where in the plant cell does the calvin cycle take place
in the stroma of chloroplast
3967138
from an alternative reaction of the RuBisCO enzyme, and its final byproduct is also another glyceraldehyde-3-P. The Calvin cycle, Calvin–Benson–Bassham (CBB) cycle, reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplast in photosynthetic organisms. The cycle was discovered by Melvin Calvin, James Bassham, and Andrew Benson at the University of California, Berkeley by using the radioactive isotope carbon-14. Photosynthesis occurs in two stages in a cell. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage and transport molecules
Light-independent reactions
3967138
from an alternative reaction of the RuBisCO enzyme, and its final byproduct is also another glyceraldehyde-3-P. The Calvin cycle, Calvin–Benson–Bassham (CBB) cycle, reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplast in photosynthetic organisms. The cycle was discovered by Melvin Calvin, James Bassham, and Andrew Benson at the University of California, Berkeley by using the radioactive isotope carbon-14. Photosynthesis occurs in two stages in a cell. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage and transport molecules
Light-independent reactions
14801746
Hydrocarbon plant Hydrocarbon plants are plants that follow certain metabolic pathways that produce hydrocarbon products similar to petroleum. These hydrocarbon products are called terpenoids. The plants that produce terpenoids in large enough quantities to be harvested can be as big as trees or as small as single-cell algae. The Euphorbiaceae family has been studied in detail by Dr. Melvin Calvin, Nobel Laureate, and discoverer of the Calvin Cycle. One particular tree, the Hevea tree, or more commonly known as the rubber tree, is probably the most famous hydrocarbon plant, supplying an estimated one third of the world’s rubber demand. It
Hydrocarbon plant
2518865
cytoplasm of mesophyll cells by a PEP reaction similar to that of pathway. But, unlike the mechanism, the resulting organic acids are stored in vacuoles for later use; that is, they are not immediately passed on to the Calvin cycle. The latter cannot operate during the night because the light reactions that provide it with ATP and NADPH cannot take place. During the day, the -storing organic acids are released from the vacuoles of the mesophyll cells and enter the stroma of the chloroplasts where an enzyme releases the , which then enters into the Calvin cycle. The most important
Crassulacean acid metabolism
8039259
in nutrient exchange. Other examples are dinophyta and diatoms that have a cell wall that does not change during the cell cycle. During cell-growth, when the amounts of protein and carbohydrates increase, the vacuole shrinks. The outer membrane that is involved in nutrient uptake remains constant. At cell division, the daughter cells rapidly take up water, complete a new cell wall and the cycle repeats. Rods (bacteria that have the shape of a rod and grow in length, but not in diameter) are a static mixture between a V0- and a V1-morph, where the caps act as V0-morphs and the
V0-morph
278118
interphase nuclei. During mitotic progression, typically after the anaphase onset, the cell may undergo cytokinesis. In animal cells, a cell membrane pinches inward between the two developing nuclei to produce two new cells. In plant cells, a cell plate forms between the two nuclei. Cytokinesis does not always occur; coenocytic (a type of multinucleate condition) cells undergo mitosis without cytokinesis. The mitotic phase is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. It alternates with the much longer "interphase", where the cell prepares itself for the process of cell division. Interphase is divided into three phases: G (first gap), S
Mitosis
79041
Chloroplast Chloroplasts are organelles that conduct photosynthesis, where the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight, converts it, and stores it in the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH while freeing oxygen from water in plant and algal cells. They then use the ATP and NADPH to make organic molecules from carbon dioxide in a process known as the Calvin cycle. Chloroplasts carry out a number of other functions, including fatty acid synthesis, much amino acid synthesis, and the immune response in plants. The number of chloroplasts per cell varies from one, in unicellular algae, up to 100 in plants
Chloroplast
91145
Cell cycle The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) to produce two daughter cells. In bacteria, which lack a cell nucleus, the cell cycle is divided into the B, C, and D periods. The B period extends from the end of cell division to the beginning of DNA replication. DNA replication occurs during the C period. The D period refers to the stage between the end of DNA replication and the splitting of the bacterial cell into two daughter
Cell cycle
2711314
Photorespiration Photorespiration (also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle, or C photosynthesis) refers to a process in plant metabolism where the enzyme RuBisCO oxygenates RuBP, causing some of the energy produced by photosynthesis to be wasted. The desired reaction is the addition of carbon dioxide to RuBP (carboxylation), a key step in the Calvin–Benson cycle, however approximately 25% of reactions by RuBisCO instead add oxygen to RuBP (oxygenation), creating a product that cannot be used within the Calvin–Benson cycle. This process reduces the efficiency of photosynthesis, potentially reducing photosynthetic output by 25% in plants. Photorespiration involves a complex network
Photorespiration
91184
levels in S and at their lowest near mitosis. Cell cycle The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) to produce two daughter cells. In bacteria, which lack a cell nucleus, the cell cycle is divided into the B, C, and D periods. The B period extends from the end of cell division to the beginning of DNA replication. DNA replication occurs during the C period. The D period refers to the stage between the end of DNA replication and
Cell cycle
2518864
includes jade plants and "Sedum"). Its name refers to acid metabolism in Crassulaceae, not the metabolism of "crassulacean acid". CAM is an adaptation for increased efficiency in the use of water, and so is typically found in plants growing in arid conditions. During the night, a plant employing CAM has its stomata open, allowing to enter and be fixed as organic acids that are stored in vacuoles. During the day the stomata are closed (thus preventing water loss), and the carbon is released to the Calvin cycle so that photosynthesis may take place. The carbon dioxide is fixed in the
Crassulacean acid metabolism
8674439
known as the Calvin cycle, which inappropriately ignores the contribution of Bassham and Benson. Many scientists refer to the cycle as the Calvin–Benson Cycle, Benson–Calvin, and some call it the Calvin–Benson–Bassham (or CBB) Cycle. In a paper in the 2002 Annual Review of Plant Biology, Benson provided an in-depth retrospective on his life and work. Benson was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1972, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1981, and the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters in 1984. In 1962, the United States Department of Energy gave him the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award
Andrew Benson
79137
the light reactions. The Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast. While named ""the dark reactions"", in most plants, they take place in the light, since the dark reactions are dependent on the products of the light reactions. The Calvin cycle starts by using the enzyme RuBisCO to fix CO into five-carbon Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) molecules. The result is unstable six-carbon molecules that immediately break down into three-carbon molecules called 3-phosphoglyceric acid, or 3-PGA. The ATP and NADPH made in the light reactions is used to convert the 3-PGA into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, or G3P sugar molecules. Most of
Chloroplast
1394557
they become able to take another load increment. A load decrement may produce some sense of relief, though, if the pool of the citric acid cycle intermediates built up so far is sufficient to maintain full purine nucleotide energy charge at the lower load. It is unclear, what, if anything, does it take to unknowingly trigger rhabdomyolysis at this point, assuming the muscle cell is otherwise healthy. Adenosine production and lack of ammonia overproduction seem to strongly suppress rhabdomyolysis down to the purine nucleotide energy charge level, where the cell is able to signal pain, or where individual muscle fibers
Adenosine monophosphate deaminase deficiency type 1
8422989
: Henry T.Yost> 6- < Cell Physiology : Arthur c> Giese, PH.D.> Cell physiology Cell physiology is the biological study about the activities that take place in a cell to keep it alive. This includes, among animal cells, plant cells and microorganisms. The term "physiology" refers to all the normal functions that take place in a living organism. All of these activities in the cell could be counted as following ; nutrition, environmental response, cell growth, cell division, reproduction and differentiation. The differences among the animal cell, plant cell and microorganisms shows the essential functional similarity even though those cells
Cell physiology
8422981
Cell physiology Cell physiology is the biological study about the activities that take place in a cell to keep it alive. This includes, among animal cells, plant cells and microorganisms. The term "physiology" refers to all the normal functions that take place in a living organism. All of these activities in the cell could be counted as following ; nutrition, environmental response, cell growth, cell division, reproduction and differentiation. The differences among the animal cell, plant cell and microorganisms shows the essential functional similarity even though those cells have different structures. Absorption of water by roots, production of food in
Cell physiology
3967140
and the pentose phosphate pathway, but they are found in the chloroplast stroma instead of the cell cytosol, separating the reactions. They are activated in the light (which is why the name "dark reaction" is misleading), and also by products of the light-dependent reaction. These regulatory functions prevent the Calvin cycle from being respired to carbon dioxide. Energy (in the form of ATP) would be wasted in carrying out these reactions that have no net productivity. The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following: Hexose (six-carbon) sugars are not a product of the Calvin cycle. Although many
Light-independent reactions
6177464
a big factor, because you have to select when most of the characteristics of the plant are clearly showing. With asexual perennials the best time is just before harvest. For the best results the selected plant must be evaluated during the next season, when growth-abnormalities, leave disfigurations and virus symptoms are best visualized. Mass selection is done annually on the same plant for a minimum of three years. A plant that does not conform to the requirements in any given year of the selection cycle is discarded from the program. The development and registration of new clones take place by
Selection methods in plant breeding based on mode of reproduction
20655039
activity, and variations in cell growth and geometry. The isotopic fractionations of different photosynthetic pathways are uniquely characterized by these factors, as described below. A C3 plant uses C3 carbon fixation, one of the three metabolic photosynthesis pathways which also include C4 and CAM (described below). These plants are called "C3" due to the three-carbon compound (3-Phosphoglyceric acid, or 3-PGA) produced by the CO fixation mechanism in these plants. This C3 mechanism is the first step of the Calvin-Benson cycle, which converts CO and RuBP into 3-PGA. C3 plants are the most common type of plant, and typically thrive under
Fractionation of carbon isotopes in oxygenic photosynthesis
7270593
change. After uncoating is completed, the active virus is released in the cytoplasm where replication of the genome and virion takes place. Replication of the virus takes places in the cytoplasm of the host cell. Since the genome of this virus is dsRNA, early transcription of the genome must take place inside the capsid where it is safe and will not be degraded by the host cell. dsRNA inside of a cell is a tip off to the immune system that the cell is infected with a virus, since dsRNA does not occur in the normal replication of a cell.
Orthoreovirus
17758109
C photosynthesis is the oldest and most common form. C3 is a plant that uses the calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO2 into organic material. C4 is a plant that prefaces the calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate CO2 into four-carbon compounds. CAM is a plant that uses crassulacean acid metabolism, an adaptation for photosynthesis in arid conditions. C4 and CAM Plants have special adaptations that save water. The biochemical capacity to use water as the source for electrons in photosynthesis evolved in a common ancestor of extant cyanobacteria. The geological record indicates that this transforming event
Evolution of photosynthesis
9749128
protons (H ions) to be pumped out of the cell into the cell wall. As a result, the cell wall solution becomes more acidic. This activates expansin activity, causing the wall to become more extensible and to undergo wall stress relaxation, which enables the cell to take up water and to expand. Acid growth Acid growth refers to the ability of plant cells and plant cell walls to elongate or expand quickly at low (acidic) pH. This form of growth does not involve an increase in cell number. During acid growth, plant cells enlarge rapidly because the cell walls are
Acid growth
79132
transformed into chemical energy, to subsequently produce food in the form of sugars. Water (HO) and carbon dioxide (CO) are used in photosynthesis, and sugar and oxygen (O) is made, using light energy. Photosynthesis is divided into two stages—the light reactions, where water is split to produce oxygen, and the dark reactions, or Calvin cycle, which builds sugar molecules from carbon dioxide. The two phases are linked by the energy carriers adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP). The light reactions take place on the thylakoid membranes. They take light energy and store it in NADPH, a form
Chloroplast
11232621
of magnesium (Mg2+) to be functionally active. SBPase is bound to the stroma-facing side of the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast in a plant. Some studies have suggested the SBPase may be part of a large (900 kDa) multi-enzyme complex along with a number of other photosynthetic enzymes. SBPase is involved in the regeneration of 5-carbon sugars during the Calvin cycle. Although SBPase has not been emphasized as an important control point in the Calvin cycle historically, it plays a large part in controlling the flux of carbon through the Calvin cycle. Additionally, SBPase activity has been found to have
Sedoheptulose-bisphosphatase
2249741
a plant during photosynthesis, starting from its absorption as atmospheric carbon dioxide to its conversion into carbohydrates and other organic compounds. In doing so, Calvin, Benson and Bassham showed that sunlight acts on the chlorophyll in a plant to fuel the manufacturing of organic compounds, rather than on carbon dioxide as was previously believed. Calvin was the sole recipient of the 1961 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for what is sometimes known as the Calvin–Benson–Bassham Cycle. Calvin wrote an autobiography three decades later titled "Following the Trail of Light: A Scientific Odyssey". During the 1950s he was among the first members
Melvin Calvin
1626617
each daughter cell enters the interphase of the cell cycle. Particular functions demand various deviations from the process of symmetrical cytokinesis; for example in oogenesis in animals the ovum takes almost all the cytoplasm and organelles. This leaves very little for the resulting polar bodies, which in most species die without function, though they do take on various special functions in other species. Another form of mitosis occurs in tissues such as liver and skeletal muscle; it omits cytokinesis, thereby yielding multinucleate cells. Plant cytokinesis differs from animal cytokinesis, partly because of the rigidity of plant cell walls. Instead of
Cytokinesis
7157774
that affect meiocyte formation or the process of meiosis. Most meiotic mutant plant cells complete the meiotic cell cycle and produce abnormal microspores. It appears that plant meiocytes do not undergo any checkpoints within the meiotic cell cycle and can, thus, proceed through the cycle regardless of any defect. By studying the abnormal microspores, the progression of the plant meiocyte through the meiotic cell cycle can be investigated further. Researching meiosis in mammals plays a crucial role in understanding human infertility. Meiosis research within mammal populations is restricted due to the fundamental nature of meiosis. In order to study mammalian
Meiocyte
331526
as follows: where A is the electron acceptor. Therefore, in light, the electron acceptor is reduced and oxygen is evolved. Samuel Ruben and Martin Kamen used radioactive isotopes to determine that the oxygen liberated in photosynthesis came from the water. Melvin Calvin and Andrew Benson, along with James Bassham, elucidated the path of carbon assimilation (the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle) in plants. The carbon reduction cycle is known as the Calvin cycle, which ignores the contribution of Bassham and Benson. Many scientists refer to the cycle as the Calvin-Benson Cycle, Benson-Calvin, and some even call it the Calvin-Benson-Bassham (or CBB)
Photosynthesis
19842428
Thomas D. Sharkey Thomas D. Sharkey is a plant biochemist who studies gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere. His research has covered (1) carbon metabolism of photosynthesis from carbon dioxide uptake to carbon export from the Calvin-Benson Cycle, (2) isoprene emission from plants, and (3) abiotic stress tolerance. Four guiding questions are: (1) how leaf photosynthesis affects plant yield, (2) does some carbon fixation follow an oxidative pathway that reduces sugar output but stabilizes photosynthesis, (3) why plants make isoprene, and (4) how plants cope with high temperature. Tom Sharkey obtained a BS degree in 1974 from Lyman Briggs
Thomas D. Sharkey
7157773
to complete the cell cycle. If a meiocyte divides and this division results in a mutant cell, the mutant cell will undergo apoptosis and, therefore, will not complete the cycle. The animal meiotic cell cycle is very much like that of yeast. Checkpoints within the animal meiotic cell cycle serve to stop mutant meiocytes from progressing further within the cycle. Like yeast meiocytes, if an animal meiocyte differentiates into a mutant cell, the cell will undergo apoptosis. The meiotic cell cycle in plants is very different from that of yeast and animal cells. In plant studies, mutations have been identified
Meiocyte
12366086
If the membrane integrity is compromised, there will be no effective barrier between the internal cell environment and the outside. Not only does this mean the plant cells are susceptible to disease-causing bacteria and mechanical attacks by herbivores, the cell could not perform its normal processes to continue living - the cells and thus the whole plant will die. Light stress can be tolerated by dissipating excess energy as heat through the xanthophyll cycle. Violaxanthin and zeaxanthin are carotenoid molecules within the chloroplasts called xanthophylls. Under normal conditions, violaxanthin channels light to photosynthesis. However, high light levels promote the reversible
Xerophyte
3873522
on subtle differences in these environments. It is evident that pharmaceuticals such as Memantine can have a significant effect in mediating the age-related decline in place field plasticity. Increased adult hippocampal place cell neurogenesis does not necessarily lead to better performance on spatial memory tasks. Just as too little neurogenesis leads to spatial memory deficits, so too does too much neurogenesis. Drugs dealing with improving place cell functioning and increasing the rate of hippocampal neurogenesis should take this balance into account. Place cell A place cell is a kind of pyramidal neuron within the hippocampus that becomes active when an
Place cell
11647870
of female gametophyte in the ovule and hence reduction division does not take place in the Megaspore mother cell. The diploid egg is unfertilized and forms the embryo. Hence daughter plants are exactly clones of the mother. The species uses carbon fixation. This herb is deep rooted, and is used as soil binder in desert reclamation. It is used for fuel and for fodder for goats. In traditional medicine the seeds are believed to cure headaches. A gargle is made from the plant to try to treat toothache. The plant has naturalised in northern regions of Australia, as an alien
Aerva javanica
11958943
on earth. Proponents of this view have cited Calvin's commentary on , from which it has been argued that Calvin considered the mother-son relationship between Mary and Jesus to have ceased at Jesus' death. In this scheme, Christ, as he was dying on the cross, appointed his disciple John to take his place as Mary's son, so that he himself might henceforth take his rightful place at the Father's right hand in heaven. Upon Christ's words to his mother concerning John, "Woman, behold thy son!" Calvin comments, "Some think that He does not call her 'mother' but only 'woman' so
John Calvin's views on Mary
16151286
and Cdc6 expression. Loss of p53 regulation in cells can also be observed frequently in cell lines that overexpress Cdt1 or Cdc6. For the special case of cell cycle-regulated DNA replication in which DNA synthesis is uncoupled from cell cycle progression refer to endoreduplication. Endoreduplication is an important and widespread mechanism in many cell types. It does not adhere to many of the cell cycle checkpoints and damage controls in regularly dividing cells, but it does not result in uncontrolled re-replication. Endoreduplication is a controlled process and occurs to perform a specific cell function. In some cells, it has been
DNA re-replication
4787593
Mitogen A mitogen is a chemical substance that encourages a cell to commence cell division, triggering mitosis. A mitogen is usually some form of protein. Mitogenesis is the induction (triggering) of mitosis, typically via a mitogen. Mitogens trigger signal transduction pathways in which mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) is involved, leading to mitosis. Mitogens act primarily by influencing a set of proteins which are involved in the restriction of progression through the cell cycle. The G1 checkpoint is controlled most directly by mitogens: further cell cycle progression does not need mitogens to continue. The point where mitogens are no longer needed
Mitogen
1512663
is integrated into thylakoid membrane; the CF-part sticks into stroma, where dark reactions of photosynthesis (also called the light-independent reactions or the Calvin cycle) and ATP synthesis take place. The overall structure and the catalytic mechanism of the chloroplast ATP synthase are almost the same as those of the bacterial enzyme. However, in chloroplasts, the proton motive force is generated not by respiratory electron transport chain but by primary photosynthetic proteins. The ATP synthase isolated from bovine ("Bos taurus") heart mitochondria is, in terms of biochemistry and structure, the best-characterized ATP synthase. Beef heart is used as a source for
ATP synthase
14077272
this positive feedback does indeed occur. A small amount of Cln3 induces Cln1/2 expression and then the feedback loop takes over, leading to rapid and abrupt exit of Whi5 from the nucleus and consequently coherent expression of G1/S regulon genes. In the absence of coherent gene expression, cells take longer to exit G1 and a significant fraction even arrest before S phase, highlighting the importance of positive feedback in sharpening the G1/S switch. The G1/S cell cycle checkpoint controls the passage of eukaryotic cells from the first gap phase, G1, into the DNA synthesis phase, S. In this switch in
Biochemical switches in the cell cycle
1754049
Meristem A meristem is the tissue in most plants containing undifferentiated cells (meristematic cells), found in zones of the plant where growth can take place. Meristematic cells give rise to various organs of a plant and are responsible for growth. Differentiated plant cells generally cannot divide or produce cells of a different type. Meristematic cells are incompletely or not at all differentiated, and are capable of continued cellular division. Therefore, cell division in the meristem is required to provide new cells for expansion and differentiation of tissues and initiation of new organs, providing the basic structure of the plant body.
Meristem
3967141
texts list a product of photosynthesis as , this is mainly a convenience to counter the equation of respiration, where six-carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria. The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three-carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or "triose phosphates", namely, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). In the first stage of the Calvin cycle, a molecule is incorporated into one of two three-carbon molecules (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or G3P), where it uses up two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADPH, which had been produced in the light-dependent stage. The three steps involved are: The next stage in the Calvin cycle is
Light-independent reactions
9011594
vitro". Therefore, SCF-Skp2 promotes cell-cycle progression and cell growth. On the other hand, SCF-βTrCP promotes proteolysis of Emi1, an APC/C-Cdh1 inhibitor, and Wee1, a Cdk1 inhibitor, in early mitosis "via" phosphorylation at their degron (the amino acid motif DSGXXS, where X can be any amino acid) by kinases such as Polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) and Cdk1–cyclin B. SCF-βTrCP and APC/C control each other to regulate timely progression through the cell cycle. Lists of substrates of SCF-Skp2 and -βTrCP are still growing. In plants, the plant hormone auxin stimulates binding of SCF-TIR1 to the AUX/IAA repressor and then the degradation of
SCF complex
10203381
to move and spread. They then encyst on a cell and develop haustoria as a way to leach nutrients from the cell. Once established in the cell, mycelium spread throughout the plant. Sporangia are then able to arise from the mycelia and either directly infect a cell or release zoospores to infect. From there, mycelia are able to spread and the cycle repeats. Because this is able to happen more than once per crop cycle, it is a polycyclic disease. After conditions are no longer conducive to growth and survival (very dry or cold conditions) or the plant has died,
Pythium aristosporum
3257121
compound, malic acid, which releases CO for use in the Calvin cycle during the day, when the stomata are closed. The dung jade plant ("Crassula ovata") and cacti are typical of CAM plants. Sixteen thousand species of plants use CAM. These plants have a carbon isotope signature of −20 to −10 ‰. C plants preface the Calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate CO into one of the 4-carbon compounds, malic acid or aspartic acid. C plants have a distinctive internal leaf anatomy. Tropical grasses, such as sugar cane and maize are C plants, but there are many broadleaf plants that
Carbon fixation
3967145
out of 6 carbons from the 2 G3P molecules are used for this purpose. Therefore, there is only 1 net carbon produced to play with for each turn. To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons, and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To make one glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of the Calvin cycle. Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose, and cellulose, depending on what the plant needs. These reactions do not occur in the dark or at night. There is
Light-independent reactions
18237051
fuels such as coal and biomass, the gasification of which results in syngas containing mostly hydrogen, carbon monoxide and methane which can be cleaned and fed directly to the SOFCs without the added cost and complexity of methane reforming, water gas shifting and hydrogen separation operations which would otherwise be needed to isolate pure hydrogen as fuel. A power cycle based on gasification of solid fuel and SOFCs is called an Integrated Gasification Fuel Cell (IGFC) cycle; the IGFC power plant is analogous to an integrated gasification combined cycle power plant, but with the gas turbine power generation unit replaced
Integrated gasification fuel cell cycle
9660324
Sasha. Calvin begins his first day as a police officer and tragically discovers Diane has been killed in a hit and run. Calvin then has to break the news to Sonny and Sasha. Despite grieving, Calvin does his best to look after his siblings, however Leo Valentine (Brian Bovell), Calvin, Sonny and Sasha's father, arrives to take control of the family. Calvin does not want Leo to be back in their lives as he has caused heartache for his mother. Sam Owen (Louis Tamone) takes everyone, including Calvin, hostage at The Dog and threatens to blow it up. Calvin attempts
Calvin Valentine
1754075
exhibits a nodule regulation phenotype though it is not yet known how this relates to the other AON receptor kinases. Meristem A meristem is the tissue in most plants containing undifferentiated cells (meristematic cells), found in zones of the plant where growth can take place. Meristematic cells give rise to various organs of a plant and are responsible for growth. Differentiated plant cells generally cannot divide or produce cells of a different type. Meristematic cells are incompletely or not at all differentiated, and are capable of continued cellular division. Therefore, cell division in the meristem is required to provide new
Meristem
91172
oscillator, they are coupled in a manner that requires both to ensure the proper timing of cell cycle events. Other work indicates that phosphorylation, a post-translational modification, of cell cycle transcription factors by Cdk1 may alter the localization or activity of the transcription factors in order to tightly control timing of target genes. While oscillatory transcription plays a key role in the progression of the yeast cell cycle, the CDK-cyclin machinery operates independently in the early embryonic cell cycle. Before the midblastula transition, zygotic transcription does not occur and all needed proteins, such as the B-type cyclins, are translated from
Cell cycle
7493604
rough endoplasmic reticulum or by cytoskeletal elements. In animal cells, virus particles are gathered by the microtubule-dependent aggregation of toxic or misfolded protein near the microtubule organizing center (MTOC), so the viroplasms of animal viruses are generally localized near the MTOC. MTOCs are not found in plant cells. Plant viruses induce the rearrangement of membranes structures to form the viroplasm. This is mostly shown for plant RNA viruses. Viroplasm is the location within the infected cell where viral replication and assembly take place. Wrapping the viroplasm with a membrane, concentrates the viral components required for the genome replication and the
Viroplasm
4433325
reductase which uses them to catalyse the reaction (as shown): This consumes the H ions produced by the splitting of water, leading to a net production of 1/2O, ATP, and NADPH+H with the consumption of solar photons and water. The concentration of NADPH in the chloroplast may help regulate which pathway electrons take through the light reactions. When the chloroplast runs low on ATP for the Calvin cycle, NADPH will accumulate and the plant may shift from noncyclic to cyclic electron flow. In 1950, first experimental evidence for the existence of photophosphorylation "in vivo" was presented by Otto Kandler using
Photophosphorylation
3967144
negative consequences for the plant, because, rather than fixing , this process leads to loss of . C4 carbon fixation evolved to circumvent photorespiration, but can occur only in certain plants native to very warm or tropical climates—corn, for example. The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) molecules, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP. (ADP and NADP are not really "products." They are regenerated and later used again in the Light-dependent reactions). Each G3P molecule is composed of 3 carbons. For the Calvin cycle to continue, RuBP (ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate) must be regenerated. So, 5
Light-independent reactions
9811833
to survive unfavorable conditions. Endospores are not reproductive structures and their formation does not require cell fusion or division. Instead, they form through the production of an encapsulating spore coat within the spore-forming cell. There are many parts of the spore 'plant'. The case that holds all the spores is called a sporangium. Sporogenesis Sporogenesis is the production of spores in biology. The term is also used to refer to the process of reproduction via spores. Reproductive spores were found to be formed in eukaryotic organisms, such as plants, algae and fungi, during their normal reproductive life cycle. Dormant spores
Sporogenesis
6920462
Cell cycle checkpoint All living organisms are the products of repeated rounds of cell growth and division. During this process, known as the cell cycle, a cell duplicates its contents and then divides in two. The purpose of the cell cycle is to accurately duplicate each organism's DNA and then divide the cell and its contents evenly between the two resulting cells. In eukaryotes, the cell cycle consists of four main stages: G, during which a cell is metabolically active and continuously grows; S phase, during which DNA replication takes place; G, during which cell growth continues and the cell
Cell cycle checkpoint
1626633
chromatids separate during the anaphase portion of normal proliferative cell divisions. To achieve this, many components of the cytokinesis machinery are highly regulated to ensure that they are able to perform a particular function at only a particular stage of the cell cycle. Cytokinesis happens only after APC binds with CDC20. This allows for the separation of chromosomes and myosin to work simultaneously. After cytokinesis, non-kinetochore microtubules reorganize and disappear into a new cytoskeleton as the cell cycle returns to interphase (see also cell cycle). Due to the presence of a cell wall, cytokinesis in plant cells is significantly different
Cytokinesis
15142124
the main regulator linking cell growth to the cell cycle. This is because it is the most upstream regulator of "Start" and because, unlike other cyclins, concentration of Cln3 does not oscillate much with the cell cycle (see Cln3). Rather, Cln3 activity is thought to increase gradually throughout the cycle in response to cell growth. Furthermore, Cln3 levels differ between mother and daughter cells, a difference that explains the asymmetry in cell cycle behavior between these two cell types. Cln3 regulation also responds to external signals, including stress signals that stop division. The G1 cyclins CLN1 and CLN2, upon transcriptional
G1 and G1/S cyclins- budding yeast
10026676
of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate. RuBP is the acceptor of the carbon dioxide (CO) in the first step of the pathway, which suggests that phosphopentose epimerase regulates flux through the Calvin cycle. Without the regeneration of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate, the cycle will be unable to continue. Therefore, xylulose 5-phosphate is reversibly converted into ribulose 5-phosphate by this epimerase. Subsequently, phosphoribulose kinase converts ribulose 5-phosphate into ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate. The reactions of the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) take place in the cytoplasm. Phosphopentose epimerase specifically affects the nonoxidative portion of the pathway, which involves the production of various sugars and precursors. This enzyme converts ribulose
Phosphopentose epimerase
5835650
types in animals, it is considerably more widespread in plants, such that polyploidy can be detected in the majority of plant tissues. Endoreplicating cell types that have been studied extensively in model organisms Endoreplication, endomitosis and polytenization are three somewhat different processes resulting in polyploidization of a cell in a regulated manner. In endoreplication cells skip M phase completely, resulting in a mononucleated polyploid cell. Endomitosis is a type of cell cycle variation where mitosis is initiated, but some of the processes are not completed. Depending on how far the cell progresses through mitosis, this will give rise to a
Endoreduplication
13091106
MAMPs lead to the plant resistance. The other type of defense is also known as effector-triggered immunity (ETI) which is the second type of defense mediated by R-proteins by detecting photogenic effectors. ETI detects pathogenic factors and initiates a defense response. ETI is a much faster and amplified system than PTI and it develops onto the hypersensitive response (HR) leading the infected host cell to apoptosis. This does not terminate the pathogen cycle, it just slows the cycle down. Plants have many ways of identifying symbiotic or foreign pathogens; one of these receptors causes fluctuations in the calcium ions and
R gene
9693110
motifs such as leucine-rich repeats (illustrated in the Figure) and WD repeats, which are thought to mediate interactions with SCF substrates. Localization The F-box protein is a big superfamily in Eukaryotic cells like yeast, plant, human. The F-box protein has been found on cytoplasm and nucleus. But it's hard to precisely decide which organism organ in cell does the F-box protein locate because the number of F-box protein is so much. Function F-box proteins have also been associated with cellular functions such as signal transduction and regulation of the cell cycle. In plants, many F-box proteins are represented in gene
F-box protein
334247
this case, p53 can initiate events leading to tanning. The p21 protein binds directly to cyclin-CDK complexes that drive forward the cell cycle and inhibits their kinase activity thereby causing cell cycle arrest to allow repair to take place. p21 can also mediate growth arrest associated with differentiation and a more permanent growth arrest associated with cellular senescence. The p21 gene contains several p53 response elements that mediate direct binding of the p53 protein, resulting in transcriptional activation of the gene encoding the p21 protein. Levels of p53 play an important role in the maintenance of stem cells throughout development
P53
19354416
division (cell cycle-dependent) whereas the presence of TK2, which is located in the mitochondria, is cell cycle-independent. TK1 is synthesized by the cell during the S phase of cell division. After cell division is completed, TK1 is degraded intracellularly, so that it does not pass into body fluids after normal cell division. The TK enzyme suggested as a tumor marker is the cytosolic cell cycle dependent TK1. It is present during cell division in much higher concentrations than TK2 and it is released in quantities that completely dominate the thymidine kinase activity in blood and other body fluids. In addition
Thymidine kinase in clinical chemistry
15286631
HU-331 HU-331 is a quinone anticarcinogenic drug synthesized from cannabidiol, a cannabinoid in the "Cannabis sativa" plant. It showed a great efficacy against oncogenic human cells. HU-331 does not cause arrest in cell cycle, cell apoptosis or caspase activation. HU-331 inhibits DNA topoisomerase II even at nanomolar concentrations, but has shown a negligible effect on the action of DNA topoisomerase I. The cannabinoid quinone HU-331 is a very specific inhibitor of topoisomerase II, compared with most known anticancer quinones. One of the main objectives of these studies is the development of a new quinone derived compound that produces anti-neoplastic activity
HU-331
16074382
individual ultrasensitivities), but in many cases the ultimate origin of supramultiplicativity remained elusive. Altszyler et al. (2017) framework naturally suggested a general scenario where supramultiplicative behavior could take place. This could occur when, for a given module, the corresponding Hill's input working range was located in an input region with local ultrasensitivities higher than the global ultrasensitivity of the respective dose-response curve. A ubiquitous signaling motif that exhibits ultrasensitivity is the MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) cascade, which can take a graded input signal and produce a switch-like output, such as gene transcription or cell cycle progression. In this common motif,
Ultrasensitivity
278120
another. Cells may also temporarily or permanently leave the cell cycle and enter G phase to stop dividing. This can occur when cells become overcrowded (density-dependent inhibition) or when they differentiate to carry out specific functions for the organism, as is the case for human heart muscle cells and neurons. Some G cells have the ability to re-enter the cell cycle. In plant cells only, prophase is preceded by a pre-prophase stage. In highly vacuolated plant cells, the nucleus has to migrate into the center of the cell before mitosis can begin. This is achieved through the formation of a
Mitosis
2119943
on opposite sides of the predetermined cleavage plane. In fission yeast, where growth governs progression through G2/M, a wee1 mutation causes entry into mitosis at an abnormally small size, resulting in a shorter G2. G1 is lengthened, suggesting that progression through Start (beginning of cell cycle) is responsive to growth when the G2/M control is lost. Furthermore, cells in poor nutrient conditions grow slowly and therefore take longer to double in size and divide. Low nutrient levels also reset the growth threshold so that cell progresses through the cell cycle at a smaller size. Upon exposure to stressful conditions [heat
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
8199062
be indirectly regulated by cyclins. Phosphorylation is generally considered a reversible modification used to change enzyme activity in different conditions. However, activating phosphorylation of Cdk by CAK appears to be an exception to this trend. In fact, CAK activity remains high throughout the cell cycle and is not regulated by any known cell-cycle control mechanism. However compared to normal cells, CAK activity is reduced in quiescent G0 cells and slightly elevated in tumor cells. In mammals, activating phosphorylation by CAK can only occur once cyclin is bound. In budding yeast, activating phosphorylation by CAK can take place before cyclin binding.
CDK-activating kinase
473715
the amount of cyclin increases, more and more cyclin dependent kinases attach to cyclin signaling the cell further into interphase. The peak of the cyclin attached to the cyclin dependent kinases this system pushes the cell out of interphase and into the M phase, where mitosis, meiosis, and cytokinesis occur. There are three transition checkpoints the cell goes through before entering the M phase. The most important being the G1-S transition checkpoint. If the cell does not pass this phase, then the cell will most likely not go through the rest of the cell division cycle. Prophase is the first
Cell division
8076928
fixation by RuBisCO and the Calvin cycle. Pyruvate is converted back to PEP in the mesophyll cells, and the cycle begins again, thus actively pumping CO. The second important and very similar biological significance of PEP carboxylase is in the CAM cycle. This cycle is common in organisms living in arid habitats. Plants cannot afford to open stomata during the day to take in CO, as they would lose too much water by transpiration. Instead, stomata open at night, when water evaporation is minimal, and take in CO by fixing with PEP to form oxaloacetate though PEP carboxylase. Oxaloacetate is
Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase
11162881
homodimer of 25 kDa subunits. The molecular weight of the RpiA dimer was found to be 49 kDa by gel filtration. Recently, the crystal structure of RpiA was determined. (please see http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/97516673/PDFSTAR) Due to its role in the pentose phosphate pathway and the Calvin cycle, RpiA is highly conserved in most organisms, such as bacteria, plants, and animals. RpiA plays an essential role in the metabolism of plants and animals, as it is involved in the Calvin cycle which takes place in plants, and the pentose phosphate pathway which takes place in plants as well as animals. All orthologs of
Ribose-5-phosphate isomerase
9410614
plant, similar mechanisms exist in a bacterial cell, a choanoflagellate, a fungal hypha, or a sponge, among the many other examples. All of these individual organisms of the respective taxa, despite being devoid of a brain or nervous system, are capable of sensing their immediate and momentary environment and responding accordingly. In the case of single-celled life, the sensory pathways are even more primitive in the sense that they take place on the surface of a single cell, as opposed to a network of many cells. Plant perception (physiology) Plant perception is the ability of plants to sense and respond
Plant perception (physiology)
10982354
as therapeutic cancer drugs. Knockdown of CDKN1B stimulates regeneration of cochlear hair cells in mice. Since CDKN1B prevents cells from entering the cell cycle, inhibition of the protein could cause re-entry and subsequent division. In mammals where regeneration of cochlear hair cells normally does not occur, this inhibition could help regrow damaged cells who are otherwise incapable of proliferation. In fact, when the CDKN1B gene is disrupted in adult mice, hair cells of the organ of Corti proliferate, while those in control mice do not. Lack of CDKN1B expression appears to release the hair cells from natural cell-cycle arrest. Because
CDKN1B
1796445
of the cell cycle. Cytokinesis enables budding yeast "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" to divide into two daughter cells. "S. cerevisiae" forms a bud which can grow throughout its cell cycle and later leaves its mother cell when mitosis has completed. "S. cerevisiae" is relevant to cell cycle studies because it divides asymmetrically by using a polarized cell to make two daughters with different fates and sizes. Similarly, stem cells use asymmetric division for self-renewal and differentiation. For many cells, M phase does not happen until S phase is complete. However, for entry into mitosis in "S. cerevisiae" this is not true. Cytokinesis
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
16891621
over time, will create a terrestrial ecosystem. From there on herbaceous, non-woody plants will develop and trees will follow. Major holes or gaps in the forest ecosystem will take hundreds of years to regenerate from a rock base. Secondary succession occurs where a disturbance has taken place but soil remains and is able to support plant growth. It does not take nearly as long for plant regeneration to occur because of the soil substrate already present. Secondary succession is much more common than primary succession in the tropics. Ecological secondary succession occurs in four distinct phases: First, rapid colonization of
Gap dynamics
10578914
are linked to symptomology of the virus. RNA-2 codes for coat and movement proteins, which are important in the cell-to-cell movement of BPMV. Once the virus reaches the seed, it is believed that it is harbored in the seed coat, not actually infecting the embryo. This would result in the virus waiting for an opening to infect the new plant, such as the germination period where damage to the cotyledons can take place. Seed-seedling transmission occurrences are low. BPMV can also survive on an alternate host, which the beetle would transfer to the soybeans. Agronomic Impact BPMV infected seed that
Bean pod mottle virus
9685242
phase of the plant life cycle, cell division planes may be established without the use of a preprophase band. In highly vacuolated plant cells, preprophase may be preceded by the formation of a phragmosome. The function of the phragmosome is to suspend the cell nucleus in the center of the cell in preparation for mitosis. If a phragmosome is visible, the preprophase band will appear at its outer edge. At the beginning of preprophase, the cortical microtubules of a plant cell disappear and aggregate into a dense ring underneath the plasma membrane. This preprophase band runs around the equatorial plane
Preprophase
6412130
3-Phosphoglyceric acid 3-Phosphoglyceric acid (3PG) is the conjugate acid of glycerate 3-phosphate (GP). The glycerate is a biochemically significant metabolic intermediate in both glycolysis and the Calvin cycle. This anion is often termed PGA when referring to the Calvin cycle. In the Calvin cycle, 3-phosphoglycerate is the product of the spontaneous scission of an unstable 6-carbon intermediate formed upon CO fixation. Thus, two equivalents of 3-phosphoglycerate are produced for each molecule of CO that is fixed. In the light-independent reactions (also known as the Calvin cycle), two 3-phosphoglycerate molecules are synthesized, one of which continues through the Calvin cycle to
3-Phosphoglyceric acid
12438231
5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate, which is one of the few C donors in biosynthesis. In this case the methyl group derived from the catabolism of glycine can be transferred to other key molecules such as purines and methionine. This reaction, and by extension the glycine cleavage system, is required for photorespiration in C plants. The glycine cleavage system takes glycine, which is created from an unwanted byproduct of the Calvin cycle, and converts it to serine which can reenter the cycle. The ammonia generated by the glycine cleavage system, is assimilated by the Glutamine synthetase-Glutamine oxoglutarate aminotransferase cycle but costs the cell one
Glycine cleavage system
19101362
"A Combined Gas Cooled Nuclear Reactor and Fuel Cell Cycle," dealt with a combined cycle marine engineering propulsion system which allowed him to further specialize in marine engineering, gas cooled nuclear reactors and solid oxide fuel cells. Dr. Palmer is also a graduate of the United States Navy's Nuclear Power Program, where he was certified as an Engineering Officer of the Watch, Nuclear Plant Engineer and senior Engineering Duty Officer. Dr. Palmer used these certifications during his employment with General Electric's Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory where he had the responsibility of training and certifying Navy personnel in the operation of
David J. Palmer
18366396
to the 1923 Occurrence appear to show that each Minerva uses the power of the ritual to kill the current Ananke (each having been the previous incarnation of Minerva), and take her place for the next cycle; remembering every previous Occurrence in the process and taking the name of Ananke for that cycle. Further brief flashbacks to every Occurrence throughout history show a variety of outcomes for an Ananke awakening a Persephone. In most Ananke kills and/or takes the head of Persephone, (featuring twice where Minerva did this instead of Ananke); in some Ananke embraces Persephone as she does with
The Wicked + The Divine
6177461
families. Asexual reproduction covers all those modes of multiplication of plants where normal gamete formation and fertilization does not take place making these distinctly different from normal seed production crops. In the absence of sexual reproduction, the genetic composition of plant material being multiplied remains essentially the same as its source plant. Clones of mother plants can be made with the exact genetic composition of the mother plant. Superior plants are selected and propagated vegetatively; the vegetative propagated offspring are used to develop stable varieties without any deterioration due to segregation of gene combinations. This unique characteristic of asexual reproduction
Selection methods in plant breeding based on mode of reproduction
10380915
also take the form of a reticulate body, which is in fact an intracytoplasmic form, highly involved in the process of replication and growth of these bacteria. The reticulate body is slightly larger than the elementary body and may reach up to 0.6 μm in diameter with a minimum of 0.5 μm. It does not present a cell wall. When stained with iodine, reticulate bodies appear as inclusions in the cell. The DNA genome, proteins, and ribosomes are retained in the reticulate body. This occurs as a result of the development cycle of the bacteria. The reticular body is basically
Chlamydia (genus)
11208664
part of William Shockley's group, where his experimental results were essential in developing models of semiconductor behaviour. In 1946, acting on a suggestion by Shockley he put a voltage on a droplet of glycol borate (gu) placed across a P-N junction producing the first evidence of power amplification in the search for the transistor. In 1954 his work on silicon rectifiers led to the first practical photovoltaic cell (solar cell), together with Daryl Chapin and Calvin Souther Fuller. He took early retirement from Bell in 1960 to take up the position of Professor of Electrical Engineering at Stanford setting up
Gerald Pearson
3456855
niches. For example, "Agrobacterium tumefaciens" is a plant pathogen, "Brucella abortus" is an animal pathogen, and "Sinorhizobium meliloti" is a soil bacterium that invades, and becomes a symbiont in, plant root nodules that fix nitrogen yet most of the proteins of the "Caulobacter" cell cycle control are also found in these species. The specific coupling between the protein components of the cell cycle control network and the downstream readout of the circuit differ from species to species. The pattern is that the internal functionality of the network circuitry is conserved, but the coupling at the “edges” of the regulatory apparatus
Caulobacter crescentus
5545254
member: Homo sapiens E2F1 mRNA or E2F1 protein sequences from NCBI protein and nucleotide database. X-ray crystallographic analysis has shown that the E2F family of transcription factors has a fold similar to the winged-helix DNA-binding motif. E2F family members play a major role during the G1/S transition in mammalian and plant cell cycle (see KEGG cell cycle pathway). DNA microarray analysis reveals unique sets of target promoters among E2F family members suggesting that each protein has a unique role in the cell cycle. Among E2F transcriptional targets are cyclins, CDKs, checkpoints regulators, DNA repair and replication proteins. Nonetheless, there is
E2F
9685240
Preprophase Preprophase is an additional phase during mitosis in plant cells that does not occur in other eukaryotes such as animals or fungi. It precedes prophase and is characterized by two distinct events: Plant cells are fixed with regards to their neighbor cells within the tissues they are growing in. In contrast to animals where certain cells can migrate within the embryo to form new tissues, the seedlings of higher plants grow entirely based on the orientation of cell division and subsequent elongation and differentiation of cells within their cell walls. Therefore, the accurate control of cell division planes and
Preprophase
21010162
Kozminski, K.G. (2013). Cell cycle checkpoint regulators reach a zillion. Cell Cycle 12, 1501–1509. Neuronal cell cycle The Cell Cycle represents the life cycle of the biological cell, its creation, reproduction and eventual death. The process by which cells divide into two daughter cells is called mitosis. Once these cells are formed they enter G1, the phase in which many of the proteins needed to replicate DNA are made. After G1, the cells enter S phase during which the DNA is replicated. After S, the cell will enter G2 where the proteins required for mitosis to occur are synthesized. Unlike
Neuronal cell cycle
2497928
spreading. G1 phase The g phase, or Gap 1 phase, is the first of four phases of the cell cycle that takes place in eukaryotic cell division. In this part of interphase, the cell synthesizes mRNA and proteins in preparation for subsequent steps leading to mitosis. G phase ends when the cell moves into the S phase of interphase. G phase together with the S phase and G phase comprise the long growth period of the cell cycle called interphase that takes place before cell division in mitosis (M phase). During G phase, the cell grows in size and synthesizes
G1 phase
2497918
G1 phase The g phase, or Gap 1 phase, is the first of four phases of the cell cycle that takes place in eukaryotic cell division. In this part of interphase, the cell synthesizes mRNA and proteins in preparation for subsequent steps leading to mitosis. G phase ends when the cell moves into the S phase of interphase. G phase together with the S phase and G phase comprise the long growth period of the cell cycle called interphase that takes place before cell division in mitosis (M phase). During G phase, the cell grows in size and synthesizes mRNA
G1 phase
3356422
the key difference between the lytic and lysogenic (bacterio)phage cycles. However, in both cases the virus/phage replicates using the host DNA machinery. The lytic cycle, which is also commonly referred to as the "reproductive cycle" of the bacteriaphage, is a six-stage cycle. The six stages are: attachment, penetration, transcription, biosynthesis, maturation, and lysis. To infect a host cell, the virus must first inject its own nucleic acid into the cell through the plasma membrane and (if present) the cell wall. The virus does so by either attaching to a receptor on the cell's surface or by simple mechanical force. The
Lytic cycle
6278529
the lytic cycle. Lysogenic cycles can also occur in eukaryotes, although the method of DNA incorporation is not fully understood. The difference between lysogenic and lytic cycles is that, in lysogenic cycles, the spread of the viral DNA occurs through the usual prokaryotic reproduction, whereas a lytic cycle is more immediate in that it results in many copies of the virus being created very quickly and the cell is destroyed. One key difference between the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle is that the lysogenic cycle does not lyse the host cell straight away. Phages that replicate only via the
Lysogenic cycle
2326607
ring within the equatorial region of the cell membrane that constricts to form the cleavage furrow. In plant cells, Golgi vesicle secretions form a cell plate or septum on the equatorial plane of the cell wall by the action of microtubules of the phragmoplast. The cleavage furrow in animal cells and the phragmoplast in plant cells are complex structures made up of microtubules and microfilaments that aide in the final separation of the cells into two identical daughter cells. The cell cycle begins with interphase when the DNA replicates, the cell grows and prepares to enter mitosis. Mitosis includes four
Cleavage furrow
6641945
appears to require carbon dioxide. This organism, "Mannheimia succiniciproducens", has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation. While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis (the Calvin cycle), it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals. "M. succiniciproducens" can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate, an endproduct in glycolysis, to generate the four-carbon compound, oxaloacetic acid, an intermediate in the Krebs cycle. Although "M. succiniciproducens" has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle, it
Capnophile
63234
in the environment form the carbon cycle. For example, photosynthetic plants draw carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (or seawater) and build it into biomass, as in the Calvin cycle, a process of carbon fixation. Some of this biomass is eaten by animals, while some carbon is exhaled by animals as carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle is considerably more complicated than this short loop; for example, some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the oceans; if bacteria do not consume it, dead plant or animal matter may become petroleum or coal, which releases carbon when burned. Carbon can form very long chains
Carbon
49619
biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems. Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people. When applied to the investigation of historical plant–people relationships ethnobotany may be referred to as archaeobotany or palaeoethnobotany. Some of the earliest plant-people relationships arose between the indigenous people of Canada in identifying edible plants from inedible plants. This relationship the indigenous people had with plants was recorded by ethnobotanists. Plant biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes used by plants. Some of these processes are used in their primary metabolism like the photosynthetic Calvin cycle and
Botany
4478486
he meets Guppy, who repairs his cyclone and tells him to meet her in a Town called Greystone. Soon after they find an abandoned ship and replenish their equipment. Finally (and after various skirmishes with the Invid and other hostile humans) they head on to Reflex Point, where the final attack on the Invid Invaders is set to take place at the end of the game. The second Robotech game produced by Vicious Cycle, The game focuses on the universe as depicted in Robotech: The New Generation series. Instead of the distinctive, cell-shaded style of Battlecry, Invasion has a 3D
Robotech: Invasion
7373099
virus interact with proteins of the cell. Attachment, or adsorption, occurs between the viral particle and the host cell membrane. A hole forms in the cell membrane, then the virus particle or its genetic contents are released into the host cell, where replication of the viral genome may commence. Next, a virus must take control of the host cell's replication mechanisms. It is at this stage a distinction between susceptibility and permissibility of a host cell is made. Permissibility determines the outcome of the infection. After control is established and the environment is set for the virus to begin making
Viral life cycle
9690549
predicted by the position of the preprophase band. Preprophase band The preprophase band is a microtubule array found in plant cells that are about to undergo cell division and enter the preprophase stage of the plant cell cycle. Besides the phragmosome, it is the first microscopically visible sign that a plant cell is about to enter mitosis. The preprophase band was first observed and described by Jeremy Pickett-Heaps and Donald Northcote at Cambridge University in 1966. Just before mitosis starts, the preprophase band forms as a dense band of microtubules around the phragmosome and the future division plane just below
Preprophase band
9690546
Preprophase band The preprophase band is a microtubule array found in plant cells that are about to undergo cell division and enter the preprophase stage of the plant cell cycle. Besides the phragmosome, it is the first microscopically visible sign that a plant cell is about to enter mitosis. The preprophase band was first observed and described by Jeremy Pickett-Heaps and Donald Northcote at Cambridge University in 1966. Just before mitosis starts, the preprophase band forms as a dense band of microtubules around the phragmosome and the future division plane just below the plasma membrane. It encircles the nucleus at
Preprophase band
4716500
activation to further stabilize cellular structures and function. Composition of the cell wall structure is altered to increase flexibility so folding can take place without irreparably damaging the structure of the cell wall. Sugars are utilized as water substitutes by maintaining hydrogen bonds within the cell membrane. Photosynthesis is shut down to limit production of reactive oxygen species and then eventually all metabolic are drastically reduced, the cell effectively becoming dormant until rehydration. Cytorrhysis Cytorrhysis is the permanent and irreparable damage to the cell wall after the complete collapse of a plant cell due to the loss of internal positive
Cytorrhysis
79159
species, recent results in tobacco plants are promising, showing a failed containment rate of transplastomic plants at 3 in 1,000,000. Chloroplast Chloroplasts are organelles that conduct photosynthesis, where the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight, converts it, and stores it in the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH while freeing oxygen from water in plant and algal cells. They then use the ATP and NADPH to make organic molecules from carbon dioxide in a process known as the Calvin cycle. Chloroplasts carry out a number of other functions, including fatty acid synthesis, much amino acid synthesis, and the immune
Chloroplast
2922890
roots to transpiration. Examples include rice and barley. The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of C depletion than the plants, due to variation in fractionation of carbon isotopes in oxygenic photosynthesis across plant types. C3 carbon fixation This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin–Benson cycle. In plants, carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air. Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate, temperatures are moderate, carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm
C3 carbon fixation