the study of the coordinated functions of a living organism is called
Physiology
318165
Bacterial physiology Physiology Physiology (; ) is the scientific study of the functions and mechanisms which work within a living system. As a sub-discipline of biology, the focus of physiology is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical and physical functions that exist in a living system. Central to an understanding of physiological functioning is the investigation of the fundamental biophysical and biochemical phenomena, the coordinated homeostatic control mechanisms, and the continuous communication between cells. The physiologic state is the condition occurring from normal body function, while the pathological state is centered on the
Physiology
318165
Bacterial physiology Physiology Physiology (; ) is the scientific study of the functions and mechanisms which work within a living system. As a sub-discipline of biology, the focus of physiology is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical and physical functions that exist in a living system. Central to an understanding of physiological functioning is the investigation of the fundamental biophysical and biochemical phenomena, the coordinated homeostatic control mechanisms, and the continuous communication between cells. The physiologic state is the condition occurring from normal body function, while the pathological state is centered on the
Physiology
318147
Physiology Physiology (; ) is the scientific study of the functions and mechanisms which work within a living system. As a sub-discipline of biology, the focus of physiology is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical and physical functions that exist in a living system. Central to an understanding of physiological functioning is the investigation of the fundamental biophysical and biochemical phenomena, the coordinated homeostatic control mechanisms, and the continuous communication between cells. The physiologic state is the condition occurring from normal body function, while the pathological state is centered on the abnormalities that
Physiology
8422981
Cell physiology Cell physiology is the biological study about the activities that take place in a cell to keep it alive. This includes, among animal cells, plant cells and microorganisms. The term "physiology" refers to all the normal functions that take place in a living organism. All of these activities in the cell could be counted as following ; nutrition, environmental response, cell growth, cell division, reproduction and differentiation. The differences among the animal cell, plant cell and microorganisms shows the essential functional similarity even though those cells have different structures. Absorption of water by roots, production of food in
Cell physiology
8422989
: Henry T.Yost> 6- < Cell Physiology : Arthur c> Giese, PH.D.> Cell physiology Cell physiology is the biological study about the activities that take place in a cell to keep it alive. This includes, among animal cells, plant cells and microorganisms. The term "physiology" refers to all the normal functions that take place in a living organism. All of these activities in the cell could be counted as following ; nutrition, environmental response, cell growth, cell division, reproduction and differentiation. The differences among the animal cell, plant cell and microorganisms shows the essential functional similarity even though those cells
Cell physiology
259548
inefficiency of animal research has encouraged development of alternative methods for the study of disease. Cell culture, or "in vitro" studies, provide an alternative that preserves the physiology of the living cell, but does not require the sacrifice of an animal for mechanistic studies. Human, inducible pluripotent stem cells can also elucidate new mechanisms for understanding cancer and cell regeneration. Imaging studies (such as MRI or PET scans) enable non-invasive study of human subjects. Recent advances in genetics and genomics can identify disease-associated genes, which can be targeted for therapies. Ultimately, however, there is no substitute for a living organism
Model organism
6144739
its entire body (which is called homeothermy) and therefore there should be little variation in the oxygen-isotope ratio when measured in different bones. Alternatively, the oxygen-isotope ratio differs considerably when measured throughout the body of an organism with an ectothermic (cold-blooded) physiology. Oxygen-isotope ratios calculated for "Hypacrosaurus" suggesting that the ratios varied little, indicating that "Hypacrosaurus" was a homeotherm, and likely was endothermic. This is in contrast to the Ruben et al. (1996) finding that "Hypacrosaurus" was not warm-blooded, which was based on the absence of nasal turbinates (see Crest functions subsection, above). Taphonomy is the study of the processes
Hypacrosaurus
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"Spirodela polyrhiza" is an ideal system for biofuels, bioremediation and carbon cycling due to their aspects of fast-growing, direct contact with media and smallest genome size (~150 Mb). A comprehensive genomic study of "Spirodela polyrhiza" was published in February 2014. The results provide insights into how this organism is adapted to rapid growth and an aquatic lifestyle. "Spirodela polyrhiza", living in pond, differs in their development from terrestrial plants in their morphology and physiology. They do mainly vegetative growth called fronds in spring and summer time, while they switch into a dormant phase represented by turions in autumn and winter
Spirodela polyrhiza
9590510
extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in that organism provide insight into the workings of other organisms.) Physiology is the study of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms function as a whole. The theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal
Biology
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role in determining behavior. Goes into explaining cognitive functions and how they are internal and inferred from behavior using measure like accuracy in performing a task like recalling a list of words of the time taken to find some word on a page of text. The study of cognitive functions derive from the information processing approach which argues that these functions that these functions involve operations occurring at various processing stages is typically based on a model of cognitive function of interest. Physiological comes from physiology which is the study of the functioning of living organisms, animal or plant, and
Arousal
17729988
and Andrew Huxley used it in muscle cells. In 1963, Hodgkin with Huxley, won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work on the basis of nerve "action potentials," the electrical impulses which enable the activity of an organism to be coordinated by a central nervous system. Hodgkin and Huxley shared the prize that year with John Eccles, who was cited for his research on synapses. Worldwide use of this new microelectrode spread rapidly after this and has subsequently proven to be one of the most important devices applied to the study of cellular physiology. The microelectrode in
Gilbert Ling
19445231
within nerve cells, called axonal transport. Though not always the case for traffic on the streets, within neurons, this process is tightly coordinated. The "vehicles" that carry out this transport are called molecular motors. It is their purview as to what cargo should be carried, what the start and end points of the journey would be - depending on when and where they are needed. Studying this process is challenging, partly because anesthetising model organism also suspends axonal transport. So, watching it unfold is not easy. Her group, in collaboration, set up a microfluidic approach to study transport in roundworms.
Sandhya Koushika
8488837
does not exist. There is no living organism that does not partner with others. Multiple and integrated partnership is therefore inevitable for living organisms. The study of microbiomes illustrates and reinforces this universal biological rule, that of the necessary and vital (and long underestimated) interactions between an organism and populations of microorganisms associated with it. This functional unit is called a holobiont. To describe an association, it is therefore necessary to define the "modus vivendi" of the holobiont in order to understand the nature of the exchanges and the communication unifying these sustainable partnerships. To illustrate the rules governing the
Symsagittifera roscoffensis
664325
Proteomics Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins. Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, with many functions. The term "proteomics" was coined in 1997, in analogy to genomics, the study of the genome. The word "proteome" is a portmanteau of "prote"in and gen"ome", and was coined by Marc Wilkins in 1994 while he was a Ph.D. student at Macquarie University. Macquarie University also founded the first dedicated proteomics laboratory in 1995. The proteome is the entire set of proteins that is produced or modified by an organism or system. Proteomics has enabled the identification of ever increasing numbers of
Proteomics
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publishers). Proteomics Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins. Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, with many functions. The term "proteomics" was coined in 1997, in analogy to genomics, the study of the genome. The word "proteome" is a portmanteau of "prote"in and gen"ome", and was coined by Marc Wilkins in 1994 while he was a Ph.D. student at Macquarie University. Macquarie University also founded the first dedicated proteomics laboratory in 1995. The proteome is the entire set of proteins that is produced or modified by an organism or system. Proteomics has enabled the identification of ever increasing numbers
Proteomics
8413696
living systems (the other two being the exchange of materials and the exchange of energy). In his book, Flor (2004, page 4) extends this argument by forwarding that, "All living systems, from the simplest to the most complex, are equipped to perform these critical functions. They are called "critical" because they are necessary for the survival of the living system. Communication is nothing more than the exchange of information. Hence, at its broadest sense, environmental communication is necessary for the survival of every living system, be it an organism, an ecosystem, or (even) a social system." According to J. Robert
Environmental communication
5146445
A University of British Columbia study states that construction of Highway 91 and 99 caused Burns Bog to shrink significantly in size. Burns Bog functions as a single living organism. The smaller it gets, the less chance the entire bog has of surviving. The Vancouver Landfill poses two risks to Burns Bog. The first risk is that breakdown of garbage produces more nutrients, which is the opposite of what a bog needs. The second risk is that there may be contaminated water leeching from the landfill into the bog. Architects and engineers have designed the landfill in a way that
Burns Bog
11324222
protein regulates GATA-2 through transcriptional control of the microRNA 23a-27-24-a clúster”, SON protein has even more functions in the organism. It has been found that these proteins may regulate the hematopoietic cells differentiation. They have a specific job in hematopoietic process, which is based on activating other proteins called GATA. As these ones are finally activated, the cell differentiation starts normally. A recent study suggested that SON may be a novel therapeutic molecular target for pancreatic cancer as the results of a recent study show that this protein is very important as far as proliferation, survival and tumorigenicity of cancer
SON (gene)
2673565
Omics The English-language neologism omics informally refers to a field of study in biology ending in "-omics", such as genomics, proteomics or metabolomics. The related suffix -ome is used to address the objects of study of such fields, such as the genome, proteome or metabolome respectively. Omics aims at the collective characterization and quantification of pools of biological molecules that translate into the structure, function, and dynamics of an organism or organisms. Functional genomics aims at identifying the functions of as many genes as possible of a given organism. It combines different -omics techniques such as transcriptomics and proteomics with
Omics
5503645
taxonomically resolved eukaryote. This was the first organism that exhibited sexual reproduction, which is an essential feature for complex multicellularity. Complex multicellularity is different from "simple" multicellularity, such as colonies of organisms living together. True multicellular organisms contain cells that are specialized for different functions. This is, in fact, an essential feature of sexual reproduction as well, since the male and female gametes are specialized cells. Organisms that reproduce sexually must solve the problem of generating an entire organism from just the germ cells. Sexual reproduction and the ability of gametes to develop into an organism are the necessary antecedents
Ectasian
2852653
bury surface areas larger than 2500 square Ås. Protein complex formation sometimes serves to activate or inhibit one or more of the complex members and in this way, protein complex formation can be similar to phosphorylation. Individual proteins can participate in the formation of a variety of different protein complexes. Different complexes perform different functions, and the same complex can perform very different functions that depend on a variety of factors. Some of these factors are: Many protein complexes are well understood, particularly in the model organism "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" (a strain of yeast). For this relatively simple organism, the study
Protein complex
20356062
living organism, it utilizes polymerases, ribosomes, and other biomolecules to replicate its own genetic material and to produce more virus genetic material similar to the original virus. Thus, gene transfer may occur through many varying means. Thus, the study of this gene transfer throughout each ecosystem, whether it be through a bacterial ecosystem or through the ecosystem of an organism, genetic ecology is the study of this gene transfer and its causes. Genetic ecology Genetic ecology is the study of the stability and expression of varying genetic material within abiotic mediums. Typically, genetic data is not thought of outside of
Genetic ecology
10165353
is model organism to study all aspects of peroxisomal functions and the underlying molecular biology. During growth on methanol key enzymes of the methanol metabolism are present in high amounts. An especially high abundance can be observed for enzymes called MOX (methanol oxidase), FMDH (formate dehydrogenase), and DHAS (dihydroxyacetone synthase). Their presence is regulated at the transcriptional level of the respective genes. In the related species "C. boidinii", "P. methanolica", and "P. pastoris" this gene expression strictly depends on the presence of methanol or methanol derivatives, whereas in "O. polymorpha" strong expression is elicited by appropriate levels of glycerol or
Ogataea polymorpha
42851
cells and between cells, which in turn relates greatly to the study and understanding of tissues, organs, and organism structure and function. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms by which genetic information encoded in DNA is able to result in the processes of life. Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, functions and interactions of biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids, which provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life. The chemistry of the cell also depends on the reactions of smaller molecules
Biochemistry
3973172
the living organism. A study by E.I. Azzam suggested that pre-exposure to radiation causes cells to turn on protection mechanisms. A different study by de Toledo and collaborators, has shown that irradiation with gamma rays increases the concentration of glutathione, an antioxidant found in cells. In 2011, an "in vitro" study led by S.V. Costes showed in time-lapse images a strongly non-linear response of certain cellular repair mechanisms called radiation-induced foci (RIF). The study found that low doses of radiation prompted higher rates of RIF formation than high doses, and that after low-dose exposure RIF continued to form after the
Radiation hormesis
12628993
organism. The exception to this is the flagellum, the only known example of a freely rotating propulsive system in biology; in the evolution of flagella, individual components were recruited from older structures, where they performed tasks unrelated to propulsion. The basal body that is now the rotary motor, for instance, might have evolved from a structure used by the bacterium to inject toxins into other cells. This recruitment of previously evolved structures to serve new functions is called "exaptation". Molecular biologist Robin Holliday has written that the absence of biological wheels argues against creationist or intelligent design accounts of the
Rotating locomotion in living systems
7362144
RNA genes, which guide the development of the organism from fertilization through embryogenesis to adult life. Although dramatic progress is noted, the relevance of rare gene variants has remained a central topic of research. As one of the most important platforms for dealing with vertebrate gene functions on a large scale, genome-wide genetic resources of mutant murine ES cells have been established. To this end four international programs aimed at saturation mutagenesis of the mouse genome have been founded in Europe and North America (EUCOMM, KOMP, NorCOMM, and TIGM). Coordinated by the International Knockout Mouse Consortium (IKSC) these ES-cell repositories
Site-specific recombinase technology
330681
Pharmacology Pharmacology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of drug action, where a drug can be broadly defined as any man-made, natural, or endogenous (from within the body) molecule which exerts a biochemical or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism (sometimes the word pharmacon is used as a term to encompass these endogenous and exogenous bioactive species). More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. The field encompasses drug
Pharmacology
20136708
in living things. The embryologist Hans Driesch, experimenting on sea urchin eggs, showed that separating the first two cells led to two complete but small blastulas, seemingly showing that cell division did not divide the egg into sub-mechanisms, but created more cells each with the vital capability to form a new organism. Vitalism faded out with the demonstration of more satisfactory mechanistic explanations of each of the functions of a living cell or organism. By 1931, biologists had "almost unanimously abandoned vitalism as an acknowledged belief." The American botanist Asa Gray used the name "theistic evolution" for his point of
Alternatives to evolution by natural selection
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Biotic stress Biotic stress is stress that occurs as a result of damage done to an organism by other living organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, beneficial and harmful insects, weeds, and cultivated or native plants. It is different from abiotic stress, which is the negative impact of non-living factors on the organisms such as temperature, sunlight, wind, salinity, flooding and drought. The types of biotic stresses imposed on an organism depend the climate where it lives as well as the species' ability to resist particular stresses. Biotic stress remains a broadly defined term and those who study it
Biotic stress
20166522
tendency in human beings: As a fundamental biological process, actualization is both as individual and as universal as the genome of any individual organism. All living things utilise energy, maintain homeostasis (sometimes in very complex, adaptive, or opportunistic ways), grow, respond to stimuli, adapt, and reproduce. Each of these functions is compelled and constrained in a distinctive manner by the individual's unique mix of genes and environmental factors. Actualization arises from the tension at the interface of gene and environment. The actualizing tendency applies to all aspects of the organism such that effort towards its development and behaviours are holistically
Actualizing tendency
153704
in January 2004, the FDA granted Dr. Ronald Sherman permission to produce and market medical maggots for use in humans or other animals as a prescription medical device. Medical maggots represent the first living organism allowed by the Food and Drug Administration for production and marketing as a prescription medical device. In June 2004, the FDA cleared "Hirudo medicinalis" (medicinal leeches) as the second living organism to be used as a medical device. The FDA also requires milk to be pasteurized to remove bacteria. In addition to its regulatory functions, the FDA carries out research and development activities to develop
Food and Drug Administration
4938479
be "ex vivo". One widely performed "ex vivo" study is the chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay. In this assay, angiogenesis is promoted on the CAM membrane of a chicken embryo outside the organism (chicken). Ex vivo Ex vivo (Latin: "out of the living") means that which takes place outside an organism. In science, "ex vivo" refers to experimentation or measurements done in or on tissue from an organism in an external environment with minimal alteration of natural conditions. "Ex vivo" conditions allow experimentation on an organism's cells or tissues under more controlled conditions than is possible in "in vivo" experiments
Ex vivo
18576897
is a special form of symbiosis whereby an organism lives inside another, different organism. Symbiogenesis is thought to be very important in the origin and evolution of eukaryotes. Eukaryotic organelles, such as mitochondria, have been theorized to have been originated from cell-invaded bacteria living inside another cell. Lateral gene transfer, or horizontal gene transfer, is the movement of genetic material between unicellular and/or multicellular organisms without a parent-offspring relationship. The horizontal transfer of genes results in new genes, which could give new functions to the recipient and thus could drive evolution. In the neo-Darwinian paradigm, one of the assumed definition
Reticulate evolution
20169537
Uwe Marx Uwe Marx (born 26 June 1964 in Berlin) is a German physician and biotechnologist, and is one of the world's leading researchers in the fields of organ-on-a-chip technology and antibody production. In 1989, he planned to recreate organs like liver, lung, or skin in vitro and to mimic organ functions and interactions outside a living organism. He was initially able to develop a human artificial lymph node model (in vitro) for immunogenicity tests. Since 2007, Marx has been working together with other scientists to reproduce the human organism on a microfluidic chip at a scale of 1:100,000. The
Uwe Marx
8729172
The vitalists and the mechanists entered endless debates and wrote endless papers advocating their perspective. According to Ernst Mayr, Ritter introduced the third school of thought: organicism. While the term "organicism" had been used before, Ritter was the first to use it for biological purposes and to create a theory of it. Organicism believed that life was interrelationships between living things, living in a complex web. Today, organicism might be called systems theory. In 1918, Ritter wrote his organicist tome, "The Unity of the Organism", which he believed was his magnum opus. He continued his study and science advocacy into
William Emerson Ritter
16702298
sees in the regular, organised functions and processes of living beings a unifying cause within the system itself, the living principle that keeps everything operating in a harmonious whole, both through the power of expansion, growth and that of containment or formation. This living power is not to be equated or reduced to the nervous or sensitive power of plants and animals. The first is extensive throughout and the second is more limited in extent, as not all plants and animals have it, or it does not operate throughout the organism, absolutely or equally (in health). The sensitive power, however,
Richard Saumarez
962956
and isolation, as well as the available ecosystem energy supplies. Over periods of ecological changes, biogeography includes the study of plant and animal species in: their past and/or present living "refugium" habitat; their interim living sites; and/or their survival locales. As writer David Quammen put it, "...biogeography does more than ask "Which species?" and "Where". It also asks "Why?" and, what is sometimes more crucial, "Why not?"." Modern biogeography often employs the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), to understand the factors affecting organism distribution, and to predict future trends in organism distribution. Often mathematical models and GIS are employed
Biogeography
2357461
by them, clinical picture and the response generated by humans against them. It is also concerned with the various methods of their diagnosis, treatment and finally their prevention & control. A parasite is an organism that live on or within another organism called the host . These include organisms such as: Medical parasitology can involve drug development, epidemiological studies and study of zoonoses. The study of parasites that cause economic losses in agriculture or aquaculture operations, or which infect companion animals. Examples of species studied are: This is the study of structures of proteins from parasites. Determination of parasitic protein
Parasitology
2280618
Parasitic disease A parasitic disease, also known as parasitosis, is an infectious disease caused or transmitted by a parasite. Many parasites do not cause diseases as it may eventually lead to death of both organism and host. Parasitic diseases can affect practically all living organisms, including plants and mammals. The study of parasitic diseases is called parasitology. Some parasites like "Toxoplasma gondii" and "Plasmodium" spp. can cause disease directly, but other organisms can cause disease by the toxins that they produce. Although organisms such as bacteria function as parasites, the usage of the term "parasitic disease" is usually more restricted.
Parasitic disease
5455766
Protein–protein interaction Protein–protein interactions (PPIs) are the physical contacts of high specificity established between two or more protein molecules as a result of biochemical events steered by electrostatic forces including the hydrophobic effect. Many are physical contacts with molecular associations between chains that occur in a cell or in a living organism in a specific biomolecular context. Proteins rarely act alone as their functions tend to be regulated. Many molecular processes within a cell are carried out by molecular machines that are built from a large number of protein components organized by their PPIs. These interactions make up the so-called
Protein–protein interaction
14406429
Hypercomplex analysis In mathematics, hypercomplex analysis is the extension of real analysis and complex analysis to the study of functions where the argument is a hypercomplex number. The first instance is functions of a quaternion variable, where the argument is a quaternion. A second instance involves functions of a motor variable where arguments are split-complex numbers. In mathematical physics, there are hypercomplex systems called Clifford algebras. The study of functions with arguments from a Clifford algebra is called Clifford analysis. A matrix may be considered a hypercomplex number. For example, study of functions of 2 × 2 real matrices shows
Hypercomplex analysis
7873893
Enantiostasis Enantiostasis is the ability of an open system, especially a living organism, to maintain and conserve its metabolic and physiological functions in response to variations in an unstable environment. Estuarine organisms typically undergo enantiostasis in order to survive with constantly changing salt concentrations. The Australian NSW Board of Studies defines the term in its Biology syllabus as "the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to variations in the environment". Enantiostasis is not a form of classical homeostasis, meaning "standing at a similar level," which focuses on maintenance of internal body conditions such as pH, oxygen levels, and
Enantiostasis
14505664
that is deceived. It can be used for such functions as deterring predators, drawing prey, to allow a parasite to deceive a host species, or to help assist in the reproduction of an organism. Aggressive mimicry through the use of chemicals is used among a wide variety of animals. It functions to either lure the deceived organism to the deceiver or it allows for the organism to accept the presence of a parasite. The chemical mimicry used by parasites allows for the deceived organism to accept the presence of the deceiver while they benefit from either taking up food supplies
Chemical mimicry
368124
storage and mechanical efficiency in rodents that exercise in warm environments. In this study, the tail was a focal point in measuring heat accumulation and modulation. On the other hand, the tail's ability to function as a proprioceptive sensor/modulator has also been investigated. As aforementioned, the tail demonstrates a high degree of muscularization and subsequent innervation that ostensibly collaborate in orienting the organism. Specifically, this is accomplished by coordinated flexion and extension of tail muscles to produce slight shifts in the organism's center of mass, orientation, etc., which ultimately assists it with achieving a state of proprioceptive balance in its
Rat
160002
Genetically modified organism A genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques (i.e., a genetically "engineered" organism). GMOs are used to produce many medications and genetically modified foods and are widely used in scientific research and the production of other goods. The term GMO is very close to the technical legal term, 'living modified organism', defined in the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, which regulates international trade in living GMOs (specifically, "any living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology"). A more specifically
Genetically modified organism
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study the history and prehistory of competition in various cultures. They also investigate how competition manifested itself in various cultural settings in the past, and how competition has developed over time. Many philosophers and psychologists have identified a trait in most living organisms which can drive the particular organism to compete. This trait, called competitiveness, is viewed as an innate biological trait which coexists along with the urge for survival. Competitiveness, or the inclination to compete, though, has become synonymous with aggressiveness and ambition in the English language. More advanced civilizations integrate aggressiveness and competitiveness into their interactions, as a
Competition
14993879
titled "Function, role and disposition in basic formal ontology" published in "Nature Precedings" has been cited more than 100 times, according to Google Scholar. Besides his work in functions and teleology, Arp has attempted a definition of life, arguing that the "components and attending processes of an organism must be considered as living, emergent phenomena because of the way in which the components are organized to maintain homeostasis of the organism at the various levels in the organismic hierarchy." He calls this position the homeostatic organization view of biological phenomena. With Alexander Rosenberg, Arp has edited "Philosophy of Biology: An
Robert Arp
2289957
same time, befitting the central idea of the science and medicine of dynamic polarity, it was also the physiological functional identity of what theorists of society or mind called "aspiration." "Blumenbach's Bildungstrieb found quick passage into evolutionary theorizing of the decade following its formulation and in the thinking of the German natural philosophers (p. 245) One of Blumenbach's contemporaries, Samuel Hahnemann, undertook to study in detail how this generative, reproductive and creative power, which he termed the "Erzeugungskraft" of the "Lebenskraft" of living power of the organism, could be negatively affected by inimical agents to engender disease. Kant is said
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
9771585
Pharmacokinetics Pharmacokinetics (from Ancient Greek "pharmakon" "drug" and "kinetikos" "moving, putting in motion"; see chemical kinetics), sometimes abbreviated as PK, is a branch of pharmacology dedicated to determining the fate of substances administered to a living organism. The substances of interest include any chemical xenobiotic such as: pharmaceutical drugs, pesticides, food additives, cosmetics, etc. It attempts to analyze chemical metabolism and to discover the fate of a chemical from the moment that it is administered up to the point at which it is completely eliminated from the body. Pharmacokinetics is the study of how an organism affects a drug, whereas
Pharmacokinetics
413749
the whole animal) or "in vitro" (testing on isolated cells or tissues), or "in silico" (in a computer simulation). The classic experimental tool of toxicology is testing on non-human animals. An example of a model organism is "Galleria mellonella," which can replace small mammals to study toxicology in vivo. As of 2014, such animal testing provides information that is not available by other means about how substances function in a living organism. The use of non-human animals for toxicology testing is opposed by some organisations for reasons of animal welfare, and it has been restricted or banned under some circumstances
Toxicology
9590517
codes, would provide a unified context for them, was proposed in 2011. However, the International Botanical Congress of 2011 declined to consider the BioCode proposal. The ICVCN remains outside the BioCode, which does not include viral classification. Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms, the interaction between them and their environment. An organism shares an environment that includes other organisms and biotic factors as well as local abiotic factors (non-living) such as climate and ecology. One reason that biological systems can be difficult to study is that so many different interactions with other organisms and
Biology
12108852
expressions such as smiling or frowning. Both "in vitro" (outside a living organism) and "in vivo" (using a living organism) tests have been carried out, but no double-blind anti-wrinkle studies are available. In a 2012 double-blind, placebo-controlled trial investigating treatment of blepharospasm (abnormal contraction or twitch of the eyelid), botulinum toxin injections with subsequent acetyl hexapeptide-3 treatment were compared to botulinum toxin injections with placebo cream treatment. Of the 12 patients in the acetyl hexapeptide-3 group, four experienced an extension of symptom control by 3.3 to 7.1 months. The 2012 study concluded there were no significant adverse effects. Patients receiving
Acetyl hexapeptide-3
14406431
the extension of holomorphic functions of a complex variable is developed as the holomorphic functional calculus. Hypercomplex analysis on Banach algebras is called functional analysis. Hypercomplex analysis In mathematics, hypercomplex analysis is the extension of real analysis and complex analysis to the study of functions where the argument is a hypercomplex number. The first instance is functions of a quaternion variable, where the argument is a quaternion. A second instance involves functions of a motor variable where arguments are split-complex numbers. In mathematical physics, there are hypercomplex systems called Clifford algebras. The study of functions with arguments from a Clifford
Hypercomplex analysis
20854811
Holding Group. Luckett and his work at theAudience were featured in the 2014 PBS "Frontline" report, "Generation Like." In 2015, Luckett co-founded the Reykjavík-based marketing startup EFNI with Icelandic politician and entrepreneur Heiða Kristín Helgadóttir. EFNI has launched the Icelandic companies Niceland Seafood, HausMart, and Reykjavik Greens. Along with Michael J. Casey, Luckett co-wrote the 2016 Hachette book "The Social Organism: A Radical Understanding of Social Media to Transform Your Business and Life". The authors argue that social media functions on every level like a living organism. "Kirkus Reviews" described the book as "a manifesto of sorts, proclaiming that the
Oliver Luckett
11344420
interaction and change in the surface of the host. This has been found to be especially important to marine organisms and aquatic ecosystems as surface qualities do impact necessary ecological functions such as drag, radiation absorption, nutrient uptake, etc. Examples of common epibionts are barnacles, remoras, and algae, many of which live on the surfaces of larger marine organisms such as whales, sharks, sea turtles, and mangrove trees. The host of the epibiont is typically referred to as the basibiont ("living underneath"). Epibiont An epibiont (from the Ancient Greek meaning "living on top of") is an organism that lives on
Epibiont
101425
Death Death is the cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. Phenomena which commonly bring about death include aging, predation, malnutrition, disease, suicide, homicide, starvation, dehydration, and accidents or major trauma resulting in terminal injury. In most cases, bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death. Death – particularly the death of humans – has commonly been considered a sad or unpleasant occasion, due to the affection for the being that has died and the termination of social and familial bonds with the deceased. Other concerns include fear of death, necrophobia, anxiety, sorrow, grief, emotional
Death
2746864
of empirical evidence (that is, numerous specimens), and deductions drawn from facts—in opposition to the so-called "European school" of the time, which depended on personal authority. Harris calls Robert Ridgway and his "Birds of North and Middle America" the culmination of the "Bairdian school" of bird study. However, as ornithology around the turn of the twentieth century began to focus on bird behavior, reproduction strategies, and other aspects of the living organism, Ridgway fell behind the advances made by his colleagues of the succeeding generations. Paradoxically, because the overwhelming "Bulletin 50" was so authoritative, no new publication could replace it
Robert Ridgway
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in the study of these three areas, with a research platform employing advanced technologies: The Institute of Cognitive Studies (IEC) is a transdisciplinary center for research and advanced courses in Cognitive Sciences. It develops the study of superior mental functions such as perception, memory, thinking, language, and action. It also offers a unique program of Cognitive Science advanced courses of Master's and Doctorate level as well as intensive classes of cognitive engineering for industrial and professional partners. The IEC is coordinated by the Department of Cognitive Studies of the Ecole normale supérieure. It involves French Institute of Health and Medical
PSL Research University
243960
are formed clonally or from a single germ cell that is capable of forming the various specialized cells that form the adult organism. This specialization allows multicellular organisms to exploit resources more efficiently than single cells. In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule, called GK-PID, may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells. Cells have evolved methods to perceive and respond to their microenvironment, thereby enhancing their adaptability. Cell signaling coordinates cellular activities, and hence governs the basic functions of
Life
13217862
movement, an individual cilium deforms using a high-friction power stroke followed by a low-friction recovery stroke. Since there are multiple cilia packed together on an individual organism, they display collective behavior in a metachronal rhythm. This means the deformation of one cilium is in phase with the deformation of its neighbor, causing deformation waves that propagate along the surface of the organism. These propagating waves of cilia are what allow the organism to use the cilia in a coordinated manner to move. A typical example of a ciliated microorganism is the "Paramecium", a one-celled, ciliated protozoan covered by thousands of
Aquatic locomotion
8782596
of the language textbooks of Heinrich Gottfried Ollendorff. Regarding his important work on the Latin, Adler writes in the preface to the textbook: "The preparation of a text-book for the study of the Latin, similar to that edited by me, some twelve years ago, on the German, has since that time been repeatedly suggested to me … Years however elapsed before I could even think of entering on such a task, … partly because I felt, in common with many others, some hesitation to undertake the somewhat delicate part of treating a so-called dead language like a living organism …
George J. Adler
18832875
in which the sample is analyzed and uses previously studied DNA libraries to determine what organisms are present (e.g. BLAST). The analysis of eDNA has great potential, not only for monitoring common species, but to genetically detect and identify other extant species that could influence conservation efforts. This method allows for biomonitoring without requiring collection of the living organism, creating the ability to study organisms that are invasive, elusive, or endangered without introducing anthropogenic stress on the organism. Access to this genetic information makes a critical contribution to the understanding of population size, species distribution, and population dynamics for species
Environmental DNA
2687507
atypical pneumonia (also called "walking pneumonia") was not a virus as previously believed. He was the first to cultivate the causative organism called a mycoplasma, the smallest free-living organism, which Hayflick isolated on a unique culture medium that bears his name. He named the organism "Mycoplasma pneumoniae". In 1959, Hayflick developed the first inverted microscope for use in cell culture research. To this day, all inverted microscopes used in cell culture laboratories worldwide are descended from this prototype. His microscope was accessioned by the Smithsonian Institution in 2009. Hayflick developed the first practical method for producing powdered cell culture media
Leonard Hayflick
12500858
mice has less Bacteroidetes than Firmicutes and is thought to be more efficient at extracting energy from food. Organisms evolve within eco-systems so that the change of one organism affects the change of others. Co-evolution (also called "hologenome theory") proposes that an object of natural selection is not the individual organism, but the organism together with its associated organisms, including its microbial communities. Coral reefs. The hologenome theory originated in studies on coral reefs. Coral reefs are the largest structures created by living organisms, and contain abundant and highly complex microbial communities. Over the past several decades, major declines in
Microbiota
3064230
was at the origin of a large body of research in 20th-century mathematics under the name of "bounded analytic functions". See also the Wikipedia article on functions of bounded type. A number of fundamental results on the analytic continuation of a Taylor series belong to Fatou. In 1917–1920 Fatou created the area of mathematics which is called holomorphic dynamics . It deals with a global study of iteration of analytic functions. He was the first to introduce and study the set which is called now the Julia set. (The complement of this set is sometimes called the Fatou set). Some
Pierre Fatou
13629726
the following equalities For the function "f"("x") = "axb", the derivative is and so the components are: Similarly, for the function "f"("x") = "x^2", the derivative is and the components are: Finally, for the function "f"("x") = "x", the derivative is and the components are: Quaternionic analysis In mathematics, quaternionic analysis is the study of functions with quaternions as the domain and/or range. Such functions can be called functions of a quaternion variable just as functions of a real variable or a complex variable are called. As with complex and real analysis, it is possible to study the concepts of
Quaternionic analysis
13629717
Quaternionic analysis In mathematics, quaternionic analysis is the study of functions with quaternions as the domain and/or range. Such functions can be called functions of a quaternion variable just as functions of a real variable or a complex variable are called. As with complex and real analysis, it is possible to study the concepts of analyticity, holomorphy, harmonicity and conformality in the context of quaternions. Unlike the complex numbers and like the reals, the four notions do not coincide. The projections of a quaternion onto its scalar part or onto its vector part, as well as the modulus and versor
Quaternionic analysis
7087114
he started developing the KEGG PATHWAY database. It is a collection of manually drawn KEGG pathway maps representing experimental knowledge on metabolism and various other functions of the cell and the organism. Each pathway map contains a network of molecular interactions and reactions and is designed to link genes in the genome to gene products (mostly proteins) in the pathway. This has enabled the analysis called KEGG pathway mapping, whereby the gene content in the genome is compared with the KEGG PATHWAY database to examine which pathways and associated functions are likely to be encoded in the genome. According to
KEGG
126727
Endosymbiont An endosymbiont or endobiont is any organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism in a mutualistic (formerly called symbiotic) relationship with the host body or cell, often but not always to mutual benefit. The term endosymbiosis is from the Greek: ἔνδον "endon" "within", σύν "syn" "together" and βίωσις "biosis" "living"). Examples are nitrogen-fixing bacteria (called rhizobia), which live in root nodules on legume roots, single-cell algae inside reef-building corals, and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10–15% of insects. Many instances of endosymbiosis are obligate; that is, either the endosymbiont or the host
Endosymbiont
243912
living Earth was forgotten in the intense reductionism of the 19th century. The Gaia hypothesis, proposed in the 1960s by scientist James Lovelock, suggests that life on Earth functions as a single organism that defines and maintains environmental conditions necessary for its survival. This hypothesis served as one of the foundations of the modern Earth system science. The first attempt at a general living systems theory for explaining the nature of life was in 1978, by American biologist James Grier Miller. Robert Rosen (1991) built on this by defining a system component as "a unit of organization; a part with
Life
19708697
Deputies, representing Romanians from Bucharest. Currently, he is the leader of the Parliamentary Group of the People Movement Party from the Chamber of Deputies. Eugen Tomac coordinated the “Focus on Romanians” study, a report on the situation of Romanians living abroad and revealing major aspects of discrimination. The main chapters addressed in this first public report published in Romania after 1989 present the current situation of the education and mass-media in Romanian language in these communities (February 2005). Tomac also coordinated the Romanian near us, LEX collection “Romanian communities – rights and universal norms,” a legal guide that includes universal
Eugen Tomac
1977936
Unicellular organism A unicellular organism, also known as a single-celled organism, is an organism that consists of only one cell, unlike a multicellular organism that consists of more than one cell. Unicellular organisms fall into two general categories: prokaryotic organisms and eukaryotic organisms. Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea. Many eukaryotes are multicellular, but the group includes the protozoa, unicellular algae, and unicellular fungi. Unicellular organisms are thought to be the oldest form of life, with early protocells possibly emerging 3.8–4 billion years ago. Although some prokaryotes live in colonies, they are not specialised into cells with differing functions. These organisms
Unicellular organism
1402747
Colony (biology) In biology, a colony is composed of two or more conspecific individuals living in close association with, or connected to, one another. This association is usually for mutual benefit such as stronger defense or the ability to attack bigger prey. It is a cluster of identical cells (clones) on the surface of (or within) a solid medium, usually derived from a single parent cell, as in bacterial colony. In contrast, a solitary organism is one in which all individuals live independently and have all of the functions needed to survive and reproduce. Colonies, in the context of development,
Colony (biology)
269792
In 2006, the team at the J. Craig Venter Institute reported that only 382 genes are essential for biological functions. The small genome of "M. genitalium" made it the organism of choice in The Minimal Genome Project, a study to find the smallest set of genetic material necessary to sustain life. There is a consistent association of "M. genitalium" infection and female reproductive tract syndromes. "M. genitalium" infection was significantly associated with increased risk of preterm birth, spontaneous abortion, cervicitis, and pelvic inflammatory disease. Infertility risk is also strongly associated with infection with "M. genitalium", although evidence suggests it is
Mycoplasma genitalium
1718451
their job due to the ability of "Neisseria" to invade and replicate within neutrophils, as well avoiding phagocytosis and being killed by complement by resisting opsonization by antibodies, which target the pathogen for destruction. "Neisseria" species are also able to alter their antigens to avoid being engulfed by a process called antigenic variation, which is observed primarily in surface-located molecules. The pathogenic species along with some commensal species, have type IV pili which serve multiple functions for this organism. Some functions of the type IV pili include: mediating attachment to various cells and tissues, twitching motility, natural competence, microcolony formation,
Neisseria
101470
Noble Truths and dependent origination. Death is seen in Judaism as tragic and intimidating. Persons who come into contact with corpses are ritually impure. There are a variety of beliefs about the afterlife within Judaism, but none of them contradict the preference of life over death. This is partially because death puts a cessation to the possibility of fulfilling any commandments. Bibliography Death Death is the cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. Phenomena which commonly bring about death include aging, predation, malnutrition, disease, suicide, homicide, starvation, dehydration, and accidents or major trauma resulting in terminal injury.
Death
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moment of sensory perception. During his American Psychological Association presidential address, Angell laid out three major ideas regarding functionalism. The first of his ideas being that functional psychology is focused on mental operations and their relationship with biology and these mental operations were a way of dealing with the conditions of the environment. Second, mental operations contribute to the relationship between an organism's needs and the environment in which is lives. Its mental functions aid in the survival of the organism in unfamiliar situations. Lastly, functionalism does not abide by the rules of dualism because it is the study of
Functional psychology
18703407
of cells that can perform different functions. Sponges are a good model for studying the origin of multicellularity because the cells are capable of communicating with one another and re-aggregating. In an experiment conducted by Henry Van Peters Wilson in 1910, it was found that cells from dissociated sponges could send out signals and recognize each other to form a new individual. This suggests that the cells that compose sponges are capable of independent living, however once multicellularity was possible then aggregating together to form one organism was a more efficient way of living. The most notable cell types of
Precambrian body plans
746720
the University of California, Berkeley, studying art history, and living with her fiancé, Steven Weed. On February 4, 1974, 19-year-old Hearst was kidnapped from her Berkeley, California, apartment. She was beaten and lost consciousness during the abduction. Shots were fired from a machine gun during the incident. An urban guerrilla group called the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA) claimed responsibility for the abduction. The SLA was formed through contacts made by a study group, coordinated by a University of California, Berkeley professor. Its purpose was the tutelage of black inmates, and over time the ethos became increasingly radicalized. Eventually, black convicts
Patty Hearst
1862786
which consisted of applying aerial photograph interpretation to studies of interactions between environment and vegetation. Heterogeneity is the measure of how parts of a landscape differ from one another. Landscape ecology looks at how this spatial structure affects organism abundance at the landscape level, as well as the behavior and functioning of the landscape as a whole. This includes studying the influence of pattern, or the internal order of a landscape, on process, or the continuous operation of functions of organisms. Landscape ecology also includes geomorphology as applied to the design and architecture of landscapes. Geomorphology is the study of
Landscape ecology
13761478
Neurogenomics Neurogenomics is the study of how the genome of an organism influences the development and function of its nervous system. This field intends to unite functional genomics and neurobiology in order to understand the nervous system as a whole from a genomic perspective. The nervous system in vertebrates is made up of two major types of cells – neuroglial cells and neurons. Hundreds of different types of neurons exist in humans, with varying functions – some of them process external stimuli; others generate a response to stimuli; others organize in centralized structures (brain, spinal ganglia) that are responsible for
Neurogenomics
18693254
cell type living organism. Magnesium in anaerobic prokaryotes can be found in MgATP. Magnesium also has many functions in prokaryotes such as glycolysis, all kinases, NTP reaction, signalling, DNA/RNA structures and light capture. In aerobic eukaryotes, magnesium can be found in cytoplasm and chloroplasts. The reactions in these cell compartments are glycolysis, photophosphorylation and carbon assimilation. ATP, the main source of energy in almost all living organisms, must bind with metal ions such as Mg or Ca to function. Examination of cells with limited magnesium supply has shown that a lack of magnesium can cause a decrease in ATP. Magnesium
Evolution of metal ions in biological systems
2202250
gene of interest in the same DNA construct to be inserted into the cell or organism. For bacteria or prokaryotic cells in culture, this is usually in the form of a circular DNA molecule called a plasmid. It is important to use a reporter gene that is not natively expressed in the cell or organism under study, since the expression of the reporter is being used as a marker for successful uptake of the gene of interest. Commonly used reporter genes that induce visually identifiable characteristics usually involve fluorescent and luminescent proteins. Examples include the gene that encodes jellyfish green
Reporter gene
11296626
Edward Kravitz Edward Arthur Kravitz (born December 19, 1932) is the George Packer Berry Professor of Neurobiology at Harvard Medical School. He is widely recognized for demonstrating that gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) functions as a neurotransmitter. In addition, he and Antony Stretton were the first to use the intracellular dye procion yellow to visualize neuronal architecture. Later, Kravitz’s work with neuroamines demonstrated that serotonin and octopamine act as synaptic modulators. Kravitz continued to explore the function of amines using "Homarus americanus", the American lobster, as a model organism to study aggression. He currently works on aggressive behavior using the genetically manipulable
Edward Kravitz
18670783
Metatranscriptomics Metatranscriptomics is the science that studies gene expression of microbes within natural environments. It also allows to obtain whole gene expression profiling of complex microbial communities. While metagenomics focuses on studying the genomic content and on identifying which microbes are present within a community, metatranscriptomics can be used to study the diversity of the active genes within such community, to quantify their expression levels and to monitor how these levels change in different conditions (e.g., physiological vs. pathological conditions in an organism). The advantage of metatranscriptomics is that it can provide information about differences in the active functions of
Metatranscriptomics
20665248
so the sequences may be incorrect. These online programs are used to predict the functions of proteins by comparison of the amino acid or nucleotide sequences of all genomes sequenced, not just that of phages. HHPred detects homology in the sequences with other proteins that have had their functions called in any organism. Also, if the protein has been identified in another sequence, the computer-generated structure might be provided to visualize the possible folding of the amino acids. SEA-PHAGES SEA-PHAGES stands for Science Education Alliance-Phages Hunters Advancing Genomics and Evolutionary Science; it was formerly called the National Genomics Research Initiative.
SEA-PHAGES
2340484
Thermoregulation Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different. A thermoconforming organism, by contrast, simply adopts the surrounding temperature as its own body temperature, thus avoiding the need for internal thermoregulation. The internal thermoregulation process is one aspect of homeostasis: a state of dynamic stability in an organism's internal conditions, maintained far from thermal equilibrium with its environment (the study of such processes in zoology has been called physiological ecology). If the body is unable to maintain a normal temperature and it increases significantly above
Thermoregulation
7819228
language. Emotions have been described as discrete and consistent responses to internal or external events which have a particular significance for the organism. Emotions are brief in duration and consist of a coordinated set of responses, which may include physiological, behavioural, and neural mechanisms. Emotions have also been described as the result of evolution because they provided good solutions to ancient and recurring problems that faced ancestors. It has been proposed that negative, withdrawal-associated emotions are processed predominantly by the right hemisphere, whereas the left hemisphere is largely responsible for processing positive, approach-related emotions. This has been called the "laterality-valence
Emotion in animals
16654050
functions and sensations, as well as signs). For Goethe the turbid medium is the atmosphere (airy realm), for Hahnemann it is the living organism (fluid or etheric realm). Goethe's interplay of "Licht" and "Finsternis" can also be seen in Hahnemann's polarity between "Geist" (Spirit) and "Wesen" (Dynamis). The objections that Goethe leveled against the taxonomy of Linnaeus in botany can be found in the medical sphere in Hahnemann's criticism of the blindly empirical or abstractly intellectual nosology of his time that took a few outer elements, arbitrarily conflated them, then confounded similarity of appearance here with identity of cause and
Romantic medicine
154114
Fourier analysis In mathematics, Fourier analysis () is the study of the way general functions may be represented or approximated by sums of simpler trigonometric functions. Fourier analysis grew from the study of Fourier series, and is named after Joseph Fourier, who showed that representing a function as a sum of trigonometric functions greatly simplifies the study of heat transfer. Today, the subject of Fourier analysis encompasses a vast spectrum of mathematics. In the sciences and engineering, the process of decomposing a function into oscillatory components is often called Fourier analysis, while the operation of rebuilding the function from these
Fourier analysis
157125
flow smoothly through blood vessels, having a tendency to clog or degrade, causing the medical problems associated with this disease. Some DNA sequences are transcribed into RNA but are not translated into protein products—such RNA molecules are called non-coding RNA. In some cases, these products fold into structures which are involved in critical cell functions (e.g. ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA). RNA can also have regulatory effects through hybridization interactions with other RNA molecules (e.g. microRNA). Although genes contain all the information an organism uses to function, the environment plays an important role in determining the ultimate phenotypes an organism
Genetics
9414828
study between modern representatives of the two lines can give an insight into the evolution of the mechanisms behind the complexity of modern plants. In this context, "P. patens" is used as a model organism. "P. patens" is one of a few known multicellular organisms with highly efficient homologous recombination. meaning that an exogenous DNA sequence can be targeted to a specific genomic position (a technique called gene targeting) to create knockout mosses. This approach is called reverse genetics and it is a powerful and sensitive tool to study the function of genes and, when combined with studies in higher
Physcomitrella patens
20170490
Transcriptomics technologies Transcriptomics technologies are the techniques used to study an organism’s transcriptome, the sum of all of its RNA transcripts. The information content of an organism is recorded in the DNA of its genome and expressed through transcription. Here, mRNA serves as a transient intermediary molecule in the information network, whilst non-coding RNAs perform additional diverse functions. A transcriptome captures a snapshot in time of the total transcripts present in a cell. Transcriptomics technologies provide a broad account of which cellular processes are active and which are dormant. A major challenge in molecular biology lies in understanding how the
Transcriptomics technologies
14982286
Pelagic habitats are the habitats of the open water column, away from the bottom of the ocean. Demersal habitats are the habitats that are near or on the bottom of the ocean. An organism living in a pelagic habitat is said to be a pelagic organism, as in pelagic fish. Similarly, an organism living in a demersal habitat is said to be a demersal organism, as in demersal fish. Pelagic habitats are intrinsically ephemeral, depending on what ocean currents are doing. The land-based ecosystem depends on topsoil and fresh water, while the marine ecosystem depends on dissolved nutrients washed down
Marine habitats
8259927
"official" language of the United States, social conflict theorists theorize, is a perpetuated struggle that American society will continue to encounter as immigration continues. Moreover, the "native vs. immigrant" competition for jobs and social mobility in an increasingly diverse and specialized labor market will, social conflict theorists argue, continue as immigration continues. Structural functionalism is a sociological perspective "claiming that every society has certain structures that exist to fulfill some set of necessary functions". Drawing on the ideas of sociologist Émile Durkheim, society through this sociological lens is thought of as a living organism—similar to the nineteenth-century theory of "organicism".
Sociology of immigration
16002070
list of works on evolution, the change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations. This section contains a list of works on genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms. This section contains a list of publications on microbiology. Microbiology is the study of "microorganisms", which are defined as any microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell (unicellular), cell clusters or no cell at all (acellular). This section contains a list of works on molecular biology, the study of the molecular basis of biological activity. This section contains a list of works on
Bibliography of biology
9366265
In addition to inhibiting "A. flavus", the yeast may also help protect other agricultural crops from unwanted molds that affect the crop’s taste, texture, yield, and safety. In smeared-surface ripened cheese, the most important species is "P. membranifaciens" that also occurs on cream cheese. The formation of a so-called pellicle is typical. Another member of the genus, "P. pastoris", is widely used in molecular biology and biotechnology as an expression system. "P. angusta" furthermore called "Hansenula polymorpha", is a model organism for studying the functions of peroxisomes and their underlying molecular biology. Some "Pichia" species (e.g. "P. ohmeri") have recently
Pichia
563522
objective of the Protocol is to contribute to ensuring an adequate level of protection in the field of the safe transfer, handling and use of 'living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology' that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health, and specifically focusing on transboundary movements (Article 1 of the Protocol, SCBD 2000). The protocol defines a 'living modified organism' as any living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology, and 'living organism' means any biological entity
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
2005539
new cognitive "learning" skill. Some examine this concept and do not necessarily ascribe it simply to a willful acquisition of a new learned skill but also extend the dynamics into the realms of a behavioristic conditioning (7). Behaviorism contends that it is possible to change the actions and functions of an organism by exposing it to a number of conditions or influences. Key to the concept is not only that the functions are unconscious but that conditioning processes themselves may be unconscious to the organism. Information coded biofeedback relies primarily on the behavior conditioning aspect of biofeedback in promoting significant
Biofeedback
13183429
of larvae on necrotic tissue of a living organism. "C. livida" has been reported to cause myiasis, but it is not common for this species. "C. livida" can, however, be a vector for bacterial diseases and cause human illnesses. In 1950, a study was conducted in Savannah, Georgia on use of insecticides to control fly breeding in garbage cans. According to the study, BHC, or lindane, showed the best results for controlling the breeding of "Calliphora livida". Other materials that were used in the testing were dieldrin and chlordane, where the latter was shown to be the least effective. When
Calliphora livida