when did the civil war in ireland end
24 May 1923
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Irish Civil War The Irish Civil War (; 28 June 1922 – 24 May 1923) was a conflict that followed the Irish War of Independence and accompanied the establishment of the Irish Free State, an entity independent from the United Kingdom but within the British Empire. The civil war was waged between two opposing groups, Irish republicans and Irish nationalists, over the Anglo-Irish Treaty. The forces of the Provisional Government (which became the Free State in December 1922) supported the Treaty, while the Republican opposition saw it as a betrayal of the Irish Republic (which had been proclaimed during the
Irish Civil War
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not until 1948 that the IRA renounced military attacks on the forces of the southern Irish state when it became the Republic of Ireland. After this point, the organisation dedicated itself primarily to the end of British rule in Northern Ireland. The IRA Army Council still makes claim to be the legitimate Provisional Government of the Irish Republic declared in 1918 and annulled by the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921. Irish Civil War The Irish Civil War (; 28 June 1922 – 24 May 1923) was a conflict that followed the Irish War of Independence and accompanied the establishment of the
Irish Civil War
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by Irish ("Gaels") and Old English in Ireland, and Highland Scot Catholics in Ireland. These settlers had settled on land seized from former, native Catholic owners to make way for the non-native Protestants. These factors contributed to the brutality of the Cromwell military campaign in Ireland. Parliament had planned to re-conquer Ireland since 1641 and had already sent an invasion force there in 1647. Cromwell's invasion of 1649 was much larger and, with the civil war in England over, could be regularly reinforced and re-supplied. His nine-month military campaign was brief and effective, though it did not end the war
Oliver Cromwell
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as a private and eventually worked his way through the ranks to that of lieutenant colonel. Throughout the Civil War, Ireland served within the Texas borders, patrolling along the Rio Grande border and along the Gulf Coast, where he was stationed at the war's end in 1865. Following the war, Ireland participated in the Reconstruction Convention of 1866 and was soon elected judge of the Seguin District. He was removed from his position the following year when Radical Republicans seized power. Ireland reentered politics in 1872, when he was elected to the Texas House of Representatives and chaired the executive
John Ireland (politician)
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had kept under the terms of the treaty. When the Second World War broke out in 1939, the Free State was able to demonstrate its independence by remaining neutral throughout the war, although Dublin did to some extent tacitly support the Allies. Finally, in 1948, a coalition government, containing elements of both sides in the Civil War (pro-treaty Fine Gael and anti-treaty Clann na Poblachta) left the British Commonwealth and renamed the Free State the Republic of Ireland. By the 1950s, the issues over which the Civil War had been fought were largely settled. As with most civil wars, the
Irish Civil War
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Following the end of the Civil War, he was elected to the United States Senate from Georgia as a Republican in 1867. However, he did not serve in the Senate until 1871 when Georgia was readmitted to the United States. He served in the Senate until the end of his term in 1873 and did not run for reelection. He resumed the practice of law and died in Madison, Georgia. During the Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman, a friend of Hill, did not burn Madison, Georgia on his "March to the Sea". Hill became the first Republican U.S. Senator
Joshua Hill (politician)
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expedition to Scotland in 1644, sparking the Scottish Civil War. In Scotland, the Royalists had a series of victories in 1644–45 but were crushed with the end of the first English Civil War and the return of the main Covenanter armies to Scotland. After the end of the second English Civil War, the victorious Parliamentary forces, now commanded by Oliver Cromwell, invaded Ireland and crushed the Royalist-Confederate alliance there in the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland in 1649. Their alliance with the Scottish Covenanters had also broken down, and the Scots crowned Charles II as king. Cromwell therefore embarked on a
History of the formation of the United Kingdom
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affected the boundary negotiations in 1924–25, in which the Free State government acquiesced that border with Northern Ireland would remain unchanged in exchange for forgiveness of the Imperial debt. Further, the state undertook to pay for damage caused to property between the truce of July 1921 and the end of the Civil War; W. T. Cosgrave told the Dáil: The fact that the Irish Civil War was fought between Irish Nationalist factions meant that the sporadic conflict in Northern Ireland ended. Collins and Sir James Craig signed an agreement to end it on 30 March 1922, but, despite this, Collins
Irish Civil War
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The Anglo-Irish Treaty was agreed to end the 1919–1921 Irish War of Independence between the Irish Republic and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The treaty provided for a self-governing Irish state, having its own army and police. The Treaty also allowed Northern Ireland (the six north-eastern countiesFermanagh, Antrim, Tyrone, Londonderry, Armagh and Down where the majority population was of the Protestant religion) to opt out of the new state and return to the United Kingdomwhich it did immediately. However, rather than creating the independent republic favoured by most nationalists, the Irish Free State would be an autonomous
Irish Civil War
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were Jim Gates, George Roast and Will Gates. The Fenian movement sought to bring about Irish independence from Britain. At the end of the American Civil War, Fenians in the United States determined to recruit veterans of the war, invade and capture Canada, and force Britain to negotiate the independence of Ireland. There were a number of alarms in 1865, 1866 and 1870. There was a medal given for service in the Volunteer Regiments. Regimental troops were raised in every county across Nova Scotia. While New Brunswick and Ontario did sustain attacks, Nova Scotia did not. Perhaps to amplify the
Blandford, Nova Scotia
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the Stuart monarchy helped bring about the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, which included the English Civil War, the Scottish Civil War and Irish Confederate Wars. For the following ten years of civil war in Britain, the Covenanters were the "de facto" government of Scotland. In 1642, they sent an army to Ulster in Ireland to protect the Scottish settlers there from the Irish Catholic rebels who had attacked them in the Irish Rebellion of 1641. The Scottish army remained in Ireland until the end of the civil wars, but was confined to its garrison around Carrickfergus after its defeat
Covenanter
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Éamon de Valera opposed the treaty on the grounds that: De Valera led his supporters out of the Dáil and, after a lapse of six months in which the IRA also split, a bloody civil war between pro- and anti-treaty sides followed, only coming to an end in 1923 accompanied by multiple executions. The civil war cost more lives than the Anglo-Irish War that preceded it and left divisions that are still felt strongly in Irish politics today. (An Gorta Mor) "Quinnipiac University" History of Ireland (1801–1923) Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from
History of Ireland (1801–1923)
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Civil Defence Ireland Civil Defence Ireland () is the national civil defence organisation of Ireland. It is operated at local authority level in conjunction with the Department of Defence. The organisation was established in 1950 in response to the threat of nuclear disaster posed by the atomic bomb following World War II or "The Emergency" as World War II was known in Ireland. Its purpose was to provide aid, assistance and disaster relief to citizens in time of emergency. Today, the organisation runs on the same principle with a focus on effectively aiding the full-time emergency services as and when
Civil Defence Ireland
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to the Parliament's creditors, to the Parliamentary soldiers who served in Ireland, and to English people who had settled there before the war. The execution of Charles I altered the dynamics of the Civil War in Scotland, which had raged between Royalists and Covenanters since 1644. By 1649, the struggle had left the Royalists there in disarray and their erstwhile leader, the Marquess of Montrose, had gone into exile. At first, Charles II encouraged Montrose to raise a Highland army to fight on the Royalist side. However, when the Scottish Covenanters (who did not agree with the execution of Charles
English Civil War
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public stance of neutrality and refused to close the German and Japanese embassies. Unlike many other non-combatant states, Ireland did not declare war on the near-defeated Germany, and therefore did not seize any German assets. Other neutral countries like Sweden and Switzerland expelled German embassy staff at the end of the war, as they no longer represented a state, but the German legation in Dublin was allowed to remain open. Irish neutrality during the war was threatened from within by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) who sought to provoke a confrontation between Britain and Ireland. This plan collapsed however when
Irish neutrality
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more heated. The "Herald" celebrated Lincoln's victory as one of right over wrong, of Unionists over secession-minded southern Democrats, while the "Leader" dismissed threats of the South's secession. "The Plain Dealer", meanwhile, warned that secession was imminent. Lincoln came through Cleveland on his way to Washington, D.C. for his inauguration. When war finally did break out with the Confederate firing on Fort Sumter in April 1861, Cleveland's Democrats and Republicans decided to end their dispute and united to form the National Union party to support Lincoln's war effort. However, this coalition did not go untested. The Civil War years brought
Cleveland in the American Civil War
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crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912, and by July 1914 there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in the Easter Rising of 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain. The UK government placed Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Rising, though once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling. However, opposition to involvement in the war increased in Ireland, resulting in the Conscription
World War I
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conservative forces. In August, 1890, President José Manuel Balmaceda named him Minister of War and Navy, under the so-called "conciliation cabinet" of Belisario Prats; but when Prats resigned his position, so did Errázuriz, and both joined the opposition. In 1891 he was one of the signatories of the Act of Deposition of Presidente Balmaceda. Even so, he did not participate in the 1891 Chilean Civil War. After the end of the civil war, he was elected deputy for Cauquenes and Constitución (1891–1894). His ill-health forced him to travel to Germany, in search of specialists. During a year and a half,
Federico Errázuriz Echaurren
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end of hostilities. Transport within Ireland was very difficult in the aftermath of the Anglo-Irish War (1919–1921) and the subsequent Civil War (1921–1922). The road network had been neglected since World War I. Vital railway bridges had been blown-up by anti-Treaty forces during the civil war. It was therefore, often, faster and more economic to transport goods around the coast, rather than by road or rail. Coasters fulfilled this need. The MV "Kerlogue" was such a coaster. At the outbreak of World War II Ireland found itself with an inadequate number of ships. The number of ships had been declining,
MV Kerlogue
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slavery grew stronger as the war progressed. By the height of the Civil War, when Kennedy's opposition to slavery had become much stronger, he signed his name to a key political pamphlet in Maryland opposing slavery and calling for its immediate end. There is consensus among historians that Kennedy was critical of slavery to some degree for decades, strongly opposed to slavery by the height of the Civil War, and strongly opposed the confederacy. In Maryland state politics and charity leadership, Kennedy was also known to help other minority groups, notably Jews and Irish Catholics. When the Emancipation Proclamation did
John P. Kennedy
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had to return to their homes. Sean fought in the Irish War of Independence and after the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, he fought on the anti-treaty side of the Irish Civil War. He was opposed to the partition of Ireland and was captured and imprisoned by Free State forces close to the end of the war. He was executed by the Free State on 14 March 1923. Ballylifford Ballylifford () is a townland in County Londonderry, Northern Ireland. It is within the civil parish of Ballinderry, on the western shores of Lough Neagh, and is part of Mid-Ulster District.
Ballylifford
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for many decades the Irish government claimed that Northern Ireland was rightfully its territory. Partition was formally established with the Government of Ireland Act 1920. This also established the Parliament of Northern Ireland, which came into being the following year. Partition was followed by high levels of inter-communal violence, especially in Belfast. The Irish Republican Army, although it spent most of these years fighting in the Irish Civil War, aimed to use armed force to end partition and compel the United Kingdom to withdraw sovereignty from Northern Ireland. The Act was presented as being necessary to re-establish peace and law
Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act (Northern Ireland) 1922
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preparation for a final confrontation with Irish Australian Catholics in an atmosphere of severe sectarian and ethnic suspicion. After the Anglo-Irish Treaty, partition of Ireland and Irish Civil War, sectarianism became less explicit but did not disappear: Australian conservatives – primarily Protestant – were still strongly loyalist and antipathetic to the existence of the 'disloyal' Irish Free State. When Australia entered the Second World War there was no repeat of the public anti-Catholic denunciations that had characterised society in 1914, even when in 1941 the British garrison at Singapore fell to the Japanese, leaving Australia largely undefended. Large numbers of
Sectarianism in Australia
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However the Free State's tactics of internment and executions combined to cripple the anti-Treaty forces by April 1923. The death in action of Liam Lynch in this month led to the anti-Treaty IRA, under the orders of Frank Aiken and on the urgings of civilian leader de Valera, calling a ceasefire and to "dump arms". There was no negotiated end to the war however. The Civil War between Irish nationalists created a great deal of bitterness and the Civil War cleavage also produced the two main parties of independent Ireland in the 20th century. The number of dead has yet
History of the Republic of Ireland
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response, in which over 100,000 people took part. This was, however, to be the organisation's last significant march; Bloody Sunday had "immobilised NICRA from returning to the streets". As clashes escalated, London suspended the Northern Ireland parliament. This marked the end of the civil-rights movement and street politics. The Provisional IRA emerged as the dominant force within the movement, and Irish nationalism became the foremost political position for those seeking radical social change. Northern Ireland civil rights movement The Northern Ireland civil rights movement dates to the early 1960s, when a number of initiatives emerged which challenged inequality and discrimination
Northern Ireland civil rights movement
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did not apply to Ireland, despite its then status as part of the United Kingdom (but see Conscription Crisis of 1918). By January 1916, when conscription was introduced, 2.6 million men had volunteered for service, a further 2.3 million were conscripted before the end of the war; by the end of 1918, the army had reached its peak strength of four million men. Women also volunteered and served in a non-combatant role; by the end of the war, 80,000 had enlisted. They mostly served as nurses in the Queen Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service (QAIMNS), the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry
British Army during World War I
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Census of Ireland, 1911 The Census of Ireland, 1911, was a census that covered Ireland, and was conducted on Sunday 2 April 1911 as part of a broader Census of the United Kingdom. A census of Ireland had taken place every ten years beginning in 1821 until 1911. The next census did not take place until 1926 due to the Irish War of Independence and subsequent Irish Civil War. The entire returns for all 32 counties are available online on the website of the National Archives of Ireland. The census information was recorded on the following forms: Form A, which
Census of Ireland, 1911
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end of the war. After leaving the state senate he returned to work as a carpenter. He developed cancer and died on March 23, 1907 in Long Island College Hospital. Michael J. Coffey Michael J. Coffey was an American politician from New York. Who served in the American Civil War, and was an influential Democrat in New York City in the latter half of the 19th Century. His family immigrated to the United States from Ireland when Michael was five, and they settled in Brooklyn. When he was older he worked as a ship carpenter and worked with Ned Harrigan
Michael J. Coffey
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to facilitate relations of Syrian families already resident in Ireland who were either caught up in the civil war in Syria, or in refugee camps elsewhere as a result of the civil war in Syria, to join their families in Ireland. Shatter had enacted through the Irish Parliament before the end of July 2011 important legislation to facilitate access to financial documentation and records held by third parties in investigations into banking scandals and white collar crime. The legislation was first utilised by the Gardai in September 2011. In his role as Minister for Defence, Shatter implemented substantial reform in
Alan Shatter
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reminiscent of those from the War of Independence and the Civil War that occurred in the 1920s that had launched a campaign of violence to end British rule in Northern Ireland. Loyalist paramilitaries countered this with a defensive campaign of violence and the British government responded with a policy of internment without trial of suspected IRA members. For more than 300 people, the internment lasted several years. The huge majority of those interned by the British forces were Catholic. In 1978, in a case brought by the government of the Republic of Ireland against the government of the United Kingdom,
Civil rights movements
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Commonwealth of England The Commonwealth was the period from 1649 to 1660 when England and Wales, later along with Ireland and Scotland, were ruled as a republic following the end of the Second English Civil War and the trial and execution of Charles I. The republic's existence was declared through "An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth", adopted by the Rump Parliament on 19 May 1649. Power in the early Commonwealth was vested primarily in the Parliament and a Council of State. During the period, fighting continued, particularly in Ireland and Scotland, between the parliamentary forces and those opposed
Commonwealth of England
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first troops were those volunteers of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) who supported the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the "Provisional Government of Ireland" formed thereunder. Conflict arose between the National Army and the anti-Treaty components of the IRA, which did not support the government of the Irish Free State. On 28 June 1922 the National Army commenced an artillery bombardment of anti-Treaty IRA forces who were occupying the Four Courts in Dublin, thus beginning the Irish Civil War. The National Army was greatly expanded in size to fight the civil war against the anti-Treaty IRA, in a mostly counter-insurgency campaign that
National Army (Ireland)
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enemy aircraft. These efforts did not replace the kinds of civil defense that took place during World War I. Indeed, World War II saw an even greater use of rationing, recycling, and anti-saboteur vigilance than was seen in World War I. As the threat of air raids or invasions in the United States seemed less likely during the war, the focus on the Civil Defense Corps, air raid drills, and patrols of the border declined but the other efforts continued. Unlike the end of World War I, the US did not dismiss all its civil defense efforts as soon as
United States civil defense
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Commonwealth. When elected to power in 1932, Fianna Fáil under de Valera set about dismantling what they considered to be objectionable features of the treaty, abolishing the Oath of Allegiance, removing the power of the Office of Governor General (British representative in Ireland) and abolishing the Senate, which was dominated by former Unionists and pro-treaty Nationalists. In 1937, they passed a new constitution, which made a President the head of state, did not mention any allegiance to the British monarch, and which included a territorial claim to Northern Ireland. The following year, Britain returned without conditions the seaports that it
Irish Civil War
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Michael Jones (soldier) Lieutenant-General Michael Jones (died December 1649) was an Irish soldier who fought for King Charles I during the Irish Confederate War but joined the English Parliamentary side when the English Civil War started. He is noted for his victories at the Battle of Dungans Hill and the Battle of Rathmines, which facilitated the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. The son of Lewis Jones (1560–1646), a Welshman who settled in Ireland, becoming Bishop of Killaloe, the young Jones was a student at Lincoln's Inn when the Civil War began, but fought in the army of Charles I during the
Michael Jones (soldier)
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enforce the legislation, given the activities of the Unionists, H. H. Asquith's Liberal government had prepared to send troops to Ulster. This sparked the Curragh Incident on 20 March. Together with the arming of the Irish Volunteers, Ireland was on the brink of civil war when the outbreak of the First World War led to the suspension of the Home Rule Act's operation until the end of the war. By this time Carson had announced in Belfast that an Ulster Division would be formed from the U.V.F., and the 36th (Ulster) Division was swiftly organised. Brown examines why Carson's role
Edward Carson
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poem on Jones's victory at Rathmines was printed by George Wither. Michael Jones (soldier) Lieutenant-General Michael Jones (died December 1649) was an Irish soldier who fought for King Charles I during the Irish Confederate War but joined the English Parliamentary side when the English Civil War started. He is noted for his victories at the Battle of Dungans Hill and the Battle of Rathmines, which facilitated the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. The son of Lewis Jones (1560–1646), a Welshman who settled in Ireland, becoming Bishop of Killaloe, the young Jones was a student at Lincoln's Inn when the Civil War
Michael Jones (soldier)
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did nothing to stop those malpractices continuing. The most serious charge against the Northern Ireland government is not that it was directly responsible for widespread discrimination, but that it allowed discrimination on such a scale over a substantial segment of Northern Ireland. A civil rights demonstration in 1968 led by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association was banned by the Government and blocked using force by the Royal Ulster Constabulary. The events that followed the August 1969 Apprentice Boys parade resulted in the Battle of the Bogside, when Catholic rioters fought the police, leading to widespread civil disorder in Northern
Derry
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all Irish local authorities by the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1919, in time for the 1920 local elections. The 1918 act envisaged triennial elections in Sligo, as the 1919 act did throughout Ireland. In the event, the Irish War of Independence, Irish Civil War, and aftermath meant the next local elections were postponed until 1925. 1919 Sligo Corporation election An election for all 24 members of Sligo Corporation took place on 15 January 1919, using the single transferable vote (STV). Urban districts in Ireland held annual elections on 15 January each year under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, using
1919 Sligo Corporation election
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force through a separate status for Ulster, as he did in his amending "exclusion of Ulster Bill" to the 1914 Third Home Rule Act, beginning a train of events resulting in the establishment of a Northern Ireland Home Rule Government in Belfast under the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Had All-Ireland Home Rule evolved earlier, there might perhaps also have been no Easter Rising, no Anglo-Irish War, no independent twenty-six county Free State and no ensuing civil war. However, Murphy argues this to be unlikely because Unionist opposition after 1885 to any form "All-Ireland Home Rule" was extremely resilient and
Charles Stewart Parnell
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extradite them to America. They were freed, but the $88,000 the raiders had on them was returned to Vermont. After the end of the Civil War, Young was excluded from President Andrew Johnson's amnesty proclamation. He could not return home until 1868. Thus, he spent time studying law and literature in Ireland and at the University of Edinburgh. After being permitted to return to the United States, he became a prominent attorney in Louisville, Kentucky. His philanthropic works were legion. Young founded the first orphanage for blacks in Louisville, a school for the blind, and did much pro bono work
Bennett H. Young
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in 1920 the Connaught Rangers mutinied in protest against reports of against British atrocities in Ireland which led to the execution of James Daly, the last execution for mutiny in the British army. Until 1922 secret societies, popular risings and guerilla warfare came in sporadic outbreaks in attempts to end the 1801 union of Ireland and Great Britain. Between 1919–1922 the War of Independence brought the negotiation of the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the majority of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom to form an independent state, which immediately fell into a civil war between opposing republican factions. The northern portion
Military history of Ireland
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a Finnish casualty database, at least 13 Reds died during the battle within the Pyhtää municipality. Seven Germans were buried in Ahvenkoski Cemetery, as well as an unknown number of Reds. A memorial on the Red mass grave was erected in 1946. In September 2013, a memorial to the end of the Civil War was unveiled at the site where the last Reds surrendered. The Battle of Ahvenkoski was the last action of the Civil War, but the White Army Commander-in-Chief C. G. E. Mannerheim did not declare the war over until 16May, when the Russians had left Fort Ino
Battle of Ahvenkoski
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now demanded independence from Britain. In British Hong Kong, which had surrendered to Japan in December 1941, civil unrest occurred after Britain rapidly re-established rule at the end of the war. Australia's entry into the Cold War came in 1950, when it rushed combat air and sea forces into the Korean War, two days after the Americans did. The Australian Prime Minister received a hero's welcome in Washington. The ANZUS military alliance with New Zealand and the United States was signed in July 1951; it was a plan for consultation and did not involve military planning like NATO. Public opinion
Origins of the Cold War
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in turn sparked civil war in England, because the Long Parliament did not trust Charles with command of an army to put down the Irish rebellion, fearing that it would also be used against them. The English Civil War broke out in 1642. The Covenanters sent an army to Ulster in Ireland in 1642 to protect the Scottish settlers there. In 1644, following the signing of a treaty — The Solemn League and Covenant — with the English Parliament, the bulk of the Covenanters' armed forces were sent south to fight on the Parliamentarian side in the English Civil War.
Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms
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war memorials attempted to reunify the country; the Cross of Sacrifice memorial in Montreal, for example, was deliberately situated in between the Catholic and Protestant war cemeteries. This was only partially successful – inauguration ceremony and the military parade resulted in shouted arguments between French and English speaking parts of the crowd. World War I memorials were also involved in the civil wars and ethnic disputes of the inter-war period. After independence and the civil war, for example, the Republic of Ireland did not prioritise commemorating the dead of World War I, and indeed the events were largely ignored. Attempts
World War I memorials
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After twenty-two months of the Partisan Ranger Act in effect, it finally ended. The Partisan Ranger Act was repealed on February 17, 1864, after Robert E. Lee persuaded the Congress to do so. This did not mean the end of guerilla warfare entirely, but it meant the end of the Confederate government trying out their new military tactics and strategies. Their experiment had failed in trying to make guerilla warfare a benefit for the Civil War. Even though the Partisan Ranger Act may have failed in the very end, it did help play important roles in the Civil War. The
Partisan Ranger Act
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political crisis in Scotland and England that led to civil war in the three Kingdoms. The fifty years from 1641 to 1691 saw two catastrophic periods of civil war in Ireland 1641–53 and 1689–91, which killed hundreds of thousands of people and left others in permanent exile. The wars, which pitted Irish Catholics against British forces and Protestant settlers, ended in the almost complete dispossession of the Catholic landed elite. In the mid-17th century, Ireland was convulsed by eleven years of warfare, beginning with the Rebellion of 1641, when Irish Catholics, threatened by expanding power of the anti-Catholic English Parliament
History of Ireland (1536–1691)
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gone now. Early settlers of the area were Loyalists ( possibly disbanded soldiers of the King's American Regiment and their families ) displaced by the end of the American Revolution (1780s) later augmented by immigrants from Ireland (Ulster and Donegal, circa 1840 or so). In the winter of 1865, Canterbury was briefly the focus of much military activity when some 9000 British troops passed through the village on their way to "The Canadas" (Ontario and Quebec). The British government had become alarmed about the possibility of an American invasion following the end of the American Civil War and sent this
Canterbury, New Brunswick
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capturing three ships. CSS "Shenandoah" was the second and last Confederate raider to enter the Pacific Ocean. However, her attacks came too late, at the end of the war or afterward, and did most of her damage after the war was over, capturing 38 vessels, mostly whalers. When word of the attacks came, the Pacific Squadron sent ships out to hunt the raider down but did not find her. By then, Commander James Waddell, the captain of the Shenandoah, had discovered the war was over. He fled to Great Britain to avoid being tried for piracy. The campaign classification established
Pacific Coast Theater of the American Civil War
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experiencing a significant impact from the Reformation and its ideas. A strong Presbyterian following had developed, but the Church of Scotland did not agree with King Charles I's expectations of the Protestant religion. Charles I threatened to change the Church of Scotland by turning to Ireland, which was a strong Catholic state. Oliver Cromwell, an Englishman born in Huntingdon, emerged victorious at the end of the Civil War. Once he gained control of England, Cromwell established a radical religious government. He organized the Assembly of Saints, a firm and strict sect of Protestantism that was very similar to Puritanism. The
Protestantism in the United Kingdom
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spoke again. With regard to when the novel takes place there is, according to Stokes, "hopeless confusion. However, men are still returning from torpedoed ships at the beginning of the novel, and the gunmen, who cause Fanny Fury's heart attack – mentioned in "An End and a Beginning" – were probably engaged in the Irish War of Independence, which began January 1919 and ended with a truce in July 1921 (violence continued in Northern Ireland, and there was the subsequent Irish Civil War, June 1922 to May 1923). Fordham refers to an "act of Republican terrorism". The concluding novel takes
The Furys Chronicle
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when. The name "Jersey" synonymous for a sweater, shows its importance. The islanders also became involved with the Newfoundland fisheries at this time. The boats left the island in February/March following a church service in St Brelade's church and they did not return again until September/October. Colonies were established in Newfoundland. During the 1640s, England, Ireland and Scotland were embroiled in the War of the Three Kingdoms. The civil war also divided Jersey, and while the sympathy of islanders lay with Parliament, the de Carterets (see Sir George Carteret and Sir Philippe de Carteret II) held the island for the
History of Jersey
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that the referendum on the agreement did not offer the people of Ireland the choice of living in a united Ireland, and that the referendum was invalid since separate polls were held in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. It also opposes the Northern Ireland Assembly as it believes that this further entrenches British presence in Ireland, and that "those nationalists who took their seats in the new Stormont" were "guilty of treachery to the Irish Republic". Republican Sinn Féin does not consider the Defence Forces (descended from the pro-Treaty National Army of the Irish Civil War) to be
Republican Sinn Féin
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Sally Bland Clarke and had four children with her. Near the end of the Civil War, the residence was threatened with destruction by Union troops on April 19, 1865, but was saved by the intervention of their commander, Brigadier General Edward E. Potter of New York. His exchange with Governor Manning was recorded as follows: When General Potter spared Millford, he did not know that Manning had a copy of the in his desk. The story of Millford's survival might have ended quite differently had he known. Despite economic ruin during and after the Civil War, the Manning family and
Millford Plantation
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the Channel Islands, Ireland and Scotland, but with the pacification of England the resistance elsewhere did not threaten the military supremacy of the New Model Army and its parliamentary paymasters. During the Wars, the Parliamentarians established a number of successive committees to oversee the war-effort. The first of these, the Committee of Safety, set up in July 1642, comprised 15 members of parliament. Following the Anglo-Scottish alliance against the Royalists, the Committee of Both Kingdoms replaced the Committee of Safety between 1644 and 1648. Parliament dissolved the Committee of Both Kingdoms when the alliance ended, but its English members continued
English Civil War
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liable to be called up for service in the army, unless they were married (or widowed with children), or served in one of a number of reserved occupations, which were usually industrial but which also included clergymen and teachers. This legislation did not apply to Ireland, despite its then status as part of the United Kingdom (but see Conscription Crisis of 1918). By January 1916, when conscription was introduced, 2.6 million men had volunteered for service, a further 2.3 million were conscripted before the end of the war; by the end of 1918, the army had reached its peak strength
British Army First World War reserve brigades
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more aggressive. The "Herald" celebrated Lincoln's victory as one of right over wrong, of Unionists over secession-minded southern Democrats, while the "Leader" dismissed threats of the South's secession. "The Plain Dealer", meanwhile argued that secession was imminent. When war finally did break out in April 1861, Cleveland Democrats and Republicans decided to end their dispute and united to form the Union party to support Lincoln's war effort. However, this coalition did not go untested. The Civil War years brought an economic boom to Cleveland. The city was making the transition from a small town to an industrial giant. Railroad iron
History of Cleveland
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1845–1851 devastated Ireland, as in those years Ireland's population fell by one-third. More than one million people died from starvation and disease, while an additional two million people emigrated, mostly to the United States and Canada. By the end of the decade, half of all immigration to the United States was from Ireland. The period of civil unrest that followed until the end of the 19th century is referred to as the Land War. Mass emigration became deeply entrenched and the population continued to decline until the mid-20th century. Immediately prior to the famine the population was recorded as 8.2
Ireland
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oath of allegiance to the Constitution of the Irish Free State and make a statement of faithfulness to the King. Disagreements over these provisions led to a split in the nationalist movement and a subsequent Irish Civil War between the new government of the Irish Free State and those opposed to the treaty, led by Éamon de Valera. The civil war officially ended in May 1923 when de Valera issued a cease-fire order. During its first decade, the newly formed Irish Free State was governed by the victors of the civil war. When de Valera achieved power, he took advantage
Ireland
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(except in the most serious criminal cases). It also raised the age limit for jury service from 60 to 65, and abolished trial by jury in civil cases, except in cases where the judge ordered that a jury trial was to take place. This was due to the large numbers of people who were expected to be conscripted in the event of a war. The Act was to have effect until the end of the war, when it would be suspended by an Order in Council. Similar legislation was passed for Scotland and Northern Ireland. In Scotland, where a unanimous
Administration of Justice (Emergency Provisions) Act 1939
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Civil War, when it virtually ground to a halt. Near the end of the war, Union troops began a systematic campaign to destroy the economic base of the South. Many gold mines were subsequently damaged beyond repair. Most were, by this time, marginal producers, their ores of such low concentrate as to stretch the limits of the mercury amalgam (chemistry) recovery technology of the day. Many of these mines never reopened. Other mines did, however, and gold production in Virginia continued until World War II, when, on October 8, 1942, the War Production Board issued Limitation Order L-208, which branded
Gold mining in Virginia
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because of fighting wars in France, the Netherlands and against England. Therefore, a deeply ill Philip decided to end his support for the League and to finally recognize the legitimacy of Henry's accession to the French throne. Without Spanish support the last League hardliners were quickly defeated. In May 1598, the two kings signed the Peace of Vervins ending the last of the religious civil wars and the Spanish intervention with it. In 1594, the Nine Years' War in Ireland had begun, when Ulster lords Hugh O'Neill and Red Hugh O'Donnell rose up against English rule with fitful Spanish support,
Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)
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pilots from ships at the Dockyard on Ireland Island, and RAF and Bermuda Flying School pilots from Darrell's Island. These patrols ceased in 1941 with the arrival of a US Navy patrol squadron, which operated from Darrell's Island until the US NAS became operable. The RAF operated from its two facilities in Bermuda until the end of the War, when both Commands withdrew their detachments. Darrell's Island reverted to its pre-War role as a civil airport, until the replacement of flying boats as trans-Atlantic airliners by land-planes, like the Lancastrian, the Tudor, and DC4, led to its closure in 1948.
Royal Air Force, Bermuda (1939–45)
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12,000 veterans of the New Model Army were awarded land in Ireland in place of their wages due, which the Commonwealth was unable to pay. Many of these soldiers sold their land grants to other Protestants rather than settle in war-ravaged Ireland, but 7,500 fighters did settle in Ireland. They were required to keep their weapons to act as a reserve militia in case of future rebellions. Taken together with the Merchant Adventurers, probably over 10,000 Parliamentarians settled in Ireland after the civil wars. Most of these were single men, however, and many of them married Irish women (although banned
Plantations of Ireland
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in Ulster, an event which scarred communal relations in Ireland for centuries afterwards. As a result of the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642, no English troops were available to put down the uprising and the rebels were left in control of most of Ireland. The Catholic majority briefly ruled the country as Confederate Ireland (1642–1649) during the subsequent Wars of the Three Kingdoms in Britain and Ireland. The Confederate regime allied themselves with Charles I and the English Royalists, though they did not sign a formal treaty with them until 1649. Had the Royalists won the English
History of Ireland (1536–1691)
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up to the Scots. He issued orders to his captains and officers to deliver up the places they held. Dudley Castle surrendered, as did Hartlebury. Worcester was besieged and held out to July when it had to surrender. Included in the Articles were Madresfield and Strensham. With their surrender the First Civil War, so far as Worcestershire was concerned, came to an end. 1647. During the whole of the year Royalist plots went on to bring about the King's release, or for a rising. The chief of these was the Broadway Plot. 1648. The Royalist plot, ended in the second
Worcestershire in the English Civil War
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War, were loosely allied with the English Royalists, but were divided over whether to send military help to them in the war there. Ultimately, they never sent troops to England, but did send an expedition to help the Scottish Royalists, sparking the Scottish Civil War. The wars produced an extremely fractured array of forces in Ireland. The Protestant forces were split into three main factions (English Royalist, English Parliamentarian and Scottish Covenanter) as a result of the civil wars in England and Scotland. The Catholic Confederates themselves split on more than one occasion over the issue of whether their first
Irish Confederate Wars
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civil rights within Northern Ireland, not armed struggle for a united Ireland. The IMS supported the SDLP. The group was very much influenced by the Italian Communist Party. The IMS’s organizational structure has been described as ‘loose-knit’. It did not survive the end of the decade. Many of its members went on to join the Labour Party. Irish Marxist Society The Irish Marxist Society (sometimes given as the Irish Marxist Group) was a Eurocommunist organisation active in Ireland in the 1970s. The IMS was the result of a split in the Communist Party of Ireland. The Communist Party had always
Irish Marxist Society
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John Rankin (abolitionist) John Rankin (February 5, 1793 – March 18, 1886) was an American Presbyterian minister, educator and abolitionist. Upon moving to Ripley, Ohio in 1822, he became known as one of Ohio's first and most active "conductors" on the Underground Railroad. Prominent pre-Civil War abolitionists William Lloyd Garrison, Henry Ward Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe were influenced by Rankin's writings and work in the anti-slavery movement. When Henry Ward Beecher was asked after the end of the Civil War, "Who abolished slavery?," he answered, "Reverend John Rankin and his sons did." Rankin was born at Dandridge, Jefferson County,
John Rankin (abolitionist)
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War which he spent part of as an infantryman in India, although when stationed in Northern Ireland he did help Glentoran to win the Irish Cup in 1945. He won the first of eleven England caps in a 7–2 defeat of Ireland in 1946 and would go on to play for the national team until 1950 by which time he had changed clubs twice, first to Preston North End for £16,000 in 1948 and then on to Bolton Wanderers for a then club record of £20,000 in November 1949. At Bolton he provided many goals for Willie Moir and Nat
Bobby Langton
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appointed sheriff of St. Louis county to fill out the term of Sheriff Cere, who had died in office. The office dealt mainly with civil matters such as foreclosures and sheriff's sales. Courtenay did not run for election to a full term as sheriff and was out of office by the end of August. When he left office, there was a significant shortfall in the books of the sheriff's office. Courtenay blamed the problem on his chief deputy, but the matter was Courtenay's responsibility, and the unresolved debt put a damper on his business efforts. When the Civil War broke
Thomas Edgeworth Courtenay
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Irish Party leadership. This provided for the temporary exclusion of Ulster from the workings of the bill for a trial period of six years, with an as yet undecided new set of measures to be introduced for the area to be temporarily excluded. Though it received the Royal Assent and was placed on the statute books in 1914, the implementation of the Third Home Rule Act was suspended until after the First World War which defused the threat of civil war in Ireland. With the hope of ensuring the implementation of the Act at the end of the war through
Republic of Ireland
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Irish involvement in the Spanish Civil War The Spanish Civil War lasted from July 17, 1936 to April 1, 1939. While both sides in the Spanish Civil War attracted participants from Ireland, the majority sided with the Nationalist faction. Feeling in Ireland in the 1930s ran overwhelmingly against the Second Spanish Republic due to the opposition by the Catholic Church. Following the July coup by the generals in Spain a wave of atrocities swept the country on both sides; in Republican Spain the Red Terror was, in part, directed against the Church there. Ireland was awash with atrocity stories, leading
Irish involvement in the Spanish Civil War
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celebrated by (mostly Ulster Protestant) unionists in Ireland today. The war in Ireland began as a direct consequence of the Glorious Revolution in England. James II of England and Ireland, VII of Scotland, who was a Roman Catholic, attempted to introduce freedom of religion for Catholics and bypass the English Parliament to introduce unpopular laws. For many in England, this was an unpleasant reminder of the rule of Charles I, whose conflict with the Parliament led to the outbreak of the English Civil War. The breaking point in James' relationship with the English political class came in June 1688 when
Williamite War in Ireland
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the world war. Fearful of accusations of disloyalty for their co-operation with Germans and opposition to the United States' entering the war on the side of Great Britain, the Friends lowered their profile after April 1917, when America entered the war. With the end of the war, Devoy played a key role in the Friends' advocacy for self-determination for Ireland, in line with Wilson's "Fourteen Points", as distinct from recognition by the United States of the sovereignty of the newly declared Irish Republic. Wilson did not guarantee recognition of the Republic, as declared in 1916 and reaffirmed in the popular
John Devoy
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First English Civil War (1642–1646), the Second English Civil War (1648–1649), and the Third English Civil War (1649–1651). For the most part, accounts summarise the two sides that fought the English Civil Wars as the Royalist Cavaliers of Charles I of England versus the Parliamentarian Roundheads. However, as with many civil wars, loyalties shifted for various reasons, and both sides changed significantly during the conflicts. During this time, the Irish Confederate Wars (another civil war) continued in Ireland, starting with the Irish Rebellion of 1641 and ending with the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. Its incidents had little or no direct
First English Civil War
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James Hagan (Confederate colonel) James Hagan (June 17, 1822 – November 6, 1901) was a United States Army captain during the Mexican–American War and a Confederate States Army colonel during the American Civil War (Civil War). He was a prosperous businessman and planter at Mobile, Alabama between the wars. Although he commanded a brigade during most of 1863 and from August 1864 until the end of the war, he was never appointed a brigadier general by Confederate President Jefferson Davis or confirmed as a general officer by the Confederate Senate. James Hagan was born in County Tyrone, Ireland on June
James Hagan (Confederate colonel)
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to the Asturias, inciting a rebellion. The Biscayans were defeated at Erandio with the loss of sixty men and the wheat transfers continued. In 1442 the "hermandades" interfered successfully in Bilbao and Mondragón, but the peace established did not endure. In 1457 the war between the Gamboinos and the Oñaz was brought to an abrupt end when the "hermandades" rebelled against them both, seized their manors, and expelled their leaders from Guipúzcoa. War of the Bands The War of the Bands (, ) was a civil war, really an extended series of blood feuds, in the western Basque Country, Gascony,
War of the Bands
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his capacity as a notary, he handed over signed statements from the witnesses to his Bishop. However, he did not notify the civil authorities of the existence of such evidence. Commenting on the BBC programme, Cardinal Brady said that the programme makers had overstated the part he played:"It is my view that the ‘This World’ programme has set out to deliberately exaggerate and misrepresent my role in these events" When it was announced at the start of summer 1979 that Pope John Paul II would visit Ireland at the end of September there was an urgency for priests with available
Seán Brady
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Volunteers gave allegiance to the First Dáil, the parliament of the revolutionary Irish Republic. At this time the Volunteers became known as the Irish Republican Army (IRA). From 1919 onwards, the IRA waged a guerrilla campaign against British rule in Ireland that is now known as the War of Independence. A truce brought hostilities to an end on 11 July 1921 and the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed on 6 December. The Provisional Government was then constituted on 14 January 1922. Many IRA men who fought in the War of Independence were dissatisfied with the treaty, and both civil war and
Defence Forces (Ireland)
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II, it did not protest against it; the WRL complied with the Espionage Act, ceased public protests, and did not solicit new members during this period. During World War II, many members were imprisoned as conscientious objectors. In the 1950s, WRL members worked in the civil rights movement and organized protests against nuclear weapons testing and civil defense drills. In the 1960s, WRL was the first pacifist organization to call for an end to the Vietnam War. WRL also organized the first demonstration against the war with a September 21, 1963 vigil at the U.S. Mission to the UN, followed
War Resisters League
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and the partition of Ireland under the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1922 and the Irish Civil War that followed it, little was done in the Republic of Ireland to commemorate the Irish dead from the Great War or World War II. Those countries who were engaged in the Great War all preserve the memory of their fallen soldiers with national monuments in the Western Front area. This led to some ill-feeling in the already crowded emotions of the conflict on the island, and perhaps was highlighted when Northern Ireland's community's Ulster Tower Thiepval in France was one of the first memorials
Island of Ireland Peace Park
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led to a weak civil society, the collapse of the education system, and, by 1991, an entire generation of dissatisfied youth were attracted to the rebellious message of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) and joined the organization. Albert Margai, unlike his half-brother Milton, did not see the state as a steward of the public, but instead as a tool for personal gain and self-aggrandizement and even used the military to suppress multi-party elections that threatened to end his rule. When Siaka Stevens entered politics in 1968, Sierra Leone was a constitutional democracy. When he stepped down, seventeen years later, Sierra
Sierra Leone Civil War
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far-left volunteers. The civil war did not escalate into a larger conflict, but did become a worldwide ideological battleground that pitted all the Communists and many socialists and liberals against Catholics, conservatives and fascists. Worldwide there was a decline in pacifism and a growing sense that another great war was imminent, and that it would be worth fighting for. The changing world order that the war had brought about, in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as naval powers, and the rise of independence movements in India and Ireland, caused a major reassessment of British imperial policy.
Interwar period
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Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland The Civil Service () of Ireland is the collective term for the permanent staff of the departments of state and certain state agencies who advise and work for the Government of Ireland. It consists of two broad components, the "Civil Service of the Government" and the "Civil Service of the State". Whilst these two components are largely theoretical they do have some fundamental operational differences. The civil service of the Irish Free State, as the predecessor of Ireland, was not formally established by law. The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 did however provide that
Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland
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Maryland and Delaware. Maryland did not abolish slavery until 1864, and Delaware was one of the last states to hold onto slavery; it was still legal in Delaware when the thirteenth amendment was issued. No Southern state did so, and the slave population of the South continued to grow, peaking at almost four million people at the beginning of the American Civil War, when most slave states sought to break away from the United States. Lincoln understood that the Federal government's power to end slavery in peacetime was limited by the Constitution which before 1865, committed the issue to individual
Emancipation Proclamation
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more or less frequently, such as civil servants Hein Cremers and Guus Laeven, who, at the end of the war, 'lost' the population records when the Germans wanted to put all men between 16 and 60 at work digging trenches. Pierre Schunck came into contact with the resistance because he lived across the street from a cave where people hid. When chapelain Berix Schunck visited there, he asked Pierre if he could get some clothes for the people in hiding. Which he did. But he went further by improving the living conditions (electricity and food). And in the end he
Valkenburg resistance
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the Austria-Hungary, Uzhhorod and Mukachevo. The remaining central and eastern Ukrainian provinces were left to the "brotherly" Soviet Union. As a result of World War I and the Russian Civil War, Ukrainians saw as their attempt to attain a statehood crumbled in favor of other countries when 1.5 million had lost their lives while fighting for it. With the end of World War I the Ukrainian national movement went underground. Ukraine during World War I Upon the outbreak of World War I, the name "Ukraine" was used only geographically, as the term did not exist nationally. The territory that made
Ukraine during World War I
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civil parishes. During the First English Civil War (1642–1646) the county gave strong support to the Roundheads (Parliamentarians), in contrast to the rest of Wales, which was staunchly Royalist. In spite of this an incident in Pembrokeshire triggered the opening shots of the Second English Civil War when local units of the New Model Army mutinied. Oliver Cromwell defeated the uprising at the Siege of Pembroke in July 1648. On 13 August 1649, the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland began when New Model Army forces sailed from Milford Haven. In 1720, Emmanuel Bowen described Pembrokeshire as having five market towns, 45
Pembrokeshire
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partially alleviated after 1932, when Fianna Fáil, the party that represented the bulk of the Republican constituency, entered government peacefully; it introduced a new Constitution in 1937. The Free State officially became the Republic of Ireland in 1949. Kevin O'Higgins, the man Republicans saw as most directly responsible for the enactment of the Public Safety Act, with its sanction of executions, himself fell victim to assassination by the IRA in 1927 - becoming one of the last victims of Civil War era violence in Ireland. Richard Mulcahy became a leader of Fine Gael in 1948, but never became Taoiseach because
Executions during the Irish Civil War
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the Confederate Army, but it reduced the manpower of white men in the Union Army. Although the peace movements, draft riots, and Emancipation Proclamation did not end the American Civil War nor did it lead to the Confederacy winning the war, they displayed the opinions of many Americans who were both ordinary people and Congressmen from north and south. Considerable opposition existed in the South. In the border states a bloody partisan war raged in Kentucky, Missouri, and Indian Territory. Many Confederate governors feuded with the Confederate government in Richmond, thus weakening the South militarily and economically. The mountain areas
Opposition to the American Civil War
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the introduction of heavy siege artillery by Oliver Cromwell in 1649 brought a rapid end to the utility of castles in the war, while in Scotland the popular tower houses proved unsuitable for defending against civil war artillery – although major castles such as Edinburgh put up strong resistance. At the end of the war many castles were slighted to prevent future use. Military use of castles rapidly decreased over subsequent years, although some were adapted for use by garrisons in Scotland and key border locations for many years to come, including during the Second World War. Other castles were
Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
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as the Church of Christ and the United Church of Christ. As a result of this heritage the vast majority of inhabitants in Elkhart County, much like antebellum New England were overwhelmingly in favor of the abolitionist movement during the decades leading up to the Civil War. Correspondingly, many inhabitants of Elkhart County fought in the Union Army during the Civil War. In the late 1880s and early 1890s Irish and German migrants began moving into Elkhart County, most of these later immigrants did not move directly from Ireland and Germany, but rather from other areas in the Midwest where
Elkhart, Indiana
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Medicine in the American Civil War The state of medical knowledge at the time of the Civil War was extremely primitive. Doctors did not understand infection, and did little to prevent it. It was a time before antiseptics, and a time when there was no attempt to maintain sterility during surgery. No antibiotics were available, and minor wounds could easily become infected, and hence fatal. While the typical soldier was at very high risk of being shot and killed in combat, he faced an even greater risk of dying from disease. Before the Civil War, the armies tended to be
Medicine in the American Civil War
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Ireland, largely due to Jonathan Swift's polemical "Drapier's Letters", and Wood lost his patent though compensated with a pension. After the end of the English Civil War, copper farthings and halfpennies resumed production, and pennies were added in 1805. In 1804, the Bank of Ireland introduced silver tokens for 6 shillings which were overstrikes on Spanish dollars. These were followed by 5, 10 and 30 pence Irish tokens. The last halfpennies and pennies were minted in 1823. The 1822–23 issue marked the last appearance of the symbol of a crowned harp, which represented the Kingdom of Ireland. Following this, standard
Coins of Ireland
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use in such countries as Ireland, Russia, China and Australia, generally in the hands of desperate peasant rebels who did not have access to firearms. John Brown planned to arm a rebel slave army in America largely with pikes. One attempt to resurrect the pike as a primary infantry weapon occurred during the American Civil War when the Confederate States of America planned to recruit twenty regiments of pikemen in 1862. In April 1862 it was authorised that every Confederate infantry regiment would include two companies of pikemen, a plan supported by Robert E. Lee. Many pikes were produced but
Pike (weapon)
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the European Court of Human Rights ruled that the interrogation techniques approved for use by the British army on internees in 1971 amounted to "inhuman and degrading" treatment. The IRA encouraged Republicans to join in the movement for civil rights but never controlled NICRA. The Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association fought for the end of discrimination toward Catholics and did not take a position on the legitimacy of the state. Republican leader Gerry Adams explained subsequently that Catholics saw that it was possible for them to have their demands heard. He wrote that "we were able to see an example
Civil rights movements
1706439
Marxist outlook of the Officials and were united in their rejection of the Official's view that physical force alone would not end partition), and a campaign of sectarian attacks by loyalist paramilitary groups like the Ulster Defence Association (formed to co-ordinate the various Loyalist vigilante groups that sprung up) and others brought Northern Ireland to the brink of civil war. On 30 March 1972, the British government, unwilling to grant the unionist Northern Ireland government more authoritarian special powers, and now convinced of its inability to restore order, pushed through emergency legislation that prorogued the Northern Ireland Parliament and introduced
History of Northern Ireland
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attempt to preserve their own personal estates, and overall control of the massive de Burgh inheritance in Ireland. They were: The eventual outcome of the war was the loss of almost all the de Burgh lands in Ulster, which was reconquered within a year by the Gaelic-Irish. The remaining de Burghs in Ireland fragmented into three distinct clans, all of which had several sub-septs. They were: Walter de Burgh Burke Civil War The Burke/de Burgh Civil War was a conflict in Ireland in the 1330s between three leading members of the de Burgh (Burke/Bourke) Anglo-Norman family. William Donn de Burgh,
Burke Civil War
200226
covertly supplied arms to the Northern IRA until a week before his death in August 1922. Because of the Irish Civil War, Northern Ireland was able to consolidate its existence and the partition of Ireland was confirmed for the foreseeable future. The continuing war also confirmed the northern Unionists' existing prejudices against the ethos of all shades of nationalism. This might have led to open hostilities between North and South had the Irish Civil War not broken out. Indeed, the Ulster Special Constabulary (the "B-Specials") that had been established in 1920 (on the foundation of Northern Ireland) was expanded in
Irish Civil War