who is considered the founder of the theory of evolution
Jean - Baptiste Lamarck
13026608
the mechanical philosophy spread from the physical sciences to natural history. Naturalists began to focus on the variability of species; the emergence of paleontology with the concept of extinction further undermined static views of nature. In the early 19th century Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744 – 1829) proposed his theory of the transmutation of species, the first fully formed theory of evolution. In 1858 Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace published a new evolutionary theory, explained in detail in Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" (1859). Unlike Lamarck, Darwin proposed common descent and a branching tree of life, meaning that two very
History of evolutionary thought
13608734
twelve years the articles on Evolution by Herbert Spencer in the "Leader", when "regular gradation" began to receive the name of evolution. Chilton was an early advocate of evolution. His writings on "The Theory of Regular Gradation" that were published in "The Oracle of Reason", popularised evolution many years before Charles Darwin. Chilton was a materialist who viewed matter as eternal and inherently possessing all properties to produce life. He rejected any distinction between living and non-living matter and considered all matter to be alive. Chilton was influenced by the evolutionary ideas of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. He embraced Lamarckism and the
William Chilton (printer)
5590361
Unilineal evolution Unilineal evolution, also referred to as classical social evolution, is a 19th-century social theory about the evolution of societies and cultures. It was composed of many competing theories by various anthropologists and sociologists, who believed that Western culture is the contemporary pinnacle of social evolution. Different social status is aligned in a single line that moves from most primitive to most civilized. This theory is now generally considered obsolete in academic circles. Theories of social and cultural evolution are common in modern European thought. Prior to the 18th century, Europeans predominantly believed that societies on Earth were in
Unilineal evolution
6005643
books inspired the speculative evolution artistic movement which focuses on speculative scenarios in the evolution of life, often possible future scenarios (such as "After Man") or alternative paths in the past (such as "The New Dinosaurs"). Dixon is often considered the founder of the modern speculative evolution movement. "After Man" explores Earth 50 million years in the future, hypothesizing what new animals might evolve in the timespan between its setting and the present day. Ecology and evolutionary theory are applied to create believable creatures, all of which have their own binomial names and text describing their behaviour and interactions with
After Man
458126
is named after him, as is the Evaniid wasp "Hyptia hennigi". A symposium, "Willi Hennig (1913-1976): His Life, Legacy and the Future of Phylogenetic Systematics", was held in London by the Linnean Society of London on 27 November 2013. Books: Articles: Willi Hennig Emil Hans Willi Hennig (April 20, 1913 – November 5, 1976) was a German biologist who is considered the founder of phylogenetic systematics, also known as cladistics. In 1945 as a prisoner of war, Hennig began work on his theory of cladistics, which he published in 1950. With his works on evolution and systematics he revolutionised the
Willi Hennig
458110
Willi Hennig Emil Hans Willi Hennig (April 20, 1913 – November 5, 1976) was a German biologist who is considered the founder of phylogenetic systematics, also known as cladistics. In 1945 as a prisoner of war, Hennig began work on his theory of cladistics, which he published in 1950. With his works on evolution and systematics he revolutionised the view of the natural order of beings. As a taxonomist, he specialised in dipterans (ordinary flies and mosquitoes). He is remembered, among other things, for Hennig's progression rule in cladistics, which argues controversially that the most primitive species are found in
Willi Hennig
9463759
is an observable process that occurs whenever a population of organisms genetically changes over time. Under the colloquial definition, the theory of evolution can also be called a fact, referring to this theory's well-established nature. Thus, evolution is widely considered both a theory and a fact by scientists. Similar confusion is involved in objections that evolution is "unproven," since no theory in science is known to be absolutely true, only verified by empirical evidence. This distinction is an important one in philosophy of science, as it relates to the lack of absolute certainty in all empirical claims, not just evolution.
Objections to evolution
10643246
also a fellow of the pro-intelligent design organization, International Society for Complexity, Information and Design. D'Abrera was strongly opposed to the theory of evolution because in his view it is not a bona fide scientific theory. He describes evolution theory as "viscid, asphyxiating baggage" that requires "blind religious faith", He believed it cannot be tested or demonstrated in any natural frame of reference, and therefore it may not be considered even a scientific postulate. The objection that evolution is unfalsifiable has been widely rejected by the scientific community. D'Abrera's views on evolution and science have been criticised by Arthur Shapiro,
Bernard d'Abrera
5071218
The proposed changes were not supported by most of the 26 members of the panel that reviews state science curriculum. On November 8, 2005, the Board of Education voted to instruct science students along the lines of the Discovery Institute, that evolution could not rule out a supernatural or theistic source, that evolution itself was not fact but only a theory and one in crisis, and that ID must be considered a viable alternative to evolution. The following is a list of those who testified in the Kansas evolution hearings (in order), most of whom are affiliated with the Discovery
Kansas evolution hearings
3993260
English philosopher who developed ideas about the unifying concept of evolution across the natural and social sciences. Spencer is the first to develop a theory of cultural evolution and is considered by some to be the father of Social Darwinism. It is also he and not Darwin who coined the phrase "survival of the fittest". Much of the positivist ideas of progress that dominated the social science philosophy of Spencer and subsequent Social Darwinists has been criticized by present-day sociologists, but such ideas continue to be one of the major critiques made by creationists against evolution in general, even though
History of creationism
8993142
Bobby Henderson (activist) Bobby Henderson (born July 18, 1980) is the founder of Pastafarianism. He is a physics graduate from Oregon State University. He was born in Roseburg, Oregon. In 2005, Henderson founded the religion of Pastafarianism in response to the Kansas State Board of Education's decision to spend as much time teaching intelligent design as they did the theory of evolution. Henderson claims that the Pastafarian theory of the origin of the world should be taught in the same way as intelligent design and the theory of evolution. Pastafarianism asserts that the world was created in one day by
Bobby Henderson (activist)
10805796
E Wilmot. His writings on evolution and heredity are of interest as examples of thinking in this field at a time when the new science of genetics was in turmoil, following the rediscovery of the work of Gregor Mendel which appeared to conflict with Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. This was the start of a period in which the Modern evolutionary synthesis came into being. Alfred Russel Wallace, co-founder of the theory of evolution by natural selection, with Darwin, wrote of Reid: "It is refreshing to turn to Mr. Archdall Reid's volume which, though unnecessarily diffuse, is full
G. Archdall Reid
4681118
behaviours such as altruism, aggression, and nurturance. In doing so, Wilson sparked one of the greatest scientific controversies of the 20th century. The current theory of evolution, the modern evolutionary synthesis (or neo-darwinism), explains that evolution of species occurs through a combination of Darwin’s mechanism of natural selection and Gregor Mendel’s theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance and mathematical population genetics. Essentially, the modern synthesis introduced the connection between two important discoveries; the units of evolution (genes) with the main mechanism of evolution (selection). Due to its close reliance on biology, sociobiology is often considered a branch
Sociocultural evolution
3992762
of creation were not necessarily 24-hour days. Science professors at liberal northeastern universities almost immediately embraced the theory of evolution and introduced it to their students. However, some people in parts of the south and west of the United States, which had been influenced by the preachings of Christian fundamentalist evangelicals, rejected the theory as immoral. In the United Kingdom, Evangelical creationists were in a tiny minority. The Victoria Institute was formed in 1865 in response to "Essays and Reviews" and Darwin's "On the Origin of Species". It was not officially opposed to evolution theory, but its main founder James
Creation–evolution controversy
16330402
conditions far more rapidly than by genetic mutation and selection in the host species alone. Extrapolating the coral probiotic hypothesis to other organisms, including higher plants and animals, led to the Rosenberg's support for and publications around the hologenome theory of evolution. The framework of the hologenome theory of evolution is as follows (condensed from Rosenberg "et al.", 2007): Some authors supplement the above principles with an additional one. If a given holobiont is to be considered a unit of natural selection: Ten principles of holobionts and hologenomes were presented in PLOS Biology: Many case studies clearly demonstrate the importance
Hologenome theory of evolution
216366
"r"/"K" selection theory explains these differences. Rushton's application of "r"/"K" selection theory to explain differences among racial groups has been widely criticised. One of his many critics is the evolutionary biologist Joseph L. Graves, who has done extensive testing of the "r"/"K" selection theory with species of Drosophila flies. Graves argues that not only is "r"/"K" selection theory considered to be virtually useless when applied to human life history evolution, but Rushton does not apply the theory correctly, and displays a lack of understanding of evolutionary theory in general. Graves also says that Rushton misrepresented the sources for the biological
J. Philippe Rushton
4815967
Gene-centered view of evolution The gene-centered view of evolution, gene's eye view, gene selection theory, or selfish gene theory holds that adaptive evolution occurs through the differential survival of competing genes, increasing the allele frequency of those alleles whose phenotypic trait effects successfully promote their own propagation, with gene defined as "not just one single physical bit of DNA [but] all replicas of a particular bit of DNA distributed throughout the world". The proponents of this viewpoint argue that, since heritable information is passed from generation to generation almost exclusively by DNA, natural selection and evolution are best considered from
Gene-centered view of evolution
2327678
of Romanes's life. George Romanes George John Romanes FRS (20 May 1848 – 23 May 1894) was a Canadian-Scots evolutionary biologist and physiologist who laid the foundation of what he called comparative psychology, postulating a similarity of cognitive processes and mechanisms between humans and other animals. He was the youngest of Charles Darwin's academic friends, and his views on evolution are historically important. He is considered to invent the term neo-Darwinism, which in the late 19th century was considered as a theory of evolution that focuses on natural selection as the main evolutionary force. However, Samuel Butler used this term
George Romanes
2327664
George Romanes George John Romanes FRS (20 May 1848 – 23 May 1894) was a Canadian-Scots evolutionary biologist and physiologist who laid the foundation of what he called comparative psychology, postulating a similarity of cognitive processes and mechanisms between humans and other animals. He was the youngest of Charles Darwin's academic friends, and his views on evolution are historically important. He is considered to invent the term neo-Darwinism, which in the late 19th century was considered as a theory of evolution that focuses on natural selection as the main evolutionary force. However, Samuel Butler used this term with a similar
George Romanes
15046130
Gang of Four, Butthole Surfers, Frank Zappa, and Mothers of Invention. All lyrics are written by Soling, who claims to be influenced by writers such as Guy Debord, founder of the Situationist International, and Aldous Huxley, author of "Brave New World" and "Yellow Chrome". They also focus on the "bio-genetic studies on the evolution of despair" and outline opposition to the instant gratification of consumer culture. The Love Kills Theory The Love Kills Theory is an alternative rock band based in New York City. They were formed in 2006 by Cevin Soling, and in January 2007 they released their debut
The Love Kills Theory
11485135
foreword by Richard Dawkins, and newly written introduction by the author, was published in 1996. The Theory of Evolution The Theory of Evolution is a book by English evolutionary biologist and geneticist John Maynard Smith, originally published in 1958 in time for 150th anniversary of the birth of Charles Darwin and the centenary of the publication of "The Origin of Species" the following year. It serves as a general introduction to the eponymous subject, intended to be accessible to those with little technical knowledge of the area. It has been highly successful, considered by many as the definitive publication of
The Theory of Evolution
11485134
The Theory of Evolution The Theory of Evolution is a book by English evolutionary biologist and geneticist John Maynard Smith, originally published in 1958 in time for 150th anniversary of the birth of Charles Darwin and the centenary of the publication of "The Origin of Species" the following year. It serves as a general introduction to the eponymous subject, intended to be accessible to those with little technical knowledge of the area. It has been highly successful, considered by many as the definitive publication of its type. The original version was updated several times, and a "Canto" edition, with a
The Theory of Evolution
94529
proof against evolution; that the increased complexity of organisms over time through evolution is not possible due to the law of increasing entropy; that it is impossible that the mechanism of natural selection could account for common ancestry; and that evolutionary theory is untestable. The origin of the human species is particularly hotly contested; the fossil remains of purported hominid ancestors are not considered by advocates of creation biology to be evidence for a speciation event involving "Homo sapiens". Creationists also assert that early hominids, are either apes, or humans. Richard Dawkins has explained evolution as "a theory of gradual,
Creation science
400925
Wilson, a founder of modern sociobiology, proposed a new theory of social evolution. He argued that the traditional approach of focusing on eusociality had limitations, which he illustrated primarily with examples from the insect world. Social evolution Social evolution is a subdiscipline of evolutionary biology that is concerned with social behaviors that have fitness consequences for individuals other than the actor. Social behaviors can be categorized according to the fitness consequences they entail for the actor and recipient. This classification was proposed by W. D. Hamilton, arguing that natural selection favors mutually beneficial or selfish behaviors. Hamilton's insight was to
Social evolution
18098126
the PRC, the term and theory of Peaceful Evolution is a threat and an attempt to undermine the Communist Party's rule. The hard line scholar Huo Shiliang of the Chinese Academy of Social Science's says that after Dulles, the Americans' policy of attempting to peaceful transform China has simply accelerated: Before June 4 China considered the United States as a trustworthy and friendly country, but since June 4 the United States has become the main source of instability in China. Peaceful evolution is the main threat to China's stability today. The ideological struggle will be the most important factor in
Peaceful Evolution theory
849740
or polygenism; this is not true since Coon's evolution model still allows for gene-flow, although he did not stress it. In his 1962 book, "The Origin of Races", Coon theorized that some races reached the Homo sapiens stage in evolution before others, resulting in the higher degree of civilization among some races. He had continued his theory of five races. He considered both what he called the Mongoloid race and the Caucasoid race had individuals who had adapted to crowding through evolution of the endocrine system, which made them more successful in the modern world of civilization. This can be
Carleton S. Coon
8869636
evolutionist and he has rejected biblical creationism. The book influenced both Phillip E. Johnson, the father of intelligent design, Michael Behe, a proponent of irreducible complexity, and George Gilder, co-founder of the Discovery Institute, the hub of the intelligent design movement. Since writing the book Denton has changed many of his views on evolution, however he still believes that the existence of life is a matter of design. Denton still accepts design and embraces a non-Darwinian evolutionary theory. He denies that randomness accounts for the biology of organisms; he has proposed an evolutionary theory which is a "directed evolution" in
Michael Denton
1431666
regarding both sexes, this alien Jewish population is somewhat inferior physically and mentally to the native population". Karl Pearson was important in the founding of the school of biometrics, which was a competing theory to describe evolution and population inheritance at the turn of the 20th century. His series of eighteen papers, "Mathematical Contributions to the Theory of Evolution" established him as the founder of the biometrical school for inheritance. In fact, Pearson devoted much time during 1893 to 1904 to developing statistical techniques for biometry. These techniques, which are widely used today for statistical analysis, include the chi-squared test,
Karl Pearson
8377138
its "Teach the Controversy" campaign, the Institute claims that "evolution is a theory in crisis" and that many scientists criticize evolution and citing the list as evidence or a resource. The Discovery Institute also asserts that this information is being withheld from students in public high school science classes along with "alternatives" to evolution such as intelligent design. The Institute uses "A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism" as evidence to support its claim that evolution is disputed widely within the scientific community. In 2002, Stephen C. Meyer, the founder of the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture, presented the list
A Scientific Dissent from Darwinism
3750563
the earth; he reached this conclusion by reasoning from linguistic evolution (Jones, 1789). This theory is evidence of his thinking on the topic of the evolution of Man. Joshua Steele's disagreement, and subsequent correspondence, with Monboddo over details of the "melody and measure of speech" resulted in Steele's "Prosodia Rationalis", a foundational work both in phonetics and in the analysis of verse rhythm. Monboddo is considered by some scholars as a precursive thinker in the theory of evolution. However, some modern evolutionary historians do not give Monboddo an equally high standing in the influence of history of evolutionary thought. Charles
James Burnett, Lord Monboddo
3063818
have criticized the book and regard it as pseudoscientific. It was criticised for its claims that schoolchildren are deliberately misled, and its conclusions as to the evidential status of the theory of evolution, which is considered by scientists to be the central unifying paradigm of biology. Kevin Padian and Alan D. Gishlick wrote a review in "Quarterly Review of Biology" which said: "In our view, regardless of Wells’s religious or philosophical background, his "Icons of Evolution" can scarcely be considered a work of scholarly integrity." Gishlick wrote a more detailed critique for the National Center for Science Education in his
Icons of Evolution
16482736
herd and thus, the plausibility of the theory. In order for the selfish herd to have evolved, movement rules that decreased domains of danger within a population must have been selected. Because such rules are often complex, it is unlikely that they would have evolved in a single step. Rather, simple rules that considered solely the nearest neighbor in guiding movement may have given rise to the evolution of more complicated rules. This proposed succession would only occur if individuals who moved toward their nearest neighbor in the face of predation showed a higher survival than those who did not.
Selfish herd theory
4921720
"Natura non facit saltum" ["Nature does not take leaps"] so unreservedly." Huxley feared this assumption could discourage naturalists (catastrophists) who believed that major leaps and cataclysms played a significant role in the history of life. In 1864 Albert von Kölliker revived Geoffroy's theory that evolution proceeds by large steps, under the name of heterogenesis, but this time assuming the influence of a nonmaterial force to direct the course of evolution. Darwin's cousin, Francis Galton, considered Darwin's evidence for evolution, and came to an opposite conclusion about the type of variation on which natural selection must act. He carried out his
Mutationism
18286410
(inclusive fitness theory) is typically misunderstood to predict that genetic ties are necessary for the "expression" of social behaviors, whereas in fact the theory only implicates genetic associations as necessary for the "evolution" of social behaviors. Whilst rigorous evolutionary biologists have long understood the distinction between these levels of analysis (see Tinbergen's four questions), past attempts to apply inclusive fitness theory to humans have often overlooked the distinction between "evolution" and "expression". Beyond its central argument, the broader philosophical implications of Holland's work are considered by commentators to be that it both ""helps to untangle a long-standing disciplinary muddle"" and
Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship
4373242
(primarily ambient), and Jedi Knights (electro funk and house music), plus lesser-known aliases Chameleon, Secret Ingredients, and Link & E621. Global Communication's 1994 ambient album "" is widely considered to be a landmark of the genre. The pair also founded their own record label, Evolution, which is sometimes informally referenced as Evolution (Crewekerne) to differentiate it from other record labels with the same name. A compilation of early Evolution material was released jointly by Evolution and Warp Records in 1995 as "The Theory of Evolution". The label name later changed to Universal Language Productions and launched a sublabel, Heard, then
Tom Middleton
3340953
He made important contributions in many areas of physics, including quantum theory, the theory of radiation and stellar evolution. His analysis of rotating bodies led him to conclude that Laplace's theory that the solar system formed from a single cloud of gas was incorrect, proposing instead that the planets condensed from material drawn out of the sun by a hypothetical catastrophic near-collision with a passing star. This theory is not accepted today. Jeans, along with Arthur Eddington, is a founder of British cosmology. In 1928, Jeans was the first to conjecture a steady state cosmology based on a hypothesized continuous
James Jeans
4901951
society and human intellect. In "General Natural History and Theory of the Heavens", Kant laid out his hypothesis of cosmic evolution, and made him "the great founder of the modern scientific conception of Evolution" according to Hastie. Francis Bacon and his followers believed progress of science and technology drive betterment of man. This belief was attached by Jean-Jacques Rousseau who defended human emotions and morals. His discussion on geography education piloted local regional studies. Leibniz and Kant formed the major challenge to the mechanical materialism. Leibniz conceptualized the world as a changing whole, rather than "sum of its parts" as
History of geography
9446413
evolution in the Muslim countries. 79% of people in Kazakhstan acceptance the theory of evolution. Among those who had heard of Charles Darwin and knew something about the theory of evolution, 77% of people in India agree that enough scientific evidence exists to support Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. Also, 85% of God believing Indians who know about evolution agree that life on earth evolved over time as a result of natural selection. In a survey carried among 10 major nations, the highest proportion that agreed that evolutionary theories alone should be taught in schools was in India, at 49%.
Level of support for evolution
12272780
in evolutionary biology and its relevance to the study of emerging infectious diseases, the 2006 discovery of the transitional fossil "Tiktaalik", and the application of evolutionary theory in many areas of science and engineering beyond biology. The book was released as several states, particularly Texas and Florida, considered revisions in state science standards. A study at Arizona State University used the book as part of a two-week module, within an introductory biology course, focusing on science, evolution, and religion. The percentage of students who held the view that there was a conflict between religion and evolution was reduced by about
Science, Evolution, and Creationism
94149
that confidence is usually strongest when considering evidence from different fields, because the techniques are usually very different. For example, the theory of evolution is supported by a convergence of evidence from genetics, molecular biology, paleontology, geology, biogeography, comparative anatomy, comparative physiology, and many other fields. In fact, the evidence within each of these fields is itself a convergence providing evidence for the theory. (As a result, to disprove evolution, most or all of these independent lines of evidence would have to be found to be in error.) The strength of the evidence, considered together as a whole, results in
Consilience
9340243
Universal evolution Universal evolution is a theory of evolution formulated by Pierre Teilhard de Chardin and Julian Huxley that describes the gradual development of the Universe from subatomic particles to human society, considered by Teilhard as the last stage. Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky influenced Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, and the two formulated very similar theories describing the gradual development of the universe from subatomic particles to human society and beyond. Teilhard's theories are better known in the West (and have also been commented on by Julian Huxley), and integrate Darwinian evolution and Christianity, whilst Vernadsky wrote more purely from a scientific
Universal evolution
9463820
theory; his campaign culminated in the Scopes Trial, which effectively prevented teaching of evolution in most public schools until the 1960s. R. Albert Mohler, Jr., president of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville, Kentucky, wrote August 8, 2005, in NPR's "Taking Issue" essay series, that "Debates over education, abortion, environmentalism, homosexuality and a host of other issues are really debates about the origin — and thus the meaning — of human life. ...evolutionary theory stands at the base of moral relativism and the rejection of traditional morality." Henry M. Morris, engineering professor and founder of the Creation Research Society
Objections to evolution
7189422
controversy over whether mimicry in butterflies and other insects can be explained by gradual or saltational evolution. According to Norrström (2006) there is evidence for saltation in some cases of mimicry. The endosymbiotic theory is considered to be a type of saltational evolution. Symonds and Elgar, 2004 have suggested that pheromone evolution in bark beetles is characterized by large saltational shifts. The mode of evolution of sex pheromones in "Bactrocera" has occurred by rapid saltational changes associated with speciation followed by gradual divergence thereafter. Saltational speciation has been recognized in the genus "Clarkia" (Lewis, 1966). It has been suggested (Carr,
Saltation (biology)
2828655
Divine. More recently in his book "God and the Evolving Universe: The Next Step in Personal Evolution" (2002) co-written with Michael Murphy, he claims that humanity is on the verge of undergoing a change in consciousness. An interpretation of social and psychological development that could also be considered a theory of spiritual evolution is spiral dynamics, based on the work of Clare W. Graves. More recently the concept of spiritual evolution has been given a sort of respectability it has not had since the early 19th century through the work of the integral theorist Ken Wilber, in whose writings both
Spiritual evolution
3539214
only come up in the 19th century. Contemporaries have come up with several distinct stances. One stance is that adaptation, or evolution on a micro scale, is accepted within a species, but cross-species evolution, that is evolution from one species into another species, is not as the human beginning is considered to be miraculous. However, this traditional thought would not conflict with the view that human-like beings could have been created around the same time as human beings, which, in this view, would explain the fossil records that look human but are not. Another stance is that since evolution is
Social effects of evolutionary theory
336869
on twins in five different countries found that the correlations for identical twins were .50, while for fraternal they were about .20. It is suggested that heredity and environment interact to determine one's personality. Charles Darwin is the founder of the theory of the evolution of the species. The evolutionary approach to personality psychology is based on this theory. This theory examines how individual personality differences are based on natural selection. Through natural selection organisms change over time through adaptation and selection. Traits are developed and certain genes come into expression based on an organism's environment and how these traits
Personality psychology
5590379
of cross-cultural data was based on three assumptions: Theorists usually measured progression (that is, the difference between one stage and the next) in terms of increasing social complexity (including class differentiation and a complex division of labor), or an increase in intellectual, theological, and aesthetic sophistication. These 19th-century ethnologists used these principles primarily to explain differences in religious beliefs and kinship terminologies among various societies. There were however notable differences between the work of Lester Frank Ward's and Tylor's approaches. Lester Frank Ward developed Spencer's theory but unlike Spencer, who considered the evolution to be general process applicable to the
Unilineal evolution
9463787
that certain types of evidence are inconsistent and dubious. Arguments against evolution's reliability are thus often based on analyzing the history of evolutionary thought or the history of science in general. Creationists point out that in the past, major scientific revolutions have overturned theories that were at the time considered near-certain. They thus claim that current evolutionary theory is likely to undergo such a revolution in the future, on the basis that it is a "theory in crisis" for one reason or another. Critics of evolution commonly appeal to past scientific hoaxes such as the Piltdown Man forgery. It is
Objections to evolution
9463788
argued that because scientists have been mistaken and deceived in the past about evidence for various aspects of evolution, the current evidence for evolution is likely to also be based on fraud and error. Much of the evidence for evolution has been accused of being fraudulent at various times, including "Archaeopteryx", peppered moth melanism, and Darwin's finches; these claims have been subsequently refuted. It has also been claimed that certain former pieces of evidence for evolution which are now considered out-of-date and erroneous, such as Ernst Haeckel's 19th-century comparative drawings of embryos, used to illustrate his recapitulation theory (""ontogeny recapitulates
Objections to evolution
5840732
John H. Gillespie John H. Gillespie is an evolutionary biologist interested in theoretical population genetics and molecular evolution. In molecular evolution, he emphasized the importance of advantageous mutations and balancing selection. For that reason, Gillespie is well known for his selectionist stance in the neutralist-selectionist debate. He is widely considered the main proponent of natural selection in molecular evolution. He had a well-known feud with the father of the neutral theory of molecular evolution, Motoo Kimura, initiated by a review in Science of Kimura's book in which Gillespie criticized Kimura for "using the book as a vehicle to establish for
John H. Gillespie
17258405
of Marginal analysis. “Uncertainty, Evolution, and Economic Theory” was Alchian’s first major article. It is hailed by most evolutionary economists as an important and seminal contribution to economic theory. Economists who consider the article a powerful defense of the assumption of profit maximization include Arthur S. De Vany, Harold Demsetz, and Benjamin Klein. "Uncertainty, Evolution, and Economic Theory" drew criticism from Sidney G. Winter; he argued that Alchian failed to consider the transmission mechanisms that determine successful behaviors, and how they can be maintained and copied over time. According to Winter if maximizing profits is not a result of conscious
Uncertainty, Evolution, and Economic Theory
13655171
known as Maitatsine ("He who curses others"), a self-proclaimed prophet ("annabi", a Hausa word usually used only to describe the founder of Islam) born in Northern Cameroon who condemned the reading of books other than the Quran. In a 2009 BBC interview, Yusuf, described by analysts as being well-educated, reaffirmed his opposition to Western education. He rejected the theory of evolution, said that rain is not "an evaporation caused by the sun", and that the Earth is not a sphere. Before colonization and subsequent annexation into the British Empire in 1900 as Colonial Nigeria, the Bornu Empire ruled the territory
Boko Haram
19238523
considered as a process of materialisation of information. The cost of materialisation of information is work of production system. To maintain complexity in a thermodynamic system, fluxes of matter and energy must flow through the system. To formulate the system of evolution equations of the production system, function (1) ought to be specified and dynamic equations for production factors formula_1, formula_3 and formula_2 to be formulated, while nessasery technological characteristics of production equipment to be introduced. In result, it came to the set of equations of economic growth -- the theory of evolution, dubbed as the technological theory of social
Econodynamics
576935
Theorie" ("On the justification of the Darwinian theory") he compared creationism and evolutionary theory, and concluded that many biological facts can be seamlessly accommodated within evolutionary theory, but remain puzzling if considered the result of acts of creation. After this work, Weismann accepted evolution as a fact on a par with the fundamental assumptions of astronomy (e.g. Heliocentrism). Weismann's position towards the mechanism of inheritance and its role for evolution changed during his life. Three periods can be distinguished. Weismann's work on the demarcation between germ-line and soma can scarcely be appreciated without considering the work of (mostly) German biologists
August Weismann
6094871
Theory of Evolution and eventually to take a standardized test of which evolution is a part. Because Darwin's Theory is a theory, it continues to be tested as new evidence is discovered. The Theory is not a fact. Gaps in the Theory exist for which there is no evidence. A theory is defined as a well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations. Intelligent Design is an explanation of the origin of life that differs from Darwin's view. The reference book, "Of Pandas and People", is available for students who might be interested in gaining an understanding of what
Thomas More Law Center
11143708
Oded Galor Oded Galor (born 1953) is an Israeli economist who is currently Herbert H. Goldberger Professor of Economics at Brown University. He is the founder of unified growth theory. Galor has contributed to the understanding of process of development over the entire course of human history and the role of deep-rooted factors in the transition from stagnation to growth and in the emergence of the vast inequality across the globe. Moreover, he has pioneered the exploration of the impact of human evolution, population diversity, and inequality on the process of development over most of human existence. Galor completed his
Oded Galor
360741
complete reconceptualization, these are extreme exceptions. Knowledge in science is gained by a gradual synthesis of information from different experiments by various researchers across different branches of science; it is more like a climb than a leap. Theories vary in the extent to which they have been tested and verified, as well as their acceptance in the scientific community. For example, heliocentric theory, the theory of evolution, relativity theory, and germ theory still bear the name "theory" even though, in practice, they are considered factual. Philosopher Barry Stroud adds that, although the best definition for "knowledge" is contested, being skeptical
Science
3539211
by conservative evangelicals. They have expressed concerns about the effects of the teaching of evolution on society and their faith (see Creation-evolution controversy). In response to the wide scientific acceptance of the theory of evolution, many religions have formally or informally synthesized the scientific and religious viewpoints. Several important 20th century scientists (Fisher, Dobzhansky) whose work confirmed Darwin's theory, were also Christians who saw no incompatibility between their experimental and theoretical confirmations of evolution and their faith. Some religions have adopted a theistic evolution viewpoint, where God provides a divine spark that ignited the process of evolution and (or), where
Social effects of evolutionary theory
7085803
The Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution The Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution is an influential monograph written in 1983 by Japanese evolutionary biologist Motoo Kimura. While the neutral theory of molecular evolution existed since his article in 1968, Kimura felt the need to write a monograph with up-to-date information and evidences showing the importance of his theory in evolution. Evolution is a change in the frequency of alleles in a population over time. Mutations occur at random and in the Darwinian evolution model natural selection acts on the genetic variation in a population that has arisen through this mutation. These
The Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution
2790760
were sympathetic to Darwin's basic theory. Alfred Russel Wallace, the co-discoverer of evolution by natural selection, believed that the human mind was too complex to have evolved gradually, and began over time to subscribe to a theory of evolution that took more from spiritualism than it did the natural world. Darwin was deeply distressed by Wallace's change of heart, and much of the "Descent of Man" is in response to opinions put forth by Wallace. Darwin focuses less on the question of whether humans evolved than he does on showing that each of the human faculties considered to be so
The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex
2892997
success of "The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study in the Evolution of Institutions" (1899) derived from the fidelity, accuracy, and veracity of Thorstein Veblen's reportage of the social and economic behavior of American society; yet, some contemporaries considered that Veblen's intellectualism made him an iconoclast who was "more than a little mad". In that vein, despite the success (financial, academic, social) accrued to him by the book, another contemporary social scientist told Veblen that the sociology of gross consumerism cataloged in "The Theory of the Leisure Class" had much "fluttered the dovecotes of the East", especially in
The Theory of the Leisure Class
3063842
educationally responsible way” in public schools. Following discussions, Cooper sent the book and DVD of "Icons of Evolution" to Buckingham, who required the Dover High School botany teachers to watch the DVD. They did not take up the opportunity to use it in their classes. The school board subsequently introduced a requirement that teachers read a statement to students in the ninth-grade biology class at Dover High School, asserting that Darwin's theory of evolution "is still being tested as new evidence is discovered. The theory is not a fact. Gaps in the theory exist for which there is no evidence."
Icons of Evolution
425931
In 1967, Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson published "The Theory of Island Biogeography". This showed that the species richness in an area could be predicted in terms of factors such as habitat area, immigration rate and extinction rate. The theory is considered one of the fundamentals of ecological theory. The application of island biogeography theory to habitat fragments spurred the development of the fields of conservation biology and landscape ecology. A population ecology concept is r/K selection theory, one of the first predictive models in ecology used to explain life-history evolution. The premise behind the r/K selection model is that
Theoretical ecology
5710605
Noble and P. Read Montague. Riedel contributed to developmental biology, morphology, evolution (a systems approach) and evolutionary epistemology. He was the Founder President of the Club of Vienna. Riedl held the opinion that the modern evolutionary synthesis had ignored the role of development and morphology in evolution. He stated that the modern synthesis had failed to explain the origin of body plans and patterns at the macroevolutionary level. He presented his evolutionary theory in "Order in Living Organisms: A Systems Analysis of Evolution" (translated, 1978). He called for an extended evolutionary synthesis to integrate processes from developmental biology and macroevolutionary
Rupert Riedl
5071221
the Discovery Institute's Critical Analysis of Evolution public school science standards during that period. While other states were backing away from teaching alternatives to evolution, the Oklahoma House passed a bill Thursday, March 2, 2006 that contained Discovery Institute language encouraging schools to expose students to alternative views about the origin of life. Popular reaction included the creation of the intelligent design parody Pastafarianism (the worship of a Flying Spaghetti Monster). Its founder insisted it should be offered as a "third" theory on origins, suggesting possible legal action if it was not included and intelligent design was. On August 1,
Kansas evolution hearings
9057721
consideration of any type of reform, regardless of the facts." The Bush Administration's replacement of previous science advisers with industry experts or scientists tied to industry, and its refusal to submit the Kyoto Protocol for ratification due to uncertainties they asserted were present in the climate change issue, have been cited by the press as examples of politically motivated denialism. Religious beliefs may prompt an individual to deny the validity of the scientific theory of evolution. Evolution is still considered an undisputed fact within the scientific community and in academia, where the level of support for evolution is essentially universal,
Denialism
4681122
theory. They combine the previous theories of sociocultural evolution with practical experiences and empirical research, especially those from the era of decolonization. The theory states that: Developing from classical social evolutionism theories, the theory of modernization stresses the modernization factor: many societies are simply trying (or need) to emulate the most successful societies and cultures. It also states that it is possible to do so, thus supporting the concepts of social engineering and that the developed countries can and should help those less developed, directly or indirectly. Among the scientists who contributed much to this theory are Walt Rostow, who
Sociocultural evolution
2082448
those who are being investigated. She is hailed as a critic who has feminized and globalized the philosophy of deconstruction, considering the position of the subaltern, a word used by Antonio Gramsci as describing ungeneralizable fringe groups of society who lack access to citizenship. In the early 80s, she was also hailed as a co-founder of postcolonial theory, which she refused to accept fully, as has been demonstrated in her book "Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Towards a History of the Vanishing Present" (1999), which suggests that so-called postcolonial theory should be considered from the point of view of who uses
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
13262425
network (a so-called "rete mirabile"). The theory is based on the idea that increasing the temperature of portions of the hypothalamus can produce aggressive behavior, whereas cooling can produce relaxation. Our emotional language has comparable descriptors, such as "hot-head" and "cool-breezy". The theory offers an explanation for the evolution of common facial expressions of emotion in mammals. Little experimental work has been done to extend the theory, however. Carroll Izard, a psychologist who is known for his work with emotions, discussed gains and losses associated with the evolution of emotions. He said that discrete emotion experiences emerge in ontogeny before
Evolution of emotion
17124278
Descent of Man" Darwin was increasingly identified with the theory of evolution although his friend Thomas Henry Huxley was the first to put it forward. As a result, Darwin himself was considered more and more as a suitable object to caricature. The cover of the French satirical magazine "La Petite Lune" is a telling example of the paradigmatic representation of Darwin in contemporary cartoons and caricatures. Sambourne's caricature deals in a playful manner with the topics "evolution" and "descent of man." The title alludes to a publication of Darwin entitled "The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms,
Caricatures of Charles Darwin and his evolutionary theory in 19th-century England
7929428
Richard Anthony Jefferson Richard Anthony Jefferson (born 1956) is an American-born molecular biologist and social entrepreneur who developed the widely used reporter gene system GUS, conducted the world's first biotech crop release, proposed the Hologenome theory of evolution, pioneered Biological Open Source and founded The Lens. He is founder of the social enterprise Cambia and a Professor of Biological Innovation at the Queensland University of Technology. In 2003 he was named by Scientific American as one of the world's 50 most influential technologists, and is renowned for his work on making science-enabled innovation more widely accessible. He was profiled in
Richard Anthony Jefferson
9330183
on evolution as fact and theory. Evolution has been described as "fact and theory"; "fact, not theory"; "only a theory, not a fact"; "multiple theories, not fact"; and "neither fact, nor theory." The disagreements among these statements, however, have more to do with the meaning of words than the substantial issues and this controversy is discussed below. Professor of biology Jerry Coyne sums up biological evolution succinctly: This shows the breadth and scope of the issue, incorporating the scientific fields of zoology, botany, genetics, geology, and paleontology, among many others. But the central core of evolution is generally defined as
Evolution as fact and theory
4681075
from indigenous people, who (they claimed) represented earlier stages of cultural evolution that gave insight into the process and progression of evolution of culture. Morgan would later have a significant influence on Karl Marx and on Friedrich Engels, who developed a theory of sociocultural evolution in which the internal contradictions in society generated a series of escalating stages that ended in a socialist society (see Marxism). Tylor and Morgan elaborated the theory of unilinear evolution, specifying criteria for categorising cultures according to their standing within a fixed system of growth of humanity as a whole and examining the modes and
Sociocultural evolution
8931115
Evolution: A Theory in Crisis Evolution: A Theory in Crisis is a 1985 book by Michael Denton, in which the author argues that the scientific theory of evolution by natural selection is a "theory in crisis". Reviews by scientists say that the book distorts and misrepresents evolutionary theory and contains numerous errors. The Discovery Institute lists "A Theory in Crisis" as one of the "Peer-Reviewed & Peer-Edited Scientific Publications Supporting the Theory of Intelligent Design", though the work does not mention intelligent design. "A Theory in Crisis" predates the 1987 United States Supreme Court decision in "Edwards v. Aguillard" which
Evolution: A Theory in Crisis
19755018
Viable system theory Viable system theory (VST) concerns cybernetic processes in relation to the development/evolution of dynamical systems. They are considered to be living systems in the sense that they are complex and adaptive, can learn, and are capable of maintaining an autonomous existence, at least within the confines of their constraints. These attributes involve the maintenance of internal stability through adaptation to changing environments. One can distinguish between two strands such theory: formal systems and principally non-formal system. Formal viable system theory is normally referred to as viability theory, and provides a mathematical approach to explore the dynamics of
Viable system theory
18098118
rule". Successive generations of CPC leaders have struggled against the Peaceful Evolution theory, including Mao Zedong, Deng Xiaoping, Hu Jintao, and Jiang Zemin. The theory is not currently part of the United States' official policy approach to the PRC, but communist military strategists consider it a cause of ongoing concern. The precise locution "peaceful evolution" was a modification, by John Foster Dulles, of the doctrine originally outlined by George F. Kennan, who, in his Long Telegram of February 22, 1946, proposed that the socialist and capitalist blocs could reach a state of "peaceful coexistence." This was augmented by Dulles over
Peaceful Evolution theory
3640029
and nineteenth centuries. In the 19th century the names of notable contributors to the literature of craniometry quickly increased in number. While it is impossible to analyse each contribution, or even record a complete list of the names of the authors, notable researchers who used craniometric methods to compare humans to other animals included Paul Broca (1824–1880), founder of the Anthropological Society in 1859 in France; and T. H. Huxley (1825–1895) of England. By comparing skeletons of apes to man, Huxley backed up Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and developed the "Pithecometra principle", which stated that man and ape were
Craniometry
9330198
evaluation of our theories and hypotheses." Fitzhugh concludes that the "certainty" of evolution "provides no basis for elevating any evolutionary theory or hypothesis to the level of fact." Dr William C. Robertson writing for National Science Teachers Association writes, "I have heard too many scientists claim that evolution is a fact, often in retort to the claim that it is just a theory. Evolution isn’t a fact. Rather than claiming so, I think scientists would be better served to agree that evolution is a theory and then proceed to explain what a theory is -- a coherent explanation that undergoes
Evolution as fact and theory
796993
to propose an early formal definition of a strategy, anticipating John von Neumann's more complete treatment of a few years later. Consequently, he is considered an early founder of modern game theory. As a result of his work on infinite games Steinhaus, together with another of his students, Jan Mycielski, proposed the Axiom of determinacy. Steinhaus was also an early contributor to, and co-founder of, probability theory, which at the time was in its infancy and not even considered an actual part of mathematics. He provided the first axiomatic measure-theoretic description of coin-tossing, which was to influence the full axiomatization
Hugo Steinhaus
111380
rebutted the criticism. Mayr rejected the idea of a gene-centered view of evolution and starkly but politely criticized Richard Dawkins' ideas: Mayr insisted that the entire genome should be considered as the target of selection, rather than individual genes: Darwin's theory of evolution is based on key facts and the inferences drawn from them, which Mayr summarised as follows: In relation to the publication of Darwin's "Origins of Species", Erst Mayr identified philosophical implications of evolution: Ernst Mayr Ernst Walter Mayr (; 5 July 1904 – 3 February 2005) was one of the 20th century's leading evolutionary biologists. He was
Ernst Mayr
5033933
Muslims scholars reject Young Earth creationism, and claim the story of creation in the Book of Genesis was corrupted, a movement has begun to emerge recently in some Muslim countries promoting themes that have been characteristic of Christian creationists. This stance has received criticism, due to claims that the Quran and Bible are incompatible. Adnan Oktar, also known by his pen-name Harun Yahya, is a Muslim advocate against the theory of evolution. He is considered a charlatan by many Muslim scholars, and his representative at a conference on Islam and evolution in January 2013 was ridiculed during and after the
Islamic views on evolution
1654881
Thinking processes (theory of constraints) The thinking processes in Eliyahu M. Goldratt's theory of constraints are the five methods to enable the focused improvement of any cognitive system (especially business systems). The purpose of the thinking processes is to help answer questions essential to achieving focused improvement: Sometimes two other questions are considered as well: and: A more thorough rationale is presented in "What is this thing called Theory of Constraints and how should it be implemented". A more thorough work, mapping the use and evolution of the Thinking Processes, was conducted by Mabin et al. The primary thinking processes,
Thinking processes (theory of constraints)
13694822
research into how school learning could be advanced using its methods and theories. Also, Staats' theory of human evolution is seen to call for research and theory developments. Psychological behaviorism Psychological behaviorism is a form of behaviorism — a major theory within psychology which holds that generally human behaviors are learned — proposed by Arthur W. Staats. The theory is constructed to advance from basic animal learning principles to deal with all types of human behavior, including personality, culture, and human evolution. Behaviorism was first developed by John B. Watson (1912), who coined the term "behaviorism," and then B. F.
Psychological behaviorism
126684
what Trigger calls the Antiquarianism-Imperial Synthesis period (c1770-c1900). The term evolutionism subsequently came to be used for the now discredited theory that evolution contained a deliberate component, rather than the selection of beneficial traits from random variation by differential survival. In modern times, the term "evolution" is widely used, but the terms "evolutionism" and "evolutionist" are seldom used in the scientific community to refer to evolutionary biology, since the term is considered both redundant and anachronistic. However, the term has been used by creationists in discussing the creation-evolution controversy. For example, the Institute for Creation Research, in order to imply
Evolutionism
1515444
It was first described as a distinct syndrome by Mesulam in 1982. There are three variants: progressive nonfluent aphasia (PNFA), semantic dementia (SD), and logopenic progressive aphasia (LPA). The nineteenth century marked the most important time in the evolution of aphasiology, beginning with the works of Franz Josef Gall. Gall is the founder of the more modern localization theory and is the origin of the idea of a language center in the brain. However, supporting evidence for the theory that language had its own anatomical representation was not found until the case study of Mr. Leborgne, also known as Tan,
Aphasiology
310586
climates of the geological past" which is considered the father of paleoclimatology. Russian geographers who made great contributions to the discipline in this period were: NM Sibirtsev, Pyotr Semyonov, K.D. Glinka, Neustrayev, among others. The second important process is the theory of evolution by Darwin in mid-century (which decisively influenced the work of Ratzel, who had academic training as a zoologist and was a follower of Darwin's ideas) which meant an important impetus in the development of Biogeography. Another major event in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries will give a major boost to development of geography and will
Physical geography
6585573
with evolutionary psychology, human or cultural ecology, and decision theory. It is most prominent in disciplines such as anthropology and psychology where human evolution is considered relevant for a holistic understanding of human behavior or in economics where self-interest, methodological individualism, and maximization are key elements in modeling behavioral responses to various ecological factors. Human behavioral ecology rests upon a foundation of evolutionary theory. This includes aspects of both general evolutionary theory and established middle-level evolutionary theories, as well. Aspects of general evolutionary theory include: Middle-level evolutionary theories used in HBE include: Ecological selectionism refers to the assumption that humans
Human behavioral ecology
15461
spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet. Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution. Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridisations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and
Aristotle
19755030
viability is lost; more of the same; and metamorphosis when the viable system survives because it changes form. The dynamic process that viable living systems have, as they move from stability to instability and back again, is explained in Table 1, referring to aspects of both Figures 1 and 2. Schwarz's VST has been further developed, set within a social knowledge context, and formulated as autonomous agency theory. Viable system theory Viable system theory (VST) concerns cybernetic processes in relation to the development/evolution of dynamical systems. They are considered to be living systems in the sense that they are complex
Viable system theory
4862802
world of accurately-known longitude. The ship was commanded by Captain Robert FitzRoy, a future Vice-Admiral and founder of the Meteorological Office. This was only one of many chronometers carried by the "Beagle" since great accuracy was required for this task. This was also the voyage that carried Charles Darwin who was afterwards inspired to write his book about the theory of evolution, "On the Origin of Species". The chronometer is object 91 in the BBC Radio 4 series "A History of the World in 100 Objects". Thomas Earnshaw Thomas Earnshaw (4 February 1749 in Ashton-under-Lyne – 1 March 1829 in
Thomas Earnshaw
9783296
supporter Steve Fuller, a philosopher, who argues that evolution is the only "scientifically credible basis" for atheism, and anthropologist Jeffrey H. Schwartz, who argues that evolutionary theory cannot account for novelties. He comes to the conclusion that the modern synthetic theory of evolution will be superseded in a future paradigm shift, undermining the arguments of atheists like Dawkins. Liddle also criticizes models of sociocultural evolution such as memetics and interviews skeptics of memetics such as Alister McGrath. In the last quarter of the documentary, Liddle argues against a perceived overreliance on "cold logic" and the amoral scientific method. He focuses
The Trouble with Atheism
17258407
34 (3) San José State University Department of Economics. Watkins, Thayer. applet-magic.com. Winter, Sidney G. (2005) “Developing Evolutionary Theory for Economics and Management.” In M. Hitt and K. G. Smith (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Management Theory, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Uncertainty, Evolution, and Economic Theory “Uncertainty, Evolution, and Economic Theory” is the title of an article written in 1950 by economist Armen Alchian (1914-2013). In this article, Alchian delineates an evolutionary approach to describe firms’ behavior. His theory embodies principles of biological evolution and natural selection. This article is among the first in the economics literature to analogize between
Uncertainty, Evolution, and Economic Theory
8931124
which he was objecting. Critics found it difficult to accept a "directed" mechanism for changes in cytochrome C that were neutral, producing different proteins whose action was the same. Denton's conclusions have been called "erroneous" and "spurious" and marine biologist Wesley R. Elsberry states that all the observations in question can be explained within the modern framework of evolutionary theory. Evolution: A Theory in Crisis Evolution: A Theory in Crisis is a 1985 book by Michael Denton, in which the author argues that the scientific theory of evolution by natural selection is a "theory in crisis". Reviews by scientists say
Evolution: A Theory in Crisis
306651
an ancestor's, were however first formulated by Haeckel in the 1870s. These elements of his thinking about development have thus survived, whereas his theory of recapitulation has not. The Haeckelian form of recapitulation theory is considered defunct. However, embryos do undergo a period where their morphology is strongly shaped by their phylogenetic position, rather than selective pressures. The modern view is summarised by the University of California Museum of Paleontology: The idea that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny has been applied to some other areas. Research in the late 20th century confirmed that "both biological evolution and the stages in the child's
Recapitulation theory
3178410
most obvious category of such individuals is close genetic relatives, and where these are concerned, the application of inclusive fitness theory is often more straightforwardly treated via the narrower kin selection theory. Hamilton's theory, alongside reciprocal altruism, is considered one of the two primary mechanisms for the evolution of social behaviors in natural species and a major contribution to the field of sociobiology, which holds that some behaviors can be dictated by genes, and therefore can be passed to future generations and may be selected for as the organism evolves. Although described in seemingly anthropomorphic terms, these ideas apply to
Inclusive fitness
10203298
Nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution The nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution is a modification of the neutral theory of molecular evolution that accounts for the fact that not all mutations are either so deleterious such that they can be ignored, or else neutral. Slightly deleterious mutations are reliably purged only when their selection coefficient are greater than one divided by the effective population size. In larger populations, a higher proportion of mutations exceed this threshold for which genetic drift cannot overpower selection, leading to fewer fixation events and so slower molecular evolution. The nearly neutral theory was proposed
Nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution
1951249
of Species" and discovered the principle of evolution by natural selection. James Hutton, founder of modern geology, worked on the age of the Earth (deep time) which forms a key element of Darwin's theory. Other important geologists include Charles Lyell, author of "Principles of Geology", who also coined the term Pleistocene, and Adam Sedgwick, who proposed (and coined) the name of the Cambrian Period. William Thomson (Baron Kelvin) drew important conclusions in the field of thermodynamics and invented the Kelvin scale of absolute zero. Paul Dirac was one of the pioneers of quantum mechanics. Botanist Robert Brown discovered the random
Culture of the United Kingdom
15805346
evolution in world theory on business management relative to development in our country during the period 1900-1944, the author (Yanakiev) especially emphasizes the role of the founder of the Bulgarian Accountancy Science Professor D.Dobrev in the development of this theory".” R.Yanakiev justifiably stresses the contribution of the great Bulgarian economist in developing the ″financial-economic questions″ in management, ″"although reference here is to an entire financial-accounting school for his successors, created by the notable scientist, quite undeservedly forgotten during Bulgaria's totalitarian government. The remarkable work ″Science of the separate economy″ (1941) of Professor Dobrev is marked also in the neoclassical interpretation
Dimitar Dobrev (academic)
1422936
(translated) wrote: His "Souvenirs Entomologiques" is a series of texts on insects and arachnids. He influenced the later writings of Charles Darwin, who called Fabre "an inimitable observer". Fabre, however, was a Christian who remained sceptical about Darwin's theory of evolution, as he always held back from all theories and systems. His special force was exact and detailed observation, field research, always avoiding general conclusions from his observations, which he considered premature. In one of Fabre's most famous experiments, he arranged pine processionary caterpillars to form a continuous loop around the edge of a pot. As each caterpillar instinctively followed
Jean-Henri Fabre
792099
founder effect (and by extension, genetic drift) a significant driving force in the evolution of new species. Sewall Wright was the first to attach this significance to random drift and small, newly isolated populations with his shifting balance theory of speciation. Following after Wright, Ernst Mayr created many persuasive models to show that the decline in genetic variation and small population size following the founder effect were critically important for new species to develop. However, there is much less support for this view today since the hypothesis has been tested repeatedly through experimental research and the results have been equivocal
Genetic drift
2384058
natural selection, gene flow and mutation all contribute to this divergence. This potential for relatively rapid changes in the colony's gene frequency led most scientists to consider the founder effect (and by extension, genetic drift) a significant driving force in the evolution of new species. Sewall Wright was the first to attach this significance to random drift and small, newly isolated populations with his shifting balance theory of speciation. Following behind Wright, Ernst Mayr created many persuasive models to show that the decline in genetic variation and small population size accompanying the founder effect were critically important for new species
Founder effect