what is made at the end of the light dependent reaction
adenosine triphosphate ( ATP )
331478
of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that serve as short-term stores of energy, enabling its transfer to drive other reactions: these compounds are reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the "energy currency" of cells. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of reactions called the Calvin cycle; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the reverse Krebs cycle, to achieve the same end. In the Calvin cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds, such
Photosynthesis
19148228
Hill reaction The Hill reaction was discovered by the biochemist Robin Hill from the University of Cambridge in 1937. The Hill reaction is the light-driven transfer of electrons from water to Hill reagents (non-physiological oxidants) against a "chemical potential gradient". The Hill reaction demonstrated that oxygen O is produced in plants in a process that is separate from the process that converts carbon dioxide (CO) to sugars. Hill's observation made a basic underlying refinement to our modern understandings of the process of photosynthesis. The evolution of oxygen during the light-dependent steps in photosynthesis (Hill reaction) was proposed and proven by
Hill reaction
331483
this process is: This equation emphasizes that water is both a reactant in the light-dependent reaction and a product of the light-independent reaction, but canceling "n" water molecules from each side gives the net equation: Other processes substitute other compounds (such as arsenite) for water in the electron-supply role; for example some microbes use sunlight to oxidize arsenite to arsenate: The equation for this reaction is: Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, "light-dependent reactions" or "light reactions" capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH. During the second stage,
Photosynthesis
331492
plants, light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts where they drive the synthesis of ATP and NADPH. The light-dependent reactions are of two forms: cyclic and non-cyclic. In the non-cyclic reaction, the photons are captured in the light-harvesting antenna complexes of photosystem II by chlorophyll and other accessory pigments (see diagram at right). The absorption of a photon by the antenna complex frees an electron by a process called photoinduced charge separation. The antenna system is at the core of the chlorophyll molecule of the photosystem II reaction center. That freed electron is transferred to the primary
Photosynthesis
7145810
Photosynthetic efficiency The photosynthetic efficiency is the fraction of light energy converted into chemical energy during photosynthesis in plants and algae. Photosynthesis can be described by the simplified chemical reaction where CHO is glucose (which is subsequently transformed into other sugars, cellulose, lignin, and so forth). The value of the photosynthetic efficiency is dependent on how light energy is defined – it depends on whether we count only the light that is absorbed, and on what kind of light is used (see Photosynthetically active radiation). It takes eight (or perhaps 10 or more) photons to utilize one molecule of CO.
Photosynthetic efficiency
6698150
Photoassimilate In botany, a photoassimilate is one of a number of biological compounds formed by assimilation using light-dependent reactions. This term is most commonly used to refer to the energy-storing monosaccharides produced by photosynthesis in the leaves of plants. Only NADPH, ATP and water are made in the "light" reactions. Monosaccharides, though generally more complex sugars, are made in the "dark" reactions.The term "light" reaction can be confusing as some "dark" reactions require light to be active. Photoassimilate movement through plants from "source to sink" using xylem and phloem is of biological significance. This movement is mimicked by many infectious
Photoassimilate
19148237
ATP, NADPH, and H which are used in the light independent reaction. He demonstrated that the isolated active chloroplasts which are subjected to light but without CO will release oxygen but no sugar will be produced. He then demonstrated the light independent reaction, observing the reaction under dark conditions with an abundance of carbon dioxide. He found carbon fixation was independent of the light reaction. Arnon had effectively separated the light dependent reaction, which produces ATP, NADPH, H and oxygen, from the light independent reaction, which produces sugars. He was able to conclude that that part of the reaction happens
Hill reaction
13691825
the production of NADPH. Cyclic phosphorylation is important to create ATP and maintain NADPH in the right proportion for the light-independent reactions. The net-reaction of all light-dependent reactions in oxygenic photosynthesis is: The two photosystems are protein complexes that absorb photons and are able to use this energy to create an electron transport chain. Photosystem I and II are very similar in structure and function. They use special proteins, called light-harvesting complexes, to absorb the photons with very high effectiveness. If a special pigment molecule in a photosynthetic reaction center absorbs a photon, an electron in this pigment attains the
Light-dependent reactions
19148230
extraction of the chloroplasts from the plant cellular environment. The ferrocyanide is reduced (just as NADP is when the chloroplast is in vivo) while water (HO) is oxidized into oxygen (O) and hydrogen cations during the reaction. By using this technique to observe the reaction, Hill revealed a variety of valuable facts about photosynthesis. The Hill reaction confirms that oxygen (O) is produced by a reaction that is separate from carbon dioxide (CO) fixation. The reaction in which oxygen is released requires light; therefore the Hill reaction can be described as the light dependent reaction of photosynthesis. The reaction in
Hill reaction
6698151
particles - namely viroids - to accomplish long ranged movement and consequently infection of an entire plant. Photoassimilate In botany, a photoassimilate is one of a number of biological compounds formed by assimilation using light-dependent reactions. This term is most commonly used to refer to the energy-storing monosaccharides produced by photosynthesis in the leaves of plants. Only NADPH, ATP and water are made in the "light" reactions. Monosaccharides, though generally more complex sugars, are made in the "dark" reactions.The term "light" reaction can be confusing as some "dark" reactions require light to be active. Photoassimilate movement through plants from "source
Photoassimilate
19148236
conditions. On the other hand, during Hill's observation of chloroplasts placed under dark conditions and in the absence of CO the artificial electron acceptor was oxidized but not reduced, terminating the process, with the result that there was also no production of oxygen and sugar. This observation allowed Hill to conclude that oxygen is released during the light-dependent steps (Hill reaction) of photosynthesis. Further studies of the Hill reaction were made in 1957 by the American plant physiologist Daniel I. Arnon. "Arnon" studied the Hill reaction using a natural electron acceptor, NADP. This natural electron acceptor inhibits the formation of
Hill reaction
13691826
excited state and then is transferred to another molecule in the reaction center. This reaction, called photoinduced charge separation, is the start of the electron flow and is unique because it transforms light energy into chemical forms. The reaction center is in the thylakoid membrane. It transfers light energy to a dimer of chlorophyll pigment molecules near the periplasmic (or thylakoid lumen) side of the membrane. This dimer is called a special pair because of its fundamental role in photosynthesis. This special pair is slightly different in PSI and PSII reaction center. In PSII, it absorbs photons with a wavelength
Light-dependent reactions
11447752
almost all oxygen produced in tropical forests is consumed by organisms living there. A simplified overall formula for photosynthesis is: Photolytic oxygen evolution during photosynthesis occurs via the light-dependent oxidation of water to molecular oxygen and can be written as the following simplified chemical reaction: 2HO → 4e + 4H + O The reaction occurs in the thylakoid membranes of cyanobacteria, and algal and plant chloroplasts and requires the energy of four photons. The electrons from the oxidized water molecules replace electrons in the P component of photosystem II, which have been removed into an electron transport chain via light-dependent
Dioxygen in biological reactions
11115018
unrelated proteins with this activity, referred to as light-dependent and the dark-operative. The light-dependent reductase needs light to function, while the dark-operative version is a completely different protein, consisting of three subunits that exhibit significant sequence similarity to the three subunits of nitrogenase. This enzyme might be evolutionary older but (being similar to nitrogenase) is highly sensitive to free oxygen and does not work if its concentration exceeds about 3%. Hence the alternative, light dependent version needed to evolve. Protochlorophyllide reductase In enzymology, protochlorophyllide reductases ( and ) are enzymes that catalyzes the chemical reaction Thus, the three substrates of
Protochlorophyllide reductase
13691841
electron transport") or back to cytochrome "" ("cyclic electron transport"): PS I, like PS II, is a complex, highly organized transmembrane structure that contains antenna chlorophylls, a reaction center (P700), phylloquinine, and a number of iron-sulfur proteins that serve as intermediate redox carriers. The light-harvesting system of PS I uses multiple copies of the same transmembrane proteins used by PS II. The energy of absorbed light (in the form of delocalized, high-energy electrons) is funneled into the reaction center, where it excites special chlorophyll molecules (P700, maximum light absorption at 700 nm) to a higher energy level. The process occurs
Light-dependent reactions
18244542
attributed to the use of the instant-form in a theory which, because of the laser background, naturally singles out light-like directions. Thus, light-front quantization is a natural approach to physics in intense laser fields. The use of the front-form in strong-field QED has provided answers to several long standing questions, such as the nature of the effective mass in a laser pulse, the pole structure of the background-dressed propagator, and the origins of classical radiation reaction within QED. Combined with nonperturbative approaches such as `time dependent basis light-front quantization', which is specifically targeted at time-dependent problems in field theory, the
Light-front quantization applications
331523
to produce food (such as glucose) was outlined. Cornelis Van Niel made key discoveries explaining the chemistry of photosynthesis. By studying purple sulfur bacteria and green bacteria he was the first to demonstrate that photosynthesis is a light-dependent redox reaction, in which hydrogen reduces (donates its electron to) carbon dioxide. Robert Emerson discovered two light reactions by testing plant productivity using different wavelengths of light. With the red alone, the light reactions were suppressed. When blue and red were combined, the output was much more substantial. Thus, there were two photosystems, one absorbing up to 600 nm wavelengths, the other
Photosynthesis
13977177
the space time is the same as the average residence time in a batch reactor. Plug flow reactors (PFRs) are reactors in which the reactants enter the reactor at one end and react as they move down the reactor. Consequently, the reaction rate is dependent on the concentrations which vary along the reactor requiring the inverse of the reaction rate to be integrated over the fractional conversion. Continuous stirred-tank reactors (CSTRs) are reactors in which the reactants continuously enter and leave a tank where they are mixed. Consequently, the reaction proceeds at a rate dependent on the outlet concentration. Recycle
Space time (chemical engineering)
13691827
of 680 nm, and it is therefore called P680. In PSI, it absorbs photons at 700 nm, and it is called P700. In bacteria, the special pair is called P760, P840, P870, or P960. Where "P" means pigment, and the number following it is the wavelength of light absorbed. If an electron of the special pair in the reaction center becomes excited, it cannot transfer this energy to another pigment using resonance energy transfer. In normal circumstances, the electron should return to the ground state, but, because the reaction center is arranged so that a suitable electron acceptor is nearby,
Light-dependent reactions
19148231
which oxygen is released takes place within the chloroplast of plants and the Hill reaction demonstrated that the release of oxygen (O) is only a partial reaction which requires one step of photosynthesis. The Hill reaction implies that the light dependent reaction of photosynthesis is a result of a series of redox reactions and a suitable terminal electron acceptor is required for that reaction to occur. Plants have natural electron acceptors such as NADP, that play a major role in the oxidation of water. The Hill reaction also shows that the natural electron acceptors of the reaction can be substituted
Hill reaction
7345225
is a calcium/calmodulin dependent enzyme. Four transcript variants that produce four isoforms of the calcium/calmodulin dependent enzyme have been identified as well as two transcripts that produce two isoforms of telokin. The two transcrips that produce the two telokin isoforms are the following: Telokin catalyzes the following reaction: It requires Ca and calmodulin for activity. The 20-kDa light chain from smooth muscle myosin is phosphorylated more rapidly than any other acceptor, but light chains from other myosins and myosin itself can act as acceptors, but more slowly. The K values of homo sapiens telokin is 0.018 mM at 23–25 °C
Telokin
8076929
converted to malate by malate dehydrogenase, and stored for use during the day when the light dependent reaction generates energy (mainly in the form of ATP) and reducing equivalents such as NADPH to run the Calvin cycle. Third, PEP carboxylase is significant in non-photosynthetic metabolic pathways. Figure 3 shows this metabolic flow (and its regulation). Similar to pyruvate carboxylase, PEP carboxylase replenishes oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle. At the end of glycolysis, PEP is converted to pyruvate, which is converted to acetyl-coenzyme-A (acetyl-CoA), which enters the citric acid cycle by reacting with oxaloacetate to form citrate. To increase flux
Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase
3773665
occur. Oxygen cells behave in a similar way to electrical batteries in that they have a finite lifespan which is dependent upon use. The chemical reaction described above causes the cell to create an electrical output that has a predicted voltage which is dependent on the materials used. In theory they should give that voltage from the day they are made until they are exhausted, except that one component of the planned chemical reaction has been left out of the assembly: oxygen. Oxygen is one of the fuels of the cell so the more oxygen there is at the reaction
Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor
2210805
the propellant material from onboard tanks or from an ablative solid. By leaving the vehicle's power source on the ground and by using ambient atmosphere as a reaction mass for much of its ascent, a Lightcraft could potentially be capable of delivering a very large percentage of its launch mass to orbit as an SSTO, an impossible task for chemical rockets. As such, a Lightcraft is distinct from a solar sail because it is dependent on the expansion of reaction mass to accelerate rather than being accelerated by light pressure alone. Within the atmosphere, the Lightcraft propulsion is dependent on
Lightcraft
331535
However, these experiments clearly show that temperature affects the rate of carbon assimilation, so there must be two sets of reactions in the full process of carbon assimilation. These are the light-dependent 'photochemical' temperature-independent stage, and the light-independent, temperature-dependent stage. Second, Blackman's experiments illustrate the concept of limiting factors. Another limiting factor is the wavelength of light. Cyanobacteria, which reside several meters underwater, cannot receive the correct wavelengths required to cause photoinduced charge separation in conventional photosynthetic pigments. To combat this problem, a series of proteins with different pigments surround the reaction center. This unit is called a phycobilisome. As
Photosynthesis
3967140
and the pentose phosphate pathway, but they are found in the chloroplast stroma instead of the cell cytosol, separating the reactions. They are activated in the light (which is why the name "dark reaction" is misleading), and also by products of the light-dependent reaction. These regulatory functions prevent the Calvin cycle from being respired to carbon dioxide. Energy (in the form of ATP) would be wasted in carrying out these reactions that have no net productivity. The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following: Hexose (six-carbon) sugars are not a product of the Calvin cycle. Although many
Light-independent reactions
13691836
maximal absorption at 680 nm. Electrons within these molecules are promoted to a higher-energy state. This is one of two core processes in photosynthesis, and it occurs with astonishing efficiency (greater than 90%) because, in addition to direct excitation by light at 680 nm, the energy of light first harvested by "antenna proteins" at other wavelengths in the light-harvesting system is also transferred to these special chlorophyll molecules. This is followed by the step P680→ pheophytin, and then on to plastoquinone, which occurs within the reaction center of PS II. High-energy electrons are transferred to plastoquinone before it subsequently picks
Light-dependent reactions
19148232
by an artificial electron acceptor such as DCPIP, again allowing for the discharge of oxygen. The technique of replacing the natural electron acceptors with artificial electron acceptors can be used in the laboratory to provide a means to measure phosphorylation in chloroplasts and observe its relation to the discharge of oxygen in this reaction. Hill's finding was that the origin of oxygen in photosynthesis is water (HO) not carbon dioxide (CO) as previously believed. Hill's reaction also demonstrates that the light dependent redox reaction is the first reaction to take place in photosynthesis. The electrons thus freed by the splitting
Hill reaction
9938610
Oxygen evolution Oxygen evolution is the process of generating molecular oxygen (O) by a chemical reaction, usually from water. Oxygen evolution from water is effected by oxygenic photosynthesis, electrolysis of water, and thermal decomposition of various oxides. The biological process supports aerobic life. When relatively pure oxygen is required industrially, it is isolated by distillation of liquified air. Photosynthetic oxygen evolution is the fundamental process by which oxygen is generated in earth's biosphere. The reaction is part of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis in cyanobacteria and the chloroplasts of green algae and plants. It utilizes the energy of light to
Oxygen evolution
9938604
Oxygen evolution Oxygen evolution is the process of generating molecular oxygen (O) by a chemical reaction, usually from water. Oxygen evolution from water is effected by oxygenic photosynthesis, electrolysis of water, and thermal decomposition of various oxides. The biological process supports aerobic life. When relatively pure oxygen is required industrially, it is isolated by distillation of liquified air. Photosynthetic oxygen evolution is the fundamental process by which oxygen is generated in earth's biosphere. The reaction is part of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis in cyanobacteria and the chloroplasts of green algae and plants. It utilizes the energy of light to
Oxygen evolution
5693801
are part of organic synthesis the radicals are often generated from radical initiators such as peroxides or azobis compounds. Many radical reactions are chain reactions with a chain initiation step, a chain propagation step and a chain termination step. Reaction inhibitors slow down a radical reaction and radical disproportionation is a competing reaction. Radical reactions occur frequently in the gas phase, are often initiated by light, are rarely acid or base catalyzed and are not dependent on polarity of the reaction medium. Reactions are also similar whether in the gas phase or solution phase. The chemical kinetics of a radical
Free-radical reaction
13691823
the green color of leaves. The light-dependent reactions begin in photosystem II. When a chlorophyll "a" molecule within the reaction center of PSII absorbs a photon, an electron in this molecule attains a higher energy level. Because this state of an electron is very unstable, the electron is transferred from one to another molecule creating a chain of redox reactions, called an electron transport chain (ETC). The electron flow goes from PSII to cytochrome b6f to PSI. In PSI, the electron gets the energy from another photon. The final electron acceptor is NADP. In oxygenic photosynthesis, the first electron donor
Light-dependent reactions
5824885
the qualities already mentioned, several other properties of photochromics are important for their use. These include quantum yield, fatigue resistance, photostationary state, and polarity and solubility. The quantum yield of the photochemical reaction determines the efficiency of the photochromic change with respect to the amount of light absorbed. The quantum yield of isomerization can be strongly dependent on conditions.In photochromic materials, fatigue refers to the loss of reversibility by processes such as photodegradation, photobleaching, photooxidation, and other side reactions. All photochromics suffer fatigue to some extent, and its rate is strongly dependent on the activating light and the conditions of
Photochromism
6532026
state 0, and "λ"("t"), from state 0 to state 1, depend on inhibition Y("t"): "λ"("t") = "ℓ"(Y("t")) and "λ"("t") = "ℓ"(Y("t")), where "ℓ" is a non-decreasing function and "ℓ" is a non-increasing function. Note, that "ℓ" and "l" are dependent on "Y", whereas "Y" is dependent on "T". Specification of the functions "l" and "l" leads to the various inhibition models. What can be observed in the test are the actual reaction times. A reaction time is the sum of a series of alternating distraction times and attention times, which cannot be observed. It is, nevertheless, possible to estimate from
Inhibition theory
12371059
module at protein level. This way the transcriptional activity of the different GAL4 fusion proteins can be directly compared using light as a readout. . Aequorin is a photoprotein isolated from the bioluminescent jellyfish "Aequorea victoria". Upon addition of calcium ions (Ca2+) and coelenterazine, a reaction occurs whose end result is the generation of blue light in the 460 - 470 nm range. Aequorin has been incorporated into human B cell lines for the detection of pathogenic bacteria and viruses in what is referred to as the Cell CANARY assay (Cellular Analysis and Notification of Antigen Risks and Yields). The
Bioreporter
11323899
light chain MLC20, including cell migration and cell adhesion. The two primary kinases catalyzing this reaction are the calcium-calmodulin-dependent, myosin light chain kinase and the Rho-GTP dependent, Rho kinase (ROCK). NM-IIB is dephosphorylated by a myosin phosphatase. Detailed kinetic studies on NM-IIB show that this isoform of non-muscle myosin II has a slower actomyosin ATPase cycle relative to other myosin II isoforms, and that the markedly high affinity of NM-IIB head for ADP as well as the slow rate of ADP release can mechanistically explain affinity this finding. These data indicate that NM-IIB spends a large amount of its kinetic
MYH10
3967138
from an alternative reaction of the RuBisCO enzyme, and its final byproduct is also another glyceraldehyde-3-P. The Calvin cycle, Calvin–Benson–Bassham (CBB) cycle, reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplast in photosynthetic organisms. The cycle was discovered by Melvin Calvin, James Bassham, and Andrew Benson at the University of California, Berkeley by using the radioactive isotope carbon-14. Photosynthesis occurs in two stages in a cell. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage and transport molecules
Light-independent reactions
7105243
is the better leaving group, the reaction will proceed faster, again producing brighter light, as compared to the phenol ester. The following colors can be produced by using different dyes: Diphenyl oxalate Diphenyl oxalate (trademark name Cyalume) is a solid ester whose oxidation products are responsible for the chemiluminescence in a glowstick. It can be synthesized by fully esterifying phenol with oxalic acid. The reaction with hydrogen peroxide that diphenyl oxalate undergoes produces phenol and 1,2-dioxetanedione, which excites the dye and releases a photon as it decomposes to carbon dioxide. The reaction rate is pH dependent, and slightly alkaline conditions
Diphenyl oxalate
6516564
Photodissociation Photodissociation, photolysis, or photodecomposition is a chemical reaction in which a chemical compound is broken down by photons. It is defined as the interaction of one or more photons with one target molecule. Photodissociation is not limited to visible light. Any photon with sufficient energy can affect the chemical bonds of a chemical compound. Since a photon's energy is inversely proportional to its wavelength, electromagnetic waves with the energy of visible light or higher, such as ultraviolet light, x-rays and gamma rays are usually involved in such reactions. Photolysis is part of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. The general
Photodissociation
15759748
with an alkene to generate pyrazoline cycloadducts. Photoinduction takes place with a brief exposure to light (wavelength is tetrazole-dependent) to minimize photodamage to cells. The reaction is enhanced in aqueous conditions and generates a single regioisomer. The transient nitrile imine is highly reactive for 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition due to a bent structure which reduces distortion energy. Substitution with electron-donating groups on phenyl rings increases the HOMO energy, when placed on the 1,3 nitrile imine and increases the rate of reaction. Advantages of this approach include the ability to spatially or temporally control reaction and the ability to incorporate both alkenes and
Bioorthogonal chemistry
19071543
stabilized in the trimeric protein-bacterioruberin complex. The generalized transport reaction for bacterio- and sensory rhodopsins is: That for halorhodopsin is: Microbial rhodopsin Microbial rhodopsins, also known as bacterial rhodopsins are retinal-binding proteins that provide light-dependent ion transport and sensory functions in halophilic This protein family includes light-driven proton pumps, ion pumps and ion channels, as well as light sensors. For example, the proteins from halobacteria include bacteriorhodopsin and archaerhodopsin, which are light-driven proton pumps; halorhodopsin, a light-driven chloride pump; and sensory rhodopsin, which mediates both photoattractant (in the red) and photophobic (in the ultra-violet) responses. Proteins from other bacteria include
Microbial rhodopsin
1673593
are the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. These include light-driven water oxidation and oxygen evolution, the pumping of protons across the thylakoid membranes coupled with the electron transport chain of the photosystems and cytochrome complex, and ATP synthesis by the ATP synthase utilizing the generated proton gradient. The first step in photosynthesis is the light-driven reduction (splitting) of water to provide the electrons for the photosynthetic electron transport chains as well as protons for the establishment of a proton gradient. The water-splitting reaction occurs on the lumenal side of the thylakoid membrane and is driven by the light
Thylakoid
20430435
so that after cleavage by the RNase H2 enzyme, the Tm of the primers are still greater than the annealing temperature of PCR reaction. These primers can be used in both 5’ nuclease Taqman and SYBR Green types of quantitative PCR. rhPCR can be used for quantitative PCR and medical or environmental laboratories: RNase H-dependent PCR RNase H-dependent PCR (rhPCR) is a modification of the standard PCR technique. In rhPCR, the primers are designed with a removable amplification block on the 3’ end. Amplification of the blocked primer is dependent on the cleavage activity of a hyperthermophilic archaeal Type II
RNase H-dependent PCR
7084081
pigment molecules, or passed to them by resonance transfer from a surrounding light-harvesting complex, they release two electrons into an electron transport chain. Light is made up of small bundles of energy called photons. If a photon with the right amount of energy hits an electron, it will raise the electron to a higher energy level. Electrons are most stable at their lowest energy level, what is also called its ground state. In this state, the electron is in the orbit that has the least amount of energy. Electrons in higher energy levels can return to ground state in a
Photosynthetic reaction centre
2922820
of decline that would last for several decades. Technological improvements made industries less dependent on Shawinigan's geographic location. Therefore, many employers would relocate to nearby larger cities or close down. In 1958, it received city ("cité") status, and its name was abbreviated to just Shawinigan. As a reaction to declining opportunities, many residents, many of whom were English-speakers, left the area. Shawinigan High School is the only remaining English-language school in the city following the closure of St. Patrick's (closed circa 1983). Shawinigan's last English-language newspaper, the Shawinigan Standard, ceased publication at the end of 1970. In 1963, the provincial
Shawinigan
3414938
setting regardless. At present, mass diagnoses from a great number of samples cannot yet be achieved by HDA, whereas PCR reactions carried out in thermal cycler that can hold multi-well sample plates allows for the amplification and detection of the intended DNA target from a maximum of 96 samples. The cost of purchasing reagents for HDA are also relatively expensive to that of PCR reagents, more so since it comes as a ready-made kit. Helicase-dependent amplification Helicase-dependent amplification (HDA) is a method for "in vitro" DNA amplification (like the polymerase chain reaction) that takes place at a constant temperature. The
Helicase-dependent amplification
12734
and carboxylic acid groups of amino acids can react to form amide bonds, one amino acid molecule can react with another and become joined through an amide linkage. This polymerization of amino acids is what creates proteins. This condensation reaction yields the newly formed peptide bond and a molecule of water. In cells, this reaction does not occur directly; instead, the amino acid is first activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond. This aminoacyl-tRNA is produced in an ATP-dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase. This aminoacyl-tRNA is then a substrate for the
Amino acid
10620194
suit different needs and reaction conditions. Reverse transcriptase enzymes commonly used include AMV RT, SuperScript III, ImProm-II, Omniscript, Sensiscript and Tth RT. At the end of the RT step the polymerase enzyme is heatactivated. It could also be that the reverse transcriptase polymerase and DNA polymerase is one and the same enzyme and that the enzyme only requires a DNA polymerase activation step after the RT step. An example of such an enzyme is Tth polymerase. This enzyme has both RNA-dependent reverse transcriptase and DNA-dependent polymerase activity. However, the active center of the DNA polymerase is covered by dedicated oligonucleotides,
Potato virus Y
13691837
up two protons to become plastoquinol. Plastoquinol is then released into the membrane as a mobile electron carrier. This is the second core process in photosynthesis. The initial stages occur within "picoseconds", with an efficiency of 100%. The seemingly impossible efficiency is due to the precise positioning of molecules within the reaction center. This is a solid-state process, not a chemical reaction. It occurs within an essentially crystalline environment created by the macromolecular structure of PS II. The usual rules of chemistry (which involve random collisions and random energy distributions) do not apply in solid-state environments. When the chlorophyll passes
Light-dependent reactions
13691835
poorly understood structure embedded within PS II called the "water-splitting complex" or the "oxygen-evolving complex". It catalyzes a reaction that splits water into electrons, protons and oxygen: 2 → 4H + 4e + The actual steps of the above reaction are running in the following way (Dolai's diagram of S-states): The electrons are transferred to special chlorophyll molecules (embedded in PS II) that are promoted to a higher-energy state by the energy of photons. The excitation P680 → P680of the reaction center pigment P680 occurs here. These special chlorophyll molecules embedded in PS II absorb the energy of photons, with
Light-dependent reactions
16021434
Aerobic anoxygenic photoheterotroph bacteria Aerobic anoxygenic photoheterotrophic bacteria (AAPB), also named aerobic anoxygenic photoheterotrophs (AAPs), is a group of bacteria that are primarily heterotrophic but can utilize light energy through bacterial chlorophyll a. In contrast to other known anoxygenic phototrophs, these microbes are obligatory aerobes: They metabolize carbon and other organic substrates and use O2-dependent respiration, but they also contain bacteriochlorophyll a, carotenoids, as well as photosynthetic reaction centers and light-harvesting complexes. Although the amount of bacteriochlorophyll in these photoheterotrophs is lower than in other photosynthetic bacteria, they are capable of fixing CO2 during photosynthesis, and light enhances their growth.
Aerobic anoxygenic photoheterotroph bacteria
15554423
be carried out over a copper-based catalyst, but the reaction mechanism is dependent on the catalyst. For a copper-based catalyst two different reaction mechanisms have been proposed, a decomposition-water-gas shift sequence and a mechanism that proceeds via methanol dehydrogenation to methyl formate. The first mechanism aims at methanol decomposition followed by the WGS reaction and has been proposed for the Cu/ZnO/AlO: The mechanism for the methyl format reaction can be dependent of the composition of the catalyst. The following mechanism has been proposed over Cu/ZnO/AlO: When methanol is almost completely converted CO is being produced as a secondary product via
Industrial catalysts
6650958
relevant denitration and reduction produce 1,2-glyceryl dinitrate (GDN) and NO, and that this reaction is catalysed by mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2 or mtALDH). The NO produced by this process is a potent activator of guanylyl cyclase (GC) by heme-dependent mechanisms; this activation results in formation of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) from guanosine triphosphate (GTP). Among other roles, cGMP serves as a substrate for a cGMP-dependent protein kinase that activates myosin light chain phosphatase. Thus, production of NO from exogenous sources such as GTN increases the level of cGMP within the cell, and stimulates dephosphorylation of myosin, which initiates relaxation of
Nitroglycerin (drug)
7105242
Diphenyl oxalate Diphenyl oxalate (trademark name Cyalume) is a solid ester whose oxidation products are responsible for the chemiluminescence in a glowstick. It can be synthesized by fully esterifying phenol with oxalic acid. The reaction with hydrogen peroxide that diphenyl oxalate undergoes produces phenol and 1,2-dioxetanedione, which excites the dye and releases a photon as it decomposes to carbon dioxide. The reaction rate is pH dependent, and slightly alkaline conditions achieved by adding a weak base, e.g., sodium salicylate, will produce brighter light. The 2,4,6-trichlorophenol ester of oxalic acid is a solid and thus easier to handle. Furthermore, since trichlorophenolate
Diphenyl oxalate
146370
the fine structure constant is fixed, the observational claim is that the speed of light is time-dependent. Faster-than-light Faster-than-light (also superluminal or FTL) communication and travel are the conjectural propagation of information or matter faster than the speed of light. The special theory of relativity implies that only particles with zero rest mass may travel at the speed of light. Tachyons, particles whose speed exceeds that of light, have been hypothesized, but their existence would violate causality, and the consensus of physicists is that they cannot exist. On the other hand, what some physicists refer to as "apparent" or "effective"
Faster-than-light
14273720
"V. hilgendorfii" is known for its bioluminescence. It produces a blue-coloured light by a specialized chemical reaction of the substrate luciferin and the enzyme luciferase. The luciferase enzyme consists of a 555-amino acid-long peptide with a molecular mass of 61627 u, while the luciferine vargulin has only a mass of 405.5 u. A suggested biosynthesis for vargulin divides the molecule into a tryptophan, an arginine and an isoleucine subunit. The maximum in the wavelength of the luminescence is dependent on pH and salinity of the water in which the reaction takes place. It varies between 448 and 463 nm, with
Vargula hilgendorfii
18820621
of hydrocarbon products. However, it should be noted that with Ni-based catalysts there is a limit to this effect; if the partial pressure of hydrogen is too high, it will decrease the yield of desired products. The rate at which the reaction occurs is highly dependent upon the reaction conditions and the catalyst utilized. Though it is known that deoxygenation via deCOx generally proceeds at a higher rate with increased temperatures, alternate reactions may also occur which could lead to catalyst deactivation. The reaction route does not appear to be dependent on the type of solvents utilized. However, the nature
Renewable hydrocarbon fuels via decarboxylation/decarbonylation
918791
to the acceptor through another electron transport chain. Photosynthetic electron transport chains have many similarities to the oxidative chains discussed above. They use mobile, lipid-soluble carriers (quinones) and mobile, water-soluble carriers (cytochromes, etc.). They also contain a proton pump. It is remarkable that the proton pump in "all" photosynthetic chains resembles mitochondrial "Complex III". Photosynthetic electron transport chains are discussed in greater detail in the articles Photophosphorylation, Photosynthesis, Photosynthetic reaction center and Light-dependent reaction. Electron transport chains are redox reactions that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor. The transfer of electrons is coupled to the translocation
Electron transport chain
19003984
The smallest radius is dependent on the veneer thicknesses used and is 12 mm at a 90 degree angle. A taper of the moulded parts is possible. There are hardly any limits for the possibilities of three-dimensional deformation of upholstered parts. Decorative wood allows for light deformations up to the occurrence of cracking or buckling of the veneer. What can be formed out of firm cardboard can also be made of molded plywood, since both behave in a similar way. These limits can be exceeded by the use of special 3D veneers, which are, expensive to produce and therefore entail
Molded plywood
3414933
Helicase-dependent amplification Helicase-dependent amplification (HDA) is a method for "in vitro" DNA amplification (like the polymerase chain reaction) that takes place at a constant temperature. The polymerase chain reaction is the most widely used method for "in vitro" DNA amplification for purposes of molecular biology and biomedical research. This process involves the separation of the double-stranded DNA in high heat into single strands (the denaturation step, typically achieved at 95–97 °C), annealing of the primers to the single stranded DNA (the annealing step) and copying the single strands to create new double-stranded DNA (the extension step that requires the DNA
Helicase-dependent amplification
331477
Earth's atmosphere, and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth. Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. In these light-dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas. The hydrogen freed by the splitting
Photosynthesis
8155121
Achromatic telescope The achromatic telescope is a refracting telescope that uses an achromatic lens to correct for chromatic aberration. When an image passes through a lens, the light is refracted at different angles for different wavelengths. This produces focal lengths that are dependent on the color of the light. So, for example, at the focal plane an image may be focused at the red end of the spectrum, but blurred at the blue end. This effect is particularly noticeable the further an object lies from the central axis of the telescope. The image of a star can appear blue on
Achromatic telescope
8155125
and reduce the impact of errors in R2 and R3. Is a flint-first doublet in need of stronger curvature than, e.g., a Fraunhofer doublet Achromatic telescope The achromatic telescope is a refracting telescope that uses an achromatic lens to correct for chromatic aberration. When an image passes through a lens, the light is refracted at different angles for different wavelengths. This produces focal lengths that are dependent on the color of the light. So, for example, at the focal plane an image may be focused at the red end of the spectrum, but blurred at the blue end. This effect
Achromatic telescope
4165910
absence of Rat1. Exonuclease Exonucleases are enzymes that work by cleaving nucleotides one at a time from the end (exo) of a polynucleotide chain. A hydrolyzing reaction that breaks phosphodiester bonds at either the 3' or the 5' end occurs. Its close relative is the endonuclease, which cleaves phosphodiester bonds in the middle (endo) of a polynucleotide chain. Eukaryotes and prokaryotes have three types of exonucleases involved in the normal turnover of mRNA: 5' to 3' exonuclease (Xrn1), which is a dependent decapping protein; 3' to 5' exonuclease, an independent protein; and poly(A)-specific 3' to 5' exonuclease. In both archaea
Exonuclease
4165903
Exonuclease Exonucleases are enzymes that work by cleaving nucleotides one at a time from the end (exo) of a polynucleotide chain. A hydrolyzing reaction that breaks phosphodiester bonds at either the 3' or the 5' end occurs. Its close relative is the endonuclease, which cleaves phosphodiester bonds in the middle (endo) of a polynucleotide chain. Eukaryotes and prokaryotes have three types of exonucleases involved in the normal turnover of mRNA: 5' to 3' exonuclease (Xrn1), which is a dependent decapping protein; 3' to 5' exonuclease, an independent protein; and poly(A)-specific 3' to 5' exonuclease. In both archaea and eukaryotes, one
Exonuclease
723508
substrate to the light-producing reaction. The luminescence occurs as a brief (0.1 sec) blue flash (max 476 nm) when stimulated, usually by mechanical disturbance. Therefore, when mechanically stimulated—by boat, swimming, or waves, for example—a blue sparkling light can be seen emanating from the sea surface. Dinoflagellate bioluminescence is controlled by a circadian clock and only occurs at night. Luminescent and nonluminescent strains can occur in the same species. The number of scintillons is higher during night than during day, and breaks down during the end of the night, at the time of maximal bioluminescence. The luciferin-luciferase reaction responsible for the
Dinoflagellate
331497
contains the four oxidizing equivalents that are used to drive the water-oxidizing reaction (Dolai's S-state diagrams). Photosystem II is the only known biological enzyme that carries out this oxidation of water. The hydrogen ions are released in the thylakoid lumen andd therefore contribute to the transmembrane chemiosmotic potential that leads to ATP synthesis. Oxygen is a waste product of light-dependent reactions, but the majority of organisms on Earth use oxygen for cellular respiration, including photosynthetic organisms. In the light-independent (or "dark") reactions, the enzyme RuBisCO captures CO from the atmosphere and, in a process called the Calvin cycle, it uses
Photosynthesis
16021437
anaerobic phototrophs suggest that most of them are in an evolutionary stable state. Aerobic anoxygenic photoheterotroph bacteria Aerobic anoxygenic photoheterotrophic bacteria (AAPB), also named aerobic anoxygenic photoheterotrophs (AAPs), is a group of bacteria that are primarily heterotrophic but can utilize light energy through bacterial chlorophyll a. In contrast to other known anoxygenic phototrophs, these microbes are obligatory aerobes: They metabolize carbon and other organic substrates and use O2-dependent respiration, but they also contain bacteriochlorophyll a, carotenoids, as well as photosynthetic reaction centers and light-harvesting complexes. Although the amount of bacteriochlorophyll in these photoheterotrophs is lower than in other photosynthetic bacteria,
Aerobic anoxygenic photoheterotroph bacteria
20274032
that light consists of discrete quanta. The excitation of a single chemical reaction by a light quantum could be explained, but not the quantum yield of reactions such as photochlorination. The idea that these reactions might be chain reactions was brought up by Max Bodenstein (1913). He assumed that in the reaction of two molecules not only the end product of the reaction can be formed, but also unstable, reactive intermediates which can continue the chain reaction. Chemists studied the reaction in detail because of the importance of the reaction to the understanding of chemistry, of substitution patterns and derivatives.
Photochlorination
389275
IV, subtype IVc, delayed hypersensitivity reaction dependent in part on the tissue-injuring actions of natural killer cells. This contrasts with the other types of SCARs disorders, i.e. The DRESS syndrome which is a Type IV, Subtype IVb, hypersensitivity drug reaction dependent in part on the tissue-injuring actions of eosinophils and acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis which is a Type IV, subtype IVd, hypersensitivity reaction dependent in part on the tissue-injuring actions of neutrophils. Like other SCARs-inducing drugs, SJS-inducing drugs or their metabolites stimulate CD8 T cells or CD4 T cells to initiate autoimmune responses. Studies indicate that the mechanism by which
Stevens–Johnson syndrome
14526783
low end of the AM radio band at 600 kilohertz. The 200CD became a ubiquitous audio generator in engineering laboratories worldwide from the 1950s to the 1990s. HP200A The HP200A was the first product made by Hewlett-Packard and was manufactured in David Packard's garage in Palo Alto, California. It was a low-distortion audio oscillator used for testing sound equipment. It used the Wien bridge oscillator circuit, that had been the subject of Bill Hewlett's Masters thesis. It was also the first such commercial oscillator to use a simple light bulb as the temperature-dependent resistor in its feedback network. The light
HP200A
13969337
D produced is degraded. Synthesis of vitamin D in nature is dependent on the presence of UV radiation and subsequent activation in liver and in kidney. Many animals synthesize vitamin D from 7-dehydrocholesterol, and many fungi synthesize vitamin D from ergosterol. Click on icon in lower right corner to open. The transformation that converts 7-dehydrocholesterol to vitamin D occurs in two steps. First, 7-dehydrocholesterol is photolyzed by ultraviolet light in a 6-electron conrotatory ring-opening electrocyclic reaction; the product is previtamin D. Second, previtamin D spontaneously isomerizes to vitamin D (cholecalciferol) in an antarafacial sigmatropic [1,7] hydride shift. At room temperature,
Vitamin D
13691831
is, the electron on the acceptor could move back to neutralize the positive charge on the special pair. Its return to the special pair would waste a valuable high-energy electron and simply convert the absorbed light energy into heat. In the case of PSII, this backflow of electrons can produce reactive oxygen species leading to photoinhibition. Three factors in the structure of the reaction center work together to suppress charge recombination nearly completely. Thus, electron transfer proceeds efficiently from the first electron acceptor to the next, creating an electron transport chain that ends if it has reached NADPH. The photosynthesis
Light-dependent reactions
9921679
membrane-bound receptors containing seven transmembrane domains, for example odor and chemokine receptors. Instead of being activated by binding chemical ligands like their relatives, rhodopsins contain retinal which changes conformation in reaction to light via photoisomerization and thus are activated by light. The retinal molecule can take on several different cis-trans isomeric forms, such as all-"trans", 11-"cis" and 13-"cis". Photoisomerization (light-dependent isomerization) of retinal from "cis" to "trans" or vice versa induces a conformational change in the receptor protein. This change acts as a molecular switch to activate a signal transduction mechanism within the cell. Depending on the type of rhodopsin,
Retinylidene protein
10303861
stereoisomer is observed. However, in other cases, there is no selectivity at all, resulting in a 1:1 ratio of stereoisomers. An example taken from "Name Reactions: Heterocyclic Chemistry" by Jie Jack Li shows a case of stereospecificity in the Bucherer–Bergs reaction. While the end product of the Bucherer–Bergs reaction is a hydantoin, the hydantoin can undergo hydrolysis to form an aminio acid. This is what is assumed in the example below. For comparison, the amino acid product for the Strecker synthesis has also been included. The hydantoins formed by the Bucherer–Bergs reaction have many useful applications. They: Bucherer–Bergs reaction The
Bucherer–Bergs reaction
3876569
shown to induce IFNγ and CD8+ T cell dependent anti-tumor immunity. More specifically, PEGylated recombinant human IL-10 (PEG-rHuIL-10) has been shown to enhance CD8+ T cell secretion of the cytotoxic molecules Granzyme B and Perforin and potentiate T cell receptor dependent IFNγ secretion. A study in mice has shown that IL-10 is also produced by mast cells, counteracting the inflammatory effect that these cells have at the site of an allergic reaction. IL-10 is capable of inhibiting synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-3, TNFα and GM-CSF made by cells such as macrophages and Th1 T cells. It
Interleukin 10
6435457
with a pH 11.25: bicinchoninic acid, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium tartrate, and copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate. The BCA assay primarily relies on two reactions. First, the peptide bonds in protein reduce Cu ions from the copper(II) sulfate to Cu (a temperature dependent reaction). The amount of Cu reduced is proportional to the amount of protein present in the solution. Next, two molecules of bicinchoninic acid chelate with each Cu ion, forming a purple-colored complex that strongly absorbs light at a wavelength of 562 nm. The bicinchoninic acid Cu complex is influenced in protein samples by the presence of cysteine/cystine, tyrosine,
Bicinchoninic acid assay
290070
enzyme has been shown to introduce the variant histone H2A.Z into nucleosomes. At present, it is not clear if all of these represent distinct reactions or merely alternative outcomes of a common mechanism. What is shared between all, and indeed the hallmark of ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling, is that they all result in altered DNA accessibility. Studies looking at gene activation "in vivo" and, more astonishingly, remodeling "in vitro" have revealed that chromatin remodeling events and transcription-factor binding are cyclical and periodic in nature. While the consequences of this for the reaction mechanism of chromatin remodeling are not known, the dynamic
Nucleosome
9323702
assembly of human PCC heteromeric subunits c. Bicarbonate: negative cooperativity d. Mg and MgATP: allosteric activation a. 6-Deoxyerythronolide B: decrease in PCC levels lead to increased production b. Glucokinase in pancreatic beta cells: precursor of beta-PCC shown to decrease KM and increase Vmax; activation Propionyl-CoA carboxylase Propionyl-CoA carboxylase (PCC) catalyses the carboxylation reaction of propionyl CoA in the mitochondrial matrix. The enzyme is biotin-dependent. The product of the reaction is (S)-methylmalonyl CoA. Propionyl CoA is the end product of metabolism of odd-chain fatty acids, and is also a metabolite of most methyl-branched fatty acids. It is also the main metabolite
Propionyl-CoA carboxylase
2874488
also twists about the axis of the helix. When linearly polarized light is again introduced at one end, with the orientation of the polarization aligned with the stripe, it will, in general, emerge as linear polarized light aligned not with the stripe, but at some fixed angle to the stripe, dependent upon the length of the fiber, and the pitch and radius of the helix. This system is also nonholonomic, for we can easily coil the fiber down in a second helix and align the ends, returning the light to its point of origin. The anholonomy is therefore represented by
Nonholonomic system
14517450
was an honest mistake. After viewing the end, he said, "[Bradley's] hurt. He's still hurt and still on his feet. He's working a bit, he's in it. Sounded like the bell to me. But you don't always hear the 10-second warning. You'd like to, but what I thought I heard was the bell. I made the call that I made based upon what I heard. That's all I can say. It was an honest call based on an honest reaction." The fight averaged 1.121 million viewers and peaked at 1.228 million on HBO. On July 8, Vargas filed an appeal
Jessie Vargas
10620195
called aptamers. At temperatures below the optimal reaction temperature of the DNA-dependent polymerase component of Tth remains covered by the aptamers. At these temperatures the Tth enzyme only synthesizes a DNA copy of the RNA template. Once the reaction temperature is raised to 95 °C, the aptamers are removed and the DNA-dependent polymerase component will start to amplify the target sequence. PCR amplification of the DNA target occurs in three steps: denaturation, annealing and extension. Each of these steps occur at a specific temperature for a fixed period of time. Denaturation is normally allowed to occur between 90 and 95
Potato virus Y
2059570
at some stage. The reaction catalyzed by bacterial luciferase is also an oxidative process: In the reaction, a reduced flavin mononucleotide oxidizes a long-chain aliphatic aldehyde to an aliphatic carboxylic acid. The reaction forms an excited hydroxyflavin intermediate, which is dehydrated to the product FMN to emit blue-green light. Nearly all of the energy input into the reaction is transformed into light. The reaction is 80% to 90% efficient. As a comparison, the incandescent light bulb only converts about 10% of its energy into light. and a 150 lumen per Watt (lm/W) LED converts 20% of input energy to visible
Luciferase
9323696
Propionyl-CoA carboxylase Propionyl-CoA carboxylase (PCC) catalyses the carboxylation reaction of propionyl CoA in the mitochondrial matrix. The enzyme is biotin-dependent. The product of the reaction is (S)-methylmalonyl CoA. Propionyl CoA is the end product of metabolism of odd-chain fatty acids, and is also a metabolite of most methyl-branched fatty acids. It is also the main metabolite of valine, and together with acetyl-CoA, is a metabolite of isoleucine, as well as a methionine metabolite. Propionyl-CoA is thus of great importance as a glucose precursor. (S)-Methylmalonyl-CoA is not directly utilizable by animals; it is acted on by a racemase to give (R)-methylmalonyl-CoA.
Propionyl-CoA carboxylase
13202834
guanosine and adenosine of RNA at C-8 position through a barrierless Friedel-Crafts reaction. This chemical probing method is light-controllable, and probes solvent accessbility of nucleobase, which has been shown to footprint RNA binding proteins inside cells. LASER can be used to probe RNA 3D structure, such as RNA domains protected by three-dimentional RNA motifs. In-line probing does not involve treatment with any type of chemical or reagent to modify RNA structures. This type of probing assay uses the structure dependent cleavage of RNA; single stranded regions are more flexible and unstable and will degrade over time. The process of in-line
Nucleic acid structure determination
9559432
by this method is inversely dependent on the reaction temperature, although the rate of phthalyl introduction is faster at high temperatures. Phthalyl content also depends on proportions of acetic acid, as a reaction solvent CAP has been used for several decades as a pharmaceutical excipient due to its solubility dependent on the pH of the aqueous media. Enteric coatings based on CAP are resistant to acidic gastric fluids, but easily soluble in mildly basic medium of the intestine. The pH sensitive solubility of CAP is mainly determined (as other properties of this mixed ester) by the degree of substitution (DS),
Cellulose acetate phthalate
10439001
appears on the back of the cover outside of its jar, and the track list of the album is written along its antennae. The inside art mostly consists of a gigantic scene scanned from Corrigan's sketchbook (apparent from the visible binding rings on the left of the scene) of what appears to be a man dressed as a rabbit dragging another man dressed as a rabbit in a surreal forest scene. The two men dressed as rabbits have been made into a tour T-shirt, as has the cockroach. "Light at the End" became the fastest selling local album in Maine
Light at the End
9038635
the 3' end of the RNA template by means of a primer-independent ("de novo"), or a primer-dependent mechanism that utilizes a viral protein genome-linked (VPg) primer. The "de novo" initiation consists in the addition of a nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) to the 3'-OH of the first initiating NTP. During the following so-called elongation phase, this nucleotidyl transfer reaction is repeated with subsequent NTPs to generate the complementary RNA product. Viral RdRPs were discovered in the early 1960s from studies on mengovirus and polio virus when it was observed that these viruses were not sensitive to actinomycin D, a drug that inhibits
RNA-dependent RNA polymerase
8660321
tank (made by the Hammond company) or its spin-off company Accutronics. The addition of the reverb circuit requires an additional "gain" stage in the preamp, and as such, the Vibrato channel is capable of a bit more distortion when the volume is set high. Vibrato (tremolo) is accomplished with what is known as a "vibrato bug" by Fender amplifier repairmen. The vibrato bug is a four-wire device consisting of a neon tube and light-dependent variable resistor, packaged in a short section of black tubing. It resembles a water bug, with slender wispy legs. The tube generated vibrato oscillator pulsates the
Fender Twin
158806
Jesus is (the answer being that he is the messiah), then what form his mission takes (a mission of suffering culminating in the crucifixion and resurrection, events only to be understood when the questions are answered), while another scholar, C. Myers, has made what Edwards calls a "compelling case" for recognising the incidents of Jesus' baptism, transfiguration and crucifixion, at the beginning, middle and end of the gospel, as three key moments, each with common elements, and each portrayed in an apocalyptic light. Stephen H. Smith has made the point that the structure of Mark is similar to the structure
Gospel of Mark
15476506
arrives, then it is said to be surface-reaction-limited. A deposition process that is surface-reaction-limited is primarily dependent on reactant concentration and reaction temperature. Deposition processes must be surface-reaction-limited because they result in excellent thickness uniformity and step coverage. A plot of the logarithm of the deposition rate against the reciprocal of the absolute temperature in the surface-reaction-limited region results in a straight line whose slope is equal to –qE/k. At reduced pressure levels for VLSI manufacturing, polysilicon deposition rate below 575 °C is too slow to be practical. Above 650 °C, poor deposition uniformity and excessive roughness will be encountered
Polycrystalline silicon
3183656
prick, or break through, the top layer of skin. This puts a small amount of the allergen under the skin. A hive will form at any spot where the person is allergic. This test generally yields a positive or negative result. It is good for quickly learning if a person is allergic to a particular food or not, because it detects IgE. Skin tests cannot predict if a reaction would occur or what kind of reaction might occur if a person ingests that particular allergen. They can, however, confirm an allergy in light of a patient's history of reactions to
Food allergy
15485617
NADH instead of NADPH at least for this particular reduction. An alternative example of changing an enzyme’s preference for cofactors is to change NADH dependent reaction to NADPH dependent reactions. In this example, the enzymes themselves are not changed, but instead different enzymes are selected that accomplish the same reaction with the use of a different cofactor. An engineered pathway was created to make 1-butanol from Acetyl-CoA by changing enzymes in the metabolic pathway of S. elongatus. The Clostridium genus is known to produce 1-butanol, providing a pathway that could be inserted in S. elongatus. This pathway synthesizes 1-butanol using
Cofactor engineering
1589189
'cuts the world down to size' and makes what there is dependent on what there can be interpreted to be. Nagel claims this is no better than more orthodox forms of idealism in which reality is claimed to be made up of mental items or claimed to be constitutively dependent on a form supplied by the mind. Nagel is probably most widely known within the field of philosophy of mind as an advocate of the idea that consciousness and subjective experience cannot, at least with the contemporary understanding of physicalism, be satisfactorily explained using the current concepts of physics. This
Thomas Nagel
4440029
with erythema (redness), or 10mm without, 48 hours post injection are positive Fernandez reactions. Unlike the tuberculin test however, another reaction occurs in lepromatous patients at the injection site 21 days post injection, also appearing as induration and possible ulceration. This late positive reaction is known as the Mitsuda reaction. These reactions differ dependent on the type of lepromin antigen used. There are two types of lepromin antigen in use that differ in the method of preparation. The Dharmendra antigen evokes a stronger early positive reaction than the Mitsuda antigen, which provokes a stronger late reaction. A strong Mitsuda reaction
Lepromin
8313185
Light Reaction Regiment The Light Reaction Regiment is the premier counter-terrorist unit of the Philippine Army and the Special Mission Unit of the Philippines. It was formerly known as the Light Reaction Battalion and Light Reaction Company. Due to its specialization in counter-terrorism operations and its formation with American advisers, the Light Reaction Regiment has been sometimes referred to as the Philippines' Delta Force. The Light Reaction Regiment can trace its origins back to the year 2000 when non-commissioned officers from the Scout Rangers and 1st Special Forces Regiment (Airborne) were trained by American military advisers from the 1st Battalion,
Light Reaction Regiment
6357293
the substrate concentration up to a certain level called V; at V, increase in substrate concentration does not cause any increase in reaction rate as there no more enzyme (E) available for reacting with substrate (S). Here, the rate of reaction becomes dependent on the ES complex and the reaction becomes a unimolecular reaction with an order of zero. Though the enzymatic mechanism for the unimolecular reaction <chem> ES ->[k_{cat}] E + P </chem> can be quite complex, there is typically one rate-determining enzymatic step that allows this reaction to be modelled as a single catalytic step with an apparent
Enzyme kinetics
13878475
hath straitly given in charge "that no man shall have private conference, of what degree soever, with his brother" (Shakespeare). You shall confess "that you are both deceived" (Shakespeare). Dependent statement In grammar, a dependent statement is a statement converted into a noun clause, normally, in English, by the addition of "that" at the beginning, and made dependent on another clause (e.g. as subject or object). For example, the statement "I had saved his brother" appears as object of the verb "knew" in the following quotation: I would he knew "that I had saved his brother!" (Shakespeare). The statement "They
Dependent statement
13691834
lumen. The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase. The overall process of the photosynthetic electron transport chain in chloroplasts is: PS II is extremely complex, a highly organized transmembrane structure that contains a "water-splitting complex", chlorophylls and carotenoid pigments, a "reaction center" (P680), pheophytin (a pigment similar to chlorophyll), and two quinones. It uses the energy of sunlight to transfer electrons from water to a mobile electron carrier in the membrane called "plastoquinone": Plastoquinone, in turn, transfers electrons to "cyt", which feeds them into PS I. The step → P680 is performed by a
Light-dependent reactions
20666546
K can be ascribed to a change in reaction mechanism. This explanation has been supported experimentally. At 400 K (127 °C), the reaction rate per surface Au atom is not dependent on particle diameter, but the reaction rate per perimeter Au atom is directly proportional to particle diameter. This suggests that the mechanism above 333 K takes place on the gold surfaces. By contrast, at 300 K (27 °C), the reaction rate per surface Au atom is inversely proportional to particle diameter, while the rate per perimeter interface does not depend on particle size. Hence, CO oxidation occurs on the
Heterogeneous gold catalysis
12924958
The light-dependent reductase needs light to operate. The dark-operative version is a completely different protein, consisting of three subunits that exhibit significant sequence similarity to the three subunits of nitrogenase, which catalyzes the formation of ammonia from dinitrogen. This enzyme might be evolutionary older but (being similar to nitrogenase) is highly sensitive to free oxygen and does not work if its concentration exceeds about 3%. Hence, the alternative, light-dependent version needed to evolve. Most of the photosynthetic bacteria have both light-dependent and light-independent reductases. Angiosperms have lost the dark-operative form and rely on 3 slightly different copies of light-dependent version,
Protochlorophyllide