the primary source of energy for primary production is
light
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Primary production In ecology, primary production is the synthesis of organic compounds from atmospheric or aqueous carbon dioxide. It principally occurs through the process of photosynthesis, which uses light as its source of energy, but it also occurs through chemosynthesis, which uses the oxidation or reduction of inorganic chemical compounds as its source of energy. Almost all life on Earth relies directly or indirectly on primary production. The organisms responsible for primary production are known as "primary producers" or autotrophs, and form the base of the food chain. In terrestrial ecoregions, these are mainly plants, while in aquatic ecoregions algae
Primary production
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Primary production In ecology, primary production is the synthesis of organic compounds from atmospheric or aqueous carbon dioxide. It principally occurs through the process of photosynthesis, which uses light as its source of energy, but it also occurs through chemosynthesis, which uses the oxidation or reduction of inorganic chemical compounds as its source of energy. Almost all life on Earth relies directly or indirectly on primary production. The organisms responsible for primary production are known as "primary producers" or autotrophs, and form the base of the food chain. In terrestrial ecoregions, these are mainly plants, while in aquatic ecoregions algae
Primary production
1666332
to other species, having a marked impact on biodiversity, flows of carbon, water and energy, and ecosystem services, and scientists have questioned how large this fraction can be before these services begin to break down. Reductions in NPP are also expected in the ocean as a result of ongoing climate change, potentially impacting marine ecosystems and goods and services that the oceans provide Primary production In ecology, primary production is the synthesis of organic compounds from atmospheric or aqueous carbon dioxide. It principally occurs through the process of photosynthesis, which uses light as its source of energy, but it also
Primary production
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Primary producers secondary producers convert an abiotic source of energy (e.g. light) into energy stored in organic compounds, which can be used by other organisms (e.g. heterotrophs). The primary producers can convert the energy in the light (phototroph and photoautotroph) or the energy in inorganic chemical compounds (chemolithotrophs) to build organic molecules, which is usually accumulated in the form of biomass and will be used as carbon and energy source by other organisms (e.g. heterotrophs and mixotrophs). The photoautotrophs are the main primary producers, converting the energy of the light into chemical energy through photosynthesis, ultimately building organic molecules from
Primary producers
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are at least an order of magnitude greater than similar temperate systems. Primary producers secondary producers convert an abiotic source of energy (e.g. light) into energy stored in organic compounds, which can be used by other organisms (e.g. heterotrophs). The primary producers can convert the energy in the light (phototroph and photoautotroph) or the energy in inorganic chemical compounds (chemolithotrophs) to build organic molecules, which is usually accumulated in the form of biomass and will be used as carbon and energy source by other organisms (e.g. heterotrophs and mixotrophs). The photoautotrophs are the main primary producers, converting the energy of
Primary producers
1666309
ice insulates it at lower temperatures. However, the availability of light, the source of energy for photosynthesis, and mineral nutrients, the building blocks for new growth, play crucial roles in regulating primary production in the ocean. Available Earth System Models suggest that ongoing ocean bio-geochemical changes could trigger reductions in ocean NPP between 3% and 10% of current values depending on the emissions scenario. The sunlit zone of the ocean is called the photic zone (or euphotic zone). This is a relatively thin layer (10–100 m) near the ocean's surface where there is sufficient light for photosynthesis to occur. For
Primary production
1666304
fraction coming from algae and non-vascular plants such as mosses and liverworts. Before the evolution of vascular plants, non-vascular plants likely played a more significant role. Primary production on land is a function of many factors, but principally local hydrology and temperature (the latter covaries to an extent with light, specifically photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), the source of energy for photosynthesis). While plants cover much of the Earth's surface, they are strongly curtailed wherever temperatures are too extreme or where necessary plant resources (principally water and PAR) are limiting, such as deserts or polar regions. Water is "consumed" in plants
Primary production
126176
growth rates, activity, behaviour, and primary production. Temperature is largely dependent on the incidence of solar radiation. The latitudinal and longitudinal spatial variation of temperature greatly affects climates and consequently the distribution of biodiversity and levels of primary production in different ecosystems or biomes across the planet. Heat and temperature relate importantly to metabolic activity. Poikilotherms, for example, have a body temperature that is largely regulated and dependent on the temperature of the external environment. In contrast, homeotherms regulate their internal body temperature by expending metabolic energy. There is a relationship between light, primary production, and ecological energy budgets. Sunlight
Ecology
126177
is the primary input of energy into the planet's ecosystems. Light is composed of electromagnetic energy of different wavelengths. Radiant energy from the sun generates heat, provides photons of light measured as active energy in the chemical reactions of life, and also acts as a catalyst for genetic mutation. Plants, algae, and some bacteria absorb light and assimilate the energy through photosynthesis. Organisms capable of assimilating energy by photosynthesis or through inorganic fixation of HS are autotrophs. Autotrophs — responsible for primary production — assimilate light energy which becomes metabolically stored as potential energy in the form of biochemical enthalpic
Ecology
1666300
predominate in this role. Ecologists distinguish primary production as either "net" or "gross", the former accounting for losses to processes such as cellular respiration, the latter not. Primary production is the production of chemical energy in organic compounds by living organisms. The main source of this energy is sunlight but a minute fraction of primary production is driven by lithotrophic organisms using the chemical energy of inorganic molecules. Regardless of its source, this energy is used to synthesize complex organic molecules from simpler inorganic compounds such as carbon dioxide (CO) and water (HO). The following two equations are simplified representations
Primary production
19068039
Energy in Uzbekistan Uzbekistan had a total primary energy supply (TPES) of 48.28 Mtoe in 2012. Electricity consumption was 47.80 TWh. The majority of primary energy came from fossil fuels, with natural gas, coal and oil the main sources. Hydroelectricity, the only significant renewable source in the country, accounted for about 2% of the primary energy supply. Natural gas is the source for 73.8% of electricity production, followed by hydroelectricity with 21.4%. Uzbekistan will be the first country in Central Asia to develop and produce solar energy by Uzbekenergo a state owned energy company. The Samarkand region was picked along
Energy in Uzbekistan
19068040
with six other regions being inspected. The solar power plant is to have a capacity of 100 megawatts. Energy in Uzbekistan Uzbekistan had a total primary energy supply (TPES) of 48.28 Mtoe in 2012. Electricity consumption was 47.80 TWh. The majority of primary energy came from fossil fuels, with natural gas, coal and oil the main sources. Hydroelectricity, the only significant renewable source in the country, accounted for about 2% of the primary energy supply. Natural gas is the source for 73.8% of electricity production, followed by hydroelectricity with 21.4%. Uzbekistan will be the first country in Central Asia to
Energy in Uzbekistan
13585500
Energy in Italy Italy consumed about 185 Mtoe of primary energy in 2010. This came mostly from fossil fuels. Among the most used resources are petroleum (mostly used for the transport sector), natural gas (used for electric energy production and heating), coal and renewables. An important share of electricity comes from import, mainly from Switzerland and France. The share of primary energy dedicated to electricity production is above 35%, and grew steadily since the 1970s. Electricity is produced mainly from natural gas, which accounts for the source of more than half of the total final electric energy produced. Another important
Energy in Italy
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the European common carbon dioxide emission system was agreed, and according to the agreement peat is equal to fossil fuel. Many peat energy plants can use coal as alternative energy source. The renewable energy of primary energy was 24.0% (2005) and 24.1% (2004). Total primary energy supply was 392,022 (2005) and 418,672 GWh (2004). The primary energy includes in addition to the energy consumption also e.g. the heating up of the Baltic Sea by the nuclear power plant waste heat. In the table is the contribution of RE to electricity production for the EU-25 by 2020. Renewable energy in Finland
Renewable energy in Finland
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the heat content of the primary heat energy source, such as biomass, coal, solar thermal, natural gas, petroleum or uranium, reaches the consumer, although the efficiency can be 20% for very old plants and 45% for newer gas plants. In contrast, a CHP system converts 15%–42% of the primary heat to electricity, and most of the remaining heat is captured for hot water or space heating. In total, over 90% of the heat from the primary energy source (LHV based) can be used when heat production does not exceed the thermal demand. CHP systems are able to increase the total
Micro combined heat and power
4458360
typical value is three units of source energy for one unit of site energy. However, this can vary considerably depending on factors such as the primary energy source or fuel type, the type of power plant, and the transmission infrastructure. One full set of conversion factors is available as technical reference from Energy STAR. Either site or source energy can be an appropriate metric when comparing or analyzing energy use of different facilities. The U.S Energy Information Administration, for example, uses primary (source) energy for its energy overviews but site energy for its Commercial Building Energy Consumption Survey and Residential
Primary energy
11377974
nutrients in a eutrophic system. Rather, they may provide an alternative food chain through direct grazing by flagellates, rotifers and ciliates. The high abundance of the cyclopoid copepod "Limnoithona tetraspina" may be due to its reliance on ciliates rather than phytoplankton as a primary food source. The major species of calanoid copepods may also use ciliates as a supplementary or even primary food source, but to what degree is unknown. Secondary production refers to organisms that feed on primary production and transfer energy to higher trophic levels of the estuarine foodweb. Historically, secondary production in the San Francisco Estuary was
Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary
11846065
NPP units in the EU over the coming years. The EU-27 in 2005 satisfied its primary energy consumption with 36.7% oil, 24.6% gas, 17.7% coal, 14.2% nuclear, 6.7% renewables and 0.1% industrial waste. In 2006, nuclear energy provided the largest source (29.5%) of electricity with a production of 990 TWh, and an installed capacity of 134 GWe (17.6% of all installed capacity). It was the leading electric power source in Belgium, France, Hungary, Lithuania and Slovakia. France, where nuclear is also the largest "primary" energy source, produced 450 TWh in 2006 – 45% of the EU's total. Denmark, Estonia, Ireland,
Nuclear power in the European Union
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energetics. In energetics, a primary energy source (PES) refers to the energy forms required by the energy sector to generate the supply of energy carriers used by human society. Secondary energy is a carrier of energy, such as electricity. These are produced by conversion from a primary energy source. PE and TPES are better defined in the context of worldwide energy supply. Primary energy sources should not be confused with the energy system components (or conversion processes) through which they are converted into energy carriers. Primary energy sources are transformed in energy conversion processes to more convenient forms of energy
Primary energy
4458359
the campus, building, or sub-building level and is the basis for energy charges on utility bills. Source energy, in contrast, is the term used in North America for the amount of primary energy consumed in order to provide a facility’s site energy. It is always greater than the site energy, as it includes all site energy and adds to it the energy lost during transmission, delivery, and conversion. While source or primary energy provides a more complete picture of energy consumption, it cannot be measured directly and must be calculated using conversion factors from site energy measurements. For electricity, a
Primary energy
15860669
not accounted for in consumption figures. All 8,047 Italian municipalities (comune) have deployed some source of renewable energy, with hydroelectric power being the leading renewable energy source in terms of production. Bio energy, wind power and geothermal power also make an important contribution to national energy demands. By 2013, renewable energy primary consumption in Italy had grown to 14.6 Mtoe (Million tonnes of oil equivalent). Italy has implemented generous incentive schemes to encourage the development of renewable energy production. Its largest scheme incentivised solar PV production and lead Italy from a low base of installed PV in 2010 to become
Renewable energy in Italy
1666302
as biomass that primary producers create in a given length of time. (GPP is sometimes confused with Net Primary "productivity", which is the rate at which photosynthesis or chemosynthesis occurs.) Some fraction of this fixed energy is used by primary producers for cellular respiration and maintenance of existing tissues (i.e., "growth respiration" and "maintenance respiration"). The remaining fixed energy (i.e., mass of photosynthate) is referred to as "net primary production" (NPP). Net primary production is the rate at which all the plants in an ecosystem produce net useful chemical energy; it is equal to the difference between the rate at
Primary production
9122618
States of 2016. 5% is considered primary energy in the U.S. Making up that 5% of primary energy, about 48% comes from biofuels (mostly ethanol), 41% from wood based biomass, and around 11% from municipal waste. Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time when people began burning wood to make fire. Even in 2018, biomass is the only source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries. Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The estimated biomass production in the world is 104.9 petagrams (104.9 × 10 g – about 105 billion metric
Biomass
13316574
broken down into gross and net primary production. Gross primary production is a measure of the energy that a photoautotroph harvests from the sun. Take, for example, a blade of grass that takes in "x" joules of energy from the sun. The fraction of that energy that is converted into glucose reflects the gross productivity of the blade of grass. The energy remaining after respiration is considered the net primary production. In general, gross production refers to the energy contained within an organism before respiration and net production the energy after respiration. The terms can be used to describe energy
Ecological efficiency
9156312
Intermittent energy source An intermittent energy source is any source of energy that is not continuously available for conversion into electricity and outside direct control because the used primary energy cannot be stored. Intermittent energy sources may be predictable but cannot be dispatched to meet the demand of an electric power system. The use of intermittent sources in an electric power system usually displaces storable primary energy that would otherwise be consumed by other power stations. Another option is to store electricity generated by non-dispatchable energy sources for later use when needed, e.g. in the form of pumped storage, compressed
Intermittent energy source
10802074
daily oil production declined to , but despite the decline Victoria still produces almost 19.5% of crude oil in Australia. Energy in Victoria Energy in Victoria, Australia is generated using a number of fuels or technologies, including coal, natural gas and renewable energy sources. Brown coal is the main primary energy source for the generation of electricity in the state, accounting for about 85% of electricity generation. Brown coal is also one of the largest contributors to Australia's total domestic greenhouse gas emissions and a source of controversy for the country. Australia is one of the highest polluters of greenhouse
Energy in Victoria
3005525
Many research efforts have explored using bagasse as a renewable power generation source and for the production of bio-based materials. Bagasse is often used as a primary fuel source for sugar mills. When burned in quantity, it produces sufficient heat energy to supply all the needs of a typical sugar mill, with energy to spare. To this end, a secondary use for this waste product is in cogeneration, the use of a fuel source to provide both heat energy, used in the mill, and electricity, which is typically sold on to the consumer electrical grid. The lower calorific value (LCV)
Bagasse
3885396
the usual thermodynamics limits on the thermal efficiency apply. Hydrogen is usually considered an energy carrier, like electricity, as it must be produced from a primary energy source such as solar energy, biomass, electricity (e.g. in the form of solar PV or via wind turbines), or hydrocarbons such as natural gas or coal. Conventional hydrogen production using natural gas induces significant environmental impacts; as with the use of any hydrocarbon, carbon dioxide is emitted. Because pure hydrogen does not occur naturally on Earth in large quantities, it usually requires a primary energy input to produce on an industrial scale. Common
Hydrogen fuel
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conventions on energy statistics counts the electricity made from wind and solar as the primary energy itself for these sources. One consequence of this counting method is that the contribution of wind and solar energy is under reported compared to fossil energy sources, and there is hence an international debate on how to count primary energy from wind and solar. Total primary energy supply (TPES) is the sum of production and imports subtracting exports and storage changes. The concept of primary energy is used in energy statistics in the compilation of energy balances, as well as in the field of
Primary energy
11377965
productivity and is currently the source of much research. A number of hypotheses have been proposed to explain the POD, including food web decline, water exports from the Delta, and toxics from urban, industrial, or agricultural sources. Primary production by phytoplankton fixes energy and key nutrients into a biologically available form (i.e., food), via photosynthesis. Phytoplankton production is largely structured by physical parameters: nutrient availability, sunlight, turbidity, and temperature. The San Francisco Estuary has a numerous sources of nutrients that can be used for primary production, derived largely from waste water treatment facilities, agricultural and urban drainage, and the ocean.
Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary
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Ethiopia through crude oil pipelines as part of the Kenyan LAPSSET-corridor. Secondary energy is produced by the consumption of "secondary energy sources", more often called "energy carriers". It is official policy worldwide and also in Ethiopia to replace primary energy through secondary energy and energy carriers are the vehicles to store this secondary energy. By doing so, the need to use primary energy for energy production in daily life will be replaced by the need to use energy carriers for energy production. This will relieve some pressure from the sources of primary energy in Ethiopia (wood, forests) and will also
Energy in Ethiopia
8351264
and energy consumption can be further reduced by eliminating the fermentation step, or by utilizing food waste as feedstock. The use of alternative crops other than corn, such as sugar cane from Brazil, are expected to lower energy requirements. For instance, manufacturing of PHAs by fermentation in Brazil enjoys a favorable energy consumption scheme where bagasse is used as source of renewable energy. Many biodegradable polymers that come from renewable resources (i.e. starch-based, PHA, PLA) also compete with food production, as the primary feedstock is currently corn. For the US to meet its current output of plastics production with BPs,
Biodegradable plastic
9815534
diesel, ethanol, or methanol, and has a much higher flash point (approximately 275-290 °C). The higher flash point reduces the risk of accidental ignition. Some types of vegetable oil are edible. Technologies of hydrogen economy, batteries, compressed air energy storage, and flywheel energy storage address the energy storage problem but not the source of primary energy. Other technologies like fission power, fusion power, and solar power address the problem of a source of primary energy but not energy storage. Vegetable oil addresses both the source of primary energy and of energy storage. The cost and weight to store a given
Vegetable oils as alternative energy
5071803
mangrove forests are home to numerous species of fish, seaweed and shellfish... The importance of these habitats is that they allow for interactions between different species, aiding the provisioning of marine goods and services. They are also very important for the growth at the early life stages of marine species (breeding and bursary spaces), as they serve as a food source and as a shelter from predators. Primary production refers to the production of organic matter, i.e., chemically bound energy, through processes such as photosynthesis and chemosynthesis. The organic matter produced by primary producers forms the basis of all food
Ecosystem services
4458361
Building Energy Consumption Survey. The US Environmental Protection Agency's Energy STAR program recommends using source energy, and the US Department of Energy uses site energy in its definition of a zero net energy building. Energy accidents are accidents that occur in systems that provide energy or power. These can result in fatalities, as can the normal running of many systems, for example those deaths due to pollution. Globally, coal is responsible for 100,000 deaths per trillion kWh. Primary energy Primary energy (PE) is an energy form found in nature that has not been subjected to any human engineered conversion process.
Primary energy
12611006
are mined are peat, dolostone, clays, limestone, sand and gravel. Potentially mineable resources include granite, iron ore and phosophorite. The oil shale industry in Estonia is one of the most developed in the world. Estonia is the only country in the world that uses oil shale as its primary energy source. In 2012, oil shale supplied 70% of Estonia's total primary energy and accounted for 4% of Estonia's gross domestic product. About 6,500 people (1.1% of the workforce in Estonia) were directly employed in the oil shale industry. In 2012, the state revenue from oil shale production was about €90
Oil shale in Estonia
1388975
would only be about 10% above the level of the original water, thus, from, say, 35,000 to about 38,000 parts per million, well within the ability of osmoregulators to adjust. <br> Geothermal desalination Geothermal desalination is a process under development for the production of fresh water using heat energy. Claimed benefits of this method of desalination are that it requires less maintenance than reverse osmosis membranes and that the primary energy input is from geothermal heat, which is a low-environmental-impact source of energy. Circa 1995, Douglas Firestone from Nevada devised the use of geothermal water directly as a source for
Geothermal desalination
1388973
Geothermal desalination Geothermal desalination is a process under development for the production of fresh water using heat energy. Claimed benefits of this method of desalination are that it requires less maintenance than reverse osmosis membranes and that the primary energy input is from geothermal heat, which is a low-environmental-impact source of energy. Circa 1995, Douglas Firestone from Nevada devised the use of geothermal water directly as a source for desalination. In 1998, several individuals began working with evaporation/condensation air loop water desalination. The experiment was successful and a proof of concept, proving that geothermal waters could be used as process
Geothermal desalination
16137094
inorganic precursors, and of storing biochemical energy in the process. The growth of the plant is primary production, this results in the increase of plant biomass to a system. Primary consumers get their energy from primary producers, and thus are able to assimilate the producer’s stored energy. As a generalized trophic level consumers feed on all forms of organisms, and more specifically there are types of consumers by instinct or choice(herbivores, vegetarians, omnivores). Beyond the initial consumer there may be other consumers who derive their energy from consumers preceding them. Primary production provides for all trophic members as it provides
Ecometrics
1666303
which the plants in an ecosystem produce useful chemical energy (GPP) and the rate at which they use some of that energy during respiration. Some net primary production goes toward growth and reproduction of primary producers, while some is consumed by herbivores. Both gross and net primary production are in units of mass per unit area per unit time interval. In terrestrial ecosystems, mass of carbon per unit area per year (g C m yr) is most often used as the unit of measurement. On the land, almost all primary production is now performed by vascular plants, with a small
Primary production
17494523
Energy in Israel Most energy in Israel comes from hydrocarbon fuels. The country's total primary energy demand is significantly higher than its total primary energy production, relying heavily on imports to meet its energy needs. Total primary energy consumption was in 2011, or 24.5 Mtoe (million tonne of oil equivalent). Electricity consumption in Israel was 59.83 TWh in 2014, while production was 64.44 TWh, with net exports of 4.94 TWh. The installed generating capacity was about 16.25 GW in the same year, almost all from hydrocarbon fuel plants, mostly coal and gas fueled. Renewable energy accounted for a minor share
Energy in Israel
8413915
hydrogen fuel: Hydrogen technologies Hydrogen technologies are technologies that relate to the production and use of hydrogen. Hydrogen technologies are applicable for many uses. Some hydrogen technologies are carbon neutral and could have a role in preventing climate change and a possible future hydrogen economy. Hydrogen is a chemical widely used in various applications including ammonia production, oil refining and energy. Hydrogen is not a primary energy source, because it is not naturally occurring as a fuel. It is, however, widely regarded as an ideal energy storage medium, due to the ease with which electric power can convert water into
Hydrogen technologies
8413913
Hydrogen technologies Hydrogen technologies are technologies that relate to the production and use of hydrogen. Hydrogen technologies are applicable for many uses. Some hydrogen technologies are carbon neutral and could have a role in preventing climate change and a possible future hydrogen economy. Hydrogen is a chemical widely used in various applications including ammonia production, oil refining and energy. Hydrogen is not a primary energy source, because it is not naturally occurring as a fuel. It is, however, widely regarded as an ideal energy storage medium, due to the ease with which electric power can convert water into its hydrogen
Hydrogen technologies
16137095
energy to primary consumers that in turn provide energy to secondary consumers and so forth. In this way energy is transferred from one form and source to another. The efficiency for consumers to grow is limited by the use of their feed for a metabolic processes and their efficiency of conversion for digested food. The energy that is used for growth is assimilated into new tissue or reproduction and is the net production stored as a result for this process. On average metabolic processes utilize 90% of the gross energy intake, whereas assimilation utilizes 10%. The amount that is assimilated
Ecometrics
19735872
Minister for Primary Industry and Resources (Northern Territory) The Northern Territory Minister for Primary Industry and Resources is a Minister of the Crown in the Government of the Northern Territory. The minister administers their portfolio through the Department of Primary Industry and Resources. The Minister is responsible for animal welfare, energy industry development, energy (oil and gas) pipeline operation regulation, energy (oil and gas) pipeline title administration, energy (oil, gas and geothermal) titles administration, energy operations regulation, energy policy, environmental management of energy (oil, gas and geothermal) operations, environmental management of mining operations, fisheries management, hygienic production of meat for
Minister for Primary Industry and Resources (Northern Territory)
16058357
Energy in Latvia Latvia is net energy importer. Primary energy use in Latvia was 49 TWh, or 22 TWh per million persons in 2009. Almost half of the electricity used in the country is provided by renewable energy sources. The main renewable resource is hydroelectric power. Latvia has laws that regulate the building of power plants and plans to sell electricity at higher prices. This is a stimulus for investment, especially taking into consideration the fact that Latvia cannot offer big subsidies in order to attract investment. A production quota is approved for each renewable energy source every year. Natural
Energy in Latvia
10304831
Sandia’s laboratory focuses on the advancement of materials, aerodynamics, and sensors. The NREL wind projects are centered on improving wind plant power production, reducing their capital costs, and making wind energy more cost effective overall. The Field Laboratory for Optimized Wind Energy (FLOWE) at Caltech was established to research renewable approaches to wind energy farming technology practices that have the potential to reduce the cost, size, and environmental impact of wind energy production. As the primary source of biofuels in North America, many organizations are conducting research in the area of ethanol production. On the Federal level, the USDA conducts
Renewable energy in the United States
13591319
prevent the country from using its own domestic and non-renewable primary energy such as coal and oil shales. Energy carriers are obtained through a man-made conversion process from primary energy sources. Most suitable for the production of energy carriers are abundant and renewable primary energy sources (like sun, water, wind, etc.) while the use of precious and limited non-renewable sources like oil is usually avoided as much as possible. A direct use of such abundant renewable primary energy sources (sun, water, etc...) is often not possible in technical processes, so it is more feasible to produce energy carriers to store
Energy in Ethiopia
12584432
countries, biomass provides the majority of fuel for heat and cooking. Wood, animal dung and crop residues are commonly burned. Figures from the International Energy Agency (IEA) show that biomass energy provides around 30% of the total primary energy supply in developing countries; over 2 billion people depend on biomass fuels as their primary energy source. The use of biomass fuels for cooking indoors is a source of health problems and pollution. 1.3 million deaths were attributed to the use of biomass fuels with inadequate ventilation by the International Energy Agency in its World Energy Outlook 2006. Proposed solutions include
Biofuels by region
11802970
existing hydropower plants and nuclear power excluded), but because political parties - particularly the True Finns - are hesitant to grant wind power permits, most energy is produced from fossil fuels, mainly coal and oil. About 25 percent of energy production is categorized to be renewable energy, which is high compared to the EU average 10 percent. About one fifth of all the energy consumed in Finland is wood-based. Industrial residue and garbage are often utilized for energy. Many homeowners use wood as an additional (but not primary) heat source. About seven percent of electricity is produced from peat harvested
Nordic energy market
513454
quick-start unit to cover short-term outages of the order of hours; and Class D, an uninterruptible non-break unit using stored energy to provide continuous power within specified voltage and frequency tolerances. Auxiliary power Auxiliary power is electric power that is provided by an alternate source and that serves as backup for the primary power source at the station main bus or prescribed sub-bus. An offline unit provides electrical isolation between the primary power source and the critical technical load whereas an online unit does not. A Class A power source is a primary power source, i.e., a source that assures
Auxiliary power
20646119
produced electricity in Liechtenstein. Despite efforts to increase renewable energy production, the limited space and infrastructure of the country prevents Liechtenstein from fully covering its domestic needs from renewables only. Liechtenstein has used hydroelectric power stations since the 1920s as its primary source of domestic energy production. By 2018, the country had 12 hydroelectric power stations in operation (4 conventional/pumped-storage and 8 fresh water power stations). Hydroelectric power production accounted for roughly 18 - 19 % of domestic needs. , currently the largest of the domestic power stations, has been operational since December 1949. In 2011-2015, it underwent a reconstruction
Energy in Liechtenstein
4458357
energy very efficiently. District heating is another example of secondary energy. According to the laws of thermodynamics, primary energy sources cannot be produced. They must be available to society to enable the production of energy carriers. Conversion efficiency varies. For thermal energy, electricity and mechanical energy production is limited by Carnot's theorem, and generates a lot of waste heat. Other non-thermal conversions can be more efficient. For example, while wind turbines do not capture all of the wind's energy, they have a high conversion efficiency and generate very little waste heat since wind energy is low entropy. In principle solar
Primary energy
19735836
in exploration aim to export a share of future production, but others argue that it would be preferable, on geopolitical grounds, to use the gas within the country instead of other energy sources. In early 2012 the Israeli cabinet announced plans to set up a sovereign wealth fund (called "the Israeli Citizens' Fund") that would allocate part of the royalties from energy exploration to education, defense and overseas investments. List of Natural gas-fired power stations in Israel: Natural gas in Israel Natural gas in Israel is a primary energy source in Israel, mainly utilized for electricity production and to lesser
Natural gas in Israel
8285836
Vaalco Energy VAALCO Energy is a petroleum and natural gas exploration and production company organized in Delaware and headquartered in Houston, Texas with operations primarily in the Etame Marin block offshore Gabon. As of December 31, 2017, the company had 3.049 billion barrels of proved reserves, all of which was petroleum. The company’s primary source of revenue is from its 31.1% interest, via a production sharing contract, in operations in the 750,000 acre (3,000 km²) Etame Marin block, offshore Gabon. The company also owns a 31% working interest in an undeveloped portion of a block offshore Equatorial Guinea. In 2000,
Vaalco Energy
1966030
to do with the vehicle itself and more to do with the method of electricity production. A particular EV would instantly become twice as efficient if electricity production were switched from fossil fuel to a wind or tidal primary source of energy. Thus, when "well-to-wheels" is cited, one should keep in mind that the discussion is no longer about the vehicle, but rather about the entire energy supply infrastructure - in the case of fossil fuels this should also include energy spent on exploration, mining, refining, and distribution. The lifecycle analysis of EVs shows that even when powered by the
Electric vehicle
15903101
Energy in Europe Energy in Europe includes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Europe. In the European Union, the total primary energy consumption reached a peak in 2006 and decreased by 12 % since then: Primary energy consumption for selected European and Eurasian countries in million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe) from 2010 to 2015, according to BP, is listed below. The European primary energy use per capita (TWh per million people) in 2008 is listed below. The twelve newer EU Member States in Central and Eastern Europe plan to increase wind power capacity from the 6.4 gigawatts
Energy in Europe
233927
kg per capita) rather than less developed ones (1–4 kg per capita). The primary and secondary lead production processes are similar. Some primary production plants now supplement their operations with scrap lead, and this trend is likely to increase in the future. Given adequate techniques, lead obtained via secondary processes is indistinguishable from lead obtained via primary processes. Scrap lead from the building trade is usually fairly clean and is re-melted without the need for smelting, though refining is sometimes needed. Secondary lead production is therefore cheaper, in terms of energy requirements, than is primary production, often by 50% or
Lead
10304821
the country's total electricity production. Biomass was the largest source of renewable primary energy in the US, and the third-largest renewable source of electrical power in the US, after hydropower and wind. Biomass electric generation data combines two basic categories: The contribution from these two categories over the last thirteen years of biomass electric power to the renewable power generation and to the total US power generation is shown below along with the yearly profile of the electric power generation for 2016. This shows the typical variations over the months of the year due to fuel availability and needs. Wave
Renewable energy in the United States
17084261
Energy in Guinea Three primary energy sources make up the energy mix in Guinea: fossil biomass, oil and hydropower. Biomass (firewood and charcoal) makes the largest contribution in primary energy consumption. It is locally produced, while Guinea imports all the petroleum products it needs. The potential for hydroelectric power generation is high, but largely untapped. Electricity is not available to a high percentage of Guineans, especially in rural areas, and service is intermittent, even in the capital city of Conakry. In 1995, firewood was by far the greatest source of energy, accounting for 85%. In 2008, biomass accounted for 89%.
Energy in Guinea
8094838
meaning that they require a source of chemical energy to perform their function. Some are primary active transporters utilizing adenosine triphosphate hydrolysis as a source of energy, whereas others are secondary active transporters (uniporters, symporters, or antiporters) in which transport is coupled to an electrochemical potential difference created by pumping hydrogen or sodium ions from or to the outside of the cell. <br> Bacterial efflux transporters are classified into five major superfamilies, based on their amino acid sequence and the energy source used to export their substrates: Of these, only the ABC superfamily are primary transporters, the rest being secondary
Efflux (microbiology)
19169021
1 kWh energy, which reduces the cost of production. The construction was done by Gazprom Armenia. 80% of the electricity in Armenia is produced by four major energy producing companies, the Metsamor NPP, the Hrazdan TPP, the Sevan–Hrazdan Cascade, and the Vorotan Cascade. The HTPP is a balancing station providing energy in the case of deficit or shut down of the Metsamor nuclear facility, which is the primary source of power in Armenia. It closes for two to three months each year for maintenance and refueling, and HTPP steps in to meet consumer needs. The HTPP has also a big
Hrazdan Thermal Power Plant
7397451
Earth would be unable to sustain itself. Plants, along with other primary producers, produce the energy that beings consume, and the oxygen that they breathe. It is thought that the first organisms on Earth were primary producers located on the ocean floor. Aquatic algae are a significant contributor to food webs in tropical rivers and streams. This is displayed by net primary production, a fundamental ecological process that reflects the amount of carbon that is synthesized within an ecosystem. This carbon ultimately becomes available to consumers. Net primary production displays that the rates of in-stream primary production in tropical regions
Primary producers
14100393
of H which is performed by hydrogenase enzymes. These enzymes are able to create a charge gradient across the cell membrane which serves as an energy store. In aerobic environments, the oxidation and reduction of oxygen is the primary energy source. However, many bacteria are capable of living in environments where O supply is limited and use H as their primary energy source . The hydrogense enzymes which provide energy to the bacteria are centered around either a Fe–Fe or Fe–Ni active site. H metabolism is not used by humans or other complex life forms, but proteins in the mitochondria
Iron–nickel clusters
9156358
commonly used at present (e.g. demand management) to potential new technologies for grid energy storage. Improved forecasting can also contribute as the daily and seasonal variations in wind and solar sources are to some extent predictable. The Pembina Institute and the World Wide Fund for Nature state in the Renewable is Doable plan that resilience is a feature of renewable energy: These peer-reviewed papers examine the impacts of intermittency: Intermittent energy source An intermittent energy source is any source of energy that is not continuously available for conversion into electricity and outside direct control because the used primary energy cannot
Intermittent energy source
3790718
from individual to individual as it is highly dependent on diet and living conditions. Astaxanthin, and other chemically related asta-carotenoids, has also been found in a number of lichen species of the arctic zone. The primary natural sources for industrial production of astaxanthin comprise the following: Astaxanthin concentrations in nature are approximately: Algae are the primary natural source of astaxanthin in the aquatic food chain. The microalgae "Haematococcus pluvialis" seems to accumulate the highest levels of astaxanthin in nature and is currently, the primary industrial source for natural astaxanthin production where more than 40 g of astaxanthin can be obtained
Astaxanthin
126234
is not used up by respiration, is known as the net primary production (NPP). Energy and carbon enter ecosystems through photosynthesis, are incorporated into living tissue, transferred to other organisms that feed on the living and dead plant matter, and eventually released through respiration. The carbon and energy incorporated into plant tissues (net primary production) is either consumed by animals while the plant is alive, or it remains uneaten when the plant tissue dies and becomes detritus. In terrestrial ecosystems, roughly 90% of the net primary production ends up being broken down by decomposers. The remainder is either consumed by
Ecosystem
16158242
Energy in North Korea Energy in North Korea describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in North Korea. North Korea is a net energy exporter. Primary energy use in North Korea was 224 TWh and 9 TWh per million people in 2009. North Korea energy production in relation to population was about same as is in South Korea in 2004–2009. The difference is in the energy import. North Korea is almost self-sufficient in energy. The energy import is very small in North Korea and 86% of primary energy use in South Korea. North Korea's population in 2009 was 23,91
Energy in North Korea
2189612
delivered enough energy to cause the hohlraum itself to heat up and start giving off x-rays. Ideally the energy source would be located some distance away, to mechanically isolate both ends of the reaction. A small atomic bomb could be used as the energy source, as it is in a hydrogen bomb, but ideally smaller energy sources would be used. Using computer simulations, the teams estimated that about 5 MJ of energy would be needed from the primary, generating a 1 MJ beam. To put this in perspective, a small fission primary of 0.5 kt releases 2 million MJ in
National Ignition Facility
19105395
expects that the worldwide energy consumption in 2040 will have increased more than a quarter and that the goal, set in the Paris Agreement about Climate Change, will not nearly be reached. This is the worldwide production of energy, extracted or captured directly from natural sources. In energy statistics Primary Energy (PE) refers to the first stage where energy enters the supply chain before any further conversion or transformation process. Energy production is usually classified as Primary energy assessment follows certain rules to ease measurement and comparison of different kinds of energy. Due to these rules uranium is not counted
Worldwide energy supply
3603963
use could be decoupled. The primary energy source would need no longer travel with the vehicle, as it currently does with hydrocarbon fuels. Instead of tailpipes creating dispersed emissions, the energy (and pollution) could be generated from point sources such as large-scale, centralized facilities with improved efficiency. This would allow the possibility of technologies such as carbon sequestration, which are otherwise impossible for mobile applications. Alternatively, distributed energy generation schemes (such as small scale renewable energy sources) could be used, possibly associated with hydrogen stations. Aside from the energy generation, hydrogen production could be centralized, distributed or a mixture of
Hydrogen economy
9122625
wood residues, are common in the US. Agricultural waste is common in Mauritius (sugar cane residue) and Southeast Asia (rice husks). Animal husbandry residues, such as poultry litter, are common in the UK. Sewage sludge can be another source of biomass. For example, the Omni Processor is a process which uses sewage sludge as fuel in a process of sewage sludge treatment, with surplus electrical energy being generated for export. If the total annual primary production of biomass is just over 100 billion (1.0E+11) tonnes of carbon /yr, and the energy reserve per tonne of biomass is between about 1.5×10
Biomass
17753985
that this is the most common form, the most energy and time has been invested into it. Investments are mainly done with research and publications. This is considered a primary source, although it has had a steady decline as the other forms of renewable energy become more used and researched. While many predict that Latin America will dominate the solar energy production, Mexico is predicted to use this method the most. While it is one of the least common sources at the time (2015), solar has begun to increase at rapid speed. It is said that if this form was
Renewable energy in Mexico
13850261
forum to efficiently evaluate various algae technologies for potential early stage company opportunities. Algae fuel in the United States Algae fuel in the United States, as with other countries, is under study as a source of biofuel. The Aquatic Species Program launched in 1978 was research program funded by the U.S. DoE, tasked with investigating the use of algae for the production of energy. The program initially focused efforts on the production of hydrogen, however, shifted primary research to studying oil production in 1982. From 1982 through its culmination, the majority of the program research was focused on the production
Algae fuel in the United States
15695561
Energy in Nigeria Nigeria's primary energy consumption was about 108 Mtoe in 2011. Most of the energy comes from traditional biomass and waste, which account for 83% of total primary production. The rest is from fossil fuels (16%) and hydropower (1%). Nigeria has oil reserves of about and gas reserves of about 5 trillion cubic metres, ranking 10th and 9th in the world, respectively. Global production in 2009 reached of oil and 3 trillion cubic meters of natural gas. Nigeria is a member of the Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. Nigeria was 10th top oil producer in 2005. In
Energy in Nigeria
19828656
was given to introducing competition and transparency into electricity production. Energy in the Faroe Islands Energy in the Faroe Islands is produced primarily from fossil fuels, with further contributions from hydro and wind power. Oil products are the main energy source, mainly consumed by fishing vessels and sea transport. Electricity is produced by oil, hydropower and wind farms, mainly by the SEV, which is owned by all the municipalities of the Faroe Islands. The Faroe Islands are not connected by power lines with continental Europe, and thus the archipelago cannot import or export electricity. Per capita annual consumption of primary
Energy in the Faroe Islands
7273662
only an estimated 3% of all land area, with 97% of forests cleared for fuel or other use. Deforestation has led to soil erosion by decreasing tree cover and leaving soil exposed. Soil erosion often decreases agricultural yields and results in deadly landslides. There are two major reasons, both of which are economic in nature, for deforestation in Haiti. First, wood is burned as charcoal for energy. Second, the land is needed for agricultural production, which is the base of the Haitian economy. Charcoal, created by burning wood, is the primary source of energy for Haitian residents. The UN reported
Environmental issues in Haiti
12402025
the 2010s (in 2010: 5,170 MW; 2016: 7,067 MW). In 2016 the estimated renewable energy production was over 130 terawatt-hours in Finland. Renewable energy sources (Statistics Finland, 2015) The renewable energy objectives set by the European Union are 22 percent renewable source electricity and 12 percent renewable of primary energy by 2010 under the European Union directive 2003/30/EC (Directive on the Promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport) and white paper. This includes the objectives of 40 GW wind power, 3 GW photovoltaics and 5.75 percent biofuels by 2010. In 2008, Finland's greenhouse gas emissions
Energy in Finland
4188202
source becomes a net "energy sink", and can no longer be used as a source of energy, but depending on the system might be useful for energy storage (for example a battery). A related measure Energy Store On Energy Invested (ESOEI) is used to analyse storage systems. To be considered viable as a prominent fuel or energy source a fuel or energy must have an EROEI ratio of at least 3:1. The natural or primary energy sources are not included in the calculation of energy invested, only the human-applied sources. For example, in the case of biofuels the solar insolation
Energy returned on energy invested
13850255
Algae fuel in the United States Algae fuel in the United States, as with other countries, is under study as a source of biofuel. The Aquatic Species Program launched in 1978 was research program funded by the U.S. DoE, tasked with investigating the use of algae for the production of energy. The program initially focused efforts on the production of hydrogen, however, shifted primary research to studying oil production in 1982. From 1982 through its culmination, the majority of the program research was focused on the production of transportation fuels, notably biodiesel, from algae. In 1995, as part of the
Algae fuel in the United States
4153271
energy production, and growth/development. They have a wide species distribution that span many phyla and frequently more than one kingdom. Primary metabolites include carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, and nucleic acids which are the basic building blocks of life. Primary metabolites that are involved with energy production include respiratory and photosynthetic enzymes. Enzymes in turn are composed of amino acids and often non-peptidic cofactors that are essential for enzyme function. The basic structure of cells and of organisms are also composed of primary metabolites. These include cell membranes (e.g. phospholipids), cell walls (e.g. peptidoglycan, chitin), and cytoskeletons (proteins). Primary metabolite enzymatic
Natural product
2823590
primary source of energy are ongoing and not depleted by human demands. Non-renewable resources are those that are significantly depleted by human usage and that will not recover their potential significantly during human lifetimes. An example of a non-renewable energy source is coal, which does not form naturally at a rate that would support human use. Fossil fuel ("primary non-renewable fossil") sources burn coal or hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Another fossil fuel, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is principally
Energy development
17494532
total energy demand. Israel and Cyprus are the per-capita leaders in the use of solar hot water systems with over 90% of homes using them. The Ministry of National Infrastructures estimates solar water heating saves Israel of oil a year. Energy in Israel Most energy in Israel comes from hydrocarbon fuels. The country's total primary energy demand is significantly higher than its total primary energy production, relying heavily on imports to meet its energy needs. Total primary energy consumption was in 2011, or 24.5 Mtoe (million tonne of oil equivalent). Electricity consumption in Israel was 59.83 TWh in 2014, while
Energy in Israel
1489724
of the animal's stomach (empty or not), the isotope tracers in the tissues will give us an understanding of its trophic position and food source. The three major isotopes used in aquatic ecosystem food web analysis are C, N and S. While all three indicate information on trophic dynamics, it is common to perform analysis on at least two of the previously mentioned 3 isotopes for better understanding of marine trophic interactions and for stronger results. Carbon isotopes aid us in determining the primary production source responsible for the energy flow in an ecosystem. The transfer of C through trophic
Isotope analysis
11154048
Bay in the north. Disputes between China and several neighboring countries complicated the future of oil development in several promising offshore locations. Natural gas was a relatively minor source of energy. Output grew rapidly in the 1960s and 1970s. By 1985 production was approximately 12 billion cubic meters – about 3 percent of China's primary energy supply. The following year, output increased by 13 billion cubic meters. Sichuan Province possesses about half of China's natural gas reserves and annual production. Most of the remaining natural gas is produced at the Daqing and Shengli northeastern oil fields. Other gas-producing areas include
Technological and industrial history of China
585193
most important part of primary energy sources are the carbon based fossil energy sources. Coal, oil, and natural gas provided 79.6% of primary energy production during 2002 (in million tonnes of oil equivalent (mtoe)) (34.9+23.5+21.2). Levels (proved reserves) during 2005–2006 Flows (daily production) during 2006 P. E. Hodgson, a senior research fellow emeritus in physics at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, expects the world energy use is doubling every fourteen years and the need is increasing faster still and he insisted in 2008 that the world oil production, a main resource of fossil fuel, was expected to peak in ten years
Fossil fuel
15903102
installed at the end of 2012 to 16 gigawatts by 2020. If renewable electricity production in the EU continued to grow at the same rate as it did from 2005 to 2010, it would account for 36.4% of electricity in 2020 and 51.6% in 2030, following: Energy in Europe Energy in Europe includes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Europe. In the European Union, the total primary energy consumption reached a peak in 2006 and decreased by 12 % since then: Primary energy consumption for selected European and Eurasian countries in million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe) from
Energy in Europe
3440746
are other derivatives of sunlight. Note that although coal, oil and natural gas are derived from sunlight, they are considered primary energy sources which are extracted from the earth (fossil fuels). Natural uranium is also a primary energy source extracted from the earth but does not come from the decomposition of organisms (mineral fuel). Energy carrier An energy carrier is a substance (energy form) or sometimes a phenomenon (energy system) that contains energy that can be later converted to other forms such as mechanical work or heat or to operate chemical or physical processes. Such carriers include springs, electrical batteries,
Energy carrier
582216
shows, for a given ecosystem, the relationship between biomass or biological productivity and trophic levels. An ecological pyramid provides a snapshot in time of an ecological community. The bottom of the pyramid represents the primary producers (autotrophs). The primary producers take energy from the environment in the form of sunlight or inorganic chemicals and use it to create energy-rich molecules such as carbohydrates. This mechanism is called primary production. The pyramid then proceeds through the various trophic levels to the apex predators at the top. When energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, typically only ten percent
Biomass (ecology)
2208109
develop and practice driving techniques to increase fuel efficiency and reduce consumption. Hypermilers have broken records of fuel efficiency, for example, achieving 109 miles per gallon in a Prius. In non-hybrid vehicles these techniques are also beneficial, with fuel efficiencies of up to 59 MPG in a Honda Accord or 30 MPG in an Acura MDX. The most efficient machines for converting energy to rotary motion are electric motors, as used in electric vehicles. However, electricity is not a primary energy source so the efficiency of the electricity production has also to be taken into account. Currently railway trains can
Fuel efficiency
19105400
is used for conversion and transport, and 6% for non-energy products like lubricants, asphalt and petrochemicals. 62% remains for end-users. Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) indicates the sum of production and imports subtracting exports and storage changes. For the whole world TPES nearly equals primary energy PE but for countries TPES and PE differ in quantity and quality. Usually secondary energy is involved, e.g., import of an oil refinery product, so TPES is often not PE. P in TPES has not the same meaning as in PE. It refers to energy needed as "input" to produce some or all energy
Worldwide energy supply
1594363
this combustion. The World Health Organisation estimates that 7 million premature deaths are caused each year by air pollution, and biomass combustion is a major contributor of it. The use of biomas is carbon neutral over time, but is otherwise similar to burning fossil fuels. As the primary source of biofuels in North America, many organizations are conducting research in the area of ethanol production. On the Federal level, the USDA conducts a large amount of research regarding ethanol production in the United States. Much of this research is targeted toward the effect of ethanol production on domestic food markets.
Alternative energy
13591329
wind power with 7.6%. The completion of Gilgel Gibe III in 2015/16 added another 1870 MW capacity to the country's power production, more than doubling the country's production capacity from the year before. In 2010, electricity production made up only ~1 % of Ethiopia's primary energy. Between 2010 and 2016, the production of electricity went up from around ~5 TWh to around ~22 TWh (around 4% of the primary energy value). This was due to an ambitious program to build wind farms and hydropower plants to produce electricity. By looking at the table above, the annual production of energy carriers
Energy in Ethiopia
1666301
of photosynthesis (top) and (one form of) chemosynthesis (bottom): In both cases, the end point is a polymer of reduced carbohydrate, (CHO), typically molecules such as glucose or other sugars. These relatively simple molecules may be then used to further synthesise more complicated molecules, including proteins, complex carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, or be respired to perform work. Consumption of primary producers by heterotrophic organisms, such as animals, then transfers these organic molecules (and the energy stored within them) up the food web, fueling all of the Earth's living systems. "Gross primary production" (GPP) is the amount of chemical energy
Primary production
13316573
Ecological efficiency Ecological efficiency describes the efficiency with which energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next. It is determined by a combination of efficiencies relating to organismic resource acquisition and assimilation in an ecosystem. Primary production occurs in autotrophic organisms of an ecosystem. Photoautotrophs such as vascular plants and algae convert energy from the sun into energy stored as carbon compounds. Photosynthesis is carried out in the chlorophyll of green plants. The energy converted through photosynthesis is carried through the trophic levels of an ecosystem as organisms consume members of lower trophic levels. Primary production can be
Ecological efficiency
14080355
of coniine alkaloids. When ingested sugars and carbohydrate levels are low, stored fats and proteins are the primary source of energy production. Glucogenic amino acids from proteins are converted to glucose. Ketogenic amino acids can be deaminated to produce alpha keto acids and ketone bodies. Alpha keto acids are used primarily as energy for liver cells and in fatty acid synthesis, also in the liver. Keto acid Keto acids or ketoacids (also called oxo acids or oxoacids) are organic compounds that contain a carboxylic acid group and a ketone group. In several cases, the keto group is hydrated. The alpha-keto
Keto acid
2502324
are stocks. Classically, the primary factors of production were land, labour and capital. Primary factors do not become part of the output product, nor are the primary factors, themselves, transformed in the production process. The production function, as a theoretical construct, may be abstracting away from the secondary factors and intermediate products consumed in a production process. The production function is not a full model of the production process: it deliberately abstracts from inherent aspects of physical production processes that some would argue are essential, including error, entropy or waste, and the consumption of energy or the co-production of pollution.
Production function
13812664
technology being determined to be nuclear power. As long as exergy stands for the useful energy required for an economic activity to be accomplished, it is reasonable to evaluate the cost of the energy on the basis of its exergy content. Besides, as exergy can be considered as measure of the departure of the environmental conditions, it also serves as an indicator of environmental impact, taking into account both the efficiency of supply chain (from primary exergy inputs) and the efficiency of the production processes. In this way, exergoeconomy can be used to rationally distribute the exergy costs and emission
Cost of electricity by source
7228364
lack of substrate to support plants or periphyton. Phytoplankton should produce the only autochthonous inputs here, but photosynthetic rates will be limited due to turbidity and mixing. Thus, allochthonous inputs are expected to be the primary energy source for large rivers. This FPOM will come from both upstream sites via the decomposition process and through lateral inputs from floodplains. Biota should change with this change in energy from the headwaters to the mouth of these systems. Namely, shredders should prosper in low-ordered systems and grazers in mid-ordered sites. Microbial decomposition should play the largest role in energy production for low-ordered
River ecosystem
19105399
cell in 1954 started electricity generation by solar panels, connected to a power inverter. Around 2000 mass production of panels made this economic. Much of primary and converted energy is traded among countries, about 5350 Mtoe/a worldwide, mostly oil and gas. The table lists countries/regions with large difference of export and import. A negative value indicates that much energy import is needed for the economy. The quantities are expressed in Mtoe/a and the data are of 2015. Big transport goes by tanker ship, tank truck, LNG carrier, rail freight transport, pipeline and by electric power transmission. 32% of primary production
Worldwide energy supply
155962
all these areas, but Guinea's poorly developed infrastructure continues to present obstacles to investment projects. Three primary energy sources make up the energy mix in Guinea - biomass, oil and hydropower. With 78%, biomass (mostly charcoal) makes the largest contribution in primary energy consumption in Guinea. It is locally produced, while Guinea imports all petroleum products. The people of Guinea are among the poorest in West Africa and this reality is reflected in the development of the country's telecommunications environment. Radio is the most important source of information for the public in Guinea, and the only one to reach the
Economy of Guinea