when did the cuban war for independence start
24 February 1895
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could liberate the island from Spain". On 25 December 1894, three ships, the "Lagonda", the "Almadis" and the "Baracoa", set sail for Cuba from Fernandina Beach, Florida, loaded with armed men and supplies. Two of the ships were seized by U.S. authorities in early January, who also alerted the Spanish government, but the proceedings went ahead. The insurrection began on 24 February 1895, with uprisings all across the island. In Oriente the most important ones took place in Santiago, Guantánamo, Jiguaní, San Luis, El Cobre, El Caney, Alto Songo, Bayate and Baire. The uprisings in the central part of the
History of Cuba
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every year between 1960 and 2000." The programme was initiated in 1963 as part of Cuba's foreign policy of supporting anti-colonial struggles. It began when Cuba sent a small medical brigade to Algeria, which suffered from the mass withdrawal of French medical personnel during the independence war; some wounded soldiers and war orphans were also transported back to Cuba for treatment. Cuba did this at a time when, following the Cuban revolution, "half of the country’s 6,000 doctors fled". Between 1966 and 1974, Cuban doctors worked alongside Cuban artillery in Guinea-Bissau during its independence war against Portugal. Cuba's largest foreign
Cuban medical internationalism
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along with some Americans and Cuban exiles, landed here on a filibustering expedition, and held the town for a few hours, abandoning it when he saw that the people would not rise to support him in his efforts to secure Cuban independence. López did, however, raise for first time the modern Flag of Cuba, designed by him along with a local Cuban Miguel Teurbe Tolon. In May 1898, during the Spanish–American War, three notable battles were fought at Cardenas. However, credit for the republican victories goes mainly to the local Cuban patriot forces, led, among others, by General Carlos M.
Cárdenas, Cuba
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come from California, were happy to be back in the United States. As a result of this exodus, the number of pure Chinese dropped sharply in Havana’s "Barrio Chino". The places to which they migrated had a unique Chinese culture and a popularity of Chinese Cuban restaurants. The Chinese Cubans fought in the Cuban war of independence on the side of those seeking independence from Spain. A memorial consisting of a broken column memorializes Chinese participation in the war of independence at the corners of L and Linea in Havana. While many fled, some Chinese stayed after the start of
Chinese Cubans
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"A Message to Garcia" featuring Enrique Acosta. In 1976 a municipality in Holguín Province was named Calixto Garcia for him. His portrait is on the 50 Cuban peso banknote. Calixto García Calixto García Iñiguez (August 4, 1839 – December 11, 1898) was a cuban general in three Cuban uprisings, part of the Cuban War for Independence: Ten Years' War, the Little War and the War of 1895, itself sometimes called the Cuban War for Independence, which bled into the Spanish–American War, ultimately resulting in national independence for Cuba. García was born in Holguín to parents of Cuban "Criollo" descent. He
Calixto García
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Candelaria Figueredo Candelaria Figueredo (born December 11, 1852, Bayamo, Cuba – died January 19, 1914, Havana, Cuba) was a Cuban patriot who fought in the Cuban struggle for independence from Spain. Candelaria Figueredo was the daughter of lawyer Pedro Figueredo y Cisneros, a Cuban nationalist revolutionary who fought against the Spanish in the war of Cuban independence from 1868 known as the Ten Years' War. Her mother was Isabel Vázquez y Moreno. She herself joined the struggle in October 1868 aged only 16 when her father asked her to carry the independent Cuban flag into battle at Bayamo. She accepted
Candelaria Figueredo
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Calixto García Calixto García Iñiguez (August 4, 1839 – December 11, 1898) was a cuban general in three Cuban uprisings, part of the Cuban War for Independence: Ten Years' War, the Little War and the War of 1895, itself sometimes called the Cuban War for Independence, which bled into the Spanish–American War, ultimately resulting in national independence for Cuba. García was born in Holguín to parents of Cuban "Criollo" descent. He was a large, strong, educated man with a short fuse. García was the grandson of Calixto García de Luna e Izquierdo, who had fought as royalist in the Battle
Calixto García
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as the Ten Years' War. Two thousand Cuban Chinese joined the rebels. Chinese had been imported as indentured laborers. A monument in Havana honours the Cuban Chinese who fell in the war. The United States declined to recognize the new Cuban government, although many European and Latin American nations did so. In 1878, the Pact of Zanjón ended the conflict, with Spain promising greater autonomy to Cuba. In 1879–1880, Cuban patriot Calixto García attempted to start another war known as the Little War but did not receive enough support. Slavery in Cuba was abolished in 1875 but the process was
Cuba
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prepare the American public for the war when it did come, making it what has been called one of the most popular wars the United States ever fought. Some months after her escape, Evangelina Cosio married one of her rescuers, Carlos Carbonnel, who was 28 years her senior. They had two daughters. Carbonnel died in 1916. In 1918, Evangelina remarried Miguel Romero, a Havana lawyer. Evangelina Cosio died May 29, 1970, and was given a full military funeral by the Cuban government, as one of the last heroes of the Cuban War of Independence. Evangelina Cosio y Cisneros Evangelina Cosio
Evangelina Cosio y Cisneros
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"separate but equal" areas, and numerous businesses and storefronts were still labeled "whites only." "As a result, most politically active Afro-Cubans remained committed" to breaking away from the Spanish government. When the third war for independence erupted in 1895, the bulk of the activist groups under the Directorate's umbrella shut their doors, their members having taken up arms for the revolution and left their communities. Even after Cuban independence was secured, however, anti-discrimination progress was more symbolic than real, and pressure grew to start an independent political party for Afro-Cubans. Juan Gualberto was always opposed to the formation of a
Juan Gualberto Gómez
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note that there was no popular demand in the United States for an overseas colonial empire—Americans did not admire the British Empire or the others. The first serious bid for Cuban independence, the Ten Years' War, erupted in 1868 and was subdued by the authorities a decade later. Neither the fighting nor the reforms in the Pact of Zanjón (February 1878) quelled the desire of some revolutionaries for wider autonomy and ultimately independence. One such revolutionary, José Martí, continued to promote Cuban financial and political autonomy in exile. In early 1895, after years of organizing, Martí launched a three-pronged invasion
Spanish–American War
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for Cuba, and intellectual independence for all Spanish Americans; his death was used as a cry for Cuban independence from Spain by both the Cuban revolutionaries and those Cubans previously reluctant to start a revolt. Martí was also used as a figurehead by the Cuban government throughout the government of Fidel Castro, and his writings were commonly cited as supporting socialism within Castro's administration. Born in Havana, Martí began his political activism at an early age. He traveled extensively in Spain, Latin America, and the United States, raising awareness and support for the cause of Cuban independence. His unification of
José Martí
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to the Cubans 'go home' and say to the Russians 'go home', and the minute this happens I will be prepared to settle all our military forces inside South Africa". Botha also assured the UN that he would take steps to prepare South West Africa for independence "as long as there are realistic prospects of bringing about the genuine withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola". The linkage of Namibian independence to the Cuban presence in Angola proved controversial, but it did involve the two Cold War superpowers—the US and the Soviet Union— in a joint mediation process for resolving the
South African Border War
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Patria Newspaper "Patria's" first issue appeared on March 14, 1892. Writer José Martí played a leading role in founding the paper as the official publication of the Cuban Revolutionary Party. It provided a method of spreading information that could be accessible to Cubans about the Cuban War of Independence. The Cuban War of Independence came seventeen years after the end of the unsuccessful Ten Years War, also considered the first war of Cuban Independence. As a result of that war there was a rise in political corruption, high taxes for Cuba's citizens, and lack of political representation. While exiled in
Patria Newspaper
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Cuban War of Independence The Cuban War of Independence (, 1895–98) was the last of three liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain, the other two being the Ten Years' War (1868–1878) and the Little War (1879–1880). The final three months of the conflict escalated to become the Spanish–American War, with United States forces being deployed in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands against Spain. Historians disagree as to the extent that United States officials were motivated to intervene for humanitarian reasons but agree that yellow journalism exaggerated atrocities attributed to Spanish forces against Cuban civilians. During the years
Cuban War of Independence
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stop to the 1906 insurrection; he was approximately seventy two years when he died. Quentin Bandera General José Quintín Bandera Betancourt (ca. 1834 – 1906), also Quentin Bandera and Quintin Bandera, was a military leader of the Cuban insurrection against the Spanish during the Cuban War of Independence. In 1906, Bandera, led an army of insurgents toward Havana, and was killed near Punta Brava, a village close to Havana. Bandera was a hero of the Cuban War of Independence, "noted for his fearlessness and bravery," during which he had distinguished himself by breaking through the Spanish line which separated Pinar
Quentin Bandera
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single crop. By 1868, many countries in Latin America had obtained independence from Spain. In October 1868, Cuban planter and sugar mill owner Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and his followers proclaimed independence for Cuba. This proclamation led to the Ten Years' War with Spain and ended in the independence movement defeat in 1878. In August 1879, a second struggle ensued known as the Little War and lasted until September 1880 with the independence movement defeat once more. In February 1895, a new independence struggle movement began and is known as the "Cuban War of Independence" and was led by Cuban
Cuba–Spain relations
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change, a revolution of liberty. Sotero Figueroa was a key editor for the paper who allowed a conversation about race to initiate. Patria Newspaper "Patria's" first issue appeared on March 14, 1892. Writer José Martí played a leading role in founding the paper as the official publication of the Cuban Revolutionary Party. It provided a method of spreading information that could be accessible to Cubans about the Cuban War of Independence. The Cuban War of Independence came seventeen years after the end of the unsuccessful Ten Years War, also considered the first war of Cuban Independence. As a result of
Patria Newspaper
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Namibia under UN trusteeship, but South Africa refused. Legal arguments continued until 1966 when the UN General Assembly resolved to end the mandate, declaring that henceforth South-West Africa was the direct responsibility of the UN. At the height of the Cold War in 1965, conflict escalated across the border with the Cuban intervention in Angola. Cuba formed an alliance with the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) (), which led to the deployment of more than 25,000 Cuban soldiers to the region in the Angolan War of Independence. The next year the Namibian War of Independence began when
Australian contribution to UNTAG
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press officer and intelligence contact for the Cuban rebels in exile, and attempted to coordinate support for the pro-independence movement in the Philippines. Betances openly hated Estrada when he first met him in the late 1870s, but grew more tolerant of him with time, and even defended Estrada's actions as leader when he assumed control of the Cuban Revolutionary Party. The Puerto Rican affiliates to the Party viewed Estrada's leadership with great skepticism, since Estrada sympathized with the idea of having the United States intervene in the Cuban independence war to have the Spanish evicted from Cuba. They suspected that
Ramón Emeterio Betances
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Spanish–American War.A contingent of US Navy ships blockaded several Cuban ports. The Americans decided to invade Cuba and to start in Oriente, where the Cubans had control. After several failed revolts, the Portuguese colony of Brazil declared independence, forming a separate, local empire founded by Prince Regent Dom Pedro I. The war between the Brazilians and Portuguese lasted from February 1822, with the burst of first skirmishes between militias, to November 1823, when the last Portuguese garrisons surrendered. The Brazilian Empire lasted until a coup in 1889 overthrew the monarchy leading to its current status as a republic. The crisis
Latin American wars of independence
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devastated the coffee industry, and American tariffs badly damaged Cuban exports. Ten Years' War The Ten Years' War () (1868–1878), also known as the Great War ("Guerra Grande") and the War of '68, was part of Cuba's fight for independence from Spain. The uprising was led by Cuban-born planters and other wealthy natives. On October 10, 1868 sugar mill owner Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and his followers proclaimed independence, beginning the conflict. This was the first of three liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain, the other two being the Little War (1879–1880) and the Cuban War of Independence (1895–1898).
Ten Years' War
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1958, Semidei Rodríguez died in Havana, Cuba. José Semidei Rodríguez Brigadier General José Semidei Rodríguez (September 12, 1868 - February 19, 1958) was a Puerto Rican soldier and diplomat. He participated in Cuban independence movement that immediately preceded the Spanish–American War. Before becoming a Brigadier General in the Cuban National Army, Semidei Rodríguez fought in the Cuban War of Independence (1895–1898) as a member of the Cuban Liberation Army, the rebel force which fought for Cuba's independence from Spanish colonial rule. After Cuba gained its independence he continued to serve in that country as a diplomat. Semidei (sometimes spelled "Semidey")
José Semidei Rodríguez
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José Semidei Rodríguez Brigadier General José Semidei Rodríguez (September 12, 1868 - February 19, 1958) was a Puerto Rican soldier and diplomat. He participated in Cuban independence movement that immediately preceded the Spanish–American War. Before becoming a Brigadier General in the Cuban National Army, Semidei Rodríguez fought in the Cuban War of Independence (1895–1898) as a member of the Cuban Liberation Army, the rebel force which fought for Cuba's independence from Spanish colonial rule. After Cuba gained its independence he continued to serve in that country as a diplomat. Semidei (sometimes spelled "Semidey") Rodríguez was born to Pascual Semidei and
José Semidei Rodríguez
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argue that the insurgency could not have succeeded on its own. Cuban historians argue the Cubans were on the verge of winning in 1898 and needed no outside help. Cuban War of Independence The Cuban War of Independence (, 1895–98) was the last of three liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain, the other two being the Ten Years' War (1868–1878) and the Little War (1879–1880). The final three months of the conflict escalated to become the Spanish–American War, with United States forces being deployed in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands against Spain. Historians disagree as to the
Cuban War of Independence
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intervention had a substantial impact on Southern Africa, especially in defending the MPLA's control over large parts of Angola as well as helping secure Namibia's independence. On 26 July 1991, on occasion of the celebrations of the 38th anniversary of the start of the Cuban Revolution, Nelson Mandela delivered a speech in Havana praising Cuba for its role in Angola: The Cuban people hold a special place in the hearts of the people of Africa. The Cuban internationalists have made a contribution to African independence, freedom and justice unparalleled for its principled and selfless character - We in Africa are
Cuban intervention in Angola
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were also supporters of the revolutionary cause. A number of ballplayers fought against Spain in the Cuban War of Independence (1895–98), and at least three lost their lives: Emilio Sabourín, Juan Manuel Pastoriza, and Ricardo Cabaleiro. During the 19th century the Cuban League remained a segregated, whites-only institution. However, black Cubans were developing their baseball skills playing for semi-professional and sugarmill teams. The Cuban War of Independence brought Cuban blacks and whites together in a common cause and created the pressures that ultimately brought integration. The other great legacy of 19th century Cuban League baseball was the enduring rivalry between
Cuban League
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("Expedición Libertadora del Perú") and the United Liberating Army of Peru ("Ejército Unido Libertador del Perú") used a standard that was identical to the modern flag of Chile, except their flag had three stars in the canton, representing the three nations united by the cause of independence: the Argentine provinces, Chile and Peru. On the other hand, the Chilean flag would have served as inspiration for the supporters of Cuban independence at the start the Ten Years' War in the so-called War Cry of Yara (Spanish: "Grito de Yara") in 1868. The leader of this revolution, Carlos Manuel de Céspedes,
Flag of Chile
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artists (perhaps most prominently, Collazo) were strong supporters of Cuban independence, and some were forced into exile. In 1898 Spain's four centuries of rule over Cuba came to an end when U.S. troops intervened on the side of rebel fighters. Independence, however, proved illusory, with the United States controlling Cuba's foreign policy and much of its economy, while strong-man presidents did little to foster freedom and democracy. Artists of the early Republican era continued much as before, painting landscapes and scenes of Cuban life in the traditional European style, some of them showing light touches of Impressionism. Many, such as
Cuban art
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participant in attempts to gain Cuban independence from Spain; Ms. Cosio's mother died when Evangelina was a child. In 1895, the Cuban Revolution/War of Independence started under leadership of Cuban writer José Julian Martí in an attempt to overthrow Spanish rule. In the summer of 1896, Augustin Cosio, as one of the rebel leaders, was captured and sent to a penal colony on the Cuban Isle of Pines (now known as Isle of Youth). Evangelina Cosio accompanied him along with one of her sisters. Initially the conditions on Isle of Pines were described by Ms. Cosio as relatively comfortable with
Evangelina Cosio y Cisneros
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any contemporary evidence, that famed illustrator Frederic Remington, sent by Hearst to Cuba to cover the Cuban War of Independence, telegrammed Hearst to tell him all was quiet in Cuba. Supposedly Hearst responded, "Please remain. You furnish the pictures and I'll furnish the war." Hearst was personally dedicated to the cause of the Cuban rebels, and the "Journal" did some of the most important and courageous reporting on the conflict—as well as some of the most sensationalized. In fact, their stories on the Cuban rebellion and Spain's atrocities on the island—many of which turned out to be untrue—were motivated primarily
William Randolph Hearst
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was officially issued by Chile on February 12, 1818 and formally recognized by Spain in 1844, when full diplomatic relations were established. The Chilean War of Independence was part of the more aroused Spanish American wars of independence. Independence did not have unanimous support among Chileans, who were divided between independentists and royalists. What started as a political movement among elites against the colonial power, ended as a full-fledged civil war. Traditionally, the process is divided into three stages: the "Patria Vieja", 1810–1814; the "Reconquista", 1814–1817; and the "Patria Nueva", 1817–1823. At the start of 1808, the Captaincy General of
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break the weak existing balance between whites and blacks. The Spanish changed their policy towards the Mambises, offering amnesties and reforms. The Mambises did not prevail for a variety of reasons: lack of organization and resources; lower participation by whites; internal racist sabotage (against Maceo and the goals of the Liberating Army); the inability to bring the war to the western provinces (Havana in particular); and opposition by the US government to Cuban independence. The US sold the latest weapons to Spain, but not to the Cuban rebels. Tomás Estrada Palma succeeded Juan Bautista Spotorno as president of the Republic
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major role in country's struggle during the Angolan War of Independence. After the Independence, MPLA fought a civil war against the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) from 1975 to 2002. During the Angolan War of Independence many communist and African nations supported the rebels. The Cuban Military was heavily involved in the conflict aiding the MPLA. However, during the Angolan Civil War the Cuban Military would aid the MPLA while other nations such as the People's Republic of China and Zaire would support UNITA and the FNLA. The South
Military history of Angola
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Ten Years' War The Ten Years' War () (1868–1878), also known as the Great War ("Guerra Grande") and the War of '68, was part of Cuba's fight for independence from Spain. The uprising was led by Cuban-born planters and other wealthy natives. On October 10, 1868 sugar mill owner Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and his followers proclaimed independence, beginning the conflict. This was the first of three liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain, the other two being the Little War (1879–1880) and the Cuban War of Independence (1895–1898). The final three months of the last conflict escalated with United
Ten Years' War
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San Diego del Valle until 1880 when José Martí convinced him that Cuban independence was not feasible at the moment. Núñez then went into exile where he collaborated closely with Marti and became a naturalized U.S. citizen. From the United States he sent arms, ammunition and food to Cuba as Commander in Chief of the Department of Expeditions until 1885. He became a Major-General in the Cuban War of Independence. He organized armed revolutionary expeditions from the United States. He was one of 31 delegates in the Cuban Constitutional Convention of 1900. He was the Civil Governor of the Province
Emilio Núñez
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its independence in September 1821, the marking of this historical event did not take hold immediately. The choice of date to celebrate was problematic, because Iturbide, who achieved independence from Spain, was rapidly created Emperor of Mexico. His short-lived reign from 1821–22 ended when he was forced by the military to abdicate. This was a rocky start for the new nation, which made celebrating independence on the anniversary of Iturbide's Army of the Three Guarantees marching into Mexico City in triumph a less than perfect day for those who had opposed him. Celebrations of independence during his reign were marked
Mexican War of Independence
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the Cuban armed forces from Angola as a precondition of Namibian independence. Botha argued that the Cuban presence in Angola constituted a legitimate security concern for South West Africa, so it was not unreasonable that independence be contingent on a prior Cuban withdrawal. This initiative was supported by the US, which wanted a Namibian settlement consistent with Western interests, namely a region free of what Chester Crocker termed "Soviet-Cuban military adventurism". Crocker endorsed the linkage since it was related to South West Africa's security situation, which needed to be stabilised prior to independence. Botha's precondition was denounced by SWAPO for
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the order was officially sanctioned in 1979 as a state award. The Cuban Ana Betancourt schools for rural girls are named in her honor. Ana Betancourt Ana Betancourt (December 14, 1832 Camagüey, Cuba – February 7, 1901 Madrid, Spain) was a Cuban woman who took a leading role in the war of independence from Spain. She is a national heroine in Cuba. The first Cuban war of independence from Spain began in 1868. Women, known as Mambisas, played a significant role in the war, as political agitators, nurses, and fighters. Ana Betancourt, was from a wealthy landholding family and was
Ana Betancourt
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Ana Betancourt Ana Betancourt (December 14, 1832 Camagüey, Cuba – February 7, 1901 Madrid, Spain) was a Cuban woman who took a leading role in the war of independence from Spain. She is a national heroine in Cuba. The first Cuban war of independence from Spain began in 1868. Women, known as Mambisas, played a significant role in the war, as political agitators, nurses, and fighters. Ana Betancourt, was from a wealthy landholding family and was one of the first to argue for women in Cuban. She was married to the patriot Ignacio Mora de la Pera. In 1869, she
Ana Betancourt
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of America. Ponce de León arrived in New York City on February 14, 1869. He became an important figure within that city's Cuban community. In New York, he initially established himself as a legal professional. He was the connector between the generation of La Guerra Grande, also known as the Ten Years' War, and the generation of José Martí, which helped to organize the Cuban War of Independence that began in 1895. He also founded the Revolutionary Central Board of Cuban emigrants, which brought together many fellow compatriots dedicated to organizing for Cuban independence, including José Martí (1853-1895). Martí made
Nestor Ponce de Leon
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was on the 10 pesos bills in Cuba until 1960 when it was moved to the 100 pesos bill. A municipality in Camagüey Province, Carlos M. de Cespedes was named after him. Carlos Manuel de Céspedes Carlos Manuel de Céspedes del Castillo (April 18, 1819, Bayamo, Spanish Cuba – February 27, 1874, San Lorenzo, Spanish Cuba) was a Cuban revolutionary hero. Cespedes, who was a plantation owner in Cuba, freed his slaves and made the declaration of Cuban independence in 1868 which started the Ten Years' War. (1868–78), which ultimately led to Cuban independence. Because of his actions during the
Carlos Manuel de Céspedes
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her platform as president of Las Hijas de Cuba to become a more recognizable force within the independence movement. The organization played an important role in raising funds for Cuban soldiers during the Ten Years' War. Additionally, as a representative of Las Hijas de Cuba, Emilia Casanova de Villaverde presented the merits of Cuban liberation before the U.S. Congress on numerous occasions. She was the first Cuban woman granted the right to address the United States Congress on this issue. When her father was imprisoned in Havana during the Ten Years' War, Villaverde spoke with U.S. government officials, including President
Emilia Casanova de Villaverde
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of Banes, Cuba, province of Holguín, in 1901, to Belisario Batista Palermo and Carmela Zaldívar González, who had fought in the Cuban War of Independence. He was of Spanish, African, Taíno, and Chinese descent. His mother named him Rubén and gave him her last name, Zaldívar. His father did not want to register him as a Batista. In the registration records of the Banes courthouse, he was legally Rubén Zaldívar until 1939, when, as Fulgencio Batista, he became a presidential candidate and it was discovered that this name did not exist in the birth certificates; he thus had to postpone
Fulgencio Batista
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War of Independence and South African Border War was typically cross-border conflict. This was overshadowed by two large-scale Cuban military interventions in the Angolan War of Independence. The first was in November 1975 (on the eve of Angola's independence), which further intensified with the escalation of the Angolan Civil War in 1985. In that conflict, South Africa provided support across the northern border to UNITA. In opposition, the Soviet Union financially backed an estimated two motorised infantry divisions of Cuban troops in a Soviet-led the People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) offensive against UNITA in what became
Australian contribution to UNTAG
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War, which hardly lasted a year. In successive years, Jose Marti was exiled to the United States, where he founded the Cuban Revolutionary Party (PRC) and, with Máximo Gómez and Antonio Maceo, started preparations to relaunch the War of Independence. Martí is distinguished as a great politician, writer and poet, and he united the Cuban nationalist forces beyond generations, races and social positions. On February 24, the war broke out with the Grito de Baire. Jose Martí died in the combat of Two Rivers, Oriente Province (May 19, 1895), a great loss for the Cuban pro- independence cause. The following
Chronology of Colonial Cuba
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Mambises The term mambises refers to the guerrilla Cuban independence soldiers who fought against Spain in the Ten Years' War (1868–78) and Cuban War of Independence (1895–98). The term is found applied in different history texts to any person who fought for independence during the wars of independence including soldiers of Chinese, American, and Spanish origin. Most commonly, the word mambí is associated with Juan Ethnnius Mamby 'Eutimio Mambí'. Mamby was a black Spanish military officer who deserted to fight with the Dominicans against the Spanish in Santo Domingo in 1846. As Mamby and his men gained fame, the Spanish
Mambises
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sign of a warming in Anglo-American relations was Britain's support during the Spanish–American War in 1898. Britain had previously favored Spanish control over Cuba, because the possession of Cuba by an unfriendly United States might harm British trade in the Caribbean. However, with the warming of Anglo-American relations and a guarantee of Cuban independence by the U.S. in 1898, Britain abandoned this policy and supported America's position on Cuba and the war. Officially Britain was neutral. At the same time, Washington refused to give support for the Boers in the Second Boer War. At the start of the Spanish–American War,
The Great Rapprochement
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Cuban Mexicans There is a significant Cuban diaspora in Mexico. Cubans have been a presence in Mexico since the Viceregal era and they have made notable contributions to the culture and politics of the country. Hernan Cortes and his crew of soldiers and sailors used Cuba as a launching point for the conquest of the Aztec Empire. Cuba-born individuals began arriving during the colonial era and have continued into the post-independence era. Many arrived fleeing from the chaos caused by the Cuban War of Independence. Fidel Castro and his followers used Mexico as a launching point for the Cuban Revolution.
Cuban Mexicans
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of Cubans, which went from 720 inhabitants in 1880 to 5,532 in 1890. However, the second half of the 1890s marked the decline of the Cuban immigrant population, as an important part of it returned to the island to fight for independence. The War accentuated Cuban immigrant integration into American society, whose numbers were significant: more than 12,000 people. In the mid- to late 19th century, several cigar manufacturers moved their operations to Key West to get away from growing disruptions as Cubans sought independence from Spanish colonial rule. Many Cuban cigar workers followed. The Cuban government had even established
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vigor to handle the job; rumors circulated to that effect, but McKinley did not believe them. Asked for advice on the inaugural address, Sherman offered a draft threatening intervention in Cuba, then in rebellion against Spain; the suggestion was ignored. Both Sherman and McKinley sought a peaceful resolution to the Cuban War, preferably involving an independent Cuba without American intervention. The United States and Spain began negotiations on the subject in 1897, but it became clear that Spain would never concede Cuban independence, while the rebels (and their American supporters) would never settle for anything less. In January 1898, Spain
John Sherman
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indigenous Cuban Army, and they would significantly contribute to the war for independence. On February 19, 1874, Gómez and 700 other rebels marched westward from their eastern base and defeated 2,000 Spanish troops at El Naranjo. The Spaniards has 100 killed in action, 200 wounded in action; the rebels incurred 150 casualties. In the interlude between the two Cuban independence wars, Gómez held odd jobs in Jamaica and Panama (among them, he supervised a laborers' brigade during the construction of the Panama Canal), but he remained as an active player for the cause of Cuban independence as well as that
Máximo Gómez
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several Cuban ports. The Americans decided to invade Cuba and to start in Oriente, where the Cubans had almost absolute control. They cooperated by establishing a beachhead and protecting the U.S. landing in Daiquiri. The first U.S. objective was to capture the city of Santiago de Cuba in order to destroy Linares' army and Cervera's fleet. To reach Santiago, the Americans had to pass through concentrated Spanish defences in the San Juan Hills and a small town in El Caney. Between June 22 and 24, 1898, the Americans landed under General William R. Shafter at Daiquirí and Siboney, east of
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Journal"”. Joseph E. Wisan wrote in an essay titled “The Cuban Crisis As Reflected In The New York Press”, published in “American Imperialism” in 1898: “In the opinion of the writer, the Spanish–American War would not have occurred had not the appearance of Hearst in New York journalism precipitated a bitter battle for newspaper circulation.” It has also been argued that the main reason the United States entered the war was its failed attempt to purchase Cuba from Spain. Hostilities started hours after the declaration of war when a contingent of US Navy ships under Admiral William T. Sampson blockaded
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1899, after the War of Independence, his family brought his remains back to Cuba. His works were not exhibited in Cuba until 1933, when the architect Evelio Govantes (1886-1981) organized a showing at the Lyceum with paintings borrowed from Collazo's friends and family. In 1976, his painting "The Patio" was used on one of a series of stamps honoring Cuban painters. His brother, Enrique (1848-1921), was a high-ranking commander in the Liberation Army. Guillermo Collazo Guillermo Collazo Tejada (7 June 1850, Santiago de Cuba - 26 September 1896, Paris) was a Cuban painter and advocate for independence. He was born
Guillermo Collazo
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Quentin Bandera General José Quintín Bandera Betancourt (ca. 1834 – 1906), also Quentin Bandera and Quintin Bandera, was a military leader of the Cuban insurrection against the Spanish during the Cuban War of Independence. In 1906, Bandera, led an army of insurgents toward Havana, and was killed near Punta Brava, a village close to Havana. Bandera was a hero of the Cuban War of Independence, "noted for his fearlessness and bravery," during which he had distinguished himself by breaking through the Spanish line which separated Pinar del Río Province from Havana Province. He fought alongside General Calixto García, and alongside
Quentin Bandera
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diamonds. The civil war ended in 2002 after Jonas Savimbi was killed in battle. Cuban intervention in Angola In November 1975, on the eve of Angola's independence, Cuba launched a large-scale military intervention in support of the leftist People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) against United States-backed interventions by South Africa and Zaire in support of two right-wing independence movements competing for power in the country, the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). By the end of 1975 the Cuban military in Angola numbered more than 25,000
Cuban intervention in Angola
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1974, with the advent of independence and the start of the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002), most of the white Portuguese Luandans left as refugees, principally for Portugal, with many travelling overland to South Africa. There was an immediate crisis, however, as the local African population lacked the skills and knowledge needed to run the city and maintain its well-developed infrastructure. The large numbers of skilled technicians among the force of Cuban soldiers sent in to support the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) government in the Angolan Civil War were able to make a valuable contribution to restoring
Luanda
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Carlos Manuel de Céspedes Carlos Manuel de Céspedes del Castillo (April 18, 1819, Bayamo, Spanish Cuba – February 27, 1874, San Lorenzo, Spanish Cuba) was a Cuban revolutionary hero. Cespedes, who was a plantation owner in Cuba, freed his slaves and made the declaration of Cuban independence in 1868 which started the Ten Years' War. (1868–78), which ultimately led to Cuban independence. Because of his actions during the Independence War, he is known in Cuba as the "Father of the Motherland". Céspedes was a landowner and lawyer in eastern Cuba, near Bayamo, who purchased "La Demajagua", an estate with a
Carlos Manuel de Céspedes
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Spanish–American War The Spanish–American War ( or ""; ) was fought between the United States and Spain in 1898. Hostilities began in the aftermath of the internal explosion of in Havana Harbor in Cuba, leading to U.S. intervention in the Cuban War of Independence. U.S. acquisition of Spain's Pacific possessions led to its involvement in the Philippine Revolution and ultimately in the Philippine–American War. The main issue was Cuban independence. Revolts had been occurring for some years in Cuba against Spanish rule. The U.S. later backed these revolts upon entering the Spanish–American War. There had been war scares before, as
Spanish–American War
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Angola survived only about fifteen months. Negotiations for completing the SADF withdrawal were stalled due to intransigence on both sides concerning the linkage policy, with the two governments clashing over timetables for the withdrawal of Cuban troops and Namibian independence, respectively. While the Soviet Union and Cuba did nothing to impede the dialogue, they feared that Luanda might sacrifice PLAN and MK by agreeing to expel them from the country. Castro confided to Soviet officials that he had no intention of authorising a withdrawal of Cuban forces if the Angolan government signed a non-aggression pact with South Africa similar to
South African Border War
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President Donald Trump support the embargo, although the Cuban government has called for it to be repealed. The hold of the Spanish Empire on possessions in the Americas was reduced in the 1820s as a result of the Spanish American wars of independence; only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule until the Spanish–American War (1898) that resulted from the Cuban War of Independence. Under the Treaty of Paris, Cuba became a U.S. protectorate; the U.S. gained a position of economic and political dominance over the island, which persisted after it became formally independent in 1902. Following the Cuban
Cuba–United States relations
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Hour of the furnaces"), about foreign imperialism in South America. The title of the film itself comes from a writing by 19th Century Cuban poet and independence leader José Martí, who proclaimed, in an eponymous manifest, the need to start the independence war against Spain again. Among the other subjects explored in this film were the musical and cultural scene in Latin America and the dictatorships which gripped the region – at the same time, several Latin American authors, including the Mexican Carlos Fuentes and the Argentine Julio Cortázar, initiated the Dictator Novel genre. The movie was diffused only in
Grupo Cine Liberación
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political stability that had been established earlier by the rule of Alfonso XII. The Teller Amendment, which was enacted on April 20, 1898, was a promise from the United States to the Cuban people that it was not declaring war to annex Cuba, but to help it gain its independence from Spain. The Platt Amendment was a move by the United States' government to shape Cuban affairs without violating the Teller Amendment. The U.S. Congress had passed the Teller Amendment before the war, promising Cuban independence. However, the Senate passed the Platt Amendment as a rider to an Army appropriations
Spanish–American War
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Havana honours the Cuban Chinese who fell in the war, on which is inscribed: "There was not one Cuban Chinese deserter, not one Cuban Chinese traitor." Chinese Cubans, including some Chinese-Americans from California, joined the Spanish–American War in 1898 to achieve independence from Spain, but a few Chinese, who were loyal to Spain, left Cuba and went to Spain. Racial acceptance and assimilation would come much later. When the new revolutionary government led by Fidel Castro came to power in 1959, the economic and political situation changed. Many Chinese grocery store owners, having had their properties expropriated by the new
Chinese Cubans
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title over Cuba. On December 10, 1898, the United States and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris, which recognized Cuban independence. Although the Cubans had participated in the liberation efforts, the United States prevented Cuba from participating in the Paris peace talks and signing the treaty. The treaty set no time limit for U.S. occupation and the Isle of Pines was excluded from Cuba. The treaty officially granted Cuba's independence, but U.S. General William R. Shafter refused to allow Cuban General Calixto García and his rebel forces to participate in the surrender ceremonies in Santiago de Cuba. Most Spanish historians
Cuban War of Independence
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Cuban independence and disclaiming any intention to annex Cuba, demanding Spanish withdrawal, and authorizing the president to use as much military force as he thought necessary to help Cuban patriots gain independence from Spain. This was adopted by resolution of Congress and included the Teller Amendment, named after Colorado Senator Henry Moore Teller, which passed unanimously, stipulating that “the island of Cuba is, and by right should be, free and independent”. The amendment disclaimed any intention on the part of the United States to exercise jurisdiction or control over Cuba for other than pacification reasons, and confirmed that the armed
Cuban War of Independence
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in World War II, the peace treaty did not contain punitive measures such as reparations, though Japan did lose control of the Kuril Islands and other pre-war possessions. With the end of World War II, the United States fulfilled the commitment made by the 1934 Tydings–McDuffie Act and granted independence to the Philippines. The U.S. had encouraged decolonization throughout World War II, but the start of the Cold War changed priorities. The U.S. used the Marshall Plan to pressure the Dutch to grant independence to Indonesia under the leadership of the anti-Communist Sukarno, and the Dutch recognized Indonesia's independence in
Presidency of Harry S. Truman
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deemed stable enough to allow a withdrawal of American troops, which was completed in February 1909. For three decades, the country was led by former War of Independence leaders, who after being elected did not serve more than two constitutional terms. The Cuban presidential succession was as follows: José Miguel Gómez (1908–1912); Mario García Menocal (1913–1920); Alfredo Zayas (1921–25) and Gerardo Machado (1925–1933). Under the Liberal Gómez the participation of Afro-Cubans in the political process was curtailed when the Partido Independiente de Color was outlawed and bloodily suppressed in 1912, as American troops reentered the country to protect the sugar
History of Cuba
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Africa gained its independence from South Africa. Cuban military engagement in Angola ended in 1991, while the Angolan civil war continued until 2002. The Carnation Revolution of 25 April 1974 in Portugal took the world by surprise and caught the independence movements in its last African colonies unprepared. After smooth negotiations, Mozambique's independence was granted on 25 June 1975, but Angolan control remained disputed between the three rival independence movements: MPLA, FNLA and UNITA in Angola-proper and Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) in Cabinda. Until independence, the independence movements' priority lay in fighting the colonial
Cuban intervention in Angola
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1859, Senator John Slidell introduced a bill to purchase Cuba from Spain. Cuba, like many Spanish territories, wanted to break free from Spain. A pro-independence movement in Cuba was supported by the U.S., and Cuban guerrilla leaders wanted annexation to the United States, but Cuban revolutionary leader José Martí called for Cuban nationhood. When the U.S. battleship "Maine" sank in Havana Harbor, the U.S. blamed Spain and the Spanish–American War broke out in 1898. After the U.S. won, Spain relinquished claim of sovereignty over territories, including Cuba. The U.S. administered Cuba as a protectorate until 1902. Several decades later in
51st state
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of the Three Guarantees from "liberating" Guatemala and over-riding nascent local autonomy. However, Guatemala chose to be annexed to the First Mexican Empire, led by royalist-turned-insurgent military leader Agustín de Iturbide, who was proclaimed emperor of Mexico in 1822. When Iturbide abdicated from the monarchy and Mexico took steps to be a republic, Central America claimed its independence. The Cuban War of Independence was the last of three liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain, the other two being the Ten Years' War (1868–1878) and the Little War (1879–1880). The final three months of the conflict escalated to become the
Latin American wars of independence
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for the independence-seekers. ""El dia pa la patria"" ("one day for the homeland") - donating one day's pay per week to the Cuban cause - became a patriotic duty for Tampa's Cuban population, with some of their Italian, Jewish, and even Spanish neighbors chipping in. Jose Marti, the "Apostle of Cuban Independence", visited Ybor City and West Tampa many times, delivering several passionate speeches to audiences of thousands. One 1893 speech from the steps of Ybor's factory was reprinted in newspapers all over the US and Cuba and led directly to war. A few Tampa residents volunteered to fight alongside
History of Ybor City
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Rafael Serra José Rafael Simón Agapito Serra y Montalvo (March 24, 1858 - October 24, 1909) was a prominent Afro-Cuban intellectual who played a large role in supporting the Cuban War of Independence. During his life, he worked as a writer and editor for several Spanish-language newspapers published in the United States. He especially advocated for working class Cubans of color, having experienced discrimination himself. He was a key figure in New York City, contributing to a larger movement for Cuban Independence happening across the United States. Rafael Serra was born José Rafael Simón Agapito in the Monserrate neighborhood of
Rafael Serra
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to Venezuela and married Belinda Otilia de Ayala. Their maid of honor was the Puerto Rican poet, abolitionist, women's rights activist, and Puerto Rican independence advocate Lola Rodríguez de Tió. He returned to the Dominican Republic in 1879 when the first Normal School was finally inaugurated. He was named director and he helped establish a second Normal School in the city of Santiago de los Caballeros. Hostos returned to the United States in 1899 and actively participated in the Puerto Rican and Cuban independence movements; his hopes for Puerto Rico's independence after the Spanish–American War turned into disappointment when the
Eugenio María de Hostos
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Cuban rebels and attained the rank of major. When the Cubans launched their War of Independence against Spain in 1895, Machado joined the rebel forces and rose to the rank of brigadier general. He was one of the youngest Cuban generals in the war. He fought in the middle provinces. After the war ended, Machado turned to politics and business. He became mayor of Santa Clara and during the administration of José Miguel Gómez (1909–1913), he was appointed inspector of the armed forces and later secretary of interior. Soon after, he engaged in farming and in business investing in public
Gerardo Machado
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as new teams started. In 1886 baseball in Cuba was drawing record crowds. A championship game between Habana and Almendares had more than 6,000 fans attending. Baseball was absent in Cuba from 1895 to 1897 due to the Cuban War of Independence, but it resumed immediately after the War of ended, when professional teams including the Almendares resumed play. After the War, public attendance to baseball games increased, to over 5,000 weekly at Havana games. Professional baseball clubs were not always racially integrated in Cuba. US racial barriers were first broken in Cuba in 1900, after which Cuban teams had
Almendares (baseball)
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commercial system…If ever ceasing to be Spanish, Cuba must necessarily become American and not fall under any other European domination". Blaine's vision did not allow the existence of an independent Cuba. After his second deportation to Spain in 1878, the pro-independence Cuban activist José Martí moved to the United States in 1881, where he began mobilizing the support of the Cuban exile community in Florida, especially in Ybor City in Tampa and Key West. He sought a revolution and Cuban independence from Spain, but also lobbied to oppose U.S. annexation of Cuba, which some American and Cuban politicians desired. Propaganda
History of Cuba
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believed that Spain sanctioned "Maine"s destruction. Nevertheless, this did not stop the "World" from insisting that the only "atonement" Spain could offer the U.S. for the loss of ship and life, was the granting of complete Cuban independence. Nor did it stop the paper from accusing Spain of "treachery, willingness, or laxness" for failing to ensure the safety of Havana Harbor. The American public, already agitated over reported Spanish atrocities in Cuba, was driven to increased hysteria. "Maine"s destruction did not result in an immediate declaration of war with Spain. However, the event created an atmosphere that virtually precluded a
USS Maine (ACR-1)
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revolution means the freedom of our slaves, giving them arms and incorporating them in our patriotic ranks.” Garibaldi responded to her appeal by stating that he supported Cuba’s quest for freedom from colonial oppression, but he did not make any specific commitments to aid the movement. Emilia Casanova de Villaverde remained staunchly involved in the fight for Cuban liberation until her death on March 4, 1897. When her husband Cirilo Villaverde died in 1894, she briefly traveled to Cuba for his burial, but decided to return to New York City to continue working for Cuban independence for the remainder of
Emilia Casanova de Villaverde
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Partido Independiente de Color The Partido Independiente de Color (PIC) was a Cuban political party composed almost entirely of African former slaves. It was founded in 1908 by African veterans of the Cuban War of Independence. In 1912, the PIC led a revolt in the eastern province of Oriente. The revolt was crushed and the party disbanded. It is believed Esteban Montejo, subject of Miguel Barnets "Biografía de un cimarrón," was a member of this party, or had close associates who were. The Partido Independiente de Color (PIC) in Cuba started after the Cuban War of Independence (a part of
Partido Independiente de Color
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exploded and sank with 266 men killed. Public opinion was disgusted with Spain—it had lost control of the situation. McKinley insisted that a court of inquiry first determine whether the explosion was accidental. Negotiations with Spain continued as the court considered the evidence, but on March 20, the court ruled that the "Maine" was blown up by an underwater mine. As pressure for war mounted in Congress, McKinley continued to negotiate for Cuban independence. Spain refused McKinley's proposals, and on April 11, McKinley turned the matter over to Congress. He did not ask for war, but Congress declared war anyway
Presidency of William McKinley
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lead any Puerto Rican troops had such revolt occur. The revolt was deemed unnecessary later in the year, when the Spanish government recalled Palacio from office to investigate charges of abuse of power from his part, but Gómez and Betances established a friendship and logistical relationship that lasted until Betances' death in 1898. Years later, due to Betances' experience as a logistics facilitator of armed revolts, a fund raiser for the Cuban independence cause, and as a diplomat, José Martí asked Betances to become the leader of Cuban revolutionaries in France. Betances never met Martí personally, but Martí did know
Ramón Emeterio Betances
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and elephants, to a Cuban zoo. Cuba–Namibia relations Cuba–Namibia relations refer to the current and historical relationship between Cuba and Namibia. Cuba politically, militarily and diplomatically supported the South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) during the Namibian War of Independence. Cuba provided military training for the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), SWAPO's armed wing. As a result of this involvement Namibia usually supports Cuban policies on the international level, like in the case of the requested release of the Cuban Five. Since independence in 1990, Namibia and Cuba have held joint meetings every two years for economic, scientific-technical and
Cuba–Namibia relations
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keys, invented in 1817; the t-bone would be a valve trombone. They were playing in the "Teatro Villanueva" in Havana in 1869 when the Spanish Voluntarios attacked the theatre, killing some ten or so patrons who had been watching a "bufo" (musical satirical comedy), and applauding its revolutionary sentiments. The context was that the Ten Years' War had started the previous year, when Carlos Manuel de Céspedes had freed his slaves, and declared Cuban independence. Creole sentiments were running high, and the Colonial government and their rich Spanish traders were reacting. Not for the first time, politics and music were
Early Cuban bands
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continued to negotiate for Cuban independence. Spain refused McKinley's proposals, and on April 11, McKinley turned the matter over to Congress. He did not ask for war, but Congress declared war anyway on April 20, with the addition of the Teller Amendment, which disavowed any intention of annexing Cuba. The expansion of the telegraph and the development of the telephone gave McKinley a greater control over the day-to-day management of the war than previous presidents had enjoyed, and he used the new technologies to direct the army's and navy's movements as far as he was able. McKinley found Alger inadequate
William McKinley
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Habana and Almendares. This rivalry began before the formation of the Cuban League and survived after its end, lasting for nearly a century. Growing up in Havana (and, indeed, in much of Cuba) meant choosing between Habana and Almendares. The year 1900 brought fundamental change to the Cuban League. In the aftermath of the Cuban War of Independence and the Spanish–American War, pressures mounted for racial integration of the league. Led by promoters and entrepreneurs such as Abel Linares and Tinti Molina, the league integrated in 1900 with the admission of an all-black club, San Francisco, and the admission of
Cuban League
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"Cuba Literaria". Zayas was an intellectual, not a military leader, and during the 1895-1898 Cuban war of independence, he was arrested and sent to prison in the African possession of Ceuta. When deported (September 20. 1896), while in transit in Spain's Cárcel Modelo of Madrid, he wrote some of his best poetry, like "Al Caer la Nieve" subsequently published in his Obras Completas, Vol. 1, Poesia. Zayas was sometimes referred to as the "erudite civilian president", because unlike his predecessor and his successor he did not have experience in the field of battle. Upon his return to Cuba after the
Alfredo Zayas y Alfonso
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time. His ultimate goal of building a democratic, just, and stable republic in Cuba and his obsession with the practical execution of this goal led him to become the most charismatic leader of the 1895 colonial revolution. His work with the Cuban émigré community, enlisting the support of Cuban workers and socialist leaders to form the Cuban Revolutionary Party, put into motion the Cuban war of independence. His foresight into the future, shown in his warnings against American political interests for Cuba, was confirmed by the swift occupation of Cuba by the United States following the Spanish–American War. His belief
José Martí
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of more forces to enclose the diminishing Cuban rebel forces. Antonio Maceo was one of the officers who opposed the signing of the Pact of Zanjón, which ended the Ten Years' War. He and other "mambises" (independence soldiers) met with General Martínez-Campos on March 15, 1878, to discuss the peace terms, but Maceo argued that no peace could be achieved if none of the objectives of the war had been accomplished; chief among these aims was the abolition of slavery in Cuba and Cuban independence. The only immediate benefit was amnesty for those involved in the conflict and liberty for
Antonio Maceo Grajales
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declaration of independence. In response, Cuba intervened in favor of the MPLA, which became a flash point for the Cold War. With Cuban support, the MPLA held Luanda and declared independence on 11 November 1975, with Agostinho Neto becoming the first president, though the civil war continued. At this time, most of the half-million Portuguese who lived in Angola – and who had accounted for the majority of the skilled workers in public administration, agriculture, industries and trade – fled the country, leaving its once prosperous and growing economy in a state of bankruptcy. Cuban intervention in Angola is believed
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communicates her grandmother's and parents’ oral history of slavery and their fight in the Cuban War of Independence, the last fight for Cuba's independence from Spain and the abolition of slavery in 1898. Although Cuba became an independent republic and freed their African slaves, Reyita notes several Afro-Cuban uprisings during the first half of the 20th century, due to racial discrimination and unequal rights. She mentions personal interactions with leaders of the Partido Independiente de Color (PIC, The Independent Colored Party), Evaristo Estenoz and Pedro Ivonet, who organized an armed protest calling for legalization of the Party. Reyita witnesses the
Reyita: The Life of a Black Cuban Woman in the Twentieth Century
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Cuba and the Soviet Union. This eventually led to the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The invasion was a major failure for US foreign policy; Kennedy ordered a number of internal investigations across Latin America. Since the middle of the 18th century Cuba had been the crown jewel of the Spanish colonial empire. In the late 19th century, Cuban nationalist revolutionaries rebelled against Spanish dominance, resulting in three liberation wars: the Ten Years' War (1868–1878), the Little War (1879–1880) and the Cuban War of Independence (1895–1898). The United States government proclaimed war on the Spanish Empire, resulting
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force, which was under local control as militia and not under official military command. By December, Spain had sent 98,412 regular troops to the island, and the colonial government increased the Volunteer Corps to 63,000 men. By the end of 1897, there were 240,000 regulars and 60,000 irregulars on the island. The revolutionaries were far outnumbered. The Mambises were named after the Negro Spanish officer, Juan Ethninius Mamby who joined the Dominican fight for independence in 1844. The Spanish soldiers referred to the insurgents in the Dominican Republic as “the men of Mamby” or “Mambies”. When Cuba’s first war of
Cuban War of Independence
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continuing activities to gain Cuban independence from Spain, Estrada was often absent, consulting with Martí. When Martí was killed in 1895, Estrada became the leader of the independence movement, leaving Guardiola to manage their affairs in Central Valley. At the end of the war in 1899, Estrada returned to the Central Valley to take over the reins of the school from his wife. Through encouragement of other generals in the war, Estrada was convinced to run for President of Cuba in the 1901 election. Despite his long residence in New York, he was elected, and Guardiola became the inaugural first
Genoveva Guardiola de Estrada Palma
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the dynamics of the Cold War. This climate formed the background for the work of the writers of the Latin American Boom, and defined the context in which their sometimes radical ideas had to operate. The Cuban Revolution in 1959 and the subsequent USA attempt to thwart it through the Bay of Pigs Invasion can be seen as the start of this period. Cuba's vulnerability led it to closer ties with the USSR, resulting in the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 when the US and USSR came dangerously close to nuclear war. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s military authoritarian regimes
Latin American Boom
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the time Ríus Rivera, who had joined the Cuban Liberation Army and José Martí's struggle for Cuban independence, was the Commander-in-Chief of the Cuban Liberation Army of the West. Mattei Lluberas purchased 30,000 machetes, which were to be distributed amongst the rebels. He returned to Puerto Rico with a Puerto Rican flag and began to proceed with the rebellion plans. The Spanish authorities found out about their plans. Mattei Lluberas demanded that the insurrection start immediately rather than in December. The other leaders feared that such a haste action would lead to the same disastrous results as had "El Grito
Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico
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elections in 1906, the first president, Tomás Estrada Palma, faced an armed revolt by independence war veterans who defeated the meager government forces. The U.S. intervened by occupying Cuba and named Charles Edward Magoon as Governor for three years. Cuban historians have characterized Magoon's governorship as having introduced political and social corruption. In 1908, self-government was restored when José Miguel Gómez was elected President, but the U.S. continued intervening in Cuban affairs. In 1912, the Partido Independiente de Color attempted to establish a separate black republic in Oriente Province, but was suppressed by General Monteagudo with considerable bloodshed. In 1924,
Cuba
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boundary in 1897. For two years, the tribunal consisting of two Britons, two Americans, and a Russian studied the case. Their three-to-two decision, handed down in 1899, awarded 94 percent of the disputed territory to British Guiana. Theodore Roosevelt, who had fought in the Spanish–American War and had some sympathies with the independence movement granted the Republic of Cuba formal independence on May 20, 1902, with the independence leader Tomás Estrada Palma becoming the country's first president. Under the new Cuban constitution, however, the U.S. retained the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and to supervise its finances and foreign
Territorial evolution of the Caribbean
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established the annual prize that bears his name. The Varadero international airport (VRA) is named the Juan Gualberto Gómez Airport in his honor. Juan Gualberto Gómez authored numerous Spanish-language works on liberty, racial justice and independence in Latin America, including: Juan Gualberto Gómez Juan Gualberto Gómez Ferrer (July 12, 1854 – March 5, 1933) was an Afro-Cuban revolutionary leader in the Cuban War of Independence against Spain. He was a "close collaborator of Martí's," and alongside him helped plan the uprising and unite the island's black population behind the rebellion. He was an activist for independence and a journalist who
Juan Gualberto Gómez
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new constitution, the U.S. retained the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and to supervise its finances and foreign relations. Under the Platt Amendment, the U.S. leased the Guantánamo Bay naval base from Cuba. Following disputed elections in 1906, the first president, Tomás Estrada Palma, faced an armed revolt by veterans of the war for independence who defeated the government's meager forces. The U.S. intervened by occupying Cuba and named Charles Edward Magoon as Governor for three years. Cuban historians have attributed Magoon's governorship as having introduced political and social corruption. In 1908, self-government was restored when José Miguel Gómez
Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)