who refuted the theory of pangenesis with his classic experiment on mice tails
August Friedrich Leopold Weismann
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August Weismann August Friedrich Leopold Weismann (17 January 1834 – 5 November 1914) was a German evolutionary biologist. Ernst Mayr ranked him as the second most notable evolutionary theorist of the 19th century, after Charles Darwin. Weismann became the Director of the Zoological Institute and the first Professor of Zoology at Freiburg. His main contribution involved germ plasm theory, at one time also known as "Weismannism", according to which inheritance (in a multicellular organism) only takes place by means of the germ cells—the gametes such as egg cells and sperm cells. Other cells of the body—somatic cells—do not function as
August Weismann
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in his 1892 book "Das Keimplasma: eine Theorie der Vererbung" (The Germ Plasm: a Theory of Inheritance), was that the hereditary material, which he called the germ plasm, and the rest of the body (the soma) had a one-way relationship: the germ-plasm formed the body, but the body did not influence the germ-plasm, except indirectly in its participation in a population subject to natural selection. This distinction is commonly referred to as the Weismann Barrier. If correct, this made Darwin's pangenesis wrong and Lamarckian inheritance impossible. His experiment on mice, cutting off their tails and showing that their offspring had
Pangenesis
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in his 1892 book "Das Keimplasma: eine Theorie der Vererbung" (The Germ Plasm: a Theory of Inheritance), was that the hereditary material, which he called the germ plasm, and the rest of the body (the soma) had a one-way relationship: the germ-plasm formed the body, but the body did not influence the germ-plasm, except indirectly in its participation in a population subject to natural selection. If correct, this made Darwin's pangenesis wrong, and Lamarckian inheritance impossible. His experiment on mice, cutting off their tails and showing that their offspring had normal tails, demonstrated that inheritance was 'hard'. He argued strongly
Modern synthesis (20th century)
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normal tails across multiple generations, was proposed as a proof of the non-existence of Lamarckian inheritance, although Peter Gauthier has argued that Weismann's experiment showed only that injury did not affect the germ plasm and neglected to test the effect of Lamarckian use and disuse. Weismann argued strongly and dogmatically for Darwinism and against neo-Lamarckism, polarising opinions among other scientists. This increased anti-Darwinian feeling, contributing to its eclipse. Darwin's pangenesis theory was widely criticised, in part for its Lamarckian premise that parents could pass on traits acquired in their lifetime. Conversely, the neo-Lamarckians of the time seized upon pangenesis as
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cousin, Francis Galton. In 1883 August Weismann conducted experiments involving breeding mice whose tails had been surgically removed. His results — that surgically removing a mouse's tail had no effect on the tail of its offspring — challenged the theories of pangenesis and Lamarckism, which held that changes to an organism during its lifetime could be inherited by its descendants. Weismann proposed the germ plasm theory of inheritance, which held that hereditary information was carried only in sperm and egg cells. Hugo de Vries wondered what the nature of germ plasm might be, and in particular he wondered whether or
History of genetics
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troubled because he began the work in good faith, intending to prove Darwin right, and having praised pangenesis in "Hereditary Genius" in 1869. Cautiously, he criticized his cousin’s theory, although qualifying his remarks by saying that Darwin's gemmules, which he called "pangenes," might be temporary inhabitants of the blood that his experiments had failed to pick up. Darwin challenged the validity of Galton's experiment, giving his reasons in an article published in "Nature" where he wrote: After the circulation of Galton's results, the perception of pangenesis quickly changed to severe skepticism if not outright disbelief. August Weismann's idea, set out
Pangenesis
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of removing the tails of 68 white mice, repeatedly over 5 generations, and reporting that no mice were born in consequence without a tail or even with a shorter tail. He stated that "901 young were produced by five generations of artificially mutilated parents, and yet there was not a single example of a rudimentary tail or of any other abnormality in this organ." Weismann was aware of the limitations of this experiment, and made it clear that he embarked on the experiment precisely because, at the time, there were many claims of animals inheriting mutilations (he refers to a
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Darwin's pangenesis to the germ theory of disease. Ross cites the work of both Darwin and Spencer as key to his application of pangenetic theory. Darwin's half-cousin Francis Galton conducted wide-ranging inquiries into heredity which led him to refute Charles Darwin's hypothetical theory of pangenesis. In consultation with Darwin, he set out to see if gemmules were transported in the blood. In a long series of experiments from 1869 to 1871, he transfused the blood between dissimilar breeds of rabbits, and examined the features of their offspring. He found no evidence of characters transmitted in the transfused blood. Galton was
Pangenesis
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behavior that differs from the individuals who compose it. Several theories have emerged in the 19th century and early 20th century to explain this phenomenon. These collective works contribute to the "classic theory" of crowd psychology. In 1968, however, social scientist Dr. Carl Couch of the University of Liverpool refuted many of the stereotypes associated with crowd behavior as described by classic theory. His criticisms are supported widely in the psychology community but are still being incorporated as a "modern theory" into psychological texts. A modern model, based on the "individualistic" concept of crowd behavior developed by Floyd Allport in
Crowd manipulation
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of evolution by natural selection in 1859. Responding to Darwin and Wallace's theory, a revised neo-Lamarckism attracted a small following of biologists, though the Lamarckian zeal was quenched in large part due to Weismann’s famous experiment in which he cut off the tails of mice over several successive generations without having any effect on tail length. Thus the emergent consensus that acquired characteristics could not be inherited became canon. Non-genetic variation and inheritance, however, proved to be quite common. Concurrent to the modern evolutionary synthesis (unifying Mendelian genetics and natural selection), C. H. Waddington was working to unify developmental biology
Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
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gemmules were in the blood, although his theory was often interpreted in this way. Responding to Fleming Jenkin's review of "On the Origin of Species", he argued that pangenesis would permit the preservation of some favourable variations in a population so that they wouldn't die out through blending. Darwin thought that environmental effects that caused altered characteristics would lead to altered gemmules for the affected body part. The altered gemmules would then have a chance of being transferred to offspring, since they were assumed to be produced throughout an organisms life. Thus, pangenesis theory allowed for the Lamarckian idea of
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Hammar experiment The Hammar experiment was an experiment designed and conducted by Gustaf Wilhelm Hammar (1935) to test the aether drag hypothesis. Its negative result refuted some specific aether drag models, and confirmed special relativity. Experiments such as the Michelson–Morley experiment of 1887 (and later other experiments such as the Trouton–Noble experiment in 1903 or the Trouton-Rankine experiment in 1908), presented evidence against the theory of a medium for light propagation known as the Luminiferous aether; a theory that had been an established part of science for nearly one hundred years at the time. These results cast doubts on what
Hammar experiment
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what he called the "organized" or "psychological" crowd, including: In sum, the classic theory contends that: Critics of the classic theory contend that it is seriously flawed in that it decontextualises crowd behavior, lacks sustainable empirical support, is biased, and ignores the influence of policing measures on the behavior of the crowd. In 1968, Dr. Carl J. Couch examined and refuted many classic-theory stereotypes in his article, "Collective Behavior: An Examination of Some Stereotypes." Since then, other social scientists have validated much of his critique. Knowledge from these studies of crowd psychology indicate that: According to the aforementioned 2001 study
Crowd manipulation
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transmission of characteristics acquired through use and disuse. Accidental gemmule development in incorrect parts of the body could explain deformations and the 'monstrosities' Darwin cited in "Variation". Hugo de Vries characterized his own version of pangenesis theory in his 1889 book "Intracellular Pangenesis" with two propositions, of which he only accepted the first: De Vries also coined the term 'pangene' which 20 years later was shortened by Wilhelm Johannsen to gene. Science historian Janet Browne points out that while Herbert Spencer and Carl von Nägeli also put forth ideas for systems of inheritance involving gemmules, their version of gemmules differed
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met by significant criticism from Huxley that made Darwin even more hesitant. However, Huxley eventually advised Darwin to publish, writing: "Somebody rummaging among your papers half a century hence will find Pangenesis & say 'See this wonderful anticipation of our modern Theories—and that stupid ass, Huxley, prevented his publishing them'" Darwin's initial version of pangenesis appeared in the first edition of "Variation" in 1868, and was later reworked for the publication of a second edition in 1875. Darwin's pangenesis theory attempted to explain the process of sexual reproduction, inheritance of traits, and complex developmental phenomena such as cellular regeneration in
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Pangenesis Pangenesis was Charles Darwin's hypothetical mechanism for heredity, in which he proposed that each part of the body continually emitted its own type of small organic particles called gemmules that aggregated in the gonads, contributing heritable information to the gametes. He presented this 'provisional hypothesis' in his 1868 work "The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication", intending it to fill what he perceived as a major gap in evolutionary theory at the time. The etymology of the word comes from the Greek words "pan" (a prefix meaning "whole", "encompassing") and "genesis" ("birth") or "genos" ("origin"). Pangenesis mirrored ideas
Pangenesis
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each version of the hypothesis. Hammar experiment The Hammar experiment was an experiment designed and conducted by Gustaf Wilhelm Hammar (1935) to test the aether drag hypothesis. Its negative result refuted some specific aether drag models, and confirmed special relativity. Experiments such as the Michelson–Morley experiment of 1887 (and later other experiments such as the Trouton–Noble experiment in 1903 or the Trouton-Rankine experiment in 1908), presented evidence against the theory of a medium for light propagation known as the Luminiferous aether; a theory that had been an established part of science for nearly one hundred years at the time. These
Hammar experiment
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for many years on a theory of heredity. In May 1865 he sent a manuscript to his friend Thomas Huxley outlining his theory which he called pangenesis and asking whether he should publish it. In his accompanying letter Darwin wrote "It is a very rash & crude hypothesis yet it has been a considerable relief to my mind, & I can hang on it a good many groups of facts." Huxley pointed out the similarities of pangenesis to the theories of Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, and the Swiss naturalist Charles Bonnet but eventually wrote encouraging Darwin to publish:
The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication
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experiments Abraham's theory was conclusively disproved. (It must be remarked that besides those experiments, the relativistic mass formula had already been confirmed by 1917 in the course of investigations on the theory of spectra. In modern particle accelerators, the relativistic mass formula is routinely confirmed.) In 1902–1906, Dayton Miller repeated the Michelson–Morley experiment together with Edward W. Morley. They confirmed the null result of the initial experiment. However, in 1921–1926, Miller conducted new experiments which apparently gave positive results. Those experiments initially attracted some attention in the media and in the scientific community but have been considered refuted for the
Criticism of the theory of relativity
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in that it contained "a complete microscopic blueprint for an entire creature." Spencer published his theory of "physiological units" three years prior to Darwin's publication of "Variation". She goes on to say that Darwin believed specifically in gemmules for each body part because they might explain how environmental effects could be passed on as characteristics to offspring. Interpretations and applications of pangenesis continued to appear frequently in medical literature up until Weismann's experiments and subsequent publication on germ-plasm theory in 1892. For instance, an address by Huxley spurred on substantial work by Dr. James Ross in linking ideas found in
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in 1900 Karl Pearson wrote that pangenesis "is no more disproved by the statement that ‘gemmules have not been found in the blood,’ than the atomic theory is disproved by the fact that no atoms have been found in the air." Finally, the rediscovery of Mendel's Laws of Inheritance in 1900 led to pangenesis being fully set aside. Julian Huxley has observed that the later discovery of chromosomes and the research of T. H. Morgan also made pangenesis untenable. Some of Darwin's pangenesis principles do relate to heritable aspects of phenotypic plasticity, although the status of gemmules as a distinct
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to work (noticing that traits that were not expressed explicitly in the parent at the time of reproduction could be inherited, that certain traits could be sex-linked, etc.) rather than suggesting mechanisms. Darwin's initial model of heredity was adopted by, and then heavily modified by, his cousin Francis Galton, who laid the framework for the biometric school of heredity. Galton found no evidence to support the aspects of Darwin's pangenesis model, which relied on acquired traits. The inheritance of acquired traits was shown to have little basis in the 1880s when August Weismann cut the tails off many generations of
Heredity
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multiple genes with quantitative effects. Another theory that had some support at that time was the inheritance of acquired characteristics: the belief that individuals inherit traits strengthened by their parents. This theory (commonly associated with Jean-Baptiste Lamarck) is now known to be wrong—the experiences of individuals do not affect the genes they pass to their children, although evidence in the field of epigenetics has revived some aspects of Lamarck's theory. Other theories included the pangenesis of Charles Darwin (which had both acquired and inherited aspects) and Francis Galton's reformulation of pangenesis as both particulate and inherited. Modern genetics started with
Genetics
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topic of Lamarckian ideas as they related to inheritance are found in a notebook he opened in 1837, also entitled "Zoonomia". Historian Johnathan Hodge states that the theory of pangenesis itself first appeared in Darwin's notebooks in 1841. In 1861, Irish physician Henry Freke developed a variant of pangenesis in his book "Origin of Species by Means of Organic Affinity". Freke proposed that all life was developed from microscopic organic agents which he named "granules", which existed as 'distinct species of organizing matter' and would develop into different biological structures. In 1864, four years before the publication of "Variation", Herbert
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Spencer in his book "Principles of Biology" proposed a theory of "physiological units" similar to Darwin's gemmules, which likewise were said to be related to specific body parts and responsible for the transmission of characteristics of those body parts to offspring. He also supported the Lamarckian idea of transmission of acquired characteristics. Darwin had debated whether to publish a theory of heredity for an extended period of time due to its highly speculative nature. He decided to include pangenesis in "Variation" after sending a 30 page manuscript to his close friend and supporter Thomas Huxley in May 1865, which was
Pangenesis
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Outcome (probability) In probability theory, an outcome is a possible result of an experiment. Each possible outcome of a particular experiment is unique, and different outcomes are mutually exclusive (only one outcome will occur on each trial of the experiment). All of the possible outcomes of an experiment form the elements of a sample space. For the experiment where we flip a coin twice, the four possible "outcomes" that make up our "sample space" are (H, T), (T, H), (T, T) and (H, H), where "H" represents a "heads", and "T" represents a "tails". Outcomes should not be confused with
Outcome (probability)
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blended and mixed to produce the offspring. Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, from Greek pan ("all, whole") and genesis ("birth") / genos ("origin"). Darwin used the term "gemmule" to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction. Mendel's work went largely unnoticed after its first publication in 1866, but was rediscovered in the late 19th century by Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who (claimed to have) reached similar conclusions in their own research. Specifically, in 1889, Hugo de Vries published his book "Intracellular Pangenesis", in which he postulated that different characters
Gene
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place in the universe. The mechanisms of reproductive heritability and the origin of new traits remained a mystery. Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of pangenesis. In 1865, Gregor Mendel reported that traits were inherited in a predictable manner through the independent assortment and segregation of elements (later known as genes). Mendel's laws of inheritance eventually supplanted most of Darwin's pangenesis theory. August Weismann made the important distinction between germ cells that give rise to gametes (such as sperm and egg cells) and the somatic cells of the body, demonstrating that heredity passes through the germ line only.
Evolution
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A theory put forth by Pierre Louis Maupertuis in 1745 called for particles from both parents governing the attributes of the child, although some historians have called his remarks on the subject cursory and vague. In 1749, French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon developed a hypothetical system of heredity much like Darwin's pangenesis, wherein 'organic molecules' were transferred to offspring during reproduction and stored in the body during development. Commenting on Buffon's views, Darwin stated, "If Buffon had assumed that his organic molecules had been formed by each separate unit throughout the body, his view and mine would have
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Society of Brünn)", following two lectures he gave on the work in early 1866. Mendel's work was published in a relatively obscure scientific journal, and it was not given any attention in the scientific community. Instead, discussions about modes of heredity were galvanized by Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, in which mechanisms of non-Lamarckian heredity seemed to be required. Darwin's own theory of heredity, pangenesis, did not meet with any large degree of acceptance. A more mathematical version of pangenesis, one which dropped much of Darwin's Lamarckian holdovers, was developed as the "biometrical" school of heredity by Darwin's
History of genetics
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University of Amsterdam. He was made adjunct professor in 1878 and full professor on his birthday in 1881, partly to keep him from moving to the Berlin College, which finally opened that year. De Vries was also professor and director of Amsterdam's Botanical Institute and Garden from 1885 to 1918. In 1889, De Vries published his book "Intracellular Pangenesis", in which, based on a modified version of Charles Darwin's theory of Pangenesis of 1868, he postulated that different characters have different hereditary carriers. He specifically postulated that inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles. He called these units
Hugo de Vries
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of Nature Neuroscience outlined an experiment designed to test the underlying theory proposed to explain the purported efficacy of GABA antagonists in restoring the declarative memory deficits associated with the mouse model of human Down Syndrome. Ts65Dn mice injected with a 2-week regimen of either of two compounds picrotoxin or bilobalide (both GABA antagonists) showed marked improvements in both exploration and recognition of novel objects over controls injected with only saline. These results were duplicated in a second experiment with mice fed either plain milk or a combination of milk and a non-epileptogenic dose of PTZ daily for 17 days.
Pentylenetetrazol
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originally formulated by Hippocrates and other pre-Darwinian scientists, but built off of new concepts such as cell theory, explaining cell development as beginning with gemmules which were specified to be necessary for the occurrence of new growths in an organism, both in initial development and regeneration. It also accounted for regeneration and the Lamarckian concept of the inheritance of acquired characteristics, as a body part altered by the environment would produce altered gemmules. This made Pangenesis popular among the neo-Lamarckian school of evolutionary thought. This hypothesis was made effectively obsolete after the 1900 rediscovery among biologists of Gregor Mendel's theory
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regards it as disproven. In 2004 the journal "Nature" described the hypothesis as "refuted". These theories generally attribute HIV's origin to the US government or its contractors: Jakob Segal (1911–1995), a professor at Humboldt University in then-East Germany, proposed that HIV was engineered at a U.S. military laboratory at Fort Detrick, by splicing together two other viruses, Visna and HTLV-1. According to his theory, the new virus, created between 1977 and 1978, was tested on prison inmates who had volunteered for the experiment in exchange for early release. He further suggested that it was through these prisoners that the virus
Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories
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men in the dark) touch an elephant to learn what it is like. Each one feels a different part, but only one part, such as the side or the tusk. They then compare notes and learn that they are in complete disagreement. "Three Blind Mice" is a medieval English nursery rhyme about three blind mice whose tails are cut off after chasing the farmer's wife. The work is explicitly incongruous, ending with the comment "Did you ever see such a sight in your life, As three blind mice?" Poet John Milton, who went blind in mid-life, composed On His Blindness,
Visual impairment
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nature with man through the appreciation of botany. In it, Darwin encourages humans to study botany because plants are a part of the same natural world as man. He also argues that sexual reproduction gives rise to phenotypic change (which his grandson would later incorporate into his own theory of evolution put forth in "On the Origin of Species").In 1794, Erasmus Darwin also wrote "Zoonomia", another book of verse, this time dealing with human physiology. In this volume, Erasmus Darwin presents himself as a Lamarckian evolutionist, advocating the "inheritance of acquired characteristics" theory. He also suggests a theory of pangenesis
Romanticism in evolution theory
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statistic (e.g. mean, variance) without using normal theory (e.g. z-statistic, t-statistic). Bootstrap comes in handy when there is no analytical form or normal theory to help estimate the distribution of the statistics of interest, since bootstrap methods can apply to most random quantities, e.g., the ratio of variance and mean. There are at least two ways of performing case resampling. Consider a coin-flipping experiment. We flip the coin and record whether it lands heads or tails. Let be 10 observations from the experiment. if the i th flip lands heads, and 0 otherwise. From normal theory, we can use t-statistic
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the relative frequencies of occurrence of each of the events would approach agreement with the values "P" assigns them. As a simple experiment, we may flip a coin twice. The sample space (where the order of the two flips is relevant) is "{(H, T), (T, H), (T, T), (H, H)}" where "H" means "heads" and "T" means "tails". Note that each of "(H, T), (T, H)", ... are possible "outcomes" of the experiment. We may define an "event" which occurs when a "heads" occurs in either of the two flips. This event contains all of the outcomes except "(T, T)".
Experiment (probability theory)
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Blending inheritance Blending inheritance is an obsolete theory in biology from the 19th century. The theory is that the progeny inherits any characteristic as the average of the parents' values of that characteristic. As an example of this a crossing of a red flower variety with a white variety of the same species would yield pink-flowered offspring. Charles Darwin's theory of inheritance by pangenesis, with contributions to egg or sperm from every part of the body, implied blending inheritance. His reliance on this mechanism led Fleeming Jenkin to attack natural selection on the grounds that blending inheritance would average out
Blending inheritance
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very long hind legs which, in most species, include cannon bones. They move either by jumping, or by walking on their hind legs. The jumping mice have long feet, but lack the extreme adaptations of the jerboas, so that they move by crawling or making short hops, rather than long leaps. Both jerboas and jumping mice have long tails to aid their balance. Birch mice have shorter tails and feet, but they, too, move by jumping. Most dipodids are omnivorous, with a diet consisting of seeds and insects. Some species of jerboa, however, such as "Allactaga sibirica", are almost entirely
Dipodidae
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Flying mouse The flying mice, also known as the pygmy scaly-tails, pygmy scaly-tailed flying squirrels, or pygmy anomalures are not true mice, not true squirrels, and are not capable of true flight. These unusual rodents are essentially miniaturized versions of anomalures and are part of the same sub-Saharan African radiation of gliding mammal. These animals resemble mice with gliding membranes and long, sparsely-haired tails. Their appearance is similar to some marsupial gliders. They are less than 10 cm (4 inches) in head and body length and weigh 14-35 grams (1/2 - 1.2 oz). Flying mice are nocturnal and are found
Flying mouse
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the growth of some tumors. (Burnet, 1970) More recent evidence has suggested that immunosurveillance is only part of a larger role the immune system plays in fighting cancer. Remodeling of this theory has led to the progression of the immunoediting theory, in which there are 3 phases, Elimination, Equilibrium and Escape. As mentioned, the elimination phase is synonymous with the classic immunosurveillance theory. In 2001, it was shown that mice deficient in RAG-2 (Recombinase Activator Gene 2) were far less capable of preventing MCA induced tumours than were wild type mice. (Shankaran et al., 2001, Bui and Schreiber, 2007) RAG
CD4+ T cells and antitumor immunity
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to reductions in endothelium-dependant dilation. Furthermore, a study using cultured smooth muscle cells displayed increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells derived from older mice. These findings were supported by a second study using Leydig cells isolated from the testes of young and old rats. The Choksi et al. experiment with Ames dwarf (DW) mice suggests the lower levels of endogenous ROS production in DW mice may be a factor in their resistance to oxidative stress and long life. Lener et al. suggest Nox4 activity increases oxidative damage in human umbilical vein endothelial cells via superoxide overproduction. Furthermore, Rodriguez-Manas et
Free-radical theory of aging
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Hugo de Vries connected Darwin's pangenesis theory to Weismann's germ/soma cell distinction and proposed that Darwin's pangenes were concentrated in the cell nucleus and when expressed they could move into the cytoplasm to change the cell's structure. De Vries was also one of the researchers who made Mendel's work well known, believing that Mendelian traits corresponded to the transfer of heritable variations along the germline. To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries. In the 1930s, pioneers
Evolution
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the 1866 work of the monk Gregor Mendel, who would later be credited with the laws of inheritance. However, his work was not recognized as significant until 35 years afterward. In the meantime, a variety of theories of inheritance (based on pangenesis, orthogenesis, or other mechanisms) were debated and investigated vigorously. In 1859, Charles Darwin placed the whole theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur, and provided observational evidence that it had done so. This changed the attitudes of most exponents of the scientific method. Darwin's discoveries
History of zoology since 1859
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by Gregor Mendel, and like him obtaining segregating (unblended) varieties, effectively disproving his theory of pangenesis with blending: Blending inheritance was also clearly incompatible with Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. The engineer Fleeming Jenkin used this to attack natural selection in his 1867 review of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species". Jenkin noted, correctly, that if inheritance were by blending, any beneficial trait that might arise in a lineage would have "blended away" long before natural selection had time to act. The evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins commented that blending inheritance was observably wrong, as it implied that every
Blending inheritance
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the items Sonic collects. He appears as a playable character in all of the "Mario & Sonic" titles, as well as in "Sega Superstars Tennis", "Sonic & Sega All-Stars Racing", and Transformed. He also appears in "Sonic Colors" as a non-playable character. Tails celebrates Sonic's birthday along with his friends by setting up a party in "Sonic Generations", but when the Time Eater appears, it warps them through various time holes, sending Tails to Green Hill. After Sonic frees him, Tails meets his classic counterpart (Classic Tails) and concludes that they were traveling through time and space. They accompany both
Tails (character)
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to Dr. Rook. This theory and the theory that certain parasitic worms pacify the immune response are similar in that both theories attribute the recent rise of autoimmune diseases to the decreased levels of pathogens in developed countries. However, the Hygiene Hypothesis claims that the absence of pathogenic organisms in general has led to this. In contrast, the parasitic worm theory only analyzes helminths, and specifically ones found to have a regulating effect. Type diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease in which the immune system destroys the body's pancreatic beta cells. In an experiment with mice, infection with parasitic worms
Effects of parasitic worms on the immune system
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disuse" of characteristics in response to the environment. The biologist Peter Gauthier noted in 1990 that: Can Weismann's experiment be considered a case of disuse? Lamarck proposed that when an organ was not used, it slowly, and very gradually atrophied. In time, over the course of many generations, it would gradually disappear as it was inherited in its modified form in each successive generation. Cutting the tails off mice does not seem to meet the qualifications of disuse, but rather falls in a category of accidental misuse... Lamarck's hypothesis has never been proven experimentally and there is no known mechanism
Lamarckism
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Three Blind Mice "Three Blind Mice" is an English-language nursery rhyme and musical round. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 3753. The modern words are: Published by Frederick Warne & Co., an illustrated children's book by John W. Ivimey entitled "The Complete Version of Ye Three Blind Mice", fleshes the mice out into mischievous characters who seek adventure, eventually being taken in by a farmer whose wife chases them from the house and into a bramble bush, which blinds them. Soon after, their tails are removed by "the butcher's wife" when the complete version incorporates the original
Three Blind Mice
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of negative entropy. Freke argued to have published on evolution before Charles Darwin. In 1851 he wrote a pamphlet that claimed animals and plants had evolved from a single filament. He sent a copy of the pamphlet to Darwin who described the writing style as "ill-written" and "beyond my scope". However, in the "Historical Sketch" for the 6th Edition of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species", Freke is listed as an early evolution proponent. On page 83 of his "On the Origin of Species by Means of Organic Affinity" (1861), Freke developed a theory of pangenesis, in which he proposed
Henry Freke
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in emulsion polymerisation, values of these rate coefficients for simple systems to be predicted, and the reliability of new measurements to be checked from theory. He used data from applying these methods to obtain the dependence of rate coefficients on controllable quantities, such as initiator concentration. Thus, he tested existing models, developed new tests—some of which refuted extant models—and refined the older models that withstood his tests. At last, it was possible to achieve consistency between supposed microscopic events and experiment, and, for the very first time in the field, to refute postulated models authoritatively. Using these data, he quantified
Robert Gilbert (chemist)
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However, this theory was directly refuted by the Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment (1925). The great difference of this experiment against the usual Sagnac experiments is the fact that the rotation of earth itself was measured. If the aether is completely dragged by the Earth's gravitational field, a negative result has to be expected - but the result was positive. And from a theoretical side it was noted by Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, that the Stokes-Planck hypothesis requires that the speed of light is not affected by a density increase of 50000 times of the aether. So Lorentz and Planck himself rejected this hypothesis
Aether drag hypothesis
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using parachute-like membranes that stretch from the fore to the hind limbs. The agouti is fleet-footed and antelope-like, being digitigrade and having hoof-like nails. The majority of rodents have tails, which can be of many shapes and sizes. Some tails are prehensile, as in the Eurasian harvest mouse, and the fur on the tails can vary from bushy to completely bald. The tail is sometimes used for communication, as when beavers slap their tails on the water surface or house mice rattle their tails to indicate alarm. Some species have vestigial tails or no tails at all. In some species,
Rodent
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ever undertaken. Since the inception of the experiment, the bacteria have grown for more than 60,000 generations. Lenski and colleagues regularly publish updates on the status of the experiments. In 1998, Theodore Garland, Jr. and colleagues started a long-term experiment that involves selective breeding of mice for high voluntary activity levels on running wheels. This experiment also continues to this day (> 65 generations). Mice from the four replicate "High Runner" lines evolved to run almost three times as many running-wheel revolutions per day compared with the four unselected control lines of mice, mainly by running faster than the control
Experimental evolution
1565334
white mice, and those of their offspring over five generations, and reporting that no mice were born in consequence without a tail or even with a shorter tail. In 1889, he stated that "901 young were produced by five generations of artificially mutilated parents, and yet there was not a single example of a rudimentary tail or of any other abnormality in this organ." The experiment, and the theory behind it, were thought at the time to be a refutation of Lamarckism. However, the experiment's effectiveness in refuting Lamarck's hypothesis is doubtful, as it did not address the "use and
Lamarckism
16014777
back to Roy Britten and colleagues around 1970, but was still weakly supported by observation or experiment. He granted that chimps and humans are almost 99% identical at DNA level, but points out that "humans and chimps have different amino-acid sequences in at least 55% of their proteins, a figure that rises to 95% for humans and mice. Thus we can't exclude protein-sequence evolution as an important reason why we lack whiskers and tails." He also noted that nearly half of human protein-coding genes do not have homologues in fruit flies, so one could argue the opposite of Carroll's thesis
Endless Forms Most Beautiful (book)
7199889
The Mice (The Outer Limits) "The Mice" is an episode of the original "The Outer Limits" television show. It first aired on 6 January 1964, during the first season. A convict named Chino Rivera, sentenced to life imprisonment after being charged with first degree homicide when he killed his sister's abusive husband, volunteers to be a human guinea pig for a matter transportation experiment. In reality, the experiment is supposed to be an exchange of technology between Earth and an alien race called the Chromoites. When an inhabitant of Chromo, designated as their 'volunteer', materializes in the testing lab, it
The Mice (The Outer Limits)
8548921
two major epidemics of human history: plague and smallpox. Although this allele originated much earlier, its frequency rose dramatically about 700 years ago. This led scientists to believe that bubonic plague acted as a selective pressure that drove CCR5-Δ32 to high frequency. It was speculated that allele may have provided protection against the Yerisinia pestis, which is the causative agent for plague. Many in vivo mouse studies have refuted this claim by showing no protective effects of CCR5-Δ32 allele in mice infected with Y. pestis. Another theory that has gained more scientific support links the current frequency of the allele
Chemokine receptor
2246971
is formula_16 from which it follows that the complement event, flipping tails, has formula_17. Suppose we were to conduct an experiment where the coin is tossed repeatedly, with outcomes formula_18, and it is assumed each flip's outcome is independent of all the others. That is, they are "i.i.d.". Define the sequence of random variables on the coin toss space, formula_19 where formula_20. "i.e." each formula_21 records the outcome of the formula_22'th flip. Any infinite sequence of heads and tails is a possible outcome of the experiment. However, any particular infinite sequence of heads and tails has probability zero of being
Almost surely
13751360
The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication is a book by Charles Darwin that was first published in January 1868. A large proportion of the book contains detailed information on the domestication of animals and plants but it also contains in Chapter XXVII a description of Darwin's theory of heredity which he called pangenesis. Darwin had been working for two years on his "big book" on Natural Selection, when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Alfred Wallace, who was then living in Borneo. It enclosed a twenty pages
The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication
13751377
wrote to Hooker: "I shall be intensely anxious to hear what you think about Pangenesis" and to the German naturalist Fritz Müller: "The greater part, as you will see, is not meant to be read; but I should very much like to hear what you think of 'Pangenesis'." Few of Darwin's colleagues shared his enthusiasm for pangenesis. Wallace was initially supportive and Darwin confided to him: "None of my friends will speak out, except to a certain extent Sir H. Holland, who found it very tough reading, but admits that some view 'closely akin to it' will have to be
The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication
14321031
researchers have used parabiosis to study remyelination from adult stem cells to see if conjoining young with older mice could reverse or delay this process. In the experiment, the two mice were conjoined and demyelination was induced via injection into the older mice. The experiment determined that factors from the younger mice reversed CNS demyelination in older mice by revitalizing the oligodendrocytes. The monocytes from the younger mice also enhanced the ability of the older mice to clear myelin debris because the young monocytes can clear lipids from myelin sheaths more effectively than older monocytes. The conjoining of the two
Parabiosis
6580812
rise, they begin invasion. Originally planning to turn humans into their own kind, the experiment failed, and their strategy was changed to simply destroying mankind by reducing the number of human beings as the Tailed-People Clan was outnumbered. Being as the number of tails determines rank, the Emperor's dream is to obtain ten tails, who is said to provide one with eternal life and powers. Their rank and status is determined by the number of tails each member has. The more tails, the greater the status. Kagaku Sentai Dynaman The Jashinka Empire rises from the depths of the Earth to
Kagaku Sentai Dynaman
5708671
Spiny mouse The term spiny mouse refers to any species of rodent within the genus Acomys. Similar in appearance to mice of the genus "Mus", spiny mice are small mammals with bare, scaled tails. However, their coats are endowed with unusually stiff guard hairs similar to the spines of a hedgehog; this trait is the source of the common name, "spiny mouse". Despite their similarity to members of the genus "Mus", genetic evidence suggests that the African spiny mice may be more closely related to gerbils than to common mice. Genus Acomys - spiny mice Though African spiny mice originated
Spiny mouse
19587739
M.D. in 1984. From 1996 to 2000, he continued his education, performing research relating to anatomy and hand surgery. During this period, specifically on January 25, 1999, the first hand transplant was performed on Mathew Scott. Ren was an influential figure in this achievement. Prior to his announcement of attempting the first human head transplant, Ren had spent years performing the same surgery on mice. However, the results of most of the experiments ended with the subject dying. One such experiment involved 40 Kunming mice, and another 40 C57 wild type mice. Out of 80 mice selected, only 18 survived,
Ren Xiaoping
595017
1871, he transfused the blood between dissimilar breeds of rabbits, and examined the features of their offspring. He found no evidence of characters transmitted in the transfused blood. Darwin challenged the validity of Galton's experiment, giving his reasons in an article published in "Nature" where he wrote: Now, in the chapter on Pangenesis in my "Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication" I have not said one word about the blood, or about any fluid proper to any circulating system. It is, indeed, obvious that the presence of gemmules in the blood can form no necessary part of my hypothesis;
Francis Galton
9404434
and I will hug him, and pet him, and squeeze him" with Mel Blanc doing an unmistakable imitation of Lon Chaney, Jr.'s Lennie. Tex Avery, who worked as a director on Warner-released cartoons during the 1930s and early 1940s, started the "Of Mice and Men" trend with "Of Fox and Hounds" (1940) and "Lonesome Lenny" (1946) featuring Screwy Squirrel. The formula was so successful that it was used again and again in subsequent shorts, notably Robert McKimson's "Hoppy Go Lucky" (1952), "Cat-Tails for Two" (1953) and Chuck Jones' "The Abominable Snow Rabbit" (1961). Many more serious animated features use George
Of Mice and Men in popular culture
1746615
refutes it. Since the coin is ostensibly neither fair nor biased toward tails, the conclusion of the experiment is that the coin is biased towards heads. Alternatively, a null hypothesis implying a two-tailed test is "this coin is fair". This one null hypothesis could be examined by looking out for either too many tails or too many heads in the experiments. The outcomes that would tend to refuse this null hypothesis are those with a large number of heads or a large number of tails, and our experiment with 5 heads would seem to belong to this class. However, the
Null hypothesis
2298294
as electrocution on power lines, other collisions, shooting, consumption of poisoned baits set for other animals and collision with vehicles and other crafts. While most mortality of young red-tails is at least mainly due to natural causes, mortality of fledged or older red-tails is now mostly attributable to human killing, accidental or intentional, as well as flying into manmade materials. Hawks in urban areas are threatened by the use of rat traps and poisoned bait to kill rodents. This generally consists of warfarin cookies which induce internal bleeding in rats and mice, and a hawk that ingests rodents who have
Red-tailed hawk
1845274
Intuition, or knowledge learned unconsciously, was the inherited experience of the race. Spencer in his book "Principles of Biology" (1864), proposed a pangenesis theory that involved "physiological units" assumed to be related to specific body parts and responsible for the transmission of characteristics to offspring. These hypothetical hereditary units were similar to Darwin's gemmules. Spencer read with excitement the original positivist sociology of Auguste Comte. A philosopher of science, Comte had proposed a theory of sociocultural evolution that society progresses by a general law of three stages. Writing after various developments in biology, however, Spencer rejected what he regarded as
Herbert Spencer
11399418
dysostosis presents as a shortened neck and trunk relative total height and a mild form of scoliosis. Respiratory problems are also common in spondylocostal dysostosis because of the shortened trunk. A knockout model for Lfng has been created in mice, and without Lfng, mice have shorter tails, and impaired rib, lung, and somite development. A deficiency of Lfng in male mice has also been associated with lack of spermatozoa in the epididymis of many mice; however, spermatogenesis was not impaired. Rather, the male mice were subfertile. In female mice, Lfng deficiency led to infertility because of abnormal folliculogenesis. Further examination
LFNG
4269635
pass from soma to germ plasm and on to the next generation. This is referred to as the Weismann barrier. This idea, if true, rules out the inheritance of acquired characteristics as proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and implied by Charles Darwin's pangenesis theory of inheritance. The part of Weismann's theory which proved most vulnerable was his notion that the germ plasm (effectively, genes) were successively reduced during division of somatic cells. As modern genetics developed, it became clear that this idea was in most cases wrong. Cases such as Dolly (the famous cloned ewe) which, via somatic cell nuclear transfer,
Germ plasm
12346136
randomness. Venkat tries to use this experiment in a game called Teen Patti (a poker game), which he plays on the Internet. According to this experiment if a person playing Teen Patti knows the three cards with one of the players (except him) he/she can guess the other cards with the rest of the players and therefore can guess who is going to win with the theory of probability. Venkat succeeds on his theory and submits his report to the institute where he teaches, but they reject his report. Venkat is sure about his theory and wants to try out
Teen Patti (film)
9895077
story from the beginning. The story starts when the planet was young and life on Earth was emerging with early creatures among erupting volcanoes. The protagonists are the Wild Man and the Woman who is his mate. The film is available on DVD in the collection "Золотая коллекция мультфильмов 9" ("Golden Collection of Cartoons 9"), a PAL 2003 Russian release. It also includes the films "Barankin, Be a Man!", "Inchgirl", "The Pot of Porridge", "How the Cat Fought with Mice", and "Wings, Legs and Tails" (total running time: 142 minutes). The film has also been released on DVD by the
The Cat Who Walked by Herself
12425424
Tenets, and commonly Presumed Truths"), which was an attack on false beliefs and "vulgar errors." His contemporary, Alexander Ross, erroneously refuted him, stating: "To question this [spontaneous generation], is to question Reason, Sense, and Experience: If he doubts of this, let him go to "Ægypt", and there he will finde the fields swarming with mice begot of the mud of "Nylus", to the great calamity of the Inhabitants." In 1665, Robert Hooke published the first drawings of a microorganism. Hooke was followed in 1676 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who drew and described microorganisms that are now thought to have been
Abiogenesis
15665225
Young's interference experiment Young's interference experiment, also called Young's double-slit interferometer, was the original version of the modern double-slit experiment, performed at the beginning of the nineteenth century by Thomas Young. This experiment played a major role in the general acceptance of the wave theory of light. In Young's own judgement, this was the most important of his many achievements. During this period, many scientists proposed a wave theory of light based on experimental observations, including Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens and Leonhard Euler. However, Isaac Newton, who did many experimental investigations of light, had rejected the wave theory of light
Young's interference experiment
178155
adaptation syndrome" or "Selyes syndrome" was triphasic, involving an initial alarm phase followed by a stage of resistance or adaptation and, finally, a stage of exhaustion and death.. Working with doctoral student Thomas McKeown (1912–88), Selye published a report that used the word “stress” to describe these responses to adverse events. His last inspiration for "general adaptation syndrome" (GAS, a theory of stress) came from an endocrinological experiment in which he injected mice with extracts of various organs. He at first believed he had discovered a new hormone, but was proved wrong when every irritating substance he injected produced the
Hans Selye
1610923
founders of the theory of natural selection [but] he was one of the pioneers of genetics". Maupertuis espoused a theory of pangenesis, postulating particles from both mother and father as responsible for the characters of the child. Bowler credits him with studies on heredity, with the natural origin of human races, and with the idea that forms of life may have changed with time. Maupertuis was a strong critic of the natural theologians, pointing to phenomena incompatible with a concept of a good and wise Creator. He was also one of the first to consider animals in terms of variable
Pierre Louis Maupertuis
20713464
the older mouse's access to the younger mouse's organs. A study conducted at UC Berkeley found that blood from older mice hurt younger mice, while older mice were not benefited by the blood of younger mice. In experiments like this, researchers found that some of these mice died quickly (11 out of 69 in one experiment) for reasons the scientists could not explain, but described as possibly some form of rejection. Amy Wagers, a researcher who coauthored several mouse studies on young blood transfusion, has said that her papers do not provide a scientific basis for some of the existing
Young blood transfusion
7165237
Dendromus Mice in the genus Dendromus are commonly referred to as African climbing mice or tree mice, although these terms are often used to describe all members of the subfamily Dendromurinae. The genus is currently restricted to sub-Saharan Africa, but fossils classified in the genus have been found from Late Miocene deposits in Arabia and Europe. Mice in the genus "Dendromus" are small (Head and body: 5–10 cm) with relatively long tails (6–13 cm). This tail is semi-prehensile and provides an aid in climbing. The dense fur is grey or brown and either one or two stripes are present on
Dendromus
16025621
potential, uses it to go back in time and team up with his past ("Classic") self. The two convert it to a robot to erase their past defeats from history. The Time Eater proceeds to attack Classic Sonic as he travels through Green Hill at the beginning of the original "Sonic the Hedgehog", and interrupts a birthday celebration being held for the present ("Modern") Sonic by his friends, scattering them. Modern Sonic awakens in White Space and rescues Tails after traveling through Green Hill. Modern Sonic and Tails eventually meet their Classic counterparts, and form an alliance to restore their
Sonic Generations
2232920
animal metaphor seem to have evolved over the book's making—in the original publication of the first volume, his self-portrait showed a mouse head on a human body, but by the time the second volume arrived, his self-portrait had become that of a man wearing a mouse mask. In "Maus", the characters seem to be mice and cats only in their predator/prey relationship. In every respect other than their heads and tails, they act and speak as ordinary humans. Further complicating the animal metaphor, Anja is ironically shown to be afraid of mice, while other characters appear with pet dogs and
Maus
14921285
Antiviral Protein (PAP), could possibly be used therapeutically in T-cell leukemia, lymphoma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and AIDS. In an experiment posted in the "Journal of Virology", mice immune systems were integrated to mimic that of humans. The mice were then infected with HIV and later given the PAP. The experiment showed that the PAP treated the mice from the HIV and with no side-effects. Ribosomal protein synthesis in the nucleolus stalls when PAP strips purine bases from viral mRNA before they reach ribosomes. Research is still being conducted with PAP to see the effectiveness on other viruses including the common cold.
Antiviral protein
15864192
event to be held near the Keyboard Monument with support from IT companies. There are "sysadmin competitions" between participants: they throw defunct PC mice to reach maximum distance and also throw such mice (with their "tails" cut out) within an empty distant computer case used as basket. Additionally, they powerlift a bundle of unused HDDs. In 2016 during such an event a memorial plaque was set up at the monument to honour , the Ekaterinburg FidoNet organiser and Internet pioneer who died recently. In the end of April, the "Keyboard Subbotniks" are also held, when people are cleaning and re-painting
Keyboard Monument
10639991
by the males with shortened tails. The result indicated that the long tail is favored by sexual selection through female choice of mates. Female preference for long tails is also seen in the red-collared widowbird. The Andersson experiment demonstrated that female long-tailed widowbirds prefer supernormal tails, as males with elongated tails were found to be the most reproductively successful. The tail females found most attractive were longer than those that occur in the natural setting. This outcome was shown to be the result of female choice rather than differences in male behavior resulting from shortened tails: males with shortened tails
Long-tailed widowbird
434680
statistical interpretation. In 1982, he further developed his theory in "Quantum theory and the schism in Physics", writing: [Heisenberg's] formulae are, beyond all doubt, derivable "statistical formulae" of the quantum theory. But they have been "habitually misinterpreted" by those quantum theorists who said that these formulae can be interpreted as determining some upper limit to the "precision of our measurements". [original emphasis] Popper proposed an experiment to falsify the uncertainty relations, although he later withdrew his initial version after discussions with Weizsäcker, Heisenberg, and Einstein; this experiment may have influenced the formulation of the EPR experiment. The many-worlds interpretation originally
Uncertainty principle
2603129
much faster than flatworms who had not been fed trained worms. This experiment intended to show that memory could be transferred chemically. The experiment was repeated with mice, fish, and rats, but it always failed to produce the same results. The perceived explanation was that rather than memory being transferred to the other animals, it was the hormones in the ingested ground animals that changed the behavior. McConnell believed that this was evidence of a chemical basis for memory, which he identified as memory RNA. McConnell's results are now attributed to observer bias. No blinded experiment has ever reproduced his
Planarian
12011063
and were adept at using such words in different ways and in creating new concepts. Today it is common to refer to an institution's ability to designate funds for a specific use or owner as an earmark. Laboratory mice are often kept with several animals in one cage since mice are social animals, therefore it is necessary to have some method of identifying them individually. Earmarks may be used, although non-traumatic methods such as tattooing their tails and painting spots on white mice with crystal violet or permanent markers can be used as well. Microchips are less commonly used in
Earmark (agriculture)
168212
use an expert opinion to sway their decision, or choose a risk-free alternative instead for a smaller financial reward. Participants turned to the expert opinion to make their decision 24% of the time based on their past experience of success, which exemplifies the hot-hand. If the expert was correct, 78% of the participants chose the expert's opinion again, as opposed to 57% doing so when the expert was wrong. The participants also exhibited the gambler's fallacy, with their selection of either heads or tails decreasing after noticing a streak of either outcome. This experiment helped bolster Ayton and Fischer's theory
Gambler's fallacy
7290236
by the objective chance of heads landing being equal to the chance of tails landing, it should therefore hold that P(Tails | Monday) = P(Heads | Monday), and thus Since these three outcomes are exhaustive and exclusive for one trial, the probability of each is one-third by the previous two steps in the argument. David Lewis responded to Elga's paper with the position that Sleeping Beauty's credence that the coin landed heads should be 1/2. Sleeping Beauty receives no new non-self-locating information throughout the experiment because she is told the details of the experiment. Since her credence before the experiment
Sleeping Beauty problem
13217907
pig (or cavy) is noted as having an excellent swimming ability. Mice can swim quite well. They do panic when placed in water, but many lab mice are used in the Morris water maze, a test to measure learning. When mice swim, they use their tails like flagella and kick with their legs. Many snakes are excellent swimmers as well. Large adult anacondas spend the majority of their time in the water, and have difficulty moving on land. Many monkeys can naturally swim and some, like the proboscis monkey, crab-eating macaque, and rhesus macaque swim regularly. Swimming has been known
Aquatic locomotion
10541099
Cactus mouse The cactus mouse ("Peromyscus eremicus") is a species of rodents in the family Cricetidae. It is one species of a closely related group of common mice often called deer mice. Cactus mice are small, between 18 and 40 g in weight. Females weigh slightly more than males and are significantly larger in body length, ear length, length of mandible, and bullar width of skull. Cactus mice can be identified by having naked soles on their hind feet and almost naked tails, which are usually the same length or longer than the animals' body length. Their ears are nearly
Cactus mouse
1621979
Bernoulli distribution </math>| In probability theory and statistics, the Bernoulli distribution, named after Swiss mathematician Jacob Bernoulli, is the discrete probability distribution of a random variable which takes the value 1 with probability formula_7 and the value 0 with probability formula_8 that is, the probability distribution of any single experiment that asks a yes–no question; the question results in a boolean-valued outcome, a single bit of information whose value is success/yes/true/one with probability "p" and failure/no/false/zero with probability "q". It can be used to represent a (possibly biased) coin toss where 1 and 0 would represent "heads" and "tails" (or
Bernoulli distribution
175332
science. When Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolution in 1859, one of its major problems was the lack of an underlying mechanism for heredity. Darwin believed in a mix of blending inheritance and the inheritance of acquired traits (pangenesis). Blending inheritance would lead to uniformity across populations in only a few generations and then would remove variation from a population on which natural selection could act. This led to Darwin adopting some Lamarckian ideas in later editions of "On the Origin of Species" and his later biological works. Darwin's primary approach to heredity was to outline how it appeared
Heredity
6787265
patterned after the characters Lennie and George in the novel "Of Mice and Men". George and Benny are walking down a pier looking for food, when they find a Mexican ship. Figuring the ship will have plenty of Mexican mice, i.e. "Mexican food" (Benny: "It gives me the heartburn and I love it!"), they climb on, only to find an unkempt mouse calling himself "Speedy Gonzales: Fastest Mouse in All Mexico". George and Benny go through numerous attempts to capture Speedy, who always outwits them. Speedy comes to think of them as private entertainment, at one point declaring "I like
Cat-Tails for Two
6491646
Mice Galaxies NGC 4676, or the Mice Galaxies, are two spiral galaxies in the constellation Coma Berenices. About 290 million light-years away, they began the process of colliding and merging. Their name refers to the long tails produced by tidal action—the relative difference between gravitational pulls on the near and far parts of each galaxy—known here as a galactic tide. It is a possibility that both galaxies, which are members of the Coma cluster, have experienced collision, and will continue colliding until they coalesce. The colors of the galaxy are peculiar. In NGC 4676A a core with some dark markings
Mice Galaxies
317631
been very closely similar." In 1801, Erasmus Darwin advocated a hypothesis of pangenesis in the third edition of his book "Zoonomia". In 1809, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in his "Philosophie Zoologique" put forth evidence for the idea that characteristics acquired during the lifetime of an organism, either from effects of the environment or may be passed on to the offspring. Charles Darwin first had significant contact with Lamarckism during his time at the University of Edinburgh Medical School in the late 1820s, both through Robert Edmond Grant, whom he assisted in research, and in Erasmus's journals. Darwin's first known writings on the
Pangenesis
14177310
Pebble-mound mouse Pebble-mound mice are a group of rodents from Australia in the genus "Pseudomys". They are small, brownish mice with medium to long, often pinkish brown tails. Unlike some other species of "Pseudomys", they construct mounds of pebbles around their burrows, which play an important role in their social life. There are four complementarily distributed species of pebble-mound mice in northern Australia. Their distribution appears to be limited by climatic conditions and the availability of pebbles and is thought to be the result of early Pleistocene dispersal across areas that are now inhospitable to pebble-mound mice. None of the
Pebble-mound mouse
5159409
Console. Contrary to the classic speedy gameplay in the "Sonic the Hedgehog" series, "Tails Adventure" is a puzzle-based platformer with a strong emphasis on item collecting and backtracking, like a side-scrolling action RPG. Tails can walk, jump, duck, look up, fly, hang on ledges, solve puzzles and defend himself with a range of different items, such as a hammer, various types of bombs, and medallions bearing other characters, which allow him to perform additional actions, such as Spin-Dashing or punching enemies. His health is measured numerically by a Ring Item Box at the top left corner of the screen. HP
Tails Adventure
3034300
International Muon Ionization Cooling Experiment The International Muon Ionization Cooling Experiment (or MICE) is a high energy physics experiment at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, designed to demonstrate ionization cooling of muons. This is a process whereby the emittance of a beam is reduced in order to reduce the beam size, so that more muons can be accelerated in smaller aperture accelerators and with fewer focussing magnets. This might enable the construction of high intensity muon accelerators, for example for use as a Neutrino Factory or Muon Collider. MICE will reduce the transverse emittance of a muon beam over a single
International Muon Ionization Cooling Experiment