where does glucose get reabsorbed in the nephron
proximal convoluted tubule walls
11359604
Renal glucose reabsorption Renal glucose reabsorption is the part of kidney (renal) physiology that deals with the retrieval of filtered glucose, preventing it from disappearing from the body through the urine. If glucose is not reabsorbed by the kidney, it appears in the urine, in a condition known as glucosuria. This is associated with diabetes mellitus. Firstly, the glucose in the proximal tubule is co-transported with sodium ions into the proximal convoluted tubule walls via the SGLT2 cotransporter. Some (typically smaller) amino acids are also transported in this way. Once in the tubule wall, the glucose and amino acids diffuse
Renal glucose reabsorption
11359604
Renal glucose reabsorption Renal glucose reabsorption is the part of kidney (renal) physiology that deals with the retrieval of filtered glucose, preventing it from disappearing from the body through the urine. If glucose is not reabsorbed by the kidney, it appears in the urine, in a condition known as glucosuria. This is associated with diabetes mellitus. Firstly, the glucose in the proximal tubule is co-transported with sodium ions into the proximal convoluted tubule walls via the SGLT2 cotransporter. Some (typically smaller) amino acids are also transported in this way. Once in the tubule wall, the glucose and amino acids diffuse
Renal glucose reabsorption
8008485
is generated through the active functioning of the NaKATPase. As the cotransport of glucose with sodium from the lumen does not directly require ATP hydrolysis but depends upon the action of the ATPase, this is described as secondary active transport. There are two types of secondary active transporter found within the kidney tubule; close to the glomerulus, where glucose levels are high, SGLT2 has a low affinity yet high capacity for glucose transport. Close to the loop of Henle and in the distal convoluted tubule of the nephron where much glucose has been reabsorbed into the bloodstream, SGLT1 transporters are
Glucose uptake
8291937
Sodium-glucose transport proteins Sodium-dependent glucose cotransporters (or sodium-glucose linked transporter, SGLT) are a family of glucose transporter found in the intestinal mucosa (enterocytes) of the small intestine (SGLT1) and the proximal tubule of the nephron (SGLT2 in PCT and SGLT1 in PST). They contribute to renal glucose reabsorption. In the kidneys, 100% of the filtered glucose in the glomerulus has to be reabsorbed along the nephron (98% in PCT, via SGLT2). If the plasma glucose concentration is too high (hyperglycemia), glucose is excreted in urine (glucosuria) because SGLT are saturated with the filtered glucose. Glucose is never secreted by a
Sodium-glucose transport proteins
1698278
and which reflects their different functions. The proximal tubule as a part of the nephron can be divided into an initial convoluted portion and a following straight (descending) portion. Fluid in the filtrate entering the proximal convoluted tubule is reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries, including approximately two-thirds of the filtered salt and water and all filtered organic solutes (primarily glucose and amino acids). The loop of Henle is a U-shaped tube that extends from the proximal tubule. It consists of a descending limb and an ascending limb. It begins in the cortex, receiving filtrate from the proximal convoluted tubule, extends
Nephron
1698271
also occurs in the tubules and is active. Substances reabsorbed include: water, sodium, chloride, glucose, amino acids, lactate, magnesium, calcium, phosphate, uric acid, and bicarbonate. Substances secreted include urea, creatinine, potassium, hydrogen, and uric acid. Some of the hormones which signal the tubules to alter the reabsorption or secretion rate, and thereby maintain homeostasis, include (along with the substance affected) antidiuretic hormone (water), aldosterone (sodium, potassium), parathyroid hormone (calcium, phosphate), atrial natriuretic peptide (sodium) and brain natriuretic peptide (sodium). A countercurrent system in the renal medulla provides the mechanism for generating a hypertonic interstitium, which allows the recovery of solute-free
Nephron
226679
kidney participates in the control of the volume of various body fluid compartments, fluid osmolality, acid-base balance, various electrolyte concentrations, and removal of toxins. Filtration occurs in the glomerulus: one-fifth of the blood volume that enters the kidneys is filtered. Examples of substances reabsorbed are solute-free water, sodium, bicarbonate, glucose, and amino acids. Examples of substances secreted are hydrogen, ammonium, potassium and uric acid. The kidneys also carry out functions independent of the nephron. For example, they convert a precursor of vitamin D to its active form, calcitriol; and synthesize the hormones erythropoietin and renin. Renal physiology is the study
Kidney
18375413
is initially filtered is reabsorbed by a high capacity system controlled by SGLT-2 in the early convoluted segment of the proximal tubules. Almost all remaining filtered glucose is reabsorbed by sodium/glucose transporter 1 so under normal circumstances almost all filtered glucose will be reabsorbed and less than 100 mg of glucose finds its way into the urine of non-diabetic individuals. Phlorizin is a compound that has been known for over a century. It is a naturally occurring botanical glucoside that produces renal glucosuria and blocks intestinal glucose absorption through inhibition of the sodium/glucose symporters located in the proximal renal tubule
Discovery and development of gliflozins
7658334
Peritubular capillaries In the renal system, peritubular capillaries are tiny blood vessels, supplied by the efferent arteriole, that travel alongside nephrons allowing reabsorption and secretion between blood and the inner lumen of the nephron. Peritubular capillaries surround the proximal and distal tubules, as well as the loop of Henle, where they are known as vasa recta. Ions and minerals that need to be saved in the body are reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries through active transport, secondary active transport, or transcytosis. The ions that need to be excreted as waste are secreted from the capillaries into the nephron to be
Peritubular capillaries
226693
this ultrafiltrate and into the peritubular capillary. It is accomplished via selective receptors on the luminal cell membrane. Water is 55% reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. Glucose at normal plasma levels is completely reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. The mechanism for this is the Na/glucose cotransporter. A plasma level of 350 mg/dL will fully saturate the transporters and glucose will be lost in the urine. A plasma glucose level of approximately 160 is sufficient to allow glucosuria, which is an important clinical clue to diabetes mellitus. Amino acids are reabsorbed by sodium dependent transporters in the proximal tubule. Hartnup disease
Kidney
8008483
glucose uptake. Facilitated diffusion can occur between the bloodstream and cells as the concentration gradient between the extracellular and intracellular environments is such that no ATP hydrolysis is required. However, in the kidney, glucose is reabsorbed from the filtrate in the tubule lumen, where it is at a relatively low concentration, passes through the simple cuboidal epithelia lining the kidney tubule, and into the bloodstream where glucose is at a comparatively high concentration. Therefore, the concentration gradient of glucose opposes its reabsorption, and energy is required for its transport. The secondary active transport of glucose in the kidney is Na
Glucose uptake
1698284
of the water from urine can be reabsorbed as it leaves the collecting duct by osmosis. Thus the levels of ADH determine whether urine will be concentrated or diluted. An increase in ADH is an indication of dehydration, while water sufficiency results in a decrease in ADH allowing for diluted urine. Lower portions of the collecting organ are also permeable to urea, allowing some of it to enter the medulla of the kidney, thus maintaining its high concentration (which is very important for the nephron). Urine leaves the medullary collecting ducts through the renal papillae, emptying into the renal calyces,
Nephron
662895
is reabsorbed as it passes through the nephron and the remaining 1% becomes urine. The urinary system is regulated by the endocrine system by hormones such as antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone, and parathyroid hormone. The urinary system is under influence of the circulatory system, nervous system, and endocrine system. Aldosterone plays a central role in regulating blood pressure through its effects on the kidney. It acts on the distal tubules and collecting ducts of the nephron and increases reabsorption of sodium from the glomerular filtrate. Reabsorption of sodium results in retention of water, which increases blood pressure and blood volume. Antidiuretic
Urinary system
2872611
and increases in tonicity until it reaches its maximum at the bottom of the loop. This area represents the highest concentration in the nephron, but the collecting duct can reach this same tonicity with maximum ADH effect. The ascending limb of the loop of Henle receives an even lower volume of fluid and has different characteristics compared to the descending limb. In the ascending portion, the loop becomes impermeable to water and the cells of the loop actively reabsorb solutes from the luminal fluid; therefore water is not reabsorbed and ions are readily reabsorbed. As ions leave the lumen via
Loop of Henle
10763728
SLC5A1 Sodium/glucose cotransporter 1 also known as solute carrier family 5 member 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "SLC5A1" gene. Glucose transporters are integral membrane proteins that mediate the transport of glucose and structurally related substances across cellular membranes. The role of the sodium-glucose cotransporters is to not only absorb glucose, but to also absorb sodium and to then reabsorb the sodium and glucose from the tubule of the nephron. Two families of glucose transporter have been identified: the facilitated diffusion glucose transporter family (GLUT family), also known as 'uniporters,' and the sodium-dependent glucose transporter
SLC5A1
8291940
and glucose are moved in the same direction across the membrane, SGLT1 and SGLT2 are known as symporters. In August 1960, in Prague, Robert K. Crane presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption. Crane's discovery of cotransport was the first-ever proposal of flux coupling in biology. Sodium-glucose transport proteins Sodium-dependent glucose cotransporters (or sodium-glucose linked transporter, SGLT) are a family of glucose transporter found in the intestinal mucosa (enterocytes) of the small intestine (SGLT1) and the proximal tubule of the nephron (SGLT2 in PCT and SGLT1 in PST). They
Sodium-glucose transport proteins
10763732
glands, submandibular glands and in the heart. SLC5A1 has been shown to interact with PAWR. SLC5A1 Sodium/glucose cotransporter 1 also known as solute carrier family 5 member 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "SLC5A1" gene. Glucose transporters are integral membrane proteins that mediate the transport of glucose and structurally related substances across cellular membranes. The role of the sodium-glucose cotransporters is to not only absorb glucose, but to also absorb sodium and to then reabsorb the sodium and glucose from the tubule of the nephron. Two families of glucose transporter have been identified: the facilitated
SLC5A1
4872188
condition, when a high amount of carbohydrate is taken, it is rapidly absorbed in some cases where a part of the stomach is surgically removed, the excessive glucose appears in urine producing glucosuria. Blood is filtered by millions of nephrons, the functional units that comprise the kidneys. In each nephron, blood flows from the arteriole into the glomerulus, a tuft of leaky capillaries. The Bowman's capsule surrounds each glomerulus, and collects the filtrate that the glomerulus forms. The filtrate contains waste products (e.g. urea), electrolytes (e.g. sodium, potassium, chloride), amino acids, and glucose. The filtrate passes into the renal tubules
Glycosuria
4872189
of the kidney. In the first part of the renal tubule, the proximal tubule, glucose is reabsorbed from the filtrate, across the tubular epithelium and into the bloodstream. The proximal tubule can only reabsorb a limited amount of glucose (~375 mg/min), known as the transport maximum. When the blood glucose level exceeds about 160–180 mg/dL, the proximal tubule becomes overwhelmed and begins to excrete glucose in the urine. This point is called the renal threshold for glucose (RTG). Some people, especially children and pregnant women, may have a low RTG (less than ~7 mmol/L glucose in blood to have glucosuria).
Glycosuria
2872609
not filtered through the glomerulus. This provides an oncotic pressure for ions to enter the vasa recta from the interstitium. The main function of the loop of Henle is to set up a concentration gradient. The descending loop of Henle receives isotonic (300 mOsm/L) fluid from the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT). The fluid is isotonic because as ions are reabsorbed by the gradient time system, water is also reabsorbed maintaining the osmolarity of the fluid in the PCT. Substances reabsorbed in the PCT include urea, water, potassium, sodium, chloride, glucose, amino acids, lactate, phosphate, and bicarbonate. Since water is also
Loop of Henle
13973391
titration curves show a large amount of splay therefore a Tm for citrate reabsorption may actually happen. Also, tubular transport is Tm-limited and the reabsorption mechanism being saturated at a plasma concentration more than 20 times than usual shows a low level of splay. Renal abnormalities of glucose excretion, causing glycosuria, may happen as either a result of reduced Tm for glucose or because of an abnormally wide range of nephron heterogeneity so splay of the glucose excretion curve is increased. Two causes are also listed for splay: "heteroginicity in glomerular size, proximal tubular length and number of carrier proteins
Splay (physiology)
17539448
be reabsorbed. Thus their presence leads to an increase in the osmolarity of the filtrate and to maintain osmotic balance, water is retained in the urine. Glucose, like mannitol, is a sugar that can behave as an osmotic diuretic. Unlike mannitol, glucose is commonly found in the blood. However, in certain conditions, such as diabetes mellitus, the concentration of glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia) exceeds the maximum reabsorption capacity of the kidney. When this happens, glucose remains in the filtrate, leading to the osmotic retention of water in the urine. Glucosuria causes a loss of hypotonic water and Na, leading
Diuretic
2980918
to the filtrate in the nephron and aids in the reabsorption of water. Blood is filtered in the glomerulus by solute size. Ions such as sodium, chloride, potassium, and calcium are easily filtered, as is glucose. Proteins are not passed through the glomerular filter because of their large size, and do not appear in the filtrate or urine unless a disease process has affected the glomerular capsule or the proximal and distal convoluted tubules of the nephron. Though the renal medulla only receives a small percentage of the renal blood flow, the oxygen extraction is very high, causing a low
Renal medulla
2813084
Renal physiology Renal physiology (Latin "rēnēs", "kidneys") is the study of the physiology of the kidney. This encompasses all functions of the kidney, including maintenance of acid-base balance; regulation of fluid balance; regulation of sodium, potassium, and other electrolytes; clearance of toxins; absorption of glucose, amino acids, and other small molecules; regulation of blood pressure; production of various hormones, such as erythropoietin; and activation of vitamin D. Much of renal physiology is studied at the level of the nephron, the smallest functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron begins with a filtration component that filters the blood entering the kidney.
Renal physiology
18793522
necessary for the activity of the drug so it is convenient for patients with diminished β-cell function. Sodium and glucose are co-transported by the SGLT-2 protein into the tubular epithelial cells across the brush-border membrane of the proximal convoluted tubule. This happens because of the sodium gradient between the tubule and the cell and therefore provides a secondary active transport of glucose. Glucose is later reabsorbed by passive transfer of endothelial cells into the interstitial glucose transporter protein. The elimination half-life, bioavailability, protein binding, the blood concentration Cmax at time tmax, and other pharmacokinetic parameters of various drugs of this
Gliflozin
18375420
also block glucose transporter 1 (GLUT-1). Because 90% of filtered glucose is reabsorbed through SGLT-2, research has focused specifically on SGLT-2. Inhibition of SGLT-1 may also lead to the genetic disease glucose-galactose malabsorption, which is characterized by severe diarrhea. According to preliminary findings of a novel method of SGLT-2 inhibition, the antisense oligonucleotide ISIS 388626 improved plasma glucose in rodents and dogs by reducing mRNA expression in the proximal renal tubules by up to 80% when given once a week. It did not affect SGLT-1. A study results on long-term use of ISIS 388626 in non-human primates observed more than
Discovery and development of gliflozins
16464970
meal or OGTT. The Greek root "oxy" means "sharp" or "pointy". The OGTT curve in this condition appears sharp and somewhat pointy (at least relative to the other forms of hyperglycemia)- hence this name. Dorlands dictionary defines oxyhyperglycemia as: A blood level of approximately 180 mg/dL is the renal glucose threshold below which all glucose is reabsorbed from glomerular filtrate. But at blood concentrations above the renal threshold sugar starts appearing in the urine. Oxyhyperglycemia, like other forms of Impaired glucose tolerance has also been suggested to be a prediabetic condition Oxyhyperglycemia is most commonly caused by early dumping syndrome,
Oxyhyperglycemia
3316608
emphasizes the role of capillaries and the solution's ability to increase the number of active capillaries involved in PD). The high concentration of glucose drives the filtration of fluid by osmosis (osmotic UF) from the peritoneal capillaries to the peritoneal cavity. Glucose diffuses rather rapidly from the dialysate to the blood (capillaries). After 4-6 h of the dwell, the glucose osmotic gradient usually becomes too low to allow for further osmotic UF. Therefore, the dialysate will now be reabsorbed from the peritoneal cavity to the capillaries by means of the plasma colloid osmotic pressure, which exceeds the colloid osmotic pressure
Peritoneal dialysis
1698281
hypotonic filtrate is passed to the distal convoluted tubule in the renal cortex. The distal convoluted tubule has a different structure and function to that of the proximal convoluted tubule. Cells lining the tubule have numerous mitochondria to produce enough energy (ATP) for active transport to take place. Much of the ion transport taking place in the distal convoluted tubule is regulated by the endocrine system. In the presence of parathyroid hormone, the distal convoluted tubule reabsorbs more calcium and secretes more phosphate. When aldosterone is present, more sodium is reabsorbed and more potassium secreted. Atrial natriuretic peptide causes the
Nephron
11356409
ions in the blood plasma. About 40% of the urea filtered is normally found in the final urine, since there is more reabsorption than secretion along the nephron. It is regulated by antidiuretic hormone, which controls the amount reabsorbed in the collecting duct system and secreted into the loop of Henle. Renal urea handling Renal urea handling is the part of renal physiology that deals with the reabsorption and secretion of urea. Movement of large amounts of urea across cell membranes is made possible by urea transporter proteins. Urea allows the kidneys to create hyperosmotic urine (urine that has more
Renal urea handling
1698270
passive: it is dependent on the intracapillary blood pressure. About one-fifth of the plasma is filtered as the blood passes through the glomerular capillaries; four-fifths continues into the peritubular capillaries. Normally the only components of the blood that are not filtered into Bowman's capsule are blood proteins, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Over 150 liters of fluid enter the glomeruli of an adult every day: 99% of the water in that filtrate is reabsorbed. Reabsorption occurs in the renal tubules and is either passive, due to diffusion, or active, due to pumping against a concentration gradient. Secretion
Nephron
7540310
Reabsorption In renal physiology, reabsorption or tubular reabsorption is the process by which the nephron removes water and solutes from the tubular fluid (pre-urine) and returns them to the circulating blood. It is called "reabsorption" (and not "absorption") both because these substances have already been absorbed once (particularly in the intestines) and because the body is reclaiming them from a postglomerular fluid stream that is well on its way to becoming urine (that is, they will soon be lost to the urine unless they are reclaimed). Substances are reabsorbed from the tubule into the peritubular capillaries. This happens as a
Reabsorption
7540312
reabsorbed via secondary active transport through cotransport channels driven by the sodium gradient. Renin–angiotensin system: Reabsorption In renal physiology, reabsorption or tubular reabsorption is the process by which the nephron removes water and solutes from the tubular fluid (pre-urine) and returns them to the circulating blood. It is called "reabsorption" (and not "absorption") both because these substances have already been absorbed once (particularly in the intestines) and because the body is reclaiming them from a postglomerular fluid stream that is well on its way to becoming urine (that is, they will soon be lost to the urine unless they are
Reabsorption
2668649
use as it is not secreted or reabsorbed in any appreciable amount at the nephron, allowing GFR to be calculated. However, due to clinical limitations, inulin and sinistrin, although characterised by better handling features, are rarely used for this purpose and creatinine values are the standard for determining an approximate GFR. Inulin enhances the growth and activities of bacteria or inhibits growth or activities of certain pathogenic bacteria. A 2017 systematic review of clinical trial results showed that dietary supplementation with inulin reduced biomarkers of metabolic syndrome. The side effects of inulin dietary fiber diet, which may occur in sensitive
Inulin
1698267
membrane, and between the foot processes of the podocytes of the lining of the capsule. The tubule has adjacent peritubular capillaries that run between the descending and ascending portions of the tubule. As the fluid from the capsule flows down into the tubule, it is processed by the epithelial cells lining the tubule: water is reabsorbed and substances are exchanged (some are added, others are removed); first with the interstitial fluid outside the tubules, and then into the plasma in the adjacent peritubular capillaries through the endothelial cells lining that capillary. This process regulates the volume of body fluid as
Nephron
13015467
material used for the analysis. Around 30–40% of type I diabetics and around 20% of type II diabetics suffer in time from a nephropathy, and early recognition of diabetes is therefore of major significance for the further state of health of these patients. Specific carbohydrate metabolism disorders able to be identified include Diabetes Mellitus, Glucosuria and Ketonuria. Under normal conditions nearly all the glucose removed in the glomerulus is reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule. If the blood glucose level increases, as happens in diabetes mellitus, the capacity of the convoluted tubule to reabsorb glucose is exceeded (an effect known
Urine test strip
3730579
retention" where the rate of sodium excretion does not reach as much as the initial diuresis period. Increase intake of sodium during this period will offset the amount of excreted sodium, and thus causing diuretic resistance. Prolonged usage of loop diuretics will also contributes to resistance through "braking phenomenon". This is the body physiological response to reduced extracellular fluid volume, where renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system will be activated which results in nephron remodelling. Nephron remodeling increases the number of distal convoluted cells, principle cells, and intercalated cells. These cells have sodium-chloride symporter at distal convoluted tubule, epithelial sodium channels, and chloride-bicarbonate exchanger
Loop diuretic
1287560
segment of the proximal tubule in each nephron in the kidneys. Its mechanism is exploited in glucose rehydration therapy This mechanism uses the absorption of sugar through the walls of the intestine to pull water in along with it. Defects in SGLT2 prevent effective reabsorption of glucose, causing familial renal glucosuria. Endocytosis and exocytosis are both forms of bulk transport that move materials into and out of cells, respectively, via vesicles. In the case of endocytosis, the cellular membrane folds around the desired materials outside the cell. The ingested particle becomes trapped within a pouch, known as a vesicle, inside
Active transport
9320152
Transport maximum In physiology, transport maximum (alternatively Tm or T) refers to the point at which increases in concentration of a substance do not result in an increase in movement of a substance across a cell membrane. In renal physiology, the concept of transport maximum is often discussed in the context of glucose and PAH. For both substances (as with all substances), the quantity "excreted" can be determined with the following equation: The proximal convoluted tubule of the nephron has protein channels that reabsorb glucose, and others that secrete para-aminohippuric acid (PAH). However, its ability to do so is proportionate
Transport maximum
2813086
Bowman's capsule. A global assessment of renal function is often ascertained by estimating the rate of filtration, called the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). The functions of the kidney can be divided into three groups: secretion of hormones, gluconeogenesis and extracellular homeostasis of pH and blood components. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. The kidney in humans is capable of producing glucose from lactate, glycerol and glutamine. The kidney is responsible for about half of the total gluconeogenesis in fasting humans. The regulation of glucose production in the kidney is achieved by action of insulin, catecholamines and other
Renal physiology
7377392
"RPF", thus Rearranging yields the previous equation for RPF: Values of "P" are difficult to obtain in patients. In practice, PAH clearance is used instead to calculate the effective renal plasma flow (eRPF). PAH ("para"-aminohippurate) is freely filtered, is not reabsorbed, and is secreted within the nephron. In other words, not all PAH crosses into the primary filtrate in Bowman's capsule and the remaining PAH in the vasa recta or peritubular capillaries is taken up and secreted by epithelial cells of the proximal convoluted tubule into the tubule lumen. In this way PAH, at low doses, is almost completely cleared
Renal blood flow
8291938
healthy nephron. The two most well known members of SGLT family are SGLT1 and SGLT2, which are members of the SLC5A gene family. In addition to SGLT1 and SGLT2, there are five other members in the human protein family SLC5A, several of which may also be sodium-glucose transporters. SGLT2 inhibitors, also called "gliflozins", are used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Examples include dapagliflozin (Farxiga in US, Forxiga in EU), canagliflozin (Invokana) and empagliflozin (Jardiance). Firstly, an Na+/K+ ATPase pump on the basolateral membrane of the proximal tubule cell uses ATP molecules to move 3 sodium ions outward into
Sodium-glucose transport proteins
7540311
result of sodium transport from the lumen into the blood by the Na/KATPase in the basolateral membrane of the epithelial cells. Thus, the glomerular filtrate becomes more concentrated, which is one of the steps in forming urine. Reabsorption allows many useful solutes (primarily glucose and amino acids), salts and water that have passed through Bowman's capsule, to return to the circulation. These solutes are reabsorbed isotonically, in that the osmotic potential of the fluid leaving the proximal convoluted tubule is the same as that of the initial glomerular filtrate. However, glucose, amino acids, inorganic phosphate, and some other solutes are
Reabsorption
13973390
those for lysine showed none and the kinetics of carrier-mediated glucose transport possibly explains the level of splay in renal titration curves. As splay can be clinically important, patients with proximal tubule disease, mainly caused by hereditary nature and often in children, have a lower threshold but a normal Tm. Therefore, splay is suggested, probably because "some individual cotransporters have a low glucose affinity but maximal transport rate (renal glycosuria). Studies also show that if sulfate is reabsorbed by a Tm-limited process, it will have low splay and, in animals, the limits of citrate concentration normal in the body, citrate
Splay (physiology)
18409758
cortisol. It has also been shown that when slow-wave sleep was suppressed for three nights, young healthy subjects were 25% less sensitive to insulin. They needed more insulin to get rid of the same amount of glucose. If the body does not release more insulin to compensate, the blood-glucose levels will increase. This resembles impaired glucose tolerance, which can result in type 2 diabetes. Lack of sleep has been strongly associated with weight gain in a variety of studies across all ages, though research suggests children and adolescents are particularly vulnerable. Sleep deprivation is believed to influence the brain's response
Sleep and weight
7198669
Juxtamedullary nephron A juxtamedullary nephron is a type of nephron, found only in birds and mammals, which has a specific location: "medullary" refers to the renal medulla, while "juxta" (Latin: near) refers to the relative position of the renal corpuscle of this nephron - "near the medulla", but still in the cortex. In other words, a "juxtamedullary nephron" is a nephron whose renal corpuscle is near the medulla, and whose proximal convoluted tubule and its associated loop of Henle occur deeper in the medulla than the other type of nephron, the cortical nephron. Juxtamedullary nephrons are responsible for the development
Juxtamedullary nephron
7487205
where in the body cells take up glucose. By tracking glucose, doctors can find sites of inflammation because macrophages there take up glucose at high levels. Tumors also take up a lot of glucose, so the imaging strategy can be used to monitor them as well. Tracking radiolabeled glucose is a promising technique because it directly measures a step known to be crucial to inflammation and tumor growth. MRI has the advantages of having very high spatial resolution and is very adept at morphological imaging and functional imaging. MRI does have several disadvantages though. First, MRI has a sensitivity of
Biomarker (medicine)
2814006
interstitial nephritis, vascular injury, and diabetic nephropathy. In these situations, PTECs may be directly affected by protein (e.g., proteinuria in glomerulonephritis), glucose (in diabetes mellitus), or cytokines (e.g., interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factors). There are several ways in which PTECs may respond: producing cytokines, chemokines, and collagen; undergoing epithelial mesenchymal trans-differentiation; necrosis or apoptosis. Proximal tubule The proximal tubule is the portion of the duct system of the nephron of the kidney which leads from Bowman's capsule to the loop of Henle. It is conventionally divided into the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and the proximal straight tubule (PST). The most
Proximal tubule
15373591
maternal rat are believed to cause malprogramming in the F1 generation and may then be passed to subsequent generations. Maternal rats fed a PR-diet during the entire length of pregnancy led to metabolic-related problems in the F1 and F2 generations, even with normal nutrition during the F1 pregnancy. These effects have also been seen in the F3 generation depending on the length of protein restriction. If protein restriction occurred solely during pregnancy, the F1 and F2 offspring had higher systolic blood pressure and lower nephron numbers, possibly predisposing them to hypertension. Altered glucose utilization was detected in the grand-offspring of
Nutriepigenomics
11325838
Renal sodium reabsorption Renal reabsorption of sodium (Na) is a part of renal physiology. It uses Na-H antiport, Na-glucose symport, sodium ion channels (minor). It is stimulated by angiotensin II and aldosterone, and inhibited by atrial natriuretic peptide. It is very efficient, since more than 25,000 mmoles/day of sodium is filtered into the nephron, but only ~100 mmoles/day, or less than 0.4% remains in the final urine. Most of the reabsorption (65%) occurs in the proximal tubule. In the latter part it is favoured by an electrochemical driving force, but initially it needs the cotransporter SGLT and the Na-H antiporter.
Renal sodium reabsorption
11325835
Renal sodium reabsorption Renal reabsorption of sodium (Na) is a part of renal physiology. It uses Na-H antiport, Na-glucose symport, sodium ion channels (minor). It is stimulated by angiotensin II and aldosterone, and inhibited by atrial natriuretic peptide. It is very efficient, since more than 25,000 mmoles/day of sodium is filtered into the nephron, but only ~100 mmoles/day, or less than 0.4% remains in the final urine. Most of the reabsorption (65%) occurs in the proximal tubule. In the latter part it is favoured by an electrochemical driving force, but initially it needs the cotransporter SGLT and the Na-H antiporter.
Renal sodium reabsorption
625013
kidney failure) typically leads to uremia. It is an intrinsic disease of the kidney, generally the result of kidney parenchymal damage. Causes include kidney failure, glomerulonephritis, acute tubular necrosis, or any other kind of kidney disease. The BUN:Cr in renal azotemia is less than 15. In cases of kidney disease, glomerular filtration rate decreases, so nothing gets filtered as well as it normally would. However, in addition to not being normally filtered, what urea does get filtered is not reabsorbed by the proximal tubule as it normally would be. This results in lower levels of urea in the blood and
Azotemia
15147489
illness that affects how the body uses food, and is a life-threatening human disease if left untreated. It affects more than 171 million people worldwide. Diabetes mellitus can be subdivided into; type I diabetes, where the body does not produce insulin, the hormone which facilitates the uptake of glucose by cells; and type II diabetes, where the body becomes resistant to insulin, thus inhibiting the extent of glucose usage. In each case, the ineffective use of glucose as a source of energy leads to the subsequent breakdown of fatty acids to compensate. This consumption of fatty acids by ketosis, produces
Breath diagnostics
7198670
of the osmotic gradients in the renal medulla, which are responsible for concentrating urine because they have a longer loop of Henle than cortical nephrons. Also the hairpin bend penetrates up to the inner zone of medulla. The juxtamedullary nephron comprises only 20–30% of the nephrons in the human kidney. However, it is this type of nephron which is most often depicted in illustrations of nephrons, because their greater length and verticality makes them easier to draw. Juxtamedullary nephron A juxtamedullary nephron is a type of nephron, found only in birds and mammals, which has a specific location: "medullary" refers
Juxtamedullary nephron
3892262
in two parts. In the 1st phase, organic solutes (such as phosphates, amino acids, glucose and anions), sodium ions, and hydronium ions are reabsorbed from the filtrate fluid into the interstitial fluid. This is an important step because this creates the concentration gradient in which chloride concentration in the lumen will increased in comparison to the chloride concentration in the interstitial fluid. In phase 2, chloride will diffuse along the concentration gradient, which means chloride ions will travel from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. One suggested mechanism leading to hyperchloremia, there is a decrease in chloride
Hyperchloremia
2047332
sometimes the words are simply synonymous. Osmotic diuresis is the increase of urination rate caused by the presence of certain substances in the small tubes of the kidneys. The excretion occurs when substances such as glucose enter the kidney tubules and cannot be reabsorbed (due to a pathological state or the normal nature of the substance). The substances cause an increase in the osmotic pressure within the tubule, causing retention of water within the lumen, and thus reduces the reabsorption of water, increasing urine output (i.e. diuresis). The same effect can be seen in therapeutics such as mannitol, which is
Diuresis
14384923
At this point, which is called the renal threshold, the excess glucose spills into the urine (glycosuria), where it can be seen in urine glucose testing. It is the polyuria, or over-frequent urination, which causes polydipsia, or excessive water consumption, through an osmotic process. Even though there is an overabundance of glucose, the lack of insulin does not allow it to enter the cells. As a result, they are not able to receive nourishment from their normal glucose source. The body begins using fat for this purpose, causing weight loss; the process is similar to that of starvation. The main
Diabetes in dogs
15334068
Fanconi syndrome Fanconi syndrome or Fanconi's syndrome (, ) is a syndrome of inadequate reabsorption in the proximal renal tubules of the kidney. The syndrome can be caused by various underlying congenital or acquired diseases, by toxicity (for example, from toxic heavy metals), or by adverse drug reactions. It results in various small molecules of metabolism being passed into the urine instead of being reabsorbed from the tubular fluid (for example, glucose, amino acids, uric acid, phosphate, and bicarbonate). Fanconi syndrome affects the proximal tubules, namely, the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), which is the first part of the tubule to
Fanconi syndrome
16118534
sleep deprivation, they took 40% longer than normal to regulate blood sugar levels after a high-carbohydrate meal. The secretion of insulin and the body's response to insulin decrease by 30%. Sleep deprivation also alters the productions of hormones, lowering the secretion of thyroid stimulating hormone and increasing blood levels of cortisol. It has also been shown that when slow-wave sleep was suppressed for three nights, young healthy subjects were 25% less sensitive to insulin. They needed more insulin to get rid of the same amount of glucose. If the body does not release more insulin to compensate, the blood-glucose levels
Sleep and metabolism
4661351
levels in the body remain constant. In a diarrheal illness, sodium-rich intestinal secretions are lost before they can be reabsorbed. This can lead to life-threatening dehydration or electrolyte imbalances within hours when fluid loss is severe. The objective of therapy is the replenishment of sodium and water losses by ORT or intravenous infusion. Sodium absorption occurs in two stages. The first is via intestinal epithelial cells (enterocytes). Sodium passes into these cells by co-transport with glucose, via the SGLT1 protein. From the intestinal epithelial cells, sodium is pumped by active transport via the sodium-potassium pump through the basolateral cell membrane
Oral rehydration therapy
1869404
to its glucose-lowering action (treatment effect). In those with polycystic ovarian syndrome there is tentative evidence that metformin use increases the rate of live births. This includes in those who have not been able to get pregnant with clomiphene. Metformin does not appear to change the risk of miscarriage. A number of other benefits have also been found both during pregnancy and in non pregnant people with PCOS. In women with PCOS undergoing in vitro fertilization evidence does not support a benefit with respect to live births. The evidence does not support general use during pregnancy for improving maternal and
Metformin
12535052
as chaptalization solely in order to boost the alcohol content – chaptalization does not increase the "sweetness" of a wine. Glucose, along with fructose, is one of the primary sugars found in wine grapes. In wine, glucose tastes less sweet than fructose. It is a six-carbon sugar molecule derived from the breakdown of sucrose. At the beginning of the ripening stage there is usually more glucose than fructose present in the grape (as much as five times more) but the rapid development of fructose shifts the ratio to where at harvest there are generally equal amounts. Grapes that are over
Sugars in wine
1698272
water from within the nephron and returning it to the venous vasculature when appropriate. Some diseases of the nephron predominantly affect either the glomeruli or the tubules. Glomerular diseases include diabetic nephropathy, glomerulonephritis and IgA nephropathy; renal tubular diseases include acute tubular necrosis and polycystic kidney disease. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron is composed of a renal corpuscle, the initial filtering component; and a renal tubule that processes and carries away the filtered fluid. The renal corpuscle is the site of the filtration of blood plasma. The renal corpuscle consists of the glomerulus, and
Nephron
7519627
nephron that processes blood filtrate produced from glomeruli or glomera- large embryonic glomeruli. The filtrate is deposited into the coelom. It then passes through thin ciliated tubules into the pronephric nephron where it is processed for solute recovery. The organ is active in adult forms of some primitive fish, like lampreys or hagfish. It is present at the embryo of more advanced fish and at the larval stage of amphibians where it plays an essential role in osmoregulation. In human beings, it is rudimentary, appears at the end of the third week (day 20) and replaced by mesonephros after 3.5
Pronephros
1603217
cavity transmits movements of the ribs muscles to the lungs, particularly during heavy breathing. During inhalation the external intercostals contract, as does the diaphragm. This causes the expansion of the chest wall, that increases the volume of the lungs. A negative pressure is thus created and inhalation occurs. Pleural fluid is a serous fluid produced by the serous membrane covering normal pleurae. Most fluid is produced by the parietal circulation (intercostal arteries) via bulk flow and reabsorbed by the lymphatic system. Thus, pleural fluid is produced and reabsorbed continuously. In a normal 70 kg human, a few milliliters of pleural
Pleural cavity
1698276
peritubular capillaries, tiny blood vessels that surround the loop of Henle and the proximal and distal tubules, where the tubular fluid flows. Substances then reabsorb from the latter back to the blood stream. The peritubular capillaries then recombine to form an efferent venule, which combines with efferent venules from other nephrons into the renal vein, and rejoins the main bloodstream. Cortical nephrons (the majority of nephrons) start high in the cortex and have a short loop of Henle which does not penetrate deeply into the medulla. Cortical nephrons can be subdivided into "superficial cortical nephrons" and "midcortical nephrons". Juxtamedullary nephrons
Nephron
8292417
towards the more superficial portion of the thick ascending limb, NKCC2 is the major transport protein by which sodium is reabsorbed from the urine. This outward movement of sodium and the lack of water permeability in the thick ascending limb, creates a more diluted urine. According to the stoichiometry outlined above, each molecule of sodium reabsorbed brings one molecule of potassium and two molecules of chloride. Sodium goes on to be reabsorbed into the blood, where it contributes to the maintenance of blood pressure. Furosemide and other loop diuretics inhibit the activity of NKCC2, thereby impairing sodium reabsorption in the
Na-K-Cl cotransporter
18633442
the glucose was pulled into the cells, the glucose was phosphorylated to cause the concentration of glucose in the cell to appear lower than it is, which then promotes the transport of more glucose. This phosphorylation of the radioactive glucose caused the metabolic trapping in the heart and the brain. The lungs, liver, and kidneys did not experience metabolic trapping, and the radioactive glucose that was not trapped was excreted in the urine. F-18 radiolabeled glucose did not get collected by the kidneys and cycled back into the system, as it would do for normal glucose. This suggests that the
Metabolic trapping
1991995
any case, much higher. Errors when using test strips were often caused by the age of the strip or exposure to high temperatures or humidity. More precise blood glucose measurements are performed in a medical laboratory, using hexokinase, glucose oxidase, or glucose dehydrogenase enzymes. Urine glucose readings, however taken, are much less useful. In properly functioning kidneys, glucose does not appear in urine until the renal threshold for glucose has been exceeded. This is substantially above any normal glucose level, and is evidence of an existing severe hyperglycemic condition. However, as urine is stored in the bladder, any glucose in
Blood sugar level
10756071
children are better able to tolerate glucose and galactose as they get older. Small amounts of glucose in the urine (mild glucosuria) may occur intermittently in this disorder. Affected individuals may also develop kidney stones or more widespread deposits of calcium within the kidneys. Glucose-galactose malabsorption is a rare disorder; only a few hundred cases have been identified worldwide. However, as many as 10 percent of the population may have a somewhat reduced capacity for glucose absorption without associated health problems. This condition may be a milder variation of glucose-galactose malabsorption. Glucose-galactose malabsorption Glucose-galactose malabsorption is a rare condition in
Glucose-galactose malabsorption
13754860
L-Glucose -Glucose is an organic compound with formula CHO or H–(C=O)–(CHOH)–H, specifically one of the aldohexose monosaccharides. As the -isomer of glucose, it is the enantiomer of the more common -glucose. -Glucose does not occur naturally in higher living organisms, but can be synthesized in the laboratory. -Glucose is indistinguishable in taste from -glucose, but cannot be used by living organisms as a source of energy because it cannot be phosphorylated by hexokinase, the first enzyme in the glycolysis pathway. One of the known exceptions is in "Burkholderia caryophylli", a plant pathogenic bacterium, which contains the enzyme -threo-aldose 1-dehydrogenase which
L-Glucose
13754862
therapeutic value for type 2 diabetes. -Glucose was also found to be a laxative, and has been proposed as a colon-cleansing agent which would not produce the disruption of fluid and electrolyte levels associated with the significant liquid quantities of bad-tasting osmotic laxatives conventionally used in preparation for colonoscopy. L-Glucose -Glucose is an organic compound with formula CHO or H–(C=O)–(CHOH)–H, specifically one of the aldohexose monosaccharides. As the -isomer of glucose, it is the enantiomer of the more common -glucose. -Glucose does not occur naturally in higher living organisms, but can be synthesized in the laboratory. -Glucose is indistinguishable in
L-Glucose
1698286
the afferent arteriole. It contains three components: the macula densa, juxtaglomerular cells, and extraglomerular mesangial cells. Diseases of the nephron predominantly affect either the glomeruli or the tubules. Glomerular diseases include diabetic nephropathy, glomerulonephritis and IgA nephropathy; renal tubular diseases include acute tubular necrosis, renal tubular acidosis, and polycystic kidney disease. Nephron The nephron (from Greek νεφρός – nephros, meaning "kidney") is the microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney. It is composed of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. The renal corpuscle consists of a tuft of capillaries called a glomerulus and an encompassing Bowman's capsule. The
Nephron
6973834
like indapamide, act on the same target as thiazides and behave in a similar pharmacologic fashion, they are considered "thiazide-like diuretics". Therefore, they are often included in the thiazide diuretics despite not being thiazides themselves. The primary target of all thiazide diuretics, including metolazone, is the distal convoluted tubule, part of the nephron in the kidney, where they inhibit the sodium-chloride symporter. In the kidney, blood is filtered into the lumen, or open space, of the nephron tubule. Whatever remains in the tubule will travel to the bladder as urine and eventually be excreted. The cells lining the tubule modify
Metolazone
1891095
vasopressin, angiotensin II and aldosterone. "Cold diuresis" is the occurrence of increased urine production on exposure to cold, which also partially explains immersion diuresis. "High-altitude diuresis" occurs at altitudes above and is a desirable indicator of adaptation to high altitudes. Mountaineers who are adapting well to high altitudes experience this type of diuresis. Persons who produce less urine even in the presence of adequate fluid intake are probably not adapting well to altitude. Polyuria in osmotic cases, increases flow amount in the distal nephron where flow rates and velocity are low. The significant pressure increase occurring in the distal nephron
Polyuria
1698275
glomerulus are filtered through the visceral layer of podocytes, resulting in the glomerular filtrate. The glomerular filtrate next moves to the renal tubule, where it is further processed to form urine. The different stages of this fluid are collectively known as the tubular fluid. The renal tubule is the portion of the nephron containing the tubular fluid filtered through the glomerulus. After passing through the renal tubule, the filtrate continues to the collecting duct system. The components of the renal tubule are: Blood from the efferent arteriole, containing everything that was not filtered out in the glomerulus, moves into the
Nephron
6140067
exist to promote cell-surface translocation of these transporters is not yet known, but it has clearly been established that insulin does not promote GLUT6 and GLUT8 cell-surface translocation. In August 1960, in Prague, Robert K. Crane presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption. Crane's discovery of cotransport was the first ever proposal of flux coupling in biology. Glucose transporter Glucose transporters are a wide group of membrane proteins that facilitate the transport of glucose across the plasma membrane. Because glucose is a vital source of energy for all life,
Glucose transporter
18791204
from the absorber coils. The absorber coil is where the heat from within the fridge is rejected into the surroundings. The absorber itself is not subject to failure due to corrosion or stress when constructed properly. The absorber can be reduced in capacity if the temperatures get too high in the cooling unit compartment. High temperatures slow down the rate at which ammonia gas is reabsorbed (Solubility of Ammonia in Water), therefore this can result in poor cooling within the refrigerated space. A simple test to see if the ammonia is completing the circuit is to feel the absorber coil.
RV Fridge
3646881
with carbohydrate chains. At pH 7, glucose exists in solution in cyclic hemiacetal form as 63.6% β-D-glucopyranose and 36.4% α-D-glucopyranose, the proportion of linear and furanose form being negligible. The glucose oxidase binds specifically to β-D-glucopyranose and does not act on α-D-glucose. It is able to oxidise all of the glucose in solution because the equilibrium between the α and β anomers is driven towards the β side as it is consumed in the reaction. Glucose oxidase catalyzes the oxidation of β-D-glucose into D-glucono-1,5-lactone, which then hydrolyzes to gluconic acid. In order to work as a catalyst, GOx requires a
Glucose oxidase
13285430
Snf3 Snf3 is a protein which regulates glucose uptake in yeast. It senses glucose in the environment with high affinity. Glucose sensing and signaling in budding yeast is similar to the mammalian system in many ways. However, there are also significant differences. Mammalian cells regulate their glucose uptake via hormones (i.e. insulin and glucagon) or intermediary metabolites. In contrast, yeast as a unicellular organism does not depend on hormones but on nutrients in the medium. The presence of glucose induces a conformational change in the membrane proteins Snf3/Rgt2 or Gpr1, and regulates expression of genes involved in glucose metabolism. Snf3
Snf3
654799
this compensatory increase does not occur, blood glucose concentrations increase and type 2 diabetes or latent autoimmune diabetes of adults occurs. Any food or drink containing glucose (or the digestible carbohydrates that contain it, such as sucrose, starch, etc.) causes blood glucose levels to increase. In normal metabolism, the elevated blood glucose level instructs beta (β) cells in the Islets of Langerhans, located in the pancreas, to release insulin into the blood. The insulin, in turn, makes insulin-sensitive tissues in the body (primarily skeletal muscle cells, adipose tissue, and liver) absorb glucose, and thereby lower the blood glucose level. The
Insulin resistance
167815
nucleotides in the biosynthesis of carbohydrates. With six carbon atoms, it is classed as a hexose, a subcategory of the monosaccharides. -Glucose is one of the sixteen aldohexose stereoisomers. The -isomer, -glucose, also known as dextrose, occurs widely in nature, but the -isomer, -glucose, does not. Glucose can be obtained by hydrolysis of carbohydrates such as milk sugar (lactose), cane sugar (sucrose), maltose, cellulose, glycogen, etc. It is commonly commercially manufactured from cornstarch by hydrolysis via pressurized steaming at controlled pH in a jet followed by further enzymatic depolymerization. Unbonded glucose is one of the main ingredients of honey. All
Glucose
5972497
GLUT2 Glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2) also known as solute carrier family 2 (facilitated glucose transporter), member 2 (SLC2A2) is a transmembrane carrier protein that enables protein facilitated glucose movement across cell membranes. It is the principal transporter for transfer of glucose between liver and blood, and has a role in renal glucose reabsorption. It is also capable of transporting fructose. Unlike GLUT4, it does not rely on insulin for facilitated diffusion. In humans, this protein is encoded by the "SLC2A2" gene. GLUT2 is found in cellular membranes of: GLUT2 has high capacity for glucose but low affinity (high K, ca.
GLUT2
10246273
does not necessarily mean you are diabetic). Random glucose test Random glucose test ( random blood glucose) is a blood sugar test taken from a non-fasting subject. This test, also called capillary blood glucose (CBG), assumes a recent meal and therefore has higher reference values than the fasting glucose test. The reference values for a "normal" random glucose test in an average adult are 79–160 mg/dl (4.4–8.9 mmol/l), between 160–200 mg/dl (8.9–11.1 mmol/l) is considered pre-diabetes, and > 200 mg/dl is considered diabetes according to ADA guidelines (you should visit your doctor or a clinic for additional tests however as
Random glucose test
1991999
and Drug Administration before they can be sold. Finally, there are several influences on blood glucose level aside from food intake. Infection, for instance, tends to change blood glucose levels, as does stress either physical or psychological. Exercise, especially if prolonged or long after the most recent meal, will have an effect as well. In the typical person, maintenance of blood glucose at near constant levels will nevertheless be quite effective. Blood sugar level The blood sugar level, blood sugar concentration, or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose present in the blood of humans and other animals. Glucose
Blood sugar level
4126261
above), additional measures should be checked in patients at or near recommended goals. People with HbA values at 64 mmol/mol or less should be provided additional testing to determine whether the HbA values are due to averaging out high blood glucose (hyperglycemia) with low blood glucose (hypoglycemia) or the HbA is more reflective of an elevated blood glucose that does not vary much throughout the day. Devices such as continuous blood glucose monitoring allow people with diabetes to determine their blood glucose levels on a continuous basis, testing every few minutes. Continuous use of blood glucose monitors is becoming more
Glycated hemoglobin
6466734
hyperglycemia in diabetes mellitus does not result in a net increase in intracellular glucose in most cells. However, chronic dysregulated blood glucose in diabetes is toxic to cells of the vascular endothelium which passively assimilate glucose. That is, cells in which insulin is not required for intercellular transport of glucose, most-notably the pericytes of the microvasculature. In addition to direct glucose-induced damage by (e.g.) glycation, pericytes express enzymes which convert glucose into osmologically-active metabolites such as sorbitol leading to hypertonic cell lysis. Over time, pericyte death may result in reduced capillary integrity; subsequently, there is leaking of albumin and other
Diabetic angiopathy
10294860
"sgrS" to create new glucose transporters leads to less glucose uptake and reduced levels of glucose-6-phosphate. SgrS is an unusual small RNA in that it also encodes a 43 amino acid functional polypeptide, SgrT, which helps cells recover from glucose-phosphate stress by preventing glucose uptake. The activity of SgrT does not affect the levels of "ptsG" mRNA of PtsG protein. It has been proposed that SgrT exerts its effects through regulation of the glucose transporter, PtsG. SgrS was originally discovered in "E. coli" but homologues have since been identified in other Gammaproteobacteria such as "Salmonella enterica" and members of the
SgrS RNA
13266600
in killing the cells, however does not harm healthy cells and significantly reduces side effects. Current blood glucose monitoring methods by patients suffering from diabetes are normally invasive and often painful. For example, one method involves a continuous glucose sensor integrated into a small needle which must be inserted under the skin to monitor glucose levels every few days. Another method involves glucose monitoring strips to which blood must be applied. These methods are not only invasive but they can also yield inaccurate results. It was shown that 70 percent of glucose readings obtained by continuous glucose sensors differed by
Carbon nanotubes in medicine
9887237
gluconeogenesis were to be active at the same time, glucose would be converted to pyruvate by glycolysis and then converted back to glucose by gluconeogenesis, with an overall consumption of ATP. Futile cycles may have a role in metabolic regulation, where a futile cycle would be a system oscillating between two states and very sensitive to small changes in the activity of any of the enzymes involved. The cycle does generate heat, and may be used to maintain thermal homeostasis, for example in the brown adipose tissue of young mammals, or to generate heat rapidly, for example in insect flight
Futile cycle
607409
forms, including the acyclic structure. Fructose may be anaerobically fermented by yeast or bacteria. Yeast enzymes convert sugar (glucose, or fructose) to ethanol and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide released during fermentation will remain dissolved in water, where it will reach equilibrium with carbonic acid, unless the fermentation chamber is left open to the air. The dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid produce the carbonation in bottled fermented beverages. Fructose undergoes the Maillard reaction, non-enzymatic browning, with amino acids. Because fructose exists to a greater extent in the open-chain form than does glucose, the initial stages of the Maillard reaction
Fructose
5446414
DHA gives a pentacyclic dimer structure of indefinite stability. Recycling of ascorbate via active transport of DHA into cells, followed by reduction and reuse, mitigates the inability of humans to synthesize it from glucose. Vitamin C accumulates in mitochondria, where most of the free radicals are produced, by entering as DHA through the glucose transporters, GLUT10. Ascorbic acid protects the mitochondrial genome and membrane. Vitamin C does not pass from the bloodstream into the brain, although the brain is one of the organs that have the greatest concentration of vitamin C. Instead, DHA is transported through the blood–brain barrier via
Dehydroascorbic acid
4402447
but does contain glucose, fructose, acids, and other substances. In such cases, the °Bx value clearly cannot be equated with the sucrose content, but it may represent a good approximation to the total sugar content. For example, an 11.0% by mass D-Glucose ("grape sugar") solution measured 10.9 °Bx using a hand held instrument. For these reasons, the sugar content of a solution obtained by use of refractometry with the ICUMSA table is often reported as "Refractometric Dry Substance" (RDS) which could be thought of as an equivalent sucrose content. Where it is desirable to know the actual dry solids content,
Brix
6556245
mild laxative and why consuming it at high doses can lead to flatulence. The concept of resistant starch arose from research in the 1970s and is currently considered to be one of three starch types: rapidly digested starch, slowly digested starch and resistant starch, each of which may affect levels of blood glucose. The European Commission has supported research eventually leading to a definition of resistant starch. Resistant starch does not release glucose within the small intestine, but rather reaches the large intestine where it is consumed or fermented by colonic bacteria (gut microbiota). On a daily basis, human intestinal
Resistant starch
264657
sold unrefrigerated in the UK, U.S., Europe, Latin America, and Australia. Lactose-free milk can be produced by passing milk over lactase enzyme bound to an inert carrier. Once the molecule is cleaved, there are no lactose ill effects. Forms are available with reduced amounts of lactose (typically 30% of normal), and alternatively with nearly 0%. The only noticeable difference from regular milk is a slightly sweeter taste due to the generation of glucose by lactose cleavage. It does not, however, contain more glucose, and is nutritionally identical to regular milk. Finland, where approximately 17% of the Finnish-speaking population has hypolactasia,
Milk
13285436
Rgt1, and the two cofactors Ssn6 and Tup1. Also needed for the transcription are the two nuclear proteins Mth1 and Std1. Snf3 Snf3 is a protein which regulates glucose uptake in yeast. It senses glucose in the environment with high affinity. Glucose sensing and signaling in budding yeast is similar to the mammalian system in many ways. However, there are also significant differences. Mammalian cells regulate their glucose uptake via hormones (i.e. insulin and glucagon) or intermediary metabolites. In contrast, yeast as a unicellular organism does not depend on hormones but on nutrients in the medium. The presence of glucose
Snf3
17569495
stimuli, as alterations in these stimuli accompany many neurodegenerative diseases. Other stimuli include neuronal injury, neuronal excitotoxicity, increased cytosolic Ca concentration, ischemia, and nitric oxide. SGK1, along with SGK3, has been shown to stimulate the absorption of intestinal glucose by the Na-glucose cotransporter SGLT1. "SGK1 also favors cellular glucose uptake from the circulation into several tissues including brain, fat, and skeletal muscle". SGK1 also plays a critical role in the stimulation of cellular glucose uptake by insulin. Accordingly, SGK1 does not only integrate effects of mineralocorticoids and insulin on renal tubular Na transport but similarly affects glucose transport". By aldosterone,
SGK1
7519631
techniques have shown that this represents a histological artifact. Once the more complex mesonephros forms the pronephros undergoes apoptosis in amphibians. In fishes the nephron degenerates but the organ remains and becomes a component of the immune system. In mammals a functional pronephros, in the context of an organ performing waste excretion or osmoregulation, does not develop. However, a kidney primordium that runs along the intermediate mesoderm does form and links up to the cloaca. This duct is known as the pronephric duct, mesonephric duct or Wolffian duct. While this transient primordium never forms functional nephrons, the duct derived from
Pronephros
13149224
growth takes place at 45 °C, and 47 °C where growth seldom occurs. No growth occurs at 48 °C. It does not grow well in nor can it coagulate milk. However, it has a high fermentative power in glucose broth. The organism grows with vigor in glucose-peptone-litmus milk. It has a higher resistance to temperature than that possessed by pathogenic streptococci, but substantially lower than that of thermoduric streptococci. Most of the other properties of "S. equinus" have not yet been determined. "S. equinus" is one of the rare Gram-positive bacteria that may cause bacteremia and endocarditis in humans, but
Streptococcus equinus
18312391
Staub-Traugott Phenomenon The Staub-Traugott Phenomenon (or Staub-Traugott Effect) is the premise that a normal subject fed glucose will rapidly return to normal levels of blood glucose after an initial spike, and will see improved reaction to subsequent glucose feedings. A. T. B. Jacobson determined in 1913 that carbohydrate ingestion results in blood glucose fluctuations. Hamman and Hirschman first reported improvement of carbohydrate tolerance following repeated glucose administration in 1919. H. Staub in 1921 and K. Traugott in 1922 subsequently confirmed the improved reaction in healthy subjects and the phenomenon was named for them. As this effect does not occur in
Staub-Traugott Phenomenon
8254737
the gastrointestinal tract and the pancreas. The insulin retained by the hepatocytes may itself be essential for the long-term effects of insulin on hepatic glucose metabolism as well as growth and de novo enzyme synthesis. Following oral glucose intake, the liver accounts for an equal or greater portion of total net glucose uptake compared to the periphery. Insulin exerts pivotal control of glucose levels through its ability to regulate hepatic glucose production directly or indirectly. The traditional subcutaneous (S.C.) insulin administration regimens used by diabetic patients a) fails to capture the pulsatile nature of natural insulin secretion and b) does
Pulsatile insulin