what policy is generally considered important based on the logic of democratic-peace theory
market - oriented development
2456214
refers in particular to the Swiss practice of participatory democracy. Mousseau (2000, 2005) argues that it is market-oriented development that creates the norms and values that explain both democracy and the peace. In less developed countries individuals often depend on social networks that impose conformity to in-group norms and beliefs, and loyalty to group leaders. When jobs are plentiful on the market, in contrast, as in market-oriented developed countries, individuals depend on a strong state that enforces contracts equally. Cognitive routines emerge of abiding by state law rather than group leaders, and, as in contracts, tolerating differences among individuals. Voters
Democratic peace theory
2456273
factors are also important (Russett 1995). Research supporting the theory has also shown that factors such as alliance ties and major power status influence interstate conflict behavior . The democratic peace theory has been extremely divisive among political scientists. It is rooted in the idealist and classical liberalist traditions and is opposed to the previously dominant theory of realism. However, democratic peace theory has come to be more widely accepted and has in some democracies effected policy change. In the United States, presidents from both major parties have expressed support for the theory. In his 1994 State of the Union
Democratic peace theory
6988207
the strategies are closely related, there are two important distinctions to be made between them: Typically, the logic-based approach has been used in fields such as philosophy, logic and AI, while the event-based approach is more often used in fields such as game theory and mathematical economics. In the logic-based approach, a syntax and semantics have been built using the language of modal logic, which we will now describe. The basic modal operator of epistemic logic, usually written "K", can be read as "it is known that," "it is epistemically necessary that," or "it is inconsistent with what is known
Epistemic modal logic
93084
than those nations. Research on the democratic peace theory has generally found that democracies, including the United States, have not made war on one another. There have been U.S. support for coups against some democracies, but for example Spencer R. Weart argues that part of the explanation was the perception, correct or not, that these states were turning into Communist dictatorships. Also important was the role of rarely transparent United States government agencies, who sometimes mislead or did not fully implement the decisions of elected civilian leaders. Empirical studies (see democide) have found that democracies, including the United States, have
Foreign policy of the United States
12437257
very different from Aristotle's term logic. Later, Chrysippus developed a system that became known as Stoic logic and included a deductive system, Stoic Syllogistic, which was considered a rival to Aristotle's Syllogistic (see Syllogism). New interest in Stoic logic came in the 20th century, when important developments in logic were based on propositional logic. Susanne Bobzien wrote, "The many close similarities between Chrysippus' philosophical logic and that of Gottlob Frege are especially striking." Bobzien also notes that "Chrysippus wrote over 300 books on logic, on virtually any topic logic today concerns itself with, including speech act theory, sentence analysis, singular
Stoicism
268185
to construct free algebras. An equational class is a class of structures which, like the examples above and many others, is defined as the class of all σ-structures which satisfy a certain set of identities. Birkhoff's theorem states: An important non-trivial tool in universal algebra are ultraproducts formula_1, where "I" is an infinite set indexing a system of σ-structures "A", and "U" is an ultrafilter on "I". While model theory is generally considered a part of mathematical logic, universal algebra, which grew out of Alfred North Whitehead's (1898) work on abstract algebra, is part of algebra. This is reflected by
Model theory
2456241
of important novel facts. In contrast, the supporters of the "degenerative" program do not make important new empirical discoveries, but instead mostly apply adjustments to their theory in order to defend it from competitors. Some researchers argue that democratic peace theory is now the "progressive" program in international relations. According to these authors, the theory can explain the empirical phenomena previously explained by the earlier dominant research program, realism in international relations; in addition, the initial statement that democracies do not, or rarely, wage war on one another, has been followed by a rapidly growing literature on novel empirical regularities.
Democratic peace theory
2990619
he to use one of them in the definition of truth itself. Tarski's semantic conception of truth plays an important role in modern logic and also in much contemporary philosophy of language. It is a rather controversial matter whether Tarski's semantic theory should be counted either as a correspondence theory or as a deflationary theory. Kripke's theory of truth (Saul Kripke 1975) is based on partial logic (a logic of partially defined truth predicates instead of Tarski's logic of totally defined truth predicates) with the strong Kleene evaluation scheme. Semantic theory of truth A semantic theory of truth is a
Semantic theory of truth
13042969
influence the policies of a state, got out of focus. These organisations could be various NGOs for example, the Socialist International, Amnesty International or religious groups among others. In this volume an outlook on methodology and theory of transnational relations and their impact on domestic policy is developed. Another work of reference of this period is “Die Macht der Menschenrechte” (The Power of Human Rights). Based on liberal theory and democratic peace, Risse looks at international norms, speech acts and political change in the South. Whereby the main focus is laid on the realisation of human rights. His core theory
Thomas Risse
5770660
and bureaucratic politics are not what shape American foreign policy. Instead, he states that the undisputed power of the U.S. President is what ultimately leads to the foreign policy decisions "Are Bureaucracies Important?" (1972). He also states that bureaucratic politics are dangerous and misleading, “because it undermines the assumptions of democratic politics by relieving high-ranking officials of responsibility” (1972). Bureaucratic theorists see the collective decisions of smaller actors in the bureaucratic procedure as what influences the foreign policy, not the decisions of the high-ranking executive officials. But Krasner argues that it is a dangerous theory because it gives leaders excuses
Stephen D. Krasner
20669810
a style of quantification based on cost benefir or risk analysis which - in the opinion of QST proponents - may contain important implicit normative assumptions. In the logic of QST, a single quantification corresponding to a single view of what the problem is runs the risk of distracting from what could be alternative readings. Alternative frames (Ravetz, 1987 ; Rayner, 2012) may represent ‘uncomfortable knowledge’, which is removed from the policy discourse. Thus, extensive mathematical modelling in EBP to support a given policy may lead to a simplification of the available perceptions and generate - rather than resolve –
Quantitative storytelling
10959054
reformism perspective on democratization agree with Francis Fukuyama, who asserts that the role of CSOs in directing the part of individuals' lives not under the liberal democratic state's control makes CSOs critical to sustaining the social capital and self-advocacy important for liberal democracy. Even beyond the question of what and whether external intervention is an effective democracy support strategy, a number of issues continue to divide the proponents of a democracy support-based international policy. Carles Boix and Susan Stokes advocate economic development aid, contending that the more advanced an economy, the less willing factions will be to break the peace;
Democracy promotion
15940901
Pinhas Wallerstein, former secretary general of the Yesha Council. Elyakim Haetzni, an Israeli lawyer, pro-settlement activist and former right wing politician, wrote that price tag is "an infuriating term in terms of both morality and logic", and called it a "despicable method". Former mayor of Kedumim Daniella Weiss, whom senior political and military figures reportedly believed was behind much of the settler violence classified as price tag actions after the evacuation of Beit HaShalom, is on record as rejecting the policy, saying that it had diverted settlers from what she considered to be their most important task – setting up
Price tag policy
702116
Three significant contributions of the Stoic school were (i) their account of modality, (ii) their theory of the Material conditional, and (iii) their account of meaning and truth. The works of Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Al-Ghazali, Averroes and other Muslim logicians were based on Aristotelian logic and were important in communicating the ideas of the ancient world to the medieval West. Al-Farabi (Alfarabi) (873–950) was an Aristotelian logician who discussed the topics of future contingents, the number and relation of the categories, the relation between logic and grammar, and non-Aristotelian forms of inference. Al-Farabi also considered the theories of conditional syllogisms
History of logic
1824957
narcotics trade. In a dialog with BBC's "Talking Point", Uribe stated: "Of course we need to eliminate social injustice in Colombia but what is first? Peace. Without peace, there is no investment. Without investment, there are no fiscal resources for the government to invest in the welfare of the people." His security program was based on a policy of democratic security, aiming to: The policy intended to achieve these goals by: In early 2002, Uribe's administration decreed a one-time tax of 1.2% of the liquid assets of the higher income Colombians and corporations, with the goal of raising US $800
Álvaro Uribe
2456257
of the authors listed argues that free trade alone causes peace. Even so, the issue of whether free trade or democracy is more important in maintaining peace may have potentially significant practical consequences, for example on evaluating the effectiveness of applying economic sanctions and restrictions to autocratic countries. It was Michael Doyle (1983, 1997) who reintroduced Kant's three articles into democratic peace theory. He argued that a pacific union of liberal states has been growing for the past two centuries. He denies that a pair of states will be peaceful simply because they are both liberal democracies; if that were
Democratic peace theory
4111770
and contend that Muslim Americans have ties to terrorist organizations and want to institute Sharia law in the United States. In November 2016, the Project posted a 2010 speech given by U.S. Rep. Keith Ellison, who is being considered to lead the Democratic National Committee, in which he said that United States foreign policy in the Middle East "is governed by what is good or bad through a country of 7 million people. A region of 350 million all turns on a country of 7 million. Does that make sense? Is that logic?" According to an article in the Middle
Steven Emerson
8223558
abstract, pre-linguistic procedure detailing what operations to apply to what procedural constituents to arrive at the product (if any) of the procedure. TIL procedures, known as "constructions", are hyperintensionally individuated. Construction is the single most important notion of Transparent Intensional Logic, being a philosophically well-motivated and formally worked-out conception of Frege’s notion of mode of presentation. Constructions, and the entities they construct, are organized into a ramified type theory incorporating a simple type theory. The semantics is tailored to the hardest case, as constituted by hyperintensional contexts, and generalized from there to intensional and extensional contexts. The underlying logic is
Transparent Intensional Logic
2183631
theory of timeless meaning in his sixth Logic and Conversation lecture. A more influential attempt to expand on this component of intention-based semantics has been given by Stephen Schiffer. Grice's most influential contribution to philosophy and linguistics is his theory of implicature, which started in his 1961 article, 'The Causal Theory of Perception', and was most fully developed in his 1967 "Logic and Conversation", at Harvard's 'William James Lectures'. According to Grice, what a speaker means by an utterance can be divided into what the speaker "says" and what the speaker thereby "implicates". Grice makes it clear that the notion
Paul Grice
895151
outcome of the Gulf War and United States foreign policy under Bill Clinton, sparking them to call for change towards global stability through their support for active intervention and the democratic peace theory. Several central persons in the counsel to the George W. Bush administration considered themselves to be neoconservatives or strongly support their foreign policy ideas. Neoconservatives are widely known to long have supported the overthrow of Saddam Hussein in Iraq, and on January 26, 1998, the Project for the New American Century (PNAC) sent a public letter to then-President Bill Clinton stating: Among the signatories to PNAC's original
Bush Doctrine
493925
have the same views of gender and gender roles. Newman also debates the meaning of equality, which is often considered the goal of feminism; she believes that "equality" is a problematic term because it can mean many different things, such as people being treated identically, differently, or fairly based on their gender. Newman believes this is problematic because there is no unified definition as to what equality means or looks like, and that this can be significantly important in areas like public policy. Sociologists generally regard gender as a social construct, and various researchers, including many feminists, consider sex to
Gender
2456180
Democratic peace theory Democratic peace theory is a theory which posits that democracies are hesitant to engage in armed conflict with other identified democracies. In contrast to theories explaining war engagement, it is a "theory of peace" outlining motives that dissuade state-sponsored violence. Some theorists prefer terms such as "mutual democratic pacifism" or "inter-democracy nonaggression hypothesis" so as to clarify that a state of peace is not singular to democracies, but rather that it is easily sustained between democratic nations. Among proponents of the democratic peace theory, several factors are held as motivating peace between democratic states: Those who dispute
Democratic peace theory
2018671
the most important intellectual influence on the legal realists was the thought of the American jurist and Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. Holmes is a towering figure in American legal thought for many reasons, but what the realists drew most from Holmes was his famous prediction theory of law, his utilitarian approach to legal reasoning, and his "realist" insistence that judges, in deciding cases, are not simply deducing legal conclusions with inexorable, machine-like logic, but are influenced by ideas of fairness, public policy, and other personal and conventional values. All these themes can be found in Holmes's famous
Legal realism
5016897
Through times of war and rebellion, peace and estrangement, as well as becoming friends and allies, Britain and the US cemented these deeply rooted links during World War II into what is known as the "Special Relationship." In long-term perspective, the historian Paul Johnson has called it the "cornerstone of the modern, democratic world order". In the early 20th century, the United Kingdom affirmed its relationship with the United States as its "most important bilateral partnership" in the current British foreign policy, and the American foreign policy also affirms its relationship with Britain as its most important relationship, as evidenced
United Kingdom–United States relations
18720688
symbolic logic are examples of formal logic. However, agreement on what logic is has remained elusive, and although the field of universal logic has studied the common structure of logics, in 2007 Mossakowski et al. commented that "it is embarrassing that there is no widely acceptable formal definition of 'a logic'". Logic is generally considered formal when it analyzes and represents the "form" of any valid argument type. The form of an argument is displayed by representing its sentences in the formal grammar and symbolism of a logical language to make its content usable in formal inference. Simply put, to
Logic
3951468
most foundational model of interest. Corresponding results for other data models, such as object-oriented or semi-structured models, or, more recently, graph data models and XML, are often derivable from those for the relational model. A central focus of database theory is on understanding the complexity and power of query languages and their connection to logic. Starting from relational algebra and first-order logic (which are equivalent by Codd's theorem) and the insight that important queries such as graph reachability are not expressible in this language, more powerful language based on logic programming and fixpoint logic such as datalog were studied. Another
Database theory
15994977
agents’ movement is driven by vision and enabled by access. Alasdair’s work on spatial analysis constitutes the foundation of the agent model and supports research in space syntax theory. The theory was initially established by Bill Hillier and Julienne Hanson in their book "The Social Logic of Space". Space syntax theory was based on a graph-based representation of the spatial network in buildings and cities and what this implies in terms of the social logic of movement and occupation. The nodes in the graph representation are namely the axial lines and convex spaces. Together with Alan Penn, David O'Sullivan and
Alasdair Turner
2261940
and demonstrated Rummel's "unrelenting" economic liberalism and "extreme" views on defense policy. Nils Petter thought these elements may have distracted readers from Rummel's more conventionally acceptable propositions. (Quotations from Nils Petter Gleditsch: "Democracy and Peace" (1995), a paper that warmly defends the existence of democratic peace, and asserts that it, and the difficulty distant states have in waging war against each other, fully account for the phenomena.) Rummel's version of the democratic peace theory has some distinctive features disputed by some other researchers who support the existence and explanatory power of the democratic peace: Rummel did not always apply his
Rudolph Rummel
614880
that democratic peace theorists tend to pick and choose the definition of democracy to achieve the desired empirical result. For example, the Germany of Kaiser Wilhelm II, the Dominican Republic of Juan Bosch, and the Chile of Salvador Allende are not considered to be "democracies of the right kind" or the conflicts do not qualify as wars according to these theorists. Furthermore, they claim several wars between democratic states have been averted only by causes other than ones covered by democratic peace theory. Advocates of democratic peace theory see the spreading of democracy as helping to mitigate the effects of
Neorealism (international relations)
373210
Foreign relations of Seychelles Seychelles follows a policy of what it describes as "positive" nonalignment and strongly supports the principle of reduced superpower presence in the Indian Ocean. The Seychelles government is one of the proponents of the Indian Ocean zone of peace concept and it has promoted an end to the United States presence on Diego Garcia. The country has adopted a pragmatic policy, however, and serves as an important rest and recreation stop for US ships serving in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. Seychelles' foreign policy position has placed it generally toward the left of the spectrum
Foreign relations of Seychelles
2456228
little evidence that democracy causes peace. Azar Gat (2017) argues that it is not democracy in itself that leads to peace but other aspects of modernization, such as economic prosperity and lower population growth. The hypothesis that peace causes democracy is supported by psychological and cultural theories. Christian Welzel's human empowerment theory posits that existential security leads to emancipative cultural values and support for a democratic political organization. This is in agreement with theories based on evolutionary psychology. Several studies fail to confirm that democracies are less likely to wage war than autocracies if wars against non-democracies are included. Some
Democratic peace theory
6351062
in non-Scientology contexts as well, such as in social or office situations. This can actually wreak havoc for a member of the public hears the word "communication" coming from a Scientologist and he thinks he understands what "communication" means but the word "communication" in Scientology is a highly "technical" term which has very little to do with what is generally considered communication. "Communication" is not the only word that has a special meaning in Scientology but it is the most important one. There are other words such as "technology", "administration", "logic", "ethics", "control", etc. that have a specially unique meaning
Scientology terminology
6889842
of arms race. Here the theory draws on four important concepts in international relations theory broadly defined. These are the "conflict spiral" (such as Holsti 1972); and the "arms race dynamics" (pioneered by Richardson 1960a); and the "security dilemma" (notably Herz 1950, Jervis 1997). The fourth concept is less understood but equally important is the "peace paradox" (often a feature of the peace system, Choucri in collaboration with North 1975), namely that initiatives by one of the adversaries to reduce hostilities, and de-escalate violence—to make peace signals—could be considered by the other as a sign of weakness and thus an
Lateral pressure theory
4136196
Gateway drug theory Gateway drug theory (alternatively, stepping-stone theory, escalation hypothesis, or progression hypothesis) is a comprehensive catchphrase for the theory that the use of a psychoactive drug can be coupled to an increased probability of the use of further drugs. Possible causes are biological alterations in the brain due to the earlier drug and similar attitudes of users across different drugs ("common liability to addiction"). Scientific investigation of the possible causes is considered important for health policy concerning education and law making. The concept of "gateway drug" is based on observations that the sequence of first-time use of different
Gateway drug theory
1801242
in the mind without words, it is rather called a judgement; but when clothed with words it is called a proposition". Watts' "Logic" follows the scholastic tradition and divides propositions into universal affirmative, universal negative, particular affirmative, and particular negative. In the third part, Watts discusses reasoning and argumentation, with particular emphasis on the theory of syllogism. This was considered a centrally important part of classical logic. According to Watts, and in keeping with logicians of his day, Watts defined logic as an art (see liberal arts), as opposed to a science. Throughout "Logic," Watts revealed his high conception of
Isaac Watts
6266813
of the international system, Waltz argues. Simply changing the domestic political structure of countries will not eliminate war, Waltz notes. However, “democracies seldom fight democracies”, although democracies are more likely to initiate wars against non-democracies because the former believes the latter must become democratized so as to make the democratic peace more robust. Thus, the spread of democracy can decrease the amount of war in the world in Waltz’s view. The second challenge to realist theory argues that economic interdependence promotes peace. Waltz believes this causal logic is backward: Peace can promote economic interdependence. Peace abounds when a political monopoly
Polarity (international relations)
20938887
of denial. (8) the logic of the induction of John Stuart Mill. (9) Three conceptions of logic in the passage from the nineteenth to the twentieth century: Gottlob Frege, John Dewey and Edmund Husserl, logic within analysis, pragmatism, and phenomenology. (10) The case of Charles Sanders Peirce: what the official story took and what it didn't analyze. Cabrera also develops a negative approach to argumentation in the field of informal logic, a pessimistic parallel theory to his negative ethics. For him, an affirmative approach to argumentation is one in which philosophical problems are considered to have one solution or at
Julio Cabrera (philosopher)
4098127
Classical mathematics In the foundations of mathematics, classical mathematics refers generally to the mainstream approach to mathematics, which is based on classical logic and ZFC set theory. It stands in contrast to other types of mathematics such as constructive mathematics or predicative mathematics. In practice, the most common non-classical systems are used in constructive mathematics. Classical mathematics is sometimes attacked on philosophical grounds, due to constructivist and other objections to the logic, set theory, etc., chosen as its foundations, such as have been expressed by L. E. J. Brouwer. Almost all mathematics, however, is done in the classical tradition, or
Classical mathematics
2456282
in the public eye, when the 2012 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the European Union, for its role in creating peace in Europe. Democratic peace theory Democratic peace theory is a theory which posits that democracies are hesitant to engage in armed conflict with other identified democracies. In contrast to theories explaining war engagement, it is a "theory of peace" outlining motives that dissuade state-sponsored violence. Some theorists prefer terms such as "mutual democratic pacifism" or "inter-democracy nonaggression hypothesis" so as to clarify that a state of peace is not singular to democracies, but rather that it is easily
Democratic peace theory
2456277
for democracy." R. J. Rummel is a notable proponent of war for the purpose of spreading democracy, based on this theory. Some point out that the democratic peace theory has been used to justify the 2003 Iraq War, others argue that this justification was used only after the war had already started (Russett 2005). Furthermore, Weede (2004) has argued that the justification is extremely weak, because forcibly democratizing a country completely surrounded by non-democracies, most of which are full autocracies, as Iraq was, is at least as likely to increase the risk of war as it is to decrease it
Democratic peace theory
2456220
large public opinion for these actions. In disputes between liberal states, the credibility of their bargaining signals allows them to negotiate a peaceful settlement before mobilization. An explanation based on game theory similar to the last two above is that the participation of the public and the open debate send clear and reliable information regarding the intentions of democracies to other states. In contrast, it is difficult to know the intentions of nondemocratic leaders, what effect concessions will have, and if promises will be kept. Thus there will be mistrust and unwillingness to make concessions if at least one of
Democratic peace theory
1704894
paleoconservatives, Democrats, liberals, progressives, realists, or libertarians. Critics take issue with neoconservatives' support for interventionistic foreign policy. Critics from the left take issue with what they characterize as unilateralism and lack of concern with international consensus through organizations such as the United Nations. Critics from both the left and right have assailed neoconservatives for the role Israel plays in their policies on the Middle East. Neoconservatives respond by describing their shared opinion as a belief that national security is best attained by actively promoting freedom and democracy abroad as in the democratic peace theory through the endorsement of democracy, foreign
Neoconservatism
2456240
to conquest because the rulers in those states were too heavily constrained. Absolutist rulers in other states could however operate more effectively. Democratic peace theory is a well established research field with more than a hundred authors having published articles about it. Several peer-reviewed studies mention in their introduction that most researchers accept the theory as an empirical fact. Imre Lakatos suggested that what he called a "progressive research program" is better than a "degenerative" one when it can explain the same phenomena as the "degenerative" one, but is also characterized by growth of its research field and the discovery
Democratic peace theory
13420052
English scholastic philosopher, logician, and teacher. Little is known of his life, but he is thought to have studied in Paris and he was a master at Oxford in 1252. He was the author of two books which were an important influence on the development of scholastic logic: "Introductiones in Logicam" (Introduction to Logic), and "Syncategoremata". These are the first known works to deal in a systematic way with what is now called supposition theory, and were influential on the development of logic in both England and on the continent. According to Roger Bacon, Sherwood was among "the more famous
British philosophy
5065710
fault with the logic or empirical claims of Florida's Creative Class theory. This body of critical empirical research demonstrates how the Creative Class thesis, and the associated creative city policy prescriptions, in fact exacerbate social and economic inequalities in cities in North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia. Jamie Peck argues that the Creative Class theory offers no causal mechanism and suffers from circular logic. John Montgomery writes that "what Florida has devised is a set of indices which simply mirror more fundamental truths about creative milieux or dynamic cities." Montgomery also disagrees with the cities that Florida designates as most
Creative class
5312055
H. Carr, whose "The Twenty Years' Crisis" (1939) both coined the term 'idealist' and was a fierce and effective assault on the inter-war idealists. Idealism is centered on the notion that states are rational actors capable of ensuring lasting peace and security rather than resorting to war. Idealism is also marked by the prominent role played by international law and international organizations in its conception of policy formation. One of the most well-known tenets of modern idealist thinking is democratic peace theory, which holds that states with similar modes of democratic governance do not fight one another. Wilson's idealistic thought
Idealism in international relations
2456234
produced a revised set of data. Maoz and Russett (1993) made several criticisms to the Polity I and II data sets, which have mostly been addressed in later versions. These criticisms are generally considered minor issues. The most comprehensive critique points out that "democracy" is rarely defined, never refers to substantive democracy, is unclear about causation, has been refuted in more than 100 studies, fails to account for some 200 deviant cases, and has been promoted ideologically to justify one country seeking to expand democracy abroad (Haas 2014). Most studies treat the complex concept of "democracy" is a bivariate variable
Democratic peace theory
4365633
theory, or any other theory with an infinite model. Speaking of the impact of Skolem's paradox, he wrote, Zermelo at first considered the Skolem paradox a hoax (van Dalen and Ebbinghaus, 2000, p. 148 ff.), and spoke against it starting in 1929. Skolem's result applies only to what is now called first-order logic, but Zermelo argued against the finitary metamathematics that underlie first-order logic (Kanamori 2004, p. 519 ff.). Zermelo argued that his axioms should instead be studied in second-order logic, a setting in which Skolem's result does not apply. Zermelo published a second-order axiomatisation in 1930 and proved several
Skolem's paradox
871381
prosperity. Various versions of the theory suggest that this is either an inevitability (standard dependency theory), or use the theory to highlight the necessity for change (Neo-Marxist). As a level of analysis the unit level is often referred to as the state level, as it locates its explanation at the level of the state, rather than the international system. It is often considered that a state's form of government can dictate the way that a state interacts with others in the international relation. Democratic peace theory is a theory that suggests that the nature of democracy means that democratic countries
International relations
7368175
on the effects of policies emerges as a serious issue. Therefore, it is important to approach the planning and budgeting cycle in a holistic and integrated way, with collaboration across the areas of policy design, performance measures definition and policy evaluation. From a conceptual point of view, performance-based budgeting systems are a sub-set of what are known as 'outcomes systems'. Outcomes systems are any systems designed to identify, prioritize, measure, attribute and/or hold parties to account for outcomes. The technical principles for developing and implementing sound performance-based budgeting systems as a type of outcomes system are described in outcomes theory.
Performance-based budgeting
16821592
the decision to delegate to European institutions. Not only is this explained as a mechanism to ensure member states comply with treaty obligations, but employing similar logic as that used in the ICB debates he makes a defence against democratic deficit arguments which advocate a directly elected European Commission. Much in the same way as in the ICB debate democratic pressures are seen as impacting negatively on what is a primarily regulatory institution and as such for Majone the Commission should be insulated from democratic pressures if it is to fulfil its functions effectively. A delegation (of Latin deputatione) is,
Delegation Theory
5533099
but they represent three different levels of biological organization. It has also been suggested (for example, in Jean Piaget's 1918 work "Recherche") that the unity of science can be considered in terms of a circle of the sciences, where logic is the foundation for mathematics, which is the foundation for mechanics and physics, and physics is the foundation for chemistry, which is the foundation for biology, which is the foundation for sociology, the moral sciences, psychology, and the theory of knowledge, and the theory of knowledge is based on logic. The thesis of a unity of science simply says that
Unity of science
14857588
from statistical physics, information theory and non-linear dynamics; however, such approaches are not focused on, or do not include, the conceptual part of complexity related to organization and topological attributes or algebraic topology, such as network connectivity of genomes, interactomes and biological organisms that are very important. Recently, the two complementary approaches based both on information theory, network topology/abstract graph theory concepts are being combined for example in the fields of neuroscience and human cognition. It is generally agreed that there is a hierarchy of complexity levels of organization that should be considered as distinct from that of the levels
Complex systems biology
2456246
that similarity in general does not solely affect the probability of war, but only coherence of strong political regimes such as full democracies and stark autocracies. Autocratic peace and the explanation based on political similarity is a relatively recent development, and opinions about its value are varied. Henderson (2002) builds a model considering political similarity, geographic distance and economic interdependence as its main variables, and concludes that democratic peace is a statistical artifact which disappears when the above variables are taken into account. Werner (2000) finds a conflict reducing effect from political similarity in general, but with democratic dyads being
Democratic peace theory
2937400
Different intuitionistic variants of linear logic have been considered. When based on a single-conclusion sequent calculus presentation, like in ILL (Intuitionistic Linear Logic), the connectives ⅋, ⊥, and ? are absent, and linear implication is treated as a primitive connective. In FILL (Full Intuitionistic Linear Logic) the connectives ⅋, ⊥, and ? are present, linear implication is a primitive connective and, similarly to what happens in intuitionistic logic, all connectives (except linear negation) are independent. There are also first- and higher-order extensions of linear logic, whose formal development is somewhat standard (see first-order logic and higher-order logic). Linear logic Linear
Linear logic
8699623
regard to the truth-conditions of sentences and the references of terms. They did not believe that the social and practical dimensions of linguistic meaning could be captured by any attempts at formalization using the tools of logic. Logic is one thing and language is something entirely different. What is important is not expressions themselves but what people use them to do in communication. Hence, Austin developed a theory of speech acts, which described the kinds of things which can be done with a sentence (assertion, command, inquiry, exclamation) in different contexts of use on different occasions. Strawson argued that the
Philosophy of language
2202493
Non-monotonic logic A non-monotonic logic is a formal logic whose consequence relation is not monotonic. In other words, non-monotonic logics are devised to capture and represent defeasible inferences (cf. defeasible reasoning), i.e., a kind of inference in which reasoners draw tentative conclusions, enabling reasoners to retract their conclusion(s) based on further evidence. Most studied formal logics have a monotonic consequence relation, meaning that adding a formula to a theory never produces a reduction of its set of consequences. Intuitively, monotonicity indicates that learning a new piece of knowledge cannot reduce the set of what is known. A monotonic logic cannot
Non-monotonic logic
263206
and the lines separating mathematical logic and other fields of mathematics, are not always sharp. Gödel's incompleteness theorem marks not only a milestone in recursion theory and proof theory, but has also led to Löb's theorem in modal logic. The method of forcing is employed in set theory, model theory, and recursion theory, as well as in the study of intuitionistic mathematics. The mathematical field of category theory uses many formal axiomatic methods, and includes the study of categorical logic, but category theory is not ordinarily considered a subfield of mathematical logic. Because of its applicability in diverse fields of
Mathematical logic
1799084
decision theory and its application to important classes of real decision problems. One of the theorems proved by Ramsey in his 1928 paper "On a problem of formal logic" now bears his name (Ramsey's theorem). While this theorem is the work Ramsey is probably best remembered for, he only proved it in passing, as a minor lemma along the way to his true goal in the paper, solving a special case of the decision problem for first-order logic, namely the decidability of what is now called the Bernays–Schönfinkel–Ramsey class of first-order logic, as well as a characterisation of the spectrum
Frank P. Ramsey
3147390
about truth are often confused with the quite distinct notions of "logic and inquiry", "judging what is true", and "truth predicates". In one classical formulation, truth is defined as the good of logic, where logic is a normative science, that is, an inquiry into a "good" or a "value" that seeks knowledge of it and the means to achieve it. In this view, truth cannot be discussed to much effect outside the context of inquiry, knowledge, and logic, all very broadly considered. Most inquiries into the character of truth begin with a notion of an informative, meaningful, or significant element,
Pragmatic theory of truth
2456274
address, then-President Bill Clinton, a member of the Democratic Party, said: "Ultimately, the best strategy to ensure our security and to build a durable peace is to support the advance of democracy elsewhere. Democracies don't attack each other." In a 2004 press conference, then-President George W. Bush, a member of the Republican Party, said: "And the reason why I'm so strong on democracy is democracies don't go to war with each other. And the reason why is the people of most societies don't like war, and they understand what war means... I've got great faith in democracies to promote peace.
Democratic peace theory
12154010
of the stock market crash of 1929. In the 1920s, SPD policymaker and Marxist Rudolf Hilferding proposed substantial policy changes in the SPD as well as influencing social democratic and socialist theory. Hilferding was an influential Marxian socialist both inside the social democratic movement and outside it, such as his pamphlet titled "Imperialism" which influenced Lenin's own conception of imperialism in the 1910s. Prior to the 1920s Hilferding declared that capitalism had evolved beyond what had been "laissez-faire" capitalism into what he called "organized capitalism". Organized capitalism was based upon trusts and cartels controlled by financial institutions that could no
Social democracy
2456199
Similarly, the Turkish intervention in Cyprus occurred only after the Cypriot elected government was abolished in a coup sponsored by the military government of Greece. Limiting the theory to only truly stable and genuine democracies leads to a very restrictive set of highly prosperous nations with little incentive in armed conflict that might harm their economies, in which the theory might be expected to hold virtually by definition. One advocate of the democratic peace explains that his reason to choose a definition of democracy sufficiently restrictive to exclude "all" wars between democracies are what "might be disparagingly termed "public relations"":
Democratic peace theory
312252
but runs into difficulties when dealing with newly discovered organisms that are significantly different from known ones. For example: it is hard to decide at what level to place a new higher-level grouping, e.g. genus or family or order; this is important since the Linnaean rules for naming groups are tied to their levels, and hence if a group is moved to a different level it must be renamed. Paleontologists generally use approaches based on cladistics, a technique for working out the evolutionary "family tree" of a set of organisms. It works by the logic that, if groups B and
Paleontology
4755263
some ways resembles modern democratic peace theory, though it also differs significantly from it. He speaks of republican ("Republikanisch") states (rather than of democratic ones), which he defines to have representative governments, in which the legislature is separated from the executive. He does not discuss universal suffrage, which is vital to modern democracy and quite important to some modern theorists; his commentators dispute whether it is implied by his language. Most importantly, he does not regard republican governments as sufficient by themselves to produce peace: freedom of travel, though not necessarily migration, (hospitality); and a league of nations are necessary
Perpetual peace
18664561
the Iranian Revolution or the persistence of instability in the Democratic Republic of Congo) are invariably temporary setbacks on the road to progress. Pessimists argue that certain 'non-modern' areas of the world are incapable of becoming modern. The eminent sociologist Max Weber also made important contributions to development theory. Weber's concept of "rationalisation" was mobilised by those who held that the most important factor behind modernisation was the growth of rationality as a core value. Normally rationality denotes the universally available logic underpinning thought and deliberation in a particular society. Most theorists consider it indispensable for the modernisation process. Rationality
History of modernisation theory
1457229
develop a logical system for relations and quantifiers, which he published in several papers from 1870 to 1885. The German mathematician Gottlob Frege (1848–1925) presented an independent development of logic with quantifiers in his Begriffsschrift (formula language) published in 1879, a work generally considered as marking a turning point in the history of logic. He exposed deficiencies in Aristotle's "Logic", and pointed out the three expected properties of a mathematical theory: He then showed in "Grundgesetze der Arithmetik (Basic Laws of Arithmetic)" how arithmetic could be formalised in his new logic. Frege's work was popularized by Bertrand Russell near the
Foundations of mathematics
3927694
representation (although the current status of these territories is as a matter of popular consensus in individual cases). In "Preface to Democratic Theory" (1956) Dahl argues that an increase in citizen political involvement may not always be beneficial for polyarchy. An increase in the political participation of members of less educated classes, for example, could reduce the support for the basic norms of polyarchy, because members of those classes are more pre-disposed to be authoritarian-minded. In a discussion of contemporary British foreign policy, Mark Curtis stated that "Polyarchy is generally what British leaders mean when they speak of promoting 'democracy'
Polyarchy
14556748
question, as one study found that the proportion of GDP to foreign trade is only 0.08, measured by logged GDP per capita. Economic norms theory links the economic conditions of clientelism, which prevail in many lower income societies, and a contract-intensive economy, which prevails in many higher income societies, with divergent political interests and habits. Economic norms theory arose as an alternative explanation to the democratic peace, because it identified the causal relationship between democracy and peace as spurious. Michael Mousseau identified contract-intensive economies as a possible cause of both democracy and peace. The explanation is based on two aspects
Capitalist peace
16208004
ethically egalitarian relationship with all other species. Trans-species psychology and science (TSP) overturn the standing paradigm based on scala naturae, a concept attributed to Aristotle that orders nature from "lower' to "higher" with humans at its apex. Trans-species science rectifies a significant inconsistency in scientific logic and practice known as "unidirectional inference". Conventionally, it has been accepted practice to make inferences about humans from animals but not the reverse. Instead, making inferences from what is understood about humans and extending this understanding to animals (anthropomorphism) was considered unscientific. However, unidirectional inference is not consistent with scientific evidence and theory. Similar
Trans-species psychology
18219232
is a reduction from the first problem to the other. An important problem in computational logic is to determine fragments of well-known logics such as first-order logic that are as expressive as possible yet are decidable or more strongly have low computational complexity. The field of descriptive complexity theory aims at establishing a link between logics and computational complexity theory, by identifying logical fragments that exactly capture certain complexity classes. Fragment (logic) In mathematical logic, a fragment of a logical language or theory is a subset of this logical language obtained by imposing syntactical restrictions on the language. Hence, the
Fragment (logic)
2456276
security is a world of well-governed democratic states." Tony Blair has also claimed the theory is correct. Some fear that the democratic peace theory may be used to justify wars against nondemocracies in order to bring lasting peace, in a "democratic crusade" (Chan 1997, p. 59). Woodrow Wilson in 1917 asked Congress to declare war against Imperial Germany, citing Germany's sinking of American ships due to unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann telegram, but also stating that "A steadfast concert for peace can never be maintained except by a partnership of democratic nations" and "The world must be made safe
Democratic peace theory
597852
probability to fuzzy probability and also generalized it to possibility theory. More generally, fuzzy logic is one of many different extensions to classical logic intended to deal with issues of uncertainty outside of the scope of classical logic, the inapplicability of probability theory in many domains, and the paradoxes of Dempster-Shafer theory. Computational theorist Leslie Valiant uses the term "ecorithms" to describe how many less exact systems and techniques like fuzzy logic (and "less robust" logic) can be applied to learning algorithms. Valiant essentially redefines machine learning as evolutionary. In general use, ecorithms are algorithms that learn from their more
Fuzzy logic
3617763
though possibly very long, time in all cases) can exist for them. As with the concept of a decidable set, the definition of a decidable theory or logical system can be given either in terms of "effective methods" or in terms of "computable functions". These are generally considered equivalent per Church's thesis. Indeed, the proof that a logical system or theory is undecidable will use the formal definition of computability to show that an appropriate set is not a decidable set, and then invoke Church's thesis to show that the theory or logical system is not decidable by any effective
Decidability (logic)
6032417
deductive mathematical logic could escape the limitation. This became important later when researchers attempted to extend Prolog (which had some basis in logic programming) to concurrent computation using message passing. (See the section below). What does the mathematical theory of Actors have to say about this? A "closed" system is defined to be one which does not communicate with the outside. Actor model theory provides the means to characterize all the possible computations of a closed Actor system using the Representation Theorem [Hewitt 2007] as follows: In this way, the behavior of can be mathematically characterized in terms of all
Indeterminacy in concurrent computation
3877370
paper. A government green paper which raises a policy option and is meant to open a dialogue on the proposal is more similar in tone to a briefing note than is a white paper. There is no universal standard for a briefing note, but it is generally understood to be a concise, coherent summary of a public policy problem with a clearly articulated logic for following a recommended course of action. ”Next to a political nose, and a logical brain, the most important skill of the good treasury [person] resides in [their] fine drafting hand. The concise, coherent and penetrating
Memorandum
2215536
realization of the right of self-determination is essential to maintaining local, regional and international peace and must be seen as an important conflict-prevention strategy". In 2015, the US based magazine of global politics, Foreign Policy, consulted with the UN Independent Expert on the application of the right to self-determination in the Indonesian region of West Papua. On 10 September 2015 he presented his fourth report to the Council on the adverse human rights impacts of free trade and investment agreements on a democratic and equitable international order, and on 26 October 2015 to the General Assembly on the issue of
Alfred-Maurice de Zayas
10762106
Transaction logic Transaction Logic is an extension of predicate logic that accounts in a clean and declarative way for the phenomenon of state changes in logic programs and databases. This extension adds connectives specifically designed for combining simple actions into complex transactions and for providing control over their execution. The logic has a natural model theory and a sound and complete proof theory. Transaction Logic has a Horn clause subset, which has a procedural as well as a declarative semantics. The important features of the logic include hypothetical and committed updates, dynamic constraints on transaction execution, non-determinism, and bulk updates.
Transaction logic
1394521
most common form of horoscope is the natal chart based on the moment of a person's birth; though in theory a horoscope can be drawn up for the beginning of anything, from a business enterprise to the foundation of a nation state. In Western horoscopic astrology the interpretation of a horoscope is governed by: Some astrologers also use the position of various mathematical points such as the Arabic parts. There are four primary angles in the horoscope (though the cusps of the houses are often included as important angles by some astrologers). The ascendant is generally considered the most important
Western astrology
13884755
Republican liberalism Republican Liberalism is an International Relations Theory which claims that Liberal Democracies (rarely, if ever) go to war / fight each other, and in that sense are more peaceful. However, the theory does not propose that Democracies are more peaceful than non-democracies, as many Democracies are engaged in wars with non-democracies. The theory holds that the reason for this intra-democratic peace is rooted in the regime type of these countries (Democracy) and the existence of similar domestic political cultures, common moral values, economic cooperation and interdependence. The issue of war and peace has been a very important political
Republican liberalism
1654662
the three axioms of identity, noncontradiction, and excluded middle, which he regarded as severally phases of one general condition of the possibility of existence and, therefore, of thought. The law of reason and consequent he considered not as different, but merely as expressing metaphysically what these express logically. He added as a postulate—which in his theory was of importance--"that logic be allowed to state explicitly what is thought implicitly." in logic, Hamilton is known chiefly as the inventor of the doctrine of the "quantification of the predicate," i.e. that the judgment "All A is B " should really mean "All
Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet
4057955
Logic in computer science Logic in computer science covers the overlap between the field of logic and that of computer science. The topic can essentially be divided into three main areas: Logic plays a fundamental role in computer science. Some of the key areas of logic that are particularly significant are computability theory (formerly called recursion theory), modal logic and category theory. The theory of computation is based on concepts defined by logicians and mathematicians such as Alonzo Church and Alan Turing. Church first showed the existence of algorithmically unsolvable problems using his notion of lambda-definability. Turing gave the first
Logic in computer science
13042968
of a Peace movement (opposed to the installation of medium-range rocket on German soil) and theorised their influence on West-German foreign policy. The contribution of his work is crucial to IR theory because it opposes the logic of equality between force and deterrence. With the end of the Cold War, the focus of his work shifted to transnational relations and human rights. One of his works out of this period is the edited volume “Bringing Transnational Relations Back In”. Here he argues that regular interactions between non-state actors, that do not act on behalf of national governments, but try to
Thomas Risse
2060189
claims that the press has an adversarial relationship with the government, in truth U.S. media generally follow Washington's official line. This is particularly obvious in wartime and in foreign policy coverage, but even with domestic controversies, the spectrum of debate usually falls in the relatively narrow range between the leadership of the Democratic and Republican parties." Washington Consensus The Washington Consensus is a set of 10 economic policy prescriptions considered to constitute the "standard" reform package promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, D.C.-based institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank and United States Department of the
Washington Consensus
2456226
explanation for the following period (see the section on Realist Explanations). Gowa's use of statistics has been criticized, with several other studies and reviews finding different or opposing results , . However, this can be seen as the longest-lasting criticism to the theory; as noted earlier, also some supporters agree that the statistical sample for assessing its validity is limited or scarce, at least if only full-scale wars are considered. According to one study, which uses a rather restrictive definition of democracy and war, there were no wars between jointly democratic couples of states in the period from 1816 to
Democratic peace theory
13826458
C-K theory C-K design theory or concept-knowledge theory is both a design theory and a theory of reasoning in design. It defines design reasoning as a logic of expansion processes, "i.e." a logic that organizes the generation of unknown objects. The theory builds on several traditions of design theory, including systematic design, axiomatic design, creativity theories, general and formal design theories, and artificial intelligence-based design models. Claims made for C-K design theory include that it is the first design theory that: The name of the theory is based on its central premises: the distinction between two spaces: The process of
C-K theory
11402199
other words, they look for the changes in outcome that are directly attributable to a program. Impact evaluation helps people answer key questions for evidence-based policy making: what works, what doesn't, where, why and for how much? It has received increasing attention in policy making in recent years in the context of both Western and developing countries. It is an important component of the armory of evaluation tools and approaches and integral to global efforts to improve the effectiveness of aid delivery and public spending more generally in improving living standards. Originally more oriented towards evaluation of social sector programs
Impact evaluation
4407766
of market regulations, the desirable degree of regulation is disputed. The relationship between democracy and capitalism is a contentious area in theory and popular political movements. The extension of universal adult male suffrage in 19th century Britain occurred along with the development of industrial capitalism, and democracy became widespread at the same time as capitalism. Research on the democratic peace theory further indicates that capitalist democracies rarely make war with one another and have little internal violence. However critics of the democratic peace theory note that democratic capitalist states may fight infrequently or never with other democratic capitalist states because
History of capitalist theory
15340653
logic, one cannot conclude that we ought to do something merely because something is the case. So analysing and clarifying the way the world is, must be treated as a strictly separate question to normative and evaluative ought questions. The most important questions of analytic jurisprudence are: "What are laws?"; "What is the law?"; "What is the relationship between law and power?"; and, "What is the relationship between law and morality?" Legal positivism is the dominant theory, although there are a growing number of critics, who offer their own interpretations. Springer books commissioned essays on analytical jurisprudence for "A Treatise
Analytical jurisprudence
1792761
isomorphism in the free BCCC is not finitely axiomatizable, and its decidability is still an open problem. Cartesian closed category In category theory, a category is considered Cartesian closed if, roughly speaking, any morphism defined on a product of two objects can be naturally identified with a morphism defined on one of the factors. These categories are particularly important in mathematical logic and the theory of programming, in that their internal language is the simply typed lambda calculus. They are generalized by closed monoidal categories, whose internal language, linear type systems, are suitable for both quantum and classical computation. The
Cartesian closed category
17401010
form a partially ordered ring: Integer-valued functions are ubiquitous in graph theory. They also have similar uses in geometric group theory, where "length function" represents the concept of norm, and "word metric" represents the concept of metric. Integer-valued polynomials are important in ring theory. In mathematical logic such concepts as a primitive recursive function and a μ-recursive function represent integer-valued functions of several natural variables or, in other words, functions on . Gödel numbering, defined on well-formed formulae of some formal language, is a natural-valued function. Computability theory is essentially based on natural numbers and natural (or integer) functions on
Integer-valued function
7789346
the witness to the theorem's validity. The paradox is ultimately based on the principle of formal logic that the statement formula_2 is true whenever A is false, i.e., any statement follows from a false statement ("ex falso quodlibet"). What is important to the paradox is that the conditional in classical (and intuitionistic) logic is the material conditional. It has the property that formula_2 is true if "B" is true or if "A" is false (in classical logic, but not intuitionistic logic, this is also a necessary condition). So as it was applied here, the statement "if he is drinking, everyone
Drinker paradox
1792752
Cartesian closed category In category theory, a category is considered Cartesian closed if, roughly speaking, any morphism defined on a product of two objects can be naturally identified with a morphism defined on one of the factors. These categories are particularly important in mathematical logic and the theory of programming, in that their internal language is the simply typed lambda calculus. They are generalized by closed monoidal categories, whose internal language, linear type systems, are suitable for both quantum and classical computation. The category "C" is called Cartesian closed if and only if it satisfies the following three properties: The
Cartesian closed category
5173946
and impredicative theories at some length, in the context of Frege's logic, Peano arithmetic, second order arithmetic, and axiomatic set theory. Impredicativity Something that is impredicative, in mathematics, logic and philosophy of mathematics, is a self-referencing definition. Roughly speaking, a definition is impredicative if it invokes (mentions or quantifies over) the set being defined, or (more commonly) another set that contains the thing being defined. There is no generally accepted precise definition of what it means to be predicative or impredicative. Authors have given different but related definitions. The opposite of impredicativity is predicativity, which essentially entails building stratified (or
Impredicativity
2456196
belligerence against non-democracies. Some scholars support the democratic peace on probabilistic grounds: since many wars have been fought since democracies first arose, we might expect a proportionate number of wars to have occurred between democracies, if democracies fought each other as freely as other pairs of states; but proponents of democratic peace theory claim that the number is much less than might be expected. However, opponents of the theory argue this is mistaken and claim there are numerous examples of wars between democracies. Historically, cases commonly cited as exceptions include the Sicilian Expedition, the Spanish–American War, and more recently the
Democratic peace theory
72528
with two additional topos axioms. These foundational applications of category theory have been worked out in fair detail as a basis for, and justification of, constructive mathematics. Topos theory is a form of abstract sheaf theory, with geometric origins, and leads to ideas such as pointless topology. Categorical logic is now a well-defined field based on type theory for intuitionistic logics, with applications in functional programming and domain theory, where a cartesian closed category is taken as a non-syntactic description of a lambda calculus. At the very least, category theoretic language clarifies what exactly these related areas have in common
Category theory
5253575
proved by Theodore Hailperin, who provided an interpretation based on a fairly simple construction of rings from the integers to provide an interpretation of Boole's theory (Hailperin 1976). The Laws of Thought An Investigation of the Laws of Thought on Which are Founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities by George Boole, published in 1854, is the second of Boole's two monographs on algebraic logic. Boole was a professor of mathematics at what was then Queen's College, Cork (now University College Cork), in Ireland. The historian of logic John Corcoran wrote an accessible introduction to "Laws of Thought" and
The Laws of Thought
5149820
sought to bridge theory and policy to advance the core values of a civil democratic society: liberty, opportunity and mutual respect. Her first major contribution to political philosophy was her book "Democratic Education" (1987; revised 1999). The book addresses the central questions in the political theory of education: How should a democratic society make decisions about education? What should children be taught? How should citizens be educated? It was reviewed in "Ethics" as "the finest contribution to the literature on democratic education of the last seventy years" and fostered a revival of interest in the relationship between democracy and education.
Amy Gutmann
19757088
Agenda building Agenda building describes the ongoing process by which various groups attempt to transfer their interests to be the interests of public policymakers. Conceptualized as a political science theory by Cobb and Elder in 1971, "the agenda-building perspective...alerts us to the importance of the environing social processes in determining what occurs at the decision-making stage and what types of policy outcomes will be produced.” It focuses on the relationship between society and policy maker. Classic democratic theory focused on the assumption that calls on “public policymakers to advance the interests of civically engaged constituents, by an autonomous press” (i.e.
Agenda building
19757097
algorithm), it conducted an emotional contagion experiment on users without their knowledge, and it has been accused of liberal bias Agenda building Agenda building describes the ongoing process by which various groups attempt to transfer their interests to be the interests of public policymakers. Conceptualized as a political science theory by Cobb and Elder in 1971, "the agenda-building perspective...alerts us to the importance of the environing social processes in determining what occurs at the decision-making stage and what types of policy outcomes will be produced.” It focuses on the relationship between society and policy maker. Classic democratic theory focused on
Agenda building
6746160
A consistent theory is sometimes defined to be a syntactically consistent theory, and sometimes defined to be a satisfiable theory. For first-order logic, the most important case, it follows from the completeness theorem that the two meanings coincide. In other logics, such as second-order logic, there are syntactically consistent theories that are not satisfiable, such as ω-inconsistent theories. A complete consistent theory (or just a complete theory) is a consistent theory "T" such that for every sentence φ in its language, either φ is provable from "T" or "T" formula_11 {φ} is inconsistent. For theories closed under logical consequence, this
Theory (mathematical logic)