list the duties of the satraps of the persian government
collected the taxes put down brigands and rebels
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the Great gave the satrapies a definitive organization, increased their number to thirty-six, and fixed their annual tribute (Behistun inscription). The satrap was in charge of the land that he owned as an administrator, and found himself surrounded by an all-but-royal court; he collected the taxes, controlled the local officials and the subject tribes and cities, and was the supreme judge of the province before whose "chair" ("Nehemiah"3:7) every civil and criminal case could be brought. He was responsible for the safety of the roads (cf.Xenophon), and had to put down brigands and rebels. He was assisted by a council
Satrap
14841713
Achaemenid Persian Empire. As Persia grew in strength, their system of local government in Anatolia allowed many port cities to grow and to become wealthy. All of Anatolia got divided into various satrapies, ruled by satraps (governors) appointed by the central Persian rulers. The first state that was called Armenia by neighbouring peoples was the state of the Armenian Orontid dynasty, which included parts of eastern Turkey beginning in the 6th century BC, which became the Satrapy of Armenia under Achaemenid rule. Some of the satraps revolted periodically but did not pose a serious threat. In the 5th century BC,
History of Turkey
314057
as not a single archaeological site that can be positively identified with the Achaemenid Empire has been found anywhere in Pakistan, including at Taxila. What is known about the easternmost satraps and borderlands of the Achaemenid Empire is alluded to in the Darius inscriptions and from Greek sources such as the "Histories" of Herodotus and the later "Alexander Chronicles" (Arrian, Strabo et al.). These sources list three Indus Valley tributaries or conquered territories that were subordinated to the Persian Empire and made to pay tributes to the Persian Kings: Gandhara, Sattagydia and Hindush. The Ror dynasty () was a Sindhi
History of Pakistan
2184469
tyrants, so in these Persian towns, he did the opposite of what he did in Greece. Wanting to appear to be a liberator, he freed the population and allowed self-government. As he continued marching into Persia, he saw that his victory at Granicus had been lost on no one. Town after town seemed to surrender to him. The satrap at Sardis, as well as his garrison, was among the first of many satraps to capitulate. As these satraps gave up, Alexander appointed new ones to replace them, and claimed to distrust the accumulation of absolute power into anyone’s hands. There
Wars of Alexander the Great
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the palace there was adorned with lapis lazuli and carnelian originating from Sogdiana. Given the absence of any named satraps (i.e. Achaemenid provincial governors) for Sogdiana in historical records, modern scholarship has concluded that Sogdiana was governed from the satrapy of nearby Bactria. The satraps were often relatives of the ruling Persian kings, especially sons who were not designated as the heir apparent. Sogdiana likely remained under Persian control until roughly 400 BC, during the reign of Artaxerxes II. Rebellious states of the Persian Empire took advantage of the weak Artaxerxes II, and some, such as Egypt, were able to
Sogdia
16404191
local elite in governance. They ruled their vassal states by appointing local rulers, or satraps with responsibility for their satrapies (Greek: Satrapeia). However, the Greeks referred to these satraps as 'tyrants', meaning they were neither democratically elected or derived authority from dynasty. The Achaemenid Persian Empire, continued its expansion under Darius the Great (521–486 BC). The satrap system of local governors continued to be used and upgraded and other governmental upgrades were carried out. Anatolia was carved up under Persian hegemony into regional administrations (Satrapies or provinces, depending on sources) which replaced the hegemonic kingdoms prior to the conquest. Kings
Classical Anatolia
2184463
land in front of Alexander, which he hoped would force Alexander's army to starve, and then to turn back. The satraps in Anatolia rejected this advice, considering it their duty to defend their land. Eventually, with Alexander advancing deeper into Persian territory, Darius ordered all five satraps of the Anatolian provinces to pool their military resources together and confront Alexander. This army was guided by Memnon, while absolute command was split among the five satraps. The Battle of the Granicus River in May 334 BC was fought in Northwestern Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), near the site of Troy. After crossing
Wars of Alexander the Great
4356252
King of Kings (Old Persian: "Xšâyathiya Xšâyathiyânâm") was one of the titles borne by Cyrus the Great, and later all other Achaemenid kings, who were in fact ruling over provincial governors, the satraps. The Persian usage also appears in Ezra 7:12 in reference to Artaxerxes I. The Old Persian title was evolved into Middle Persian "shâhân shâh", and later into New Persian "shâhanshâh" (; ) The Middle Persian word was used by the kings of Sassanian Empire, who were indeed the ruler of the many feudal kings in Persia. The New Persian word was later revived by some Islamic dynasties
King of Kings
4943537
BC. The influence of Hydarnes also secured the appointment of his sons as satraps. Herodotus states that Hydarnes’ son Sisamnes was the satrap of Aria and that the younger Hydarnes was "in command of the whole Asian seaboard". During the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC, the younger Hydarnes was given command of the "Immortals"; while Sisamnes was given command of a levy of Arian troops. Hydarnes Hydarnes (Greek: Ὑδάρνης, from Old Persian Vidarna- possibly New Persian H(a)idar), son of Bagābigna, was a Persian nobleman of the Achaemenid Empire in the late 6th and early 5th centuries BC.
Hydarnes
618591
provinces of Sindh and Panjab were said to be the richest "satraps" of the Persian Empire and contributed many soldiers to various Persian expeditions. It is known that an "Indian" contingent fought in Xerxes' army on his expedition to Greece. Herodotus mentions that the Indus satrapy supplied cavalry and chariots to the Persian army. He also mentions that the Indus people were clad in armaments made of cotton, carried bows and arrows of cane covered with iron. Herodotus states that in 517 BC Darius sent an expedition under Scylax to explore the Indus. Under Persian rule, much irrigation and commerce
Ancient history
7010004
and renamed himself Nebuchadnezzar IV. His rebellion was short-lived and was suppressed by Intaphrenes, Darius' bow carrier. These events are described in detail within the Behistun inscription. After the administrative reorganization of the Persian Empire, Armenia was converted into several satrapies. Armenian satraps regularly intermarried with the family of the King of Kings. These satraps provided contingents to Xerxes' invasion of Greece in 480 BC. Herodotus says that the Armenians in the army of Xerxes "were armed like the Phrygians." In 401 BC Xenophon marched through Armenia with a large army of Greek mercenaries as part of the March of
Orontid Dynasty
575995
Herodotus, beginning with Ionia and listing the other satrapies from west to east excluding Persis which was the land of the Persians and the only province which was not a conquered land. Tributes were paid in both silver and gold talents. Tributes in silver from each satrap were measured with the Babylonian talent. Those paid in gold were measured with the Euboic talent. The total tribute from the satraps came to an amount less than 15,000 silver talents. The majority of the satraps were of Persian origin and were members of the royal house or the six great noble families.
Darius I
576009
As long as the power of Athens remained intact he did not meddle in Greek affairs. When in 413 BC, Athens supported the rebel Amorges in Caria, Darius II would not have responded had not the Athenian power been broken in the same year at Syracuse. As a result of that event, Darius II gave orders to his satraps in Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, to send in the overdue tribute of the Greek towns and to begin a war with Athens. To support the war with Athens, the Persian satraps entered into an alliance with Sparta. In 408 BC
Darius II
12425703
proper in the west, to the Indus Valley in the east. The largest empire of ancient history, with their base in Persis (although the main capital was located in Babylon) the Achaemenids would rule much of the known ancient world for centuries. This First Persian Empire was equally notable for its successful model of a centralised, bureaucratic administration (through satraps under a king) and a government working to the profit of its subjects, for building infrastructure such as a postal system and road systems and the use of an official language across its territories and a large professional army and
Iranian peoples
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Persian: Armina, Elamite: Harminuya, Akkadian: Urashtu). The Orontid dynasty ruled as satraps of the Achaemenid Empire for three centuries until the empire's defeat against Alexander the Great's Macedonian Empire at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, a Macedonian general named Neoptolemus obtained Armenia until he died in 321 BC and the Orontids returned, not as satraps, but as kings. Orontes III and the ruler of Lesser Armenia, Mithridates, recognized themselves independent, thus elevating the former Armenian satrapy into a kingdom, giving birth to the kingdoms of Armenia and Lesser Armenia. Orontes III also
Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)
1815551
as did some of the survivors of the Royal Guard and 2,000 Greek mercenaries. At this point the Persian Empire was divided into two halves—East and West. On his escape, Darius gave a speech to what remained of his army. He planned to head further east and raise another army to face Alexander, assuming that the Greeks would head towards Babylon. At the same time he dispatched letters to his eastern satraps asking them to remain loyal. The satraps, however, had other intentions. Bessus murdered Darius before fleeing eastwards. When Alexander discovered Darius murdered, he was saddened to see an
Battle of Gaugamela
1815552
enemy he respected killed in such a fashion, and gave Darius a full burial ceremony at Persepolis, the former ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire, before angrily pursuing Bessus, capturing and executing him the following year. The majority of the remaining satraps gave their loyalty to Alexander and were allowed to keep their positions. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is traditionally considered to have ended with the death of Darius. Battle of Gaugamela The Battle of Gaugamela (; ), also called the Battle of Arbela (), was the decisive battle of Alexander the Great's invasion of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. In
Battle of Gaugamela
5788513
Autophradates Autophradates (Greek: Aὐτoφραδάτης; lived 4th century BC) was a Persian Satrap of Lydia, who also distinguished himself as a general in the reign of Artaxerxes III and Darius III. During the reign of the Artaxerxes II, Autophradates captured Artabazus, the satrap of Lydia and Ionia who had revolted against the Persian king, and made him his prisoner, but afterwards set him free and joined the Revolt of the Satraps. After the death of the Persian admiral, Memnon, in 333 BC, Autophradates and Pharnabazus undertook the command of the fleet, and reduced Mytilene, the siege of which had been begun
Autophradates
3460967
During the Seleucid era, the Frataraka (local Persian shahs) ruled Pars at the time of the rebellion of Alexander, Molon's brother, against Antiochus III. That shows those local shahs shared power with Seleucid satraps or each of them ruled part of Pars separately. Also in the Parthian era, the local Persian shahs were entitled to mint coins with their own names like some other semi-dependent shahs of the Parthian Empire. During the time, the Persian governors called themselves "Frataraka", which probably meant "governor" based on its synonym achieved from the Aramaic documents of the Achaemenid era. Afterwards, the titles of
Ardashir I
1748044
BC and defeated the local Persian satraps at the Battle of the Granicus. He then proceeded to occupy all of Asia Minor, with the idea of capturing all coastal settlements so as to negate the power of the vastly superior Persian fleet. He captured several important settlements such as Miletus in 334 BC and Halicarnassus, a siege lasting four months, starting in late December the same year. While Alexander was in Tarsus, he heard of Darius massing a great army in Babylon. If Darius were to reach the Gulf of Issus, he could use the support from the Persian fleet
Battle of Issus
3706332
in value 20 silver coins. The gold used in the coins was of very high quality with a purity of 95.83% and it bore the image of the Persian king or a great warrior armed with a bow and arrow. Their use ended with Alexander the Great's invasion in 330 BC, after which they were mostly melted down and recoined as coins of Alexander. This is believed to be the main reason for their rarity, in spite of their widespread usage at the time. Close to the end of the 5th century BC, the Persian satraps in Asia Minor decided
Persian daric
8644943
and the insertion of this word may have shifted the satraps by one place in the list, dislocating them. In addition, Armenia (not mentioned as a satrapy in any other account) may be a mistake for Carmania (which occurs in the same place in Diodorus's list). One possible interpretation of the passage would be: Amyntas was allotted the Bactrians, Scythaeus the Sogdians, Nicanor; the Parthians, Philippus; the Hyrcanians, Phrataphernes; the Armenians (the Carmanians), Tleptolemus; the Persians, Peucestes; the Babylonians, Archon; the Pelasgians Arcesilaus, Mesopotamia. By removing one (apparently meaningless) word and slightly altering the punctuation, five satraps now match the
Partition of Babylon
7246229
Achaemenid coinage Coins of the Achaemenid Empire were issued from 520 BCE-450 BCE to 330 BCE. The Persian daric was the first gold coin which, along with a similar silver coin, the siglos, (From Ancient Greek σίγλος, Hebrew שֶׁקֶל (shékel)) represented the bimetallic monetary standard of the Achaemenid Persian Empire which has continued till today. It seems that before then, a continuation of Lydian coinage under Persian rule was highly likely. Achaemenid coinage includes the official imperial issues (Darics and Sigloi), as well as coins issued by the Achaemenid governors (Satraps), such as those stationed in ancient Asia Minor. When
Achaemenid coinage
840892
Mithridates, would proclaim himself later Mithridates I Ktistes of Pontus. As the "Encyclopaedia Iranica" states, the most famous member of the family, Mithradates VI Eupator, although undoubtedly presenting himself to the Greek world as a civilized philhellene and new Alexander, also paraded his Iranian background: he maintained a harem and eunuchs in true Oriental fashion; he gave all his sons Persian names; he sacrificed spectacularly in the manner of the Persian kings at Pasargadae (Appian, Mith. 66, 70); and he appointed “satraps” (a Persian title) as his provincial governors. Iranica further states, and although there is only one inscription attesting
Pontus (region)
6268960
at any other time insubordination or disaffection towards the Persian monarchy. Unlike other rebellious satraps (Cyrus the Younger or Pissuthnes, for example) Hecatomnus was not a Persian of noble or royal blood and could not hope to win the allegiance of other Persian officials. Thus, it seems highly unlikely that he would have engaged in treasonous activity without any tangible hope to benefit from it. Ruzicka offers two possible explanations for the reports by Diodorus and Isocrates, which must have been based on some contemporary rumours. In both cases he names Evagoras as the likely source of the rumours. (i)
Hecatomnus
6300487
Artabazos II of Phrygia Artabazos (in Greek Αρτάβαζος) (fl. 389 – 328 BC) was a Persian general and satrap. He was the son of the Persian satrap of Phrygia, Pharnabazus, and younger kinsman (most probably his brother) of Ariobarzanes of Phrygia who revolted against Artaxerxes II around 356 BC. In 362 BC, Artabazos was sent by Artaxerxes II to capture Datames, the satrap of Cappadocia, who had joined in the Satraps' revolt by Artabazus' brother, Ariobarzanes. However, Artabazos was defeated by Datames. Following the capture and death of his brother, Artabazos was made satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, but in 356
Artabazos II of Phrygia
840165
Mausolus Mausolus () was a ruler of Caria (377–353 BC), nominally the Persian Satrap, who enjoyed the status of king or dynast by virtue of the powerful position created by his father Hecatomnus who had succeeded the assassinated Persian Satrap Tissaphernes in the Carian satrapy and founded the hereditary dynasty of the Hecatomnids. Mausolus was the eldest son of Hecatomnus, a native Carian who became the satrap of Caria when Tissaphernes died, around 395 BC. Mausolus participated in the Revolt of the Satraps, both on his nominal sovereign Artaxerxes Mnemon's side and (briefly) against him. He conquered a great part
Mausolus
6930367
result of the power of the Persian king. In this and in the refusal of the Greek states to support the Great Satraps' Revolt against the Persian king in Asia Minor, many scholars have seen a positive element. According to this viewpoint, the Greeks had managed to control themselves and establish a peace on their own. The opposing view is that the basis of this new common peace was simply the military and economic exhaustion of all parties, which also made an intervention in Asia Minor completely unthinkable. The terms of the agreement particularly indicate that they arose from widespread
Common Peace
13366195
tradition in naming satraps. The usual Middle Persian term "abāxtar" (loanword from MIr.s: "abāxtar", "abarag" <Av.: "apāxtara") used for northern direction in ancient Iranian tradition has been avoided in this designation and replaced by the name of their province ādurbādagān. This is believed to be because of "the Zoroastrian association of the north with the abode of evil" which "would be evoked by use of abāxtar". Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr (literally ""The Provincial Capitals of Iran"") is a surviving Middle Persian text on geography, which was completed in the late eighth or early ninth centuries AD. The text
Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr
605585
customary for every emperor from Cyrus until Darius III to have an empty chariot drawn by white horses as a place for Ahura Mazda to accompany the Persian army on battles. The use of images of Ahura Mazda began in the western satraps of the Achaemenid Empire in the late 5th century BCE. Under Artaxerxes II, the first literary reference as well as a statue of Ahura Mazda was built by a Persian governor of Lydia in 365 BCE. It is known that the reverence for Ahura Mazda, as well as Anahita and Mithra continued with the same traditions during
Ahura Mazda
313593
the city Pergamos, handed over the rest of his Greek troops (some 5,000 men according to Diodorus) to Thibron, who was planning an expedition against the Persian satraps Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, at this location in March 399 BC. At this time Pergamon was in the possession of the family of Gongylos from Eretria, a Greek favourable to the Achaemenid Empire who had taken refuge in Asia Minor and obtained the territory of Pergamon from Xerxes I, and Xenophon was hosted by his widow Hellas. In 362 BC, Orontes, satrap of Mysia, based his revolt against the Persian empire at Pergamon,
Pergamon
20020300
Rheomithres Rheomithres () was a Persian noble. He was father of Phrasaortes among other children, whom Alexander the Great appointed satrap of Persis in 330 BC. He joined in the Great Satraps' Revolt of the western Persian provinces from Artaxerxes II, in 362 BC, and was employed by his confederates to go to Tachos, pharaoh of Egypt, for aid. He came back with 500 talents and 50 warships and he is supposed to have left his wife and his children to Tachos as a guarantee for his assistance. Nevertheless, Rheomithres betrayed the rebels and he invited a number of them
Rheomithres
7232787
as the son or heir to the Achaemenid Empire had always ruled an outlying region, such as Bactria or Hyrkania. Viewing it from this perspective it would make sense, as his father Orontes III was of the Orontid family. It is suggested that Samos founded the city of Samosata, which has been submerged by the Ataturk Dam since 1989. Shamash was a Babylonian god, equivalent to Mithra; it was a dramatic break from a seemingly continuous tradition of satraps with Armenian and Persian names. The neighbouring region of Osroene maintained a strong Aramaic culture that the Armenian and Persian occupiers
Sames I
7138348
sees horses dressed in the dazzling wealth of Persia. He learns that two Persian satraps who rebelled against the Great King have been given pardons and will be returning from exile in Macedon. Alexander entertains and questions the envoys who have come to bring them back, gaining useful military information because the amused envoys tell a child more than they would an adult. Alexander also flirts with the handsome youth who attends the envoys, and later dreams of riding off with him to see Persepolis after murdering a group of impudent Persian envoys. The final sequence of Chapter One ends
Fire from Heaven
587824
coinage of the time attests) they allowed local dynasts the freedom to rule. The last known dynast of Lycia was Perikles. He ruled 380-360 BCE over eastern Lycia from Limyra, at a time when Western Lycia was directly under Persian domination. Pericles took an active part in the Revolt of the Satraps against Achaemenid power, but lost his territory when defeated. After Perikles, Persian rule was reestablished firmly in Lycia in 366 or 362 BCE. Control was taken by Mausolus, the satrap of nearby Caria, who moved the satrap's residence to Halicarnassus. Lycia was also ruled by men such as
Lycia
576011
Darius III Darius III (c. 380 – July 330 BC), originally named Artashata and called Codomannus by the Greeks, was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, from 336 BC to 330 BC. Artashata adopted "Darius" as a dynastic name. His empire was unstable, with large portions governed by jealous and unreliable satraps and inhabited by disaffected and rebellious subjects. In 334 BC, Alexander the Great began his invasion of the Persian Empire and subsequently defeated the Persians in a number of battles before looting and destroying their capital, Persepolis, by fire in 330 BC. With the Persian
Darius III
6809742
385, with Persian generals Pharnabazus and Tithraustes, Abrocomas unsuccessfully attempted to reconquer Egypt for the Persian Empire. Abrocomas Abrocomas (), one of the satraps of the king Artaxerxes II Mnemon, was sent with an army of 300,000 men to oppose Cyrus the Younger on his march into Upper Asia. On Cyrus's arrival at Tarsus in 401 BC, Abrocomas was said to be on the Euphrates. At Issus four hundred heavy-armed Greeks, who had deserted Abrocomas, joined Cyrus. Abrocomas did not defend the Syrian passes, as was expected, but marched to join the king. He burnt some boats to prevent Cyrus
Abrocomas
20759731
them and hired them to his cause. Afterwards, he granted land to them alongside the Nile and they are traditionally held to have been the first Greeks to settle in Egypt. In the 5th century BC, Arcadian soldiers fought for Xerxes I in 480 when he led the Persian invasion of Greece. Later in the century, many Greek mercenaries were employed by Persian satraps, especially in Anatolia. During the Peloponnesian War, mercenaries from Thrace and other outlying regions were hired by both sides as hoplites and peltasts. In 401 BC, many Greeks supported Cyrus the Younger in his campaign against
Ancient Greek mercenaries
3314138
Battle of the Granicus The Battle of the Granicus River in May 334 BC was the first of three major battles fought between Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire. Fought in Northwestern Asia Minor, near the site of Troy, it was here that Alexander defeated the forces of the Persian satraps of Asia Minor, including a large force of Greek mercenaries led by Memnon of Rhodes. The battle took place on the road from Abydos to Dascylium (near modern-day Ergili, Turkey), at the crossing of the Granicus River (modern-day "Biga Çayı"). After the death of Phillip of Macedon, many
Battle of the Granicus
3314154
in his united Greek army: "Alexander, son of Philip and all the Greeks except the Lacedaemonians, present this offering from the spoils taken from the barbarians inhabiting Asia". Battle of the Granicus The Battle of the Granicus River in May 334 BC was the first of three major battles fought between Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire. Fought in Northwestern Asia Minor, near the site of Troy, it was here that Alexander defeated the forces of the Persian satraps of Asia Minor, including a large force of Greek mercenaries led by Memnon of Rhodes. The battle took place on
Battle of the Granicus
2184464
the Hellespont, Alexander advanced up the road to the capital of the Satrapy of Phrygia. The various satraps of the Persian empire gathered with their forces at the town of Zelea and offered battle on the banks of the Granicus River. Alexander ultimately fought many of his battles on a river bank. By doing so, he was able to minimize the advantage the Persians had in numbers. In addition, the deadly Persian chariots were useless on a cramped, muddy river bank. Arrian, Diodorus, and Plutarch all mention the battle, with Arrian providing the most detail. The Persians placed their cavalry
Wars of Alexander the Great
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noble houses". Such a war of succession happened when different lines of the Arsacides ("Ashkanian") struggled for becoming Great King of the Parthian Empire which was only known by later Persian historians as a kingdom of 18 "petty rulers" (Middle Persian: "kadak-khvaday"; Arabian: "moluk al-tawa'ef"). Therefore, the figure of Tous' opponent Godarz can be identified as the historic “Satrap of Satraps” Gotarzes son of Gev, who occupied the Parthian throne as rival-king Gotarzes II (r. 40 and 45–51), when adopted as legal son by Artabanus II (r. 10-40) and ruled after him and Artabanus' native son Vardanes I (r. 40–45).
Zarrin-Kafsh
587823
and took them into his allegiance". As the power of Athens weakened and Athens and Sparta fought the Peloponnesian wars (431–404 BC), the majority of Lycian cities defaulted from the Delian League, with the exception of Telmessos and Phaselis. In 429 BC, Athens sent an expedition against Lycia to try to force it to rejoin the League. This failed when Lycia's leader Gergis/Kheriga of Xanthos defeated Athenian General Melesander. The Lycians once again fell under Persian domination, and by 412 BC, Lycia is documented as fighting on the winning side of Persia. The Persian satraps were re-installed, but (as the
Lycia
20982448
Pericles, Dynast of Lycia Perikles (Perikle in Lycian), was the last known dynast of Lycia. He ruled BCE over eastern Lycia from Limyra, at a time when Western Lycia was directly under Persian domination. He was a victor over his predecessor Arttum̃para (Aetembares). Perikles took an active part in the Revolt of the Satraps against Achaemenid power, but lost his territory when defeated. After Perikles, Persian rule was reestablished firmly in Lycia in 366 or 362 BCE. Control was taken by Mausolus, the satrap of nearby Caria, who moved the satrap's residence to Halicarnassus. A monumental tomb was erected to
Pericles, Dynast of Lycia
16157057
the other satraps were pardoned, thus ending the rebellion. Great Satraps' Revolt The Great Satraps' Revolt, or the Revolt of the Satraps, was a rebellion in the Achaemenid Empire of several satraps against the authority of the Great King Artaxerxes II Mnemon. The Satraps who revolted were Mausolus the Dynast of Caria, Orontes of Armenia, Autophradates of Lydia, and Datames. They were supported by the pharaohs of Egypt, Nectanebo I, Teos, and Nectanebo II, and all joined forces against Artaxerxes II. Datames, the satrap of Cappadocia and a talented military commander, had inherited his satrapy from his father Camissares after
Great Satraps' Revolt
16157054
Great Satraps' Revolt The Great Satraps' Revolt, or the Revolt of the Satraps, was a rebellion in the Achaemenid Empire of several satraps against the authority of the Great King Artaxerxes II Mnemon. The Satraps who revolted were Mausolus the Dynast of Caria, Orontes of Armenia, Autophradates of Lydia, and Datames. They were supported by the pharaohs of Egypt, Nectanebo I, Teos, and Nectanebo II, and all joined forces against Artaxerxes II. Datames, the satrap of Cappadocia and a talented military commander, had inherited his satrapy from his father Camissares after 384 BC but later problems with the court led
Great Satraps' Revolt
19878343
Northern Satraps The Northern Satraps are a dynasty of Indo-Scythian rulers who held sway over the area of Mathura and Eastern Punjab from the 1st century BCE to the 2nd century CE. They are called "Northern Satraps", in opposition to the "Western Satraps" ruling in Gujarat and Malwa at roughly the same time. They are thought to have replaced the last of the Indo-Greek kings in the Eastern Punjab, as well as the Mitra dynasty and the Datta dynasty of local Indian rulers in Mathura. The Northern Satraps were probably displaced by, or became vassals of, the Kushans from the
Northern Satraps
7434701
were titled the "King of Kings", as a claim to be the heirs to the Achaemenid Empire; indeed, they accepted many local kings as vassals where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous, satraps. The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from Nisa to Ctesiphon along the Tigris (south of modern Baghdad, Iraq), although several other sites also served as capitals. The earliest enemies of the Parthians were
Parthian Empire
6407767
was completely destroyed by Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century CE. Altogether, there were 27 independent Western Satrap rulers during a period of about 350 years. They are named Western Satraps in contrast to the "Northern Satraps" who ruled around East Punjab and the area of Mathura, such as Rajuvula, and his successors under the Kushans, the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara. Although they called themselves "Satraps" on their coins, leading to their modern designation of "Western Satraps", Ptolemy in his 2nd century "Geographia" still called them "Indo-Scythians". The word "Kshatrapa" stands for "satrap",
Western Satraps
19878344
time of Vima Kadphises, who is known to have ruled in Mathura in 90–100 CE, and they are known to have acted as Satraps and Great Satraps in the Mathura region for his successor Kanishka (127–150 CE). In central India, the Indo-Scythians are thought to have conquered the area of Mathura over Indian kings, presumably the Datta dynasty, around 60 BCE. Due to being under the scrutiny of the Kushan Empire, as a satrapy and not wholly independent, they were called the Northern Satraps. Some of their first satraps were Hagamasha and Hagana, they were in turn followed by Rajuvula
Northern Satraps
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in Ecbatana; and many noble Medes were employed as officials, satraps and generals. The list of Median rulers and their period of reign compiled according to two sources. Firstly, Herodotus who calls them "kings" and associates them with the same family. Secondly, the Babylonian Chronicle which in "Gadd's Chronicle on the Fall of Nineveh" gives its own list. A combined list stretching over 150 years is thus: However, not all of these dates and personalities given by Herodotus match the other near eastern sources. In Herodotus (book 1, chapters 95–130), Deioces is introduced as the founder of a centralised Median
Medes
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the Turkish "pashas" and the Persian satraps, and their struggle of liberation. His two main translations are the "Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians", two chapters of Movses Khorenatsi's "History of Armenia" and sections of Nerses of Lambron's "Orations". His fascination was so great that he even considered a replacement of the Cain story of the Bible with that of the legend of Armenian patriarch Haik. He may be credited with the birth of Armenology and its propagation. His profound lyricism and ideological courage has inspired many Armenian poets, the likes of Ghevond Alishan, Smbat Shahaziz, Hovhannes Tumanyan, Ruben Vorberian
Lord Byron
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mercenary force, travelled through Adramyttium during their march along the coast. Mytilene retained control of Adramyttium until 386 BC, after which the city formed again part of the Persian Empire by the terms of the Peace of Antalcidas. During the Great Satraps' Revolt, Ariobarzanes, satrap of Hellespontine Phygia, joined the revolt against Artaxerxes II in 367 BC. Autophradates, satrap of Lydia, and Mausolus, satrap of Caria, besieged Ariobarzanes at Adramyttium in 366 BC. However, the siege of Adramyttium was abandoned following the arrival of Agesilaus II, King of Sparta, in 365 BC. Following his victory at the Battle of the
Adramyttium
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in abeyance. Lord of Asia Lord of Asia () was the title given to Alexander the Great after the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. The title passed on to his successors (the Antigonids, Ptolemies and Seleucids; and, later, his son, Alexander IV) after his death in Babylon in 323 BC, though none of them held any actual power in Asia or any other part of the Hellenistic Alexandrian Empire; the actual power fell to the numerous regents or the rebellious Persian satraps. With the partition of his empire and the rise of the Diadochi, the title of Lord of
Lord of Asia
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Lord of Asia Lord of Asia () was the title given to Alexander the Great after the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. The title passed on to his successors (the Antigonids, Ptolemies and Seleucids; and, later, his son, Alexander IV) after his death in Babylon in 323 BC, though none of them held any actual power in Asia or any other part of the Hellenistic Alexandrian Empire; the actual power fell to the numerous regents or the rebellious Persian satraps. With the partition of his empire and the rise of the Diadochi, the title of Lord of Asia fell
Lord of Asia
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Battle of Issus The Battle of Issus occurred in southern Anatolia, on November 5, 333 BC between the Hellenic League led by Alexander the Great and the Achaemenid Empire, led by Darius III, in the second great battle of Alexander's conquest of Asia. The invading Macedonian troops defeated Persia. After the Hellenic League soundly defeated the Persian satraps of Asia Minor (led by Greek mercenary Memnon of Rhodes) at the Battle of the Granicus, Darius took personal command of his army. He gathered reinforcements and led his men in a surprise march behind the Hellenic advance to cut their line
Battle of Issus
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Antipater was confirmed as General of Greece while the roles of Regent of the Empire and Guardian of the Royal Family were given to Perdiccas and Craterus, respectively. Together, the three men formed the top ruling group of the empire. The Somatophylakes were the seven bodyguards of Alexander. Satraps (Old Persian: xšaθrapāwn) were the governors of the provinces in the Hellenistic empires. Originally the Epigoni (/ɪˈpɪɡənaɪ/; from Greek: Ἐπίγονοι, meaning "offspring") were the sons of the Argive heroes who had fought in the first Theban war. In the 19th century the term was used to refer to the second generation
Diadochi
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Rule by the Parthian Empire aimed to emulate that of their Persian predecessors, the Achaemenids, with a similar system of administration involving satraps and smaller provinces. Indeed, the main rebel behind the rise of Parthia from Seleucia was a satrap himself. On top of this, the Parthian Empire was more decentralized and power was shared amongst clan leaders, hinting at the possibility of the retention of the provinces. Mesopotamia became the heartland of the Seleucid Empire with a new capital, Seleucia, founded. As a result, much culture and knowledge was exchanged between the Greeks and the Assyrians. The invasions of
Achaemenid Assyria
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Armenian Kingdom of the Orontids. This dynasty acted as satraps of Armenia firstly under Median Empire, later under Persian Empire. According to Anania Shirakatsi's "Ashkharatsuyts" ("World Atlas," 7th century), Tsopk (Sophene) was the 2nd among the 15 provinces of Greater Armenia. It consisted of 8 cantons ("gavar"): After Alexander the Great's campaigns in 330s BC and the subsequent collapse of the Achaemenid Empire, Sophene remained part of the newly independent kingdom of Greater Armenia. In the early 3rd century BC, at the instigation of the Seleucid Empire, which was trying to weaken the Armenian kingdom, Sophene, split from Greater Armenia,
Sophene
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province. The "Iranization" of Asia Minor under the Achaemenids had been significant, and the Iranian presence in western Asia Minor, Pontus and Cappadocia was "intense". Ariarathes had been satrap of Cappadocia for 19 years and a loyal supporter of the Achaemenid kings. By blood, he was related to the ruling Achaemenid house ("Cyrus and Darius’ Seven") as well as other satraps. When Alexander of Macedon invaded Cappadocia as part of his conquest of the Persian Empire, he appointed two temporary governors. For the Iranians in Asia Minor, "as perhaps everywhere", the fall of the Achaemenids "meant crisis". With the victory
Kingdom of Cappadocia
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dynasty founded by Hecatomnus, were officially satraps of the Persian Empire but Greek in language and culture, as their inscriptions and coins witness. Mylasa was their capital and the mausoleum of Hecatomnus can still be seen today which served as aa architectural precedent from which the later mausolea of the dynasty developed. During the long and striking reign of Mausolus, they became virtual rulers of Caria and of a sizable surrounding region between 377-352 BC. During Mausolus's reign the capital was moved to Halicarnassus, but Mylasa retained its importance. Mausolus was the builder of the famous Ancient Wonder of the
Milas
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of Armenian cavalry in this battle, or even that Armenia was divided into two parts ruled by two satraps. Orontes fought at the Battle of Gaugamela on the Persian right flank with 40,000 units of infantry and 7,000 of cavalry under his command, where he died. His son, Mithrenes, Satrap of Lydia, had joined Alexander the Great after being defeated at Sardis in 334 BC, and fought at Gaugamela on the side of Alexander. After the battle, Mithrenes was made Satrap of Armenia by Alexander. The ultimate fate of Orontes is unknown. Diodorus and Polyaenus mention a man named Orontes,
Orontes II
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itself descended from Old Persian and which means viceroy or governor of a province. According to John Marshall, the word "kshatrapa" means the viceroy of the "King of kings". The title of the "Mahakshatrapa" or the "Great Satrap" was given to the ruling Satrap, and the title of "kshatrapa" was given to the heir apparent. The western Kshatrapas were also known as Sakas to Indians. The Kshatrapas of western region were of foreign origin, and they were feudatories at first to the Scytho-Parthian, and later the Kushan Empire. In the eastern Malwa region, they appear on the scene only after
Western Satraps
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from starvation and dehydration. The Greek general Xenophon records in his "Anabasis" that the Armenians burned their crops and food supplies as they withdrew before the advance of the Ten Thousand. The Greek mercenary general Memnon suggested to the Persian Satraps the use of the scorched-earth policy against Alexander as he moved into Asia Minor. He was refused. The system of punitive destruction of property and subjugation of people when accompanying a military campaign was known as "vastatio". Two of the first uses of scorched earth recorded both happened in the Gallic Wars. The first was used when the Celtic
Scorched earth
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to Greece via Chrysopolis ("Anabasis" 6.3.16). Once there, they helped Seuthes II make himself king of Thrace, before being recruited into the army of the Spartan general Thibron. The Spartans were at war with Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus II, Persian satraps in Anatolia, probably on account of the aforementioned treacherous slaughter of their general Clearchus. Xenophon’s military activity with these Spartans marks the final episodes of the "Anabasis" (Books 6–7). Filled with a plethora of originality and tactical genius, Xenophon's conduct of the retreat caused Dodge to name the Athenian knight the greatest general that preceded Alexander the Great. Xenophon has
Xenophon
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of the Macedonian Empire. Gongylos Gongylos, from Eretria in Euboea, was a 5th-century Greek statesman who served as an intermediary between the Spartans and Xerxes I of the Achaemenid Empire, and was a supporter of the latter. After the defeat of the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 479 BCE, Gongylos was forced to flee and take refuge in the Achaemenid Empire. There, Xerxes granted him the territory of Pergamon in Asia Minor from circa 470-460 BCE as a reward. His descendants ruled over the city until at least 400 BCE, forming the Gongylid dynasty of satraps. Gongylos was one
Gongylos
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Gongylos Gongylos, from Eretria in Euboea, was a 5th-century Greek statesman who served as an intermediary between the Spartans and Xerxes I of the Achaemenid Empire, and was a supporter of the latter. After the defeat of the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 479 BCE, Gongylos was forced to flee and take refuge in the Achaemenid Empire. There, Xerxes granted him the territory of Pergamon in Asia Minor from circa 470-460 BCE as a reward. His descendants ruled over the city until at least 400 BCE, forming the Gongylid dynasty of satraps. Gongylos was one of the several Greek
Gongylos
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of the Greek mercenary, as he expected a Persian invasion was imminent. The pharaoh sent Mentor, at the head of 4000 mercenaries, to support Sidon, which had rebelled from Persia. Although Mentor won significant victories against some of the satraps, he was unable to defeat Artaxerxes' army, and was captured in 346 BC. Upon his capture, Artaxerxes evidently recognized Mentor's skills, and pardoned him. Immediately, Mentor was sent to aid in the invasion of his former refuge, Egypt. During the Egyptian campaign Mentor led one of three divisions of the great kings Hellenic army he shared the command with Bagoas
Mentor of Rhodes
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of these places, in part, some that lie along the Indus are held by Indians, although they formerly belonged to the Persians. Alexander [III 'the Great' of Macedon] took these away from the Arians and established settlements of his own, but Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus [Chandragupta], upon terms of intermarriage and of receiving in exchange five hundred elephants. — Strabo 15.2.9 From this, it seems that Seleucus surrendered the easternmost provinces of Arachosia, Gedrosia, Paropamisadae and perhaps also Aria. On the other hand, he was accepted by other satraps of the eastern provinces. His Persian wife, Apama, may
Seleucus I Nicator
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by the Persian Empire and governed by satraps until 334 B.C.. After the Persians, the region was governed successively by the Macedonian Empire, the Kingdom of the Attalids, Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire. In the beginning of the 14th century, Turks under the Beylik of Saruhan captured the city and the region and ruled it for a century from their base in nearby Manisa. In 1400 the region passed over to the Ottoman Empire under which Manisa preserved its position as a primary regional center. In the beginning of the Ottoman rule, Salihli was a village of the kaza of
Salihli
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been known to the Sumerians as the Meluhha, and other trade contacts may have included Egypt, Africa, however, the modern world discovered it only in the 1920s as a result of archaeological excavations and rail road building. Prominent historians of Ancient India would include Ram Sharan Sharma and Romila Thapar. The births of Mahavira and Buddha in the 6th century BC mark the beginning of well-recorded history in the region. Around the 5th century BC, the ancient region of Pakistan was invaded by the Achaemenid Empire under Darius in 522 BC forming the easternmost satraps of the Persian Empire. The
Ancient history
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eastern satraps. Perdiccas believed he was carrying out Alexander's plans, extending the modified Persian Empire into Greece, western Asia and Africa. He insisted on the supreme authority in the name of the king. Shortly that fiction was to be assaulted, ending in the second of the three partitions, which was an overt one manifestly to all. After the partition the council turned to the business of disposing of Alexander's body, which had lain unburied for seven days. The date of the partition was therefore June 18, 323 BC, or near it. Curtius is the main source for the events immediately
Partition of Babylon
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Rome that this new luxury of gardening originated in Persia. Lucullus had firsthand experience of the Persian gardening style, in the satraps' gardens of Anatolia ("Asia" to the Romans) and in Mesopotamia and Persia itself. As Plutarch pointed out, "Lucullus [was] the first Roman who carried an army over Taurus, passed the Tigris, took and burnt the royal palaces of Asia in the sight of the kings, Tigranocerta, Cabira, Sinope, and Nisibis, seizing and overwhelming the northern parts as far as the Phasis, the east as far as Media, and making the South and Red Sea his own through the
Gardens of Lucullus
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to appease both of the Cadusian kings. One individual who successfully emerged from this campaign was Darius Codomannus, who later occupied the Persian throne as Darius III. Artaxerxes then ordered the disbanding of all the satrapal armies of Asia Minor, as he felt that they could no longer guarantee peace in the west and was concerned that these armies equipped the western satraps with the means to revolt. The order was however ignored by Artabazus of Lydia, who asked for the help of Athens in a rebellion against the king. Athens sent assistance to Sardis. Orontes of Mysia also supported
Artaxerxes III
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both of the Cadusian kings. One individual who successfully emerged from this campaign was Darius Codomannus, who later occupied the Persian throne as Darius III. Artaxerxes III then ordered the disbanding of all the satrapal armies of Asia Minor, as he felt that they could no longer guarantee peace in the west and was concerned that these armies equipped the western satraps with the means to revolt. The order was however ignored by Artabazos II of Phrygia, who asked for the help of Athens in a rebellion against the king. Athens sent assistance to Sardis. Orontes of Mysia also supported
Achaemenid Empire
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Sophene under the rule of Xerxes' son, Abdissares. Xerxes of Armenia Xerxes (Armenian: Շավարշ – Šavarš, Ancient Greek: Ξέρξης - Xerxes, Old Persian: Ḫšayāršā) was satrap of the Seleucid territories of Sophene and Commagene from 228 BCE to 212 BCE, the year of his death. He succeeded his father Arsames I to rule both Sophene and Commagene in 228 BC, while his brother Orontes IV ruled Armenia. In 223 BC, several Seleucid satraps rebelled against King Antiochus III, including Artabazanes (Upper Media), Molon (Lower Media), Alexander (Persis), and Achaeus (Asia Minor). By 220 BC Antiochus had put down most of
Xerxes of Armenia
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in reducing Cyprus. Artaxerxes initiated a counter-offensive against Sidon by commanding the satrap of Syria and Mezseus, and the satrap of Cilicia to invade the city and to keep the Phoenicians in check. Both satraps suffered crushing defeats at the hands of Tennes, the Sidonese king, who was aided by 40,000 Greek mercenaries sent to him by Nectanebo II and commanded by Mentor of Rhodes. As a result, the Persian forces were driven out of Phoenicia. After this, Artaxerxes personally led an army of 330,000 men against Sidon. Artaxerxes' army comprised 300,000 foot soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, 300 triremes, and 500
Artaxerxes III
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succeeded in reducing Cyprus. Artaxerxes initiated a counter-offensive against Sidon by commanding Belesys, satrap of Syria, and Mezseus, satrap of Cilicia, to invade the city and to keep the Phoenicians in check. Both satraps suffered crushing defeats at the hands of Tennes, the Sidonese king, who was aided by 40,000 Greek mercenaries sent to him by Nectanebo II and commanded by Mentor of Rhodes. As a result, the Persian forces were driven out of Phoenicia. After this, Artaxerxes personally led an army of 330,000 men against Sidon. Artaxerxes' army comprised 300,000 foot soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, 300 triremes, and 500 transports
Achaemenid Empire
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Xerxes of Armenia Xerxes (Armenian: Շավարշ – Šavarš, Ancient Greek: Ξέρξης - Xerxes, Old Persian: Ḫšayāršā) was satrap of the Seleucid territories of Sophene and Commagene from 228 BCE to 212 BCE, the year of his death. He succeeded his father Arsames I to rule both Sophene and Commagene in 228 BC, while his brother Orontes IV ruled Armenia. In 223 BC, several Seleucid satraps rebelled against King Antiochus III, including Artabazanes (Upper Media), Molon (Lower Media), Alexander (Persis), and Achaeus (Asia Minor). By 220 BC Antiochus had put down most of the rebellions; however, Achaeus was not defeated until
Xerxes of Armenia
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the Great, beginning at around 530BCE, provincial organization actually originated during the Median era from at least 648BCE. Up to the time of the conquest of Media by Cyrus the Great, emperors ruled the lands they conquered through client kings and governors. The main difference was that in Persian culture the concept of kingship was indivisible from divinity: divine authority validated the divine right of kings. The twenty-six satraps established by Cyrus were never kings, but viceroys ruling in the king's name, although in political reality many took advantage of any opportunity to carve themselves an independent power base. Darius
Satrap
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be a constant problem. This new Greek Empire relied upon the administrative system put in place by the Persians to govern these new lands; consequently, the Assyrian lands of Athura and Mada were administrated as such by their own satraps. When Alexander the Great died, the Greek successor state of the Seleucid Empire, created in the Babylonian War, retained control of much of the Persian Empire. The "Babylonian Chronicles" now show the vitality of Greek culture in ancient cities like Babylon. Whilst Greek rule beyond the Euphrates was subject to constant and eventually successful Iranian incursions, Assyria was forced to
Achaemenid Assyria
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from Persian satrapies on the southern coast of the Black Sea never taken by Alexander. The descendants of the satraps remained as the Nicomedid and Mithridatid dynasties respectively. Walking a fine diplomatic balance they managed to coexist with the reigning diadochi (Attalids, Seleucids, etc.), but they made war on each other. When the diadochi were replaced by Roman provincial governors, Mithridates VI of Pontus attacked Nicomedes IV of Bithynia, claiming tort at the hands of Nicomedes supported by Rome, and further developing an Anatolian alliance defeated all the Roman commanders, massacring as well the helpless Roman citizens. Rome could not
Physics (Aristotle)
19360124
honors in the Athenian Kerameikos. Apollodorus (general) Apollodorus was an Athenian general of the 4th century BCE. He commanded the Persian auxiliaries which the Athenians had solicited from the king of Persia, Artaxerxes III, against Philip of Macedon in 340. Artaxerxes, who was keen to block the advance of Philip, ordered his satraps to render all aid they could, and the satrap Arsites stepped in to provide mercenaries. Apollodorus became engaged with these troops in protecting the town of Perinthus (modern Marmara Ereğlisi) while Philip invaded its territory. Apollodorus's forces had laid in significant provisions, and successfully repelled the siege.
Apollodorus (general)
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Apollodorus (general) Apollodorus was an Athenian general of the 4th century BCE. He commanded the Persian auxiliaries which the Athenians had solicited from the king of Persia, Artaxerxes III, against Philip of Macedon in 340. Artaxerxes, who was keen to block the advance of Philip, ordered his satraps to render all aid they could, and the satrap Arsites stepped in to provide mercenaries. Apollodorus became engaged with these troops in protecting the town of Perinthus (modern Marmara Ereğlisi) while Philip invaded its territory. Apollodorus's forces had laid in significant provisions, and successfully repelled the siege. Apollodorus was buried with civic
Apollodorus (general)
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the conquest of Alexander the Great, Ada again ruled from 334 to 326 under the Macedonian Empire. Hecatomnids The Hecatomnid dynasty or Hecatomnids were the rulers of Caria and surrounding areas from about 395–334 BCE, after Caria had left the Athenian alliance called the Delian League and returned under the control of the Achaemenid Empire. Before that, during the first period of Achaemenid rule, Caria was governed by the Lygdamid dynasty (520-450 BCE). The Hecatomnids were nominally satraps (governors) under the Persian Achaeminid Empire, but ruled with considerable autonomy, and established a hereditary dynasty. The dynasty was founded by Hecatomnus
Hecatomnids
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Lydians instead. After the Persians defeated Croesus, the Ionians offered to make peace, but Cyrus insisted that they surrender and become part of the empire. They were defeated by the Persian army commander Harpagos in 547 BC. The Persians then incorporated the Greek cities of Asia Minor into the Achaemenid Empire. Those cities were then ruled by satraps. Ephesus has intrigued archaeologists because for the Archaic Period there is no definite location for the settlement. There are numerous sites to suggest the movement of a settlement between the Bronze Age and the Roman period, but the silting up of the
Ephesus
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and religion of the conquered people, so the Persian culture was the one most affected as the Great King endeavoured to meld elements from all his subjects into a new imperial style, especially at his capital, Persepolis. Whenever central authority in the empire weakened, the satrap often enjoyed practical independence, especially as it became customary to appoint him also as general-in-chief of the army district, contrary to the original rule. "When his office became hereditary, the threat to the central authority could not be ignored" (Olmstead). Rebellions of satraps became frequent from the middle of the 5thcentury BCE. Darius I
Satrap
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for ceremonial and cultural festivities, a center for dignitaries and visitors to pay homage to the king, a private residence for the Persian kings, a place for satraps to bring gifts for the king in the Spring during the festival of Nowruz, as well as a place of governance and ordinance. Persepolis's prestige and grand riches were well known in the ancient world, and it was best described by the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus as "the richest city under the sun". Today the archaeological remnants of this once opulent city are about 70 kilometers northeast of the modern Iranian city
Achaemenid architecture
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up in Gandhara. In 327 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Gandhara as well as the Indian "satrapies" of the Persian Empire. The expeditions of Alexander were recorded by his court historians and by Arrian (around AD 175) in his "Anabasis Alexandri" and by other chroniclers many centuries after the event. Sir Mortimer Wheeler conducted some excavations there in 1962, and identified various Achaemenid remains. In the winter of 327 BC, Alexander invited all the chieftains in the remaining five Achaemenid satraps to submit to his authority. Ambhi, then ruler of Taxila in the former Hindush satrapy complied, but the remaining
Gandhara
842922
Satrap Satraps () were the governors of the provinces of the ancient Median and Achaemenid Empires and in several of their successors, such as in the Sasanian Empire and the Hellenistic empires. The word "satrap" is also often used metaphorically in modern literature to refer to world leaders or governors who are heavily influenced by larger world superpowers or hegemonies and act as their surrogates. The word is derived via Latin from Greek "satrápēs" (), itself borrowed from an Old Iranian "*xšaθra-pā/ă-". In Old Persian, which was the native language of the Achaemenids, it is recorded as "xšaçapāvan" (, literally
Satrap
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been favorable to the invader, such as Mazaios, others some of Alexander's closest supports, such as Balacrus. Several satraps continued to use an Achaemenid type for their coinage, such as Balacrus when he became Hellenistic satrap of Cilicia, complete with the local deety of Tarsus, Baal. This coinage is said to have later influenced Alexander's imperial coinage, which was often minted in the same mints. Achaemenid coinage Coins of the Achaemenid Empire were issued from 520 BCE-450 BCE to 330 BCE. The Persian daric was the first gold coin which, along with a similar silver coin, the siglos, (From Ancient
Achaemenid coinage
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and executed. Another of Darius' generals ingratiated himself to Alexander by giving the conqueror Darius' favored companion, Bagoas. Darius III Darius III (c. 380 – July 330 BC), originally named Artashata and called Codomannus by the Greeks, was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, from 336 BC to 330 BC. Artashata adopted "Darius" as a dynastic name. His empire was unstable, with large portions governed by jealous and unreliable satraps and inhabited by disaffected and rebellious subjects. In 334 BC, Alexander the Great began his invasion of the Persian Empire and subsequently defeated the Persians in a
Darius III
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as having betrayed his father, and the same circumstance is alluded to by Aristotle. During the Satraps' Revolt in the 360s BCE, Mithridates tricked Datames into believing in him. But in the end he arranged for Datames' murder in 362 BCE. Similarly, Mithridates gave his own father Ariobarzanes of Phrygia over to his Persian overlord, so Ariobarzanes was crucified in 362 BCE. Presumably he was not the same Mithridates who accompanied the younger Cyrus in c. 401 BCE - there is no proof of this. Neither is he the Mithridates mentioned by Xenophon as satrap of Cappadocia and Lycaonia in
Mithridates II of Cius
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three Persian noble judges, Orontes was found guilty . In 362 BC a great rebellion occurred in Anatolia, led by Datames, Satrap of Cappadocia (Revolt of the Satraps). Some sources say that it was Orontes who was chosen by the rebels as their leader. However, Orontes stayed loyal to king Artaxerxes II and aided in the collapse of the rebellion. Apparently, he wanted to rule Anatolia and Armenia alone. He captured the city of Pergamon and sent bribes to Athens, where a decree seeking an alliance records his name. He was able to fund these activities as he is recorded
Orontes I
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traditional Mesopotamian monarch, restoring temples and releasing political prisoners. Upon assuming power, Cyrus appointed provincial governors (the predecessors of the Persian satraps), and he required from his subjects only tribute and obedience. Following Cyrus's death, a brief period of Babylonian unrest ensued that climaxed in 522 B.C. with a general rebellion of Iranian colonies. Between 520 and 485 BC, the Iranian leader, Darius the Great, reimposed political stability in Babylon and ushered in a period of great economic prosperity. His greatest achievements were in road building, which significantly improved communication among the provinces, and in organizing an efficient bureaucracy. Darius's
Iran–Iraq relations
9178623
Hecatomnids The Hecatomnid dynasty or Hecatomnids were the rulers of Caria and surrounding areas from about 395–334 BCE, after Caria had left the Athenian alliance called the Delian League and returned under the control of the Achaemenid Empire. Before that, during the first period of Achaemenid rule, Caria was governed by the Lygdamid dynasty (520-450 BCE). The Hecatomnids were nominally satraps (governors) under the Persian Achaeminid Empire, but ruled with considerable autonomy, and established a hereditary dynasty. The dynasty was founded by Hecatomnus and originally had its seat in Mylasa; Mausolus moved it to Halicarnassus. Hecatomnus' five children succeeded him
Hecatomnids
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"Iran–America Society" in Tehran on 21 April 1948, stated: There were four unattested kings who ruled as satraps to the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the Median Empire. There were 13 attested kings during the 220 years of the Achaemenid Empire's existence. The reign of Artaxerxes II was the longest, lasting 47 years Early in the reign of Artaxerxes II, in 399 BC, the Persians lost control over Egypt. They regained control 57 years later, in 342 BC, when Artaxerxes III conquered Egypt. Achaemenid Empire The Achaemenid Empire (; , "The Empire" ), also called the First Persian Empire, was an empire
Achaemenid Empire
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are "Lycians", though the Zeleians are distinct from the Lycians who come from Lycia in southwestern Asia Minor, led by Sarpedon and Glaucus. The connection between the 'Lycians' of Zeleia and these Lycians is unclear—if there "is" any connection at all. Arrian, in "Anabasis Alexandri", mentions that prior to the Battle of the Granicus, in May 334 BCE, the Persian satraps held a council at Zeleia where they discussed how best to confront Alexander the Great. Zeleia Zeleia (Ζέλεια) is the name of an ancient town or city, according to the "Iliad", which was allied to Troy. It appears to
Zeleia
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and east and the Kushan state to their immediate west. Satrap Satraps () were the governors of the provinces of the ancient Median and Achaemenid Empires and in several of their successors, such as in the Sasanian Empire and the Hellenistic empires. The word "satrap" is also often used metaphorically in modern literature to refer to world leaders or governors who are heavily influenced by larger world superpowers or hegemonies and act as their surrogates. The word is derived via Latin from Greek "satrápēs" (), itself borrowed from an Old Iranian "*xšaθra-pā/ă-". In Old Persian, which was the native language
Satrap
15372264
Achaemenid Empire The Achaemenid Empire (; , "The Empire" ), also called the First Persian Empire, was an empire based in Western Asia founded by Cyrus the Great. Ranging at its greatest extent from the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper in the west to the Indus Valley in the east, it was larger than any previous empire in history, spanning 5.5 (or 8) million square kilometers. Incorporating various peoples of different origins and faiths, it is notable for its successful model of a centralised, bureaucratic administration (through satraps under the King of Kings), for building infrastructure such as road systems
Achaemenid Empire
3071
Alexander sustained an injury during the siege. Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran. Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert. Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa. As a gesture
Alexander the Great