when was vitamin c discovered and by whom
1928 to 1932
445263
developed the concept of vitamins. One of these was thought to be the anti-scorbutic factor. In 1928, this was referred to as "water-soluble C," although its chemical structure had not been determined. From 1928 to 1932, Albert Szent-Györgyi and Joseph L. Svirbely's Hungarian team, and Charles Glen King's American team, identified the anti-scorbutic factor. Szent-Györgyi isolated hexuronic acid from animal adrenal glands, and suspected it to be the antiscorbutic factor. In late 1931, Szent-Györgyi gave Svirbely the last of his adrenal-derived hexuronic acid with the suggestion that it might be the anti-scorbutic factor. By the spring of 1932, King's laboratory
Vitamin C
445262
the inexpensive mass-production of vitamin C. In 1934 Hoffmann–La Roche trademarked synthetic vitamin C under the brand name Redoxon and began to market it as a dietary supplement. In 1907 a laboratory animal model which would help to identify the antiscorbutic factor was discovered by the Norwegian physicians Axel Holst and Theodor Frølich, who when studying shipboard beriberi, fed guinea pigs their test diet of grains and flour and were surprised when scurvy resulted instead of beriberi. By luck, this species did not make its own vitamin C, whereas mice and rats do. In 1912, the Polish biochemist Casimir Funk
Vitamin C
4445313
Redoxon Redoxon was the brand name of the first artificially synthesized ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Redoxon was first marketed to the general public by Hoffman-La Roche in 1934, making it the first mass-manufactured synthetic vitamin in history. The brand is now owned by German pharmaceutical company Bayer and is sold in many countries. The product was developed by a team headed by chemist Tadeusz Reichstein, who discovered a method of synthesizing 30-40 grams of vitamin C from 100 grams of glucose. This used an intermediate step of creating sorbose using a bacterial fermentation method discovered by a French researcher, Gabriel
Redoxon
445261
the Canadian Arctic anthropologist Vilhjalmur Stefansson showed that the Inuit avoid scurvy on a diet of largely raw meat. Later studies on traditional food diets of the Yukon First Nations, Dene, Inuit, and Métis of Northern Canada showed that their daily intake of vitamin C averaged between 52 and 62 mg/day, comparable with the Estimated Average Requirement. Vitamin C was discovered in 1912, isolated in 1928 and synthesized in 1933, making it the first vitamin to be synthesized. Shortly thereafter Tadeus Reichstein succeeded in synthesizing the vitamin in bulk by what is now called the Reichstein process. This made possible
Vitamin C
445197
cause gastrointestinal discomfort, headache, trouble sleeping, and flushing of the skin. Normal doses are safe during pregnancy. The United States Institute of Medicine recommends against taking large doses. Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue and the enzymatic production of certain neurotransmitters. It is required for the functioning of several enzymes and is important for immune system function. It also functions as an antioxidant. Foods containing vitamin C include citrus fruits, kiwifruit, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, raw bell peppers, and strawberries. Prolonged storage or cooking may reduce vitamin C content in foods. Vitamin C was discovered
Vitamin C
445204
the scorbutic diet was fed. Men in both studies on a diet devoid, or nearly devoid, of vitamin C had blood levels of vitamin C too low to be accurately measured when they developed signs of scurvy and, in the Iowa study, at this time were estimated (by labeled vitamin C dilution) to have a body pool of less than 300 mg, with daily turnover of only 2.5 mg/day, implying an instantaneous half-life of 83 days by this time (elimination constant of 4 months). Vitamin C has a definitive role in treating scurvy, which is a disease caused by vitamin
Vitamin C
2020173
recognition for its high degree of diversity. Vitamin E was co-discovered by UA Agricultural Chemistry Professor Barnett Sure (1920–51). Sure, along with fellow professor Marinus C. Kik (1927–67) made major advances in nutrition science during their long tenures at the University of Arkansas. Sure co-discovered vitamin E, and extended knowledge of how vitamin E, amino acids and B-vitamins function on reproduction and lactation. Kik developed the process for parboiling rice (a major agricultural crop in the state) to increase retention of vitamins and shorten cooking time. He documented benefits of adding fish and chicken to rice and grain diets to
University of Arkansas
2868698
Stacey (who in 1956 rose to the same Mason Chair), having properly deduced the correct structure and optical-isomeric nature of vitamin C, Haworth reported the synthesis of the vitamin. Haworth had been given his initial reference sample of "water-soluble vitamin C" or "hexuronic acid" (the previous name for the compound as extracted from natural products) by Hungarian physiologist Albert Szent-György, who had codiscovered its vitamin properties along with Charles Glen King, and had more recently discovered that it could be extracted in bulk from Hungarian paprika. In honour of the compound's antiscorbutic properties, Haworth and Szent-Györgyi now proposed the new
Norman Haworth
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Szent-Györgyi was awarded the 1937 Nobel Prize in Medicine, and Haworth shared that year's Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In 1957, J.J. Burns showed that some mammals are susceptible to scurvy as their liver does not produce the enzyme -gulonolactone oxidase, the last of the chain of four enzymes that synthesize vitamin C. American biochemist Irwin Stone was the first to exploit vitamin C for its food preservative properties. He later developed the theory that humans possess a mutated form of the -gulonolactone oxidase coding gene. In 2008, researchers at the University of Montpellier discovered that in humans and other primates
Vitamin C
9765841
with and published two articles discussing the possible relationship between lipoprotein and vitamin C with Pauling. He is an active proponent and publicist for high-dose vitamin C. Pauling's and Rath's extended theory states that deaths from scurvy in humans during the ice age, when vitamin C was scarce, selected for individuals who could repair arteries with a layer of cholesterol provided by lipoprotein(a), a lipoprotein found in vitamin C-deficient species. Stone and Pauling believed that the optimum daily requirement of vitamin C is around 2,300 milligrams for a human requiring 2,500 kcal a day. For comparison, the FDA's recommended daily
Vitamin C megadosage
11865585
by 18%. Severity was also reduced. However, if vitamin C was started only when the first symptoms of a cold were being felt, there were no benefits for duration or severity. Vitamin C and the common cold The common cold, or simply cold, is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract. The cold is indeed common, and is a significant cause for absences from work and school. Even before the discovery of vitamin C, folklore had it that certain fruits were effective in both preventing and treating the cold. After scientific identification of vitamin C in the early
Vitamin C and the common cold
380418
on a diet devoid or nearly devoid of vitamin C, had blood levels of vitamin C too low to be accurately measured when they developed signs of scurvy, and in the Iowa study, at this time were estimated (by labeled vitamin C dilution) to have a body pool of less than 300 mg, with daily turnover of only 2.5 mg/day. The vast majority of animals and plants are able to synthesize vitamin C, through a sequence of enzyme-driven steps, which convert monosaccharides to vitamin C. However, some mammals have lost the ability to synthesize vitamin C, notably simians and tarsiers.
Scurvy
10193159
vitro, making it non-infectious when injected into monkeys. In 1937, Jungeblut injected polio into the brains of monkeys, and found that many more monkeys that also received vitamin C escaped paralysis than controls - the results seemed to indicate that low doses were more effective than high doses. A subsequent study by Jungeblut demonstrated that polio infected monkeys had lower vitamin C levels than others, and that the monkeys that escaped paralysis had the highest vitamin C levels. Jungeblut subsequently confirmed his findings in a larger study, finding that natural vitamin C was more effective than synthetic vitamin C, and
History of poliomyelitis
9765835
in combination with other therapies, but this does not imply vitamin C megadoses in themselves have therapeutic effect. The World Health Organization recommends a daily intake of 45 mg/day of vitamin C for healthy adults, and 25–30 mg/day in infants. The Vitamin C article provides examples of recommendations from individual countries. None exceed 110 mg/day. Vitamin C is necessary for production of collagen and other biomolecules, and for the prevention of scurvy. Vitamin C is an antioxidant, which has led to its endorsement by some researchers as a complementary therapy for improving quality of life. Since the 1930s, when it
Vitamin C megadosage
445234
there may be other, as yet unknown functions. Consequences of all this organ content is that plasma vitamin C is not a good indicator of whole-body status, and people may vary in the amount of time needed to show symptoms of deficiency when consuming a diet very low in vitamin C. Excretion can be as ascorbic acid, via urine. In humans, during times of low dietary intake, vitamin C is reabsorbed by the kidneys rather than excreted. Only when plasma concentrations are 1.4 mg/dL or higher does re-absorption decline and the excess amounts pass freely into the urine. This salvage
Vitamin C
4395926
was the third protein ("peak C") that eluted from a DEAE-Sepharose ion-exchange chromotograph. Seegers was, at the time, searching for vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors undetected by clotting assays, which measure global clotting function. Soon after this, Seegers recognised Stenflo's discovery was identical with his own. Activated protein C was discovered later that year, and in 1977 it was first recognised that APC inactivates Factor V. In 1980, Vehar and Davie discovered that APC also inactivates Factor VIII, and soon after, Protein S was recognised as a cofactor by Walker. In 1982, a family study by Griffin "et al". first associated
Protein C
445229
the decomposition. Another cause of vitamin C being lost from food is leaching, where the water-soluble vitamin dissolves into the cooking water, which is later poured away and not consumed. However, vitamin C does not leach in all vegetables at the same rate; research shows broccoli seems to retain more than any other. Research has also shown that freshly cut fruits do not lose significant nutrients when stored in the refrigerator for a few days. Vitamin C dietary supplements are available as tablets, capsules, drink mix packets, in multi-vitamin/mineral formulations, in antioxidant formulations, and as crystalline powder. Vitamin C is
Vitamin C
1473601
a misleading manner, and claims that the drink did not encourage tooth decay should be removed from the packaging. The opinion was upheld by a hearing in the High Court. In 2003, The Food Commission in the United Kingdom criticised the sugar levels in regular Ribena as contributing to childhood obesity. In 2004, two high school students in New Zealand conducted a science experiment to determine the vitamin C levels of their favourite fruit drinks. They discovered that the "Ready to Drink Ribena" product they tested had undetectable levels of vitamin C, counter to the brand's reputation and to advertisements
Ribena
9765840
chemist Linus Pauling, after contact with Irwin Stone, began actively promoting vitamin C as a means to greatly improve human health and resistance to disease. His book "How to Live Longer and Feel Better" was a bestseller and advocated taking more than 10 grams per day orally, thus approaching the amounts released by the liver directly into the circulation in other mammals: an adult goat, a typical example of a vitamin-C-producing animal, will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health and much more when stressed. Matthias Rath is a controversial German physician who worked
Vitamin C megadosage
6589327
Emergen-C Emergen-C is an effervescent, powdered drink mix vitamin supplement manufactured by Alacer Corp. The Emergen-C product line was introduced in 1978. Alacer was established as a private company in 1972, focusing on vitamin supplements containing vitamin C. In 2012, the company was acquired by Pfizer. It contains, depending on the variety, 16 times the vitamin C, 4 times the vitamin B, and 5 times the vitamin B of the USDA Reference Daily Intake based on a 2000 calorie diet. Some versions include calcium, glucosamine, quercetin or lycopene. Studies have failed to establish evidence for the use of vitamin C
Emergen-C
445217
supplementation for achieving any potential benefit. A 2010 review found no role for vitamin C supplementation in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Vitamin C supplementation does not prevent or slow the progression of age-related cataract. Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin, with dietary excesses not absorbed, and excesses in the blood rapidly excreted in the urine, so it exhibits remarkably low acute toxicity. More than two to three grams may cause indigestion, particularly when taken on an empty stomach. However, taking vitamin C in the form of sodium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate may minimize this effect. Other symptoms reported for
Vitamin C
11253352
group (here the C5′ atom of the deoxyribose forms the covalent bond with cobalt respectively, to yield the four vitamers (forms) of B. Historically, the covalent C-Co bond is one of the first examples of carbon-metal bonds to be discovered in biology. The hydrogenases and, by necessity, enzymes associated with cobalt utilization, involve metal-carbon bonds. Vitamin B is a generic descriptor name referring to a collection of cobalt and corrin ring molecules which are defined by their particular vitamin function in the body. All of the substrate cobalt-corrin molecules from which B is made must be synthesized by bacteria. After
Vitamin B12
445266
the red blood cells have evolved a mechanism to more efficiently utilize the vitamin C present in the body by recycling oxidized -dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) back into ascorbic acid for reuse by the body. The mechanism was not found to be present in mammals that synthesize their own vitamin C. Vitamin C megadosage is a term describing the consumption or injection of vitamin C in doses comparable to or higher than the amounts produced by the livers of mammals which are able to synthesize vitamin C. The theory behind this, although not the actual term, was described in 1970 in
Vitamin C
292172
vitamins) and named vitamin C as the then-unknown substance preventing scurvy. Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Osborne also performed pioneering work on vitamins A and B. In 1919, Sir Edward Mellanby incorrectly identified rickets as a vitamin A deficiency because he could cure it in dogs with cod liver oil. In 1922, McCollum destroyed the vitamin A in cod liver oil, but found that it still cured rickets. Also in 1922, H.M. Evans and L.S. Bishop discover vitamin E as essential for rat pregnancy, originally calling it "food factor X" until 1925. In 1925, Hart discovered that trace amounts of copper
Nutrition
12705796
make the vitamin, but because diets of the primate ancestors of humans consisted of high levels of vitamin C from plant sources, the loss of that biochemical mechanism was not harmful and may have even been beneficial. He argues, however, that the subsequent shift to a high-meat, lower-plant diet resulted in widespread vitamin C deficiency. Pauling began studying vitamin C mega-dosage, and orthomolecular medicine more broadly, after he was contacted in 1966 by biochemist Irwin Stone, who suggested that taking enough vitamin C would let him live another fifty years. Pauling reinterpreted the large body of research on vitamin C
Vitamin C and the Common Cold (book)
935268
1912 Casimir Funk coined the term vitamin to label a vital factor in the diet: from the words "vital" and "amine," because these unknown substances preventing scurvy, beriberi, and pellagra, were thought then to derive from ammonia. The vitamins were studied in the first half of the 20th century. In 1913 Elmer McCollum discovered the first vitamins, fat-soluble vitamin A and water-soluble vitamin B (in 1915; later identified as a complex of several water-soluble vitamins) and named vitamin C as the then-unknown substance preventing scurvy. Lafayette Mendel (1872-1935) and Thomas Osborne (1859–1929) also performed pioneering work on vitamins A and
Human nutrition
12705799
further revision in 1981 were issued under the title "Vitamin C, the Common Cold & the Flu". The book was well received by the public and garnered considerable popular attention, resulting in a rush of vitamin C sales. Paperback editions were issued in 1971 and 1973, and Pauling subsequently authored several related books: "Vitamin C and Cancer" (1979) and "How to Live Longer and Feel Better" (1986). The book and Pauling himself faced considerable criticism from scientists and physicians. Vitamin C and the Common Cold (book) Vitamin C and the Common Cold is a popular book by Linus Pauling, first
Vitamin C and the Common Cold (book)
4445315
by Albert Szent-Györgyi that isolated vitamin C from capsicum (peppers). After the sale of the Reichstein process patent to Hoffmann-La Roche, this process became the basis of the corporation's large-scale production of vitamin C. The present-day Redoxon tablets are compounded from ascorbic acid and sodium bicarbonate. When these are added to water, they react to produce sodium ascorbate, water and carbon dioxide, thus producing an effervescence. Some versions of Redoxon contain additional nutrients. Redoxon Redoxon was the brand name of the first artificially synthesized ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Redoxon was first marketed to the general public by Hoffman-La Roche in
Redoxon
445323
word "vitamine", coined in 1912 by biochemist Casimir Funk, who isolated a complex of micronutrients essential to life, all of which he presumed to be amines. When this presumption was later determined not to be true, the "e" was dropped from the name. All vitamins were discovered (identified) between 1913 and 1948. For the most part, vitamins are obtained from the diet, but some are acquired by other means: for example, microorganisms in the gut flora produce vitamin K and biotin; and one form of vitamin D is synthesized in skin cells when they are exposed to a certain wavelength
Vitamin
988780
and vitamin K deficiency. In the medical literature, any of these may also be called by names on the pattern of "hypovitaminosis" or "avitaminosis" + "[letter of vitamin]", for example, hypovitaminosis A, hypovitaminosis C, hypovitaminosis D. Conversely hypervitaminosis is the syndrome of symptoms caused by over-retention of fat-soluble vitamins in the body. Vitamin deficiency A vitamin deficiency can cause a disease or syndrome known as an avitaminosis or hypovitaminosis. This usually refers to a long-term deficiency of a vitamin. When caused by inadequate nutrition it can be classed as a "primary deficiency", and when due to an underlying disorder such
Vitamin deficiency
9765838
States and Canada, a tolerable upper intake level (UL) was set at 2000 mg/day, referencing this mild laxative effect as the reason for establishing the UL. However, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reviewed the safety question in 2006 and reached the conclusion that there was not sufficient evidence to set a UL for vitamin C. The Japan National Institute of Health and Nutrition reviewed the same question in 2010 and also reached the conclusion that there was not sufficient evidence to set a UL. About 70-90% of vitamin C is adsorbed by the body when taken orally at normal
Vitamin C megadosage
8011844
Me, Myself & I (Vitamin C song) "Me, Myself & I" is a single by pop singer Vitamin C released in 1999. It was the second single released from her Platinum debut album "Vitamin C". The single was written by Gregg Rolie, Michael John Carabello and Thomas Coke Escovedo. The chorus contains a sample from the Santana song, "No One to Depend On", from their "Santana III" album.</small></small> "Me, Myself & I" was performed by Vitamin C on "The Amanda Show" which aired on Nickelodeon. Despite the highly positive acclaim towards the song, and though the single never broke into
Me, Myself & I (Vitamin C song)
380411
caused by ptomaine, a waste product of bacteria, particularly in tainted tinned meat. Infantile scurvy emerged in the late 19th century because children were being fed pasteurized cow's milk, particularly in the urban upper class. While pasteurization killed bacteria, it also destroyed vitamin C. This was eventually resolved by supplementing with onion juice or cooked potatoes. By the early 20th century, when Robert Falcon Scott made his first expedition to the Antarctic (1901–1904), the prevailing theory was that scurvy was caused by "ptomaine poisoning", particularly in tinned meat. However, Scott discovered that a diet of fresh meat from Antarctic seals
Scurvy
12705794
Vitamin C and the Common Cold (book) Vitamin C and the Common Cold is a popular book by Linus Pauling, first published in 1970, on vitamin C, its interactions with common cold and the role of vitamin C megadosage in human health. The book promoted the idea that taking large amounts of vitamin C could reduce the duration and severity of the common cold. A Nobel Prize-winning chemist and activist, Pauling promoted a view of vitamin C that is strongly at odds with most of the scientific community, which found little evidence for the alleged health benefits of greatly increased
Vitamin C and the Common Cold (book)
8011816
Stone"'s Neva Chonin awarded the album two and a half stars, praising the album's stylistic range but criticizing its production, which she felt "makes it difficult to tell where the cut-and-paste production ends and Vitamin C begins." Vitamin C (album) Vitamin C is the self-titled debut studio album by pop singer Vitamin C, released in 1999. The album was a runaway success. Initially failing to chart, it later climbed the "Billboard" 200 to number 29 and was certified as Gold and later certified Platinum by the RIAA. The Japanese edition featured the song "The Only One" as a bonus track.
Vitamin C (album)
445784
was made in 1938 by Smith, Warner, and Brinkhous. The precise function of vitamin K was not discovered until 1974, when three laboratories (Stenflo "et al.", Nelsestuen "et al.", and Magnusson "et al.") isolated the vitamin K-dependent coagulation factor prothrombin (factor II) from cows that received a high dose of a vitamin K antagonist, warfarin. It was shown that, while warfarin-treated cows had a form of prothrombin that contained 10 glutamate (Glu) amino acid residues near the amino terminus of this protein, the normal (untreated) cows contained 10 unusual residues that were chemically identified as γ-carboxyglutamate (Gla). The extra carboxyl
Vitamin K
479646
Pauling's work on vitamin C in his later years generated much controversy. He was first introduced to the concept of high-dose vitamin C by biochemist Irwin Stone in 1966. After becoming convinced of its worth, Pauling took 3 grams of vitamin C every day to prevent colds. Excited by his own perceived results, he researched the clinical literature and published "Vitamin C and the Common Cold" in 1970. He began a long clinical collaboration with the British cancer surgeon Ewan Cameron in 1971 on the use of intravenous and oral vitamin C as cancer therapy for terminal patients. Cameron and
Linus Pauling
2589214
Vitamin C (singer) Colleen Ann Fitzpatrick (born July 20, 1972), better known by her stage name Vitamin C, is an American pop music singer, songwriter, record producer, dancer, and actress. She began her career as an Ivory soap baby and child actress, appearing in John Waters' film "Hairspray" (1988), and continued to appear in minor roles in films before starting the alternative rock band Eve's Plum in 1991. In 1999, Fitzpatrick embarked on a solo career under the name Vitamin C, releasing her eponymous debut album "Vitamin C" (1999), which was certified as Gold and later Platinum by the RIAA.
Vitamin C (singer)
9765851
the airways as a result of vigorous exercise. EIB seems to be caused by the loss of water caused by increased ventilation, which may lead to the release of mediators such as histamine, prostaglandins and leukotrienes, all of which cause bronchoconstriction. Vitamin C participates in the metabolism of these mediators and might thereby influence EIB. A meta-analysis showed that 0.5 to 2 g/day of vitamin C before exercise decreased EIB by half. A meta-analysis showed a significant positive effect of vitamin C on endothelial function. Benefit was found of vitamin C in doses in the range from 0.5 to 4
Vitamin C megadosage
445215
A meta-analysis of 44 clinical trials has shown a significant positive effect of vitamin C on endothelial function when taken at doses greater than 500 mg per day. The endothelium is a layer of cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels. Endothelial dysfunction is implicated in many aspects of vascular diseases. The researchers noted that the effect of vitamin C supplementation appeared to be dependent on health status, with stronger effects in those at higher risk of cardiovascular disease. A 2017 systematic review found lower vitamin C concentrations in people with cognitive impairment, including Alzheimer's disease and dementia,
Vitamin C
292173
are necessary for iron absorption. In 1927, Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus synthesized vitamin D, and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1928. In 1928, Albert Szent-Györgyi isolated ascorbic acid, and in 1932 proved that it is vitamin C by preventing scurvy. In 1935, he synthesized it, and in 1937, he won a Nobel Prize for his efforts. Szent-Györgyi concurrently elucidated much of the citric acid cycle. In the 1930s, William Cumming Rose identified essential amino acids, necessary protein components that the body cannot synthesize. In 1935, Underwood and Marston independently discovered the necessity of cobalt. In 1936, Eugene
Nutrition
445205
C deficiency. Beyond that, a role for vitamin C as prevention or treatment for various diseases is disputed, with reviews reporting conflicting results. A 2012 Cochrane review reported no effect of vitamin C supplementation on overall mortality. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines as one of the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The disease scurvy is caused by vitamin C deficiency and can be prevented and treated with vitamin C-containing foods or dietary supplements. It takes at least a month of little to no vitamin C before symptoms occur. Early
Vitamin C
11865583
topic became particularly popular after 1970 when Linus Pauling, a double Nobel laureate, wrote a best-selling book, Vitamin C and the Common Cold, advocating that a daily dose of one gram of vitamin C could prevent the common cold. Pauling's book led to great interest in the topic among lay people, and also among academic circles. After Pauling's book, a number of controlled trials were carried out. However, interest lessened after the middle of the 1970s, apparently due to the publication of two reviews and one primary study which all concluded that vitamin C does not influence the common cold.
Vitamin C and the common cold
445196
Vitamin C Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid and -ascorbic acid, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement. The disease scurvy is prevented and treated with vitamin C-containing foods or dietary supplements. Evidence does not support use in the general population for the prevention of the common cold. There is, however, some evidence that regular use may shorten the length of colds. It is unclear if supplementation affects the risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, or dementia. It may be taken by mouth or by injection. Vitamin C is generally well tolerated. Large doses may
Vitamin C
33575
agents can also act as pro-oxidants. For example, vitamin C has antioxidant activity when it reduces oxidizing substances such as hydrogen peroxide, however, it will also reduce metal ions that generate free radicals through the Fenton reaction. The relative importance of the antioxidant and pro-oxidant activities of antioxidants is an area of current research, but vitamin C, which exerts its effects as a vitamin by oxidizing polypeptides, appears to have a mostly antioxidant action in the human body. However, less data is available for other dietary antioxidants, such as vitamin E, or the polyphenols. Likewise, the pathogenesis of diseases involving
Antioxidant
9765852
g/day, whereas lower doses from 0.09 to 0.5 g/day were not effective. A meta-analysis calculated that large doses of vitamin C do not prevent the common cold in the general community, although 0.25 to 1 g/day of vitamin C halved the incidence of colds in people under heavy short-term physical stress. Another meta-analysis calculated that in children 1-2 g/day vitamin C shortened the duration of colds by 18%, and in adults 1-4 g/day vitamin C shortened the duration of colds by 8%. There is evidence of linear dose-dependency in the effect of vitamin C on common cold duration up to
Vitamin C megadosage
12705797
based on comparative studies of the biochemical genetics of vitamin C synthesis in different species, as well his own theories about "molecular disease" and recent developments in molecular evolution. He criticized the design of studies that did not find positive results for vitamin C mega-dose treatment, and promoted those that did. He and other vitamin C advocates thought the vitamin boosts the body's ability to fight all kinds of infection. By 1970, after following Stone's regimen for 4 years and studying and debating the issue extensively, Pauling was sure enough that organized medicine had it wrong that he wrote "Vitamin
Vitamin C and the Common Cold (book)
8389820
"Hey you! You're losing, you're losing..." but instead of "vitamin C" the lyrics where altered to "your mind". Featured in Episode One of Netflix series The Get Down (2016) Vitamin C (song) "Vitamin C" is a song by the krautrock band Can on their 1972 album "Ege Bamyasi". It is notable for its thick bass line, bouncy percussion, and catchy chorus, which has Damo Suzuki repeating the line "Hey you! You're losing your Vitamin C". Considering its short length and relatively standard song structure, it is one of the band's more conventional songs. It was featured in Samuel Fuller's German
Vitamin C (song)
445243
synthesize vitamin C. A trace of gulonolactone oxidase was detected in only 1 of 34 bat species tested, across the range of 6 families of bats tested. There are at least two species of bats, frugivorous bat ("Rousettus leschenaultii") and insectivorous bat ("Hipposideros armiger"), that retain (or regained) their ability of vitamin C production. Some of these species (including humans) are able to make do with the lower levels available from their diets by recycling oxidised vitamin C. Most simians consume the vitamin in amounts 10 to 20 times higher than that recommended by governments for humans. This discrepancy constitutes
Vitamin C
8563265
reduced and becomes colorless, the resultant increase in light transmittance can be measured using a spectrophotometer. DCPIP can also be used as an indicator for vitamin C. If vitamin C, which is a good reducing agent, is present, the blue dye, which turns pink in acid conditions, is reduced to a colorless compound by ascorbic acid. This reaction is a redox reaction: vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid, and DCPIP is reduced to the colorless compound DCPIPH In this titration, when all the ascorbic acid in the solution has been used up, there will not be any
Dichlorophenolindophenol
4392093
Protein S Protein S (also known as S-Protein) is a vitamin K-dependent plasma glycoprotein synthesized in the liver. In the circulation, Protein S exists in two forms: a free form and a complex form bound to complement protein C4b-binding protein (C4BP). In humans, protein S is encoded by the "PROS1" gene. Protein S is named for Seattle, Washington, where it was originally discovered and purified. Protein S is partly homologous to other vitamin K-dependent plasma coagulation proteins, such as protein C and factors VII, IX, and X. Similar to them, it has a Gla domain and several EGF-like domains (four
Protein S
4392098
been shown to interact with Factor V. Protein S Protein S (also known as S-Protein) is a vitamin K-dependent plasma glycoprotein synthesized in the liver. In the circulation, Protein S exists in two forms: a free form and a complex form bound to complement protein C4b-binding protein (C4BP). In humans, protein S is encoded by the "PROS1" gene. Protein S is named for Seattle, Washington, where it was originally discovered and purified. Protein S is partly homologous to other vitamin K-dependent plasma coagulation proteins, such as protein C and factors VII, IX, and X. Similar to them, it has a
Protein S
6417741
than vitamin C" has been criticised by Ben Goldacre. Goldacre writes that Holford based this conclusion on a non-clinical study where "you tip lots of vitamin C onto HIV-infected cells and measure a few things related to HIV replication". Goldacre notes that the paper does not compare vitamin C to AZT for efficacy. He argues that "Holford was guilty of at least incompetence in claiming that this study demonstrated vitamin C to be a better treatment than AZT." Prof David Colquhoun argues that Holford's "advocacy of vitamin C as better than conventional drugs to treat Aids is truly scary". Holford
Patrick Holford
8011828
that album's sixth track as is the case for Vitamin C. The track was penciled as the album's third single, yet never materialized after Elektra Records abandoned promotion of the project. The second single, "As Long as You're Loving Me" was also included on the 2001 soundtrack to the comedy film See Spot Run More (Vitamin C album) More is the second studio album released by pop singer Vitamin C in 2001. The album was not as successful as Vitamin C's previous eponymous album both in terms of chart positions and sales. The album peaked at number 122 on the
More (Vitamin C album)
2589225
That same year Vitamin C was ranked No. 76 on the "Maxim" Hot 100 Women of 2001. Vitamin C signed with V2 Records in 2001 and began recording her third album over the course of 2002 and 2003. The first single, "Last Nite", was released in July 2003. It was a cover version of the hit song by The Strokes and sampled Blondie's "Heart of Glass", The single failed to chart in the US, and did poorly in the United Kingdom by peaking at number 70 on the UK Top 75. Her third album under the Vitamin C name was
Vitamin C (singer)
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According to the most recently published Cochrane review on vitamin C and the common cold, one gram per day or more of vitamin C does not influence common cold incidence in the general community, i.e., it does not prevent colds. However, in five randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trials with participants who were under heavy short-term physical stress—specifically marathon runners, skiers, and soldiers in subarctic conditions, vitamin C halved the incidence of colds. The same review reported that for people who took vitamin C on a regular basis, the vitamin shortened the duration of colds in adults by 8% and in children
Vitamin C and the common cold
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the Hot 100, the song peaked at #27 on the Hot 100 Singles Sales chart, #36 on the Top 40 Mainstream chart and #20 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart. The music video for the song was directed by Nigel Dick and features Johnny Knoxville. US Single US Maxi-CD Germany Maxi-CD Me, Myself & I (Vitamin C song) "Me, Myself & I" is a single by pop singer Vitamin C released in 1999. It was the second single released from her Platinum debut album "Vitamin C". The single was written by Gregg Rolie, Michael John Carabello and Thomas
Me, Myself & I (Vitamin C song)
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therapeutic use, meaning that vitamin C was not started unless the people started to feel the beginnings of a cold. In these, vitamin C did not impact duration or severity. An earlier review stated that vitamin C did not prevent colds, did reduce duration, did not reduce severity. The authors of the Cochrane review concluded that "...given the consistent effect of vitamin C on the duration and severity of colds in the regular supplementation studies, and the low cost and safety, it may be worthwhile for common cold patients to test on an individual basis whether therapeutic vitamin C is
Vitamin C
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in the lab of Elmer McCollum. When McCollum and another assistant Marguerite Davis published their discovery of what came to be called vitamin A, Steenbock thought he deserved more credit than he received. Steenbock carried on the vitamin A work in Madison, after McCollum accepted an offer from Johns Hopkins University. In 1923, Steenbock demonstrated that irradiation by ultraviolet light increased the vitamin D content of foods and other organic materials. After irradiating rodent food, Steenbock discovered that the rodents were cured of rickets. It is now known that vitamin D deficiency is a cause of rickets. Using $300 of
Harry Steenbock
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activity and thus are used synonymously with vitamin C, unless otherwise specified. Numerous analytical methods have been developed for ascorbic acid detection. For example, vitamin C content of a food sample such as fruit juice can be calculated by measuring the volume of the sample required to decolorize a solution of dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) and then calibrating the results by comparison with a known concentration of vitamin C. Simple tests are available to measure the levels of vitamin C in the urine and in serum or blood plasma. However these reflect recent dietary intake rather than total body content. It has
Vitamin C
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first became available in pure form, some physicians have experimented with higher than recommended vitamin C consumption or injection. Certain animal species, including haplorhine primates (which includes humans), members of the Caviidae family of rodents (including guinea pigs and capybaras), most species of bats, many passerine birds, and about 96% of fish (the teleosts), do not synthesize vitamin C internally. Since its discovery, vitamin C has been considered almost a panacea by some, although this led to suspicions of it being overhyped by others. Vitamin C has been promoted in alternative medicine as a treatment for the common cold, cancer,
Vitamin C megadosage
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Vitamin C (album) Vitamin C is the self-titled debut studio album by pop singer Vitamin C, released in 1999. The album was a runaway success. Initially failing to chart, it later climbed the "Billboard" 200 to number 29 and was certified as Gold and later certified Platinum by the RIAA. The Japanese edition featured the song "The Only One" as a bonus track. The album spawned two hits, the Gold-selling Top 20 hit "Smile" and the Top 40 hit "Graduation (Friends Forever)". The album features guest appearances by Lady Saw, Count Bass D, and Waymon Boone. On the track "Fear
Vitamin C (album)
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clinic not using intravenous Vitamin C, and suggested further studies into the role of vitamin C when given intravenously. Results from most clinical trials suggest that modest vitamin C supplementation alone or with other nutrients offers no benefit in the prevention of cancer. Pauling's discoveries led to decisive contributions in a diverse array of areas including around 350 publications in the fields of quantum mechanics, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, protein structure, molecular biology, and medicine. His work on chemical bonding marks him as one of the founders of modern quantum chemistry. "The Nature of the Chemical Bond" was the standard
Linus Pauling
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Charts. Kirsten Dunst and Mila Kunis both appear in the video with Vitamin C. The video includes film clips from the movie "Get Over It", which stars all three women. The song is not part of the film. The music video for the single was directed by Brothers Strause. US Promo CD US Single Europe CD Europe Maxi-CD The Itch (Vitamin C song) "The Itch" is pop singer Vitamin C's first single from her second album, "More". Vitamin C also performed the song on the sketch comedies "MADtv" and "All That". The song failed to crack the top 40 on
The Itch (Vitamin C song)
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Irwin Gunsalus Irwin C. "Gunny" Gunsalus (June 29, 1912 – October 25, 2008) was an American biochemist who discovered lipoic acid, a vitamin-like substance (an enzyme cofactor) that has been used as a treatment for chronic liver disease, and pyridoxal phosphate, one of the active forms of vitamin B. In his role as assistant secretary general at the United Nations, he led the international body's research on genetic engineering. Gunsalus was born June 29, 1912 in Sully County, South Dakota, at the homestead of his family farm. His father was killed in a threshing machine accident before Gunsalus started college.
Irwin Gunsalus
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each container, after which stores remove any unsold milk from their shelves. A side effect of the heating of pasteurization is that some vitamin and mineral content is lost. Soluble calcium and phosphorus decrease by 5%, thiamin and vitamin B12 by 10%, and vitamin C by 20%. Because losses are small in comparison to the large amount of the two B-vitamins present, milk continues to provide significant amounts of thiamin and vitamin B12. The loss of vitamin C is not nutritionally significant, as milk is not an important dietary source of vitamin C. Microfiltration is a process that partially replaces
Milk
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C in large doses. Although he claimed and stood firm in his claim that consuming over 1,000 mg is helpful for one’s immune system when fighting a head cold, the results of empirical research do not align with this view. A meta-analysis concluded that supplementary vitamin C significantly lowered serum uric acid, considered a risk factor for gout. One population study reported an inverse correlation between dietary vitamin C and risk of gout. A review of clinical trials in the treatment of colds with small and large doses of Vitamin C has established that there is no evidence that it
Megavitamin therapy
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'Orders Of Magnitude'. Vitamin C discography This article presents the discography of American pop singer Vitamin C. It includes two studio albums, 7 soundtrack songs, 6 music videos and 6 singles, including her Top 20 single on the "Billboard" Hot 100, "Smile". Her eponymous debut album, "Vitamin C", was released on August 31, 1999, via Elektra Records and Warner Music Group. The album initially was a commercial failure, not charting on the "Billboard" 200. However, eventually, it peaked at number 29 on the chart, as well as 3 on the "Billboard" Top Heatseekers chart. The album was certified Platinum by
Vitamin C discography
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signed with V2 Records to record a third album. The lead single, "Last Nite", was only released in the United Kingdom. It was a disappointment to the label after only debuting and peaking at number 70 on the UK Singles Chart. Vitamin C was then dropped from the label and no new album surfaced. As of 2012, Vitamin C is the Vice President of Music for Nickelodeon under her birth name, Colleen Fitzpatrick, according to "The Hollywood Reporter". In 2016 Fitzpatrick, under the Vitamin C moniker, appeared on the song 'Don't You Want Me' by Information Society, on their album
Vitamin C discography
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Vitamin C discography This article presents the discography of American pop singer Vitamin C. It includes two studio albums, 7 soundtrack songs, 6 music videos and 6 singles, including her Top 20 single on the "Billboard" Hot 100, "Smile". Her eponymous debut album, "Vitamin C", was released on August 31, 1999, via Elektra Records and Warner Music Group. The album initially was a commercial failure, not charting on the "Billboard" 200. However, eventually, it peaked at number 29 on the chart, as well as 3 on the "Billboard" Top Heatseekers chart. The album was certified Platinum by the RIAA. The
Vitamin C discography
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term "vitamin C" encompasses several vitamers that have vitamin C activity in animals. Ascorbate salts such as sodium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate are used in some dietary supplements. These release ascorbate upon digestion. Ascorbate and ascorbic acid are both naturally present in the body, since the forms interconvert according to pH. Oxidized forms of the molecule such as dehydroascorbic acid are converted back to ascorbic acid by reducing agents. Vitamin C is a cofactor in at least eight enzymatic reactions in animals (and humans) important in many essential functions, including wound healing. In humans, vitamin C deficiency compromises collagen synthesis,
Vitamin C
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findings for vitamin C administration in the three EIB studies, it seems reasonable for physically active people to test vitamin C when they have respiratory symptoms such as cough associated with exercise." It should be acknowledged that the total number of subjects involved in all three trials was only 40. Figure: This forest plot shows the effect of vitamin C (0.5–2 g/day) on post-exercise decline in FEV1 in three studies with asthmatic participants. Constructed from data in Fig. 4 of Hemilä (2013). The three horizontal lines indicate the three studies, and the diamond shape at the bottom indicates the pooled
Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction
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C and the Common Cold" to popularize his vitamin C message. In 1970, he found an in-depth 1942 study from public health researcher at the University of Minnesota, "Vitamins for the Prevention of Colds", which became a focal point for his subsequent criticism of what he saw as flawed vitamin C research. One chapter was added to the second edition in 1971. By 1976, following confrontations with researchers holding to the mainstream view of vitamin C, Pauling expanded the book to include evidence related to a wide variety of other illnesses, and the flu in particular. That edition and a
Vitamin C and the Common Cold (book)
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(thus, artificially increasing concentration of individual constituents like vitamin C), the data are subject to potential variation and difficulties for comparison. The amount is given in milligrams per 100 grams of the edible portion of the fruit or vegetable: Animal-sourced foods do not provide much vitamin C, and what there is, is largely destroyed by the heat of cooking. For example, raw chicken liver contains 17.9 mg/100 g, but fried, the content is reduced to 2.7 mg/100 g. Chicken eggs contain no vitamin C, raw or cooked. Vitamin C is present in human breast milk at 5.0 mg/100 g and
Vitamin C
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other haplorrhines. Since tarsiers also cannot make vitamin C, this implies the mutation had already occurred, and thus must have occurred between these two marker points (63 to 58 million years ago). One explanation for the repeated loss of the ability to synthesize vitamin C is that it was the result of genetic drift; assuming that the diet was rich in vitamin C, natural selection would not act to preserve it. Some scientists have suggested that loss of the vitamin C biosynthesis pathway may have played a role in rapid evolutionary changes, leading to hominids and the emergence of human
Vitamin C
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Mayo Clinic also concluded that high-dose (10,000 mg) vitamin C was no better than placebo at treating cancer and that there was no benefit to high-dose vitamin C. The failure of the clinical trials to demonstrate any benefit resulted in the conclusion that vitamin C was not effective in treating cancer; the medical establishment concluded that his claims that vitamin C could prevent colds or treat cancer were quackery. Pauling denounced the conclusions of these studies and handling of the final study as "fraud and deliberate misrepresentation", and criticized the studies for using oral, rather than intravenous vitamin C (which
Linus Pauling
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years later. He also continued writing and producing for other artists, including C. C. Catch (whom he discovered), Sheree (whom he signed when she was fifteen years old), and boy band Touché. In 1986, Bohlen wrote the title song "Midnight Lady" of "Tatort" episode "Der Tausch", which was performed by former Smokie singer Chris Norman and was major hit in Central Europe, topping several charts. The song appeared on Norman's second solo album "Some Hearts Are Diamonds", which was produced by Bohlen. In 1988, he wrote the title song of "Tatort" episode "Moltke", "Silent Water", which he performed himself as
Dieter Bohlen
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vitamin C, niacin (vitamin B), iron and potassium. Vitamin A, calcium and sodium are present in moderate amounts. When "M. citrifolia" juice alone is analyzed and compared to pulp powder, only vitamin C is retained in an amount (34 mg per 100 gram juice) that is 64% of the content of a raw navel orange (53 mg per 100 g or 89% of the Daily Value). Sodium levels in "M. citrifolia" juice (about 3% of Dietary Reference Intake, DRI) are high compared to an orange, and potassium content is moderate. "Morinda citrifolia" fruit contains a number of phytochemicals, including lignans,
Morinda citrifolia
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Vitamin C (song) "Vitamin C" is a song by the krautrock band Can on their 1972 album "Ege Bamyasi". It is notable for its thick bass line, bouncy percussion, and catchy chorus, which has Damo Suzuki repeating the line "Hey you! You're losing your Vitamin C". Considering its short length and relatively standard song structure, it is one of the band's more conventional songs. It was featured in Samuel Fuller's German television "Tatort" production "Kressin & die tote Taube auf der Beethovenstraße" ("Dead Pigeon on Beethoven Street") in 1973, and then also released as a single with the B-side "I'm
Vitamin C (song)
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that vitamin C does not influence the common cold. However, the three papers were later shown to be erroneous. According to the Cochrane review on vitamin C and the common cold, 1 g/day or more of vitamin C does not influence common cold incidence in the general community. However, in five randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trials with participants who were under heavy short-term physical stress (three of the trials were with marathon runners), vitamin C halved the incidence of colds. In the dose of 1 g/day or more, vitamin C shortened the duration of colds in adults by 8% and in
Alternative treatments used for the common cold
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and C dissolve into the water when a vegetable is boiled, and are then lost when the water is discarded. The body's stores for different vitamins vary widely; vitamins A, D, and B are stored in significant amounts, mainly in the liver, and an adult's diet may be deficient in vitamins A and D for many months and B in some cases for years, before developing a deficiency condition. However, vitamin B (niacin and niacinamide) is not stored in significant amounts, so stores may last only a couple of weeks. For vitamin C, the first symptoms of scurvy in experimental
Vitamin
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C.H. (Harry) Carlisle, she published the first such structure of a steroid, cholesteryl iodide (having worked with cholesteryls since the days of her doctoral studies). In 1945, Hodgkin and her colleagues solved the structure of penicillin, demonstrating (contrary to scientific opinion at the time) that it contains a β-lactam ring. The work was not published until 1949. In 1948, Hodgkin first encountered vitamin B, and created new crystals. Vitamin B had first been discovered at Merck earlier that year. It had a structure at the time that was almost completely unknown, and when Hodgkin discovered it contained cobalt, she realized
Dorothy Hodgkin
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"People" magazine had a special "Where Are They Now" article. She was about to finish work on a children's world-music album that would celebrate diversity through songs like the Indian-styled "Bhangra On and On" and "We All Share the Same Sky," and that she started work on a non-children's third Vitamin C album she described as "Goldfrapp-meets-Vitamin C," which she had hoped to have out by 2007. Regarding the album, she had stated "Just because you're not always on MTV doesn't mean you're not actively working," she said. Both albums have yet to be released. Studio albums Vitamin C (singer)
Vitamin C (singer)
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Sometimes forgotten during his life, James Lind, a physician in the British navy, performed the first scientific nutrition experiment in 1747. Lind discovered that lime juice saved sailors that had been at sea for years from scurvy, a deadly and painful bleeding disorder. Between 1500 and 1800, an estimated two million sailors had died of scurvy. The discovery was ignored for forty years, after which British sailors became known as "limeys." The essential vitamin C within citrus fruits would not be identified by scientists until 1932. Around 1770, Antoine Lavoisier discovered the details of metabolism, demonstrating that the oxidation of
Nutrition
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systemic conditioning ("rebound scurvy"), preoxidant effects, iron overload, reduced absorption of vitamin B12 and copper, increased oxygen demand, and acid erosion of the teeth with chewing ascorbic-acid tablets. In addition, one case has been noted of a woman who had received a kidney transplant followed by high-dose vitamin C and died soon afterwards as a result of calcium oxalate deposits that destroyed her new kidney. Her doctors concluded that high-dose vitamin C therapy should be avoided in patients with renal failure. As discussed previously, vitamin C generally exhibits low toxicity. The (the dose that will kill 50% of a population)
Vitamin C megadosage
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of prostate cancer. Two meta-analyses evaluated the effect of vitamin C supplementation on the risk of colorectal cancer. One found a weak association between vitamin C consumption and reduced risk, and the other found no effect from supplementation. A 2011 meta-analysis failed to find support for the prevention of breast cancer with vitamin C supplementation, but a second study concluded that vitamin C may be associated with increased survival in those already diagnosed. Under the rubric of orthomolecular medicine, "Intravenous vitamin C is a contentious adjunctive cancer therapy, widely used in naturopathic and integrative oncology settings." With oral administration absorption
Vitamin C
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C, the vitamin elutes into the cooking water and becomes degraded through oxidation. Peeling vegetables can also substantially reduce the vitamin C content, especially in the case of potatoes where most vitamin C is in the skin. However, research has shown that in the specific case of carotenoids a greater proportion is absorbed from cooked vegetables than from raw vegetables. German research in 2003 showed significant benefits in reducing breast cancer risk when large amounts of raw vegetable matter are included in the diet. The authors attribute some of this effect to heat-labile phytonutrients. Sulforaphane, a glucosinolate breakdown product, which
Cooking
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contributing to the more severe symptoms of scurvy. More generally, the biochemical role of vitamin C is to act as an antioxidant (a reducing agent) by donating electrons to various enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions. Doing so converts vitamin C to an oxidized state - either as semidehydroascorbic acid or dehydroascorbic acid. These compounds can be restored to a reduced state by glutathione and NADPH-dependent enzymatic mechanisms. In plants, vitamin C is a substrate for ascorbate peroxidase. This enzyme utilizes ascorbate to neutralize toxic hydrogen peroxide (HO) by converting it to water (HO). Scurvy is a disease resulting from a deficiency
Vitamin C
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vitamin C supplementation of only 10 mg a day. In these experiments, there was no clinical difference noted between men given 70 mg vitamin C per day (which produced a blood level of vitamin C of about 0.55 mg/dl, about 1/3 of tissue saturation levels) and those given 10 mg per day. Men in the prison study developed the first signs of scurvy about four weeks after starting the vitamin C-free diet, whereas in the British study, six to eight months were required, possibly due to the pre-loading of this group with a 70 mg/day supplement for six weeks before
Vitamin C
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factor when it comes to decreasing the organic acid content. However, even after heating sweet chestnuts, antioxidant activity remains relatively high. On the other hand, the consumer must consider that roasting, boiling or frying has a big impact on the nutritional profile of chestnut. Vitamin C significantly decreases between 25-54 % when boiled and 2-77 % when roasted. Nevertheless, roasted or boiled chestnuts may still be a solid vitamin C source, since 100 gram still represent about 20 % of the recommended daily dietary intake. The sugar content is also affected by the high temperatures. Four processes are decisive for
Castanea sativa
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produced by vitamin D is sometimes named with a "er-" or "ergo" prefix to differentiate them from the D-based counterparts. Nevertheless, these differences are present in the metabolism of Vitamin D and Vitamin D: American researchers Elmer McCollum and Marguerite Davis in 1914 discovered a substance in cod liver oil which later was called "vitamin A". British doctor Edward Mellanby noticed dogs that were fed cod liver oil did not develop rickets and concluded vitamin A, or a closely associated factor, could prevent the disease. In 1922, Elmer McCollum tested modified cod liver oil in which the vitamin A had
Vitamin D
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to thousands of people with cancer. In February 2011, the Swiss Post issued a postage stamp bearing a depiction of a model of a molecule of vitamin C to mark the International Year of Chemistry. Vitamin C Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid and -ascorbic acid, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement. The disease scurvy is prevented and treated with vitamin C-containing foods or dietary supplements. Evidence does not support use in the general population for the prevention of the common cold. There is, however, some evidence that regular use may shorten the
Vitamin C
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In 1971–72, the further metabolism of vitamin D to active forms was discovered. In the liver, vitamin D was found to be converted to calcifediol. Calcifediol is then converted by the kidneys to calcitriol, the biologically active form of vitamin D. Calcitriol circulates as a hormone in the blood, regulating the concentration of calcium and phosphate in the bloodstream and promoting the healthy growth and remodeling of bone. The vitamin D metabolites, calcifediol and calcitriol, were identified by competing teams led by Michael F. Holick in the laboratory of Hector DeLuca and by Tony Norman and colleagues. There is considerable
Vitamin D
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the National Academy of Sciences in 1978 on the basis of that work. Halver carried out research on Vitamin C in its many forms. His research showed that Vitamin C1 (Ascorbic Acid) the active form of C, is required by the body to create new cells and repair cells. His work also showed that C2 though C6 are other forms of C, some of which are stable, and that effectiveness of C1 breaks down when exposed to heat and light. His research showed that animal feeds that use the stable forms of C in their diet formulation can have a
John Halver
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healthy diet. The program was described by J.R. Lindsey and H.J. Baker: The science of nutrition thus evolved beyond the caloric energy of food, turning to the structural issue of essential amino acids. Osborne and Mendel discovered Vitamin A in 1913 in butter fat – independently discovered by Elmer McCollum and Marguerite Davis, who submitted their publication first, with both papers appearing in the same issue of the "Journal of Biological Chemistry" – as well as water-soluble vitamin B in milk. Osborne and Mendel showed, for example, that a lack of Vitamin A in the diet led to xerophthalmia. They
Thomas Burr Osborne (chemist)
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chloride, has m.p. 198 °C. Crystallized from water or very dilute hydrochloric acid, slender needles of B•3 HAuCl (m.p. 186 °C) are obtained. When trigonelline is heated in closed tubes with barium hydroxide at 120 °C, it gives rise to methylamine, and, if treated similarly with hydrochloric acid at 260 °C creates chloromethane and nicotinic acid (a form of vitamin B). Trigonelline is a methyl betaine of nicotinic acid. Trigonelline Trigonelline is an alkaloid with chemical formula . It is a zwitterion formed by the methylation of the nitrogen atom of niacin (vitamin B). Trigonelline is a product of niacin
Trigonelline
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Pauling wrote many technical papers and a popular book, "Cancer and Vitamin C", that discussed their observations. Pauling made vitamin C popular with the public and eventually published two studies of a group of 100 allegedly terminal patients that claimed vitamin C increased survival by as much as four times compared to untreated patients. A re-evaluation of the claims in 1982 found that the patient groups were not actually comparable, with the vitamin C group being less sick on entry to the study, and judged to be "terminal" much earlier than the comparison group. Later clinical trials conducted by the
Linus Pauling
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E increased all-cause mortality. The U.S. Food and Nutrition Board set a Tolerable upper intake level (UL) at 1,000 mg (1,500 IU) per day derived from animal models that demonstrated bleeding at high doses. The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and set a UL at 300 mg/day. A meta-analysis of long-term clinical trials reported a non-significant 2% increase in all-cause mortality when alpha-tocopherol was the only supplement used. The same meta-analysis reported a statistically significant 3% increase for results when alpha-tocopherol was used by itself or in combination with other nutrients (vitamin A, vitamin C, beta-carotene,
Vitamin E
9765834
vitamin C that is functional in most mammals, humans have developed a number of adaptations to cope with the relative deficiency. These adaptations, he argued, ultimately shortened lifespan but could be reversed or mitigated by supplementing humans with the hypothetical amount of vitamin C that would have been produced in the body if the enzyme were working. Vitamin C megadoses are claimed by alternative medicine advocates including Matthias Rath and Patrick Holford to have preventative and curative effects on diseases such as cancer and AIDS, but the available scientific evidence does not support these claims. Some trials show some effect
Vitamin C megadosage
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is about 25% of what can be achieved when oral consumption is in the proposed megadose range. Pauling popularized the concept of high dose vitamin C as prevention and treatment of the common cold in 1970. A few years later he proposed that vitamin C would prevent cardiovascular disease, and that 10 grams/day, initially (10 days) administered intravenously and thereafter orally, would cure late-stage cancer. Mega-dosing with ascorbic acid has other champions, among them chemist Irwin Stone and the controversial Matthias Rath and Patrick Holford, who both have been accused of making unsubstantiated treatment claims for treating cancer and HIV
Vitamin C
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George Wald George David Wald (November 18, 1906 – April 12, 1997) was an American scientist who studied pigments in the retina. He won a share of the 1967 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Haldan Keffer Hartline and Ragnar Granit. As a postdoctoral researcher, Wald discovered that vitamin A was a component of the retina. His further experiments showed that when the pigment rhodopsin was exposed to light, it yielded the protein opsin and a compound containing vitamin A. This suggested that vitamin A was essential in retinal function. In the 1950s, Wald and his colleagues used chemical
George Wald