which of the following was an influence of medieval islam on the west
Mathematics
6589128
Mathematics in medieval Islam Mathematics during the Golden Age of Islam, especially during the 9th and 10th centuries, was built on Greek mathematics (Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius) and Indian mathematics (Aryabhata, Brahmagupta). Important progress was made, such as the full development of the decimal place-value system to include decimal fractions, the first systematised study of algebra (named for "The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing" by scholar Al-Khwarizmi), and advances in geometry and trigonometry. Arabic works also played an important role in the transmission of mathematics to Europe during the 10th to 12th centuries. The study of algebra, the
Mathematics in medieval Islam
6589128
Mathematics in medieval Islam Mathematics during the Golden Age of Islam, especially during the 9th and 10th centuries, was built on Greek mathematics (Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius) and Indian mathematics (Aryabhata, Brahmagupta). Important progress was made, such as the full development of the decimal place-value system to include decimal fractions, the first systematised study of algebra (named for "The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing" by scholar Al-Khwarizmi), and advances in geometry and trigonometry. Arabic works also played an important role in the transmission of mathematics to Europe during the 10th to 12th centuries. The study of algebra, the
Mathematics in medieval Islam
391937
legal systems. For example, the influence of Islam on the development of an international law of the sea can be discerned alongside that of the Roman influence. Makdisi states Islamic law also parallels the legal scholastic system in the West, which gave rise to the modern university system. He writes that the triple status of "faqih" ("master of law"), "mufti" ("professor of legal opinions") and "mudarris" ("teacher"), conferred by the classical Islamic legal degree, had its equivalents in the medieval Latin terms "magister", "professor" and "doctor", respectively, although they all came to be used synonymously in both East and West.
Sharia
3792570
scholarly vision (the "scholastic humanism" of the title) was to have a major influence on Western culture beyond the schools, as scholars and school-educated men moved out of the schools and took important roles in the government and the church. In addition to these major works, Southern also wrote several works that have not had quite as much influence on medieval scholarship. His brief "Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages" represents a relatively early effort to describe medieval attitudes towards Islam, identifying three stages in their development. His "Medieval Humanism and Other Studies" states first several themes that
R. W. Southern
2617231
empire expansion into the region. But with the collapse of the Majapahit kingdom, the influence of Hinduism began to decrease with the onset of the influence of Islam in the coastal communities. The advent of the Demak Sultanate in Central Java had a huge impact on the spread of the teachings of Islam in West Nusa Tenggara. The influence of Islam in West Nusa Tenggara was generally brought by the Malays. The influence of Islam in Bima can not be separated from the support of King I Maliingkaang Daeng-Mannyonriq of Makassar, who was then known as Karaeng Matoaya who played
West Nusa Tenggara
17668777
All Pakistan Private School's Federation announced that the book would be banned in its 152,000 member institutions, stating that it disrespected Islam and could have a "negative" influence. Pakistani investigative editor Ansar Abbasi described her work as "providing her critics something 'concrete' to prove her as an 'agent' of the West against Islam and Pakistan". Following the book's release, the Pakistani Taliban released a statement threatening to kill Yousafzai, and target bookshops which sell the book. "I Am Malala" was published on 8 October 2013, by Weidenfeld & Nicolson in the UK and Little, Brown and Company in the US.
I Am Malala
10911849
is in conflict with an idea Joseph Schumpeter called the Great (Schumpeterian) Gap, which comes from his 1954 book "History of Economic Analysis", claiming a break in economic thought during the 500-year period between the decline of the Greco-Roman civilization in the eighth century and the thirteenth century work of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274). However, in 1964 Joseph J. Spengler's "Economic Thought of Islam: Ibn Khaldun" appeared in the journal "Comparative Studies in Society and History" and took a large step in bringing knowledge of medieval Muslim economic scholars to the contemporary West. The influence of earlier Greek and Hellenistic thought
Ancient economic thought
11111409
Hindu–Islamic relations Hinduism is a socio-religious way of life of the Hindu people of the Indian subcontinent, their diaspora, and some other regions which had Hindu influence in the ancient and medieval times. Islam is a monotheistic religion in which the supreme deity is Allah ( : see God in Islam), the last prophet being Muhammad, whom Muslims believe delivered the Islamic scripture, the Qur'an. Hinduism mostly shares common terms with the "dhārmic" religions, including Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Islam shares common terms with the Abrahamic religions–those religions claiming descent from Abraham–being, from oldest to youngest, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and
Hindu–Islamic relations
6955900
version of the Islamic world is prominent in medieval Icelandic romance, partly inspired by Continental narratives influenced by the Crusades. Although this image generally characterises the Islamic world as 'heathen', and repeats the misconceptions of Islam widespread in the medieval West, it also varies substantially from text to text, sometimes, for example, associating the Islamic world with great wealth, wisdom, or chivalry. Romance continued to serve as a medium for Icelanders to contemplate Islam in the post-medieval period, for example in Jón Oddsson Hjaltalín's eighteenth-century romance "Fimmbræðra saga", which combined traditional storytelling with Continental Enlightenment scholarship. Perhaps the earliest known
Islam in Iceland
11111441
is not an isolated incident in the Gujarat state, in other states in India, especially in rural area violence between Muslims and Hindus is a common occurrence, that can result in fatalities. Hindu–Islamic relations Hinduism is a socio-religious way of life of the Hindu people of the Indian subcontinent, their diaspora, and some other regions which had Hindu influence in the ancient and medieval times. Islam is a monotheistic religion in which the supreme deity is Allah ( : see God in Islam), the last prophet being Muhammad, whom Muslims believe delivered the Islamic scripture, the Qur'an. Hinduism mostly shares
Hindu–Islamic relations
1546748
"Europe and Islam". Lewis' influence extends beyond academia to the general public. He was a pioneer of the social and economic history of the Middle East and is famous for his extensive research of the Ottoman archives. He began his research career with the study of medieval Arab, especially Syrian, history. His first article, dedicated to professional guilds of medieval Islam, had been widely regarded as the most authoritative work on the subject for about thirty years. However, after the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948, scholars of Jewish origin found it more and more difficult to conduct
Bernard Lewis
15516798
to defend the possibility of philosophical thought as non-heretical, he does at the same time himself reject the theses of the Neoplatonist philosophers. After the death of Ibn Rushd in 1198, the debate on Neoplatonism in Islam mostly comes to an end, and survival of Neoplatonic thought within Islam was mostly limited to Ismailism. Platonism in Islamic Philosophy Medieval Islamic philosophy was steeped in both Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism from its 9th-century beginnings with Al-Kindi, but the influence of Neoplatonism becomes more clearly visible in the 10th and 11th centuries with Al-Farabi and Avicenna. Al-Farabi expanded on Plato’s concept of an
Platonism in Islamic Philosophy
398748
Sunni Islamic life in regions stretching from India and Iraq to Senegal. Sufism continued to remain a crucial part of daily Islamic life until the twentieth century, when its historical influence upon Islamic civilization began to be combated by the rise of Salafism and Wahhabism. Islamic scholar Timothy Winter has remarked: "[In] classical, mainstream, medieval Sunni Islam ... [the idea of] 'orthodox Islam' would not ... [have been possible] without Sufism," and that the classical belief in Sufism being an essential component of Islam has only weakened in some quarters of the Islamic world "a generation or two ago" with
Sunni Islam
2008302
agreed to convert to Islam and supply information useful for future raids. The taifa also gained prestige and political influence because of its role in fighting the infidel and providing the merchants and rulers of Algiers with a major source of income. Algiers became the privateering city-state par excellence, especially between 1560 and 1620. And it was two privateer brothers who were instrumental in extending Ottoman influence in Algeria. Medieval Muslim Algeria Medieval Muslim Algeria was a period of Muslim dominance in Algeria during the Middle Ages, roughly spanning the millennium from the 7th century to the 17th century. Unlike
Medieval Muslim Algeria
8307357
their views on the Earth's motion. In the 16th century, the debate on the Earth's motion was continued by al-Birjandi (d. 1528), who in his analysis of what might occur if the Earth were moving, develops a hypothesis similar to Galileo Galilei's notion of "circular inertia", which he described in the following observational test (as a response to one of Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi's arguments): Cosmology in medieval Islam Islamic cosmology is the cosmology of Islamic societies. It is mainly derived from the Qur'an, Hadith, Sunnah, and current Islamic as well as other pre-Islamic sources. The Qur'an itself mentions seven heavens.
Cosmology in medieval Islam
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Roman Empire, as well as the lack of real information in the West of the mysterious East. Muhammad is characterized as ""pseudo-prophet"" in Byzantine and post-Byzantine religious and historic texts, as for example by Niketas Choniates (12th-13th c.). Medieval Christian views on Muhammad During the Early Middle Ages, Christendom largely viewed Islam as a Christological heresy and Muhammad as a false prophet. By the Late Middle Ages, Islam was more typically grouped with heathenism, and Muhammad was viewed as inspired by the devil. A more relaxed or benign view of Islam only developed in the modern period, after the Islamic
Medieval Christian views on Muhammad
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the element's physical properties. Al-Rāzī mentions the following chemical processes: distillation, calcination, solution, evaporation, crystallization, sublimation, filtration, amalgamation, and ceration (a process for making solids pasty or fusible.) Some of these operations (calcination, solution, filtration, crystallization, sublimation and distillation) are also known to have been practiced by pre-Islamic Alexandrian alchemists. In his "Secretum secretorum", Al-Rāzī mentions the following equipment: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam Alchemy and chemistry in Islam refers to the study of both traditional alchemy and early practical chemistry (the early chemical investigation of nature in general) by scholars in the medieval Islamic world. The word "alchemy"
Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam
14673458
for the poor and a dislike of older, established monastic orders. The Kildare poems comprise the following items: The Kildare Poems show many linguistic features common to the Middle English dialects of the west and south-west of England, from which most English-speaking settlers in medieval Ireland had come, but they also display a number of unique features that point towards an independent development of English dialects in Ireland, either because of levelling between different source dialects of English, or because of the influence of Irish. Among the conspicuous features are: The following is a passage from the "Land of Cokaygne",
Kildare Poems
1468067
of Greek manuscripts and hired translators to increase their prestige. Islamic philosophers such as Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) reinterpreted these works, and during the High Middle Ages Greek philosophy re-entered the West through translations from Arabic to Latin and also from the Byzantine Empire. The re-introduction of these philosophies, accompanied by the new Arabic commentaries, had a great influence on Medieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas. Although we are fortunate to have some figures who preserved these valuable texts, the general trend in Islam was to dispose of books that conflicted with the
Ancient Greek philosophy
8307316
is He, Who is the only God, the knower of the Unseen and the Observed." Sufi cosmology () is a general term for cosmological doctrines associated with the mysticism of Sufism. These may differ from place to place, order to order and time to time, but overall show the influence of several different cosmographies: There are several verses in the Qur'an (610-632) which some medieval and modern writers have interpreted as foreshadowing modern cosmological theories. An early example of this can be seen in the work of the Islamic theologian Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209), in dealing with his conception of
Cosmology in medieval Islam
379959
period. Sufism continued to remain a crucial part of daily Islamic life until the twentieth century, when its historical influence upon Islamic civilization began to be undermined by modernism as well as be combated by the rise of Salafism and Wahhabism. Islamic scholar Timothy Winter has remarked: "[In] classical, mainstream, medieval Sunni Islam ... [the idea of] 'orthodox Islam' would not ... [have been possible] without Sufism", and that the classical belief in Sufism being an essential component of Islam only weakened in some quarters of the Islamic world "a generation or two ago", with the rise of Salafism. In
Sufism
1546761
Turkey, which he saw as especially important in light of the extension of the Soviet influence in the Middle East. Modern Turkey holds a special place in Lewis's view of the region due to the country's efforts to become a part of the West. He was an Honorary Fellow of the Institute of Turkish Studies, an honor which is given "on the basis of generally recognized scholarly distinction and ... long and devoted service to the field of Turkish Studies." Lewis views Christendom and Islam as civilizations that have been in perpetual collision since the advent of Islam in the
Bernard Lewis
11904302
of 3/14, which included an opening spell of 2–0–2–1. In the following match against the West Indies he was named man-of-the-match after taking 4/13. His performances earned him a place in the World team of the tournament. Parnell won the golden ball for being the leading wicket taker in the 2009 ICC Champions Trophy with 11 wickets. On 30 July 2011, Parnell announced that he had converted to Islam in January 2011 after a period of personal study. Parnell confirmed that his teammates Hashim Amla and Imran Tahir, along with team manager Mohammad Moosajee, had no influence over his decision
Wayne Parnell
3848891
early disciples migrated to Abyssinia (hijira) in fear of persecution from the pagan Arabs. The spread of Islam in North Africa came with the expansion of Arab empire under Caliph Umar, through the Sinai Peninsula. Spread of Islam in West Africa was through Islamic traders and sailors. Islam is the dominant religion in North Africa and the Horn of Africa. It has also become the predominant religion on the Swahili Coast as well as the West African seaboard and parts of the interior. There have been several Muslim empires in Western Africa which exerted considerable influence, notably the Mali Empire,
Religion in Africa
7834000
and political instability, where Judaism was in conflict with science, and Islam and Christianity were becoming a larger influence. His background was conveniently placed in the centre of contention between religions and circumstances that surrounded his upbringing, and provided the framework for polemics that would shape Medieval Judaic perception. In the "Dialogus" Alphonsi relates that he traveled to England as "magister" in liberal arts. He spent several years there as court physician of Henry I of England (reigned 1100-1135). The presence of Alfonsi in the West Country in the years before that date may have contributed to the flowering of
Petrus Alphonsi
8307354
that the Earth was stationary on the basis of Aristotelian cosmology and natural philosophy. By the 15th century, the influence of Aristotelian physics and natural philosophy was declining due to religious opposition from Islamic theologians such as Al-Ghazali who opposed to the interference of Aristotelianism in astronomy, opening up possibilities for an astronomy unrestrained by philosophy. Under this influence, Qushji, in his "Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy", rejected Aristotelian physics and completely separated natural philosophy from astronomy, allowing astronomy to become a purely empirical and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion
Cosmology in medieval Islam
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are evaluated on the basis of the influence that particular Muslims have had within the Muslim community and the manner in which their influence has benefited the Muslim community, both within the Islamic world and in terms of representing Islam to non-Muslims. "Influential" for the purposes of the book is defined as "any person who has the power (be it cultural, ideological, financial, political or otherwise) to make a change that will have a significant impact on the Muslim World". The publication defines eligible entries with the following: "Traditional Islam (96% of the world's Muslims): Also known as Orthodox Islam,
The 500 Most Influential Muslims
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with Berber and Arabian Islamic clerics, charting out the spread of Islam in West Africa. The Fula people led many jihads, or holy wars, some of which were major. These war efforts, helped spread Islam in West Africa, as well helped them dominate much of the Sahel region of West Africa during the medieval and pre-colonial era history, establishing them not only as a religious group but also as a political and economic force. Futa Toro was established in the 1500s, by Denianke dynasty built out of Fulani and Mandinka forces; the importance of Fula people to this rule led
Fula people
2617232
an important role in the spread of Islam in the region. The influence of Islam in the Bima Sultanate emerged in the reign of King Manuru Salehi around 1605 and began to grow rapidly during the reign of King Abdul Kahir . King Abdul Kahir is also known as the Sultan of Bima I, because he was the king who first embraced Islam in Bima, so it is considered a new era, separate from the previous Bima king who embraced Hinduism. Islam became the official religion of the kings in West Nusa Tenggara. The Europeans who first came to the
West Nusa Tenggara
9526243
itself on March 10, 1861, forcing the population to convert to Islam, and declaring an end to the Bambara Empire (which effectively became part of the newly declared Toucouleur Empire). The Mali Empire or Manding Empire or Manden Kurufa was a medieval West African state of the Mandinka from 1235 to 1645. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita and became renowned for the wealth of its rulers, especially Mansa Musa I. The Mali Empire had many profound cultural influences on West Africa, allowing the spread of its language, laws and customs along the Niger River. The Mali Empire grew
Legends of Africa
585028
Punic religion, Judaism, Iberian mythology, and the Hellenistic religion. The most recent influence came from Islam and pre-Islamic Arab religion during the medieval period. Some of the ancient Berber beliefs still exist today subtly within the Berber popular culture and tradition. Until the 1960s, there was also a significant Jewish Berber minority in Morocco, but emigration (mostly to Israel and France) dramatically reduced their number to only a few hundred individuals. Following Christian missions, the Kabyle community in Algeria has a decent-sized recently constituted Christian minority, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, and a 2015 study estimates 380,000 Muslim Algerians converted
Berbers
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road which leads to the village is the village has electricity and fixed telephone. Throughout most of the medieval and early-modern period this city was known as Yasi or Shavgar and after the 16th-17th centuries as Turkistan or Hazrat, both of which names derive from the title 'Hazrat-i Turkistan', which literally means "the Saint (or Blessed One) of Turkistan" and refers to Khoja Ahmad Yasavi, the Sufi Shaikh of Turkistan, who lived here during the 11th century CE and is buried in the town. Because of his influence and in his memory the city became an important centre of spirituality
Holiest sites in Sufi Islam
2111420
be an example of an attempt to destroy the Muslim way of life. Sayyid Qutb, for example, not only believed the West had "a well-thought-out scheme the object of which is first to shake the foundations of Islamic beliefs," but maintained that the medieval Christian Crusades were not "a form of imperialism," but rather Western imperialism was a new form of the Crusades, "latter-day" imperialism in Muslim lands being "but a mask for the crusading spirit." Savory says: "It is not surprising, therefore, to find a great similarity between the medieval view that it was safe to speak ill of
War against Islam conspiracy theory
10811203
historians suddenly discovered that early medieval Christianity was far more complex than they had ever imagined". Her book "Unrivalled Influence: Women and Empire in Byzantium" with its "comparative perspective on Byzantium, European Christendom, and Islam reflects a lifetime of distinguished work on the Byzantine Empire." "Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire" (2007) was similarly well received by academic historians writing in the UK broadsheet press. Norman Stone commented in "The Guardian": "Herrin is excellent on the Ravenna of Justinian, with the extraordinary mosaics that somehow survived the second world war (when Allied bombing could be ruthless) and she
Judith Herrin
11135558
from pre-Muslim times of West Java, precisely from the era of Hindu Sunda Kingdom. The script used in the manuscript is the usual Old Sundanese variety of the Indonesian family of Indic syllabaries, which fell into disuse after the penetration of Islam into western part of Java island. The language represents an older stage of Sundanese. It displays a marked influence from Javanese but does not contain one word which is tracable to Arabic, the language of Islam. In the content of the story, too, Islam is completely absent. More specifically the mention of Majapahit, Malaka and Demak allow us
Bujangga Manik
12185824
adopted son’s wife, Zaynab, a popular trope in Christian apologetic criticism of Islam in the medieval period. Like Geertz and Gellner, Mernissi is said to contribute to an essentialized ideal of Islam in which homogenized generalities substitute for the diverse behavior of Muslims in specific localities. Varisco address the problematic of the faith-based anthropology of Akbar Ahmed, specifically his concept of an "Islamic" anthropology. The book's epilogue builds on what anthropologists have learned in the past half century by observing Muslims; following the textual critique this is offered as a prolegomenon to future anthropological study within Islamic contexts and more
Daniel Martin Varisco
8491943
that another Tatar group, belonging to the Golden Horde, came to Dobruja during the rule of Nogai Khan, and were probably closely related to the present-day Nogais. Following Timur's offensives, the troops of Aktai Khan visited the region in the mid-14th century and around 100,000 Tatars settled there. Before and after the Golden Horde fell, Dobrujan Muslims, like the Crimean Tatars, were recipients of its cultural influences, and the language in use was Kipchak. The extension of Ottoman rule, effected under Sultans Bayezid I and Mehmed I, brought the influence of Medieval Turkish, as Dobruja was added to the "Beylerbeylik"
Islam in Romania
1624671
organization of Ansar al-Islam, which reportedly still had hundreds of fighters operating in the Hamrin Mountains. In a "Special Analysis" report dated July 31, 2002, the U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) concluded the following regarding possible connections between Saddam's regime and Ansar al-Islam: "The Iraqi regime seeks to influence and manipulate political events in the Kurdish-controlled north and probably has some type of assets in contact with Ansar al-Islam, either through liaison or through penetration by an intelligence asset." In January 2003, the U.S. alleged that Ansar al-Islam provided a possible link between Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda, and said to
Ansar al-Islam
982093
orthodox Islam reached the Fergana valley with the Uzbeks. However, in the tenth-century Persian text "Hudud al-'alam", the Kyrgyz was still described as a people who "venerate the Fire and burn the dead". Atheism has some following in the northern regions under Russian communist influence. As of today, few cultural rituals of Shamanism are still practiced alongside Islam, particularly in Central Kyrgyzstan. During a July 2007 interview, Bermet Akayeva, the daughter of Askar Akayev, the former President of Kyrgyzstan, stated that Islam is increasingly taking root, even in the northern portion which came under communist influence. She emphasized that many
Kyrgyz people
11438594
body. Medicine would be prescribed in order to re-balance the four humors of the body, an imbalance of which might result in psychosis. Insomnia, for example, was thought to result from excessive amounts of the dry humors which could be remedied by the use of humectants. Psychology in medieval Islam Islamic psychology or ʿilm al-nafs (Arabic: علم النفس), the science of the "nafs" ("self" or "psyche"), is the medical and philosophical study of the psyche from an Islamic perspective and addresses topics in psychology, neuroscience, philosophy of mind, and psychiatry as well as psychosomatic medicine. Concepts from medieval Islamic thought
Psychology in medieval Islam
12015092
kilometers west of Fez). Over the following decades, further regime changes and military interventions by powers from outside Morocco resulted in political instability and the complete disenfranchisement of the Idrisids. In 1069 Fez was conquered by the Almoravids, who promoted a stricter and more orthodox version of Sunni Islam (following the Maliki maddhab) which was hostile to the cult of "saints", resulting in another exodus of the sharifian families from the city. As the Idrisids lost power and Fez came under the control of other rulers who were hostile to their influence, the mosque and the mausoleum were neglected and
Zaouia Moulay Idriss II
9546784
as well as subjects toward the sovereign", which led to the "genesis of European legal structures" and the development of the "Magna Carta", may have been "brought back by Crusaders who were influenced by what they had learned in the Levant about the governing system" established by Saladin. It has also been suggested that "much of the West’s understanding of liberalism in law, economics and society has roots in medieval Islam." Another influence of Islamic law on European law was the presumption of innocence, which was introduced to Europe by King Louis IX of France soon after he returned from
Islamic ethics
8307330
he discusses the theories on the Earth's rotation supported by Brahmagupta and other Indian astronomers, while in his "Canon Masudicus", al-Biruni writes that Aryabhata's followers assigned the first movement from east to west to the Earth and a second movement from west to east to the fixed stars. Al-Biruni also wrote that al-Sijzi also believed the Earth was moving and invented an astrolabe called the "Zuraqi" based on this idea: In his "Indica", al-Biruni briefly refers to his work on the refutation of heliocentrism, the "Key of Astronomy", which is now lost: During this period, a distinctive Islamic system of
Cosmology in medieval Islam
1556358
derogatory or polemical reasons but also for more scholarly and neutral purposes. While Mormonism and Islam certainly have many similarities, there are also significant, fundamental differences between the two religions. Mormon–Muslim relations have historically been cordial; recent years have seen increasing dialogue between adherents of the two faiths, and cooperation in charitable endeavors, especially in the Middle and Far East. Islamic art and culture have both influenced and been influenced by Christian art and culture. Some arts have received such influence strongly, particularly religious architecture in the Byzantine and medieval eras Christianity and Islam Christianity and Islam are the two
Christianity and Islam
11670367
upon William of Auvergne and Albertus Magnus have been noted. The effects of Avicennism in were later submerged by the much more influential Averroism, the Aristotelianism of Averroes, one of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West. Averroes disagreed with Avicenna's interpretations of Aristotle in areas such as the unity of the intellect, and it was his interpretation of Aristotle which had the most influence in medieval Europe. Dante Aligheri argues along Averroist lines for a secularist theory of the state in "De Monarchia". Averroes also developed the concept of "existence precedes essence". Al-Ghazali also had an important influence
Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe
20537191
and in the Bangla Academy; and received the Bangla Academy Literary Award. His PhD thesis, Shahi Bengal, was published as a book. According to Banglapedia, the national encyclopedia of Bangladesh, the book is considered the most definite work on the history of Bengal. It deals with the administration, art, architecture, economy, literature, and religion of Bengal. He wrote about the Hussain Shahi dynasty. He studied the relationship between Hindi and Bengali medieval poetry. In his essay "The Cultural Identity of Bengali Muslims as Reflected in Medieval Bengali Literature" he wrote about the arrival of Islam in Bengal and its influence
Momtazur Rahman Tarafdar
8318421
world itself, and also from Jewish writers and from ecclesiastical Christians. Objects of criticism include the morality of the life of Muhammad, the last law bearing prophet of Islam, both in his public and personal life, as seen in medieval Christian views on Muhammad. Issues relating to the authenticity and morality of the Quran, the Islamic holy book, are also discussed by critics. Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Muslim-majority countries, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice. In wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim
Islam
1746524
or from the grave of a saint. The veneration of the relics of saints became an incredibly important part of devotional piety in both Sunni and Shia Islam throughout the classical and medieval periods, with "the ubiquity of relics and ritual practices associated with them" becoming a mainstay of "the devotional life of the Muslims ... [all over the world but particularly in] the Near East and North Africa." With the latter-day influence of the reformist movements of Salafism and Wahhabism, there is, according to some scholars, an erroneous perception which persists both among some modern Muslims and Western observers
Relic
7557127
Benadir region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring Abyssinia.The local Somalis adopted the Islamic faith well before the faith even took root in its place of origin. In the following centuries, the consolidation of Muslim trading networks, connected by lineage, trade, and Sufi brotherhoods, had reached a crescendo in West Africa, enabling Muslims to wield tremendous political influence and power. During the reign of Umar II, the then governor of Africa, Ismail ibn Abdullah, was said to have won the Berbers to Islam by his just
Islam in Africa
1943517
unpopular with the majority of the orthodox religious scholars of the time, under whose orders he was imprisoned several times. Often viewed as a minority figure in his own times and in the centuries that followed, Ibn Taymiyyah has become one of the most influential medieval writers in contemporary Islam, where his particular interpretations of the Qur'an and the Sunnah and his rejection of some aspects of classical Islamic tradition are believed to have had considerable influence on contemporary Wahhabism, Salafism, and Jihadism. Indeed, particular aspects of his teachings had a profound influence on Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the founder
Ibn Taymiyyah
14548624
Muḥammad ibn Umayl al-Tamīmī was a 10th-century alchemist of the symbolic-mystical branch. One of his surviving works is "Kitāb al-māʿ al-waraqī wa-l-arḍ al-najmiyya" ("The Book on Silvery Water and Starry Earth"). This work is a commentary on his poem, the "Risālat al-shams ilā al-hilāl" ("The Epistle of the Sun to the Crescent Moon") and contains numerous quotations from ancient authors. Ibn Umayl had important influence on medieval Western (Latin) alchemy, where his work is found under different names, mainly as Senior or as Zadith. His "Silvery Water" e.g. was reprinted as "The Chemical Tables of Senior Zadith" in the collection
Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam
5419022
he traveled to Istanbul and studied the manuscript there, among them Ibn Khaldun's autographed copy. His 1952 "History of Muslim Historiography" was the first study of this enormous subject. He wrote extensively on Islamic civilization, including "The Muslim Concept of Freedom", "The Classical Heritage in Islam", "The Herb: Hashish versus Medieval Muslim Society", "Gambling in Islam", "On Suicide in Islam" and "Sweeter Than Hope: Complaint and Hope in Medieval Islam", "Knowledge Triumphant: The Concept of Knowledge in Medieval Islam" (Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1970), as well as three volumes of collected essays and two volumes of translations from the Arabic text
Franz Rosenthal
15685100
Ali ibn Isa al-Kahhal ʿAlī ibn ʿĪsā al-Kahhal (fl. 1010 AD), surnamed "the oculist" ("al-kahhal") was the best known and most celebrated Arab ophthalmologist of medieval islam. He was known in medieval Europe as Jesu Occulist. He was the author of the influential "Memorandum of the Oculists", where for the first time in the literature a surgical anaesthetic is prescribed. He wrote the landmark textbook on ophthalmology in medieval Islam, "Notebook of the Oculists", for which he was known in medieval Europe as Jesu Occulist, with "Jesu" being a Latin translation of "Isa", the Arabic name for Jesus. Ibn 'Isa
Ali ibn Isa al-Kahhal
6586541
in countries like Pakistan (e.g. the Islamic revivalist movements, which has influenced many Muslims in Pakistan and Bangladesh). However, such views were also prevalent in the pre-colonial era, especially since the advent of Islam in India which brought purdah as ideal for Muslim women. Before the gradual spread of Islam largely through the influence of Sufis, there seems to be evidence of liberal attitudes towards sexuality and nudity in art. However, scholars debate the degree to which Islam, as a mass and varied phenomenon was responsible for this shift. While during the 1960s and 1970s in the west, many people
Sexuality in India
6705416
in the "Lumen gentium" and the "Nostra aetate" at the Second Vatican Council. Although a Catholic himself, he tried to understand Islam from within and thus had a great influence on the way Islam was seen in the West; among other things, he paved the way for a greater openness inside the Catholic Church towards Islam as it was documented in the pastoral Vatican II declaration "Nostra aetate". Louis Massignon was born in Nogent-sur-Marne near Paris, France. His father, Fernand Massignon (1855–1922), a painter and a sculptor under the pseudonym Pierre Roche, was an intimate friend of novelist Joris-Karl Huysmans.
Louis Massignon
13590630
solutions. Opposing those within Islam who argue for the continued and peaceful spread of economic and political freedoms as a means to solve these problems are the various Muslim fundamentalist movements, most notably Wahhabism, which blame all of these ills on whatever modernization and Western influence the Islamic world has already embraced, and advocate an unreserved rejection of the West. This rejection includes violence against Western countries and interests, and most especially violence against "impious" Muslim rulers who have adopted "Western" ways. The fundamentalists seek the establishment of states and societies based on Islamic Law and traditional mores. The author
The Crisis of Islam
8307352
them insofar as description and explanation of celestial realities are concerned." The theologian Adud al-Din al-Iji (1281–1355), under the influence of the Ash'ari doctrine of occasionalism, which maintained that all physical effects were caused directly by God's will rather than by natural causes, rejected the Aristotelian principle of an innate principle of circular motion in the heavenly bodies, and maintained that the celestial spheres were "imaginary things" and "more tenuous than a spider's web". His views were challenged by al-Jurjani (1339–1413), who argued that even if the celestial spheres "do not have an external reality, yet they are things that
Cosmology in medieval Islam
8649576
of devotees. The Tirumala Venkateswara Temple in Andhra Pradesh is considered to be the most-visited holy place in the world. The Cauvery river that flows through Karnataka and Tamil Nadu is also known as the "Ganges of South" and is one of the most sacred river of the Hindus. The Vedic culture in South India has been in some respects the best preserved of ancient Vedic culture and traditions. In North India during late ancient and medieval periods, Buddhism, Sikhism and Islam flourished alongside the Hindu majority. Every intermixing influenced North Indian culture, in particular Islam. The influence of Islam,
Hinduism in South India
17156115
members were part of the Irgun or Lehi. Canaanism never had more than around two dozen registered members, but because most of these were influential intellectuals and artists, the movement had an influence far beyond its size, Its members believed that much of the Middle East had been a Hebrew-speaking civilization in antiquity. Kuzar also says they hoped to revive this civilization, creating a "Hebrew" nation, disconnected from the Jewish past, which would embrace the Middle East's Arab population as well. They saw both "world Jewry and world Islam" as backward and medieval; Ron Kuzar writes that the movement "exhibited
Canaanism
7377161
the same period, the Muslim Emirate of Sicily was conquered by Norman adventurer Roger de Hauteville in 1091. Europe was immersed in power struggles on many different fronts. The Christian Church split along Latin Orthodox lines in 1054 after centuries of disagreement leading to a permanent division called the East–West Schism. Following the Gregorian Reform, an assertive, reformist papacy attempted to increase its power and influence over the laity. Beginning around 1075 and continuing during the First Crusade, the Investiture Controversy was a power struggle between Church and state in medieval Europe over whether the Catholic Church or the Holy
Crusades
11494136
that suggest that they had been loosely based on Arabic stories. She then suggests that the English medieval Romance itself is strongly influenced by Arabic ideals of romantic chivalry as well as key Arabic stories from various sources including "One Thousand and One Nights". The English texts she closely examines include Chaucer’s "The Canterbury Tales", the English Charlemagne Romances like "Sir Ferumbras" and the "Sowdone of Babylone" (p. 172-3) and several others. In several of these texts, Metlitzki explains, are found the beginnings of the misunderstanding of Islam by the West and she explores the depiction of Islam and the
The Matter of Araby in Medieval England
19933113
In 1478, Kertabhumi usurped Singhavikramavardhana, exiling him to Daha and reigned as Brawijaya V of Majapahit. However, Singhavikramavardhana's son Girindrawardhana consolidated a power base in Daha to retake the throne. He was supported by religious tensions. To keep Majapahit influence and economic interest, Kertabhumi had awarded Muslim merchant trading rights on the north coast of Java, an action which supported the prominence of Demak Sultanate in following decades. The policy increased Majapahit's economy and influence, but weakened Buddhism's position as the dominant religion, as Islam began to spread faster and more freely in Java. The conflict came to a head
Sudarma Wisuta war
11806695
mistaken, Islam is modernization" Following increasing economic problems, Islamist movements came about in 1970 with the revival of religious teaching in Ez-Zitouna University and the influence which came from Arab religious leaders like Syrian and Egyptian Muslim Brotherhoods. There is also influence by Hizb ut-Tahrir, whose members issue a magazine in Tunis named "Azeytouna". In the aftermath, the struggle between Bourguiba and Islamists became uncontrolled and in order to repress the opposition the Islamist leaderships were exiled, arrested and interrogated. Ennahda Movement, also known as Renaissance Party or simply Ennahda, is a moderate Islamist political party in Tunisia. On 1
Islam and secularism
12315995
Islam in North Ossetia-Alania Islam is the third most widely professed religion in the North Ossetia-Alania. While the majority of Ossetians are Christian (predominantly Eastern Orthodox) and professing their ancestral faith Uatsdin, according to official estimates, 15 percent of the population of North Ossetia-Alania is Muslim (predominantly Sunni). The Digor in the west came under Kabard and Islamic influence. It was through the Kabardians (an East Circassian tribe) that Islam was introduced into North Ossetia-Alania in the 17th century. The Ossetian capital of Vladikavkaz houses the Mukhtarov Mosque, built in the beginning of the 20th century. Money for the construction
Islam in North Ossetia-Alania
13599386
prominent throughout history. Baltimore is a strategic harbour town on Roaringwater Bay located west of Kinsale and east of Mizen Head. Baltimore Harbor is protected by two offshore Islands Cape Clear to the west and Sherkin Island. During the medieval period which was the height of the Ó hEidirsceoil's influence, they had fortresses on these islands as well as near Lough Ine which is a salt water lake on the nearby coast to the east of Baltimore. The Ó hEidirsceoil heritage is territorially associated with these lands around Baltimore, and an oral legend has it that if any seafarer were
Corcu Loígde
2870215
just refused, leading to confrontations, revolts, arrests, prison terms and forced labor. These complaints gelled into an anti-colonial nationalism movement in which the Fon people participated. France agreed to autonomy to Dahomey in 1958, and full independence in 1960. Some Fon people converted to Christianity or Islam under the influence of missionaries during the colonial era, in Benin and in French West Indies colonies, but many continued their traditional religious practices. While Islam arrived in the Benin area between 11th and 13th centuries, Christianity was adopted by Dahomey ruler Agonglo who came to power in 1789, and his Fon royalty
Fon people
6237725
established Islamic Wolof chiefs advised by Muslim counselors and divines. The Wolof belonged to the medieval era Wolof Empire of Senegambia region. Details of the pre-Islamic religious traditions of Wolof are unknown, and their oral traditions state them to have been adherents of Islam since the founding king of Jolof. However, historical evidence left by Islamic scholars and European travelers suggest that Wolof warriors and rulers did not convert to Islam, while accepting and relying on Muslim clerics as counselors and administrators. In and after the 18th century, the Wolofs were impacted by the violent jihads in West Africa, which
Wolof people
9370215
route by which Arabic words entered other West European languages. The majority of these words are nouns, with a more limited number of verbs, adjectives, adverbs and one preposition. Everyday Arabic loanwords include "rincón" (corner, from "rukkan"), "aceite" (oil, from "az-zayt"), and "alcalde" (mayor, from "al-qādī"), "ahorrar" (to save, from "hurr"), tarea (task, from "tariha") and "hasta" (until, from "hatta"). Following the adoption of Islam c. 950 by the Kara-Khanid Khanate and the Seljuq Turks, regarded as the cultural ancestors of the Ottomans, the administrative and literary languages of these states acquired a large collection of loanwords from Arabic (usually
Influence of Arabic on other languages
9489592
of a generation of scholars who, with one foot in both worlds, are trying to explain Islam and the West to each other." Safi was one of the co-founders of the Progressive Muslim Union (PMU-NA). He resigned from PMU in 2005, but he continues to support progressive interpretations of Islam outside of PMU. Omid Safi Omid Safi is an American Professor of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies at Duke University, where he is the Director of Duke Islamic Studies Center, and a columnist for On Being. Dr. Safi specializes in Islamic mysticism (Sufism), contemporary Islamic thought and medieval Islamic history.
Omid Safi
2605548
Cicero. The spread of Christianity throughout the Roman world, followed by the spread of Islam, ushered in the end of Hellenistic philosophy and the beginnings of Medieval philosophy (often forcefully, as under Justinian I), which was dominated by the three Abrahamic traditions: Jewish philosophy, Christian philosophy, and early Islamic philosophy. In spite of this shift, Hellenistic philosophy continued to influence these three religious traditions and the renaissance thought which followed them. Hellenistic culture produced seats of learning throughout the Mediterranean. Hellenistic science differed from Greek science in at least two ways: first, it benefited from the cross-fertilization of Greek ideas
Hellenistic period
4113881
a Sufi Tariqah (order). Islam in Chad was not influenced much by the great mystical movements of the Islamic Middle Ages, nor the fundamentalist upheavals that affected other countries. Consistent contact with West African Muslim traders and pilgrims may be the reason Chadian Muslims identify with the Tijaniyya order. Similarly, in the mid-nineteenth century, the Sanusiyya brotherhood was founded in Libya, which benefited from economic and political influence in the Lake Chad Basin around 1900. An Islamic revival movement, feared by some French, led by Sanusi fanatics, Chadian adherents, limited to the Awlad Sulayman Arabs and the Toubou of eastern
Islam in Chad
8307356
whether Qushji had any influence on Copernicus. However, it is likely that they both may have arrived at similar conclusions due to using the earlier work of al-Tusi as a basis. This is more of a possibility considering "the remarkable coincidence between a passage in "De revolutionibus" (I.8) and one in Ṭūsī’s "Tadhkira" (II.1[6]) in which Copernicus follows Ṭūsī’s objection to Ptolemy’s “proofs” of the Earth’s immobility." This can be considered as evidence that not only was Copernicus influenced by the mathematical models of Islamic astronomers, but may have also been influenced by the astronomical physics they began developing and
Cosmology in medieval Islam
15592046
Mufti of Egypt, Muhammad Abduh. Abduh had also read Western social thinkers like Renan, Rousseau, Spencer and Tolstoy, just as Antun, but coming to different conclusions on what that meant for Arab thought. Abduh believed that Islam needed to be central to Middle Eastern society and its core principles and tenets never to be comprised, while also remaining fluid and selectively borrowing from the West. The debate between the two was sparked by an article by Antun on the biography and thoughts of the Muslim medieval philosopher and jurist Ibn Rushd (1126–1198), in which he argued that Islamic orthodoxy had
Farah Antun
16004685
Affairs, Donald Van Duyn said the following on Islamic extremism in U.S. prisons:Prison radicalization primarily occurs through anti-US sermons provided by contract, volunteer, or staff Imams, radicalized inmates who gain religious influence, and extremist media. Ideologies that radicalized inmates appear most often to embrace or are influenced by the Salafi form of Sunni Islam (including revisionist versions commonly known as “prison Islam”) and an extremist view of Shia Islam similar to that of the Government of Iran and Lebanese Hizballah. "Prison" or "Jailhouse Islam" is unique to prison and incorporates values of gang loyalty and violence into the religion. The
Jihadist extremism in the United States
1929257
Hobson holds that a Muslim scientific revolution occurred during the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Donald Routledge Hill and Ahmad Y. Hassan argue that Islam was the driving force behind these scientific achievements. According to Ahmed Dallal, science in medieval Islam was "practiced on a scale unprecedented in earlier human history or even contemporary human history". Toby Huff takes the view that, although science in the Islamic world did produce innovations, it did not lead to a scientific revolution, which in his view required an ethos that existed in Europe in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, but not elsewhere in
Science in the medieval Islamic world
13842846
the eleventh century, the Kanem Empire, whose influence extended into Sudan, converted to Islam. At the same time but more toward West Africa, the reigning ruler of the Bornu Empire embraced Islam. As these kingdoms adopted Islam, their populace thereafter devotedly followed suit. In praising the Africans' zealousness to Islam, the fourteenth-century explorer Ibn Battuta stated that mosques were so crowded on Fridays, that unless one went very early, it was impossible to find a place to sit. In the sixteenth century, the Ouaddai Empire and the Kingdom of Kano embraced Islam, and later toward the eighteenth century, the Nigeria
Islamic missionary activity
275174
of Europe experienced stronger and less predictable weather. The weather gauge, the advantage of having a following wind, was an important factor in naval battles, particularly to the attackers. Typically westerlies (winds blowing from west to east) dominated Europe, giving naval powers to the west an advantage. Medieval sources on the conduct of medieval naval warfare are less common than those about land-based war. Most medieval chroniclers had no experience of life on the sea, and generally were not well-informed. Maritime archaeology has helped provide information. Early in the medieval period, ships in the context of warfare were used primarily
Medieval warfare
9456264
Medieval Christian views on Muhammad During the Early Middle Ages, Christendom largely viewed Islam as a Christological heresy and Muhammad as a false prophet. By the Late Middle Ages, Islam was more typically grouped with heathenism, and Muhammad was viewed as inspired by the devil. A more relaxed or benign view of Islam only developed in the modern period, after the Islamic empires ceased to be an acute military threat to Europe. See Orientalism. The earliest documented Christian knowledge of Muhammad stems from Byzantine sources, written shortly after Muhammad's death in 632. With the Crusades of the High Middle Ages,
Medieval Christian views on Muhammad
7333380
to explain everything that exists as the product of atoms falling and swerving in a void. Aristotle surveyed the thought of his predecessors and conceived of nature in a way that charted a middle course between their excesses. With the rise and dominance of Christianity in the West and the later spread of Islam, metaphysical naturalism was generally abandoned by intellectuals. Thus, there is little evidence for it in medieval philosophy. The reintroduction of Aristotle's empirical epistemology as well as previously lost treatises by Greco-Roman natural philosophers which was begun by the medieval Scholastics without resulting in any noticeable increase
Metaphysical naturalism
20441742
marked with the intellectual struggle between the traditionalists, who uphold the syncretic Islam fostered mainly through Naqshbandi worldview, and the modernists who are inspired by newly founded Islamic modernist movement which advocates for Sunnah, modern education and forsaking of non-orthodox traditions. Among the main contentions of the struggle are the allowance and the scope of "ijtihad" (independent thinking) and the aspects of "hukum wasilah" (rules of tawassul) deemed as incompatible with Sunnah. Modernists had hold West Sumatra as one of their bases for exerting the influence throughout the archipelago. One of the first modernist mass organizations in the archipelago was
Islam in West Sumatra
495296
acquired his Platonist philosophy through the mediation of the Neoplatonist teachings of Plotinus. Plotinus' philosophy had an influence on the development of Christian theology. In "A History of Western Philosophy", philosopher Bertrand Russell wrote that: The Eastern Orthodox position on "energy," for example, is often contrasted with the position of the Roman Catholic Church, and in part this is attributed to varying interpretations of Aristotle and Plotinus, either through Thomas Aquinas for the Roman Catholics or Gregory of Nyssa for the Orthodox Christians. Neoplatonism and the ideas of Plotinus influenced medieval Islam as well, since the Sunni Abbasids fused Greek
Plotinus
20854005
in Semitic Philology. In 1984 she became an interim assistant professor at the University of Zaragoza, and secured a titled position in 1986. A year later, in December 1987, she returned to the University of Barcelona as a full professor of Arab and Islamic Studies. In 1998 she received her doctorate in Medieval History. A specialist in the Islamic period in the Crown of Aragon, and especially in Catalonia, Bramon's work has focused on the presence of religious minorities (Mudejars, Jews) in these territories, Islamic theology, women in Islam, as well as philological studies on the influence and presence of
Dolors Bramon
10778001
Geography and cartography in medieval Islam Medieval Islamic geography was based on Hellenistic geography and reached its apex with Muhammad al-Idrisi in the 12th century. After its beginnings in the 8th century based on Hellenistic geography, Islamic geography was patronized by the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. Various Islamic scholars contributed to its development, and the most notable include Al-Khwārizmī, Abū Zayd al-Balkhī (founder of the "Balkhi school"), and Abu Rayhan Biruni. Islamic cartographers inherited Ptolemy's "Almagest" and "Geography" in the 9th century. These works stimulated an interest in geography (particularly gazetteers) but were not slavishly followed. Instead, Arabian and Persian
Geography and cartography in medieval Islam
571795
applied to them by Greco-Roman historians based on Greek place names. As the Middle Ages progressed, usage of the term in the Latin West changed, but its connotation remained negative, associated with opponents of Christianity, and its exact definition is unclear. In an 8th-century polemical work, John of Damascus criticized the Saracens as followers of a false prophet and "forerunner[s] to the Antichrist." By the 12th century, Medieval Europeans had more specific conceptions of Islam and used the term "Saracen" as an ethnic and religious marker. In some Medieval literature, Saracens—that is, Muslims—were described as black-skinned, while Christians were lighter-skinned.
Saracen
8089332
by Asín. He had outlined Ibn Hazm's influence on medieval Islam, and had published a study with translation which addressed his ethical thought, followed by a volume concerning Ibn Hazm's views on religious history. During his career, Ibn Hazm became a remarkable figure, not least for the wide scope of his abilities, e.g., producing significant writings as a theologian, as a jurist, and as a poet. From 1927 to 1932, Asín published a 5-volume study, "Abenházam de Córdoba y su historia crítica de las ideas religiosas" [Ibn Hazm of Cordoba and his "Critical History of Religious Ideas"]. Asín's first volume
Miguel Asín Palacios
8307350
that the heavens are less dense than the air. These views were later repeated by Witelo and had a significant influence on the Copernican and Tychonic systems of astronomy. In the 12th century, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi participated in the debate among Islamic scholars over whether the celestial spheres or orbits ("falak") are "to be considered as real, concrete physical bodies" or "merely the abstract circles in the heavens traced out year in and year out by the various stars and planets." He points out that many astronomers prefer to see them as solid spheres "on which the stars turn," while
Cosmology in medieval Islam
18510926
1474, that ruled from Daha. To keep Majapahit influence and economic interest, Kertabhumi awarded Muslim merchant trading rights on the north coast of Java, an action which led to the prominence of Demak Sultanate in following decades. This policy increased Majapahit economy and influence, but weaken Hindu - Buddha's position as the main religion, as Islam began to spread faster and freely in Java. Hindu - Buddha followers' grievance later urged Ranawijaya to defeat Kertabumi. In 1478, Ranawijaya's army under general Udara breached Trowulan defences and killed Kertabumi in his palace, Demak sent reinforcements under Sunan Ngudung, who later died
Bali Kingdom
7922595
the West to the East," highlighting the common cultural heritage of the two, and working towards a common goal. Shah's greatest interest within the East-West theme is probably the subject of the legacy of science in medieval Islam, and its role in creating a foundation for the Renaissance. He has lectured publicly on the subject and believes strongly in the importance of drawing attention to the polymath poet-scientists from the Golden Age of Islam. Tahir Shah Tahir Shah (, ; "né" Sayyid Tahir al-Hashimi (Arabic: سيد طاهر الهاشمي); born 16 November 1966) is a British author, journalist and documentary maker
Tahir Shah
772050
influence. Patron saint A patron saint, patroness saint, patron hallow or heavenly protector is a saint who in Roman Catholicism, Anglicanism, Eastern Orthodoxy, or particular branches of Islam, is regarded as the heavenly advocate of a nation, place, craft, activity, class, clan, family or person. Saints often become the patrons of places where they were born or had been active. However, there were cases in Medieval Europe where a city which grew to prominence and obtained for its cathedral the remains or some relics of a famous saint who had lived and was buried elsewhere, thus making him or her
Patron saint
7557124
conquest of North Africa continued under the Umayyad dynasty, which annexed parts of Algeria around 61 H/680 CE and Morocco the following year. From the latter Muslim troops crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to Europe in 92 H/711 CE. Islam gained momentum during the 10th century in West Africa with the start of the Almoravid dynasty movement on the Senegal River and as rulers and kings embraced Islam. Islam then spread slowly in much of the continent through trade and preaching. During this period these Muslims from North and West Africa came to be known by Europeans at large as
Islam in Africa
2843128
ideas and emotions in a large body of work. Scholars credit him for spearheading a cultural renaissance in Muslim-majority Bengal, "liberating" poetry and literature in Bengali from its medieval mould. His poetry has been translated to languages English, Spanish, and Portuguese. A major avenue is named after him in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Kazi Nazrul University in Asansol, West Bengal, India is named after him. Jatiya Kabi Kazi Nazrul Islam University in Mymensingh, Bangladesh is a public university named after him. Kazi Nazrul Islam Airport in Andal, West Bengal, is India's first private greenfield airport. A chair has been named after him
Kazi Nazrul Islam
15326455
concerning Nasreddin but also in the works of Yunus Emre, a towering figure in Turkish literature and a poet who lived at the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th century CE, probably in the Karamanid state in south-central Anatolia. The Shi'a influence, on the other hand, can be seen extensively in the tradition of the "aşık"s, or "ozan"s, who are roughly akin to medieval European minstrels and who traditionally have had a strong connection with the Alevi faith, which can be seen as something of a homegrown Turkish variety of Shi'a Islam. However, in Turkish culture such
Turkish folk literature
3541714
the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th century, probably in the Karamanid state in south-central Anatolia. The Shi'a influence, on the other hand, can be seen extensively in the tradition of the "aşıq"s, or "ozan"s, who are roughly akin to medieval European minstrels and who traditionally have had a strong connection with the Alevi faith, which can be seen as something of a homegrown Turkic variety of Shi'a Islam. It is, however, important to note that in Turkic culture, such a neat division into Sufi and Shi'a is scarcely possible: for instance, Yunus Emre is considered by
Azerbaijani literature
19890251
the Muslim memory" of the medieval crusades. Beginning in the 1950s, following the influential "History of the Crusades" by Steven Runciman, western intellectual mainstream tended to depict the crusades as a shameful episode of colonialism. This, once again, tended to influence Muslim perception of the period, fuelling Arab nationalism and Islamist propagandistic depictions of westerners as hostile invaders: Khashan (1997) has argued that the revival of "crusading" narrative in the west is connected with the end of the Cold War and the search for a new "good vs. evil" dichotomy in which to cast world politics. Khan (2003) argues that
Islamic views on the crusades
2927027
13th and beginning of the 14th century, probably in the Karamanid state in south-central Anatolia. The Shi'a influence, on the other hand, can be seen extensively in the tradition of the "aşık"s, or "ozan"s, who are roughly akin to medieval European minstrels and who traditionally have had a strong connection with the Alevi faith, which can be seen as something of a homegrown Turkish variety of Shi'a Islam. It is, however, important to note that in Turkish culture, such a neat division into Sufi and Shi'a is scarcely possible: for instance, Yunus Emre is considered by some to have been
Turkish literature
9070323
or any religious minority group. Some commentators see the publications of the cartoons as part of a deliberate effort to show Muslims and Islam in a bad light, thus influencing public opinion in the West in aid of various political projects. Journalist Andrew Mueller wrote, "I am concerned that the ridiculous, disproportionate reaction to some unfunny sketches in an obscure Scandinavian newspaper may confirm that ... Islam and the West are fundamentally irreconcilable". Different groups used the cartoon for different political purposes; Heiko Henkel wrote: Some commentators believed that the controversy was used by Islamists competing for influence both in
Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
9314312
the latter with non-Islamic influences on Arab culture, specifically Sabean and Hindu astrology. Astrology is seen as unscientific and conducive of a view of humans as helpless in the face of natural forces. Amongst the general population, however, astrology is popular, with most major newspapers running astrology columns. Most scholars believe that astrology is a prohibited field of study. Imam Ibn Taymiyah said: “Astrology that is concerned with studying the positions and aspects of celestial bodies in the belief that they have an influence on the course of natural earthly occurrences and human affairs is prohibited by the Quran, the
Astrology in medieval Islam
6441502
the thought of many educated Muslims before the end of the 19th century." These Muslims argued that Islam on the whole has "bestowed an exceptionally favourable lot on the victims of slavery" and that the institution of slavery is linked to the particular economic and social stage in which Islam originated. According to the influential thesis of Ameer Ali, Islam only tolerated slavery through temporary necessity and that its complete abolition was not possible at the time of Muhammad. According to Brockopp, some modern interpreters have accused the medieval interpreters of having subverted the Qur'an's demand for manumission contracts (see
Islamic views on slavery
9314301
Astrology in medieval Islam The medieval Muslims took a keen interest in the study of astrology: partly because they considered the celestial bodies to be essential, partly because the dwellers of desert-regions often travelled at night, and relied upon knowledge of the constellations for guidance in their journeys. After the advent of Islam, the Muslims needed to determine the time of the prayers, the direction of the Kaaba, and the correct orientation of the mosque, all of which helped give a religious impetus to the study of astronomy and contributed towards the belief that the heavenly bodies were influential upon
Astrology in medieval Islam
243472
are predominantly Muslim however before the arrival of Islam Lombok experienced a long period of Hindu and Buddhist influence that reached the island through Java. A minority Balinese Hindu culture remains in Lombok. Islam may have first been brought to Lombok by traders arriving from Sumbawa in the 17th century who then established a following in eastern Lombok. Other accounts describe the first influences arriving in the first half of the sixteenth century. The palm leaf manuscript Babad Lombok which contains the history of Lombok describes how Sunan Prapen was sent by his father The Susuhunan Ratu of Giri on
Lombok
3388137
the modern history of the Muslim world and ultimately explain its main lines of political evolution." In his book, "The System of Islam," which is studied by all Hizb ut-Tahrir members, Nabhani states: If not for the influence of the deceptive Western culture and the oppression of its agents that will soon vanish, then the return to the domain of Islam in its ideology and system would be quicker than the blink of an eye. According to the same book, the Muslim world fell behind the West, (or other non-Muslim societies) not because it has failed to borrow some political,
Hizb ut-Tahrir