what keeps the earth 's atmosphere from floating away
Earth 's magnetic field
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Earth is bound as O, which is too massive to escape Earth by Jeans escape. Earth's magnetic field protects it from solar winds and prevents escape of ions, except near the magnetic poles where charged particles stream towards the earth along magnetic field lines. The gravitational attraction of Earth's mass prevents other non-thermal loss processes from appreciably depleting the atmosphere. Yet Earth's atmosphere is two orders of magnitude less dense than that of Venus at the surface. Because of the temperature regime of Earth, CO and HO are sequestered in the hydrosphere and lithosphere. HO vapor is sequestered as liquid
Atmospheric escape
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short, greenstone belts represent sutured protocontinents. The Earth's magnetic field was established 3.5 billion years ago. The solar wind flux was about 100 times the value of the modern Sun, so the presence of the magnetic field helped prevent the planet's atmosphere from being stripped away, which is what probably happened to the atmosphere of Mars. However, the field strength was lower than at present and the magnetosphere was about half the modern radius. The geologic record of the Proterozoic () is more complete than that for the preceding Archean. In contrast to the deep-water deposits of the Archean, the
Geological history of Earth
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the charged particles of the solar wind and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away the upper atmosphere, including the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. The Earth's magnetic field serves to deflect most of the solar wind, whose charged particles would otherwise strip away the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. One stripping mechanism is for gas to be caught in bubbles of magnetic field, which are ripped off by solar winds. Calculations of the loss of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere of Mars, resulting from scavenging of ions by the
Earth's magnetic field
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that it has no polar ice caps: the thick atmosphere keeps temperatures constant across the moon's surface. There is also a greenish haze over the moon from large carpets of floating moss and algae. The denser atmosphere allows more massive creatures to remain airborne than on Earth. Skywhales, gargantuan whale-like animals which evolved away from the ocean into the air, fill the ecological niche this creates. Because of the increased muscle power from excess atmospheric oxygen, these creatures can have wingspans of ten meters and remain airborne their entire lives. They feed on the previously mentioned Air Moss. They evolved
Extraterrestrial (TV program)
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the energy Earth receives from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere. When light passes through Earth's atmosphere, photons interact with it through "scattering". If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called "direct radiation" and is what you see if you were to
Atmosphere of Earth
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far above sea level their hypothetical or actual observer in space is located. When just speaking of "space", an asker might mean anywhere from the edge of space (Kármán line) at an altitude of to low Earth orbit of 160–2,000 km (99-1200 mi) to Apollo 12's orbit at to the Moon, which orbits about away. The Kármán line is accepted by the World Air Sports Federation, an international standard setting and record-keeping body for aeronautics and astronautics, as the boundary between the Earth's atmosphere and outer space. However, a practical definition for the purpose of answering questions on what astronauts
Man-made structures visible from space
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level the temperature is too high and the atmospheric pressure too great. As proposed by Geoffrey A. Landis, the easiest planet (other than Earth) to place floating cities at this point would appear to be Venus. Because the thick carbon dioxide atmosphere is 50% denser than air, breathable air (21:79 Oxygen-Nitrogen mixture) is a lifting gas in the dense Venerean atmosphere, with over 60% of the lifting power that helium has on Earth. In effect, a balloon full of human-breathable air would sustain itself and extra weight (such as a colony) in midair. This means that any large structure filled
Floating cities and islands in fiction
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atmosphere and methane rain, Titan is the only celestial body other than Earth upon which rainbows could form. However, given the extreme opacity of the atmosphere in visible light, the vast majority would be in the infrared. Seen from Enceladus, Saturn would have a visible diameter of almost 30°, sixty times more than the Moon visible from Earth. Moreover, since Enceladus rotates synchronously with its orbital period and therefore keeps one face pointed toward Saturn, the planet never moves in Enceladus's sky (albeit with slight variations coming from the orbit's eccentricity), and cannot be seen from the far side of
Extraterrestrial skies
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stay away from Europa. After surviving a dangerous braking maneuver around Jupiter's upper atmosphere, the "Leonov" crew find the abandoned "Discovery" floating in space. Curnow reactivates the ship and Chandra restarts HAL, who had been deactivated by Bowman before he disappeared. Also nearby is the giant alien Monolith that the "Discovery" was originally sent to investigate. Cosmonaut Max Brailovsky travels to the Monolith in an EVA pod, at which point the Monolith briefly opens with a burst of energy, sending Max's pod spinning off into space. On Earth, Dave Bowman, now an incorporeal being that exists inside the Monolith, appears
2010: The Year We Make Contact
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outstretched. They begin to glow softly, slowly getting brighter until it's dazzling, and seemingly under their own power, unlike what happened to the young girl. The scene then cuts away abruptly to a shot of the Earth, from space. A large, glowing ball of white light rises out of the atmosphere and starts drifting into space, carrying the children away. The final fate of the children and the Earth is explored in the final video of the trilogy, "Wait" in which the world is nearly destroyed in an incident such as a world war or natural disaster. As with the
Reunion (M83 song)
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However the methane in the atmosphere causes a substantial greenhouse effect which keeps the surface of Titan at a much higher temperature than what would otherwise be the thermal equilibrium. Haze in Titan's atmosphere contributes to an anti-greenhouse effect by reflecting sunlight back into space, making its surface significantly colder than its upper atmosphere. This partially compensates for the greenhouse warming, and keeps the surface somewhat cooler than would otherwise be expected from the greenhouse effect alone. According to McKay et al., "the anti-greenhouse effect on Titan reduces the surface temperature by 9 K whereas the greenhouse effect increases it
Climate of Titan
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"Doc" Dubois Harris calculates that the number of collisions will increase exponentially. A large number of moon fragments will begin entering Earth's atmosphere, forming a "white sky" and blanketing the earth within two years with what he calls a "Hard Rain" of bolides; this will cause the atmosphere to heat to incandescence and oceans to boil away, destroying the biosphere and rendering Earth uninhabitable for thousands of years. It is decided to evacuate as many people and resources as possible to a "Cloud Ark" in orbit, including a "swarm" of "arklet" habitats that will be able to avoid the debris
Seveneves
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likely alternative is the presence of a vapor atmosphere generating from its surface. Kepler-11 and its six-planet system form what NASA considers to be the most compact and flattest planetary system yet discovered. Kepler-11b and Kepler-11c orbit Kepler-11 with a phenomenon called orbital resonance, a gravitational tugging that keeps their orbit stable at a 5.4 ratio. Kepler-11c Kepler-11c is an exoplanet discovered in the orbit of the Sun-like star Kepler-11 by the Kepler spacecraft, a NASA telescope aiming to discover Earth-like planets. It is the second planet from its star, and is most likely a water planet with a thin
Kepler-11c
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large electrical throw-switch mechanism on the wall labeled with the number "15", but she keeps him away from it and leads him up a ladder. They reach the roof, where the structure they had been inside manifests itself as a metallic cuboid floating into space with a bell-shaped mechanism on its top. The woman throws a switch on the mechanism and receives an electric shock, which throws her into the void. After she has fallen out of sight, Garland Briggs' head (Don S. Davis) floats under the structure and says "Blue rose." Cooper walks back downstairs and encounters another woman
Part 3 (Twin Peaks)
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to a camera left by a robot Vidbot – a floating camera hovering at a constant distance of ten feet away from him – belonging to a Recorder that discovered Bruce when analysing Earth, leaving the Vidbot to record the final fate of the last human to confirm that humanity was gone from the universe. While Banner is forced to drown in sorrow as the last human alive on Earth, wandering for years across the ruins of the old cities and remembering what he can of the world before, the Hulk (in his Rampaging Hulk form) is angry at Banner,
Hulk: The End
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also been observed in the atmosphere of HD 189733 b, another hot gas giant planet. In October 2013, the detection of clouds in the atmosphere of Kepler-7b was announced, and, in December 2013, also in the atmospheres of Gliese 436 b and Gliese 1214 b. In April 2017, an atmosphere was confirmed around Gliese 1132 b. It is the most Earth-like exoplanet to date that is known to have an atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light from Earth, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in
Extraterrestrial atmosphere
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typically moving laterally with respect to the surface at such immense speeds, the object will not lose altitude because of the curvature of the Earth. When viewed from an orbiting observer, other close objects in space appear to be floating because everything is being pulled towards Earth at the same speed, but also moving forward as the Earth's surface "falls" away below. All these objects are in free fall, not zero gravity. Compare the gravitational potential at some of these locations. What remains is a micro-g environment moving in free fall, i.e. there are no forces other than gravity acting
Micro-g environment
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May 1969. But thus far, none of these missions had reached the surface while still transmitting. "Venera 4"'s battery ran out while still slowly floating through the massive atmosphere, and "Venera 5" and "6" were crushed by high pressure 18 km (60,000 ft) above the surface. The first successful landing on Venus was by "Venera 7" on December 15, 1970. It remained in contact with Earth for 23 minutes, relaying surface temperatures of 455 °C to 475 °C (855 °F to 885 °F). "Venera 8" landed on July 22, 1972. In addition to pressure and temperature profiles, a photometer showed
Observations and explorations of Venus
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his entire group was taken down by that world's Nighthawk. He has his skeleton and internal organs floating in bio-paraffin, a form of flammable living wax that increases his strength, speed and resilience to superhuman levels, and can be flicked off his body in small portions. This also allows him to absorb a great deal of heat, to the extent that he acted as a heat shield when the class was accidentally teleported up to S.W.O.R.D.'s main base and the only way to get back to Earth was an unshielded ship-to-ship pod that was ill-suited for travelling through an atmosphere.
Glob Herman
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effects of travel through the atmosphere, the lowest impact velocity with an object from space is equal to the gravitational escape velocity of about 11 km/s. The fastest impacts occur at about 72 km/s in the "worst case" scenario in which an object in a retrograde near-parabolic orbit hits Earth. (Because kinetic energy scales as velocity squared, Earth's gravity only contributes 1 km/s to this figure, not 11 km/s). The median impact velocity on Earth is about 20 km/s. However, the slowing effects of travel through the atmosphere rapidly decelerate any potential impactor, especially in the lowest 12 kilometres where
Impact crater
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of the setting, Jijo’s Ocean, portrays the atmosphere as full of wonder and eeriness because it is so different from what the dolphins are used to. “Though it seemed a bit disloyal, Makanee felt this alien ocean had a silkier texture and finer taste than the waters of Earth, the homeworld she had not seen in years…. Unlike the clamorous sea of Earth, this fallow planet wasn’t supposed to have motor noises permeating its thermal—acoustic layers.” “With or without the sled, Zhaki and Mopol could track her down if she just swam away.” “I can’t help feeling guilty, she commented
Temptation (novella)
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he envisioned cities floating in the Saturnian atmosphere, where the buoyancy is provided by envelopes of hydrogen heated by fusion reactors. Uranus and Neptune also have upper atmosphere gravities comparable to Earth's, and even lower escape velocities than Saturn. Cecelia Holland populated Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus with mutant humans, the Styth, in floating cities in her only SF novel, "Floating Worlds" (1975). Floating cities and islands in fiction In speculative fiction, floating cities and islands are a common trope, which range from cities and islands that float on water to ones that float in the atmosphere of a planet by
Floating cities and islands in fiction
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crews. A part of this payload includes science experiments from high schools, such as a project from Ambassador High School in Torrance, California. Dragon returned of cargo to Earth. After the separation of the second stage, SpaceX conducted a flight test and attempted to return the nearly-empty first stage of the Falcon 9 through the atmosphere and land it on a floating platform called the "autonomous spaceport drone ship". The unmanned rocket technically landed on the floating platform, however it came down with too much lateral velocity, tipped over, and was destroyed. Elon Musk later explained that the bipropellant valve
SpaceX CRS-6
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of TRAPPIST-1e would be completely inhospitable. Since such an atmosphere is not present, it raises the chances for the planet to have a more Earth-like atmosphere instead. TRAPPIST-1e is set to be one of the first science targets of the James Webb Space Telescope, which will be able to better analyze the planet's atmosphere and search for the chemical signs of life. TRAPPIST-1e TRAPPIST-1e, also designated as 2MASS J23062928-0502285 e, is a solid, almost Earth-sized exoplanet orbiting within the habitable zone around the ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST-1 approximately 40 light-years (12.1 parsecs, or nearly km) away from Earth in the
TRAPPIST-1e
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planet has a breathable atmosphere and earth-like gravity, but an unknown force field keeps the "Magellan" and the 1426 refugees on board trapped on the surface. The planet's orbit is also highly unusual, resembling that of a spacecraft rather than a planet. It is located so far from Earth even the Andromeda galaxy is not visible in the sky. The "Magellan" is stranded and its crew has to cope with the fact that returning to Earth is impossible. Rumla now reveals to the astonished crew that six years previously, a meteor crashed into a remote area of Sumatra. The meteor
Ice Planet (film)
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the Earth from solar wind and the most harmful components of solar radiation coming from our Sun. The magnetosphere protects both Earth's atmosphere and life to the present day and distinguishes the planet from its close celestial neighbour, Mars, which no longer has a significant magnetic field nor comparable atmosphere. The term "catastrophe" is, here, in the mathematical sense of "a large, sudden change or discontinuity", as contrasted with "a disaster", because this event was necessary for life to emerge and evolve on Earth: without it, Earth's atmosphere would have been, as on Mars, stripped away by solar wind long
Iron catastrophe
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a strength law is known) it is formula_18, where formula_19 is pressure within the sphere, while formula_20 («Lana coefficient») and formula_21 («Lana atmospheric ratio») are: where formula_28 formula_29 and formula_30 formula_31 are pressure and density of standard Earth atmosphere at sea level, formula_32 and formula_33 are molar mass (kg/kmol) and temperature (K) of atmosphere at floating area. Of all known planets and moons of the Sun system only the Venusian atmosphere has formula_21 big enough to surpass formula_20 for such materials as some composites (below altitude of ca. 15 km) and graphene (below altitude of ca. 40 km). Both materials
Vacuum airship
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Her?" and on the 1995 compilation album "Alternative"), William S. Burroughs (in the 1994 documentary "September Songs – The Music of Kurt Weill"), and others. The opening chapter in "" is named "What Keeps Mankind Alive?". What Keeps Mankind Alive? "What Keeps Mankind Alive?" is a song composed by Kurt Weill with lyrics by Bertolt Brecht for their music drama "The Threepenny Opera" ("") which premiered in Berlin in 1928 at the Theater am Schiffbauerdamm. The title refers to the central line from the finale of act 2, "". In the opera, the two stanzas of the strophic piece are
What Keeps Mankind Alive?
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are 41 cm (16 inches) in diameter. If the Earth were reduced to this size, the Moon would be a 10 cm (4 in) baseball floating 12 metres (40 feet) away. The Sun would be a beach ball 14 stories tall (somewhat smaller than the Spaceship Earth ride at Epcot) floating away. While a complete model to this scale has never been built, a Solar System built centered in Washington DC, London, or Sydney, to that scale (approximately 1:31 000 000) would look like this: If the scale of the above model is increased to 1:310 000 000, i.e. all
Solar System model
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and downwell. Unlike Earth, Venus lacks a magnetic field. Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind. This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field, giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment. This is considered Venus's "induced magnetosphere". Lighter gases, including water vapour, are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail. It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface. A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface
Atmosphere of Venus
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at rest in S′, so its worldline is the ct′-axis. The upper atmosphere is at rest in S, so its worldline is the ct-axis. Upon the axes of x and x′, all events are present that are simultaneous with A in S and S′, respectively. The muon and Earth are meeting at D. As the Earth is at rest in S, its worldline (identical with the lower atmosphere) is drawn parallel to the ct-axis, until it intersects the axes of x′ and x. Time: The interval between two events present on the worldline of a single clock is called proper
Experimental testing of time dilation
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a factor of two. The evolutionary history of life stretches back to over , possibly as far as . Earth formed about and, after a collision that formed the Moon about 40 million years later, may have cooled quickly enough to have oceans and an atmosphere about . However, there is evidence on the Moon of a Late Heavy Bombardment from . If, as seems likely, such a bombardment struck Earth at the same time, the first atmosphere and oceans may have been stripped away. The oldest clear evidence of life on Earth dates to , although there have been
Paleontology
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on Venus reaches up to , circling the planet approximately every four Earth days in a phenomenon known as "super-rotation". Colonies floating in this region could therefore have a much shorter day length by remaining untethered to the ground and moving with the atmosphere, compared to the usual 243 Earth days it takes for the planet to rotate. Allowing a colony to move freely would also reduce structural stress from the wind. Because there is not a significant pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the breathable-air balloon, any rips or tears would cause gases to diffuse at
Colonization of Venus
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followed, with The WB committing to thirteen episodes. Although Roth, Gough and Millar knew the show would be action-oriented, they wanted to reach "7th Heaven"s "middle America iconography". To create atmosphere, the team decided the meteor shower bringing Clark to Earth would be the ironic foundation of the show. The primary source of his life on Earth and the super-powered beings Clark must fight, it would take away the parents of the girl he loves and start Lex Luthor down a dark path. Roth appreciated Clark's conflict in dealing with the fact that his arrival caused so much pain. The
Smallville
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may return to orbit the Earth in the mid-2040s. The object's Earth orbital paths occasionally take it within the radius of the Moon's orbit, and could result in eventual entry into Earth's atmosphere, or collision with the Moon. The Apollo 12 empty S-IVB, Instrument Unit, and spacecraft adapter base, had a mass of about . This is less than one-fifth of the mass of the Skylab space station, which was constructed from a similar S-IVB and fell out of orbit on July 11, 1979. Objects with a mass of about enter Earth's atmosphere approximately 10 times a year, one of
J002E3
14272153
different from what may be expected; it was further described as either a low-gravity atmosphere or an atmosphere with metallicity. The object’s small proper motion suggests that it is farther away than expected if it were a single field T dwarf. The Sigma Ori open cluster has been the focus of Osorio’s team observations due to the age of the cluster (approximately 3 to 8 million years). The cluster also has few extinctions, its distance is convenient, and it is observed to be rich and dense. Using the William Herschel Telescope in a pencil-beam deep mini-survey measuring 55 square minutes
S Ori 70
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far greater impact at higher latitudes (above 40°N and above 40°S), where the Earth-atmosphere system undergoes net "cooling" by radiation. Urban thermal plume An urban thermal plume describes rising air in the lower altitudes of the Earth's atmosphere caused by urban areas being warmer than surrounding areas. Over the past thirty years there has been increasing interest in what have been called urban heat island (UHI), but it is only since 2007 that thought has been given to the rising columns of warm air, or ‘thermal plumes’ that they produce. We are all familiar with on-shore breezes at the seaside
Urban thermal plume
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as the distance light can travel in 13.8 billion years. Light from stars farther away has not reached Earth, and cannot contribute to making the sky bright. Furthermore, as the universe is expanding, many stars are moving away from Earth. As they move, the wavelength of their light becomes longer, through the Doppler effect, and shifts toward red, or even becomes invisible. As a result of these two phenomena, there is not enough starlight to make space anything but black. The daytime sky on Earth is blue because light from the Sun strikes molecules in Earth's atmosphere scattering light in
Black
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atmosphere, passing Earth's surface only away (about one Earth radius or one-sixtieth of the distance to the Moon). Because it was very small (6 meters/20 feet), FU was detected only hours before its closest approach. If it had collided with Earth, it probably would have disintegrated harmlessly in the atmosphere. On February 4, 2011, an asteroid designated , estimated at in diameter, passed within of the Earth, setting a new record for closest approach without impact, which still stands . On November 8, 2011, asteroid , relatively large at about in diameter, passed within (0.85 lunar distances) of Earth. On
Near-Earth object
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temperature would be , in contrast to the current , and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere. Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the
Earth
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where a crowd is beginning to gather in the streets to watch her. She grabs a nearby man's acoustic guitar and begins to play, floating up into the sky again as the crowd starts to dance all around her. One woman in a pink shirt (Peaches) attempts to pull her back down, but she keeps floating back up; this repeats until finally Feist lets go of the guitar and it floats away. She dances with a man and then the rest of the crowd before running off, and enters a black rectangular box standing up. However, she is shown getting
Mushaboom (song)
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reported studies, based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument on the "Curiosity" rover, of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes. Results provided support for a "vigorous" loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth. This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars, that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years. In September 2017, NASA reported radiation levels on the surface of
Atmosphere of Mars
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c rules out a cloud-free hydrogen-dominated atmosphere for each planet, so they are unlikely to harbor an extended gas envelope. Other atmospheres, from a cloud-free water-vapor atmosphere to a Venus-like atmosphere, remain consistent with the featureless spectrum. In 2018, the composition of TRAPPIST-1c was determined, with turned out to be rock-based with a very thick, Venus-like atmosphere. The atmosphere of TRAPPIST-1c is likely thinner than that of TRAPPIST-1b. TRAPPIST-1c TRAPPIST-1c, also designated as 2MASS J23062928-0502285 c, is a mainly rocky, Venus-like exoplanet orbiting around the ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST-1 approximately 40 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Aquarius. It
TRAPPIST-1c
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92%, or ~0.86 mm/year, is going to the north, as Mars' offset Hadley circulation acts as a nonlinear pump of volatiles northward. Mars lost most of its magnetic field about four billion years ago. As a result, solar wind and cosmic radiation interacts directly with the Martian ionosphere. This keeps the atmosphere thinner than it would otherwise be by solar wind action constantly stripping away atoms from the outer atmospheric layer. Most of the historical atmospheric loss on Mars can be traced back to this solar wind effect. Current theory posits a weakening solar wind and thus today's atmosphere stripping
Climate of Mars
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by which the ionospheric plasma flows away from the Earth along magnetic field lines is similar to the flow of solar plasma away from the sun's corona (the solar wind), Axford suggested the term "polar wind." The idea for the polar wind originated with the desire to solve the paradox of the terrestrial helium budget. This paradox consists of the fact that helium in the Earth's atmosphere seems to be produced (via radioactive decay of uranium and thorium) faster than it is lost by escaping from the upper atmosphere. The realization that some helium could be ionized, and therefore escape
Polar wind
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had; Ichigo lies and tells her that her name is on it. Believing him, she expresses contentment that she once had her own life before fading away. Rukia notes that once the power of the Blanks fades away, so will all memories of Senna. After the credits, Ichigo walking on the bridge, sees a red ribbon that he bought for Senna, floating down from the sky and sees a girl who resembles her running past him. He happily keeps their memory to himself. Bradley Meek of T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews had expected to dislike the film, and found himself pleasantly surprised
Bleach: Memories of Nobody
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girl, states the Upanishad. It is the king Varuna, the Mitra, Garuda, Chandrama (moon), Indra, Rudra, Tvastr, Vishnu, Savitr, the earth, the atmosphere, the land, the water, the womb of all that is born, that which envelops the world, and the self-born states the text. It is the protector Vishnu, who guides away from what is wrong. It, states the Upanishad in verse 13, is wisdom, is the aim of those who seek wisdom, that which is in the heart of every being, the eternal dwelling innermost self, the golden truth. Thus ends the Upanishad. Ekakshara Upanishad The Ekakshara Upanishad
Ekakshara Upanishad
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the atmospheric pressure is ninety times that of Earth, and the extreme impact of the greenhouse effect, make water-based life as we know it unlikely. A few scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the lower-temperature, acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere. The atmospheric pressure and temperature fifty kilometres above the surface are similar to those at Earth's surface. This has led to proposals to use aerostats (lighter-than-air balloons) for initial exploration and ultimately for permanent "floating cities" in the Venusian atmosphere. Among the many engineering challenges are the dangerous amounts of sulfuric acid at these
Venus
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the Cloud Aerosol Transport System (CATS). CATS is a LIDAR remote sensing instrument designed to measure the location, composition and distribution of pollution, dust, smoke, aerosols and other particulates in the atmosphere. CATS is to be installed on the Kibo external facility and is expected to run for at least six months, and up to three years. Upon completion of its stay, Dragon was loaded with of outgoing cargo, returning it back to Earth. In an unprecedented test flight, SpaceX attempted to return the nearly-empty first stage of the Falcon 9 through the atmosphere and land it on a floating
SpaceX CRS-5
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upper atmosphere in which the gods dwell, as distinct from the dense lower atmosphere, "Aer" (Ἀήρ). While the four terrestrial elements (earth, water, air and fire) gave rise to the generation and corruption of natural substances by their mutual transformations, aether was unchanging, moving always with a uniform circular motion that was uniquely suited to the celestial spheres, which were eternal. Earth and water had a natural heaviness ("gravitas"), which they expressed by moving downward toward the center of the universe. Fire and air had a natural lightness ("levitas"), such that they moved upward, away from the center. Aether, being
Dynamics of the celestial spheres
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Travis Barman Travis Barman is an astronomer at the Lowell Observatory in Arizona, in the United States. While studying a combination of the previously published Hubble Space Telescope measurements and new theoretical models, Barman found strong evidence for water absorption in the atmosphere of HD 209458 b. A planet about 150 light years away from earth, HD 209458 b was known previously to contain an evaporating hydrogen atmosphere, along with oxygen and carbon. Though the planet is only 7 million kilometers away from its star, the planet is not hot enough to break the water molecules. HD 209458 b, a
Travis Barman
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become tidally locked. When this happens, the object presents the same face to its parent at all times as it orbits, just as the Moon does with the Earth (more technically, one sidereal day is exactly equal to one year for the orbiting body). Traditional scientific theories proposed that such a tidally locked planet might be incapable of holding on to an atmosphere. Having such a slow rotation would weaken the magnetic effect that protects the atmosphere from being blown away by solar wind (see Rare Earth hypothesis). Nonetheless, the scientists employed by the programme decided to test the traditional
Extraterrestrial (TV program)
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The densest part of the atmosphere, the troposphere, begins at the surface and extends upwards to 65 km. At the furnace-like surface the winds are slow, but at the top of the troposphere the temperature and pressure reaches Earth-like levels and clouds pick up speed to 100 m/s. The atmospheric pressure at the surface of Venus is about 92 times that of the Earth, similar to the pressure found below the surface of the ocean. The atmosphere has a mass of 4.8 kg, about 93 times the mass of the Earth's total atmosphere. The density of the air at the
Atmosphere of Venus
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individual experience and empirical decision on the other." Between 2008 and 2011, Surani traveled extensively in Asia, Europe and Africa. Surani's second poetry collection, "Floating Life", was published in spring, 2012. The book's themes have been characterized as travel, "connections made and left behind, and, above all, the fleeting nature of experience." In interview, Surani said that "Floating Life"'s prevailing theme is a divestment of personal power. Surani's poem "It All Keeps" was included in "Best Canadian Poetry 2013" and "Poems to be Performed by kevin mcpherson eckhoff (with or without a Green Elfin Mask)" was included in "Best Canadian
Moez Surani
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Sun's current luminosity at the age of 12.167 billion years. Most of Earth's atmosphere will be lost to space and its surface will consist of a lava ocean with floating continents of metals and metal oxides as well as icebergs of refractory materials, with its surface temperature reaching more than . The Sun will experience more rapid mass loss, with about 33% of its total mass shed with the solar wind. The loss of mass will mean that the orbits of the planets will expand. The orbital distance of the Earth will increase to at most 150% of its current
Future of Earth
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form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by "the" (e.g. "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?" The oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to (Bya). By the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in the Solar System formed and evolved with the Sun. In theory, a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten
Earth
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which impacts the Earth's surface approximately once every 10 years. Eleven essentially similar empty S-IVB stages from Apollo, Skylab and Apollo-Soyuz Test Project missions have re-entered the atmosphere from 1966 to 1975. In all cases (including the Skylab station), the objects burned in the atmosphere and broke into relatively small pieces, rather than striking the Earth as a single mass. On the other hand, these objects entered from low Earth orbit or ballistic trajectory, with less energy than J002E3 might possibly have if it were to enter from Solar orbit. J002E3 J002E3 is the designation given to an object in
J002E3
20163527
pawn there. Dropping a pawn on 23 for this purpose is a standard move in Double Wing openings. 7. R-26. Black retreats their rook to rank 6 in a floating rook position. This floating rook position is necessary in the Duck opening since Black must protect their peeping bishop from an edge attack if White pushes their ninth file pawn (...P-94, ...P-95). 7. ...K-41. White starts castling their king leftward away from their rook. 8. S-68 S-42, 9. S-48 G-52. Black also starts castling first starting with moving both silvers up and toward the center building the legs of the
Duck opening
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of the long dead villain Mastermind, Regan Wyngarde, aka Lady Mastermind. Dani and Regan engage in a psychic battle as they both realize they have similar issues with fear and anxiety. Dani gets through to Lady Mastermind, who finally relents and lets her guard down, thus breaking her control over the club-goers and letting her own facade down, she even asks Dani to put her out of her misery. But that is not what Dani is there to do. Instead, Magik and Dani teleport Lady Mastermind back to X-Haven, away from the dangerous atmosphere of Earth, where Regan gets treatment
Danielle Moonstar
20446302
Uranus or Neptune. However, the high density of 9.9 g/cm^3 indicates a rocky composition not too different from Earth's albeit with more iron. Without a rocky surface, life may never be able to develop on a planet. Kepler-1652b has a calculated mass of about 7 times that of Earth, which could help power a strong magnetic field. Red dwarfs like Kepler-1652 can produce very strong flares, much more powerful than what the Sun produces, which could erode away the atmosphere of orbiting planets, compromising their habitability. While not all red dwarfs are this active, a strong magnetic field can still
Kepler-1652b
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world including oceans with average temperatures similar to those on Earth, a wide equatorial belt (non-synchronous rotation), or the majority of the sunlit side (synchronous rotation), would be permanently ice-free. A large portion of the planet may be habitable if it has an atmosphere thick enough to transfer heat to the side facing away from the star. If it has an atmosphere, simulations suggest that the planet could have lost about as much as the amount of water that Earth has due to the early irradiation in the first 100–200 million years after the planet's formation. Liquid water may be
Proxima Centauri b
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that can strip away the lighter elements of its atmosphere. Even an Earth-sized body would have enough gravity to prevent the escape of the hydrogen and helium in its atmosphere. In an Earth-sized object that has a kilobar atmospheric pressure of hydrogen and a convective gas adiabat, the geothermal energy from residual core radioisotope decay could maintain a surface temperature above the melting point of water, allowing liquid-water oceans to exist. These planets are likely to remain geologically active for long periods. If they have geodynamo-created protective magnetospheres and sea floor volcanism, hydrothermal vents could provide energy for life. Thus,
Rogue planet
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Jupiter's, making its atmosphere fluffy, and coupled with transiting a moderately bright K star makes it a target for atmosphere characterization. It is eight times nearer its star than Mercury is to the Sun and orbits its star every 5.7 days. With a temperature of , its atmosphere makes it one of the hottest known exoplanets. WASP-107b WASP-107b is a super-Neptune exoplanet that lies 200 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Virgo. Its discovery was announced in 2017 and led by D. R. Anderson and a team of colleagues via the WASP-South. Helium was discovered in the planet's atmosphere
WASP-107b
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upper Jovian atmosphere - "a hollow steelloy shell, three hundred odd meters in diameter, could carry more than a hundred thousand tons besides its own mass, and still have a net specific gravity of less than 0.03". So the ship floats in the Jovian atmosphere "like a free balloon over Eighteenth Century France". The people in her have enough supplies and stored energy to last them until rescued by a big ship; one capable of entering the Jovian atmosphere and taking them away from Jupiter. The group is hopeful that their rescuers will arrive from Earth. The story introduces the
Brake (Anderson)
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spacecraft, or delta-v. Entering a Hohmann transfer orbit from Earth to Jupiter from low Earth orbit requires a delta-v of 6.3 km/s which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth orbit. Gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required to reach Jupiter, albeit at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration. Beginning in 1973, several spacecraft have performed planetary flyby maneuvers that brought them within observation range of Jupiter. The Pioneer missions obtained the first close-up images of Jupiter's atmosphere and several of its moons. They discovered that the
Jupiter
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in that geometry during the encounter would cause huge differences in the subsequent satellite trajectory. Some predictions would hit the Earth and others would escape the Earth–Moon system. The new orbit keeps the apogee away from the Moon, reducing its sensitivity to gravity assists. IBEX can now predict this trajectory well beyond 11 years, allowing the satellite to easily observe the Sun's full solar cycle. Lunar cycler A Lunar cycler or Earth–Moon cycler is an orbit, or spacecraft therein, which periodically passes close by the Earth and the Moon, using gravity assists and occasional propellant-powered corrections to maintain its trajectories
Lunar cycler
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the rotation of Saturn (the length of a day) at 10 hours, 39 minutes, 24 seconds. "Voyager 1"'s mission included a flyby of Titan, Saturn's largest moon, which had long been known to have an atmosphere. Images taken by "Pioneer 11" in 1979 had indicated the atmosphere was substantial and complex, further increasing interest. The Titan flyby occurred as the spacecraft entered the system to avoid any possibility of damage closer to Saturn compromising observations, and approached to within , passing behind Titan as seen from Earth and the Sun. Voyager's measurement of the atmosphere's effect on sunlight and Earth-based
Voyager 1
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reaching 70 m/s or more in the upper troposphere. The stratosphere and mesosphere extend from 65 km to 95 km in height. The thermosphere and exosphere begin at around 95 kilometres, eventually reaching the limit of the atmosphere at about 220 to 250 km. The air pressure at Venus' surface is about 92 times that of the Earth. The enormous amount of CO in the atmosphere creates a strong greenhouse effect, raising the surface temperature to around 470 °C, hotter than that of any other planet in the Solar System. The Martian atmosphere is very thin and composed mainly of
Extraterrestrial atmosphere
330330
of magic and elements of the Atlantis myth. The hollow interior of Earth seen in the 2008 Asylum film "Journey to Middle Earth" bears some similarity to Pellucidar, although the film was intended as a film adaptation of a novel by Jules Verne. The Hollow World of the fictional "Dungeons & Dragons" setting of Mystara shares many concepts from Pellucidar, such as the polar opening(s), the central sun, the floating moon(s), and the primitive cultures living in the internal surface. In James Blaylock's "The Digging Leviathan" (1984), a pair of rival scientific teams compete to reach Pellucidar. However, the story
Pellucidar
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the frequency drifted with time. The team deduced that the type II bursts were associated with shock waves coming out through the solar atmosphere at 1000 km/s and were associated, 30 hours later, with aurora in the Earth's night sky. They had discovered the answer to a century-old riddle: what was the agency that conveyed the disturbance from the solar flare to the Earth? Type II bursts continue to be closely monitored by spectrographs on the ground and in satellites for "space weather" reporting, since their disruption of the geomagnetic field and ionosphere can cause blackouts to radio communication and
Paul Wild (Australian scientist)
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This Stardust mission was similar in that it returned extraterrestrial material to Earth with an unmanned robotic spacecraft. SCIM would collect air and dust samples by flying through the atmosphere of Mars without landing or orbiting. The design utilizes heritage from the successful "Stardust" and "Genesis" sample return missions. A pass through the atmosphere about above Mars' surface at a speed of 6 km/s would result in millions of particles being encountered. The particles would be collected in an aerogel and returned to Earth inside a small sealed capsule. Analysis of the dust could confirm the origin of the suspected
Sample Collection for Investigation of Mars
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Seneca Street. Mercury is situated to scale about away from the Sun, Venus another away, Earth another away, and Mars another away. This keeps the four inner planets within eyesight of the Sun, yet the representations of each planet appear quite small within their glass windows, and can even be somewhat hard to see. The contrast between the size of the Sun and the size of the inner planets coupled with the visible distance between them illustrate the vastness and emptiness of space. Once leaving the inner planets, a visitor to the Planet Walk turns west along Seneca Street to
Sagan Planet Walk
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is atmospheric loss, with Pluto being compared to losses from comets. The idea of atmospheric loss was suggested in 1980, even before the atmosphere was discovered. One idea is the photoionization of escaping neutral particles might alter the flow solar wind around the dwarf planet. The atmosphere was known to be very tenuous compared to Earth, and one of the questions was how the gases were interacting with the solar wind and sunlight, likewise weaker at Pluto's orbit than at Earth's. One of the ideas was that Pluto's atmosphere would be stripped away by the solar wind over time. By
SWAP (New Horizons)
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NEB(N) and NEB(S). Circulation in Jupiter's atmosphere is markedly different from that in the atmosphere of Earth. The interior of Jupiter is fluid and lacks any solid surface. Therefore, convection may occur throughout the planet's outer molecular envelope. As of 2008, a comprehensive theory of the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere has not been developed. Any such theory needs to explain the following facts: the existence of narrow stable bands and jets that are symmetric relative to Jupiter's equator, the strong prograde jet observed at the equator, the difference between zones and belts, and the origin and persistence of large
Atmosphere of Jupiter
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(N) makes up 2.7 percent of the atmosphere. As far as we know, organic compounds are absent except for a trace of methane detected in the atmosphere. On 16 December 2014, NASA reported the "Curiosity" rover detected a "tenfold spike", likely localized, in the amount of methane in the Martian atmosphere. Sample measurements taken "a dozen times over 20 months" showed increases in late 2013 and early 2014, averaging "7 parts of methane per billion in the atmosphere." Before and after that, readings averaged around one-tenth that level. The elemental composition of Mars is different from Earth′s in several significant
Composition of Mars
20704115
WASP-107b WASP-107b is a super-Neptune exoplanet that lies 200 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Virgo. Its discovery was announced in 2017 and led by D. R. Anderson and a team of colleagues via the WASP-South. Helium was discovered in the planet's atmosphere in 2018, making it the first time helium was discovered on an exoplanet. WASP-107b is a super-Neptune gas-giant exoplanet located 200 light years away from Earth in the constellation Virgo. It is roughly the size of Jupiter but only one-eighth of Jupiter’s mass, making it one of the lowest density exoplanets. Its radius is 0.94 times
WASP-107b
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2 or 1.5 years, respectively. A two-year free return means from Earth to Mars (aborted there) and then back to Earth all in 2 years. The entry corridor (range of permissible path angles) for landing on Mars is limited, and experience has shown that the path angle is hard to fix (e.g. +/- 0.5 deg). This limits entry into the atmosphere to less than 9 km/s. On this assumption, a two-year return is not possible for some years, and for some years a delta-v kick of 0.6 to 2.7 km/s at Mars may be needed to get back to Earth.
Free-return trajectory
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As all closed systems, it follows the law of conservation of mass which states that matter cannot be created nor destroyed, thus, the matter, although transformed and migrated, remains the same as when the Earth was formed. The Earth system contains seven different reservoirs that are separated into surface reservoirs, which include atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, pedosphere, and lithosphere and the isolated reservoirs that include deep Earth and outer space. Geochemical cycles are concerned with the interactions between deep earth which consists of Earth´s mantle and core, and the lithosphere which consists of the Earth´s crust. Flux in geochemical cycles is
Geochemical cycle
3317480
song "Oompa Radar" was inspired by Roman Polanski's film "Cul-de-sac", while "Pilots" describes travellers floating in the atmosphere above the earth. To promote "Felt Mountain", Goldfrapp toured the U.K., Europe and North America, supporting the alternative music bands Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds and The Doves. The band found it difficult to perform songs from the album live because of their complex arrangements which required up to forty musicians. They eventually settled on performing with violinist Davide Rossi, drummer Rowan Oliver and keyboardist Andy Davies. Goldfrapp's second album "Black Cherry" was released in April 2003. The band recorded the
Goldfrapp
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B, where the worldline of Earth intersects the x-axis, corresponds in S to the position of Earth simultaneous with the emergence of the muon. C, where the Earth's worldline intersects the x′-axis, corresponds in S′ to the position of Earth simultaneous with the emergence of the muon. Length "L=AB" in S is longer than length "L′=AC" in S′. If no time dilation exists, then those muons should decay in the upper regions of the atmosphere, however, as a consequence of time dilation they are present in considerable amount also at much lower heights. The comparison of those amounts allows for
Experimental testing of time dilation
9183105
in the "Bat Bunker" (Earth-51's equivalent to the Bat Cave) as he and Earth-51 Batman join the fight raging on the Earth above the bunker. Jason keeps his new suit and identity for the rest of his tenure as a "Challenger of the Unknown", only to discard it on his return to New Earth and revert to his "Red Hood" street clothing. During the "Scattered Pieces" tie-in to "Batman R.I.P.", a new "Red Robin" makes his appearance, at first only as a glimmering image following Robin (Tim Drake) and suspected to have stolen a briefcase of money from the Penguin.
Alternative versions of Robin
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the Solar System, and the Earth should have experienced an even heavier bombardment due to its stronger gravity. While there is no direct evidence of conditions on Earth 4 to 3.8 Ga, there is no reason to think that the Earth was not also affected by this late heavy bombardment. This event may well have stripped away any previous atmosphere and oceans; in this case gases and water from comet impacts may have contributed to their replacement, although outgassing from volcanoes on Earth would have supplied at least half. However, if subsurface microbial life had evolved by this point, it
Evolutionary history of life
5098297
Near-Earth supernova A near-Earth supernova is an explosion resulting from the death of a star that occurs close enough to the Earth (roughly less than 10 to 300 parsecs (30 to 1000 light-years) away) to have noticeable effects on Earth's biosphere. On average, a supernova explosion occurs within of the Earth every 240 million years. Gamma rays are responsible for most of the adverse effects a supernova can have on a living terrestrial planet. In Earth's case, gamma rays induce a chemical reaction in the upper atmosphere, converting molecular nitrogen into nitrogen oxides, depleting the ozone layer enough to expose
Near-Earth supernova
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heavy machine guns. These were accepted into service as BTR-40 and BTR-40A respectively. The vehicle's drawbacks, such as its poor cross-country performance and problems with crossing water obstacles, compelled the design team to produce, in late 1954, what was planned to be an amphibious variant of the BTR-40. It received the designation BTR-40P (with the 'P' standing for plavayushchiy – "floating"). During the design process, the vehicle moved away from the APC concept and became an amphibious armoured scout car. It received a new designation, BRDM. The BTR-40's design was based on the GAZ-63 four wheel drive truck which went
BTR-40
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but Saturn is the eventual buyer. He pulls a large horse-shoe magnet out from the Earth, eliminating the planet's gravity, just to see what happens. Buildings, trees, animals, and people including Betty start floating into the air with humorous effect. Finally a hand reaches out from the Earth and grabs the magnet back from Saturn. Gravity is restored, and everything and everybody return to the ground. A series of buildings fall atop Betty, but she avoids injury as she emerges from the top of the pile of buildings singing "Any old place upon this Earth is home sweet home to
Betty Boop's Ups and Downs
364438
outer shell of gas that it will push those layers away, forming a planetary nebula. If what remains after the outer atmosphere has been shed is less than 1.4 , it shrinks to a relatively tiny object about the size of Earth, known as a white dwarf. White dwarfs lack the mass for further gravitational compression to take place. The electron-degenerate matter inside a white dwarf is no longer a plasma, even though stars are generally referred to as being spheres of plasma. Eventually, white dwarfs fade into black dwarfs over a very long period of time. In massive stars,
Star
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he sings, later the scene goes back to Tulisa and her boyfriend as she tries to get away from him but he keeps pulling her back. The next shot is with all of N-Dubz singing together with huge lights around them, similar to the single cover. This scene flicks from the group shot to Dappy, to the group shot, to Tulisa then the group shot. We see a dark purple heart floating with a woman's hands near its sides. The woman looks down at the heart before the shot is back with N-Dubz. When it gets back to the woman
Say It's Over
16947036
rain or snow is extremely rare. The inlets of the Tso Kar are a source of non-saline water; pondweeds and basic nettles grow there, forming floating islands of vegetation in the spring and dying off in the winter. Sedge and large numbers of buttercups grow on the shores of Startsapuk Tso and of the tributaries of the Tso Kar, while some parts of the high basin are marked by steppe vegetation interspersed with tragacanth and pea bushes. The shore of Tso Kar is partly covered with a salt crust, which keeps vegetation away from the inflows. Due to the salinity
Tso Kar
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out of service. The terminology was immortalised in the 1956 painting "The Floating Bridge" by L. S. Lowry, and is remembered in Floating Bridge Road which leads to the site of the Southampton Hard. The term Floating Bridge has also been applied to the Cowes Floating Bridge, which still provides a similar service in a similar situation just a few miles away, across the River Medina in Cowes on the Isle of Wight. In 1820, whilst the crossing was still served by the small boats of Itchen Ferry village, a toll house was built. This became a Coffee Tavern when
Woolston Floating Bridge
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compounds that cause acid rain. It's the unusual chemistry facilitated by this molecule, however, that will attract the most attention from scientists. Somewhat like a human body metabolizing food, the Earth's atmosphere has the ability to "burn," or oxidize pollutants, especially nitric oxides emitted from sources such as factories and automobiles. What doesn't get oxidized in the atmosphere falls back to Earth in the form of acid rain. "The chemical details of how the atmosphere removes nitric acid have not been clear," Francisco says. "This gives us important insights into this process. Without that knowledge we really can't understand the
Joseph Francisco
1639915
from the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) and show Earth as it rotates during a day. Atmosphere of Earth The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the Earth's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation). By volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04%
Atmosphere of Earth
11524851
the Greenhouse Effect. The Greenhouse Effect is a process that warms Earth's surface and keeps the global temperature stable at 33 °C by retaining a portion of greenhouse gases on Earth while releasing the rest back into space. As more methane and other greenhouse gases are introduced and held in the atmosphere or on Earth's surface, the global temperature will rise due to the fact that greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation, also known as heat. The methane concentration has been growing exponentially since 1984 and is projected to continue to do so. Any deviation from the global temperature of 33
Environmental impact of meat production
15206734
worked extensively on the scenes of John and Rhoda in order to develop John's character in the film. The film ignores the physical consequences of having a similar-sized planet and moon appear nearby (e.g. effect on tides, gravity and atmosphere) other than depicting night time as brighter due to the reflection of the Sun's light off the other planet. The DVD / Blu-ray deleted scenes feature reveals that the film makers did intend to illustrate some of the consequences by filming a scene in which Rhoda encounters flowers floating in mid-air, but the scene was cut from the final film.
Another Earth
6758636
Colonization of Venus The colonization of Venus has been a subject of many works of science fiction since before the dawn of spaceflight, and is still discussed from both a fictional and a scientific standpoint. However, with the discovery of Venus's extremely hostile surface environment, attention has largely shifted towards the colonization of the Moon and Mars instead, with proposals for Venus focused on colonies floating in the upper-middle atmosphere and on terraforming. Space colonization is a step beyond space exploration, and implies the permanent or long-term presence of humans in an environment outside Earth. Colonization of space is claimed
Colonization of Venus
6758643
surface where gas pressure is at the same level as Earth has not yet been thoroughly explored. At least as early as 1971 Soviet scientists have suggested that rather than attempting to colonize Venus' hostile surface, humans might attempt to colonize the Venerian atmosphere. Geoffrey A. Landis of NASA's Glenn Research Center has summarized the perceived difficulties in colonizing Venus as being merely from the assumption that a colony would need to be based on the surface of a planet: Landis has proposed aerostat habitats followed by floating cities, based on the concept that breathable air (21:79 oxygen/nitrogen mixture) is
Colonization of Venus
450079
of water ice, possibly floating on a 50-kilometer-deep (30 mile) ocean. Two new, small satellites, Adrastea and Metis, were found orbiting just outside the ring. A third new satellite, Thebe, was discovered between the orbits of Amalthea and Io. The closest approach to Saturn occurred on August 26, 1981. While passing behind Saturn (as viewed from Earth), "Voyager 2" probed Saturn's upper atmosphere with its radio link to gather information on atmospheric temperature and density profiles. "Voyager 2" found that at the uppermost pressure levels (seven kilopascals of pressure), Saturn's temperature was 70 kelvins (−203 °C), while at the deepest
Voyager 2
13536418
tropical savannas, arid regions (deserts), Mediterranean ecosystems, temperate forest ecosystems, temperate grasslands, coniferous forests, tundra (both polar and high mountain), terrestrial wetlands, freshwater ecosystems and coastal/marine systems. This breadth of topics shows the complexity of plant ecology, since it includes plants from floating single-celled algae up to large canopy forming trees. One feature that defines plants is photosynthesis. One of the most important aspects of plant ecology is the role plants have played in creating the oxygenated atmosphere of earth, an event that occurred some 2 billion years ago. It can be dated by the deposition of banded iron formations,
Plant ecology
111069
helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind. A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled to form a solid. The two models that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms or, more likely, a rapid growth early in Earth history followed by a long-term steady continental area. Continents formed by plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over the period of hundreds of millions of years, the supercontinents have assembled and broken apart. Roughly (Mya), one of the earliest
Earth
919627
aimed near Earth. A gamma-ray burst in any case would need to be within a few light years of Earth to have significant effects. The Earth's atmosphere protects us from all the radiation apart from UV light (it is opaque to gamma rays which have to be observed using space telescopes). The main effect would be due to damage to the ozone layer. Eta Carinae is too far away to do that even if it did produce a gamma ray burst. See Gamma ray burst effect on Earth Eta Carinae Eta Carinae (η Carinae, abbreviated to η Car), formerly known
Eta Carinae
4827724
waves again in a very destructive fashion, which King Kull planned to have happen to every continent and island on Earth. Superman uses his super-breath to freeze the cloud. He throws the block of ice into the head of a passing comet, ending the threat. The heroes head back to Earth-S as Atlantis disappears beneath the waves again. On Earth-S, a series of destructive and incredibly strange occurrences happen worldwide. A very odd eclipse occurs that keeps one side of the planet in perpetual darkness and the other side in continual light. Volcanic activity in the Canadian Rockies is witnessed
Squadron of Justice
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return the Falcon 9's nearly-empty first stage through the atmosphere and land it on a floating platform barge. SpaceX calls the barge an autonomous spaceport drone ship (ASDS), and this particular mission's ASDS was named "Of Course I Still Love You". This would have been SpaceX's third attempt to land the booster on a floating platform after earlier tests in January 2015 and April 2015 were not successful. The boosters were fitted with a variety of technologies to facilitate the flight test, including grid fins and landing legs to facilitate the post-mission test. SpaceX CRS-7 SpaceX CRS-7, also known as
SpaceX CRS-7