part of the inner ear that controls balance
The vestibular system
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the brain. The vestibular system is the region of the inner ear where the semicircular canals converge, close to the cochlea. The vestibular system works with the visual system to keep objects in view when the head is moved. Joint and muscle receptors are also important in maintaining balance. The brain receives, interprets, and processes the information from all these systems to create the sensation of balance. The vestibular system of the inner ear is responsible for the sensations of balance and motion. It uses the same kinds of fluids and detection cells (hair cells) as the cochlea uses, and
Inner ear
663210
the brain. The vestibular system is the region of the inner ear where the semicircular canals converge, close to the cochlea. The vestibular system works with the visual system to keep objects in view when the head is moved. Joint and muscle receptors are also important in maintaining balance. The brain receives, interprets, and processes the information from all these systems to create the sensation of balance. The vestibular system of the inner ear is responsible for the sensations of balance and motion. It uses the same kinds of fluids and detection cells (hair cells) as the cochlea uses, and
Inner ear
2861566
Vestibular system The vestibular system, in most mammals, is the sensory system that provides the leading contribution to the sense of balance and spatial orientation for the purpose of coordinating movement with balance. Together with the cochlea, a part of the auditory system, it constitutes the labyrinth of the inner ear in most mammals. As movements consist of rotations and translations, the vestibular system comprises two components: the semicircular canals which indicate rotational movements; and the otoliths which indicate linear accelerations. The vestibular system sends signals primarily to the neural structures that control eye movements, and to the muscles that
Vestibular system
2861584
cognitive and emotional disorders, including depersonalization and derealization. Vestibular system The vestibular system, in most mammals, is the sensory system that provides the leading contribution to the sense of balance and spatial orientation for the purpose of coordinating movement with balance. Together with the cochlea, a part of the auditory system, it constitutes the labyrinth of the inner ear in most mammals. As movements consist of rotations and translations, the vestibular system comprises two components: the semicircular canals which indicate rotational movements; and the otoliths which indicate linear accelerations. The vestibular system sends signals primarily to the neural structures that
Vestibular system
13042013
Vestibular evoked myogenic potential The vestibular evoked myogenic potential (VEMP or VsEP) is a neurophysiological assessment technique used to determine the function of the otolithic organs (utricle and saccule) of the inner ear. It complements the information provided by caloric testing and other forms of inner ear (vestibular apparatus) testing. The vestibular system helps a person maintain: balance, visual fixation, posture, and lower muscular control. There are six receptor organs located in the inner ear: cochlea, utricle, saccule, and the lateral, anterior, and posterior semicircular canals. The cochlea is a sensory organ with the primary purpose to aid in hearing.
Vestibular evoked myogenic potential
15055509
area of the skull (the base of the skull) shows part of the boundary of the foramen magnum (through which the spinal cord enters the skull), channels for the vestibular system (part of the inner ear responsible for balance), and holes for the semicircular canal (also part of the vestibular system). These holes and channels are found on the supraoccipital bone. The exoccipitals and opisthotics are also known in "Tarjadia", and form the paraoccipital processes, two projections for the attachments of muscles that open the lower jaw. These processes form notches that may be tympanic fossae, cavities of the middle
Tarjadia
730479
reflex (VOR). The balance system works with the visual and skeletal systems (the muscles and joints and their sensors) to maintain orientation or balance. Visual signals sent to the brain about the body's position in relation to its surroundings are processed by the brain and compared to information from the vestibular, visual and skeletal systems. In the vestibular system, equilibrioception is determined by the level of a fluid called endolymph in the labyrinth, a complex set of tubing in the inner ear. When the sense of balance is interrupted it causes dizziness, disorientation and nausea. Balance can be upset by
Sense of balance
730478
Sense of balance The sense of balance or equilibrioception is one of the physiological senses related to balance. It helps prevent humans and animals from falling over when standing or moving. Balance is the result of a number of body systems working together: the eyes (visual system), ears (vestibular system) and the body's sense of where it is in space (proprioception) ideally need to be intact. The vestibular system, the region of the inner ear where three semicircular canals converge, works with the visual system to keep objects in focus when the head is moving. This is called the vestibulo-ocular
Sense of balance
11460394
Superior canal dehiscence syndrome Superior canal dehiscence syndrome (SCDS) is a set of hearing and balance symptoms, related to a rare medical condition of the inner ear, known as "superior canal dehiscence". The symptoms are caused by a thinning or complete absence of the part of the temporal bone overlying the superior semicircular canal of the vestibular system. There is evidence that this rare defect, or susceptibility, is congenital. There are also numerous cases of symptoms arising after physical trauma to the head. It was first described in 1998 by Lloyd B. Minor of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. Superior
Superior canal dehiscence syndrome
11460399
and anaesthesia following a spinal injury, which is named after the Russian neurologist, Lazar Salomowitch Minor (1855–1942). In the latter case this term is now nearly obsolete. Superior canal dehiscence syndrome Superior canal dehiscence syndrome (SCDS) is a set of hearing and balance symptoms, related to a rare medical condition of the inner ear, known as "superior canal dehiscence". The symptoms are caused by a thinning or complete absence of the part of the temporal bone overlying the superior semicircular canal of the vestibular system. There is evidence that this rare defect, or susceptibility, is congenital. There are also numerous
Superior canal dehiscence syndrome
13088382
fragile mechanism that the inner ear uses to balance. Balance in the body is monitored principally by two systems, both of which are affected by alcohol sending abnormal impulses to the brain, [which tells it] that the body is rotating, causing disorientation and making the eyes spin round to compensate. This "upset" has been seen in experiments in which human subjects were given clinical tests of the vestibular system before and after ingesting alcohol. The alcohol apparently causes the ampullary cupula in the semicircular canal to become lighter than the surrounding fluid (endolymph), which causes the system to become sensitive
Spins
8336883
Orbiting Frog Otolith The Orbiting Frog Otolith (OFO) was a NASA space program which sent two bullfrogs into orbit on 9 November 1970 for the study of weightlessness. The name, derived through common use, was a functional description of the biological experiment carried by the satellite. "Otolith" referred to the frog's inner ear balance mechanism. The Orbiting Frog Otolith Program was a part of the research program of NASA's Office of Advanced Research and Technology (OART). One of the goals of the OART was to study the vestibular system function in space and on Earth. The experiment was designed to
Orbiting Frog Otolith
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Technique. Juggling trains reaction time, spatial location, and efficient movement. Standing on a wobble board or balance board is often used to retrain or increase proprioception abilities, particularly as physical therapy for ankle or knee injuries. Slacklining is another method to increase proprioception. Standing on one leg (stork standing) and various other body-position challenges are also used in such disciplines as Yoga, Wing Chun and T'ai Chi Ch'uan. Also, the vestibular system of the inner ear, vision and proprioception are the main three requirements for balance. Moreover, there are specific devices designed for proprioception training, such as the exercise ball,
Proprioception
2637038
of upright posture. However, a reevaluation of the spine from a skeleton of "Oreopithecus" has led to the conclusion that it lacked adaptations for habitual bipedality The semicircular canals of the inner ear serves as a sense organ for balance and controls the reflex for gaze stabilization. The inner ear has three canals on each side of the head, and each of the six canals encloses a membranous duct that forms an endolymph-filled circuit. Hair cells in the duct’s auditory ampulla pick up endolymph disturbances caused by movement, which register as rotatory head movement. They respond to body sway of
Oreopithecus
663207
Inner ear The inner ear (internal ear, auris interna) is the innermost part of the vertebrate ear. In vertebrates, the inner ear is mainly responsible for sound detection and balance. In mammals, it consists of the bony labyrinth, a hollow cavity in the temporal bone of the skull with a system of passages comprising two main functional parts: The inner ear is found in all vertebrates, with substantial variations in form and function. The inner ear is innervated by the eighth cranial nerve in all vertebrates. The labyrinth can be divided by layer or by region. The bony labyrinth, or
Inner ear
663230
otoliths. Movement of the stereocilia and kinocilium enable the hair cells of the saccula and utricle to detect motion. The semicircular ducts are responsible for detecting rotational movement. Saladin, "Anatomy and Physiology" 6e, print American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, The Middle Ear, http://www.asha.org/public/hearing/Middle-Ear/ Inner ear The inner ear (internal ear, auris interna) is the innermost part of the vertebrate ear. In vertebrates, the inner ear is mainly responsible for sound detection and balance. In mammals, it consists of the bony labyrinth, a hollow cavity in the temporal bone of the skull with a system of passages comprising two main functional parts: The
Inner ear
3363470
Ear The ear is the organ of hearing and, in mammals, balance. In mammals, the ear is usually described as having three parts—the outer ear, middle ear and the inner ear. The outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal. Since the outer ear is the only visible portion of the ear in most animals, the word "ear" often refers to the external part alone. The middle ear includes the tympanic cavity and the three ossicles. The inner ear sits in the bony labyrinth, and contains structures which are key to several senses: the semicircular canals, which enable
Ear
6667122
by damage to structures in the inner ear. The inner ear consists of three parts: a snail-shaped structure called the cochlea that helps process sound, nerves that send information from the cochlea to the brain, and structures involved with balance. Loss of hearing caused by changes in the inner ear is called sensorineural deafness. Hearing loss that results from changes in the middle ear is called conductive hearing loss. The middle ear contains three tiny bones that help transfer sound from the eardrum to the inner ear. Some forms of nonsyndromic deafness involve changes in both the inner ear and
Nonsyndromic deafness
5185761
the inner ear, which can lead to hearing and balance disorders. Neurotologic surgery generally refers to surgery of the inner ear or surgery that involves entering the inner ear with risk to the hearing and balance organs, including labyrinthectomy, cochlear implant surgery, and surgery for tumors of the temporal bone, such as intracanlicular acoustic neuromas. Neurotology is expanded to include surgery of the lateral skull base to treat intracranial tumors related to the ear and surrounding nerve and vascular structures, such as large cerebellar pontine angle acoustic neuromas, glomus jugulare tumors and facial nerve tumors. Some of the concerns of
Otology
1871787
creatinine in the blood, electrolyte levels, low urine output, foamy urine, and concentrations of other chemicals in the blood. 11% of the population who receives aminoglycosides experience damage to their inner ear. The common symptoms of inner ear damage are: tinnitus, hearing loss, vertigo, trouble with coordination, dizziness. Chronic use of gentamicin can affect two areas of the ears. First, damage of the inner ear hair cells can result in irreversible hearing loss. Second, damage to inner ear vestibular apparatus can lead to balance problems. To reduce the risk of ototoxicity it is recommended to stay hydrated. Factors that increase
Gentamicin
10873365
Endolymphatic hydrops Endolymphatic hydrops is a disorder of the inner ear. It consists of an excessive build-up of the endolymph fluid, which fills the hearing and balance structures of the inner ear. Endolymph fluid, which is partly regulated by the endolymph sac, flows through the inner ear and is critical to the function of all sensory cells in the inner ear. In addition to water, endolymph fluid contains salts such as sodium, potassium, chloride and other electrolytes. If the inner ear is damaged by disease or injury, the volume and composition of the endolymph fluid can change, causing the symptoms
Endolymphatic hydrops
10873368
of imbalance, otherwise known as vertigo. Low salt diet and water. Endolymphatic hydrops Endolymphatic hydrops is a disorder of the inner ear. It consists of an excessive build-up of the endolymph fluid, which fills the hearing and balance structures of the inner ear. Endolymph fluid, which is partly regulated by the endolymph sac, flows through the inner ear and is critical to the function of all sensory cells in the inner ear. In addition to water, endolymph fluid contains salts such as sodium, potassium, chloride and other electrolytes. If the inner ear is damaged by disease or injury, the volume
Endolymphatic hydrops
663440
almost no evidence with which to judge whether these surgeries are effective. The inner ear itself can be surgically removed via labyrinthectomy, although hearing is always completely lost in the affected ear with this operation. The surgeon can also cut the nerve to the balance portion of the inner ear in a vestibular neurectomy. The hearing is often mostly preserved; however, the surgery involves cutting open into the lining of the brain, and a hospital stay of a few days for monitoring would be required. Ménière's disease usually starts confined to one ear; it appears that it extends to both
Ménière's disease
5501511
Stereocilia (inner ear) In the inner ear, stereocilia are the mechanosensing organelles of hair cells, which respond to fluid motion in numerous types of animals for various functions, including hearing and balance. They are about 10–50 micrometers in length and share some similar features of microvilli. The hair cells turn the fluid pressure and other mechanical stimuli into electric stimuli via the many microvilli that make up stereocilia rods. Stereocilia exist in the auditory and vestibular systems. Resembling hair-like projections, the stereocilia are arranged in bundles of 30-300. Within the bundles the stereocilia are often lined up in several rows
Stereocilia (inner ear)
3363517
directly on a singing male cricket and parasitise it. Simpler structures allow other arthropods to detect near-field sounds. Spiders and cockroaches, for example, have hairs on their legs which are used for detecting sound. Caterpillars may also have hairs on their body that perceive vibrations and allow them to respond to sound. Ear The ear is the organ of hearing and, in mammals, balance. In mammals, the ear is usually described as having three parts—the outer ear, middle ear and the inner ear. The outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal. Since the outer ear is the
Ear
6761945
sauropods for which inner ears have been studied. The first skeletal reconstructions show the skull in a near-horizontal posture. Salgado (1999) argued that such a posture would have been anatomically impossible due to the elongated neural spines of the neck vertebrae. Instead, he envisaged the head in a nearly vertical orientation. The habitual orientation of the head is usually reflected by the orientation of the semicircular canals of the inner ear, which housed the sense of balance (vestibular system). Using their three-dimensional model of the inner ear, Carabajal and colleagues suggested that the snout faced downwards at an angle of
Amargasaurus
497735
have tympani that are larger than their eyes while in females, the eyes and tympani are much the same size. A noise causes the tympanum to vibrate and the sound is transmitted to the middle and inner ear. The middle ear contains semicircular canals which help control balance and orientation. In the inner ear, the auditory hair cells are arranged in two areas of the cochlea, the basilar papilla and the amphibian papilla. The former detects high frequencies and the latter low frequencies. Because the cochlea is short, frogs use electrical tuning to extend their range of audible frequencies and
Frog
3785480
Airsickness Airsickness is a sensation which is induced by air travel. It is a specific form of motion sickness, and is considered a normal response in healthy individuals. Airsickness occurs when the central nervous system receives conflicting messages from the body (including the inner ear, eyes and muscles) affecting balance and equilibrium. Whereas commercial airline passengers may simply feel poorly, the effect of airsickness on military aircrew may lead to a decrement in performance and adversely affect the mission. The inner ear is particularly important in the maintenance of balance and equilibrium because it contains sensors for both angular (rotational)
Airsickness
663229
only two semicircular canals, with the horizontal canal being absent, while hagfish have only a single, vertical, canal. The inner ear is primarily responsible for balance, equilibrium and orientation in three-dimensional space. The inner ear can detect both static and dynamic equilibrium. Three semicircular ducts and two chambers, which contain the saccule and utricle, enable the body to detect any deviation from equilibrium. The macula sacculi detects vertical acceleration while the macula utriculi is responsible for horizontal acceleration. These microscopic structures possess stereocilia and one kinocilium which are located within the gelatinous otolithic membrane. The membrane is further weighted with
Inner ear
3363479
stapes pushes the secondary tympanic membrane, fluid in the inner ear moves and pushes the membrane of the round window out by a corresponding amount into the middle ear. The ossicles help amplify sound waves by nearly 15–20 times. The inner ear sits within the temporal bone in a complex cavity called the bony labyrinth. A central area known as the vestibule contains two small fluid-filled recesses, the utricle and saccule. These connect to the semicircular canals and the cochlea. There are three semicircular canals angled at right angles to each other which are responsible for dynamic balance. The cochlea
Ear
32519
brain anatomy was reconstructed using the scan. The reconstruction showed that the regions associated with vision took up nearly one-third of the brain. Other well-developed areas involved hearing and muscle coordination. The skull scan also revealed the structure of its inner ear. The structure more closely resembles that of modern birds than the inner ear of non-avian reptiles. These characteristics taken together suggest that "Archaeopteryx" had the keen sense of hearing, balance, spatial perception, and coordination needed to fly. "Archaeopteryx" had a cerebrum-to-brain-volume ratio 78% of the way to modern birds from the condition of non-coelurosaurian dinosaurs such as "Carcharodontosaurus"
Archaeopteryx
16133429
is suggested that the mucopolysaccharide deposit could cause strangulation of nerve endings. The maculas and crista ampullaris are what allow for non-visual sensation of head movements. The crista ampullaris resides in the semicircular canals of the inner ear and detects angular acceleration, while the maculas are housed within the vestibule of the inner ear and detect linear acceleration. When affected, these organs can lead to vertigo and nausea because the body would always feel off-balance. Vestibulocochlear dysfunction progressive familial Vestibulocochlear dysfunction progressive familial, known also as familial progressive vestibulocochlear dysfunction is an autosomal dominant disease that results in sensorineural hearing
Vestibulocochlear dysfunction progressive familial
7497617
a small flocculus, did not rely on quick head movements to sight and capture prey. Inferences about behavior can also be drawn from examination of the inner ear. The semicircular canals within the inner ear aid in balance, and the lateral semicircular canal is usually parallel to the ground when the animal holds its head in an alert posture. When the skull of "Majungasaurus" is rotated so that its lateral canal is parallel to the ground, the entire skull is nearly horizontal. This contrasts with many other theropods, where the head was more strongly downturned when in the alert position.
Majungasaurus
730480
Ménière's disease, superior canal dehiscence syndrome, an inner ear infection, by a bad common cold affecting the head or a number of other medical conditions including but not limited to vertigo. It can also be temporarily disturbed by quick or prolonged acceleration, for example riding on a merry-go-round. Blows can also affect equilibrioreception, especially those to the side of the head or directly to the ear. Most astronauts find that their sense of balance is impaired when in orbit because they are in a constant state of weightlessness. This causes a form of motion sickness called space adaptation syndrome. This
Sense of balance
356464
to aid the organism in detecting prey sooner rather than later in warmer temperatures. The rabbit is characterized by its shorter ears while hares are characterized by their longer ears. Rabbits' ears are an important structure to aid thermoregulation and detect predators due to how the outer, middle, and inner ear muscles coordinate with one another. The ear muscles also aid in maintaining balance and movement when fleeing predators.Outer ear The Auricle (anatomy), also known as the pinna is a rabbit's outer ear. The rabbit's body surface is mainly taken up by the pinnae. It is theorized that the ears
Rabbit
19205137
that the head tilt and ocular torsion are actually in the same direction in both the physiologic ocular counter-roll and the pathologic ocular tilt reaction. The subjective head tilt as interpreted by the brain in the presence of asymmetric signals from the inner ear neural afferents is the principal factor in determining the direction of ocular torsion in ocular tilt reaction. Ocular tilt reaction The Ocular tilt reaction (OTR), comprises skew deviation, head tilt and ocular torsion involving structures of the inner ear responsible for maintenance of balance of the body i.e. the semi-circular canals (SCC), utricle and saccule. Each
Ocular tilt reaction
17815077
the collapse of the epithelia of the roof of the utricle, saccule and ampullae, as well as dysfunction of the vestibular sensory organs. Many species (with recent studies done on dogs) are affected by balance disorders and hearing problems that can be caused by a problem in the dark-cell areas in the vestibular endorgans. Studies researching damaged dark cells due to genetic abnormalities or therapeutics are very important in attempting to understand the onset and mechanism of said balance impairments. Dogs have been used as models due to similarities between humans and dogs with regards to inner ear size, inner
Dark cell
3363489
the momentum of the head. When a person changes acceleration, the inertia of the fluid changes. This affects the pressure on the cupula, and results in the opening of ion channels. This causes depolarisation, which is passed as a signal to the brain along the vestibulocochlear nerve. Dynamic balance also helps maintain eye tracking when moving, via the vestibulo–ocular reflex. During embryogenesis the ear develops as three distinct structures: the inner ear, the middle ear and the outer ear. Each structure originates from a different germ layer: the ectoderm, endoderm and mesenchyme. After implantation, around the second to third week
Ear
663444
International Classification for Vestibular Disorders Committee of the Barany Society published consensus diagnostic criteria in collaboration with the American Academy of Otolaryngology – Head and Neck Surgery, the European Academy of Otology & Neuro-Otology, the Japan Society for Equilibrium Research, and the Korean Balance Society. Ménière's disease Ménière's disease (MD) is a disorder of the inner ear that is characterized by episodes of feeling like the world is spinning (vertigo), ringing in the ears (tinnitus), hearing loss, and a fullness in the ear. Typically only one ear is affected, at least initially; however, over time both ears may become involved.
Ménière's disease
3876854
Audiology Audiology (from Latin , "to hear"; and from Greek , "-logia") is a branch of science that studies hearing, balance, and related disorders. Its practitioners, who treat those with hearing loss and proactively prevent related damage, are audiologists. Employing various testing strategies (e.g. hearing tests, otoacoustic emission measurements, videonystagmography, and electrophysiologic tests), audiology aims to determine whether someone can hear within the normal range, and if not, which portions of hearing (high, middle, or low frequencies) are affected, to what degree, and where the lesion causing the hearing loss is found (outer ear, middle ear, inner ear, auditory nerve
Audiology
2633584
The use of seismic communication is found in many taxa, including frogs, kangaroo rats, mole rats, bees, nematode worms, and others. Tetrapods usually make seismic waves by drumming on the ground with a body part, a signal that is sensed by the sacculus of the receiver. The sacculus is an organ in the inner ear containing a membranous sac that is used for balance, but can also detect seismic waves in animals that use this form of communication. Vibrations may be combined with other sorts of communication. A number of different snakes have the ability to sense infrared (IR) thermal
Animal communication
15216812
Lloyd B. Minor Lloyd Brooks Minor M.D. is an American surgeon, researcher, educator, and academic administrator. The Carl and Elizabeth Naumann Dean of Stanford University School of Medicine, his term began in December 2012. Previously, he was the provost of Johns Hopkins University. An expert on the inner ear, he is known for identifying the superior canal dehiscence syndrome, a disorder where a hole in the skull bone upsets the inner ear balance canal. For refining a treatment for Ménière’s disease using gentamicin, Minor received the Prosper Ménière Society’s gold medal in 2010. A fellow of the American College of
Lloyd B. Minor
3787033
fluid drainage. The tumor may develop within the auditory canal, where the vestibulocochlear nerve which supplies the inner ear penetrates the skull (intracanalicular neuroma) or outside the canal (extra-canalicular neuroma). The vestibulocochlear nerve has two components, the auditory and vestibular portions. Most schwannomas start out as intracanalicular, and growth compresses the nerve against the bony canal, so the first symptoms of the tumor are unilateral sensorineural hearing loss or disturbances in balance. It may also compress the labyrinthine artery (main artery supplying the vestibular apparatus and cochlea of the inner ear) which passes through the auditory canal, resulting in ischemia
Vestibular schwannoma
1871783
required should be monitored by blood testing. Gentamicin can cause inner ear problems and kidney problems. The inner ear problems can include problems with balance and problems with hearing. These problems may be permanent. If used during pregnancy it can cause harm to the baby. It appears to be safe for use during breastfeeding. Gentamicin is a type of aminoglycoside. It works by stopping the bacteria from making protein, which typically kills the bacteria. Gentamicin was discovered in 1963. It is made from the bacteria "Micromonospora purpurea". Gentamicin is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most
Gentamicin
13977071
her right ear: there was a small perforation high up in the drum membrane, hooded and with rough edges, and the bone of the inner wall of the middle ear was diseased and dead. Dr. Williams also examined the right ear and found that it was not in as bad a condition as he had anticipated. He therefore decided to operate on the left ear instead of the right, performing an ossiculectomy, removing a part of the drum membrane and scraping away the diseased portion of the inner ear. Mrs. Mohr later brought suit against Dr. Williams, claiming that he
Mohr v. Williams
10567407
the common cold, as this may cause what is known as a reverse block. Descent is uninhibited as the Valsalva maneuver may still clear the eustachian tubes temporarily by force, but during ascent a blockage may stop the air in the middle ear (which is now at depth pressure) from escaping as the diver ascends. The eardrum then bursts outwards, causing the same hazards as with an ordinary burst eardrum, such as cold water in the middle ear deranging the working of the sense organs of balance in the inner ear. Nasal congestion may affect the sinus openings and the
Ear clearing
4539352
is now known as the Hering–Breuer reflex. Independent of each other in 1873, Breuer and the physicist and mathematician Ernst Mach discovered how the sense of balance (i.e. the perception of the head’s imbalance) functions: that it is managed by information the brain receives from the movement of a fluid in the semicircular canals of the inner ear. That the sense of balance depends on the three semicircular canals was discovered in 1870 by the physiologist Friedrich Goltz, but Goltz did not discover how the balance-sensing apparatus functions. Breuer is perhaps best known for his work in the 1880s with
Josef Breuer
8063905
well as the health and safety of those on board. Leaving and returning to Earth’s gravity causes “space sickness,” dizziness, and loss of balance in astronauts. By studying how changes can affect balance in the human body—involving the senses, the brain, the inner ear, and blood pressure—NASA hopes to develop treatments that can be used on Earth and in space to correct balance disorders. Until then, NASA’s astronauts must rely on a medication called Midodrine (an “anti-dizzy” pill that temporarily increases blood pressure), and/or promethazine to help carry out the tasks they need to do to return home safely. Spaceflight
Space medicine
1505068
also include non-spatial functions such as object recognition memory. Vestibular dysfunction has been shown to adversely affect processes of attention and increased demands of attention can worsen the postural sway associated with vestibular disorders. Recent MRI studies also show that humans with bilateral vestibular damage undergo atrophy of the hippocampus which correlates with their degree of impairment on spatial memory tasks. Problems with balance can occur when there is a disruption in any of the vestibular, visual, or proprioceptive systems. Abnormalities in balance function may indicate a wide range of pathologies from causes like inner ear disorders, low blood pressure,
Balance disorder
4606069
mutations in the "KCNQ1" gene. "KCNE1" mutations are responsible for the remaining 10% of cases. Mutations in these genes alter the usual structure and function of potassium channels or prevent the assembly of normal channels. These changes disrupt the flow of potassium ions in the inner ear and in cardiac muscle, leading to the hearing loss and irregular heart rhythm characteristic of Jervell and Lange-Nielsen syndrome. Patients with Jervell and Lange-Nielsen syndrome are born with a severe to profound sensorineural hearing loss which is stable. They have very poor vestibular (inner ear balance) function, which means they are slow achieving
Jervell and Lange-Nielsen syndrome
2708451
of liquids within the inner ear is generated by motion (for balance) and transmitted vibrations generated by the ossicles (for sound). This creates a nerve signal that passes through the vestibulocochlear nerve. From here, it passes through to the cochlear nuclei, the superior olivary nucleus, the medial geniculate nucleus, and finally the auditory radiation to the auditory cortex. The sense of smell is generated by receptor cells in the epithelium of the olfactory mucosa in the nasal cavity. This information passes through a relatively permeable part of the skull to the olfactory nerve. This nerve transmits to the neural circuitry
Human brain
15216820
Trends Report" published by Stanford Medicine, with research and reviews on emerging trends in health care. Minor is an expert in balance and inner ear disorders, and since 1980 he has published over 140 articles and chapters. He published four key studies between 1999 and 2001 articulating the connection between head motion and eye movements and how they are controlled by the balancing mechanisms centered in the inner ear. Through neurophysiological investigations of eye movements and neuronal pathways, Minor has identified adaptive mechanisms responsible for compensation to vestibular injury in a model system for studies of motor learning (the vestibulo-ocular
Lloyd B. Minor
1293698
other tail-suppressed breeds) do not exhibit problems with balance, Balance is controlled primarily by the inner ear. In cats, dogs and other large-bodied mammals, balance involves but is not dependent upon the tail (contrast rats, for whom the tail is a quite significant portion of their body mass). Since Manx kittens are naturally born with any tail length, from none to long, it was formerly common to surgically dock the longer tails a few days after birth. Although illegal in many jurisdictions today (including much of Europe), the practice was formerly recommended, although with the caveat that the commonness of
Manx cat
18640029
with numerous states in the U.S. "The Perfect Ride" is a three part installation featuring a large, luminescent sculpture inspired by the Hoover Dam’s water circulation system, along a magnified sculptural rendering of the human inner and outer ear based on Pastor’s memory of a model in a medical museum. The third part is a projected line drawn-animation of a cowboy performing an impossible, but what would otherwise be a perfect rodeo ride on a bull. The ideas behind the work are about balance and circulation, and how various organizing “armatures” direct systems of movement. The exhibition examines human’s ability
Jennifer Pastor
4727005
Conch piercing A conch piercing is a perforation of the cartilage of the ear for the purpose of inserting and wearing jewelry. There are two types of conch piercings, inner and outer. The name is derived from the resemblance of this part of the ear to a conch (sea creature) shell. The inner conch piercing is located at the center of the ear, the cup-shaped area adjacent to the ear canal. An outer conch piercing is positioned in the flat portion of the ear between the rim/edge (helix) and the ridge that defines the antihelix. Both piercings are performed in
Conch piercing
18951140
Michel aplasia Michel aplasia, also known as complete labyrinthine aplasia (CLA), is a congenital abnormality of the inner ear. It is characterized by the bilateral absence of differentiated inner ear structures and results in complete deafness (anacusis). Michel aplasia should not be confused with michel dysplasia. It may affect one or both ears. "Aplasia" is the medical term for body parts that are absent or do not develop properly. In Michel aplasia, the undeveloped (anaplastic) body part is the bony labyrinth of the inner ear. Other nearby structures may be underdeveloped as well. Michel aplasia is thought to result from
Michel aplasia
12220231
gravity. There are two sections in the labyrinth that are helpful for accomplishing those tasks: the semicircular canals and the otolithic organs. A balance disorder is a condition that makes a person feel nausea, disorientation or dizziness, as if moving, spinning or falling even though steady. Balance disorder can be caused by medication, problems of inner ear or the brain. Hypnic jerk, also called a boggie jerk, is a normal reaction that can be caused by anxiety, caffeine, a dream, or discomfort of sleeping. A hypnic jerk is the feeling triggered by a sudden muscle twitch, causing the feeling of
Falling (sensation)
4622110
steal back the jewels his parents had sold when they escaped to England after the war. The victim of a hereditary inner ear defect that affected his balance, Vertigo had a small electronic device implanted in his right temple that compensated this problem. Tinkering with the device, Vertigo learned he was able to affect other people’s balance as well, distorting their perceptions so that they literally couldn’t tell up from down, an effect known as vertigo. Donning a costume and taking the name "Count Vertigo", he embarked on a life of crime. This would bring him into conflict with the
Count Vertigo
13929261
Neurotology Neurotology or neuro-otology is a branch of clinical medicine which studies and treats neurological disorders of the ear. It is a subspecialty of otolaryngology-head and neck surgery, and is closely related to otology, and also draws on the fields of neurology and neurosurgery. Otology generally refers to the treatment of middle ear disease and resultant conductive hearing loss, whereas neurotology refers to treatment of inner ear conditions, or hearing and balance disorders. These specialists also work with audiologists and related sensory specialists. Neurotologists are physicians who have specialized in otolaryngology and then further specialized in neurological conditions of the
Neurotology
871057
the balance organs in the inner ear. Doctors' initial inspections may only reveal an ear canal full of discharge. Until the doctor has cleaned the ear and inspected the entire tympanic membrane, cholesteatoma cannot be diagnosed. Once the debris is cleared, cholesteatoma can give rise to a number of appearances. If there is significant inflammation, the tympanic membrane may be partially obscured by an aural polyp. If there is less inflammation, the cholesteatoma may present the appearance of 'semolina' discharging from a defect in the tympanic membrane. The posterior and superior parts of the tympanic membrane are most commonly affected.
Cholesteatoma
12589958
have color vision, and that of some insects has been studied in detail; for example, the ommatidia of bees contain receptors for both green and ultra-violet. Most arthropods lack balance and acceleration sensors, and rely on their eyes to tell them which way is up. The self-righting behavior of cockroaches is triggered when pressure sensors on the underside of the feet report no pressure. However, many malacostracan crustaceans have statocysts, which provide the same sort of information as the balance and motion sensors of the vertebrate inner ear. The proprioceptors of arthropods, sensors that report the force exerted by muscles
Arthropod
10976379
physical activity from a scientific point of view. The exhibition includes different displays which explain and demonstrate the different scientific principle. For example, beside the explanation about the human balance system and the inner ear fluid which allows it, there is a balance measurement device is positioned and also, a balance beam on which visitors try to walk using their balance. This visual display was inaugurated in July 2012 and spread across the entire hall. The display includes a 32-minute film, which is screened on 22 huge screens and presents 101 inventions in eight periods of time, 32 of them
Israel National Museum of Science, Technology, and Space
356466
stirrup and act to decrease sound before it hits the inner ear. In general, the ossicles act as a barrier to the inner ear for sound energy. Inner ear Inner ear fluid called endolymph receives the sound energy. After receiving the energy, later within the inner ear there are two parts: the cochlea that utilizes sound waves from the ossicles and the vestibular apparatus that manages the rabbit's position in regards to movement. Within the cochlea there is a basilar membrane that contains sensory hair structures utilized to send nerve signals to the brain so it can recognize different sound
Rabbit
663215
rows of outer hair cells. The hair cells have a hair bundle at the apical surface of the cell. The hair bundle consists of an array of actin-based stereocilia. Each stereocilium inserts as a rootlet into a dense filamentous actin mesh known as the cuticular plate. Disruption of these bundles results in hearing impairments and balance defects. Pillar cells are found in the organ of Corti and act as supporting cells for hair cells. They are divided into two types: inner and outer. Outer pillar cells are unique in that they are free standing cells with no contact to adjacent
Inner ear
14853955
instrument as an entity–and the seemingly endless effects each can achieve–one feels as if [the composer] is manipulating the inner ear, and the listener’s sense of balance so that one reacts in a subtle though physical manner: not toe-tapping physical, but an inner torso movement that for this listener was completely involuntary and memorably image-provoking." 1999 Riffs, Echoes, and Rhapsodies (1999); Duo for Guitar and Violoncello, with Paul Grove, guitar, and Kevin Hekmatpanah, violoncello, on Paul Grove in Recital, a CD produced by JB’s Musical Services, Spokane, December, 1999. 1999 Waumandee Township (1999); Concerto for Organ, Winds Brass and Percussion,
Kevin Waters
8336906
transferred through a heat exchanger to the evaporator and are dissipated in evaporating the water. Orbiting Frog Otolith The Orbiting Frog Otolith (OFO) was a NASA space program which sent two bullfrogs into orbit on 9 November 1970 for the study of weightlessness. The name, derived through common use, was a functional description of the biological experiment carried by the satellite. "Otolith" referred to the frog's inner ear balance mechanism. The Orbiting Frog Otolith Program was a part of the research program of NASA's Office of Advanced Research and Technology (OART). One of the goals of the OART was to
Orbiting Frog Otolith
11215065
results in the clinical and biological characteristics of CGD as well as a severe balance disorder in these mice. As the site of p22phox expression is in the inner ear, p22phox has been proposed as being involved in the control of vestibular organogenesis. In addition, mutations of NOX3 in head-tilt mice were associated with vestibular defects. Yet the in vivo relevance of p22phox for NOX3 function remains uncertain because AR-CGD220 patients do not suffer from vestibular dysfunction (personal data). One possibility could be that the human brain may be able to compensate the balance defect. In Matsumoto Eosinophilia Shinshu (MES)
Cytochrome b-245, alpha polypeptide
9485220
was present in glia. Astrocytes help to maintain ionic balance in the extracellular space in the brain. Knock-out of PMCA2 causes inner ear problems, including hearing loss and problems with balance. PMCA4 exists in caveolae. Isoform PMCA4b interacts with nitric oxide synthase and reduces synthesis of nitric oxide by that enzyme. PMCA isoform 4 has a molecular weight of 134,683, calculated from its sequence. This is in good agreement with the results of SDS gel electrophoresis. When the PMCA fails to function properly, disease can result. Improperly functioning PMCA proteins have been found associated with conditions such as sensorineural deafness,
Plasma membrane Ca2+ ATPase
10371085
Tullio phenomenon Tullio phenomenon, sound-induced vertigo, dizziness, nausea or eye movement (nystagmus) was first described in 1929 by the Italian biologist Prof. Pietro Tullio. (1881–1941) During his experiments on pigeons, Tullio discovered that by drilling tiny holes in the semicircular canals of his subjects, he could subsequently cause them balance problems when exposed to sound. The cause is usually a fistula in the middle or inner ear, allowing abnormal sound-synchronized pressure changes in the balance organs. Such an opening may be caused by a barotrauma (e.g. incurred when diving or flying), or may be a side effect of fenestration surgery,
Tullio phenomenon
4727012
cartilage. The human body cannot replace cartilage, so once the infection clears up, parts of the ear can actually collapse without the necessary support. Conch piercing A conch piercing is a perforation of the cartilage of the ear for the purpose of inserting and wearing jewelry. There are two types of conch piercings, inner and outer. The name is derived from the resemblance of this part of the ear to a conch (sea creature) shell. The inner conch piercing is located at the center of the ear, the cup-shaped area adjacent to the ear canal. An outer conch piercing is
Conch piercing
10562298
helpful in managing symptoms of movement sensitivity. Labyrinthine fistula A labyrinthine fistula is an abnormal opening in the bony capsule of the inner ear, resulting in leakage of the perilymph from the cochlea into the middle ear. This includes specifically a perilymph fistula (PLF), an abnormal connection between the fluid of the inner ear and the air-filled middle ear. This connection is caused by a rupture of the round window that separates the inner and middle ear. Another type of labyrinthine fistula is a semicircular canal dehiscence, which allows the inner ear to be influenced by the intracranial pressure directly.
Labyrinthine fistula
10562295
Labyrinthine fistula A labyrinthine fistula is an abnormal opening in the bony capsule of the inner ear, resulting in leakage of the perilymph from the cochlea into the middle ear. This includes specifically a perilymph fistula (PLF), an abnormal connection between the fluid of the inner ear and the air-filled middle ear. This connection is caused by a rupture of the round window that separates the inner and middle ear. Another type of labyrinthine fistula is a semicircular canal dehiscence, which allows the inner ear to be influenced by the intracranial pressure directly. PLF is a cause of dizziness, imbalance,
Labyrinthine fistula
1659334
to travel through bones in the head to the inner ear." BAHA: An implantable hearing device. It is the only hearing aid device that works via direct bone conduction. Anotia Anotia ("no ear") describes a rare congenital deformity that involves the complete absence of the pinna, the outer projected portion of the ear, and narrowing or absence of the ear canal. This contrasts with microtia, in which a small part of the pinna is present. Anotia and microtia may occur unilaterally (only one ear affected) or bilaterally (both ears affected). This deformity results in conductive hearing loss, deafness. Ear development
Anotia
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Note: "The complete anatomy of the ear is extensive, and can be divided into the inner ear and outer ear. The remainder of this article mainly references the cochlea, outer hair cells, and organ of Corti." In general, structural damages to any anatomical part of the ear can cause hearing-related problems. Usually, minor bending of the stereocilia of the inner ear is associated with temporary hearing loss and is involved in auditory fatigue. Complete loss of the stereocilia causes permanent hearing damage and is more associated with noise-induced hearing loss and other auditory diseases. The outer hair cells, or OHCs,
Auditory fatigue
4744201
States Senator Jake Garn, whose sickness during STS-51-D was the worst on record. Accordingly, one "Garn" is equivalent to the most severe possible case of space sickness. By studying how changes can affect balance in the human body—involving the senses, the brain, the inner ear, and blood pressure—NASA hopes to develop treatments that can be used on Earth and in space to correct balance disorders. Until then, astronauts rely on medication, such as midodrine and dimenhydrinate anti-nausea patches, as required (such as when space suits are worn, because vomiting into a space suit could be fatal). A major effect of
Effect of spaceflight on the human body
17815078
ear lesions and susceptibility to ototoxins. Dark cell Dark cells are specialized nonsensory epithelial cells found on either side of the vestibular organs, and lining the endolymphatic space. These dark-cell areas in the vestibular organ are structures involved in the production of endolymph, an inner ear fluid, secreting potassium towards the endolymphatic fluid. Dark cells take part in fluid homeostasis to preserve the unique high-potassium and low-sodium content of the endolymph and also maintain the calcium homeostasis of the inner ear. Morphological and immunohistochemical studies in several species have indicated that these dark cell areas also form a single layer
Dark cell
970753
Oval window The oval window (or fenestra vestibuli) is a membrane-covered opening that leads from the middle ear to the vestibule of the inner ear. Vibrations that contact the tympanic membrane travel through the three ossicles and into the inner ear. The oval window is the intersection of the middle ear with the inner ear and is directly contacted by the stapes; by the time vibrations reach the oval window, they have been amplified over 10 times from what they were when they contacted the tympanic membrane, a testament to the amplifying power of the middle ear. It is a
Oval window
8308810
its inner ear. The results displayed that the "Dinilysia patagonica"'s inner ear anatomy had 3 main parts. It had a large spherical vestibule, large foramen ovale, and slender semicircular canals in its inner ear. Especially significantly, the spherical vestibule is an inner ear organ that is a morphological signature of burrowing snakes. A large spherical vestibule does not exist in aquatic or generalist (both land and water) snakes, only in snake species that burrow. A spherical vestibule contains a large saccular otolith, which transmits vibrations to the snake's brain. Due to a spherical vestibule, the "Dinilysia patagonica" was a species
Dinilysia
3363500
congenital deafness related to the development of the inner ear. Inner ear congenital anomalies are related to sensorineural hearing loss and are generally diagnosed with a computed tomography (CT) scan or a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan. Hearing loss problems also derive from inner ear anomalies because its development is separate from that of the middle and external ear. Middle ear anomalies can occur because of errors during head and neck development. The first pharyngeal pouch syndrome associates middle ear anomalies to the malleus and incus structures as well as to the non-differentiation of the annular stapedial ligament. Temporal bone
Ear
6368088
to accumulate in the kidneys and inner ear. Amikacin can cause neurotoxicity if used at a higher dose or for longer than recommended. The resulting effects of neurotoxicity include vertigo, numbness, tingling of the skin (paresthesia), muscle twitching, and seizures. Its toxic effect on the 8th cranial nerve causes ototoxicity, resulting in loss of balance and, more commonly, hearing loss. Damage to the cochlea, caused by the forced apoptosis of the hair cells, leads to the loss of high-frequency hearing and happens before any clinical hearing loss can be detected. Damage to the ear vestibules, most likely by creating excessive
Amikacin
15447890
the Dix-Hallpike maneuver. This disorder can disrupt the function of the righting reflex as the symptoms of vertigo and disorientation prevent proper postural control. Treatment for the disorder includes antihistamines and anticholinergics, and the disorder often goes away without surgical removal of the free otoconia. Ménière's disease is thought to be a balance disorder involving fluid buildup in the inner ear. This can result from a number of factors, including head injury, ear infection, genetic predisposition, chemical toxicity, allergies, or syphilis. Syphilis can cause some patients to develop the disease later in life. The disease is characterized by pressure in
Righting reflex
1617643
appetite, diarrhoea, and often death. It quickly spreads between gerbils in close contact. A problem with the inner ear can be spotted by a gerbil leaning to one side quite obviously. The fluids in the ears affect balance. However, this does not appear to affect the gerbils too much, which have an aptitude of just getting on with things, and getting used to their conditions. Gerbils with "extreme white spotting" colouring are susceptible to deafness; this is thought to be due to the lack of pigmentation in and around the ear. Many color varieties of gerbils are available in pet
Gerbil
3363471
balance and eye tracking when moving; the utricle and saccule, which enable balance when stationary; and the cochlea, which enables hearing. The ears of vertebrates are placed somewhat symmetrically on either side of the head, an arrangement that aids sound localisation. The ear develops from the first pharyngeal pouch and six small swellings that develop in the early embryo called otic placodes, which are derived from ectoderm. The ear may be affected by disease, including infection and traumatic damage. Diseases of the ear may lead to hearing loss, tinnitus and balance disorders such as vertigo, although many of these conditions
Ear
3363490
the developing embryo consists of three layers: endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm. The first part of the ear to develop is the inner ear, which begins to form from the ectoderm around the 22nd day of the embryo’s development. Specifically, the inner ear derives from two thickenings called otic placodes on either side of the head. Each otic placode recedes below the ectoderm, forms an otic pit and then an otic vesicle. This entire mass will eventually become surrounded by mesenchyme to form the bony labyrinth. Around the 33rd day of development, the vesicles begin to differentiate. Closer to the back
Ear
3363478
tube. The three ossicles transmit sound from the outer ear to the inner ear. The malleus receives vibrations from sound pressure on the eardrum, where it is connected at its longest part (the manubrium or handle) by a ligament. It transmits vibrations to the incus, which in turn transmits the vibrations to the small stapes bone. The wide base of the stapes rests on the oval window. As the stapes vibrates, vibrations are transmitted through the oval window, causing movement of fluid within the cochlea. The round window allows for the fluid within the inner ear to move. As the
Ear
4914803
Ear canal The ear canal (external acoustic meatus, external auditory meatus, EAM; ) is a tube running from the outer ear to the middle ear. The adult human ear canal extends from the pinna to the eardrum and is about in length and in diameter. The human ear canal is divided into two parts. The elastic cartilage part forms the outer third of the canal; its anterior and lower wall are cartilaginous, whereas its superior and back wall are fibrous. The cartilage is the continuation of the cartilage framework of pinna. The bony part forms the inner two thirds. The
Ear canal
12107340
Autoimmune inner ear disease Autoimmune inner ear disease (AIED) was first defined by Dr. Brian McCabe in a landmark paper describing an autoimmune loss of hearing. The disease results in progressive sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) that acts bilaterally and asymmetrically, and sometimes affects an individual's vestibular system. AIED is used to describe any disorder in which the inner ear is damaged as a result of an autoimmune response. Some examples of autoimmune disorders that have presented with AIED are Cogan's syndrome, relapsing polychondritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, polyarteritis nodosa, Sjogren's syndrome, and Lyme disease. Research has come to
Autoimmune inner ear disease
12747083
Mechanosensation Mechanosensation is a response mechanism to mechanical stimuli. The physiological foundation for the senses of touch, hearing and balance, and pain is the conversion of mechanical stimuli into neuronal signals: mechanosensation. Mechanoreceptors of the skin, called cutaneous mechanoreceptors, are responsible for touch. Tiny cells in the inner ear, called hair cells, are responsible for hearing and balance. States of neuropathic pain, such as hyperalgesia and allodynia, are also directly related to mechanosensation. A wide array of elements are involved in the process of mechanosensation, many of which are still not fully understood. Cutaneous mechanoreceptors are physiologically classified with respect
Mechanosensation
730490
pupil down and depresses (towards the brain) the top of the globe). The pupil is not only directed but often rotated by these muscles. (See visual system) The thalamus and superior colliculus are connected via lateral geniculate nucleus. Superior colliculus (SC) is the topographical map for balance and quick orienting movements with primarily visual inputs. SC integrates multiple senses. Some animals have better equilibrioception than humans, for example a cat uses its inner ear and tail to walk on a thin fence. Equilibrioception in many marine animals is done with an entirely different organ, the statocyst, which detects the position
Sense of balance
5501524
can cause permanent damage to inner ear stereocilia. New research has shown that the damage can possibly be reversed if we can repair or recreate some of the proteins in the stereocilia. In this study, scientists used zebrafish to examine the motion of proteins within live ear cells using a confocal microscope. This has shown that proteins in stereocilia move quickly, indicating that the movement of the proteins within the hair cells may be a very important factor to maintaining the integrity of the hair bundles in the inner ear. Further research found myosin and actin, two proteins that are
Stereocilia (inner ear)
3876857
to evaluate peripheral vestibular disorders originating from inner ear pathologies. They also provide treatment for certain vestibular and balance disorders such as Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV). In addition, many audiologists work as auditory scientists in a research capacity. Audiologists have training in anatomy and physiology, hearing aids, cochlear implants, electrophysiology, acoustics, psychophysics, neurology, vestibular function and assessment, balance disorders, counseling and sign language. Audiologists also run neonatal hearing screening programme which has been made compulsory in many hospitals in US, UK and India. An Audiologist usually graduates with one of the following qualifications: MSc(Audiology), Au.D., STI, PhD, or ScD,
Audiology
15447889
chronic symptoms. Labyrinthitis, or inflammation of the inner ear, can cause imbalances that must be overcome through therapeutic exercises. Labyrinthectomy, or removal of inner ear organs, is an operation conducted for patients with severe inner ear disorders whose vertigo is debilitating. Imbalances result from the procedure, but therapy can help overcome the symptoms. Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo, or BPPV, is a disorder caused by the breaking off of a piece of otoconia from the otoliths. The otoconia floats freely in the inner ear fluid, causing disorientation and vertigo. The disorder can be tested for using a nystagmus test, such as
Righting reflex
4411591
Otoacoustic emission An otoacoustic emission (OAE) is a sound which is generated from within the inner ear. Having been predicted by Thomas Gold in 1948, its existence was first demonstrated experimentally by David Kemp in 1978 and otoacoustic emissions have since been shown to arise through a number of different cellular and mechanical causes within the inner ear. Studies have shown that OAEs disappear after the inner ear has been damaged, so OAEs are often used in the laboratory and the clinic as a measure of inner ear health. Broadly speaking, there are two types of otoacoustic emissions: spontaneous otoacoustic
Otoacoustic emission
725231
90% of patients experienced a reduction in the symptoms of motion sickness while using this technology. One common suggestion is to simply look out the window of the moving vehicle and to gaze towards the horizon in the direction of travel. This helps to re-orient the inner sense of balance by providing a visual reaffirmation of motion. In the night, or in a ship without windows, it is helpful to simply close one's eyes, or if possible, take a nap. This resolves the sensory conflict between the eyes and the inner ear. Napping also helps prevent psychogenic effects (i.e. the
Motion sickness
3787026
in the same way; however, due to its proximity to some structures of the inner and middle ear, it can be damaged during radiological treatment or surgical removal of the tumor, particularly in the case of large growths. At the time some people learn they have an acoustic neuroma, they are also told that this tumor may involve the nerve that controls facial movement. However, it is much more common for treatment, rather than the tumor itself, to damage this nerve, leading to weakness or paralysis of the face. Taste, a sensation that reflects accurately sweet, sour, bitter and bland,
Vestibular schwannoma
1659328
in the seventh week of development the auditory tube begins to form out of the tympanic membrane. The human ear is divided into three sections. Each section has possesses its own specialized function. 1. The outer ear acts like a funnel and takes in the sound. 2. The middle ear holds the tympanic membrane, or ear drum and several little bones that are moved by the sound waves that have entered the ear via the canal. These movements are very small, like vibrations and are transmitted to the inner ear. 3. The inner ear contains a structure called the cochlea,
Anotia
6331023
ear (cochlea) and when the sound has problems in reaching the nerve cells of the inner ear. Example of the first include age-related hearing loss and hearing loss due to noise exposure. A patient born without external ear canals is an example of the latter for which a conventional hearing aid with a mould in the ear canal opening would not be effective. Some with this condition have normal inner ear function, as the external ear canal and the inner ear are developed at different stages during pregnancy. With normal inner anatomy, sound conducted by the skull bone improves hearing.
Bone-anchored hearing aid
725207
theory holding that motion sickness functions as a defense mechanism against neurotoxins. The area postrema in the brain is responsible for inducing vomiting when poisons are detected, and for resolving conflicts between vision and balance. When feeling motion but not seeing it (for example, in the cabin of a ship with no portholes), the inner ear transmits to the brain that it senses motion, but the eyes tell the brain that everything is still. As a result of the incongruity, the brain concludes that the individual is hallucinating and further concludes that the hallucination is due to poison ingestion. The
Motion sickness
5048898
The four main hypotheses are: There has also been debate about whether the earliest known bird, "Archaeopteryx", could fly. It appears that "Archaeopteryx" had the brain structures and inner-ear balance sensors that birds use to control their flight. "Archaeopteryx" also had a wing feather arrangement like that of modern birds and similarly asymmetrical flight feathers on its wings and tail. But "Archaeopteryx" lacked the shoulder mechanism by which modern birds' wings produce swift, powerful upstrokes; this may mean that it and other early birds were incapable of flapping flight and could only glide. The presence of most fossils in marine
Bird flight
663214
bony labyrinth of the inner ear that is approximately 30 mm long and makes 2¾ turns about the modiolus, the central axis of the cochlea that contains the spiral ganglion. There are several specialized types of cell in the inner ear. Among these are hair cells, pillar cells, Boettcher's cells, Claudius' cells and Deiters' cells (phalangeal cells). The hair cells are the primary auditory receptor cells and they are also known as auditory sensory cells, acoustic hair cells, auditory cells or cells of Corti. The organ of Corti is lined with a single row of inner hair cells and three
Inner ear
14051752
the inner ear from excessive energy. A certain degree of top-down control is present at the middle ear level primarily through two muscles present in this anatomical region: the tensor tympani and the stapedius. These two muscles can restrain the ossicles so as to reduce the amount of energy that is transmitted into the inner ear in loud surroundings. The cochlea of the inner ear, a marvel of physiological engineering, acts as both a frequency analyzer and nonlinear acoustic amplifier. The cochlea has over 32,000 hair cells. Outer hair cells primarily provide amplification of traveling waves that are induced by
Neuronal encoding of sound