Human skeleton
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"Bone structure" and "skeletal system" redirect here. For skeletal systems of other animals, see Skeleton. For for the scientific study of bones, see Osteology.
Human skeleton
Diagram of the human skeleton
Details
Identifiers
Greek
σκελετός
TA
A02.0.00.000
FMA
23881
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The human skeleton is the internal framework of the body. It is composed of about 300 bones at birth – this total decreases to around 206 bones by adulthood after some bones get fused together.[1] The bone mass in the skeleton reaches maximum density around age 21. The human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is formed by the vertebral column, the rib cage, the skull and other associated bones. The appendicular skeleton, which is attached to the axial skeleton, is formed by the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle and the bones of the upper and lower limbs.
The human skeleton performs six major functions; support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals, and endocrine regulation.
The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelvis exist. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population. The human female pelvis is also different from that of males in order to facilitate childbirth.[2] Unlike most primates, human males do not have penile bones.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Skeletal Divisions
1.1 Axial skeleton
1.2 Appendicular skeleton
2 Functions
2.1 Support
2.2 Movement
2.3 Protection
2.4 Blood cell production
2.5 Storage
2.6 Endocrine regulation
3 Sex differences
3.1 Skull
3.2 Dentition
3.3 Long bones
3.4 Pelvis
4 Clinical significance
4.1 Arthritis
4.2 Osteoporosis
5 History
5.1 The Renaissance
6 See also
7 References
Skeletal Divisions[edit]
Axial skeleton[edit]
Main article: Axial skeleton
The axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the vertebral column (32–34 bones; the number of the vertebrae differs from human to human as the lower 2 parts, sacral and coccygeal bone may vary in length), a part of the rib cage (12 pairs of ribs and the sternum), and the skull (22 bones and 7 associated bones).
The upright posture of humans is maintained by the axial skeleton, which transmits the weight from the head, the trunk, and the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints. The bones of the spine are supported by many ligaments. The erector spinae muscles are also supporting and are useful for balance.
Appendicular skeleton[edit]
Main article: Appendicular skeleton
The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle or pelvis, and the lower limbs. Their functions are to make locomotion possible and to protect the major organs of digestion, excretion and reproduction.
Functions[edit]
A human skeleton on exhibit at the Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
The skeleton serves six major functions: support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.
Support[edit]
The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the lungs would collapse.
Movement[edit]
The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.
It is believed that the reduction of human bone density in prehistoric times reduced the agility and dexterity of human movement. Shifting from hunting to agriculture has caused human bone density to reduce significantly.[4][5][6]
Protection[edit]
The skeleton helps to protect our many vital internal organs from being damaged.
The skull protects the brain
The vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels.
Blood cell production[edit]
The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the development of blood cells that takes place in the bone marrow. In children, haematopoiesis occurs primarily in the marrow of the long bones such as the femur and tibia. In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum.[7]
Storage[edit]
The bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism. However, bones are not entirely made of calcium, but a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of a bone. Hydroxyapatite is in turn composed of 39.8% of calcium, 41.4% of oxygen, 18.5% of phosphorus, and 0.2% of hydrogen by mass. Chondroitin sulfate is a sugar made up primarily of oxygen and carbon.
Endocrine regulation[edit]
Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat.[8]
Sex differences[edit]
During construction of the York to Scarborough Railway Bridge in 1901, workmen discovered a large stone coffin, close to the River Ouse. Inside was a skeleton, accompanied by an array of unusual and expensive objects. This chance find represents one of the most significant discoveries ever made from Roman York. Study of the skeleton has revealed that it belonged to a woman.
Anatomical differences between human males and females are highly pronounced in some soft tissue areas, but tend to be limited in the skeleton. The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelvis are exhibited across human populations. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population.
Skull[edit]
A variety of gross morphological traits of the human skull demonstrate sexual dimorphism, such as the median nuchal line, mastoid processes, supraorbital margin, supraorbital ridge, and the chin.[9]
Dentition[edit]
Human inter-sex dental dimorphism centers on the canine teeth, but it is not nearly as pronounced as in the other great apes.
Long bones[edit]
Long bones are generally larger in males than in females within a given population. Muscle attachment sites on long bones are often more robust in males than in females, reflecting a difference in overall muscle mass and development between sexes. Sexual dimorphism in the long bones is commonly characterized by morphometric or gross morphological analyses.
Pelvis[edit]
The human pelvis exhibits greater sexual dimorphism than other bones, specifically in the size and shape of the pelvic cavity, ilia, greater sciatic notches, and the sub-pubic angle. The Phenice method is commonly used to determine the sex of an unidentified human skeleton by anthropologists with 96% to 100% accuracy in some populations.[10]
Women's pelvises are wider in the pelvic inlet and are wider throughout the pelvis to allow for child birth. The sacrum in the women's pelvis is curved inwards to allow the child to have a "funnel" to assist in the child's pathway from the uterus to the birth canal.
Clinical significance[edit]
See also: Bone disease
There are many classified skeletal disorders. One of the most common is osteoporosis. Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a pronounced "C" or "S" shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine. This condition is most apparent during adolescence, and is most common with females.
Arthritis[edit]
Main article: Arthritis
Arthritis is a disorder of the joints. It involves inflammation of one or more joints. When affected by arthritis, the joint or joints affected may be painful to move, may move in unusual directions or may be immobile completely. The symptoms of arthritis will vary differently between types of arthritis. The most common form of arthritis: Osteoarthritis can affect both the larger and smaller joints of the human skeleton. The cartilage in the affected joints will degrade, soften and wear away. This decreases the mobility of the joints and decreases the space between bones where cartilage should be.
Osteoporosis[edit]
Main article: Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a disease of bone where there is reduced bone mineral density, increasing the likelihood of fractures.[11] Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass, relative to the age and sex-matched average, as measured by Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, with the term "established osteoporosis" including the presence of a fragility fracture.[12] Osteoporosis is most common in women after menopause, when it is called "postmenopausal osteoporosis", but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and medications, specifically glucocorticoids.[11] Osteoporosis usually has no symptoms until a fracture occurs.[11] For this reason, DEXA scans are often done in people with one or more risk factors, who have developed osteoporosis and be at risk of fracture.[11]
Osteoporosis treatment includes advice to stop smoking, decrease alcohol consumption, exercise regularly, and have a healthy diet. Calcium supplements may also be advised, as may Vitamin D. When medication is used, it may include bisphosphonates, Strontium ranelate, and osteoporosis may be one factor considered when commencing Hormone replacement therapy.[11]
History[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2014)
See also: Paleoanthropology
The study of human bones probably started in ancient Greece under Ptolemaic kings due to their link to Egypt. Herophilos, through his work by studying dissected human corpses in Alexandria is credited to be the pioneer of the field. His works are lost but are often cited by notable persons in the field such as Galen and Rufus of Ephesus. Galen himself did little dissection though and relied on the work of others like Marinus of Alexandria,[13] as well as his own observations of gladiator cadavers and animals.[14] According to Katherine Park, in medieval Europe dissection continued to be practiced, contrary to the popular understanding that such practices are taboo and thus completely banned.[15] The practice of holy autopsy, such as in the case of Clare of Montefalco further supports the claim.[16] Alexandria continued as a center of anatomy under Islamic rule, with Ibn Zuhr a notable figure. Chinese understandings are divergent, as the closest corresponding concept in the medicinal system seem to be the meridians, although given that Hua Tuo regularly performs surgery, there must be some distance between medical theory and actual understanding.
The Renaissance[edit]
Leonardo Da Vinci, among his many talents also contributed to the study of the skeleton, albeit unpublished in his time.[17] Many artists, Antonio Pollaiuolo being the first, performed dissections for better understanding of the body, although they concentrated mostly on the muscles.[18] Vesalius, regarded as the founder of modern anatomy authored the book De humani corporis fabrica, which contained many illustrations of the skeleton and other body parts, correcting some theories dating from Galen, such as the lower jaw being a single bone instead of two.[19] Various other figures like Alessandro Achillini also contributed to the further understanding of the skeleton.
See also[edit]
List of bones of the human skeleton
Distraction osteogenesis
References[edit]
‹ The template below (Library resources box) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. ›
Library resources about
Skeletal system
Resources in your library
Jump up ^ Mammal anatomy : an illustrated guide. New York: Marshall Cavendish. 2010. p. 129. ISBN 9780761478829.
Jump up ^ Thieme Atlas of Anatomy, (2006), p 113
Jump up ^ Patterns of Sexual Behavior Clellan S. Ford and Frank A. Beach, published by Harper & Row, New York in 1951. ISBN 0-313-22355-6
Jump up ^ "Switching Farming Made Human Bone Skeleton Joint Lighter". Smithsonian Magazine. 23 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Light human skeleton may have come after agriculture". Retrieved 4 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "With the Advent of Agriculture, Human Bones Dramatically Weakened". 22 December 2014. Retrieved 4 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Fernández, KS; de Alarcón, PA (Dec 2013). "Development of the hematopoietic system and disorders of hematopoiesis that present during infancy and early childhood.". Pediatric clinics of North America. 60 (6): 1273–89. PMID 24237971. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2013.08.002.
Jump up ^ Lee, Na Kyung; Sowa, Hideaki; Hinoi, Eiichi; Ferron, Mathieu; Ahn, Jong Deok; Confavreux, Cyrille; Dacquin, Romain; Mee, Patrick J.; McKee, Marc D.; Jung, Dae Young; Zhang, Zhiyou; Kim, Jason K.; Mauvais-Jarvis, Franck; Ducy, Patricia; Karsenty, Gerard (2007). "Endocrine Regulation of Energy Metabolism by the Skeleton". Cell. 130 (3): 456–69. PMC 2013746  . PMID 17693256. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2007.05.047.
Jump up ^ Buikstra, J.E.; D.H. Ubelaker (1994). Standards for data collection from human skeletal remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey. p. 208.
Jump up ^ Phenice, T. W. (1969). "A newly developed visual method of sexing the os pubis". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 30 (2): 297–301. PMID 5772048. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330300214.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Britton, the editors Nicki R. Colledge, Brian R. Walker, Stuart H. Ralston ; illustrated by Robert (2010). Davidson's principles and practice of medicine. (21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. pp. 1116–1121. ISBN 978-0-7020-3085-7.
Jump up ^ WHO (1994). "Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Report of a WHO Study Group". World Health Organization technical report series. 843: 1–129. PMID 7941614.
Jump up ^ Rocca, Julius (9 August 2010). "A Note on Marinus of Alexandria". Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 11 (3): 282–285. doi:10.1076/jhin.11.3.282.10386.
Jump up ^ Charlier, Philippe; Huynh-Charlier, Isabelle; Poupon, Joël; Lancelot, Eloïse; Campos, Paula F.; Favier, Dominique; Jeannel, Gaël-François; Bonati, Maurizio Rippa; Grandmaison, Geoffroy Lorin de la; Herve, Christian (2014). "Special report: Anatomical pathology A glimpse into the early origins of medieval anatomy through the oldest conserved human dissection (Western Europe, 13th c. A.D.)". Archives of Medical Science. 2: 366–373. doi:10.5114/aoms.2013.33331.
Jump up ^ "Debunking a myth". Harvard Gazette. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Hairston, Julia L.; Stephens, Walter (2010). The body in early modern Italy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801894145.
Jump up ^ Sooke, Alastair. "Leonardo da Vinci: Anatomy of an artist". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Bambach, Carmen. "Anatomy in the Renaissance". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.
Jump up ^ "Vesalius's Renaissance anatomy lessons". www.bl.uk. Retrieved 18 December 2016.
[show]
v
t
e
Bones in the human skeleton
Axial skeleton
Skull
Neurocranium
occipital
parietal
frontal
temporal
sphenoid
ethmoid
Face
nasal
maxilla
lacrimal
zygomatic
palatine
inferior nasal conchae
vomer
mandible
hyoid
Ear
ossicles
malleus
incus
stapes
Thorax
sternum
rib cage
rib
Vertebral column
vertebrae
cervical
thoracic
lumbar
sacrum
coccyx
Appendicular
Shoulder
clavicle
scapula
Arm
humerus
ulna
radius
Hand
carpals (scaphoid, lunate bone, triquetral, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate)
metacarpals
phalanges (prox, int, dist)
Pelvis
ilium
ischium
pubis
Leg
femur
patella
fibula
tibia
Foot
tarsals
heelbone
anklebone
navicular
cuneiform
cuboid
metatarsals
phalanges
proximal
intermediate
distal
[show]
v
t
e
Human systems and organs
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General anatomy: systems and organs, regional anatomy, planes and lines, superficial axial anatomy, superficial anatomy of limbs
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/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Human_skeleton List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j] j
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/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Human_skeleton&id=807073927 Information on how to cite this page
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https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menslike_skelet Menslike skelet – Afrikaans af af interlanguage-link-target
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https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A5%E1%88%AD%E1%8B%93%E1%89%B0_%E1%8A%A0%E1%8D%85%E1%88%9D ሥርዓተ አፅም – Amharic am am interlanguage-link-target
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https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2 মানুহৰ কংকাল – Assamese as as interlanguage-link-target
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https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A2ng_%C3%AA_kut_h%C4%93-th%C3%B3ng Lâng ê kut hē-thóng – Chinese (Min Nan) zh-min-nan zh-min-nan interlanguage-link-target
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https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esquelet_hum%C3%A0 Esquelet humà – Catalan ca ca interlanguage-link-target
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https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%86%DE%A6%DE%81%DE%A8%DE%8C%DE%A6%DE%86%DE%AA%DE%8E%DE%AC_%DE%82%DE%A8%DE%92%DE%A7%DE%89%DE%B0 ކަށިތަކުގެ ނިޒާމް – Divehi dv dv interlanguage-link-target
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https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CF%8E%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%82 Ανθρώπινος σκελετός – Greek el el interlanguage-link-target
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https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esqueleto_humano Esqueleto humano – Spanish es es interlanguage-link-target
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https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homa_skeleto Homa skeleto – Esperanto eo eo interlanguage-link-target
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https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86 استخوان‌بندی انسان – Persian fa fa interlanguage-link-target
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https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squelette_humain Squelette humain – French fr fr interlanguage-link-target
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https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cn%C3%A1mharlach_daonna Cnámharlach daonna – Irish ga ga interlanguage-link-target
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https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EC%B2%B4%EA%B3%A8%EA%B2%A9 인체골격 – Korean ko ko interlanguage-link-target
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https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ljudski_kostur Ljudski kostur – Croatian hr hr interlanguage-link-target
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https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homala_skeleto Homala skeleto – Ido io io interlanguage-link-target
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https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerangka_manusia Kerangka manusia – Indonesian id id interlanguage-link-target
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https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeleto_human Skeleto human – Interlingua ia ia interlanguage-link-target
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https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%B5_%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%B0 ಮಾನವ ಅಸ್ಥಿಪಂಜರ – Kannada kn kn interlanguage-link-target
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https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D3%A9%D3%A9%D0%BA_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B Сөөк системасы – Kyrgyz ky ky interlanguage-link-target
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https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilv%C4%93ka_skelets Cilvēka skelets – Latvian lv lv interlanguage-link-target
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https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B0%E1%81%8F_%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8%E1%80%96%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B2%E1%80%B7%E1%80%85%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B6 လူ၏ အရိုးဖွဲ့စည်းပုံ – Burmese my my interlanguage-link-target
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https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menselijk_skelet Menselijk skelet – Dutch nl nl interlanguage-link-target
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https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82 मनुया कवं – Newari new new interlanguage-link-target
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https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%92%E3%83%88%E3%81%AE%E9%AA%A8%E6%A0%BC ヒトの骨格 – Japanese ja ja interlanguage-link-target
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https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%82%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%86%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%B9%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F គ្រោងឆ្អឹងមនុស្ស – Khmer km km interlanguage-link-target
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https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uk%C5%82ad_kostny_cz%C5%82owieka Układ kostny człowieka – Polish pl pl interlanguage-link-target
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https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esqueleto_humano Esqueleto humano – Portuguese pt pt interlanguage-link-target
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https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runa_saqru Runa saqru – Quechua qu qu interlanguage-link-target
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https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82_%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0 Скелет человека – Russian ru ru interlanguage-link-target
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https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skelet Human skelet – Scots sco sco interlanguage-link-target
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https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeleti_i_njeriut Skeleti i njeriut – Albanian sq sq interlanguage-link-target
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https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schelitru Schelitru – Sicilian scn scn interlanguage-link-target
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https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%80_%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B0%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA මානව සැකිලි පද්ධතිය – Sinhala si si interlanguage-link-target
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skeleton Human skeleton – Simple English simple simple interlanguage-link-target
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https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kostra_%C4%8Dloveka Kostra človeka – Slovak sk sk interlanguage-link-target
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https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Clove%C5%A1ki_skelet Človeški skelet – Slovenian sl sl interlanguage-link-target
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https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qolfoofta_Dadka Qolfoofta Dadka – Somali so so interlanguage-link-target
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https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8E%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%A8%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%86%DA%A4 ئێسکبەندیی مرۆڤ – Central Kurdish ckb ckb interlanguage-link-target
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https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ljudski_skelet Ljudski skelet – Serbo-Croatian sh sh interlanguage-link-target
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https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ihmisen_luuranko Ihmisen luuranko – Finnish fi fi interlanguage-link-target
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https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A4nniskans_skelett Människans skelett – Swedish sv sv interlanguage-link-target
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https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalansay_ng_tao Kalansay ng tao – Tagalog tl tl interlanguage-link-target
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interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
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https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4_%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81 மனித எலும்புக்கூடு – Tamil ta ta interlanguage-link-target
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href title lang hreflang class
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