what are the main components of earth 's atmosphere
argon nitrogen oxygen
1639879
the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition. The study of Earth's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science (aerology). Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann. The three major constituents of Earth's atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around
Atmosphere of Earth
17494562
considered sum of the planet´s interacting physical, chemical, biotic and societal processes. The atmosphere, hydrosphere, and cryosphere are parts of the earth system as well as the grand natural cycles (carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle and sulfur cycle) including the water cycle. All living organisms, including humans and their activities, are an integral part of the earth system. The growing human population, however, seriously challenges the interaction of the system´s components and dynamics. Advancing solutions to maintain the resilience of the grand living conditions on planet Earth is the main interest of IESP's members. Therefore, IESP organizes interdisciplinary, discussion-based
Institute for Earth System Preservation
11376672
from NASA. Atmosphere of Triton The atmosphere of Triton is the layer of gases surrounding Triton. The surface pressure is only 14 microbars (0.014 hPa or 1 mmHg), of the surface pressure on Earth, and it is composed of nitrogen, similar to those of Titan and Earth. It extends 800 kilometers above its surface. Recent observations have shown an increase in temperature. Nitrogen is the main gas in Triton's atmosphere. The two other known components are methane and carbon monoxide, whose abundances are a few hundredths of a percent of that of the nitrogen. Carbon monoxide, which was discovered only
Atmosphere of Triton
11376662
Atmosphere of Triton The atmosphere of Triton is the layer of gases surrounding Triton. The surface pressure is only 14 microbars (0.014 hPa or 1 mmHg), of the surface pressure on Earth, and it is composed of nitrogen, similar to those of Titan and Earth. It extends 800 kilometers above its surface. Recent observations have shown an increase in temperature. Nitrogen is the main gas in Triton's atmosphere. The two other known components are methane and carbon monoxide, whose abundances are a few hundredths of a percent of that of the nitrogen. Carbon monoxide, which was discovered only in 2010
Atmosphere of Triton
1639914
development of animals. Today's atmosphere contains 21% oxygen, which is great enough for this rapid development of animals. "Air pollution" is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to organisms. Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by air pollution, chiefly from chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone-depleting substances. The scientific consensus is that the anthropogenic greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are the main cause of global warming. On October 19, 2015 NASA started a website containing daily images of the full sunlit side of Earth on http://epic.gsfc.nasa.gov/. The images are taken
Atmosphere of Earth
8440989
based on tests on a sample of ringwoodite. Further evidence for large quantities of water in the mantle was found in observations of melting in the transition zone from the USArray project. Liquid water is not present within the ringwoodite, rather the components of water (hydrogen and oxygen) are held within as hydroxide ions. Water distribution on Earth Water is distributed across earth. Most water in the Earth's atmosphere and crust comes from the world ocean's saline seawater, while freshwater accounts for only 2.5% of the total. Because the oceans that cover roughly 78% of the area of the Earth
Water distribution on Earth
261760
element, as with oxygen (O); or it may be heteronuclear, a chemical compound composed of more than one element, as with water (HO). Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds, are generally not considered single molecules. Molecules as components of matter are common in organic substances (and therefore biochemistry). They also make up most of the oceans and atmosphere. However, the majority of familiar solid substances on Earth, including most of the minerals that make up the crust, mantle, and core of the Earth, contain many chemical bonds, but are "not" made of
Molecule
1639913
600 million years, reaching a peak of about 30% around 280 million years ago, significantly higher than today's 21%. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen. Breakdown of pyrite and volcanic eruptions release sulfur into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid
Atmosphere of Earth
581310
Titan's polar regions. The geologically young surface is generally smooth, with few impact craters, although mountains and several possible cryovolcanoes have been found. The atmosphere of Titan is largely nitrogen; minor components lead to the formation of methane and ethane clouds and nitrogen-rich organic smog. The climate—including wind and rain—creates surface features similar to those of Earth, such as dunes, rivers, lakes, seas (probably of liquid methane and ethane), and deltas, and is dominated by seasonal weather patterns as on Earth. With its liquids (both surface and subsurface) and robust nitrogen atmosphere, Titan's methane cycle is analogous to Earth's water
Titan (moon)
8503284
Atmosphere of Venus The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus. It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth. The temperature at the surface is 740 K (467 °C, 872 °F), and the pressure is 93 bar (9.3 MPa), roughly the pressure found underwater on Earth. The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid, making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible. Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging. Aside from carbon dioxide, the other main component is nitrogen. Other
Atmosphere of Venus
305244
in having such a high concentration of oxygen gas in its atmosphere: Mars (with 0.1% by volume) and Venus have much less. The surrounding those planets is produced solely by the action of ultraviolet radiation on oxygen-containing molecules such as carbon dioxide. The unusually high concentration of oxygen gas on Earth is the result of the oxygen cycle. This biogeochemical cycle describes the movement of oxygen within and between its three main reservoirs on Earth: the atmosphere, the biosphere, and the lithosphere. The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis, which is responsible for modern Earth's atmosphere. Photosynthesis
Oxygen
20821010
research concerns the atmosphere of Saturn's moon Titan, which is, according to NASA, "a model for what the early Earth might have been like." Titan has a thick, nitrogen-dominated atmosphere and is the only world in the solar system other than Earth known to possess stable liquid on its surface." (Titan's seas are not water, however, but methane and ethane.) In 2015, Anderson reported her discovery of a chemically new, high-altitude ice cloud residing in Titan's south polar stratosphere during Titan's early southern winter season, chemically consistent with co-condensed hydrogen cyanide and benzene. During her 12-year tenure on the Cassini
Carrie Anderson
482961
estimated that about 29.5 million tonnes of (containing 18.8 million tonnes of nitrogen) were entering the atmosphere each year; of which 64% were natural, and 36% due to human activity. Most of the emitted into the atmosphere, from natural and anthropogenic sources, is produced by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi in soils and oceans. Soils under natural vegetation are an important source of nitrous oxide, accounting for 60% of all naturally produced emissions. Other natural sources include the oceans (35%) and atmospheric chemical reactions (5%). The main components of anthropogenic emissions are fertilized agricultural soils and livestock manure (42%),
Nitrous oxide
49612
Earth by generating a large proportion of the oxygen and food that provide humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration with the chemical energy they need to exist. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis, a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells. As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly
Botany
2946706
Oxygen cycle The oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle of oxygen within its four main reservoirs: the atmosphere (air), the total content of biological matter within the biosphere (the global sum of all ecosystems), the hydrosphere (the combined mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of planet Earth), and the lithosphere/Earth's crust. The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis, which is responsible for the modern Earth's atmosphere and life on Earth in its current form (see the Great Oxygenation Event). By far the largest reservoir of Earth's oxygen is within the silicate and oxide
Oxygen cycle
3450028
the atmosphere is not stripped over time by solar winds. A terrestrial planet of the right size is needed to retain an atmosphere, like Earth and Venus. On Earth, once the giant impact of Theia thinned Earth's atmosphere, other events were needed to make the atmosphere capable of sustaining life. The Late Heavy Bombardment reseeded Earth with water lost after the impact of Theia. The development of an ozone layer formed protection from ultraviolet (UV) sunlight. Nitrogen and carbon dioxide are needed in a correct ratio for life to form. Lightning is needed for nitrogen fixation. The carbon dioxide gas
Rare Earth hypothesis
18997651
Earth, since that is where sunlight is available (although other sources of light such as chemiluminescence would not be strictly excluded from photogeochemical study). Reactions may occur among components of land such as rocks, soil and detritus; components of surface water such as sediment and dissolved organic matter; and components of the atmospheric boundary layer directly influenced by contact with land or water, such as mineral aerosols and gases. Visible and medium- to long-wave ultraviolet radiation is the main source of energy for photogeochemical reactions; wavelengths of light shorter than about 290 nm are completely absorbed by the present atmosphere,
Photogeochemistry
14676922
community coordination by the World Climate Research Programme. They are also used as a technical foundation for a number of software packages and data systems, including the Climate Model Output Rewriter (CMOR), which is post processing software for climate model data, and the Earth System Grid, which distributes climate and other data. The CF conventions have also been used to describe the physical fields transferred between individual Earth system model software components, such as atmosphere and ocean components, as the model runs CF is intended for use with state estimation and forecasting data, in the atmosphere, ocean, and other physical
Climate and Forecast Metadata Conventions
5945276
variety of problems more effectively, and is more responsive to societal needs. ESMF is based on principles of component-based software engineering. The components within an ESMF software application usually represent large-scale physical domains such as the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere, or land surface. Some models also represent specific processes (e.g. ocean biogeochemistry, the impact of solar radiation on the atmosphere) as components. In ESMF, components can create and drive other components so that an ocean biogeochemistry component can be part of a larger ocean component. The software that connects physical domains is called a coupler in the Earth system modeling community.
Earth System Modeling Framework
1569544
for incineration. The most profound indicator is their long term plan for Earth: en route from their home at the time of "The City of Gold and Lead" are spaceships containing components they cannot manufacture on Earth — parts of great machines that will accept Earth's atmosphere and turn out an atmosphere like that found on the Masters' home and in their cities. Such a transformation would be eventually fatal to all life on Earth, except such few live specimens that the Masters are debating whether to house in zoos. At least some Masters enjoy an intoxicant they call (for
The Tripods
6161803
at rest in S′, so its worldline is the ct′-axis. The upper atmosphere is at rest in S, so its worldline is the ct-axis. Upon the axes of x and x′, all events are present that are simultaneous with A in S and S′, respectively. The muon and Earth are meeting at D. As the Earth is at rest in S, its worldline (identical with the lower atmosphere) is drawn parallel to the ct-axis, until it intersects the axes of x′ and x. Time: The interval between two events present on the worldline of a single clock is called proper
Experimental testing of time dilation
8816849
picture of the "health" of Earth. One of the crucial benefits of the Copernicus Programme is that the data and information produced in the framework of Copernicus are made available on a full, open and free-of-charge basis (subject to appropriate conditions and limitations) to all its users and public in general, thus allowing many new downstream services to be developed. The value-adding services offered by Copernicus cover six main interacting themes: atmosphere, marine, land, climate, emergency and security. Copernicus builds upon three components: Its cost during 1998 to 2020 are estimated at 6.7 billion euros with around €4.3bn spent in
Copernicus Programme
3917161
due to their proliferation on the planet: gases within the atmosphere, solids within the Earth’s crust, and molecules or ions in seawater. By understanding these basic models, it’s possible to determine the exergy of multiple earth systems interacting, like the effects of solar radiation on plant life. These basic categories are utilized as the main components of a reference environment when examining how exergy can be defined through natural resources. Other qualities within a reference state environment include temperature, pressure, and any number of combinations of substances within a defined area. Again, the exergy of a system is determined by
Exergy
511384
in solid form; Venus at 900 K, so all the magnesium and silicon condensed; Earth at 600 K, so it contains FeS and silicates; and Mars at 450 K, so FeO was incorporated into magnesium silicates. The greatest problem with this theory is that volatiles would not condense, so the planets would have no atmospheres and Earth no atmosphere. In "chondritic mixing" models, the compositions of chondrites are used to estimate planetary compositions. For example, one model mixes two components, one with the composition of C1 chondrites and one with just the refractory components of C1 chondrites. In another model,
Geochemistry
13772146
far greater impact at higher latitudes (above 40°N and above 40°S), where the Earth-atmosphere system undergoes net "cooling" by radiation. Urban thermal plume An urban thermal plume describes rising air in the lower altitudes of the Earth's atmosphere caused by urban areas being warmer than surrounding areas. Over the past thirty years there has been increasing interest in what have been called urban heat island (UHI), but it is only since 2007 that thought has been given to the rising columns of warm air, or ‘thermal plumes’ that they produce. We are all familiar with on-shore breezes at the seaside
Urban thermal plume
7920961
100 top stories of 2011. In 2013, Eddy Merckx Cycles was awarded over €150,000 with Ghent University to examine bicycle stability. If the bike and rider are considered to be a single system, the forces that act on that system and its components can be roughly divided into two groups: internal and external. The external forces are due to gravity, inertia, contact with the ground, and contact with the atmosphere. The internal forces are caused by the rider and by interaction between components. As with all masses, gravity pulls the rider and all the bike components toward the earth. At
Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics
57272
but one of four separate components of the geochemical model, the other three being "geosphere", "hydrosphere", and "atmosphere". When these four component spheres are combined into one system, it is known as the Ecosphere. This term was coined during the 1960s and encompasses both biological and physical components of the planet. The Second International Conference on Closed Life Systems defined "biospherics" as the science and technology of analogs and models of Earth's biosphere; i.e., artificial Earth-like biospheres. Others may include the creation of artificial non-Earth biospheres—for example, human-centered biospheres or a native Martian biosphere—as part of the topic of biospherics.
Biosphere
12790508
Earth science Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to the planet Earth. It is the branch of science dealing with the physical constitution of the earth and its atmosphere. Earth science is the study of our planet’s physical characteristics, from earthquakes to raindrops, and floods to fossils. Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science, but with a much older history. “Earth science” encompasses four main branches of study, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere, each of which is further broken down into more specialized fields. There are
Earth science
79210
is 309 days and it is 416 light-years from Earth. S Carinae is similar, with a minimum magnitude of 10.0 and a maximum magnitude of 5.0. However, S Carinae has a shorter period – 150 days, though it is much more distant at 1300 light-years from Earth. Carina is home to several double stars and binary stars. Upsilon Carinae is a binary star with two blue-white hued giant components, 1600 light-years from Earth. The primary is of magnitude 3.0 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.0; the two components are distinguishable in a small amateur telescope. Two asterisms are prominent
Carina (constellation)
1639882
(see the temperature section, below). Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile is constant and measurable by means of instrumented balloon soundings, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers. Excluding the exosphere, the atmosphere has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. From highest to lowest, the five main layers are: The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). It extends from the exobase, which is located at
Atmosphere of Earth
1737980
forecasting the available resource is important in these applications Direct insolation Direct insolation is the solar insolation measured at a given location on Earth with a surface element perpendicular to the Sun's rays, excluding diffuse insolation (the solar radiation that is scattered or reflected by atmospheric components in the sky). Direct insolation is equal to the solar irradiance above the atmosphere minus the atmospheric losses due to absorption and scattering. While the solar irradiance above the atmosphere varies with the Earth-Sun distance and solar cycles, the losses depend on the time of day (length of light's path through the atmosphere
Direct insolation
1737977
Direct insolation Direct insolation is the solar insolation measured at a given location on Earth with a surface element perpendicular to the Sun's rays, excluding diffuse insolation (the solar radiation that is scattered or reflected by atmospheric components in the sky). Direct insolation is equal to the solar irradiance above the atmosphere minus the atmospheric losses due to absorption and scattering. While the solar irradiance above the atmosphere varies with the Earth-Sun distance and solar cycles, the losses depend on the time of day (length of light's path through the atmosphere depending on the Solar elevation angle), cloud cover, moisture
Direct insolation
6000058
the Earth from solar wind and the most harmful components of solar radiation coming from our Sun. The magnetosphere protects both Earth's atmosphere and life to the present day and distinguishes the planet from its close celestial neighbour, Mars, which no longer has a significant magnetic field nor comparable atmosphere. The term "catastrophe" is, here, in the mathematical sense of "a large, sudden change or discontinuity", as contrasted with "a disaster", because this event was necessary for life to emerge and evolve on Earth: without it, Earth's atmosphere would have been, as on Mars, stripped away by solar wind long
Iron catastrophe
8503292
The densest part of the atmosphere, the troposphere, begins at the surface and extends upwards to 65 km. At the furnace-like surface the winds are slow, but at the top of the troposphere the temperature and pressure reaches Earth-like levels and clouds pick up speed to 100 m/s. The atmospheric pressure at the surface of Venus is about 92 times that of the Earth, similar to the pressure found below the surface of the ocean. The atmosphere has a mass of 4.8 kg, about 93 times the mass of the Earth's total atmosphere. The density of the air at the
Atmosphere of Venus
111066
form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by "the" (e.g. "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?" The oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to (Bya). By the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in the Solar System formed and evolved with the Sun. In theory, a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten
Earth
17591889
As all closed systems, it follows the law of conservation of mass which states that matter cannot be created nor destroyed, thus, the matter, although transformed and migrated, remains the same as when the Earth was formed. The Earth system contains seven different reservoirs that are separated into surface reservoirs, which include atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, pedosphere, and lithosphere and the isolated reservoirs that include deep Earth and outer space. Geochemical cycles are concerned with the interactions between deep earth which consists of Earth´s mantle and core, and the lithosphere which consists of the Earth´s crust. Flux in geochemical cycles is
Geochemical cycle
18706082
thermosphere are generated utilizing the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model (WACCM). CESM1 was released in 2010 with primary development by the Climate and Global Dynamics Division (CGD) of the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), and significant funding by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Department of Energy (DoE). Community Earth System Model The Community Earth System Model (CESM) is a fully coupled numerical simulation of the Earth system consisting of atmospheric, ocean, ice, land surface, carbon cycle, and other components. CESM includes a climate model providing state-of-art simulations of the Earth's past, present, and future. It is the
Community Earth System Model
1639901
the energy Earth receives from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere. When light passes through Earth's atmosphere, photons interact with it through "scattering". If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called "direct radiation" and is what you see if you were to
Atmosphere of Earth
3665378
(magnitude 7.51) Eta Cassiopeiae B is of stellar classification K7 V; a K-type main-sequence star. It has only 57% of the mass of the Sun and 66% of the Sun's radius. Smaller stars generate energy more slowly, so this component radiates only 6% of the luminosity of the Sun. Its outer atmosphere has an effective temperature of 4,036 K. Compared to the Sun, both components show only half the abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium — what astronomers term their metallicity. A necessary condition for the existence of a planet in this system are stable zones where the
Eta Cassiopeiae
6161805
B, where the worldline of Earth intersects the x-axis, corresponds in S to the position of Earth simultaneous with the emergence of the muon. C, where the Earth's worldline intersects the x′-axis, corresponds in S′ to the position of Earth simultaneous with the emergence of the muon. Length "L=AB" in S is longer than length "L′=AC" in S′. If no time dilation exists, then those muons should decay in the upper regions of the atmosphere, however, as a consequence of time dilation they are present in considerable amount also at much lower heights. The comparison of those amounts allows for
Experimental testing of time dilation
11202434
Antarctica has played a major role in global systems (i.e. atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, etc.) scientists hoped to expand on the little knowledge of Antarctica’s complex climate that was available. This data was collected primarily during the past 30 to 40 years. High resolution ice cores have been recognized, since, as the most direct and reliable record of the “soluble, insoluble and gaseous components of the atmosphere at resolutions as fine as seasonal and, potentially, on time scales as long as a million years” (International). Through ice core analysis, scientists are able to study past environments on earth and, more importantly,
ITASE
5096597
would have contained other equipment such as solar panels, radiators and communications equipment. The ascent stage was to have been used by the crew to return to a lunar orbit from the surface of the moon. Unlike the Lunar Module of the Apollo Program, the ascent stage was not to have maintained a breathable atmosphere. Because of this, a protective space suit would have to be worn throughout the flight to protect the astronaut from the harsh conditions of space. The main mission hardware components would have been assembled in a low earth orbit. Then the "stack" would have boosted
Artemis Project
8043579
He succeeded Mr. S Somnath in January, 2018 after which Shri S Somnath was appointed as Director of VSSC. This unit serves as LPSC headquarters, and is involved in research and development of Earth-storable and cryogenic propulsion for launch vehicles. It delivers engines, stages, associated control systems and components for launch vehicle and spacecrafts. The main activities carried out at Valiamala include: This unit caters predominantly to propulsion requirements of satellite programmes of ISRO apart from development of indigenous sensors and transducers. The activities that are carried out here include: On 1 February 2014, this unit was renamed as Indian
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre
81008
effects of travel through the atmosphere, the lowest impact velocity with an object from space is equal to the gravitational escape velocity of about 11 km/s. The fastest impacts occur at about 72 km/s in the "worst case" scenario in which an object in a retrograde near-parabolic orbit hits Earth. (Because kinetic energy scales as velocity squared, Earth's gravity only contributes 1 km/s to this figure, not 11 km/s). The median impact velocity on Earth is about 20 km/s. However, the slowing effects of travel through the atmosphere rapidly decelerate any potential impactor, especially in the lowest 12 kilometres where
Impact crater
12793530
model, we assume the atmosphere is completely transparent to sunlight. The planetary albedo α is the fraction of the incoming solar flux that is reflected back to space (since the atmosphere is assumed totally transparent to solar radiation, it does not matter whether this albedo is imagined to be caused by reflection at the surface of the planet or at the top of the atmosphere or a mixture). The flux density of the incoming solar radiation is specified by the solar constant S. For application to planet Earth, appropriate values are S=1366 W m and α=0.30. Accounting for the fact
Idealized greenhouse model
3675572
Earth's energy budget Earth's energy budget accounts for the balance between the energy Earth receives from the Sun, the energy Earth radiates back into outer space after having been distributed throughout the five components of Earth's climate system and having thus powered the so-called Earth’s heat engine. This system is made up of earth's water, ice, atmosphere, rocky crust, and all living things. Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth's climate. Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet, because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions. "The atmosphere and ocean work non-stop
Earth's energy budget
19447968
not of partially-fractionated mantle as predicted by conventional interpretations, but instead are extremely refractory differentiates, depleted of most silicate materials that could have contributed partial melts of either continental or oceanic crustal rocks. These early-fractionated mantle rocks were originally capped directly by a thick mafic crust that contained the potential subsequent crustal components, including a large proportion of Earth's major heat-producing elements. At about 4.0 b.y., Earth received, via a barrage of icy bolides initially formed in the outer part of the asteroid belt, the volatile components that evolved into its oceans and atmosphere. Downward cycling of volatiles enabled hydrous
Warren B. Hamilton
15937238
nature, which is the basis of survival for all species including humans. 2. Nature is not just a set of resources that can be exploited, modified, altered, privatized, commercialized and transformed without any consequences. Earth is the only home we have. The Earth does not belong to us; we belong to the Earth. 3. The Earth is a living system. It is an indivisible, interdependent and interrelated community human beings, nature, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the geosphere. Any substantive alteration of one of its components can affect other areas and the entire system. The Earth is the source of
Harmony with nature
13153833
science curriculum be developed with support from the National Science Foundation. In 2000, the Earth System Science Education Alliance was begun, and currently includes the participation of 40+ institutions, with over 3,000 teachers having completed an ESSEA course as of fall 2009". Earth system science Earth system science (ESS) is the application of systems science to the Earth sciences. In particular, it considers interactions between the Earth's "spheres"—atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, geosphere, pedosphere, biosphere, and, even, the magnetosphere—as well as the impact of human societies on these components. At its broadest scale, Earth system science brings together researchers across both the
Earth system science
13153822
Earth system science Earth system science (ESS) is the application of systems science to the Earth sciences. In particular, it considers interactions between the Earth's "spheres"—atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, geosphere, pedosphere, biosphere, and, even, the magnetosphere—as well as the impact of human societies on these components. At its broadest scale, Earth system science brings together researchers across both the natural and social sciences, from fields including ecology, economics, geology, glaciology, meteorology, oceanography, paleontology, sociology, and space science. Like the broader subject of systems science, Earth system science assumes a holistic view of the dynamic interaction between the Earth's spheres and their
Earth system science
3297449
can affect the height of the upper atmosphere. There are three main 'bands' of orbit around the Earth: low Earth orbit (LEO), medium Earth orbit (MEO) and geostationary orbit (GEO). Due to orbital mechanics, orbits are in a particular, largely fixed plane around the Earth, which coincides with the center of the Earth, and may be tilted with respect to the equator. The Earth rotates about its axis within this orbit, and the relative motion of the spacecraft and the movement of the Earth's surface determines the position that the spacecraft appears in the sky from the ground, and which
Orbital spaceflight
17356370
the reusable tanker to reenter Earth's atmosphere, land, and be prepared for another tanker flight. The tankers and cargo ships are planned to be the same physical dimensions as the passenger spaceship. A key part of the Mars system architecture that Musk conceptualized in order to radically decrease the cost of spaceflight to beyond-Earth-orbit destinations is the placement and operation of a physical plant on Mars to handle "in situ" production and storage of the propellant components necessary to launch and fly the cargo and passenger spaceships back to Earth, or perhaps to increase the mass that can be transported
SpaceX Mars transportation infrastructure
18779062
is to test new miniaturized communication and navigation technologies. They were able to provide real-time communication relay while the "InSight" lander was in the entry, descent, landing phase. The MarCO spacecraft were launched as a pair for redundancy, and flew at either side of "InSight". While there are a large number of CubeSats around Earth, Mars Cube One is the first CubeSat mission to go beyond Earth orbit. This allowed for collection of unique data outside of the Earth's atmosphere and orbit. In addition to serving as communications relays, they also tested the CubeSat components' endurance and navigation capabilities in
Mars Cube One
1513936
arc in the tilt is equivalent to change of about 31 metres north or south in the positions of the polar circles on the Earth's surface). The main reason for this is that the sun rays bend in the atmosphere of planet Earth, this phenomenon is more obvious to see, at high latitudes. Polar circle A polar circle is either the Arctic Circle or the Antarctic Circle. On Earth, the Arctic Circle is located at a latitude of N, and the Antarctic Circle is located at a latitude of S. Areas inside each polar circle and its associated pole (North
Polar circle
7785215
Lambda Cassiopeiae Lambda Cassiopeiae, Latinized from λ Cassiopeiae, is a binary star system, in the northern constellation of Cassiopeia. The system has a combined apparent magnitude of +4.74, making it faintly visible to the naked eye. With an annual parallax shift of 8.64 mass, it is approximately 380 light years from Earth. The system is moving closer to the Sun with a radial velocity of −12 km/s. Both components are blue-white B-type main-sequence stars. The brighter member, component A, has an apparent magnitude of +5.5, while its companion, component B, has an apparent magnitude of +5.8. The two stars are
Lambda Cassiopeiae
15352720
NEB(N) and NEB(S). Circulation in Jupiter's atmosphere is markedly different from that in the atmosphere of Earth. The interior of Jupiter is fluid and lacks any solid surface. Therefore, convection may occur throughout the planet's outer molecular envelope. As of 2008, a comprehensive theory of the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere has not been developed. Any such theory needs to explain the following facts: the existence of narrow stable bands and jets that are symmetric relative to Jupiter's equator, the strong prograde jet observed at the equator, the difference between zones and belts, and the origin and persistence of large
Atmosphere of Jupiter
16198581
(N) makes up 2.7 percent of the atmosphere. As far as we know, organic compounds are absent except for a trace of methane detected in the atmosphere. On 16 December 2014, NASA reported the "Curiosity" rover detected a "tenfold spike", likely localized, in the amount of methane in the Martian atmosphere. Sample measurements taken "a dozen times over 20 months" showed increases in late 2013 and early 2014, averaging "7 parts of methane per billion in the atmosphere." Before and after that, readings averaged around one-tenth that level. The elemental composition of Mars is different from Earth′s in several significant
Composition of Mars
15352753
water cloud layer is located, to as high as 0.2–0.5 bar. Storms on Jupiter are always associated with lightning. The imaging of the night–side hemisphere of Jupiter by "Galileo" and "Cassini" spacecraft revealed regular light flashes in Jovian belts and near the locations of the westward jets, particularly at 51°N, 56°S and 14°S latitudes. On Jupiter lightning strikes are on average a few times more powerful than those on Earth. However, they are less frequent; the light power emitted from a given area is similar to that on Earth. A few flashes have been detected in polar regions, making Jupiter
Atmosphere of Jupiter
8503285
chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts. Aside from the very surface layers, the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation. The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation, in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days, much faster than the planet's sidereal day of 243 days. The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s (~360 km/h or 220 mph) or more. Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet's rotation, while Earth's fastest winds are only 10% to 20% rotation speed. On the other
Atmosphere of Venus
10271078
observed in 1990. However, the storms and the band pattern are less visible and active than those of Jupiter, due to the overlying ammonia hazes in Saturn's troposphere. Saturn's atmosphere has several unusual features. Its winds are among the Solar System's fastest, with Voyager data indicating peak easterly winds of 500 m/s. It is also the only planet with a warm polar vortex, and is the only planet other than Earth where eyewall clouds have been observed in hurricane-like structures. The atmosphere of Uranus is composed primarily of gas and various ices. It is about 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, 2%
Extraterrestrial atmosphere
14861442
Earth-grazing fireball An Earth-grazing fireball (or Earth-grazer) is a fireball, a very bright meteor that enters Earth’s atmosphere and leaves again. Some fragments may impact Earth as meteorites, if the meteor starts to break up or explodes in mid-air. These phenomena are then called Earth-grazing meteor processions and bolides. Famous examples of Earth-grazers are the 1972 Great Daylight Fireball and the Meteor Procession of July 20, 1860. As an Earth-grazer passes through the atmosphere its mass and velocity are changed, so that its orbit, as it re-enters space, will be different from its orbit as it encountered Earth's atmosphere. There
Earth-grazing fireball
13069410
maintained. One of the main characters, Ricasso, mentions that he has done calculations and that the atmosphere is "like a bucket with a leak in it". Another factor is where, toward the end of the book powerful machines which have a major part to play refer to the location as Earthgate "this ancient, once-dead world" and distinguish it from Earth itself. One character pick up partially on this, saying "What the hell is Earthgate anyway? Why doesn't she just say Earth and be done with it?" That having been said, at one point in the text, Mars is explicitly referenced
Terminal World
17998134
story, saying that early story revelations and backtracking hurt the pacing and dramatic value, while the main characters were underdeveloped. She also felt that the game's darker themes were treated as window dressing rather than used to the full. Daniel Krupa of "IGN" praised the atmosphere and the disturbing nature of the backstory, and the way the three main characters' roles were balanced out. "Nintendo World Report"s Andrew Brown cited the main cast as being more "down to earth and relatable" than those from previous games in the series, and said that it was easy for players to sympathize with
Fatal Frame: Maiden of Black Water
1858576
Earth materials Earth materials include minerals, rocks, soil and water. These are the naturally occurring materials found on Earth that constitute the raw materials upon which our global society exists. Earth materials are vital resources that provide the basic components for life, agriculture and industry. There is more than one matierials ex diamonds and quartz Earth materials can also include metals and precious rocks. The type of materials available locally will of course vary depending upon the conditions in the area of the building site. Take considerations of what is explained below. In many areas, indigenous stone is available from
Earth materials
6044659
velocity components of Epsilon Trianguli are = . Epsilon Trianguli Epsilon Trianguli, Latinized from ε Trianguli, is a binary star system in the northern constellation of Triangulum. Based upon measurement of its trigonometric parallax, it is approximately 390 light years from Earth. The primary component is an A-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of A2 V, an apparent magnitude of +5.50 and an estimated age of 600 million years. It has 2.75 times the mass of the Sun and is spinning with a projected rotational velocity of 107 km/s. The radius of this star is more than three
Epsilon Trianguli
15972256
and hydrogen in the radical is 0.134 nm. HS reacts with carboxylic acids to make carbonyl sulfide (COS) and probably is the main source of this substance in the atmosphere of Earth. HS—S is called disufanyl with lengthening chains as trisulfanyl, tetrasulfanyl and pentasulfanyl HSSSSS. S* is termed sulfanidyl. HS is known as sulfanylium, and the common hydrosulfide ion HS is also known as sulfanido for a ligand or sulfanide as an anion. Further down the periodic table, HSe is known as selanyl, and HTe is termed tellanyl. Sulfanyl Sulfanyl (), also known as the mercapto radical, hydrosulfide radical, or
Sulfanyl
12396005
research in association with Jicamarca. JRO’s main instrument is the VHF radar that operates on 50 MHz (actually on 49.9 MHz ) and is used to study the physics of the equatorial ionosphere and neutral atmosphere. Like any other radar, its main components are: antenna, transmitters, receivers, radar controller, acquisition and processing system. The main distinctive characteristics of JRO’s radar are: (1) the antenna (the largest of all the ISRs in the world) and (2) the powerful transmitters. The main radar operates in mainly two modes: (1) incoherent scatter radar (ISR) mode, and (2) coherent scatter (CSR) mode. In the
Jicamarca Radio Observatory
15352700
particles coming from Jupiter's magnetosphere create bright auroral ovals, which encircle the poles. Unlike their terrestrial analogs, which appear only during magnetic storms, aurorae are permanent features of Jupiter's atmosphere. The thermosphere was the first place outside the Earth where the trihydrogen cation () was discovered. This ion emits strongly in the mid-infrared part of the spectrum, at wavelengths between 3 and 5 μm; this is the main cooling mechanism of the thermosphere. <div style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; width: 25em;"> The composition of Jupiter's atmosphere is similar to that of the planet as a whole. Jupiter's atmosphere is the most
Atmosphere of Jupiter
9530690
and potassium, which are not found in the atmospheres of Earth, Mars, or Venus. At sea level on Earth, each cubic centimeter of the atmosphere contains approximately molecules; by comparison the lunar atmosphere contains fewer than molecules in the same volume. On Earth, this is considered to be a very good vacuum. In fact, the density of the atmosphere at the Moon's surface is comparable to the density of the outermost fringes of Earth's atmosphere, where the International Space Station orbits. The elements sodium and potassium have been detected in the Moon's atmosphere using Earth-based spectroscopic methods, whereas the isotopes
Atmosphere of the Moon
285882
Natural resource Natural resources are resources that exist without actions of humankind. This includes all valued characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, electrical properties and forces etc. On earth it includes: sunlight, atmosphere, water, land (includes all minerals) along with all vegetation, crops and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances. Particular areas such as the rainforest in Fatu-Hiva are often characterized by the biodiversity and geodiversity existent in their ecosystems. Natural resources may be further classified in different ways. Natural resources are materials and components (something that can be used) that can be
Natural resource
1525
components, now known as the "s" and "p" components, which are parallel to the "surface" and the "plane" of incidence, respectively; in other words, the "s" and "p" components are respectively "square" and "parallel" to the plane of incidence. For the "s" component, Fresnel supposed that the interaction between the two media was analogous to an elastic collision, and obtained a formula for what we now call the "reflectivity": the ratio of the reflected intensity to the incident intensity. The predicted reflectivity was non-zero at all angles. The third installment (July 1821) was a short "postscript" in which Fresnel announced
Augustin-Jean Fresnel
7360988
rotating shell star that may have recently ejected mass from its outer atmosphere. Alpha Pictoris is larger than the Sun, with twice the mass and a 60% greater radius. It is radiating 13 times as much luminosity as the Sun from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of . At this heat, the star glows with the white hue of an A-type star. The space velocity components of this star in the galactic coordinate system are U = -22, V = -20 and W = -9 km/s. Data from the Hipparcos mission indicate this may be an unresolved binary
Alpha Pictoris
19453566
The radius at optical depth 2/3 is . The transformed radius is a value used in the modelling of the atmosphere and is . The O component radius is . The masses of each component in the AB8 system can be determined from the binary orbit. With the assumption of an inclination of 40°, the derived masses are and . The secondary is more massive and visually brighter, but not more luminous. Both components of AB8 have powerful stellar winds and are losing mass rapidly. Wind speeds of 3,700 km/s for the primary and 3,200 km/s for the secondary are
SMC AB8
14959824
value used in the modelling of the atmosphere and is . The O component radius is . The masses of each component in the AB7 system can be determined from the binary orbit. The minimum masses are found to be and respectively for the primary and secondary. With the assumption of an inclination of 60°, the actual masses are and . The secondary is more massive and visually brighter, but not more luminous. Both components of AB7 have powerful stellar winds and are losing mass rapidly. Wind speeds of 1,700 km/s for the primary and 1,500 km/s for the secondary
AB7
4301135
may return to orbit the Earth in the mid-2040s. The object's Earth orbital paths occasionally take it within the radius of the Moon's orbit, and could result in eventual entry into Earth's atmosphere, or collision with the Moon. The Apollo 12 empty S-IVB, Instrument Unit, and spacecraft adapter base, had a mass of about . This is less than one-fifth of the mass of the Skylab space station, which was constructed from a similar S-IVB and fell out of orbit on July 11, 1979. Objects with a mass of about enter Earth's atmosphere approximately 10 times a year, one of
J002E3
16757666
Psi1 Piscium Psi Piscium (Psi Psc, ψ Piscium, ψ Psc) is binary star in constellation of Pisces. It is approximately 280 light years from Earth, based on its parallax. The two components of Psi Piscium are both A-type main-sequence stars. The primary has an apparent magnitude of 5.273, while the secondary is slightly dimmer, with an apparent magnitude of 5.455. The primary itself is a close binary, with two A-type stars that orbit each other every 14.44 years. Psi Piscium is moving through the Galaxy at a speed of 22.5 km/s relative to the Sun. Its projected Galactic orbit carries
Psi1 Piscium
13538630
would have performed the final descent. After landing, the spacecraft would have stayed on the Moon for a day, before it was propelled back to Earth. Launch from the Lunar Surface and trans-Earth injection would have been performed by the Service Module, which would also have contained components of the life support system, and other systems which were located in the Equipment Module of the Earth orbit Gemini spacecraft. The Reentry Module was based on the Gemini capsule, but would have been modified to allow it to reenter the atmosphere at the higher velocity that would have been required by
Advanced Gemini
1688063
system while others are tightly coupled. Forcings, feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes. The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, which in turn leads to further warming. The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere. Other examples of positive feedback subsystems in climatology include: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Positive feedback
4670004
the return to Earth. During planned orbiter upgrades that took place subsequent to this mission, "Discovery"'s "Assembly Power Converter Units" (APCUs) were removed and replaced with the shuttle-side components of the Station-Shuttle Power Transfer System (SSPTS). The APCUs converted 28VDC orbiter main bus power to 124VDC, compatible with the ISS's 120VDC main bus power. During initial station assembly missions, orbiter APCU power was used to augment the power available from the Russian service segment. With the operation of permanent main electrical systems (e.g. P4 array and SARJ, MBSUs, DDCUs, Ammonia cooling systems), orbiter power was no longer needed by the
STS-116
5380663
pushed apart using springs. After entering the atmosphere, the acceleration built, peaking at 6 "g" (59 m/s²). This dropped as they slowed down, coming out of radio blackout. Passing through 7,300 metres (24,000 ft), the apex cover was blown by a pyrotechnic charge. This exposed the two sets of parachutes. First the two drogue parachutes were released that slowed and stabilized the capsule from 500 km/h to 280 km/h. They pulled out the three large main parachutes some twenty seconds later. The recovery forces in the area reported that only two of the main parachutes had inflated. Worden said after
Return of Apollo 15 to Earth
13595461
The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin, although this idea is at the edge of current research. During both events, a tremendous amount of C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere. This decreased the C/C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components, and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean. Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation, which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins. Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM, and are discussed under
Eocene Thermal Maximum 2
243940
billion years ago. According to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe." In a general sense, biospheres are any closed, self-regulating systems containing ecosystems. This includes artificial biospheres such as Biosphere 2 and BIOS-3, and potentially ones on other planets or moons. The inert components of an ecosystem are the physical and chemical factors necessary for life—energy (sunlight or chemical energy), water, heat, atmosphere, gravity, nutrients, and ultraviolet solar radiation protection. In most ecosystems, the conditions vary during the day and from one season to the next.
Life
1777731
sunrise and after sunset are observed at ground level, because the Sun is still visible from higher altitudes. Longer twilights are observed at higher latitudes (near the poles) due to a shallower angle of the Sun's apparent movement compared to the horizon. On a flat Earth, the Sun's shadow would reach the upper atmosphere very quickly, except near the closest edge of the Earth, and would always set at the same angle to the ground (which is not what is observed). The "spotlight Sun" theory is also not consistent with this observation, since the air cannot be lit without the
Spherical Earth
15352701
comprehensively understood of those of all the gas giants because it was observed directly by the "Galileo" atmospheric probe when it entered the Jovian atmosphere on December 7, 1995. Other sources of information about Jupiter's atmospheric composition include the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), the "Galileo" and "Cassini" orbiters, and Earth-based observations. The two main constituents of the Jovian atmosphere are molecular hydrogen () and helium. The helium abundance is relative to molecular hydrogen by number of molecules, and its mass fraction is , which is slightly lower than the Solar System's primordial value. The reason for this low abundance is
Atmosphere of Jupiter
3097334
DSN that folds in a 1.5U stowage volume. For MarCO, JPL's antenna engineers designed a Folded Panel Reflectarray (FPR) to fit on a 6U Cubesat bus and supports X-band Mars-to-Earth telecommunications at 8kbit/s at 1AU. Different CubeSat components possess different acceptable temperature ranges, beyond which they may become temporarily or permanently inoperable. Satellites in orbit are heated by radiative heat emitted from the Sun directly and reflected off Earth, as well as heat generated by the craft's components. CubeSats must also cool by radiating heat either into space or into the cooler Earth's surface, if it is cooler than the
CubeSat
4886879
in the upper atmosphere, where the limb sounding signals do their sensing. The technique works best in the lower stratosphere and upper troposphere; it breaks down close to the Earth surface especially in the tropics, due to water vapour extinction. Satellites involved in GPS limb sounding have been: METSAT, OERSTED (Danish), and several others. GPS meteorology GPS meteorology refers to the use of the effect of the atmosphere on the propagation of the Global Positioning System's (GPS) radio signals to derive information on the state of the (lower, neutral) atmosphere. There are currently two main operational techniques in use in
GPS meteorology
11851517
A more comprehensive list of such models is provided in the main article Airmass, for various atmospheric models and experimental data sets. At sea level the air mass towards the horizon (formula_2 = 90°) is approximately 38. Modelling the atmosphere as a simple spherical shell provides a reasonable approximation: where the radius of the Earth formula_7 = 6371 km, the effective height of the atmosphere formula_8 ≈ 9 km, and their ratio formula_9 ≈ 708. These models are compared in the table below: This implies that for these purposes the atmosphere can be considered to be effectively concentrated into around
Air mass (solar energy)
12307855
7.5 min in sunlight. Disulfur Disulfur is the diatomic molecule with the formula S. It is analogous to the dioxygen molecule but rarely occurs at room temperature. This violet gas is commonly generated by heating sulfur above 720 °C and comprises 99% of the vapor at low pressure (1 mm Hg) at 530 °C. S is one of the minor components of the atmosphere of Io, which is predominantly composed of SO. Diatomic molecules are common containing C, O, N, and F, but for heavier elements they are often only observed at high temperatures. It is highly susceptible to photolysis
Disulfur
12307852
Disulfur Disulfur is the diatomic molecule with the formula S. It is analogous to the dioxygen molecule but rarely occurs at room temperature. This violet gas is commonly generated by heating sulfur above 720 °C and comprises 99% of the vapor at low pressure (1 mm Hg) at 530 °C. S is one of the minor components of the atmosphere of Io, which is predominantly composed of SO. Diatomic molecules are common containing C, O, N, and F, but for heavier elements they are often only observed at high temperatures. It is highly susceptible to photolysis by U.V. light, with
Disulfur
16960584
explore alliance building methods in the different areas. At this early stage in the project an outline concept has been developed. This shows a cyclic phase from building the alliance, its management, reviewing its development and growth, and looking towards long-term planning. ---abbp--- Key components include a good contact database; a method of plotting the skills and capacity that exist in the alliance or in the wider community; creating an atmosphere of open dialogue; identifying and supporting champions who are visionary and “get things done”, and a good understanding of local context, what other initiatives are competing, what are the
Rural Alliances
13399989
maximum efficiency conditions allows minimizing the volume of fuel tanks and subsequently their mass down to 30%. As of 2009 the engine is characterized by highest value of pressure, 300 bar, ever used in combustion chamber of rocket engines when running in "Mode #1" with mixture of fuel components. The "RD-701" became the base model for RD-704 with one combustion chamber. Two-chamber "RD-701" has two modes. The first one uses three components: RP-1 (mass flow — 73.7 kg/s), LH2 (mass flow — 29.5 kg/s) and LOX (mass flow — 388.4 kg/s). This mode is applied in lower atmosphere to minimize
RD-701
377551
first-stage flight. About two minutes after liftoff, frangible nuts were fired, releasing the SRBs, which then parachuted into the ocean, to be retrieved by NASA recovery ships for refurbishment and reuse. The orbiter and ET continued to ascend on an increasingly horizontal flight path under power from its main engines. Upon reaching 17,500 mph (7.8 km/s), necessary for low Earth orbit, the main engines were shut down. The ET, attached by two frangible nuts was then jettisoned to burn up in the atmosphere. After jettisoning the external tank, the orbital maneuvering system (OMS) engines were used to adjust the orbit.
Space Shuttle
3823384
(non-frequency resolved) resistance/voltage measurement. They are constructed to be sensitive to the infra-red radiation spectrum that extends approximately from 4.5 µm to 100 µm, thus excluding the main shortwave (solar) spectrum. Since the mean free path of IR radiation in the atmosphere is ~25 meters, this device typically measures IR flux in the nearest 25 meter layer. A pyrgeometer consists of the following major components: The atmosphere and the pyrgeometer (in effect its sensor surface) exchange long wave IR radiation. This results in a net radiation balance according to: Where: formula_2 - net radiation at sensor surface [W/m²] formula_3 -
Pyrgeometer
7359936
the absence of an atmosphere all objects fall at the same rate, as astronaut David Scott demonstrated by dropping a hammer and a feather on the surface of the Moon.) The equations also ignore the rotation of the Earth, failing to describe the Coriolis effect for example. Nevertheless, they are usually accurate enough for dense and compact objects falling over heights not exceeding the tallest man-made structures. Near the surface of the Earth, the acceleration due to gravity "g" = 9.81 m/s (meters per second squared; which might be thought of as "meters per second, per second", or 32.2 ft/s
Equations for a falling body
16142479
past the earth. For astro-physicist, Dr. Michelle Young (Kari Matchett), what was meant to be a once in a lifetime celestial event, turns into a nightmare as thousands of meteors transit through the atmosphere, destroying San Francisco. The military contacts Young to ask her to help investigate this extinction-level event and to determine what is causing the seemingly targeted strikes. Meanwhile, Colonel Tom (Michael Trucco) is responsible for the evacuation of the Bay area. Michelle discovers that Element 120, designated Unbinilium, is the main cause of meteors targeting the San Francisco area. Millions of years ago a Unbinilium dense meteorite
Meteor Storm
20035105
being could validly apply the word "good" to an ecosystem as a whole? Who would have the power to assess and judge an ecosystem as good or bad? By what criteria? And by what criteria would ecosystems be modified, especially larger ones such as the atmosphere (climate change) or oceans (extinction) or forests (deforestation)? "Remaining on Earth" as the most basic value. While green ethicists have been most forthright about it, and have developed theories of Gaia philosophy, biophilia, bioregionalism that reflect it, the questions are now universally recognized as central in determining value, e.g. the economic "value of Earth"
Good and evil
19518150
designed" Baker house. As for the VR, it was dubbed as a terrifying experience "where the mildewy atmosphere gets into your soul". "Giant Bomb"s Dan Ryckert referred to "Resident Evil 7" as the reinvigoration of earlier components in the series while at the same time yielding a fresh outlook with a yet-unrivaled story. The main antagonists bore substantial weight to Ryckert's cause for worry, and gave way to thrills when prompted to flee them. He viewed the first-person perspective as "bold", and attributed to the PlayStation VR, an earnest addition to the "scare factor". Chloi Rad of "IGN" endorsed the
Resident Evil 7: Biohazard
12101852
that many of the patents published are built upon previous patents and shows a continued commitment by LS9 in the biofuel industry. Of particular importance to LS9’s potential for success may lie in its diversity in patent publications. This concept is illustrated below through the systematic review of LS9’s most pivotal patent as they relate to the main components of biofuel generation. In line with LS9's main initiatives of using synthetic microorganisms for the production of biofuel components, LS9 has been, for a period of years (2008–2013) been pushing patents for specific enzymes involved in fatty acid synthesis and metabolism.
LS9, Inc
16692824
on the differences between Okno and Okno-S and what the facility actually consists of. Sean O'Connor says that it only covers the region between and above the Earth, providing information on satellites in geostationary orbit. Something in the FAS sourcebook says that the site has two components. This says that equipment with the GRAU index 60Zh6 covers craft in higher orbits and 59Zh6 and 57Zh6 covers craft in lower orbit.. The whole facility is given the name Object 2327S. Primorsky Krai is mountainous and has other space and astronomical facilities. Krona-N, another military space surveillance facility is near Nakhodka at
Okno-S
4966715
population of seven billion people. These changes to the human sub-system have a direct influence on all components of the Earth system. The chemical composition of the atmosphere has changed significantly. Concentrations of important greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are rising fast. Over Antarctica a large hole in the ozone layer appeared. Fisheries collapsed: most of the world's fisheries are now fully or over-exploited. Thirty percent of tropical rainforests disappeared. In 2000, Nobel prize-winning scientist Paul Crutzen announced the scale of change is so great that in just 250 years, human society has pushed the planet into
Global change
12481365
due to cosmic ray interactions and other atmospheric data. These data has provided new understandings about the cosmic radiation sources as well as the radiation effects on the earth atmosphere. The main research activities of this department includes study on solar-terrestrial environment including solar disturbances, Earth’s magnetosphere, ionosphere, thermosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere etc. Peoples also work on seismo-ionospheric precursors, lithosphere-atmosphere-ionosphere coupling processes, long-term and transient solar activity and ionospheric climatology using both ground and space based VLF receiver. Monitoring of galactic X-ray transients, Soft Gamma ray Repeaters (SGRs) and Gamma Ray Bursts (GRBs) etc. are also active research topic in this
Indian Centre for Space Physics