where would cast iron be used on a car
cylinder blocks cylinder heads gearbox cases
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and wear resistance, cast irons have become an engineering material with a wide range of applications and are used in pipes, machines and automotive industry parts, such as cylinder heads (declining usage), cylinder blocks and gearbox cases (declining usage). It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation. The earliest cast-iron artifacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, and architecture. During the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for cannon in Burgundy, France, and in England during the
Cast iron
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cost 17 per cent less to manufacture than its predecessor. Standard bodies were built in Daimler's own body department which would also provide bespoke bodies on different wheelbases to special order. Chassis were made available to customers' own coachbuilders. The same body was used on the 22 hp as on the 9 and 12 hp chassis. The 4-cylinder, 4½-litre side-valve engine is a pair of cast iron twin-cylinder blocks bolted to an aluminium crankcase cast in upper and lower halves. It develops 22 hp at 720 rpm at which speed in top gear the car should be running at between
Daimler Twenty-Two
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Gray iron Gray iron, or grey cast iron, is a type of cast iron that has a graphitic microstructure. It is named after the gray color of the fracture it forms, which is due to the presence of graphite. It is the most common cast iron and the most widely used cast material based on weight. It is used for housings where the stiffness of the component is more important than its tensile strength, such as internal combustion engine cylinder blocks, pump housings, valve bodies, electrical boxes, and decorative castings. Grey cast iron's high thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity
Gray iron
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gray iron has a low tensile strength and ductility; therefore, its impact and shock resistance is almost non-existent. Gray iron Gray iron, or grey cast iron, is a type of cast iron that has a graphitic microstructure. It is named after the gray color of the fracture it forms, which is due to the presence of graphite. It is the most common cast iron and the most widely used cast material based on weight. It is used for housings where the stiffness of the component is more important than its tensile strength, such as internal combustion engine cylinder blocks, pump
Gray iron
967787
the raw material used is white cast iron, the pig iron or other raw product of the puddling first had to be refined into refined iron, or finers metal. That would be done in a refinery where raw coal was used to remove silicon and convert carbon within the raw material, found in the form of graphite, to a combination with iron called cementite. In the fully developed process (of Hall), this metal was placed into the hearth of the puddling furnace where it was melted. The hearth was lined with oxidizing agents such as haematite and iron oxide. The
Wrought iron
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breads, pizzas, and even pies. A smaller baking pan can be placed inside the ovens, used and replaced with another as the first batch is completed. It is also possible to stack Dutch ovens on top of each other, conserving the heat that would normally rise from the hot coals on the top. These stacks can be as high as 5 or 6 pots. Americans traditionally season their iron Dutch ovens like other cast-iron cookware. After use Dutch ovens are typically cleaned like other cast-iron cookware: with boiling water, and a soft brush or sponge. Where possible, a cleaned and
Dutch oven
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Metal stitching Metal stitching is an industrial technique for repairing cracked and broken cast iron, steel, bronze or aluminium structures and their components. The process, is carried out cold, without welding. It allows the repair of cast iron and cast steel, often in-situ, without the distortion from welding, and can be used in other situations where heat cannot be used to achieve a repair. The metal stitching process was developed in the late 1930s as an option for repairing cast iron components and equipment on the Texas oil fields. The process was developed to provide a permanent, stress-free repair and
Metal stitching
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shatters. This happens when the hoop stress within the rotor exceeds the ultimate tensile strength of the rotor material. where: Flywheels are made from many different materials; the application determines the choice of material. Small flywheels made of lead are found in children’s toys. Cast iron flywheels are used in old steam engines. Flywheels used in car engines are made of cast or nodular iron, steel or aluminum. Flywheels made from high-strength steel or composites have been proposed for use in vehicle energy storage and braking systems. The efficiency of a flywheel is determined by the maximum amount of energy
Flywheel
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by fire and is only known from drawings. Bentham also designed a full cast-iron nine-arch bridge for the Butterly company, for Vauxhall Bridge in London, which would have been the first iron-built bridge over the Thames. The choice of cast iron was said to be because it was "cheaper than masonry", but some of the inspiration for the bridge has also been traced to Bentham's experience of China, where numerous such arched iron-cast bridges existed. The design was eventually abandoned after doubts about its quality, in favour of a "cast iron arches on masonry piers" design by James Walker, which
Samuel Bentham
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iron. The fashion for cast-iron facades also faded in this era. Many of the innovations of the cast-iron period were carried over to the new steel-frame buildings, and were essential to the development of the modern skyscraper. Cast iron has some architectural advantages, and some weaknesses. It is strong in compression, but weak in tension and bending. Its strength and stiffness deteriorate when subjected to high heat, such as in a fire. In the early era of the industrial revolution cast iron was often used in factory construction, in part owing to the misconception that such structures would be fireproof.
Cast-iron architecture
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with sunlight through the enlarged windows. The strength of cast iron permitted high ceilings with sleek supporting columns, and interiors became expansive and functional. During cast iron's heyday, many architects thought it to be structurally more sound than steel. It was also thought that cast iron would be fire-resistant, and facades were constructed over many interiors built of wood and other flammable materials. When exposed to heat, cast iron buckled, and later cracked under the cold water used to extinguish fire. In 1899, a building code mandating the backing of cast-iron fronts with masonry was passed. Most of the buildings
SoHo, Manhattan
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would be when normally molten. Although this type of phosphoric cast iron is rather hard and brittle, strength is not the main purpose of the metal when it is used in jewellery. The molten iron was cast into metal chill moulds. Berlin iron jewellery Berlin iron jewellery refers to articles of cast-iron jewellery that were made during the early 19th century in Germany. Prior to production beginning in Berlin very similar jewellery was being produced in Gliwice and France. The roots of Berlin iron jewellery in Berlin can be traced back to the establishment of the Königliche Eisengiesserei bei Berlin
Berlin iron jewellery
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that would otherwise be absorbed primarily by the attacker's fingers, reducing the likelihood of damage to the attacker's fingers. Metal ring and knuckle style weapons date back to ancient times and have been used all over the world for many hundreds of years. The Nihang Sikhs used an early variant called Sher Panja in the 18th century. Cast iron, brass, lead, and wood knuckles were made in the United States during the American Civil War (1861–1865). Soldiers would often buy cast iron or brass knuckles. If they could not buy them, they would carve their own from wood, or cast
Brass knuckles
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support of large cast-iron beams. Stephenson's Dee Bridge had used a truss girder, where an inverted T-shaped cast iron girder was trussed by applied wrought iron tension bars. This faulty design was instrumental in the bridge failure, where tension in the truss rods increased compression in the upper part of the girder such that it underwent columnar failure. Despite this, although with the advantage of hindsight, Brunel would use similar applied tension chains for his truss design. Around the 1840s, developments in the puddling furnace reduced the cost of wrought iron and improvements to rolling mills allowed the production of
Balloon flange girder
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regular-grade fuel. All H-code 351's were equipped with a cast-iron crankshaft, two-bolt main bearing caps, forged-steel connecting rods, cast-aluminum pistons, nonadjustable valvetrain, and cast-iron intake and exhaust manifolds. All H-code 351 Cleveland engines used the 2V heads with smaller ports and had open combustion chambers. These engines were produced from 1970 through 1974 and were used on a variety of Ford models, from pony car to full-sized. The 351W with a 2V carburetor was also produced during this time with the same horsepower rating, but Ford used the "H-code" to describe both engines. The M-code was a high-compression, high-performance variation
Ford 335 engine
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has been archaeologically excavated and can be seen in situ at Coalbrookdale, part of the Ironbridge Gorge Museums. Cast iron from the furnace was used to make girders for the world's first iron bridge in 1779. The Iron Bridge crosses the River Severn at Coalbrookdale and remains in use for pedestrians. The steam engine was applied to power blast air, overcoming a shortage of water power in areas where coal and iron ore were located. The cast iron blowing cylinder was developed in 1768 to replace the leather bellows, which wore out quickly. The steam engine and cast iron blowing
Blast furnace
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century. The breech-loaders were cheaper to produce and both easier and faster to reload, but could take less powerful charges than cast bronze guns. Generally, the bronze guns used cast iron shot and were more suited to penetrate hull sides while the iron guns used stone shot that would shatter on impact and leave large, jagged holes, but both could also fire a variety of ammunition intended to destroy rigging and light structure or injure enemy personnel. The majority of the guns were small iron guns with short range that could be aimed and fired by a single person. The
Naval artillery
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were the first ever offered in a passenger car. It became the basis of a highly successful cast iron V6 engine, the Fireball. The all-aluminum V8 engine was dropped after the 1963 model year, but was replaced with a very similar cast-iron-block aluminum-head version for one year, and then in all-iron versions. Bore spacings for all variants of the SBB are 4.240". GM experimented with aluminum engines starting in the early 1950s. Aluminum Company of America was pushing all automakers to use more aluminum. An early-development supercharged version of the V8 was used in the 1951 Le Sabre concept car,
Buick V8 engine
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harder to achieve the same result. A mildly sulfur contaminated bar can be worked, but it requires a great deal more time and effort. In cast iron sulfur promotes the formation of white iron. As little as 0.5% can counteract the effects of slow cooling and a high silicon content . White cast iron is more brittle, but also harder. It is generally avoided, because it is difficult to work, except in China where high sulfur cast iron, some as high as 0.57%, made with coal and coke, was used to make bells and chimes . According to , good
Iron ore
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Reformation. The amounts of cast iron used for cannon required large scale production. The first cast-iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III, and is known as The Iron Bridge. Cast iron was also used in the construction of buildings. Cast iron is made from pig iron, which is the product of smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. Cast iron can be made directly from the molten pig iron or by re-melting pig iron, often along with substantial quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon (coke) and taking various steps to remove undesirable contaminants. Phosphorus and sulfur
Cast iron
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into the iron, working it into a quality of wrought iron so high that it could be used even for gun barrels. This fetched a high price and made Salisbury iron the celebrated choice of Connecticut's early nineteenth-century arms industry as well as the preeminent source of cast iron railroad car wheels until they were superseded by steel wheels. Peter P. Everts, an agent of the mid-19th-century mines, however, stated the quality of Salisbury iron varied. The iron industry in Salisbury became inactive following World War I, a plan to revive it during World War II was never implemented, and
Salisbury, Connecticut
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by Stephenson, "Locomotion" hauled an 80-ton load of coal and flour in two hours, reaching a speed of on one stretch. The first purpose-built passenger car, "Experiment", was attached and carried dignitaries on the opening journey. It was the first time passenger traffic had been run on a steam locomotive railway. The rails used for the line were wrought-iron, produced by John Birkinshaw at the Bedlington Ironworks. Wrought-iron rails could be produced in longer lengths than cast-iron and were less liable to crack under the weight of heavy locomotives. William Losh of Walker Ironworks thought he had an agreement with
George Stephenson
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to new SAE testing procedures). To give the car a more sporty feel, the car featured drive-by-wire throttle control and a five-speed sequential sport shifting automatic transmission with shift paddles mounted on the steering wheel. As with the first-generation Acura RL, the second-generation Acura RL used premium unleaded fuel rated at 91 (R+M)/2 octane. A first for the RL was the use of aluminum 4-piston front brake calipers over 12.6-inch cast-iron ventilated front rotors. These multi-piston calipers derived from racing applications, are extremely rigid. In the rear, 12.2-inch cast-iron ventilated discs attached to their hub with lightweight aluminum collets and
Acura RL
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be cast with larger sections. Cast iron and wrought iron can be produced unintentionally when smelting copper using iron ore as a flux. The earliest cast-iron artifacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now modern Luhe County, Jiangsu in China. This is based on an analysis of the artifact's microstructures. Because cast iron is comparatively brittle, it is not suitable for purposes where a sharp edge or flexibility is required. It is strong under compression, but not under tension. Cast iron was invented in China in the 5th century BC and poured
Cast iron
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comprised stone flag floors, exposed cast iron structure, timber joinery and boarded partitions and lime plaster on lath soffits to the south facing roof slopes. The sheds were often built into the hillside so the wall would benefit from contact with damp earth that would maintain the moisture levels in the shed required by cotton weaving. The shed would be modular using a 3m by 6m bay, the beams of the roof being supported by cast iron columns. The ground to beam clearance was 3.5m and the ground to ridge height was 4.6m. Later sheds used a longitudinal beam under
Weaving shed
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stabilize cementite, increase hardness, and increase resistance to wear and heat. 0.1–0.3% zirconium helps to form graphite, deoxidize, and increase fluidity. In malleable iron melts, bismuth is added, on the scale of 0.002–0.01%, to increase how much silicon can be added. In white iron, boron is added to aid in the production of malleable iron; it also reduces the coarsening effect of bismuth. Grey cast iron is characterised by its graphitic microstructure, which causes fractures of the material to have a grey appearance. It is the most commonly used cast iron and the most widely used cast material based on
Cast iron
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China. Cast iron production reached Europe in the 14th century and Britain around 1500. Cast iron was useful for casting into pots and other implements, but was too brittle for making most tools. However, cast iron had a lower melting temperature than wrought iron and was much easier to make with primitive technology. Wrought iron was the material used for making many hardware items, tools and other implements. Before cast iron was made in Europe, wrought iron was made in small batches by the bloomery process, which was never used in China. Wrought iron could be made from cast iron
Productivity improving technologies
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to thermal stresses. It distributes the tensional load away from fatigue points and maintains relieved conditions of inherent internal stresses where the rupture initially occurred. Where the repair involved a pressurized interface, the repair process has the ability to seal the join. Metal stitching Metal stitching is an industrial technique for repairing cracked and broken cast iron, steel, bronze or aluminium structures and their components. The process, is carried out cold, without welding. It allows the repair of cast iron and cast steel, often in-situ, without the distortion from welding, and can be used in other situations where heat cannot
Metal stitching
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11.7 seconds. After the 205 Rallye, Peugeot again used the 'Rallye' designation for some of its 106 and 306 models. To homologate the 205 T16 ("Turbo 16" in France) Group B rally car, Peugeot had to produce 200 road-going examples. According to the Group B regulations, these had to be based on a current production road car. Peugeot decided to base the Group B rally car on the two door version of the 205. The engine was based on the cast iron block of the Diesel version of the then new XU engine family, albeit with a specially developed 16-valve
Peugeot 205
6064281
built in 1820. Plateway A plateway is an early kind of railway or tramway or wagonway, with a cast-iron rail. They were mainly used for about 50 years up to 1830, though some continued later. Plateways consisted of "L" shaped rails where a flange on the rail guided the wheels in contrast to edgeways, where flanges on the wheels guide it along the track. Plateways were originally horsedrawn, but cable haulage and locomotives were sometimes used later on. The plates of the plateway were made of cast iron, often cast by the ironworks that were their users. On most lines
Plateway
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Plateway A plateway is an early kind of railway or tramway or wagonway, with a cast-iron rail. They were mainly used for about 50 years up to 1830, though some continued later. Plateways consisted of "L" shaped rails where a flange on the rail guided the wheels in contrast to edgeways, where flanges on the wheels guide it along the track. Plateways were originally horsedrawn, but cable haulage and locomotives were sometimes used later on. The plates of the plateway were made of cast iron, often cast by the ironworks that were their users. On most lines this system was
Plateway
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car in series production in the United States with a straight-eight engine. The engine had a cast iron block, a detachable cast iron cylinder head, and an aluminum lower crankcase and oil pan. The crankshaft ran in three main bearings. While the prototype Straight Eight shown at the model's introduction had horizontal valves of the type used in earlier Duesenberg-designed marine and racing engines, the model that entered production had a shaft-driven single overhead camshaft which used rockers to operate two valves per cylinder in a hemispheric combustion chamber. The engine used a single updraft carburetor; early versions used a
Duesenberg Model A
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damping properties, steel fabricated structures are seldom used where high precision is required. Good-quality cast iron that is stress-relieved and annealed will give the structure dimensional stability, and can be cast into complex shapes, but needs an expensive machining process to form precision surfaces after casting. Good-quality natural granite is becoming more and more difficult to find, but has a higher damping capacity than cast iron. Again, as with cast iron, the machining of natural granite is labour-intensive and expensive. Precision granite castings are produced by mixing granite aggregates (which are crushed, washed, and dried) with an epoxy resin system
Epoxy granite
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falling glass in the event of any of the panes were to break. Below the train shed is an area that at one point had been used as a goods station. The cast iron columns and brick arches present throughout this area support the non-through platforms located directly above. Since the early 1990s, this areas has been used to accommodate the Metrolink station, along with its tracks and sidings, as well as on-site car parking. Prior to its reuse in this capacity, the cast-iron columns scattered throughout the undercroft were encased in concrete as a protective measure against collision. The
Manchester Piccadilly station
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common blacksmith's anvil is made of either forged or cast steel, forged wrought iron with a hard steel face or cast iron with a hard steel face. Cast iron anvils are not used for forging as they are incapable of standing up to the impact and will crack and dent. Also, cast iron anvils without a hard steel face do not have the rebound that a harder anvil would and will tire out the smith. Historically, some anvils have been made with a smooth top working face of hardened steel welded to a cast iron or wrought iron body, though
Anvil
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cast iron rails by 8:1. About three decades later, after Andrew Carnegie had made steel competitively cheap, steel rails were supplanting iron for the same longevity reasons. The tram (or "dram") cars used for mine haulage are generally called "tubs". The term "mine car" is commonly used in the United States The Romans were the first to realise the benefits of using animals in their industrial workings, using specially bred pit ponies to power supplementary work such as mine pumps. Ponies began to be used underground, often replacing child or female labour, as distances from pit head to coal face
Mine railway
7304338
wrought iron was used for parts of the bridge which would be in tension, such as tie rods between spans. Five distinct types of viaduct were built to suit local conditions at each site. Peter John Margaryo0, the Cornwall Railway engineer from 1868 to 1891, classified them as classes A to E. Brunel's designs allowed any defective timber to be withdrawn and replaced. The first decay usually occurred at the bottom of legs where they were seated in the cast iron chairs, and around bolt holes. The other area with significant decay was generally underneath the decking that carried the
Cornwall Railway viaducts
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Crepe maker A crepe maker is a cooking device used to make crepes, galettes, pancakes, blinis or tortillas. It should not be mistaken for a regular pan or a crepe pan. Crepe makers were originally large cast-iron plates set over the fire to cook cereal-based batters. The machines have since evolved and the cast-iron plates were set on top of stainless steel frames. These first machines were electric machines, and later on, gas crepe griddles were developed as well. Although professional cast-iron crepe makers usually need to be seasoned, non-stick cast-iron griddles can now be commonly found on the market.
Crepe maker
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than what might be called "unwrought" iron. Cast iron, unlike wrought iron, is brittle and cannot be worked either hot or cold. Cast iron can break if struck with a hammer. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, wrought iron went by a wide variety of terms according to its form, origin, or quality. While the bloomery process produced wrought iron directly from ore, cast iron or pig iron were the starting materials used in the finery forge and puddling furnace. Pig iron and cast iron have higher carbon content than wrought iron, but have a lower melting point than
Wrought iron
6184577
iron then the hearth depth is never more than . If the furnace is designed to boil gray iron then the average hearth depth is . Due to the great heat required to melt the charge the grate had to be cooled, lest it melt with the charge. This was done by running a constant charge of cool air on it, or by throwing water on the bottom of the grate. The fireplace, where the fuel is burned, used a cast iron grate which varied in size depending on the fuel used. If bituminous coal is used then an average
Puddling (metallurgy)
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and its excellent heat retention makes it a good option for long-cooking strong-flavored stews or braised dishes. Because cast-iron skillets can develop a "non-stick" surface when cared for properly, they are excellent for frying potatoes or preparing stir-fries. Some cooks consider cast iron a good choice for egg dishes, while others feel the iron adds an off-flavor to eggs. Other uses of cast-iron pans include baking, for instance for making cornbread, cobblers and cakes. Most bare cast-iron pots and pans are cast as a single piece of metal, including the handle. This allows them to be used on both the
Cast-iron cookware
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1789 where the wheels were flanged and, over time, it was realised that this combination worked better. The earliest of these in general use were the so-called cast iron fishbelly rails from their shape. Rails made from cast iron were brittle and broke easily. They could only be made in short lengths which would soon become uneven. John Birkinshaw's 1820 patent, as rolling techniques improved, introduced wrought iron in longer lengths, replaced cast iron and contributed significantly to the explosive growth of railroads in the period 1825-40. The cross-section varied widely from one line to another, but were of three
Rail profile
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conventional cast-iron railway wheels, which transmitted all imperfections of the track into the car above it, making train rides noisy and uncomfortable. Paper wheels were especially used in Pullman dining and sleeping cars, although they were occasionally criticised for causing derailments. In 1915 the Interstate Commerce Commission, which regulated U.S. railroads, declared paper car wheels to be unsafe, and they went out of use on railroad passenger cars in the United States. The construction process involved the bonding of 200 circular sheets of paper, as follows. Sets of three circular sheets were bonded into a "sandwich" using a flour-based glue.
Paper car wheel
196086
a long rod. The decarburized iron, having a higher melting point than cast iron, was raked into globs by the puddler. When the glob was large enough, the puddler would remove it. Puddling was backbreaking and extremely hot work. Few puddlers lived to be 40. Because puddling was done in a reverberatory furnace, coal or coke could be used as fuel. The puddling process continued to be used until the late 19th century when iron was being displaced by steel. Because puddling required human skill in sensing the iron globs, it was never successfully mechanised. Rolling was an important part
Industrial Revolution
11895375
where one of its first uses was in safety critical components. The majority of car seat brackets and seat belt components are made of austempered steel because of its high strength and ductility. These properties allow it to absorb significantly more energy during a crash without the risk of brittle failure. Currently, austempered steel is also used in bearings, mower blades, transmission gear, wave plate, and turf aeration tines. In the second half of the twentieth century the austempering process began to be applied commercially to cast irons. Austempered ductile iron (ADI) was first commercialized in the early 1970s and
Austempering
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House in East Ayrshire, Scotland, the side gates being for the use of pedestrians. The gates themselves could be wood or more commonly cast iron, wrought iron or mild steel. A large number of the cast iron gates were removed by the Ministry of Works in World War II to be melted down and used to build weapons, etc. Once removed these gates were rarely replaced. A sign of very high status was to have sufficient wealth to have gatehouses or lodges near the gates. Some estates had several lodges and the owners would at one time have employed people
Gatepost
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or into troughs on the foundry floor to form rough billets. The billets could be re-melted and cast into shapes at other foundries or could be hammered into wrought iron in forges. Good news is cast iron flows easily into molds and can be used to quickly form intricate articles from iron. The bad news is that cast iron is brittle and cracks rather than bends. Brittle because it is not pure iron - impurities are not completely leached from the ore and carbon from the heating fuel is absorbed into the iron pool. Quick cooling of the iron in
Window shutter hardware
6422437
post. The cast-iron windshaft carries four double Patent sails, and a diameter cast iron Brake Wheel with about 60 wooden cogs, which formerly drove the cast-iron Wallower carried on a cast iron Upright Shaft. A Spur Wheel at the lower end of the upright shaft would have driven the millstones on the upper floor of the mill. The conversion from Hollow Post mill to a Smock mill was done by Sanderson's, the Louth millwrights. References for above:- The Mill House of "Wimbledon Windmill" is where Robert Baden-Powell stayed in 1902 and wrote parts of "Scouting for Boys", which was published
Wimbledon Windmill
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the cast-iron four-cylinder Volvo 1778 cc B18 unit with overdrive gearbox and De Dion rear axle. It was a sensation when first shown at the 1964 Racing Car Show. This was to be the design that would become familiar to sports car enthusiasts for more than 30 years, even though the original plywood chassis would later be replaced by a steel chassis and the futuristic scalloped dashboard also vanished after a few years. The plywood chassis was glued together from 386 separate pieces and was not only light and strong, but also required a minimum up front investment to construct.
Marcos GT
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succumbed after being destroyed piecemeal." … In condemning Bouch's Southesk viaduct for defective foundations after rigorous testing, Colonel Yolland (the head of the Railway Inspectorate) had also stated his opinion that "piers constructed of cast-iron columns of the dimensions used in this viaduct should not in future be sanctioned by the Board of Trade.". Marindin's report noted that " This disaster furnishes a very convincing proof of the unreliability of small cast-iron columns when used for the piers of viaducts in positions where they are likely to be exposed to any blow or sudden shock " but drew a slightly
Solway Junction Railway
2954873
1960 with many body styles, including a van. After engine and interior upgrades it was renamed the PB in 1967 and the "SpaceVan" in 1974. As noted above, it would be sold as a Dodge and Fargo model until 1976, when both Commer and Fargo names were dropped. These were rounded-front forward-control vans with narrow front track—a legacy of their Humber car-derived suspension. Utilising at first the Hillman-derived 4-cylinder engine in the PA series, then the larger , and from 1968 onwards the unit in the PB, only the cast-iron-head version of this engine were used. A Perkins 4108 diesel
Commer
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"Full of iron mines it is in sundry places, where for the making and fining whereof there bee furnaces on every side, and a huge deale of wood is yearely spent..." Henry VIII urgently needed cannon for his new coastal forts, but casting these in the traditional bronze would have been very expensive. Previously iron cannons had been made by building up bands of iron bound together with iron hoops; such cannons had been used at Bannockburn in 1314. There had also been some cast cannons made in the Weald but with separate barrels and breeches. In Buxted the local
History of Sussex
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masonry, is very weak. The best way of using cast iron for bridge construction was by using arches, so that all the material is in compression. Cast iron, again like masonry, is very strong in compression. Wrought iron, like most other kinds of iron and indeed like most metals in general, is strong in tension, and also tough – resistant to fracturing. The relationship between wrought iron and cast iron, for structural purposes, may be thought of as analogous to the relationship between wood and stone. Nevertheless, cast iron continued to be used in inappropriate structural ways, until the Tay
Cast iron
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B. Armstrong, was officially inaugurated to handle the transportation and sorting of mail aboard trains. Armstrong was promoted from a supervisory position in the Chicago post office following his experiments in 1864 with a converted route agent's car on runs between Chicago and Clinton, Iowa. RPO car interiors, which at first consisted of solid wood furniture and fixtures, would also soon be redesigned. In 1879, an RMS employee named Charles R. Harrison developed a new set of fixtures that soon gained widespread use. Harrison's design consisted of hinged, cast-iron fixtures that could be unfolded and set up in a number
Railway post office
9340549
William Strutt pioneered this innovation, building a number of industrial buildings using cast-iron supports. Cast iron was strong enough to support the heavy machinery but was vulnerable to the frequent fires that would occur in such factories. There were also numerous building collapses caused by fracture of brittle cast-iron beams. These often occurred when the bottom side of the beam was in tension, often from defects such as blow holes within the beams. Such internal defects were common in large beams. Cast iron was also used widely in bridge construction for the new railway system, sometimes with horrific results, especially
Cast-iron architecture
974204
older structures, buildings in SoHo were later designed to feature the cast iron. An American architectural innovation, cast iron was cheaper to use for facades than materials such as stone or brick. Molds of ornamentation, prefabricated in foundries, were used interchangeably for many buildings, and a broken piece could be easily recast. The buildings could be erected quickly; some were built in four months. Despite the brief construction period, the quality of the cast-iron designs was not sacrificed. Bronze had previously been the metal most frequently used for architectural detail. Architects found that the relatively inexpensive cast iron could provide
SoHo, Manhattan
6594654
resistant brass (DZR), also known as Brass C352 is an alloy used to make pipe fittings for use with potable water. Plumbing fittings that are resistant to dezincification are appropriately marked, with the letters "CR" (Corrosion Resistant) or DZR (dezincification resistant) in the UK, and the letters "DR" (dezincification resistant) in Australia. Graphitic corrosion is selective leaching of iron, from grey cast iron, where iron is removed and graphite grains remain intact. Affected surfaces develop a layer of graphite, rust, and metallurgical impurities that may inhibit further leaching. The effect can be substantially reduced by alloying the cast iron with
Selective leaching
9340540
and buildings. Puddled wrought iron, which was introduced after The Iron Bridge was constructed, was a much better structural material. Puddled iron became widely available after 1800 and eventually became the preferred material for bridges, rails, ships and buildings until new steel making processes were developed in the late 19th century. Cast iron has been used for centuries and was used in architecture in the pre-modern period; for instance, the 13th century Indian "Konark Sun Temple" used iron beams. It was in 18th-century Britain that new production methods first allowed cast iron to be produced cheaply enough and in large
Cast-iron architecture
13311376
compression. It has a relatively low melting point, good fluidity, castability, excellent machinability and wear resistance. Though almost entirely replaced by steel in building structures, cast irons have become an engineering material with a wide range of applications, including pipes, machine and car parts. Cast iron retains high strength in fires, despite its low melting point. It is usually around 95% iron, with between 2.1% and 4% carbon and between 1% and 3% silicon. It does not corrode as easily as steel. Steel is an iron alloy with controlled level of carbon (between 0.0 and 1.7% carbon). Steel is used
Structural material
4375475
intent was to find another element that would cause all the carbon in the cast iron alloy to be combined as carbide. Magnesium was a known carbide former. Instead, the graphite in the iron formed into spheroidal shapes, and the cast iron had high tensile strength plus it exhibited ductility. Thus was born ductile iron in 1943. Millis and others at the International Nickel Company (Inco) sought and obtained U.S. patent 2,485,760 on October 25, 1949 for magnesium additions to cast iron that would spheroidize the graphite and dramatically ductilize the material. As an employee of Inco, Millis worked to
Keith Millis
6511474
Cast-iron cookware Cast-iron cookware is valued for its heat retention properties and can be produced and formed with a relatively low level of technology. Seasoning is used to protect bare cast iron from rust and to create a non-stick surface. Types of bare cast-iron cookware include panini presses, waffle irons, crepe makers, dutch ovens, frying pans, deep fryers, tetsubin, woks, potjies, karahi, flattop grills and griddles. In Asia, particularly China, India, Korea and Japan, there is a long history of cooking with cast iron vessels. However, the first mention of a cast-iron kettle in English appeared in 679 or 680,
Cast-iron cookware
1207073
into moulds to make ploughshares and pots as well as weapons and pagodas. Although steel was more desirable, cast iron was cheaper and thus was more commonly used for implements in ancient China, while wrought iron or steel was used for weapons. The Chinese developed a method of annealing cast iron by keeping hot castings in an oxidizing atmosphere for a week or longer in order to burn off some carbon near the surface in order to keep the surface layer from being too brittle. In the west, where it did not become available until the 15th century, its earliest
Cast iron
16241529
the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway in about 1865 to service its station. The warehouse was also linked to a branch of the Ashton Canal. It was built of brick with stone detailing and had cast-iron columns with wrought-iron beams. Three warehouses have been demolished, but one that was used as a car park was restored as residential units. In the 1890s the Great Northern Railway Company’s warehouse, the last major railway warehouse to be built, was completed on Deansgate. The square mile of "warehouse city" has been described as the finest example of a Victorian commercial centre in the
Manchester cotton warehouses
17620617
Iron railing An iron railing is a fence made of iron. This may either be wrought iron, which is ductile and durable and may be hammered into elaborate shapes when hot, or the cheaper cast iron, which is of low ductility and quite brittle. Cast iron can also produce complicated shapes, but these are created through the use of moulds of compressed sand rather than hammering, which would be likely to damage the iron. One of the earliest uses of cast iron railings in England was in 1710–14 at St Paul's Cathedral, despite the objections of Christopher Wren, who did
Iron railing
10074390
alloy intake manifold Ignition system 6-volt, Splitdorf fixed-spark magneto Lubrication system Splash; plunger pump (note: Car-Nation advertised pressure lubrication, but it does not appear on any of the known cars) Exhaust system Single, iron TRANSMISSION Type Three-speed Detroit Gear & Machine sliding gear, cone clutch (note: early cars appear to have used an alloy clutch plate. Prone to cracking, later versions have a cast-iron clutch plate) DIFFERENTIAL Type Weston-Mott semi-floating STEERING Type Adjustable worm gear BRAKES Type Rod-actuated manual Front None Rear 1¼ x internal expanding emergency; external contracting service on transmission shaft CHASSIS & BODY Construction Full-frame riveted 1/8-inch
Car-Nation
21011462
level and three upper levels. The Burns Philp Building is a finely designed and ornamented Federation city office building, with a sandstone exterior on a rusticated plinth, arched openings and vaulted entry vestibules. The facade is symmetrical apart from a small car opening to one side giving access to a laneway. The interiors are largely intact with very fine decorative painted metal ceilings, high quality timber partitioning, elaborate cast iron columns, cedar joinery and polished stone finishes to the foyer. The building used an innovative construction system combining load bearing walls, brick cruciform columns, central stair shaft, cast iron columns,
Burns Philp Building, Sydney
448697
crankshaft can be placed lower in the car. The Ferrari 156 built for new Formula One 1.5 L regulations used a Dino V6 engine with this configuration. The Dino V6 engine saw a new evolution in 1966 when it was adapted to road use and produced by a Ferrari-Fiat joint-venture for the Fiat Dino and Dino 206 GT (this car was made by Ferrari but sold under the brand Dino). This new version was redesigned by Aurelio Lampredi initially as a 65° V6 with an aluminum block but was replaced in 1969 by a cast-iron block version (the Dino car
V6 engine
264757
steels and cast irons. Plain carbon steels (those that contain essentially only carbon as an alloying element) are used in low-cost, high-strength applications where weight and corrosion are not a problem. Cast irons, including ductile iron, are also part of the iron-carbon system. Stainless steel or galvanized steel is used where resistance to corrosion is important. Aluminium alloys and magnesium alloys are used for applications where strength and lightness are required. Copper-nickel alloys (such as Monel) are used in highly corrosive environments and for non-magnetic applications. Nickel-based superalloys like Inconel are used in high-temperature applications such as gas turbines, turbochargers,
Metallurgy
17492806
shells to the British government before 1790. Cast iron was used for guns before the invention of wrought iron, and the cast iron guns were subject to rigorous production controls and quality tests. On 27 July 1796 the partners signed an agreement with Matthew Boulton and James Watt to pay royalties on the two steam engines in use at the works, and to be allowed to make additional steam engines at the works, paying royalties. When Sir William Armstrong invented wrought-iron guns, some of the first coils he used were Bowling iron. Bowling iron, or Best Yorkshire, became well known
Bowling Iron Works
1685424
railway structures. He contributed to the calculation of the forces exerted by moving engines on bridges. The bridge failed because a cast iron beam was used to support the loads of passing trains. Cast iron is brittle in tension or bending, and many other similar bridges had to be demolished or reinforced. He appeared as an expert witness at the Tay Bridge disaster, where he gave evidence about the effects of wind loads on the bridge. The centre section of the bridge (known as the High Girders) was completely destroyed during a storm on 28 December 1879, while an express
Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet
6511490
cast-iron cookware include Milo, Cousances, Ferleon, Tramontina, Le Chasseur, Lodge, Descoware, Combekk and John Wright. Several newer brands are associated with well-known celebrities and chefs, including Daniel Boulud Kitchen, Martha Stewart, Rachael Ray Cookware (made by Anolon), and Mario Batali (made by Copco). Cast-iron cookware Cast-iron cookware is valued for its heat retention properties and can be produced and formed with a relatively low level of technology. Seasoning is used to protect bare cast iron from rust and to create a non-stick surface. Types of bare cast-iron cookware include panini presses, waffle irons, crepe makers, dutch ovens, frying pans, deep
Cast-iron cookware
140160
where pig iron is refined into wrought iron. The anvil serves as a work bench to the blacksmith, where the metal to be forged is placed. Anvils may seem clunky and heavy, but they are a highly refined tool carefully shaped to suit a blacksmith's needs. Anvils are made of cast or wrought iron with a tool steel face welded on or of a single piece of cast or forged tool steel. Some anvils are made of only cast iron, and have no tool steel face. These are not real anvils, and will not serve a blacksmith as such because
Forge
7146046
cobalt in the iron, suggesting that it was not of meteoric origin, while the lack of sulfur indicated that it is not a pyrite. Because of its low magnesium content, Dr. Gero Kurat of the museum and Dr. Rudolf Grill of the Federal Geological Office in Vienna thought that it might be cast iron, Grill suggesting that similar rough lumps had been used as ballast in early mining machinery. The cast is currently kept in the Oberösterreichischen Landesmuseen in Linz, Austria, where the original object was also exhibited from 1950 to 1958, while the original cuboid is held by the
Wolfsegg Iron
9340544
City to advocate and design buildings using cast-iron components. Cast iron could be cast into a wide array of shapes and designs, allowing elaborate facades that were far cheaper than traditional stone-carved ones. These facades could also be painted a wide array of colours. Many of these buildings had elaborate neo-classical or Romanesque designs. Mostly used on commercial and industrial buildings, there are many surviving examples, especially in the SoHo and Tribeca areas of New York and the western downtown area of Louisville, Kentucky. One of the most intact ensembles in the American West can be seen in the Skidmore/Old
Cast-iron architecture
6599580
Grasshopper cannon Grasshopper was the nickname for a cannon used by the British in the late 18th century as a light battalion gun to support infantry. It was designed for service in rough terrain such as the frontiers of British North America. Its barrel was made of bronze instead of iron. Bronze is less brittle than cast iron, and so the barrel could be made thinner and lighter than that of an iron gun. Further, if a bronze gun developed a defect it would rupture; an iron gun with a flaw would shatter, at great cost to its own crew.
Grasshopper cannon
931950
1856. It features one of his (impressive for the period) engineering works, the Three Bridges (although it is still often referred to on maps by the original canal crossing name of Windmill Bridge). where Windmill Lane, the railway and the Grand Union Canal all intersect – the canal being carried over the railway line cutting below in a cast-iron trough and a new cast-iron road-bridge going over both. Brunel died shortly after its completion. Sections of his bell-section rail can still be seen on the southern side being used as both fencing posts and a rope rail directly under the
Southall
19460162
Most of the problems with stucco arise from prolonged contact with water or moisture which breaks down the structure of the particles and binder. In addition, the texture of stucco is prone to removal when abraded. As with most preservation, gentle cleaning of the surface can help remove dirt and impurities and inhibit further deterioration. Iron was a popular material used in lighthouse construction. Multiple types of iron were used including: cast iron, wrought iron, steel, galvanized iron, galvanized steel, and stainless steel. Cast iron was the most popular material because it resists corrosion and can be cast into a
Conservation and restoration of lighthouses
17966866
Staffordshire potteries by building a line from Norden to Middlebere Tramway which was opened in 1806 to a gauge for 3.4 miles long. The rails were cast iron, L-shaped 3 ft long and weighing 40 lb, the horse-drawn clay wagons had flangeless wheels, and the sleepers were simply stone blocks (60-70 lb) numbering well in excess of 10,000. (some of the sleepers remain in place today, complete with holes where the rails used to be fixed. Others have been used as paving stones at Langton Wallis Cottage.) The cast iron rails secured to stone blocks (with metal spike and oak
Purbeck Mineral and Mining Museum
9343734
meteoritic iron. The earliest cast iron artifacts, dating to 5th century BC, were discovered by archaeologists in what is now modern Luhe County, Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture and architecture. Around 500 BC, metalworkers in the southern state of Wu achieved a temperature of 1130 °C. At this temperature, iron combines with 4.3% carbon and melts. The liquid iron can be cast into molds, a method far less laborious than individually forging each piece of iron from a bloom. Cast iron is rather brittle and unsuitable for striking implements. It can, however,
Ferrous metallurgy
16324346
1940, a modern steel production and rolling section was built, with machinery imported from Nazi Germany, covering 8500 m and fitted with four special components. First, the four Siemens-Martin open-hearth furnaces, heated by six gas generators, could each fit 25 loads of tons, with a total capacity of 90,000 tons of steel ingots per year. The alloy loaded into the furnaces was 75% cast iron and 25% scrap iron, and the hall where they were located was fitted with a mixer for 200 tons of liquid cast iron, to be used during production. Second, the 5 ton-per-load electric furnace produced
Hunedoara steel works
1464777
ground where possible for protection. They also may build kuta (fencing) and kubau (fort) where necessary to defend against enemy attacks. Dayaks also possess some brass and cast iron weaponry such as brass cannon (bedil) and iron cast cannon meriam. Furthermore, Dayaks are experienced in setting up animal traps (peti) which can be used for attacking enemy as well. The agility and stamina of Dayaks in jungles give them advantages. However, at the end, Dayaks were defeated by handguns and disunity among themselves against the colonialists. Most importantly, Dayaks will seek divine helps to grant them protection in the forms
Dayak people
7536533
cast iron where timber baulks would have sufficed. The bridge had been built in 1844, well before the Dee accident, and patched with the angle iron in 1853. The discovery of the cracked girder should have alerted engineers to the problem, and all should have been replaced entirely. Cast iron failures remained a problem for many years, culminating in the fall of the Tay Rail Bridge in December, 1879 with over 75 casualties in the passenger express passing over the viaduct at the time the cast iron columns collapsed. The problem did not end there, however, because so much cast
Wootton bridge collapse
4375497
being softer and weaker, these require protection from physical damage. Ductile iron is specifically useful in many automotive components, where strength must surpass that of aluminum but do not necessarily require steel. Other major industrial applications include off-highway diesel trucks, Class 8 trucks, agricultural tractors, and oil well pumps. In wind power industry nodular cast iron is used for hubs and structural parts like machine frames. Nodular cast iron is suitable for large and complex shapes and high (fatigue) loads. SG iron is used in many grand piano harps (the iron plates to which high-tension piano strings are attached). Ductile
Ductile iron
1936369
Tribune" the machine was immediately used on the daily paper and a large book. The book, the first ever composed with the new Linotype method was titled "The Tribune Book of Open-Air Sports". Initially, The Mergenthaler Linotype Company was the only company producing linecasting machines, but around 1914 a linecasting machine would be produced by the competition — The Intertype Company — using the same matrices as the Linotype, only where Mergenthaler prided themselves on intricately formed cast-iron parts on their machine, Intertype machined many of their similar parts from steel and aluminum. During the 1970s and 1980s, linotype and
Ottmar Mergenthaler
16797751
Crepe cooking machines are commonly referred to as crepe makers or crepe griddles. They are also known as "billig", mainly in Brittany, France, where crêpes originate. "Billig" is a mutated form of the breton word "pillig" meaning "crepe maker". Crepe maker A crepe maker is a cooking device used to make crepes, galettes, pancakes, blinis or tortillas. It should not be mistaken for a regular pan or a crepe pan. Crepe makers were originally large cast-iron plates set over the fire to cook cereal-based batters. The machines have since evolved and the cast-iron plates were set on top of stainless
Crepe maker
3713539
prototype used a 798 cc L8A two-rotor Wankel. The engine and car were both shown at the 1963 Tokyo Motor Show. Hollow cast iron apex seals reduced vibration by changing their resonance frequency and thus eliminated chatter marks. It used dry-sump lubrication. Rotor radius was up from the 40A to , but depth dropped to . One-, three-, and four-rotor derivatives of the L8A were also created for experimentation. The 10A series was Mazda's first production Wankel, appearing in 1965. It was a two-rotor design, with each chamber displacing 491 cc so two chambers (one per rotor) would displace 982
Mazda Wankel engine
193647
a mixture of aluminum powder and rust powder. Pig iron is not pure iron, but has 4–5% carbon dissolved in it with small amounts of other impurities like sulfur, magnesium, phosphorus and manganese. As the carbon is the major impurity, the iron (pig iron) becomes brittle and hard. Removing the other impurities results in cast iron, which is used to cast articles in foundries such as stoves, pipes, radiators, lamp-posts and rails. Alternatively pig iron may be made into steel (with up to about 2% carbon) or wrought iron (commercially pure iron). Various processes have been used for this, including
Iron
1671629
be built inside a protective concrete box, in order to protect the cast iron supports for the main line platforms from the possibility of collision or fire damage. As Piccadilly originally served as a terminus of the system, early operations saw one platform being used for arrivals from Altrincham, Bury, and later Eccles, and the other platform was used for departures. Empty trams ran from the arrival platform into a nearby reversing siding in a tunnel, where they would reverse and then enter the departure platform. From the onset, the stop had been designed with future extension in mind; as
Manchester Piccadilly station
4729460
cast-iron, the carbon is usually in the form of cementite. Grey cast-iron consists mainly of the microstructure called pearlite, mixed with graphite and sometimes ferrite. Grey cast-iron is usually used as-cast, with its properties being determined by its composition. White cast-iron is composed mostly of a microstructure called ledeburite mixed with pearlite. Ledeburite is very hard, making the cast-iron very brittle. If the white cast-iron has a hypoeutectic composition, it is usually tempered to produce malleable or ductile cast-iron. Two methods of tempering are used, called "white tempering" and "black tempering." The purposes of both tempering methods is to cause
Tempering (metallurgy)
4590850
on a perfectly elastic surface, not adjusted for velocity, can be calculated by Empirical formula for formula_20 for cast iron mine car wheels on steel rails. As an alternative to using formula_24 one can use formula_25, which is a different rolling resistance coefficient or coefficient of rolling friction with dimension of length. It is defined by the following formula: The above equation, where resistance is inversely proportional to radius r. seems to be based on the discredited "Coulomb's law" (Neither Coulomb's inverse square law nor Coulomb's law of friction) (needs citation). See dependence on diameter. Equating this equation with the
Rolling resistance
4776369
and 1969. These cars, dubbed the MGC GTS, used special versions of the C-Series engine. The first car was built with an engine where both the head and the block were cast in aluminium alloy but this proved troublesome and all the cars eventually used the standard iron block with an alloy head. The head had a higher compression ratio, larger valves (from the Ford Essex V6), revised porting and redesigned exhaust system as well as using triple twin-choke Weber carburetors. These specialised versions of the C-Series made an easy and reliable 200 horsepower with a weight loss similar that
BMC C-Series engine
263997
in one piece and rested on four-wheel carriages which were essentially the same as those used until the 19th century. The breech-loaders were cheaper to produce and both easier and faster to reload, but could take less powerful charges than cast bronze guns. Generally, the bronze guns used cast iron shot and were more suited to penetrate hull sides while the iron guns used stone shot that would shatter on impact and leave large, jagged holes, but both could also fire a variety of ammunition intended to destroy rigging and light structure or injure enemy personnel. The majority of the
Mary Rose
3506591
and early model year 1963, approximately 52,000 die-cast aluminum RG blocks were produced and installed in passenger cars. These open-deck blocks used integrally cast high-nickel iron cylinder liners, and bolt-in iron upper and lower main bearing caps. Internal components (crank, rods, pistons, etc.) were the same as used in the iron engine, and an iron cylinder head was used with a special copper-asbestos gasket. The aluminum block weighs about less than the iron RG block. Although serviceable examples can still be found, the aluminum RG tended to undergo delamination between the iron cylinder liner and the surrounding aluminum. Severe corrosion
Chrysler Slant-6 engine
196082
first blowing cylinder made of cast iron is believed to be the one used at Carrington in 1768 that was designed by John Smeaton. Cast iron cylinders for use with a piston were difficult to manufacture; the cylinders had to be free of holes and had to be machined smooth and straight to remove any warping. James Watt had great difficulty trying to have a cylinder made for his first steam engine. In 1774 John Wilkinson, who built a cast iron blowing cylinder for his iron works, invented a precision boring machine for boring cylinders. After Wilkinson bored the first
Industrial Revolution
1207083
designs, flawed beams or overloading sometimes caused building collapses and structural failures. During the Industrial Revolution, cast iron was also widely used for frame and other fixed parts of machinery, including spinning and later weaving machines in textile mills. Cast iron became widely used, and many towns had foundries producing industrial and agricultural machinery. Cast iron Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its relatively low melting temperature. The alloy constituents affect its colour when fractured: white cast iron has carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight
Cast iron
6511486
iron ingot used during cooking to provide dietary iron to those with iron deficiency. People with hemochromatosis (iron overload, bronze disease) should avoid using cast-iron cookware because of the iron leaching effect into the food. A seasoned pan has a stick-resistant coating created by polymerized oils and fats. Seasoning is a process by which a layer of animal fat or vegetable oil is applied and cooked onto cast-iron or carbon steel cookware. New cookware should be vigorously washed in hot water with a strong detergent to remove any casting oils from the cookware's surface. A light coat of oil is
Cast-iron cookware
15322721
Cast bullet A cast bullet is made by allowing molten metal to solidify in a mold. Most cast bullets are made of lead alloyed with tin and antimony; but zinc alloys have been used when lead is scarce, and may be used again in response to concerns about lead toxicity. Most commercial bullet manufacturers use swaging in preference to casting, but bullet casting remains popular with handloaders. Firearms projectiles were being cast in the 14th century. Iron was used for cannon, while lead was the preferred material for small arms. Lead was more expensive than iron, but it was softer
Cast bullet
2423729
the rear of the car and rotating it 180 degrees in plan, Lotus could obtain a ready-made modern mid-engine configuration - albeit one with four reverse gears. By repositioning the differential crownwheel within the final drive assembly, the direction of rotation of the output shafts was reversed, thus correcting this "shortcoming". The Renault 16's engine's design was well-suited to Lotus's requirements. It used an aluminium block with cast-iron cylinder liners, which saved appreciable weight compared to the cast-iron blocks more common at the time. Its overhead-valve design had the camshaft located high-up in the block, resulting in a compact valve-train
Lotus Europa
8028875
Iron armour Iron armour was a type of armour used on warships and, to a limited degree, fortifications. The use of iron gave rise to the term ironclad as a reference to a ship 'clad' in iron. The earliest material available in sufficient quantities for armouring ships was iron, wrought or cast. While cast iron has never been used for naval armour, it did find a use in land fortifications, presumable due to the lower cost of the material. One well known example of cast-iron armour for land use is the Gruson turret, first tested by the Prussian government in
Iron armour
3280269
be repaired and restored, including the original southwest platform and control area wall finishes, the original cast iron columns, the ceiling plaster ornamentation, and the cast iron guard rails. In addition, the east platform walls that are located within back-of-house space would continue to be protected. The damaged Knickerbocker marble lintel located at the west platform control area would be replicated. To reference portions of the original tracks located at Tracks 2 and 3, the granite paving for the shuttle platform would be modified with a veneer steel rail. These sixty-foot-long sections would be located on the new platform between
Times Square–42nd Street/Port Authority Bus Terminal (New York City Subway)
11564858
Cupola furnace A cupola or cupola furnace is a melting device used in foundries that can be used to melt cast iron, Ni-resist iron and some bronzes. The cupola can be made almost any practical size. The size of a cupola is expressed in diameters and can range from . The overall shape is cylindrical and the equipment is arranged vertically, usually supported by four legs. The overall look is similar to a large smokestack. The bottom of the cylinder is fitted with doors which swing down and out to 'drop bottom'. The top where gases escape can be open
Cupola furnace