how long ago were the ancient babylonians charting positions of the planets and stars
1200 BC
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Babylonian astronomy was the first "successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena" and that "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West … depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways." The origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descendants in direct line from the work of the late Babylonian astronomers. Modern knowledge of Sumerian astronomy is indirect, via the earliest Babylonian star catalogues dating from about 1200 BC. The fact that many star
Babylonian astronomy
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of the moon and stars on the tablet are instead consistent with astronomical calculations for 588 BC; the Society claims that the "planets" mentioned in the tablet cannot be clearly identified.<ref name="WT 11/1">"When Was Ancient Jerusalem Destroyed?—Part Two" "The Watchtower", November 1, 2011, page 25, 28, endnote 18</ref> The Watch Tower Society's article cites David Brown as stating, "some of the signs for the names of the planets and their positions are unclear," however Brown indicates that the Babylonians also had unique names for the known planets; Jonsson confirms that the unique names are those used in VAT 4956. The
Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses
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same (Aphrodite, Greek corresponding to Latin Venus), though this had long been known by the Babylonians. In the 3rd century BC, Aristarchus of Samos proposed a heliocentric system, according to which Earth and the planets revolved around the Sun. The geocentric system remained dominant until the Scientific Revolution. By the 1st century BC, during the Hellenistic period, the Greeks had begun to develop their own mathematical schemes for predicting the positions of the planets. These schemes, which were based on geometry rather than the arithmetic of the Babylonians, would eventually eclipse the Babylonians' theories in complexity and comprehensiveness, and account
Planet
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of maize for agriculture has been dated to about 9,000 years ago in southern Mexico, before the development of writing systems. Similarly, archaeological evidence indicates the development of astronomical knowledge in preliterate societies. The development of writing enabled knowledge to be stored and communicated across generations with much greater fidelity. Many ancient civilizations systematically collected astronomical observations. Rather than speculate on the material nature of the planets and stars, the ancients charted the relative positions of celestial bodies, often inferring their influence on human society. This demonstrates how ancient investigators generally employed a holistic intuition, assuming the interconnectedness of all
History of science
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occur. Horoscopic astrology is significant to Babylonian beliefs, because associating the sun, moon, and planets with their gods shaped the way the Babylonians lived their lives and viewed the world around them. The parallels between horoscopes and nativity omens from a Seleucid Tablet shows the benefic and malefic natures of the planets in Babylonian astrology. The Babylonians associated and created their beliefs around planets based on the nature of the god associated with it. "The Babylonians divided the fixed stars into three groups: the stars of Anu, Enlil and Ea.' To which group they belonged depended, for most of them,
Babylonian astrology
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the concept of an angle measure, they were limited to studying the sides of triangles instead. The Babylonian astronomers kept detailed records on the rising and setting of stars, the motion of the planets, and the solar and lunar eclipses, all of which required familiarity with angular distances measured on the celestial sphere. Based on one interpretation of the Plimpton 322 cuneiform tablet (c. 1900 BC), some have even asserted that the ancient Babylonians had a table of secants. There is, however, much debate as to whether it is a table of Pythagorean triples, a solution of quadratic equations, or
History of trigonometry
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planets, five are planets in the modern sense. Babylonians recognized seven planets. A bilingual list in the British Museum records the seven Babylonian planets in this order: The astrological symbols for the classical planets appear in the medieval Byzantine codices in which many ancient horoscopes were preserved. In the original papyri of these Greek horoscopes, there are found a circle with one ray () for the Sun and a crescent for the Moon. The written symbols for Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn have been traced to forms found in late Greek papyri. The symbols for Jupiter and Saturn are identified
Classical planet
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compute ephemeris (tables of astronomical positions), which was discovered in the 1950s by Otto Neugebauer. To make calculations of the movements of celestial bodies, the Babylonians used basic arithmetic and a coordinate system based on the ecliptic, the part of the heavens that the sun and planets travel through. Tablets found in the British Museum provide evidence that the Babylonians even went so far as to have a concept of objects in an abstract mathematical space. The tablets date from between 350 and 50 B.C.E., revealing that the Babylonians understood and used geometry even earlier than previously thought. The Babylonians
Babylonian mathematics
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of the Universe and that all the "planets" circled Earth. The reasons for this perception were that stars and planets appeared to revolve around Earth each day and the apparently common-sense perceptions that Earth was solid and stable and that it was not moving but at rest. The first civilization known to have a functional theory of the planets were the Babylonians, who lived in Mesopotamia in the first and second millennia BC. The oldest surviving planetary astronomical text is the Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, a 7th-century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the
Planet
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distances eventually was converted to a "time-mile" used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time. The ancient Babylonians had known of theorems concerning the ratios of the sides of similar triangles for many centuries, but they lacked the concept of an angle measure and consequently, studied the sides of triangles instead. The Babylonian astronomers kept detailed records of the rising and setting of stars, the motion of the planets, and the solar and lunar eclipses, all of which required familiarity with angular distances measured on the celestial sphere. They also used a form of Fourier analysis to
Babylonian mathematics
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that are favorable, the Earth in general experiences positive weather conditions. But when planets hold mathematical aspects that are discordant across regions of the Earth, the atmosphere responds and the weather is unseasonable. For centuries, forecasting advance weather, especially medium and long-range, was applied because it was the only way to know when to plant crops, navigate the seas and to predict the climate months in advance in preparation for harsh winter seasons. Meteorological phenomena correlated to planetary configurations were recorded by the ancient Babylonians in the 2nd century BC. Classical astrologers of note such as Claudius Ptolemy constructed a
Meteorological astrology
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Meteorological astrology Meteorological astrology or astrometeorology (from Greek , "astron", "constellation, star"; , "metéōros", "high in the sky"; and , "-logia") is the practice of applying the astrological/astronomical placements of the Sun, Moon, and planets to attempt to forecast the weather. Astrometeorology is thousands of years old and based on astronomical positions that allegedly directly affect the weather on Earth. Ancient classical astrologers created weather forecasting known as meteorology by noting the positions of stars, planets, the Sun, and Moon. According to their texts, when planets occupy constellations as seen from Earth, and that are harmonious to one another, or
Meteorological astrology
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of Synesius's letters describes Hypatia as having taught him how to construct a silver plane astrolabe as a gift for an official. An astrolabe is a device used to calculate date and time based on the positions of the stars and planets. It can also be used to predict where the stars and planets will be on any given date. A "little astrolabe", or "plane astrolabe", is a kind of astrolabe that used stereographic projection of the celestial sphere to represent the heavens on a plane surface, as opposed to an armillary sphere, which was globe-shaped. Armillary spheres were large
Hypatia
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he himself had invoked, and even, that the stars killed him in revenge for having been restrained by him. The alternate Greek name for Zoroaster was Zaratras or Zaratas/Zaradas/Zaratos. Pythagoreans considered the mathematicians to have studied with Zoroaster in Babylonia.Lydus, in "On the Months", attributes the creation of the seven-day week to "the Babylonians in the circle of Zoroaster and Hystaspes," and who did so because there were seven planets. The Suda's chapter on "astronomia" notes that the Babylonians learned their astrology from Zoroaster. Lucian of Samosata, in "Mennipus" 6, reports deciding to journey to Babylon "to ask one of
Zoroaster
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of such authors as Berossos (who composed a Greek-language history of Babylonia, known as the Babyloniaca, during the 3rd century BC) strongly criticised the claim that the Babylonians had kings going back hundreds of thousands of years: Diodorus Siculus also wrote something similar about how he believed the Babylonians fabricated their chronology: Despite these criticisms, some ancient Greeks, including most notably Alexander Polyhistor and Proclus, believed the Babylonian kings were hundreds of thousands of years old, and that the Babylonians dated their creation 400,000–200,000 years before their own time. The ancient Turin King List lists a mythical predynastic "reign of
Dating creation
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and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus. Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences. Early civilizations dating back to beyond 3000 BCE, such as the Sumerians, ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley Civilization, had a predictive knowledge and a basic understanding of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars. The stars and planets were often worshipped, believed to represent gods. While the explanations for the observed positions of the stars were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, these early observations laid the foundation for
Physics
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and planets, the Babylonians connected their beliefs of divine intervention in their everyday life to space and time. They would forecast their future circumstances by observing space through time and relating ominous events, such as a lunar eclipses, to social, political, and environmental problems in aspects of their everyday lives, such as giving birth to deformed children. The Babylonians believed their gods' activities influenced their own lives. These celestial events were viewed by the Babylonians as divine intervention in their lives using the influence the sun, moon, and planets, and to communicate when bad or good events were going to
Babylonian astrology
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find remarkable information such as that the Earth is round, it has an axis and it moves around it in one day, it has three climate zones and that the Sun magnetizes the Stars and planets. The name "planet" comes from the Greek term πλανήτης ("planētēs"), meaning "wanderer", as ancient astronomers noted how certain lights moved across the sky in relation to the other stars. Five planets can be seen with the naked eye: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, the Greek names being Hermes, Aphrodite, Ares, Zeus and Cronus. Sometimes the luminaries, the Sun and Moon, are added to
Ancient Greek astronomy
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motion of the planet's orbit was known in detail during the Tang Dynasty (618 CE). The early astronomy of ancient Greece was influenced by knowledge transmitted from the Mesopotamian culture. Thus the Babylonians associated Mars with Nergal, their god of war and pestilence, and the Greeks connected the planet with their god of war, Ares. During this period, the motions of the planets were of little interest to the Greeks; Hesiod's "Works and Days" ("c." 650 BCE) makes no mention of the planets. The Greeks used the word "planēton" to refer to the seven celestial bodies that moved with respect
History of Mars observation
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all identified by Babylonian astronomers. These would remain the only known planets until the invention of the telescope in early modern times. The ancient Greeks initially did not attach as much significance to the planets as the Babylonians. The Pythagoreans, in the 6th and 5th centuries BC appear to have developed their own independent planetary theory, which consisted of the Earth, Sun, Moon, and planets revolving around a "Central Fire" at the center of the Universe. Pythagoras or Parmenides is said to have been the first to identify the evening star (Hesperos) and morning star (Phosphoros) as one and the
Planet
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History of astronomy Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, mythological, cosmological, calendrical, and astrological beliefs and practices of prehistory: vestiges of these are still found in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with public and governmental astronomy. It was not completely separated in Europe (see astrology and astronomy) during the Copernican Revolution starting in 1543. In some cultures, astronomical data was used for astrological prognostication. Ancient astronomers were able to differentiate between stars and planets, as stars remain relatively fixed over the centuries while planets will move an appreciable
History of astronomy
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a student of Plato, observed an occultation of Mars by the Moon in 365 BCE. From this he concluded that Mars must lie further from the Earth than the Moon. He noted that other such occultations of stars and planets had been observed by the Egyptians and Babylonians. Aristotle used this observational evidence to support the Greek sequencing of the planets. His work "De Caelo" presented a model of the universe in which the Sun, Moon, and planets circle about the Earth at fixed distances. A more sophisticated version of the geocentric model was developed by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus
History of Mars observation
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Triangulum Triangulum is a small constellation in the northern sky. Its name is Latin for "triangle", derived from its three brightest stars, which form a long and narrow triangle. Known to the ancient Babylonians and Greeks, Triangulum was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy. The celestial cartographers Johann Bayer and John Flamsteed catalogued the constellation's stars, giving six of them Bayer designations. The white stars Beta and Gamma Trianguli, of apparent magnitudes 3.00 and 4.00, respectively, form the base of the triangle and the yellow-white Alpha Trianguli, of magnitude 3.41, the apex. Iota Trianguli
Triangulum
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is located about 5 degrees northwest of Alpha Trianguli. Triangulum Triangulum is a small constellation in the northern sky. Its name is Latin for "triangle", derived from its three brightest stars, which form a long and narrow triangle. Known to the ancient Babylonians and Greeks, Triangulum was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy. The celestial cartographers Johann Bayer and John Flamsteed catalogued the constellation's stars, giving six of them Bayer designations. The white stars Beta and Gamma Trianguli, of apparent magnitudes 3.00 and 4.00, respectively, form the base of the triangle and the yellow-white
Triangulum
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led to much scientific controversy. The five classical planets, being visible to the naked eye, have been known since ancient times and have had a significant impact on mythology, religious cosmology, and ancient astronomy. In ancient times, astronomers noted how certain lights moved across the sky, as opposed to the "fixed stars", which maintained a constant relative position in the sky. Ancient Greeks called these lights (, "wandering stars") or simply (, "wanderers"), from which today's word "planet" was derived. In ancient Greece, China, Babylon, and indeed all pre-modern civilizations, it was almost universally believed that Earth was the center
Planet
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was a shrine devoted to the North Star deity. Such worship of the northern stars may have been associated with time keeping, as the positions of the stars could identify the annual seasons. Likewise, as agriculture developed, the need to keep accurate time led to more careful tracking of the positions of the sun, moon and planets; resulting with their deification when they became inextricably linked with the means of survival. In the ancient Egyptian calendar, the date of the annual flooding of the Nile was predicted by observing the heliacal rising of a star. Indeed, the belief in a
Astronomy and religion
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of the stars, instead of gravitational perturbations by other planets. These variations make it harder to detect these planets through automated methods. However, it makes these planets easy to confirm once they are detected. "Duration variation" refers to changes in how long the transit takes. Duration variations may be caused by an exomoon, apsidal precession for eccentric planets due to another planet in the same system, or general relativity. When a circumbinary planet is found through the transit method, it can be easily confirmed with the transit duration variation method. In close binary systems, the stars significantly alter the motion
Methods of detecting exoplanets
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native Egyptian tradition of anthropomorphic figures representing the planets, stars, and various constellations. Some of these were combined with Greek and Babylonian astronomical systems culminating in the Zodiac of Dendera, but it remains unclear when this occurred, but most were placed during the Roman period between 2nd to 4th centuries AD. The oldest known depiction of the zodiac showing all the now familiar constellations, along with some original Egyptian constellations, decans, and planets. Ptolemy's "Almagest" remained the standard definition of constellations in the medieval period both in Europe and in Islamic astronomy. Ancient China had a long tradition of observing
Constellation
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"Brahma-siddhanta", probably composed in the 5th century CE, discusses how to use the movement of planets, sun and moon to keep time and calendar. This text also lists trigonometry and mathematical formulae to support its theory of orbits, predict planetary positions and calculate relative mean positions of celestial nodes and apsides. The text is notable for presenting very large integers, such as 4.32 billion years as the lifetime of the current universe. The ancient Hindu texts on Jyotisha only discuss time keeping, and never mention astrology or prophecy. These ancient texts predominantly cover astronomy, but at a rudimentary level. Technical
Jyotisha
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minutes, 46 seconds.] for long ago as those times are now reckoned in years and lives of men, they were not very remote according to the memory of the Earth. Nodded to both in Appendices and "The Silmarillion" (with supporting information within the "History of Middle-earth" series) there are constellations and stars that correspond to the astronomy seen in the northern hemisphere of Earth, including references to the Sun, the Moon, Orion (and his belt), Ursa Major and other planets (described as "stars"; thus Carnil is "Mars"). A map annotated by Tolkien, discovered in October 2015 in Pauline Baynes's collection,
Middle-earth
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those of the Greeks and the Babylonians. In ancient Greece, the two great luminaries the Sun and the Moon were called "Helios" and "Selene"; the farthest planet (Saturn) was called "Phainon", the shiner; followed by "Phaethon" (Jupiter), "bright"; the red planet (Mars) was known as "Pyroeis", the "fiery"; the brightest (Venus) was known as "Phosphoros", the light bringer; and the fleeting final planet (Mercury) was called "Stilbon", the gleamer. The Greeks also made each planet sacred to one among their pantheon of gods, the Olympians: Helios and Selene were the names of both planets and gods; Phainon was sacred to
Planet
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this point it will be as bright as Sirius. This would be long after the setting of Le Guin's tales. Werel is a fictional planet in the "Ekumen" science fiction novels of Ursula K. Le Guin. It is the fourth planet of a yellow-white star. Its dominant nation, Voe Deo, colonised Yeowe, the previously uninhabited third planet, after contact with the Ekumen. It is one of two planets named Werel in the Hainish cycle. Werel was colonised by the ancient Hainish people, long ago. There seem to have been no native animals: all existing animals are of Hainish origin, as
Planets of the Hainish Cycle
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effect on those planets. Construction of a time scale that links the planets is, therefore, of only limited relevance to the Earth's time scale, except in a Solar System context. The existence, timing, and terrestrial effects of the Late Heavy Bombardment are still debated. In Ancient Greece, Aristotle (384-322 BCE) observed that fossils of seashells in rocks resembled those found on beaches – he inferred that the fossils in rocks were formed by organisms, and he reasoned that the positions of land and sea had changed over long periods of time. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) concurred with Aristotle's interpretation that
Geologic time scale
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years. The Babylonians invented arithmetic methods for making minor corrections to the predicted positions of the planets. This technique was primarily derived from timing measurements—such as when Mars rose above the horizon, rather than from the less accurately known position of the planet on the celestial sphere. Chinese records of the appearances and motions of Mars appear before the founding of the Zhou Dynasty (1045 BCE), and by the Qin Dynasty (221 BCE) astronomers maintained close records of planetary conjunctions, including those of Mars. Occultations of Mars by Venus were noted in 368, 375, and 405 CE. The period and
History of Mars observation
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Ai. The historian Berosus stated the Babylonians commenced astronomical observations 49,000 years (7 x 7 x 1000) before Alexander the Great. Most early references were related to 7 (Sun, Moon, and five visible planets), 12 (number of zodiacal signs and months per year), 30 (degrees per sign of the zodiac), and higher combinations of these numbers and other numbers associated with astronomical observations and astrology. The problem of understanding the exact nature of ancient astrology is that it was only partly documented, leaving the question of the extent of their undocumented astrological knowledge. Michael Baigent in "From the Omens of
Astrological age
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became the basis of astrology. Many of the more prominent individual stars were also given names, particularly with Arabic or Latin designations. As well as certain constellations and the Sun itself, individual stars have their own myths. To the Ancient Greeks, some "stars", known as planets (Greek πλανήτης (planētēs), meaning "wanderer"), represented various important deities, from which the names of the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were taken. (Uranus and Neptune were also Greek and Roman gods, but neither planet was known in Antiquity because of their low brightness. Their names were assigned by later astronomers.) Circa 1600,
Star
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Astronomy and religion Astronomy and religion have long been closely intertwined, particularly during the early history of astronomy. Archaeological evidence of many ancient cultures demonstrates that celestial bodies were the subject of worship during the Stone and Bronze Ages. Amulets and stone walls in northern Europe depict arrangements of stars in constellations that match their historical positions, particularly circumpolar constellations. These date back as much as 30,000–40,000 years. In many ancient religions, the northern circumpolar stars were associated with darkness, death and the underworld of the dead. For the Aztecs, the northern stars were associated with Tezcatlipoca. In Peking, China,
Astronomy and religion
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Sun to three times more), whereas larger planets were found mostly around stars with metallicities at the higher end of this range (at solar metallicity and above). In this study small planets occurred about three times as frequently as large planets around stars of metallicity greater than that of the Sun, but they occurred around six times as frequently for stars of metallicity less than that of the Sun. The lack of gas giants around low-metallicity stars could be because the metallicity of protoplanetary disks affects how quickly planetary cores can form and whether they accrete a gaseous envelope before
Planetary system
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anticipated this conjunction and celebrated it as the harbinger of a profound spiritual transition for mankind. New Age proponents of the galactic alignment hypothesis argued that, just as astrology uses the positions of stars and planets to make claims of future events, the Maya plotted their calendars with the objective of preparing for significant world events. Jenkins attributed the insights of ancient Maya shamans about the galactic center to their use of psilocybin mushrooms, psychoactive toads, and other psychedelics. Jenkins also associated the "Xibalba be" with a "world tree", drawing on studies of contemporary (not ancient) Maya cosmology. Astronomers such
2012 phenomenon
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stars", to describe those starlike lights in the heavens that moved over the course of the year, in contrast to the "asteres aplaneis" (ἀστέρες ἀπλανεῖς), the "fixed stars", which stayed motionless relative to one another. The five bodies currently called "planets" that were known to the Greeks were those visible to the naked eye: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Graeco-Roman cosmology commonly considered seven planets, with the Sun and the Moon counted among them (as is the case in modern astrology); however, there is some ambiguity on that point, as many ancient astronomers distinguished the five star-like planets from
Definition of planet
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in all of science, is the measurement of the positions of celestial objects. Historically, accurate knowledge of the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars has been essential in celestial navigation (the use of celestial objects to guide navigation) and in the making of calendars. Careful measurement of the positions of the planets has led to a solid understanding of gravitational perturbations, and an ability to determine past and future positions of the planets with great accuracy, a field known as celestial mechanics. More recently the tracking of near-Earth objects will allow for predictions of close encounters or potential
Astronomy
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Angle (astrology) The angles are the four Cardinal points of an astrological chart: the Ascendant, the Midheaven, the Descendant and the Imum Coeli. The astrological chart is a schematic representation of the sky at any given moment of time, projected upon the ecliptic--or the apparent path of the Sun as seen from the Earth—which forms the circle in which the chart is enclosed. The longitudinal positions of the planets are plotted onto this circle, because the planets (except Pluto) and many stars, lie very close to the Sun's path in celestial latitude. How this map of the sky is seen
Angle (astrology)
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crops and in understanding the length of the year. Before tools such as the telescope were invented, early study of the stars was conducted using the naked eye. As civilizations developed, most notably in Mesopotamia, Greece, Persia, India, China, Egypt, and Central America, astronomical observatories were assembled and ideas on the nature of the Universe began to develop. Most early astronomy consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and planets, a science now referred to as astrometry. From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon and the
Astronomy
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billions of years ago in the cores of massive stars. These elements constituted only 0.6% of the material in the solar nebula. That is why the terrestrial planets could not grow very large and could not exert large pull on hydrogen and helium gas. Also, the faster collisions among particles close to the Sun were more destructive on average. Even if the terrestrial planets had had hydrogen and helium, the Sun would have heated the gases and caused them to escape. Hence, solar terrestrial planets such as Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are dense small worlds composed mostly from 2%
Geology of solar terrestrial planets
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Edomites, Nabataeans, Arameans, Romans, Arabs, and Western European Crusaders, to name a few. Each of them appropriated different regions that overlapped in time and competed for sovereignty and land. Others, such as Ancient Egyptians, Hittites, Persians, Babylonians, and the Mongol raids of the late 1200s, were historical 'events' whose successive occupations were as ravaging as the effects of major earthquakes ... Like shooting stars, the various cultures shine for a brief moment before they fade out of official historical and cultural records of Palestine. The people, however, survive. In their customs and manners, fossils of these ancient civilizations survived until
Palestinians
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other sky and earth deities, such as the star deities and the decans deities. The cycles of the stars and the planets, and the time keeping are covered in the book. Nut (goddess) Nut (), also known by various other transcriptions, is the goddess of the sky in the Ennead of ancient Egyptian religion. She was seen as a star-covered nude woman arching over the earth, or as a cow. The pronunciation of ancient Egyptian is uncertain because vowels were long omitted from its writing, although her name often includes the unpronounced determinative hieroglyph for "sky". Her name ', itself
Nut (goddess)
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Sun can), there is a split between the related discipline of observational astrophysics (of distant stars) and observational solar physics. The study of solar physics is also important as it is believed that changes in the solar atmosphere and solar activity can have a major impact on Earth's climate. The Sun also provides a "physical laboratory" for the study of plasma physics. Babylonians were keeping a record of solar eclipses, with the oldest record originating from the ancient city of Ugarit, in modern-day Syria. This record dates to about 1300 BC. Ancient Chinese astronomers were also observing solar phenomena (such
Solar physics
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are reduced and produced by NOFS and the USNO. See the USNO Catalog and Image Servers for more information and access. Star catalogue A star catalogue (Commonwealth English) or star catalog (American English), is an astronomical catalogue that lists stars. In astronomy, many stars are referred to simply by catalogue numbers. There are a great many different star catalogues which have been produced for different purposes over the years, and this article covers only some of the more frequently quoted ones. Star catalogues were compiled by many different ancient people, including the Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese, Persians, and Arabs. They were
Star catalogue
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or Panchāngas in the past in different regions of India. The Grahalaghava was compiled about 600 years ago and Surya Siddhanta was available long before that. These had become outdated and did not tally with actual astronomical events and did not tally with each other. Hence, a committee was appointed by the Government of India with experts in the field drawn from various parts of the country who were involved with preparation of Panchāngam in local languages to draw up a reliable Panchāngam in which the mathematical calculations provides the positions of grahas (the planets) and nakshatras (constellations) in the
Panchangam
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Star catalogue A star catalogue (Commonwealth English) or star catalog (American English), is an astronomical catalogue that lists stars. In astronomy, many stars are referred to simply by catalogue numbers. There are a great many different star catalogues which have been produced for different purposes over the years, and this article covers only some of the more frequently quoted ones. Star catalogues were compiled by many different ancient people, including the Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese, Persians, and Arabs. They were sometimes accompanied by a star chart for illustration. Most modern catalogues are available in electronic format and can be freely downloaded
Star catalogue
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is about 11 years old, he is out looking at the night sky when the stars disappear and are replaced by a view of the daylight side of the Earth. It quickly becomes apparent that the entire planet has a similar view. Politicians and scientists rush to control the situation, assuring people that the effect is some kind of illusion, since spacecraft in orbit are unaffected and can still see the stars and planets normally. However one Russian mathematician proposes an alternative theory. According to this, the entire universe was restructured by other intelligences long ago. The infinite universe that
Beyond the Veil of Stars
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were familiar with the retrograde motion of the planet. By the period of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the Babylonian astronomers were making regular records of the positions of the planets and systematic observations of their behavior. For Mars, they knew that the planet made 37 synodic periods, or 42 circuits of the zodiac, every 79 years. They invented arithmetic methods for making minor corrections to the predicted positions of the planets. In Ancient Greek, the planet was known as . In the fourth century BCE, Aristotle noted that Mars disappeared behind the Moon during an occultation, indicating that the planet was
Mars
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the universe, known as the Aristotelian model or the Ptolmaic system. This held that the stars were remote, fixed in their positions and unchanging, while movement and variance were associated with the planets, closer to the earth. An unusual event in the sky might take place close to the earth, and could therefore be explained within the standard cosmological model. However if it took place beyond the planets, this indicated that the stars, contrary to what was commonly believed, could not be fixed in a 'firmament'. Astronomers (still working with the unaided naked eye at this time) took measurements of
Johannes van Heeck
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were the first to record the names of constellations on clay tablets, the earliest known star catalogues were compiled by the ancient Babylonians of Mesopotamia in the late 2nd millennium BC, during the Kassite Period ("c". 1531 BC to "c". 1155 BC). They are better known by their Assyrian-era name 'Three Stars Each'. These star catalogues, written on clay tablets, listed thirty-six stars: twelve for 'Anu' along the celestial equator, twelve for 'Ea' south of that, and twelve for 'Enlil' to the north. The Mul.Apin lists, dated to sometime before the Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC), are direct textual descendants of
Star catalogue
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Equatorium An equatorium (plural, equatoria) is an astronomical calculating instrument. It can be used for finding the positions of the Moon, Sun, and planets without calculation, using a geometrical model to represent the position of a given celestial body. The earliest extant record of a solar equatorium, that is, one to find the position of the sun, is found in Proclus's fifth-century work "Hypostasis", where he gives instructions on how to construct one in wood or bronze. Although planetary equatoria were also probably made by the ancient Greeks, the first surviving description of one is from the "Libros del saber
Equatorium
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Hainish Cycle The Hainish Cycle consists of a number of science fiction novels and stories by Ursula K. Le Guin. It is set in an alternate history/future history in which civilizations of human beings on planets orbiting a number of nearby stars, including Terra (Earth), are contacting each other for the first time and establishing diplomatic relations, setting up a confederacy under the guidance of the oldest of the human worlds, peaceful Hain. In this history, human beings did not evolve on Earth but were the result of interstellar colonies planted by Hain long ago, which was followed by a
Hainish Cycle
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Pilu oil Pilu oil is an extract from seeds of the pilu tree, the meswak tree, and the mustard tree. The pilu tree belongs to the "Salvadoraceae" family. The botanic systematic name of the tree is "Salvadora persica". Chewing sticks of the pilu tree were used by the Babylonians approximately 7000 years ago; they were later used throughout the Greek and Roman empires, and by ancient Egyptians and Muslims. These chewing sticks are most commonly used in the Middle East and South America, though are also used in parts of Africa and Asia. Chewing sticks are used for oral hygiene,
Pilu oil
337183
of Athens. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included "Procyon" for the star α Canis Minoris A. The two dog stars are referred to in the most ancient literature and were venerated by the Babylonians and the Egyptians, In Babylonian mythology, Procyon was known as Nangar (the Carpenter), an aspect of Marduk, involved in constructing and organising the celestial sky. The constellations
Procyon
80910
while the neutron star RX J0720.4-3125 has a radius of a mere 5 km. In ancient Mesopotamia, Sirius, named KAK.SI.DI by the Babylonians, was seen as an arrow aiming towards Orion, while the southern stars of Canis Major and a part of Puppis were viewed as a bow, named BAN in the "Three Stars Each" tablets, dating to around 1100 BC. In the later compendium of Babylonian astronomy and astrology titled "MUL.APIN", the arrow, Sirius, was also linked with the warrior Ninurta, and the bow with Ishtar, daughter of Enlil. Ninurta was linked to the later deity Marduk, who was
Canis Major
449585
the other horizon), some cultures did not recognize Venus as single entity; instead, they assumed it to be two separate stars on each horizon: the morning and evening star. Nonetheless, a cylinder seal from the Jemdet Nasr period indicates that the ancient Sumerians already knew that the morning and evening stars were the same celestial object. The Sumerians associated the planet with the goddess Inanna (known as Ishtar by the later Akkadians and Babylonians), and their myths of Inanna are often allegories for the apparent motions and cycles of the planet. In the Old Babylonian period, the planet Venus was
Venus
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methods have been proposed as to how these orientations were originally established. Ancient Egyptians may have observed, for example, the positions of two stars in the Plough / Big Dipper which was known to Egyptians as the thigh. It is thought that a vertical alignment between these two stars checked with a plumb bob was used to ascertain where North lay. The deviations from true North using this model reflect the accepted dates of construction of the pyramids. Egyptians were the first to develop a 365-day, 12 month calendar. It was a stellar calendar, created by observing the stars. During
History of science and technology in Africa
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to the Sun, for many days at a time, and then reappears on the other horizon), some cultures did not recognize Venus as single entity; instead, they assumed it to be two separate stars on each horizon: the morning and evening star. Nonetheless, a cylinder seal from the Jemdet Nasr period indicates that the ancient Sumerians already knew that the morning and evening stars were the same celestial object. The Sumerians associated the planet with the goddess Inanna, who was known as Ishtar by the later Akkadians and Babylonians. She had a dual role as a goddess of both love
Venus in culture
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more time to develop life as we know it." Stellar abundance of oxygen also appears to be critical to the length of time newly developed planets exist in a habitable zone around their host star. Researchers postulate that if our own sun had a lower abundance of oxygen, the Earth would have ceased to "live" in a habitable zone a billion years ago, long before complex organisms had the opportunity to evolve. Other research is being or has been done in numerous areas relating to the chemical nature of stars. The formation of stars is of particular interest. Research published
Stellar chemistry
628326
one dense, massive object in the system—Earth. Although his system had both the Earth and the Planets orbiting a single point, the ancient Greeks did not consider Earth a "planet". In the time before Galileo could observe from his telescope that planets were spheres like Earth, they were thought to be different from stars only in brightness and in their motion, and like stars composed of a fiery or ethereal matter having little or no density. However, the Earth was obviously made of the dense elements of earth and water. According to Burch, "If there was a single Earth revolving
Counter-Earth
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verb meaning to become, to appear, to behave—or appear to move—in a retrograde fashion. Although planets can sometimes be mistaken for stars as one observes the night sky, the planets actually change position from night to night in relation to the stars. Retrograde (backward) and prograde (forward) are observed as though the stars revolve around the Earth. Ancient Greek astronomer Ptolemy in 150 AD believed that the Earth was the center of the Solar System and therefore used the terms "retrograde" and "prograde" to describe the movement of the planets in relation to the stars. Although it is known today
Apparent retrograde motion
6924665
Navigator Program The Navigator Program is a long term NASA project charged with over-seeing all missions related to the detection and characterization of Earth-like planets. It also seeks to further understand how galaxies, stars and planets form. Navigator, with a 25-year time window, is essentially an umbrella program for more specific current and proposed projects which seek out Earth analogues and possible extraterrestrial life. The main components of Navigator include two ground-based and two space based missions. On Earth: And in space: The Navigator Program is itself an element of even larger decades long project of NASA: the Origins Program,
Navigator Program
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Ea in the sky". The "Enûma Eliš" states: Nibiru is described more closely on a complete cuneiform tablet: Böhl calls the text "objectively the most difficult passage, although it has been handed down in its entirety. The Nibiru tablet does not provide any essential help for the clarification." In the enumerations, Nibiru is mentioned at different astronomical locations in conjunction with the positions of stars and planets, mostly as the "star of Marduk", however, the various stars or planets were not subject to any fixed interpretation. For example, the "star of Ea" was described at various "revelation spots" including Vela,
Nibiru (Babylonian astronomy)
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theories have been proposed for how the planets around PSR B1257+12 formed. One theory suggested that the planets actually had existed before the host star exploded in a supernova about 1 billion years ago, however, this is inconsistent as the ejected material from a supernova would be enough to vaporize any planets close to the star. Also, multiple issues arise with this theory that debates nearly-impossible steps on how the planets ended up in their current places. Thus, the scenario has been dropped. One scenario proposed a massive binary system in which the planets formed around, with the more massive
PSR B1257+12 C
5712907
evolution of all material things over ~14 billion years, from the origin of the universe to the present day on Earth. The roots of the idea of cosmic evolution extend back millennia. Ancient Greek philosophers of the fifth century BCE, most notably Heraclitus, are celebrated for their reasoned claims that all things change. Early modern speculation about cosmic evolution began more than a century ago, including the broad insights of Robert Chambers, Herbert Spencer, and Lawrence Henderson. Only in the mid-20th century was the cosmic-evolutionary scenario articulated as a research paradigm to include empirical studies of galaxies, stars, planets, and
Big History
86100
reactions is not completely clear and is still the object of research. Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement is from twelve million years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned due to natural causes. These ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. Cement, chemically speaking, is a product that includes lime as the primary curing ingredient, but is far from the first material used for cement"ation". The Babylonians and Assyrians used bitumen to bind together burnt brick or alabaster slabs. In Egypt stone
Cement
7841078
Ancient artworks from the heyday of Babylonia's imperial glory were treated with near-religious reverence and were painstakingly preserved. For example, when a statue of Sargon the Great was found during construction work, a temple was built for it, and it was given offerings. The story is told of how Nebuchadnezzar II, in his efforts to restore the Temple at Sippar, had to make repeated excavations until he found the foundation deposit of Naram-Sin of Akkad. The discovery then allowed him to rebuild the temple properly. Neo-Babylonians also revived the ancient Sargonid practice of appointing a royal daughter to serve as
Neo-Babylonian Empire
8138992
humanoid race living on the eighth level of the Shellworld of Sursamen. Constructed for an unknown purpose by a long-dead race called the Veil, Shellworlds are ancient artificial planets consisting of nested concentric spheres internally lit by tiny thermonuclear "stars". The spheres are inhabited by various primitive races along with progressively more advanced mentoring species, up to the level of what the Sarl call "Optimae." (The Optimae themselves, particularly the Culture, prefer the term "Involved.") Approximately 4,000 Shellworlds were built, but almost 2,000 were deliberately destroyed, for reasons unknown, by another presumed extinct race, the Iln. Like many Shellwords, the
Matter (novel)
16350056
formation began) but by no means determine the actual age. Along with other factors, the presence of a protoplanetary disk sets a maximum limit on the age of stars. Stars with protoplanetary disks are typically young, having moved onto the main sequence only a relatively short time ago. Over time, this disk would coalesce to form planets, with leftover material being deposited into various asteroid belts and other similar locations. However, the presence of pulsar planets complicates this method as a determinant of age. Gyro-chronology is a method used to determine the age of field stars by measuring their rotation
Stellar age estimation
14133634
was "a matter of vital importance to the state". For all these reasons, military history comprises a large part of ancient history. Notable militaries in the ancient world included the Egyptians, Babylonians, Persians, Ancient Greeks (notably the Spartans and Macedonians), Indians (notably the Magadhas, Gangaridais, Gandharas and Cholas), Early Imperial Chinese (notably the Qin and Han Dynasties), Xiongnu Confederation, Ancient Romans, and Carthaginians. The fertile crescent of Mesopotamia was the center of several prehistoric conquests. Mesopotamia was conquered by the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Persians. Iranians were the first nation to introduce cavalry into their army. Egypt began growing
Military history
8019499
exclusively mundane, being geographically oriented and specifically applied to countries cities and nations, and almost wholly concerned with the welfare of the state and the king as the governing head of the nation. The Patron God of Babylon was Marduk, and this god was recognized in Babylonian astrology as the planet Jupiter Marduk was recognized as the most powerful god, but not the one and only god. The Babylonians were polytheistic, believing in many gods with different purposes, and they associated certain gods to certain planets. The Babylonians used horoscopic astrology. By observing the seasonal movement of the sun, moon,
Babylonian astrology
11817335
ancient Egypt. Writing in the Roman era, Clement of Alexandria gives some idea of the importance of astronomical observations to the sacred rites: And after the Singer advances the Astrologer (ὡροσκόπος), with a "horologium" (ὡρολόγιον) in his hand, and a "palm" (φοίνιξ), the symbols of astrology. He must know by heart the Hermetic astrological books, which are four in number. Of these, one is about the arrangement of the fixed stars that are visible; one on the positions of the sun and moon and five planets; one on the conjunctions and phases of the sun and moon; and one concerns
Egyptian astronomy
5010474
Structure formation In physical cosmology, structure formation is the formation of galaxies, galaxy clusters and larger structures from small early density fluctuations. The universe, as is now known from observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation, began in a hot, dense, nearly uniform state approximately 13.8 billion years ago. However, looking in the sky today, we see structures on all scales, from stars and planets to galaxies and, on still larger scales, galaxy clusters and sheet-like structures of galaxies separated by enormous voids containing few galaxies. Structure formation attempts to model how these structures formed by gravitational instability of small
Structure formation
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is this merely a modern assumption? If it does refer to an actual astronomical event, is the source reliable? Can the record provide an unambiguous date without making unwarranted assumptions about ancient astronomical observational methods? Babylonian astronomical diaries provide detailed and unambiguous accounts of the positions of all the visible planets, often in relation to specific stars, that have been used to provide precise dates of events like the defeat of Darius III by Alexander the Great at the Battle of Gaugamela on 1 October 331 BCE and of Alexander's subsequent death on 11 June 323. Since the success of
Astronomical chronology
370822
of Mars and Jupiter where material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid. The ices that formed these planets were more plentiful than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial inner planets, allowing them to grow massive enough to capture large atmospheres of hydrogen and helium, the lightest and most abundant elements. Leftover debris that never became planets congregated in regions such as the asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, and Oort cloud. The Nice model is an explanation for the creation of these regions and how the outer planets could have formed in different positions and migrated
Solar System
8395099
the revolution periods of these planets, one may notice that 8×(period of Earth) is almost equal to 13×(period of Venus) and 5×(period of Jupiter) is about 2×(period of Saturn). A practical problem with the VSOP82 was that since it provided long series only for the orbital elements of the planets, it was not easy to figure out where to truncate the series if full accuracy was not needed. This problem was fixed in VSOP87, which provides series for the positions as well as for the orbital elements of the planets. In VSOP87 especially these long period terms were addressed, resulting
VSOP (planets)
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an exposition of the astronomy of the ancient Babylonians, worked out from their Ephemerides of the moon and the planets. This was supplemented by "Die babylonische Berechnung des Neumondes" (Stimmen aus Maria-Laach, Vol. XXXIX, pp. 229–240). He was also the author of a number of articles in the "Zeitschrift für Assyriologie". Joseph Epping Joseph Epping (b. at Neuenkirchen near the Rhine in Westphalia, 1 December 1835; d. at Exaeten, Netherlands, 22 August 1894) was a German Jesuit astronomer and Assyriologist. His parents died while he was very young, and he owed his early education to relations. After completing the usual
Joseph Epping
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Philolaus (c. 480 BC–c. 405 BC) the Pythagorean described a cosmos with the stars, planets, Sun, Moon, Earth, and a counter-Earth ("Antichthon")—ten bodies in all—circling an unseen central fire. Such reports show that Greeks of the 6th and 5th centuries BC were aware of the planets and speculated about the structure of the cosmos. Also, a more detailed description about the cosmos, Stars, Sun, Moon and the Earth can be found in the Orphism, which dates back to the end of the 5th century BC, and it is probably even older. Within the lyrics of the Orphic poems we can
Ancient Greek astronomy
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on the hands, the unusual method for multiplication and division. He examines the Rhind Papyrus, the Moscow Papyrus and explores their understanding of binary numbers, fractions and solid shapes. He then travels to Babylon and discovered that the way we tell the time today is based on the Babylonian 60 base number system. So because of the Babylonians we have 60 seconds in a minute, and 60 minutes in an hour. He then shows how the Babylonians used quadratic equations to measure their land. He deals briefly with Plimpton 322. In Greece, the home of ancient Greek mathematics, he looks
The Story of Maths
99400
the mirror. Celestial globe Celestial globes show the apparent positions of the stars in the sky. They omit the Sun, Moon, and planets because the positions of these bodies vary relative to those of the stars, but the ecliptic, along which the Sun moves, is indicated. There is an issue regarding the “handedness” of celestial globes. If the globe is constructed so that the stars are in the positions they actually occupy on the imaginary celestial sphere, then the star field will appear reversed on the surface of the globe (all the constellations will appear as their mirror images). This
Celestial globe
99397
Celestial globe Celestial globes show the apparent positions of the stars in the sky. They omit the Sun, Moon, and planets because the positions of these bodies vary relative to those of the stars, but the ecliptic, along which the Sun moves, is indicated. There is an issue regarding the “handedness” of celestial globes. If the globe is constructed so that the stars are in the positions they actually occupy on the imaginary celestial sphere, then the star field will appear reversed on the surface of the globe (all the constellations will appear as their mirror images). This is because
Celestial globe
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5.4% of all stars host Earth-size planet candidates, and that 17% of all stars have multiple planets. According to a study by Caltech astronomers published in January 2013, the Milky Way contains at least as many planets as it does stars, resulting in 100–400 billion exoplanets. The study, based on planets orbiting the star Kepler-32, suggests that planetary systems may be common around stars in the Milky Way. The discovery of 461 more candidates was announced on January 7, 2013. The longer "Kepler" watches, the more planets with long periods it can detect. A candidate, newly announced on January 7,
Kepler (spacecraft)
181107
expansion of the universe seen in the recession of most galaxies from us. History of astronomy Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, mythological, cosmological, calendrical, and astrological beliefs and practices of prehistory: vestiges of these are still found in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with public and governmental astronomy. It was not completely separated in Europe (see astrology and astronomy) during the Copernican Revolution starting in 1543. In some cultures, astronomical data was used for astrological prognostication. Ancient astronomers were able to differentiate between stars and planets, as
History of astronomy
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religion. Ancient Greek religion was strongly influenced by ancient Near Eastern religion, but is usually not included in the term. The Greco-Roman mysteries of the Hellenistic period were again consciously connected with ancient Egyptian religion. There are broad practices that these religions often hold in common: Typically, ancient Near Eastern religions were centered on theocracies, with a dominating regional cult of the god of a city-state. There were also super-regional mythemes and deities, such as the God Tammuz and the descent to the underworld. Divinations: Identification of the gods and goddesses with heavenly bodies—planets, stars, the sun and the moon—and
Religions of the ancient Near East
10331829
people invented constellations in an effort to make sense of the randomly scattered stars. In accelerated time, we see the complex motions of the sun, moon, and planets. The scene dissolves to ancient Alexandria, Egypt. We see the Great Library and the Pharos Lighthouse. In a courtyard, next to a pool surrounded by torches, we see the 2nd Century astronomer Claudius Ptolemy adjusting an armillary sphere to chart star positions. Behind Ptolemy is a small table on which rests a scroll. We approach the scroll and see that it depicts a geocentric model of the universe. Paintings on the scroll
Centered in the Universe
5892877
Milky Way (mythology) There are many myths and legends about the origin of the Milky Way, the crowd of stars that makes a distinctive bright streak across the night sky. Ancient Armenian mythology called the Milky Way the "Straw Thief's Way". According to legend, the god Vahagn stole some straw from the Assyrian king Barsham and brought it to Armenia during a cold winter. When he fled across the heavens, he spilled some of the straw along the way. The Khoisan people of the Kalahari desert in southern Africa say that long ago there were no stars and the night
Milky Way (mythology)
3143918
star clusters, the individual components move with respect to each other in a non-linear manner. This real motion of a star is divided into "radial" motion and "proper motion", with "proper motion" being the component across the line of sight. In 1718 Edmund Halley announced his discovery that the fixed stars actually have proper motion. Proper motion was not noticed by ancient cultures because it requires precise measurements over long periods of time to notice. In fact, the night sky today looks very much as it did thousands of years ago, so much so that some modern constellations were first
Fixed stars
6424530
of his people, the Mondasians. When the Cyberman mentions the planet's name, a Doctor Barclay inquires whether Mondas is not an ancient name for Earth. The Cyberman confirms, and claims that, billions of years ago, Mondas and Earth were twin planets until Mondas drifted into deep space. (In the historical section of his book "Cybermen", David Banks suggests that the Moon's orbit around Earth was the cause of Mondas' departure from orbit.) The Cybermen began to deploy spaceships to conquer and colonise other planets, including Telos, where they pushed the native Cryons aside and established the "tombs" of the Cybermen,
Mondas
7849068
on the other side- and now that it's open, whatever lies out there (Imperiex and Yuga Khan are hinted at), now have full access to the current Universe. The first threat arriving beyond the Source Wall are the Omega Titans, four ancient cosmic beings, named Entropy, Mystery, Wisdom and Wonder, that were awakened when the Source Wall broke and are believed to have created life in the DC Universe by seeding planets millennia ago and now plan to reabsorb these planets to see which one is the true intelligence of the universe, another side effect of the broken Source Wall
Source Wall
169147
wrath of the jinn, whom they believed were guarding the mosque. Beliefs in entities similar to the jinn are found throughout pre-Islamic Middle Eastern cultures. The ancient Sumerians believed in Pazuzu, a wind demon, who was shown with "a rather canine face with abnormally bulging eyes, a scaly body, a snake-headed penis, the talons of a bird and usually wings." The ancient Babylonians believed in "utukku", a class of demons which were believed to haunt remote wildernesses, graveyards, mountains, and the sea, all locations where jinn were later thought to reside. The Babylonians also believed in the Rabisu, a vampiric
Jinn
14825231
30 planets to explore. The star systems are as follows: Vega, Antares, Gemini, Mizar, Sol, Draconis, Sirius Singularity, and Tau Ceti. These systems are similar to the stars of the Milky Way, showing the similar planets, including the sun. The newly updated Sirius Singularity is a system which needs lot of teamwork in which clan allies have the role to play. The Sirius Singularity has 5 Rings in which 1–4 is resource planets and 5th is an ancient planet from which you get ancient items of other systems and Sirius Singularity, jump ship plays major role to jump to planet
Pirate Galaxy
4070214
he did not believe in the rotation of the Earth. "I. On the computation of the positions of the planets. 1. On the mean longitudes of the planets. 2. On the true longitudes of the planets. 3. On the three problems involving diurnal motion. 4. On lunar eclipses. 5. On solar eclipses. 6. On the syzygies. 7. On the heliacal settings and risings of the planets. 8. On the shadow of the moon. 9. On the lunar crescent. 10. On planetary conjunctions. 11. On conjunctions of the planets with the stars. 12. On the pātas of the sun and moon.
Lalla
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behind planet-sized bodies. Alternatively, planets may form in an accretion disk of fallback matter surrounding a pulsar. Fallback disks of matter that failed to escape orbit during a supernova may also form planets around black holes. As stars evolve and turn into red giants, asymptotic giant branch stars and planetary nebulae they engulf the inner planets, evaporating or partially evaporating them depending on how massive they are. As the star loses mass, planets that are not engulfed move further out from the star. If an evolved star is in a binary or multiple system then the mass it loses can
Planetary system
10695982
were able to carry 4 people and riders were restrained by a seatbelt. When it was Space Invader (2), the ride was themed around a journey through space, and was decorated with glow-in-the-dark pictures of stars, planets and aliens. The Queue and loading area were themed around a space station, with various signs telling riders how long it would be until boarding their ride vehicles. Some parts of the queue were themed around the Star Wars films, such as a statue of Han Solo stuck in carbonite. Astro Storm however has a different approach with regard to theming. The queueline/boarding
Astro Storm
8019502
on where they rose on the Eastern horizon. The horizon was divided into the Paths of Anu, Enlil and Ea." This gives reference to which gods the Babylonian astrologers associated to regions of the sky or space, and is an example of how the gods were associated with the stars and planets. Of the planets five were recognized—Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Mercury and Mars—to name them in the order in which they appear in the older cuneiform literature; in later texts Mercury and Saturn change places. These five planets were identified with the gods of the Babylonian pantheon as follows: The
Babylonian astrology
15354832
However, it is only modern astrology that links the planets to the houses in this order. The bulk of the tradition assigns planetary rulerships according to the ancient Chaldean astronomical order of the planets (Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Moon; the former order of the planets in distance from Earth geocentrically): Table 2: Traditional houses and planetary relationships. Planets in astrology Planets in astrology have a meaning different from the modern astronomical understanding of what a planet is. Before the age of telescopes, the night sky was thought to consist of two very similar components: fixed stars, which remained
Planets in astrology
2072918
clay tablets were coated with an extra layer of clay, that no one else would read it. This means of communicating was used for over 3000 years in fifteen different languages. Sumerians, Babylonians and Eblaites all had their own clay tablet libraries. The Tărtăria tablets, the Danubian civilization, may be still older, having been dated by indirect method (bones found near the tablet were carbon dated) to before 4000 BC, and possibly dating from as long ago as 5500 BC, but their interpretation remains controversial because the tablets were fired in a furnace and the properties of the carbon changed
Clay tablet