who is credited for creating a distinction between common and special cases of variation
Walter A. Shewhart W. Edwards Deming
2538402
Common cause and special cause (statistics) Common and special causes are the two distinct origins of variation in a process, as defined in the statistical thinking and methods of Walter A. Shewhart and W. Edwards Deming. Briefly, "common causes", also called natural patterns, are the usual, historical, quantifiable variation in a system, while "special causes" are unusual, not previously observed, non-quantifiable variation. The distinction is fundamental in philosophy of statistics and philosophy of probability, with different treatment of these issues being a classic issue of probability interpretations, being recognised and discussed as early as 1703 by Gottfried Leibniz; various alternative
Common cause and special cause (statistics)
2538402
Common cause and special cause (statistics) Common and special causes are the two distinct origins of variation in a process, as defined in the statistical thinking and methods of Walter A. Shewhart and W. Edwards Deming. Briefly, "common causes", also called natural patterns, are the usual, historical, quantifiable variation in a system, while "special causes" are unusual, not previously observed, non-quantifiable variation. The distinction is fundamental in philosophy of statistics and philosophy of probability, with different treatment of these issues being a classic issue of probability interpretations, being recognised and discussed as early as 1703 by Gottfried Leibniz; various alternative
Common cause and special cause (statistics)
2538386
Common cause and special cause (statistics) Common and special causes are the two distinct origins of variation in a process, as defined in the statistical thinking and methods of Walter A. Shewhart and W. Edwards Deming. Briefly, "common causes", also called natural patterns, are the usual, historical, quantifiable variation in a system, while "special causes" are unusual, not previously observed, non-quantifiable variation. The distinction is fundamental in philosophy of statistics and philosophy of probability, with different treatment of these issues being a classic issue of probability interpretations, being recognised and discussed as early as 1703 by Gottfried Leibniz; various alternative
Common cause and special cause (statistics)
2538390
there is no scientific basis on which to form any calculable probability whatever. We simply do not know!" Common-cause variation is characterised by: The outcomes of a perfectly balanced roulette wheel are a good example of common-cause variation. Common-cause variation is the "noise" within the system. Walter A. Shewhart originally used the term "chance cause". The term "common cause" was coined by Harry Alpert in 1947. The Western Electric Company used the term "natural pattern". Shewhart called a process that features only common-cause variation as being "in statistical control". This term is deprecated by some modern statisticians who prefer the
Common cause and special cause (statistics)
2538391
phrase "stable and predictable". Special-cause variation is characterised by: Special-cause variation always arrives as a surprise. It is the "signal" within a system. Walter A. Shewhart originally used the term "assignable cause". The term "special-cause" was coined by W. Edwards Deming. The Western Electric Company used the term "unnatural pattern". In economics, this circle of ideas is analysed under the rubric of "Knightian uncertainty". John Maynard Keynes and Frank Knight both discussed the inherent unpredictability of economic systems in their work and used it to criticise the mathematical approach to economics, in terms of expected utility, developed by Ludwig von
Common cause and special cause (statistics)
2538396
is, inevitably, some subset of historical events. Deming held that the disjoint nature of population and sampling frame was inherently problematic once the existence of special-cause variation was admitted, rejecting the general use of probability and conventional statistics in such situations. He articulated the difficulty as the distinction between analytic and enumerative statistical studies. Shewhart argued that, as processes subject to special-cause variation were inherently unpredictable, the usual techniques of probability could not be used to separate special-cause from common-cause variation. He developed the control chart as a statistical heuristic to distinguish the two types of variation. Both Deming and
Common cause and special cause (statistics)
4497274
in different systems. The registers identified are: The term diatype is sometimes used to describe language variation which is determined by its social purpose (Gregory 1967). In this formulation, language variation can be divided into two categories: dialect, for variation according to "user", and diatype for variation according to "use" (e.g. the specialised language of an academic journal). This definition of diatype is very similar to those of "register". The distinction between dialect and diatype is not always clear; in some cases a language variety may be understood as both a dialect and a diatype. Diatype is usually analysed in
Register (sociolinguistics)
9088613
with Mos Def that appeared on the soundtrack of the 2002 film "Blade II". 12" vinyl releases contained an additional remix of "Special Cases" by Vladislav Delay, who is credited as "Luomo" for this release. Two separate music videos were made for the song. The Enhanced CD contains one of these, and the other video is on a rare DVD release of the single. Despite being one of the band's higher-charting singles, it did not appear on their 2006 singles compilation "Collected". CD 12" DVD Special Cases "Special Cases" is a song on English trip hop collective Massive Attack's fourth
Special Cases
15130104
York and archdeacon of Coventry and later gained several other prebends. From 1340 to 1347 he was archdeacon of Norwich, and from 1347 to 1352 archdeacon of Wells. Although common lawyers had begun reporting cases in England during the 1260s, Fastolf is credited as the first who can be identified as reporting cases in the Rota. In the tradition of common law, Fastolf wrote a series of reports on thirty-six cases heard at the Rota in Avignon between December 1336 and February 1337, constituting a journal of the debates among the first grade auditors over some two and a half
Thomas Fastolf
6101377
by "self". There is variation between North and South forms. The first person singular possessive pronoun "fy" is usually pronounced as if spelt . Note that there is no gender distinction in the third person singular. Welsh has special emphatic forms of the personal pronouns. The term 'emphatic pronoun' is in fact misleading since they do not necessarily indicate emphasis. They are perhaps more correctly termed 'connective or distinctive pronouns' since they are used to indicate a connection between or distinction from another nominal element. Full contextual information is necessary to interpret their function in any given sentence. Less formal
Colloquial Welsh morphology
999566
it would seem to relate to "lip service", rationalization and diversion (abandonment of discussion). Special pleading also often resembles the "appeal to" logical fallacies. In medieval philosophy, it was not assumed that wherever a distinction is claimed, a relevant basis for the distinction should exist and be substantiated. Special pleading subverts an assumption of existential import. This variation occurs when the interpretation of the relevant statistic is "massaged" by looking for ways to reclassify or requantify data from one portion of results, but not applying the same scrutiny to other categories. Special pleading Special pleading is a form of fallacious
Special pleading
6201855
distinction being made from the context, word order, or by the use of particular prepositions. Similarly, the genitive and the dative share the same form, distinguished syntactically or by the presence of possession articles when the nouns are in the genitive case. The vocative is less used than the other four, because it is limited to people, animals, or other things that can be addressed. Comparatively, other Romance languages, although maintaining a syntactic distinction between cases, have reduced them to a single form and replaced morphological variation with the use of specific prepositions. Latin used to have up to seven
Romanian nouns
4658713
part in the politically correct world of Black academia. Emanuel is also credited with creating a new literary genre, jazz-and-blues haiku, which he has read to musical accompaniment throughout Europe and Africa. For this creation he was awarded the Sidney Bechet Creative Award in 1996. He was also awarded the Dean's Award for Distinguished Achievement in 2007 from Columbia University's Graduate School of Arts and Sciences and has also been honored with a John Hay Whitney Award, a Saxton Memorial Fellowship, and a Special Distinction Award from the Black American Literature Forum. In addition to his poetry, Emanuel also edited
James Emanuel
2587929
minimal contrast between two sounds based only on the "closed"/"non-closed" variation, with no concomitant articulatory distinctions (for all languages, including the Northwest Caucasian languages, if the language has two laminal sibilants, one of which is "closed" whereas the other is "non-closed", they will also differ in some other ways). A few languages distinguish three different postalveolar sibilant tongue shapes () such as the Sino-Tibetan Northern Qiang and Southern Qiang, which make such a distinction among affricates (but only a two-way distinction among fricatives) and the Northwest Caucasian languages Ubykh and Abkhaz). More common are languages such as Mandarin Chinese and
Postalveolar consonant
8474938
believed that there was a measurable difference between one who acts intentionally and one who acts merely recklessly. Both cases had one crucial fact in common—neither Enmund nor the Tison brothers had committed an "act" of murder. Enmund had been in the getaway car; the Tison brothers had been fetching a jug of water for the Lyon family. If the death penalty is to be reserved for the worst murderers, Brennan believed in maintaining the distinction between an intentional act and a reckless one. "It is precisely in this context -- where the defendant has not killed -- that a
Felony murder and the death penalty in the United States
9024164
– there are the decreed elect (that precise number God intends to save and who will persevere in their faith) and the covenantally elect (those who are predestined to be a follower of Christ for a time, but are not predestined to persevere in their faith and who will eventually fall away). Consider Lusk's comment: He goes on to speak of apostates within the covenant: Proponents of the Federal Vision claim to reflect the authentic views of John Calvin on election and covenantal objectivity, citing Calvin's distinction between common election and special election: "Although the common election is not effectual
Federal Vision
14919123
Aeolic dialect of Lesbos, as well as the Doric dialects of Crete and Elis, were already psilotic at the beginning of their written record. In Attic, there was widespread variation in popular speech during the classical period, but the formal standard language retained /h/. This variation continued into the Hellenistic Koine. Alexandrine grammarians who codified Greek orthography during the second and first centuries BC, and who, among other things, introduced the signs for the rough and smooth breathings, were still using the distinction between words with and without initial /h/, but were evidently writing at a time when this distinction
Psilosis
75833
be used interactively, even though the code gets fully compiled. The idea of an Interpreted language thus does not apply for interactive Common Lisp. The language makes distinction between read-time, compile-time, load-time and run-time, and allows user code to also make this distinction to perform the wanted type of processing at the wanted step. Some special operators are provided to especially suit interactive development; for instance, codice_86 will only assign a value to its provided variable if it wasn't already bound, while codice_87 will always perform the assignment. This distinction is useful when interactively evaluating, compiling and loading code in
Common Lisp
6099962
also credited with the creation of the move in some sources. The first reported variation was the front triangle choke or , applied from the position known in modern times as guard, often after a pull down or . Another variation was the horizontal triangle or , performed from the side. Martial arts historian Toshiya Masuda has attributed its innovation to Masahiko Kimura, who would have created it during the Takudai kosen judo tournament at Takushoku University and accomplished prolonged success with it, though he also deems probable that Kimura only popularized the variation instead of creating it. The inverted
Triangle choke
367285
can have a pre-formulated plan to deal with its possible consequences (to ensure "contingency" if the risk becomes a "liability"). From the information above and the average cost per employee over time, or cost accrual ratio, a project manager can estimate: Risk in a project or process can be due either to Special Cause Variation or Common Cause Variation and requires appropriate treatment. That is to re-iterate the concern about extremal cases not being equivalent in the list immediately above. ESRM is a security program management approach that links security activities to an enterprise's mission and business goals through risk
Risk management
2538388
return of events but only for the most part. New illnesses flood the human race, so that no matter how many experiments you have done on corpses, you have not thereby imposed a limit on the nature of events so that in the future they could not vary." This captures the central idea that some variation is predictable, at least approximately in frequency. This "common-cause variation" is evident from the experience base. However, new, unanticipated, emergent or previously neglected phenomena (e.g. "new diseases") result in variation outside the historical experience base. Shewhart and Deming argued that such "special-cause variation" is
Common cause and special cause (statistics)
2395738
structure: Adjectives always come before the noun to which they belong. In contrast to English, adpositional phrase come in the order time–manner–place, so that time modifiers usually come before place modifiers: In Dutch, nouns are marked for number in singular and plural. Cases have largely fallen out of use, as have the endings that were used for them. Standard Dutch has three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter. However, in large parts of the Netherlands there is no grammatical distinction between what were originally masculine and feminine genders, and there is only a distinction between common and neuter. Gender is not
Dutch grammar
2210396
reason, an independent pronoun can be used: "nuti kaleessa dhufne" 'we came yesterday'. The table below gives forms of the personal pronouns in the different cases, as well as the possessive adjectives. For the first person plural and third person singular feminine categories, there is considerable variation across dialects; only some of the possibilities are shown. The possessive adjectives, treated as separate words here, are sometimes written as noun suffixes. In most dialects there is a distinction between masculine and feminine possessive adjectives for first and second person (the form agreeing with the gender of the modified noun). However, in
Oromo language
804800
sometimes in the same sentence. However, some emerging pattern of use has been detected by recent scholars. Between characters equal in age or rank, was more common than as a singular address. However, was sometimes used to put a young man in his place, or to express temporary anger. There may also have been variation between Parisian use and that of other regions. In the Middle French period a relatively stable T–V distinction emerged. "Vous" was the V form used by upper-class speakers to address one another, while was the T form used among lower class speakers. Upper-class speakers could
T–V distinction
3491146
create this tension while pulling extruded strands in to be cut. The caterpillar haul-off must provide a consistent pull; otherwise, variation in cut lengths or distorted product will result. In some cases (such as fibre-reinforced tubes) the extrudate is pulled through a very long die, in a process called "pultrusion". The configuration of the interior screws are a driving force dependent on the application. Mixing elements or convey elements are used in various formations. Extrusion is common in the application of adding colorant to molten plastic thus creating specific custom color. A multitude of polymers are used in the production
Extrusion
11158801
number of cases whose peculiarity consists in chronic hypomanic behaviour" where "it is not a question of real mania at all but of a hypomanic state which cannot be regarded as psychotic." Jung illustrated the hypomanic variation with five case histories, each involving hypomanic behaviour, occasional bouts of depression, and mixed mood states, which involved personal and interpersonal upheaval for each patient. In 1975, Jung's original distinction between mania and hypomania gained support. Fieve and Dunner published an article recognizing that only individuals in a manic state require hospitalization. It was proposed that the presentation of either the one state
Bipolar II disorder
14836631
result of this spontaneous change in the structure of DNA is a copy number variation. Due to the copy number variation chromosomes of different sizes can be combined in a new cell. If this occurs around conception, there is the first cell of a human with a genetic variation. This can be either positive or negative. In positive cases this new human will be capable of a special skill that is assessed positively, for example, sports or science. In negative cases, you have to deal with a syndrome or a severe disability, as in this case the 1q21.1 duplication syndrome.
1q21.1 duplication syndrome
6960445
Amendment preserves the right to a jury trial in civil cases over $20 to cases "at common law". The distinction between types of relief granted by the courts is due to the courts of equity, such as the Court of Chancery in England, and still available today in common law jurisdictions. Equity is said to operate on the conscience of the defendant, so an equitable remedy is always directed at a particular person, and that person's knowledge, state of mind and motives may be relevant to whether a remedy should be granted or not. Equitable remedies are distinguished from "legal"
Equitable remedy
5227628
"z" values tend to appear in the top right. Pearson derived an approximation of the correlation that would be observed between two indices (formula_2 and formula_3), i.e., ratios of the absolute measurements formula_4: where formula_6 is the coefficient of variation of formula_7, and formula_8 the Pearson correlation between formula_7 and formula_10. This expression can be simplified for situations where there is a common divisor by setting formula_11, and formula_12 are uncorrelated, giving the spurious correlation: For the special case in which all coefficients of variation are equal (as is the case in the illustrations at right), formula_14 Pearson was joined
Spurious correlation of ratios
3002201
social structural changes and movement towards egalitarian ideology, the English second-person singular pronouns later collapsed to a single term, 'you'. This contraction erased all visible morphological distinction between nominative and accusative case in the second person, effectively sacrificing distinguishability for economy. There are instances in which nominative–accusative case marking can be used creatively, for example to generate a sense of formality. A common example in English is the use of the nominative form of the 1st person singular pronoun "I" in object, rather than subject, position. For example: versus This variation between 'I' and 'me' (nominative and accusative) in object
Nominative–accusative language
895183
the front and archers and slingers in the back. In the shield wall, the Vikings would stand close together in order to overlap their shields, thus creating a wall out of shields. Another formation that was also used, called the '’Svinfylking’', was a variation to the shield wall but with several wedge-like formations pointing towards the enemy, creating a zig-zag pattern. Hersirs' religious beliefs are somewhat unclear although they seemed to lie somewhere between Christianity and Paganism. Sometimes, Hersirs would be baptised, although it was most often not done for religious purposes. In many cases, Hersirs would be baptised in
Hersir
5785745
for the variation, are identical to the variation above. Bold type indicates that another variation is considered elsewhere – usually in another table. A hyphen (-) or en dash (–) indicates that the variation transposes to a variation elsewhere. Transpositions are common in chess – a given position can often be reached by different move orders – even move orders with more or fewer moves. The table may also provide percentage of games won by white for each variation, based on the results of the games considered in creating the table. Chess openings are studied in great depth by serious
Chess opening theory table
17017283
Special jury A special jury, which is a jury selected from a special roll of persons with a restrictive qualification, could be used for civil or criminal cases, although in criminal cases only for misdemeanours such as seditious libel. The party opting for a special jury was charged a fee, which was 12 guineas just prior to abolition in England. The qualifications to be a special juror in England were governed by the Juries Act 1870, and the main difference between the special jury and a common jury under that Act was merely a matter of wealth; indeed, it was
Special jury
6154449
requiring large numbers of cases followed over many years. The most significant variations are between cemented and uncemented components and between resurfacing the patella or not. Among those who do not resurface the patella, there is also variation between denervating the patella using electrocautery or not. In theory, this technique could disrupt the superficial pain receptors near the patella in hopes of relieving anterior knee pain, a common post-operative complaint. No consensus exists, but a recent randomized controlled trial indicates that while both methods provide relief, patellar denervation results in a modest benefit compared to no denervation in the short-term.
Knee replacement
2587935
these symbols are often palatal or palatalized alveolar rather than alveolo-palatal, like the variation for symbols like . The decision to use the special alveolo-palatal symbols in sinology is largely based on distributional similarities between the sounds in question and the alveolo-palatal sibilants, which are prominent in many East Asian languages. However, a few languages distinguish alveolo-palatal sounds from other palatalized non-sibilants in the dental-to-palatal region. Many conservative dialects of Irish in fact have a three-way distinction among palatalized nasals between dorsal palatal , laminal alveolo-palatal , and apical palatalized alveolar . That is typical with oppositions among similar sounds
Postalveolar consonant
15955402
Hittite grammar The grammar of the Hittite language has a highly conservative verbal system and rich nominal declension. The language is attested in cuneiform, and is the earliest attested Indo-European language. The Hittite nominal system consists of the following cases: nominative, accusative, dative-locative, genitive, allative, ablative, and instrumental, and distinguishes between two numbers (singular and plural) and two genders, common (animate) and neuter (inanimate). The distinction between genders is fairly rudimentary, with a distinction generally being made only in the nominative case, and the same noun is sometimes attested in both genders. The basic scheme of suffixation is given in
Hittite grammar
6836982
have repeated mild head injuries over a prolonged period, such as boxers and Gridiron football players, are at risk for chronic traumatic encephalopathy (or the related variant dementia pugilistica), a severe, chronic disorder involving a decline in mental and physical abilities. It is not known exactly how common PCS is. Estimates of the prevalence at 3 months post-injury are between 24 and 84%, a variation possibly caused by different populations or study methodologies. The estimated incidence of PPCS (persistent postconcussive syndrome) is around 10% of mTBI cases. Since PCS by definition only exists in people who have suffered a head
Post-concussion syndrome
5762367
Common grace Common grace is a theological concept in Protestant Christianity, developed primarily in Twentieth Century Reformed/Calvinistic thought, referring to the grace of God that is either common to all humankind, or common to everyone within a particular sphere of influence (limited only by unnecessary cultural factors). It is common because its benefits are experienced by, or intended for, the whole human race without distinction between one person and another. It is grace because it is undeserved and sovereignly bestowed by God. In this sense, it is distinguished from the Calvinistic understanding of special or saving grace, which extends only
Common grace
14833077
may be shorter or longer. The result of this spontaneous change in the structure of DNA is a so-called copy number variation. Due to the copy number variation chromosomes of different sizes can be combined in a new cell. If this occurs around conception, the result will be a first cell of a human with a genetic variation. This can be either positive or negative. In positive cases this new human will be capable of a special skill that is assessed positively, for example, in sports or science. In negative cases, you have to deal with a syndrome or a
1q21.1 deletion syndrome
3967286
to avoid competition. According to these researchers, this is also evidenced by different proportions of the skull, teeth, and forelimb. The distinction between the two "Allosaurus" morphs, however, was questioned by some later studies. Kenneth Carpenter, in a 2010 study, found that short-snouted individuals of "Allosaurus" from the Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry represent cases of extreme individual variation rather than a separate taxon. Furthermore, the skull of USNM 4734 from the Garden Park locality, which formed the basis for Henderson's analysis of the short-snouted morph, was later found to have been reconstructed too short. In a 2004 study, Robert Bakker and Gary
Ceratosaurus
13300636
Cycle time variation Cycle time variation is a metric and philosophy for continuous improvement with the aim of driving down the deviations in the time it takes to produce successive units on a production line. It supports organizations' application of lean manufacturing or lean production by eliminating wasteful expenditure of resources. It is distinguished from some of the more common applications by its different focus of creating a structure for progressively reducing the sources of internal variation that leads to workarounds and disruption causing these wastes to accumulate in the first place. Although it is often used as an indicator
Cycle time variation
15955404
as vestiges of a system of grammatical voice ("centripetal voice" vs. "centrifugal voice"). Basic conjugational endings are as follows: Hittite grammar The grammar of the Hittite language has a highly conservative verbal system and rich nominal declension. The language is attested in cuneiform, and is the earliest attested Indo-European language. The Hittite nominal system consists of the following cases: nominative, accusative, dative-locative, genitive, allative, ablative, and instrumental, and distinguishes between two numbers (singular and plural) and two genders, common (animate) and neuter (inanimate). The distinction between genders is fairly rudimentary, with a distinction generally being made only in the nominative
Hittite grammar
3750162
was no need to distinguish between "statements" and "expressions"; thus, the two constructs and were equivalent (note the use of close, as endif hadn't been invented yet). There were no special language constructs for creating arrays or record structures as they are commonly understood: instead, these were created with the aid of special builtin functions, e.g. newarray (for arrays that could contain any type of item) and newanyarray for creating restricted types of items. Thus, array element and record field accessors were simply special cases of a "doublet function": this was a function that had another function attached as its
POP-2
19940132
altitudinal gradient having an effect on growth rate (see Examples section). The following are among the discovered cases of countergradient variation. The species name is followed by the trait affected and the environmental gradient studied. Countergradient variation is the opposite of cogradient variation, in which the environmental effect on the phenotype enhances the genetic effect on the phenotype. One common way to test for both of these patterns is with transplant experiments. By bringing the two populations to the same environment, the environmental effect on phenotype is eliminated and only the genetic effect will cause variation. If cogradient variation is
Countergradient variation
13300637
of lean progress, its use promotes a structured approach to reducing disruption that impacts efficiency, quality, and value. Cycle time variation Cycle time variation is a metric and philosophy for continuous improvement with the aim of driving down the deviations in the time it takes to produce successive units on a production line. It supports organizations' application of lean manufacturing or lean production by eliminating wasteful expenditure of resources. It is distinguished from some of the more common applications by its different focus of creating a structure for progressively reducing the sources of internal variation that leads to workarounds and
Cycle time variation
5127367
a political focal point of everyday Quechua life. The Kichwa ethnic groups of Ecuador which are part of the ECUARUNARI association were recently able to regain communal land titles or the return of estates—in some cases through militant activity. Especially the case of the community of Sarayaku has become well known among the Kichwa of the lowlands, who after years of struggle were able to successfully resist expropriation and exploitation of the rain forest for petroleum recovery. A distinction is made between two primary types of joint work. In the case of "mink'a", people work together for projects of common
Quechua people
3568926
also used with plurale tantum nouns instead of plural words ("keli", "abu", "du", "trys" and so on), in which case they indicate not the plural of groups, but just the semantic plural or singular (a word "vieneri" – 'one' only) of the noun. Examples of the locative cases: The later three locatives are adverb-forming cases. Lithuanian grammar makes a distinction between proper and common nouns. Only proper nouns are capitalized. Some nouns, for example sun and moon, can be both proper and common. There are no articles in Lithuanian. The genders of nouns are masculine and feminine. A rough rule
Lithuanian grammar
4425394
vowel. See weak vowel merger. This vowel is sometimes informally referred to as schwi in analogy with "schwa". The letter "a" is pronounced in many words, for example, "message" , "climate" , "orange" etc. Among speakers who make this distinction, the distributions of schwa and are quite variable, and in many cases the two are in free variation: the "i" in "decimal", for example, may be pronounced with either sound. A symbolization convention recently introduced by Oxford University Press for some of their English dictionaries uses the non-IPA "compound" symbol () in words that may be pronounced with either or
Stress and vowel reduction in English
7797884
may be imposed. Special Magistrates are generally assigned cases less serious in nature, such as traffic cases, but they are also empowered to impose sentences of imprisonment. Pursuant to a general power of appointment to vacancies or on a temporary basis under section 7(3) of the District Court Ordinance, Cap. 336, the Chief Justice frequently makes short-term appointments of Permanent Magistrates to sit on the District Court. Magistrates' Court (Hong Kong) Magistrates' courts in Hong Kong are presided over by 'Permanent', 'Deputy' and 'Special' Magistrates. All must be professionally qualified. The distinction between Permanent and Deputy magistrates is merely tenure
Magistrates' Court (Hong Kong)
4548813
at practical methodologies for decision under different types of uncertainty. The difference between predictable variation and unpredictable variation is one of the fundamental issues in the philosophy of probability, and different probability interpretations treat predictable and unpredictable variation differently. The debate about the distinction has a long history. The Ellsberg paradox is based on the difference between these two types of imperfect knowledge, and the problems it poses for utility theory – one is faced with an urn that contains 30 red balls and 60 balls that are either all yellow or all black, and one then draws a ball
Knightian uncertainty
6589133
of them. The earliest implicit traces of mathematical induction can be found in Euclid's proof that the number of primes is infinite (c. 300 BCE). The first explicit formulation of the principle of induction was given by Pascal in his "Traité du triangle arithmétique" (1665). In between, implicit proof by induction for arithmetic sequences was introduced by al-Karaji (c. 1000) and continued by al-Samaw'al, who used it for special cases of the binomial theorem and properties of Pascal's triangle. The Greeks had discovered irrational numbers, but were not happy with them and only able to cope by drawing a distinction
Mathematics in medieval Islam
2102466
a common observational plane. For example, when Kepler and Tycho Brahe are trying to explain the relative variation of the distance of the sun from the horizon at sunrise, both see the same thing (the same configuration is focused on the retina of each individual). This is just one example of the fact that "rival scientific theories share some observations, and therefore some meanings." Kordig suggests that with this approach, he is not reintroducing the distinction between observations and theory in which the former is assigned a privileged and neutral status, but that it is possible to affirm more simply
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
3527488
value sought by a real estate appraisal. Some of the most common are: There can be differences between what the property is really worth (market value) and what it cost to buy it (price). A price paid might not represent that property's market value. Sometimes, special considerations may have been present, such as a special relationship between the buyer and the seller where one party had control or significant influence over the other party. In other cases, the transaction may have been just one of several properties sold or traded between two parties. In such cases, the price paid for
Real estate appraisal
17182312
by J. R. R. Tolkien, and the special vowel signs used in the Franks casket inscription. The distinction made by Unicode between character and glyph variant is somewhat problematic in the case of the runes; the reason is the high degree of variation of letter shapes in historical inscriptions, with many "characters" appearing in highly variant shapes, and many specific shapes taking the role of a number of different characters over the period of runic use (roughly the 3rd to 14th centuries AD). The division between Elder Futhark, Younger Futhark and Anglo-Saxon runes are well-established and useful categories, but they
Runic (Unicode block)
3700674
mere receipt of a benefit from another is unobjectionable and does not attract legal consequences. The exception is where such receipt is 'unjust' or 'unjustified'. Both civilian and common law legal systems have bodies of law providing remedies to reverse such enrichment. A conceptual split, albeit one not necessarily coextensive with the civilian-common law distinction, is between systems based on an "unjust factor" approach and systems based on an "absence of basis" approach. In most cases, the conceptual approach does not affect the outcome of a case. For example, suppose that A makes an oral contract with B under which
Unjust enrichment
16581657
the special demonstrative pronouns ар "he", мор "that", мыр "this", ахэр, мыхэр "they, that" are used. For Circassian personal pronouns there is no contrast between the nominative and ergative grammatical cases (like it is with Circassian nouns). These two grammatical cases merge into one common case, so personal pronouns have only three different cases: absolutive /ergative, instrumental, adverbial. Grammatical cases of personal pronouns: In a sentence a personal pronoun usually plays role of subject or object: Demonstrative pronouns are мы "this", мо "that", а "that". There is a contradistinction between "мы" and "мо" on how far the referred object is.
Adyghe grammar
101555
"weak" stems inflected through affixation (e.g. "skib/skibe" "ship/ships", "kvinde/kvinder" "woman/women"). Standard Danish has two nominal genders: "common" and "neuter"; the common gender arose as the historical feminine and masculine genders conflated into a single category. Some traditional dialects retain a three-way gender distinction, between masculine, feminine and neuter, and some dialects of Jutland have a masculine/feminine contrast. While the majority of Danish nouns (ca. 75%) have the "common" gender, and "neuter" is often used for inanimate objects, the genders of nouns are not generally predictable and must in most cases be memorized. The gender of a noun determines the form
Danish language
4158436
early before dentals, as in чёрт "čort" / czart "devil", but otherwise has been preserved in Polish and in many Russian dialects, as well as for some older standard speakers, who pronounce верх as "ver'h" (cf. Polish wierzch). In many cases palatalization was analogically restored later, particularly in Russian. Russian has also introduced an unusual four-way distinction between non-palatal "C", palatal "C'," the sequence "C'j" of palatal + (from Common Slavic *Cьj with weak ь), and the sequence "Cj" of non-palatal + (only across a clear morpheme boundary, when a prefix is followed by a morpheme-initial ); however, only dentals
History of the Slavic languages
9314690
the equating of tests administered to groups with similar abilities; for example, two tests administered to students in the same grade in two consecutive calendar years. Different tests are used to avoid practice effects. In terms of item response theory, equating is just a special case of the more general process of "scaling", applicable when more than one test is used. In practice, though, scaling is often implemented separately for different tests and then the scales subsequently equated. A distinction is often made between two methods of equating; "common person" and "common item" equating. Common person equating involves the administration
Equating
18027625
"Mukti Bahini" who were seeking their revenge on Pakistani servicemen. In December 1971, the Provisional Government of Bangladesh had shown their intention to India regarding the war prisoners, creating controversy between the India and Bangladesh, as Bangladeshis wanting to hold the cases on the Pakistani servicemen who would be charge with the crimes against humanity in their special courts, and strongly opposed the Indian Army's plan for transferring of war prisoners. From 1971 till 1972, the Indian Army quickly transferred the war prisoners to their special war camps in different parts of India through train and air transportation, mainly due
Prisoners of war during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
4176348
in Turkey, including against Armenians and against Jews. The report says "If one goes through the press in Turkey, one would easily find cases of racism and hate speech, particularly in response to the deplorable carnage and suffering in Gaza. These are the cases in which there is no longer a distinction between criticizing and condemning Israel's acts and placing Jews on the firing line." Mistreatment of religious minorities is a common problem in Turkey and is sometimes sanctioned by the state's leadership. Christians for example live in fear of persecution and suffer from discriminatory laws that give non-Muslims disadvantages
Human rights in Turkey
8021679
the process for creating Interactive Design whereas Crawford gives us a straightforward understanding of the theory and definition of Interactive Design. Interactive design Interactive Design is defined as a user-oriented field of study that focuses on meaningful communication of media through cyclical and collaborative processes between people and technology. Successful interactive designs have simple, clearly defined goals, a strong purpose and intuitive screen interface. In some cases Interactive Design is equated to Interaction Design, however in the specialized study of Interactive Design there are defined differences. To assist in this distinction, Interaction Design can be thought of as: Whereas Interactive
Interactive design
531743
people, "west men", which subsequently gave its name to the Icelandic island of Vestmannaeyjar. While "Éire" is simply the name for the island of Ireland in the Irish language, and sometimes used in English, "Erin" is a common poetic name for Ireland, as in "Erin go bragh". The distinction between the two is one of the difference between cases of nouns in Irish. "Éire" is the nominative case, the case that (in the modern Gaelic languages) is used for nouns that are the subject of a sentence, i.e., the noun that is "doing" something as well as the direct object
Éire
8447372
God that there is no distinction between the two. Both pairs - matter & form and essence & being - are special cases of potency and act. They are also modes: modes do not add anything to the idea of being, but are ways of making explicit what is implicit in it. Actus purus In scholastic philosophy, actus purus ( literally "pure act") is the absolute perfection of God. Created beings have potentiality that is not actuality, imperfections as well as perfection. Only God is simultaneously all that He can be, infinitely real and infinitely perfect: 'I am who I
Actus purus
13945398
investigation, and it becomes apparent that the two cases are linked to a gas attack in a Baltimore church five years earlier that killed six people. The investigation leads to the mastermind behind all of the attacks, an anarchist and Special Forces Vietnam War colonel named Alexander Rausch, who reveals that his bomb attacks on black communities were motivated by a desire to start a race war. Though Rausch is in the custody of the Baltimore police, NYC Assistant District Attorney Claire Kincaid demands extradition, creating tension between Pembleton/Bayliss and Briscoe/Curtis and starting a court battle between Kincaid and Baltimore
For God and Country (Homicide: Life on the Street)
15885628
and (3) a personal right possessed by the applicant must have been violated. The Court also suggested that the same test applied to applications for prerogative orders. The legal position on public standing in administrative law cases is indeterminate as, to date, no applicant has sought to rely on public standing to obtain leave for judicial review. In constitutional law cases, the Court has drawn a distinction between public and private rights, and held that people will not have standing to vindicate public rights unless they have suffered special damage and have genuine private interests to protect or further. For
Threshold issues in Singapore administrative law
16226622
such short supply. After Olga had been several weeks in the camp, a call came for internees with medical experience. Olga was one of the women drafted to work at the new, but ramshackle, infirmary. With a staff of five for circa 35,000 women the work load was overwhelming. What disturbed Olga the most was the treatment of contagious cases, who were sent to the hospital where selections for the gas chamber were frequent. Olga makes a distinction between organization (stealing from the Germans) and common thievery from fellow inmates. Items stolen from Canada, the name of the service depot
Five Chimneys
635419
Trumbull. In addition to developing his own motion-control system, Trumbull also developed techniques for creating intentional "lens flare" (the shapes created by light reflecting in camera lenses) to provide the film's undefinable shapes of flying saucers. The success of these films, and others since, has prompted massive studio investment in effects-heavy science-fiction films. This has fueled the establishment of many independent effects houses, a tremendous degree of refinement of existing techniques, and the development of new techniques such as CGI. It has also encouraged within the industry a greater distinction between special effects and visual effects; the latter is used
Special effect
7626285
and these selective pressures are sometimes specific to one region. Genetic variation among humans occurs on many scales, from gross alterations in the human karyotype to single nucleotide changes. Chromosome abnormalities are detected in 1 of 160 live human births. Apart from sex chromosome disorders, most cases of aneuploidy result in death of the developing fetus (miscarriage); the most common extra autosomal chromosomes among live births are 21, 18 and 13. Nucleotide diversity is the average proportion of nucleotides that differ between two individuals. As of 2004, the human nucleotide diversity was estimated to be 0.1% to 0.4% of base
Human genetic variation
11405021
Daniel is credited with creating the bugle call ""Taps"", a variation of a bugle call known as the ""Scott Tattoo"", in 1862. John Butterfield (stagecoach operator) John Butterfield (1801–1869) was an operator of stagecoach and freight lines in the mid-19th century in the American Northeast and Southwest. He founded companies that became American Express and Wells Fargo. Butterfield also founded the Butterfield Overland Express and from 1858 to 1861 operated a stage route running from St. Louis to San Francisco, establishing an important connection between the new state of California and the government and economy of the contiguous eastern states.
John Butterfield (stagecoach operator)
2541292
terms of sample variance, is not used as this estimates the total squared-error loss from both common- and special-causes of variation. An alternative method is to use the relationship between the range of a sample and its standard deviation derived by Leonard H. C. Tippett, as an estimator which tends to be less influenced by the extreme observations which typify special-causes. The most common sets are: There has been particular controversy as to how long a run of observations, all on the same side of the centre line, should count as a signal, with 6, 7, 8 and 9 all
Control chart
12135227
of the infantry meant that a distinction was created between normal battalions, which were carried in lorries and often possessed heavy weaponry, and those battalions which did not use them due to terrain or supply conditions. At the same time, the war saw the appearance of new parachute infantry, mountain infantry and special forces units, all lightly equipped and often non-motorised. In some cases, new infantry regiments were formed to take on these roles - the Parachute Regiment and the Special Air Service Regiment both serve as specialist light infantry to this day. In other cases, however, existing infantry battalions
History of British light infantry
8878926
nouns retaining the weak declension. Feminine nouns declined differently, and there was no strong-versus-weak distinction for them. Because the difference between masculine and feminine was disappearing or had already disappeared in the spoken language, some nouns tended to mix masculine and feminine endings. One will come across fixed expressions such as "te zijner tijd" (feminine dative singular) alongside "destijds" (masculine genitive singular). This confusion was largely eliminated when cases were abolished, but on the occasion that cases are used in modern Dutch, this confusion is very frequent in areas where the spoken language has only a single "common" gender. Thus,
Archaic Dutch declension
7300509
fourteen years (section 2). In 19th-century America, there was little regulation of abortion, in the tradition of English common law, pre quickening abortions were considered at most a misdemeanor. These cases proved difficult to prosecute as the testimony of the mother was usually the only means to determine when quickening had occurred. The law was amended in 1828 and 1837 – the latter removed the distinction between women who were quick with child (late pregnancy) and those who were not. It also eliminated the death penalty as a possible punishment. The latter half of the 19th century saw abortion become
History of abortion
1615648
to neglect nominative case as well, and instead focused on creating different semantic classes for other cases, such as 'Dative of Possession.' Because there have been several such problems analyzing case role cross-linguistically when using one language as a standard, it is not common practice to take traditional Latin or Greek classifications. Instead, the particular languages' syntactic structure forms the base for analyzing semantic value and case role in that language. Also, there are still questions regarding case morphology. One approach to defining case morphology is to say that it is the presence of some special morphology, the shape of
Case role
656803
a similar pronouncement in "The Histories" of Herodotus, where he makes a distinction between the "ideal" temperate climate of Greece as opposed to the overly cold climate of Scythia and the overly warm climate of Egypt. This was a common belief at the time, and can also be found within the medical writings of Herodotus' times, including the "On Airs, Waters, Places" of the Hippocratic corpus. One can find a similar statement in "Germania" by Tacitus, one of Montesquieu's favorite authors. Philip M. Parker in his book "Physioeconomics" endorses Montesquieu's theory and argues that much of the economic variation between
Montesquieu
19407249
indirectly had cut back on the contributory infringement doctrine." This group "criticized several decisions, including "Leitch" and "Carbice" as well as the two "Mercoids"... [and] went on to explain that the proposed legislation was designed to counteract this effect by providing that... enforcement of the right to be protected against contributory infringement... shall not be regarded as misuse of the patent." Giles Rich, then a prominent New York patent lawyer, testified that the proper distinction was that between the "Carbice" and "Mercoid" cases, stressing the staple-nonstaple distinction between dry ice and the special stoker switch without any noninfringing use was
Dawson Chemical Co. v. Rohm & Haas Co.
11553085
Stan Smith (economist) Stan V. Smith Ph.D. is an American economist trained at the University of Chicago who is credited with coining the term and creating the arguments that launched the hedonic damages theory into the mainstream of legal economics in the 1985 court case "Sherrod v. Berry". Now president of a Chicago economic litigation support firm, Smith Economics Group, Ltd. he provides expert testimony in court cases nationwide on all issues of economic damages, from commercial damages (antitrust, patent and business valuation, breach of contract, etc.) to personal injury damages, including cases where it can be argued the quality
Stan Smith (economist)
3173032
church services on Sunday, these early Christians would hold special commemorative occasions during the week. There was a sharp distinction drawn between remembering and praying on behalf of the dead, and those who were the faithfully' departed", where Christians would only pray for those who had died as believers. The First Epistle of Clement (95 AD) contains a prayer, while mainly for protection for the living, also includes the dead. Even quite early, a distinction was drawn between those who had died as Christians, and those who had died as unbelievers. In the "Martyrdom of Polycarp" (155 AD), Polycarp is
Intercession
3803235
frameworks and social conventions regarding segregation. A gated community today is a controlled neighborhood, inhabited by people with common interests, such as safety, or class separation, but not necessarily of the same ethnicity or religion—it is distinct from an international community (in most cases). Gated communities are very controversial, as they can be seen as encouraging distinction and separation, and therefore superiority from those who do not live with the gates community. Voluntary segregation is almost as common an occurrence as involuntary segregation is. Often, immigrants coming to a new and foreign country will band together for mutual benefit, and
Geographical segregation
7907391
Domenico Barbaia Domenico Barbaia (also spelled Barbaja; 10 August 1777 – 19 October 1841) was best known as an opera Italian impresario. An energetic man, Barbaia, who was born in Milan, began his career by running a coffee shop. He made his first fortune by creating (or at least taking the credit for creating) a special kind of coffee with frothing milk, the "Barbajada", probably the first "cappuccino." This drink, and a variation with hot chocolate like Bicerin, became so popular in Milan that the erstwhile waiter was able to open a string of coffee houses in the city that
Domenico Barbaia
11951220
coordinates to events far from himself by observing (literally seeing) coincidences between those events and local features of the reference body. This distinction between observer and the observer's "apparatus" like coordinate systems, measurement tools "etc." was dropped by many later writers, and today it is common to find the term "observer" used to imply an observer's associated coordinate system (usually assumed to be a coordinate lattice constructed from an orthonormal right-handed set of spacelike vectors perpendicular to a timelike vector (a frame field), see Doran). Where Einstein referred to "an observer who takes the train as his reference body" or
Observer (special relativity)
11441003
such that "f"(1) = 0, the "f"-divergence of "P" from "Q" is defined as If "P" and "Q" are both absolutely continuous with respect to a reference distribution "μ" on Ω then their probability densities "p" and "q" satisfy "dP = p dμ" and "dQ = q dμ". In this case the "f"-divergence can be written as The f-divergences can be expressed using Taylor series and rewritten using a weighted sum of chi-type distances (). Many common divergences, such as KL-divergence, Hellinger distance, and total variation distance, are special cases of "f"-divergence, coinciding with a particular choice of "f". The
F-divergence
5410125
in trying to reconcile the tensions associated with moral luck by introducing the concept of a virtuous agent. A virtuous agent should accept that they have a special connection with the consequences of their actions, including equal-fault cases (such as the lucky/unlucky drivers above), and even in no-fault cases. This argument essentially retains the rationalist claim that equal fault is equally deserving of blame while also retaining the consequentialist claim that different outcomes should result in moral agents feeling and acting differently. It is important to underline the distinction between internal and external moral blame or praise. Wolf believes that
Moral luck
13015210
and motion, including the distinction between the animal-like judgement of sense perception, a special separate common sense, and the human mind or , which Descartes had retained from Aristotelianism. In contrast to Descartes who "found it unacceptable to assume that sensory representations may enter the mental realm from without"... But Descartes used two different terms in his work, not only the Latin term "", but also the French term , with which he opens his "Discourse on Method". And this second concept survived better. This work was written in French, and does not directly discuss the Aristotelian technical theory of
Common sense
9232534
pathologists whose daily work consisted of the study of cases that are difficult to diagnose owing to their rarity or their variation from the ordinary. The accumulation of such cases has resulted in a rich repository of lesions, numbering over three million, that have been the basis of major pathological studies. Examples are the published reports on the clinical, pathological, and molecular characteristics of the relatively newly recognized gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Another special feature of the AFIP was the interaction between its departments in analyzing complex cases. The AFIP's diagnostic departments were based on organ sites—e.g., dermatological, hepatic, gastrointestinal, genitourinary,
Armed Forces Institute of Pathology
14368414
often argued that knowledge of the theorem predates him, the theorem is named after the ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras ( 570–495 BC) as it is he who, by tradition, is credited with its first proof, although no evidence of it exists. There is some evidence that Babylonian mathematicians understood the formula, although little of it indicates an application within a mathematical framework. Mesopotamian, Indian and Chinese mathematicians all discovered the theorem independently and, in some cases, provided proofs for special cases. The theorem has been given numerous proofspossibly the most for any mathematical theorem. They are very diverse, including both
Pythagorean theorem
10013394
the bowel widthwise (picture), thus, having the effect of widening the segment of narrowed bowel, therefore resolving the stricture. The Finney Strictureplasty is the most common intermediate strictureplasty. Indicated for strictures up to 15 centimeters, the Finney Strictureplasty is performed by folding the diseased bowel on itself and creating a large opening between the two loops. For multiple strictures or for longer strictures neither the conventional nor the intermediate strictureplasties are suitable. In these cases surgeons need to use complex procedures. The most common complex strictureplasty is the Michelassi Strictureplasty. In this strictureplasty the long loop of the bowel affected
Strictureplasty
12911520
credited with persuading the state legislature to double the financing of the court system and pass other reform measures creating special purpose courts and updating the jury system. Justice Lippman wrote a summary of this work in January 2009 in the New York Law Journal. His resume as an appellate judge has been described as "thin," but in the 20 months that he was Presiding Justice of the Appellate Division, First Department he presided over more than 2,000 cases and wrote 14 opinions. Under Chief Judge Lippman, the number of non-unanimous rulings made by the Court of Appeals has been
Jonathan Lippman
20643115
Post-traumatic arthritis Post-traumatic arthritis (PTA) is a form of osteoarthritis following an injury to a joint. Post-traumatic arthritis is a form of osteoarthritis and the former can occur after the latter. However, post-traumatic arthritis can also occur after the development of chronic inflammatory arthritis. Generally, post-traumatic arthritis is classified in two groups: post-traumatic osteoarthritis and post-traumatic inflammatory arthritis. Post-traumatic osteoarthritis is the most common variation of post-traumatic arthritis. Between 20 and 50% of all osteoarthritis cases are preceded by post-traumatic arthritis. Patients having post-traumatic osteoarthritis are usually younger than osteoarthritis patients without any previous physical injuries. Less common is post-traumatic
Post-traumatic arthritis
1266782
the means to achieve them. The management's only responsibility among self-directing teams is the creating the team's organizational context. Self-directed teams offer the most potential for innovation, enhance goal commitment and motivation, and provide opportunity for organizational learning and change. One common distinction is drawn between interdependent and independent teams. The difference is determined by the actions that the team members take while working. A rugby team provides a clear example of an interdependent team: On the other hand, a track-and-field team is a classic example of an independent team: If all team members each perform the same basic tasks,
Team
4747936
Thing theory Thing theory is a branch of critical theory that focuses on human–object interactions in literature and culture. It borrows from Heidegger's distinction between objects and things, which posits that an object becomes a thing when it can no longer serve its common function. When an object breaks down or is misused, it sheds its socially encoded value and becomes present to us in new ways through the suspension of habit. The theory was largely created by Bill Brown, who edited a special issue of "Critical Inquiry" on it in 2001 and published a monograph on the subject entitled
Thing theory
11042914
man who had suffered from seizures and delirium. Until the second half of the 20th century it remained a diagnosis generally made after death. In the 1940s, reports by Dr Charles Symonds and others allowed for the clinical diagnosis of cerebral venous thrombosis, using characteristic signs and symptoms and results of lumbar puncture. Improvements on the diagnosis of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in life were made with the introduction of venography in 1951, which also aided in the distinction from idiopathic intracranial hypertension, which has similar presenting signs and symptoms in many cases. The British gynecologist Stansfield is credited with
Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis
9197166
are two distinct social agendas. The word "chinilpa" for who collaborated with the Imperial Japanese first appears in "chinilmunhangnon" (Comments on Chinil Literature, 친일문학론, 1966), written by Im Jong Guk, who was an activist of Korea. Before its publication, it was common to call them "builbae" (Korean: 부일배; Hanja: 附日輩; literally "people who collaborated with Japan"), especially criticizing Korean Leadership. "Banmin Teugwi," the Special Committee mentioned above, was set up in 1948 under the rule of Syngman Rhee. It handled 682 cases; 559 cases were handed over to a special prosecutor's office, which handed down indictments in 221 cases. A
Chinilpa
10548496
The Toy Industry Association gave Bakugan Battle Brawlers the 2009 Property of the Year award, recognizing the property that has had the greatest success spreading its brand throughout the industry that year. The card game is played with a deck of 56 cards, consisting of 5 each of ranks 1-10, plus six additional cards which have special abilities in addition to a rank. There is no suit distinction. Although it's conceptually a trick-taking game, the player who wins the trick only saves one card on his score pile, discarding the rest; this allows for special cases where there is no
Bakugan Battle Brawlers
7003919
the early 19th century had red facings, with only numbers to distinguish one regiment from another. The voltigeurs had yellow or/and green facings. From 1854 on red facings became universal for all of the line infantry who made up the bulk of the French metropolitan Army, although the Chasseurs, who constituted a separate branch, retained yellow facings as a special distinction. The standard red jacket ("redcoat") worn by British infantry soldiers from the mid-17th century made it difficult to distinguish between units engaged in battle. The use of colour assisted soldiers in rallying on a common point, and each regiment
Facing colour
15429883
experts on ergonomics attempted to establish one correct sitting posture. Peter Opsvik’s contribution has been to create products that inspire variation between many different postures while using the same chair. Opsvik questioned the notion of body support as a necessity for comfortable sitting by asking if freedom can be as important as support; freedom to move and find alternative sitting postures. Creating sitting solutions that inspire movement and variations of posture can be seen as a key factor in his work. He uses different concepts to achieve dynamic sitting. Common to them all is the fact that being in balance
Peter Opsvik
910179
In many cases the pronunciations diverged due to subsequent sound change. For example, many additional readings have the Middle Chinese departing tone, the major source of the 4th tone in modern Standard Chinese. Scholars now believe that this tone is the reflex of an Old Chinese *-s suffix, with a range of semantic functions. For example, Another common alternation is between voiced and voiceless initials (though the voicing distinction has disappeared on most modern varieties). This is believed to reflect an ancient prefix, but scholars disagree on whether the voiced or voiceless form is the original root. For example, Chinese
Chinese characters
13973870
Pan-Slavic language projects were mostly the domain of Slovenes and Croats. In this era of awakening national consciousness, the Russians were the only Slavs who had their own state; other Slavic peoples inhabited large, mostly non-Slavic states, and clear borders between the various nations were mostly lacking. Among the numerous efforts at creating written standards for the South Slavic languages there were also efforts at establishing a common South Slavic language, Illyrian, that might also serve as a literary language for all Slavs in the future. Of special importance is the work of Matija Majar (1809–1892), a Slovenian Austroslavist who
Interslavic language
8842599
Round square copula The "round square copula" is a common example of the dual copula strategy used in reference to the problem of nonexistent objects as well as their relation to problems in modern philosophy of language. The issue arose, most notably, between the theories of Alexius Meinong, Bertrand Russell—Gilbert Ryle playing a minor part as well in the eventual dismissal of Meinong's object theory (see Meinong's 1904 book, "Theory of Objects"). The strategy employed is the dual copula strategy, which is used to make a distinction between relations of properties and individuals. It entails creating a sentence that isn't
Round square copula
4461325
prepositions to mark possession, depending on alienability: a (alienable "of") is used to indicate alienable possession, as in (13a) and (14a), and o (inalienable "of") indicates inalienable possession. However, the distinction between a (alienable "of") and o (inalienable "of") is used for other semantic distinctions that are less clearly attributable to common alienability relationships except metaphorically. Although "lei" is a tangible object, in Hawaiian it can be either alienable (15a) or inalienable (15b), depending on the context. Subtler cases of syntactic patterns sensitive to alienability are found in many languages. For example, French can use a definite article, rather than
Inalienable possession