where can we find an operating fusion reaction
stars like our Sun
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Fusion power Fusion power is a theoretical form of power generation in which energy will be generated by using nuclear fusion reactions to produce heat for electricity generation. In a fusion process, two lighter atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, and at the same time, they release energy. This is the same process that powers stars like our Sun. Devices designed to harness this energy are known as fusion reactors. Fusion processes require fuel and a highly confined environment with a high temperature and pressure, to create a plasma in which fusion can occur. In stars, the most
Fusion power
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expressions, we find and hence The density average is If reaction sheet is not assumed to be thin, then there is a chance that one can find a value for formula_1 in between zero and unity, although in reality, the reaction sheet is mostly thin compared to turbulent scales. Nevertheless, the general form the density function can be written as where formula_25 is the probability of finding the progress variable which is undergoing reaction (where transition from zero to unity is effected). Here, we have where formula_27 is negligible in most regions. Bray–Moss–Libby model In premixed turbulent combustion, Bray–Moss–Libby model
Bray–Moss–Libby model
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Since ΔH is a state function and so is not dependent on how the reactants become the products, we can use several steps (in the form of several thermochemical equations) to find the ΔH of the overall reaction. Example: This reaction comes about via two steps (a reaction sequence): We want to add these two reactions together to get Reaction (1) so that we can find ΔH, so we check to make sure that agents in the reaction sequence not present in (1) cancel each other. In this example, CO is not in (1) and cancels. We add the reaction
Thermochemical equation
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analysis shows that this idea would not work well, but it is a good example of a case where the usual assumption of a Maxwellian plasma is not appropriate. Any of the reactions above can in principle be the basis of fusion power production. In addition to the temperature and cross section discussed above, we must consider the total energy of the fusion products "E", the energy of the charged fusion products "E", and the atomic number "Z" of the non-hydrogenic reactant. Specification of the - reaction entails some difficulties, though. To begin with, one must average over the two
Nuclear fusion
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p-orbitals is arbitrary. Were one p-orbital in either reaction mode to be written upside-down, this would change the number of sign inversions by two and not change the evenness or oddness of the orbital array. With a conrotation giving a Möbius system, with butadiene's four electrons, we find an "allowed" reaction model. With disrotation giving a Hückel system, with the four electrons, we find a "forbidden" reaction model. Although in these two examples symmetry is present, symmetry is not required or involved in determination of reaction allowedness versus forbiddenness. Hence a very large number of organic reactions can be understood.
Möbius–Hückel concept
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temperature and density of that small spot is raised high enough, fusion reactions will occur. The fusion reactions release high-energy particles, which collide with the high density fuel around it and slow down. This heats the fuel further, and can potentially cause that fuel to undergo fusion as well. Given the right overall conditions of the compressed fuel – high enough density and temperature – this heating process can result in a chain reaction, burning outward from the center where the shock wave started the reaction. This is a condition known as "ignition", which can lead to a significant portion
Shiva laser
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fusion reaction. In their response (published on the same page), the Taleyarkhan team provided detailed counter-arguments and concluded that the energy was "reasonably close" to that which was expected from a fusion reaction. In February 2005 the documentary series "Horizon" commissioned two leading sonoluminescence researchers, Seth Putterman and Kenneth S. Suslick, to reproduce Taleyarkhan's work. Using similar acoustic parameters, deuterated acetone, similar bubble nucleation, and a much more sophisticated neutron detection device, the researchers could find no evidence of a fusion reaction. In 2004, new reports of bubble fusion were published by the Taleyarkhan group, claiming that the results of
Bubble fusion
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to heavier nuclei and the high loss of energy that is produced in the nuclear fusion. Therefore, a PBC would most likely have the capability to produce heavier nuclei through controlled fusion and minimise the energy lost. By taking the two factors of heat dispersion and heavy nuclei into account we can find a "galactic technological zone" (GTZ), similar to the principle of a "galactic habitable zone" (GHZ) for biological life. Where temperatures are low enough to maximise computing efficiency but there is also matter available for fusion, this most likely lies on the outskirts of the galaxy. A migration
Postbiological evolution
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The fusion reactions release high-energy particles, some of which (primarily alpha particles) collide with the high density fuel around it and slow down. This heats the fuel further, and can potentially cause that fuel to undergo fusion as well. Given the right overall conditions of the compressed fuel—high enough density and temperature—this heating process can result in a chain reaction, burning outward from the center where the shock wave started the reaction. This is a condition known as "ignition", which can lead to a significant portion of the fuel in the target undergoing fusion, and the release of significant amounts
HiPER
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and formula_5 is the burnt gas temperature, then the non-dimensional temperature can be defined as The progress variable could be any scalar, i.e., we could have chosen the concentration of a reactant as a progress variable. Since the reaction sheet is infinitely thin, at any point in the flow field, we can find the value of formula_1 to be either unity or zero. The transition from zero to unity occurs instantaneously at the reaction sheet. Therefore, the probability density function (suppressing the time variable formula_8) for the progress variable is given by where formula_10 and formula_11 are the probability of
Bray–Moss–Libby model
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neutrons from the fusion reaction to in turn cause a high-yield fission reaction (close to 100%) in the surrounding subcritical fissionable blanket, the net yield from the hybrid fusion–fission process can provide a targeted gain of 100 to 300 times the input energy (an increase by a factor of three or four over fusion alone). Even allowing for high inefficiencies on the input side (i.e. low laser efficiency in ICF and Bremsstrahlung losses in Tokamak designs), this can still yield sufficient heat output for economical electric power generation. This can be seen as a shortcut to viable fusion power until
Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid
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Deuterium fusion Deuterium fusion, also called deuterium burning, is a nuclear fusion reaction that occurs in stars and some substellar objects, in which a deuterium nucleus and a proton combine to form a helium-3 nucleus. It occurs as the second stage of the proton–proton chain reaction, in which a deuterium nucleus formed from two protons fuses with another proton, but can also proceed from primordial deuterium. Deuterium is the most easily fused nucleus available to accreting protostars, and such fusion in the center of protostars can proceed when temperatures exceed 10 K. The reaction rate is so sensitive to temperature
Deuterium fusion
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million kelvins. The second easiest reaction is fusing deuterium with itself. Because this gas is cheaper, it is the fuel commonly used by amateurs. The ease of doing a fusion reaction is measured by its cross section. At such conditions, the atoms are ionized and make a plasma. The energy generated by fusion, inside a hot plasma cloud can be found with the following equation. where: This equation shows that energy varies with the temperature, density, speed of collision, and fuel used. To reach net power, fusion reactions have to occur fast enough to make up for energy losses. Any
Fusor
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per deuteron consumed is 2/5 of this, or 5.0 MeV (a specific energy of about 225 million MJ per kilogram of deuterium). Another unique aspect of the - reaction is that there is only one reactant, which must be taken into account when calculating the reaction rate. With this choice, we tabulate parameters for four of the most important reactions The last column is the neutronicity of the reaction, the fraction of the fusion energy released as neutrons. This is an important indicator of the magnitude of the problems associated with neutrons like radiation damage, biological shielding, remote handling, and
Nuclear fusion
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networks consisting of arbitrary overlapping sensor fields. Given a Hilbert space formula_1, let formula_2 be closed subspaces of formula_1, where formula_4 is an index set. Let formula_5 be a set of positive scalar weights. Then formula_6 is a fusion frame of formula_1 if there exist constants formula_8 such that for all formula_9 we have formula_10, where formula_11 denotes the orthogonal projection onto the subspace formula_12. The constants formula_13 and formula_14 are called lower and upper bound, respectively. When the lower and upper bounds are equal to each other, formula_6 becomes a formula_13-tight fusion frame. Furthermore, if formula_17, we can call
Fusion frame
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order to set a precise diagnosis. Chromosome banding analysis, fluorescence "in situ" hybridization (FISH), and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) are common methods employed at diagnostic laboratories. These methods all have their distinct shortcomings due to the very complex nature of cancer genomes. Recent developments such as high-throughput sequencing and custom DNA microarrays bear promise of introduction of more efficient methods. Gene fusion plays a key role in the evolution of gene architecture. We can observe its effect if gene fusion occurs in coding sequences. Duplication, sequence divergence, and recombination are the major contributors at work in gene evolution.
Fusion gene
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the cross section is far too low, except possibly when "T" > 1 MeV, but at such high temperatures an endothermic, direct neutron-producing reaction also becomes very significant. Finally there is also a p- reaction, which is not only difficult to burn, but can be easily induced to split into two alpha particles and a neutron. In addition to the fusion reactions, the following reactions with neutrons are important in order to "breed" tritium in "dry" fusion bombs and some proposed fusion reactors: The latter of the two equations was unknown when the U.S. conducted the Castle Bravo fusion bomb
Nuclear fusion
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cause that fuel to undergo fusion as well. Given the right overall conditions of the compressed fuel—high enough density and temperature—this heating process can result in a chain reaction, burning outward from the center where the shock wave started the reaction. This is a condition known as "ignition", which can lead to a significant portion of the fuel in the target undergoing fusion, and the release of significant amounts of energy. To date, most ICF experiments have used lasers to heat the targets. Calculations show that the energy must be delivered quickly in order to compress the core before it
Nova (laser)
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g of fusion fuel itself is only 1.73% of the energy released by the fission of 1,338 g of plutonium. Larger total yields and higher efficiency are possible, since the chain reaction can continue beyond the second generation after fusion boosting. Fusion-boosted fission bombs can also be made immune to neutron radiation from nearby nuclear explosions, which can cause other designs to predetonate, blowing themselves apart without achieving a high yield. The combination of reduced weight in relation to yield and immunity to radiation has ensured that most modern nuclear weapons are fusion-boosted. The fusion reaction rate typically becomes significant
Boosted fission weapon
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isotope in the spent fuel as if the reactor only produced stable isotopes. Kjell Aleklett, physics professor at Uppsala University, said the percentage of copper was too high for any known reaction of nickel, and the copper had the same isotopic ratio as natural copper. He also stated, "Known chemical reactions cannot explain the amount of energy measured. A nuclear reaction can explain the amount of energy, but the knowledge we have today says that this reaction cannot take place." Scientific skeptic James Randi, discussing the E-Cat in the context of previous cold fusion claims, suggested that it will eventually
Energy Catalyzer
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of deuterium and tritium. Weapon yield is typically increased with a tamper that increases the duration and intensity of the reaction through inertial confinement and neutron reflection. Nuclear fusion bombs can have arbitrarily high yields making them hundreds or thousands of times more powerful than nuclear fission. A pure fusion weapon is a nuclear weapon that doesn't require a primary fission stage to start a fusion reaction. Antimatter bombs can theoretically be constructed, but antimatter is very costly to produce and hard to store safely. An inert bomb is one whose inner energetic material has been removed or otherwise rendered
Bomb
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66 keV (765 million degrees Celsius). For pressure-limited confinement concepts, optimum operating temperatures are about 5 times lower, but the ratio is still roughly ten-to-one. The peak reaction rate of p–B is only one third that for D-T, requiring better plasma confinement. Confinement is usually characterized by the time τ the energy must be retained so that the fusion power released exceeds the power required to heat the plasma. Various requirements can be derived, most commonly the product of the density, "n"τ, and the product with the pressure "nT"τ, both of which are called the Lawson criterion. The "n"τ required
Aneutronic fusion
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Nuclear explosion A nuclear explosion is an explosion that occurs as a result of the rapid release of energy from a high-speed nuclear reaction. The driving reaction may be nuclear fission or nuclear fusion or a multi-stage cascading combination of the two, though to date all fusion-based weapons have used a fission device to initiate fusion, and a pure fusion weapon remains a hypothetical device. Atmospheric nuclear explosions are associated with mushroom clouds, although mushroom clouds can occur with large chemical explosions. It is possible to have an air-burst nuclear explosion without those clouds. Nuclear explosions produce radiation and radioactive
Nuclear explosion
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the slope of the Gibbs energy plotted against the extent of reaction at constant pressure and temperature. Analogously, the relation between the change in reaction enthalpy and enthalpy can be defined. The extent of reaction is a useful quantity in computations with equilibrium reactions. Let us consider the reaction where the initial amounts are formula_8, and the equilibrium amount of A is 0.5 mol. We can calculate the extent of reaction from its definition Do not forget that the stoichiometric number of reactants is negative. Now when we know the extent, we can rearrange the equation and calculate the equilibrium
Extent of reaction
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the particle by the Abraham–Lorentz force is the negative of the Larmor power integrated over one period from formula_9 to formula_10: Notice that we can integrate the above expression by parts. If we assume that there is periodic motion, the boundary term in the integral by parts disappears: Integrating by parts a second time, we find Clearly, we can identify Below is an illustration of how a classical analysis can lead to surprising results. The classical theory can be seen to challenge standard pictures of causality, thus signaling either a breakdown or a need for extension of the theory. In
Magnetic radiation reaction force
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formula_62. Let formula_6 be a fusion frame for formula_1. Let formula_69 be representation space for projection. The analysis operator formula_70 is defined by formula_71. Then The adjoint operator formula_72, which we call the synthesis operator, is given by formula_73, where formula_74. The fusion frame operator formula_75 is defined by formula_76. Given the lower and upper bounds of the fusion frame formula_6, formula_13 and formula_14, the fusion frame operator formula_80 can be bounded by formula_81, where formula_82 is the identity operator. Therefore, the fusion frame operator formula_80 is positive and invertible. Given a fusion frame system formula_84 for formula_1, where formula_86,
Fusion frame
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we can find unauthorized and untrained customers. Hangar Zone: With large openings where high-speed doors work in airports and naval ports it is required to provide an easy, quick and safe passage from inside to outside, and vice versa. Although the deposits of naval vessels are a very difficult environment to operate, places where the service of maintenance to ships or insurance protection from the sea can be requested at any time. With uptime 100%, airports can not break on time. High strains, caused by the high operating speed (up to 4 m/s) and the frequency of openings, have to
High-speed door
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able to do amateur fusion using these homemade devices. Other IEC devices include: the Polywell, MIX POPS and Marble concepts. If the energy to initiate the reaction comes from accelerating one of the nuclei, the process is called "beam-target" fusion; if both nuclei are accelerated, it is "beam-beam" fusion. Accelerator-based light-ion fusion is a technique using particle accelerators to achieve particle kinetic energies sufficient to induce light-ion fusion reactions. Accelerating light ions is relatively easy, and can be done in an efficient manner—requiring only a vacuum tube, a pair of electrodes, and a high-voltage transformer; fusion can be observed with
Nuclear fusion
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separation easy compared to the difficult uranium enrichment process. Tritium is a natural isotope of hydrogen, but because it has a short half-life of 12.32 years, it is hard to find, store, produce, and is expensive. Consequently, the deuterium-tritium fuel cycle requires the breeding of tritium from lithium using one of the following reactions: The reactant neutron is supplied by the D-T fusion reaction shown above, and the one that has the greatest yield of energy. The reaction with Li is exothermic, providing a small energy gain for the reactor. The reaction with Li is endothermic but does not consume
Fusion power
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wavelet transforms). However, in certain cases a dictionary that is trained to fit the input data can significantly improve the sparsity, which has applications in data decomposition, compression and analysis and has been used in the fields of image denoising and classification, video and audio processing. Sparsity and overcomplete dictionaries have immense applications in image compression, image fusion and inpainting. Given the input dataset formula_1 we wish to find a dictionary formula_2 and a representation formula_3 such that both formula_4 is minimized and the representations formula_5 are sparse enough. This can be formulated as the following optimization problem: formula_6, where
Sparse dictionary learning
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can resemble more serious conditions such as chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), which can present with identical findings on the peripheral blood smear. Historically, various clues including the leukocyte alkaline phosphatase score and the presence of basophilia were used to distinguish CML from a leukemoid reaction. However, at present the test of choice in adults to distinguish CML is an assay for the presence of the Philadelphia chromosome, either via cytogenetics and FISH, or via PCR for the BCR/ABL fusion gene. The LAP (Leukocyte Alkaline Phosphatase) score is high in reactive states but is low in CML. In cases where the
Leukemoid reaction
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D-T reaction could be used this way; the other 80% is released in the form of neutrons which, because they cannot be directed by magnetic fields or solid walls, would be very difficult to use for thrust. Helium-3 is also produced via beta decay of tritium, which in turn can be produced from deuterium, lithium, or boron. Even if a self-sustaining fusion reaction cannot be produced, it might be possible to use fusion to boost the efficiency of another propulsion system, such as a VASIMR engine. To sustain a fusion reaction, the plasma must be confined. The most widely studied
Fusion rocket
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undergo Morphological Merger subject to morphophonological well-formedness conditions. Two nodes that have undergone Morphological Merger or that have been adjoined through syntactic head movement can undergo Fusion, yielding one single node for Vocabulary insertion. Many-to-one relation where two syntactic terminals are realized as a single exponent (portmanteau). An example can be found in Swahili, which has separate exponents for subject agreement (e.g., 1st plural "tu-") and negation ("ha-"): tu- ta- pend-a kiswahili we- will- love Swahili ha- tu- ta- pend-a kiswahili NEG- we- will- love Swahili However, 1st person singular exponent "ni-" and negation "ha-" undergo fusion and realized as
Distributed morphology
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and Helium-4, and another slow neutron. Li-6 can react with high or low energy neutrons, including those released by the Li-7 reaction. This means that a single fusion reaction can produce several tritiums, which is a requirement if the reactor is going to make up for natural decay and losses in the fusion processes. When the lithium blanket is replaced, or supplanted, by fission fuel in the hybrid design, neutrons that do react with the fissile material are no longer available for tritium breeding. The new neutrons released from the fission reactions can be used for this purpose, but only
Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid
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. We now have non-overlapping activities on the left and right of . We can recursively find solutions for these two sets because of optimal sub-structure. As we don't know , we can try each of the activities. This approach leads to an formula_30 solution. This can be optimized further considering that for each set of activities in formula_31, we can find the optimal solution if we had known the solution for formula_32, where is the last non-overlapping interval with in formula_31. This yields an formula_34 solution. This can be further optimized considering the fact that we do not need
Activity selection problem
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the process. Those two gamma photons will be traveling in (approximately) opposite direction. The gamma radiation from positron annihilation consists of high energy photons, and is also ionizing. Neutrons are categorized according to their speed/energy. Neutron radiation consists of free neutrons. These neutrons may be emitted during either spontaneous or induced nuclear fission. Neutrons are rare radiation particles; they are produced in large numbers only where chain reaction fission or fusion reactions are active; this happens for about 10 microseconds in a thermonuclear explosion, or continuously inside an operating nuclear reactor; production of the neutrons stops almost immediately in the
Radiation
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the reaction, which over time can degrade many common materials used within the reaction chamber. As a source of power, nuclear fusion is expected to have several theoretical advantages over fission. These include reduced radioactivity in operation and little nuclear waste, ample fuel supplies, and increased safety. However, controlled fusion has proven to be extremely difficult to produce in a practical and economical manner. Research into fusion reactors began in the 1940s, but to date, no design has produced more fusion power output than the electrical power input; therefore, all existing designs have had a negative power balance. Over the
Fusion power
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this:<br> Because of the coefficients, the equation is balanced. Element-reactant-product table An element-reaction-product table is used to find coefficients while balancing an equation representing a chemical reaction. Coefficients represent moles of a substance so that the number of atoms produced is equal to the number of atoms being reacted with. This is the common setup: The layout should eventually look like this, for a balanced reaction of baking soda and vinegar (HCHO + NaHCO = NaCHO + HCO) From this, since the number of reactants for each element equals the number of products for each element, we can tell that
Element-reactant-product table
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Element-reactant-product table An element-reaction-product table is used to find coefficients while balancing an equation representing a chemical reaction. Coefficients represent moles of a substance so that the number of atoms produced is equal to the number of atoms being reacted with. This is the common setup: The layout should eventually look like this, for a balanced reaction of baking soda and vinegar (HCHO + NaHCO = NaCHO + HCO) From this, since the number of reactants for each element equals the number of products for each element, we can tell that each side is balanced in the equation. When a
Element-reactant-product table
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where carbon anodes and cathodes are in contact with the mix. Later in the process, any carbon tools in contact with the liquid aluminium can react and create carbides. In aluminium alloys containing magnesium, magnesium oxides (MgO), cuboids (MgAlO-cuboid) and metallurgical spinel (MgAl2O4-spinel) can form. They result from the reaction between magnesium and oxygen in the melt. More of them will form with time and temperature. Spinel can be highly detrimental because of its big size and high hardness. Particles of refractory material in contact with aluminium can detach and become inclusions. We can find graphite inclusions (C), alumina inclusions
Aluminium alloy inclusions
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reduces the critical mass required. In the case of a thermonuclear weapon U can be used to encase the fusion fuel, the high flux of very energetic neutrons from the resulting fusion reaction causes U nuclei to split and adds more energy to the "yield" of the weapon. Such weapons are referred to as "fission-fusion-fission" weapons after the order in which each reaction takes place. An example of such a weapon is Castle Bravo. The larger portion of the total explosive yield in this design comes from the final fission stage fueled by U, producing enormous amounts of radioactive fission
Uranium-238
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the fission reaction in the fissionable core (pit) of the bomb, after it is compressed to a critical mass by explosives. Actuated by an ultrafast switch like a krytron, a small particle accelerator drives ions of tritium and deuterium to energies above the 15 keV or so needed for deuterium-tritium fusion and directs them into a metal target where the tritium and deuterium are adsorbed as hydrides. High-energy fusion neutrons from the resulting fusion radiate in all directions. Some of these strike plutonium or uranium nuclei in the primary's pit, initiating nuclear chain reaction. The quantity of neutrons produced is
Tritium
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the classical picture, thanks to the smearing of the effective radius as the DeBroglie wavelength as well as quantum tunnelling through the potential barrier. To determine the rate of fusion reactions, the value of most interest is the cross section, which describes the probability that particle will fuse by giving a characteristic area of interaction. An estimation of the fusion cross sectional area is often broken into three pieces: Where formula_9 is the geometric cross section, is the barrier transparency and is the reaction characteristics of the reaction. formula_9 is of the order of the square of the de-Broglie wavelength
Nuclear fusion
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pay for itself. Whether any of the mainline concepts like ITER can reach this goal is being debated in the field. Most fusion reactor designs being studied are based on the D-T reaction, as this is by far the easiest to ignite, and is energy dense. However, this reaction also gives off most of its energy in the form of a single highly energetic neutron, and only 20% of the energy in the form of an alpha. Thus, for the D-T reaction, "f" = 0.2. This means that self-heating does not become equal to the external heating until at least
Fusion energy gain factor
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excess reagent (HS) remains after the reaction, we would set up the calculation to find out how much HS reacts completely with the 90.0 g FeCl: By subtracting this amount from the original amount of HS, we can come to the answer: Often, more than one reaction is possible given the same starting materials. The reactions may differ in their stoichiometry. For example, the methylation of benzene (CH), through a Friedel–Crafts reaction using AlCl as a catalyst, may produce singly methylated (CHCH), doubly methylated (CH(CH)), or still more highly methylated (CH(CH)) products, as shown in the following example, In this
Stoichiometry
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cancel the units of . We can, therefore, write the entropy of an arbitrary molecule A as where is the entropy at standard conditions and [A] denotes the concentration of A. The change in enthalpy for a reaction is then given by We define the ratio in the last term as the reaction quotient: where the numerator is a product of reaction product activities, , each raised to the power of a stoichiometric coefficient, , and the denominator is a similar product of reactant activities. All activities refer to a time . Under certain circumstances (see chemical equilibrium) each activity
Nernst equation
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it inwards, compressing the target. This process is designed to create shock waves that travel inward through the target. A sufficiently powerful set of shock waves can compress and heat the fuel at the center so much that fusion reactions occur. The energy released by these reactions will then heat the surrounding fuel, and if the heating is strong enough this could also begin to undergo fusion. The aim of ICF is to produce a condition known as "ignition", where this heating process causes a chain reaction that burns a significant portion of the fuel. Typical fuel pellets are about
Inertial confinement fusion
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International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility The International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility, also known as IFMIF, is a projected material testing facility in which candidate materials for the use in an energy producing fusion reactor can be fully qualified. IFMIF will be an accelerator-driven neutron source producing a high intensity fast neutron flux with a spectrum similar to that expected at the first wall of a fusion reactor using a deuterium-lithium nuclear reaction. The IFMIF project was started in 1994 as an international scientific research program, carried out by Japan, the European Union, the United States, and Russia, and managed by
International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility
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close-combat weapon: the mobile suit. According to the timeline deduced by the Gundam Officials, in UC 0071, Zeon researchers created the Minovsky ultracompact fusion reactor. Instead of the conventional magnetic field, this improved version of the Minovsky-Ionesco reactor used an I-field to confine and compress the reactor fuel, triggering a fusion reaction. The Minovsky particles produced as a byproduct of the helium-3 fusion reaction were recycled to keep that reaction going. The Minovsky particles that form the I-field lattice also helped catalyze the fusion reaction, in a process similar to the muon-catalyzed fusion investigated by real-world scientists during the 1950s.
Gundam Universal Century technology
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symbol of their friendship, Kengo sends everyone to the school to give an Astroswitch to each person that he befriended at AGHS. As Meteor takes Gentaro to safety, with the last Astroswitch given to Gamou with everyone thinking of him, the simultaneous activation of all forty causes a chain reaction that produces the Fusion Switch. With Kengo giving him the Fusion Switch, Gentaro uses it and finds himself in a new form with the Meteor Switch: Kamen Rider Fourze Meteor Fusion States. Overwhelmed by Fourze using Meteor's abilities with his own, Kyodain take battle outside XVⅡ as they assume their
Kamen Rider Fourze the Movie: Space, Here We Come!
2072779
methods to find the truss element forces, namely the Method of Joints and the Method of Sections. Below is an example that is solved using both of these methods. The first diagram below is the presented problem for which we need to find the truss element forces. The second diagram is the loading diagram and contains the reaction forces from the joints. Since there is a pin joint at A, it will have 2 reaction forces. One in the x direction and the other in the y direction. At point B, we have a roller joint and hence we only
Structural analysis
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and inside a certain frame of time). In 2006–2007, the ENEA started a research program which claimed to have found excess power of up to 500 percent, and in 2009, ENEA hosted the 15th cold fusion conference. Between 1992 and 1997, Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry sponsored a "New Hydrogen Energy (NHE)" program of US$20 million to research cold fusion. Announcing the end of the program in 1997, the director and one-time proponent of cold fusion research Hideo Ikegami stated "We couldn't achieve what was first claimed in terms of cold fusion. (...) We can't find any reason
Cold fusion
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and tested at full scale at the Paul Scherrer Institute. Detailed specific information on the ongoing validation activities is being made available in related publications. International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility The International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility, also known as IFMIF, is a projected material testing facility in which candidate materials for the use in an energy producing fusion reactor can be fully qualified. IFMIF will be an accelerator-driven neutron source producing a high intensity fast neutron flux with a spectrum similar to that expected at the first wall of a fusion reactor using a deuterium-lithium nuclear reaction. The IFMIF project
International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility
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fuse, reactions between nuclei of the same reactant will occur, and the D-D reaction ( + ) does produce a neutron. Reaction rates vary with temperature, but the D- reaction rate is never greater than 3.56 times the D-D reaction rate (see graph). Therefore, fusion using D- fuel at the right temperature and a D-lean fuel mixture, can produce a much lower neutron flux than D-T fusion, but is not clean, negating some of its main attraction. The second possibility, fusing with itself ( + ), requires even higher temperatures (since now both reactants have a +2 charge), and thus
Helium-3
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tempted to pick an instant in time when it is operating at its best to determine "Q". A better solution in these cases is to use the original Lawson definition averaged over the reaction to produce a similar value as the original definition. However, there is a complication. During the heating phase when the system is being brought up to operational conditions, some of the energy released by the fusion reactions will be used to heat the surrounding fuel, and thus not be released. This is no longer true when the plasma reaches its operational temperature and enters thermal equilibrium.
Fusion energy gain factor
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a positron. This is represented in the figure of proton–proton and electron-capture chain reactions in a star, available at the NDM'06 web site. Proton–proton chain reaction The proton–proton chain reaction is one of two known sets of nuclear fusion reactions by which stars convert hydrogen to helium. It dominates in stars with masses less than or equal to that of the Sun's, whereas the CNO cycle, the other known reaction, is suggested by theoretical models to dominate in stars with masses greater than about 1.3 times that of the Sun's. In general, proton–proton fusion can occur only if the kinetic
Proton–proton chain reaction
337351
Proton–proton chain reaction The proton–proton chain reaction is one of two known sets of nuclear fusion reactions by which stars convert hydrogen to helium. It dominates in stars with masses less than or equal to that of the Sun's, whereas the CNO cycle, the other known reaction, is suggested by theoretical models to dominate in stars with masses greater than about 1.3 times that of the Sun's. In general, proton–proton fusion can occur only if the kinetic energy (i.e. temperature) of the protons is high enough to overcome their mutual electrostatic or Coulomb repulsion. In the Sun, deuterium-producing events are
Proton–proton chain reaction
1479034
and 239). Uranium's most common isotope, U-238, is fissionable but not fissile (meaning that it cannot sustain a chain reaction by itself but can be made to fission with fast neutrons). Its aliases include natural or unenriched uranium, depleted uranium (DU), tubealloy (Tu), and 28. It cannot sustain a chain reaction, because its own fission neutrons are not powerful enough to cause more U-238 fission. The neutrons released by fusion will fission U-238. This U-238 fission reaction produces most of the energy in a typical two-stage thermonuclear weapon. Fusion produces neutrons which dissipate energy from the reaction. In weapons, the
Nuclear weapon design
18691566
well. This reaction is used in H-bombs to increase the yield of the fusion section by wrapping it in a layer of depleted uranium, which undergoes rapid fission when hit by the neutrons from the fusion bomb inside. The same basic concept can also be used with a fusion reactor like LIFE, using its neutrons to cause fission in a "blanket" of fission fuel. Unlike a fission reactor, which burns out its fuel once the U-235 drops below a certain threshold value, these fission–fusion hybrid reactors can continue producing power from the fission fuel as long as the fusion reactor
Laser Inertial Fusion Energy
13980019
Polarization (electrochemistry) In electrochemistry, polarization is a collective term for certain mechanical side-effects (of an electrochemical process) by which isolating barriers develop at the interface between electrode and electrolyte. These side-effects influence the reaction mechanisms, as well as the chemical kinetics of corrosion and metal deposition. In a reaction we can displace the bonding electrons by attacking reagents. The electronic displacement in turn may be due to certain effects, some of which are permanent (inductive and mesomeric effects), and the others are temporary (electromeric effect). Those effects which are permanently operating in the molecule are known as polarization effects, and
Polarization (electrochemistry)
9220435
to work with. The second easiest reaction is to fuse deuterium with itself. Because of its low cost, deuterium is commonly used by Fusor amateurs. Bussard's polywell experiments were performed using this fuel. Fusion of deuterium or tritium produces a fast neutron, and therefore produces radioactive waste. Bussard's choice was to fuse boron-11 with protons; this reaction is aneutronic (does not produce neutrons). An advantage of p-B as a fusion fuel is that the primary reactor output would be energetic alpha particles, which can be directly converted to electricity at high efficiency using direct energy conversion. Direct conversion has achieved
Polywell
470524
If Thermonuclear fusion becomes favorable to use, it would significantly reduce the world's carbon footprint. The key problem in achieving thermonuclear fusion is how to confine the hot plasma. Due to the high temperature, the plasma can not be in direct contact with any solid material, so it has to be located in a vacuum. Also, high temperatures imply high pressures. The plasma tends to expand immediately and some force is necessary to act against it. This force can take one of three forms: gravitation in stars, magnetic forces in magnetic confinement fusion reactors, or inertial as the fusion reaction
Thermonuclear fusion
107195
in combination with tritium, because of the large reaction rate (or nuclear cross section) and high energy yield of the D–T reaction. There is an even higher-yield D– fusion reaction, though the breakeven point of D– is higher than that of most other fusion reactions; together with the scarcity of , this makes it implausible as a practical power source until at least D–T and D–D fusion reactions have been performed on a commercial scale. However, commercial nuclear fusion is not yet an accomplished technology. Deuterium is most commonly used in hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (proton NMR) in the
Deuterium
202242
yields about 1% of the mass of the nuclear fuel as released energy, it is energetically more favorable than fission, which releases only about 0.1% of the fuel's mass-energy. However, either fission or fusion technologies can in principle achieve velocities far higher than needed for Solar System exploration, and fusion energy still awaits practical demonstration on Earth. One proposal using a fusion rocket was Project Daedalus. Another fairly detailed vehicle system, designed and optimized for crewed Solar System exploration, "Discovery II", based on the DHe reaction but using hydrogen as reaction mass, has been described by a team from NASA's
Interplanetary spaceflight
1972753
fusion reactors that work with muons. The reaction is "When hydrogen one and hydrogen two are in the presence of Mu mesons, they fuse into helium three, with an energy yield in electron volts of 5.4 times ten to the fifth power". Unlike the thermonuclear bomb contained in the Pod (which is used to destroy the Barrier) they can become temporarily disabled by "concentrated disbelief" that muon fusion works. In Sir Arthur C. Clarke's third novel in the Space Odyssey series, , Muon-catalyzed fusion is the technology that allows mankind to achieve easy interplanetary travel. The main character, Haywood Floyd,
Muon-catalyzed fusion
292432
ion temperature. Some authors, however discuss the possibility that the electrons could be maintained substantially colder than the ions. In such a case, known as a "hot ion mode", the "penalty" would not apply.) There is at the same time a "bonus" of a factor 2 for - because each ion can react with any of the other ions, not just a fraction of them. We can now compare these reactions in the following table. The maximum value of <σv>/T is taken from a previous table. The "penalty/bonus" factor is that related to a non-hydrogenic reactant or a single-species reaction.
Nuclear fusion
1346547
with an ejected positron and neutrino. In each complete fusion cycle, the proton–proton chain reaction releases about 26.2 MeV. The proton–proton chain reaction cycle is relatively insensitive to temperature; a 10% rise of temperature would increase energy production by this method by 46%, hence, this hydrogen fusion process can occur in up to a third of the star's radius and occupy half the star's mass. For stars above 35% of the Sun's mass, the energy flux toward the surface is sufficiently low and energy transfer from the core region remains by radiative heat transfer, rather than by convective heat transfer.
Stellar nucleosynthesis
11490966
to the original. Knowledge base vivification is not necessarily exact. If the reasoner is operating under the open world assumption we may get surprising results. In the previous example, if we replace the disjunction with the vivified concept, we will arrive at a surprising results. First, we find that the reasoner will no longer classify Jill as either a pianist or an organist. Even though formula_5 and formula_6 are the only two sub-classes, under the OWA we can no longer classify Jill as playing one or the other. The reason is that there may be another keyboard instrument (e.g. a
Vivification
16765511
as heating water to operate steam turbines that drive electrical generators. Current fusion reactors are fueled by deuterium-tritium (D-T) fusion reactions, which produce high-energy neutrons that can damage the first wall. Tritium is not a commonly available isotope due to its short half-life but can be bred by the nuclear reaction of lithium (Li) isotopes with high-energy neutrons that collide with the first wall. Most magnetic confinement fusion devices (MCFD) consist of several key components in their technical designs, including: The core fusion plasma must not actually touch the first wall. ITER and many other current and projected fusion experiments,
Plasma-facing material
17202364
and brought into productive harmony. In the final section, they call for a radical embrace of modernity: “We cannot tiptoe backward away from our own era. Nor can we skip past what troubles and confuses us into a utopian future. We can only look reality in the eye and accept it to be able to master it”. While reaction by the Swedish public and critical establishment to the Stockholm Exhibition was mixed, its ideas would find a wider and more receptive audience by the mid-1930s. "acceptera", which embedded these ideas in a playful but trenchant critique of contemporary Swedish architecture,
Acceptera
3314858
d(VS)/dt Now, apply general mass balance equation i.e., "Rate of Mass In – Rate of Mass Out + Rate of Generation = Accumulation" d(VS)/dt = FS – FS – Vr (6) rearranging above equation, we get dS/dt = D(S –S ) – r (7) where r is the rate of substrate consumption. For the chemical reaction, A ----> P We can write Where, ( –r) = rate of disappearance of A (r) = rate of formation of A k = reaction rate constant C = Concentration of reactant A n = order of reaction with respect to component A For
Bioreactor
9884141
size of the core, increasing its temperature until hydrogen fusion can begin. This hydrogen-to-helium fusion reaction releases energy that balances the inward gravitational pressure and the star becomes stable for millions of years. No further gravitational compression occurs until the hydrogen is nearly used up, reducing the thermal pressure of the fusion reaction. At the end of the Sun's life, gravitational compression will turn it into a white dwarf. At the other end of the scale are massive stars. These stars burn their fuel very quickly, ending their lives as supernovae. After which further gravitational compression will produce either a
Gravitational compression
2799526
U-238 isotope of uranium will not sustain a chain reaction, it still fissions when irradiated by the intense fast neutron flux of a fusion explosion. Because U-238 is plentiful and has no critical mass, it can be added in (in theory) almost unlimited quantities as a tamper around a fusion bomb, helping to contain the fusion reaction and contributing its own fission energy. For example, the fast-fission of the U-238 tamper contributed 77% (8.0 megatons) to the yield of the 10.4 Mt "Ivy Mike" explosion. The most notable event of "Operation Castle" was the "Castle Bravo" test. The dry fuel
Operation Castle
20184422
days. The INE digital signature process via cell telephone has revealed serious flaws weighted to benefit wealthier voters. Marichuy said, "the INE made a list of telephone makes and models so that you must have at a minimum an Android 5.0 operating system or higher and so many hours to begin with the download of the applications in the devices, we find that the list is not true; we find brands that are not included in the list and of those that are included they don’t all work. The download is tedious and can take hours." The INE declared each
María de Jesús Patricio Martínez
292428
is determined by the D-D step), we count the - fusion energy "per D-D reaction" as "E" = (4.03 MeV + 17.6 MeV)×50% + (3.27 MeV)×50% = 12.5 MeV and the energy in charged particles as "E" = (4.03 MeV + 3.5 MeV)×50% + (0.82 MeV)×50% = 4.2 MeV. (Note: if the tritium ion reacts with a deuteron while it still has a large kinetic energy, then the kinetic energy of the helium-4 produced may be quite different from 3.5 MeV, so this calculation of energy in charged particles is only an approximation of the average.) The amount of energy
Nuclear fusion
14511223
find among the pioneers, or at any other period. They were stalwart men, most of them of commanding presence. As a commentator stated three generations later, "Take this family, the Stevenson family, the Beery family, where can you find such large families of stalwart, robust long-lived men? Where can we find such men, even in small families? Are we degenerating?" These men were the uncles of Judge Festus Walters. Henry Peters at an early day moved to Marion County. When the Wyandotte Indians transferred their lands, he moved to Wyandot County. He was a good man, a sagacious man. He
Festus Walters
292425
maintain the temperature without external heating.) This optimum temperature and the value of <σv>/T at that temperature is given for a few of these reactions in the following table. Note that many of the reactions form chains. For instance, a reactor fueled with and creates some , which is then possible to use in the - reaction if the energies are "right". An elegant idea is to combine the reactions (8) and (9). The from reaction (8) can react with in reaction (9) before completely thermalizing. This produces an energetic proton, which in turn undergoes reaction (8) before thermalizing. Detailed
Nuclear fusion
12817679
reactions are decoupled, i.e. while the fusion neutron output drives the fission, the fission output has no effect whatsoever on the fusion reaction, completely eliminating any chance of a positive feedback loop. There are three main components to the hybrid fusion fuel cycle: deuterium, tritium, and fissionable elements. Deuterium can be derived by separation of hydrogen isotopes in sea water (see heavy water production). Tritium may be generated in the hybrid process itself by absorption of neutrons in lithium bearing compounds. This would entail an additional lithium bearing blanket and a means of collection. The third component is externally derived
Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid
5623907
of a semiconductor given the temperature the inverse of the Steinhart–Hart equation must be used. See the Application Note, "A, B, C Coefficients for Steinhart–Hart Equation". where To find the coefficients of Steinhart–Hart, we need to know at-least three operating points. For this, we use three values of resistance data for three known temperatures. With formula_11, formula_12 and formula_13 values of resistance at the temperatures formula_14, formula_15 and formula_16, one can express formula_4, formula_5 and formula_6 (all calculations): The equation is named after John S. Steinhart and Stanley R. Hart who first published the relationship in 1968. Professor Steinhart (1929–2003),
Steinhart–Hart equation
2819066
more than all its neighbors combined. That is not because we are extremely industrious. It is because true economic vitality cannot exist in a culture of robbery. ... Arab culture is anti-productive. It has no good and bad, only strong and weak. In an interview with the U.S.-based Jewish Press, Feiglin said: You can find places where we say the same things. You can also find places where we are different. I was in the army when Meir, Hashem yikom damo [may God avenge his blood], was [most] active, so I didn't get to know him so well. But I
Moshe Feiglin
1863753
is an integer) occurs because two ways to calculate the value are equivalent: formula_15 or formula_16, as appropriate. Finally, we can find "R", "G", and "B" by adding the same amount to each component, to match value: Value must be in range formula_25 formula_26 formula_27 formula_28 formula_29 formula_30 formula_31 Given an HSI color with hue , saturation , and intensity , we can use the same strategy, in a slightly different order: Where formula_33 is the chroma. Then we can, again, find a point along the bottom three faces of the RGB cube, with the same hue and chroma as
HSL and HSV
657501
maintain a voltage using the fusion reaction products. This has demonstrated energy capture efficiency of 48 percent. Gas is heated to form a plasma hot enough to start fusion reactions. A number of heating schemes have been explored: "Radiofrequency Heating" A radio wave is applied to the plasma, causing it to oscillate. This is basically the same concept as a microwave oven. This is also known as electron cyclotron resonance heating or Dielectric heating. "Electrostatic Heating" An electric field can do work on charged ions or electrons, heating them. "Neutral Beam Injection" An external source of hydrogen is ionized and
Fusion power
291415
then transported to where the neutron source is needed. Nuclear fission reactors naturally produce free neutrons; their role is to sustain the energy-producing chain reaction. The intense neutron radiation can also be used to produce various radioisotopes through the process of neutron activation, which is a type of neutron capture. Experimental nuclear fusion reactors produce free neutrons as a waste product. However, it is these neutrons that possess most of the energy, and converting that energy to a useful form has proved a difficult engineering challenge. Fusion reactors that generate neutrons are likely to create radioactive waste, but the waste
Neutron
17277849
system." The blog website Daily Kos ran an outspokenly positive review that concentrated on the topicality of the book's final pages: "Between Lind's specific insights on size, regulation, and private-public hybrids, and his ability to provide the Big Overview, one can begin to see the contours of how a workable Fourth Republic could come into being as we find ourselves in the midst of convulsive global change. "Land of Promise" is an invaluable tool in exploring where we've been, how we arrived at the perilous economic place in which we stand now, and how we can find our way back
Land of Promise: An Economic History of the United States
1499797
in molar entropy, where each small change can be considered a reversible process. The standard molar entropy of a gas at STP includes contributions from: Changes in entropy are associated with phase transitions and chemical reactions. Chemical equations make use of the standard molar entropy of reactants and products to find the standard entropy of reaction: The standard entropy of reaction helps determine whether the reaction will take place spontaneously. According to the second law of thermodynamics, a spontaneous reaction always results in an increase in total entropy of the system and its surroundings: Molar entropy is not same for
Standard molar entropy
5769128
chemical equilibrium constant. Assume we have a closed reactor in which the following liquid phase reversible reaction occurs: The mass balance for substance A becomes As we have a liquid phase reaction we can (usually) assume a constant volume and since formula_1 we get or In many text books this is given as the definition of reaction rate without specifying the implicit assumption that we are talking about reaction rate in a closed system with only one reaction. This is an unfortunate mistake that has confused many students over the years. According to the law of mass action the forward
Mass balance
20525375
one processing thread. Nuclear explosions are fase and lockless. Which suggests some requirements : Conceptually fission computation can cause a chain reaction, where one thread can signal many threads to start processing and they too may signal other threads to start processing. It is possible to starve the computer, where the computer runs out of resources and halts - either do to a lack of memory, power or disk resources. Fusion computation is a type of threshold triggered computation, where several threads signal the single waiting thread, which begins execution once the required number of thread signals exceed the threshold
Nuclear computation
7135247
where: We must decompose formula_22 into the sum of a lower triangular component formula_23 and a strict upper triangular component formula_24: The inverse of formula_23 is: Now we can find: Now we have formula_31 and formula_32 and we can use them to obtain the vectors formula_5 iteratively. First of all, we have to choose formula_34: we can only guess. The better the guess, the quicker will perform the algorithm. We suppose: We can then calculate: If we test for convergence we'll find that the algorithm diverges. In fact, the matrix A is neither diagonally dominant nor positive definite. Then, convergence
Gauss–Seidel method
12817683
the mixture of fuels against the degree of spallation used in the design. Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid Hybrid nuclear fusion–fission (hybrid nuclear power) is a proposed means of generating power by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The basic idea is to use high-energy fast neutrons from a fusion reactor to trigger fission in otherwise nonfissile fuels like U-238 or Th-232. Each neutron can trigger several fission events, multiplying the energy released by each fusion reaction hundreds of times. This would not only make fusion designs more economical in power terms, but also be able to burn
Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid
12817649
Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid Hybrid nuclear fusion–fission (hybrid nuclear power) is a proposed means of generating power by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The basic idea is to use high-energy fast neutrons from a fusion reactor to trigger fission in otherwise nonfissile fuels like U-238 or Th-232. Each neutron can trigger several fission events, multiplying the energy released by each fusion reaction hundreds of times. This would not only make fusion designs more economical in power terms, but also be able to burn fuels that were not suitable for use in conventional fission plants, even their
Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid
5875361
neutrons, and thus, allows for the generation of more neutron-rich products. The latter is a distinct concept from that of where nuclear fusion claimed to be achieved at room temperature conditions (see cold fusion). The table below contains various combinations of targets and projectiles which could be used to form compound nuclei with Z=112. The first cold fusion reaction to produce copernicium was performed by GSI in 1996, who reported the detection of two decay chains of copernicium-277. In a review of the data in 2000, the first decay chain was retracted. In a repeat of the reaction in 2000
Isotopes of copernicium
13701561
of water is: Water can be split into its constituent elements, hydrogen and oxygen, by passing an electric current through it. This process is called electrolysis. The cathode half reaction is: The anode half reaction is: The gases produced bubble to the surface, where they can be collected or ignited with a flame above the water if this was the intention. The required potential for the electrolysis of pure water is 1.23 V at 25 °C. The operating potential is actually 1.48 V or higher in practical electrolysis. Henry Cavendish showed that water was composed of oxygen and hydrogen in
Properties of water
1972749
fusion rate for d-t muon-catalyzed fusion, but this still gives about one d-d nuclear fusion every 10 to 100 picoseconds or so. However, the energy released with every d-d muon-catalyzed fusion reaction is only about 20% or so of the energy released with every d-t muon-catalyzed fusion reaction. Moreover, the catalyzing muon has a probability of sticking to at least one of the d-d muon-catalyzed fusion reaction products that Jackson in this 1957 paper estimated to be at least 10 times greater than the corresponding probability of the catalyzing muon sticking to at least one of the d-t muon-catalyzed fusion
Muon-catalyzed fusion
535962
established a company which is called NSD-Fusion. To date, the highest neutron flux achieved by a fusor-like device has been 3 × 10 neutrons per second with the deuterium-deuterium fusion reaction. Commercial startups have used the neutron fluxes generated by fusors to generate Mo-99, an isotope used for medical care. Fusor A fusor is a device that uses an electric field to heat ions to nuclear fusion conditions. The machine makes a voltage between two metal cages, inside a vacuum. Positive ions fall down this voltage drop, building up speed. If they collide in the center, they can fuse. This
Fusor
3817103
For the deuterium–tritium reaction, the physical value is at least The minimum of the product occurs near formula_26. A still more useful figure of merit is the "triple product" of density, temperature, and confinement time, "nTτ". For most confinement concepts, whether inertial, mirror, or toroidal confinement, the density and temperature can be varied over a fairly wide range, but the maximum attainable pressure "p" is a constant. When such is the case, the fusion power density is proportional to "p"<σ"v">/"T". The maximum fusion power available from a given machine is therefore reached at the temperature "T" where <σ"v">/"T" is a
Lawson criterion
5769129
reaction rate can be written as and the backward reaction rate as The rate at which substance A is produced is thus and since, at equilibrium, the concentration of A is constant we get or, rearranged The continuously mixed tank reactor is an open system with an influent stream of reactants and an effluent stream of products. A lake can be regarded as a tank reactor, and lakes with long turnover times (e.g. with low flux-to-volume ratios) can for many purposes be regarded as continuously stirred (e.g. homogeneous in all respects). The mass balance then becomes where "Q" and Q
Mass balance
16458516
sources. Much work has been done to extend it to more general problem instances. Suppose we have a source formula_1 with probability formula_2 of any given symbol. We wish to find an encoding formula_3 that generates a compressed signal formula_4 from the original signal while minimizing the expected distortion formula_5, where the expectation is taken over the joint probability of formula_1 and formula_4. We can find an encoding that minimizes the rate-distortion functional locally by repeating the following iteration until convergence: where formula_10 is a parameter related to the slope in the rate-distortion curve that we are targeting and thus
Blahut–Arimoto algorithm
19727525
where this is the case. Several asexual species of whiptail lizards have been observed to engage in mating and pair-bonding despite the lack of gametic fusion. Animal behavior can be understood as the intersection of three primary elements: genetic foundations, social systems, and individual reaction. A social state matrix is composed of genetic foundations and social systems to determine behavior arising from the intersection of them. For example, animals have genetics which determine reaction to potential foraging stimuli, but only search for the stimuli at certain times of day due to social systems. Therefore, social systems would be selected for
Social selection
9989620
imagery we can have two types of images The SPOT PAN satellite provides high resolution (10m pixel) panchromatic data. While the LANDSAT TM satellite provides low resolution (30m pixel) multispectral images. Image fusion attempts to merge these images and produce a single high resolution multispectral image. The standard merging methods of image fusion are based on Red-Green-Blue (RGB) to Intensity-Hue-Saturation (IHS) transformation. The usual steps involved in satellite image fusion are as follows: An explanation of how to do Pan-sharpening in Photoshop. For other applications of image in remote sensing, interested readers can refer to: Beyond Pan-sharpening: Pixel-level Fusion in
Image fusion
12730321
account for deviation in the amount of expected ions from thermodynamic equilibrium. This can then lead to B-type chemi-ionization which can be represented as As well as Where M* represents an excited state metal. This reaction illustrates the light generated by the chemi-ionization reaction resulting in the light we know from flames. Chemi-ionization has been postulated to occur in the hydrogen rich atmospheres surrounding stars. This type of reaction would lead to many more excited hydrogen atoms than some models account for. This affects our ability to determine the proper optical qualities of solar atmospheres with modeling. Chemi-ionization Chemi-ionization is
Chemi-ionization
9220434
fewer protons than iron, this process changes mass into energy that can potentially be captured to provide fusion power. The probability of a fusion reaction occurring is controlled by the cross section of the fuel, which is in turn a function of its temperature. The easiest nuclei to fuse are deuterium and tritium. Their fusion occurs when the ions reach 4 keV (kiloelectronvolts), or about 45 million kelvins. The Polywell would achieve this by accelerating an ion with a charge of 1 down a 4,000 volt electric field. The high cost, short half-life and radioactivity of tritium make it difficult
Polywell