 1 programs in the state — the Rutgers University (which is New Jersey's official state university) Scarlet Knights, the Seton Hall University (which is the state's largest Roman Catholic university) Pirates, and the Princeton University (the state's Ivy League university) Tigers. Both Rutgers and Seton Hall compete in the Big East Conference, and the rivalry between the two teams has always been an intense one. Rutgers and Princeton have an intense rivalry stemming from the first intercollegiate football game in 1869, though the two schools have not met on the football field since 1980. They continue to play each other annually in all other sports offered by the two universities. Rutgers, which fields 24 teams from various sports, is nationally known for its excellent football and women's basketball programs. The university is planning a large expansion to the on-campus Rutgers Stadium to accommodate the rising number of fans, and the teams play in Piscataway, which is adjacent to the New Brunswick campus. The university also fields rising basketball and baseball programs. Rutgers' fan base is mostly derived from the western parts of the state and Middlesex County, not to mention its alumni base, which is the largest in the state. Seton Hall, unlike Rutgers, does not field a football team. However, their basketball team has been one of the most storied programs in the Big East, and they play their home games at the state-of-the-art Prudential Center, located in downtown Newark. The Pirates, while lacking as large of an alumni base as the state university, have a large well of support in the predominantly Roman Catholic areas of the northern part of the state and the Jersey Shore. Gambling In 1978, the New Jersey legislature approved casino gambling in Atlantic City. At that time, Las Vegas was the only mega-casino resort. By 1978, Atlantic City was in decline. It was no longer the seaside resort that it once was. With the institution of casino gambling, Atlantic City has come back as a resort city. There are numerous famous casinos, with its main contributor being Donald Trump. Many lie along the Atlantic City Boardwalk, the longest boardwalk throughout the Jersey Shore. Trivia Area code 201, assigned to Bergen and Hudson Counties, was the first area code assigned as part of the North American Numbering Plan. New Jersey was recently rated one of the most excellent U.S. states to visit by Zagat's, second only to Ohio. New Jersey has the lowest rate of depression in the United States found by a study from NAMI National Alliance on Mental Illness (http://www.nami.org) In an April 12, 2007 car accident, Corzine was the third straight New Jersey governor to break a leg while in office. James E. McGreevey broke his left leg in 2002 during a nighttime walk on the beach, and Christie Whitman broke her right leg while skiing in the Swiss Alps in 1999. New Jersey has the largest grove of cherry blossom trees in the United States, in Newark's Branch Brook Park, eclipsing the more famous one in Washington D.C. The USS New Jersey, one of the most decorated vessels in the United States Navy, was named in honor of this state and is now a tourist attraction in Camden. New Jersey is the birthplace of many modern inventions such as: FM radio, the motion picture camera, the lithium battery, the light bulb, transistors, and the electric train. Other New Jersey creations include: the drive-in movie, the cultivated blueberry, cranberry sauce, the postcard, the boardwalk, the zipper, the phonograph, saltwater taffy, the dirigible, the seedless watermelon New Jersey Inventors Hall of Fame , the first use of a submarine in warfare, and the ice cream cone. Joseph Bonaparte, the brother of Napoleon I, lived for 17 years in the South Jersey town of Bordentown. The first officially recorded baseball game in history was played at the Elysian Fields, Hoboken, New Jersey, with the New York Base Ball Club defeating the New York Knickerbockers with a score of 23-1. Alexander Cartwright formalized the rules and umpired. The first intercollegiate football game in history was played in New Brunswick, New Jersey on November 6, 1869, with home team Rutgers University defeating Princeton University 6-4. Rutgers University is considered "The Birthplace of College Football." The properties in the United States version of the board game Monopoly are named after the streets of Atlantic City. The four-mile (6 km) long Boardwalk in Atlantic City was the world's first boardwalk and is still its largest. The Lindbergh kidnapping drama unfolded in New Jersey in 1932. New Jersey was the national pioneer of Megan's Law sex offender registries, following the 1994 rape and murder of Megan Kanka. New Jersey has more horses per square mile than any other state. The United States Equestrian Team now is headquartered in Gladstone after being founded in Morristown. The book Jaws by Peter Benchley, which inspired the classic film of the same name, was based on a series of actual shark attacks during the summer of 1916 that took place in Matawan and elsewhere off the Jersey Shore. A diner in Freehold Diners are common in New Jersey. The state is home to many diner manufacturers and has more diners than any other state: over 600. There are more diners in the state of New Jersey than any other place in the world. 50states.com: New Jersey Facts and Trivia Ben Shahn settled in Roosevelt, New Jersey, and did most of his work there. The art building at William Paterson University of New Jersey is named after him. Sculptor Jim Gary grew up in Colts Neck where he also opened his gallery, Iron Butterfly, before moving it to Red Bank. Jim Gary was the only living sculptor ever invited to have a solo show at the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History. Later, his Twentieth Century Dinosaurs exhibition was featured as the first floor exhibit at the grand opening of New Jersey's first major science museum, the Liberty Science Center. The world's highest quality fluorescent minerals and the most number of minerals found in any one location is located in Franklin Furnace. There are mineral museums in Franklin and Ogdensburg. New Jersey is the only state without a state song. "I'm From New Jersey" is incorrectly listed on many websites as being the New Jersey State Song, but wasn't even a contender when in 1996 the New Jersey Arts Council submitted their suggestions to the New Jersey Legislature. The History of the New Jersey State Song? "Dancin' Larry", the mascot of the New York Rangers, is from Clifton. Legends and ghosts A long-circulated legend says a creature, the Jersey Devil or the Leeds Devil, terrorizes the population of the Pine Barrens. The New Jersey Devils are named for this mythical creature. New Jersey is also home to several other legends, such as the ghost of Annie's Road in Totowa and the haunted and demon-possessed Clinton Road in West Milford. Cooper Road in Middletown is assumed haunted by strange, ghostly people who jump out from behind trees at cars traveling down the unpaved, portion of the road. The unpaved section has no street lights and thus is very dangerous as it has sharp turns where the ghostly people, are assumed to jump in front of the cars from behind trees causing them to crash. There is also the Atco Ghost—the ghost of a little boy runs across the street late at night in Atco. It is also rumored that Jimmy Hoffa, the late leader of the Teamsters Union, is buried beneath Giants Stadium or the New Jersey Turnpike. However, on the popular television show MythBusters, the myth of Jimmy Hoffa being buried under Giants Stadium was debunked using ground penetrating radar. The magazine Weird NJ (the creators of which later started Weird U.S.) was started to catalog and explore the ghosts, legends, and prevalence of otherwise "weird" things in the state. Media Newspapers There are many major New Jersey newspapers, including: Asbury Park Press Burlington County Times Courier-Post Cranford Chronicle Daily Record (Morris). NJ.com: New Jersey Advertising The Express-Times Gloucester County Times Herald News Hunterdon County Democrat Independent Press Jersey JournalThe New Jersey Herald The New Jersey Herald: Top Stories The News of Cumberland County The Press of Atlantic City The Record NorthJersey.com: providing local news, sports & classifieds for Northern New Jersey! The Record-Press and Suburban News The Reporter (Somerset) The Star-Ledger Today's Sunbeam Trentonian (Mercer) The Warren Reporter The Trenton Times College newspapers The following college papers: Bergen Community College: The Torch Camden County College: Campus Press College of New Jersey: The Signal Drew University: The Acorn Fairleigh Dickinson University: The Equinox Kean University: The Tower Montclair State: The Montclarion NJ Institute of Tech: The Vector Online Princeton: Nassau Weekly Princeton: The Daily Princetonian Princeton: The Princeton Spectator Rider University: The Rider News Rowan University: The Whit Rutgers: The Daily Targum Rutgers: Rutgers Centurion Rutgers: The Observer Seton Hall: The Setonian Stevens Institute of Technology: The Stute Union County College: The Scroll William Paterson University: Pioneer Times Television and film In the 1996 science fiction film Independence Day the scene in which Jeff Goldblum and Judd Hirsch are playing chess was filmed in West New York. Motion picture technology was invented in New Jersey, by Thomas Edison. The early work was done at his West Orange laboratory. His "Black Maria" was the first motion picture studio. More recent motion pictures and television shows also have been set in New Jersey: The popular television drama The Sopranos depicts the life of a New Jersey organized crime family and is filmed on location at various places throughout the state. The Family Man, starring Nicolas Cage was filmed in Teaneck in 2000. The 1979 film The Amityville Horror was filmed in Toms River and the scene in the church is filmed in Point Pleasant. The popular FOX television show House is set in a fictional hospital located in the Princeton-Plainsboro area. (The exterior shots of the "hospital" are actually shots of the exterior of Princeton University's Frist Campus Center.) Another FOX show, Point Pleasant was based on a fictional version of the town. (It was not shot on location within the actual town of the same name.) Cartoon Network's Adult Swim cartoon Aqua Teen Hunger Force and Toonami cartoon Megas XLR are both set in New Jersey. The opening of the popular NBC comedy Ed (TV series) was filmed in Hillsdale and Westfield, New Jersey. Cable network CNBC originates most of its in-studio programming from Englewood Cliffs. Sister news network MSNBC broadcast from studios in Secaucus from 1997 until late 2007, when the network moved to Rockefeller Center's GE Building in a cost-cutting measure by parent company NBC Universal. MyNetworkTV flagship station WWOR-TV (Channel 9) is licensed to and broadcasts from Secaucus; former owner RKO General moved the New York-based station across the Hudson in 1983 in an unsuccessful attempt to retain the station's license. Almost all of Kevin Smith's movies take place in New Jersey (though not all of them are filmed there), as Smith grew up in Red Bank. The popular character The Toxic Avenger is often touted as the first superhero from New Jersey. Camp NoBeBoSco in Blairstown was the location of the original Friday the 13th movie (some believe the series of films to be set in New Jersey, although this is never confirmed onscreen), which was partially based on real murders that have occurred near the campground, in the state's rural northwest. Such horror stories were the inspiration behind the now nationally famous Weird NJ magazine and website. In the animated television comedy Futurama, New Jersey is slandered many times by the characters. In one episode, Fry finds a seemingly ideal apartment while house hunting, but later comments, upon finding out that the home is located in New Jersey, that he found "not one place even remotely liveable". In another, when discussing the global garbage problem, a television ad states that "...landfills were full...New Jersey was full...", implying a lack of places to store garbage. Additionally, Robot Hell is located in Atlantic City. In the 2005 film adaptation of War of the Worlds, the beginning of the movie is set in New Jersey, a homage to the 1968 radio broadcast. The film World Trade Center (film) starring Nicolas Cage had numerous scenes shot in Glen Rock, New Jersey Video Games Grand Theft Auto 1 (1997), takes place in New Jersey, called New Guernsey. Grand Theft Auto IV and The Lost and Damned (2008 and 2009), which take place in Eastern New Jersey, especially in Hudson County, Bergen County, Essex County, and Union County, New Jersey. Jersey City is called Alderney City. Music New Jersey has long been an important area for both rock and rap music. Some prominent musicians from or with significant connections to New Jersey are: Singer Frank Sinatra was born in Hoboken. He sang with a neighborhood vocal group, the Hoboken Four, and appeared in neighborhood theater amateur shows before he became an entertainment legend as an Academy Award winning actor and one of the most famous male vocalists of all time. Bruce Springsteen, who has sung of New Jersey life on most of his albums, hails from Freehold and is the most popular rock musician to ever come out of the state. Some of his songs that represent New Jersey life are "Born to Run," "Spirit In The Night," "Rosalita (Come Out Tonight)," "Thunder Road," "Atlantic City," and "Jungleland." The Jonas Brothers all reside in Wyckoff, New Jersey, where the eldest brother of the group, Kevin Jonas was born, as well as the youngest Jonas, Frankie. Irvington's Queen Latifah was the first female rapper to succeed in music, film, and television. Lauryn Hill is from South Orange, New Jersey. Her 1998 debut solo album, The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill, sold 10 million copies internationally. She also sold millions with The Fugees second album The Score. Redman (Reggie Noble) was born, raised, and resides in Newark. He is the most successful African-American solo hip-hop artist out of New Jersey. All members of The Sugarhill Gang were born in Englewood. Roc-A-Fella Records rap producer Just Blaze hails form Paterson, New Jersey. Jon Bon Jovi, who hails from Sayreville, reached fame in the 1980s with hard rock outfit Bon Jovi. The band has also written many songs about life in New Jersey including "Livin' On A Prayer" and even named one of his albums after the state. (see New Jersey) Singer Dionne Warwick was born in East Orange. Singer Whitney Houston (who is Dionne Warwick's cousin) was born in Newark, and grew up in neighboring East Orange. Legendary jazz pianist and bandleader Count Basie was born in Red Bank in 1904. In the 1960s, he collaborated on several albums with fellow New Jersey native Frank Sinatra. The Count Basie Theatre in Red Bank is named in his honor. Parliament-Funkadelic, the pioneering funk music collective, was formed in Plainfield by George Clinton. Asbury Park is home of The Stone Pony, which Bruce Springsteen and Bon Jovi frequented early in their careers and is still considered by many to be a "Mecca" for up-and-coming Jersey Shore musicians. Hip-hop pioneers Naughty By Nature hail from East Orange. In 1964, the Isley Brothers founded the record label T-Neck Records, named after Teaneck, their home at the time. The Broadway musical "Jersey Boys" is based on the lives of the members of the Four Seasons, three of whose members were born in New Jersey (Tommy DeVito, Frankie Valli, and Nick Massi) Jazz pianist Bill Evans was born in Plainfield in 1929. Hardcore rock band Thursday were formed in New Brunswick, NJ. Numerous songs reference the city. Horror punk band The Misfits hail from Lodi, as well as their founder Glenn Danzig. Punk rock poet Patti Smith is from Mantua. Acclaimed indie rock veterans Yo La Tengo are based in Hoboken. They also have a song called "The Night Falls on Hoboken". New Jersey was the hub for ska music in the 90's. Some of the most popular ska bands, such as Catch 22 and Streetlight Manifesto, come from East Brunswick. Black Label Society's and Ozzy Osbourne's famed guitarist Zakk Wylde was born in Bayonne and raised in Jackson The Bouncing Souls original four members grew up in Basking Ridge and formed in New Brunswick in the late 1980s. My Chemical Romance's Frank Iero, Gerard Way, Mikey Way, and Ray Toro all hail from Belleville, New Jersey. Cobra Starship frontman Gabe Saporta is from New Jersey Radio stations in N.J. See List of radio stations in New Jersey. State symbols State animalHorse(Equus caballus)State birdAmerican Goldfinch(Carduelis tristis)State freshwater fishBrook trout(Salvelinus fontinalis)State danceSquare danceState insectEuropean honey bee(Apis mellifera)State flowerCommon meadow violet(Viola sororia)State motto"Liberty and Prosperity"State song None State of New Jersey - FAQs State treeNorthern Red Oak(Quercus borealis maxima)(syn. Quercus rubra)State dinosaurHadrosaurus foulkiiState soilDownerState colorBuff and Jersey BlueState shipA. J. MeerwaldState fruitNorthern highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum)State vegetableJersey tomato(Lycopersicon esculentum)State shellKnobbed whelk(Busycon carica gmelin)State memorial tree Dogwood (Cornus Florida)State slogan Come See For Yourself See also Index of New Jersey-related articles References External links State Government Official New Jersey state web site New Jersey State Databases - Annotated list of searchable databases produced by New Jersey state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. A list of official and unofficial NJ county and municipal web sites Descriptions of NJ forms of government (e.g., township, borough, etc.) from NJ State League of Municipalities U.S. Government Energy Data & Statistics for New Jersey USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of New Jersey US Census Bureau New Jersey State Facts Other The New Jersey Digital Highway, the statewide cultural heritage portal to digital collections from the state's archives, libraries and museums Abandoned and Historic Mines of New Jersey New Jersey travel guide from Wikitravel be-x-old:Нью-Джэрзі	New_Jersey \|@lemmatized new:363 jersey:327 state:195 mid:1 atlantic:32 northeastern:3 region:23 united:24 border:5 north:18 york:54 east:18 hudson:24 river:33 sandy:3 hook:5 bay:7 long:14 island:15 ocean:13 delaware:30 southwestern:1 side:6 pennsylvania:9 lie:4 west:15 largely:5 within:7 sprawling:1 metropolitan:13 area:32 philadelphia:20 inhabit:1 native:3 american:28 year:29 first:33 european:3 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3,378	Gasparo_Contarini	Gasparo Contarini. Gasparo Contarini (16 October 1483 - 24 August 1542) was an Italian diplomat and cardinal. Biography He was born in Venice, the eldest son of Alvise Contarini, of the ancient noble House of Contarini, and his wife Polissena Malpiero. Salvador Miranda, "Cardinals of the Holy Roman church" After a thorough scientific and philosophical training at the University of Padua, he began his career in the service of his native city. From September 1520 to August 25 he was the Republic's ambassador to Charles V, with whom Venice was soon at war, instructed to defend the Republic's alliance with Francis I of France. Though he participated at the Diet of Worms, April 1521, he never saw or spoke with Martin Luther. He accompanied Charles in the Netherlands and Spain. He participated at the Congress of Ferrara in 1526 as the Republic's representative; at the Congress the League of Cognac was formed against the Emperor, allying France with Venice and several states of Italy. Later, after the Sack of Rome (1527), he assisted in reconciling the emperor and Clement VII, whose release he obtained and with the Republic of Bologna. He was made Governor of Brescia and Venice's representative at the Holy See, where, though he was unsuccessful in retaining the cities of Ravenna and Cervia that had been seized during the invasion of the Connetable de Bourbon, on his return to Venice wasd made a senator and a member of the Great Council. In 1535, Paul III unexpectedly made the secular diplomat a cardinal in order to bind an able man of evangelical disposition to the Roman interests. Contarini accepted, but in his new position did not exhibit his former independence. At the time he was promoted to cardinal, May 21, 1535, The consistory also promoted to the cardinalate Desiderius Erasmus, John Fisher and Jean du Bellay he was still a layman. One of the fruits of his diplomatic activity is his De magistratibus et republica Venetorum. As Cardinal, Contarini figured among the most prominent of the Spirituali, the leaders of the movement for reform within the Roman church. In April 1536 Paul III appointed a commission to devise ways for a reformation, with Contarini presiding. Paul III received favorably Contarini's Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia, which was circulated among the cardinalate, but it remained a dead letter. Contarini in a letter to his friend Reginald Cardinal Pole (dated 11 November 1538) says that his hopes had been wakened anew by the pope's attitude. He and his friends, who formed the Catholic evangelical movement of the Spirituali, thought that all would have been done when the abuses in church life had been put away. What Contarini had to do with it is shown by his letters to the pope in which he complained of the schism in the church, of simony and flattery in the papal court, but above all of papal tyranny, its least grateful passages. Paul's successor Paul IV, once a member on the commission, in 1539 put it on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum. In 1541 Cardinal Contarini was papal delegate at the Conference of Regensburg, the diet and religious debate marking the culmination of attempts to restore religious unity in Germany by means of conferences. There everything was unfavorable; the Catholic states were bitter, the Evangelicals were distant. Contarini's instructions though apparently free were in fact full of papal reservations. But the papal party had gladly sent him, thinking that through him a union in doctrine could be brought about, while the interest of Rome could be attended to later. Though the princes stood aloof, the theologians and the emperor were for peace, so the main articles were put forth in a formula, Evangelical in thought and Catholic in expression. The papal legate had revised the Catholic proposal and assented to the formula agreed upon. All gave their approval, even Johann Eck, though he later regretted it. Contarini's theological advisor was Tommaso Badia; his own position is shown in a treatise on justification, composed at Regensburg, which in essential points is Evangelical, differing only in the omission of the negative side and in being interwoven with the teaching of Aquinas. Meanwhile the papal policy had changed, and Contarini was compelled to follow his leader. He advised the emperor, after the conference had broken up, not to renew it, but to submit everything to the pope. Ignatius Loyola acknowledged that Cardinal Contarini was largely responsible for the papal approbation of the Society of Jesus, on September 27, 1540. Meanwhile Rome had drifted further into reaction, and Contarini died while legate at Bologna, at a time when the Inquisition had driven many of his friends and fellows in conviction into exile. The Catholic Encyclopedia reports that his accomplishments, but still more his mild resoluteness and blameless character, made him respected everywhere. See also Pope Paul III Notes References External links Gasparo Contarini article on Catholic Encyclopedia Works of Contarini at the Internet Archive	Gasparo_Contarini \|@lemmatized gasparo:3 contarini:18 october:1 august:2 italian:1 diplomat:2 cardinal:8 biography:1 bear:1 venice:5 eldest:1 son:1 alvise:1 ancient:1 noble:1 house:1 wife:1 polissena:1 malpiero:1 salvador:1 miranda:1 holy:2 roman:3 church:4 thorough:1 scientific:1 philosophical:1 training:1 university:1 padua:1 begin:1 career:1 service:1 native:1 city:2 september:2 republic:4 ambassador:1 charles:2 v:1 soon:1 war:1 instruct:1 defend:1 alliance:1 francis:1 france:2 though:5 participate:2 diet:2 worm:1 april:2 never:1 saw:1 speak:1 martin:1 luther:1 accompany:1 netherlands:1 spain:1 congress:2 ferrara:1 representative:2 league:1 cognac:1 form:2 emperor:4 ally:1 several:1 state:2 italy:1 later:3 sack:1 rome:3 assist:1 reconcile:1 clement:1 vii:1 whose:1 release:1 obtain:1 bologna:2 make:4 governor:1 brescia:1 see:2 unsuccessful:1 retain:1 ravenna:1 cervia:1 seize:1 invasion:1 connetable:1 de:3 bourbon:1 return:1 wasd:1 senator:1 member:2 great:1 council:1 paul:6 iii:4 unexpectedly:1 secular:1 order:1 bind:1 able:1 man:1 evangelical:4 disposition:1 interest:2 accept:1 new:1 position:2 exhibit:1 former:1 independence:1 time:2 promote:2 may:1 consistory:1 also:2 cardinalate:2 desiderius:1 erasmus:1 john:1 fisher:1 jean:1 du:1 bellay:1 still:2 layman:1 one:1 fruit:1 diplomatic:1 activity:1 magistratibus:1 et:1 republica:1 venetorum:1 figure:1 among:2 prominent:1 spirituali:2 leader:2 movement:2 reform:1 within:1 appoint:1 commission:2 devise:1 way:1 reformation:1 presiding:1 receive:1 favorably:1 consilium:1 emendanda:1 ecclesia:1 circulate:1 remain:1 dead:1 letter:3 friend:3 reginald:1 pole:1 dated:1 november:1 say:1 hope:1 waken:1 anew:1 pope:4 attitude:1 catholic:6 think:2 would:1 abuse:1 life:1 put:3 away:1 show:2 complain:1 schism:1 simony:1 flattery:1 papal:8 court:1 tyranny:1 least:1 grateful:1 passage:1 successor:1 iv:1 index:1 librorum:1 prohibitorum:1 delegate:1 conference:3 regensburg:2 religious:2 debate:1 mark:1 culmination:1 attempt:1 restore:1 unity:1 germany:1 mean:1 everything:2 unfavorable:1 bitter:1 evangelicals:1 distant:1 instruction:1 apparently:1 free:1 fact:1 full:1 reservation:1 party:1 gladly:1 send:1 union:1 doctrine:1 could:2 bring:1 attend:1 prince:1 stand:1 aloof:1 theologian:1 peace:1 main:1 article:2 forth:1 formula:2 thought:1 expression:1 legate:2 revise:1 proposal:1 assent:1 agree:1 upon:1 give:1 approval:1 even:1 johann:1 eck:1 regret:1 theological:1 advisor:1 tommaso:1 badia:1 treatise:1 justification:1 compose:1 essential:1 point:1 differ:1 omission:1 negative:1 side:1 interweave:1 teaching:1 aquinas:1 meanwhile:2 policy:1 change:1 compel:1 follow:1 advise:1 break:1 renew:1 submit:1 ignatius:1 loyola:1 acknowledge:1 largely:1 responsible:1 approbation:1 society:1 jesus:1 drift:1 far:1 reaction:1 die:1 inquisition:1 drive:1 many:1 fellow:1 conviction:1 exile:1 encyclopedia:2 report:1 accomplishment:1 mild:1 resoluteness:1 blameless:1 character:1 respect:1 everywhere:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 work:1 internet:1 archive:1 \|@bigram eldest_son:1 martin_luther:1 clement_vii:1 desiderius_erasmus:1 index_librorum:1 librorum_prohibitorum:1 papal_legate:1 ignatius_loyola:1 external_link:1
3,379	Hans_Gerhard_Creutzfeldt	Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt (June 2, 1885 – December 30, 1964) was a German neuropathologist, who first described the Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. He was born in Hamburg/Harburg and died in Munich. Biography Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt was born into a medical family in Harburg, which was incorporated into Hamburg in 1937. He absolved his military service in Kiel and attended the School of Medicine of the Universities of Jena and Rostock, receiving his doctorate at the latter in 1909. Part of his practical training was undertaken at St. Georg - Hospital in Hamburg. After qualification he sought adventure as a ship's surgeon, voyaging the Pacific Ocean, taking the opportunity to study local crafts, linguistics, and tropical plants. After returning to Germany, Creutzfeldt worked at the Neurological Institute in Frankfurt, at the psychiatric-neurological clinics in Breslau, Kiel and Berlin, and at the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatrie in Munich. He was habilitated at Kiel in 1920, and in 1925 became Extraordinarius of psychiatry and neurology. In 1938 he was appointed professor and director of the university psychiatric and neurological division in Kiel. During his tenure as director, he managed to save almost all of his patients from being executed under the Nazi Action T4 euthanasia program. Creutzfeldt was 54 years of age when the Second World War broke out. Creutzfeldt had little sympathy for the Nazi regime and was able to save some people from death in concentration camps. During the war, bombing destroyed his home and clinic. After the war he was director of the University of Kiel for six months, before being dismissed by the British occupational forces. His efforts to rebuild the university caused several conflicts with the British because he wanted to allow more former army officers to study there. In 1953 he moved on to Munich to work scientifically. He died in 1964 in Munich. He was married to Clara Sombart, a daughter of Werner Sombart. They have 5 Children, among them Werner Creutzfeldt (1924-2006), a renowned German Internist. See also Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, a subacute spongiform encephalopathy caused from prions involving the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia and the spinal cord. Adrenoleukodystrophy, a rare demyelination disorder also known as Siemerling-Creutzfeldt Disease causing progressive brain damage, adrenal failure, and eventually death. References	Hans_Gerhard_Creutzfeldt \|@lemmatized han:1 gerhard:2 creutzfeldt:9 june:1 december:1 german:2 neuropathologist:1 first:1 describe:1 jakob:2 disease:3 bear:2 hamburg:3 harburg:2 die:2 munich:4 biography:1 hans:1 medical:1 family:1 incorporate:1 absolve:1 military:1 service:1 kiel:5 attend:1 school:1 medicine:1 university:4 jena:1 rostock:1 receive:1 doctorate:1 latter:1 part:1 practical:1 training:1 undertake:1 st:1 georg:1 hospital:1 qualification:1 seek:1 adventure:1 ship:1 surgeon:1 voyage:1 pacific:1 ocean:1 take:1 opportunity:1 study:2 local:1 craft:1 linguistics:1 tropical:1 plant:1 return:1 germany:1 work:2 neurological:3 institute:1 frankfurt:1 psychiatric:2 clinic:2 breslau:1 berlin:1 deutsche:1 forschungsanstalt:1 für:1 psychiatrie:1 habilitate:1 become:1 extraordinarius:1 psychiatry:1 neurology:1 appoint:1 professor:1 director:3 division:1 tenure:1 manage:1 save:2 almost:1 patient:1 execute:1 nazi:2 action:1 euthanasia:1 program:1 year:1 age:1 second:1 world:1 war:3 break:1 little:1 sympathy:1 regime:1 able:1 people:1 death:2 concentration:1 camp:1 bomb:1 destroy:1 home:1 six:1 month:1 dismiss:1 british:2 occupational:1 force:1 effort:1 rebuild:1 cause:3 several:1 conflict:1 want:1 allow:1 former:1 army:1 officer:1 move:1 scientifically:1 marry:1 clara:1 sombart:2 daughter:1 werner:2 child:1 among:1 renowned:1 internist:1 see:1 also:2 subacute:1 spongiform:1 encephalopathy:1 prion:1 involve:1 cerebral:1 cortex:1 basal:1 ganglion:1 spinal:1 cord:1 adrenoleukodystrophy:1 rare:1 demyelination:1 disorder:1 know:1 siemerling:1 progressive:1 brain:1 damage:1 adrenal:1 failure:1 eventually:1 reference:1 \|@bigram creutzfeldt_jakob:2 jakob_disease:2 pacific_ocean:1 concentration_camp:1 spongiform_encephalopathy:1 cerebral_cortex:1 basal_ganglion:1 spinal_cord:1
3,380	Amiga_1000	The A1000, or Commodore Amiga 1000, was Commodore's initial Amiga personal computer, introduced on July 24, 1985 at the Lincoln Center in New York City. Machines began shipping in September with a base configuration of 256 KB of RAM at the retail price of 1295 USD. A analog RGB monitor was available for around 300 USD bringing the price of a complete Amiga system to 1595 USD. Before the release of the Amiga 500 and A2000 models in 1987, the A1000 was simply called Amiga or The Amiga from Commodore. The A1000 had a number of characteristics that distinguished it from later Amigas: It was the only model to feature the short-lived Amiga "checkmark" logo on its case; the case was elevated slightly to give a storage area for the keyboard when not in use (a "keyboard garage"); and the inside of the case was engraved with the signatures of the Amiga designers, including Jay Miner and the paw print of his dog Mitchy. The casing was designed by Howard Stolz Because AmigaOS was rather buggy at the time of the A1000's release, the OS was not placed in ROM. Instead, the A1000 included a daughterboard with 256 KB of RAM, dubbed the "Writable Control Store" (WCS), into which the core of the operating system was loaded from floppy disk (this portion of the operating system was known as the "Kickstart"). The WCS was write-protected after loading, and system resets did not require a reload of the WCS. In Europe the WCS was often referred to as WOM (Write Once Memory) as opposite to ROM (Read Only Memory). Many A1000 owners remained attached to their machines long after newer models rendered the units technically obsolete, and it attracted numerous aftermarket upgrades. Many CPU upgrades that plugged into the Motorola 68000 socket functioned in the A1000. Additionally, a line of products called the Rejuvenator series allowed the use of newer chipsets in the A1000, and an Australian-designed replacement A1000 motherboard called The Phoenix utilized the same chipset as the A3000 and added an A2000-compatible video slot and onboard SCSI controller. In 2006 PC World rated the Amiga 1000 as the 7th greatest PC of all time . In 2007 it was rated by the same magazine as the 37th best tech product of all time . In 1994, as Commodore filed for bankruptcy, Byte magazine called the Amiga 1000 "the first multimedia computer... so far ahead of its time that almost nobody--including Commodore's marketing department--could fully articulate what it was all about." Technical information The Amiga 1000 had a 7.15909 MHz 68000 CPU (7.09 MHz for PAL machines). This is precisely double the 3.58 MHz NTSC color carrier frequency, and was needed by the Amiga chipset when outputting NTSC video. All frequencies in the Amiga 1000 are derived from this frequency as it simplified glue logic and allowed the Amiga 1000 to make do with a single cheap mass-produced crystal. Though most units were sold with an analog RGB monitor, the A1000 also had a built-in composite video output which allowed the computer to be connected directly to a TV or VCR. It is possible to do a direct socket replacement of the standard 7 MHz 68000 CPU with a 68010 CPU. The 68010 executes instructions slightly faster than the 68000, but the conversion also introduces a small degree of software incompatibility. Technical specifications Jay Miner's signature from the top cover of a Commodore Amiga 1000 computer. The paw print is that of Mitchy, Miner's dog. Rear view of the A1000. CPU: Motorola 68000 (7.16 MHz NTSC, 7.09 MHz PAL) Chipset: OCS (Original Chipset) Audio (Paula): 4 voices / 2 channels (Stereo) 8-bit resolution / 6-bit volume 28 kHz sampling rate 70 dB S/N Ratio Video (Common NTSC resolutions): 320×200 with 32 colors or HAM-6 320×400i with 32 colors or HAM-6 640×200 with 16 colors 640×400i with 16 colors Memory: 8 KB ROM for bootstrap code. 256 KB WOM for the OS loaded from kickstart. 256 KB of Chip RAM by default, with an additional 256 KB provided by a dedicated cartridge. Practical upper limit of about 9 MB of Fast RAM memory due to being limited to an 24-bit address bus. This memory can not be utilized by the chipset, and is therefore faster. Removable Storage: 3.5" DD Floppy drive, capacity 880 KB Input/Output connections: Composite TV out (PAL versions sold in Europe and Australia, NTSC elsewhere) Analogue RGB video plug RCA audio plugs, 300 Ohm impedance. 2 × Game/Joy ports (used by the mouse) Keyboard port RS232 Serial port (DB25) Centronics Parallel port (DB25) Port for external floppy drive One expansion port for add-ons (memory, SCSI adaptor, etc), electrically and physically identical to the Amiga 500 expansion port (though, inexplicably, the port is upside down in relation to the Amiga 500) Resources handled by AutoConfig. Software (Bundled): AmigaOS 1.0/1.1/1.2/1.3 operating system, loaded from the Kickstart floppy disk at power-on. Microsoft Amiga BASIC Voice synthesis library The two versions of the A1000 There were two versions of the Amiga 1000. The first one was sold only in Canada and the United States, had a NTSC display and lacked the EHB video mode which all other models of the Amiga had. Later units of this version would had the EHB mode built in. The second one had a PAL display and the EHB video mode, and was built in Germany. See also Amiga models and variants External links The Commodore Amiga A1000 at OLD-COMPUTERS.COM Famous Amiga Uses References	Amiga_1000 \|@lemmatized commodore:7 amiga:23 initial:1 personal:1 computer:5 introduce:2 july:1 lincoln:1 center:1 new:3 york:1 city:1 machine:3 begin:1 ship:1 september:1 base:1 configuration:1 kb:7 ram:4 retail:1 price:2 usd:3 analog:2 rgb:3 monitor:2 available:1 around:1 bring:1 complete:1 system:5 release:2 model:5 simply:1 call:4 number:1 characteristic:1 distinguish:1 later:2 amigas:1 feature:1 short:1 live:1 checkmark:1 logo:1 case:3 elevate:1 slightly:2 give:1 storage:2 area:1 keyboard:3 use:4 garage:1 inside:1 engrave:1 signature:2 designer:1 include:3 jay:2 miner:3 paw:2 print:2 dog:2 mitchy:2 casing:1 design:2 howard:1 stolz:1 amigaos:2 rather:1 buggy:1 time:4 place:1 rom:3 instead:1 daughterboard:1 dub:1 writable:1 control:1 store:1 wcs:4 core:1 operating:3 load:4 floppy:4 disk:2 portion:1 know:1 kickstart:3 write:2 protect:1 reset:1 require:1 reload:1 europe:2 often:1 refer:1 wom:2 memory:6 opposite:1 read:1 many:2 owner:1 remain:1 attach:1 long:1 render:1 unit:3 technically:1 obsolete:1 attract:1 numerous:1 aftermarket:1 upgrade:2 cpu:5 plug:3 motorola:2 socket:2 function:1 additionally:1 line:1 product:2 rejuvenator:1 series:1 allow:3 chipsets:1 australian:1 replacement:2 motherboard:1 phoenix:1 utilize:2 chipset:5 add:2 compatible:1 video:7 slot:1 onboard:1 scsi:2 controller:1 pc:2 world:1 rat:2 great:1 magazine:2 best:1 tech:1 file:1 bankruptcy:1 byte:1 first:2 multimedia:1 far:1 ahead:1 almost:1 nobody:1 marketing:1 department:1 could:1 fully:1 articulate:1 technical:2 information:1 mhz:6 pal:4 precisely:1 double:1 ntsc:6 color:5 carrier:1 frequency:3 need:1 output:3 derive:1 simplify:1 glue:1 logic:1 make:1 single:1 cheap:1 mass:1 produce:1 crystal:1 though:2 sell:3 also:3 build:3 composite:2 connect:1 directly:1 tv:2 vcr:1 possible:1 direct:1 standard:1 executes:1 instruction:1 faster:2 conversion:1 small:1 degree:1 software:2 incompatibility:1 specification:1 top:1 cover:1 rear:1 view:1 ocs:1 original:1 audio:2 paula:1 voice:2 channel:1 stereo:1 bit:3 resolution:2 volume:1 khz:1 sample:1 rate:1 db:1 n:1 ratio:1 common:1 ham:2 bootstrap:1 code:1 chip:1 default:1 additional:1 provide:1 dedicated:1 cartridge:1 practical:1 upper:1 limit:2 mb:1 fast:1 due:1 address:1 bus:1 therefore:1 removable:1 dd:1 drive:2 capacity:1 input:1 connection:1 version:4 australia:1 elsewhere:1 analogue:1 rca:1 ohm:1 impedance:1 game:1 joy:1 port:8 mouse:1 serial:1 centronics:1 parallel:1 external:2 one:3 expansion:2 ons:1 adaptor:1 etc:1 electrically:1 physically:1 identical:1 inexplicably:1 upside:1 relation:1 resource:1 handle:1 autoconfig:1 bundle:1 power:1 microsoft:1 basic:1 synthesis:1 library:1 two:2 canada:1 united:1 state:1 display:2 lack:1 ehb:3 mode:3 would:1 second:1 germany:1 see:1 variant:1 link:1 old:1 com:1 famous:1 reference:1 \|@bigram commodore_amiga:3 kb_ram:2 rgb_monitor:2 amiga_amiga:1 jay_miner:2 floppy_disk:2 scsi_controller:1 mhz_pal:2 mhz_ntsc:2 floppy_drive:2 input_output:1 add_ons:1 external_link:1
3,381	Fat_Man	Fat Man is the codename for the atomic bomb that was detonated over Nagasaki, Japan, by the United States on August 9, 1945, at 11:02 a.m. (JSP). It was the second of the only two nuclear weapons to be used in fare and was the third man-made nuclear explosion. The name also refers more generically to the early nuclear weapon designs of U.S. weapons based on the "Fat Man" model. It was an implosion-type weapon with a plutonium core, similar to the Trinity device tested only a month earlier in New Mexico. Fat Man was possibly named after Winston Churchill BBC ON THIS DAY \| 9 \| 1945: Atom bomb hits Nagasaki , though Robert Serber said in his memoirs that as the "Fat Man" bomb was round and fat, he named it after Sydney Greenstreet's character of "Kasper Gutman" in The Maltese Falcon. The design of "Fat Man" nuclear assembly was substantially the same as "the gadget" detonated at the Trinity test in July 1945. "Fat Man" was detonated at an altitude of about 1,800 feet (550 m) over the city, and was dropped from a B-29 bomber Bockscar, piloted by Major Charles Sweeney of the 393d Bombardment Squadron, Heavy. The bomb had a yield of about 21 kilotons of TNT, or 8.78×1013 joules = 88 TJ (terajoules). What was the yield of the Hiroshima bomb? Because of Nagasaki's hilly terrain, the damage was somewhat less extensive than that in relatively flat Hiroshima. An estimated 39,000 people were killed outright by the bombing at Nagasaki; a further 25,000 were injured. The Avalon Project : The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Thousands more died later from related blast and burn injuries, and hundreds more from radiation illnesses from exposure to the bomb's initial radiations. The aerial bombing raid on Nagasaki had the third highest fatality rate The Atomic Bombing of Nagasaki, August 9, 1945 in World War II, after the nuclear strike on Hiroshima Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: BEIR VII Phase 2 Frequently Asked Questions - Radiation Effects Research Foundation Radiobiology for the radiologist. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 6th edition. Chapter 10, Sections 3,4,5. The Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima, August 6, 1945 and the March 9/10 1945 fire bombing raid on Tokyo Richard B. Frank, Downfall, p. 17–18. . Technology Illustration of the implosion concept. The device was 10 feet 8 inches (3.25 m) long, five feet (1.52 m) in diameter, and weighed 10,200 pounds (4,630 kg). In accordance with the name, it was more than twice as wide as Little Boy, which was dropped on Hiroshima three days earlier; however, the mass was only 10% more than that of Little Boy. "Fat Man" was an implosion-type device using plutonium 239. A subcritical sphere of plutonium was placed in the center of a hollow sphere of high explosive. Thirty-two pairs of detonators located on the surface of the high explosive were fired simultaneously to produce a powerful inward pressure on the core, squeezing it and increasing its density, resulting in a supercritical condition and a nuclear initiation. At first it was thought that two pieces of subcritical plutonium (Pu-239) could simply be shot into one another to create a nuclear explosion, and a plutonium gun-type design of this sort (known as the "Thin Man" bomb) was worked on for some time during the Manhattan Project. However in April 1944 it was discovered by Emilio Segrè that plutonium created for the bomb in the nuclear reactors at Hanford, Washington—even though it was supergrade plutonium containing only about 0.9% Pu-240—was not as pure as the initial samples of plutonium developed at the cyclotrons at Ernest O. Lawrence's Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley, California. Because of the presence of the Pu-240 isotope, reactor-bred plutonium had a much higher rate of spontaneous neutron emission than was previously thought, and if a gun-type device was used it would most likely pre-initiate and result in a messy and costly "fizzle". The spontaneous fission rate of Pu-240 is 40,000 times greater than that of Pu-239, so that in a gun-type plutonium device of the sort planned during the Manhattan Project, the last few centimeters would have to be traveled in less than 40 microseconds. After this problem was realized, the entire Los Alamos laboratory re-organized around the problem of the implosion bomb, the "Fat Man" starting in June 1944. The "Trinity" device was similar to the "Fat Man" bomb. Flash X-Ray images of the converging shock waves formed during a test of the high explosive lens system. The difficulty in the design of an implosion device lay primarily in properly compressing the plutonium core into a near-perfect sphere; if the compression was not symmetrical it would cause the plutonium to be ejected from the weapon, making it an inefficient "dirty bomb". In order to accomplish the compression, the high explosive system had to be carefully designed as a series of explosive lenses which used alternating fast- and slow-burning explosives to shape the explosive shock wave into the desired spherical shape. An early idea of this sort had been raised by physicist Richard Tolman during early discussions of possible bomb designs, specifically in having many pieces of fissile material attached to explosives that would then assemble them in a spherical fashion. This idea was further developed by Seth Neddermeyer, who attempted to find a way to collapse a hollow sphere of plutonium onto a solid sphere of it inside itself. Neither of these ideas relied on compression of the plutonium, and neither would assemble the device fast enough to avoid preinitiation (see discussion below). Edward Teller, Memoirs: A Twentieth-Century Journey in Science and Politics (Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing, 2001): 174-176. The idea of using shaped charges came from James L. Tuck Tuck at Los Alamos web site and was developed by mathematician John von Neumann Von neuman at Los Alamos web site , and the idea that under such pressures the plutonium metal itself would be compressed may have come about from conversations with Edward Teller, whose knowledge of how dense metals behaved under heavy pressure was influenced by his theoretical studies of the Earth's core with George Gamov. Von Neumann and George Kistiakowsky eventually became the principal architects behind the lens system. Robert Christy is credited with doing the final calculations that showed that a solid subcritical sphere of plutonium could be compressed to a critical state greatly simplifying the task since earlier efforts had attempted the more difficult compression of 3D shapes like spherical shells. After Christy's report, the solid-plutonium core weapon was referred to as the "Christy Gadget". Because of its complicated firing mechanism, and the need for previously untested synchronization of explosives and precision design, it was felt that a full test of the concept was needed before the scientists and military representatives could be confident it would perform correctly under combat conditions. On July 16, 1945, a device utilizing a similar mechanism (called the "gadget" for security reasons) detonated in a test explosion at a remote site in New Mexico, known as the "Trinity" test. It gave somewhere around 20 kt (80 TJ), 2 to 4 times the expected yield. The gun-type method, though inadequate for plutonium, could still be used for highly enriched uranium, and was employed in the "Little Boy" device, used against Hiroshima. The implosion method is more efficient than the gun-type method, and also far safer, as a perfect synchronization of the explosion lenses is required for the core to properly detonate, greatly reducing the chances of an accidental nuclear initiation. After the success of the first implosion "gadget", almost all subsequent American fission designs utilized implosion, with a rare few that used the gun-type design out of special design requirements (like extreme narrowness of weapon, such as nuclear artillery). As a result of espionage information procured by Klaus Fuchs and Theodore Hall, and to a lesser extent David Greenglass, the first Soviet device, "RDS–1" (above) closely resembled Fat Man, even in its external shape. The Soviet Union's first nuclear weapon detonated at Operation First Lightning (known as "Joe 1" in the West) was closely based on the "Fat Man" device, on which they had obtained detailed information from the spies Klaus Fuchs, Theodore Hall, and David Greenglass. The names for all three projects ("Fat Man", "Thin Man", and "Little Boy") were created by Robert Serber, a former student of Los Alamos director Robert Oppenheimer who worked on the project, according to Serber. According to his later memoirs, he chose them based on their design shapes; the "Thin Man" would be a very long device, and the name came from the Dashiell Hammett detective novel and series of movies by the same name; the "Fat Man" bomb would be round and fat and was named after Sidney Greenstreet's character in The Maltese Falcon. "Little Boy" would come last and be named only to contrast to the "Thin Man" bomb. Robert Serber, Peace & War: Reminiscences of a Life on the Frontiers of Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998): 104. Other sources say the two initial names came from an Air Force cover story that a pair B-29 bombers were being modified to serve as transport planes for Franklin Roosevelt ("Thin Man"), and Winston Churchill ("Fat Man"). Interior of bomb The original blueprints of the interior of both Fat Man and Little Boy are still classified. However, much information about the main parts is available in the unclassified public literature. Of particular interest is a description of Fat Man sent to Moscow by Soviet spies at Los Alamos in 1945. It was released by the Russian government in 1992. V.P. Visgin, ed. 1992. At the source of the Soviet atomic project: the role of espionage, 1941-1946. Problems in the History of Science and Technology 3:97. Described in Richard Rhodes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. Simon and Schuster, 1995. pp. 193-8. Below is a diagram of the main parts of the "Fat Man" device itself, followed by a more detailed look at the different materials used in the physics package of the device (the part responsible for the nuclear initiation). AN 219 contact fuse (four) Archie radar antenna Plate with batteries (to detonate charge surrounding nuclear components) X-Unit, a firing set placed near the charge Hinge fixing the two ellipsoidal parts of the bomb Physics package (see details below) Plate with instruments (radars, baroswitches and timers) Barotube collector California Parachute tail assembly ( aluminium sheet) Physics package Image:Fat Man Internal Components.png Assembly Jim Sanborn's "Critical Assembly." The bottom hemisphere of the pusher, with pieces of the boron shell, tamper, pit, and urchin. The physics package getting its shell. Fat Man on its transport carriage. To allow insertion of the plutonium pit as late as possible in the device's assembly, the spherical U-238 tamper had a 4" diameter cylindrical hole running through it, like the hole in a cored apple. The missing cylinder, containing the plutonium pit, could be slipped in through a hole in the surrounding aluminium pusher. In August 1945, it was assembled on Tinian Island. When the physics package was fully assembled and wired, it was placed inside its ellipsoidal aerodynamic bombshell and wheeled to the bomb bay of the B-29 named "Bockscar," after its normally-assigned command pilot, Fred Bock (who flew a different plane on the Nagasaki mission). http://awesometalks.wordpress.com/2008/08/07/bockscar-the-forgotten-plane-that-dropped-the-atomic-bomb/ In 2003, these concentric spheres and cylinder were recreated as the centerpiece of an art installation called "Critical Assembly" by sculptor Jim Sanborn. Using non-nuclear materials, he replicated the internal components of the "Trinity" device, which had the same design as Fat Man. Critical Assembly was first displayed at the Corcoran Gallery of Art, in Washington, DC. Jim Sanborn, Atomic Time: Pure Science and Seduction, Jonathan Binstock, ed., Corcoran Gallery of Art, 2003, p. 23. Initiation sequence The plutonium must be compressed to twice its normal density before free neutrons are added to start the fission chain reaction: Fat Man Detonation The result is that about two and a half of the thirteen pounds of plutonium in the pit, (about 20% of the 6.2 kg ) fissioned, and converted probably less than 1 gram of mass into energy, and released the energy equivalent of twenty-one thousand tons (21 kT) of TNT. See also Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Little Boy The gadget Trinity test Thin Man nuclear bomb Fat Man and Little Boy, a 1989 film that reenacts the Manhattan Project References External links thorough descriptions of Gadget ("a great deal of tissue paper and Scotch tape were used to make everything fit snugly") and Fat Man at Nuclear Weapons Archive The Design of Gadget, Fat Man, and "Joe 1" (RDS-1) Fat Man Model in QuickTime VR format Naming of "Fat Man" & "Thin Man" after Churchill, Roosevelt The final bomb design, with pictures Atomic John: A truck driver uncovers secrets about the first nuclear bombs. Essay and interview with John Coster-Mullen by David Samuels in the New Yorker, December 15, 2008 issue. Coster-Mullen is the author of Atom Bombs: The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man, 2003 (first printed in 1996, self-published), considered a definitive text about Fat Man; illustrations from which are used in the Physics Package section above.	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3,382	Chinese_numerals	Chinese numerals are characters for writing numbers in Chinese. Today, speakers of Chinese use three numeral systems: the ubiquitous system of Arabic numerals, along with two ancient Chinese numeral systems. One such system is the Suzhou numerals or huama system. It has gradually been supplanted by the Arabic system in writing numbers. It is the only surviving variation of the rod numeral system; this system has been popular only in Chinese markets, such as those in Hong Kong before the 1990s. The other Chinese numeral system is the written numbers system. It is still in use when writing numbers in long form, such as on cheques to hinder forgery. This character system is roughly analogous to spelling out a number in English text. The Chinese character system can be classified as part of the language, but it still counts as a number system. Most people in China now use the Arabic system for convenience. Individual Chinese characters in this article link to their dictionary entries. Written numbers The Chinese character numeral system consists of the Chinese characters used by the Chinese written language to write spoken numerals. Similarly to spelled-out numbers in English (e.g., "one thousand nine hundred forty-five"), it is not an independent system per se. Since it reflects spoken language, it does not use the positional system as is done in Arabic numerals, in the same way that spelling out numbers in English does not. Characters used to represent numbers Standard numbers There are characters representing the numbers zero through nine, and other characters representing larger numbers such as tens, hundreds, thousands and so on. There are two sets of characters for Chinese numerals: one for everyday writing and one for use in commercial or financial contexts known as dàxiě (大寫 in traditional Chinese, 大写 in simplified Chinese). The latter arose because the characters used for writing numerals are geometrically simple, so simply using those numerals cannot prevent forgeries in the same way spelling numbers out in English would. A forger could easily change everyday characters 三十 (30) to 五千 (5000) by adding just a few strokes. That would not be possible when writing using the financial characters 叁拾 (30) and 伍仟 (5000). S denotes Simplified, T denotes Traditional Financial Normal Value Pīnyīn Notes零〇0 líng〇 is a common informal way to represent zero, but the traditional 零 is more often used in schools.壹一1yīalso 弌 (obsolete financial), can be easily manipulated into 弍 (two) or 弎 (three).貳(T) or 贰(S)二2èralso 弍 (obsolete financial), can be easily manipulated into 弌 (one) or 弎 (three).also 兩(T) or 两(S), see Characters with regional usage section. 叄(T) or 叁(S)三3sānalso 弎 (obsolete financial), can be easily manipulated into 弌 (one) or 弍 (two).also 參(T) or 参(S) sān.肆四4sì 伍五5wǔ 陸(T) or 陆(S)六6liù 柒七7qī 捌八8bā 玖九9jiǔ 拾十10shíAlthough some people use 什 as financial, it is not acceptable because it can be easily manipulated into 伍 or 仟.佰百100bǎi 仟千1,000qiān萬萬(T) or 万(S)104wànChinese numbers group by ten-thousandssee Reading and transcribing numbers section below.億億(T) or 亿(S)108yìSee large numbers section below. Characters with regional usage Financial Normal Value Pinyin (Mandarin) Standard alternative Notes幺 1 yāo 一 Literally means "the smallest". It is used in Mandarin to unambiguously pronounce "#1" in series of digits (such as phone numbers and ID numbers), because one (一) rhymes with seven (七). It is never used in counting or reading values. In Taiwan, it is only used by soldiers, police, and emergency services. This usage is not observed in Cantonese. 兩(T) or 两(S) 2 liǎng 二 A very common alternative way of saying "two". Its usage varies from dialect to dialect, even person to person. For example "2222" can read as "二千二百二十二", "两千二百二十二" or even "两千两百二十二" in Mandarin. See Reading and transcribing numbers section below. 呀10 yā十 In Cantonese speech, when 十 is used in the middle of a number, preceded by a multiplier and followed by a ones digit, 十 becomes 呀 (aa6), e.g. 六呀三, 63. This usage is not observed in Mandarin.念 or 廿20 niàn二十 The written form is still used to refer to dates, especially Chinese calendar dates.Spoken form is still used in various dialects of Chinese. See Reading and transcribing numbers section below.In Cantonese, 廿 (jaa6) must be followed by another digit 1-9 (e.g. 廿三, 23), or in a phrase like 廿幾 ("twenty-something"); it is not used by itself to mean 20.卄 is a rare variant. 卅30sà三十 The written form is still used to abbreviate date references in Chinese. For example, May 30 Movement (五卅运动).Spoken form is still used in various dialects of Chinese. See Reading and transcribing numbers section below. 卌40xì四十Spoken form is still used in various dialects of Chinese, albeit very rare. 皕200bì二百Very rarely used, one common example is the literature 《皕宋楼》. Large numbers Similar to the long and short scales in the west, for numeral characters greater than 万 (wàn), there have been four systems in ancient and modern usage: System 亿yì 兆zhào 京jīng 垓gāi 秭zǐ 穰ráng 沟gōu 涧jiàn 正zhēng 载zài Factor of increaseAlternative經/经杼壤110510610710810910101011101210131014Each numeral is 10 (十 shí) times the previous.2108101210161020102410281032103610401044Each numeral is 10,000 (万 wàn) times the previous.3108101610241032104010481056106410721080Each numeral is 108 (万万 wànwàn) times the previous.4108101610321064101281025610512101024102048104096Each numeral is the square of the previous. In modern Chinese, only the second system is used in expressing numbers. Although there is some dispute on the value of 兆 zhào, the usage (representing 1012) is still consistent through Chinese communities, as well as Japan, Korea. One example of ambiguity is 兆zhào, which traditionally means 1012 but is also used for 106 in information technology in recent years (esp. in mainland China). To avoid problems arising from the ambiguity, the PRC government never uses this character in official documents, but uses 万亿wànyì instead. (the ROC government in Taiwan uses 兆zhào to mean 1012 in official documents.) Numbers from Buddhism The numerals beyond 载 zài come from Buddhist texts in Sanskrit, but these "Buddhist numerals" have become "ancient usage". Name Value Notes極(T) or 极(S)1048恆河沙(T) or 恒河沙(S)1052Literally means "Sands of the Ganges", a metaphor used in number of Buddhist texts to convey a quantity equal to the number of grains of sand in the Ganges river.阿僧祇1056From Sanskrit Asaṃkhyeya那由他1060From Sanskrit Nayuta不可思議(T) or 不可思议(S)1064Literally translated as "unfathomable" or "unthinkable".無量(T) or 无量(S)1068Literally translated "without limit"大數(T) or 大数(S)1072Literally translated "big number" Small numbers The following are characters used to denote small order of magnitude in Chinese historically. With the introduction of SI units, some of them have been incorporated as SI prefixes, while the rest have fallen into disuse. Character Value Notes漠10-12(Ancient Chinese) 皮 corresponds to the SI prefix pico.渺10-11(Ancient Chinese)埃10-10(Ancient Chinese)尘10-9(Ancient Chinese) 奈 (T) or 纳 (S) corresponds to the SI prefix nano.沙10-8(Ancient Chinese)纤10-7(Ancient Chinese)微10-6 still in use, corresponds to the SI prefix micro.忽10-5(Ancient Chinese)丝10-4(Ancient Chinese)毫1/1,000 also 毛. still in use, corresponds to the SI prefix milli.厘1/100 also 釐. still in use, corresponds to the SI prefix centi.分1/10 still in use, corresponds to the SI prefix deci. SI prefixes The translations for the SI prefixes in earlier days were different from those used today. The larger (兆, 京, 垓, 秭, 穰), and smaller Chinese numerals (微, 纤, 沙, 尘, 渺) were defined as translations for the SI prefixes. For instance, 京 jīng was defined as giga, and 纤 xiān was defined as nano. This resulted in the creation of more values for each numeral. By the time of "early translation", a dispute had arisen over the value of 兆 . The government of the PRC used a part of this translation, and defined 兆 zhào as the translation for the SI prefix mega (106). (Perhaps the government was not aware of the common usage of 兆, and thus did not consider an alternative single Chinese character, such as 巨, to represent mega.) Because of this, the translation has caused much confusion. In addition, Taiwanese defined 百万 as the translation for mega. This translation is widely used in official documents, academic communities, informational industries, etc. However, the civil broadcasting industries sometimes use 兆赫 to represent "megahertz". Today, both the governments of the People's Republic of China (Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau) and Republic of China (Taiwan) use phonetic transliterations for the SI prefixes. However, the governments have each chosen different Chinese characters for certain prefixes. The following table lists the two different standards together with the early translation. + SI Prefixes Value Symbol English Early translation PRC standard ROC standard1024Yyotta 尧 yáo 佑 yòu1021Zzetta 泽 zé 皆 jiē1018Eexa 穰 ráng 艾 ài 艾 ài1015Ppeta 秭 zǐ 拍 pāi 拍 pāi1012Ttera 垓 gāi 太 tài 兆 zhào109Ggiga 京 jīng 吉 jí 吉 jí 106Mmega 兆 zhào 兆 zhào 百萬 bǎiwàn 103kkilo 千 qiān 千 qiān 千 qiān 102hhecta 百 bǎi 百 bǎi 百 bǎi 101dadeca 十 shí 十 shí 十 shí 100(None)one 一 yāo 一 yī 10-1ddeci 分 fēn 分 fēn 分 fēn 10-2ccenti 厘 lí 厘 lí 厘 lí 10-3mmilli 毫 háo 毫 háo 毫 háo 10-6µmicro 微 wēi 微 wēi 微 wēi 10-9nnano 纤 xiān 纳 nà 奈 nài 10-12ppico 沙 shā 皮 pí 皮 pí 10-15ffemto 尘 chén 飞 fēi 飛 fēi 10-18aatto 渺 miǎo 阿 à 阿 à 10-21zzepto 仄 zè 介 jiè 10-24yyocto 幺 yāo 攸 yōu Reading and transcribing numbers Whole numbers Multiple-digit numbers are constructed using a multiplicative principle; first the digit itself (from 1 to 9), then the place (such as 10 or 100); then the next digit. In Mandarin, the multiplier 两 (liǎng) is used rather than 二 (èr) for all numbers greater than 200 with the "2" numeral. Use of both 两 (liǎng) or 二 (èr) are acceptable for the number 200.(NOTE, 二 is not appropriate in the common usage of 250, namely 二百五.) When writing in the Cantonese dialect, 二 (yi6) is used to represent the "2" numeral for all numbers. In the southern Min dialect of Chaozhou (Teochew), 两 (no6) is used to represent the "2" numeral in all numbers from 200 onwards. Thus: Number Structure Characters Mandarin Cantonese Chaozhou Shanghainese 60 [6] [10] 六十六十六十六十 20 [2] [10] or [20] 二十二十 or 廿二十廿 200 [2] (èr) or (liǎng) [100] 二百 or 两百二百 or 两百两百两百 2000 [2] (liǎng) [1000] 二千 or 两千二千 or 两千两千两千 45 [4] [10] [5] 四十五四十五 or 卌五四十五四十五 2,362 [2] [1,000] [3] [100] [6] [10] [2] 两千三百六十二二千三百六十二两千三百六十二两千三百六十二 For the numbers 11 through 19, the leading "one" (一) is usually omitted. In some dialects, like Shanghainese, when there are only two significant digits in the number, the leading "one" and the trailing zeroes are omitted. Sometimes, the one before "ten" in the middle of a number, such as 213, is omitted. Thus: Number Strict Putonghua Colloquial or dialect usage Structure Characters Structure Characters 14 [10] [4] 十四 12000 [1] [10000] [2] [1000] 一万两千 [1] [10000] [2] or[10000] [2] 一万二 or 万二 114 [1] [100] [1] [10] [4] 一百一十四 [1] [100] [10] [4] 一百十四 1158 [1] [1000] [1] [100] [5] [10] [8] 一千一百五十八 See note 1 below Notes: Nothing is ever omitted in large and more complicated numbers such as this. In certain older texts like the Protestant Bible or in poetic usage, numbers such as 114 may be written as [100] [10] [4] (百十四). For numbers larger than a myriad, the same grouping system used in English applies, except in groups of four places (myriads) rather than in groups of three (thousands). Hence it is more convenient to think of numbers here as in groups of four, thus 1,234,567,890 is regrouped here as 12,3456,7890. Larger than a myriad, each number is therefore four zeroes longer than the one before it, thus 10000 × wàn (万) = yì (亿). If one of the numbers is between 10 and 19, the leading "one" is omitted as per the above point. Hence (numbers in parentheses indicate that the number has been written as one number rather than expanded): Number Structure Characters 12,345,678,902,345(12,3456,7890,2345) (12) [1,0000,0000,0000] (3456) [1,0000,0000] (7890) [1,0000] (2345) 十二兆三千四百五十六亿七千八百九十万两千三百四十五 Interior zeroes before the unit position (as in 1002) must be spelt explicitly. The reason for this is that trailing zeroes (as in 1200) are often omitted as shorthand, so ambiguity occurs. One zero is sufficient to resolve the ambiguity. Where the zero is before a digit other than the units digit, the explicit zero is not ambiguous and is therefore optional, but preferred. Thus: Number Structure Characters 205 [2] [100] [0] [5] 二百〇五 100,004(10,0004) [10] [10,000] [0] [4] 十万〇四 10,050,026(1005,0026) (1005) [10,000] (26) or(1005) [10,000] (026) 一千〇五万〇二十六 or一千〇五万二十六 Fractional values To construct a fraction, the denominator is written first, followed by 分之 ("parts of") and then the numerator. This is the opposite of how fractions are read in English, which is numerator first. Each half of the fraction is written the same as a whole number. Mixed numbers are written with the whole-number part first, followed by 又 ("and"), then the fractional part. Fraction Structure Characters 2/3 [3] [parts of] [2] 三分之二 15/32 [3] [10] [2] [parts of] [10] [5] 三十二分之十五 1/3000 [3] [1000] [parts of] [1] 三千分之一 3 5/6 [3] [and] [6] [parts of] [5] 三又六分之五 Percentages are constructed similarly, using 百 (100) as the denominator. The 一 (one) before 百 is omitted. Percentage Structure Characters 25% [100] [parts of] [2] [10] [5] 百分之二十五 110% [100] [parts of] [1] [100] [1] [10] 百分之一百一十 Decimal numbers are constructed by first writing the whole number part, then inserting 點 (traditional) or 点 (simplified) ("point"), and finally the decimal expression. The decimal expression is written using only the digits for 0 to 9, without multiplicative words. Decimal expression Structure Characters 16.98 [10] [6] [point] [9] [8] 十六点九八 12345.6789 [1] [10000] [2] [1000] [3] [100] [4] [10] [5] [point] [6] [7] [8] [9] 一万两千三百四十五点六七八九 75.4025 [7] [10] [5] [point] [4] [0] [2] [5] 七十五点四〇二五 0.1 [0] [point] [1] 〇点一 Ordinal numbers Ordinal numbers are formed by adding 第 ("sequence") before the number. Ordinal Structure Characters 1st [sequence] [1] 第一 2nd [sequence] [2] 第二 82nd [sequence] [8] [10] [2] 第八十二 Negative numbers Negative numbers are formed by adding 負 (traditional) 负 (simplified) ("negative") before the number. Number Structure Characters -1158 [negative] [1] [1000] [1] [100] [5] [10] [8] 负一千一百五十八 -3 5/6 [negative] [3] [and] [6] [parts of] [5] 负三又六分之五 -75.4025 [negative] [7] [10] [5] [point] [4] [0] [2] [5] 负七十五点四〇二五 Suzhou numerals In the same way that Roman numerals were standard in ancient and medieval Europe for mathematics and commerce, the Chinese formerly used the rod numerals, which is a positional system. The Suzhou (苏州) or huāmǎ (花码) system is a variation of the Southern Song rod numerals. Nowadays, the huāmǎ system is only used for displaying prices in Chinese markets or on traditional handwritten invoices. Hand gestures There is a common method of using of one hand to signify the numbers one to ten. While the five digits on one hand can express the numbers one to five, six to ten have special signs that can be used in commerce or day-to-day communication. Cultural influences During Ming and Qing dynasties (when Arabic numerals were first introduced into China), some Chinese mathematicians used Chinese numeral characters as positional system digits. After Qing dynasty, both the Chinese numeral characters and the Suzhou numerals were replaced by Arabic numerals in mathematical writings. Traditional Chinese numeric characters are also used in Japan and Korea. In vertical text (that is, read top to bottom), using characters for numbers is the norm, while in horizontal text, Arabic numerals are most common. Chinese numeric characters are also used in much the same formal or decorative fashion that Roman numerals are in Western cultures. Chinese numerals may appear together with Arabic numbers on the same sign or document. See also Chinese number gestures Japanese numerals Numbers in Chinese culture Chinese units of measurement References External links Chinese/English Number Converter Learn how to write Chinese numbers Learn Chinese numbers up to Trillions with multimedia	Chinese_numerals \|@lemmatized chinese:47 numeral:38 character:36 write:18 number:74 today:3 speaker:1 use:54 three:4 system:25 ubiquitous:1 arabic:8 along:1 two:7 ancient:12 one:24 suzhou:4 huama:1 gradually:1 supplant:1 survive:1 variation:2 rod:3 popular:1 market:2 hong:2 kong:2 still:12 long:2 form:8 cheque:1 hinder:1 forgery:2 roughly:1 analogous:1 spell:5 english:8 text:6 classify:1 part:13 language:3 count:2 people:3 china:6 convenience:1 individual:1 article:1 link:2 dictionary:1 entry:1 consist:1 spoken:4 similarly:2 e:3 g:3 thousand:3 nine:2 hundred:2 forty:1 five:3 independent:1 per:2 se:1 since:1 reflect:1 positional:3 way:5 represent:9 standard:5 zero:9 large:7 ten:5 set:1 everyday:2 writing:4 commercial:1 financial:8 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廿:3 must:2 another:1 廿三:1 phrase:1 like:3 廿幾:1 twenty:1 something:1 卄:1 rare:2 variant:1 abbreviate:1 reference:2 may:3 movement:1 五卅运动:1 albeit:1 rarely:1 literature:1 皕宋楼:1 similar:1 short:1 scale:1 west:1 great:2 wàn:3 four:4 modern:2 亿yì:1 兆zhào:3 京jīng:1 垓gāi:1 秭zǐ:1 穰ráng:1 沟gōu:1 涧jiàn:1 正zhēng:1 载zài:1 factor:1 increasealternative經:1 shí:4 time:4 previous:4 万万:1 wànwàn:1 square:1 second:1 express:2 although:1 dispute:2 兆:8 zhào:4 consistent:1 community:2 well:1 japan:2 korea:2 ambiguity:4 traditionally:1 information:1 technology:1 recent:1 year:1 esp:1 mainland:2 avoid:1 problem:1 arise:2 prc:3 government:6 official:3 document:4 万亿wànyì:1 instead:1 roc:2 us:1 buddhism:1 beyond:1 载:1 zài:1 come:1 buddhist:3 sanskrit:3 name:1 notes極:1 极:1 恒河沙:1 sand:2 ganges:2 metaphor:1 convey:1 quantity:1 equal:1 grain:1 river:1 nayuta不可思議:1 不可思议:1 translate:3 unfathomable:1 unthinkable:1 無量:1 无量:1 without:2 limit:1 大數:1 大数:1 big:1 denote:1 order:1 magnitude:1 historically:1 introduction:1 si:14 unit:4 incorporate:1 prefix:14 rest:1 fall:1 disuse:1 皮:3 corresponds:1 pico:1 奈:2 纳:2 correspond:5 nano:2 micro:1 毛:1 milli:1 釐:1 centi:1 deci:1 translation:10 early:4 day:3 different:3 京:3 垓:2 秭:2 穰:2 微:4 纤:3 沙:2 尘:2 渺:2 define:5 instance:1 jīng:2 giga:1 xiān:2 result:1 creation:1 mega:3 perhaps:1 aware:1 thus:6 consider:1 single:1 巨:1 cause:1 much:2 confusion:1 addition:1 taiwanese:1 百万:1 widely:1 academic:1 informational:1 industry:2 etc:1 however:2 civil:1 broadcasting:1 sometimes:2 兆赫:1 megahertz:1 republic:2 macau:1 phonetic:1 transliteration:1 choose:1 certain:2 table:1 list:1 together:2 symbol:1 尧:1 yáo:1 佑:1 泽:1 zé:1 皆:1 ráng:1 艾:2 ài:1 zǐ:1 拍:2 pāi:1 gāi:1 太:1 tài:1 吉:2 jí:2 百萬:1 bǎiwàn:1 千:3 qiān:3 百:5 bǎi:3 none:1 yī:1 分:3 fēn:3 厘:3 lí:3 毫:3 háo:3 wēi:3 nà:1 nài:1 shā:1 pí:2 chén:1 飞:1 fēi:2 飛:1 miǎo:1 阿:2 à:2 仄:1 zè:1 介:1 jiè:1 幺:1 攸:1 yōu:1 whole:4 multiple:1 construct:4 multiplicative:2 principle:1 first:6 place:2 next:1 rather:3 èr:3 note:3 appropriate:1 namely:1 二百五:1 southern:2 min:1 chaozhou:2 teochew:1 onwards:1 structure:10 shanghainese:2 六十:4 二十:3 二百:2 两百:4 二千:2 两千:4 四十五:4 卌五:1 两千三百六十二:3 二千三百六十二:1 lead:3 usually:1 omit:7 significant:1 trailing:1 strict:1 putonghua:1 colloquial:1 十四:1 一万两千:1 一万二:1 万二:1 一百一十四:1 一百十四:1 一千一百五十八:1 nothing:1 ever:1 complicated:1 old:1 protestant:1 bible:1 poetic:1 百十四:1 myriad:3 grouping:1 applies:1 except:1 hence:2 convenient:1 think:1 regroup:1 therefore:2 longer:1 yì:1 point:7 parenthesis:1 indicate:1 expand:1 十二兆三千四百五十六亿七千八百九十万两千三百四十五:1 interior:1 position:1 explicitly:1 reason:1 trail:1 shorthand:1 occurs:1 sufficient:1 resolve:1 explicit:1 ambiguous:1 optional:1 preferred:1 fractional:2 fraction:4 denominator:2 分之:1 numerator:2 opposite:1 half:1 mixed:1 又:1 三分之二:1 三十二分之十五:1 三千分之一:1 三又六分之五:1 percentage:2 百分之二十五:1 百分之一百一十:1 decimal:4 insert:1 點:1 点:1 finally:1 expression:3 word:1 十六点九八:1 一万两千三百四十五点六七八九:1 ordinal:3 第:1 sequence:4 第一:1 第二:1 第八十二:1 negative:6 負:1 负:1 负一千一百五十八:1 负三又六分之五:1 roman:2 medieval:1 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3,383	Intermolecular_force	In physics, chemistry, and biology, intermolecular forces are forces that act between stable molecules or between functional groups of macromolecules. Intermolecular forces (the weakest of which are van der Waals forces- also known as the London Dispersion Forces) include momentary attractions between molecules, diatomic free elements, and individual atoms. They differ from covalent and ionic bonding in that they are not stable, but are caused by momentary polarization of particles. Because electrons have no fixed position in the structure of an atom or molecule, but rather are distributed in a probabilistic fashion based on quantum probability, there is a positive chance that the electrons are not evenly distributed and thus their electrical charges are not evenly distributed. See Schrödinger equation for the theories on wave functions and descriptions of position and velocity of quantum particles. In general one distinguishes short and long range van der Waals forces (London Dispersion Forces). The former are due to intermolecular exchange and charge penetration. They fall off exponentially as a function of intermolecular distance R and are repulsive for interacting closed-shell systems. In chemistry they are well known, because they give rise to steric hindrance, also known as Born or Pauli repulsion. Long range forces fall off with inverse powers of the distance, R−n, typically 3 ≤ n ≤ 10, and are mostly attractive. The sum of long and short range forces gives rise to a minimum, referred to as Van der Waals minimum. The position and depth of the Van der Waals minimum depends on distance and mutual orientation of the molecules. This is because before the advent of quantum mechanics the origin of intermolecular forces was not well understood. Especially the causes of hard sphere repulsion, postulated by Van der Waals, and the possibility of the liquefaction of noble gases were difficult to understand. Soon after the formulation of quantum mechanics, however, all open questions regarding intermolecular forces were answered, first by S.C. Wang and then more completely and thoroughly by Fritz London. The quantum mechanical basis for the majority of nonrelativistic energy operator, the molecular Hamiltonian. This operator consists only of kinetic energies and Coulomb interactions. Usually one applies the Born-Oppenheimer approximation and considers the electronic (clamped nuclei) Hamilton operator only. For very long intermolecular distances the retardation of the Coulomb force (first considered in 1948 for intermolecular forces by Hendrik Casimir and Dirk Polder) may have to be included. Sometimes, e.g., for interacting paramagnetic or electronically excited molecules, electronic spin and other magnetic effects may play a role. In this article, however, retardation and magnetic effects will not be considered. Perturbation theory The last three of the fundamental interactions are most naturally accounted for by Rayleigh-Schrödinger perturbation theory (RS-PT). In this theory—applied to two monomers A and B—one uses as unperturbed Hamiltonian the sum of two monomer Hamiltonians, In the present case the unperturbed states are products with and Supermolecular approach The early theoretical work on intermolecular forces was invariably based on RS-PT and its antisymmetrized variants. However, since the beginning of the 1990s it has become possible to apply standard quantum chemical methods to pairs of molecules. This approach is referred to as the supermolecule method. In order to obtain reliable results one must include electronic correlation in the supermolecule method (without it dispersion is not accounted for at all), and take care of the basis set superposition error. This is the effect that the atomic orbital basis of one molecule improves the basis of the other. Since this improvement is distance dependent, it easily gives rise to artifacts. Exchange The monomer functions ΦnA and ΦmB are antisymmetric under permutation of electron coordinates (i.e., they satisfy the Pauli principle), but the product states are not antisymmetric under intermolecular exchange of the electrons. An obvious way to proceed would be to introduce the intermolecular antisymmetrizer . But, as already noticed in 1930 by Eisenschitz and London, R. Eisenschitz and F. London, Z. Physik 60, 491 (1930) . English translations in H. Hettema, Quantum Chemistry, Classic Scientific Papers, World Scientific, Singapore (2000), p. 336. this causes two major problems. In the first place the antisymmetrized unperturbed states are no longer eigenfunctions of H(0), which follows from the non-commutation In the second place the projected excited states become linearly dependent and the choice of a linearly independent subset is not apparent. In the late 1960s the Eisenschitz-London approach was revived and different rigorous variants of symmetry adapted perturbation theory were developed. (The word symmetry refers here to permutational symmetry of electrons). The different approaches shared a major drawback: they were very difficult to apply in practice. Hence a somewhat less rigorous approach (weak symmetry forcing) was introduced: apply ordinary RS-PT and introduce the intermolecular antisymmetrizer at appropriate places in the RS-PT equations. This approach leads to feasible equations, and, when electronically correlated monomer functions are used, weak symmetry forcing is known to give reliable results. B. Jeziorski, R. Moszynski, and K. Szalewicz, Chem. Rev. 94, 1887-1930 (1994) . K. Szalewicz and B. Jeziorski, in: Molecular Interactions, editor S. Scheiner, Wiley, Chichester (1995). ISBN 0471 959219. The first-order (most important) energy including exchange is in almost all symmetry-adapted perturbation theories given by the following expression The main difference between covalent and non-covalent forces is the sign of this expression. In the case of chemical bonding this interaction is attractive (for certain electron-spin state, usually spin-singlet) and responsible for large bonding energies—on the order of a hundred kcal/mol. In the case of intermolecular forces between closed shell systems, the interaction is strongly repulsive and responsible for the "volume" of the molecule (see Van der Waals radius). Roughly speaking, the exchange interaction is proportional to the differential overlap between Φ0A and Φ0B. Since the wavefunctions decay exponentially as a function of distance, the exchange interaction does too. Hence the range of action is relatively short, which is why exchange interactions are referred to as short range interactions. Electrostatic interactions By definition the electrostatic interaction is given by the first-order Rayleigh-Schrödinger perturbation (RS-PT) energy (without exchange): Let the clamped nucleus α on A have position vector Rα, then its charge times the Dirac delta function, Zα δ(r-Rα), is the charge density of this nucleus. The total charge density of monomer A is given by with the electronic charge density given by an integral over nA - 1 primed electron coordinates: An analogous definition holds for the charge density of monomer B. It can be shown that the first-order quantum mechanical expression can be written as which is nothing but the classical expression for the electrostatic interaction between two charge distributions. This shows that the first-order RS-PT energy is indeed equal to the electrostatic interaction between A and B. Multipole expansion At present it is feasible to compute the electrostatic energy without any further approximations other than those applied in the computation of the monomer wavefunctions. In the past this was different and a further approximation was commonly introduced: VAB was expanded in a (truncated) series in inverse powers of the intermolecular distance R. This yields the multipole EXPANSION of the electrostatic energy. Since its concepts still pervade the theory of intermolecular forces, we will present it here. In this article the following expansion is proved with the Clebsch-Gordan series defined by and the irregular solid harmonic is defined by The function YL,M is a normalized spherical harmonic, while and are spherical multipole moment operators. This expansion is manifestly in powers of 1/RAB. Insertion of this expansion into the first-order (without exchange) expression gives a very similar expansion for the electrostatic energy, because the matrix element factorizes, with the permanent multipole moments defined by We see that the series is of infinite length, and, indeed, most molecules have an infinite number of non-vanishing multipoles. In the past, when computer calculations for the permanent moments were not yet feasible, it was common to truncate this series after the first non-vanishing term. Which term is non-vanishing, depends very much on the symmetry of the molecules constituting the dimer. For instance, molecules with an inversion center such as a homonuclear diatomic (e.g., molecular nitrogen N2), or an organic molecule like ethene (C2H4) do not possess a permanent dipole moment (l=1), but do carry a quadrupole moment (l=2). Molecules such a hydrogen chloride (HCl) and water (H2O) lack an inversion center and hence do have a permanent dipole. So, the first non-vanishing electrostatic term in, e.g., the N2—H2O dimer, is the lA=2, lB=1 term. From the formula above follows that this term contains the irregular solid harmonic of order L = lA + lB = 3, which has an R-4 dependence. But in this dimer the quadrupole-quadrupole interaction (R-5) is not unimportant either, because the water molecule carries a non-vanishing quadrupole as well. When computer calculations of permanent multipole moments of any order became possible, the matter of the convergence of the multipole series became urgent. It can be shown that, if the charge distributions of the two monomers overlap, the multipole expansion is formally divergent. Ionic interactions It is debatable whether ionic interactions are to be seen as intermolecular forces, some workers consider them rather as special kind of chemical bonding. The forces occur between charged atoms or molecules (ions). Ionic bonds are formed when the difference between the electron affinity of one monomer and the ionization potential of the other is so large that electron transfer from the one monomer to the other is energetically favorable. Since a transfer of an electron is never complete there is always a degree of covalent bonding. Once the ions (of opposite sign) are formed, the interaction between them can be seen as a special case of multipolar attraction, with a 1/RAB distance dependence. Indeed, the ionic interaction is the electrostatic term with lA = 0 and lB = 0. Using that the irregular harmonics for L = 0 is simply and that the monopole moments and their Clebsch-Gordan coupling are (where qA and qB are the charges of the molecular ions) we recover—as to be expected—Coulomb's law For shorter distances, where the charge distributions of the monomers overlap, the ions will repel each other because of inter-monomer exchange of the electrons. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points due to the large amount of energy required to break the forces between the charged ions. When molten they are also good conductors of heat and electricity, due to the free or delocalized ions. Dipole-dipole interactions Dipole-dipole interactions, also called Keesom interactions or Keesom forces after Willem Hendrik Keesom, who produced the first mathematical description in 1921, are the forces that occur between two molecules with permanent dipoles. They result from the dipole-dipole interaction between two molecules. An example of this can be seen in hydrochloric acid: The molecules are depicted here as two point dipoles. A point dipole is an idealization similar to a point charge (a finite charge in an infinitely small volume). A point dipole consists of two equal charges of opposite sign δ+ and δ-, which are a distance d apart. This distance d is so small that at any distance R from the point dipole it can be assumed that d/R >> (d/R)2. In this idealization the electrostatic field outside the charge distribution consists of one (R-3) term only, see electric dipole field. The electrostatic interaction between two point dipoles is given by the single term lA = 1 and lB = 1 in the expansion above. However, no molecule is an ideal point dipole, and in the case of the HCl dimer, for instance, dipole-quadrupole, quadrupole-quadrupole, etc. interactions are by no means negligible (and neither are induction or dispersion interactions). Note that almost always the dipole-dipole interaction between two atoms is zero, because atoms rarely carry a permanent dipole, see atomic dipoles. Writing and similarly for B, we get the well-known expression As a numerical example we consider the HCl dimer depicted above. We assume that the left molecule is A and the right B, so that the z-axis is along the molecules and points to the right. Our (physical) convention of the dipole moment is such that it points from negative to positive charge. Note parenthetically that in organic chemistry the opposite convention is used. Since organic chemists hardly ever perform vector computations with dipoles, confusion hardly ever arises. In organic chemistry dipoles are mainly used as a measure of charge separation in a molecule. So, The value of μHCl is 0.43 (atomic units), so that at a distance of 10 bohr the dipole-dipole attraction is -3.698 10-4 hartree (-0.97 kJ/mol). If one of the molecules is neutral and freely rotating, the total electrostatic interaction energy becomes zero. (For the dipole-dipole interaction this is most easily proved by integrating over the spherical polar angles of the dipole vector, while using the volume element sinθ dθdφ). In gases and liquids molecules are not rotating completely freely—the rotation is weighted by the Boltzmann factor exp(-Edip-dip/kT), where k is the Boltzmann constant and T the absolute temperature. It was first shown by Lennard-Jones J. E. Lennard-Jones, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London) 43, 461 (1931) . that the temperature-averaged dipole-dipole interaction is Since the averaged energy has an R-6 dependence, it is evidently much weaker than the unaveraged one, but it is not completely zero. It is attractive, because the Boltzmann weighting favors somewhat the attractive regions of space. In HCl-HCl we find for T = 300 K and RAB = 10 bohr the averaged attraction -62 J/mol, which shows a weakening of the interaction by a factor of about 16 due to thermal rotational motion. Hydrogen bonding Hydrogen bonding is an intermolecular interaction with a hydrogen atom being present in the intermolecular bond. It is important to note that hydrogen bonding is the strongest of these intermolecular forces. This is because it is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction between two highly electronegative atoms (the higher the electronegativity difference the stronger the bond). This hydrogen is covalently (chemically) bound in one molecule, which acts as the proton donor. The other molecule acts as the proton acceptor. In the following important example of the water dimer, the water molecule on the right is the proton donor, while the one on the left is the proton acceptor: The hydrogen atom participating in the hydrogen bond is often covalently bound in the donor to an electronegative atom. Examples of such atoms are nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. The electronegative atom is negatively charged (carries a charge δ-) and the hydrogen atom bound to it is positively charged. Consequently the proton donor is a polar molecule with a relatively large dipole moment. Often the positively charged hydrogen atom points towards an electron rich region in the acceptor molecule. The fact that an electron rich region exists in the acceptor molecule, implies already that the acceptor has a relatively large dipole moment as well. The result is a dimer that to a large extent is bound by the dipole-dipole force. For quite some time it was believed that hydrogen bonding required an explanation that was different from the other intermolecular interactions. However, reliable computer calculations that became possible during the 1980s have shown that only the four effects listed above play a role, with the dipole-dipole interaction being particularly important. Since the four effects account completely for the bonding in small dimers like the water dimer, for which highly accurate calculations are feasible, it is now generally believed that no other bonding effects are operative. Hydrogen bonds are found throughout nature. In water the dynamics of these bonds produce unique properties essential to all known life-forms. Hydrogen bonds, between hydrogen atoms and nitrogen atoms, of adjacent DNA base pairs generate intermolecular forces that improve binding between the strands of the molecule. Hydrophobic effects between the double-stranded DNA and the solute nucleoplasm prevail in sustaining the double-helix structure of DNA. London dispersion forces Also called London forces, instantaneous dipole (or multipole) effects (spatially variable δ+) or Van der Waals forces, these involve the attraction between temporarily induced dipoles in nonpolar molecules (often disappear within an instant). This polarization can be induced either by a polar molecule or by the repulsion of negatively charged electron clouds in nonpolar molecules. An example of the former is chlorine dissolving in water: (+)(-)(+) (-) (+) [Permanent Dipole] H-O-H-----Cl-Cl [Induced Dipole] Sketched is an interaction between the permanent dipole on water and an induced dipole on chlorine. The latter dipole is induced by the electric field offered by the permanent dipole of water (see field from an electric dipole). This permanent dipole-induced dipole interaction is referred to as induction (or polarization) interaction and is to be distinguished from the London dispersion interaction. The latter is sometimes described as an interaction between two instantaneous dipoles, see molecular dipole. The Cl2—Cl2 interaction that now follows is an example of a proper London dispersion interaction. (+) (-) (+) (-) [instantaneous dipole] Cl-Cl------Cl-Cl [instantaneous dipole] It must be pointed out that the London interaction is not the only interaction between two chlorine molecules in the region where the overlap between the respective charge distributions may be neglected. Each chlorine molecule carries permanent multipole moments of even order, the first one being a permanent quadrupole moment (order 2). The interaction between two permanent multipole moments also contributes to the intermolecular force and the first term (quadrupole-quadrupole) is as important as the London dispersion force. London dispersion forces exist between all atoms. London forces are the only reason for rare-gas atoms to condense at low temperature. Quantum mechanical theory of dispersion forces The first explanation of the attraction between noble gas atoms was given by Fritz London in 1930. F. London, Z. Physik 60, 245 (1930) and Z. Physik. Chemie, B11, 222 (1930). English translations in H. Hettema, Quantum Chemistry, Classic Scientific Papers, World Scientific, Singapore (2000). He used a quantum mechanical theory based on second-order perturbation theory. The perturbation is the Coulomb interaction V between the electrons and nuclei of the two monomers (atoms or molecules) that constitute the dimer. The second-order perturbation expression of the interaction energy contains a sum over states. The states appearing in this sum are simple products of the excited electronic states of the monomers. Thus, no intermolecular antisymmetrization of the electronic states is included and the Pauli exclusion principle is only partially satisfied. London developed the perturbation V in a Taylor series in , where is the distance between the nuclear centers of mass of the monomers. This Taylor expansion is known as the multipole expansion of V because the terms in this series can be regarded as energies of two interacting multipoles, one on each monomer. Substitution of the multipole-expanded form of V into the second-order energy yields an expression that resembles somewhat an expression describing the interaction between instantaneous multipoles (see the qualitative description above). Additionally an approximation, named after Albrecht Unsöld, must be introduced in order to obtain a description of London dispersion in terms of dipole polarizabilities and ionization potentials. In this manner the following approximation is obtained for the dispersion interaction between two atoms and . Here and are the dipole polarizabilities of the respective atoms. The quantities and are the first ionization potentials of the atoms and is the intermolecular distance. Note that this final London equation does not contain instantaneous dipoles (see molecular dipoles). The "explanation" of the dispersion force as the interaction between two such dipoles was invented after London gave the proper quantum mechanical theory. See the authoritative work J. O. Hirschfelder, C. F. Curtiss, and R. B. Bird, Molecular Theory of Gases and Liquids, Wiley, New York, 1954 for a criticism of the instantaneous dipole model and A. J. Stone, The Theory of Intermolecular Forces, 1996, (Clarendon Press, Oxford) for a modern and thorough exposition of the theory of intermolecular forces. The London theory has much similarity to the quantum mechanical theory of light dispersion, which is why London coined the phrase "dispersion effect" for the interaction that we described in this lemma. Anisotropy and non-additivity of intermolecular forces Consider the interaction between two electric point charges at position and . By Coulomb's law the interaction potential depends only on the distance between the particles. For molecules this is different. If we see a molecule as a rigid 3-D body, it has 6 degrees of freedom (3 degrees for its orientation and 3 degrees for its position in R3). The interaction energy of two molecules (a dimer) in isotropic and homogeneous space is in general a function of 2×6−6=6 degrees of freedom (by the homogeneity of space the interaction does not depend on the position of the center of mass of the dimer, and by the isotropy of space the interaction does not depend on the orientation of the dimer). The analytic description of the interaction of two arbitrarily shaped rigid molecules requires therefore 6 parameters. (One often uses two Euler angles per molecule, plus a dihedral angle, plus the distance.) The fact that the intermolecular interaction depends on the orientation of the molecules is expressed by stating that the potential is anisotropic. Since point charges are by definition spherical symmetric, their interaction is isotropic. Especially in the older literature, intermolecular interactions are regularly assumed to be isotropic (e.g., the potential is described in Lennard-Jones form, which depends only on distance). Consider three arbitrary point charges at distances r12, r13, and r23 apart. The total interaction U is additive; i.e., it is the sum Again for molecules this can be different. Pretending that the interaction depends on distances only—but see above—the interaction of three molecules takes in general the form where is a non-additive three-body interaction. Such an interaction can be caused by exchange interactions, by induction, and by dispersion (the Axilrod-Teller triple dipole effect). See also Hydrophobic effect Intramolecular force Polymer Quantum chemistry computer programs Software for molecular mechanics modeling References External links Software for calculation of intermolecular forces Quantum 3.2 SAPT: An ab initio quantumchemical package.	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3,384	Politics_of_the_Central_African_Republic	Politics of the Central African Republic takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President is both head of state and head of government, with a separate executive Prime Minister. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The official government was deposed in 15 March 2003 by forces under the rebel leader François Bozizé, who promised elections in 18 to 30 months. A new cabinet was set up in 1 April 2003. Elections were held on 13 March 2005. Executive branch \|President \|François Bozizé \| \|15 March 2003 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Faustin-Archange Touadéra \| \|22 January 2008 \|} The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term, the prime minister is appointed by the president. The president also appoints and presides over the Council of Ministers, which initiates laws and oversees government operations. Legislative branch The National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) has 105 members, elected for a five-year term using the two-round (or Run-off) system. Political parties and elections Judicial branch The Supreme Court, or Cour Supreme, is made up of judges appointed by the president. There is also a Constitutional Court, and its judges are also appointed by the president. Administrative divisions The Central African Republic is divided in 14 prefectures (prefectures, singular - prefecture), 2 economic prefectures* (prefectures economiques, singular - prefecture economique), and 1 commune; Bamingui-Bangoran, Bangui, Basse-Kotto, Gribingui, Haute-Kotto, Haute-Sangha, Haut-Mbomou, Kemo-Gribingui, Lobaye, Mbomou, Nana-Mambere, Ombella-Mpoko, Ouaka, Ouham, Ouham-Pende, Sangha, Vakaga. International organization participation ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC (observer), OPCW, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO	Politics_of_the_Central_African_Republic \|@lemmatized politics:1 central:2 african:2 republic:3 take:1 place:1 framework:1 presidential:1 whereby:1 president:7 head:2 state:1 government:5 separate:1 executive:3 prime:3 minister:4 power:2 exercise:1 legislative:2 vest:1 parliament:1 official:1 depose:1 march:3 force:1 rebel:1 leader:1 françois:2 bozizé:2 promise:1 election:3 month:1 new:1 cabinet:1 set:1 april:1 hold:1 branch:3 faustin:1 archange:1 touadéra:1 january:1 elect:2 popular:1 vote:1 six:1 year:2 term:2 appoint:3 also:3 appoints:1 presides:1 council:1 initiate:1 law:1 oversees:1 operation:1 national:1 assembly:1 assemblée:1 nationale:1 member:1 five:1 use:1 two:1 round:1 run:1 system:1 political:1 party:1 judicial:1 supreme:2 court:2 cour:1 make:1 judge:2 constitutional:1 administrative:1 division:1 divide:1 prefecture:6 singular:2 economic:1 economiques:1 economique:1 commune:1 bamingui:1 bangoran:1 bangui:1 basse:1 kotto:2 gribingui:2 haute:2 sangha:2 haut:1 mbomou:2 kemo:1 lobaye:1 nana:1 mambere:1 ombella:1 mpoko:1 ouaka:1 ouham:2 pende:1 vakaga:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 acct:1 acp:1 afdb:1 bdeac:1 ccc:1 ceeac:1 eca:1 fao:1 fz:1 g:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icc:1 icftu:1 icrm:1 ida:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 itu:1 nam:1 oau:1 oic:1 observer:1 opcw:1 udeac:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wcl:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 \|@bigram prime_minister:3 françois_bozizé:2 legislative_branch:1 assembly_assemblée:1 assemblée_nationale:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 participation_acct:1 acct_acp:1 acp_afdb:1 eca_fao:1 fao_fz:1 fz_g:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icc:1 icftu_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_intelsat:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_itu:1 itu_nam:1 nam_oau:1 oau_oic:1 observer_opcw:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unido_upu:1 upu_wcl:1 wcl_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1
3,385	Demographics_of_Jamaica	This article is about the demographic features of the population of Jamaica, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook unless otherwise referenced. Population 2,682,100 (2007 est. ), 2,804,334 (July 2008 est.) Age structure 0–14 years: 33.1% (male 464,297/female 449,181) 15–64 years: 59.6% (male 808,718/female 835,394) 65 years and over: 7.3% (male 90,100/female 110,434) (2006 est.) Population growth rate 0.8% (2006 est.) Birth rate 20.82 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) There were a total of 45,600 births in 2007. (46,300 in 2006 and 47,000 in 2005 resulting in a birth rate of 17.0 per 1000 in 2007. Death rate 2.01 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate -6.27 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio Practic: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.82 male(s)/female total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate total population: 15.98 deaths/1,000 live births male: 16.66 deaths/1,000 live births female: 15.27 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 73.24 years male: 71.54 years female: 75.03 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 2.41 children born/woman (2006 est.) Nationality noun: Jamaican(s) adjective: Jamaican Ethnic groups This topic is somewhat contentious with several respected sources giving different figures. In alphabetic order these are: CIA Fact Book: black 91.2%, mixed 6.2%, other or unknown 2.6% (2001 census). https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/jm.html#People University of the West Indies: 76.3% African descent, 15.1% Afro-European, 3.4% East Indian and Afro-East Indian, 3.2% Caucasian, 1.2% Chinese and 0.8% Other. University of the West Indies Religions Protestant 61.3% (including Church of God 21.2%, Seventh-Day Adventist 9%, Baptist 8.8%, Pentecostal 7.6%, Anglican 5.5%, Methodist 2.7%, United Church 2.7%, Jehovah's Witness 1.6%, Brethren 1.1%, and Moravian 1.1%), Rastafari movement ?, Roman Catholic 4%, Islam 0.5%, Judaism 0.5% Languages English (official), Jamaican Patois (most common tongue), Spanish Literacy definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school total population: 87.9% male: 84.1% female: 91.6% (2003 est.) External links CIA World Factbook -- Jamaica References	Demographics_of_Jamaica \|@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:12 jamaica:2 include:2 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 statistic:2 following:1 cia:4 world:3 factbook:3 unless:1 otherwise:1 reference:2 est:12 july:1 age:2 structure:1 year:9 male:11 female:11 growth:1 rate:7 birth:8 total:6 result:1 per:1 death:5 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 practic:1 infant:1 mortality:1 live:3 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 jamaican:3 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 topic:1 somewhat:1 contentious:1 several:1 respected:1 source:1 give:1 different:1 figure:1 alphabetic:1 order:1 fact:1 book:1 black:1 mixed:1 unknown:1 census:1 http:1 www:1 gov:1 library:1 publication:1 geos:1 jm:1 html:1 people:1 university:2 west:2 indie:2 african:1 descent:1 afro:2 european:1 east:2 indian:2 caucasian:1 chinese:1 religion:1 protestant:1 church:2 god:1 seventh:1 day:1 adventist:1 baptist:1 pentecostal:1 anglican:1 methodist:1 unite:1 jehovah:1 witness:1 brother:1 moravian:1 rastafari:1 movement:1 roman:1 catholic:1 islam:1 judaism:1 language:1 english:1 official:1 patois:1 common:1 tongue:1 spanish:1 literacy:1 definition:1 ever:1 attend:1 school:1 external:1 link:1 \|@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 http_www:1 cia_gov:1 factbook_geos:1 west_indie:2 day_adventist:1 adventist_baptist:1 baptist_pentecostal:1 jehovah_witness:1 rastafari_movement:1 literacy_definition:1 external_link:1
3,386	Agate	Agate () is a microcrystalline variety of quartz (silica), chiefly chalcedony, characterised by its fineness of grain and brightness of color. Although agates may be found in various kinds of rock, they are classically associated with volcanic rocks but can be common in certain metamorphic rocks. Colorful agates and other chalcedonies were obtained over 3,000 years ago from the Achates River, now called Dirillo, in Sicily. The stone was given its name by Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher and naturalist, who discovered the stone along the shore line of the river Achates (Greek: Αχάτης) sometime between the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. Achates, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus The agate has been recovered at a number of ancient sites, indicating its widespread use in the ancient world; for example, archaeological recovery at the Knossos site on Crete illustrates its role in Bronze Age Minoan culture. C. Michael Hogan. 2007. Knossos fieldnotes, Modern Antiquarian Formation and characteristics Most agates occur as nodules in volcanic rocks or ancient lavas where they represent cavities originally produced by the disengagement of volatiles in the molten mass which were then filled, wholly or partially, by siliceous matter deposited in regular layers upon the walls. Such agates, when cut transversely, exhibit a succession of parallel lines, often of extreme tenuity, giving a banded appearance to the section. Such stones are known as banded agate, riband agate and striped agate. In the formation of an ordinary agate, it is probable that waters containing silica in solution -- derived, perhaps, from the decomposition of some of the silicates in the lava itself -- percolated through the rock and deposited a siliceous coating on the interior of the vapour-vesicles. Variations in the character of the solution or in the conditions of deposition may cause a corresponding variation in the successive layers, so that bands of chalcedony often alternate with layers of crystalline quartz. Several vapour-vesicles may unite while the rock is still viscous, and thus form a large cavity which may become the home of an agate of exceptional size; thus a Brazilian geode lined with amethyst and weighing 67 tons was exhibited at the Dusseldorf Exhibition of 1902. Perhaps the most comprehensive review of agate chemistry is a recent text by Moxon cited below. The first deposit on the wall of a cavity, forming the "skin" of the agate, is generally a dark greenish mineral substance, like celadonite, delessite or "green earth", which are rich in iron probably derived from the decomposition of the augite in the enclosing volcanic rock. This green silicate may give rise by alteration to a brown iron oxide (limonite), producing a rusty appearance on the outside of the agate-nodule. The outer surface of an agate, freed from its matrix, is often pitted and rough, apparently in consequence of the removal of the original coating. The first layer spread over the wall of the cavity has been called the "priming", and upon this base zeolitic minerals may be deposited. Many agates are hollow, since deposition has not proceeded far enough to fill the cavity, and in such cases the last deposit commonly consists of quartz, often amethyst, having the apices of the crystals directed towards the free space so as to form a crystal-lined cavity, or geode. On the disintegration of the matrix in which the agates are embedded, they are set free. The agates are extremely resistant to weathering and remain as nodules in the soil or are deposited as gravel in streams and shorelines. Types of agate A Mexican agate, showing only a single eye, has received the name of cyclops agate. Included matter of a green, golden, red, black or other color or combinations embedded in the chalcedony and disposed in filaments and other forms suggestive of vegetable growth, gives rise to dendritic or moss agate. Dendritic agates have fern like patterns in them formed due to the presence of manganese and iron oxides. Other types of included matter deposited during agate-building include sagenitic growths (radial mineral crystals) and chunks of entrapped detritus (such as sand, ash, or mud). Occasionally agate fills a void left by decomposed vegetative material such as a tree limb or root and is called limb cast agate due to its appearance. Turritella agate is formed from silicified fossil Turritella shells. Turritella are spiral marine gastropods having elongated, spiral shells composed of many whorls. Similarly, coral, petrified wood and other organic remains or porous rocks can also become agatized. Agatized coral is often referred to as Petoskey stone or agate. Greek agate is a name given to pale white to tan colored agate found in Sicily back to 400 B.C. The Greeks used it for making jewelry and beads. Today any agate of this color from Sicily, once an ancient Greek colony, is called Greek agate. Yet the stone had been around centuries before that and was known to both the Sumerians and the Egyptians, who used the gem for decoration and religious ceremony. Another type of agate is Brazilian agate, which is found as sizable geodes of layered nodules. These occur in brownish tones interlayered with white and gray. Quartz forms within these nodules, creating a striking specimen when cut opposite the layered growth axis. It is often dyed in various colors for ornamental purposes. Certain stones, when examined in thin sections by transmitted light, show a diffraction spectrum due to the extreme delicacy of the successive bands, whence they are termed rainbow agates. Often agate coexists with layers or masses of opal, jasper or crystalline quartz due to ambient variations during the formation process. Other forms of agate include carnelian agate (usually exhibiting reddish hues), Botswana agate, Ellensburg blue agate, blue lace agate, plume agates, tube agate (with visible flow channels), fortification agate (which exhibit little or no layered structure), fire agate (which seems to glow internally like an opal) and Mexican crazy-lace agate (which exhibits an often brightly colored, complex banded pattern) also called Rodeo Agate and Rosetta Stone depending on who owned the mine at the time. Uses in industry Industry uses agates chiefly to make ornaments such as pins, brooches, paper knives, inkstands, marbles and seals. Because of its hardness and ability to resist acids, agate is used to make mortars and pestles to crush and mix chemicals. Because of the high polish possible with agate it has been used for centuries for leather burnishing tools. Idar Oberstein was one of the centers which made use of agate on an industrial scale. Where in the beginning locally found agates were used to make all types of objects for the European market, this became a globalized business around the turn of the 20th century: Idar-Oberstein imported large quantities of agate from Brazil, as ship's ballast. Making using of a variety of proprietary chemical processes, they produced colored beads that were sold around the globe. Background Article on Idar Oberstein See also List of minerals Lake Superior agate Fire Agate Notes References The Nomenclature of Silica by Gilbert Hart, American Mineralogist, Volume 12, pages 383-395, 1927 International Colored Gemstone Association Mindat data Schumann, Walter. Gemstones of the World. 3rd edition. New York: Sterling, 2006. Moxon, Terry. "Agate. Microstructure and Possible Origin". Doncaster, S. Yorks, UK, Terra Publications, 1996. Pabian, Roger, et al. "Agates. Treasures of the Earth". Buffalo, New York, Firefly Books, 2006. Cross, Brad L. and Zeitner, June Culp. "Geodes. Nature's Treasures". Bardwin Park, California, Gem Guides Book Co. 2005.	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3,387	Chicago_Cubs	The Chicago Cubs are an American professional baseball team based in Chicago, Illinois. They are members and currently the two-time defending champions of the Central Division of Major League Baseball's National League. One of two Major League clubs based in Chicago (the other being the Chicago White Sox), the Cubs are also one of the two remaining charter members of N.L. (the other being the Atlanta Braves). The franchise is infamous for its 100-year title drought, which is longer than that of any other major North American professional sports team. sports.http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?id=2823256 The Cubs are often referred as "The North Siders" because Wrigley Field, where they have played their home games since 1916, is located in Chicago's north side Lakeview community. They are also often called "The Boys in Blue" noting the team's primary uniform color, (which itself is often referred to as "Cubbie Blue") or simply as "The Cubbies." ESPN - Report: Cubs cut number of bids to at least three, including Cuban - MLB Chicago's manager is Lou Piniella and their general manager is Jim Hendry. In December 2007, Sam Zell completed his purchase of the club's parent organization, Tribune Company, and announced his intention to sell the team. ESPN.com, Prominent names mentioned as possible Cubs' buyers Retrieved on April 2, 2007 On January 23, 2009, it was announced that the Cubs would be sold to Tom Ricketts for $900 million. Early franchise history 1870-1875: Chicago Base Ball Club The success and fame of the Cincinnati Red Stockings (c. 1869), baseball's first openly all-professional team, led to a minor explosion of other openly professional teams, each with the singular goal of defeating the Red Stockings. On April 29, 1870, the Chicago Base Ball Club played their first game, an exhibition, against the Saint Louis Unions, defeating them 47-1. The White Stockings, who played home games on Chicago's west side at the Union Base-Ball Grounds, joined the nation's principle amateur league National Association of Base Ball Players, when the league began to allow professional teams. The NABBP was previously dominated by the Brooklyn Atlantics, who had won three straight titles and were the sport's first "dynasty", but Chicago won the N.A. championship in the league's final year of operation. The now all professional Chicago White Stockings, financed by businessman William Hulbert, became a charter member of the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, the nation's first all professional league, in 1871. The White Stockings were close contenders all season, despite the fact that the Great Chicago Fire had destroyed the team's home field and most of their equipment. The White Stockings finished the season in second place, but ultimately were forced to drop out of the league during the city's recovery period, finally returning to National Association play in 1874. Over the next couple seasons, The Boston Red Stockings dominated the league and hoarded many of the game's best players, even those who were under contract with other teams. After Davy Force signed with Chicago, and then breached his contract to play in Boston, Hulbert became discouraged by the "contract jumping" as well as the overall disorganization of the N.A., and thus spearheaded the movement to form a stronger organization. The end result of his efforts was the formation a much more "ethical" league, which became known as the National Base Ball League, and thus the Chicago National League Ball Club was born. 1876–1902: White Stockings/Colts/Orphans The 1876 White Stockings won the N.L. ChampionshipHulbert, retaining his position as Chicago's club president, signed multiple star players, such as pitcher Albert Spalding, and infielders Ross Barnes, Deacon White and Adrian Anson to join the team prior to the N.L.'s inaugural season of 1876. The Chicago franchise, playing its home games at West Side Grounds, quickly established themselves as one of the new league's top teams. Spalding won 47 games and Barnes led the league in hitting at .429 as Chicago won the first ever National League pennant, which at the time was the game's top prize. After back to back pennants in 1880 and '81, Hulbert died, and Al Spalding, who had retired to start Spalding sporting goods, assumed ownership of the club. The White Stockings, with Anson acting as player/manager, captured their third consecutive pennant in 1882, and "Cap" Anson established himself as the game's first true superstar. In 1885 and '86, after winning N.L. pennants, The White Stockings met the short-lived American Association champion in that era's version of a World Series. Both seasons resulted in matchups with the St. Louis Brown Stockings, with the clubs tying in '85 and with St. Louis winning in '86. This was the genesis of what would eventually become one of the greatest rivalries in sports. In all, the Anson-led Chicago Base Ball Club won six National League pennants between 1876 and 1886. As a result, Chicago's club nickname transitioned, and by 1890 they had become known as the Chicago Colts, or sometimes "Anson's Colts," referring to Cap's influence within the club. Anson was the first player in history to collect 3,000 hits, and when he left the team in 1898, the loss of his leadership resulted in the team becoming known as the Chicago Orphans (or Remnants) and a few forgettable seasons. After the 1900 season, the American Base-Ball League formed as a rival professional league, and incidentally the club's old White Stockings nickname would be adopted by a new A.L. neighbor to the south. 1902–1920: A Cub dynasty The 1906 Cubs won a record 116 of 154 games. They then won back to back World Series titles in 1907-08 In 1902, Spalding, who by this time had revamped the roster to boast what would soon be one of the best teams of the early century, sold the club to John Hart, and the franchise ultimately became known as the Chicago Cubs. During this period, which has become known as baseball's dead ball era, three Cub infielders; Joe Tinker, Johnny Evers, and Frank Chance were made famous as a double-play combination by Franklin P. Adams' poem Baseball's Sad Lexicon. The poem first appeared in the July 18, 1910 edition of the New York Evening Mail. Mordecai "Three-Finger" Brown, Jack Taylor, Ed Reulbach, Jack Pfiester and Orval Overall were several key pitchers for the Cubs during this time period. With Chance acting as player-manager from 1903 to 1912 the Cubs won four pennants and two World Series titles over a five-year span. Although they fell to the White Sox in the 1906 World Series, The Cubs recorded a record 116 victories and the best winning percentage (.763) of the modern era. With mostly the same roster, Chicago won back to back World Series championships in 1907 and 1908. Their appearance in 3 consecutive World Series made the Cubs the first Major League Club to play 3 times in the Fall Classic. Likewise, their back-to-back World Series victories in 1907 and 1908 made them the first modern club to win 2 World Series. The next season, veteran catcher Johnny Kling left the team to become a professional pocket billiards player. Some historians think Kling's absence was significant enough to prevent the Cubs from also winning a third straight title in 1909, as they finished 6 games out of first place. Three Finger, Cindy Thomson & Scott Brown, University of Nebraska Press, ISBN 0-8032-4448-7, p.88-89 When Kling returned the next year, the Cubs won the pennant again, but lost to the Philadelphia Athletics in the 1910 World Series. In 1914, advertising executive Albert Lasker obtained a large block of shares and before the 1916 season had assumed majority ownership of the franchise. Lasker quickly acquired the services of astute baseball man William Veeck, Sr. to run his new team, and brought in a wealthy partner, Charles Weeghman. Weeghman was the proprietor of a popular chain of lunch counters who had previously owned the Chicago Whales of the short-lived Federal League. As principal owners, the pair moved the club from the West Side Grounds to the much newer Weeghman Park, which had been constructed for the Whales two years earlier. The club responded by winning a pennant in the war-shortened season of 1918, where they played a part in another team's curse. The Boston Red Sox defeated Grover Cleveland Alexander's Cubs four games to two in the 1918 World Series. Afterward, Boston sold its star pitcher, Babe Ruth, to the New York Yankees, starting a tale of futility which would last 86 years, known as Curse of the Bambino. The Wrigley years (1921–1981) Double-Bills take over Cub logo in the '20s & '30s During what is often called baseball's "golden age," one of Cubs's minority owners, William Wrigley Jr., who also happened to be the owner of Wrigley Company, a Chicago-based maker of chewing gum, would begin to increase his share of ownership. In 1921 Wrigley bought Weeghman's shares and in 1925 had acquired most of Lakser's shares as well. The home park name was changed to its current name, Wrigley Field during this time. Additionally, the area around the ballpark came to be known as "Wrigleyville." With his vast monetary resources and Veeck's front-office savvy, the "double-Bills" soon had the Cubs back in business in the National League, building a team that would put numerous future Hall of Famers in Cub uniforms. Some of the most notable of these players were Hack Wilson, Gabby Hartnett, and Rogers Hornsby. Chicago remained strong contenders for the next decade. 1929–1938: Every Three Years During the end of the first decade of the double-Bills' guidance, the Cubs won the NL pennant in 1929 and then achieved the unusual feat of winning a pennant every three years, following up the 1929 flag with league titles in 1932, 1935, and 1938. Unfortunately, their success did not extend to the Fall Classic, as they fell to their AL rivals each time. The '32 series against the Yankees featured Babe Ruth's "called shot" at Wrigley Field. There were some historic moments for the Cubs as well; they claimed the '35 pennant in thrilling fashion, winning a record 21 games in a row in September. The '38 club saw Dizzy Dean lead the team's pitching staff and provided a historic moment when they won a crucial late-season game at Wrigley Field over the Pittsburgh Pirates with a walk-off home run by Gabby Hartnett, which became known in baseball lore as "The Homer in the Gloamin'". By 1939, the "double-Bills" (Wrigley and Veeck) had both died, and the front office, now under P.K. Wrigley, found itself unable to rekindle the kind of success that P.K.'s father had created, and so the team slipped into a few years of mediocrity. 1945: The Curse The Cubs enjoyed one more pennant at the close of World War II, finishing 98–56. Due to the wartime travel restrictions, the first three games of the 1945 World Series were played in Detroit, where the Cubs won two games, including a one-hitter by Claude Passeau, and the final four were played at Wrigley. In Game 4 of the Series, the Curse of the Billy Goat was allegedly laid upon the Cubs when P.K. Wrigley ejected Billy Sianis, who had come to Game 4 with two box seat tickets, one for him and one for his goat. They paraded around for a few innings, but Wrigley demanded the goat leave the park due to its unpleasant odor. Upon his ejection, Mr. Sianis uttered, "the Cubs, they ain't gonna win no more." The Cubs lost Game 4, lost the Series, and have not been back since. It has also been said by many that Sianis put a "curse" on the Cubs, apparently preventing the team from playing in the World Series. After losing the 1945 World Series, the Cubs finished with winning seasons the next two years, but those teams did not enter post-season play. In the following two decades after Sianis' ill will, the Cubs played mostly forgettable baseball, finishing among the worst teams in the National League on an almost annual basis. Longtime infielder/manager Phil Cavarretta, who had been a key player during the '45 season, was fired during spring training in 1954 after admitting the team was unlikely to finish above fifth place. Although shortstop, Ernie Banks would become one of the star players in the league during the next decade, finding help for him proved a difficult task, as quality players such as Hank Sauer were few and far between. This, combined with poor ownership decisions (such as the College of Coaches), hampered on-field performance. 1969: The fall of '69 The mid-1960s brought hope of a renaissance, with third baseman Ron Santo, pitcher Ferguson Jenkins, and outfielder Billy Williams joining Banks. The Cubs brought home consecutive winning records in '67 and '68, marking the first time a Cub team had accomplished that feat in over two decades. In 1969 the Cubs, managed by Leo Durocher, had built a substantial lead in the newly created National League Eastern Division by mid-August. Ken Holtzman pitched a no-hitter on August 19, and the division lead grew to 8½ games over the St. Louis Cardinals and by 9½ games over the New York Mets. Ultimately, however, the Cubs wilted under pressure. Although they had their best season in decades at 92–70, they lost key games against the Mets and finished the season a disappointing eight games out of first place while the Mets exploded past them by winning thirty-nine of their last fifty games. Many superstitious fans attribute this collapse to an incident at Shea Stadium when a fan released a black cat onto the field, further cursing the club, although the "Amazin' Mets" ended the season at a torrid pace, finishing with a remarkable 100 wins. 1977–1979: The June Swoon Following the '69 season, the club posted winning records for the next few seasons, but no playoff action. After the core players of those teams started to move on, the 70's got worse for the team, and they became known as "The Loveable Losers." In 1977, the team found some life, but ultimately experienced one of its biggest collapses. The Cubs hit a high-water mark on June 28 at 47–22, boasting an 8 1/2 game NL East lead, as they were led by Bobby Murcer (27 Hr/89 RBI), and Rick Reuschel (20–10). However, the Philadelphia Phillies cut the lead to two by the All-star break, as the Cubs sat 19 games over .500, but they swooned late in the season, going 20–40 after July 31. The Northsiders finished in 4th place at 81–81, while Philadelphia surged, finishing with 103 wins. Ironically, the following two seasons also saw the Cubs get off to a fast start, as the team rallied to over 10 games above .500 well into both seasons, only to again wear down and play poorly later on, and ultimately settling back to mediocrity. This trait became known as the "June Swoon." Again, the Northsiders' unusually high number of day games is often pointed to as one reason for the team's inconsistent late season play. 1981–2008: The Tribune Era 1984: Heartbreak After over a dozen more subpar seasons, GM Dallas Green made a midseason deal to acquire ace pitcher Rick Sutcliffe from Cleveland, who joined Scott Sanderson, Dennis Eckersley, Ron Cey and NL MVP Ryne Sandberg on a squad that ultimately tallied an NL-best 96 victories, winning the NL East. In the NLCS, skipper Jim Frey's Cubs won the first two games at Wrigley Field against the San Diego Padres. The Cubs needed to win only one game of the next three in San Diego to make it back to the World Series. After being beaten in Game 3, the Cubs lost Game 4 when dependable closer Lee Smith allowed a game-winning home run to Steve Garvey in the bottom of the ninth inning. In Game 5 the Cubs took a 3–0 lead to the 6th inning, and a 3–2 lead into the seventh with Sutcliffe (who won the Cy Young Award that year) still on the mound. Then, Leon Durham watched a routine grounder go through his legs. This critical error helped the Padres win the game and keep Chicago out of the 1984 World Series. The following season hopes were high after the signing of Dennis Eckersley. The club started out well, going 35–19 through mid-June, but injuries to the pitching staff and a 13 game losing streak pushed the Cubs out of contention. 1989: NL East champions In 1989, the first full season with night baseball at Wrigley Field, Don Zimmer's Cubs were led by a core group of veterans in Ryne Sandberg, Rick Sutcliffe and Andre Dawson, who were boosted by a crop of youngsters such as Mark Grace, Shawon Dunston, Greg Maddux, Rookie of the Year Jerome Walton, and Rookie of the Year Runner-Up Dwight Smith. The Cubs won the NL East once again that season winning 93 games. This time the Northsiders met the San Francisco Giants in the NLCS. After splitting the first two games at home, the Cubs headed to the Bay Area, where despite holding a lead at some point in each of the next three games, bullpen meltdowns and managerial blunders ultimately led to three straight losses. The Giants lost to "The Bash Brothers" and the Oakland A's in the famous "Earthquake Series." 1998: Wild card race & home run chase The '98 season would begin on a somber note with the death of broadcaster Harry Caray, and after the retirement of Sandberg and the trading of Dunston, the Cubs needed to look elsewhere for help, signing Henry Rodriguez to bat cleanup and provide protection for Sammy Sosa in the lineup. Mark Grace turned in one of his best seasons. The club got a Rookie of the Year effort from pitcher Kerry Wood, which included a one-hit, 20 strikeout performance versus the Houston Astros. "H-Rod" payed immediate dividends by slugging 31 round-trippers, and Sosa earned the N.L.'s MVP award with a 66 home run season. The club won a down-to-the-wire Wild Card chase with the San Francisco Giants, culminating with the Cubs beating the Giants in a one game playoff at Wrigley in which Gary Gaetti hit the game winning homer and propelled the Cubs into the postseason once again, with a 90–73 tally. Unfortunately, the bats went cold in October, as manager Jim Riggleman's club batted .183 and scored only four runs en route to being swept by Atlanta. On a positive note, the home run chase between Sosa, Mark McGwire and Ken Griffey, Jr. generated a great deal of media coverage, and helped to bring in a new crop of fans as well as bringing back some fans who had been disillusioned by the 1994 strike. The Cubs retained many players who experienced career years in '98, and after a fast start in 1999, they collapsed again (starting with being swept at the hands of the cross-town White Sox in mid-June) and finished in the bottom of the division for the next two seasons. 2001: Playoff push Despite losing fan favorite Grace to free agency, and the lack of production from newcomer Todd Hundley, skipper Don Baylor's Cubs put together good season in 2001. The season started with Mack Newton being brought in to preach "positive thinking." One of the biggest stories of the season transpired as the club made a midseason deal for Fred McGriff, which was drawn out for nearly a month as McGriff debated waiving his no-trade clause, as the Northsiders led the wild card race by 2.5 games in early September. That run died when Preston Wilson hit a three run walk off homer off of closer Tom "Flash" Gordon, which halted the team's momentum. The team was unable to make another serious charge, and finished at 88–74, only five games behind both Houston and St. Louis, who tied for first. Sosa had perhaps his finest season and Jon Lieber led the staff with a 20 win season. "2001 Chicago Cubs Statistics and Roster", Baseball-Reference.com. Retrieved on June 11, 2008. 2003: 5 more outs The Cubs had high expectations in 2002, but the squad played poorly, and the club responded by hiring Dusty Baker and by making some major moves in '03. Most notably, they traded with the Pittsburgh Pirates for Kenny Lofton and Aramis Ramirez (with the latter finally filling a gaping hole at third base), and rode dominant pitching as the Northsiders led the division down the stretch. Chicago halted St. Louis' run by taking 4 of 5 games from the Redbirds in early September and ultimately won their first division title in 14 years. In what was a dramatic five game series, their NLDS victory over the Atlanta Braves was the franchise's first postseason series win since they won the World Series in 1908. After dropping an extra-inning affair in Game 1, the Northsiders rallied and took a 3 games to 1 lead over the Wild Card Florida Marlins in the NLCS. Florida shut the Cubs out in Game 5, but young pitcher Mark Prior led the Cubs in Game 6 as they took a 3–0 lead into the 8th inning and it was at this point when a now-infamous incident took place. A fan, Steve Bartman, attempted to catch a foul ball off the bat of Luis Castillo, disrupting a potential catch for the second out by Moisés Alou. Alou has since recanted, saying he would not have been able to catch the ball. Interference was not called on the play, as the ball was ruled to be on the spectator side of the wall. Neither Alou nor Bartman were able to make the catch. Two batters later, and to the horror of the packed stadium, Cubs shortstop Alex Gonzalez misplayed a potential inning ending double play, loading the bases and leading to eight Florida runs and a Marlin victory. Despite sending Kerry Wood to the mound and holding a lead twice, the Cubs ultimately dropped Game 7, and failed to reach the World Series.The "curse" of the goat was realized once more. 2004–2006: Letdown In 2004, despite the return of Greg Maddux and a midseason deal for Nomar Garciaparra, misfortune struck the Cubs again. They led the Wild Card by 1.5 games over San Francisco and Houston on September 25, and both of those teams lost that day, giving the Northsiders a chance at increasing the lead to a commanding 2.5 games with only eight games remaining in the season, but reliever LaTroy Hawkins blew a save to the Mets, and the Cubs lost the game in extra innings, a defeat that seemingly deflated the team, as they proceeded to drop 6 of their last 8 games as the Astros won the Wild Card. Despite the fact that the Cubs had won 89 games, this fallout was decidedly unlovable, as the Cubs traded superstar Sammy Sosa after he had left the season's final game early and then lied about it publicly. Already a controversial figure in the clubhouse after his corked-bat incident, Sammy alienated much of his fan base, the few teammates still on good terms with him, and possibly tarnished his place in Cubs' lore for years to come. The disappointing season also saw fans start to become frustrated with the constant injuries to ace pitchers Mark Prior and Kerry Wood. Additionally, the '04 season led to the departure of popular commentator Steve Stone, who had become increasingly critical of management during broadcasts and was verbally attacked by reliever Kent Mercker. Things were no better in 2005, despite a career year from Derrek Lee and the emergence of closer Ryan Dempster. The club struggled and suffered more key injuries, only managing to win 79 games after being picked by many to be a serious contender for the N.L. pennant. 2007–2008: Back to back Leadoff hitter Alfonso Soriano signed with the club in 2007 After finishing last in the N.L. Central with 66 wins in 2006, the Northsiders re-tooled and went from "worst to first" in 2007. In the offseason they inked Alfonso Soriano to the richest contract in Cubs history, Muscat, Carrie, Cubs complete blockbuster with Soriano, MLB.com, Retrieved on July 18, 2007 and replaced unpopular skipper Dusty Baker with fiery veteran manager Lou Piniella. "Lou Piniella Bio", MLB.com, Retrieved on July 18, 2007 After a rough start, which included a brawl between Michael Barrett and Carlos Zambrano, Associated Press, "Zambrano takes blame for fight", (June 2, 2007), Yahoo! Sports, Retrieved on June 2, 2007. the Cubs overcame the Milwaukee Brewers, who had led the division for most of the season, with winning streaks in June and July, coupled with a pair of dramatic, late-inning wins against the Reds, and ultimately clinched the NL Central with a record of 85-77. They met Arizona in the NLDS, but controversy followed as Piniella, in a move that has since come under scrutiny, pulled Carlos Zambrano after the sixth inning of a pitchers duel with D-Backs Brandon Webb, to "....save Zambrano for (a potential) Game 4." The Cubs, however, were unable to come through, losing the first game and eventually stranding over 30 baserunners in a 3-game Arizona sweep. The Cubs successfully defended their National League Central title in 2008, going to the postseason in consecutive years for the first time since 1906-1908. The offseason was dominated by three months of unsuccessful trade talks with the Orioles involving 2B Brian Roberts, as well as the signing of Chunichi Dragons star Kosuke Fukudome. The team recorded their 10,000th win in April, while establishing an early division lead. Reed Johnson and Jim Edmonds were added early on and Rich Harden was acquired from the Oakland Athletics in early July. The Cubs headed into the All-Star break with the N.L.'s best record, and tied the league record with eight representatives to the All-Star game, including catcher Geovany Soto, who was named Rookie of the Year. "The Boys in Blue" took control of the division by sweeping a four game series in Milwaukee. On September 14, in a game moved to Miller Park due to Hurricane Ike, Zambrano pitched a no-hitter against the Astros, and six days later the team clinched by beating St. Louis at Wrigley. The club ended the season with a 97-64 record and met Los Angeles in the NLDS. The heavily favored Cubs took an early lead in Game 1, but James Loney's grand slam off Ryan Dempster changed the series' momentum. Chicago committed numerous critical errors and were outscored 20-6 in a Dodger sweep, which provided yet another sudden and stunning ending to what had once been looked at as a season of destiny. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/gameday_recap.jsp?ymd=20081004&content_id=3590404&vkey=recap&fext=.jsp&c_id=chc Retired numbers The Chicago Cubs retired numbers are commemorated on pinstriped flags flying from the foul poles at Wrigley Field, with the exception of Jackie Robinson, the Brooklyn Dodgers player whose number was retired for all clubs. The first retired number flag, Ernie Banks' number 14, was raised on the left field pole, and they have alternated since then. Thus, 14, 10 and 31 fly on the left field pole; and 26 and 23 fly on the right field pole. <b>RonSanto3B: 1960-1973 Retired September 28, 2003 <b>ErnieBanksSS/1B: 1953-1971 Retired August 22, 1982 <b>RyneSandberg2B: 1982-1997 Retired August 28, 2005 <b>BillyWilliamsOF: 1959-1974 Retired August 13, 1987 <b>FergusonJenkinsP: 1966-1973,1982-1983 Retired May 3, 2009 <b>GregMadduxP: 1986-1992,2004-2006 Retired May 3, 2009 <b>JackieRobinsonRetired by MLB Retired April 15,1997 There is also a movement to retire numbers for other players, most notably the uniform shirt of Gabby Hartnett. The Cubs first wore numbers on their shirts in 1932, and Hartnett wore three different numbers. Number 7 was initially assigned to Hartnett, but he was switched to number 9 the next year. In 1937 he was switched to number 2, which he retained through his last season with the Cubs, 1940. Petitions have been sent in to the team for Cap Anson (shirt), Hack Wilson (shirt), Phil Cavarretta (3), Andre Dawson (8), Hank Sauer (9), and Mark Grace (17), while movements are expected for more recent departures Sammy Sosa (21) and Kerry Wood (34). Ownership Tribune Company, whose main arm is the Chicago Tribune, has owned the club since 1981, when they purchased it from the Wrigley Family for $20,000,000. The Wrigley family, who also owns Wrigley's Chewing Gum had owned the team and the ballpark since buying it from Albert Lasker and Charles Weeghman almost 6 decades earlier. Al Spalding, who also owned Spalding sporting goods, played for the team for two seasons under club founder William Hulbert, and then owned the club for twenty one years. In December 2007, Tribune Company was purchased by businessman Sam Zell, who has listed the team and Wrigley Field for sale. Current Sale In 2008, while the team excelled on the field, Sam Zell and the Tribune continued their search for buyer. In late July, they narrowed down their original list of ten prospective investors to three, all of whom offered over $1 billion for both the Cubs and Wrigley Field. The presumptive fan favorite of the three was outspoken Dallas Mavericks owner Mark Cuban. That list grew to five by August as other leading bidders, including private equity investor and Brewers minority owner John Canning, Jr.. When owner Sam Zell originally trimmed the candidates down, Canning Jr. was eliminated from consideration because his bid was too low, but commissioner Bud Selig had apparently picked Canning Jr. as a favorite of the fraternity of MLB owners. Others among the five remaining bidders for the Cubs included the son of Ameritrade founder Joe Ricketts, who has reportedly submitted the highest bid to date. Number of bidders on Cubs franchise trimmed to five. Associated Press, August 26, 2008 However, during a Chicago Bulls-Dallas Mavericks telecast on October 9, 2008, Cuban, in a courtside interview with Comcast Sports Net, claimed he had made the highest bid and although he did not know where he stood, noted that the state of the economy as well as the poor playoff performance by the team would likely affect the time frame of the eventual sale. On January 8, 2009, the Chicago Tribune reported that three finalist groups, Tom Ricketts, Hersch Klaff, and a partnership of private equity investors Marc Utay and Leo Hindery Jr., were expected to submit finalized, polished offers "within days" after which the winning bid would be accepted, and pending the winning bidders approval by 2/3 of the current MLB owners, would be final. Chairman Crane Kenney also reported that Zell would hold on to nothing more than a minor share of the team. Chicago Tribune Sec. 1 Page 1 01/08/2009 The Cubs announced that the Ricketts family was their choice for the sale on January 22. Before the sale can be completed, it needs to be approved by 23 of the thirty team owners. "Ricketts family is high bidder for Cubs: $900M," Chicago Tribune, January 22, 2009. Media Radio The Cubs' flagship radio station is WGN-AM, 720 AM. With the recent end of the Pittsburgh Pirates' run on KDKA, this may now be the longest team-to-station relationship in MLB. Pat Hughes does the play-by-play along with color commentator Ron Santo and pre- and post-game host Judd Sirott. Hughes did play by play for the Milwaukee Brewers prior to coming to Chicago, and Santo, a former Cubs star and a devout fan of the team (Hughes introduces Santo as "Cub legend Ron Santo" on a daily basis), is known for his emotional highs and lows during games. One example of a "low" was his "Noooo! Noooo!" when Brant Brown dropped a fly ball in a key game in 1998. A "high" for Santo was upon the retirement of his number on the last day of the 2003 season, in which he declared his #10 flag to be "my Hall of Fame." Santo is a type 1 diabetic and has lost both his legs to the disease. Most sponsors of the radio program center their promotions around the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation and other diabetes-based charities. The Chicago Cubs Radio Network consists of 45 stations and covers at least eleven states. WGN Radio is owned and operated by Tribune Company. Television Cubs telecasts are split three ways: WGN (both the local station and the superstation), WCIU (a local independent station), and CSN Chicago (with some games, often Wednesday night contests, aired on the supplemental channel CSN+). Len Kasper is the play-by-play announcer, and Bob Brenly, a former major league catcher and Arizona Diamondbacks manager, is the color commentator for the games. WGN also produces the games shown on WCIU; for those games, the score bug changes the "WGN" logo to "CubsNet." WCIU games additionally air over MyNetworkTV affiliate WMYS-LP (Channel 69) in the South Bend, Indiana market. WGN and CSN Chicago generally show an even number of Cubs games, while WCIU averages about 8 games per season. Print In addition to The Chicago Tribune itself, the club also produces its own print media; the Cubs' official magazine Vineline, which has twelve annual issues, is in its third decade, and spotlights players and events involving the club. Jack Brickhouse and Harry Caray Harry Caray memorialized in a statue near Wrigley Field in Chicago. Two broadcasters in particular have made their mark on the team. Jack Brickhouse manned the Cubs radio and especially the TV booth for parts of five decades, the 34-season span from 1948 to 1981. He covered the games with a level of enthusiasm that often seemed unjustified by the team's poor performance on the field for many of those years. His trademark call "Hey Hey!" always followed a home run. That expression is spelled out in large letters vertically on both foul pole screens at Wrigley Field. "Whoo-boy!" and "Wheeee!" and "Oh, brother!" were among his other pet expressions. When he approached retirement age, he personally recommended his successor. Harry Caray's stamp on the team is perhaps even deeper than that of Brickhouse, although his 17-year tenure, from 1982 to 1997, was half as long. First, Caray had already become a well-known Chicago figure by broadcasting White Sox games for a decade, after having been a Cardinals icon for 25 years. Caray also had the benefit of being in the booth during the NL East title run in 1984, which was widely seen due to WGN's status as a cable-TV superstation. His trademark call of "Holy Cow!" and his enthusiastic singing of "Take me out to the ballgame" during the 7th inning stretch (as he had done with the White Sox) made Caray a fan favorite both locally and nationally. Harry occasionally had problems pronouncing names, to comic effect, such as his attempt at saying "Hector Villanueva" which was captured on WGN's memorial CD to Harry. He also continued his long-standing bit (dating back to the Cardinals years) of pronouncing names backwards. Caray had lively discussions with commentator Steve Stone, who was hand-picked by Harry himself, and producer Arne Harris. Caray often playfully quarreled with Stone over Stone's cigar and why Stone was single, while Stone would counter with poking fun at Harry being "under the influence." Stone disclosed in his book "Where's Harry" that most of this "arguing" was staged, and usually a ploy developed by Harry himself to add flavor to the broadcast. Additionally, Harry once did a commercial for Budweiser, dressed as a "Blues Brother" and parodying "Soul Man", singing "I'm a Cub fan, I'm a Bud man," while dancing with models dressed as Cubs ballgirls. The Cubs still have a "guest conductor," usually a celebrity, lead the crowd in singing "Take me out to the ballgame" during the 7th inning stretch to honor Caray's memory. The quality of their renditions and ability to sing in tune vary widely. Chicago icons often return annually, such as former Chicago Bears coach Mike Ditka, who tends to sing the song very fast and possibly on key. Caray is also honored with a statue located at the corner of Sheffield and Addison streets, and during the 1998 season, a patch with Caray's caricature and Brickhouse's trademark "Hey Hey" were worn on the players sleeves to honor the passing of both commentators within a span of a few months. Harry's popularity also led to his grandson Chip Caray joining the broadcast team in winter of 1997, shortly before Harry's death. Chip Caray worked the Cubs games alongside Stone until events that unfolded in 2004, when Stone became increasingly critical of management and players toward season's end. At one point, reliever Kent Mercker phoned the booth during a game and told Stone to "keep out of team business." Stone left the team, taking a position with Chicago-based WSCR, and is now an announcer for the south side team, the Chicago White Sox. Chip Caray also left, joining his father Skip Caray (who would die in 2008) on TBS, providing play-by-play for the Atlanta Braves. Memorable events and records Merkle's Boner West Side Grounds served as the club's home for nearly 30 yearsOn September 23, 1908, the Cubs and New York Giants were involved in a tight pennant race. The two clubs were tied in the bottom of the ninth inning at the Polo Grounds, and N.Y. had runners on first and third and two outs when Al Bridwell singled, scoring Moose McCormick from third with the Giants' apparent winning run, but the runner on first base, rookie Fred Merkle, went half way to second and then sprinted to the clubhouse after McCormick touched home plate. As fans swarmed the field, Cub infielder Johnny Evers retrieved the ball and touched second. Since there were 2 outs, a forceout was called at second base, ending the inning and the game. Because of the tie the Giants and Cubs ended up tied for first place. The Giants lost the ensuing one-game playoff and the Cubs went on to the World Series. The Homer in the Gloamin' On September 28, 1938, with the Cubs and Pirates tied at 5, Gabby Hartnett stepped to the plate in a lightless Wrigley Field that was gradually being overcome by darkness and visibility was becoming difficult. With two outs in the bottom of the ninth and the umpires ready to end the game, Hartnett launched Pirate hurler Mace Brown's offering into the gloom and haze. This would be remembered as his "Homer in the Gloamin." Rick Monday and the U.S. Flag Veteran Marine Rick Monday grabs a U.S. flag from protesters.On April 25, 1976, at Dodger Stadium, two protestors ran into the outfield and tried to set fire to a U.S. Flag. When Cub outfielder Rick Monday noticed the flag on the ground and the men fumbling with matches and lighter fluid, he dashed over and snatched the flag to thunderous applause. When he came up to bat in the next half-inning, he got a standing ovation from the crowd and the stadium titantron flashed the message, "RICK MONDAY... YOU MADE A GREAT PLAY..." Monday later said, "If you're going to burn the flag, don't do it around me. I've been to too many veterans' hospitals and seen too many broken bodies of guys who tried to protect it." The Sandberg game On June 23, 1984, Chicago trailed St. Louis 9-8 in the bottom of the ninth on NBC's Game of the Week when Ryne Sandberg, known mostly for his glove, slugged a game-tying home run off ace closer Bruce Sutter. Despite this, the Cardinals scored two runs in the top of the tenth. Sandberg came up again facing Sutter with one man on base, and hit yet another game tying home run, and Ryno became a household name. The Cubs won what has become known as "The Sandberg Game" in the 11th inning. 10,000th win The organization commemorating 10,000 winsOn April 23, 2008, against the Colorado Rockies, the Cubs recorded the 10,000th regular-season win in their franchise's history USATODAY.com dating back to the beginning of the National League in 1876. The Cubs reached the milestone with an overall National League record of 10,000 wins and 9,465 losses. Chicago is only the second club in Major League Baseball history to attain this milestone, the first having been the San Francisco Giants in mid-season 2005. The Cubs, however, hold the mark for victories for a team in a single city. The Philadelphia Phillies are the only team with 10,000 losses. The Chicago club's 77–77 record in the National Association (1871, 1874–1875) is not included in MLB record keeping. Post-season series are also not included in the totals. To honor the milestone, the Cubs flew an extra white flag displaying "10,000" in blue, along with the customary "W" flag. Tape-measure home runs Wrigley Field's famous manual scoreboard in center field On May 11, 2000, Glenallen Hill, facing Brewers starter Steve Woodard, became the first, and thus far only player, to hit a pitched ball onto the roof of a five-story residential building across Waveland Ave, beyond Wrigley Field's left field wall. The shot was estimated at well over , but the Cubs fell to Milwaukee 12–8. No batted ball has ever hit the center field scoreboard in Wrigley Field, although the original "Slammin' Sammy", golfer Sam Snead, hit it with a golf ball in an exhibition in the 1950s. In 1948, Bill Nicholson barely missed the scoreboard when he launched a home run ball onto Sheffield Avenue and in 1959, Roberto Clemente came even closer with a http://www.baseball-almanac.com/stadium/wrigley_field.shtml home run ball hit onto Waveland Avenue. In 2001, a Sammy Sosa homer landed across Waveland and bounced a block down Kenmore Avenue. Dave Kingman hit a shot in 1978 to the third porch roof on the east side of Kenmore, which was estimated at , and is regarded as the longest home run in Wrigley Field history. Miscellaneous Mascots Cubbie-Bear mascotThe official Cub mascot is a young bear cub, which has gone through various transformations through the years. The Cubs have no official physical mascot, though a man in a 'polar bear' looking outfit, called "The Beeman" (or Bearman, B-man), which was not very popular with the fans, was employed by the club briefly in the early 1990s. However, the Cubs' unofficial mascot is a formerly homeless man named Ronnie Wickers, who goes by the nickname of "Ronnie Woo Woo." "Woo Who", Dave Hoekstra, Chicago Sun-Times, April 1, 2005. Wickers is not employed by the team, but is seen daily at games and outside the park, dressed in full uniform, usually with a hula hoop or jump rope. Wickers is the second fan to reach this status, the first being "Gary The Drunk" in the 1980s through mid 90s, and was featured in Steve Stone's book "Where's Harry?" (Gary was featured in 2008, after having exchanged gloves with Luis Gonzalez for 13 seasons. He was also kicked out of Wrigley for 3 years after attacking a fan with a knife). Wickers, however, is much more popular. He is known for his trademark yelling, for example "Mark.... Wooo! Grace.... Wooo!," and has been adopted by fans as a part of the culture at Wrigley Field. Wickers has gained national fame, and has appeared on the Howard Stern and Mancow radio programs after the two paid for him to get his teeth fixed. "White flag time at Wrigley!" The term "White flag time at Wrigley!" means the Cubs have won. Beginning in the days of P.K. Wrigley and the 1937 bleacher/scoreboard reconstruction, and prior to modern media saturation, a flag with either a "W" or an "L" has flown from atop the scoreboard masthead, indicating the day's result(s) when baseball was played at Wrigley. In case of a doubleheader that results in a split, both the "win" and "loss" flags are flown. Past Cubs media guides show that originally the flags were blue with a white "W" and white with a blue "L", the latter perhaps suggesting "surrender". In 1978, consistent with the dominant colors of the flags, blue and white lights were mounted atop the scoreboard, denoting "win" and "loss" respectively for the benefit of nighttime passers-by. The flags were replaced by 1990, the first year in which the Cubs media guide reports the switch to the now familiar colors of the flags: White with blue "W" and blue with white "L". In addition to needing to replace the worn-out flags, by then the retired numbers of Banks and Williams were flying on the foul poles, as white with blue numbers; so the "good" flag was switched to match that scheme. This long-established tradition has evolved to fans carrying the white-with-blue-W flags to both home and away games, and displaying them after a Cub win. The flags have become more and more popular each season since 1998, and are now even sold as T-shirts with the same layout. In 2009, the tradition spilled over to the NHL as Chicago Blackhawks fans adopted a red and black "W" flag of their own. Wrigley Field and Wrigleyville Some Cub fans celebrate the NLDS win over Atlanta at a Lakeview nightclub in 2003 The Cubs have played their home games at Wrigley Field, also known as "The Friendly Confines" since 1916. It was built in 1914 as Weeghman Park for the Chicago Whales, a Federal League baseball team. The Cubs also shared the park with the Chicago Bears of the NFL for 50 years. The ballpark includes a manual scoreboard, ivy-covered brick walls, and relatively small dimensions. Located in Chicago's Lakeview neighborhood, Wrigley Field sits on an irregular block bounded by Clark and Addison Streets and Waveland and Sheffield Avenues. The area surrounding the ballpark is typically referred to as Wrigleyville. There is a dense collection of bars and nightclubs in the area, most with baseball inspired themes, including Harry Caray's, Murphy's Bleachers, and Sluggers. On game days, many residents rent out their yards and driveways during games to people looking for a parking spot. Though many Wrigleyville homeowners have seen their property values skyrocket, most, along with Mayor Richard M. Daley, still oppose the team's quest to play more night games and stadium expansion. Average attendance at games has also skyrocketed, as annual ticket sales have more than doubled, with attendance rising from 1.4 million in 1983 to nearly 3.2 million in 2004. Bleacher Bums The "Bleacher Bums" is a name given to fans, many of whom spend much of the day heckling, who sit in the bleacher section at Wrigley Field. Initially, the group was called "bums" because it referred to a group of fans who were at most games, and since those games were all day games, it was assumed they did not work. Many of those fans were, and are still, students at Chicago colleges, such as DePaul University, Loyola, and Illinois-Chicago. A Broadway play, starring Joe Mantegna, Dennis Farina, Dennis Franz, and Jim Belushi ran for years and was based on a group of Cub fans who frequented the club's games. The group was started in 1967 by dedicated fan Ron Grousl and "mad bugler" Mike Murphy, who is currently a sports radio host mid days on Chicago-based WSCR AM 670 "The Score". Murphy alleges that Grousl started the Wrigley tradition of throwing back opposing teams' home run balls. Excerpt from Miracle Collapse: The 1969 Chicago Cubs, Google Books WSCR's Murphy and Cubs ball-throwing The current group is headed by Derek Schaul. More recently, the bleachers have had the stereotype of being populated by attractive and lightly dressed women. Prior to the 2005 season, they were updated, with new shops and private bar (The Batter's Eye) being added, and Bud Light bought naming rights to the bleacher section, dubbing them the Bud Light Bleachers. Bleachers at Wrigley are general admission. Music During the summer of 1969, a Chicago studio group produced a single record called "Hey Hey! Holy Mackerel! (The Cubs Song)" whose title and lyrics incorporated the catch-phrases of the respective TV and radio announcers for the Cubs, Jack Brickhouse and Vince Lloyd. Several members of the Cubs recorded an album called Cub Power which contained a cover of the song. The song received a good deal of local airplay that summer, associating it very strongly with that bittersweet season. It was played much less frequently thereafter, although it remained an unofficial Cubs theme song for some years after. The song "Go, Cubs, Go!" by Steve Goodman is often played over the loudspeakers when the Cubs win a game at Wrigley Field. The song was recorded early in the 1984 season, and was heard frequently during that season. Goodman died in September of that year, four days before the Cubs clinched the National League Eastern Division title, their first title in 39 years. Since 1984, the song started being played from time to time at Wrigley; since 2007, the song has been played over the loudspeakers at Wrigley Field following each victory by the home squad. In 2008, Pearl Jam frontman Eddie Vedder composed a song dedicated to the team called "All the Way". Vedder, a Chicago native, and lifelong Cubs fan, composed the song at the request of Ernie Banks. An album entitled Take Me Out to a Cubs Game was released in 2008. It is a collection of 17 songs and other recordings related to the team , including Harry Caray's final performance of "Take Me Out to the Ball Game" on September 21, 1997, the Steve Goodman song mentioned above, and a newly-recorded rendition of "Talkin' Baseball" (subtitled "Baseball and the Cubs") by Terry Cashman. The album was produced in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Cubs' 1908 World Series victory and contains sounds and songs of the Cubs and Wrigley Field. Dismal postseason record and championship drought The Cubs were as few as 5 outs from the World Series in 2003 The Chicago Cubs have not won a World Series championship since 1908 and have not appeared in the Fall Classic since 1945. Between their next postseason appearance in 1984 and their latest in 2008, they have only made the postseason six times. It is the longest title drought in all four of the major American professional sports leagues, which includes the NFL, the NBA, and the NHL, as well as, of course, Major League Baseball. In fact, the Cubs' last World Series title occurred before those other three leagues even existed, and even the Cubs' last World Series appearance predates the founding of the NBA. The Cubs' 3-2 series victory over the Atlanta Braves in the 2003 NLDS was the franchise's first postseason series win since the 1908 championship. At 28-55-1, the Cubs have won fewer postseason games in their history than any of the 16 original pre-expansion major league teams, and their win percentage of .337 is also by far the lowest. They have lost the last three games in eight of their ten postseason appearances between 1932 and 2008, being swept in five of the eight. Since 1984, their postseason record has been 9-22, a win percentage of .290, and between 2003 and 2008, the team has lost its last nine postseason games. With a home postseason record of 12-25 going back to 1906, their postseason home win percentage of .324 has produced an average of less than one home win in the team's 16 postseason series in 15 postseason appearances. The Cubs have recorded only seven postseason wins at Wrigley Field since their first postseason appearance there in 1929, including only two World Series wins, the first by Lon Warnecke in Game 5 in 1935 and the last by Hank Borowy in Game 6 in 1945. Mark Prior is the only Cubs pitcher ever to win two postseason games at Wrigley Field (2003 NLDS Game 3 and 2003 NLCS Game 2). The Cubs have only three other postseason wins in Wrigley Field, two in 1984 (Rick Sutcliffe's win in NLCS Game 1 and Steve Trout's win in NCLS Game 2, the Cubs' only consecutive postseason home wins since the 1907 World Series at the West Side Grounds) and one in 1989 (NCLS Game 2, won by Les Lancaster). The Cubs' total of seven postseason wins in over 90 years of Wrigley Field history equals the number of postseason home wins the Phillies had just in 2008. Playful theories try to blame the team's futility in reaching and winning in the postseason on alleged supernatural intervention, such as the Curse of the Billy Goat from 1945, citing the Leon Durham error of 1984 and the Steve Bartman incident in 2003 as "evidence" of a curse. More practical theories include the too-cozy dimensions of Wrigley Field; the physical toll from the summer heat discussed in the 1977 book Stuck on the Cubs; and evidenced by the plentiful late season collapses, most notably in 1969 and 2004, as well as 1977, 1979, 1985, and 1999, among others. Finally, the most obvious candidate for this happenstance is the club's poor front office decisions. The 2008 season marked the 100th year anniversary of the last World Series title for the Cubs. Current roster Minor league affiliations AAA: Iowa Cubs, Pacific Coast League AA: Tennessee Smokies, Southern League Advanced A: Daytona Cubs, Florida State League A: Peoria Chiefs, Midwest League Short A: Boise Hawks, Northwest League Rookie: AZL Cubs, Arizona League Spring training history The Cubs spring training facility is located in Mesa, Arizona, where they play in the Cactus League. The club plays its games at HoHoKam Park, the name of which is literally translated from Native American as "those who vanished." The park seats just under 13,567, and the Cubs annually sell out most of their games both at home and on the road. The Northsiders have called Mesa their spring home for most seasons since 1952. In addition to Mesa, the club has held spring training in Champaign, Illinois (1901–02, 1906); Los Angeles (1903–04, 1948–1949), Santa Monica, California (1905); New Orleans (1907, 1911–1912); Vicksburg, Miss. (1908); Hot Springs, Arkansas (1909–1910); Tampa (1913–1916); Pasadena, Cal. (1917–1921); Santa Catalina Island, California (1922–1942, 1946–1947, 1950–1951); French Lick, Indiana (1943–1945); Mesa (1952–1965, 1979–present); Long Beach, California (1966); and Scottsdale, Arizona (1967–1978). The curious location on Catalina Island stemmed from Cubs owner William Wrigley Jr.'s then-majority interest in the island in 1919. Wrigley constructed a ballpark on the island to house the Cubs in spring training: it was built to the same dimensions as Wrigley Field. (The ballpark is long gone, but a clubhouse built by Wrigley to house the Cubs exists as the Catalina County Club.) However by 1951 the team chose to leave Catalina Island and spring training was shifted to Mesa, Arizona. Spring Training Online History The current location in Mesa is actually the second HoHoKam Park; the first was built in 1976 at Fitch Park as the spring-training home of the Athletics who left the park in 1979. The new complex provides of team facilities, including major league clubhouse, four practice fields, one practice infield, enclosed batting tunnels, batting cages, a maintenance facility, and administrative offices for the Cubs. The practice of teams traveling for organized spring training practice games and drills is almost as old as baseball itself. One of the earliest recorded spring training camps took place in 1870, when the Cincinnati Red Stockings and the Chicago White Stockings (now the Cubs) held organized baseball camps in New Orleans. Season-by-season results Championships See also Major North American professional sports teams Major League Baseball National League Central List of managers and owners of the Chicago Cubs Major League Baseball franchise post-season droughts Chicago Cubs futility theories Chicago Cubs team records History of the Chicago Cubs Iowa Cubs Chicago Tribune Curse of the Billy Goat Steve Bartman incident Sam Zell Harry Caray Grant DePorter Lee Elia WGN TV Channel 9 / WGN America WGN Radio 720 AM West Side Park Wrigley Field Old Style Beer References and notes Further reading Murphy, Cait (2007). Crazy '08: How a Cast of Cranks, Rogues, Boneheads, and Magnates Created the Greatest Year in Baseball History. New York, NY: Smithsonian Books. ISBN 978-0-06-088937-1 Wright, Marshall (2000). The National Association of Base Ball Players, 1857-1870. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. ISBN 0-7864-0779-4 Lund, John (2008). 1908 A Look At The World Champion 1908 Chicago Cubs. Scotts Valley, CA ISBN 1438250185. Stone, Steve (with Barry Rozner) (1999) Where's Harry? 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3,388	Gimlet_(tool)	A gimlet A gimlet is a hand tool for drilling small holes, mainly in wood, without splitting. It was defined in Joseph Gwilt's Architecture (1859) as "a piece of steel of a semi-cylindrical form, hollow on one side, having a cross handle at one end and a worm or screw at the other". Joseph Gwilt (1859), Architecture A gimlet is always a small tool. A similar tool of larger size is called an auger. The cutting action of the gimlet is slightly different from an auger, however, as the end of the screw, and so the initial hole it makes, is smaller; the cutting edges pare away the wood which is moved out by the spiral sides, falling out through the entry hole. This also pulls the gimlet further into the hole as it is turned; unlike a bradawl, pressure is not required once the tip has been drawn in. The name "gimlet" comes from the Old French guinbelet, guimbelet, later guibelet, probably a diminutive of the Anglo-French "wimble", a variation of "guimble", from the Middle Low German wiemel, cf. the Scandinavian wammie, to bore or twist; the modern French is gibelet. Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd. Edition, (1989) Cultural references The term is also used figuratively to describe something as sharp or piercing, and also to describe the twisting, boring motion of using a gimlet. The term gimlet-eyed can mean sharp-eyed or squint-eyed (one example of this use is Major General Smedley Darlington Butler, who was known as "Old Gimlet Eye"). In this sense it is often considered a colloquialism - for example, author Terry Pratchett uses the phrase "eyes like gimlets" to humorous effect. In the story "The Tale of Samuel Whiskers" by Beatrix Potter, John Joiner is said to be "going round and round with his head in the hole like a gimlet." In "Meditations" by Marcus Aurelius, "Constantly contemplate the whole of time and the whole of substance, and consider that all individual things as to substance are a grain of a fig, and as to time, the turning of a gimlet." In Harriet Jacobs's Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Linda uses a gimlet to pierce a hole through the roof of the storeroom/shed where she was hiding out in order for her to see her children. In the novel Anne of Green Gables, Anne says that Nettie Blewett looks "exactly like a gimlet." The Latin Version of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone states that the company that Harry's Uncle Vernon works for is a company devoted solely to the manufacture of gimlets. In Lewis Carroll's "Through the Looking Glass", Humpty Dumpty explains to Alice that one of the words in the poem "The Jabberwocky" - "gimble" - means "to make holes like a gimlet." Henry Samuel Quelch, Billy Bunter's form master in Greyfriars school is frequently described as having "eyes like gimlets". External links Chapter 19 - Boring Tools from Audels Carpenters and Builders Guide References	Gimlet_(tool) \|@lemmatized gimlet:17 hand:1 tool:4 drill:1 small:3 hole:7 mainly:1 wood:2 without:1 split:1 define:1 joseph:2 gwilt:2 architecture:2 piece:1 steel:1 semi:1 cylindrical:1 form:2 hollow:1 one:4 side:2 cross:1 handle:1 end:2 worm:1 screw:2 always:1 similar:1 large:1 size:1 call:1 auger:2 cut:1 action:1 slightly:1 different:1 however:1 initial:1 make:2 cutting:1 edge:1 pare:1 away:1 move:1 spiral:1 fall:1 entry:1 also:3 pull:1 far:1 turn:1 unlike:1 bradawl:1 pressure:1 require:1 tip:1 draw:1 name:1 come:1 old:2 french:3 guinbelet:1 guimbelet:1 later:1 guibelet:1 probably:1 diminutive:1 anglo:1 wimble:1 variation:1 guimble:1 middle:1 low:1 german:1 wiemel:1 cf:1 scandinavian:1 wammie:1 bore:2 twist:1 modern:1 gibelet:1 oxford:1 english:1 dictionary:1 edition:1 cultural:1 reference:2 term:2 use:5 figuratively:1 describe:3 something:1 sharp:2 piercing:1 twisting:1 motion:1 eye:4 mean:2 eyed:2 squint:1 example:2 major:1 general:1 smedley:1 darlington:1 butler:1 know:1 sense:1 often:1 consider:2 colloquialism:1 author:1 terry:1 pratchett:1 phrase:1 like:5 humorous:1 effect:1 story:1 tale:1 samuel:2 whisker:1 beatrix:1 potter:2 john:1 joiner:1 say:2 go:1 round:2 head:1 meditation:1 marcus:1 aurelius:1 constantly:1 contemplate:1 whole:2 time:2 substance:2 individual:1 thing:1 grain:1 fig:1 turning:1 harriet:1 jacob:1 incident:1 life:1 slave:1 girl:1 linda:1 pierce:1 roof:1 storeroom:1 shed:1 hide:1 order:1 see:1 child:1 novel:1 anne:2 green:1 gable:1 nettie:1 blewett:1 look:2 exactly:1 latin:1 version:1 harry:2 philosopher:1 stone:1 state:1 company:2 uncle:1 vernon:1 work:1 devote:1 solely:1 manufacture:1 lewis:1 carroll:1 glass:1 humpty:1 dumpty:1 explain:1 alice:1 word:1 poem:1 jabberwocky:1 gimble:1 henry:1 quelch:1 billy:1 bunter:1 master:1 greyfriars:1 school:1 frequently:1 external:1 link:1 chapter:1 boring:1 audels:1 carpenter:1 builder:1 guide:1 \|@bigram cutting_edge:1 terry_pratchett:1 beatrix_potter:1 marcus_aurelius:1 harry_potter:1 lewis_carroll:1 humpty_dumpty:1 poem_jabberwocky:1 external_link:1
3,389	Mouthwash	Listerine, a popular brand of mouthwash Mouthwash or mouth rinse is a product used for oral hygiene. Antiseptic and anti-plaque mouth rinse claims to kill the bacterial plaque causing caries, gingivitis, and bad breath. Anti-cavity mouth rinse uses fluoride to protect against tooth decay. But, it is generally agreed that the use of mouthwash does not eliminate the need for both brushing and flossing. Gunsolley JC. A meta-analysis of six-month studies of antiplaque and antigingivitis agents. J Am Dent Assoc. 2006 Dec;137(12):1649-57. PMID 17138709 Tal H, Rosenberg M. Estimation of dental plaque levels and gingival inflammation using a simple oral rinse technique. J Periodontol. 1990 Jun;61(6):339-42. PMID 2366142 Mouth washes may also be used to help remove toe jam and foot fungus. Alcoholic and strong flavored mouth washes may cause coughing when used for this purpose. History The first known reference to mouth rinsing is in the Chinese medicine, about 2700 BC, for treatment of gingivitis. Later, in the Greek and Roman periods, mouthrinsing following mechanical cleansing became common among the upper classes, and Hippocrates recommended a mixture of salt, alum, and vinegar. Fischman SL. The history of oral hygiene products: how far have we come in 6000 years? Periodontol 2000. 1997 Oct;15:7-14. PMID 9643227. The Jewish Talmud, dating back about 1800 years, suggests a cure for gum ailments containing "dough water" and olive oil. Shifman A, Orenbuch S, Rosenberg M. Bad breath—a major disability according to the Talmud. Isr Med Assoc J. 2002 Oct;4(10):843-5. PMID 12389360. Anton van Leeuwenhoek, the famous 17th century microscopist, discovered living organisms (living, because they were motile) in deposits on the teeth (what we now call dental plaque). He also found organisms in water from the canal next to his home in Delft. He experimented with samples by adding vinegar or brandy and found that this resulted in the immediate immobilization or killing of the organisms suspended in water. Next he tried rinsing the mouth of himself and somebody else with a rather foul mouthwash containing vinegar or brandy and found that living organisms remained in the dental plaque. He concluded—correctly—that the mouthwash either did not reach, or was not present long enough, to kill the plaque organisms. That remained the state of affairs until the late 1960s when Harald Loe (at the time a professor at the Royal Dental College in Aarhus, Denmark) demonstrated that a chlorhexidine compound could prevent the build-up of dental plaque. The reason for chlorhexidine effectiveness is that it strongly adheres to surfaces in the mouth and thus remains present in effective concentrations for many hours. Budtz-Jörgensen E, Löe H. Chlorhexidine as a denture disinfectant in the treatment of denture stomatitis. Scand J Dent Res. 1972:80:457-464. Since then commercial interest in mouthwashes has been intense and several newer products claim effectiveness in reducing the build-up in dental plaque and the associated severity of gingivitis (inflammation of the gums), in addition to fighting bad breath. Many of these solutions aim to control the Volatile Sulfur Compound (VSC)-creating anaerobic bacteria that live in the mouth and excrete substances that lead to bad breath and unpleasant mouth taste. Bosy A, Kulkarni GV, Rosenberg M, McCulloch CA. Relationship of oral malodor to periodontitis: evidence of independence in discrete subpopulations. J Periodontol. 1994 Jan;65(1):37-46. PMID 8133414. Loesche WJ, Kazor C. Microbiology and treatment of halitosis. Periodontol 2000. 2002;28:256-79. PMID 12013345. Usage Common use involves rinsing the mouth with about 20ml (2/3 fl oz) of mouthwash two times a day before brushing. In the morning and at night for best results. The wash is typically swished or gargled for about half a minute and then spat out. In some brands, the expectorate is stained, so that one can see the bacteria and debris. Kozlovsky A, Goldberg S, Natour I, Rogatky-Gat A, Gelernter I, Rosenberg M. Efficacy of a 2-phase oil: water mouthrinse in controlling oral malodor, gingivitis, and plaque. J Periodontol. 1996 Jun;67(6):577-82. PMID 8794967. Rosenberg M, Gelernter I, Barki M, Bar-Ness R. Day-long reduction of oral malodor by a two-phase oil: water mouthrinse as compared to chlorhexidine and placebo rinses. J Periodontol. 1992 Jan;63(1):39-43. PMID 1552460. It is probably advisable to use mouthwash at least an hour after brushing with toothpaste when the toothpaste contains sodium lauryl sulfate, since the anionic compounds in the SLS toothpaste can deactivate cationic agents present in the mouthrinse. Rosenberg M. The science of bad breath. Sci Am. 2002 Apr;286(4):72-9. PMID 11905111. Active ingredients OTC mouthwash containing chlorhexidine from Mexico. Active ingredients in commercial brands of mouthwash can include thymol, eucalyptol, Stoeken JE, Paraskevas S, van der Weijden GA. The long-term effect of a mouthrinse containing essential oils on dental plaque and gingivitis: a systematic review. J Periodontol. 2007 Jul;78(7):1218-28. PMID 17608576. hexetidine, methyl salicylate, menthol, chlorhexidine gluconate, Ribeiro LG, Hashizume LN, Maltz M. The effect of different formulations of chlorhexidine in reducing levels of mutans streptococci in the oral cavity: A systematic review of the literature. J Dent. 2007 May;35(5):359-70. Epub March 27, 2007. PMID 17391828. benzalkonium chloride, cetylpyridinium chloride, Goldberg S, Konis Y, Rosenberg M. Effect of Cetylpyridinium Chloride on Microbial Adhesion to Hexadecane and Polystyrene. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1990 Jun;56(6):1678-1682. PMID 16348211. methylparaben, hydrogen peroxide, domiphen bromide and sometimes fluoride, Levy SM. An update on fluorides and fluorosis. J Can Dent Assoc. 2003 May;69(5):286-91. PMID 12734021. enzymes and calcium. Ingredients also include water, sweeteners such as sorbitol, sucralose, sodium saccharine, and xylitol (which doubles as a bacterial inhibitor). Giertsen E, Emberland H, Scheie AA. Effects of mouth rinses with xylitol and fluoride on dental plaque and saliva. Caries Res. 1999;33(1):23-31. PMID 9831777. Sometimes a significant amount of alcohol (up to 27% vol) is added, Lachenmeier DW, Keck-Wilhelm A, Sauermann A, Mildau G. Safety assessment of alcohol-containing mouthwashes and oral rinses. SOFW J. 2008;134:70-78. . as a carrier for the flavor, to provide "bite", Pader M. Oral rinses. Cosmet Toilet. 1994;109:59-68. and to contribute an antibacterial effect. Because of the alcohol content, it is possible to fail a breathalyzer test after rinsing; in addition, alcohol is a drying agent and may worsen chronic bad breath. Furthermore, it is possible for alcoholics to abuse mouthwash. Alaska.com \| Alaska's travel site Recently, some assumptions were made of a possible carcinogenic character of alcohol used in mouthrinses, but no clear evidence was found. Cole P, Rodu B, Mathisen A. Alcohol-containing mouthwash and oropharyngeal cancer: a review of the epidemiology. J Am Dent Assoc. 2003 Aug;134(8):1079-87. PMID 12956348. Carretero Peláez MA, Esparza Gómez GC, Figuero Ruiz E, Cerero Lapiedra R. Alcohol-containing mouthwashes and oral cancer. Critical analysis of literature. Med Oral. 2004 Mar-Apr;9(2):120-3, 116-20. PMID 14990877. Lachenmeier DW. Safety evaluation of topical applications of ethanol on the skin and inside the oral cavity. J Occup Med Toxicol. 2008 Nov;3(1):26. http://www.occup-med.com/content/3/1/26 (Open Access). Commercial mouthwashes usually contain a preservative such as sodium benzoate to preserve freshness once the container has been opened. Many newer brands are alcohol-free and contain odor-elimination agents such as oxidizers, as well as odor-preventing agents such as zinc ion technology to keep future bad breath from developing. A salt mouthwash is a home treatment for mouth infections and/or injuries, or post extraction, and is made by dissolving a teaspoon of salt in a cup of warm water. Plain (diluted) hydrogen peroxide is another common mouthwash. Hasturk H, Nunn M, Warbington M, Van Dyke TE. Efficacy of a fluoridated hydrogen peroxide-based mouthrinse for the treatment of gingivitis: a randomized clinical trial. J Periodontol. 2004 Jan;75(1):57-65. PMID 15025217. One thing to note is that many commercial mouthwashes are very acidic on the pH scale. If you have heartburn, acid reflux or acid indigestion, it is important to use a mouthwash with a neutral pH to avoid irritation. Fermin A. Carranza. CARRANZA'S CLINICAL PERIODONTOLOGY, 9th edition, 2002. page 195 Health Risks In January 2009 a report published in the Dental Journal of Australia concluded there is "sufficient evidence" that "alcohol-containing mouthwashes contribute to the increased risk of development of oral cancer". References External links Article on Bad-Breath Prevention Products – from MSNBC Clinical Study on Anti-Oral Malodor Mouthrinse – from Unbound Medline	Mouthwash \|@lemmatized listerine:1 popular:1 brand:4 mouthwash:20 mouth:13 rinse:11 product:4 use:10 oral:14 hygiene:2 antiseptic:1 anti:3 plaque:11 claim:2 kill:2 bacterial:2 cause:2 caries:2 gingivitis:6 bad:8 breath:8 cavity:3 fluoride:4 protect:1 tooth:1 decay:1 generally:1 agree:1 eliminate:1 need:1 brushing:1 flossing:1 gunsolley:1 jc:1 meta:1 analysis:2 six:1 month:1 study:2 antiplaque:1 antigingivitis:1 agent:5 j:14 dent:5 assoc:4 dec:1 pmid:17 tal:1 h:4 rosenberg:7 estimation:1 dental:9 level:2 gingival:1 inflammation:2 simple:1 technique:1 periodontol:8 jun:3 wash:3 may:5 also:3 help:1 remove:1 toe:1 jam:1 foot:1 fungus:1 alcoholic:2 strong:1 flavor:2 cough:1 purpose:1 history:2 first:1 know:1 reference:2 rinsing:1 chinese:1 medicine:1 bc:1 treatment:5 later:1 greek:1 roman:1 period:1 mouthrinsing:1 follow:1 mechanical:1 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3,390	Leg_spin	Leg spin is a style of spin bowling in cricket. A leg spinner bowls right-arm with a wrist spin action, causing the ball to spin anti-clockwise at the point of delivery. When the ball bounces, the spin causes the ball to deviate sharply from right to left (as seen by the bowler) — that is, away from the leg side of a right-handed batsman, which is the origin of the name "leg spin". The same action when performed by a left-arm bowler is known as left-arm unorthodox spin or "chinaman" bowling. Animation of a leg break. Mechanics As with all spinners, leg spinners bowl the ball far slower (70-90 km/h or 45-55 mph) than fast bowlers, the fastest of whom can top 160 km/h (100 mph), and typically use variations of flight by sometimes looping the ball in the air, allowing any cross-breeze and the aerodynamic effects of the spinning ball to cause the ball to dip and drift before bouncing and spinning (usually called "turning") sharply. While very difficult to bowl accurately, good leg spin is considered one of the most threatening types of bowling to bat against, since the flight and sharp turn make the ball's movement extremely hard to read, and the turn away from the batsman (assuming he or she is right-handed) is more dangerous than the turn into the batsman generated by an off spinner. Good leg spin bowlers are also able to bowl deliveries that behave unexpectedly, including the googly, which turns the opposite way to a normal leg break, and the topspinner, which doesn't turn but dips sharply and bounces higher than other deliveries. A few leg spinners (notably Shane Warne) have also mastered the flipper, a delivery that like a topspinner goes straight on landing, but floats through the air before skidding and keeping low, often dismissing batsmen leg before wicket or bowled. Another variation in the arsenal of some leg spinners is the slider, a leg break pushed out of the hand somewhat faster, so that it doesn't spin as much, but travels more straight on. To grip the ball for a leg-spinning delivery, the ball is placed into the palm with the seam parallel to the palm. The first two fingers then spread and grip the ball, and the third and fourth fingers close together and rest against the side of the ball. The first bend of the third finger should grasp the seam. The thumb resting against the side is up to the bowler, but should impart no pressure. When the ball is bowled, the third finger will apply most of the spin. The wrist is cocked as it comes down by the hip, and the wrist moves sharply from right to left as the ball is released, adding more spin. The ball is tossed up to provide flight. The batsman will see the hand with the palm facing towards them when the ball is released. History In the 1970s and 1980s it was feared that leg spin would disappear from the game due to the success of West Indian and later Australian teams exclusively using fast bowlers. During this time Abdul Qadir of Pakistan was the highest-profile leg spinner in the world and is sometimes credited with "keeping the art alive". However, leg spin has again become popular with cricket fans and a successful part of cricket teams, driven largely by the success of Shane Warne, beginning with his spectacular Ball of the Century to Mike Gatting in 1993. Some notable leg spinners Richie Benaud John Gleeson Clarrie Grimmett Ranji Hordern Jack Iverson Terry Jenner Stuart MacGill Colin McCool Bill O'Reilly Shane Warne Bob Barber Bernard Bosanquet Tich Freeman Tommy Greenhough J.W. Hearne Robin Hobbs Eric Hollies Roly Jenkins Ian Peebles Walter Robins Doug Wright Bhagwat Chandrasekhar Piyush Chawla Subhash Gupte Narendra Hirwani Anil Kumble Laxman Sivaramakrishnan Amit Mishra Jack Alabaster Bill Merritt Abdul Qadir Danish Kaneria Intikhab Alam Mushtaq Ahmed Mushtaq Mohammad Shahid Afridi Wasim Raja Jackie du Preez Aubrey Faulkner Denys Hobson Reggie Schwarz Bert Vogler Gordon White Malinga Bandara Upul Chandana David Holford Sonny Ramadhin Dinanath Ramnarine Adam Huckle Paul Strang Gallery	Leg_spin \|@lemmatized leg:18 spin:15 style:1 bowling:3 cricket:3 spinner:8 bowl:6 right:5 arm:3 wrist:3 action:2 cause:3 ball:17 anti:1 clockwise:1 point:1 delivery:5 bounce:2 deviate:1 sharply:4 leave:2 see:2 bowler:6 away:2 side:3 hand:4 batsman:5 origin:1 name:1 perform:1 left:2 know:1 unorthodox:1 chinaman:1 animation:1 break:3 mechanic:1 far:1 slow:1 km:2 h:2 mph:2 fast:3 top:1 typically:1 use:2 variation:2 flight:3 sometimes:2 loop:1 air:2 allow:1 cross:1 breeze:1 aerodynamic:1 effect:1 dip:2 drift:1 bouncing:1 spinning:2 usually:1 call:1 turn:6 difficult:1 accurately:1 good:2 consider:1 one:1 threatening:1 type:1 bat:1 since:1 sharp:1 make:1 movement:1 extremely:1 hard:1 read:1 assume:1 dangerous:1 generate:1 also:2 able:1 behave:1 unexpectedly:1 include:1 googly:1 opposite:1 way:1 normal:1 topspinner:2 high:2 notably:1 shane:3 warne:3 master:1 flipper:1 like:1 go:1 straight:2 landing:1 float:1 skid:1 keep:2 low:1 often:1 dismiss:1 wicket:1 another:1 arsenal:1 slider:1 push:1 somewhat:1 faster:1 much:1 travel:1 grip:2 place:1 palm:3 seam:2 parallel:1 first:2 two:1 finger:4 spread:1 third:3 fourth:1 close:1 together:1 rest:1 bend:1 grasp:1 thumb:1 resting:1 impart:1 pressure:1 apply:1 cock:1 come:1 hip:1 move:1 release:2 add:1 toss:1 provide:1 facing:1 towards:1 history:1 fear:1 would:1 disappear:1 game:1 due:1 success:2 west:1 indian:1 later:1 australian:1 team:2 exclusively:1 time:1 abdul:2 qadir:2 pakistan:1 profile:1 world:1 credit:1 art:1 alive:1 however:1 become:1 popular:1 fan:1 successful:1 part:1 drive:1 largely:1 begin:1 spectacular:1 century:1 mike:1 gatting:1 notable:1 richie:1 benaud:1 john:1 gleeson:1 clarrie:1 grimmett:1 ranji:1 hordern:1 jack:2 iverson:1 terry:1 jenner:1 stuart:1 macgill:1 colin:1 mccool:1 bill:2 reilly:1 bob:1 barber:1 bernard:1 bosanquet:1 tich:1 freeman:1 tommy:1 greenhough:1 j:1 w:1 hearne:1 robin:2 hobbs:1 eric:1 holly:1 roly:1 jenkins:1 ian:1 peebles:1 walter:1 doug:1 wright:1 bhagwat:1 chandrasekhar:1 piyush:1 chawla:1 subhash:1 gupte:1 narendra:1 hirwani:1 anil:1 kumble:1 laxman:1 sivaramakrishnan:1 amit:1 mishra:1 alabaster:1 merritt:1 danish:1 kaneria:1 intikhab:1 alam:1 mushtaq:2 ahmed:1 mohammad:1 shahid:1 afridi:1 wasim:1 raja:1 jackie:1 du:1 preez:1 aubrey:1 faulkner:1 denys:1 hobson:1 reggie:1 schwarz:1 bert:1 vogler:1 gordon:1 white:1 malinga:1 bandara:1 upul:1 chandana:1 david:1 holford:1 sonny:1 ramadhin:1 dinanath:1 ramnarine:1 adam:1 huckle:1 paul:1 strang:1 gallery:1 \|@bigram leg_spinner:6 spinner_bowl:2 hand_batsman:1 h_mph:2 spin_bowler:1 shane_warne:3 abdul_qadir:2
3,391	Impeachment	Impeachment is the first of two stages in a specific process for a legislative body to consider whether or not to forcibly remove a government official from office. The impeachment itself brings the charges against the official. Impeachment does not necessarily result in removal from office; it is only a legal statement of charges, parallel to an indictment in criminal law. An official who is impeached faces a second legislative vote (whether by the same body or another), which determines conviction, or failure to convict, on the charges embodied by the impeachment. Most constitutions require a supermajority to convict. Although the subject of the charge is criminal action, it does not constitute a criminal trial; the only question under consideration is the removal of the individual from office, and the possibility of a subsequent vote preventing the removed official from ever again holding political office in the jurisdiction where he was removed. The word "impeachment" derives from Latin roots expressing the idea of becoming caught or entrapped, and has analogues in the modern French verb empêcher (to prevent) and the modern English impede. Medieval popular etymology also associated it (wrongly) with derivations from the Latin impetere (to attack). (In its more frequent and more technical usage, impeachment of a person in the role of a witness is the act of challenging the honesty or credibility of that person.) The process should not be confused with a recall election. A recall election is usually initiated by voters and can be based on "political charges", for example mismanagement, whereas impeachment is initiated by a constitutional body (usually a legislative body) and is usually, but not always, based on an indictable offense. The process of removing the official is also different. Impeachment is a British invention. Following the British example, the constitutions of Virginia (1776) and Massachusetts (1780) and other states thereafter adopted the impeachment doctrine. In private organizations, a motion to impeach can be used to prefer charges. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, it is the House of Commons that holds the power of initiating an impeachment. Any member may make accusations of any crime. The member must support the charges with evidence and move for impeachment. If the Commons carries the motion, the mover receives orders to go to the bar at the House of Lords and to impeach the accused "in the name of the House of Commons, and all the commons of the United Kingdom." However, impeachment has not been used for over two hundred years (the last impeachment trial was of Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville in 1806). The House of Lords hears the case. The procedure used to be that the Lord Chancellor presided (or the Lord High Steward if the defendant was a peer). However since the Lord Chancellor today is no longer a judge, it is not certain who would preside over an impeachment trial today. If Parliament is not in session, then the trial is conducted by a "Court of the Lord High Steward" instead of the House of Lords (even if the defendant is not a peer). The hearing resembles an ordinary trial: both sides may call witnesses and present evidence. At the end of the hearing the lords vote on the verdict, which is decided by a simple majority, one charge at a time. Upon being called, a lord must rise and declare "guilty, upon my honour" or "not guilty, upon my honour". After voting on all of the articles has taken place, and if the Lords find the defendant guilty, the Commons may move for judgment; the Lords may not declare the punishment until the Commons have so moved. The Lords may then decide whatever punishment they find fit, within the law. A royal pardon cannot excuse the defendant from trial, but a pardon may reprieve a convicted defendant. In April 1977 the Young Liberals' annual conference unanimously passed a motion to call on the Liberal leader (David Steel) to move for the impeachment of Ronald King Murray QC, the Lord Advocate. Mr. Steel did not call the motion but Murray (now Lord Murray, a former Senator of the College of Justice of Scotland) agrees that the Commons still have the right to initiate an impeachment motion. On 25 August 2004, Plaid Cymru MP Adam Price announced his intention to move for the impeachment of Tony Blair for his role in involving Britain in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. In response Peter Hain, the Commons Leader, insisted that impeachment was obsolete, given modern government's responsibility to parliament. Ironically, Peter Hain had served as president of the Young Liberals when they called for the impeachment of Mr. Murray in 1977. In 2006, General Sir Michael Rose revived the call for the impeachment of Tony Blair, then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, for leading the country into the invasion of Iraq in 2003 under allegedly false justification. United States The impeachment trial of President Bill Clinton in 1999, Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist presiding. The House managers are seated beside the quarter-circular tables on the left and the president's personal counsel on the right, much in the fashion of President Andrew Johnson's trial. Similar to the British system, Article One of the United States Constitution gives the House of Representatives the sole power of impeachment and the Senate the sole power to try convictions. Unlike the British system, conviction requires a two-thirds vote. Impeachable offenses In the United States, impeachment can occur both at the federal and state level. The Constitution defines impeachment at the federal level and limits impeachment to "The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the United States" who may only be impeached and removed for "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors". U.S. Constitution, Article II, Section 4 Several commentators have suggested that Congress alone may decide for itself what constitutes an impeachable offense. In 1970, then-House Minority Leader Gerald R. Ford defined the criteria as he saw it: "An impeachable offense is whatever a majority of the House of Representatives considers it to be at a given moment in history." Gerald Ford's Remarks on the Impeachment of Supreme Court Justice William Douglas, April 15, 1970 Four years later, Ford would become president when President Richard Nixon resigned under the threat of impeachment. Article III of the Constitution states that judges remain in office "during good behaviour", implying that Congress may remove a judge for bad behavior via impeachment. Whether this is the only method available to remove judges is a subject of controversy. The House has impeached 13 federal judges and the Senate has convicted six of them. List of Senate Impeachment Trials Officials subject to impeachment The central question regarding the Constitutional dispute about the impeachment of members of the legislature is whether members of Congress are "officers" of the United States. The Constitution grants the House the power to impeach "The President, the Vice President, and all civil Officers of the United States." Many believe firmly that members of Congress are not officers of the United States. (pdf) Testimony of M. Miller Baker before Senate committee Others, however, believe that members are civil officers and are subject to impeachment. The House of Representatives did impeach a senator once Senate List of Impeachment trials : Senator William Blount. The Senate expelled Senator Blount and, after initially hearing his impeachment, dismissed the charges for lack of jurisdiction. The First Impeachment by Buckner F. Milton Left unsettled was the question whether members of Congress were civil officers of the United States. The House has not impeached a Member of Congress since Blount. As each House has the authority to expel its own members without involving the other chamber, expulsion has been the method used for removing Members of Congress. Jefferson's Manual, which is integral to the Rules of the House of Representatives House Rules http://www.rules.house.gov/house_rules_precedents.htm , states that impeachment is set in motion by charges made on the floor, charges preferred by a memorial, a member's resolution referred to a committee, a message from the president, charges transmitted from the legislature of a state or territory or from a grand jury, or from facts developed and reported by an investigating committee of the House. It further states that a proposition to impeach is a question of high privilege in the House and at once supersedes business otherwise in order under the rules governing the order of business. Process The impeachment process is a two-step procedure. The House of Representatives must first pass by a simple majority articles of impeachment, which constitute the formal allegation or allegations. Upon their passage, the defendant has been "impeached". Next, the Senate tries the accused. In the case of the impeachment of a president, the Chief Justice of the United States presides over the proceedings. For the impeachment of any other official, the Constitution is silent on who shall preside, suggesting that this role falls to the Senate's usual presiding officer. This may include the impeachment of the vice president, although legal theories suggest that allowing a person to be the judge in the case where she or he was the defendant would be a blatant conflict of interest. If the Vice President did not preside over an impeachment (of someone other than the President), the duties would fall to the President pro tempore of the Senate. In order to convict the accused, a two-thirds majority of the senators present is required. Conviction automatically removes the defendant from office. Following conviction, the Senate may vote to further punish the individual by barring them from holding future federal office, elected or appointed. Conviction by the Senate does not bar criminal prosecution. Even after an accused has left office, it is possible to impeach to disqualify the person from future office or from certain emoluments of their prior office (such as a pension). If there is no charge for which a two-thirds majority of the senators present vote "guilty", the defendant is acquitted and no punishment is imposed. History of federal impeachment proceedings Congress regards impeachment as a power to be used only in extreme cases; the House has initiated impeachment proceedings only 62 times since 1789 (most recently against President Bill Clinton), and only occupants of the following 16 federal offices have been impeached: Two presidents: Andrew Johnson was impeached in 1868 after violating the then-newly created Tenure of Office Act. President Johnson was acquitted by the Senate, falling one vote short of the necessary 2/3 needed to remove him from office, voting 35-19 to remove him. Bill Clinton was impeached on December 19, 1998 by the House of Representatives on articles charging perjury (specifically, lying to a federal grand jury) by a 228–206 vote, and obstruction of justice by a 221–212 vote. The House rejected other articles. One was a count of perjury in a civil deposition in Paula Jones's sexual harassment lawsuit against Clinton (by a 205–229 vote) and an article which accused Clinton of abuse of power by a 48–285 vote. The Senate fell short of the necessary 2/3 needed to remove him from office, voting 45-55 to remove him on obstruction of justice and 50-50 on perjury. One cabinet officer, William W. Belknap (Secretary of War). He resigned before his trial, and was later acquitted. Allegedly most of those who voted to acquit him believed that his resignation had removed their jurisdiction. One Senator, William Blount, though the Senate had already expelled him. One Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, Samuel Chase in 1804. Twelve other federal judges, including Alcee Hastings, who was impeached and convicted for taking over $150,000 in bribe money in exchange for sentencing leniency. The Senate did not bar Hastings from holding future office, and Hastings won election to the House of Representatives from Florida. Hastings's name was mentioned as a possible Chairman of the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, but was passed over by House Speaker-designate Nancy Pelosi, presumably because of his previous impeachment and removal. Source U.S. Senate Many mistakenly assume Richard Nixon was impeached. While the House Judiciary Committee did approve articles of impeachment against him and did report those articles to the House of Representatives, Nixon resigned before the House could consider the impeachment resolutions and was subsequently pardoned by President Ford. Pakistan The country's ruling coalition said on 7 August 2008 that it would seek the impeachment of President Pervez Musharraf, alleging the U.S.-backed former general had "eroded the trust of the nation" and increasing pressure on him to resign. He resigned on 18 August 2008. Impeaching a president requires a two-thirds majority support of lawmakers in a joint session of both houses of Parliament. Philippines Impeachment in the Philippines follows procedures similar to the United States. Under Sections 2 and 3, Article XI, Constitution of the Philippines, the House of Representatives of the Philippines has the exclusive power to initiate all cases of impeachment against the President, Vice President, members of the Supreme Court, members of the Constitutional Commissions (Commission on Elections, Commission on Audit), and the Ombudsman. When a third of its membership has endorsed the impeachment articles, it is then transmitted to the Senate of the Philippines which tries and decide, as impeachment tribunal, the impeachment case. A main difference from US proceedings however is that only 1/3 of House members are required to approve the motion to impeach the President (as opposed to 50%+1 members in their US counterpart). In the Senate, selected members of the House of Representatives act as the prosecutors and the Senators act as judges with the Senate President and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court jointly presiding over the proceedings. Like the United States, in order to convict the official in question, a minimum of 2/3 (i.e 16 of 24 members) of the senate is required to vote in favour of conviction. If an impeachment attempt is unsuccessful or the official is acquitted, no new cases can be filed against that impeachable official for at least one full year. Impeachable offenses and officials The 1987 Philippine Constitution states that grounds for impeachment include bribery, graft and corruption, betrayal of public trust, and culpable violation of the Constitution. These offenses are considered "high crimes and misdemeanors" under the Philippine Constitution. The President, the Vice President, the Supreme Court's justices, the members of the Commission on Elections, and Ombudsmen are all considered impeachable officials under the Constitution. Impeachment proceedings and attempts Joseph Estrada was the first Philippine president impeached by the House in 2000, but the trial ended prematurely due to outrage over a vote to open an envelope where that motion was narrowly defeated by his allies. In 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2008, impeachment complaints were filed against President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, but none of the cases reached the required endorsement of 1/3 of the members for transmittal to, and trial by, the Senate. Republic of Ireland In the Republic of Ireland formal impeachment can apply only to the President. Article 12 of the Constitution of Ireland provides that, unless judged to be "permanently incapacitated" by the Supreme Court, the president can only be removed from office by the houses of the Oireachtas (parliament) and only for the commission of "stated misbehaviour". Either house of the Oireachtas may impeach the president, but only by a resolution approved by a majority of at least two-thirds of its total number of members; and a house may not consider a proposal for impeachment unless requested to do so by at least thirty of its number. Where one house impeaches the president, the remaining house either investigates the charge or commissions another body or committee to do so. The investigating house can remove the president if it decides, by at least a two-thirds majority of its members, both that she is guilty of the charge of which she stands accused, and that the charge is sufficiently serious as to warrant her removal. To date no impeachment of an Irish president has ever taken place. The president holds a largely ceremonial office, the dignity of which is considered important, so it is likely that a president would resign from office long before undergoing formal conviction or impeachment. Other jurisdictions Austria: The Austrian Federal President can be impeached by the Federal Assembly (Bundesversammlung) before the Constitutional Court. The constitution also provides for the recall of the president by a referendum. Neither of these courses has ever been taken, likely because the President is an unobtrusive and largely ceremonial figurehead who, having little power, is hardly in a position to abuse it. Brazil: The President of Federative Republic of Brazil can be impeached. This happened to Fernando Collor de Mello, due to evidence of bribery and misappropriation. State governors and mayors can also be impeached, though only the latter have actually been impeached. Croatia: President of the Republic of Croatia can be impeached. Sabor starts the impeachment process with two-thirds majority in favor of impeachment and then Constitutional Court has to accept that with two-thirds majority of justices in favor of impeachment. That never happened in history of Republic of Croatia. Germany: The Federal President of Germany can be impeached both by the Bundestag and by the Bundesrat for willfully violating German law. Once the Bundestag or the Bundesrat impeaches the president, the Federal Constitutional Court decides whether the President is guilty as charged and, if this is the case, whether to remove him or her from office. No such case has yet occurred, not the least because the President's functions are mostly ceremonial and he or she seldom makes controversial decisions. The Federal Constitutional Court also has the power to remove federal judges from office for willfully violating core principles of the federal constitution or a state constitution. India: The President of India can be impeached by the Parliament before the expiry of his term for violation of the Constitution. Other than impeachment, no other penalty can be given to the President for the violation of the Constitution. No Indian President has faced impeachment proceedings. Hence, the provisions for impeachment have never been tested. Iran: Member of Majlis representatives and the Supreme Leader can remove the President. In January 1980, Abolhassan Banisadr, then the president of Iran, was impeached by the Majlis representatives in June, 1981. Norway: Members of government, representatives of the national assembly (Stortinget) and Supreme Court judges can be impeached for criminal offences tied to their duties and committed in office, according to the Constitution of 1814, §§ 86 and 87. The procedural rules were modelled on the US rules and are quite similar to them. Impeachment has been used 8 times since 1814, last in 1927. Many argue that impeachment has fallen into desuetude. Romania: The President can be impeached by Parliament and is then suspended. A referendum then follows to determine whether the suspended President should be removed from office. President Traian Băsescu was recently impeached by the Parliament. A referendum was held on May 19, 2007. A large majority of the electorate voted against removing the president from office. Russia: The President of Russia can be impeached if both the State Duma (which initiates the impeachment process through the formation of a special investigation committee) and the Federation Council of Russia vote by a two-thirds majority in favor of impeachment and, additionally, the Supreme Court finds the President guilty of treason or a similarly heavy crime against the nation and the Constitutional Court confirms that the constitutional procedure of the impeachment process was correctly observed. In 1995-1999, the Duma made several attempts to impeach then-President Boris Yeltsin, but they never had a sufficient amount of votes for the process to reach the Federation Council. Taiwan: Officials can be impeached by a two-thirds vote in the Legislative Yuan together with an absolute majority in a referendum. See also Impeachment in the United States Desafuero References Further reading Gerhardt, Michael J. The federal impeachment process.	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3,392	Ketoprofen	Ketoprofen, (RS)2-(3-benzoylphenyl)-propionic acid (chemical formula C16H14O3) is one of the propionic acid class of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) with analgesic and antipyretic effects. It acts by inhibiting the body's production of prostaglandin. Ketoprofen was available over-the-counter in the United States in the form of 12.5 mg coated tablets (Orudis KT & Actron), but the product has been discontinued. It is available by prescription as 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, and 200 mg capsules. Ketoprofen is available also as a 2,5% gel for topical application. Brand names in the US are Orudis and Oruvail. It is available in the UK as Ketoflam and Oruvail, in Finland as Ketorin, in France as Bi-Profénid, in Italy as Fastum Gel, Ketoprofene or Lasonil, in Poland as Ketonal, in Mexico as Arthril and Norway as Zon or Orudis. In Lithuania, Ketoprofen is called Ketoprofenum and/or Ketoprofenas. For topical application: the name brands are Fastum with 2.5% (gel) which is over the counter and Ketospray with 10% (liquid spray) which must be prescribed. In Switzerland, an innovative ketoprofen formulation based on Transfersome technology for direct application on the skin above the site to be treated has been approved. In some countries, the optically pure (S)-enantiomer (dexketoprofen) is available; its trometamol salt is said to be particularly rapidly reabsorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, having a rapid onset of effects. Ketoprofen is generally prescribed for arthritis-related inflammatory pains or severe toothaches that result in the inflammation of the gums. Ketoprofen can also be used for treatment of some pain, especially nerve pain like post-herpetic neuralgia and referred pain for radiculopathy, in the form of a cream, ointment, liquid, spray, or gel which also contains ketamine and lidocaine, along with other agents which may be useful such as cyclobenzaprine, amitryptiline, acyclovir, gabapentin, orphenadrine and other drugs used as NSAIDs or adjuvant, atypical or potentiators for pain treatment. The results, of course, vary in each case, with varying degrees of the attenuation of the burning, tingling, and/or shooting component of the neuralgic pain being quite frequent along with a modest reduction in overall pain level in some cases. In severe cases and those involving multiple conditions in addition to the cause of the neuralgia, there is no substitute for comprehensive palliative therapy including systemic NSAIDs, opioids, muscle relaxants, intermittent corticosteroids and other agents if needed and adjuncts & potentiators to increase the power of the analgesics in addition to the topical preparation and physical and alternative modalities such as physiotherapy, acupuncture, biofeedback & related modalities, nutritional approaches and many others relevant to each case. Even the addition of the opioid tramadol to topical preparations is not known to be an adequate replacement for systemic opioids in cases where they can be useful and efficacious. Use in horses and other animals Ketoprofen (Ketofen) is a common NSAID, antipyretic, and analgesic used in horses and other equines. It is also used as a mild painkiller in smaller animals, generally following surgical procedures. It is most commonly used for muscoskeletal pain, joint problems, and soft tissue injury, as well as laminitis. It does not treat the underlying problem, nor does it speed the healing process. It is also used to control fevers and prevent endotoxemia. However, they may mask the symptoms of the underlying problem, and therefore make diagnosis more difficult for a veterinarian. Side effects and precautions Side effects are relatively uncommon if used as recommended, and less common than 2 other commonly used NSAIDs: flunixin or phenylbutazone. Side effects include gastrointestinal ulcers, drop in red blood cell count (a result of GI bleeding), and rarely kidney damage, protein loss, and bleeding disorders. It should therefore be used with caution in horses with liver or kidney disease, or gastrointestinal problems. Additionally, it should not be used in horses allergic to aspirin. Uses with other drugs Ketoprofen should not be used in with other NSAIDs or corticosteroids, as this increases the risk of GI ulceration. It should also be used with caution with other anticoagulants. It is commonly used with omeprazole, sucralfate, and cimetidine to help protect the GI tract. Administration Ketoprofen is labeled to be administered intravenously only, and is recommended for a maximum of five days of use. Its analgesic and antipyretic effects begin to occur 1–2 hours following administration. The most common dosage is 10 mg/lb, once per day, although this dosage may be lowered for ponies, who are most susceptible to NSAID side effects. References Kantor, T. G. Ketoprofen: a review of its pharmacologic and clinical properties. Pharmacotherapy. 1986 May-Jun;6(3):93-103. Forney, Barbara C, MS, VMD.Equine Medications, Revised Edition. Blood Horse Publications. Lexington, KY. Copyright 2007.	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3,393	Athanasius_of_Alexandria	Athanasius of Alexandria () (c. 293 – 2 May 373), also given the titles Athanasius the Great, Pope Athanasius I of Alexandria, and Athanasius the Apostolic, was a Christian theologian, bishop of Alexandria, Church Father, and a noted Egyptian leader of the fourth century. He is best remembered for his role in the conflict with Arius and Arianism. At the First Council of Nicaea, Athanasius argued against Arius and his doctrine that Christ is of a distinct substance from the Father. Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972. Athanasius is a Doctor of the Church in the Roman Catholic Church, and he is counted as one of the four Great Doctors of the Eastern Church. Athanasius' feast day is 2 May in Western Christianity, 15 May in the Coptic Orthodox Church, and 18 January in the Eastern Orthodox Churches. Biography Athanasius received his philosophical and theological training at Alexandria. He was ordained as a deacon by the contemporary patriarch, Alexander of Alexandria, in 319. Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 2 Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier Incorporated, 1997. ISBN 0-7172-0129-5. In 325, he served as Alexander's secretary at the First Council of Nicaea. Already a recognized theologian and ascetic, he was the obvious choice to replace Alexander as the Patriarch of Alexandria on the latter's death in 328, Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th edition. Chicago:Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. ISBN 0-85229-633-0. despite the opposition of the followers of Arius and Meletius of Lycopolis. Athanasius spent the first years of his patriarchate visiting the churches with people of his territory, which at that time included all of Egypt and Libya. During this period, he established contacts with the hermits and monks of the desert, including Pachomius, which would be very valuable to him over the years. Shortly thereafter, Athanasius became occupied with the disputes with the Byzantine Empire and Arians which would occupy much of his life. Athanasius' first problem lay with the Meletians, who had failed to abide by the terms of the decision made at the First Council of Nicaea which had hoped to reunite them with the Church. Athanasius himself was accused of mistreating Arians and the followers of Meletius of Lycopolis, and had to answer those charges at a gathering of bishops in Tyre, the First Synod of Tyre, in 335. At that meeting, Eusebius of Nicomedia and the other supporters of Arius deposed Athanasius. On November 6, both parties of the dispute met with Constantine I in Constantinople. Barnes, Timothy D., Athanasius and Constantius : Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1993), 23 At that meeting, Athanasius was accused of threatening to interfere with the supply of grains from Egypt, and, without any kind of formal trial, was exiled by Constantine to Trier in the Rhineland. On the death of Emperor Constantine I, Athanasius was allowed to return to his See of Alexandria. Shortly thereafter, however, Constantine's son, the new Roman Emperor Constantius II, renewed the order for Athanasius's banishment in 338. Athanasius went to Rome, where he was under the protection of Constans, the Emperor of the West. During this time, Gregory of Cappadocia was installed as the Patriarch of Alexandria, usurping the absent Athanasius. Athanasius did however remain in contact with his people through his annual "Festal Letters", in which he also announced on which date Easter would be celebrated that year. Pope Julius I wrote to the supporters of Arius strongly urging the reinstatement of Athanasius, but that effort proved to be in vain. He called a synod in Rome in the year 341 to address the matter, and at that meeting Athanasius was found to be innocent of all the charges raised against him. Julius also called the Council of Sardica in 343. This council confirmed the decision of the earlier Roman synod, and clearly indicated that the attendees saw St Athanasius as the lawful Patriarch of Alexandria. It proved no more successful, however, as only bishops from the West and Egypt bothered to appear. In 346, following the death of Gregory, Constans used his influence to allow Athanasius to return to Alexandria. Athanasius' return was welcomed by the majority of the people of Egypt, who had come to view him as a national hero. This was the start of a "golden decade" of peace and prosperity, during which time Athanasius assembled several documents relating to his exiles and returns from exile in the Apology Against the Arians. However, upon Constans' death in 350, a civil war broke out which left Constantius as sole emperor. Constantius, renewing his previous policies favoring the Arians, banished Athanasius from Alexandria once again. This was followed, in 356, by an attempt to arrest Athanasius during a vigil service. Following this, Athanasius left for Upper Egypt, where he stayed in several monasteries and other houses. During this period, Athanasius completed his work Four Orations against the Arians and defended his own recent conduct in the Apology to Constantius and Apology for His Flight. Constantius' persistence in his opposition to Athanasius, combined with reports Athanasius received about persecution of non-Arians by the new Arian bishop George of Laodicea, prompted Athanasius to write his more emotional History of the Arians, in which he described Constantius as a precursor of the Antichrist. In 361, after the death of Emperor Constantius, shortly followed by the murder of the very unpopular Bishop George, the popular St Athanasius now had the opportunity to return to his Patriarchate. The following year he convened a council at Alexandria at which he appealed for unity among all those who had faith in Christianity, even if they differed on matters of terminology. This prepared the groundwork for the definition of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity, which stresses the distinctions between the persons of God more than Athanasius himself generally did. In 362, the new Emperor Julian, noted for his opposition to Christianity, ordered Athanasius to leave Alexandria once again. Athanasius left for Upper Egypt, remaining there until Julian's death in 363. Two years later, the Emperor Valens, who favored the Arian position, in his turn exiled Athanasius. This time however, Athanasius simply left for the outskirts of Alexandria, where he stayed for only a few months before the local authorities convinced Valens to retract his order of exile. Some of the early reports explicitly indicate that Athanasius spent this period of exile in his ancestral tomb. Works Athanasius other works include his two-part "Against the Heathen" and "The Incarnation of the Word of God". Completed probably early in his life, before the Arian controversy Justo L. Gonzalez in A History of Christian Thought notes (p292) that E. Schwartz places this work later, around 335, but "his arguments have not been generally accepted". The introduction to the CSMV translation of On the Incarnation places the work in 318, around the time Athanasius was ordained to the diaconate (St Athanasius On the Incarnation, Mowbray, England 1953) , they constitute the first classic work of developed Orthodox theology. In the first part, Athanasius attacks several Pagan practices and beliefs. The second part presents teachings on the redemption. Also in these books, Athanasius put forward the belief that the Son of God, the eternal Word through whom God created the world, entered that world in human form to lead men back into the harmony from which they had earlier fallen away. This work intentionally challenged the doctrines of Arianism, which stated that the Son was a lesser entity than the Father. His other important works include his Letters to Serapion, which dealt with the divinity of the Holy Spirit, and his classic Life of St Anthony, which was translated into several languages and played an important role in the spreading of the ascetic ideal in Eastern and Western Christianity. He also wrote several works of Biblical exegesis, primarily of volumes in the Old Testament, which are preserved in excerpts regarding Book of Genesis, the Song of Solomon, and Psalms. His works on ascetism, include the aforementioned Life of St. Anthony, as well as a Discourse on Virginity, a short work on Love and Self-Control, and a treatise On Sickness and Health which is only preserved in fragments. Athanasius' letters include one "Letter Concerning the Decrees of the Council of Nicaea" (De Decretis), which is an account of the proceedings of that Council, and another letter in the year 367 which was the first known listing of the New Testament including all those books now accepted everywhere as the New Testament. (earlier similar lists vary by the omission or addition of a few books, see Development of the New Testament canon). Several of his letters also survive. In one of these, to Epictetus of Corinth, Athanasius anticipates future controversies in his defense of the humanity of Christ. Another of his letters, to Dracontius, urges that monk to leave the desert for the more active duties of a bishop. There are several other works ascribed to him, although not necessarily generally accepted as being his own work. These include the Athanasian creed, which is today generally seen as being of 5th century Galician origin. Athanasius was not what would be called a speculative theologian. As he stated in his First Letters to Serapion, he held onto "the tradition, teaching, and faith proclaimed by the apostles and guarded by the fathers." In some cases, this led to his taking the position that faith should take priority over reason. He held that not only the Son of God was consubstantial with the Father, but so also was the Holy Spirit, which held a great deal of influence in the development of later doctrines regarding the trinity. Veneration Athanasius' Shrine (where his relics are preserved) under St. Mark's Cathedral, Cairo Athanasius was originally buried in Alexandria, Egypt but his body was later transferred to Italy. During Pope Shenouda III's visit to Rome from May 4 to May 10, 1973, Pope Paul VI gave the Coptic Patriarch the relics of Athanasius, Metropolitan Bishoy of Damiette which he brought back to Egypt on 15 May. Saint Athanasius The relics of St Athanasius the Great of Alexandria are currently preserved under the new Saint Mark Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Deir El-Anba Rowais, Abbassiya, Cairo, Egypt. The following is a troparion (hymn) to Saint Athanasius sung in some Orthodox churches. O Holy father Athanasius, like a pillar of orthodoxy you refuted the heretical nonsense of Arius by insisting that the Father and the Son are equal in essence. O venerable father, beg Christ our God to save our souls. Athanasius is venerated as a saint by the majority of major Christian denominations which officially approve of and recognize saints. His feast day is observed on May 2, the day of his death. In the Roman Catholic Church he is deemed a Doctor of the Church. He has been hailed as "the pillar of the Church" by Gregory of Nazianzus. Historical significance Early life The Alexandria of his boyhood was an epitome—intellectually, morally, and politically—of the ethnically diverse Graeco-Roman world. It was the most important center of trade in the whole empire; and its primacy as an emporium of ideas was more commanding than that of Rome or Constantinople, Antioch or Marseilles. Its famous "Catechetical School", while sacrificing none of its famous passion for orthodoxy since the days of Pantaenus, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen of Alexandria, had begun to take on an almost secular character in the comprehensiveness of its interests, and had counted influential pagans among its serious auditors. Eusebius, Hist. Eccl., VI, xix St. Athanasius seems to have been brought early in life under the immediate supervision of the ecclesiastical authorities of his native city. A story has been preserved by Rufinus (Hist. Eccl., I, xiv). The bishop Alexander, so the tale runs, had invited a number of fellow prelates to meet him at breakfast after a great religious function. While Alexander was waiting for his guests to arrive, he stood by a window, watching a group of boys at play on the seashore below the house. He had not observed them long before he discovered that they were imitating the elaborate ritual of Christian baptism. He sent for the children and, in the investigation that followed, it was discovered that one of the boys (none other than Athanasius), had acted the part of the bishop, and in that character had actually baptized several of his companions in the course of their play. Alexander determined to recognize the make-believe baptisms as genuine, and decided that Athanasius and his playfellows should go into training in order to prepare themselves for a clerical career. Sozomen speaks of his "fitness for the priesthood", and calls attention to the significant circumstance that he was "from his tenderest years practically self-taught". "Not long after this," adds the same authority, the Bishop Alexander "invited Athanasius to be his commensal and secretary. He had been well educated, and was versed in grammar and rhetoric, and had already, while still a young man, and before reaching the episcopate, given proof to those who dwelt with him of his wisdom and acumen" (Soz., II, xvii). That "wisdom and acumen" manifested themselves in a varied environment. While still a deacon under Alexander's care, he seems to have been brought for a while into close relations with some of the solitaries of the Egyptian desert, and in particular with the Anthony the Great, whose life he is said to have written. Opposition to Arianism In about 319, when Athanasius was a deacon, a presbyter named Arius came into a direct conflict with Alexander of Alexandria. It appears that Arius reproached Alexander for what he felt were misguided or heretical teachings being taught by the bishop. Kannengiesser, Charles, “Alexander and Arius of Alexandria: The last Ante-Nicene theologians”, Miscelanea En Homenaje Al P. Antonio Orbe Compostellanum Vol. XXXV, no. 1-2. (Santiago de Compostela, 1990),398 Arius’ theological views appear to have been firmly rooted in Alexandrian Christianity, and his Christological views were certainly not radical at all. Williams, Rowan, Arius: Heresy and Tradition (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1987),175 He embraced a subordinationist Christology (that God did not have a beginning, but the Logos did), heavily influenced by Alexandrian thinkers like Origen, Williams, 175 which was a common Christological view in Alexandria at the time. Williams 154-155 . Support for Arius from powerful Bishops like Eusebius of Caesarea Arius letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia and Eusebius of Nicomedia, Alexander of Alexandria's Catholoic Epistle further illustrate how Arius' subordinationist Christology was shared by other Christians in the Empire. Arius was subsequently excommunicated by Alexander, and he would begin to elicit the support of many bishops who agreed with his position. Athanasius may have accompanied Alexander to the First Council of Nicaea in 325, the council which produced the Nicene Creed and anathematized Arius and his followers. On May 9, 328, he succeeded Alexander as bishop of Alexandria. As a result of rises and falls in Arianism's influence after the First Council of Nicaea, Emperor Constantine I banished him from Alexandria to Trier in the Rhineland, but he was restored after the death of Constantine I by the emperor's son Constantine II. In 359, Athanasius was banished once again. This time he went to Rome, and spent seven years there before returning to Alexandria. The years from 346 through 356 were a relatively peaceful period for Athanasius, and some of his most important writings were composed during this period. Unfortunately, the emperor Constantinus II seems to have been committed to having Athanasius deposed, and went so far as to send soldiers to arrest Athanasius. Athanasius went into hiding in the desert with the Desert Fathers, and continued in his capacity as bishop from there until the death of Constantinus in 361. A particularly noteworthy event occurred in 362, when Athanasius showed remarkable diplomatic flair in rallying the Orthodox at the Council of Alexandria in 362. There were two more brief periods when Athanasius was exiled. In the spring of 365, after the accession of Emperor Valens to the throne, troubles again arose. Athanasius was once more compelled to seek safety from his persecutors in concealment (October 365), which lasted, however, only for four months. From 366 he was able to serve as bishop in peace until his death. Athanasius was restored on at least five separate occasions, perhaps as many as seven. This gave rise to the expression "Athanasius contra mundum" or "Athanasius against the world". He spent his final years in repairing all the damage done during the earlier years of violence, dissent, and exile, and returning to his writing and preaching undisturbed. On the 2nd of May 373, having consecrated Peter II, one of his presbyters as his successor, he died quietly in his own house. Writings Athanasius spent a good deal of his energy on polemical writings against his theological opponents. Examples include: Orations Against the Arians, his defence of the divinity of the Holy Spirit (Letters to Serapion in the 360s, and On the Holy Spirit) against Macedonianism and "On the Incarnation". Arguably his most read work is his biography of Anthony the Great entitled Vita Antonii, or Life of Antony. This biography later served as an inspiration to Christian monastics in both the East and the West. The so-called Athanasian Creed dates from well after Athanasius's death and draws upon the phraseology of Augustine's De trinitate. In Coptic literature St. Athanasius is the first patriarch of Alexandria to use Coptic, as well as Greek in his writings. encyclopedia britannica New Testament canon Athanasius is also the first person to identify the same 27 books of the New Testament that are in use today. Up until then, various similar lists of works to be read in churches were in use. A milestone in the evolution of the canon of New Testament books is his Easter letter from Alexandria, written in 367, usually referred to as his 39th Festal Letter. Pope Damasus, the Bishop of Rome in 382, promulgated a list of books which contained a New Testament canon identical to that of Athanasius. A synod in Hippo in 393 repeated Athanasius' and Damasus' New Testament list (without the Epistle to the Hebrews), and a synod in Carthage in 397 repeated Athanasius' and Damasus' complete New Testament list. Scholars have debated whether Athanasius' list in 367 was the basis for the later lists. Because Athanasius' canon is the closest canon of any of the Church Fathers to the canon used by Protestant churches today, many Protestants point to Athanasius as the father of the canon. They are identical except that Athanasius includes the Book of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah and places the Book of Esther among the "7 books not in the canon but to be read" along with the Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), Judith, Tobit, the Didache, and the Shepherd of Hermas. Excerpt from Letter 39 See the article, Biblical canon, for more details. Recent Opinions There are at present two completely opposite views about the personality of Athanasius. While some scholars praise him as an orthodox saint with great character, others see him as a power-hungry politician who employed questionable ecclesiastical tactics. Critics of Athanasius Some recent academics have painted a less than flattering picture of the saint. They argue that his ascension to the station of Bishop in Alexandria occurred under questionable circumstances. Upon the death of his predecessor Alexander, in 328 C.E., more than fifty bishops gathered to confer a new leader to the Alexandrian see. While Alexander had been priming Athanasius to assume the bishopric after his death, it is said, he was not unanimously supported, and questions of his age (the minimum age to become a bishop was thirty, and questions remain to this day if he was yet that old), as well as less than overwhelming support, did not help his candidacy. According to recent academics, Athanasius, growing impatient, took a small number of bishops who supported his claim, and held a private consecration making him bishop. According to these scholars, his ascension would only later be declared the will of the people. Rubenstein, Richard E., When Jesus Became God: The Epic Fight over Christ’s Divinity in the Last Days of Rome (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1999), 105-106 Throughout most of his career, Athanasius had many detractors. There were allegations of defiling an altar, selling Church grain that had been meant to feed the poor for his own personal gain, and for suppressing dissent through violence and murder. Barnes, Timothy D., Athanasius and Constantius : Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1993),37 It cannot be claimed, beyond all doubt, whether any or all of these specific allegations were true, but some recent scholars suggest that Athanasius employed a level of force when it suited his cause or personal interests, Rubenstein,106 and his administration of the Alexandrian see has even been likened by these scholars to an “ecclesiastical mafia”. Barnes, Timothy D., Constantine and Eusebius (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981), 230-231. Supporters of Athanasius However, there are also many modern historians who object to this view and point out that such hostile attitude towards Athanasius is based on an unfair judgment of historical sources. Arnold, 24-99; Ng, 273-292. Many Christian denominations revere Athanasius as a saint, teacher, and father. They cite his defense of the Christology described in the first chapter of the Gospel of John ("In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was in the beginning with God" (John 1:1,2) and his significant theological works (C.S Lewis calls his De Incarnatione a "masterpiece") as evidence of his righteousness. They also emphasize his close relationship with Saint Anthony, who is almost universally revered throughout Christendom. Allegations of violence Some modern historians suggest that the tactics of Athanasius were a significant factor in his success. He did not hesitate to back up his theological views with the use of force. In Alexandria, they assert, he assembled a group that could instigate a riot in the city if needed. It was an arrangement "built up and perpetuated by violence." Barnes, 230. However, these accusations are nothing new. Some of these allegations from the Council of Tyre were clearly false, like the charge of killing Arsenius as Arsenius was still alive. However, it is known that at least one of his opponents, Arius died under mysterious circumstances that today we would call murder. The allegations nevertheless led to distrust in some quarters and to his being tried many times for "bribery, theft, extortion, sacrilege, treason and murder." Rubenstein, 6. While the charges rarely stuck, his reputation was a major factor in his multiple exiles from Alexandria. Athanasius stubbornly refused to compromise his theological views by stating, "What is at stake is not just a theological theory but people's salvation." Olson, 172. Simply put, he meant that if Jesus were not God, as Arius asserted, then people were not saved by his coming, death, and resurrection. He played a clear role in making the Constantinian shift a part of the theology of the church. Anti-Arianism Athanasius presented his opponents, the Arians, as a cohesive group that backed Arius’ views and followed him as a leader. It is now accepted by most scholars that the Arian Party were not a monolithic group. Haas, Christopher, “The Arians of Alexandria”, Vigiliae Christianae Vol. 47, no. 3 (1993), 239 It is now believed that Arius’ supporters held drastically different theological views that spanned the early Christian theological spectrum. Chadwick, Henry, “Faith and Order at the Council of Nicaea”, Harvard Theological Review LIII (Cambridge Mass: 1960),173 Williams, 63 Kannengiesser "Alexander and Arius", 403 They supported the tenets of Origenist thought and theology, Kannengiesser, “Athanasius of Alexandria vs. Arius: The Alexandrian Crisis”, in The Roots of Egyptian Christianity (Studies in Antiquity and Christianity), ed. Birger A. Pearson and James E. Goehring (1986),208 but had little else in common. The term Arian was first coined by Athanasius to describe both followers of Arius, and followers of ideas that he deemed as bad as Arius'. Athanasius used the term Arian to describe many of his opponents, except for Meletians. Barnes "Athanasius and Constantius",135 He used the term in a derogatory fashion to chide Arius’ supporters Barnes "Athanasius and Constantius",14 who did not see themselves as followers of Arius. Williams, 82 As stated by Timothy Barnes; Athanasius used “invented dialogue to ridicule his adversaries”, and used “suppression and distortion” to serve his own means. Barnes "Athanasius and Constantius",128 He often blamed charges and accusations leveled at him on “Arian madmen” who he claimed conspired to destroy him and Christianity. The Arian party, as described by Athanasius, may not have existed in the form he portrayed it in his writings. Some argue that the view of Arianism that exists to this day among most Christians would not have existed were it not for Athanasius. However, others point to the Council of Nicaea as proof in and of itself that Arianism was a real theological ideology. While Athanasius may have affected the general perception of Arianism, they say, his portrayal was polemical, not creative. See also Creed Nicene Creed Apostles' Creed Athanasian Creed Shield of the Trinity Orthodox Church Eastern Catholic Church Notes References Arnold, Duane W.-H., 1991 The Early Episcopal Career of Athanasius of Alexandria Alexander of Alexandria "Catholic Epistle", The Ecole Initiative, http://ecole.evansville.edu/arians/alex1.htm Arius, “Arius’ letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia” from Theodoret’s, Ecclesiastical History, ser. 2, vol. 3, 41, The Ecole Initiative, http://ecole.evansville.edu/arians/arius1.htm Attwater, Donald and Catherine Rachel John. The Penguin Dictionary of Saints. 3rd edition. New York: Penguin Books, 1993. ISBN 0-140-51312-4. Barnes, Timothy D., Athanasius and Constantius : Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1993). Barnes, Timothy D., Constantine and Eusebius (Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981) Brakke, David, 1995. Athanasius and the Politics of Asceticism Chadwick, Henry, “Faith and Order at the Council of Nicaea”, Harvard Theological Review LIII (Cambridge Mass: 1960), 171-195. Ernest, James D., The Bible in Athanasius of Alexandria (Leiden: Brill, 2004). Haas, Christopher “The Arians of Alexandria”, Vigiliae Christianae Vol. 47, no. 3 (1993), 234-245. Hanson, R.P.C., The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318-381 (T.&T. Clark 1988) Kannengiesser, Charles, “Alexander and Arius of Alexandria: The last Ante-Nicene theologians”, Miscelanea En Homenaje Al P. Antonio Orbe Compostellanum Vol. XXXV, no. 1-2. (Santiago de Compostela, 1990), 391-403. Kannengiesser, Charles “Athanasius of Alexandria vs. Arius: The Alexandrian Crisis”, in The Roots of Egyptian Christianity (Studies in Antiquity and Christianity), ed. Birger A. Pearson and James E. Goehring (1986), 204-215. Ng, Nathan K. K., 2001 The Spirituality of Athanasius Rubenstein, Richard E., When Jesus Became God: The Epic Fight over Christ’s Divinity in the Last Days of Rome (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1999). Williams, Rowan Arius: Heresy and Tradition (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1987). External links Saint Athanasius by F. A. Forbes The Coptic Synexarion commemorating the departure of St. Athanasius the Apostolic (7 Bashans, 89 A.M.) Timeline of Athanasius' life, detailing his 5 exiles. Reworked from Robinson, below. Athanasius Bibliography from University of Erlangen (German) Archibald Robinson, Athanasius: Select Letters and Works (Edinburgh 1885) The so-called Athanasian Creed (not written by Athanasius, see Athanasian Creed above) Athanasius Select Resources, Bilingual Anthology (in Greek original and English) Two audio lectures about Athanasius on the Deity of Christ, Dr N Needham Concorida Cyclopedia: Athanasius Christian Cyclopedia: Athanasius Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes St Athanasius the Great the Archbishop of Alexandria Orthodox icon and synaxarion English Key to Athanasius Werke The Writings of Athanasius in Chronological Order	Athanasius_of_Alexandria \|@lemmatized athanasius:126 alexandria:41 c:4 may:12 also:11 give:4 title:1 great:9 pope:5 apostolic:2 christian:11 theologian:5 bishop:20 church:19 father:12 noted:1 egyptian:4 leader:3 fourth:1 century:2 best:1 remember:1 role:3 conflict:2 arius:31 arianism:8 first:16 council:16 nicaea:9 argue:3 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3,394	American_Airlines	American Airlines, Inc. (AA) is a major airline of the United States. Federal Aviation Administration - Airline Certificate Information - Detail View It is the world's largest airline in passenger miles transported and passenger fleet size; second largest, behind FedEx Express, in aircraft operated; and second behind Air France-KLM in operating revenues. American airlines information pictures and facts A subsidiary of the AMR Corporation, the airline is headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, adjacent to the Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport. "Corporate Structure." American Airlines. Retrieved on May 18, 2009. American operates scheduled flights throughout the United States, and flights to Canada, Latin America, the Caribbean, Europe, Japan, the People's Republic of China, and India. The Chairman, President, and CEO of AA is Gerard Arpey. In 2005, the airline flew more than 138 billion revenue passenger miles (RPM). Overview Airbus A300 In May 2008, American served 260 cities (excluding codeshares with partner airlines) with 655 aircraft. American carries more passengers between the US and Latin America (12.1 million in 2004) than any other airline, and is also strong in the trans/inter/intracontinental market. American has five hubs: Dallas/Fort Worth (DFW), Chicago (ORD), Miami (MIA), Lambert St Louis International Airport (STL), and Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in San Juan, PR (SJU). Dallas/Fort Worth is the airline's largest hub, with AA operating 85 percent of flights at the airport and traveling to more destinations than from its other hubs. Los Angeles (LAX), New York-Kennedy (JFK), and Boston (BOS) serve as focus cities and international gateways. American operates maintenance bases at Tulsa (TUL), Kansas City (MCI), and Fort Worth Alliance (AFW). American Airlines has one regional affiliate: American Eagle Airlines, with hubs in Chicago O'Hare, Dallas Ft Worth, New York Kennedy, Los Angeles, Miami, Raleigh and San Juan. American Eagle Airlines provides regional feed to American throughout the United States, the Caribbean, Canada, and Mexico. American Airlines is a founding member of the Oneworld airline alliance. History Formation On the morning of April 15, 1926, a young aviator named Charles A. Lindbergh stowed a bag of mail in his little DH-4 biplane and took off from Chicago for St. Louis. Later that day, he and two other pilots flew three plane loads of mail from St. Louis to Chicago. At the time, Lindbergh was chief pilot of Robertson Aircraft Corporation of Missouri, which was the second aviation company to hold a U.S. airmail contract. It was one of scores of companies that eventually consolidated to form the modern-day American Airlines. The consolidation began in 1929, when The Aviation Corporation was formed to acquire young aviation companies, including Robertson. In 1930, The Aviation Corporation's airline subsidiaries were incorporated into American Airways, Inc. In 1934, American Airways became American Airlines, Inc. On May 13, 1934, Cyrus Rowlett Smith became president of American. Except for a period during World War II, "Mr. C.R." continued as chief executive officer until 1968, when he was named U.S. Secretary of Commerce. On June 25, 1936, American was the first airline to fly the Douglas DC-3 in commercial service. By the end of the decade, American was the nation's number one domestic air carrier in terms of revenue passenger miles. On Feb. 16, 1937, American carried its one-millionth passenger. American Airlines began trading on the New York Stock Exchange on June 10, 1939. In 1942, American entered the airline catering business with a subsidiary called Sky Chefs, providing food service to its passengers as well as to other airlines. In 1944, American introduced the first domestic scheduled U.S. freight service with the DC-3. As the business grew, Douglas DC-4, DC-6A and DC-7 freighters were put into service in the 1940s and 1950s. During World War II, half of American's fleet was turned over to the military airline, Air Transport Command, along with the crews who operated all over the world. The remaining fleet and personnel handled a vast increase in demand for air travel within the United States. From 1945 to 1950, American operated American Overseas Airlines (AOA), a trans-Atlantic division, which served a number of European countries. This was American's first European service. AOA was formed as a result of a merger between the international division of American and a company called American Export Airlines. AOA merged with Pan American World Airways in 1950. In 1946, American established its Tulsa Maintenance & Engineering Base. The end of World War II brought a series of new aircraft to fill the expanded need for air transportation. In 1947, American's first Douglas DC-6 entered service followed by the Convair 240 in 1948. By 1949 American had become the only airline in the United States with a completely post-war fleet of pressurized passenger airplanes. In 1948, American introduced the Family Fare Plan to enable families to travel together at reduced rates. It also introduced scheduled coach service, an economical and comfortable alternative to first class travel. In 1952, American introduced the Magnetronic Reservisor to keep track of available seats on flights. In 1953, American pioneered nonstop transcontinental service in both directions across the United States with the Douglas DC-7. In 1957, the world's first special facility for flight attendant training, the American Airlines Stewardess College, was built in Dallas/Fort Worth. On Jan. 25, 1959, American became the first airline to offer coast-to-coast jet service with the Boeing 707. Also in Jan. 1959, American introduced the Lockheed Electra, the first U.S. designed turboprop airplane. American continued into the jet age with the introduction of the turbofan engine in 1961, another industry first for American, and with the Convair 990 in 1962, also powered by fan-jets. At the end of 1959 and into the early 1960s, American, teaming up with IBM, introduced and implemented SABRE (Semi-Automated Business Research Environment), the largest electronic data processing system for business use. By 1964, the SABRE network extended from coast to coast and from Canada to Mexico. It became the largest real-time data processing system, second only to the U.S. government's SAGE system. American added other jets throughout the 1960s and 70s, including the Boeing 727 (1964) and the Boeing 747 (1966), as the older aircraft were retired. American's last piston airplane flight was operated with a DC-6 in Dec. 1966. In 1968, American was the first to order the McDonnell Douglas DC-10, which made its first scheduled flight in Aug. 1971. American gained its first Caribbean routes through a merger with Trans Caribbean Airways in 1970. It expanded those routes throughout the early 70s, and acquired other Caribbean routes in 1975 from Pan American World Airways Inc. In Feb. 1974, Albert V. Casey was elected president and chief executive officer; in April of that year he also assumed the position of chairman of the board. Also in 1974, American introduced One-Stop-Automated Check-in. American's first Boeing 747 freighter, capable of carrying 221,000 pounds of cargo, went into service in November. In 1975, American began marketing SABRE to travel agencies in the U.S. On April 24, 1977, American introduced the most popular fare in its history, the Super Saver. Initially offering discount fares from New York and California, Super Saver was expanded to all of American's routes in March 1978 and later to Mexico and Canada. Airline deregulation took place in 1978 and in January 1979, American launched a major route expansion, inaugurating service to new routes and new destinations across the U.S. and the Caribbean. American moved its headquarters from New York City to Dallas/Fort Worth, Texas in 1979. The new headquarters complex also included The Learning Center, a training facility; the Flight Academy, the pilot training facility, and the Southern Reservations Office. In 1980, Robert L. Crandall was elected president and chief operating officer. With fuel costs soaring, American accelerated the retirement of the Boeing 707 fleet in 1980. By August 1981, American had retired all its Boeing 707s aircraft, including their freighters. In 1981, American introduced the AADVANTAGE travel awards program, a revolutionary marketing program to reward frequent fliers. Also that year it unveiled "AAirpass," a concept that guaranteed fixed personal and business air travel costs with five-year to lifetime range of options. On June 11, 1981, American established its Dallas/Fort Worth hub. Later American added new cities and new routes to strengthen its hub-and-spoke networks. Early 1982 brought American its first 767, its 500 millionth passenger and its Chicago hub. In April 1982, it began interchange service with Alaska Airlines, linking Anchorage and Fairbanks with Houston and DFW via Seattle with 727s. American also returned to Europe with service between London's Gatwick Airport and DFW in May 1982. On May 19, 1982, stockholders approved a plan of reorganization and a new holding company was formed, AMR Corporation, which became the parent company of American Airlines, Inc. In 1983, American added the McDonnell Douglas MD-80 (Super 80) and announced an agreement with Pan American World Airways to exchange Boeing 747s for Pan Am's McDonnell Douglas DC-10s. On Dec. 12, 1983, AMR Services was formed as a subsidiary to provide aviation services to other airlines. In 1984, American introduced the American Eagle system, a network of regional airlines offering high-level service from small communities to large cities through connections to and from American Airlines. In the fall of 1984, American retired its 747 cargo freighter fleet and focused on smaller shipments carried in the bellies of its passenger aircraft. In 1985, Al Casey retired and Robert L. Crandall became chairman and chief executive officer of AMR Corporation and American Airlines. Ultimate Super Saver fares were introduced in 1985, offering American passengers up to 70 percent discounts and competition for the low-service, cut-rate carriers which had sprung up in the wake of deregulation. American also unveiled its Senior SAAVers Club, which offered discounts to senior citizens. In 1985, American introduced second-day door-to-door freight delivery using passenger aircraft. In 1986 and 1987, the delivery network expanded and evolved into same-day service by 1988. By 1985, more than 10,000 travel agency offices were using SABRE for travel reservations. American opened its Nashville hub in April 1986 and its San Juan hub in November. Also in 1986, American employees topped 50,000 for the first time and American sold its Sky Chefs subsidiary and completed the acquisition of Air California (Air Cal). By 1987, American had completed an underground facility -- secured against fire, earthquakes and any other disasters -- in Tulsa, Okla. to house the SABRE computer equipment and software that formed the world's largest private real-time computer network and travel information data base. Also in 1987, SABRE became available via the personal computer. In 1988, American acquired the Airbus A300-600ER to serve its Caribbean markets from locations on the mainland and in 1989, American put its first Boeing 757 into service. 1988 also saw the opening of American's reservations office in Raleigh/Durham, N.C. Also in 1989, American opened its seventh hub in Miami on Sept. 13. American also began construction on its second major maintenance base at Alliance Airport in Fort Worth. Ground was also broken in Fort Worth for a 750,000-square-foot expansion of AMR's corporate headquarters complex. Ground was broken again in 1990 for the expansion of American's facilities at DFW International Airport, an expansion of the pilot-training facilities at American's Flight Academy in the headquarters' complex, and a new reservations center in Tucson. Also, a new state-of-the-art System Operations Control (SOC) Center opened in 1990. Also in 1990, American's premiere international service, International Flagship Service, was introduced. A San Juan reservations center opened and American expanded its Latin American service with routes acquired from Eastern Airlines, with Miami as the focal point of the expansion. American's long-time president, C.R. Smith, died at the age of 90 in 1990. In 1991, American flew its billionth passenger, expanded its European routes, opened its western reservations office in Tucson, and took delivery of its first McDonnell Douglas MD-11 and Fokker 100 aircraft. On January 16, 1992, American opened the first state-of-the-art airline maintenance facility to be built in the United States in more than 20 years - the Alliance Maintenance and Engineering Base at Fort Worth's Alliance Airport. In 1992, American introduced Value Pricing. The plan was designed to make fares simple, sensible and fair. It offered customers substantially greater travel flexibility, and was a major revision to American's fare structure. Intense price competition made the Value Plan unfeasible, however, and American was forced to abandon it. AMR Consulting Group, a new subsidiary, was formed in 1992 to take advantage of a growing demand for consulting services in airline-related businesses. This expanded into the AMR Training and Consulting Group in July 1993. Also in 1992, American introduced American Flagship Service, a premium three-class transcontinental service for domestic travelers, and also continued its expansion in the European market with flights to Berlin and Paris. In 1993, AMR Corporation formed the SABRE Technology Group. It included AMR Information Services (AMRIS), SABRE Travel Information Network (STIN), SABRE Computer Services (SCS), SABRE Development Services (SDS), and AMR Project Consulting and Risk Assessment Units. On July 3, 1993, the American Airlines C.R. Smith Museum opened at its headquarters complex in Fort Worth. In April 1994, American signed a comprehensive service agreement with Canadian Airlines International to provide access to state-of-the-art airline administrative services and computer technology. Canadian Airlines successfully converted to AMR computer systems in November 1994. In May 1994, American added additional routes to London to become the airline with more service to Britain than any other U.S. airline. Also in 1994, American launched its first non-smoking transatlantic flight. In October of 1994, American launched First Call, allowing travel planners to speak with a group specialist to evaluate group travel needs, negotiate fares, book space and generate agreements in minutes. In 1995, Donald J. Carty became president of the AMR Airline Group and of American Airlines. Also in 1995, American announced its World Wide Web site. In 1996, AMR announced the SABRE Group's filing for Initial Public Offering (IPO), the first step in making SABRE its own company. In Sept. 1996, American officially launched AAccess ticketless travel and AAccess boarding. Also in 1996, American added in-flight laptop computer capabilities to its aircraft, and announced that it would equip certain aircraft with defibrillators. In 1997, all American Airlines flights became non-smoking. Also, American introduced "stickerless" upgrades and became the first airline to expand ticketless travel to all transatlantic flights. Also in 1997, American introduced the College SAAver program. On May 20, 1998, Donald J. Carty became chairman, president and chief executive officer of AMR Corporation and American Airlines, Inc. upon the retirement of Robert Crandall. In 1998, American announced the addition of defibrillators to all of its aircraft, and said American Eagle would acquire small regional jets. Plans for a new Dallas reservations center also were announced. Additionally in 1998, American announced its acquisition of Reno Air and American Eagle's acquisition of Business Express. American Eagle completed its acquisition of Business Express in March of 1999, and Reno Air was fully integrated on August 31, 1999. On Sept. 21, 1998, American and four other airlines announced a new customer-driven global alliance - oneworldTM - launching a multi-million dollar program designed to raise the standard of global air travel. The new alliance took off on Feb. 1, 1999. In 1999, American dedicated the new Terminal B facilities at DFW and announced plans to build a new terminal at New York's JFK Airport, breaking ground in New York in November. In 1999, American also introduced the Boeing 777 and the 737-800 and completed the installation of defibrillators on all its aircraft. Also, American became the first airline to offer DVD in-flight video players on scheduled flights. Also in 1999, American began an expansion of its West Coast service, and American Eagle opened a new terminal in Los Angeles and took delivery of its first 37-seat Embraer ERJ-135. In February 2000, American announced More Room Throughout Coach, removing an average of two rows on every aircraft to add legroom throughout the entire coach cabin. American later decided to expand legroom in business class. In March 2000, American received the CIO Magazine's 2000 Web Business 50/50 Award for its AA.com web site. Also in 2000, AMR completed the spin-off of SABRE into its own company. In 2000, American announced plans to renovate Terminal B at Boston's Logan Airport and also announced the addition of fully flat Flagship Suite seating for its Boeing 777. Also, American named Alliance as the "maintenance home" for its 777 fleet. In January 2001, American's first aircraft featuring bigger overhead storage bins took to the skies. Also, American announced that it had agreed to purchase substantially all the assets of Trans World Airlines, Inc. In April 2001, American Airlines completed acquisition of TWA's assets. At about the same time, American opened a new Admirals Club and Lounge facilities at Dallas/Fort Worth Airport in memory of former Special Services employee Walter Henry Hagan. In 2001, American Eagle accepted delivery of 15 44-seat regional jets (ERJ-140) manufactured by Embraer of Brazil. American also announced plans to accelerate retirement of 36 aircraft -- 19 DC-9s, 12 Boeing 727s, 4 MD-11s and one Fokker 100. Also in 2001, American Airlines was recognized by the State of California EPA's 2001 Governor's Environmental and Economic Leadership Awards Program. The award complemented the previous Breath of Life Award, the Clean Cities Award at El Paso and the National Clean Cities Award received by American Airlines earlier this year. In October 2001, American announced that it will accelerate construction of its new $1.3 billion terminal at New York's JFK Airport, advancing the completion date nine months to September 2006. On April 2, 2002, Gerard J. Arpey was elected President and Chief Operating Officer of American Airlines. In April 2002, American began daily nonstop Boeing 777 service between New York JFK and Tokyo, giving AA four U.S. gateways to Japan. On April 30, 2002, American operated its final Boeing 727 passenger flight, marking the retirement of an airline industry workhorse by its largest operator. AA began flying the 727 in 1964 and was among the first to operate the airplane. At its peak, AA operated 182 Boeing 727s. In May 2002, American was named to DiversityInc.com’s annual list of Top 50 Companies for Diversity, coming in 15th. AA was the only airline to make the list. On Aug. 1, 2002, American officially dedicated its $300 million improvement project at Los Angeles International Airport’s Terminal 4, culminating four years of work on what was the largest project of its type ever undertaken by a single carrier at LAX. In a move to make popular Web fares more widely available to consumers while reducing its total distribution costs, American on Sept. 25, 2002, announced its innovative EveryFare program. With EveryFare, AA provides traditional travel agents in the U.S. and Canada the option to access and sell its very low Web fares, previously offered only via American’s own Web site, AA.com, and select low-cost distribution channels. In exchange, travel agents provide AA with long-term distribution cost savings through a creative cost-sharing arrangement. On April 24, 2003, Edward A. Brennan was named Executive Chairman of AMR Corporation and Gerard J. Arpey became Chief Executive Officer and President of AMR. On Jan. 14, 2004, American celebrated the 30th anniversary of operating the first commercial flight ever to carry passengers to the new Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. The inaugural flight on Jan. 14, 1974, was AA Flight 341 from Memphis to DFW. In April 2004, American began daily nonstop service between Los Angeles and Tokyo with Boeing 777 aircraft. Gerard J. Arpey was elected Chairman of AMR Corporation and American Airlines, Inc., in May 2004. On July 10, 2004, Albert V. Casey, who served as Chairman and CEO of American from 1974 until 1985, died at his home in Dallas, Tex. He was 84. In June 2004, AMR Corporation, the parent company of American Airlines and American Eagle, celebrated 65 years of being listed on the New York Stock Exchange. In July 2005, American opened the first phase of its new 1.5-million-square-foot terminal at New York’s Kennedy International Airport. In October 2005, American began operating from the new 2.1-million-square-foot International Terminal D at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. On Nov. 14, 2005, American launched daily nonstop service between Chicago and Delhi, India, flying the 7,500 miles – AA’s longest nonstop route – with Boeing 777 aircraft. In 2006, American celebrated the 25 th anniversary of its AAdvantage program – the world’s first frequent flyer program that revolutionized the airline industry and set the standard for similar initiatives in many other businesses. AAdvantage began with 300,000 members. Today, it has more than 50 million members. On April 2, 2006, American launched its first-ever service to China by inaugurating a daily nonstop Boeing 777 flight between Chicago and Shanghai. On June 11, 2006, American celebrated 35 years of service to Puerto Rico, now the focal point of its Caribbean route network. In October 2006, C.R. Smith, aviation pioneer and long-time head of American Airlines, was inducted into the Texas Transportation Hall of Honor. On Jan. 17, 2007, American relocated to Terminal 2 at Tokyo’s Narita International Airport. It was a move that significantly improved convenience for travelers to and from Japan by housing American and four of its fellow oneworld Alliance airlines in the same Narita facility. In May, 2007, American moved its international service at New York’s Kennedy International Airport into Concourse B of its new $1.3 billion JFK terminal. The new terminal is near a new U.S. Customs and Immigration facility. The move set the stage for improving the overall travel experience for passengers arriving into and departing from the JFK gateway. On May 19, 2007, American celebrated the 25th anniversary of its nonstop service between Dallas/Fort Worth and London. An American Boeing 747 operated the first DFW-London Gatwick trip on May 19, 1982. American announced plans to begin daily nonstop service between Chicago O’Hare International Airport and Buenos Aires, Argentina, effective Dec. 13, 2007. In September, 2007, the U.S. Department of Transportation awarded American the tentative right to begin service between Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport and Beijing, China, effective March 25, 2009. American already flies daily between Chicago O’Hare and Shanghai, China. In September, 2007, American marked its 65th anniversary of service to Mexico. The airline began serving Mexico on Sept. 6, 1942. Today, American and its regional affiliate, American Eagle, jointly offer more than 360 weekly flights between Mexico and the U.S. and serve 14 Mexican cities from five of their largest hubs. In October, 2007, American announced that it will begin nonstop service between Chicago O’Hare International Airport and Moscow, Russia, on June 2, 2009. On Oct. 26, 2007, American launched nonstop Boeing 767-300 service between New York’s John F. Kennedy International Airport and London’s Stansted Airport. In November, 2007, AMR Corporation, the parent company of American Airlines, announced that it plans to divest American Eagle, its wholly owned regional carrier. The company said it expects to complete the divestiture in 2008, but that the form of the divestiture is still under study. In January 2008, employees at American’s Kansas City maintenance base completed the first aircraft installation of the Aircell Internet broadband connectivity solution. American is the first U.S. airline to offer the broadband solution. AA plans to install and test the technology in 2008 on all 15 of its Boeing 767-200 aircraft that primarily fly transcontinental routes. In January 2008, American introduced a mobile version of AA.com that allows customers to access many of the helpful features of AA.com via a Web-enabled cell phone or other Web-enabled device. With the mobile feature, customers can conveniently log on to AA.com wherever their cell phone or PDA works – in the middle of a city or miles out in the country, in the United States or overseas – without the need for a desktop or laptop computer. The American Airlines Cargo Division (AA Cargo) received the “International Airline of the Year” awards from the Delivery and Logistics Association at its annual AirCargo 2008 Conference in Orlando, Fla. In March 2008, American launched Travel Bag, a new application on the Facebook Platform that makes it easy for users to share travel experiences with friends in their network, offer and read reviews and comments on things such as restaurants and shops, and even create countdowns for upcoming events or trips to let friends know what they’re doing. In April 2008, American added another level of convenience, flexibility and choice for customers by offering the option to pay by electronic check when buying tickets on the airline’s AA.com Web site. This allows customers who purchase tickets at AA.com to pay directly from any personal bank account – such as a checking account or saving account – that is funded in United States dollars. In April 2008, American presented Golden Heart awards to 19 flight attendants who have administered emergency medical attention by using onboard defibrillators. In ceremonies for the awards, American and the Association of Professional Flight Attendants, which represents AA’s flight attendants, also honored the 82 people whose lives have been saved since American became the first airline to install defibrillators on its aircraft in 1997. In April 2008, American expanded the diversity and inclusion information on its AA.com Web site, further enhancing the airline industry’s most comprehensive online resource for such information. AA’s commitment to diversity and inclusion can be explored within the site’s “About Us” section, just one click from the home page. On May 1, 2008, American celebrated the 10 th anniversary of its nonstop service between Chicago and Tokyo. AA opened the route on May 1, 1998. On June 2, 2008, American launched its first-ever service between the U.S. and Russia with a daily nonstop Boeing 777 flight between Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport and Domodedovo International Airport in Moscow. AA became the first U.S. carrier to fly directly from Chicago to Domodedovo Airport. In June 2008, American added thousands of additional hotel properties to its AA.com Web site. Combined with a new Price-Match Guarantee and a No Cancellation or Change Fee policy on all hotel bookings, the added properties made AA.com an even more compelling customer resource for booking hotel stays. In June 2008, American celebrated the 20th anniversary of its Chefs’ Conclave, a program that enlists the expertise of prominent and well-respected chefs to help AA craft the direction of its inflight food service. American was the first airline to gather such culinary expertise when the Chefs’ Conclave was founded in 1988. The stars of today’s Conclave are Nancy Brussat of Convito Cafe’ & Market, Dean Fearing of Fearing’s, and Stephan Pyles of Stephan Pyles. On August 11, 2008, American and Susan G. Komen for the Cure, the world’s largest breast cancer organization, announced an expanded partnership with the unveiling of two specially co-branded aircraft – an American Airlines 757 and an American Eagle Embraer 145 – each incorporating the renowned vivid pink-ribbon motif. Under the broadened partnership, American becomes Komen for the Cure’s official airline and first-ever Lifetime Promise Partner. AA pledged to raise $1 million annually for eight years to fund Komen for the Cure’s first Promise Grant – a $7.5 million, five-year study to inflammatory breast cancer at The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center. In August 2008, American announced it will take delivery of another six Boeing 737-800 aircraft in 2010, bringing the total of 737-800s to be delivered to American in 2009-2010 to 76 aircraft. AA also has firm commitments made previously for 11 737s in 2013. The announcement was another step in American’s fleet renewal plan designed to replace its MD-80 fleet with more fuel-efficient 737 aircraft while also lessening AA’s impact on the environment and continuing its investment in products and services for the benefit of customers. In August 2008, retired American Airlines Captain Dave Harris was honored by the Organization of Black Airline Pilots for being the first African-American to fly for a commercial airline. Capt. Harris retired from AA in 1994 after more than 30 years of service. In August 2008, American became the first airline to offer full in-flight internet in the U.S. when it launched the mobile broadband service, Gogo provided by Aircell, on its entire fleet of Boeing 767-200 aircraft. On Sept. 15, 2008, AMR Corporation, the parent company of American Airlines, completed the sale of American Beacon Advisors, its wholly owned asset-management subsidiary, to Lighthouse Holdings, which is owned by investment funds affiliated with Pharos Capital Group and TPG Capital, two leading private equity firms. AMR received a total compensation of $480 million. While primarily a cash transaction, AMR will acquire a small equity stake in the parent company of Lighthouse Holdings. American Beacon will continue to provide a number of services for AMR and its affiliates. In September 2008, American announced that it had completed upgrades to its Boeing 777 fleet, giving premium customers greater comfort, flexibility, convenience and privacy. With the upgrades, all 47 Boeing 777 aircraft now feature luxurious Flagship Suite and next-generation Business Class. During September 2008, the American Airlines Cargo Division played a key role in bringing an extraordinary exhibition, Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharoahs, from London to the U.S. for an extended engagement at the Dallas Museum of Art. AA Cargo was entrusted with shipping more than 130 priceless artifacts. In late September 2008, American was preparing for the introduction of PriorityAAcess privileges for its top customers. PriorityAAccess is an array of enhancements designed to make the airport process and overall travel experience more convenient. It is aimed at American’s AAdvantage elite status members, First and Business Class travelers, AAirpass customers, and passengers traveling on full-fare Economy Class tickets. In late September, American wrote a letter to Congress supporting passage of the proposed Employment Non-Discrimination Act. The letter noted that American was the first major airline to implement same-sex domestic partner benefits, first to implement both sexual orientation and gender identity in its workplace non-discrimination policies, and first to have a recognized LGBT employee resource group – GLEAM. On Oct. 15, 2008, American announced that it will enter a purchase agreement with Boeing to acquire 42 fuel-efficient Boeing 787-9 Dreamliners, with rights to acquire up to 58 additional 787 aircraft. The initial 42 Boeing 787-9 aircraft is scheduled for delivery beginning in September 2012 and ending in 2018. The 58 additional 787 aircraft may be scheduled for delivery beginning in 2015 and ending in 2020. On Oct. 26, 2008, American relocated its operations at Raleigh/Durham International Airport into the airport’s new Terminal 2. American has been serving RDU since 1985. In October 2008, American Airlines Cargo Division announced its participation in the U.S. launch of an air cargo industry e-freight initiative which supports a move toward paperless documentation. E-freight eliminates the need to send 12 paper documents with air cargo shipments. On Nov. 13, 2008, American introduced mobile boarding passes at selected airports for use with mobile phones or PDAs. The service gives customers at select airports the choice to receive their boarding passes electronically on their mobile phones or PDAs. On Nov. 20, 2008, American Airlines Chairman and CEO Gerard Arpey was nominated Chairman of the Governing Board of oneworld, the leading quality global alliance. American is a founding member of oneworld. In December, 2008, American announced that it will begin daily nonstop service between Dallas/Fort Worth and Madrid, Spain, on May 1, 2009. Madrid will be American and American Eagle’s 34th international destination at the DFW hub. In December, 2008, American re-opened its Flagship Lounge in Concourse E at Miami International Airport. On Jan. 16, 2009, American announced that it had implemented an Aviation Safety Action Program (ASAP) in conjunction with the Association of Professional Flight Attendants and the Federal Aviation Administration. The safety partnership encourages flight attendants to voluntarily report safety-related information. AA’s program is the largest ASAP in the world. In January, 2009, American Airlines and NBC Universal announced that they had reached an agreement for inflight broadcast content starting on March 1, 2009. In February, 2009, American announced that its popular “Search by Price & Schedule” option on the AA.com Web site is now available in Spanish on AA.com en Español. On Feb. 3, 2009, American opened a new Admirals Club lounge at Washington Dulles International Airport as the last stage of AA’s relocation into Terminal B at Dulles. In February, 2009, American enhanced its “Remember Me” speech-recognition technology, making it more convenient than ever for customers who call to get departure gate, flight times and other information about upcoming trips. In February, 2009, the oneworld global alliance that includes American Airlines as a founding member marked its 10 th anniversary. Slogans McDonnell Douglas MD-82 at Raleigh-Durham International Airport Current - "We know why you fly, we're American Airlines." AA/TWA merger - "Two great airlines, one great future." 2001 (post-9/11) - "We are an airline that is proud to bear the name American." Mid 1990s - "Based Here. Best Here." Late 1980s - "No other Airline gives you more of America, than American." Mid 1980s-mid 1990s - "Something special in the air." (Variant used for website: "Something special online.") 1980s-1988- "The On-Time Machine." 1970s-1980s - "We're American Airlines, doing what we do best." Early 1970s - "It's good to know you're on American Airlines." 1967-1969 - "Fly the American Way." 1964-1967 - "American built an airline for professional travelers." 1950s-early 1960s - "America's Leading (domestic) Airline." Destinations American Airlines serves four continents. Hubs at Dallas/Fort Worth and Miami serve as gateways to the Americas, while American's Chicago hub has become the airline's primary gateway to Europe and Asia. New York Kennedy (JFK) is a primary gateway for both the Americas and Europe, while New York La Guardia (LGA) and St. Louis are regional hubs. It serves the second largest number of international destinations, second to Continental Airlines American is the only U.S. airline with scheduled flights to Anguilla, Bolivia, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Uruguay. American has begun to expand in Asia, with mixed success. In 2005, American re-introduced a non-stop flight from Dallas/Fort Worth to Osaka-Kansai, which has since been discontinued. American also launched non-stop service from Chicago to Nagoya-Centrair, but that too ended within a year. Also in 2005, American launched service from Chicago to Delhi. This service has been profitable. In April 2006, American began service from Chicago to Shanghai, also profitably. However, in October 2006, American ceased its San Jose, California to Tokyo-Narita service, leaving LAX as American's sole international gateway on the West Coast. American planned flights between Dallas/Fort Worth and Beijing via Chicago-O'Hare (on Westbound only) in 2007 but lost its bid to United Airlines' Dulles to Beijing route. AA was granted permission in September 2007 to start a Chicago-Beijing route in a new set of China routes in 2009, but currently plans to begin service in 2010. American has begun non-stop service from Miami to the Brazilian cities of Belo Horizonte, Recife, and Salvador. It has also added nonstop flights from Dallas/Fort Worth to San Salvador (Spring 2008) and Panama City, Panama (December 2007). Since then, service ended in September 2008 to San Salvador. In 2008, American also began non-stop service from Chicago to Moscow. In May 2009, American began daily Dallas-Fort Worth to Madrid, Spain service. Fleet An American Boeing 757 landing at Vancouver International Airport As of February 2009, the American Airlines fleet consists of 616 aircraft.. In August 2007 the airline announced it would offer Wi-fi internet services on Boeing 767-200ER flights across the United States. , 07/08/07 On August 20, 2008, American Airlines became the first to offer full inflight internet service. In October 2008, American announced plans to order the Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner. American is the largest operator of the McDonnell Douglas MD-80, with some 300 of the type. As part of its fleet renewal plan, American has begun replacing one-fourth of its MD-80s with the Boeing 737-800, which offers a 35 percent increase per-seat mileage. Current American Airlines had an average fleet age of 15.4 years in February 2009. Some of American Airlines MD-82 and-MD 83 fleet are former TWA aircraft. Fleet age American Airlines - Airfleets <center> {\| class="toccolours sortable" border="1" cellpadding="3" style="border-collapse:collapse" \|+ American Airlines Fleet \|- bgcolor=#9592C6 !<font color=white>Aircraft !<font color=white>In Service !<font color=white>Orders !<font color=white><font color=white>Purchase Rights !<font color=white>Passengers (First/Business/Economy) !<font color=white>Routes !<font color=white>IFE !<font color=white>Introduction !<font color=white>Notes \|- \|Airbus A300-600R \|16 \|0 \|0 \|267 (16/251) \|MIA to CCS, GUA, GYE, JFK, MGA, PAP, SDQ, SJO and SJUJFK to STI \|Overhead monitors, audio \|1988 \|All to exit service by August 31, 2009 \|- \|Boeing 737-800 \|81 \|83 \|0 \|Old Configuration: 148 (16/132) New Configuration: 160 (16/144) \|North American short-medium haul, Caribbean, Mexico Most fly out of MIA, ORD, DFW, and LAX \|Overhead monitors, audio \|1999 \|Deliveries: 29 in 2009, 39 in 2010, 8 in 2011 and 11 in 2013 http://www.aa.com/content/amrcorp/pressReleases/2008_08/13_fleet.jhtml All to be installed with Aircell. http://news.moneycentral.msn.com/ticker/article.aspx?Feed=PR&Date=20090331&ID=9744076&Symbol=AMR All MD-82s and MD-83s are to be replaced with 737-800s Every 2 MD-82s or MD-83s to exit service, are to be replaced with 1 737-800 \|- \|Boeing 757-200 \|124 \|0 \|0 \|188 (22/166) 182 (16/166) \|Domestic, Caribbean, South America, Hawaii, Europe Most fly out of MIA and DFW \|Overhead monitors, audio \|1989 \|Fitted with winglets To be fitted with new interiors 18 to be modified to an international version \|- \|Boeing 767-200ER \|15 \|0 \|0 \|163 (9/30/124) 164 (10/30/124) \|MIA to JFK, LAX and SFOJFK to LAX and SFO EWR to LAX \| Personal DVD Player offered in First Class (only on bolded routes); Overhead monitors and audio system in all classes to be fitted with PTVs with AVOD \|1985 \| To be fitted with new interiors Aircell internet access available* One fitted with the Northrop Grumman Guardian On some domestic routes the business class is sold as coach, and the only premium class operated is the First class. \|- \|Boeing 767-300ER \|58 \|0 \|0 \|225 (30/195) \|Transatlantic, South America, Hawaii, hub to hub domestic\|Personal DVD Player offered in Business Class, Overhead monitors in Economy, audio in both classes \|1988 \|1 fitted with winglets American 767-300 with winglets at Heathrow! To be fitted with winglets American Airlines And Aviation Partners Boeing Team Up To Certify And Install 767-300ER Blended Winglets Fitted with New Business Class. Operates now MIA-LIM \|- \|Boeing 777-200ER \|47 \|7 \|0 \|247 (16/37/194) \|Transatlantic, transpacific, South America, hub to hub domestic\|AVOD, Audio \|1999 \|Fitted with Flagship Suites Fitted with New Business Class To be fitted with AVOD in First/Business Class To be fitted with NVOD in Economy class \|- \|Boeing 787-9 \|0 \|42(see note) \|58 \|TBD \|Long haul\|TBD \|2013(see note) \|Entry into service was originally planed for 2012. American Airlines Purchases 42 Boeing 787 Dreamliners Boeing has confirmed that the 787-9 will not enter service before 2013 and AA forecasts that the first aircraft will be delivered in late 2013. AA 10-Q filing for Q1 2009 All 42 orders are under a purchase agreement, and only become binding upon American if the Allied Pilots Association agrees to a collective bargaining agreement confirming use of the type or if AA voluntarily converts the agreement to a binding order. \|- \|McDonnell Douglas MD-82 \|190 \|0 \|0 \|136 (16/120) 140 (16/124) \|Short, Medium Haul Domestic, Mexico, Canada and Caribbean Most fly out of ORD, STL, and DFW \|None \|1983 \|Largest operator of the MD-82 To be replaced by 737-800; phase-out began in 2008. Every 2 MD-82s to exit service are to be replaced with 1 737-800. \|- \|McDonnell Douglas MD-83 \|81 \|0 \|0 \|136 (16/120) 140 (16/124) \|Short, medium haul domestic, Mexico, Canada and Caribbean Most fly out of ORD, STL, and DFW \|None \|1987 \|Largest operator of the MD-83 To be replaced by 737-800; phase-out began in 2008. Every 2 MD-83s to exit service are to be replaced with 1 737-800. \|- \|Total \|613 \|132 \|58 \| \| \| \| \|} *Aircell Internet Broadband access is being installed on all Boeing 767-200 and Boeing 737-800 aircraft. American Airline's First Installation of Aircell </center> Historical fleet types Year 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s01234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789Short-haulFord 5-AT1930 - 1935DC-31936 - 1949BAC 1111965 - 1972McDonnell Douglas MD-801983 - [?]Curtiss Condor1934 - [?]Lockheed L-188 Electra1958 - [1970]737 & BAe 1461987 - 1992Fokker 1001992 - 2004Fairchild 1001931 - [?]Convair 2401948 - 1964Boeing 7271964 - 2002Medium-haulDC-61947 - 1966Airbus A3001988 - 2009DC-41946 - [?]DC-71953 - [?]Boeing 7071959 - 1981Boeing 7571989 - [?]C-9901962 - 1969Boeing 737NG1999 - [?]Long-haulBoeing 7671982 - [?]B-3771946 - 1950Boeing 747-1001970 - 1985Boeing 747SP1986 - 1994Boeing 7771999 - [?]McDonnell Douglas DC-101971 - 2000MD-111991 - 2002 AAdvantage AAdvantage is the frequent flyer program of American Airlines. Launched May 1, 1981, it was the first such loyalty program in the world, and remains the largest with more than 50 million members as of 2005. Miles accumulated in the program allow members to redeem tickets, upgrade service class, or obtain free or discounted car rentals, hotel stays, merchandise, or other products and services through partners. The most active members, based on the amount and price of travel booked, are designated AAdvantage Gold, AAdvantage Platinum, and AAdvantage Executive Platinum elite members, with privileges such as separate check-in, priority upgrade and standby processing, or free upgrades. They also receive similar privileges from AA's partner airlines, particularly those in Oneworld. History Increased competition following the 1978 Airline Deregulation Act prompted airline marketing professionals to develop ways to reward repeat customers and build brand loyalty. The first idea at American, a special "loyalty fare", was modified and expanded to offer free first class tickets and upgrades to first class for companions, or discounted coach tickets. Membership was seeded by searching AA's SABRE computer reservations system for recurring phone numbers. The 130,000 most frequent flyers, plus an additional 60,000 members of AA's Admirals Club were pre-enrolled and sent letters with their new account numbers. The name was selected by AA's advertising agency, and is consistent with other American Airlines programs featuring "AA" in the name and logo. The logo was designed by Massimo Vignelli. The impact of the AA logo is strengthened by the fact that American Airlines was able in 1997 to buy the matching two letter internet domain aa.com. The amount of the transaction remains confidential. Only few corporations worldwide, among them 4 airlines own a two letter domain name. List of Large Companies that own a Two Letter Domain .AA is also the companies IATA airline code. Less than a week later, rival United Airlines launched its Mileage Plus program; other airlines followed in the ensuing months and years. The rapid appearance of competition changed the nature of the program, and as airlines began to compete on the features of their frequent flyer programs, AAdvantage liberalized its rules, established partnerships with hotel and rental car agencies, and offered promotions such as extra free beverages. In 1982 AAdvantage also became the first program to cooperate with an international carrier; members could accrue and redeem miles on British Airways flights to Europe. In 2005 American Airlines joined other major US carriers in introducing an online shopping portal allowing shoppers to earn AAdvantage miles when shopping online. Partnerships In addition to its Oneworld, American Connection, and American Eagle partnerships, American Airlines offers frequent flier partnerships with the following airlines and railways: Airlines {\| \|- valign="top" \| Alaska Airlines Air Pacific Air Tahiti Nui Brussels Airlines China Eastern Airlines El Al Israel Airlines EVA Air Gulf Air Hawaiian Airlines Jet Airways Mexicana Vietnam Airlines Railways {\| \|- valign="top" \| Deutsche Bahn (AiRail Service) SNCF Environmental record The Texas Commission on Environmental Quality has awarded American Airlines its 2005 Governor's Award for its outstanding efforts in environmental protection and pollution prevention. American Airline's wastewater treatment plant recycles water used at the base of the wash aircraft, process rinse water tanks, and irrigates landscape. That alone has saved almost 1 million dollars since 2002. In addition to that, American Airlines has also won the award for the reduction of hazardous waste that saved them 229,000 dollars after a 2,000 dollar investment. A bar code system used is to track hazardous waste. It has led to reduction of waste by 50 percent since 2000. Violations occurring over a 4½ year period — from October 1993 to July 1998 — targeted American Airlines for using high-sulfur fuel in motor vehicles at 10 major airports around the country. Under the federal Clean Air Act high sulfur fuel can not be used in motor vehicles. American Airlines promptly identified and corrected these violations of the Clean Air Act. Admirals Club The Admirals Club was conceived by AA president C.R. Smith as a marketing gimmick shortly after he was made an honorary Texas Ranger. Inspired by the Kentucky colonels and other honorary organizations, Smith decided to make particularly valued passengers "admirals" of the "Flagship fleet" (AA called its aircraft "Flagships" at the time). The list of Admirals included many celebrities, politicians and other VIPs, as well as more "ordinary" customers who had been particularly loyal to the airline. There was no physical Admirals Club until shortly after the opening of LaGuardia Airport. During the airport's construction, New York Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia had an upper-level lounge set aside for press conferences and business meetings. At one such press conference, he noted that the entire terminal was being offered for lease to airline tenants; after a reporter asked whether the lounge would be leased as well, LaGuardia replied that it would, and a vice president of AA immediately offered to lease the premises. The airline then procured a liquor license and began operating the lounge as the "Admirals Club" in 1939. The second Admirals Club opened at Washington National Airport. Because it was illegal to sell alcohol in Virginia at the time, the Club contained refrigerators for the use of its members, so they could store their own liquor at the airport. For many years, membership in the Admirals Club (and most other airline lounges) was by the airline's invitation. After a passenger sued for discrimination , the Club (and most other airline lounges) switched to a paid membership program. Membership now costs $300 to $450 a year, depending on AAdvantage frequent flyer program level (and annual renewal membership costs $250–$400); membership can also be purchased with AAdvantage miles. Locations Atlanta Austin Bogotá Boston Buenos Aires Caracas Chicago O'Hare (2) Dallas-Fort Worth (4) Denver Frankfurt Honolulu Kansas City Lima London Heathrow Los Angeles Mexico City Miami (3) Nashville Newark New York JFK (2) New York LaGuardia Orange County Panama City Paris CDG Philadelphia Raleigh-Durham Rio de Janeiro Sacramento San Diego San Francisco San Jose (CA) San Juan (PR) Santiago Santo Domingo São Paulo St. Louis Tokyo-Narita Toronto Washington Dulles Washington National Flagship Lounge Though affiliated with the Admirals Club and staffed by many of the same employees, the AA Flagship Lounge is a separate lounge specifically designed for premium customers flying on premium flights both domestically within the United States and internationally. This means that only First Class passengers on 3-Class Aircraft, both Internationally and Transcontinentally, are granted entrance to these clubs. A 3-Class aircraft operating a non-transcon flight and not sold as 3-Class is not considered Premium, and entrance is not granted to passengers on this type of service. Lounge access is granted to passengers on non-AA operated flights flown by select airline partners as well, again, as long as the flight has a true International First Class cabin and the passenger is booked in that class as a paying customer or on a premium cabin frequent flyer award ticket (not as an upgrade). The only exception to this rule is for OneWorld Emerald elite FF members (including AA Executive Platinum) on international flights, who are granted access to the lounges traveling in any class. https://www.aa.com/aa/i18nForward.do?p=/travelInformation/airportAmenities/AdmiralsLoungeAccess.jsp The added amenities of the Flagship Lounges compared to the normal Admirals Club include free alcoholic beverages including premium brands not found in the Admirals Club, free premium buffet snacks including breakfast items, salads, sandwiches, fruits, chocolates, cheeses and other light fare (options change based on time of day), as well as a less crowded, more comfortable lounge space. Additionally, complimentary Lenovo computer terminals with free internet access, complimentary T-Mobile hotspot access, and complimentary printing is available at most locations, as are shower facilities. The AA Flagship Lounge concept is similar to First Class lounges offered by other airlines around the world, though many international carriers offer full meal services, massages and other amenities in First lounges that AA does not. The first Flagship Lounge was opened at Dallas Fort Worth International Airport as a courtesy to First Class customers preparing for long flights to London and Tokyo. While the Dallas lounge is no longer open, Flagship Lounges are now available at: Los Angeles International Airport, Terminal 4 New York's JFK International Airport, Terminal 8 London Heathrow International Airport, Terminal 3 Chicago O'Hare International Airport, Terminal 3 Miami International Airport, Concourse E Codeshare agreements American has codeshare agreements with the following airlines: Air Pacific Alaska Airlines British Airways Brussels Airlines Cathay Pacific China Eastern Airlines Deutsche Bahn (AiRail Service) El Al EVA Air Finnair Gulf Air Hawaiian Airlines Horizon Air Iberia Airlines Japan Airlines Jet Airways Jet Airways to partner American Airlines : India Business LAN Airlines Malév Mexicana Qantas Airways SNCF Royal Jordanian Vietnam Airlines AmericanConnection, which feeds American's hub at Lambert Saint Louis International Airport, is also a codesharing operation with three regional carriers. It also has reciprocal agreements for earning frequent flyer miles with several airlines, including all other members of the Oneworld alliance. Livery American's early liveries varied widely, but a common livery was adopted in the 1930s, featuring an eagle painted on the fuselage. The eagle became a symbol of the company and inspired the name of American Eagle Airlines. Propeller aircraft featured an international orange lightning bolt running down the length of the fuselage, which was replaced by a simpler orange stripe with the introduction of jets. A Boeing 737 in the Astrojet livery A Boeing 767-300 in current colours takes off from Manchester International Airport, England, bound for Chicago, USA In the late 1960s, American commissioned an industrial designer to develop a new livery. The original design called for a red, white, and blue stripe on the fuselage, and a simple "AA" logo, without an eagle, on the tail. However, American's employees revolted when the livery was made public, and launched a "Save the Eagle" campaign similar to the "Save the Flying Red Horse" campaign at Mobil. Eventually, the designer caved in and created a highly stylized eagle, which remains the company's logo to this day. In 1999, American painted a new Boeing 757 in its 1959 international orange livery. There is a Boeing 737-800 painted in the retro AstroJet livery. American is the only major U.S. airline that leaves the majority of its aircraft surfaces unpainted. This was because C. R. Smith hated painted aircraft, and refused to use any liveries that involved painting the entire plane. Robert "Bob" Crandall later justified the distinctive natural metal finish by noting that less paint reduced the aircraft's weight, thus saving on fuel costs. Eastern Air Lines, US Airways, and Northwest Airlines have also maintained unpainted airplanes in the past. NASA's Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, with the registry N905NA, originally belonged to American Airlines, and in its early years still bore the distinct American pinstriping. By the early 1980s, however, NASA decided to discontinue using the American livery and replaced it with its own livery, consisting of a white fuselage and blue pinstriping. On-board service On domestic flights and flights to Canada, Central America, and areas in the Caribbean (including the Dominican Republic), American Airlines offers a buy on board program offering sandwiches and snacks for purchase. Flights two hours or longer have snacks, and flights three hours or longer have sandwiches. Transcontinental flights and Hawaii flights have the "Premium Sandwich and Chip Combo" for purchase. Beginning on March 1, 2009 began buy on board service to Central America and the Dominican Republic. American will continue to offer free coach meals on flights to Europe, Haiti, Japan, and other destinations. "North America And Caribbean Meal Service." American Airlines. Accessed February 18, 2009. "International Flagship Entrees." American Airlines. Accessed February 18, 2009 In First and Business classes, on all domestic flights of two hours or more that operate within a traditional meal time, full meal service is included. Flights with a duration longer than two and one half hours that do not fall within a meal time have snack service for those classes. First class and business class passengers receive alcoholic beverages for free. Non-alcoholic beverages are free for all classes. "Onboard Beverages." American Airlines. Accessed February 18, 2009 Blankets are provided free of charge. Headsets are two dollars on domestic flights and free on flights to/from Europe, Asia, India and South America. Headsets are also free to passengers in First and Business Classes. https://www.aa.com/aa/pubcontent/en_US/travelInformation/duringFlight/entertainment/main.jsp Accidents and incidents Miscellaneous In the 1960s, Mattel released a series of American Airlines stewardess Barbie dolls. A fictitious "American Airlines Space Freighter", the Valley Forge, was the setting for the 1971 science fiction movie Silent Running, starring Bruce Dern and directed by Douglas Trumbull. The freighter featured the then-new "AA" logo on the hull, along with the crew uniforms and several set pieces. On 30 March 1973 AA became the first major airline to employ a female pilot when Bonnie Tiburzi was hired to fly Boeing 727s. AA lobbied heavily to be assigned the IATA airline code US upon the US military releasing it for non-military use. However, USAir ultimately won the bid for the US airliner code. The airline received a 100% rating on the first Corporate Equality Index released by the Human Rights Campaign in 2002 and has maintained their rating in respect to policies on employees. AA is the only legacy carrier in the United States which has not filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. Vignelli Associates designed the AA eagle logo in 1967. Vignelli attributes the introduction of his firm to American Airlines to Henry Dreyfuss, the legendary AA design consultant. The logo is still in use today. AA has its name on two major U.S. venues, American Airlines Center in Dallas, home to the Mavericks and Stars, and American Airlines Arena in Miami, home to the Heat. When the Heat and Mavericks played each other in the 2006 NBA Finals, it was referred to as the "American Airlines series." An American Airlines ( Airways) DC2 was the setting for Shirley Temple to sing, "On the Good Ship Lollipop" while James Dunn took her up. contrary to popular belief, the good ship lollipop was always an airplane and not a seagoing ship. See the film "Curly Top" for some fine aeronautical footage of the DC2 and the even earlier Curtis Condor airliner (biplane). Sources John M. Capozzi, A Spirit of Greatness (JMC, 2001), ISBN 0-9656410-3-1 Don Bedwell, Silverbird: The American Airlines Story (Airways, 1999), ISBN 0-9653993-6-2 Al Casey, Casey's Law (Arcade, 1997), ISBN 1-55970-307-5 Simon Forty, ABC American Airlines (Ian Allan, 1997), ISBN 1-882663-21-7 Dan Reed, The American Eagle: The Ascent of Bob Crandall and American Airlines (St. Martin's, 1993), ISBN 0-312-08696-2 Robert J. Serling, Eagle (St. Martin's, 1985), ISBN 0-312-22453-2International Directory of Company Histories'', St. James Press. http://www.airfleets.net/flottecie/American%20Airlines.htm References External links American Airlines official website American Airlines Video and Audio on MarketWatch American Way inflight magazine	American_Airlines \|@lemmatized american:301 airline:177 inc:8 aa:71 major:10 united:13 state:16 federal:3 aviation:10 administration:2 certificate:1 information:9 detail:1 view:1 world:17 large:18 passenger:26 mile:10 transport:2 fleet:20 size:1 second:9 behind:2 fedex:1 express:3 aircraft:44 operate:21 air:26 france:1 klm:1 operating:1 revenue:3 picture:1 facts:1 subsidiary:7 amr:25 corporation:14 headquarter:1 fort:24 worth:25 texas:6 adjacent:1 dallas:24 international:48 airport:48 corporate:3 structure:2 retrieve:1 may:18 schedule:6 flight:53 throughout:6 canada:8 latin:3 america:13 caribbean:14 europe:8 japan:5 people:2 republic:3 china:7 india:4 chairman:9 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3,395	Indonesia	The Republic of Indonesia ( or ) (), is a transcontinental country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 17,508 islands, and with an estimated population of around 237 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country, and has the largest Muslim population in the world. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the seventh century, when the Srivijaya Kingdom traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually adopted Indian cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change. Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The Javanese are the largest and most politically dominant ethnic group. Indonesia has developed a shared identity defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka tunggal ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. However, sectarian tensions and separatism have led to violent confrontations that have undermined political and economic stability. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty is a defining feature of contemporary Indonesia. Etymology The name Indonesia derives from the Latin Indus, meaning "India", and the Greek nesos, meaning "island". The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians — and, his preference, Malayunesians — for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago". In the same publication, a student of Earl's, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. ; However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. Instead, they used the terms Malay Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and even Insulinde. (This term was introduced in 1860 in the influential novel Max Havelaar (1859), written by Multatuli, critical of Dutch colonialism). From 1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers-bureau in 1913. History As early as the first century CE Indonesian vessels made trade voyages as far as Africa. Picture: a ship carved on Borobudur, circa 800 CE. Fossilized remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", suggest that the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago. cited in ; cited in ; cited in Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions as they expanded. Taylor (2003), pages 5–7 Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE, allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade. For example, trade links with both Indian kingdoms and China were established several centuries BCE. Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. Taylor (2003), pages 3, 9, 10–11, 13, 14–15, 18–20, 22–23; Vickers (2005), pages 18–20, 60, 133–134 The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands. Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia. From the seventh century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it. Taylor (2003), pages 22–26; Ricklefs (1991), page 3 Between the eighth and 10th centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia; this period is often referred to as a "Golden Age" in Indonesian history. Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra. Ricklefs (1991), pages 3 to 14 Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java. Ricklefs (1991), pages 12–14 The first Europeans arrived in Indonesia in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku. Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony. Ricklefs (1991), page 24 For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over these territories was tenuous; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries. Dutch troops were constantly engaged in quelling rebellions both on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra and Pattimura in Maluku, and a bloody thirty-year war in Aceh weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces.(Schwartz 1999, pages 3–4) Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence. The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule, ; and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president. ; ; ; Reid (1973), page 30 The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and an armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence ; (with the exception of The Dutch territory of West New Guinea, which was incorporated following the 1962 New York Agreement, and UN-mandated Act of Free Choice). Sukarno, Indonesia's founding president Sukarno moved from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the Military, and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). Ricklefs (1991), pages 237 - 280 An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who led a violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed. Friend (2003), pages 107–109; ; Ricklefs (1991), pages 280–283, 284, 287–290 Between 500,000 and one million people were killed. ; The head of the military, General Suharto, out-maneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administration was supported by the US government, US National Archives, RG 59 Records of Department of State; cable no. 868, ref: Embtel 852, Oct 5 1965. ; Adrian Vickers, A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press, p. 163; 2005; David Slater, Geopolitics and the Post-Colonial: Rethinking North-South Relations, London: Blackwell, p. 70 and encouraged foreign direct investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. ; ; However, the authoritarian "New Order" was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political opposition. In 1997 and 1998, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the Asian Financial Crisis. This increased popular discontent with the New Order and led to popular protests. Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998. In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year military occupation that was marked by international condemnation of often brutal repression of the East Timorese. ; Since Suharto's resignation, a strengthening of democratic processes has included a regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problems in some areas. A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005. Government and politics Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the central government. Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia In 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001 have revamped the executive, judicial, and legislative branches. The president of Indonesia is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian Armed Forces, and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The 2004 presidential election was the first in which the people directly elected the president and vice president. The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms. _ (2002), The fourth Amendment of 1945 Indonesia Constitution, Chapter III – The Executive Power, Art. 7. A session of the People's Representative Council in Jakarta The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president. The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (DPR), with 550 members, and the Regional Representatives Council (DPD), with 128 members. The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation. Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased the DPR's role in national governance. Reforms include total control of statutes production without executive branch interventions; all members are now elected (reserved seats for military representatives have now been removed); and the introduction of fundamental rights exclusive to the DPR. (see Harijanti and Lindsey 2006) The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management. Based on the 2001 constitution amendment, the DPD comprises four popularly elected non-partisan members from each of the thirty-three provinces for national political representation. Most civil disputes appear before a State Court; appeals are heard before the High Court. The Supreme Court is the country's highest court, and hears final cassation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court to hear administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional Court to hear disputes concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court to deal with specific religious cases. Foreign relations and military In contrast to Sukarno's anti-imperialistic antipathy to western powers and tensions with Malaysia, Indonesia's foreign relations since the Suharto "New Order" have been based on economic and political cooperation with Western nations. Indonesia maintains close relationships with its neighbors in Asia, and is a founding member of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit. The nation restored relations with the People's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia temporarily withdrew from the UN on 20 January 1965 in response to the fact that Malaysia was elected as a non-permanent member of the Security Council. It announced its intention to "resume full cooperation with the United Nations and to resume participation in its activities" on 19 September 1966, and was invited to re-join the UN on 28 September 1966. and was a founder of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC). Indonesia is signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the WTO, and has historically been a member of OPEC, although it is withdrawing as of 2008 as it is no longer a net exporter of oil. Indonesia has received humanitarian and development aid since 1966, in particular from the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan. National flags at the site of the 2002 terrorist bombing in Kuta, Bali The Indonesian Government has worked with other countries to apprehend and prosecute perpetrators of major bombings linked to militant Islamism and Al-Qaeda. ; The deadliest killed 202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the Bali resort town of Kuta in 2002. The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, severely damaged Indonesia's tourism industry and foreign investment prospects. Indonesia's 300,000-member armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI-AD), Navy (TNI-AL, which includes marines), and Air Force (TNI-AU). The army has about 233,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in 2006, and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and foundations. In the post-Suharto period since 1998, formal TNI representation in parliament has been removed; though curtailed, its political influence remains extensive. Friend (2003), pages 473–475, 484 Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides. Friend (2003), pages 270–273, 477–480; Following a sporadic thirty year guerrilla war between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005. ; In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. ; Administrative divisions Provinces of Indonesia Administratively, Indonesia consists of 33 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has its own political legislature and governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), which are further subdivided into subdistricts (kecamatan), and again into village groupings (either desa or kelurahan). Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and cities have become the key administrative units, responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life, and handles matters of a village or neighborhood through an elected lurah or kepala desa (village chief). The provinces of Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua have greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has the right to create an independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of Sharia (Islamic law). Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution. The positions of governor and its vice governor are prioritized for descendants of the Sultan of Yogyakarta and Paku Alam, respectively, much like a sultanate. (Elucidation on the Indonesia Law No. 22/1999 Regarding Regional Governance. People's Representative Council (1999). Chapter XIV Other Provisions, Art. 122; (translated version). The President of Republic of Indonesia (1974). Chapter VII Transitional Provisions, Art. 91 Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001. As part of the autonomy package was the introduction of the Papuan People's Council tasked with arbitration and speaking on behalf of Papuan tribal customs, however, the implementation of the autonomy measures has been criticized as half-hearted and incomplete. ; Jakarta is the country's special capital region. Indonesian provinces and their capitals (Indonesian name in brackets where different from English) † indicates provinces with Special Status Geographical Unit Province Sumatra Aceh† (Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam) - Banda Aceh North Sumatra (Sumatera Utara) - Medan West Sumatra (Sumatera Barat) - Padang Riau - Pekanbaru Riau Islands (Kepulauan Riau) - Tanjung Pinang Jambi - Jambi (city) South Sumatra (Sumatera Selatan) - Palembang Bangka-Belitung (Kepulauan Bangka-Belitung) - Pangkal Pinang Bengkulu - Bengkulu (city) Lampung - Bandar Lampung Java Jakarta† - Jakarta Banten - Serang West Java (Jawa Barat) - Bandung Central Java (Jawa Tengah) - Semarang Yogyakarta Special Region† - Yogyakarta (city) East Java (Jawa Timur) - Surabaya Lesser Sunda Islands Bali - Denpasar West Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara Barat) - Mataram East Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara Timur) - Kupang Kalimantan West Kalimantan (Kalimantan Barat) - Pontianak Central Kalimantan (Kalimantan Tengah) - Palangkaraya South Kalimantan (Kalimantan Selatan) - Banjarmasin East Kalimantan (Kalimantan Timur) - Samarinda Sulawesi North Sulawesi (Sulawesi Utara) - Manado Gorontalo - Gorontalo (city) Central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah) - Palu West Sulawesi (Sulawesi Barat) - Mamuju South Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan) - Makassar South East Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tenggara) - Kendari Maluku Islands Maluku - Ambon North Maluku (Maluku Utara) - Ternate West Papua West Papua† (Papua Barat) - Manokwari Papua† - Jayapura Geography Map of Indonesia Indonesia consists of 17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited. ; These are scattered over both sides of the equator. The five largest islands are Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan (the Indonesian part of Borneo), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea), and Sulawesi. Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on the islands of Borneo and Sebatik, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on the island of Timor. Indonesia also shares borders with Singapore, Malaysia, and the Philippines to the north and Australia to the south across narrow straits of water. The capital, Jakarta, is on Java and is the nation's largest city, followed by Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and Semarang. At 1,919,440 square kilometers (741,050 sq mi), Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest country in terms of land area. Its average population density is 134 people per square kilometer (347 per sq mi), 79th in the world, although Java, the world's most populous island, has a population density of 940 people per square kilometer (2,435 per sq mi). At 4,884 meters (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya in Papua is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of 1,145 square kilometers (442 sq mi). The country's largest rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the Mahakam and Barito; such rivers are communication and transport links between the island's river settlements. Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest. Indonesia's location on the edges of the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian tectonic plates makes it the site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes, including Krakatoa and Tambora, both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the Toba supervolcano, approximately 70,000 years ago, was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a global catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 tsunami that killed an estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra, and the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006. However, volcanic ash is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali. Lying along the equator, Indonesia has a tropical climate, with two distinct monsoonal wet and dry seasons. Average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1,780–3,175 millimeters (70–125 in), and up to 6,100 millimeters (240 in) in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas—particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua—receive the highest rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging about 80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the average daily temperature range of Jakarta is 26–30 °C (79–86 °F). Biota and environment The critically endangered Sumatran Orangutan, a great ape endemic to Indonesia. Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil), and its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species. Once linked to the Asian mainland, the islands of the Sunda Shelf (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan, elephant, and leopard, were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Forests cover approximately 60% of the country. In Sumatra and Kalimantan, these are predominantly of Asian species. However, the forests of the smaller, and more densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture. Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku—having been long separated from the continental landmasses—have developed their own unique flora and fauna. ; Papua was part of the Australian landmass, and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species. Indonesia is second only to Australia in its degree of endemism, with 26% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic. Lambertini, A Naturalist's Guide to the Tropics, excerpt Indonesia's 80,000 kilometers (50,000 mi) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas that contribute to the country's high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems. The British naturalist, Alfred Wallace, described a dividing line between the distribution and peace of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species. Known as the Wallace Line, it runs roughly north-south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait, between Lombok and Bali. West of the line the flora and fauna are more Asian; moving east from Lombok, they are increasingly Australian. In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago, Wallace described numerous species unique to the area. The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea. Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialization present serious environmental issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanization and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services. Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened, and 15 identified as critically endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan. Economy Using water buffalo to plough rice fields in Java. Agriculture has been the country's largest employer for centuries. Indonesia's estimated Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for 2007 is US$408 billion (US$1,038 bn PPP). In 2007, estimated nominal per capita GDP is US$1,812, and per capita GDP PPP was US$4,616 (International Dollars). The services sector is the economy's largest and accounts for 45.3% of GDP (2005). This is followed by industry (40.7%) and agriculture (14.0%). However, agriculture employs more people than other sectors, accounting for 44.3% of the 95 million-strong workforce. This is followed by the services sector (36.9%) and industry (18.8%). Major industries include petroleum and natural gas, textiles, apparel, and mining. Major agricultural products include palm oil, rice, tea, coffee, spices, and rubber. Indonesia's main export markets (2005) are Japan (22.3%), the United States (13.9%), China (9.1%), and Singapore (8.9%). The major suppliers of imports to Indonesia are Japan (18.0%), China (16.1%), and Singapore (12.8%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a trade surplus with export revenues of US$83.64 billion and import expenditure of US$62.02 billion. The country has extensive natural resources, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and gold. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, and foodstuffs. Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia and the country's largest commercial center In the 1960s, the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability, a young and inexperienced government, and ill-disciplined economic nationalism, which resulted in severe poverty and hunger. By the time of Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the economy was in chaos with 1,000% annual inflation, shrinking export revenues, crumbling infrastructure, factories operating at minimal capacity, and negligible investment. Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57 Following President Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order administration brought a degree of discipline to economic policy that quickly brought inflation down, stabilized the currency, rescheduled foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment. Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57 Indonesia is Southeast Asia's only member of OPEC, and the 1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to sustained high economic growth rates. averaging over 7% from 1968 to 1981. Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57 Following further reforms in the late 1980s, Following a slowing of growth in the 1980s, due to over regulation and dependence on declining oil prices, growth slowed to an average of 4.3% per annum between 1981 and 1988. A range of economic reforms were introduced in the late 1980s. Reforms included a managed devaluation of the rupiah to improve export competitiveness, and de-regulation of the financial sector (Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57). foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-oriented manufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an average of over 7%. Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57; Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian financial crisis of 1997–98. Against the US dollar, the currency dropped from about Rp. 2,000 to Rp. 18,000, and the economy shrank by 13.7%. The rupiah has since stabilized at around Rp. 10,000, and there has been a slow but significant economic recovery. Political instability since 1998, slow economic reform, and corruption at all levels of government and business, have contributed to the patchy nature of the recovery. ;; (subsequent correction) Transparency International ranked Indonesia 143rd out of 180 countries in its 2007 Corruption Perceptions Index. GDP growth, however, exceeded 5% in both 2004 and 2005, and is forecasted to increase further. This growth rate, however, is not enough to make a significant impact on unemployment, (subsequent correction); and stagnant wages growth and increases in fuel and rice prices have worsened poverty levels. In 2005, the Government was forced to reduce its large subsidies on fuel prices drastically as international oil prices climbed, which was a major contributor to inflation and hardship. As of 2006, an estimated 17.8% of the population live below the poverty line, 49.0% of the population live on less than US$2 per day, and unemployment rate at 9.75%. Demographics The national population from the 2000 national census is 206 million, and the Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau and Statistics Indonesia estimate a population of 222 million for 2006. 130 million people live on the island of Java, the world's most populous island. Despite a fairly effective family planning program that has been in place since the 1960s, the population is expected to grow to around 315 million by 2035, based on the current estimated annual growth rate of 1.25%. A Minangkabau woman in traditional dress Most Indonesians are descendant from Austronesian-speaking peoples who originated from Taiwan. The other major grouping are Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia. Taylor (2003), pages 5–7, ; There are around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia, and 742 different languages and dialects. ; The largest is the Javanese, who comprise 42% of the population, and are politically and culturally dominant. The Sundanese, ethnic Malays, and Madurese are the largest non-Javanese groups. Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas. A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strongly maintained regional identities. Ricklefs (1991), page 256 Society is largely harmonious, although social, religious and ethnic tensions have triggered horrendous violence. Domestic migration (including the official Transmigrasi program) are a cause of violence such as the massacre of hundreds of Madurese by a local Dayak community in West Kalimantan, and conflicts in Maluku, Central Sulawesi, and parts of Papua and West Papua ; ; ; Kyoto University: Sulawesi Kaken Team & Center for Southeast Asian Studies Chinese Indonesians are an influential ethnic minority comprising less than 1% of the population. Much of the country's privately owned commerce and wealth is Chinese-controlled, Schwarz (1994), pages 53, 80–81; Friend (2003), pages 85–87, 164–165, 233–237 which has contributed to considerable resentment, and even anti-Chinese violence. ; The riots in Jakarta in 1998—much of which were aimed at the Chinese—were, in part, expressions of this resentment. ; The official national language, Indonesian, is universally taught in schools, and is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national media, education, and academia. It was originally a lingua franca for most of the region, including present-day Malaysia, and is thus closely related to Malay. Indonesian was first promoted by nationalists in the 1920s, and declared the official language on independence in 1945. Most Indonesians speak at least one of the several hundred local languages (bahasa daerah), often as their first language. Of these, Javanese is the most widely spoken as the language of the largest ethnic group. Indonesia - The World Factbook. Retrieved on 2007-08-14. On the other hand, Papua has 500 or more indigenous Papuan and Austronesian languages, in a region of just 2.7 million people. Much of the older population can still speak a level of Dutch. taalunieversum Although religious freedom is stipulated in the Indonesian constitution, the government officially recognizes only six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Although it is not an Islamic state, Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority nation, with almost 86.1% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 census. 8.7% of the population is Christian, of which roughly two-thirds are Protestant 3% are Hindu, and 1.8% Buddhist or other. Most Indonesian Hindus are Balinese, and most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese. Though now minority religions, Hinduism and Buddhism remain defining influences in Indonesian culture. Islam was first adopted by Indonesians in northern Sumatra in the 13th century, through the influence of traders, and became the country's dominant religion by the 16th century. Roman Catholicism was brought to Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries, Ricklefs (1991), pp. 25, 26, 28 ; and the Protestant denominations are largely a result of Dutch Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the country's colonial period. Ricklefs (1991), pp.28, 62; Vickers (2005), p.22; A large proportion of Indonesians—such as the Javanese abangan, Balinese Hindus, and Dayak Christians—practice a less orthodox, syncretic form of their religion, which draws on local customs and beliefs. Magnis-Suseno, F. 1981, Javanese Ethics and World-View: The Javanese Idea of the Good Life, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1997, pp.15-18, ISBN 979-605-406-X; Culture A Wayang kulit shadow puppet performance as seen by the audience Indonesia has around 300 ethnic groups, each with cultural differences developed over centuries, and influenced by Indian, Arabic, Chinese, Malay, and European sources. Traditional Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology, as do wayang kulit (shadow puppet) performances. Textiles such as batik, ikat and songket are created across Indonesia in styles that vary by region. The most dominant influences on Indonesian architecture have traditionally been Indian; however, Chinese, Arab, and European architectural influences have been significant. The most popular sports in Indonesia are badminton and football; Liga Indonesia is the country's premier football club league. Traditional sports include sepak takraw, and bull racing in Madura. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as, caci in Flores, and pasola in Sumba. Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial art. Sports in Indonesia are generally male-orientated and spectator sports are often associated with illegal gambling. A selection of Indonesian food, including Soto Ayam (chicken soup), sate kerang (shellfish kebabs), telor pindang (preserved eggs), perkedel (fritter), and es teh manis (sweet iced tea) Indonesian cuisine varies by region and is based on Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents. Rice is the main staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili), coconut milk, fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients. Compared to the infused flavors of Vietnamese and Thai food, flavors in Indonesia are kept relatively separate, simple and substantial. Indonesian traditional music includes gamelan and keroncong. Dangdut is a popular contemporary genre of pop music that draws influence from Arabic, Indian, and Malay folk music. The Indonesian film industry's popularity peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in Indonesia, although it declined significantly in the early 1990s. Between 2000 and 2005, the number of Indonesian films released each year has steadily increased. The oldest evidence of writing in Indonesia is a series of Sanskrit inscriptions dated to the 5th century CE. Important figures in modern Indonesian literature include: Dutch author Multatuli, who criticized treatment of the Indonesians under Dutch colonial rule; Sumatrans Muhammad Yamin and Hamka, who were influential pre-independence nationalist writers and politicians; Taylor (2003), pages 299–301 and proletarian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist. Vickers (2005) pages 3 to 7; Friend (2003), pages 74, 180 Many of Indonesia's peoples have strongly rooted oral traditions, which help to define and preserve their cultural identities. Media freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule, during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media, and restricted foreign media. The TV market includes ten national commercial networks, and provincial networks that compete with public TVRI. Private radio stations carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters supply programs. At a reported 25 million users in 2008, Internet usage is limited to a minority of the population, approximately 10.5%. See also References General Notes External links Government Government of Indonesia Minister of The State Secretary Antara – National News Agency Statistics Center Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Indonesia from UCB Libraries GovPubs be-x-old:Інданэзія	Indonesia \|@lemmatized republic:5 indonesia:94 transcontinental:1 country:24 southeast:3 asia:6 oceania:1 comprise:4 island:21 estimated:2 population:21 around:6 million:10 people:19 world:16 fourth:2 populous:4 large:19 muslim:6 elected:1 legislature:3 president:15 nation:7 capital:5 city:8 jakarta:11 share:5 land:3 border:3 papua:18 new:14 guinea:7 east:20 timor:4 malaysia:7 neighboring:1 include:28 singapore:5 philippine:2 australia:5 indian:10 territory:3 andaman:1 nicobar:1 indonesian:44 archipelago:7 important:2 trade:10 region:12 since:14 least:3 seventh:2 century:20 srivijaya:2 kingdom:6 china:5 india:3 local:5 ruler:1 gradually:2 adopt:4 cultural:4 religious:10 political:15 model:1 early:9 ce:7 hindu:7 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3,396	Economy_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina	This page discusses the Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina since Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of sovereignty in October 1991 and the declaration of independence from the former Yugoslavia on 3 March 1992. Overview Bosnia and Herzegovina faces the dual problem of rebuilding a war-torn country and introducing market reforms to its formerly centrally-planned economy. One legacy of the previous era is a greatly overstaffed military industry; under former leader Josip Broz Tito, military industries were promoted in the republic, resulting in the development of a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants but fewer commercially viable firms. Although agriculture is almost all in private hands, farms are small and inefficient, and the republic traditionally is a net importer of food. Industry remains greatly overstaffed, a holdover from the socialist economic structure of Yugoslavia. Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito had pushed the development of military industries in the republic with the result that Bosnia and Herzegovina was saddled with a host of industrial firms with little commercial potential. The inter ethnic warfare in Bosnia and Herzegovina caused production to plummet by 80% from 1992 to 1995 and unemployment to soar. With an uneasy peace in place, output recovered in 1996-99 at high percentage rates from a low base; but output growth slowed in 2000-02. Part of the lag in output was made up in 2003-05. National-level statistics are limited and do not capture the large share of black market activity. The konvertibilna marka (convertible mark or BAM)- the national currency introduced in 1998 - is pegged to the euro, and confidence in the currency and the banking sector has increased. Implementation of privatization, however, has been slow, and local entities only reluctantly support national-level institutions. Banking reform accelerated in 2001 as all the Communist-era payments bureaus were shut down; foreign banks, primarily from Western Europe, now control most of the banking sector. A sizable current account deficit and high unemployment rate remain the two most serious economic problems. The country receives substantial amounts of reconstruction assistance and humanitarian aid from the international community but will have to prepare for an era of declining assistance. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Bosnia and Herzegovina at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Markas. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange 1996 4,682 1.54 Markas 2000 10,238 2.11 Markas 2005 14,619 1.55 Markas For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 0.63 Markas only. Average wages in 2007 hover around $16-20 per day. The centrally planned economy has resulted in some legacies in the economy. Industry is greatly overstaffed, reflecting the rigidity of the planned economy. Under Josip Broz Tito, military industries were pushed in the republic; Bosnia hosted a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants for military reasons - Bosnia was in the center of former Yugoslavia. Three years of War (1992-1995) destroyed the economy and infrastructure in Bosnia, causing unemployment to soar, as well as causing the death of about 100,000 people and displacing half of the population. Bosnia has been facing a dual challenge: not only must the nation recover from the war, but it also has to finish the transition from socialism to capitalism. With an uneasy peace in place, output recovered in 1996-98 at high percentage rates on a low base; but output growth slowed appreciably in 1999, and GDP remains far below the 1990 level. Economic data are of limited use because, although both entities issue figures, national-level statistics are not available. Moreover, official data do not capture the large share of activity that occurs on the black market. The Grey market is a notable source of income for Bosnian traders. A Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina was established in late 1997, successful debt negotiations were held with the London Club in December 1997 and with the Paris Club in October 1998, and a new currency, the Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark, was introduced in mid-1998. In 1999, the Convertible Mark gained wider acceptance, and the Central Bank dramatically increased its reserve holdings. Due to Bosnia's strict currency board regime, inflation has remained low in the entire country. The country receives substantial amounts of reconstruction assistance and humanitarian aid from the international community. Support for Eastern European Democracy (SEED) assistance accounts for 20%-25% of economic growth in Bosnia. However, growth has been uneven throughout the post-war period, with the Federation outpacing the RS. According to World Bank estimates, GDP growth was 62% in the Federation and 25% in the RS in 1996, 35% in the Federation and flat in the RS in 1997, and continued growth in the Federation in 1998. Movement has been slow, but considerable progress has been made in economic reform since peace was re-established in the republic. Banking reform lagged, as did the implementation of privatization. Many companies (mainly factories) that were privatized faced massive problems, causing the owners to reduce salaries and deny the workers their salaries. Combined with persistent inter-ethnic problems in the country, for many workers this meant that they had a useless job, getting paid perhaps after two three or even six months late only for one month, but one which they clung on to. They don't want to leave the job because they think someone from another nationality will then get it. The privatized factories are now owned mostly by Germans and foreigners, who used webcams to monitor the workers. One example of all this is the Alloy factory in Jajce which produces wheels for cars, sold in Germany or other EU members. The tourism sector has been recovering and helping the economy altogether in the process, with popular winter skiing destinations as well as summer countryside tourism. An estimated 500,000 tourists visit Bosnia and Herzegovina every year and contribute much of the foreign currency in the country. Of particular note is the diaspora population which often returns home during the summer months, bringing in an increase in retail sales and food service industry. Political corruption is one of the more acute problems in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the main one that accounts for low amount of tax money used for the population, due to government inefficiency and corruption, especially at the lowest levels. Bosnia has been preparing for an era of declining international assistance. Bosnia's most immediate task remains economic revitalization to create jobs and income. In order to do this the workers need to form unions and demand their payment or similar. The owners need to pay the salaries all months the full salary agreed upon. Exports of Bosnia and Herzegovina during 2006. The Bosnian government plans to issue an international tender for the construction of the 350 km long Corridor 5c in Bosnia and Herzegovina which will passes along the route Budapest-Osijek-Sarajevo-Ploče. The highway along this corridor is the most significant roadway in B&H and the shortest communication route between Middle Europe and the Adriatic. The routing of the road passes through the central part of the country in the North-South direction from Donji Svilaj to the border of B&H, north from the Croatian port of Ploce, following the rivers Bosna and Neretva. More than 50% of the total population and the economic activity of Bosnia and Herzegovina lies within the zone of influence along this route. Project documentation for that highway is ready, so in January 2006, the Bosnian government will issue an international tender for construction of the highway Corridor 5C using a DBFOT system (Design, Build, Finance, Operate, Transfer). Using this system, the concessionaire secures finance, bears all business risks and upon expiration of the concession period, transfers the highway to the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The estimated cost for the construction of the highway is 2.5 billion EUR. 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3,397	Macrinus	Marcus Opellius Macrinus (ca. 165 - June 218) was Roman emperor for fourteen months in 217 and 218. Macrinus was the first emperor to become so without membership in the senatorial class and the first emperor of Berber descent "Macrinus, by race a Moor, from Caesarea... one of his ears had been bored in accordance with the custom followed by most of the Moors", Cassius Dio, Dio's Rome (bk 79), Kessinger Publishing, 2004, v.6, p.21 . Background and career Born in Caesarea (modern Cherchell, Algeria) in the Roman province of Mauretania to an equestrian family, Macrinus received an education which allowed him to ascend to the Roman political class. Over the years he earned a reputation as a skilled lawyer. Under the emperor Septimius Severus he became an important bureaucrat. Severus' successor Caracalla appointed him prefect of the Praetorian guard. While Macrinus likely enjoyed the trust of Caracalla, this may have changed when, according to tradition, he was prophesied to depose and succeed the emperor. Rumors spread regarding Macrinus' alleged desire to take the throne for himself. Given Caracalla's tendency towards murdering political opponents, Macrinus probably feared for his own safety should the emperor become aware of this prophecy. According to Dio, Caracalla had already taken the step of re-assigning members of Macrinus' staff. In the spring of 217, Caracalla was in the eastern provinces preparing a campaign against the Parthian Empire. Macrinus was among his staff, as were other members of the praetorian guard. In April, the emperor went to visit a temple of Luna near the spot of the battle of Carrhae, accompanied only by his personal bodyguard, which included Macrinus. Events are not clear, but it is certain that Caracalla was murdered at some point on the trip (perhaps on April 8). Caracalla's body was brought back from the temple by his bodyguards, along with the corpse of a fellow bodyguard. The story as told by Macrinus was that the dead guard had killed Caracalla. By April 11, Macrinus proclaimed himself emperor. Macrinus also nominated his son Diadumenianus Caesar and successor and conferred upon him the name "Antoninus", thus connecting him with the relatively stable reigns of the Antonine emperors of the 2nd century. Reign (April 217 - June 218) Despite his equestrian background, Macrinus was confirmed in his new role by the Senate. According to S.N. Miller, this may have been due to both his background as an accomplished jurist and his deferential treatment of the senatorial class. He found it necessary, however, to replace several provincial governors with men of his own choosing. Caracalla's mother Julia Domna was initially left in peace, but when she started to conspire with the military he ordered her to leave Antioch. Being at that time in an advanced stage of breast cancer (Cassius Dio) she chose instead to starve herself to death. In urgent matters of foreign policy, Macrinus displayed a tendency towards conciliation and a reluctance to engage in military conflict. He averted trouble in the province of Dacia by returning hostages that had been held by Caracalla, and he ended troubles in Armenia by granting that country's throne to Tiridates, whose father had also been imprisoned under Caracalla. Less easily managed was the problem of Mesopotamia, which had been invaded by the Parthians in the wake of Caracalla's demise. Meeting the Parthians in battle during the summer of 217, Macrinus achieved a costly draw near the town of Nisibis and as a result was forced to enter negotiations through which was obliged to pay the enormous indemnity of 200 million sesterces to the Parthian ruler Artabanus IV in return for peace. Macrinus' reluctance to engage in warfare, and his failure to gain victory over even a historically inferior enemy such as the Parthians caused considerable resentment among the soldiers. This was compounded by the rolling back of the privileges they had enjoyed under Caracalla and the introduction of a pay system by which recruits received less than veterans. After only a short while, the legions were searching for a rival emperor. At a high point of his popularity monuments were built to revere Macrinus. The grand tetrastyle Capitoline Temple, in Volubilis was erected to honour Emperor Macrinus in 217 AD. C. Michael Hogan (2007) Volubilis, The Megalithic Portal, edited by A. Burnham His popularity also suffered in Rome. Not only had the new emperor failed to visit the city after taking power, but a late-summer thunderstorm caused widespread fires and flooding, and Macrinus' appointee as urban prefect proved unable to repair the damage to the satisfaction of the populace and had to be replaced. Downfall This discontent was fostered by the surviving members of the Severan dynasty, headed by Julia Maesa (Caracalla's aunt) and her daughters Julia Soaemias and Julia Mamaea. Having been evicted from the imperial palace and ordered to return home by Macrinus, the Severan women plotted from their home near Emesa in Syria to place another Severan on the imperial throne. They used their hereditary influence over the cult of sun-deity Elagabalus (the Latinised form of El-Gabal) to proclaim Soaemias' son Elagabalus (named for his family's patron deity) as the true successor to Caracalla. The rumor was spread, with the assistance of the Severan women, that Elagabalus was in fact Caracalla's illegitimate son, and thus the child of a union between first cousins. On May 18, Elagabalus was proclaimed emperor by the Legio III Gallica at its camp at Raphana. A force under his tutor Gannys marched on Antioch and engaged a force under Macrinus on June 8 218. Macrinus, deserted by most of his soldiers, was soundly defeated in the battle, and fled towards Italy disguised as a courier. He was captured near Chalcedon and later executed in Cappadocia. His son Diadumenianus, sent for safety to the Parthian court, was captured at Zeugma and also put to death. Macrinus' short reign, while important for its historical "firsts", was cut short due to the inability of this otherwise accomplished man to control or satisfy the soldiery. In his death at the hands of Roman soldiers, Macrinus reinforced the notion of the soldiers as the true brokers of power in the third-century empire and highlighted the importance of maintaining the support of this vital faction. His reign was followed by another seventeen years of rule under the Severan emperors Elagabalus and Severus Alexander. Notes References Dio Cassius, bk. 79 Herodian, 4.14-5.4 Historia Augusta Miller, S.N., "The Army and the Imperial House," The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Imperial Crisis and Recovery (A.D. 193-324), S.A. Cook et al. eds, Cambridge University Press, 1965, pp 50–2. External links and references Life of Macrinus (Historia Augusta at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation) "Macrinus and Diadumenianius" at De Imperatoribus Romanis (by Michael Meckler of Ohio State University) Macrinus by Dio Cassius Livius.org: Marcus Opellius Macrinus Macrinus, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05	Macrinus \|@lemmatized marcus:2 opellius:2 macrinus:30 ca:1 june:3 roman:4 emperor:14 fourteen:1 month:1 first:4 become:3 without:1 membership:1 senatorial:2 class:3 berber:1 descent:1 race:1 moor:2 caesarea:2 one:1 ear:1 bore:1 accordance:1 custom:1 follow:2 cassius:4 dio:6 rome:2 bk:2 kessinger:1 publishing:1 v:1 p:1 background:3 career:1 bear:1 modern:1 cherchell:1 algeria:1 province:3 mauretania:1 equestrian:2 family:2 receive:2 education:1 allow:1 ascend:1 political:2 year:2 earn:1 reputation:1 skilled:1 lawyer:1 septimius:1 severus:3 important:2 bureaucrat:1 successor:3 caracalla:16 appoint:1 prefect:2 praetorian:2 guard:3 likely:1 enjoy:2 trust:1 may:3 change:1 accord:3 tradition:1 prophesy:1 depose:1 succeed:1 rumor:2 spread:2 regard:1 allege:1 desire:1 take:3 throne:3 give:1 tendency:2 towards:3 murder:2 opponent:1 probably:1 fear:1 safety:2 aware:1 prophecy:1 already:1 step:1 assign:1 member:3 staff:2 spring:1 eastern:1 prepare:1 campaign:1 parthian:6 empire:2 among:2 april:4 go:1 visit:2 temple:3 luna:1 near:4 spot:1 battle:3 carrhae:1 accompany:1 personal:1 bodyguard:3 include:1 event:1 clear:1 certain:1 point:2 trip:1 perhaps:1 body:1 bring:1 back:2 along:1 corpse:1 fellow:1 story:1 tell:1 dead:1 kill:1 proclaim:3 also:4 nominate:1 son:4 diadumenianus:2 caesar:1 confer:1 upon:1 name:2 antoninus:1 thus:2 connect:1 relatively:1 stable:1 reign:4 antonine:1 century:2 despite:1 confirm:1 new:2 role:1 senate:1 n:2 miller:2 due:2 accomplished:1 jurist:1 deferential:1 treatment:1 find:1 necessary:1 however:1 replace:2 several:1 provincial:1 governor:1 men:1 choosing:1 mother:1 julia:4 domna:1 initially:1 leave:2 peace:2 start:1 conspire:1 military:2 order:2 antioch:2 time:1 advanced:1 stage:1 breast:1 cancer:1 choose:1 instead:1 starve:1 death:3 urgent:1 matter:1 foreign:1 policy:1 display:1 conciliation:1 reluctance:2 engage:3 conflict:1 avert:1 trouble:2 dacia:1 return:3 hostage:1 hold:1 end:1 armenia:1 grant:1 country:1 tiridates:1 whose:1 father:1 imprison:1 le:1 easily:1 manage:1 problem:1 mesopotamia:1 invade:1 wake:1 demise:1 meet:1 summer:2 achieve:1 costly:1 draw:1 town:1 nisibis:1 result:1 force:3 enter:1 negotiation:1 oblige:1 pay:2 enormous:1 indemnity:1 million:1 sesterces:1 ruler:1 artabanus:1 iv:1 warfare:1 failure:1 gain:1 victory:1 even:1 historically:1 inferior:1 enemy:1 cause:2 considerable:1 resentment:1 soldier:4 compound:1 roll:1 privilege:1 introduction:1 system:1 recruit:1 less:1 veteran:1 short:3 legion:1 search:1 rival:1 high:1 popularity:2 monument:1 build:1 revere:1 grand:1 tetrastyle:1 capitoline:1 volubilis:2 erect:1 honour:1 ad:1 c:1 michael:2 hogan:1 megalithic:1 portal:1 edit:1 burnham:1 suffer:1 fail:1 city:1 power:2 late:1 thunderstorm:1 widespread:1 fire:1 flooding:1 appointee:1 urban:1 prove:1 unable:1 repair:1 damage:1 satisfaction:1 populace:1 downfall:1 discontent:1 foster:1 survive:1 severan:5 dynasty:1 head:1 maesa:1 aunt:1 daughter:1 soaemias:2 mamaea:1 evict:1 imperial:4 palace:1 home:2 woman:2 plot:1 emesa:1 syria:1 place:1 another:2 use:1 hereditary:1 influence:1 cult:1 sun:1 deity:2 elagabalus:5 latinise:1 form:1 el:1 gabal:1 patron:1 true:2 assistance:1 fact:1 illegitimate:1 child:1 union:1 cousin:1 legio:1 iii:1 gallica:1 camp:1 raphana:1 tutor:1 gannys:1 march:1 desert:1 soundly:1 defeat:1 flee:1 italy:1 disguise:1 courier:1 capture:2 chalcedon:1 later:1 execute:1 cappadocia:1 send:1 court:1 zeugma:1 put:1 historical:1 cut:1 inability:1 otherwise:1 accomplish:1 man:1 control:1 satisfy:1 soldiery:1 hand:1 reinforce:1 notion:1 broker:1 third:1 highlight:1 importance:1 maintain:1 support:1 vital:1 faction:1 seventeen:1 rule:1 alexander:1 note:1 reference:2 herodian:1 historia:2 augusta:2 army:1 house:1 cambridge:2 ancient:1 history:1 volume:1 xii:1 crisis:1 recovery:1 cook:1 et:1 al:1 ed:1 university:2 press:1 pp:1 external:1 link:1 life:1 lacuscurtius:1 latin:1 text:1 english:1 translation:1 diadumenianius:1 de:1 imperatoribus:1 romani:1 meckler:1 ohio:1 state:1 livius:1 org:1 columbia:1 encyclopedia:1 sixth:1 edition:1 \|@bigram cassius_dio:2 kessinger_publishing:1 emperor_septimius:1 septimius_severus:1 prefect_praetorian:1 praetorian_guard:2 breast_cancer:1 province_dacia:1 million_sesterces:1 michael_hogan:1 megalithic_portal:1 severan_dynasty:1 julia_maesa:1 julia_soaemias:1 el_gabal:1 soundly_defeat:1 dio_cassius:2 historia_augusta:2 et_al:1 external_link:1 de_imperatoribus:1 imperatoribus_romani:1 livius_org:1
3,398	Nut_hand	In poker, the nut hand, or simply the nuts, is the strongest possible hand in a given situation. The second-nut hand or third-nut hand (and so on) may refer to the second and third best possible hands. The term applies mostly to community card poker games where the individual holding the strongest possible hand, with the given board of community cards, has the nut hand. The term can be used more loosely to refer to any very strong hand. Usage in context In Texas hold 'em, if the board is 5♠ 6♠ A♣ 9♠ 5♥, a player holding 7♠ 8♠ has the nut hand, a 9-high straight flush of spades, and cannot lose. On the same board, the hand 5♣ 5♦ would be the second-nut hand, four of a kind fives; the third-nut hand would be any pair of the remaining three aces, making a full house, aces full of fives. It is important to note that the actual nut hand may not be the same as the absolute nut hand; for example, if the board is 7♥ 2♣ K♠ K♥ 3♦ a player with K♣ K♦ has the absolute nut hand. However, any player with K-7 knows that he has the nut hand as it is impossible for another player to have two kings. The phrase may also refer to a hand in progress with cards yet to be dealt, as the player can be said to have the nuts at that time. For example if a player holds 7♠ 8♠ on a board of 5♣-6♠-9♥ he can be said to have the nuts, however if the next card comes 7♥ then 8-10 becomes the nuts In high-low split games one often speaks of "nut-low" and "nut-high" hands separately. In Omaha hold 'em, if the board is, 5♠ 6♠ A♣ 9♠ 5♥, any player with 2-3 makes the nut-low hand, 6-5-3-2-A, while a player with 2-4 makes the second-nut-low hand, 6-5-4-2-A (the nut-high hands remain the same as in Texas hold 'em, in this case 7♠ 8♠ to make a straight flush). Terms such as "nut flush" or "nut full house" may be used to refer to the strongest hand possible in a particular category, even though it may not be the nut hand overall. For example, a pair of aces with the above board could be called the "nut full house", even though there are two higher (but very unlikely) hands possible. Terms such as "second-nut flush" and "third-nut straight" are also applicable. The straight A-K-Q-J-T and any highest-possible flush is also often referred to as the nut flush/straight, regardless of any pairs/other threats on board. Origins A common and certainly apocryphal folk etymology is that the term originated from the historical poker games in the colonial west of America, where if a player bet everything he possessed, he would place the nuts of his wagon wheels on the table to ensure that, should he lose, he would be unable to flee and would have to make good on the bet. Since it would be expected that a player would only make such a bet when he had the best possible hand, the folk lore says that this is how the best possible hand came to be known as the nuts. It is also rumored that these historical games were played only in the winter, and therefore, the nuts that were placed on the table were "stone cold", hence coining the term "stone-cold-nuts". DD Poker Glossary A far more likely explanation is that "the nuts" originated from the old English usage of "nuts", meaning "any source of pleasure" Etymology Dictionary's entry for "nuts" . Another seemingly fitting explanation is that the term was derived from the UK English slang "the dog's bollocks" or "the mutt's nuts", meaning "the absolute best". However, this phrase originated around 1949 The Phrase Finder's entry for "dog's bollocks" , and the term "the nuts" pre-dates it. See also Poker Poker jargon List of playing card nicknames References	Nut_hand \|@lemmatized poker:6 nut:36 hand:26 simply:1 strong:4 possible:8 give:2 situation:1 second:5 third:4 may:5 refer:5 best:4 term:8 apply:1 mostly:1 community:2 card:5 game:4 individual:1 hold:6 board:8 use:2 loosely:1 usage:2 context:1 texas:2 em:3 player:10 high:6 straight:5 flush:6 spade:1 cannot:1 lose:2 would:7 four:1 kind:1 fives:1 pair:3 remain:2 three:1 ace:3 make:6 full:4 house:3 five:1 important:1 note:1 actual:1 absolute:3 example:3 k:6 however:3 know:2 impossible:1 another:2 two:2 king:1 phrase:3 also:5 progress:1 yet:1 dealt:1 say:3 time:1 next:1 come:2 become:1 low:4 split:1 one:1 often:2 speak:1 separately:1 omaha:1 case:1 particular:1 category:1 even:2 though:2 overall:1 could:1 call:1 unlikely:1 applicable:1 q:1 j:1 regardless:1 threat:1 origins:1 common:1 certainly:1 apocryphal:1 folk:2 etymology:2 originate:3 historical:2 colonial:1 west:1 america:1 bet:3 everything:1 possess:1 place:2 wagon:1 wheel:1 table:2 ensure:1 unable:1 flee:1 good:1 since:1 expect:1 lore:1 rumor:1 play:2 winter:1 therefore:1 stone:2 cold:2 hence:1 coin:1 dd:1 glossary:1 far:1 likely:1 explanation:2 old:1 english:2 mean:2 source:1 pleasure:1 dictionary:1 entry:2 seemingly:1 fitting:1 derive:1 uk:1 slang:1 dog:2 bollock:2 mutt:1 around:1 finder:1 pre:1 date:1 see:1 jargon:1 list:1 nickname:1 reference:1 \|@bigram straight_flush:2 folk_etymology:1 poker_jargon:1
3,399	Battle_of_Jutland	</div> The Battle of Jutland (German: Skagerrakschlacht (Battle of the Skagerrak); Danish: Søslaget ved Jylland / Søslaget om Skagerrak) was the largest naval battle of World War I and the only full-scale clash of battleships in that war. It was only the second major fleet action between steel battleships in any war, following the Battle of Tsushima in 1905, but was also the last. It is also considered to be the largest naval battle in history. It was fought on 31 May – 1 June 1916, in the North Sea near Jutland, Denmark. The combatants were the Imperial German Navy's High Seas Fleet commanded by Vice-Admiral Reinhard Scheer and the British Royal Navy’s Grand Fleet commanded by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. The intention of the German fleet was to lure out, trap and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet, as the Germans were insufficient in number to engage the entire British fleet at one time. This formed part of their larger strategy of breaking the British naval blockade of the North Sea and allowing German mercantile shipping to operate again. The Royal Navy, on the other hand, was pursuing a strategy seeking to engage and destroy the High Seas Fleet or else keep the German force bottled up and away from Britain's own shipping lanes. The Germans' plan was to use Vice-Admiral Franz Hipper’s fast scouting group of five modern battlecruisers to lure Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty’s battlecruiser squadrons through a submarine picket line and into the path of the main German fleet and so destroy them. But the British had learned from signal intercepts that a major fleet operation was likely, and on 30 May Jellicoe sailed with the Grand Fleet to rendezvous with Beatty, passing over the intended locations of the German submarine picket lines before the U-boats had reached their positions. On the afternoon of 31 May Beatty encountered Hipper's battlecruiser force long before the Germans had intended or expected, which eliminated any submarine influence, but in a running battle Hipper successfully drew the British vanguard into the path of the High Seas Fleet. By the time Beatty withdrew towards the British main fleet he had lost two battlecruisers from a total force of ten ships against five commanded by Hipper. However, the German fleet in pursuit of Beatty was drawn towards the main British fleet. Between 18:30 hrs, when the sun was lowering on the western horizon backlighting the German forces, and nightfall at about 20:30 the two huge fleets — totalling 250 ships between them — were twice heavily engaged. Fourteen British and eleven German ships were sunk with great loss of life. After sunset, and throughout the night, Jellicoe manoeuvred to cut the Germans off from their base in hopes of continuing the battle in the morning, but under cover of darkness Scheer crossed the wake of the British fleet and returned to port. Both sides claimed victory. The British had lost more ships and twice as many sailors, and the British press criticised the Grand Fleet's failure to force a decisive outcome, but Scheer’s plan of destroying a substantial portion of the British fleet had also failed. The Germans continued to pose a threat that required the British to keep their battleships concentrated in the North Sea, but the battle confirmed the German policy of avoiding all fleet to fleet contact and they never again contested control of the high seas. Instead, the German Navy turned its efforts and resources to unrestricted submarine warfare and the destruction of Allied and Neutral shipping. Subsequent reviews commissioned by the Royal Navy generated strong disagreement between supporters of Jellicoe and Beatty and the two admirals' performance in the battle, and this debate continues today. Background German planning The German High Seas Fleet had sixteen dreadnought battleships and were falling behind the British in battleship production. Since the British Grand Fleet had twenty-eight, there was little chance of defeating the British in a head-to-head clash of battleships. Therefore, the German strategy was to divide and conquer: by staging raids into the North Sea and bombarding the English coast, they hoped to lure out small British squadrons and pickets which could then be attacked and destroyed by superior forces or submarines. The German naval strategy, according to Scheer, was: The plan for May 1916 was to station a large number of U-boats off the British naval bases and lure Beatty's battlecruiser squadrons out by sending a fast battlecruiser force under Hipper to raid the British coast at Sunderland. If all went well, after the British sortied in response to the raiding attack force, the British squadrons would be weakened by the picketing submarine ambush, and the Royal Navy's centuries-long tradition of aggressive action could be used to draw the pursuing but weakened units after Hipper's cruisers, towards the German main force under Scheer. It was hoped that Scheer would be able to effectively ambush a section of the British fleet and destroy it. It was further hoped that, once a submarine had attacked successfully, fast escorts such as destroyers would be tied down conducting anti-submarine operations. The German plan thus had several strings to its bow, and had the Germans caught the British in the positions where they expected them to be, they would have stood a chance of inflicting losses which would have helped to redress the material balance between the fleets. Unfortunately for the German plan, the British had been given a copy of the main German code book from the light cruiser SMS Magdeburg, boarded by Russian naval officers after the ship ran aground in Russian territorial waters in 1914. Therefore intercepted German naval radio communications could usually be quickly deciphered; hence the British Admiralty was usually aware of German deployments and levels of activity, giving it an insight into, and forewarning of, German plans. The throat of the Skagerrak, the strategic gateway to the Baltic and North Atlantic, waters off Jutland and Norway British response The British Admiralty's Room 40 had intercepted and decrypted a German signal on 28 May ordering all ships to be ready for sea on the 30th. Further signals were intercepted and although they were not decrypted it was clear that a major operation was likely. Not knowing the Germans' objective, Jellicoe and his staff decided to position the fleet to head off any attempt by the Germans to enter the North Atlantic, or the Baltic through the Skagerrak, by taking up a position off Norway where they could possibly cut off any German raid into the shipping lanes of the Atlantic, or prevent the Germans from heading into the Baltic. A position further west was unnecessary as that area of the North Sea could be patrolled by air using blimps and scouting aircraft. Consequently, Admiral Jellicoe led the Grand Fleet of twenty-four battleships and three battlecruisers eastwards out of Scapa Flow before Hipper's raiding force left the Jade Estuary on 30 May and the German High Seas Fleet could follow. Beatty's faster force of six battlecruisers and four battleships left the Firth of Forth on the next day, and Jellicoe's intention was to rendezvous 90 miles (170 km) west of the mouth of Skagerrak off the coast of Jutland and wait for the Germans or for their intentions to become clear. The planned position gave him the widest range of responses to likely German intentions. The Admirals Naval tactics in 1916 The principle of concentration of force was fundamental to the fleet tactics of this period (as indeed of earlier periods). Tactical doctrine called for a fleet approaching battle to be in a compact formation of parallel columns, allowing relatively easy manœuvring, and giving shortened sight lines within the formation, which made easier the passing of the signals necessary for command and control. It was a fundamental advantage of such a formation that a fleet formed in several short columns could change its heading faster than one formed in a single long column. Since command signals in this era were limited to visible means — made with flags or shuttered searchlights between ships — the flagship was usually placed at the head of the centre column so that its signals might be more easily seen by the many ships of the formation. Poor visibility sometimes meant that a ship might be able to recognise only the signals of its nearest neighbour or neighbours in the fleet. In these circumstances it was necessary for signals to be repeated by each vessel for an admiral's orders to be communicated to the whole formation. This problem was aggravated by the fact that the coal-fired ships of this era generated a great deal of funnel smoke, which was often the main factor interfering with visibility. Thus it might take a very long time for a signal from the flagship to be relayed to the entire formation. It was usually necessary for a signal to be confirmed by each ship before it could be relayed to other ships, and an order for a fleet movement would have to be received and acknowledged by every ship before it could be executed. In a large single-column formation a signal could take ten minutes or more to be passed from one end of the line to the other, whereas in a formation of parallel columns, visibility across the diagonals was often better (and always shorter) than in a single long column, and the diagonals gave signal "redundancy", increasing the probability that a message would be quickly seen and correctly interpreted. The British Grand Fleet steaming in parallel columns at the outbreak of war in 1914 However, before battle was joined the heavy units of the fleet would, if possible, deploy into a single column. In order to form the battle-line in the correct orientation relative to the enemy, the commanding admiral needed to know the enemy fleet's distance, bearing, heading and speed. It was the task of the scouting forces, consisting primarily of battlecruisers and cruisers, to find the enemy and to report this information in sufficient time, and, if possible, to deny the enemy's scouting forces the opportunity of obtaining the equivalent information. Ideally the battle-line would cross the intended path of the enemy column so that the maximum number of guns could be brought to bear, while the enemy could fire only with the forward guns of the leading ships, a manoeuvre known as "crossing the T". The Japanese admiral Togo had achieved this against the Russian Fleet in 1905 at the Battle of Tsushima. Jellicoe was to achieve this twice in one hour against the High Seas Fleet at Jutland, but on both occasions Scheer managed to turn away and disengage, thereby avoiding the destruction of his fleet. Ship design Within the existing technological limits a trade-off had to be made between the weight and size of guns, the weight of armour protecting the ship, and the maximum speed. Battleships sacrificed speed for armour and heavy naval guns (11" or larger). Battlecruisers sacrificed weight of armour for greater speed, allowing them to escape danger or catch other ships. Generally, British ships were designed with larger guns than the German ships, allowing an engagement at greater range. In theory a lightly armoured ship could stay out of range of a slower opponent while still scoring hits. The fast pace of development in the pre-war years meant that every couple of years a new generation of ships rendered its predecessors obsolete. Thus relatively young ships could still be obsolete, and fare badly in an engagement. 'Castles of Steel' p.666 Admiral Fisher, responsible for reconstruction of the British fleet in the pre-war period, favoured large guns and speed. Admiral Tirpitz, responsible for the German fleet, favoured unsinkable ships and chose to sacrifice some gun size for improved armour. The German battlecruiser Derfflinger had armour equivalent to the British battleship Iron Duke, significantly better than on the British battlecruisers such as Tiger. German ships had better internal subdivision and had fewer doors and other weak points in their bulkheads, but with the disadvantage that space for crew was greatly reduced. As they were only designed for cruises in the North Sea they did not need to be as habitable as the British vessels and their crews could live in barracks ashore when in harbour. Marder III p.168 Order of battle British German Dreadnought Battleships 28 16 Pre-Dreadnoughts 0 6 Battlecruisers 9 5 Armoured Cruisers 8 0 Light Cruisers 26 11 Destroyers 78 61 </table> Jellicoe's Grand Fleet was split into two sections. The dreadnought Battle Fleet with which he sailed formed the main force and was composed of twenty-four battleships and three battlecruisers. The battleships were formed into three squadrons of eight ships, further subdivided into divisions of four, each led by a flag officer. Accompanying them were eight armoured cruisers (classified by the Royal Navy since 1913 as "cruisers"), twelve light cruisers, fifty-one destroyers and a minelayer. British reconnaissance was provided by the Battlecruiser Fleet under David Beatty: six battlecruisers, four fast battleships of the [[Queen Elizabeth class battleship\|Queen Elizabeth class]], fourteen light cruisers and twenty-seven destroyers. Air scouting was provided for by the attachment of the seaplane tender HMS Engadine, one of the first aircraft carriers in history to participate in a naval engagement. The German High Seas Fleet under Scheer was also split into a main force and a separate reconnaissance force. Scheer's main battle fleet was composed of sixteen battleships and six pre-dreadnought battleships arranged in an identical manner to the British. With them were six light cruisers and thirty-one torpedo-boats. The German scouting force, commanded by Franz Hipper, consisted of five battlecruisers, five light cruisers and thirty torpedo-boats. The Germans had no equivalent to Engadine, and no heavier-than-air aircraft to operate with the fleet, but had the Imperial German Naval Airship Service's force of rigid airships available to patrol the North Sea. The British capital ships carried a larger number of guns and a correspondingly larger weight of broadside than their German counterparts; as compared to . Most of the battleships and battlecruisers on both sides also carried torpedoes of various sizes, as did the lighter craft. The German battle fleet was hampered by the slow speed and relatively poor armament of the six pre-dreadnoughts of II Squadron. On the British side, the eight armoured cruisers were deficient in both speed and armour protection. Both of these obsolete squadrons were notably vulnerable to attacks by more modern enemy ships. Battlecruiser action (1) 15:22 hrs, Hipper sights Beatty. (2) 15:48 hrs, First shots fired by Hipper's squadron.(3) 16:00 hrs-16:05 hrs, Indefatigable explodes, leaving two survivors. (4) 16:25 hrs, Queen Mary explodes, nine survive. (5) 16:45 hrs, Beatty's battlecruisers move out of range of Hipper.(6) 16:54 hrs, Evan-Thomas' battleships turn north behind Beatty. Prelude to big guns The German U-boats waiting to ambush British ships proved ineffective; they sank no ships, nor did they provide any useful information as scouts. Jellicoe's ships proceeded to their rendezvous undamaged and undiscovered. However, he was misled by an Admiralty intelligence report, advising that the German main battlefleet was still in port. The Director of Operations Division, Rear Admiral Thomas Jackson had asked the intelligence division, Room 40, for the current location of German call sign DK, used by Admiral Speer. They had replied that it was currently transmitting from Wilhelmshaven. It was known to the intelligence staff that Speer deliberately used a different call sign when at sea, but no one asked for this information or explained the reason behind the query, to locate the German fleet. Marder III p.41-42 At 14:20 on 31 May, despite heavy haze and scuds of fog giving poor visibility, scouts from Beatty's force reported enemy ships to the south-east; the British light units, investigating a neutral Danish steamer (N J Fjord) which was stopped between the two fleets, had found two German destroyers engaged in the same mission (B109 and B110). The first shots of the battle were fired at 14:28 when Galatea and Phaeton of the British 1st Light Cruiser Squadron opened on the German destroyers, which withdrew toward their own approaching light cruisers. At 14:36 the Germans scored the first hit of the battle when Elbing, of Rear-Admiral Friedrich Bödicker's Scouting Group II, hit her British counterpart Galatea at extreme range. Meanwhile Beatty began to move his battlecruisers and supporting forces southeastwards and then east to cut the German ships off from their base, and ordered Engadine to launch a seaplane to try to get more information about the size and location of the German forces. This was the first time in history that a carrier-based airplane was used for reconnaissance in naval combat. Engadine's plane did locate and report some German light cruisers just before 15:30, and received antiaircraft gunfire, but attempts to relay the plane's reports failed. Unfortunately for Beatty his initial course changes at 14:32 were not received by Sir Hugh Evan-Thomas's 5th Battle Squadron (it being too far away to read his flags), because the Tiger failed to repeat his flag signals by searchlight—which Beatty had specifically ordered Tiger to do. The ships had only shortly before, at 14:15 turned in a northerly direction from their previous easterly course, intending to meet the Grand Fleet as previously arranged. Whereas before that turn Tiger had been the closest ship to Evan-Thomas, she was now further away than Beatty on Lion. Matters were aggravated because Evan-Thomas had not been briefed regarding standing orders within Beatty's Squadron, as his squadron normally operated with the Grand Fleet. Fleet ships were expected to obey movement orders precisely and not deviate from them. Beatty's standing instructions expected his officers to use initiative and keep position with the flagship. 'Marder' III p.55 As a result, the four Queen Elizabeth class battleships, which were the fastest and most heavily-armed in the world at that time, remained on the previous course for several minutes, ending up ten miles (16 km) behind rather than five, where Beatty had originally placed him. Beatty also had opportunity during the previous hours to concentrate his forces, and no reason not to do so, whereas he steamed ahead at full speed faster than the battleships could catch up. Dividing the force had serious consequences for the British, costing them what would have been an overwhelming advantage in ships and firepower during the first half-hour of the coming battle. With visibility favouring the Germans, at 15:22 Hipper's battlecruisers, steaming approximately northwest, sighted Beatty's squadron at a range of about 15 miles (28 km), while Beatty's forces did not identify Hipper's battlecruisers until 15:30. . At 15:45 Hipper turned southeast to lead Beatty towards Scheer, who was 46 miles (85 km) southeast with the main force of the High Seas Fleet. The Run to the South Beatty's conduct during the next quarter of an hour has received a great deal of criticism, as his ships out-ranged and outnumbered the German squadron, yet he held his fire for over ten minutes with the German ships in range. He also failed to use the time available to rearrange his battlecruisers into a fighting formation, with the result that they were still maneuvering when the battle started. Brooks p. 234-237 At 15:48, with the opposing forces roughly parallel at 15,000 nautical-yards (14 km), with the British to the South-East of The Germans, i.e. on the right side, Hipper opened fire, followed by the British ships as their guns came to bear upon targets . Thus began the opening phase of the battlecruiser action, known as the "Run to the South", in which the British chased the Germans, and Hipper intentionally led Beatty toward Scheer. During the first minutes of the ensuing battle, all the British ships except Princess Royal fired far over their German opponents, due to adverse visibility conditions, before finally getting the range. Only Lion and Princess Royal had settled into formation, so the other four ships were hampered in aiming by their own turning. Beatty was to windward of Hipper, and therefore funnel and gun smoke from his own ships tended to obscure his targets, while Hipper's smoke blew clear. Also, the eastern sky was overcast and the grey German ships were indistinct and difficult to range. Beatty had ordered his ships to engage in a line, one British ship engaging with one German and his flagship Lion doubling on the German flagship Lützow. However, due to another mistake with signalling by flag, and possibly that Queen Mary and Tiger were unable to see the German lead ship because of smoke, Brooks p. 239 the second German ship, Derfflinger, was left unengaged and free to fire without disruption. Moltke drew fire from two of Beatty's battlecruisers, but still fired with deadly accuracy during this time, putting 9 shells into Tiger in the first 12 minutes. The Germans drew first blood. Aided by superior visibility, Hipper's five battlecruisers quickly registered hits on three of the six British battlecruisers. Seven minutes passed before the British managed to score their first hit. The first near-kill of the Run to the South occurred at 16:00, when a 305 mm (12-inch) salvo from Lützow wrecked the midships "Q" turret on Beatty's flagship Lion. Dozens of crewmen were instantly killed, but far larger destruction was averted when the mortally wounded turret commander, Major Francis Harvey of the Royal Marines, promptly ordered the magazine doors shut and the magazine flooded. This prevented a massive magazine explosion at 16:28, when a flash fire ignited ready cordite charges beneath the turret and killed everyone in the chambers outside "Q" magazine. Lion was saved. Indefatigable was not so lucky; at 16:02, just 14 minutes into the slugging match, she was smashed aft by three 280 mm (11-inch) shells from Von der Tann, causing damage sufficient to knock her out of line and detonating "X" magazine aft. Soon after, despite the near-maximum range, Von der Tann put another 280 mm (11-inch) salvo on Indefatigable's "A" turret forward. The plunging shells probably pierced the thin upper armour and seconds later Indefatigable was ripped apart by another magazine explosion, sinking immediately with her crew of 1,019 officers and men, leaving only two survivors. . Queen Mary blowing up Hipper's position deteriorated somewhat by 16:15 as the 5th Battle Squadron finally came into range, so that he had to contend with gunfire from the four battleships astern as well as Beatty's five remaining battlecruisers to starboard. But he knew his baiting mission was close to completion as his force was rapidly closing with Scheer's main body. At 16:08, the lead battleship of the 5th Battle Squadron, Barham, caught up with Hipper and opened fire at extreme range, scoring a 15-inch (381 mm) hit on von der Tann within 60 seconds. Still, it was 16:15 before all the battleships of the 5th were able to fully engage at long range. At 16:25 the battlecruiser action intensified again when Queen Mary was hit by what may have been a combined salvo from Derfflinger and Seydlitz; she disintegrated when both forward magazines exploded, sinking with all but nine of her 1,275 man crew lost. . Commander von Hase, the first gunnery officer aboard Derfflingler, noted that The enemy was shooting superbly. Twice the Derfflinger came under their infernal hail and each time she was hit. But the Queen Mary was having a bad time; engaged by the Seydlitz as well as the Derfflinger, she met her doom at 1626. A vivid red flame shot up from her forepart; then came an explosion forward which was followed by a much heavier explosion amidships. Immediately afterwards she blew up with a terrific explosion, the masts collapsing inwards and the smoke hiding everything. Bennett, p187 During the Run to the South, from 15:48 to 16:54, the German battlecruisers made an estimated total of 42 280 mm (11-inch) and 305 mm (12-inch) hits on the British battlecruisers (9 on Lion, 6 on Princess Royal, 7 on Queen Mary, 14 on Tiger, one on New Zealand, 5 on Indefatigable), and two more on the battleship Barham, compared with only 11 13.5-inch (343 mm) hits by the British battlecruisers (4 on Lützow, 4 on Seydlitz, two on Moltke, one on von der Tann), and 5 15-inch (381 mm) hits by the battleships (one on Seydlitz, 4 on Moltke, one on von der Tann). Beatty's flagship Lion burning after being hit by a salvo from Lützow Two points to port Shortly after, a salvo struck on or around Princess Royal, which was obscured by spray and smoke from shell bursts. A signalman promptly leapt onto the bridge of Lion and announced "Princess Royal's blown up, Sir." Beatty famously turned to his flag captain, saying "Chatfield, there seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today." (In popular legend, Beatty also immediately ordered his ships to "turn two points to port", i.e. two points nearer the enemy, but there is no official record of any such command or course change.) Princess Royal, as it turned out, was still afloat after the spray cleared. At 16:30, Scheer's leading battleships sighted the distant battlecruiser action; soon after, Southampton of Beatty's 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron led by Commodore William Goodenough sighted the main body of Scheer's High Seas Fleet, dodging numerous heavy-calibre salvos to report in detail the German strength: sixteen dreadnoughts with six older battleships. This was the first news that Beatty and Jellicoe had that Scheer and his battlefleet were even at sea. Simultaneously an all-out destroyer action raged in the space between the opposing battlecruiser forces, as British and German destroyers fought with each other and attempted to torpedo the larger enemy ships. Each side fired many torpedoes, but both battlecruiser forces turned away from the attacks and all escaped harm except Seydlitz, which was hit forward at 16:57 by a torpedo fired by the British destroyer Petard. Though taking on water, Seydlitz maintained speed. The destroyer Nestor, under the command of Captain Barry Bingham, led the British attacks. The British disabled the German torpedo-boat V27, which the Germans soon abandoned and sank, and Petard then torpedoed and sank V29, her second score of the day. S35 and V26 rescued the crews of their sunken sister ships. But Nestor and another British destroyer, Nomad, were immobilised by shell hits, and were later sunk by Scheer's passing dreadnoughts. Bingham was rescued, and won the Victoria Cross for his leadership in the destroyer action. The Run to the North As soon as he himself sighted the vanguard of Scheer's distant battleship line 12 miles (22 km) away, at 16:40, Beatty turned his battlecruiser force 180 degrees, heading north to draw the Germans towards Jellicoe. . Beatty's withdrawal towards Jellicoe is called the "Run to the North", in which the tables turned and the Germans chased the British. Because Beatty once again failed to signal his intentions adequately, the super-dreadnoughts of the 5th Battle Squadron (which were too far behind to read his flags) found themselves passing the battlecruisers on an opposing course and heading directly toward the approaching main body of the High Seas Fleet. At 16:48, at extreme range, Scheer's leading battleships opened fire. Meanwhile, at 16:47, having received Goodenough's signal and knowing that Beatty was now leading the German battlefleet north to him, Jellicoe signalled to his own forces that the fleet action they had waited so long for was finally imminent; at 16:51, by radio, he so informed the Admiralty in London. The difficulties of the 5th Battle Squadron were compounded when Beatty repeated the order to Evan-Thomas to "turn in succession" (rather than "turn together") at 16:48 as the battleships passed him. Lieutenant-Commander Ralph Seymour, Beatty's flag lieutenant, aggravated the situation when he did not haul down the flags (to execute the signal) for six minutes, so that the 5th Battle Squadron did not actually begin turning until 16:54, when they had moved within range of the enemy battleships. This order would have resulted in all four ships turning in succession to transit through the same patch of sea, giving the High Seas Fleet repeated opportunity with ample time to find the proper range. In the event, the captain of the trailing ship (Malaya) turned early, mitigating the adverse results. Massie, pp. 600-601 For the next hour, the heavily-armed and armoured 5th Battle Squadron acted as Beatty's rearguard, drawing fire from all the German ships within range, while by 17:10 Beatty had deliberately eased his own squadron out of range of Hipper's now-superior battlecruiser force to give his damaged ships a respite from the accurate and deadly fire of his foes. Since visibility and firepower now favoured the Germans, there was no incentive for Beatty to risk further battlecruiser losses when his own gunnery could not be effective: illustrating the imbalance, Beatty's battlecruisers did not score any hits on the Germans in this phase until 17:45, but they had rapidly received five more before he opened the range (4 on Lion, of which 3 were by Lützow, and one on Tiger by Seydlitz). Now the only targets the Germans could reach, the ships of the 5th Battle Squadron received simultaneous fire from Hipper's battlecruisers to the east (which Barham and Valiant engaged), and from Scheer's leading battleships to the southeast (which Warspite and Malaya engaged). Three took hits: Barham (4 by Derfflinger), Warspite (2 by Seydlitz), and Malaya (7 by the German battleships). Only Valiant was unscathed. The four super-dreadnoughts were far better suited to take this sort of pounding than the battlecruisers, and none were lost, though Malaya suffered heavy damage, an ammunition fire, and heavy crew casualties. At the same time, the 15-inch (381 mm) fire of the four British ships was accurate and effective. As the two British squadrons headed north at top speed, eagerly chased by the entire German fleet, the 5th Battle Squadron scored 13 hits on the enemy battlecruisers (4 on Lützow, 3 on Derfflinger, 6 on Seydlitz) and 5 on battleships (though only one, on Markgraf, did any serious damage). . The fleets converge Jellicoe was now aware that full fleet engagement was nearing, but had insufficient information on the position and course of the Germans. To assist Beatty, early in the battle at about 16:05, Jellicoe had ordered Rear-Admiral Horace Hood's 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron to speed ahead to find and support Beatty's force, and Hood was now racing SSE well in advance of Jellicoe's northern force. Rear-Admiral Arbuthnot's 1st Cruiser Squadron patrolled the van of Jellicoe's main battleship force as it advanced steadily to the southeast. At 17:33 the armoured cruiser Black Prince of Arbuthnot's squadron, on the far southwest flank of Jellicoe's force, came within view of Falmouth, which was about 5 miles (9 km) ahead of Beatty with the 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron, establishing the first visual link between the converging bodies of the Grand Fleet. At 17:38 the signals cruiser Chester, screening Hood's oncoming battlecruisers, was intercepted by the van of the German scouting forces under Rear-Admiral Bödicker. Heavily outnumbered by Bödicker's four light cruisers, Chester was pounded before being relieved by Hood's heavy units, which swung westward for that purpose. Hood's flagship Invincible disabled the light cruiser Wiesbaden shortly after 17:56. Wiesbaden became a sitting target for most of the British fleet during the next hour, but remained afloat and fired some torpedoes at the passing enemy battleships from long range. Meanwhile Bödicker's other ships fled toward Hipper and Scheer in the mistaken belief that Hood was leading a larger force of British capital ships from the north and east. A chaotic destroyer action in mist and smoke ensued as German torpedo-boats attempted to blunt the arrival of this new formation, but Hood's battlecruisers dodged all the torpedoes fired at them. In this action, after leading a torpedo counterattack, the British destroyer Shark was disabled, but continued to return fire at numerous passing enemy ships for the next hour. The fleet action Deployment (1) 18.00 Battlecruisers rejoin respective fleets(2) 18.15 British fleet deploys into battle line (3) 18.30 German fleet under fire turns away(4) 19.00 German fleet turns back(5) 19.15 German fleet turns away for second time (6) 20.00(7) 21.00 Nightfall: Jellicoe assumes night cruising formation In the meantime Beatty and Evan-Thomas had resumed their engagement with Hipper's battlecruisers, this time with the visual conditions to their advantage. With several of his ships damaged, Hipper turned back towards Scheer at around 18:00, just as Beatty's flagship Lion was finally sighted from Jellicoe's flagship Iron Duke. Jellicoe twice demanded the latest position of the German battlefleet from Beatty, who could not see the German battleships and failed to respond to the question until 18:14. Meanwhile Jellicoe received confusing sighting reports of varying accuracy and limited usefulness from light cruisers and battleships on the starboard (southern) flank of his force. Jellicoe was in a worrying position, needing to know the location of the German fleet in order to judge when and how to deploy his battleships from their cruising formation (in six columns of four ships each) into a single battle-line. The deployment could be on either the westernmost or the easternmost column, and had to be carried out before the Germans arrived; but early deployment could mean losing any chance of a decisive encounter. Deploying to the west would bring his fleet closer to Scheer, gaining valuable time as dusk approached, but the Germans might arrive before the manoeuvre was complete. Deploying to the east would take the force away from Scheer, but Jellicoe's ships might be able to cross the "T", and visibility would strongly favour British gunnery—Scheer's forces would be silhouetted against the setting sun to the west, while the Grand Fleet would be indistinct against the dark skies to the north and east, and would be hidden by reflection of the low sunlight off intervening haze and smoke. Deployment would take twenty irreplaceable minutes, and the fleets were closing at speed. In one of the most critical and difficult tactical command decisions of the entire war, Jellicoe ordered deployment to the east at 18:15. Windy Corner Meanwhile Hipper had rejoined Scheer, and the combined High Seas Fleet was heading north, directly toward Jellicoe. Scheer had no indication that Jellicoe was at sea, let alone that he was bearing down from the northwest, and was distracted by the intervention of Hood's ships to his north and east. Beatty's four surviving battlecruisers were now crossing the van of the British dreadnoughts to join Hood's three battlecruisers; at this time Rear-Admiral Arbuthnot's flagship Defence and the Warrior both charged across Beatty's bows, and Lion narrowly avoided a collision with Warrior. Nearby, numerous British light cruisers and destroyers on the southwestern flank of the deploying battleships were also crossing each others' courses in attempts to reach their proper stations, often barely escaping collisions, and under fire from some of the approaching German ships. This period of peril and heavy traffic attending the merger and deployment of the British forces later became known as "Windy Corner". Massie, p. 614 Arbuthnot's armoured cruisers had no real place in the coming clash between modern dreadnoughts, but he was attracted by the drifting hull of the crippled Wiesbaden. With Warrior, Defence closed in for the kill, only to blunder right into the gun sights of Hipper's and Scheer's oncoming capital ships. Defence was deluged by heavy-calibre gunfire from many German battleships, which detonated her magazines in a spectacular explosion viewed by most of the deploying Grand Fleet; she sank with all hands (903 officers and men). Warrior was also hit badly but was spared destruction by a mishap to the nearby super-dreadnought Warspite. Warspite had her steering gear overheat and jam under heavy load at high speed as the 5th Battle Squadron made a turn to the north at 18:19. Steaming at top speed in wide circles, Warspite appeared as a juicy target to the German dreadnoughts and took thirteen hits, inadvertently drawing fire from the hapless Warrior. Warspite was brought back under control and survived the onslaught, but was badly damaged, had to reduce speed, and withdrew northward; later (at 21:07), she was ordered back to port by Evan-Thomas. Warspite went on to a long and illustrious career, serving also in World War II. Warrior on the other hand, was abandoned and sank the next day after her crew was taken off at 08:25 1 June by Engadine, which towed the sinking armoured cruiser during the night. As Defence sank and Warspite circled, at about 18:19, Hipper moved within range of Rear-Admiral Hood's 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron, but was still also within range of Beatty's ships. At first visibility favored the British: Indomitable hit Derfflinger three times and Seydlitz once, while the Lützow quickly took 10 hits from Lion, Inflexible and Invincible, including two below-waterline hits forward by Invincible that would ultimately doom Hipper's flagship. But at 18:30 Invincible abruptly appeared as a clear target before Lützow and Derfflinger. The two German ships then fired three salvoes each at Invincible, and sank her in 90 seconds. A 305 mm (12-inch) shell from the third salvo struck Invincible's midships Q-turret, flash detonated the magazines below, and the ship blew up and split in two, killing all but six of her crew of 1,032 officers and men, including Rear-Admiral Hood. Of the remaining British battlecruisers, only Princess Royal received heavy-calibre hits at this time [two 305 mm (12-inch) by the battleship Markgraf]. Lützow, flooding forward and unable to communicate by radio, was now out of action and began to attempt to withdraw; therefore Hipper left his flagship and transferred to the destroyer G39, hoping to board one of the other battlecruisers later. Crossing the T By 18:30 the main battlefleet action was joined for the first time, with Jellicoe effectively "crossing Scheer's T". The officers on the lead German battleships, and Scheer himself, were taken completely by surprise when they emerged from drifting clouds of smoky mist to suddenly find themselves facing the massed firepower of the entire Grand Fleet main battle line, which they did not know was even at sea. Jellicoe's flagship Iron Duke quickly scored seven hits on the lead German dreadnought, König, but in this brief exchange, which lasted only minutes, as few as ten of the Grand Fleet's twenty-four dreadnoughts actually opened fire. The Germans were hampered by poor visibility, in addition to being in an unfavourable tactical position, just as Jellicoe had intended. Realizing he was heading into a deathtrap, Scheer ordered his fleet to turn and flee at 18:33. Under a pall of smoke and mist, Scheer's forces succeeded in disengaging by an expertly executed 180-degree turn in unison ("battle about turn to starboard"), which was a well-practiced emergency manoeuvre of the High Seas Fleet. Conscious of the risks to his capital ships posed by torpedoes, Jellicoe did not chase directly but headed south, determined to keep the High Seas Fleet west of him. Starting at 18:40, battleships at the rear of Jellicoe's line were in fact sighting and avoiding torpedoes, and at 18:54 Marlborough was hit by a torpedo (probably from the disabled Wiesbaden) which reduced her speed to 16 knots (19 km/h). Meanwhile, Scheer, knowing that it was not yet dark enough to escape and that his fleet would suffer terribly in a stern chase, doubled back to the east at 18:55. In his memoirs he wrote, "the manœuvre would be bound to surprise the enemy, to upset his plans for the rest of the day, and if the blow fell heavily it would facilitate the breaking loose at night." But the turn to the east took his ships, again, directly towards Jellicoe's fully-deployed battle line. Simultaneously, the disabled British destroyer Shark fought desperately against a group of four enemy destroyers and disabled the V48 with gunfire, but was finally torpedoed and sunk at 19:02 by the German destroyer S54. Shark's Captain Loftus Jones won the Victoria Cross for his heroism in fighting his ship against all odds. "Gefechtskehrtwendung" Commodore Goodenough's 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron dodged the fire of German battleships for a second time to re-establish contact with the High Seas Fleet shortly after 19:00. By 19:15, Jellicoe had crossed Scheer's "T" again. This time his arc of fire was tighter and deadlier, causing severe damage to the German battleships, particularly Rear-Admiral Behncke's leading 3rd Squadron (König, Grosser Kurfürst, Markgraf, and Kaiser all being hit, along with Helgoland of the 1st Squadron), while on the British side only the Colossus was hit (twice by Seydlitz, with little damage done). At 19:17, for the second time in less than an hour, Scheer turned his outnumbered and outgunned fleet to the west using the "battle about turn" (German Gefechtskehrtwendung), but this time it was executed only with difficulty as the High Seas Fleet's lead squadrons began to lose formation under concentrated gunfire. To deter a British chase, Scheer ordered a major torpedo attack by his destroyers and a potentially sacrificial charge by Scouting Group I's four remaining battlecruisers. Hipper was still aboard the destroyer G39 and was unable to command his squadron for this attack. Therefore Derfflinger, under Captain Hartog, led the already heavily-damaged German battlecruisers directly into "the greatest concentration of naval gunfire any fleet commander had ever faced", at ranges down to 4 miles (7 km). In what became known as the "death ride", all the battlecruisers except Moltke were hit and further damaged, as 18 of the British battleships fired at them simultaneously. Derfflinger had two main gun turrets destroyed, with most of their crews killed, but survived the pounding and veered away with the other battlecruisers once Scheer was out of trouble and the German destroyers were moving in to attack. In this brief but intense portion of the engagement, from about 19:05 to about 19:30, the Germans sustained a total of thirty-seven heavy hits while inflicting only two, Derfflinger alone receiving fourteen. While his battlecruisers drew the fire of the British fleet, Scheer slipped away, laying smoke screens. Meanwhile, from about 19:16 to about 19:40, the British battleships were also engaging Scheer's destroyers, which executed several waves of torpedo attacks to cover his withdrawal. Jellicoe's ships turned away from the attacks and successfully evaded all 31 of the torpedoes launched at them—though in several cases, only just barely—and sank the German destroyer S35. British light forces also sank V48, which had previously been disabled by Shark. This action, and the turn away, cost the British critical time and range in the last hour of daylight, as Scheer intended, allowing him to get his heavy ships out of immediate danger. The last major exchanges between capital ships in this battle took place just after sunset, from about 20:19 to about 20:35, as the surviving British battlecruisers caught up with their German counterparts, which were briefly relieved by Rear-Admiral Mauve's obsolete pre-dreadnoughts (the German 2nd Squadron). The British received one heavy hit on Princess Royal but scored five more on Seydlitz and three on other German ships. As twilight faded to night and King George V exchanged a few final shots with Westfalen, neither side could have imagined that the only encounter between British and German dreadnoughts in the entire war was already concluded. Night action and German withdrawal At 21:00, Jellicoe, conscious of the Grand Fleet's deficiencies in night-fighting, decided to try to avoid a major engagement until early dawn. He placed a screen of cruisers and destroyers five miles (8 km) behind his battle fleet to patrol the rear as he headed south to guard Scheer's expected escape route. Massie, p.637 In reality Scheer opted to cross Jellicoe's wake and escape via Horns Reef. Luckily for Scheer, most of the light forces in Jellicoe's rearguard failed to report the seven separate encounters with the German fleet during the night; Massie, p.645 Marder p.140-145 the very few radio reports that were sent to the British flagship were never received, possibly because the Germans were jamming British frequencies. Many of the destroyers failed to make the most of their opportunities to attack discovered ships, despite Jellicoe's expectations that the destroyer forces would, if necessary, be able to block the path of the German fleet. Marder p.146 Jellicoe and his commanders did not understand that the furious gunfire and explosions to the north (seen and heard for hours by all the British battleships) indicated that the German heavy ships were breaking through the screen astern of the British fleet. Instead, it was believed that the fighting was the result of night attacks by German destroyers. Marder p. 159 The most powerful British ships of all (the 15-inch-gunned 5th Battle Squadron) directly observed German battleships crossing astern of them in action with British light forces, at ranges of 3 miles (5 km) or less, and gunners on the made ready to fire, but her captain declined, deferring to the authority of Rear-Admiral Evan-Thomas—and neither commander reported the sightings to Jellicoe, assuming that he could see for himself and that revealing the fleet's position by radio signals or gunfire was unwise. While the nature of Scheer's escape, and Jellicoe's inaction, indicate the overall German superiority in night-fighting, the results of the night action were no more clear-cut than were those of the battle as a whole. In the first of many surprise encounters by darkened ships at point-blank range, Southampton, Commodore Goodenough's flagship which had scouted so proficiently, was heavily damaged in action with a German Scouting Group composed of light cruisers, but managed to torpedo the Frauenlob which went down at 22:23 with all hands (320 officers and men). From 23:20 to approximately 02:15, several British destroyer flotillas launched torpedo attacks on the German battlefleet in a series of violent and chaotic engagements at extremely short range (often under 0.5 miles (1 km)). At the cost of five destroyers sunk and some others damaged, they managed to torpedo the light cruiser Rostock, which sank several hours later, and the pre-dreadnought Pommern, which blew up and sank with all hands (844 officers and men) during the last wave of attacks before dawn. Three of the British destroyers collided in the chaos, and the German battleship Nassau rammed the British destroyer Spitfire, blowing away most of the British ship's superstructure merely with the muzzle blast of its big guns, which could not be aimed low enough to hit the ship. Nassau was left with a 3.3 m (11 ft) hole in her side reducing her maximum speed to 15 knots (28 km/h), while the removed plating was left lying on Spitfire's deck. Marder p. 142 Spitfire survived and made it back to port. Another German cruiser, Elbing, was accidentally rammed by the dreadnought Posen and abandoned, sinking early the next day. Of the British destroyers, Tipperary, Ardent, Fortune, Sparrowhawk and Turbulent were lost during the night fighting. Just after midnight on 1 June, the Thüringen and other German battleships sank the of the ill-fated 1st Cruiser Squadron, which had blundered into the German battle line. The Black Prince was overwhelmed by point-blank gunfire, and blew up with all hands (857 officers and men) as her squadron leader Defence had done hours earlier. Lost in the darkness, German battlecruisers Moltke and Seydlitz had similar point-blank encounters with the British battle line and were recognized, but were spared the fate of Black Prince when the captains of the British ships, again, declined to open fire, reluctant to reveal their fleet's position. At 01:45 the sinking battlecruiser Lützow, fatally damaged by Invincible during the main action, was torpedoed by the destroyer G38 on orders of Lützow's Captain Viktor von Harder after the surviving crew of 1,150 transferred to destroyers that came alongside. At 02:15 the German destroyer V4 suddenly had its bow blown off; V2 and V6 came alongside and took off the remaining crew and the V2 then sank the hulk. Since there was no enemy nearby it was assumed that she had hit a mine or a had been torpedoed by a submarine. At 02:15 five British ships of the 13th Destroyer Flotilla under Captain James Uchtred Farie regrouped and headed south. At 02:25 they sighted the rear of the German line. Marksman inquired of the leader Champion as to whether he thought they were British or German ships. Answering that he thought they were German, Farie then veered off to the east and away from the German line. All but Moresby in the rear followed, as through the gloom she sighted what she thought were four pre-dreadnought battleships 2 miles (4 km) away. She hoisted a flag signal indicating that the enemy was to the west and then closed to firing range, letting off a torpedo set for high-running at 02:37 then veering off to rejoin her flotilla. The four pre-dreadnought battleships were in fact two pre-dreadnoughts, Schleswig-Holstein and Schlesien, and the battlecruisers Von der Tann and Derfflinger. Von der Tann sighted the torpedo and was forced to steer hard a starboard to avoid it as it passed close to her bows. Moresby rejoined Champion convinced she had scored a hit. Finally, at 5:20, as Scheer's fleet was safely on its way home, the German battleship Ostfriesland struck a British mine on her starboard side, killing one man and wounding ten, but was able to make port. Seydlitz, critically damaged and very nearly sinking, barely survived the return voyage and after grounding and taking on even more water in the evening of 1 June, had to be assisted in to port stern first, where she dropped anchor at 07:30 on the morning of 2 June. The Germans were helped in their escape by the failure of the British admiralty in London to pass on seven critical radio intercepts obtained by naval intelligence indicating the true position, course and intentions of the High Seas Fleet during the night. One message was transmitted to Jellicoe which he received at 23:15 reporting accurately the German fleets course and speed as of 21:14. However the erroneous signal from earlier in the day reporting the German fleet still in port, and an intelligence signal received at 22.45 giving another unlikely position for the German fleet had reduced his confidence in intelligence reports. Had the other messages been forwarded, which confirmed the information received at 23:15, or had British ships reported accurately sightings and engagements with German destroyers, cruisers and battleships, then Jellicoe could have altered course to intercept Scheer at the Horns Reef. The unsent intercepted messages had been duly filed by the junior officer left on duty that night who failed to appreciate their significance. Marder p.148-151 By the time Jellicoe finally learned of Scheer's whereabouts at 04:15, Scheer was too far away to catch and it was clear that the battle could no longer be resumed. The outcome Assessments SMS Seydlitz was heavily damaged in the battle, hit by twenty-one heavy shells and one torpedo. 98 men were killed and 55 injured A crew member of SMS Westfalen At Jutland, the Germans, with a 99-strong fleet, sank 115,000 tons of British ships, while a 151-strong British fleet sank 62,000 tons of German ships. The British lost 6,094 seamen, the Germans 2,551. Several other ships were badly damaged, such as Lion and Seydlitz. On the other hand, the British fleet remained in control of the North Sea at the end of the battle. In tactical terms, most commentators regard Jutland either as a German victory or as indecisive. At a strategic level the outcome has been the subject of a huge literature, with no clear consensus. In the immediate aftermath, the view of the battle as indecisive was widely held, and remains influential. Despite numerical superiority, the British had been disappointed in their hopes for a decisive victory comparable to Trafalgar, and the central objective of the influential strategic doctrines of Alfred Mahan. The High Seas Fleet survived as a fleet in being. Most of its losses were made good within a month — even Seydlitz, the most badly damaged ship to survive the battle, was fully repaired by October and officially back in service by November. The Germans had failed in their objective of destroying a substantial portion of the British Fleet. No progress had been made towards the goal of allowing the High Seas Fleet to operate in the Atlantic Ocean. Subsequently, however, there has been considerable support for the view of Jutland as a strategic victory for the British. While the British had not destroyed the German fleet, and had lost more ships than their enemy, the Germans had retreated to harbour and at the end of the battle the British were in command of the area, notwithstanding their losses. The German fleet would only sortie twice more, on 18 August and in October 1916. Apart from these two (abortive) operations the High Seas Fleet – unwilling to risk another encounter with the British fleet – remained inactive for the duration of the war. Jutland thus ended the German challenge to British naval supremacy. A German naval expert, writing publicly about Jutland in November 1918 commented, Our Fleet losses were severe. On 1 June 1916 it was clear to every thinking person that this battle must, and would be, the last one. Marder III p.206 citing Captain Persius, Berliner Tageblatt, 18 November 1918 At the end of the battle the British had maintained their numerical superiority, and had twenty-three dreadnoughts ready and four battlecruisers still able to fight, while the Germans had ten. Even more to the point, as damaged dreadnoughts Warspite and Malaya went in for repairs, Queen Elizabeth and Emperor of India joined the fleet with Resolution and Ramillies soon to join. Princess Royal and Tiger in dockyard would be replaced by Australia. Far from being weakened, the Grand Fleet was within a month stronger than before sailing to Jutland. Moreover, the damaged British ships were restored to operational status more quickly than were the German, which offset in some respects the superior performance of the German forces. A third view, presented in a number of recent evaluations, is that Jutland, the last major fleet action between battleships, illustrated the irrelevance of battleship fleets following the development of the submarine, mine and torpedo. In this view, the most important consequence of Jutland was the subsequent decision of the Germans to engage in unrestricted submarine warfare. Although large numbers of battleships were constructed in the decades between the wars, it has been argued that this outcome reflected the social dominance, among naval decision-makers, of battleship advocates who constrained technological choices to fit traditional paradigms of fleet action. In the event, battleships played a relatively minor role in World War II, in which the aircraft carrier emerged as the dominant offensive weapon of naval warfare. British self critiques The official British Admiralty examination of the Grand Fleet's performance recognised two main problems: Their armour-piercing shells exploded outside the German armour rather than penetrating and exploding within. As a result some German ships with only 200 mm (8 inches) armour survived hits from 15-inch (381 mm) shells. Had these shells penetrated through the armour and then exploded, German losses would probably have been far greater. Communication between ships and the British commander-in-chief were comparatively poor. For most of the battle Jellicoe had no idea where the German ships were, even though British ships were in contact. They failed to report enemy positions, contrary to the Grand Fleet's Battle Plan. Some of the most important signalling was carried out solely by flag instead of wireless or using redundant methods to ensure communications— a questionable procedure given the mixture of haze and smoke that obscured the battlefield, and a foreshadowing of similar failures by habit-bound and conservatively-minded professional officers of rank to take advantage of new technology in World War II. Shell performance German armour-piercing shells were far more effective than the British shells, which often failed to penetrate heavy armour. Campbell, pp. 386-387 The issue particularly concerned shells striking at an oblique angle, which became increasingly the case at long range. Marder III p.170 The issue of poorly performing shells had been known to Jellicoe, who as third sea lord from 1908 to 1910 had ordered new shells to be designed. However, the matter had not been followed through after his posting to sea and new shells had never been thoroughly tested. 'Castles' p.61. Beatty discovered the problem at a party aboard 'Lion' a short time after the battle, where a Swedish Naval officer was present. He had recently visited Berlin, where the German navy had scoffed at how British shells had broken up on their ships armour. 'Castles' p. 668 The question of shell effectiveness had also been raised after the Battle of Dogger Bank, but no action had been taken. Marder III p.171 Hipper later commented, 'it was nothing but the poor quality of their bursting charges which saved us from disaster'. 'Castles' p. 671 citing Marder Vol. III p.81 Admiral Dreyer, writing later about the battle where he had been captain of the flagship, Iron Duke, estimated that effective shells as later introduced would have led to the sinking of 6 more German capital ships, based upon the actual number of hits achieved in the battle. Marder p. 169 The system of testing shells, which remained in use up to 1944, meant that statistically a batch of shells of which 70% were faulty stood an even chance of being accepted. Indeed, even shells which had failed this relatively mild test had still been issued to ships. Analysis of the test results afterwards by the ordinance board suggested the likelihood that 30-70% of shells would not have passed the standard penetration test specified by the admiralty. Marder III p. 171 Efforts to replace the shells were initially resisted by the admiralty and action was not taken until Jellicoe became first sea lord in December 1916. As an initial response the worst of the existing shells were withdrawn from ships in early 1917 and replaced from reserve supplies. Marder III, p.215 New shells were designed, but did not arrive until April 1918, and were never used in action. Battlecruiser losses The British battlecruisers were designed to chase down and destroy enemy cruisers from a range cruisers could not effectively reply from. They were not designed to be Ships of the Line and exchange broadsides with the enemy. Although one German and three British battlecruisers were sunk, none of them was destroyed by enemy shells penetrating the belt armour and detonating the magazines. Each of the British battlecruisers was penetrated through her turret roof and her magazines ignited by flash fires passing through the turret and shell handling rooms. Lützow sustained 24 hits, and her flooding could not be contained. She was eventually sunk by her escorts' torpedoes after her crew had been safely removed. Derfflinger and Seydlitz sustained 22 hits each but made it to port (though Seydlitz just barely). An impression was formed by Jellicoe, Beatty and other senior officers that the cause of the ships' loss had been their relatively weak armour. This led to calls for armour to be increased and an additional one inch (25 mm) was placed over the relatively thin decks above magazines. To compensate the increase in weight ships had to carry equivalently less fuel, water and other supplies. Whether or not thin deck armour was a potential weakness of British ships, the battle provided no evidence that it was the case. At least amongst the surviving ships, no enemy shell was found to have penetrated deck armour anywhere. Marder III p.218 The design of a new battlecruiser HMS Hood, which had just started building at the time of the battle, was altered to give her 5000 tons of additional armour. Marder III p. 219 Shell handling procedures British and German propellant charges differed in packaging, handling, and chemistry. British cordite propellant (handled in exposed silk bags) tended to burn violently, causing uncontrollable "flash fires" when ignited by nearby shell hits. German propellant (RP C/12, handled in brass cartridge cases) was less vulnerable and less volatile in composition. Campbell, pp. 377-378 British ships had inadequate protection against these flash fires. The Royal Navy also emphasized speed in ammunition handling over established safety protocol. By staging charges in the chambers between the gun turret and magazine, the Royal Navy enhanced their rate of fire but left their ships vulnerable to chain reaction ammunition fires and magazine explosions. Campbell, pp. 371-372 During the summer of 2003 a diving expedition examined the wrecks of Invincible, Queen Mary, Defence, and Lützow to investigate the cause of the British ships' tendency to suffer from internal explosions. From this evidence, a major part of the blame may be laid on lax handling of the cordite propellant for the shells of the main guns. This, in turn, was a product of contemporary British naval doctrine, which emphasized a rapid rate of fire in the direction of the enemy rather than slower, more accurate fire. In practice-drills, emphasizing speed of firing, the cordite could not be supplied to the guns rapidly enough through the hoists and hatches. In order to bring up the propellant in good time for the next broadside to be loaded, many safety doors which should have been kept shut to safeguard against flash fires were opened. Bags of cordite were also stocked and kept locally, creating a total breakdown of safety design features. This ‘bad safety habit’ carried over into real battle practices. Furthermore, the doctrine of a high rate of fire also led to the decision in 1913 to increase the supply of shells and cordite held on the British ships by 50 per cent, for fear of running out of ammunition. When this exceeded the capacity of the ships' magazines, cordite was stored in insecure places . There was a further difference in the propellant itself. While RP C/12 burned when exposed to fire, it did not explode, as opposed to cordite. RP C/12 was extensively studied by the British and, after WWI, would form the basis of the later Cordite SC. The memoirs of Alexander Grant, Gunner on Lion, suggest that some British officers were aware of the dangers of careless handling of cordite: Grant had already introduced measures onboard Lion to limit the number of cartridges kept outside the magazine and to ensure doors were kept closed, probably contributing to her survival. marder III p.174 After the battle the Admiralty produced a report critical of the cordite-handling practices. By this time Jellicoe had been promoted to First Sea Lord, and Beatty to command of the Grand Fleet. The report, which indirectly placed part of the blame for the disaster on the fleet's officers, was not widely distributed and effectively suppressed from public scrutiny. {Fact\|date=May 2008}} Gunnery British gunnery control systems, based on Dreyer tables were well in advance of the German ones, as demonstrated by the proportion of main calibre hits under manœuvre and were fitted to the majority of British capital ships by May, 1916. The Royal Navy used centralised fire control systems on their capital ships, directed from a point high up on the ship where fall of shells could best be seen, utilising a director sight for both training and elevating the guns. This had been installed on ships progressively as the war went on because of its demonstrated advantages, and was installed on the main guns of all but two of the Grand Fleet's capital ships. The German battlecruisers controlled the fire of turrets using a training-only director which also did not fire the guns at once. The rest of the German capital ships were without this innovation. German range finding equipment was generally superior to the British 9-foot (2.7 m) FT24, as its operators were trained to a higher standard due to the complexity of the Zeiss 3-metre rangefinders. Their stereoscopic design meant that in certain conditions they could range on a target enshrouded by smoke. Brooks, pp. 221-222 The German equipment was not superior in range to the British Barr & Stroud rangefinder found in the newest British capital ships, and unlike the British rangefinders, the German rangetakers had to be replaced as often as every thirty minutes as their eyesight became impaired, affecting the ranges provided to their gunnery equipment. Brooks, p. 223 The results of the battle confirmed the value of centralised director firing of guns. The Royal Navy was prompted to install director firing systems to cruisers and destroyers where it had not thus far been used, and to secondary armament on battleships. Marder III p.213-214 German ships were perceived to have been quicker in determining the correct range of enemy ships and thus obtained an early advantage. The British used a 'bracket system', whereby a salvo was fired at the best guess range and depending where it landed the range was progressively corrected up or down until successive shots were landing in front of and behind the enemy. The Germans used a 'ladder system' whereby an initial volley of three shots at different ranges was used, with the centre shot at the best guess range. The ladder system allowed the gunners to get ranging information from the three shots more quickly than the bracket system, which required waiting between shots to see how the last had landed. British ships adopted the German system. Marder III p.166, 214 It was determined that 9-foot (2.7 m) rangefinders of the sort issued to most British ships were not adequate at long range and did not perform as well as the 15-foot (4.5 m) rangefinders on some of the most modern ships. During 1917 rangefinders of base lengths of 25- and 30-feet (7.5 m and 9.0 m) were introduced on the battleships to improve accuracy. Marder p. 215 Signalling Throughout the battle British ships experienced difficulties with communications, whereas the Germans did not suffer such problems. The British preferred signalling by ship to ship flag and lamp signals, avoiding wireless, whereas the Germans used wireless successfully. One conclusion drawn was that flag signals were not a satisfactory way to control the fleet. Experience using lamps, particularly at night when issuing challenges to other ships, demonstrated this was an excellent way to advertise your precise location to an enemy, inviting a reply by gunfire. Recognition signals by lamp once seen could also easily be copied in future engagements. Marder III p.175-176 British ships both failed to report engagements with the enemy, but also in the case of cruisers and destroyers failed to actively seek out the enemy. A culture had arisen within the fleet of not acting without orders, which could prove fatal when any circumstances prevented orders being sent or received. Commanders failed to engage the enemy because they believed other more senior officers must also be aware of the enemy nearby, and would have given orders to act if this was expected. Wireless, the most direct way to pass messages across the fleet (although it was being jammed by German ships) was avoided either for perceived reasons of not giving away the presence of ships, or for fear of cluttering up the airwaves with unnecessary reports. Marder III p.176-178 Fleet Standing Orders Naval operations were governed by standing orders issued to all the ships. These attempted to set out what ships should do in all circumstances, particularly in situations where ships would have to react without referring to higher authority, or when communications failed. A number of changes were introduced as a result of experience gained in the battle. A new signal was introduced instructing squadron commanders to act independently as they thought best while still supporting the main fleet, particularly for use when circumstances would make it difficult to send detailed orders. The description stressed that this was not intended to be the only time commanders might take independent action, but was intended to make plain times when they definitely should. Similarly, instructions on what to do if the fleet was instructed to take evasive action against torpedoes were amended. Commanders were given discretion that if their part of the fleet was not under immediate attack, they should continue engaging the enemy rather than turning away with the rest of the fleet. In this battle, when the fleet turned away from Scheer's destroyer attack covering his retreat, not all the British ships had been affected, and could have continued to engage the enemy more closely. MarderIII p.222 A number of opportunities to attack enemy ship by torpedo had presented themselves but been missed. All ships, not just the destroyers armed principally with torpedoes but also battleships, were reminded that they carried torpedoes intended to be used whenever an opportunity arose. Destroyers were instructed to close the enemy fleet to fire torpedoes as soon as engagements between the main ships on either side would keep enemy guns busy directed at larger targets. Destroyers should also be ready to immediately engage enemy destroyers if they should launch an attack, endeavouring to disrupt their chances of launching torpedoes and keep them away from the main fleet. Marder III p.224-225 A new signal was provided for deploying the fleet to the centre, rather than as previously only either to left or right of the standard closed-up formation for travelling, to add some flexibility when deploying for attack. The fast and powerful 5th Battle Squadron was moved to the front of the cruising formation so it would have the option of deploying left or right depending upon the enemy position. In the event of engagements at night, although the fleet still preferred to avoid night fighting, a destroyer and cruiser squadron would be specifically detailed to seek out the enemy and launch destroyer attacks. Marder III p.226 Controversy At the time Jellicoe was criticised for his caution and for allowing Scheer to escape. Massie, p. 631 Beatty in particular was convinced that Jellicoe had missed a tremendous opportunity to win another Trafalgar and annihilate the High Seas Fleet. Massie, p. 670 Jellicoe was promoted away from active command to become the professional head of the Royal Navy, First Sea Lord, while Beatty replaced him as commander of the British Grand Fleet. The controversy raged within the Navy and in public for about a decade after the war. Criticism focused on Jellicoe's decision at 19:15. Scheer had ordered his cruisers and destroyers forward in a torpedo attack to cover the turning away of his battleships. Jellicoe chose to turn away to the southeast and so keep out of range of the torpedoes. If Jellicoe had instead turned to the west, could his ships have dodged the torpedoes and destroyed the German fleet? Supporters of Jellicoe, including the historian Cyril Falls, pointed out the folly of risking defeat in battle when you already have command of the sea. Jellicoe himself, in a letter to the Admiralty months before the battle, had stated that he intended to turn his fleet away from any mass torpedo attack (that being the universally accepted proper tactical response to such attacks, practiced by all the major navies of the world), and that in the event of a fleet engagement in which the enemy turned away he would assume that the intention was to draw him over mines or submarines and that he would decline to be so drawn. The Admiralty approved this plan and expressed full confidence in Jellicoe at the time (Oct. 1914). Massie, p. 632 The stakes were very high, the pressure on Jellicoe was immense, and his caution is certainly understandable — his judgment might have been that even 90% odds in favour were not good enough on which to bet the British Empire. The former First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill said of the battle that Jellicoe "was the only man on either side who could have lost the war in an afternoon.". The criticism of Jellicoe also fails to give enough credit to Scheer, who was determined to preserve his fleet by avoiding the superior firepower of the full British battle line, and who showed great skill in effecting his escape. Beatty's actions On the other hand some of Jellicoe's supporters condemned the actions of Admiral Beatty for the British failure to achieve a complete victory. Although Beatty was undeniably a brave man, his mismanagement of the initial encounter with Hipper's squadron and the High Seas Fleet cost the British considerable advantage in the first hours of the battle. His most glaring failure was in not providing Jellicoe with periodic information on the position, course and speed of the High Seas Fleet. Beatty, aboard the battlecruiser Lion, left behind the four fast battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron--the most powerful warships in the world at the time--engaging with six ships when better control would have given him ten against Hipper’s five. Though Beatty's larger 13.5 inch (343 mm) guns outranged Hipper's 11 inch (280 mm) and 12 inch (305 mm) guns by thousands of meters, Beatty held his fire for 10 minutes and closed the enemy squadron until within range of the Germans' superior gunnery, under lighting conditions that favored the Germans. Most of the British losses in tonnage occurred in Beatty's force. Losses British Battlecruisers Indefatigable, Queen Mary, Invincible Armoured cruisers Black Prince, Warrior, Defence Flotilla Leaders Tipperary Destroyers Shark, Sparrowhawk, Turbulent, Ardent, Fortune, Nomad, Nestor German Battlecruiser Lützow Pre-Dreadnought Pommern Light cruisers Frauenlob, Elbing, Rostock, Wiesbaden (Heavy Torpedo-Boats) Destroyers V48, S35, V27, V4, V29 Selected honours The Victoria Cross is the highest military decoration awarded for valour "in the face of the enemy" to members of the British Empire armed forces. The Ordre pour le Mérite was the Kingdom of Prussia and consequently the German Empire's highest military order until the end of the First World War. Victoria Cross The Hon. Edward Barry Stewart Bingham (HMS Nestor) John Travers Cornwell (HMS Chester) Francis John William Harvey (HMS Lion) Loftus William Jones (HMS Shark) Pour le Mérite Reinhard Scheer Franz Hipper Status of the survivors and wrecks On the 90th anniversary of the battle, in 2006, the Ministry of Defence announced that the 14 British vessels lost in the battle were being designated as protected places under the Protection of Military Remains Act. The last living veteran of the battle is Henry Allingham, a British RAF (originally RNAS) airman, aged 112. One ship survives and is still in commission as a Royal Naval Reserve depot in Belfast, Northern Ireland: the light cruiser HMS Caroline. Citations and notes References Further reading External links Beatty's official report Jellicoe's official despatch Jellicoe, extract from The Grand Fleet, published 1919 Primary Documents - British Report on the Battle of Jutland, 24 June 1916. Jellicoe's report Scheer, Germany's High Seas Fleet in the World War, published 1920 Henry Allingham Last known survivor of the Battle of Jutland. Jutland Casualties Listed by Ship Notable accounts by Rudyard Kipling by Alexander Grant, a gunner aboard HMS Lionby Moritz von Egidy, captain of SMS Seydlitzby Richard Foerster, gunnery officer on Seydlitzby Georg von Hase, gunnery officer on Derfflinger'' Note that due to the time zone difference, the times in some of the German accounts are two hours ahead of the times in this article.	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