salmonella spp . typically transmitted from animals to humans
Nontyphoidal serotypes
524371
it is available, or when oxygen is not available, using other electron acceptors or fermentation ("anaerobically"). "S. enterica" subspecies are found worldwide in all warm-blooded animals and in the environment. "S. bongori" is restricted to cold-blooded animals, particularly reptiles. "Salmonella" species are intracellular pathogens; certain serotypes cause illness. Nontyphoidal serotypes can be transferred from animal-to-human and from human-to-human. They usually invade only the gastrointestinal tract and cause salmonellosis, the symptoms of which can be resolved without antibiotics. However, in sub-Saharan Africa, nontyphoidal "Salmonella" can be invasive and cause paratyphoid fever, which requires immediate treatment with antibiotics. Typhoidal serotypes can only
Salmonella
524382
food contaminated by animal feces, or by human feces, such as by a food-service worker at a commercial eatery. "Salmonella" serotypes can be divided into two main groups—typhoidal and nontyphoidal. Nontyphoidal serotypes are more common, and usually cause self-limiting gastrointestinal disease. They can infect a range of animals, and are zoonotic, meaning they can be transferred between humans and other animals. Typhoidal serotypes include "Salmonella" Typhi and "Salmonella" Paratyphi A, which are adapted to humans and do not occur in other animals. Infection with nontyphoidal serotypes of "Salmonella" generally results in food poisoning. Infection usually occurs when a person ingests
Salmonella
524371
it is available, or when oxygen is not available, using other electron acceptors or fermentation ("anaerobically"). "S. enterica" subspecies are found worldwide in all warm-blooded animals and in the environment. "S. bongori" is restricted to cold-blooded animals, particularly reptiles. "Salmonella" species are intracellular pathogens; certain serotypes cause illness. Nontyphoidal serotypes can be transferred from animal-to-human and from human-to-human. They usually invade only the gastrointestinal tract and cause salmonellosis, the symptoms of which can be resolved without antibiotics. However, in sub-Saharan Africa, nontyphoidal "Salmonella" can be invasive and cause paratyphoid fever, which requires immediate treatment with antibiotics. Typhoidal serotypes can only
Salmonella
8142477
of Zoonotic Diseases History of human was associated with animals so that they have been considered as an inseparable part of human life. In this relation animal were source of different human infectious diseases. Zoonosis are infectious diseases of wild or domestic animals e.g. insects, mammals, reptiles, birds and especially vertebrates, that can naturally be transmitted to humans. Zoonosis can be caused by a range of disease pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites; of 1,415 pathogens known to infect humans, 61% were zoonotic. Escherichia coli and Salmonella are among the most important significant zoonotic pathogens causing foodborne diseases.
Shahrekord University
4514851
inside freshwater snails before completing their life cycles in vertebrate hosts. Viruses of the taxon "Ebolavirus", which causes Ebola virus disease, are thought to have a natural reservoir in bats or other animals exposed to the virus. Other zoonotic diseases that have been transmitted from animals to humans include: rabies, blastomycosis, psittacosis, trichinosis, cat scratch disease, histoplasmosis, coccidiomycosis and salmonella. Common animal reservoirs include: bats, rodents, cows, pigs, sheep, swine, rabbits, bats, raccoons, dogs, other mammals. Numerous zoonotic diseases have been traced back to bats. There are a couple theories that serve as possible explanations as to why bats carry
Natural reservoir
524378
for 12 min. To protect against "Salmonella" infection, heating food for at least 10 minutes to an internal temperature of is recommended. "Salmonella" species can be found in the digestive tracts of humans and animals, especially reptiles. "Salmonella" on the skin of reptiles or amphibians can be passed to people who handle the animals. Food and water can also be contaminated with the bacteria if they come in contact with the feces of infected people or animals. Initially, each "Salmonella" "species" was named according to clinical considerations, for example "Salmonella typhi-murium" (mouse typhoid fever), "S. cholerae-suis". After host specificity was
Salmonella
12690433
other cattle to market. Most livestock must be identified. Each individual cow must have a "passport" issued by the British Cattle Movement Service. Other farm animals such as sheep, goats or pigs must have a herd mark. Designated notifiable diseases under the Diseases of Animals Act include anthrax, foot-and-mouth disease, fowl pest, bovine tuberculosis, BSE, scrapie, swine vesicular disease, Aujeszky's disease, bovine leukemia virus, rabies and warble fly. Under the Zoonoses Order conditions that can be transmitted to humans, such as brucellosis or salmonella, must also be notified. The United Kingdom suffered outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease in 1967 and 2001,
Agriculture in the United Kingdom
19952452
of specific virulence genes (typically found on pathogenicity islands) that facilitate the infection process. Specifically, proteobiotics inhibit virulence genes involved in toxin production, biofilm formation, cell adhesion and invasion. In enterohemorrhagic "E. coli" and "Salmonella" spp., genes associated with Type 3 Secretion Systems seem to be the main targets. The degree to which proteobiotics can reduce virulence-gene expression depends on the pathogen and the source of the proteobiotics. "Lactobacillus acidophilus"-derived proteobiotics down-regulate virulence genes in enterohemorrhagic "Escherichia coli", "Clostridium difficile"", Salmonella" Typhimurium", Listeria monocytogenes" and "Campylobacter jejuni""." Whereas those produced by "Bifidobacterium" spp. have been shown to impact virulence gene
Proteobiotics
9965266
was coined in 1993. This secretion system is distinguished from at least five other secretion systems found in Gram-negative bacteria. Many animal and plant associated bacteria possess similar T3SSs. These T3SSs are similar as a result of divergent evolution and phylogenetic analysis supports a model in which gram-negative bacteria can transfer the T3SS gene cassette horizontally to other species. The most researched T3SSs are from species of "Shigella" (causes bacillary dysentery), "Salmonella" (typhoid fever), "Escherichia coli" (Gut flora, some strains cause food poisoning), "Vibrio" (gastroenteritis and diarrhea), "Burkholderia" (glanders), "Yersinia" (plague), "Chlamydia" (sexually transmitted disease), "Pseudomonas" (infects humans, animals and
Type three secretion system
16822598
an outbreak because there were not a verified number of people infected from only this source in the U.S. Because animals are the main transporters of "Salmonella", crops can become infected. This generally occurs because of the use of manure-based fertilizers on farms. Some animals do not appear sick (especially infected poultry); however, they carry the "Salmonella" in their intestines and when they defecate, the bacteria spreads to the soil. Sometimes, the sick animals manifest the illness in ways similar to humans with similar consequences. They may have diarrhea, fever, and then die if they are not treated. After their
2012 outbreak of Salmonella
14695753
birds and small animals, human trials are still limited. "P. acidilactici" is also known to prevent colonization of the small intestine by pathogens such as "Shigella" spp., "Salmonella" spp., "Clostridium difficile", and "Escherichia coli" among small animals. "P. acidilactici" has been used to treat dogs with digestive disorders and also those dogs which were infected by parvovirus. Prior to treatment with orally administered mixtures of "P. acidilactici" and "Saccharomyces boulardii", the dogs diagnosed with parvovirus infection were shown to exhibit severe gastrointestinal distress such as vomiting and bloody diarrhea. After the treatment for three days, the bloody diarrhea ceased and
Pediococcus acidilactici
13201922
the slaughterhouse personnel. Bacterial genera commonly infecting meat while it is being processed, cut, packaged, transported, sold and handled include Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., E. coli, B. proteus, S. epidermidis and Staph. aureus, Cl. welchii, B. cereus and faecal streptococci. These bacteria are all commonly carried by humans; infectious bacteria from the soil include Cl. botulinum. Among the molds commonly infecting meat are Penicillium, Mucor, Cladosporium, Alternaria, Sporotrichium and Thamnidium. As these microorganisms colonize a piece of meat, they begin to break it down, leaving behind toxins that can cause enteritis or food poisoning, potentially lethal in the rare case
Meat spoilage
7169628
paratyphoid are of similar severity. Paratyphoid and typhoid fever are types of enteric fever. Paratyphoid is caused by the bacterium "Salmonella enterica" of the serotypes Paratyphi A, Paratyphi B, or Paratyphi C growing in the intestines and blood. They are usually spread by eating or drinking food or water contaminated with the feces of an infected person. They may occur when a person who prepares food is infected. Risk factors include poor sanitation as is found among poor crowded populations. Occasionally, they may be transmitted by sex. Humans are the only animals infected. Diagnosis may be based on symptoms and
Paratyphoid fever
17112483
Salmonella bongori Salmonella bongori is a pathogenic bacterium belonging to the genus "Salmonella", and was earlier known as "Salmonella" subspecies V or "S. enterica" subsp. "bongori" or "S. choleraesuis" subsp. "bongori". It is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium (bacillus), which causes a gastrointestinal disease called salmonellosis, characterized by cramping and diarrhoea. It is typically considered a microbe of cold-blooded animals, unlike other members of the genus, and is most frequently associated with reptiles. It was discovered in 1966 from a lizard in the city of Bongor, Chad, from which the specific name "bongori" was derived. After decades of controversy in "Salmonella"
Salmonella bongori
2858783
induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) colonies. As noted above, human cells do not express TLR11, but mice cells do. Mouse-specific TLR11 recognizes uropathogenic "E.coli" and the apicomplexan parasite "Toxoplasma gondii". With "Toxoplasma" its ligand is the protein profilin, but the ligand for "E. coli" is still not known. Recently the enteropathogen "Salmonella" spp. was found to have a ligand which is bound by TLR11. Salmonella is a gram-negative flagellated bacterium which causes food- and waterborne gastroenteritis and typhoid fever in humans. TLR11 in mouse intestine recognizes the flagellun protein flagellin, causing dimerization of the receptor, activation of NF-κB and production
Toll-like receptor
2610591
as written in the previous sentence (capitalized and nonitalicized following the genus), or as follows: ""S. enterica" subsp. "enterica", serovar Typhi". Salmonella enterica Salmonella enterica (formerly Salmonella choleraesuis) is a rod-shaped, flagellate, facultative aerobic, Gram-negative bacterium and a species of the genus "Salmonella". A number of its serovars are serious human pathogens. Most cases of salmonellosis are caused by food infected with "S. enterica", which often infects cattle and poultry, though other animals such as domestic cats and hamsters have also been shown to be sources of infection in humans. Investigations of vacuum cleaner bags have shown that households can
Salmonella enterica
2610586
Salmonella enterica Salmonella enterica (formerly Salmonella choleraesuis) is a rod-shaped, flagellate, facultative aerobic, Gram-negative bacterium and a species of the genus "Salmonella". A number of its serovars are serious human pathogens. Most cases of salmonellosis are caused by food infected with "S. enterica", which often infects cattle and poultry, though other animals such as domestic cats and hamsters have also been shown to be sources of infection in humans. Investigations of vacuum cleaner bags have shown that households can act as a reservoir of the bacterium; this is more likely if the household has contact with an infection source (i.e.,
Salmonella enterica
16822599
death, the other animals raised with them can become infected through contact with their feces. Therefore, if this infected manure is used as a fertilizer for crops, then the crops will contain trace amounts of infectious "Salmonella" bacteria that can spread to humans after the crops are harvested. Poultry can become infected by living close together in hatcheries, where multiple animals are defecating. Some poultry are hatched to be sold domestically, while others are hatched for production to be consumed later. If live poultry are infected and sold domestically, they can infect other animals who may be around them in
2012 outbreak of Salmonella
16822600
a domestic situation e.g. other pets. Because poultry do not show symptoms, infections are usually not obvious until humans or other animals in contact with the poultry become ill. East Coast tomatoes tend to have higher rates of "Salmonella" infection than West Coast tomatoes. This seems to be due to the microbiome of the East Coast of the United States, where there are far less soil bacteria that destroy "Salmonella" versus the microbiome of the West Coast where these bacteria are abundant. Because of the anti-salmonella bacteria limiting its spread, fewer people on the West Coast report cases of salmonellosis.
2012 outbreak of Salmonella
1982524
Pasteurellosis Pasteurellosis is an infection with a species of the bacterial genus "Pasteurella", which is found in humans and other animals. "Pasteurella multocida" (subspecies "P. m. septica" and "P. m. multocida") is carried in the mouth and respiratory tract of various animals, including pigs. It is a small, Gram-negative bacillus with bipolar staining by Wayson stain. In animals, it can originate in fulminant septicaemia (chicken cholera), but is also a common commensal. Until taxonomic revision in 1999, "Mannheimia" spp. were classified as "Pasteurella" spp., and infections by organisms now called "Mannheimia" spp., as well as by organisms now called "Pasteurella"
Pasteurellosis
7935425
Selenite broth Selenite broth is used as a selective medium for the isolation of "Salmonella" species. Selenite Broth was originated by Leifson, while observing good recovery of Salmonella spp. and reduced growth of fecal coliforms. Selenite Broth is used as a selective enrichment for the cultivation of Salmonella spp. that may be present in small numbers and competing with intestinal flora. This medium must not be autoclaved. Once prepared it is steamed at 100°C for 30 minutes. There should be a very slight red precipitate. To minimise the risk of teratogenicity to workers, sodium selenite must be added separately to
Selenite broth
499549
"B. cereus" competes with other microorganisms such as "Salmonella" and "Campylobacter" in the gut, so its presence reduces the numbers of those microorganisms. In food animals such as chickens, rabbits and pigs, some harmless strains of "B. cereus" are used as a probiotic feed additive to reduce "Salmonella" in the intestines and cecum. This improves the animals' growth, as well as food safety for humans who eat them. They parasitize codling moth larvae. "B. cereus" and other members of "Bacillus" are not easily killed by alcohol; in fact, they have been known to colonize distilled liquors and alcohol-soaked swabs and
Bacillus cereus
1758711
that wild birds would encounter in nature. "We couldn't infect the pigeons," Swayne said. "So that's good news." However, other contagion besides bird flu are transmitted by pigeons. For example, the bacteria "Chlamydophila psittaci" is endemic among pigeons and causes psittacosis in humans. It is generally transmitted from handling pigeons or their droppings (more commonly the latter). Psittacosis is a serious disease but rarely fatal (less than 1%). Pigeons are also important vectors for different species of the bacteria "Salmonella", which causes diseases as salmonellosis and paratyphoid fever. They are also known to host avian mites, which can infest human
Feral pigeon
13790009
media that help distinguish "M. canis" from other "Microsporum" spp. (notably the morphologically similar species, "M. audouinii") - specifically polished rice and potato dextrose agar. On potato dextrose agar, "M. canis" produces a lemon-yellow pigment that is easily visualized, due to the presence of aerial hyphae, while on the polished rice, most isolates (even atypical strains) produce yellow pigment. It is considered a zoophilic dermatophyte, given that it typically colonizes the outer surface of animal's body. Hence, animals, cats and dogs are believed to be the population hosts of this fungus, while humans are occasional hosts, in which the fungus
Microsporum canis
13179388
and "Fusobacterium necrophorum". "H. irritans" attacks many other warm-blooded animals, including humans. "H. aenescens" also carries bacteria, particularly "Salmonella" serovar Infantis. "Hydrotaea" species have been helpful in forensic cases worldwide by indicating post-mortem interval (PMI). These flies typically inhabit a carcass 4 to 5 months after the start of decomposition. Their presence indicates that the corpse was not burned and that the earlier blow-fly phase has ended. "Hydrotaea" larvae may feed on each other and on other flies, such as blow-flies. "Hydrotaea" can be used to identify drugs and to determining whether a body was relocated. "Hydrotaea spinigera" can make
Hydrotaea
19306714
10% of the samples were contaminated. In 2017 17 out of 401 examined horses in Denmark were found to carry MRSA, typically strains of CC398. The same year it was reported that from 20142016 44 persons in Denmark were infected with LA-MRSA from fur farming mink and that LA-MRSA was found in 88% of Danish pig herds. CC398 CC398 or MRSA CC398 is a new variant of MRSA that has emerged in animals and is found in intensively reared production animals (primarily pigs, but also cattle and poultry), where it can be transmitted to humans as LA-MRSA (livestock-associated MRSA). A
CC398
16936915
can affect both humans and animals. Noise pollution is a factor of environmental degradation that is often overlooked and typically seen as not having a significant effect, though traffic noise can contribute to numerous disturbances for wildlife. An increasing number of studies have been done on the effects of noise on wildlife. Both the sounds made by motors and the wind over moving vehicle structures, and the ultrasonic vibrations transmitted through the air and ground from vehicle passage can overlap with the frequency ranges and amplitudes used by animals for communication. Several studies revealed that noise can have a negative
Road ecology
7935426
the medium. It has a pH of approximately 7.1. Selenite broth gives pale or colourless colonies. Selenite broth contains: Selenite broth Selenite broth is used as a selective medium for the isolation of "Salmonella" species. Selenite Broth was originated by Leifson, while observing good recovery of Salmonella spp. and reduced growth of fecal coliforms. Selenite Broth is used as a selective enrichment for the cultivation of Salmonella spp. that may be present in small numbers and competing with intestinal flora. This medium must not be autoclaved. Once prepared it is steamed at 100°C for 30 minutes. There should be a
Selenite broth
18176875
mainly been isolated from the ticks of the genera "Dermacentor" and "Haemaphysalis", although it can be transmitted by any Ixodidae ticks. Bhanja virus is not known to be transmitted between humans. The Bhanja virus has been found in vertebrate animals, most commonly in sheep, goats, cattle, African hedgehogs ("Atelerix albiventris"), and African ground squirrels ("Xerus erythropus"). It has been known to be pathogenic in small animals and children and can also affect adult humans. The Bhanja virus produces febrile illness in humans with symptoms including photophobia, vomiting, meningoencephalitis, and slight or partial paralysis. Treatment is dependent upon the severity of
Bhanja virus
20600802
in humans. This strain of "Salmonella" is unique to humans, and was not found in any soil samples or pre-Contact individuals that were used as controls. Enteric fevers, also known as typhoid or paratyphoid, are similar to typhus, and were only distinguished from one another in the 19th century. The bacteria itself is a descendant from the same lineage of "S. enterica" that contains the serovars Choleraesuis and Typhisuis, both of which are swine pathogens. It is transmitted most often through the consumption of food or water that is contaminated with fecal matter. Today, S. Paratyphi C continues to cause
Cocoliztli Epidemic of 1545–1548
10982765
Anthroponotic disease An anthroponotic disease, or anthroponosis, is an infectious disease in which a disease causing agent carried by humans is transferred to other animals. It may cause the same disease or a different disease in other animals. Since humans do not generally inflict bite wounds on other animals, the method of transmissions is always a "soft" contact such as skin to skin transmission. An example is chytridiomycosis which can be spread by humans with the fungus on their skin handling frogs with bare hands. The reverse situation, a disease transmitted from animals to humans, is known as zoonotic. It
Anthroponotic disease
19306712
CC398 CC398 or MRSA CC398 is a new variant of MRSA that has emerged in animals and is found in intensively reared production animals (primarily pigs, but also cattle and poultry), where it can be transmitted to humans as LA-MRSA (livestock-associated MRSA). A 2009 study shows, however, that dissemination of CC398 from exposed humans to other, non-exposed humans is infrequent. Though dangerous to humans, CC398 is often asymptomatic in food-producing animals. In a single study conducted in Denmark, MRSA was shown to originate in livestock and spread to humans,<ref name="Wiley10.1002/emmm.201202413"></ref> though the MRSA strain may have originated in humans and
CC398
8693079
by ingestion of unsanitary conditions during food preparation. "Salmonella" can also be transmitted to humans via reptiles like turtles and iguanas, which are known carriers of pathogen. Symptoms include chills, diarrhea and fever. "Cholera" is a waterborne infection caused by the bacterium "Vibrio chloerae", and is transmitted via food or water that is contaminated with fecal matter. "Vibrio chloerae" releases a toxin that induces an increased amount of water in the small intestines. Symptoms primarily observed include, watery diarrhea and vomiting that can cause dehydration and death if not treated. An estimated 3-5 million cases of "Cholera" occur yearly around
Exogenous bacteria
1606966
being risk factors for "T. gondii" infection in humans and other warm-blooded animals: Cleaning cat litter boxes is a potential route of infection; however, numerous studies have shown living in a household with a cat is not a significant risk factor for "T. gondii" infection, though living with several kittens has some significance. In warm-blooded animals, such as brown rats, sheep, and dogs, "T. gondii" has also been shown to be sexually transmitted, and it is hypothesized that it may be sexually transmitted in humans, although not yet proven. Although "T. gondii" can infect, be transmitted by, and asexually reproduce
Toxoplasma gondii
19952453
expression in "Campylobacter jejuni", enterohemorrhagic "Escherichia coli", "Clostridium difficile", "Clostridium perfringens", and "Salmonella" Typhimurium"." Proteobiotics Proteobiotics are natural metabolites which are produced by fermentation process of specific probiotic strains. These small oligopeptides were originally discovered in and isolated from culture media used to grow probiotic bacteria and may account for some of the health benefits of probiotics. Several genera of probiotic bacteria are known to produce proteobiotics, including "Lactococcus" spp., "Pediococcus" spp. "Lactobacillus" spp. and "Bifidobacterium" spp. Recent studies have explored mode of action of proteobiotics and their potential benefits in maintaining the ratio of beneficial bacteria, lowering bacterial imbalance
Proteobiotics
16105471
by contagion. Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus is transmitted between many mammal species by "Hyalomma truncatum", "Hyalomma rufipes", and "Hyalomma turanicum" over a wide area of Africa, Europe, and Asia. In cattle and sheep, it causes mild fever and its main importance is when it spreads to humans (zoonosis) by feeding of the larvae or nymphs of these ticks. There are other viruses transmitted by ticks between wild animals and that have zoonotic importance when humans also become infected. The epidemiological pathways of these viruses can also involve domestic animals, if only by being hosts that add to the size of
Ticks of domestic animals
4352122
in the plasma. This can have a dangerous effect on an animal's health. All of the mentioned effects happen when T-2 is ingested in high doses. Animals are able to metabolize the compound with enzymes from the CYP3A family, just like humans. T-2 mycotoxin T-2 Mycotoxin (pronounced as 'Tee-Two') is a trichothecene mycotoxin. It is a naturally occurring mold byproduct of "Fusarium" spp. fungus which is toxic to humans and animals. The clinical condition it causes is "alimentary toxic aleukia" and a host of symptoms related to organs as diverse as the skin, airway, and stomach. Ingestion may come from
T-2 mycotoxin
7935361
DCA agar DCA agar (deoxycholate citrate agar) is a solid bacteriological growth medium. It is particularly useful for the isolation of organisms that cause bacilliary dysentery, salmonella strains that cause food poisoning and "Salmonella" Paratyphi. It is not so selective for "Salmonella" Typhi. This growth medium is inhibitory to most gut bacteria, in particular species of the genus "Proteus", although these species do survive on DCA agar. It is therefore essential that suspected pathogens must be subcultured on a less inhibitory medium prior to identification. "Salmonella spp" appear to be yellow or colourless colonies, often with a dark centre. As
DCA agar
11256671
are transmitted from animals to humans are called zoonoses. Some zoonoses may be transferred through casual contact, but others are much more readily transferred by activities that expose humans to the semen, vaginal fluids, urine, saliva, feces and blood of animals. Examples of zoonoses are Brucellosis, Q fever, leptospirosis, and toxocariasis. Therefore, sexual activity with animals is, in some instances, a high risk activity. Allergic reactions to animal semen may occur, including anaphylaxis. Bites and other trauma from penetration or trampling may occur. The love of animals is not necessarily sexual in nature. In psychology and sociology the word "zoophilia"
Zoophilia
4765273
not also free from the bacteria. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention released a general warning about contamination of commercial dry dog food and treats by Salmonella. As a result of the potential animal and human health risks, some agencies assert that the risks inherent in raw feeding outweigh the purported benefits. Despite such concerns, there is no known incidence of humans being infected with salmonella by cats and dogs fed a raw diet. There has been isolated cases of humans contracting salmonella from household pets, but it is undetermined whether raw food was connected to the salmonella infection. The
Raw feeding
14019309
for HACCP Plan Critical Limits.” Journal of Food Safety 24.4 (2004): 246–256. Print. Jalali, Mohammad et al. “Prevalence of Salmonella Spp. in Raw and Cooked Foods in Isfahan-Iran.” Journal of Food Safety 28.3 (2008): 442–452. Print. Kegode, Redempta B. et al. “Occurrence Of Campylobacter species, Salmonella species and Generic Escherichia coli in Meat Products from Retail Outlets in the Fargo Metropolitan Area.” Journal of Food Safety 28.1 (2008): 111–125. Print. Li Y., Zhuang S., Mustapha A. “Application of a multiplex PCR for the simultaneous detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella and Shigella in raw and ready-to-eat meat products.” Meat Science
Raw meat
5909795
some breeds of cattle, notably the N'Dama – a West African "Bos taurus" breed. This contrasts with the susceptibility shown by East African "Bos indicus" cattle such as the zebu. Most trypanosomes develop in tsetse flies (Glossina spp.), in its biological vector, about one to a few weeks. When an infected tsetse fly bites an animal, the parasites are transmitted through its saliva. It can also be spread by fomites such as surgical instruments, needles, syringes. The most important vectors are thought to be horseflies (Tabanidae) and stable flies (Stomoxys spp.). The immune response of animals could be unable to
Animal trypanosomiasis
466455
can also occur via an intermediate species (referred to as a vector), which carry the disease pathogen without getting infected. When humans infect animals, it is called reverse zoonosis or anthroponosis. The term is from Greek: ζῷον "zoon" "animal" and νόσος "nosos" "sickness". Zoonotic transmission can occur in any context in which there is companionistic (pets), economic (farming, etc.), predatory (hunting, butchering or consuming wild game) or research contact with or consumption of non-human animals, non-human animal products, or non-human animal derivatives (vaccines, etc.). The most significant zoonotic pathogens causing foodborne diseases are , "Campylobacter", "Caliciviridae", and "Salmonella". In 2006,
Zoonosis
4960818
Guelph, ON; St. Hyacinthe, QC and Lethbridge, AB. NML is divided into five main laboratory divisions which are supported by scientific and administrative services. The primary NML divisions are: Bacterial Pathogens - focussing on bacterial diseases such as tuberculosis and antibiotic resistant organisms. Enteric Diseases - focussing on food and water-borne pathogens including E.coli and Salmonella. Viral Diseases - addressing a range of viral diseases, including hepatitis and other blood-borne pathogens, respiratory viruses and viral exanthemata, such as measles. Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens - dealing with viral, bacterial and rickettsial zoonoses (diseases transmitted to humans from other species), such
National Microbiology Laboratory
2916109
healthy cattle and by flies on farms. Unchlorinated water may also be a source of infections. However, properly cooking chicken, pasteurizing milk, and chlorinating drinking water kill the bacteria. "Campylobacter" is not, in contrast to "Salmonella", transmitted vertically and therefore humans do not get infected by consuming eggs. Local complications of "Campylobacter" infections occur as a result of direct spread from the gastrointestinal tract and can include cholecystitis, pancreatitis, peritonitis, and massive gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Extraintestinal manifestations of "Campylobacter" infection are quite rare and may include meningitis, endocarditis, septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, and neonatal sepsis. Bacteremia is detected in <1% of patients
Campylobacter jejuni
6136329
the HLA-B27 gene on chromosome 6 and by the presence of enthesitis as the basic pathologic lesion and is triggered by a preceding infection. The most common triggering infection in the US is a genital infection with "Chlamydia trachomatis". Other bacteria known to cause reactive arthritis which are more common worldwide are "Ureaplasma urealyticum", "Salmonella" spp., "Shigella" spp., "Yersinia" spp., and "Campylobacter" spp. A bout of food poisoning or a gastrointestinal infection may also precede the disease (the last four genera of bacteria mentioned above are enteric bacteria). "Shigella" is the most common organism causing reactive arthritis following diarrhea. "Chlamydia
Reactive arthritis
19897443
it is unclear if WWAV can be transmitted nosocomially, other arenaviruses have been transmitted through contact with an infected patient's blood, urine, or pharyngeal secretions. Whitewater Arroyo virus Whitewater Arroyo virus (WWAV) is a zoonotic Arenavirus associated with hemorrhagic fever with liver failure. Family: Arenaviridae Genus: Mammarenavirus Species: Whitewater Arroyo mammarenavirus WWAV is an emerging virus; previously, it was widely distributed among woodrats ("Neotoma" spp.), its reservoir, in the American Southwest and was not known to infect humans. However, during June 1999-May 2000, three female patients, aged 14, 30, and 52, developed similar fatal illnesses. The illnesses were associated with
Whitewater Arroyo virus
1471947
then drops off the host and typically remains in the nest or burrow until its host returns to provide its next meal. Mites and nematodes feed on ticks, which are also a minor nutritional resource for birds. More importantly, they carry diseases as the primary hosts of pathogens such as spirochaetes, and without their agency, the organisms could not reach their secondary hosts. The diseases caused may debilitate their victims, and ticks may thus be assisting in controlling animal populations and preventing overgrazing. Certain infectious diseases of humans and other animals can be transmitted by ticks, the species of tick
Tick
14473719
RsmX The rsmX gene is part of the Rsm/Csr family of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). Members of the Rsm/Csr family are present in a diverse range of bacteria, including "Escherichia coli", "Erwinia", "Salmonella", "Vibrio" and "Pseudomonas". These ncRNAs act by sequestering translational repressor proteins, called RsmA, activating expression of downstream genes that would normally be blocked by the repressors. Sequestering of target proteins is dependent upon exposed GGA motifs in the stem loops of the ncRNAs. Typically, the activated genes are involved in secondary metabolism, biofilm formation and motility. In "Pseudomonas" spp., three rsm ncRNAs have been identified. These are RsmX
RsmX
1815213
is common to all marsupials. However, the chorioallantoic placenta is small compared to those of the Placentalia, and lacks chorionic villi. Bandicoots may serve as a primary reservoir for "Coxiella burnetii". Infection is transmitted among them by ticks. These are then transmitted to domestic animals (cattle, sheep and poultry). The infected domestic animals shed them in urine, faeces, and placental products. It is transmitted to humans causing Q fever by inhalation of aerosols of these materials. Main symptoms may be pneumonia and/or hepatitis. Classification within the Peramelemorphia used to be simple. There were thought to be two families in the
Bandicoot
4301797
National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians The National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians (NASPHV) develops and publishes uniform public health procedures involving zoonotic disease (diseases transmitted from animals to people) in the United States and its territories. These veterinarians work closely with emergency rooms, legislators, local officials, schools, health departments, and the general public to prevent disease exposure and control diseases that are transmitted to humans from animals and animal products. The Association provides the following services: <br> -a communication network between and for its members,<br> -education and resources to the public health community and general public, and
National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians
4301803
infection control. The latest revision of this compendium was published in 2010. SPHVs study and provide the public with services such as: National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians The National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians (NASPHV) develops and publishes uniform public health procedures involving zoonotic disease (diseases transmitted from animals to people) in the United States and its territories. These veterinarians work closely with emergency rooms, legislators, local officials, schools, health departments, and the general public to prevent disease exposure and control diseases that are transmitted to humans from animals and animal products. The Association provides the following
National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians
9799966
Sindbis virus Sindbis virus (SINV) is a member of the "Togaviridae" family, in the alphavirus subfamily. The virus was first isolated in 1952 in Cairo, Egypt. The virus is transmitted by mosquitoes ("Culex" spp.) SINV causes sindbis fever in humans and the symptoms include arthralgia, rash and malaise. Sindbis fever is most common in South and East Africa, Egypt, Israel, Philippines and parts of Australia. Sindbis virus is an "arbovirus" (arthropod-borne) and is maintained in nature by transmission between vertebrate (bird) hosts and invertebrate (mosquito) vectors. Humans are infected with Sindbis virus when bitten by an infected mosquito. SINV has
Sindbis virus
466453
Zoonosis Zoonoses are infectious diseases that can be naturally transmitted between animals (usually vertebrates) and humans. Major modern diseases such as Ebola virus disease and salmonellosis are zoonoses. HIV was a zoonotic disease transmitted to humans in the early part of the 20th century, though it has now mutated to a separate human-only disease. Most strains of influenza that infect humans are human diseases, although many strains of swine and bird flu are zoonoses; these viruses occasionally recombine with human strains of the flu and can cause pandemics such as the 1918 Spanish flu or the 2009 swine flu. Taenia
Zoonosis
10311177
and 39% of animals at slaughter carried the bug were all of the infections were resistant to tetracycline and many were resistant to other antimicrobials. A more recent study found that MRSA ST398 isolates were less susceptible to tiamulin, an antimicrobial used in agriculture, than other MRSA or methicillin susceptible "S. aureus". Cases of MRSA have increased in livestock animals. CC398 is a new clone of MRSA that has emerged in animals and is found in intensively reared production animals (primarily pigs, but also cattle and poultry), where it can be transmitted to humans. Although dangerous to humans, CC398 is
Intensive animal farming
17874721
James Harlan Steele James Harlan Steele was an American veterinarian recognized as “the father of veterinary public health” who led some of the first efforts to prevent the spread of disease from animals to humans. Dr Steele’s professional career spanned more than 70 years. It began in 1938 when he worked in a brucellosis testing laboratory for the Michigan State Department of Agriculture while studying veterinary medicine at Michigan State University. Brucellosis developed in many of his veterinary colleagues, and he wanted to learn how the causative pathogen and other pathogens were transmitted from animals to humans. This marked the
James Harlan Steele
1679419
as human SARS victims. In late May 2003, studies from samples of wild animals sold as food in the local market in Guangdong, China, found the SARS coronavirus could be isolated from masked palm civets ("Paguma" sp.), but the animals did not always show clinical signs. The preliminary conclusion was the SARS virus crossed the xenographic barrier from palm civet to humans, and more than 10,000 masked palm civets were killed in Guangdong Province. Virus was also later found in raccoon dogs ("Nyctereuteus" sp.), ferret badgers ("Melogale" spp.), and domestic cats. In 2005, two studies identified a number of SARS-like
SARS coronavirus
3093518
induced as an antimicrobial defense. To highlight the importance of this defense, individuals with chronic granulomatous disease who have deficiencies in generating ROS, are highly susceptible to infection by a broad range of microbes including "Salmonella enterica", "Staphylococcus aureus", "Serratia marcescens", and "Aspergillus" spp. The exact manner in which ROS defends the host from invading microbe is not fully understood. One of the more likely modes of defense is damage to microbial DNA. Studies using Salmonella demonstrated that DNA repair mechanisms were required to resist killing by ROS. More recently, a role for ROS in antiviral defense mechanisms has been
Reactive oxygen species
1393585
annual burden of sleeping sickness is estimated at 2 million DALYs. Since the disease tends to affect economically active adults, the total cost to a family with a patient is about 25% of a year’s income. Tsetse are biological vectors of trypanosomes, meaning that in the process of feeding, they acquire and then transmit small, single-celled trypanosomes from infected vertebrate hosts to uninfected animals. Some tsetse-transmitted trypanosome species cause trypanosomiasis, an infectious disease. In humans, tsetse transmitted trypanosomiasis is called sleeping sickness. In animals, tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases include "nagana", "souma", and "surra" according to the animal infected and the trypanosome species
Tsetse fly
20081057
West Nile virus between birds and horses; they transmit Rift Valley fever virus to livestock species and humans. The nematode worm "Dirofilaria immitis" that causes heartworm disease in dogs is transmitted by species of "Culex" and "Aedes". See photograph of microfilaria stage of "Dirofilaria immitus" in blood of dog; adult worms in dog's heart grow to several centimeters long. (Mosquitoes are of major importance as transmitters of many types of pathogenic microorganisms to humans causing diseases such as Malaria and Yellow fever. "Plasmodium" species causing malaria in humans are exclusively transmitted by "Anopheles" mosquitoes.) Typical genera are "Culicoides" and "Leptoconops"
Parasitic flies of domestic animals
3868397
most common causative agent isolated in countries surveyed has been enterotoxigenic "Escherichia coli" (ETEC). Enteroaggregative "E. coli" is increasingly recognized. "Shigella" spp. and "Salmonella" spp. are other common bacterial pathogens. "Campylobacter", "Yersinia", "Aeromonas", and "Plesiomonas" spp. are less frequently found. Mechanisms of action vary: some bacteria release toxins which bind to the intestinal wall and cause diarrhea; others damage the intestines themselves by their direct presence. While viruses are associated with less than 20% of adult cases of traveler's diarrhea, they may be responsible for nearly 70% of cases in infants and children. Diarrhea due to viral agents is unaffected
Traveler's diarrhea
651510
There are many causes of infectious diarrhea, which include viruses, bacteria and parasites. Infectious diarrhea is frequently referred to as gastroenteritis. Norovirus is the most common cause of viral diarrhea in adults, but rotavirus is the most common cause in children under five years old. Adenovirus types 40 and 41, and astroviruses cause a significant number of infections. Shiga-toxin producing Escherichia coli, such as , are the most common cause of infectious bloody diarrhea in the United States. "Campylobacter" spp. are a common cause of bacterial diarrhea, but infections by "Salmonella" spp., "Shigella" spp. and some strains of "Escherichia coli"
Diarrhea
19073816
are diseases that are transmitted from infected animals to humans. Most zoonotic diseases are caused by organisms such as parasites, bacteria, prions, fungi, protozoa, and viruses, which reside within the animal but can be pathogens to humans. Direct or indirect transmission from feces or bodily fluids can result in infection, and consuming animal products that are contaminated can also become a cause of infection. Because of their close contact with animals, farmers, veterinarians, ranchers, and other agricultural workers are more at risk for contracting zoonotic diseases. Agricultural safety and health Agricultural safety and health is an aspect of occupational safety
Agricultural safety and health
466454
solium infection is one of the neglected tropical diseases with public health and veterinary concern in endemic regions. Zoonoses can be caused by a range of disease pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites; of 1,415 pathogens known to infect humans, 61% were zoonotic. Most human diseases originated in animals; however, only diseases that routinely involve animal to human transmission, like rabies, are considered direct zoonosis. Zoonoses have different modes of transmission. In direct zoonosis the disease is directly transmitted from animals to humans through media such as air (influenza) or through bites and saliva (rabies). In contrast, transmission
Zoonosis
10934046
Hook strain was isolated from the kidney tissue, as this is where "L. noguchii" typically resides in its host. "Leptospira noguchii" is another pathogenic bacteria that causes Leptospirosis. Leptospirosis can be transferred in a multitude of ways. Leptospirosis can transfer from animals to humans (zoonosis), humans to humans, or animals to animals via intake of contaminated body fluids, such as urine and blood. The disease is normally absorbed through the mucosal membranes of another animal or human and is excreted from the body in the urine. The infected individual can be asymptomatic or have very severe symptoms. In serious cases,
Leptospira noguchii
12887940
Rabies transmission Rabies is mostly transmitted to humans, and between animals, through the saliva of infected animals. Transmission is generally through a bite from any infected animal. Transmission between humans is extremely rare, although it can happen through organ transplants, or through bites. After a typical human infection by bite, the virus enters the peripheral nervous system. It then travels along the nerves towards the central nervous system. During this phase, the virus cannot be easily detected within the host, and vaccination may still confer cell-mediated immunity to prevent symptomatic rabies. Once the virus reaches the brain, it rapidly causes
Rabies transmission
17112484
nomenclature, it gained the species status in 2005. "S. bongori" is classically regarded as the "Salmonella" of lizards. However, discrete investigations contradict the notion of strict host-specificity, as reports emerged of occurrence in dogs and birds. In animals, unlike those of other "Salmonella", infection is generally asymptomatic and does not cause discernible effects. However, infection of pet animals is associated with diarrhea. Further, human infections have been substantiated, with conclusive reports from Italy. The majority of these cases are among children less than 3 years old, who are more prone to oral contact with animal droppings. Symptoms are typified by
Salmonella bongori
11204991
approach has induced permanent infertility when injected into laboratory mice. However, there is some attenuation of efficacy when it is actually transmitted virally. In addition to rabbits and mice, this approach has been explored for other animals. Researchers have attempted to replicate similar results when targeting the red fox ("Vulpes vulpes") in Australia using such vectors as "Salmonella typhimurium", vaccinia, and canine herpesvirus, but no reduction in fertility has been achieved thus far for a variety of reasons. Initial exploration into the control of the common brushtail possum ("Trichosurus vulpecula") in New Zealand using the nematode "Parastrongyloides trichosuri" has identified
Immunocontraception
13359758
used as ear drops and for infected wax to removed by a professional. Ineffective and often prolonged attempts to eradicate infestations commonly result in economic issues, due to a significant financial outlay when patients relocate and/or attempt to control these infestations. "D. gallinae" poses a significant threat to public health as the mite may be vector/reservoir of zoonotic pathogens, such as "Chlamydia psittaci", "Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae", "Salmonella spp"., "Lyme disease", "Mycobacterium spp"., "Coxiella burnetii", "Bartonella spp"., "Borrelia burgdorferi", "Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus", "Eastern equine encephalitis virus", and "Fowlpox virus". Gamasoidosis Gamasoidosis (also known as acariasis, avian-mite dermatitis or bird-mite dermatitis) is
Gamasoidosis
3822832
found in soil, these organisms cause occasional sporadic disease in humans and animals throughout the world. Another well publicized find is that of Nocardia as an oral microflora. Nocardia spp. have been reported in the normal gingiva and periodontal pockets along with other species such as "Actinomyces", "Arthromyces" and "Streptomyces" spp. The usual mode of transmission is inhalation of organisms suspended in dust. Another very common method is that by traumatic introduction, especially in the jaw. This leads to the entrance of Nocardia into the blood stream and the propagation of its pathogenic effects. Transmission by direct inoculation through puncture
Nocardiosis
8136570
Babesia Babesia (also called Nuttallia) is an Apicomplexan parasite that infects red blood cells, transmitted by ticks. Originally discovered by the Romanian bacteriologist Victor Babeș, over 100 species of "Babesia" have since been identified. Babesia species infect livestock worldwide, wild and domestic vertebrate animals and occasionally humans where it causes the disease babesiosis. In the United States, "B. microti" is the most common strain of the few which have been documented to cause disease in humans. "Babesia" is a protozoan parasite found to infect vertebrate animals, mostly livestock mammals and birds, but also humans. Common names of the disease, which
Babesia
18222105
the amount of resistance within our environment Antimicrobial resistance may be able to be controlled and help reduce the amount of zoonotic diseases that are passed between animals and humans. Zoonosis or zoonotic disease can be defined as an infectious disease that can be transmitted between animals and humans. One Health plays a big role in helping to prevent and control zoonotic diseases. Approximately 75% of new and emerging infectious diseases in humans is defined as zoonotic. Zoonotic diseases can be spread in many different ways. the most common known ways they are be spread are through direct contact, indirect
One Health Model
1607791
SARS victims. In late May 2003, studies were conducted using samples of wild animals sold as food in the local market in Guangdong, China. The results found that the SARS coronavirus could be isolated from masked palm civets ("Paguma" sp.), even if the animals did not show clinical signs of the virus. The preliminary conclusion was the SARS virus crossed the xenographic barrier from asian palm civet to humans, and more than 10,000 masked palm civets were killed in Guangdong Province. The virus was also later found in raccoon dogs ("Nyctereuteus" sp.), ferret badgers ("Melogale" spp.), and domestic cats. In
Severe acute respiratory syndrome
330779
bacteria contribute to other globally important diseases, such as pneumonia, which can be caused by bacteria such as "Streptococcus" and "Pseudomonas", and foodborne illnesses, which can be caused by bacteria such as "Shigella", "Campylobacter", and "Salmonella". Pathogenic bacteria also cause infections such as tetanus, typhoid fever, diphtheria, syphilis, and Hansen's disease. They typically range between 1 and 5 micrometers in length. Fungi comprise a eukaryotic kingdom of microbes that are usually saprophytes, but can cause diseases in humans. Life-threatening fungal infections in humans most often occur in immunocompromised patients or vulnerable people with a weakened immune system, although fungi are
Human pathogen
6351318
is squeezed into the ear canal and massaged at the base of the ear to distribute the medication. Selamectin is available as a once-a-month preparation that can be applied to the animal's skin, which prevents mite infestation over that time. Ear mites spread rapidly, and can be transmitted from even brief physical contact with other animals. In pets, ear mites most commonly affect cats, ferrets, and to a lesser extent dogs. Humans can rarely be infected with ear mites.<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z7CLzqMCmqE Ear mite Ear mites are mites that live in the ears of animals and humans. The most commonly seen species in
Ear mite
16822594
from contact with live poultry (whether for purposes of agriculture or pet keeping). Of those infected, two died from infection. This particular outbreak, though stemming from only the Mt. Healthy Hatchery in Ohio, expanded across 27 states. First investigated at the end of March 2012, there were a total of 84 cases of infected humans across 15 states of the United States by November 2012. These people's salmonellosis (either from "Salmonella" Sandiego or "Salmonella" Newport) stemmed from contact with small turtles or their habitats. Some of these turtles were purchased from street merchants. No one source of the "Salmonella" contaminations
2012 outbreak of Salmonella
7202634
manifestations can be both local and systemic. The geohelminths together present an enormous infection burden on humanity, amounting to 135,000 deaths every year, and persistent infection of more than two billion people. Soil-transmitted helminths are typically from the following families of nematodes, namely: Soil-transmitted helminthiasis is a collective name for the diseases caused by ascaris, whipworm and hookworms in humans. It includes species-specific diseases such as Soil-transmitted helminthiasis is classified as one of the neglected tropical diseases projected to be controlled/eradicated by 2020 through the "London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases". This is caused by "Strongyloides stercoralis". Even though the
Soil-transmitted helminth
20136881
vesicular wall is an invaginated (facing inward) scolex. The scolex contains suckers and hooks, and a neck attached to a rudimentary body segment. In the normal lifecycle of "Taenia", cysticerci develop in the muscles of the intermediate hosts such as pigs, cattle, and sheep. In these animals, they do not cause severe symptoms. They are transmitted to humans when their infected meats are eaten. However, "T. solium" is unusual because its cysticerci can develop in humans. Due to accidental consumption of the eggs from contaminated foodstuffs, cycticerci in humans produce clinical symptoms. Thus, humans are accidental intermediate hosts. Cysticercus Cysticercus
Cysticercus
16297981
Geosmithia morbida Geosmithia morbida is a species of anamorphic fungus in the Bionectriaceae family that, together with the activity of the walnut twig beetle, causes thousand cankers disease in species of walnut trees ("Juglans spp."). It was described as new to science in 2010 from specimens collected in the southern United States. The fungus, transmitted by the walnut twig beetle, "Pityophthorus juglandis", is known from the western USA from California to Colorado. The cankers resulting from infection restrict nutrient flow and typically kill the host tree within three to four years. Based on closeness of internal transcribed spacer DNA, the
Geosmithia morbida
16219625
Schmallenberg virus Schmallenberg virus is the informal name given to a recently isolated orthobunyavirus, which has not been given a formal name , initially reported in October 2011 to cause congenital malformations and stillbirths in cattle, sheep, goats, and possibly alpaca. It appears to be transmitted by midges ("Culicoides" spp.) which are likely to have been most active in causing the infection in the northern hemisphere summer and autumn of 2011, with animals subsequently giving birth from late 2011. Schmallenberg virus falls in the Simbu serogroup of Orthobunyaviruses; as of January 2013, it is considered to be most closely related
Schmallenberg virus
466466
conferred cross immunity to the human disease. Jenner abstracted an infectious preparation of 'cowpox' and subsequently used it to inoculate persons against smallpox. As a result, smallpox has been eradicated globally, and mass vaccination against this disease ceased in 1981. Zoonosis Zoonoses are infectious diseases that can be naturally transmitted between animals (usually vertebrates) and humans. Major modern diseases such as Ebola virus disease and salmonellosis are zoonoses. HIV was a zoonotic disease transmitted to humans in the early part of the 20th century, though it has now mutated to a separate human-only disease. Most strains of influenza that infect
Zoonosis
3869765
children up to two years old develop antibodies that aid in killing the bacteria. This could lead to a possible "Salmonella" vaccine for humans. A 2014 study tested a vaccine on chickens which offered efficient protection against salmonellosis. Vaccination of chickens against "Salmonella" essentially wiped out the disease in the United Kingdom. A similar approach was considered in the United States, but the Food and Drug Administration decided not to mandate vaccination of hens. Since 2011, Denmark has had zero cases of human salmonella poisoning. The country eradicated salmonella without vaccines and antibiotics by focusing on eliminating the infection from
Salmonellosis
18323958
and other pulmonary complaints, while roots and leaves are also used in traditional medicine. Analysis has shown the presence of sterols, coumarins, higher fatty acids, and the absence of flavones, aglycone and alkaloids. "In vitro", extracts from the tree have proved effective against "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", "Staphylococcus aureus", "Escherichia coli", "Salmonella" spp, "Aeromonas hydrophila" and "Klebsiella" spp. Decoctions and infusions of the fruits, bark and roots are used in traditional medicine for pharyngeal affections, leprosy, subcutaneous parasitic infections and other skin afflictions, venereal diseases, diarrhoea, dysentery, and as antiemetics, febrifuges, analgesics, vermifuges, diuretics and laxatives. Stereospermum kunthianum Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. is
Stereospermum kunthianum
20377677
described as having a "strong affinity for human being"; ulcers generally form where larvae and nymphs feed on humans, and adults have also been found feeding on humans. Many pathogens harmful to humans and other animals can be transmitted by this tick. The Dugbe virus has been isolated from "R. pulchellus" collected from sheep in Ethiopia. There is also evidence that this tick can transmit "Rickettsia conorii" as guinea pigs tested positive for its antibodies after being hosted on. One study suggested a possible link between this tick and typhus due to a similar distribution in Kenya although transmission was
Rhipicephalus pulchellus
19675544
"Animal Ethics in Context", Palmer asks about responsibilities to aid animals, in contrast to the typical focus in animal ethics on not harming animals. She defends a contextual, relational ethic according to which humans will typically have duties to assist only domestic, and not wild, animals in need. However, humans will often be permitted to assist wild animals, and may be obligated to do so if there is a particular (causal) relationship between humans and the animals' plight. Palmer read for a BA (Hons) in theology at Trinity College, Oxford, graduating in 1988, before reading for a doctorate in philosophy
Clare Palmer
2378232
goal of veterinary parasitology is to protect animals and improve their health, but because a number of animal parasites are transmitted to humans, veterinary parasitology is also important for public health. Various methods are used to identify parasites in animals, using feces, blood, and tissue samples from the host animal. Coprological examinations involve examining the feces of animals to identify and count parasite eggs. Some common methods include fecal flotation and sedimentation to separate eggs from fecal matter. Others include the McMaster method, which uses a special two-chamber slide that allows parasite eggs to be more clearly visible and easily
Veterinary parasitology
3869755
Salmonellosis Salmonellosis is a symptomatic infection caused by bacteria of the "Salmonella" type. The most common symptoms are diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, and vomiting. This typically occurs between 12 hours and 36 hours after exposure with symptoms lasting from two to seven days. Occasionally more significant disease can result in dehydration. The old, young, and others with a weakened immune system are more likely to develop severe disease. Specific types of "Salmonella" can result in typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever. There are two species of "Salmonella": "Salmonella bongori" and "Salmonella enterica" with many subspecies. Infection is usually spread by eating
Salmonellosis
2625013
Arbovirus Arbovirus is an informal name used to refer to any viruses that are transmitted by arthropod vectors. The word "arbovirus" is an acronym (ARthropod-BOrne virus). The word "tibovirus" (TIck-BOrne virus) is sometimes used to more specifically describe viruses transmitted by ticks, a superorder within the arthropods. Arboviruses can affect both animals, including humans, and plants. In humans, symptoms of arbovirus infection generally occur 3–15 days after exposure to the virus and last 3 or 4 days. The most common clinical features of infection are fever, headache, and malaise, but encephalitis and hemorrhagic fever may also occur. Arboviruses were not
Arbovirus
16822593
with baby ducklings or chicks from the Estes Hatchery located in Springfield, Missouri. This outbreak resulted in one casualty. One month later (March 2012), 46 people in the United States were infected with "Salmonella" Hadar through contact with live poultry. There were no deaths, and the infected humans were located in 11 different states. The specific hatchery name is withheld, but it was concluded by the CDC that this strain of "Salmonella" originated in one unnamed hatchery in Idaho. In the same month, one of three strains of "Salmonella" – Infantis, Newport, or Lille – were contracted by 195 people
2012 outbreak of Salmonella
1813736
sometimes aggressive, but bites are rarely serious. Like nearly all colubrids, rat snakes pose no threat to humans. Rat snakes were long believed to be completely nonvenomous, but recent studies have shown that some Old World species do possess small amounts of venom, though the amount is negligible relative to humans. Previously, most rat snakes were assigned to the genus "Elaphe", but many have been since renamed following mitochondrial DNA analysis performed in 2002. For the purpose of this article, names will be harmonized with the TIGR Database. "Coelognathus" spp. "Elaphe" spp. "Euprepiophis" spp. "Gonyosoma" spp. "Oreocryptophis" spp. "Orthriophis" spp.
Rat snake
14253661
a Danish broiler house that infected 39,900 day-old chicks. The chicks were infected by eating the beetles. A study of species of beetles in broiler houses, including this species, showed that the beetles that are in broiler houses are likely to carry salmonella. The research also showed that the species can carry "Salmonella enterica" and "Campylobacter" spp. Typhaea stercorea Typhaea stercorea is a cosmopolitan species of beetle of the family Mycetophagidae, known by the common name hairy fungus beetle. Adult "T. stercorea" are long, oval, brown, flattened, and have hairy elytra with parallel lines of fine hairs. It takes 21
Typhaea stercorea
8621139
the isolation, in New Zealand, of the Salmonella organism from all species of farm animals, from watering holes, and from pastures contaminated by infected faeces of such animals, and he showed, in a series of comprehensive field studies, that the organism when deposited in dung, water or pasture, could remain viable for periods ranging up to twenty-eight weeks. Josland also found that the survival of Salmonella was less on pasture exposed to sun compared to shaded pasture. In 1954, Josland resigned from the Wallaceville Animal Research Centre to become chief bacteriologist at the National Health Institute, Department of Health, in
Sydney Josland
16822588
waste-based fertilizers or from food items handled by infected humans. Salmonellosis is an intestinal disease, meaning that the bacteria must be ingested and processed through the intestines in order for infection to occur. Thus, salmonellosis is commonly spread to humans through ingestion of contaminated food items. It can also be spread through contact with reptiles and birds, usually after the person handles the animal or its environment (without hand-washing immediately) and then touches their mouth or food items. Those infected usually develop symptoms anywhere from 12–72 hours after first contact with "Salmonella" bacteria, and most do not require serious medical
2012 outbreak of Salmonella
2926773
millilitre) and relates to the original sample. Calculation of this is a multiple of the counted number of colonies multiplied by the dilution used. When samples show elevated levels of indicator bacteria, further analysis is often undertaken to look for specific pathogenic bacteria. Species commonly investigated in the temperate zone include "Salmonella typhi" and "Salmonella Typhimurium". Depending on the likely source of contamination investigation may also extend to organisms such as "Cryptosporidium spp". In tropical areas analysis of "Vibrio cholerae" is also routinely undertaken. MacConkey agar is culture medium designed to grow Gram-negative bacteria and stain them for lactose fermentation.
Bacteriological water analysis
20616052
harmful mycotoxins at water activity 0.77-0.85. "Salmonella" and "Bacillus cereus" are the primary pathogens of concern with low-moisture foods and IMFs. Most illnesses associated with low-moisture foods or IMFs have been caused by "Salmonella" spp. To reduce the risk of bacterial growth, products are treated with a combination of low pH, addition of sugar, salt and preservatives, and a thermal process that can eliminate pathogens and extend shelf-life. In the case of yeasts and molds, chemical preservatives such as sorbates and propionates are used to inhibit their growth. To achieve 0.6-0.84 water activity in food products, partial drying is employed
Intermediate moisture food
665623
potential pathogen in humans or domestic animals, has been found to be pathogenic in humans and carried by brown rats. Brown rats are sometimes mistakenly thought to be a major reservoir of bubonic plague, a possible cause of the Black Death. However, the bacterium responsible, "Yersinia pestis", is commonly endemic in only a few rodent species and is usually transmitted zoonotically by rat fleas—common carrier rodents today include ground squirrels and wood rats. However, brown rats may suffer from plague, as can many nonrodent species, including dogs, cats, and humans. The original carrier for the plague-infected fleas thought to be
Brown rat
11151207
and norfloxacin. "[Citation Needed]" Others studies have reported that most LABs are also resistant to these antibiotics, which led to the conclusion that it was a common characteristic of LABs. The resistance to these antibiotics can be considered natural or intrinsic. So far no observed "Lactobacillus fermentum "strains have been observed to have transferable resistance or acquired resistance genes Experiments conducted by introducing the strain ME-3 of "Lactobacillus fermentum" into dairy products as a probiotic ingredient revealed that it was able to suppress the reputed contaminants of food such as pathogenic "Salmonella" spp., "Shigella" spp., and urinary tract infections that
Lactobacillus fermentum
1982525
spp., were designated as pasteurellosis. The term "pasteurellosis" is often still applied to mannheimiosis, although such usage has declined. The several forms of the infection are: Other locations are possible, such as septic arthritis, meningitis, and acute endocarditis, but are very rare. Diagnosis is made with isolation of "Pasteurella multocida" in a normally sterile site (blood, pus, or cerebrospinal fluid). As the infection is usually transmitted into humans through animal bites, antibiotics usually treat the infection, but medical attention should be sought if the wound is severely swelling. Pasteurellosis is usually treated with high-dose penicillin if severe. Either tetracycline or
Pasteurellosis
14982316
kelp fronds throughout the water column. Water clarity affects the depth to which sufficient light can be transmitted. In ideal conditions, giant kelp ("Macrocystis spp.") can grow as much as 30-60 centimetres vertically per day. Some species such as "Nereocystis" are annual while others like "Eisenia" are perennial, living for more than 20 years. In perennial kelp forests, maximum growth rates occur during upwelling months (typically spring and summer) and die-backs correspond to reduced nutrient availability, shorter photoperiods and increased storm frequency. Seagrasses are flowering plants from one of four plant families which grow in marine environments. They are called
Marine habitats
12557852
cause for concern if they interact with humans. Rabies is common in cats. In the United States between 200-300 cases are reported annually. Cats that have not been vaccinated and are allowed access to the outdoors have the most risk for contracting rabies as they may come in contact with rabid animals. The virus is often passed on during fights between cats or other animals and is transmitted by bites, saliva or through mucous membranes and fresh wounds. The virus can incubate from one day up to over a year before any symptoms begin to show. Symptoms have a rapid
Rabies in animals
1721994
food chain as the cycad seeds may be eaten directly as a source of flour by humans or by wild or feral animals such as bats, and humans may eat these animals. It is hypothesized that this is a source of some neurological diseases in humans. Cycads have a cylindrical trunk which usually does not branch. Leaves grow directly from the trunk, and typically fall when older, leaving a crown of leaves at the top. The leaves grow in a rosette form, with new foliage emerging from the top and center of the crown. The trunk may be buried, so
Cycad