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During the decade of the 530s , it seemed to many that God had abandoned the Christian Roman Empire . There were noxious fumes in the air ; and the Sun , while still providing day , refused to give much heat . This caused famine unlike anything those of the time had seen before , weakening the people of Europe and the Middle East .
The cause of these disasters aren 't precisely known , but the Rabaul caldera , Lake <unk> and Krakatoa volcanoes or a collision with a swarm of meteors are all suspected . Scientists have spent decades on the mystery .
Seven years later , in 542 , a devastating outbreak of Bubonic Plague , second only to that of the 14th century , laid siege to the world , killing tens of millions . As ruler of the Empire , Justinian , and members of his court , were physically unaffected by famine . However , the Imperial Court did prove susceptible to plague , with Justinian himself contracting , but surviving , the pestilence .
In July 551 , the eastern Mediterranean was rocked by the 551 Beirut earthquake , which triggered a tsunami . The combined fatalities of both events probably exceeded 30 @,@ 000 , with tremors being felt from Antioch to Alexandria .
= = Cultural depictions = =
In the Paradiso section of the Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri , Justinian I is prominently featured as a spirit residing on the sphere of Mercury , which holds the ambitious souls of Heaven . His legacy is elaborated on , and he is portrayed as a defender of the Christian faith and the restorer of Rome to the Empire . However , Justinian confesses that he was partially motivated by fame rather than duty to God , which tainted the justice of his rule in spite of his proud accomplishments . In his introduction , " Cesare <unk> e son <unk> " ( " Caesar I was , and am Justinian " ) , his mortal title is contrasted with his immortal soul , to emphasize that glory in life is ephemeral , while contributing to God 's glory is eternal , according to Dorothy L. Sayers . Dante also uses Justinian to criticize the factious politics of his 14th Century Italy , in contrast to the unified Italy of the Roman Empire .
= = Historical sources = =
Procopius provides the primary source for the history of Justinian 's reign . The Syriac chronicle of John of Ephesus , which does not survive , was used as a source for later chronicles , contributing many additional details of value . Both historians became very bitter towards Justinian and his empress , Theodora . Other sources include the histories of Agathias , Menander Protector , John Malalas , the Paschal Chronicle , the chronicles of Marcellinus Comes and Victor of <unk> . Justinian is considered a saint among Eastern Orthodox Christians , and is also remembered by some in the Lutheran Church on 14 November .
= Tricholoma pardinum =
Tricholoma pardinum , commonly known as spotted tricholoma , tiger tricholoma , <unk> , leopard knight , or dirty trich , is a gilled mushroom widely distributed across North America and Europe , as well as parts of Asia . It is generally found in beech woodland in summer and autumn . Two subspecies have been described from southern Europe . First officially described by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801 , Tricholoma pardinum has had a confusing taxonomic history that extends over two centuries . In 1762 , German naturalist Jacob Christian Schäffer described the species Agaricus tigrinus with an illustration corresponding to what is thought to be T. pardinum , and consequently , the name Tricholoma tigrinum has been used erroneously in some European field guides .
The fruit body of Tricholoma pardinum is an imposing mushroom with a pale grey cap up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) in diameter that is covered with dark brownish to greyish scales . The gills are whitish , and are not attached to the stout white to pale grey @-@ brown stalk . The spore print is white . One of the more toxic members of the genus Tricholoma , the species has been implicated in a number of episodes of mushroom poisoning , probably because it is a large , attractive mushroom with a pleasant smell and taste , and it bears a superficial resemblance to several edible species , like Tricholoma terreum . Ingesting T. pardinum — even in small quantities — results in a severe , persistent gastroenteritis caused by an unknown mycotoxin .
= = Taxonomy = =
Christiaan Hendrik Persoon described this species as Agaricus <unk> var. <unk> in 1801 , although he queried whether it was a distinct species . However , the German naturalist Jacob Christian Schäffer had in 1762 published Fungorum qui in Bavaria et Palatinatu circa Ratisbonam nascuntur Icones , in which he described a mushroom he called Agaricus tigrinus . The illustration accompanying the name fits what we now know as Tricholoma pardinum , although the description is less clear . To confuse matters further , Elias Magnus Fries used the name Agaricus tigrinus in his 1821 work Systema Mycologicum , in accordance with Bulliard 's 1782 description , which now corresponds with Lentinus tigrinus . In his 1838 work Epicrisis <unk> <unk> : seu synopsis <unk> , Fries assigned a different fungus again to the binomial name and linked it to Schäffer 's 1762 description . French mycologist Lucien Quélet reclassified it as a species in 1873 , giving it its current binomial name . Italian mycologist Alfredo Riva has noted that Swiss mycologist Louis Secretan provided a description forty years before Quélet , in his 1833 work Mycographie Suisse , and queried why it was ignored . He has proposed the fungus be written as Tricholoma pardinum ( <unk> . ) Quél . However , Secretan 's works are generally not recognised for nomenclatural purposes because he did not use binomial nomenclature consistently .
There has been confusion over which scientific name to use for over two hundred years . Tricholoma tigrinum has been used in some European field guides , but has been applied in error to this species . The uncertainty was such that Czech mycologists Josef <unk> and František <unk> suggested in 1967 that both designations were incorrect , and proposed the new name T. <unk> .
Tricholoma pardinum lies within the subgenus <unk> of Tricholoma , a grouping of similar species characterised by greyish , brownish , or pallid caps that are woolly or covered in small scales , spores with a length between 8 and 11 micrometres , and abundant clamp connections in the hyphae . Molecular analyses suggest that T. pardinum is closely related to T. <unk> , T. mutabile , and T. venenatum . Tricholoma pardinum var. <unk> is an uncommon variety , described in 1983 by Carlo Luciano Alessio , which produces mushrooms with more fibrillose caps and stalks than the typical variety . It is found in southern Europe , where it associates with chestnut and spruce trees . Another variety has been described as T. pardinum var. <unk> , characterised by <unk> mushrooms that have a greasy coating on their caps .
The specific epithet pardinum is derived from the Latin pardus " leopard " , referring to its mottled or spotted cap . The generic name derives from the Greek <unk> / <unk> " hair " and <unk> / <unk> " hem " , " fringe " , or " border " . Common names include striped tricholoma , spotted tricholoma , tiger tricholoma , poison trich , leopard knight , and <unk> . Dirty trich was a name coined by author Gary H. <unk> in response to a publisher 's request for a more accessible name than its binomial one for North American guidebooks .
= = Description = =
The fruit body is a medium @-@ sized mushroom , with a cap 6 – 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 5 – 4 in ) in diameter , though larger specimens occasionally reach 15 cm ( 6 in ) . The cap is initially hemispherical before flattening with maturity , and has a broad , shallow umbo . The cap margin is initially curled inwards but <unk> as it matures . The cap surface is silvery @-@ grey and covered with concentrically patterned darker scales of a grey , brown or blackish colour that grow paler toward the cap margin , Secretan noting its resemblance to the cap of Sarcodon <unk> . The gills are free ( unattached to the stalk ) , white and thick , may have a yellow or greenish tint , and may drip water , as may the top of the stalk when broken . With age , the gill edges can become jagged and rough . The gill spacing is rather variable , ranging from distant to crowded ; typically , between 100 – 120 gills extend fully from the stalk to the edge of the cap , with a variable number of lamellulae ( shorter gills not extending fully from stalk to cap margin ) .
The stout stalk may be white , pale grey or pale brown , and is thicker at the base . The texture of the stalk surface ranges from fibrillose ( appearing to be made of coarse fibers arranged longitudinally ) to more or less smooth , and the stalk base will stain a dirty brown to yellow colour when bruised . It is 3 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 0 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) high and 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 0 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide , with the base 2 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 0 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter , and bruises a dirty yellowish colour . There is no ring or volva . The flesh is whitish and has a pleasant mealy smell and taste . Variety <unk> has a mealy odour and taste reminiscent of cucumber .
The spore print is white , and the oval to oblong spores are 7 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 5 μm long by 5 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 0 μm wide . Spores are smooth , hyaline ( translucent ) , nonamyloid , and have a prominent hilum . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are cylindrical to club shaped , four spored , and measure 39 – 50 by 8 @.@ 0 – 9 @.@ 6 μm . The cystidia present on the gill edge ( cheilocystidia ) are thin walled , hyaline , have a short stalk and a spherical apical portion , and measure 29 – 41 by 12 – 21 μm ; cystidia are absent from the gill face . The cap cuticle ranges in cellular form from a cutis ( in which the hyphae are bent over , running parallel to the cap surface ) to a trichoderm ( with hyphae emerging roughly parallel , like hairs , perpendicular to the cap surface ) ; the hyphae comprising the cuticle are cylindrical , and measure 2 @.@ 0 – 9 @.@ 0 μm wide with a club @-@ shaped tip up to 11 μm wide .
= = = Similar species = = =
Tricholoma pardinum mushrooms may be confused with several edible grey @-@ capped members of the genus Tricholoma , and some authorities recommend leaving all grey @-@ capped Tricholoma mushrooms for experienced hunters . There are several superficially similar European species that could be mistaken for T. pardinum . The smaller T. terreum lacks a mealy smell and cap scales , is darker coloured and less robust , and has smaller spores measuring 5 – 7 @.@ 5 by 4 – 5 μm . The edible T. <unk> somewhat resembles T. pardinum — but with finer scales , and gills and bruised parts that yellow with age . Unlike the preferentially montane T. pardinum , these lookalikes tend to fruit at lower elevations . T. <unk> is smaller and darker than T. pardinum , and has a peppery aroma . T. <unk> has fine dark scales and pinkish gills , brittle flesh , and is generally smaller . T. <unk> is smaller than T. pardinum , has a thin , fibrous partial veil on young specimens , and elliptical spores measuring 5 – 6 by 3 @.@ 5 – 4 μm . The edible and highly regarded T. <unk> is of a similar size , though has a uniform grey cap that is never scaled .
In North America , Tricholoma pardinum can be confused with T. nigrum and forms of T. <unk> that have more streaked rather than spotted caps . A form of T. pardinum in North America can be nearly white with pale scales , and may be confused with the whitish edible species T. <unk> . Microscopically , the presence of clamp connections sets T. pardinum apart from most other members of the genus , although the similar @-@ looking ( though more tan @-@ coloured ) T. venenatum also has them . According to Alexander H. Smith , T. <unk> is closely related , but can be distinguished from T. pardinum by its narrower gills , its tendency to form drops of reddish liquid on the gills and stalk , and an ash @-@ grey and scaly stalk surface .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Tricholoma pardinum is found across Europe , where it is more common in the south . It is abundant in the Jura Mountains in eastern France . The species is found in Belgium and Germany , but has not been recorded from the Netherlands or the British Isles . A historical record from Estonia has been discarded because no herbarium specimens could be found . In Asia , it has been recorded from İzmir Province in southwestern Turkey , China , and Sado Island in Japan . It is found widely across temperate North America , where Santa Cruz County and Sierra Nevada in central California in the west of the continent , and the central Appalachians in the east form the southern limits of its distribution . T. pardinum is commonly associated with conifers in the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest , and with tanoak ( Lithocarpus densiflorus ) and madrone ( Arbutus spp . ) in California . The mushroom can be abundant in some years , especially warmer years with higher rainfall , yet missing or rare for several years in between . In Europe , it is found on chalky soil in woodland with beech and fir in summer and autumn , where it prefers areas of some elevation . Although it may be found in groups or fairy rings , it most commonly occurs singly .
= = Toxicity = =
Tricholoma pardinum is one of several poisonous members of the genus Tricholoma ; its large size , fleshy appearance , and pleasant smell and taste add to the risk of it being accidentally consumed . It was responsible for over 20 percent of cases of mushroom poisoning in Switzerland in the first half of the 20th century . Many cases of poisoning arise in the Jura Mountains . Eating it causes highly unpleasant gastrointestinal symptoms of nausea , dizziness , vomiting , and diarrhea . These arise 15 minutes to 2 hours after consumption and often persist for several hours ; complete recovery usually takes 4 to 6 days . Sweating and anxiety may be evident , and disturbance in liver function has been recorded . <unk> may occur in the calves . In one case , seven people and a cat suffered severe symptoms after sharing a meal that contained only two mushroom caps . The toxin , the identity of which is unknown , appears to cause a sudden inflammation of the mucous membranes lining the stomach and intestines .
These symptoms may be severe enough to warrant hospitalisation . Treatment is supportive ; antispasmodic medicines may lessen colicky abdominal cramps , and activated charcoal may be administered early on to bind residual toxin . Intravenous fluids may be required if dehydration has been extensive , especially with children and the elderly . Once gastric contents are emptied , metoclopramide may be used in cases of recurrent vomiting .
= HMS Swordfish ( 1916 ) =
HMS Swordfish was an experimental submarine built for the Royal Navy before the First World War to meet the Navy 's goal of an " overseas " submarine capable of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) on the surface . Diesel engines of the period were unreliable and not very powerful so steam turbines were proposed instead to meet the RN 's requirement . Swordfish proved to be slower than designed and unstable while surfacing , and consequently she was modified as an anti @-@ submarine patrol vessel in 1917 . She was paid off before the end of the war and sold for scrapping in 1922 .
= = Design = =
HMS Swordfish was developed to meet a requirement of Royal Navy 's Submarine Committee for a large submarine capable of operating with the fleet at a surfaced speed of 20 knots . Most of the earlier British submarines had been single @-@ hulled vessels built by Vickers , and the Navy was interested in evaluating other designs . Captain Roger Keyes , Inspecting Captain of Submarines , had previously served as naval attaché in Italy and had kept abreast of Italian submarine developments , which notably included double @-@ hulled submarines designed by Cesare Laurenti of Fiat @-@ San Giorgio . Three boats of the S class were ordered first and Laurenti was invited to submit a design to meet the RN requirement .
Fiat @-@ San Giorgio " was wary about using heavy oil Diesel engines and hesitated to guarantee the success of such engines of the power required . At the same time Laurenti prepared a design with geared steam turbines having a speed of 18 knots on a surface displacement of 856 tons . " His design was modified by Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company , Greenock , to include guns . Swordfish kept the same main dimensions as Laurenti 's original design , but had a greater displacement and less endurance .
= = Description = =
Swordfish had an overall length of 231 ft 3 @.@ 5 in ( 70 @.@ 498 m ) , a beam of 22 ft 11 in ( 6 @.@ 99 m ) , and a draught of 14 feet 11 inches ( 4 @.@ 55 m ) . She displaced 932 long tons ( 947 t ) on the surface and 1 @,@ 105 long tons ( 1 @,@ 123 t ) submerged . She had a partial double hull , which extended over 75 % of her length . The upper portion of the double hull was controlled free @-@ flooding while the rest was devoted to watertight ' baling flats ' , ballast and fuel tanks . Her hull was divided into eight compartments by seven watertight bulkheads .
Swordfish 's diving depth and time are not known because the records from her sea trials have not survived . Shutting down her boiler , retracting the funnel and sealing the boiler uptake required about a minute and a quarter , which included switching over to the electric motors . In marked contrast to contemporary Vickers designs much attention was paid to safety arrangements , including her extensive subdivision . Indicator and telephone buoys , which could be released from inside the submarine were provided together with external air connections and a charged high @-@ pressure line which could provide air to any manned compartment or the living spaces . Furthermore , the main ballast tanks could be blown from either end of the ship .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Swordfish had two Parsons geared impulse @-@ reaction steam turbine sets , each driving one of the two propeller shafts . The turbines were powered by a single Yarrow @-@ type boiler . They were designed to produce a total of 4 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 3 @,@ 000 kW ) at a working pressure of 250 psi ( 1 @,@ 700 kPa ; 18 kgf / cm2 ) which used a superheater to increase the working temperature by 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . She was fitted with two electric motors which had a combined output of 1 @,@ 400 bhp ( 1 @,@ 000 kW ) . Two battery rooms each had 64 battery cells . It is uncertain if the ship reached her designed speed of 18 knots on the surface , although it seems unlikely given her increased displacement over Laurenti 's original design . Maximum speed was 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) underwater .
Swordfish could carry 102 long tons ( 104 t ) of fuel oil , which her builders estimated gave her an endurance of 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 8 @.@ 5 knots ( 15 @.@ 7 km / h ; 9 @.@ 8 mph ) on the surface . On her batteries her submerged endurance was 60 nautical miles ( 110 km ; 69 mi ) at a speed of 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Swordfish had two tubes for 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedoes in her bow . They were stepped vertically and positioned well back from the stem in a notch from the keel to preserve the fine lines of the bow . Two 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) torpedo tubes were positioned on each beam amidships . Each torpedo tube was provided with one reload . Two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns were fitted on the deck in disappearing mounts , one each fore and aft of the conning tower . They were covered by watertight hoods to preserve the streamlining of the submarine .
= = Construction and service = =
Swordfish was ordered from Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company on 18 August 1913 although she was not laid down until 28 February 1914 . The start of the First World War six months later greatly hindered her completion , and she was not launched until 18 March 1916 . HMS Swordfish was commissioned on 28 April 1916 , before completion , and renamed HMS S1 that same day . She was not completed until 21 July .
Captained by Commander Geoffrey Layton , her post @-@ completion trials lasted for five months as she was used to evaluate steam power for submarine use . Much was learned about the operation of steam submarines , which helped the subsequent design of the steam @-@ powered K @-@ class fleet submarines . She proved to be very unstable while surfacing , presumably because she could not pump the water out of her controlled free @-@ flooding spaces quickly enough in the upper part of her double hull . These problems , coupled with the fact that she was too slow to work with the fleet as originally envisioned , meant that she was impossible to make into an effective warship , and she was laid up after her trials .
In July 1917 S1 reverted to her original name and was converted to a surface patrol vessel between 27 June 1917 and 24 January 1918 . Her torpedo tubes and disappearing guns were removed . She was given a forecastle , a bridge and her funnel was fixed in place and extended . She was rearmed with a pair of 12 @-@ pounder ( 3 inch , 76 mm ) guns and depth charges , weapons more suitable for her new role as an anti @-@ submarine patrol boat . Swordfish joined the 1st Destroyer Flotilla at Portsmouth upon completion of her sea trials , but nothing is known of her subsequent service .
Swordfish was paid off on 30 October 1918 and stricken from the Navy List by January 1919 . She was sold for scrapping to Pounds , of Portsmouth in July 1922 , but was reported to have been resold to Hayes , of Porthcawl in 1923 .
= Winchester Model 1897 =
The Winchester Model 1897 , also known as the Model 97 , <unk> , or Trench Gun , was a pump @-@ action shotgun with an external hammer and tube magazine manufactured by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company . The Model 1897 was an evolution of the Winchester Model 1893 designed by John Browning . From 1897 until 1957 , over one million of these shotguns were produced . The Model 1897 was offered in numerous barrel lengths and grades , chambered in 12 and 16 gauge , and as a solid frame or takedown . The 16 @-@ gauge guns had a standard barrel length of 28 inches , while 12 @-@ gauge guns were furnished with 30 @-@ inch length barrels . Special length barrels could be ordered in lengths as short as 20 inches , and as long as 36 inches . Since the time the Model 1897 was first manufactured it has been used by American soldiers , police departments , and hunters .
= = History = =
The Winchester Model 1897 was designed by the famous American firearms inventor John Moses Browning . The Model 1897 was first listed for sale in the November 1897 Winchester catalog as a 12 gauge solid frame . However , the 12 gauge takedown was added in October 1898 , and the 16 gauge takedown in February 1900 . Originally produced as a tougher , stronger and more improved version of the Winchester 1893 , itself a takeoff on the early Spencer pump gun , the 1897 was identical to its forerunner , except that the receiver was thicker and allowed for use of smokeless powder shells , which were not common at the time . The 1897 introduced a " take down " design , where the barrel could be taken off ; a standard in pump shotguns made today , like the Remington 870 and Mossberg 500 series . Over time , “ the model 97 became the most popular shotgun on the American market and established a standard of performance by which other kinds and makes of shotguns were judged , including the most expensive imported articles ” . The Winchester Model 1897 was in production from 1897 until 1957 . It was in this time frame that the " modern " hammerless designs became common , like the Winchester Model 1912 and the Remington 870 and the Model 1897 was superseded by the Winchester Model 1912 . However , the gun can still be found today in regular use .
= = = Improvements From the 1893 = = =
In the new Model 1897 , many of the weaknesses that were present in the Model 93 were taken into account and remedied . These improvements included :
The frame was strengthened and made longer to handle a 12 gauge 2 ¾ -inch shell , as well as the 2 ⅝ -inch shell .
The frame at the top was covered so that the ejection of the fired shell was entirely from the side . This added a great amount of strength to the frame of the gun and it allowed the use of a 2 ¾ inch shell without the danger of the gun constantly jamming .
The gun could not be opened until a slight forward movement of the slide handle released the action slide lock . In firing , the recoil of the gun gave a slight forward motion to the slide handle and released the action slide lock which enabled immediate opening of the gun . In the absence of any recoil , the slide handle had to be pushed forward manually in order to release the action slide lock .
A movable cartridge guide was placed on the right side of the carrier block to prevent the escape of the shell when the gun was turned sideways in the act of loading .
The stock was made longer and with less drop .
Of the improvements , the slide lock is the one that really made the gun safer . This improved slide lock kept the gun locked until actual firing occurred which prevented the gun from jamming in the case of a misfire . The slide lock " stands in such a relation to the body of the firing pin as will prevent the firing pin reaching the primer until the pin has moved forward a sufficient distance to insure locking of the breech bolt . " This prevents the action sleeve " from being retracted by the hand of the gunner until after firing , and hence rendering the fire arm more safe "
= = Description = =
The Winchester Model 1897 evolved from the Winchester Model 1893 . The Model 1897 and 1893 were both designed by John Browning . The Model 1897 is an external hammer shotgun lacking a trigger <unk> . This means that the user can hold the trigger down while cycling the shotgun and once the action is returned to battery the gun fires . The gun itself is classified as a slide action pump shotgun . It was the first truly successful pump @-@ action shotgun produced . Throughout the time period the Model 1897 was in production , over a million of the type were produced in various grades and barrel lengths . 16 @-@ gauge guns had a standard barrel length of 28 inches , while 12 @-@ gauge guns were furnished with 30 @-@ inch length barrels . Special length barrels could be ordered in lengths as short as 20 inches , and as long as 36 inches . Along with various grades and barrel lengths , the Model 1897 came in two different <unk> . One was the 12 gauge and the other was the 16 gauge . The shells should be of the 2- ¾ inch or 2- ⅝ inch model . Any shells larger are not recommended . An average Model 1897 held 5 shotgun shells in the magazine tube . After including the one shell that could be held in the chamber , the average Model 1897 held a total of 6 shotgun shells . However , this would vary from grade to grade . When working the action of the Model 1897 the forend ( fore grip ) is pulled back , forcing the breech bolt to the rear which extracts and then ejects the spent shell while simultaneously cocking the external hammer by pushing it to the rear . When the forend is slid forward again , the breech bolt pushes a fresh shell into the gun 's chamber and locks into place . This action of sliding the forend back and forth ( pumping ) is why the gun is classified as a slide action ( or pump ) gun .