the two most basic divisions of the nervous system are the
central nervous system peripheral nervous system
294294
Nervous system The nervous system is the part of an animal that coordinates its actions by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects environmental changes that impact the body, then works in tandem with the endocrine system to respond to such events. Nervous tissue first arose in wormlike organisms about 550 to 600 million years ago. In vertebrates it consists of two main parts, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are enclosed
Nervous system
1593508
parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction. A useful mnemonic to summarize the functions of the parasympathetic nervous system is SSLUDD (sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion and defecation). The parasympathetic nervous system promotes digestion and the synthesis of glycogen, and allows for normal function and behavior. Parasympathetic nervous system The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) is one of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system (a division of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)), the other being the sympathetic nervous system. (The enteric nervous system (ENS) is now usually referred to as separate from the autonomic
Parasympathetic nervous system
1593483
Parasympathetic nervous system The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) is one of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system (a division of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)), the other being the sympathetic nervous system. (The enteric nervous system (ENS) is now usually referred to as separate from the autonomic nervous system since it has its own independent reflex activity.) The autonomic nervous system is responsible for regulating the body's unconscious actions. The parasympathetic system is responsible for stimulation of "rest-and-digest" or "feed and breed" activities that occur when the body is at rest, especially after eating, including sexual arousal, salivation,
Parasympathetic nervous system
8691937
behavior or as a complex of the basic properties of the nervous processes.” Pavlov's background as a physiologist greatly influenced his psychological research. His ideas for the how the nervous system works came from his research on the brain, specifically the cortex, and conditioned and unconditioned reflexes, and spurred additional research into the nervous activity that underlies such reflexes. Pavlov introduced the ideas of strength of excitation and inhibition, as well as mobility, irradiation, and generalization in the central nervous system. Strength of excitation was considered to be the most important of the nervous system properties by Pavlov because we
Pavlov's typology
290596
of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points. A nervous system emerges from the assemblage of neurons that are connected to each other. In vertebrates, the nervous system can be split into two parts, the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system. In many species — including all vertebrates — the nervous system is the most complex organ system in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures,
Neuroscience
10579737
identified: Insects have a complex nervous system which incorporates a variety of internal physiological information as well as external sensory information. As in the case of vertebrates, the basic component is the neuron or nerve cell. This is made up of a dendrite with two projections that receive stimuli and an axon, which transmits information to another neuron or organ, like a muscle. As for vertebrates, chemicals (neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine) are released at synapses. An insect's sensory, motor and physiological processes are controlled by the central nervous system along with the endocrine system. Being the principal division
Insect physiology
17706105
and efferent reflexes. At its most basic level, afferent reflexes are those that move inward from something external, making its way to the central nervous system. Efferent then is the opposite, where the central nervous system triggers a reflex in the muscles. Unzer himself explains afferent reflexes: "To the end that an impression is felt…the external impression will have no other reflex action in the animal machines than that which is capable in virtue of its purely animal force, which it reflects upon the motor nerves…". He also goes on to explain efferent reflexes: "If, on the other hand, the
Johann August Unzer
15065146
emotion. a) Left hemisphere primarily process "positive" emotions and right hemisphere primarily process "negative" emotions. A large portion of regions primarily in the right hemisphere are activated during aversive classical conditioning. b) Other divisions of specialization This model provides a neuroanatomical basis for emotional control and processing. The peripheral autonomic nervous system is not symmetrical. Afferent nerves in the parasympathetic and sympathetic systems of the autonomic nervous system differently innervate various organs that maintain homeostasis such as the heart and the face. The asymmetrical representation of the autonomic peripheral nervous system leads to the asymmetrical representation in the brain. The
Emotional lateralization
285184
neurological disorders. Neurologists may also be involved in clinical research, clinical trials, and basic or translational research. While neurology is a nonsurgical specialty, its corresponding surgical specialty is neurosurgery. Significant overlap occurs between the fields of neurology and psychiatry, with the boundary between the two disciplines and the conditions they treat being somewhat nebulous. A large number of neurological disorders have been described as listed. These can affect the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), the peripheral nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the muscular system. The academic discipline began between the 16th and 19th centuries with the
Neurology
13182783
Central nervous system cyst A central nervous system cyst is a type of cyst that presents and affects part of the central nervous system (CNS). They are usually benign and filled with either cerebrospinal fluid, blood, or tumor cells. CNS cysts are classified into two categories: cysts that originate from non-central nervous system tissue, migrate to, and form on a portion of the CNS, and cysts that originate within central nervous system tissue itself. Within these two categories, there are many types of CNS cysts that have been identified from previous studies. These classification of cysts are embedded in the
Central nervous system cyst
17675188
appears to function like an endocrine organ, and dysregulation of the gut flora has been correlated with a host of inflammatory and autoimmune conditions. The composition of human gut flora changes over time, when the diet changes, and as overall health changes. The enteric nervous system is one of the main divisions of the nervous system and consists of a mesh-like system of neurons that governs the function of the gastrointestinal system; it has been described as a "second brain" for several reasons. The enteric nervous system can operate autonomously. It normally communicates with the central nervous system (CNS) through
Gut–brain axis
1947148
delivery of radiotherapy. Most radiation oncologists also pursue a fellowship after their residency, examples of which include brachytherapy, intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT), gynecologic radiation oncology, and many others. Radiation oncologists in Canada commonly treat two or three different anatomic sites, such as head and neck, breast, genitourinary, hematologic, gynecologic, central nervous system, or lung cancer. In the United Kingdom, clinical oncologists, who practise radiotherapy are also fully qualified to administer chemotherapy. After completion of their basic medical degree, all oncologists must train fully in general internal medicine and pass the MRCP exam, normally 3–4 years after qualification. Following this,
Radiation oncologist
4181649
fast-twitch muscle fiber. There is evidence for both selective and non-selective paths in synapse formation specificity, leading to the conclusion that the process is a combination of several factors. Although the study of synaptogenesis within the central nervous system (CNS) is much more recent than that of the NMJ, there is promise of relating the information learned at the NMJ to synapses within the CNS. Many similar structures and basic functions exist between the two types of neuronal connections. At the most basic level, the CNS synapse and the NMJ both have a nerve terminal that is separated from the
Synaptogenesis
1435150
neurons” located in the central nervous system. Preganglionic sympathetic neurons are located in the spinal cord, at the thorax and upper lumbar levels. Preganglionic parasympathetic neurons are found in the medulla oblongata where they form visceral motor nuclei; the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve; the nucleus ambiguus, the salivatory nuclei, and in the sacral region of the spinal cord. Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. But this opposition is better termed complementary in nature rather than antagonistic. For an analogy, one may think of the sympathetic division as the accelerator and the parasympathetic
Autonomic nervous system
1755223
Connective tissue Connective tissue (CT) is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. It develops from the mesoderm. Connective tissue is found in between other tissues everywhere in the body, including the nervous system. In the central nervous system, the three outer membranes (the meninges) that envelop the brain and spinal cord are composed of connective tissue. They support and protect the body. All connective tissue consists of three main components: fibers (elastic and collagenous fibers), ground substance and cells. Not all authorities include blood or lymph as connective
Connective tissue
13095067
Canine brain tumors Cancer of the nervous system is common in domestic canids, and includes primary neoplasia of the peripheral nervous system, primary neoplasia of the central nervous system and various metastatic cancers. Some of the most common of the central nervous system tumors are several types of primary (originating from brain tissue) canine brain tumors. Examples of these include: meningiomas, astrocytomas, glioblastomas, oligodendriomas, choroid plexus papillomas, and pituitary adenomas. Breeds predisposed to brain tumors include: Boxer Dog, Pug, English Bull Dog, Boston Terrier, and Golden Retrievers. Meningiomas (arising from the meninges, a neural crest-derived cell) are the most common
Canine brain tumors
12277144
Central nervous system viral disease The Central Nervous System controls most of the functions of the body and mind. It comprises the brain, spinal cord and the nerve fibers that branch off to all parts of the body. The Central Nervous System viral diseases are caused by viruses that attack the CNS. Existing and emerging viral CNS infections are major sources of human morbidity and mortality. Virus infections usually begin in the peripheral tissues, and can invade the mammalian system by spreading into the peripheral nervous system and more rarely the CNS. CNS is protected by effective immune responses and
Central nervous system viral disease
1593485
to the sympathetic nervous system, which is said to have "thoracolumbar outflow". The parasympathetic nerves are autonomic or "visceral" branches of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Parasympathetic nerve supply arises through three primary areas: As in the sympathetic nervous system, efferent parasympathetic nerve signals are carried from the central nervous system to their targets by a system of two neurons. The first neuron in this pathway is referred to as the preganglionic or presynaptic neuron. Its cell body sits in the central nervous system and its axon usually extends to synapse with the dendrites of a postganglionic neuron somewhere else
Parasympathetic nervous system
338350
cord from the central nervous system are connected with organs that have smooth muscle, such as the heart, bladder, and other cardiac, exocrine, and endocrine related organs, by ganglionic neurons. The most notable physiological effects from autonomic activity are pupil constriction and dilation, and salivation of saliva. The autonomic nervous system is always activated, but is either in the sympathetic or parasympathetic state. Depending on the situation, one state can overshadow the other, resulting in a release of different kinds of neurotransmitters. There is a lesser known division of the autonomic nervous system known as the enteric nervous system. Located
Peripheral nervous system
11322940
the mechanisms are unclear. OLIG2 Oligodendrocyte transcription factor (OLIG2) is a basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor encoded by the "Olig2" gene. The protein is of 329 amino acids in length, 32kDa in size and contains 1 basic helix-loop-helix DNA-binding domain. It is one of the three members of the bHLH family. The other two members are OLIG1 and OLIG3. The expression of OLIG2 is mostly restricted in central nervous system, where it acts as both an anti-neurigenic and a neurigenic factor at different stages of development. OLIG2 is well known for determining motor neuron and oligodendrocyte differentiation, as well as
OLIG2
294294
Nervous system The nervous system is the part of an animal that coordinates its actions by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects environmental changes that impact the body, then works in tandem with the endocrine system to respond to such events. Nervous tissue first arose in wormlike organisms about 550 to 600 million years ago. In vertebrates it consists of two main parts, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are enclosed
Nervous system
12277153
as the disease spreads to new regions, or nonimmune travelers visit endemic regions, nonimmune adults are also affected. Central nervous system viral disease The Central Nervous System controls most of the functions of the body and mind. It comprises the brain, spinal cord and the nerve fibers that branch off to all parts of the body. The Central Nervous System viral diseases are caused by viruses that attack the CNS. Existing and emerging viral CNS infections are major sources of human morbidity and mortality. Virus infections usually begin in the peripheral tissues, and can invade the mammalian system by spreading
Central nervous system viral disease
19970355
lupus. The majority of cases involve the central nervous system (CNS), which consists of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS syndromes can be subcategorized as either focal or diffuse. The focal syndromes are neurological, while the diffuse syndromes are psychiatric in nature. The most common CNS syndromes are headache and mood disorder. Though neuropsychiatric lupus is sometimes referred to as "CNS lupus", it can also affect the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Between 10-15% of people with NPSLE have PNS involvement. Mononeuropathy and polyneuropathy are the most common PNS syndromes. There are several possible mechanisms that underlie the nervous system
Neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus
12952838
cortex in the brain. Olfactory information is further processed and forwarded to the central nervous system (CNS), which controls emotions and behavior as well as basic thought processes. Odor sensation usually depends on the concentration (number of molecules) available to the olfactory receptors. A single odorant is usually recognized by many receptors. Different odorants are recognized by combinations of receptors. The patterns of neuron signals help to identify the smell. The olfactory system does not interpret a single compound, but instead the whole odorous mix. This does not correspond to the concentration or intensity of any single constituent. Most odors
Odor
12393545
theories about the fixations are founded on the premise that all life seeks to continue and perpetuate itself and that the human psyche must follow universal laws of reality. Using Trialectic logic, Ichazo indicated the three basic human instincts for survival: "conservation" (the digestive system); "relation" (the circulatory system) and "adaptation" (the central nervous system); and two poles of attraction to self-perpetuation: "sexual" (the sexual organs) and "spiritual" (the spinal column). Ichazo understands the fixations as aberrations from an essential state of unity. The primary difference between modern psychology and his theories is that he has proposed a model of
Óscar Ichazo
14409994
and young adults. Presentation relates to the location in the nervous system. 7. Medulloblastoma and Other Primitive Neuroectodermal Tumors Medulloblastoma and other primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs) are a group of highly aggressive central nervous system tumors with a tendency to spread via cerebrospinal fluid pathways. These typically are tumors of childhood and young adulthood. 8. Meningiomas and Other Meningeal Tumors Meningioma is the most common tumor in the central nervous system. Although most are slow growing and histologically benign, they can induce significant symptoms depending on location. 9. Tumors of the Optic Nerve and Chiasm These tumors include the tumors
Neurooncology
1519915
opisthobranch marine gastropods are called rhinophores. The majority of gastropods have simple visual organs, eye spots either at the tip or base of the tentacles. However, "eyes" in gastropods range from simple ocelli that only distinguish light and dark, to more complex pit eyes, and even to lens eyes. In land snails and slugs, vision is not the most important sense, because they are mainly nocturnal animals. The nervous system of gastropods includes the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system. The central nervous system consist of ganglia connected by nerve cells. It includes paired ganglia: the cerebral ganglia,
Gastropoda
201180
for inhibiting angiogenesis. Integrins have an important function in neuroregeneration after injury of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Integrins are present at the growth cone of damaged PNS neurons and attach to ligands in the ECM to promote axon regeneration. It is unclear whether integrins can promote axon regeneration in the adult central nervous system (CNS). There are two obstacles that prevent integrin-mediated regeneration in the CNS: 1) integrins are not localised in the axon of most adult CNS neurons and 2) integrins become inactivated by molecules in the scar tissue after injury. The following are 16 of the ~24
Integrin
11322931
OLIG2 Oligodendrocyte transcription factor (OLIG2) is a basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor encoded by the "Olig2" gene. The protein is of 329 amino acids in length, 32kDa in size and contains 1 basic helix-loop-helix DNA-binding domain. It is one of the three members of the bHLH family. The other two members are OLIG1 and OLIG3. The expression of OLIG2 is mostly restricted in central nervous system, where it acts as both an anti-neurigenic and a neurigenic factor at different stages of development. OLIG2 is well known for determining motor neuron and oligodendrocyte differentiation, as well as its role in sustaining
OLIG2
1346806
central nervous system, rather than the peripheral nervous system because it is derived from an out-pouching of the diencephalon (optic stalks) during embryonic development. As a consequence, the fibers of the optic nerve are covered with myelin produced by oligodendrocytes, rather than Schwann cells of the peripheral nervous system, and are encased within the meninges. Peripheral neuropathies like Guillain–Barré syndrome do not affect the optic nerve. However, most typically the optic nerve is grouped with the other eleven cranial nerves and considered to be part of the peripheral nervous system. The optic nerve is ensheathed in all three meningeal layers
Optic nerve
4989674
have higher acetone production than most adults – and the younger the child, the higher the expected production. This indicates that children are not uniquely susceptible to acetone exposure. External exposures are small compared to the exposures associated with the ketogenic diet. Acetone is believed to exhibit only slight toxicity in normal use, and there is no strong evidence of chronic health effects if basic precautions are followed. Acetone is an irritant causing mild skin irritation and moderate to severe eye irritation. At high vapor concentrations, it may depress the central nervous system like many other solvents. In one documented
Acetone
7865290
into neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. There are two basic types of stem cell: adult stem cells, which are limited in their ability to differentiate, and embryonic stem cells (ESCs), which are pluripotent. ESCs are not limited to a particular cell fate; rather they have the capability to differentiate into any cell type. Neural stem cells are more specialized than ESCs because they generate only neural cells (neurons or glial cells). During embryonic development of vertebrates, NSCs of the central nervous system (CNS) are called radial glial cells (RGCs), and reside in a transient zone called the ventricular zone (VZ). Neurons
Neural stem cell
10190035
glial cells are discussed: Schwann cells, astrocytes, and olfactory ensheathing cells. In addition to glial cells, stem cells also have potential benefit for repair and regeneration because many are able to differentiate into neurons or glial cells. This article briefly discusses the use of adult, transdifferentiated mesenchymal, ectomesenchymal, neural and neural progenitor stem cells. Glial cells are necessary for supporting the growth and maintenance of neurons in the peripheral and central nervous system. Most glial cells are specific to either the peripheral or central nervous system. Schwann cells are located in the peripheral nervous system where they myelinate the axons
Nerve guidance conduit
7283271
wounding principles are the same. A list of many handgun calibers can be found at List of handgun cartridges. The only scientifically proven and biologically possible way to guarantee instant incapacitation is through destruction of the central nervous system or brain. This will usually cease all motor-related and voluntary actions. If the central nervous system is not damaged or destroyed, there will be no immediate incapacitation. To allow room for error, since a central nervous system hit is very unlikely, most people use expanding ammunition. This will increase the odds of striking a part of the central nervous system, and
Handgun effectiveness
13978333
Organisation (NGO) HCT service provider in the country contributing at least 26 -30% of the total number of individuals tested for HIV in the country in any a given year. AIC contributes to the goal of the National Strategic Plan in care and treatment by offering Palliative Care Basic –Health Care (PCBHC). PCBHC includes psychosocial support, screening for and treatment of opportunistic infections (including Tuberculosis), as well as the provision of the basic health care package. The basic health care package includes prevention of malaria, respiratory and central nervous system diseases among PLHAs. Clients that are HIV positive are encouraged
AIDS Information Centre
3075161
of euthanasia can be divided into pharmacological and physical methods. Acceptable pharmacological methods include injected drugs and gases that first depress the central nervous system and then cardiovascular activity. Acceptable physical methods must first cause rapid loss of consciousness by disrupting the central nervous system. The most common methods are discussed here, but there are other acceptable methods used in different situations. Unconsciousness, respiratory then cardiac arrest follow rapidly, usually within 30 seconds. Observers generally describe the method as leading to a quick and peaceful death. Some veterinarians perform a two-stage process: an initial injection that simply renders the pet
Animal euthanasia
13095073
as anti-convulsant medications to control seizures. Canine brain tumors Cancer of the nervous system is common in domestic canids, and includes primary neoplasia of the peripheral nervous system, primary neoplasia of the central nervous system and various metastatic cancers. Some of the most common of the central nervous system tumors are several types of primary (originating from brain tissue) canine brain tumors. Examples of these include: meningiomas, astrocytomas, glioblastomas, oligodendriomas, choroid plexus papillomas, and pituitary adenomas. Breeds predisposed to brain tumors include: Boxer Dog, Pug, English Bull Dog, Boston Terrier, and Golden Retrievers. Meningiomas (arising from the meninges, a neural
Canine brain tumors
13182784
endoderm (inner layer) and the ectoderm (outer layer) of the cranial or spinal cord germ layers. They normally take over the neuraxis, the axis of the central nervous system that determines how the nervous system is placed, which allows the cysts to infiltrate the CNS tissues. They are most commonly found in the area near the pineal gland, the chiasmatic cistern, and the cerebellopontine angle space. These common places generally house extensive and continuously growing cysts. Some examples of cysts originating from non-central nervous system tissue include: This category of cysts takes over areas of necrotic tissue in the brain
Central nervous system cyst
1983535
common ophthalmologic manifestation of sarcoidosis is uveitis. The combination of anterior uveitis, parotitis, VII cranial nerve paralysis and fever is called uveoparotid fever or Heerfordt syndrome (). Development of scleral nodule associated with sarcoidosis has been observed. Any of the components of the nervous system can be involved. Sarcoidosis affecting the nervous system is known as neurosarcoidosis. Cranial nerves are most commonly affected, accounting for about 5–30% of neurosarcoidosis cases, and peripheral facial nerve palsy, often bilateral, is the most common neurological manifestation of sarcoidosis. It occurs suddenly and is usually transient. The central nervous system involvement is present in
Sarcoidosis
8073660
Neurotrophic factors Neurotrophic factors (NTFs) are a family of biomolecules – nearly all of which are peptides or small proteins – that support the growth, survival, and differentiation of both developing and mature neurons. Most NTFs exert their trophic effects on neurons by signaling through tyrosine kinases, usually a receptor tyrosine kinase. In the mature nervous system, they promote neuronal survival, induce synaptic plasticity, and modulate the formation of long-term memories. Neurotrophic factors also promote the initial growth and development of neurons in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system, and they are capable of regrowing damaged neurons in
Neurotrophic factors
9274403
Triploid syndrome Triploid syndrome, also called triploidy, is a chromosomal disorder in which a fetus has three copies of every chromosome instead of the normal two. If this occurs in only some cells, it is called mosaic triploidy and is less severe. Many organ systems are affected by triploidy, but the central nervous system and skeleton are the most severely affected: Common central nervous system defects seen in triploidy include holoprosencephaly, hydrocephalus (increased amount of cerebrospinal fluid within the brain), ventriculomegaly, Arnold–Chiari malformation, agenesis of the corpus callosum and neural tube defects. Skeletal manifestations include cleft lip/palate, hypertelorism, club foot
Triploid syndrome
14067364
nervous system and peripheral nervous system. However, the most common ASICs are ASIC1a and ASIC1a/2a and ASIC3. ASIC2b is non-functional on its own but modulates channel activity when participating in heteromultimers and ASIC4 has no known function. On a broad scale, ASICs are potential drug targets due to their involvement in pathological states such as retinal damage, seizures, and ischemic brain injury. Each acid-sensing ion channel is composed of a 500-560 amino acid sequence, which is constructed into a six transmembrane segment—two per subunit (TMD1 and TMD2), a cytoplasmic amino-carboxyl termini, and a large extracellular domain. The intracellular amino-carboxyl termini
Acid-sensing ion channel
1593509
Sympathetic nervous system The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the other being the parasympathetic nervous system. (The enteric nervous system (ENS) is now usually referred to as separate from the autonomic nervous system since it has its own independent reflex activity.) The autonomic nervous system functions to regulate the body's unconscious actions. The sympathetic nervous system's primary process is to stimulate the body's fight-or-flight response. It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to maintain homeostasis homeodynamics. The sympathetic nervous system is described as being antagonistic to the
Sympathetic nervous system
1593525
B. Winslow applied the term specifically to nerves. Sympathetic nervous system The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the other being the parasympathetic nervous system. (The enteric nervous system (ENS) is now usually referred to as separate from the autonomic nervous system since it has its own independent reflex activity.) The autonomic nervous system functions to regulate the body's unconscious actions. The sympathetic nervous system's primary process is to stimulate the body's fight-or-flight response. It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to maintain homeostasis homeodynamics. The sympathetic nervous
Sympathetic nervous system
20456633
1920s, these divisions have remained relatively constant; the parasympathetic nervous system is known to regulate unconscious activities of the body and maintain homeostasis, the sympathetic nervous system controls responses to external stimuli, but both are involuntary functions. Langley also described an enteric nervous system although it has received minimal attention, and most modern textbooks tend to only mention the sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways in the context of the autonomic nervous system. The nerve classifications of the autonomic nervous system created by the traditional methodologies have remained mostly unchanged over the last 100 years. However, modern perspectives have placed more of
Classification of peripheral nerves
1593544
Enteric nervous system The enteric nervous system (ENS) or intrinsic nervous system is one of the main divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and consists of a mesh-like system of neurons that governs the function of the gastrointestinal tract. It is capable of acting independently of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, although it may be influenced by them. The ENS is also called the second brain. It is derived from neural crest cells. The enteric nervous system in humans consists of some 500 million neurons (including the various types of Dogiel cells), one two-hundredth of the number of
Enteric nervous system
2391492
"efferent" correspond to the prefixes "ad-" (to, toward) and "ex-" (out of). There are 43 segments of nerves in the human body. With each segment, there is a pair of sensory and motor nerves. In the body, 31 segments of nerves are in the spinal cord and 12 are in the brain stem. Besides these, thousands of association nerves are also present in the body. Thus the somatic nervous system consists of two parts: The somatic nervous system controls all voluntary muscular systems within the body, and the process of voluntary reflex arcs. The basic route of nerve signals within
Somatic nervous system
16043999
cords that run along the dorsal midline. But recent molecular data from different protostomes and deuterostomes reject this scenario. Worms are the simplest bilaterian animals, and reveal the basic structure of the bilaterian nervous system in the most straightforward way. As an example, earthworms have dual nerve cords running along the length of the body and merging at the tail and the mouth. These nerve cords are connected by transverse nerves like the rungs of a ladder. These transverse nerves help coordinate the two sides of the animal. Two ganglia at the head end function similar to a simple brain.
Evolution of nervous systems
1796225
The NINDS notes that there are over 600 such disorders, with some of the common being stroke, epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, and autism. In an effort to achieve their goal, the NINDS "supports and conducts research, both basic and clinical, on the normal and diseased nervous system, fosters the training of investigators in the basic and clinical neurosciences, and seeks better understanding, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of neurological disorders." "Some important areas of NINDS basic research include: biology of the cells of the nervous system, brain and nervous system development, genetics of the brain, cognition and behavior, neurodegeneration, brain plasticity and
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
294317
including the expression patterns of several genes that show dorsal-to-ventral gradients. Most anatomists now consider that the bodies of protostomes and deuterostomes are "flipped over" with respect to each other, a hypothesis that was first proposed by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire for insects in comparison to vertebrates. Thus insects, for example, have nerve cords that run along the ventral midline of the body, while all vertebrates have spinal cords that run along the dorsal midline. Worms are the simplest bilaterian animals, and reveal the basic structure of the bilaterian nervous system in the most straightforward way. As an example, earthworms have dual
Nervous system
3951687
ultimately the state of Paramarthasatya. Basic physiology is studied, mostly endocrinology and the hormonal influence of primary and secondary sexual characteristics. It is taught that there are three fundamental nervous systems, the cerebrospinal nervous system, grand sympathetic nervous system, and the Parasympathetic nervous system. These nervous systems are referred to as the "Three Brains" or three centers of the intellectual animal, and are named Intellectual Center, the Emotional Center, and the Motor-Instinctual-Sexual Center. Each center is studied in relation to the types of energies or "occult hydrogens" that animate them, the frequency at which each center operates (sexual center being
Samael Aun Weor
20070713
"very explanatory". The last track, "Don't Wanna Think", is the only song on the record written entirely by Michaels and is a piano ballad that follows a basic sequence of F–C–Am–F as its chord progression. Credits adapted from the liner notes of "Nervous System". Recorded, engineered, mixed and mastered at Performers and production Business and design Nervous System (EP) Nervous System is the third extended play and major-label debut by American singer and songwriter Julia Michaels, released by Republic Records on July 28, 2017. Most of the tracks on the EP were composed by Michaels and her frequent writing partner,
Nervous System (EP)
1593507
two stages: When stimulated, the preganglionic neuron releases ACh at the ganglion, which acts on nicotinic receptors of postganglionic neurons. The postganglionic neuron then releases ACh to stimulate the muscarinic receptors of the target organ. The five main types of muscarinic receptors: In vertebrates, nicotinic receptors are broadly classified into two subtypes based on their primary sites of expression: muscle-type nicotinic receptors (N1) primarily for somatic motor neurons; and neuronal-type nicotinic receptors (N2) primarily for autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The
Parasympathetic nervous system
294316
that occur very early in embryonic development, into two groups (superphyla) called protostomes and deuterostomes. Deuterostomes include vertebrates as well as echinoderms, hemichordates (mainly acorn worms), and Xenoturbellidans. Protostomes, the more diverse group, include arthropods, molluscs, and numerous types of worms. There is a basic difference between the two groups in the placement of the nervous system within the body: protostomes possess a nerve cord on the ventral (usually bottom) side of the body, whereas in deuterostomes the nerve cord is on the dorsal (usually top) side. In fact, numerous aspects of the body are inverted between the two groups,
Nervous system
2883654
space agencies of Canada, France, Germany, and Japan, and the European Space Agency. Neurolab’s 26 experiments targeted one of the most complex and least understood parts of the human body – the nervous system. Primary goals were to conduct basic research in neurosciences and expand understanding of how the nervous system develops and functions in space. Test subjects were rats, mice, crickets, snails, two kinds of fish and the crew members themselves. Cooperative effort of NASA, several domestic partners and the space agencies of Canada (CSA), France (CNES) and Germany (DLR), as well as the European Space Agency (ESA) and
STS-90
4806256
Law and is unique to Tokyo. A is a subdivision of the cities of Japan that are large enough to have been designated by government ordinance. Although the details of local administration have changed dramatically over time, the basic outline of the current two-tiered system since the abolition of the han system by the Meiji government in 1871 are similar. Before the abolition of the han system, Japan was divided into then subdivided into and then at the bottom. Administrative divisions of Japan The bureaucratic administration of Japan is divided into three basic levels; national, prefectural, and municipal. Below the
Administrative divisions of Japan
1593549
a diffusion barrier around the capillaries surrounding ganglia which is similar to the blood–brain barrier of cerebral blood vessels. Enteric nervous system The enteric nervous system (ENS) or intrinsic nervous system is one of the main divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and consists of a mesh-like system of neurons that governs the function of the gastrointestinal tract. It is capable of acting independently of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, although it may be influenced by them. The ENS is also called the second brain. It is derived from neural crest cells. The enteric nervous system in humans
Enteric nervous system
7458289
the adult foregut. The enteric nervous system is one of the major divisions of the nervous system derived from neural crest cells. In mammals, it is composed of large number of interconnected ganglia that are arranged into two concentric rings embedded throughout the gut wall, beginning in the esophagus and ending in the anus. The main function of the ENS is to control the secretory activity of the gastrointestinal glands and peristalsis of the gastrointestinal wall. A large number of organs derived from the developing foregut also receive input from the vagus nerve, which also works in tandem with the
Foregut
294326
their enormous size, both participate in the fast escape circuit of the squid. The concept of a command neuron has, however, become controversial, because of studies showing that some neurons that initially appeared to fit the description were really only capable of evoking a response in a limited set of circumstances. At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others. There are multiple ways that a cell can send signals to other cells. One is by releasing chemicals called hormones
Nervous system
18683869
features in various species of animals serves as a strong point to the nervous system’s origin from a common ancestor. Also, the neural segments form the basic building block of the human nervous system and these sub units possess their own level of autonomy in both the singular and collective sense. The segments that compose the nervous system, although initially similar in their composition, are later modified by gene expression patterns that are specific to them. Segmental pattern in human beings can be observed clearly during early developmental phase. In humans, the spinal cord comprises a major part of the
Segmentation in the human nervous system
5363506
Stomatogastric nervous system The Stomatogastric Nervous System (STNS) is a commonly studied neural network composed of several ganglia in arthropods that controls the motion of the gut and foregut. The network of neurons acts as a central pattern generator. It is a model system for motor pattern generation because of the small number of cells, which are comparatively large and can be reliably identified. The system is composed of the stomatogastric ganglion (STG), oesophageal ganglion and the paired commissural ganglia. Because of the many similarities between vertebrate and invertebrate systems, especially with regards to basic principles of neuronal function, invertebrate
Stomatogastric nervous system
2189280
the sense organs to the CNS, and "efferent" neurons, which carry motor instructions out to the muscles. The autonomic nervous system also has two subdivisions, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic, which are important for regulating the body's basic internal organ functions such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, and salivation. Autonomic nerves, like somatic nerves, contain afferent and efferent fibers. In anatomy in general and neuroanatomy in particular, several sets of topographic terms are used to denote orientation and location, which are generally referred to the body or brain axis (see Anatomical terms of location). The pairs of terms used most commonly
Neuroanatomy
294319
recorded and most, if not all, of the neural connections are known. In this species, the nervous system is sexually dimorphic; the nervous systems of the two sexes, males and female hermaphrodites, have different numbers of neurons and groups of neurons that perform sex-specific functions. In "C. elegans", males have exactly 383 neurons, while hermaphrodites have exactly 302 neurons. Arthropods, such as insects and crustaceans, have a nervous system made up of a series of ganglia, connected by a ventral nerve cord made up of two parallel connectives running along the length of the belly. Typically, each body segment has
Nervous system
16087305
feedback or non-recurrent with feedforward model. The inputs are binary, bipolar, or continuous. The activation is linear, step, or sigmoid. Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) is the most popular of all the types, which is generally trained with back-propagation of error algorithm. Each neuron output is connected to every neuron in subsequent layers connected in cascade and with no connections between neurons in the same layer. Figure 4 shows a basic MLP topology (Meireles, M. R. G. (2003)), and a basic telecommunication network (Subramanian, M. (2010)) that most are familiar with. We can equate the routers at the nodes in telecommunication network
Nervous system network models
2905728
Their conclusion was that people with the same training on microexpression and subtle expression recognition will vary depending on their level of emotional intelligence. The sympathetic nervous system is one of two divisions under the autonomic nervous system, it functions involuntarily and one aspect of the system deals with emotional arousal in response to situations accordingly.Therefore, if an individual decides to deceive someone, they will experience a stress response within because of the possible consequences if caught. A person using deception will typically cope by using nonverbal cues which take the form of bodily movements. These bodily movements occur because
Microexpression
17289096
necessities they will not survive. All vertebrates share similarities in body structure; they all have a skeleton, a nervous system, a circulatory system, a digestive system and excretory system. Similar to humans, non-human animals also have a sensory system. The sensory system is responsible for the basic five senses from touch to tasting. Most of the physiological and biochemical responses found in animals are found in humans. Neurophysiologists have not found any fundamental difference between the structure and function of neurons and synapse between humans and other animals. Recent studies using positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Non-reproductive sexual behavior in animals
3732227
of the uveal tract as a unit are: In addition some uveal regions have special functions of great importance, including secretion of the aqueous humour by the ciliary processes, control of accommodation (focus) by the ciliary body, and optimisation of retinal illumination by the iris's control over the pupil. Many of these functions are under the control of the autonomic nervous system. The pupil provides a visible example of the neural feedback control in the body. This is subserved by a balance between the antagonistic sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. Informal pharmacological experiments have been performed
Uvea
5909212
in Montpellier. The 8th conference was held in May 2017 in Shanghai. The fundamentals behind neuroengineering involve the relationship of neurons, neural networks, and nervous system functions to quantifiable models to aid the development of devices that could interpret and control signals and produce purposeful responses. Messages that the body uses to influence thoughts, senses, movements, and survival are directed by nerve impulses transmitted across brain tissue and to the rest of the body. Neurons are the basic functional unit of the nervous system and are highly specialized cells that are capable of sending these signals that operate high and
Neural engineering
1637074
scars. Along the hinge line of the shell are, in most cases, a number of hinge teeth which prevent the valves from moving laterally relative to one another. The arrangement of these teeth is often important in identifying bivalves. The sedentary habits of the bivalves have meant that in general the nervous system is less complex than in most other molluscs. The animals have no brain; the nervous system consists of a nerve network and a series of paired ganglia. In all but the most primitive bivalves, two cerebropleural ganglia are on either side of the oesophagus. The cerebral ganglia
Bivalvia
279870
anatomical and physiological unit of the nervous system. The silver impregnation stains are an extremely useful method for neuroanatomical investigations because, for reasons unknown, it stains a very small percentage of cells in a tissue, so one is able to see the complete micro structure of individual neurons without much overlap from other cells in the densely packed brain. The neuron doctrine is the now fundamental idea that neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. The theory was put forward by Santiago Ramón y Cajal in the late 19th century. It held that neurons are
Neuron
20115593
need to progress through ranks in divisions in order to use additional perks, in addition to a global perk system named Basic Training. The divisions featured in the game are: In April 6, Sledgehammer Games announced an overhaul to the Divisions system, which includes massive changes to the meta of the system: Division-specific weapon skills are selectable as attachments for the corresponding weapon classes rather than being tied to the Divisions (with LMG bipods and sniper sharpshooter abilities being available by default), and several Division trainings are switched out/adjusted to better promote their recommended playstyle, without imposing limitation of customization
Call of Duty: WWII
16044000
Photoreceptors on the animal's eyespots provide sensory information on light and dark. The nervous system of one very small worm, the roundworm "Caenorhabditis elegans", has been mapped out down to the synaptic level. Every neuron and its cellular lineage has been recorded and most, if not all, of the neural connections are known. In this species, the nervous system is sexually dimorphic; the nervous systems of the two sexes, males and hermaphrodites, have different numbers of neurons and groups of neurons that perform sex-specific functions. In "C. elegans", males have exactly 383 neurons, while hermaphrodites have exactly 302 neurons. Arthropods,
Evolution of nervous systems
9019605
Enteroendocrine cell Enteroendocrine cells are specialized cells of the gastrointestinal tract and pancreas with endocrine function. They produce gastrointestinal hormones or peptides in response to various stimuli and release them into the bloodstream for systemic effect, diffuse them as local messengers, or transmit them to the enteric nervous system to activate nervous responses. Enteroendocrine cells of the intestine are the most numerous endocrine cells of the body. They constitute an enteric endocrine system as a subset of the endocrine system just as the enteric nervous system is a subset of the nervous system. In a sense they are known to
Enteroendocrine cell
1796206
the NIH. Most of NINDS' budget goes to fund extramural research. NINDS' basic science research focuses on studies of the fundamental biology of the brain and nervous system, genetics, neurodegeneration, learning and memory, motor control, brain repair, and synapses. NINDS also funds clinical research related to diseases and disorders of the brain and nervous system, e.g. AIDS, Alzheimer disease, epilepsy, muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson disease, spinal cord injury, stroke, and traumatic brain injury. Established in 1950 by the U. S. Congress as the National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness to help handle the casualties of World War II,
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
6191414
Myelin basic protein Myelin basic protein (MBP) is a protein believed to be important in the process of myelination of nerves in the nervous system. The myelin sheath is a multi-layered membrane, unique to the nervous system, that functions as an insulator to greatly increase the velocity of axonal impulse conduction. MBP maintains the correct structure of myelin, interacting with the lipids in the myelin membrane. MBP was initially sequenced in 1971 after isolation from myelin membranes. Since that time, knockout mice deficient in MBP that showed decreased amounts of CNS myelination and a progressive disorder characterized by tremors, seizures,
Myelin basic protein
2189297
distance between insects and mammals, many basic aspects of "Drosophila" neurogenetics have turned out to be relevant to humans. For instance, the first biological clock genes were identified by examining "Drosophila" mutants that showed disrupted daily activity cycles. Neuroanatomy Neuroanatomy is the study of the structure and organization of the nervous system. In contrast to animals with radial symmetry, whose nervous system consists of a distributed network of cells, animals with bilateral symmetry have segregated, defined nervous systems. Their neuroanatomy is therefore better understood. In vertebrates, the nervous system is segregated into the internal structure of the brain and spinal
Neuroanatomy
294337
of synaptic memory traces have been found, involving increases or decreases in synaptic strength that are induced by varying conditions, and last for variable periods of time. The reward system, that reinforces desired behaviour for example, depends on a variant form of LTP that is conditioned on an extra input coming from a reward-signalling pathway that uses dopamine as neurotransmitter. All these forms of synaptic modifiability, taken collectively, give rise to neural plasticity, that is, to a capability for the nervous system to adapt itself to variations in the environment. The basic neuronal function of sending signals to other cells
Nervous system
3275775
in both directions as the circular muscles alternatively contract. This allows for thorough mixing of intestinal contents, known as chyme, to allow greater absorption. The secretion of gastrointestinal enzymes, such as gastrin and secretin, is regulated through cholinergic neurons residing in the walls of the digestive tract. Hormone secretion is controlled by the vagovagal reflex, where the neurons in the digestive tract communicate through both afferent and efferent pathways with the vagus nerve. The enteric nervous system is one of the main divisions of the nervous system and is the main focus of neurogastroenterology. The enteric nervous system refers to
Neurogastroenterology
136976
to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause. Silvan Tomkins (1911–1991) developed the Affect theory and Script theory. The Affect theory introduced the concept of basic emotions, and was based on the idea that the dominance of the emotion, which he called the affected system, was the motivating force in human life. Some of the most influential theorists on emotion from the
Emotion
6338581
Parasympatholytic A parasympatholytic agent is a substance or activity that reduces the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system. (The parasympathetic nervous system is often colloquially described as the "Feed and Breed" or "Rest and Digest" portion of the autonomic nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system becomes strongly engaged during or after a meal and during times when the body is at rest.) The term parasympatholytic typically refers to the effect of a drug, although some poisons act to block the parasympathetic nervous system as well. Most drugs with parasympatholytic properties are anticholinergics. "Parasympatholytic" and sympathomimetic agents have similar but not
Parasympatholytic
16087284
reference to the various sources. The basic structural unit of the neural network is connectivity of one neuron to another via an active junction, called synapse. Neurons of widely divergent characteristics are connected to each other via synapses, whose characteristics are also of diverse chemical and electrical properties. In presenting a comprehensive view of all possible modeling of the brain and neural network, an approach is to organize the material based on the characteristics of the networks and the goals that need to be accomplished. The latter could be either for understanding the brain and the nervous system better or
Nervous system network models
12792495
areas are under control of cerebral cortex ones. Such cortical regulation differs between its left and right sides. Pavlovian conditioning shows that brain control over basic cell level physiological function can be learnt. Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems and the hypothalamus are regulated by the higher brain. Through them, the higher cerebral cortex areas can control the immune system, and the body’s homeostatic and stress physiology. Areas doing this include the insular cortex, the orbital, and the medial prefrontal cortices. These cerebral areas also control smooth muscle and glandular physiological processes through the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system including blood
Neural top–down control of physiology
4806248
Administrative divisions of Japan The bureaucratic administration of Japan is divided into three basic levels; national, prefectural, and municipal. Below the national government there are 47 prefectures, six of which are further subdivided into subprefectures to better service large geographical areas or remote islands. The municipalities (cities, towns and villages) are the lowest level of government; the twenty most-populated cities outside Tokyo are known as designated cities and are subdivided into wards. The top tier of administrative divisions are the 47 prefectural entities: 43 proper, two , one , and one . Although different in name, they are functionally the
Administrative divisions of Japan
5180606
Society for Neuroscience The Society for Neuroscience (SfN) is a professional society, headquartered in Washington, DC, for basic scientists and physicians around the world whose research is focused on the study of the brain and nervous system. SfN was founded in 1969 by Ralph W. Gerard and, at nearly 37,000 members, has grown to be the largest neuroscience society in the world. The stated mission of the society is to: The Society publishes two peer-reviewed scientific journals. The "Journal of Neuroscience" publishes papers on a broad range of topics of general interest to those working on the nervous system. "eNeuro"
Society for Neuroscience
1321803
prefecture-level cities. As of 18, August 2015, there were 334 prefectural level divisions: As of August 18, 2015, there were 2,852 county-level divisions: The basic level autonomy serves as an organizational division (census, mail system) and does not have much importance in political representative power. Basic local divisions like neighborhoods and communities are not informal like in America, but have defined boundaries and elected heads (one per area): In urban areas, every subdistrict of a district of a city administers many communities or residential committees. Each of them have a residential committee to administer the dwellers of that neighborhood or
Administrative divisions of China
3282050
The enteric nervous system exhibits taste receptors similar to the ones in the tongue. The taste receptor TAS1R3 and the taste G protein gustducin are two of the most common. These receptors sense "sweetness" on the tongue and sense glucose in the enteric nervous system. These receptors help regulate the secretion of insulin and other hormones that are responsible for controlling blood sugar levels. Hirschsprung's disease is a congenital disorder of the colon in which nerve cells of the myenteric plexus in its walls, also known as ganglion cells, are absent. Hirschsprung's disease is a form of functional low bowel
Myenteric plexus
20082778
Post micturition convulsion syndrome In Neurourology, Post-micturition convulsion syndrome (PMCS), also known as pee shivers, is the experience of shivering during or after urination. The syndrome appears to be more frequently experienced by men. The term was coined in 1994 on the online question-and-answer newspaper column "The Straight Dope", when a user enquired about the phenomenon. There has yet to be any peer-reviewed research on the topic. The most plausible theory, is that the shiver is a result of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) getting its signals mixed up between its two main divisions: Part of the SNS response to
Post micturition convulsion syndrome
1755229
cartilage and bone. Cells of the immune system, such as macrophages, mast cells, plasma cells and eosinophils are found scattered in loose connective tissue, providing the ground for starting inflammatory and immune responses upon the detection of antigens. There are many types of connective tissue disorders, such as: For microscopic viewing, most of the connective tissue staining-techniques, colour tissue fibers in contrasting shades. Collagen may be differentially stained by any of the following: Connective tissue Connective tissue (CT) is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. It develops from
Connective tissue
91140
found that more than 95% of the 116 genes involved in the nervous system of planarians, which includes genes related to the CNS, also exist in humans. Like planarians, vertebrates have a distinct CNS and PNS, though more complex than those of planarians. In arthropods, the ventral nerve cord, the subesophageal ganglia and the supraesophageal ganglia are usually seen as making up the CNS. The CNS of chordates differs from that of other animals in being placed dorsally in the body, above the gut and notochord/spine. The basic pattern of the CNS is highly conserved throughout the different species of
Central nervous system
2150994
does not readily bind other targets (see s). As such, neurotoxins provide an effective means by which certain elements of the nervous system may be accurately and efficiently targeted. An early example of neurotoxin based targeting used radiolabeled tetrodotoxin to assay sodium channels and obtain precise measurements about their concentration along nerve membranes. Likewise through isolation of certain channel activities, neurotoxins have provided the ability to improve the original Hodgkin-Huxley model of the neuron in which it was theorized that single generic sodium and potassium channels could account for most nervous tissue function. From this basic understanding, the use of
Neurotoxin
1593523
peritoneal cavity becomes inflamed or if the bowel is suddenly distended, the body will interpret the afferent pain stimulus as somatic in origin. This pain is usually non-localized. The pain is also usually referred to dermatomes that are at the same spinal nerve level as the visceral afferent synapse. Together with the other component of the autonomic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system aids in the control of most of the body's internal organs. Reaction to stress—as in the flight-or-fight response—is thought to counteract the parasympathetic system, which generally works to promote maintenance of the body
Sympathetic nervous system
11786432
the esophagus and towards the rectum. The smooth muscle throughout most of the GI tract is divided into two layers: an outer longitudinal layer and an inner circular layer. Both layers of muscle are located within the muscularis externa. The stomach has a third layer: an innermost oblique layer. The physical contractions of the smooth muscle cells can be caused by action potentials in efferent motor neurons of the enteric nervous system, or by receptor mediated calcium influx. These efferent motor neurons of the enteric nervous system are cholinergic and adrenergic neurons. The inner circular layer is innervated by both
Basal electrical rhythm
4753660
most species, especially higher mammals and humans, the ability to integrate develops in parallel with physical and cognitive maturity. Children until certain ages do not show mature integration patterns. Classically, two opposing views that are principally modern manifestations of the nativist/empiricist dichotomy have been put forth. The integration (empiricist) view states that at birth, sensory modalities are not at all connected. Hence, it is only through active exploration that plastic changes can occur in the nervous system to initiate holistic perceptions and actions. Conversely, the differentiation (nativist) perspective asserts that the young nervous system is highly interconnected; and that during
Multisensory integration
16043997
on the trunk it gives rise to a series of narrow bands. The top three segments belong to the brain, giving rise to the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. Bilaterians can be divided, based on events that occur very early in embryonic development, into two groups (superphyla) called protostomes and deuterostomes. Deuterostomes include vertebrates as well as echinoderms and hemichordates (mainly acorn worms). Protostomes, the more diverse group, include arthropods, molluscs, and numerous types of worms. There is a basic difference between the two groups in the placement of the nervous system within the body: protostomes possess a nerve cord on
Evolution of nervous systems
294298
multicellular animals, but vary greatly in complexity. The only multicellular animals that have no nervous system at all are sponges, placozoans, and mesozoans, which have very simple body plans. The nervous systems of the radially symmetric organisms ctenophores (comb jellies) and cnidarians (which include anemones, hydras, corals and jellyfish) consist of a diffuse nerve net. All other animal species, with the exception of a few types of worm, have a nervous system containing a brain, a central cord (or two cords running in parallel), and nerves radiating from the brain and central cord. The size of the nervous system ranges
Nervous system
14051746
Neuronal encoding of sound The neuronal encoding of sound is the representation of auditory sensation and perception in the nervous system. This article explores the basic physiological principles of sound perception, and traces hearing mechanisms from sound as pressure waves in air to the transduction of these waves into electrical impulses (action potentials) along auditory nerve fibers, and further processing in the brain. The complexities of contemporary neuroscience are continually redefined. Thus what is known now of the auditory system has changed in the recent times and thus conceivably in the next two years or so, much of this will
Neuronal encoding of sound
2541973
ceremonies. Echo company is in charge of transportation and logistics. Foxtrot is in charge of operating the cadet conduct system, organizing the watch rotations, and making the regulations. Golf company is in charge of supplies for cleaning and repairing damaged rooms within the corps. Hotel company is in charge of morale events, and so forth. To accomplish these missions, each company is divided, along shipboard lines, into three departments, each of which is divided into a variety of divisions. Divisions are the most basic unit at the Coast Guard Academy, and each has a very specific duty. Each division is
United States Coast Guard Academy
1593510
parasympathetic nervous system which stimulates the body to "feed and breed" and to (then) "rest-and-digest". There are two kinds of neurons involved in the transmission of any signal through the sympathetic system: pre-ganglionic and post-ganglionic. The shorter preganglionic neurons originate from the thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord specifically at T1 to L2~L3, and travel to a ganglion, often one of the paravertebral ganglia, where they synapse with a postganglionic neuron. From there, the long postganglionic neurons extend across most of the body. At the synapses within the ganglia, preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
Sympathetic nervous system
16788749
refers to the total of forty-nine by adding to the said thirty-four the two Chayagrahas (the lunar nodes), the twelve rasis (signs) and the Ayanamsa. Varahamihira favoured Satyacharya’s Dasha system though he says many had spoiled it by useless multiplications but Satyacharya did not deviate from the basic Parashari principles. Because of there being nine active planets and equally active twelve signs (including their numerous sub-divisions) and twenty seven nakshatra divisions, yoga-formations are unavoidable. All planets jointly and severally without any exception are the indicators of future events, they chart the course of fate. And, all good or bad yogas
Yoga (Hindu astrology)
294303
ganglia. All animals more advanced than sponges have nervous systems. However, even sponges, unicellular animals, and non-animals such as slime molds have cell-to-cell signalling mechanisms that are precursors to those of neurons. In radially symmetric animals such as the jellyfish and hydra, the nervous system consists of a nerve net, a diffuse network of isolated cells. In bilaterian animals, which make up the great majority of existing species, the nervous system has a common structure that originated early in the Ediacaran period, over 550 million years ago. The nervous system contains two main categories or types of cells: neurons and
Nervous system
15759620
regulate gene expression and memory formation, and carry out many other tasks in the brain and beyond. Glycosaminoglycans are heterogeneously sulfated oligosaccharides that are very important in nervous system development, spinal cord injury, inflammation and cancer metastasis. Hsieh-Wilson's research on this subject implicates the specific sulfation sequence of glycosaminoglycans as a way to modulate biological function. Specifically, her work with chondroitin sulfate (CS) and heparan sulfate (HS), the two most common glycosaminoglycans in the nervous system, has shown that this "sulfation code" functions as a molecular recognition element for growth factors and modulates neuronal growth, indicating that these specific sulfated
Linda Hsieh-Wilson