what is the most abundant mineral that forms from evaporating water
gypsum
1554184
experiment begins when about 50% of the original water depth remains. At this point, minor carbonates begin to form. The next phase in the sequence comes when the experiment is left with about 20% of its original level. At this point, the mineral gypsum begins to form, which is then followed by halite at 10%, excluding carbonate minerals that tend not to be evaporites. The most common minerals that are generally considered to be the most representative of marine evaporites are calcite, gypsum and anhydrite, halite, sylvite, carnallite, langbeinite, polyhalite, and kainite. Kieserite (MgSO) may also be included, which often
Evaporite
253051
to be transparent to translucent, soft, and many are fragile. Sulfate minerals commonly form as evaporites, where they precipitate out of evaporating saline waters. Sulfates can also be found in hydrothermal vein systems associated with sulfides, or as oxidation products of sulfides. Sulfates can be subdivided into anhydrous and hydrous minerals. The most common hydrous sulfate by far is gypsum, CaSO⋅2HO. It forms as an evaporite, and is associated with other evaporites such as calcite and halite; if it incorporates sand grains as it crystallizes, gypsum can form desert roses. Gypsum has very low thermal conductivity and maintains a low
Mineral
6074017
Carnallite Carnallite (also carnalite) is an evaporite mineral, a hydrated potassium magnesium chloride with formula KMgCl·6(HO). It is variably colored yellow to white, reddish, and sometimes colorless or blue. It is usually massive to fibrous with rare pseudohexagonal orthorhombic crystals. The mineral is deliquescent (absorbs moisture from the surrounding air) and specimens must be stored in an airtight container. Carnallite occurs with a sequence of potassium and magnesium evaporite minerals: sylvite, kainite, picromerite, polyhalite, and kieserite. Carnallite is an uncommon double chloride mineral that only forms under specific environmental conditions in an evaporating sea or sedimentary basin. It is mined
Carnallite
20773467
mostly used as a treatment for gastroenterostomy diseases. Batabat mineral water is located 1700 high from the sea level in the north – east of the Nakhchivan city. Magnesium, hydro carbonated, sodium – potassium abundant water is beneficial for gastroentric diseases. Mineral waters of Nakhchivan Mineral waters of Nakhchivan are water springs in Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic that contain various minerals such as, sodium, potassium, magnesium, chloride and sulfur compounds. There are approximately seven thousand artesian aquifers and more than two hundred mineral water springs in Nakhchivan. Mineral water springs of Nakhchivan cover about 60% of overall water sources of Azerbaijan.
Mineral waters of Nakhchivan
8942465
Mineral redox buffer In geology, a redox buffer is an assemblage of minerals or compounds that constrains oxygen fugacity as a function of temperature. Knowledge of the redox conditions (or equivalently, oxygen fugacities) at which a rock forms and evolves can be important for interpreting the rock history. Iron, sulfur, and manganese are three of the relatively abundant elements in the Earth's crust that occur in more than one oxidation state. For instance, iron, the fourth most abundant element in the crust, exists as native iron, ferrous iron (Fe), and ferric iron (Fe). The redox state of a rock affects
Mineral redox buffer
12130125
winter. Most of the district is highland with the average altitude of 55m and surface water of 3m. There is abundant high quality ground water. In fact, Laoshan mineral water is renowned and sold China-wide. Natural resources are abundant, with granite being the prevalent mineral in the area. Laoshan District is home to several Hi-tech industries, tourism and a large service-based industry. In terms of Hi-Tech, the focus is laid on IT, Software, Marine Biological Pharmacy and new materials. Emphasis has been put on sustainable development and green technology, taking advantage of the still-intact mountain forests and the seaside. The
Laoshan District
224885
of kamacite, is the sixth most abundant element in the universe and the most abundant of those elements generally considered metallic. Taenite, and tochilinite are minerals that are commonly associated with kamacite. Kamacite has been found and studied in Meteor Crater, Arizona. Meteor Crater was the first confirmed meteor impact site on the planet, and was not universally recognized as such till the 1950s. In the 1960s United States Geological Survey discovered kamacite in specimens gathered from around the site tying the mineral to meteorites. Kamacite primarily forms on meteorites but has been found on extraterrestrial bodies such as Mars.
Kamacite
16198600
and Ganges Chasma. These sites all contain fluvial landforms indicating that abundant water was once present. Spirit rover discovered sulfates and goethite in the Columbia Hills. Some of the mineral classes detected may have formed in environments suitable (i.e., enough water and the proper pH) for life. The mineral smectite (a phyllosilicate) forms in near-neutral waters. Phyllosilicates and carbonates are good for preserving organic matter, so they may contain evidence of past life. Sulfate deposits preserve chemical and morphological fossils, and fossils of microorganisms form in iron oxides like hematite. The presence of opaline silica points toward a hydrothermal environment
Composition of Mars
6925775
aqueous phase. Uranyl nitrate is recovered by evaporating the solution. The uranyl ion occurs in minerals derived from uranium ore deposits by water-rock interactions that occur in uranium-rich mineral seams. Tyuyamunite (Ca(UO)VO·8HO), autunite (Ca(UO)(PO)·8–12HO), torbernite (Cu(UO)(PO)·8–12HO) and uranophane (HO)Ca(UO)(SiO)·3HO) are examples of uranyl containing minerals. These minerals are of little commercial value as most uranium is extracted from pitchblende. Uranyl salts are used to stain samples for electron and electromagnetic microscopy studies of DNA. Uranyl salts are toxic and can cause severe renal insufficiency and acute tubular necrosis. Target organs include the kidneys, liver, lungs and brain. Uranyl ion accumulation
Uranyl
7646271
a large body of water that was covered by shallow water. Other evidence includes findings of chlorine and bromine in the rocks which indicates the rocks had at least soaked in mineral-rich water, possibly from underground sources, after they formed. Increased assurance of the bromine findings strengthens the case that rock-forming particles precipitated from surface water as salt concentrations climbed past saturation while water was evaporating. The evidence for water was published in a series of scientific papers, with the initial results appearing in the journal "Science" and then with a detailed discussion of the sedimentary geology of the landing
Scientific information from the Mars Exploration Rover mission
13116323
rapidly. On the Earth and Mars, the most common mineral to meet this criterion is olivine, which readily weathers to clay minerals in the presence of water. Olivine is widespread on Mars, suggesting that Mars' surface has not been pervasively altered by water; abundant geological evidence suggests otherwise. Over 60 meteorites have been found that came from Mars. Some of them contain evidence that they were exposed to water when on Mars. Some Martian meteorites called basaltic shergottites, appear (from the presence of hydrated carbonates and sulfates) to have been exposed to liquid water prior to ejection into space. It
Water on Mars
9241
up approximately 2.6% of the Earth's crust measured by weight, making it the sixth most abundant element overall and the most abundant alkali metal. Potassium makes up approximately 1.5% of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element. Sodium is found in many different minerals, of which the most common is ordinary salt (sodium chloride), which occurs in vast quantities dissolved in seawater. Other solid deposits include halite, amphibole, cryolite, nitratine, and zeolite. Many of these solid deposits occur as a result of ancient seas evaporating, which still occurs now in places such as Utah's Great Salt Lake
Alkali metal
8949078
gradually closed off as a layer of special cork cells forms at the base of each leaf. As this cork layer develops, water and mineral intake into the leaf is reduced, slowly at first, and then more rapidly. During this time, the chlorophyll begins to decrease. Often, the veins are still green after the tissues between them have almost completely changed color. Much chlorophyll is in photosystem II (light-harvesting complex II or LHC II), the most abundant membrane protein on earth. LHC II captures light in photosynthesis. It is located in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast and it is
Autumn leaf color
7945944
vegetative cover which protects the soil from physical erosion but abundant rainfall results in the loss of mineral ions and increased concentration of those minerals in receiving bodies of water. Abundant marine calcium results in limestone formation. During rhexistasy (from rhexein, to break) the protective vegetative cover is reduced or eliminated as a result of a drier climate. Rainfall intensity is higher. The drier climate slows pedogenesis and soils no longer contribute the limestone building mineral components that characterize biostasy. Unprotected by thick vegetation or deep soils, wind acts to expose subsoil to erosion and rock to physical weathering. Freeze-thaw
Biorhexistasy
20773465
and consists of the several springs. The chemical composition of the water consists of minerals such as, Carbon Dioxide, Hydro carbonate – chloride and sodium – potassium. Badamli is Narzan (Kislovodsk) and Saqveri (Georgia) typed healing – beverage water. Daridagh mineral water located in Culfa district and consists of five springs and 32 exploration wells. The source of the water is 800–900 meters high from the sea level. According to the chemical composition Daridagh mineral water is arsenic and highly mineralized chloride – hydro carbonate – sodium abundant, and close to the Kudova (Poland), La – Burbula (France), Durkheim (Germany)
Mineral waters of Nakhchivan
6517373
stability). As one example, Pauling considered the three mineral forms of titanium dioxide, each with a coordination number of 6 for the Ti cations. The most stable (and most abundant) form is rutile, in which the coordination octahedra are arranged so that each one shares only two edges (and no faces) with adjoining octahedra. The other two, less stable, forms are brookite and anatase, in which each octahedron shares three and four edges respectively with adjoining octahedra. In a crystal containing different cations, those of high valency and small coordination number tend not to share polyhedron elements with one another.
Pauling's rules
14807211
and may be used under vacuum, avoiding unwanted reactions with the atmosphere and allowing control of noxious fumes. Evaporation under vacuum also reduces the severity of bumping and violent ebullition. Evaporating dish An evaporating dish or watch glass is a piece of laboratory glassware used for the evaporation of solutions and supernatant liquids, and sometimes to their melting point. Evaporating dishes are used to evaporate excess solvents – most commonly water – to produce a concentrated solution or a solid precipitate of the dissolved substance. Most are made of porcelain or borosilicate glass. Shallow glass evaporating dishes are commonly termed
Evaporating dish
14807208
Evaporating dish An evaporating dish or watch glass is a piece of laboratory glassware used for the evaporation of solutions and supernatant liquids, and sometimes to their melting point. Evaporating dishes are used to evaporate excess solvents – most commonly water – to produce a concentrated solution or a solid precipitate of the dissolved substance. Most are made of porcelain or borosilicate glass. Shallow glass evaporating dishes are commonly termed "watch glasses", since they resemble the front window of a pocket watch. Some used for high-temperature work are of refractory metals, usually of platinum, owing to its non-reactive behaviour and
Evaporating dish
13019483
Uranyl carbonate Uranyl carbonate, UO(CO), is a carbonate of uranium that forms the backbone of several uranyl mineral species such as andersonite, mckelveyite-(Y) and wyartite and most importantly rutherfordine. It is also found in both the mineral and organic fractions of coal and its fly ash and is the main component of uranium in mine tailing seepage water. Uranium like other actinides readily forms a dioxide uranyl core (UO). In the environment, this uranyl core readily complexes with carbonate to form charged complexes. Although uranium forms insoluble solids or adsorbs to mineral surfaces at alkaline pH it is these soluble
Uranyl carbonate
13019485
large class of mineral species. Several have been described in literature. These include: Uranyl carbonate Uranyl carbonate, UO(CO), is a carbonate of uranium that forms the backbone of several uranyl mineral species such as andersonite, mckelveyite-(Y) and wyartite and most importantly rutherfordine. It is also found in both the mineral and organic fractions of coal and its fly ash and is the main component of uranium in mine tailing seepage water. Uranium like other actinides readily forms a dioxide uranyl core (UO). In the environment, this uranyl core readily complexes with carbonate to form charged complexes. Although uranium forms insoluble
Uranyl carbonate
8942474
unusually oxidizing, almost two log units more so than the NiNiO buffer. The calcium sulfate, anhydrite, was present as phenocrysts in the erupted tephra. In contrast, sulfides contain most of the sulfur in magmas more reducing than the FMQ buffer. Mineral redox buffer In geology, a redox buffer is an assemblage of minerals or compounds that constrains oxygen fugacity as a function of temperature. Knowledge of the redox conditions (or equivalently, oxygen fugacities) at which a rock forms and evolves can be important for interpreting the rock history. Iron, sulfur, and manganese are three of the relatively abundant elements in
Mineral redox buffer
339961
Quartz Quartz is a mineral composed of silicon and oxygen atoms in a continuous framework of SiO silicon–oxygen tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall chemical formula of SiO. Quartz is the second most abundant mineral in Earth's continental crust, behind feldspar. Quartz crystals are chiral, and exist in two forms, the normal α-quartz and the high-temperature β-quartz. The transformation from α-quartz to β-quartz takes place abruptly at 573 °C (846 K). Since the transformation is accompanied by a significant change in volume, it can easily induce fracturing of ceramics or rocks passing through this
Quartz
4290225
as Tb, Ho, Tm, Lu) each being present at about the 1% level. Dysprosium is usually the most abundant of the even-numbered heavies, and holmium is the most abundant of the odd-numbered heavies. The lightest lanthanides are generally better represented in monazite while the heaviest lanthanides are in xenotime. Xenotime Xenotime is a rare-earth phosphate mineral, the major component of which is yttrium orthophosphate (YPO). It forms a solid solution series with chernovite-(Y) (YAsO) and therefore may contain trace impurities of arsenic, as well as silicon dioxide and calcium. The rare-earth elements dysprosium, erbium, terbium and ytterbium, as well as
Xenotime
6481135
Mine in Japan, the Treburland Mine in Cornwall, England, and from a bog in Norway. Birnessite is a phyllomanganate, which is a type of ferroalloy that contains a high proportion of manganese. While natural forms generally contain foreign ions (i.e. Na, Ca, K) they are considered non-essential and synthetic forms of the mineral can be produced without them. However, most of the synthetic versions of the mineral undergo significant water loss at temperatures above 100 °C. Its structure is thought to be similar to that of chalcophanite, and has been modeled as such by Burns. The structure itself consists of
Birnessite
5742491
duration of sunshine is about 2,000 hours. The relative air humidity ranges from 65 to 75%. Surrounded by age-old pine tree woods, the town favors abundant sunshine. There are more than 90 mineral water springs with curative and preventive properties in and around the town. The mineral waters (from springs and wells) vary considerably in temperature, mineralization, radon, silicic acid and fluorine content, and are suitable for treatment of a wide range of diseases. 9000 litres of water per minute spring from the five thermal and mineral deposits in Ladzhene, Kamenitsa, Chepino, Rakitovo and Kostandovo. Together with the numerous mineral
Velingrad
2507201
Galena Galena, also called lead glance, is the natural mineral form of lead(II) sulfide. It is the most important ore of lead and an important source of silver. Galena is one of the most abundant and widely distributed sulfide minerals. It crystallizes in the cubic crystal system often showing octahedral forms. It is often associated with the minerals sphalerite, calcite and fluorite. Galena is the main ore of lead, used since ancient times. Because of its somewhat low melting point, it was easy to liberate by smelting. It typically forms in low-temperature sedimentary deposits. In some deposits galena contains about
Galena
5384100
average temperature is 4.5 °C. Liaoyuan is replete with water resources. There are 56 rivers and streams running through the city, including tributes of Liao River and Songhua River. In addition, Liaoyuan is also rich in timber and mineral resources. Mineral resources such as limestone, marble, coal, silica, and wollastonite are abundant. Forests cover 42% of the city's lands. Coal mining in Liaoyuan started in late Qing dynasty and continued to be the most important industry for more than 100 years. During the Japanese occupation from 1931 to 1945, Liaoyuan was the second largest coal-mining center of Manchukuo, preceded only
Liaoyuan
19388635
poured concrete, as in a roadway. The process involves preparing a mixture of bitumen, soap, and water, which forms bituminous emulsion, and spraying this on freshly laid concrete. This forms an insoluble film on the surface of the concrete and by keeping the water in the concrete mixture from evaporating, facilitates a chemical reaction in which water molecules react with calcium hydroxide and other ingredients to form calcium-silicate hydrate. The result is reduced cracking and stronger concrete. Barber made and sold bituminous emulsion. The product was long known and not patented, and it has many uses besides the patented process.
Leitch Manufacturing Co. v. Barber Co.
1604301
fresh mineral waters. "Aluminium" (symbol Al) or "aluminum" (American English) is a silvery white member of the boron group of chemical elements and a post-transition metal. It is not soluble in water under normal circumstances. Aluminium is the third most abundant element (after oxygen and silicon), and the most abundant metal, in the Earth's crust. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth's solid surface. Aluminium metal is too reactive chemically to occur natively. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite. Aluminium is remarkable for the metal's low
Period 3 element
13756290
water. Ammonia is toxic to fish and humans. The toxicity is decreased with lower alkalinity and increases with higher alkalinity as ammonium is converted to ammonia. There are 3 main forms of nitrogen: Molecular nitrogen is the gas form of nitrogen in the atmosphere. The chemical structure for nitrogen gas is N. The mineral forms of nitrogen are: Ammoniums ions are nitrified and are converted by microorganisms into nitrate. Fish and humans are more tolerant of nitrate nitrogen than they are of ammonium nitrogen. In well aerated water, most of the mineral nitrogen is in the form of nitrate. See
Ammoniacal nitrogen
13038123
in the U.S. Southwest. Such crusts are formed by solutions of minerals moving up through soil and evaporating at the surface. The soil resembled those produced from the weathering of basaltic lavas. The tested soil contained abundant silicon and iron, along with significant amounts of magnesium, aluminum, sulfur, calcium, and titanium. Trace elements, strontium and yttrium, were detected. The amount of potassium was five times lower than the average for the Earth's crust. Some chemicals in the soil contained sulfur and chlorine that were like those remaining after the evaporation of sea water. Sulfur was more concentrated in the crust
Lunae Palus quadrangle
1717786
at $13.2 billion. Titanium dioxide occurs in nature as the well-known minerals rutile, anatase and brookite, and additionally as two high pressure forms, a monoclinic baddeleyite-like form and an orthorhombic α-PbO-like form, both found recently at the Ries crater in Bavaria. One of these is known as akaogiite and should be considered as an extremely rare mineral. It is mainly sourced from ilmenite ore. This is the most widespread form of titanium dioxide-bearing ore around the world. Rutile is the next most abundant and contains around 98% titanium dioxide in the ore. The metastable anatase and brookite phases convert irreversibly
Titanium dioxide
13766352
largest recorded agate was found in Fuxin City, China, with a diameter of 63 cm and weighing 310 kg. Enhydros are formed when water rich in silica percolates through volcanic rock, forming layers of deposited mineral. As layers build up, the mineral forms a cavity in which the water becomes trapped. The cavity is then layered with the silica-rich water, forming its shell. Unlike fluid inclusions, the chalcedony shell is porous, allowing water to enter and exit the cavity very slowly. The water inside of an enhydro agate is most times not the same water as when the formation occurred.
Enhydro agate
9527878
a spinel structure. Spinel group minerals crystallize in the isometric system with an octahedral habit. Olivine is most abundant in the upper mantle, above about ; the olivine polymorphs wadsleyite and ringwoodite are thought to dominate the transition zone of the mantle, a zone present from about 410 to 660 km depth. Ringwoodite is thought to be the most abundant mineral phase in the lower part of Earth’s transition zone. The physical and chemical property of this mineral partly determine properties of the mantle at those depths. The pressure range for stability of ringwoodite lies in the approximate range from
Ringwoodite
253024
Earth's crust, quartz (SiO) is the most abundant mineral species. It is characterized by its high chemical and physical resistivity. Quartz has several polymorphs, including tridymite and cristobalite at high temperatures, high-pressure coesite, and ultra-high pressure stishovite. The latter mineral can only be formed on Earth by meteorite impacts, and its structure has been composed so much that it had changed from a silicate structure to that of rutile (TiO). The silica polymorph that is most stable at the Earth's surface is α-quartz. Its counterpart, β-quartz, is present only at high temperatures and pressures (changes to α-quartz below 573 °C
Mineral
20773463
exploration works carried out there in the twentieth century. According to the investigations, there are six types, sixteen categories and thirty-three spices of mineral waters in Nakhchivan and 98% of them contain Carbon dioxide. The majority of mineral waters’ temperature is 8 °C - 22 °C. There are explored waters with 50 °C and more in Sirab and Daridagh springs. 35% of Carbon dioxide abundant mineral waters of the country are situated in Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. Sirab mineral water spring located in Babek district (18 kilometers north – east of Nakhchivan city) and it is 1100-meter-high from sea level in
Mineral waters of Nakhchivan
2611722
are classified by fine skeletal details of the small individuals of the colony. In another example, many fossil genera of Foraminifera, which are protists are known from shells (called "tests") that were as big as coins, such as the genus "Nummulites". Microfossils are a common feature of the geological record, from the Precambrian to the Holocene. They are most common in deposits of marine environments, but also occur in brackish water, fresh water and terrestrial sedimentary deposits. While every kingdom of life is represented in the microfossil record, the most abundant forms are protist skeletons or cysts from the Chrysophyta,
Micropaleontology
9257889
called "condensed milk" done by evaporating water from the milk. In the concentration process, the goal of evaporation is to vaporize most of the water from a solution which contains the desired product. An evaporator/evaporative-process can be used for separating liquid chemicals as well as to salvage solvents. In the case of desalination of sea water or in Zero Liquid Discharge plants, the reverse purpose applies; evaporation removes the desirable drinking water from the undesired solute/product, salt. One of the most important applications of evaporation is in the food and beverage industry. Foods or beverages that need to last for
Evaporator
5377586
Perrhenic acid Perrhenic acid is the chemical compound with the formula . It is obtained by evaporating aqueous solutions of . Conventionally, perrhenic acid is considered to have the formula , and a species of this formula forms when rhenium(VII) oxide sublimes in the presence of water or steam. When a solution of is kept for a period of months, it breaks down and crystals of are formed, which contain tetrahedral For most purposes, perrhenic acid and rhenium(VII) oxide are used interchangeably. Rhenium can be dissolved in nitric or concentrated sulfuric acid to produce perrhenic acid. The structure of solid
Perrhenic acid
8597837
evaporating sea-water into a hot air stream, and on the other side for condensing freshwater. The cooling from the evaporation helps water condense on the dividing wall, while the energy from the condensing vapor, now turned to droplets, passes back to the evaporation side, and is absorbed in the evaporating sea water. This way, much of the energy (as heat) is left in the process, and is not removed with the air leaving the DewVaporation column. Various improvements have been proposed, among those reusing the output brine and adding external heat in a stacked way, so that the pressure and
Dewvaporation
7339909
obtained by dissolving uranium oxide in hydrochloric acid and evaporating. The company Indian Rare Earths Limited (IREL) has developed a process to extract uranium from the Western and Eastern coastal dune sands of India. After pre-processing with high-intensity magnetic separators and fine grinding, the mineral sands (known as monazite), are digested with caustic soda at about and water. The hydroxide concentrate is further digested with concentrated hydrochloric acid to solubilise all hydroxides to form a feed solution composed of chlorides of uranium and other rare earth elements including thorium. The solution is subjected to liquid–liquid extraction with dual solvent systems
Uranyl chloride
405924
and the seventh-most abundant metal. It is present as oxides in most igneous rocks, in sediments derived from them, in living things, and natural bodies of water. Of the 801 types of igneous rocks analyzed by the United States Geological Survey, 784 contained titanium. Its proportion in soils is approximately 0.5 to 1.5%. Common titanium-containing minerals are anatase, brookite, ilmenite, perovskite, rutile, and titanite (sphene). Akaogiite is an extremely rare mineral consisting of titanium dioxide. Of these minerals, only rutile and ilmenite have economic importance, yet even they are difficult to find in high concentrations. About 6.0 and 0.7 million
Titanium
17449761
from German colonisation. However, it is difficult to hypothesize on what would have resulted if the Palgrave Commission had succeeded. The hypothetical enlarged state would have included the entire (predominantly mixed-race and Afrikaans-speaking) western half of southern Africa, corresponding largely to the dry, winter-rainfall climatic area, and holding abundant mineral resources. It would also have inherited a relatively liberal, inclusive and multi-racial political system. Had it not been united with the Boer republics and the Johannesburg mines that seeded apartheid, it is possible that this region would have avoided that most unfortunate part of history. A social development akin to
Palgrave Commission
5957040
snowmelt. The lake’s only other source of fresh water are summer thundershowers that produce a small amount of runoff from Abert Rim. Because the lake has no outlet, it has developed a high concentrations of sodium carbonates, common salt, and alkali in its water. Crystallized mineral crusts on rocks along the lakeshore can be several inches thick. Some mineral deposits are evident on boulders above the present lake surface. Fish cannot survive in the lake because of the high salinity and alkali content; as a consequence, brine shrimp are abundant. As a result, the lake provides an excellent habitat for
Lake Abert
10653105
Hepburn Mineral Springs Reserve The Hepburn Mineral Springs Reserve is a reserve near Hepburn Springs, Victoria, Australia. It contains several mineral springs that have been used for drinking and bathing since the 1860s. The site is listed on the Victorian Heritage Register and forms part of Hepburn Regional Park. In the 1864 its citizens met at the Savoia Hotel and petitioned the government to protect the mineral springs from mining - the water was rated above gold and the Hepburn Mineral Spring Reserve was created in 1865. Many of its residents came from 'spa' areas in Italy, Germany and England
Hepburn Mineral Springs Reserve
13116319
the sulfate mineral jarosite forms only in low pH (highly acidic) water. Phyllosilicates usually form in water of neutral to high pH (alkaline). Eh is a measure is the oxidation state of an aqueous system. Together Eh and pH indicate the types of minerals that are thermodynamically most likely to form from a given set of aqueous components. Thus, past environmental conditions on Mars, including those conducive to life, can be inferred from the types of minerals present in the rocks. Aqueous minerals can also form in the subsurface by hydrothermal fluids migrating through pores and fissures. The heat source
Water on Mars
10839711
Kežovica The Kežovica mineral spa () is situated near the southern Štip suburb of Novo Selo in the Republic of Macedonia, just after the canyon that the river Bregalnica forms when exiting the city. The water temperature is at the source and is slightly radioactive, which is used for medicinal purposes. There is a thermal bath built in the vicinity of the main spring, as well as a hospital unit, specializing in physiotherapy performed in pools filled with water from the mineral springs. There is a secondary mineral hot spring in the suburb of Novo Selo itself called L'dzhite, which
Kežovica
8503327
presence of water over the past billion years. However, there is no reason to suppose that Venus was an exception to the processes that formed Earth and gave it its water during its early history, possibly from the original rocks that formed the planet or later on from comets. The common view among research scientists is that water would have existed for about 600 million years on the surface before evaporating, though some such as David Grinspoon believe that up to 2 billion years could also be plausible. The early Earth during the Hadean eon is believed by most scientists
Atmosphere of Venus
7202771
controls), agricultural fields, stream banks, and highly disturbed areas. Nutrients mainly refers to inorganic matter from runoff, landfills, livestock operations and crop lands. The two primary nutrients of concern are phosphorus and nitrogen. Phosphorus is a nutrient that occurs in many forms that are bioavailable. It is notoriously over-abundant in human sewage sludge. It is a main ingredient in many fertilizers used for agriculture as well as on residential and commercial properties, and may become a limiting nutrient in freshwater systems and some estuaries. Phosphorus is most often transported to water bodies via soil erosion because many forms of phosphorus
Nonpoint source pollution
484933
movement of water in soil is the means by which plants acquire it and their nutrients. Most soil water is taken up by plants as passive absorption caused by the pulling force of water evaporating (transpiring) from the long column of water (xylem sap flow) that leads from the plant's roots to its leaves, according to the cohesion-tension theory. The upward movement of water and solutes (hydraulic lift) is regulated in the roots by the endodermis and in the plant foliage by stomatal conductance, and can be interrupted in root and shoot xylem vessels by cavitation, also called "xylem embolism".
Soil
17386040
diammonium dicadmium selenate trihydrate: (NH)Cd(SeO)•3HO and when heated it loses both water and ammonia to form a pyroselenate rather than a langeinite. Diammonium dicadmium sulfate can be made by evaporating a solution of ammonium sulfate and cadmium sulfate. Dithallium dicadmium sulfate can be made by evaporating a water solution at 85 °C. Other substances may be formed during crystallisation from water such as Tutton's salts or competing compounds like RbCd(SO)·5HO. Potassium and ammonium nickel langbeinite can be made from nickel sulfate and the other sulfates by evaporating a water solution at 85 °C. Dipotassium dizinc sulfate can be formed into
Langbeinites
2492386
in solution deposited the mineral in a crack in the rock. A picture of this vein, called "Homestake" formation, is shown below. Examination of Meridiani rocks found strong evidence for past water. The mineral called jarosite which only forms in water was found in all bedrocks. This discovery proved that water once existed in Meridiani Planum In addition, some rocks showed small laminations (layers) with shapes that are only made by gently flowing water. The first such laminations were found in a rock called “The Dells.” Geologists would say that the cross-stratification showed festoon geometry from transport in subaqueous ripples.
Meridiani Planum
14283482
eight watersheds that account for 9% of the land area and drain to the Pacific Ocean. Annual internal renewable water resources stand at 189.7 km while also featuring 6.9 km of annually shared water from the San Juan River which forms the border with Costa Rica. Because water has been so abundant and demand is low, there are no treaties for joint utilization. The Cañas-Jerez treaty of 1858 however, established Nicaragua's sovereignty over the San Juan River and has sparked conflict between Nicaragua and Costa Rica over many years. The potential of abundant groundwater is much greater on the Pacific
Water resources management in Nicaragua
17960115
maximum biting on humans takes place. The larval forms are most abundant during cold season from October to the next April. Larvae are generally found in cool and clean water. In the Mediterranean region they are commonly found in wells and water containers (very common in cisterns). In cold area the larvae hibernate during winter but in warmer climate, they do not hibernate although development is slow. Larvae of "An. petragnani" are slightly different in that they can tolerate higher water temperature. Therefore they can be found during summer under rockholes, ditches, canals and river banks. Mature larvae develop in
Anopheles claviger
15410527
hair is approximately 100,000 nm in diameter) LPC technology is becoming limited by secondary optical effects, and new particle measurement techniques will be required. Another type of contamination in UPW is dissolved inorganic material, primarily silica. Silica is one of the most abundant mineral on the planet and is found in all water supplies. Any dissolved inorganic material has the potential to remain on the wafer as the UPW dries. Once again this can lead to a significant loss in yield. To detect trace amounts of dissolved inorganic material a measurement of non-volatile residue is commonly used. This technique involves
Ultrapure water
16640485
as CO is drawn off. The solution is then concentrated, excess vanadic acid is removed by filtration, and allowed to cool and crystallize. Since huemulite dissolves easily in water, it can be recrystallized by evaporating the mineral solution. When evaporated slowly, the process creates well-formed crystals up to and . In a more humid environment, fibrous crystals or acicular radial aggregates are formed. Both recrystallized and synthetic huemulite have tabular habit. Huemulite exhibits the triclinic crystal system with space group P and one formula unit per unit cell. The crystal structure consists of decavanadate anions (VO) linked by an interstitial
Huemulite
6280527
at the 2012 census. In 2013, the GDP was 79.2 billion RMB, a 8.2% growth over the previous year. Rural income was 11,100 RMB, a 10.5% growth over 2012 and urban income was 23,489 RMB, an 11% growth over 2012 (without regard to inflation). Pingxiang has abundant water and mineral resources. Five rivers flow across the land which delivers approximately 2.626 billion cubic meters per year. Coal, iron ore, limestone, kaolin and granite are the most abundant minerals of the city. Even today, the "Pingxiangren" or local people proudly refer to their city as the "coal center of southern China."
Pingxiang
9313178
54 μg per liter. Vanadyl ion The vanadyl or oxovanadium(IV) cation, VO, is functional group that is common in the coordination chemistry of vanadium. Complexes containing this functional group are characteristically blue and paramagnetic. A triple bond is proposed to exist between the V and O centers. VO, often in an ionic pairing with sodium (NaHVO), is the second most abundant transition metal in seawater, with its concentration only being exceeded by molybdenum. In the ocean the average concentration is 30 nM. Some mineral water springs also contain the ion in high concentrations. For example, springs near Mount Fuji often
Vanadyl ion
9313177
Vanadyl ion The vanadyl or oxovanadium(IV) cation, VO, is functional group that is common in the coordination chemistry of vanadium. Complexes containing this functional group are characteristically blue and paramagnetic. A triple bond is proposed to exist between the V and O centers. VO, often in an ionic pairing with sodium (NaHVO), is the second most abundant transition metal in seawater, with its concentration only being exceeded by molybdenum. In the ocean the average concentration is 30 nM. Some mineral water springs also contain the ion in high concentrations. For example, springs near Mount Fuji often contain as much as
Vanadyl ion
90623
fluffiness – to better form. In the cookie, the agent of cohesion has become some form of oil. Oils, whether they be in the form of butter, vegetable oils, or lard, are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a much higher temperature than water. Thus a cake made with butter or eggs instead of water is far denser after removal from the oven. Oils in baked cakes do not behave as soda tends to in the finished result. Rather than evaporating and thickening the mixture, they remain, saturating the bubbles of escaped gases from what little water
Cookie
8826802
the Coeur d’Alene District veins. Galena is present in veins throughout the district. Sphalerite ((Zn,Fe)S) is the second most important ore mineral, present in at least small amounts in most veins. The sphalerite is an important source of zinc throughout the ore belts. The third most abundant ore mineral is tetrahedrite (Cu,Fe)SbS. However, the tetrahedrite is responsible for the majority of the silver produced by the Silver Valley, as it’s the tetrahedrite interspersed in the galena of the district that makes it so argentiferous. There are two alpine ski areas in the Silver Valley, both easily accessible from I-90. Lookout
Silver Valley (Idaho)
193602
most abundant element on Earth, but only the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust, after oxygen, silicon, and aluminium. Most of the iron in the crust is found combined with oxygen as iron oxide minerals such as hematite (FeO), magnetite (FeO), and siderite (FeCO). Many igneous rocks also contain the sulfide minerals pyrrhotite and pentlandite. Ferropericlase (Mg,Fe)O, a solid solution of periclase (MgO) and wüstite (FeO), makes up about 20% of the volume of the lower mantle of the Earth, which makes it the second most abundant mineral phase in that region after silicate perovskite (Mg,Fe)SiO; it also
Iron
185909
magnetite), "iron rose" and "specularite" (specular hematite). While the forms of hematite vary, they all have a rust-red streak. Hematite is harder than pure iron, but much more brittle. Maghemite is a hematite- and magnetite-related oxide mineral. Huge deposits of hematite are found in banded iron formations. Gray hematite is typically found in places that can have still standing water or mineral hot springs, such as those in Yellowstone National Park in North America. The mineral can precipitate out of water and collect in layers at the bottom of a lake, spring, or other standing water. Hematite can also occur
Hematite
15258149
which were also mined (Le Puy Mine, Cantonnier Lode, Tabataud Quarry among others). The central part of the lode consists of a quartz matrix enriched more or less in baryte. The baryte can become very abundant so that it completely replaces the quartz. Abundant fractures cut through the quartz-baryte core. The sulfides galena, sphalerite and marcasite are enclosed within the quartz/baryte. The galena forms mats of octahedral crystals, the sphalerite is dense and anhedral and the marcasite powdery or displays its coxcomb habit. The lodes are mylonitized at the edges; the sulfide mineral aggregates within this zone are sheared. Secondary
Neuil mine
3325479
Zinc chloride Zinc chloride is the name of chemical compounds with the formula ZnCl and its hydrates. Zinc chlorides, of which nine crystalline forms are known, are colorless or white, and are highly soluble in water. ZnCl itself is hygroscopic and even deliquescent. Samples should therefore be protected from sources of moisture, including the water vapor present in ambient air. Zinc chloride finds wide application in textile processing, metallurgical fluxes, and chemical synthesis. No mineral with this chemical composition is known aside from the very rare mineral simonkolleite, Zn(OH)Cl·HO. Four crystalline forms (polymorphs) of ZnCl are known: α, β, γ,
Zinc chloride
10973698
polymorphous with enstatite, and akimotoite. Majorite is a member of the garnet group. It has Mg in eight-coordination with oxygen; it also has both Mg and Si in octahedral (6) coordination; and Si in tetrahedral (4) coordination with oxygen. Unlike most garnets, which are cubic, pure MgSiO majorite is tetragonal. Majorite is believed to be an abundant mineral in the lower transition zone and uppermost lower mantle of the Earth at depths of . It forms complex solid solutions with other Al, Fe, and Ca-bearing garnets in this region. All of the minerals of the Earth's mantle are made of
Majorite
14069790
is bound to the inner surfaces. There's been a lot of speculation about the occurrence of water on Mars. We don't know but it could be associated with this mineral." Janice Bishop, a Mars specialist from the Search for Extra Terrestrial Intelligence Institute also told the BBC that: "All life forms as we know it require liquid water so if we can actually find periods of time or places on the planet where there was standing water then the chance of life having formed increase greatly." Macaulayite Macaulayite is a red, earthy, monoclinic mineral, with the chemical formula (Fe, Al)SiO(OH).
Macaulayite
1544822
silicate which adopts the perovskite structure at high pressure. As pressure increases, the SiO tetrahedral units in the dominant silica-bearing minerals become unstable compared with SiO octahedral units. At the pressure and temperature conditions of the lower mantle, the most abundant material is a perovskite-structured mineral with the formula (Mg,Fe)SiO, with the second most abundant material likely the rocksalt-structured (Mg,Fe)O oxide, periclase. At the high pressure conditions of the Earth's lower mantle, the pyroxene enstatite, MgSiO, transforms into a denser perovskite-structured polymorph; this phase may be the most common mineral in the Earth. This phase has the orthorhombically distorted perovskite
Perovskite (structure)
5649977
gradual segregation within or between the mantle and crust. As magma forms, the initial melt is composed of the more silicic phases that have a lower melting point. This leads to partial melting and further segregation of the lithosphere. In addition the silicic continental crust is relatively buoyant and is not normally subducted back into the mantle. So over time the continental masses grow larger and larger. The presence of abundant water on Earth is of great importance for the rock cycle. Most obvious perhaps are the water driven processes of weathering and erosion. Water in the form of precipitation
Rock cycle
12609743
and unstable piece of rock, and was most likely made more unstable by the abundant rain and seismic activity of the area. Supermarine landslides, which is what is feared in the case of Mount Breakenridge, disrupt the body of water from above when debris falls in, and then the energy from the debris travels into the water. If the unstable piece of rock fell, it would very quickly move and displace extremely large amounts of water. When a landslide generates a tsunami, it can produce waves that cause very severe damage, especially when the energy of the waves is amplified
Mount Breakenridge
5160227
Carbonate rock Carbonate rocks are a class of sedimentary rocks composed primarily of carbonate minerals. The two major types are limestone, which is composed of calcite or aragonite (different crystal forms of CaCO) and dolostone, which is composed of the mineral dolomite (CaMg(CO)). Calcite can be either dissolved by groundwater or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits an unusual characteristic called retrograde solubility in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. When conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the
Carbonate rock
902668
Water vapor Water vapor, water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water. It is one state of water within the hydrosphere. Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice. Unlike other forms of water, water vapor is invisible. Under typical atmospheric conditions, water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation. It is less dense than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds. Being a component of Earth's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle, it is particularly abundant in Earth's atmosphere where it
Water vapor
17022164
are respectively terrestrial, arboreal, or fossorial. In general, the arboreal forms are most rat-like in appearance, whilst the burrowing species are more gopher-like, with stocky bodies and short tails. Most species do poorly in conditions of high heat and aridity and are restricted to regions with abundant water. They are almost exclusively herbivorous. The current taxonomic content of the family Echimyidae has been reshaped over time, and its organization into coherent units stems from two realizations. The first is that cladistic approaches applied to morphological characters showed that many traits used to define taxa were plesiomorphic or homoplastic. The second
Echimyidae
2829231
of harder, more alkaline water conditions; a greater concern is probably polluted tank water (including high nitrate levels). They prefer warmer water temperatures [above or warmer], and will readily accept most forms of dry food. Captive-bred cardinals tend to adapt to hard water better than wild-caught cardinals. Given the origins of the cardinal tetra, namely blackwater rivers whose chemistry is characterised by an acidic pH, low mineral content and the presence of humic acids, the species is adaptable to a wide range of conditions in captivity, though deviation from the soft, acidic water chemistry of their native range will impact
Cardinal tetra
1809243
Carbonated water Carbonated water is water containing dissolved carbon dioxide gas, either artificially injected under pressure or occurring due to natural geologic processes. Carbonation causes small bubbles to form, giving the water an effervescent quality. Common forms include sparkling natural mineral water, club soda, and commercially produced sparkling water (also known “seltzer water” in the U.S.). Club soda, sparkling mineral water, and many other sparkling waters contain added or dissolved minerals such as potassium bicarbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium citrate, or potassium sulfate. These occur naturally in some mineral waters but are also commonly added artificially to man-made waters to mimic
Carbonated water
13701514
Properties of water Water () is a polar inorganic compound that is at room temperature a tasteless and odorless liquid, which is nearly colorless apart from an inherent hint of blue. It is by far the most studied chemical compound and is described as the "universal solvent" and the "solvent of life". It is the most abundant substance on Earth and the only common substance to exist as a solid, liquid, and gas on Earth's surface. It is also the third most abundant molecule in the universe. Water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other and are strongly polar. This
Properties of water
2252484
Malachite Malachite is a copper carbonate hydroxide mineral, with the formula CuCO(OH). This opaque, green banded mineral crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system, and most often forms botryoidal, fibrous, or stalagmitic masses, in fractures and spaces, deep underground, where the water table and hydrothermal fluids provide the means for chemical precipitation. Individual crystals are rare but do occur as slender to acicular prisms. Pseudomorphs after more tabular or blocky azurite crystals also occur. The stone's name derives (via , , and Middle English "melochites") from Greek Μολοχίτης λίθος "molochitis lithos", "mallow-green stone", from μολόχη "molōchē", variant of μαλάχη "malāchē", "mallow".
Malachite
9888552
13 soil types are found throughout. Rocky deposits are found throughout Enzo Creek, a result of Michigan's last glacial retreat about 14,000 years ago. It is the sanctuary’s diversity of habitat that is the foundation upon which Enzo Creek's wildlife management plan has found success. The mineral and oil composition of Enzo Creek is largely unknown, although areas of Mecosta County are known to have abundant reserves of crude oil. Enzo Creek's water resources are a key ingredient to its unique ecosystem. Four highly eutrophic ponds are located on the property. Most are no more than three feet deep, and
Enzo Creek Nature Sanctuary
7195513
the peripheral hydroxyl bonds are broken. As the rock enters the submetamorphic field, generally Zeolite facies metamorphism, clay minerals begin to recrystallize into low-temperature metamorphic phyllite minerals such as chlorite, prehnite, pumpellyite, glauconite and so forth. This liberates not only water but incompatible elements attached to the mineral and trapped within crystal lattices. Metals liberated from clay and carbonate minerals as they are changed from clays and low-pressure disordered carbonate forms enters the remaining pore fluid which by this time has become concentrated into what is known as a deep formation brine. The solution of metal, salts and water produced
Sedimentary exhalative deposits
719802
influenced nearly all designs that followed. Again like the "Lancashire Witch", the pistons were connected directly to the driving wheels, an arrangement which is found in subsequent steam locomotives. The firebox was separate from the boiler and was double walled, with a water jacket between them. Stephenson recognised that the hottest part of the boiler, and thus the most effective for evaporating water, was that surrounding the fire itself. This firebox was heated by radiant heat from the glowing coke, not just convection from the hot exhaust gas. Locomotives of "Rocket"s era were fired by coke rather than coal. Local
Stephenson's Rocket
14631294
Ein Gedi Mineral Water Ein Gedi Mineral Water () is a brand of bottled water that has been in production since 1997. It is Israel's third most popular brand of bottled water, capturing 17% of the market in the country. The water used in its production comes from the Ein Gedi nature reserve. In the wake of a deal signed in 2004, the company is jointly owned by Ein Gedi Kibbutz and Jafora-Tabori. This came as a result of a deal made in 2004. A boycott of Ein Gedi water was proposed out of concern that its production could result
Ein Gedi Mineral Water
4000315
Cyanotrichite Cyanotrichite is a hydrous copper aluminium sulfate mineral with formula CuAl[(OH)|SO]·2HO, also known as lettsomite. Cyanotrichite forms velvety radial acicular crystal aggregates of extremely fine fibers. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and forms translucent bright blue acicular crystal clusters or drusey coatings. The Mohs hardness is 2 and the specific gravity ranges from 2.74 to 2.95. Refractive indices are nα=1.588 nβ=1.617 nγ=1.655. It is an oxidation product of primary copper mineralization in a weathering environment with abundant aluminium and sulfate. Associated minerals include brochantite, spangolite, chalcophyllite, olivenite, tyrolite, parnauite, azurite and malachite. The main deposits are Cap la
Cyanotrichite
15300901
warehouses across the country. In 2010 NATO army in Afghanistan rejected Damavand bottled water, and Iran's Health ministry announced that Damavand bottled water was polluted. In 2015 Iran's Health ministry announced that Damavand bottled water has microbal infection and the company is prosecuted. The products are all in PET bottles with the most advanced European machines: Damavand Mineral Water Co. Damavand Mineral Waters Company () is the leader and largest bottled mineral water producer in Iran. It is a joint venture with Danone Group, number 2 in bottled water worldwide. In 2010 and in 2015 Iran's Health ministry announced that
Damavand Mineral Water Co.
15300900
that the mineral percentages are constant and in 1978, the company started to present its products to the market as the first mineral water company in Iran. In 1998, GROUP CASTEL from France became partner with the Iranians owners and they started to grow the firm. In 2006, group Danone from France (the leader of mineral water in the world, owner of brands such as EVIAN & VOLVIC) bought Group Castel's share. Today, Damavand water is the leader of more than 370 MB per year. It has around 400 employees and one of the most efficient distribution system with 7
Damavand Mineral Water Co.
3258034
allow "Trichodesmium" to regulate buoyancy in the water column. These gas vesicles can withstand high pressure, presumably those up to 100 – 200 m in the water column, allowing "Trichodesmium" to move vertically through the water column harvesting nutrients. N is the most abundant chemical in the atmosphere. However, diatomic nitrogen is not usable for most biological processes. Nitrogen fixation is the process of converting atmospheric diatomic nitrogen into biologically usable forms of nitrogen such as ammonium and nitrogen oxides. This process requires a substantial amount of energy (in the form of ATP) in order to break the triple bond
Trichodesmium
2549765
titanium, zirconium and hafnium, the abundance decreases with increase of atomic mass. Titanium is the seventh most abundant metal in Earth's crust and has an abundance of 6320 ppm, while zirconium has an abundance of 162 ppm and hafnium has only an abundance of 3 ppm. All three stable elements occur in heavy mineral sands ore deposits, which are placer deposits formed, most usually in beach environments, by concentration due to the specific gravity of the mineral grains of erosion material from mafic and ultramafic rock. The titanium minerals are mostly anatase and rutile, and zirconium occurs in the mineral
Group 4 element
6280301
Epidermis (botany) The epidermis (from the Greek "ἐπιδερμίς", meaning "over-skin") is a single layer of cells that covers the leaves, flowers, roots and stems of plants. It forms a boundary between the plant and the external environment. The epidermis serves several functions: it protects against water loss, regulates gas exchange, secretes metabolic compounds, and (especially in roots) absorbs water and mineral nutrients. The epidermis of most leaves shows dorsoventral anatomy: the upper (adaxial) and lower (abaxial) surfaces have somewhat different construction and may serve different functions. Woody stems and some other stem structures produce a secondary covering called the periderm
Epidermis (botany)
1245647
heading towards Grand Coulee Dam and Canada. Of the five lakes existing along the Coulee Corridor, Soap Lake has the highest mineral content. The first layer of Soap Lake is made up of about 81 feet of mineral water; the second level is mud-like and consists of a stronger mineral composition with concentrations of unusual substances and microscopic life forms. The lake's two layers have not mixed in thousands of years. The scientific community refers to lakes with this rare condition as meromictic. With only 11 meromictic lakes in the United States, Soap Lake is likely the most radical of
Soap Lake, Washington
4623372
sea-bottom sediment and discover the coccoliths within it. It is believed to have evolved approximately 270,000 years ago from the older genus "Gephyrocapsa" Kampter and became dominant in planktonic assemblages, and thus in the fossil record, approximately 70,000 years ago. It is the most numerically abundant and widespread coccolithophore species. The species is divided into seven morphological forms called morphotypes based on differences in coccolith structure (See Nannotax for more detail on these forms). Its coccoliths are transparent and commonly colourless, but are formed of calcite which refracts light very efficiently in the water column. This, and the high concentrations
Emiliania huxleyi
2323787
clay. Antigorite is the polymorph of serpentine that most commonly forms during metamorphism of wet ultramafic rocks and is stable at the highest temperatures—to over at depths of or so. In contrast, lizardite and chrysotile typically form near the Earth's surface and break down at relatively low temperatures, probably well below . It has been suggested that chrysotile is never stable relative to either of the other two serpentine polymorphs. Samples of the oceanic crust and uppermost mantle from ocean basins document that ultramafic rocks there commonly contain abundant serpentine. Antigorite contains water in its structure, about 13 percent by
Serpentine subgroup
14898559
apophyllite group, fluorapophyllite is the most abundant compared to the other two minerals in the group, hydroxyapophyllite and natroapophyllite. It is popular among many mineral collectors because of the large, well-developed crystals they form and the multiple colors they come in. The most wanted variation of fluorapophyllite is the green colored variant, which is found in India. Fluorapophyllite is also found in New Jersey of the United States. This mineral is found as a secondary mineral in vesicules in volcanic rocks such as basalt. Apophyllite-(KF) Apophyllite-(KF) or fluorapophyllite is a mineral of the apophyllite group, with the chemical formula of
Apophyllite-(KF)
2252489
malachite in the Urals. It is found worldwide including in the Democratic Republic of the Congo; Gabon; Zambia; Tsumeb, Namibia; Mexico; Broken Hill, New South Wales; Lyon, France; Timna Valley, Israel; and the Southwestern United States, most notably in Arizona. Malachite Malachite is a copper carbonate hydroxide mineral, with the formula CuCO(OH). This opaque, green banded mineral crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system, and most often forms botryoidal, fibrous, or stalagmitic masses, in fractures and spaces, deep underground, where the water table and hydrothermal fluids provide the means for chemical precipitation. Individual crystals are rare but do occur as slender
Malachite
3468928
Helictite A helictite is a speleothem (cave-formed mineral) found in a limestone cave that changes its axis from the vertical at one or more stages during its growth. Helictites have a curving or angular form that looks as if they were grown in zero gravity. They are most likely the result of capillary forces acting on tiny water droplets, a force often strong enough at this scale to defy gravity. Helictites are, perhaps, the most delicate of cave formations. They are usually made of needle-form calcite and aragonite. Helictite forms have been described in several types: ribbon helictites, saws, rods,
Helictite
6335901
flow rate can be quite rapid: water from the turlough may flow underground to a spring at a rate of or more. Limestone is made up of the mineral calcium carbonate, and as water passes through limestone, it dissolves the calcium carbonate (this is what makes hard water and causes mineral deposits on the inside of kettles) as the calcium carbonate comes out of solution when the water is heated. Something rather similar happens in turloughs; water that has picked up a lot of calcium carbonate during its underground travel rises in the turloughs and then some of the calcium
Turlough (lake)
9243
million (ppm) or 25 micromolar. Its diagonal relationship with magnesium often allows it to replace magnesium in ferromagnesium minerals, where its crustal concentration is about 18 ppm, comparable to that of gallium and niobium. Commercially, the most important lithium mineral is spodumene, which occurs in large deposits worldwide. Rubidium is approximately as abundant as zinc and more abundant than copper. It occurs naturally in the minerals leucite, pollucite, carnallite, zinnwaldite, and lepidolite, although none of these contain only rubidium and no other alkali metals. Caesium is more abundant than some commonly known elements, such as antimony, cadmium, tin, and tungsten,
Alkali metal
8859891
a large amount of extra fuel was used in evaporating the water. Furthermore, a larger kiln was needed for a given clinker output, because much of the kiln's length was used up for the drying process. On the other hand, the wet process had a number of advantages. Wet grinding of hard minerals is usually much more efficient than dry grinding. When slurry is dried in the kiln, it forms a granular crumble that is ideal for subsequent heating in the kiln. In the dry process, it is very difficult to keep the fine powder rawmix in the kiln, because
Cement kiln
14631295
in the Ein Gedi oasis drying up. Ein Gedi Mineral Water Ein Gedi Mineral Water () is a brand of bottled water that has been in production since 1997. It is Israel's third most popular brand of bottled water, capturing 17% of the market in the country. The water used in its production comes from the Ein Gedi nature reserve. In the wake of a deal signed in 2004, the company is jointly owned by Ein Gedi Kibbutz and Jafora-Tabori. This came as a result of a deal made in 2004. A boycott of Ein Gedi water was proposed out
Ein Gedi Mineral Water
3163832
are the most used type of lubricant, because of health, environmental, and safety reasons. Unlike solvent-based lubricants, if water is properly treated to remove all minerals from it, it will not leave any by-product in the dies. If the water is not properly treated, then the minerals can cause surface defects and discontinuities. There are four types of water-based lubricants: oil in water, water in oil, semi-synthetic, and synthetic. Oil in water is the best, because when the lubricant is applied, the water cools the die surface by evaporating while depositing the oil, which helps release the shot. A common
Die casting
10745309
the silica-based sea life abundant then. As sea creatures died and settled to the lagoon bottom, their shells mixed with the deposits already present; pressure from additional sea-life sedimentation and the chemical action of the water transformed the result into a sedimentary stone quite particular to the Paris area, "calcaire grossier" ("calcaire lutécien" in more modern publications). Paris' most important deposits of this stone occurred during the Eocene epoch's Lutetian age; in fact, the age itself is named for the sedimentary activity in the Paris region, as Lutetia was the city's name during Roman times. Paris' next important mineral deposit
Mines of Paris
2635717
up about 20% of the volume of the lower mantle of the Earth, which makes it the second most abundant mineral phase in that region after silicate perovskite (Mg,Fe)SiO; it also is the major host for iron in the lower mantle. At the bottom of the transition zone of the mantle, the reaction γ-(Mg,Fe)[SiO] ↔ (Mg,Fe)[SiO] + (Mg,Fe)O transforms γ-olivine into a mixture of perovskite and ferropericlase and vice versa. In the literature, this mineral phase of the lower mantle is also often called magnesiowüstite. Periclase Periclase is a magnesium mineral that occurs naturally in contact metamorphic rocks and is
Periclase
14069789
on Mars can be sustained. The American space agency NASA is currently carrying out studies on macaulayite, as they believe that the substance might be present on the planet Mars. NASA scientists speculate that macaulayite may be what gives the planet its red colour. Also, as macaulayite is formed in the presence of water, the existence of the mineral on Mars may help to prove that the planet could contain resources needed to sustain life. In an interview with the BBC, Wilson said: "It is exciting because this particular mineral contains water. It's a very fine grain mineral and water
Macaulayite