Probing the kinematic morphology-density relation of early-type galaxies with MaNGA
J. E. Greene A. Leauthaud E. Emsellem D. Goddard J. Ge B. H. Andrews J. Brinkman J. R. Brownstein J. P. Greco D. Law Y. -T. Lin K. L. Masters M. Merrifield S. More N. Okabe D. P. Schneider D. Thomas D. A. Wake R. Yan N. Drory





1Department of Astrophysics, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA

2Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA

3European Southern Observatory, Karl-Schwarzschild-Str. 2, D-85741 Garching, Germany

4Institute of Cosmology and Gravitation, University of Portsmouth, Dennis Sciama Building, Burnaby Road, Portsmouth PO1 3FX, UK; South East Physics Network

5National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100012, China

6PITT PACC, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA

7Apache Point Observatory, P.O. Box 59, Sunspot, NM 88349

8Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Utah, 115 S. 1400 E., Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA

9Space Telescope Science Institute, 3700 San Martin Drive, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA

10Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica, Taipei 10617, Taiwan




11School of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK

12Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (WPI), Tokyo Institutes for Advanced Study, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa-shi, Chiba, 277-8583, Japan

13Department of Physical Science, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8526, Japan
14Hiroshima Astrophysical Science Center, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, Kagamiyama 1-3-1, 739-8526, Japan
15Core Research for Energetic Universe, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8526, Japan

16Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, The Pennsylvania State University,University Park, PA 16802
17Institute for Gravitation and the Cosmos, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802


18School of Physical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes,  MK7 6AA, UK
19Department of Physics, University of North Carolina, Asheville, NC 28804, USA

20Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Kentucky, 505 Rose Street, Lexington, KY 40506-0057, USA

21McDonald Observatory, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station, Austin, TX 78712, USA




Probing the kinematic morphology-density relation of early-type galaxies with MaNGA
    J. E. Greene1, A. Leauthaud2, E. Emsellem3, D. Goddard4, J. Ge5, B. H. Andrews6, J. Brinkman7, J. R. Brownstein8, J. Greco1, D. Law9,Y.-T. Lin10, K. L. Masters4, M. Merrifield11, S. More12, N. Okabe13,14,15, D. P. Schneider16,17, D. Thomas4, D. A. Wake18,19, R. Yan20, N. Drory20
    Received: date / Accepted: date
===========================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================




The “kinematic” morphology-density relation for early-type galaxies posits that those galaxies with low angular momentum are preferentially found in the highest-density regions of the universe. We use a large sample of galaxy groups with halo masses 10^12.5 < M_ halo < 10^14.5 h^-1  M_⊙ observed with the Mapping Nearby Galaxies at APO (MaNGA) survey to examine whether there is a correlation between local environment and rotational support that is independent of stellar mass. We find no compelling evidence for a relationship between the angular momentum content of early-type galaxies and either local overdensity or radial position within the group at fixed stellar mass.




§ INTRODUCTION


The angular momentum content of galaxies can serve as a probe of their assembly histories. Although early-type galaxies are dynamically hot systems, many of them show some rotation <cit.>. The evolution in angular momentum of galaxies is influenced in complex ways by mergers (both major or minor), gas accretion, and internal processes such as star formation that either turn gas into stars or expel gas <cit.>. Mergers, for instance, might increase or decrease the angular momentum depending on the configuration <cit.>. Tracking the evolution in angular momentum content with galaxy properties is a tracer of the factors that dominate galaxy evolution. 

It is standard to trace the galaxy angular momentum using the ratio of velocity to dispersion support. In the context of integral-field spectroscopy (IFS), a luminosity-weighted two-dimensional measurement (λ_R) is used as a proxy for the angular momentum content.  We adopt the definition of λ_R from <cit.>, with R the flux-weighted radial coordinate, V the radial velocity, and σ the stellar velocity dispersion: λ_R = ⟨ R | V | ⟩/⟨ R √(V^2 + σ^2)⟩. Slowly rotating galaxies are those that fall below the expectations for a mildly anisotropic oblate rotator <cit.>. Stellar mass is the primary determinant of whether a galaxy is a slow rotator <cit.>. Secondary correlations with environment may reveal the physical processes that determine the distribution of angular momentum in galaxies.

Early studies examined the relationship between angular momentum as traced by λ_R and environment by measuring the fraction of galaxies with low  as a function of local overdensity. <cit.> showed that a tiny fraction (<5%) of early-type galaxies in low-density environments are slow rotators, and tied this low fraction to a kinematic version of the morphology-density relation <cit.>. The fraction of early-type slowly rotating galaxies indeed rises dramatically in the densest environments <cit.>. As examples, we present measurements from <cit.> and <cit.> in Figure <ref> (upper left).

Because massive galaxies preferentially reside in overdense regions, it is difficult to determine from these small early samples whether or not environment plays a role independent of mass. Two larger IFS surveys have recently published relevant studies. <cit.> examined a mass-selected sample of galaxies from MASSIVE <cit.>. The majority of these galaxies are central galaxies living in a wide range of halo masses. <cit.> do not find a compelling environmental dependence of  at fixed M_*. <cit.> examine eight clusters observed by SAMI <cit.>. By number, their sample is dominated by satellite galaxies, containing only eight brightest-cluster galaxies. They also argue that trends with local overdensity can be explained by the strong dependence on stellar mass. 

We present a bridge between the MASSIVE and SAMI samples. We exploit the large number of IFS cubes afforded by the MaNGA survey <cit.>, part of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV <cit.>, to build a sample of galaxies with  measurements <cit.>. Roughly 2/3 of the galaxies in our MaNGA sample are central galaxies, spanning a wide range in inferred host halo mass (and thus environment). We consider the kinematic morphology-density relation of early-type galaxies using a number of different complementary probes of global and local environment, including halo mass, designation as central or satellite, local overdensity, and radial location in the cluster. 

We assume a flat ΛCDM cosmology with Ω_ m=0.238, Ω_Λ=0.762, H_0=100 h^-1 km s^-1 Mpc^-1, in order to follow the convention of our group catalog <cit.>. Halo masses are defined as M_200b≡ M(<R_200b)=200ρ̅4/3π R_200b^3 where R_200b is the radius at which the mean interior density is equal to 200 times the mean matter density of the universe (ρ̅). Stellar mass is denoted M_* and has been derived using a Chabrier Initial Mass Function (IMF). We use units in which h=1.



§ SAMPLE AND DATA




 §.§ The MaNGA Survey


MaNGA will ultimately obtain integral-field spectroscopy of 10,000 nearby galaxies with the 2.5m Sloan Foundation Telescope <cit.> and the BOSS spectrographs <cit.>. Fibers are joined into 17 hexagonal fiber bundles to perform a multi-object IFS survey <cit.>. Each fiber has a diameter of 2, while the bundles range in diameter from 12 to 32 with a 56% filling factor. The BOSS spectrographs have a wavelength coverage of 3600-10,300Å and a spectral resolution of σ_r ≈ 70 . The relative spectrophotometry is accurate to a few percent <cit.>. The survey design is described in <cit.>, the observing strategy in <cit.>, and the data reduction pipeline in <cit.>. 

The MaNGA sample is selected from the NASA-Sloan Atlas (NSA; Blanton M. http://www.nsatlas.org) with redshifts mostly from the SDSS Data Release 7 MAIN galaxy sample <cit.>. The sample is built in i-band absolute magnitude (M_i)-complete shells, with more luminous galaxies observed in more distant M_i shells such that the spatial coverage (in terms of R_e) is roughly constant across the sample <cit.>. We focus on the combination of the Primary sample (∼ 50% of the total sample) and Secondary sample (∼ 40% of the total sample), selected such that 80% of the galaxies in each M_i shell can be covered to 1.5 R_e (2.5 R_e) by the largest MaNGA IFU for the Primary (Secondary) sample, respectively. To compare different stellar mass bins, it is necessary to reweight the galaxy distributions in the sample to account for the different volumes probed by each mass shell. We apply these volume weights whenever population means are presented.





 §.§ Galaxy Sample


We work with the MaNGA data derived from the data-release pipeline (DRP) v2.0.1 (MaNGA Product Launch [MPL] 5) sample that are also in the <cit.> group catalog (Y07; updated to DR7).  Y07 use an iterative, adaptive group finder to assign galaxies to halos. Briefly, they first use a friends-of-friends algorithm to identify potential groups, followed by abundance matching to assign likely halo masses to each group based on the total galaxy luminosity. They iterate their group selection based on the initial estimate for halo mass. We select the central galaxy as the most luminous one, while all other galaxies are designated as satellite galaxies. 

We select central and satellite galaxies that reside in halos more massive than 10^12.5 h^-1 M_⊙ <cit.> and additionally require that the satellite galaxies have stellar masses M_*>10^10 h^-2 M_⊙. We also visually remove all galaxies with spiral structure, focusing only on early-type (E/S0) galaxies (for details see Paper I). The final sample comprises 379 early-type centrals with a minimum stellar mass of 3 × 10^10  and a median stellar mass of 10^11 . There are 159 early-type satellite galaxies with a minimum stellar mass of 10^10  and a median stellar mass of 3 × 10^10 .










 §.§ Identifying Slow Rotators


The kinematic measurements we use to derive  come from the MaNGA Data Analysis Pipeline (DAP), and are measured on Voronoi-binned data <cit.> with a signal-to-noise ratio of at least 10 per 70 km s^-1 spectral pixel. The kinematics are measured using the penalized pixel-fitting code pPXF <cit.>, with emission lines masked. The stellar templates are drawn from the MILES library  <cit.> and are convolved with a Gaussian line-of-sight velocity distribution to derive the velocity and velocity dispersion of the stars. The velocity dispersions are reliable above σ>40  <cit.>, while the small number of unresolved spaxels are removed from analysis. The central σ values range from 50 to 400 , with only 43 galaxies having dispersions <100  for the sample, so we are not working in this low dispersion regime. An eighth-order additive polynomial is included to account for flux calibration and stellar population mismatch. We adopt the “DONOTUSE” flags from the DAP (meaning that there are known catastrophic problems with these data), and flag all bins with σ >500  or V>400 . We only keep galaxies for which at least 50% of their spaxels are unflagged.

We calculate  within elliptical isophotes. We adopt the position angle and galaxy flattening ϵ = 1-b/a from the NASA Sloan Atlas <cit.>[http://www.sdss.org/dr13/manga/manga-target-selection/nsa/]. While it is standard in the literature to compare galaxies at , we show in Paper I that at the spatial resolution of MaNGA these measurements can be biased by 10-50%, depending on the input , with lower values of  suffering more severely. As described in detail in Paper I, we adopt the outermost measurement of  ().  matches λ(1.5 R_e) with ∼ 20% scatter and no bias, but allows us to include galaxies with limited radial coverage. Finally, the inner 2 of data are excluded, since the low spatial resolution of MaNGA tends to lower λ_R. In Paper I, we use simulations to show that excluding the central region brings the measured λ_R value closer to the true value, and we estimate that the residual impact of low spatial resolution leads to at most a systematic increase in slow-rotator fraction of 10% from our measured values.

To determine whether a galaxy is a slow or fast rotator further requires comparison with the intrinsic shape of the galaxy, since the amount of rotation needed to support an oblate galaxy rises with ellipticity. <cit.> report an empirically motivated division between slow and fast rotators of <0.31 √(ϵ). For measurements at λ(1.5 R_e), we simply scale by the typical ratio of /λ(1.5R_e) from our data, to define slow rotators as those with <0.35 √(ϵ).



§ THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Λ AND ENVIRONMENT


We now demonstrate that at fixed M_* there is no residual dependence of  on either local or global environment. We discuss the different measures of environment used in the analysis, describe how we normalize for M_*, and examine  as a function of local overdensity at fixed M_*.



 §.§ Measures of Environment


In Paper I we examined  in bins of M_200b, finding no evidence for any residual dependence of  on halo mass M_200b at fixed M_*. Nor was there any significant evidence for differences between central and satellite galaxies at fixed mass. Therefore, in this paper we do not reconsider M_200b or the satellite/central distinction. We do note, however, that there is considerable scatter in the halo masses and the central designations in group catalogs <cit.>. It is useful, therefore, to consider local overdensity measures as a complement to the group-based measures of environment.

The first papers investigating links between  and environment focused on a local overdensity measurement <cit.>. The local overdensity measurement employed here (Σ_n) is simply the number of galaxies (in our case n=5) with M_r>-20.3 mag, divided by the volume required to enclose that number of neighbors above the magnitude limit. We adopt the Σ_5 measurements from <cit.>. 

Σ_n is a complex measure of environment. For large overdensities, with more than three to five members, the region of measurement falls within the parent halo. However, when the number of members of a group approaches the overdensity measure, the distance to the n^ th nearest neighbor may fall in a different halo. In this case, the measure becomes more sensitive to very large scale clustering than to local overdensity <cit.>. Furthermore, the physical processes impacting galaxies at group centers (e.g., merging) may be different than those dominating the satellite galaxies living further from the group center (e.g., stripping). We therefore prefer using the radial group position, R/R_200b, which ensures only intra-group comparisons are made. For comparison with previous literature, we examine both measures. 



 §.§ Controlling for stellar mass


We employ a simple mass-weighting scheme to ensure flat mass distributions in all environmental bins. In each environment bin, we inversely weight each galaxy based on the number of galaxies at that mass, such that the final mass distribution is flat. We do this in two mass bins, divided at the median stellar mass. We do not employ the MaNGA weights here, since we are looking at renormalized mass distributions.

Throughout the rest of the paper, we will display the weighted slow-rotator fractions as a function of Σ_n and R/R_200b. In these figures, the bin sizes are chosen to ensure a constant number of objects per bin, and are plotted at the weighted bin center. The shaded regions indicate the error in the mean, derived via bootstrapping.









 §.§ Trends with Σ_5


We first examine whether there is a trend between  and local overdensity at fixed M_*. Figure <ref> (top left) presents two clusters that illustrate the range of results from individual studies of clusters, and the slow-rotator fraction is shown for our full sample of satellite and central galaxies. There is no strong trend with local overdensity in our data, which are roughly consistent with the Virgo results in a similar Σ range (although the Virgo results employ Σ_3 rather than Σ_5). We see a rising slow rotator fraction at low Σ_5. This rising fraction reflects the increasing dominance of higher-mass central galaxies at low overdensity in our sample. Figure <ref> (top right) shows that there is a trend (albeit weak) between local overdensity and stellar mass as satellites grow more dominant at higher overdensity. 
To garner reasonable results, we must examine the trends with overdensity at fixed mass. Note the full relationship between stellar mass and local overdensity is complicated for satellites <cit.>, and is not fully probed by our early-type, high-mass sample.

In Figure <ref> (bottom left), we impose mass-weighting. While higher-mass galaxies show a higher slow-rotator fraction, no residual trend is seen with Σ_5 for either bin. Since slow-rotator fraction is assigned as a binary (noisy) division, it is useful to examine the full distribution of /√(ϵ) (Figure <ref>; bottom right). Again, we see a split in samples based on stellar mass, but no residual trend in /√(ϵ) as a function of Σ_5. We thus turn to examine  as a function of R/R_200b.



 §.§ Trends with R/R_200b


R/R_200b is complementary to Σ_5, since the radial distance is always measured within the group halo, while the local overdensity can extend to neighboring halos at low density. Figure <ref> (top left) presents the slow-rotator fraction as a function of R/R_200b for all satellites in the sample. The central galaxies by construction are found at the group center, and have a 40% slow-rotator fraction averaged over all masses. There is no compelling trend in slow-rotator fraction as a function of radius. In terms of mass, the central galaxies are more massive than the satellites, but there is not a strong mass segregation within the satellite galaxies (Figure <ref>, top right). The true radial mass trend is washed out by our narrow range in stellar mass and morphology <cit.>.

We then consider the mass-weighted slow-rotator fraction as a function of radius (Figure <ref>; bottom left). Again, the high- and low-mass–weighted samples have higher and lower slow-rotator fractions, respectively, but there is no compelling additional evidence for a radial trend in slow-rotator fraction when we control the distribution in stellar mass. We similarly see a very flat mean /√(ϵ) as a function of radius (Figure <ref>; bottom right). 


In short, there is no evidence that large-scale or local environment plays a driving role in the distribution of , for an array of environmental measures. Of course, it is possible that a stronger radial trend might be apparent if we could consider only the most massive halos; such analysis required larger samples and should be possible with MaNGA soon.



§ DISCUSSION & SUMMARY


Combining the results from both local environmental indicators, we conclude that angular momentum content at fixed stellar mass is not influenced at a level that we can detect here by the local density or by the radial position within the halo. In Paper I we argued that angular momentum at fixed mass was not influenced by the halo mass or central/satellite distinction. Thus, we conclude that local processes (accretion, star-formation, and merging) determine the angular momentum content of early-type galaxies. This result is in accord with recent results from Illustris <cit.> suggesting that only major mergers (not minor ones) have the capacity to significantly alter λ_R in the most massive galaxies, while accretion and consumption of gas can alter λ_R in lower-mass galaxies. Thus, lower-mass galaxies are spun up by gaseous processes, while massive galaxies are not. In this scenario, stellar mass is the dominant factor setting λ_R, since even if the total level of accretion and merging is higher in denser environments, stellar mass determines whether λ_R is impacted at all by external factors at late times.

Our findings are in accord with two more recent studies <cit.>. We suggest that stellar mass dependence also drives earlier results from individual clusters that found evidence for a rising slow-rotator fraction towards the most overdense regions <cit.>. 

Our work fits into a broader conversation about the role of environment in establishing internal galaxy properties. Galaxy mass functions are a function of environment <cit.>. Once stellar mass is controlled, however, there are only subtle remaining differences as a function of environment for many internal galaxy properties, including morphology and color <cit.>, star formation rates <cit.>, stellar populations <cit.> and gradients therein <cit.>. As the MaNGA survey progresses, the larger sample size will enable yet more sensitive searches for subtle trends between environment, stellar kinematics, gas content, and stellar populations.



J.E.G. is partially supported by NSF AST-1411642. We thank M. Cappellari for 
useful discussions. We thank the referee for constructive comments that improved this manuscript and we thank Ada Elizabeth Greene Silverman for waiting an extra week to come into this world while her mother submitted the initial manuscript.


Funding for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV has been provided by
the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy Office of
Science, and the Participating Institutions. SDSS-IV acknowledges
support and resources from the Center for High-Performance Computing at
the University of Utah. The SDSS web site is www.sdss.org.

SDSS-IV is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for the 
Participating Institutions of the SDSS Collaboration including the 
Brazilian Participation Group, the Carnegie Institution for Science, 
Carnegie Mellon University, the Chilean Participation Group, the French Participation Group, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 
Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, The Johns Hopkins University, 
Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (IPMU) / 
University of Tokyo, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 
Leibniz Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP),  
Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie (MPIA Heidelberg), 
Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik (MPA Garching), 
Max-Planck-Institut für Extraterrestrische Physik (MPE), 
National Astronomical Observatories of China, New Mexico State University, 
New York University, University of Notre Dame, 
Observatário Nacional / MCTI, The Ohio State University, 
Pennsylvania State University, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, 
United Kingdom Participation Group,
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, University of Arizona, 
University of Colorado Boulder, University of Oxford, University of Portsmouth, 
University of Utah, University of Virginia, University of Washington, University of Wisconsin, 
Vanderbilt University, and Yale University.

This research made use of Marvin, a core Python package and web framework for MaNGA data, developed by Brian Cherinka, Jose Sanchez-Gallego, and Brett Andrews (MaNGA Collaboration, 2017).



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Cappellari, M., et al. 2006, , 366, 1126

[Croom et al.(2012)Croom, Lawrence, Bland-Hawthorn,
  Bryant, Fogarty, Richards, Goodwin, Farrell, Miziarski, Heald,
  Jones, Lee, Colless, Brough, Hopkins, Bauer, Birchall, Ellis,
  Horton, Leon-Saval, Lewis, López-Sánchez, Min, Trinh, &
  Trowland]croometal2012
Croom, S. M., Lawrence, J. S., Bland-Hawthorn, J., Bryant, J. J.,
  Fogarty, L., Richards, S., Goodwin, M., Farrell, T., Miziarski, S.,
  Heald, R., Jones, D. H., Lee, S., Colless, M., Brough, S.,
  Hopkins, A. M., Bauer, A. E., Birchall, M. N., Ellis, S., Horton,
  A., Leon-Saval, S., Lewis, G., López-Sánchez, Á. R., Min,
  S.-S., Trinh, C., & Trowland, H. 2012, , 421, 872

[Davies et al.(1983)Davies, Efstathiou, Fall, Illingworth,
  & Schechter]daviesetal1983
Davies, R. L., Efstathiou, G., Fall, S. M., Illingworth, G., &
  Schechter, P. L. 1983, , 266, 41

[D'Eugenio et al.(2013)D'Eugenio, Houghton, Davies, &
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D'Eugenio, F., Houghton, R. C. W., Davies, R. L., & Dalla Bontà,
  E. 2013, , 429, 1258

[D'Eugenio et al.(2015)D'Eugenio, Houghton, Davies, &
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—. 2015, , 451, 827

[Dressler(1980)]dressler1980
Dressler, A. 1980, , 42, 565

[Drory et al.(2015)Drory, MacDonald, Bershady, Bundy,
  Gunn, Law, Smith, Stoll, Tremonti, Wake, Yan, Weijmans,
  Byler, Cherinka, Cope, Eigenbrot, Harding, Holder, Huehnerhoff,
  Jaehnig, Jansen, Klaene, Paat, Percival, &
  Sayres]droryetal2015
Drory, N., MacDonald, N., Bershady, M. A., Bundy, K., Gunn, J.,
  Law, D. R., Smith, M., Stoll, R., Tremonti, C. A., Wake, D. A.,
  Yan, R., Weijmans, A. M., Byler, N., Cherinka, B., Cope, F.,
  Eigenbrot, A., Harding, P., Holder, D., Huehnerhoff, J., Jaehnig,
  K., Jansen, T. C., Klaene, M., Paat, A. M., Percival, J., &
  Sayres, C. 2015, , 149, 77

[Emsellem et al.(2011)Emsellem, Cappellari, Krajnović,
  Alatalo, Blitz, Bois, Bournaud, Bureau, Davies, Davis, de
  Zeeuw, Khochfar, Kuntschner, Lablanche, McDermid, Morganti,
  Naab, Oosterloo, Sarzi, Scott, Serra, van de Ven, Weijmans, &
  Young]emsellemetal2011
Emsellem, E., Cappellari, M., Krajnović, D., Alatalo, K., Blitz,
  L., Bois, M., Bournaud, F., Bureau, M., Davies, R. L., Davis,
  T. A., de Zeeuw, P. T., Khochfar, S., Kuntschner, H., Lablanche,
  P.-Y., McDermid, R. M., Morganti, R., Naab, T., Oosterloo, T.,
  Sarzi, M., Scott, N., Serra, P., van de Ven, G., Weijmans, A.-M.,
  & Young, L. M. 2011, , 414, 888

[Emsellem et al.(2007)]emsellemetal2007
Emsellem, E., et al. 2007, , 379, 401

[Etherington & Thomas(2015)]etheringtonthomas2015
Etherington, J., & Thomas, D. 2015, , 451, 660

[Fogarty et al.(2014)Fogarty, Scott, Owers, Brough,
  Croom, Pracy, Houghton, Bland-Hawthorn, Colless, Davies, Jones,
  Allen, Bryant, Goodwin, Green, Konstantopoulos, Lawrence,
  Richards, Cortese, & Sharp]fogartyetal2014
Fogarty, L. M. R., Scott, N., Owers, M. S., Brough, S., Croom, S. M.,
  Pracy, M. B., Houghton, R. C. W., Bland-Hawthorn, J., Colless, M.,
  Davies, R. L., Jones, D. H., Allen, J. T., Bryant, J. J., Goodwin,
  M., Green, A. W., Konstantopoulos, I. S., Lawrence, J. S., Richards,
  S., Cortese, L., & Sharp, R. 2014, , 443, 485

[Franx & Illingworth(1990)]franxillingworth1990
Franx, M., & Illingworth, G. 1990, , 359, L41

[Goddard et al.(2017)Goddard, Thomas, Maraston, Westfall,
  Etherington, Riffel, Mallmann, Zheng, Argudo-Fernández,
  Bershady, Bundy, Drory, Law, Yan, Wake, Weijmans, Bizyaev,
  Brownstein, Lane, Maiolino, Masters, Merrifield, Nitschelm,
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Goddard, D., Thomas, D., Maraston, C., Westfall, K., Etherington, J.,
  Riffel, R., Mallmann, N. D., Zheng, Z., Argudo-Fernández, M.,
  Bershady, M., Bundy, K., Drory, N., Law, D., Yan, R., Wake, D.,
  Weijmans, A., Bizyaev, D., Brownstein, J., Lane, R. R., Maiolino,
  R., Masters, K., Merrifield, M., Nitschelm, C., Pan, K.,
  Roman-Lopes, A., & Storchi-Bergmann, T. 2017, , 465, 688

[Greene et al.(2015)Greene, Janish, Ma, McConnell,
  Blakeslee, Thomas, & Murphy]greeneetal2015
Greene, J. E., Janish, R., Ma, C.-P., McConnell, N. J., Blakeslee,
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[Greene et al.(2017)Greene, Leauthaud, &
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Greene, J. E., Leauthaud, A., & Emsellem, E., e. a. 2017, ,
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[Gunn et al.(2006)Gunn, Siegmund, Mannery, Owen, Hull,
  Leger, Carey, Knapp, York, Boroski, Kent, Lupton, Rockosi,
  Evans, Waddell, Anderson, Annis, Barentine, Bartoszek, Bastian,
  Bracker, Brewington, Briegel, Brinkmann, Brown, Carr,
  Czarapata, Drennan, Dombeck, Federwitz, Gillespie, Gonzales,
  Hansen, Harvanek, Hayes, Jordan, Kinney, Klaene, Kleinman,
  Kron, Kresinski, Lee, Limmongkol, Lindenmeyer, Long, Loomis,
  McGehee, Mantsch, Neilsen, Neswold, Newman, Nitta, Peoples,
  Pier, Prieto, Prosapio, Rivetta, Schneider, Snedden, &
  Wang]gunnetal2006
Gunn, J. E., Siegmund, W. A., Mannery, E. J., Owen, R. E., Hull,
  C. L., Leger, R. F., Carey, L. N., Knapp, G. R., York, D. G.,
  Boroski, W. N., Kent, S. M., Lupton, R. H., Rockosi, C. M., Evans,
  M. L., Waddell, P., Anderson, J. E., Annis, J., Barentine, J. C.,
  Bartoszek, L. M., Bastian, S., Bracker, S. B., Brewington, H. J.,
  Briegel, C. I., Brinkmann, J., Brown, Y. J., Carr, M. A.,
  Czarapata, P. C., Drennan, C. C., Dombeck, T., Federwitz, G. R.,
  Gillespie, B. A., Gonzales, C., Hansen, S. U., Harvanek, M., Hayes,
  J., Jordan, W., Kinney, E., Klaene, M., Kleinman, S. J., Kron,
  R. G., Kresinski, J., Lee, G., Limmongkol, S., Lindenmeyer, C. W.,
  Long, D. C., Loomis, C. L., McGehee, P. M., Mantsch, P. M.,
  Neilsen, Jr., E. H., Neswold, R. M., Newman, P. R., Nitta, A.,
  Peoples, Jr., J., Pier, J. R., Prieto, P. S., Prosapio, A.,
  Rivetta, C., Schneider, D. P., Snedden, S., & Wang, S.-i. 2006, ,
  131, 2332

[Houghton et al.(2013)Houghton, Davies, D'Eugenio, Scott,
  Thatte, Clarke, Tecza, Salter, Fogarty, &
  Goodsall]houghtonetal2013
Houghton, R. C. W., Davies, R. L., D'Eugenio, F., Scott, N., Thatte,
  N., Clarke, F., Tecza, M., Salter, G. S., Fogarty, L. M. R., &
  Goodsall, T. 2013, , 436, 19

[Law et al.(2016)Law, Cherinka, Yan, Andrews, Bershady,
  Bizyaev, Blanc, Blanton, Bolton, Brownstein, Bundy, Chen,
  Drory, D'Souza, Fu, Jones, Kauffmann, MacDonald, Masters,
  Newman, Parejko, Sánchez-Gallego, Sánchez, Schlegel,
  Thomas, Wake, Weijmans, Westfall, & Zhang]lawetal2016
Law, D. R., Cherinka, B., Yan, R., Andrews, B. H., Bershady, M. A.,
  Bizyaev, D., Blanc, G. A., Blanton, M. R., Bolton, A. S.,
  Brownstein, J. R., Bundy, K., Chen, Y., Drory, N., D'Souza, R.,
  Fu, H., Jones, A., Kauffmann, G., MacDonald, N., Masters, K. L.,
  Newman, J. A., Parejko, J. K., Sánchez-Gallego, J. R.,
  Sánchez, S. F., Schlegel, D. J., Thomas, D., Wake, D. A.,
  Weijmans, A.-M., Westfall, K. B., & Zhang, K. 2016, , 152, 83

[Law et al.(2015)Law, Yan, Bershady, Bundy, Cherinka,
  Drory, MacDonald, Sánchez-Gallego, Wake, Weijmans, Blanton,
  Klaene, Moran, Sanchez, & Zhang]lawetal2015
Law, D. R., Yan, R., Bershady, M. A., Bundy, K., Cherinka, B.,
  Drory, N., MacDonald, N., Sánchez-Gallego, J. R., Wake, D. A.,
  Weijmans, A.-M., Blanton, M. R., Klaene, M. A., Moran, S. M.,
  Sanchez, S. F., & Zhang, K. 2015, , 150, 19

[Ma et al.(2014)Ma, Greene, McConnell, Janish,
  Blakeslee, Thomas, & Murphy]maetal2014
Ma, C.-P., Greene, J. E., McConnell, N., Janish, R., Blakeslee,
  J. P., Thomas, J., & Murphy, J. D. 2014, , 795, 158

[Muldrew et al.(2012)Muldrew, Croton, Skibba, Pearce,
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  Grützbauch, Li, Park, Pilipenko, Podgorzec, Robotham,
  Wilman, Yang, Zhang, & Zibetti]muldrewetal2012
Muldrew, S. I., Croton, D. J., Skibba, R. A., Pearce, F. R., Ann,
  H. B., Baldry, I. K., Brough, S., Choi, Y.-Y., Conselice, C. J.,
  Cowan, N. B., Gallazzi, A., Gray, M. E., Grützbauch, R., Li,
  I.-H., Park, C., Pilipenko, S. V., Podgorzec, B. J., Robotham,
  A. S. G., Wilman, D. J., Yang, X., Zhang, Y., & Zibetti, S. 2012,
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[Naab et al.(2014)Naab, Oser, Emsellem, Cappellari,
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  Bureau, Crocker, Davies, Davis, de Zeeuw, Duc, Hirschmann,
  Johansson, Khochfar, Kuntschner, Morganti, Oosterloo, Sarzi,
  Scott, Serra, Ven, Weijmans, & Young]naabetal2014
Naab, T., Oser, L., Emsellem, E., Cappellari, M., Krajnović, D.,
  McDermid, R. M., Alatalo, K., Bayet, E., Blitz, L., Bois, M.,
  Bournaud, F., Bureau, M., Crocker, A., Davies, R. L., Davis, T. A.,
  de Zeeuw, P. T., Duc, P.-A., Hirschmann, M., Johansson, P. H.,
  Khochfar, S., Kuntschner, H., Morganti, R., Oosterloo, T., Sarzi,
  M., Scott, N., Serra, P., Ven, G. v. d., Weijmans, A., & Young,
  L. M. 2014, , 444, 3357

[Oliva-Altamirano et al.(2017)Oliva-Altamirano, Brough,
  Tran, Jimmy, Miller, Bremer, Phillipps, Sharp, Colless,
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Oliva-Altamirano, P., Brough, S., Tran, K.-V., Jimmy, Miller, C.,
  Bremer, M. N., Phillipps, S., Sharp, R., Colless, M.,
  Lara-López, M. A., López-Sánchez, Á. R., Pimbblet, K.,
  Kafle, P. R., & Couch, W. J. 2017, , 153, 89

[Penny et al.(2016)Penny, Masters, Weijmans, Westfall,
  Bershady, Bundy, Drory, Falcón-Barroso, Law, Nichol,
  Thomas, Bizyaev, Brownstein, Freischlad, Gaulme, Grabowski,
  Kinemuchi, Malanushenko, Malanushenko, Oravetz, Roman-Lopes, Pan,
  Simmons, & Wake]pennyetal2016
Penny, S. J., Masters, K. L., Weijmans, A.-M., Westfall, K. B.,
  Bershady, M. A., Bundy, K., Drory, N., Falcón-Barroso, J., Law,
  D., Nichol, R. C., Thomas, D., Bizyaev, D., Brownstein, J. R.,
  Freischlad, G., Gaulme, P., Grabowski, K., Kinemuchi, K.,
  Malanushenko, E., Malanushenko, V., Oravetz, D., Roman-Lopes, A.,
  Pan, K., Simmons, A., & Wake, D. A. 2016, , 462, 3955

[Penoyre et al.(2017)Penoyre, Moster, Sijacki, &
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Penoyre, Z., Moster, B. P., Sijacki, D., & Genel, S. 2017, MNRAS,
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[Sánchez-Blázquez et al.(2006)Sánchez-Blázquez,
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Sánchez-Blázquez, P., Gorgas, J., Cardiel, N., & González,
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[Scott et al.(2014)Scott, Davies, Houghton, Cappellari,
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Scott, N., Davies, R. L., Houghton, R. C. W., Cappellari, M., Graham,
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[Smee et al.(2013)Smee, Gunn, Uomoto, Roe, Schlegel,
  Rockosi, Carr, Leger, Dawson, Olmstead, Brinkmann, Owen,
  Barkhouser, Honscheid, Harding, Long, Lupton, Loomis, Anderson,
  Annis, Bernardi, Bhardwaj, Bizyaev, Bolton, Brewington, Briggs,
  Burles, Burns, Castander, Connolly, Davenport, Ebelke, Epps,
  Feldman, Friedman, Frieman, Heckman, Hull, Knapp, Lawrence,
  Loveday, Mannery, Malanushenko, Malanushenko, Merrelli, Muna,
  Newman, Nichol, Oravetz, Pan, Pope, Ricketts, Shelden,
  Sandford, Siegmund, Simmons, Smith, Snedden, Schneider,
  SubbaRao, Tremonti, Waddell, & York]smeeetal2013
Smee, S. A., Gunn, J. E., Uomoto, A., Roe, N., Schlegel, D.,
  Rockosi, C. M., Carr, M. A., Leger, F., Dawson, K. S., Olmstead,
  M. D., Brinkmann, J., Owen, R., Barkhouser, R. H., Honscheid, K.,
  Harding, P., Long, D., Lupton, R. H., Loomis, C., Anderson, L.,
  Annis, J., Bernardi, M., Bhardwaj, V., Bizyaev, D., Bolton, A. S.,
  Brewington, H., Briggs, J. W., Burles, S., Burns, J. G., Castander,
  F. J., Connolly, A., Davenport, J. R. A., Ebelke, G., Epps, H.,
  Feldman, P. D., Friedman, S. D., Frieman, J., Heckman, T., Hull,
  C. L., Knapp, G. R., Lawrence, D. M., Loveday, J., Mannery, E. J.,
  Malanushenko, E., Malanushenko, V., Merrelli, A. J., Muna, D.,
  Newman, P. R., Nichol, R. C., Oravetz, D., Pan, K., Pope, A. C.,
  Ricketts, P. G., Shelden, A., Sandford, D., Siegmund, W., Simmons,
  A., Smith, D. S., Snedden, S., Schneider, D. P., SubbaRao, M.,
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[Thomas et al.(2010)Thomas, Maraston, Schawinski, Sarzi,
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Thomas, D., Maraston, C., Schawinski, K., Sarzi, M., & Silk, J.
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[Veale et al.(2017b)Veale, Ma, Greene,
  Thomas, Blakeslee, McConnell, Walsh, & Ito]vealeetal2017b
Veale, M., Ma, C.-P., Greene, J. E., Thomas, J., Blakeslee, J. P.,
  McConnell, N., Walsh, J. L., & Ito, J. 2017b, ,
  471, 1428

[Veale et al.(2017a)Veale, Ma, Thomas,
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  Janish]vealeetal2017a
Veale, M., Ma, C.-P., Thomas, J., Greene, J. E., McConnell, N. J.,
  Walsh, J., Ito, J., Blakeslee, J. P., & Janish, R.
  2017a, , 464, 356

[Wake et al.(2017)Wake, Bundy, Diamond-Stanic, Yan,
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  Brownstein]wakeetal2017
Wake, D. A., Bundy, K., Diamond-Stanic, A. M., Yan, R., Blanton,
  M. R., Bershady, M. A., Sánchez-Gallego, J. R., Drory, N., Jones,
  A., Kauffmann, G., Law, D. R., Li, C., MacDonald, N., Masters, K.,
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[Wijesinghe et al.(2012)Wijesinghe, Hopkins, Brough,
  Taylor, Norberg, Bauer, Brown, Cameron, Conselice, Croom,
  Driver, Grootes, Jones, Kelvin, Loveday, Pimbblet, Popescu,
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  Bland-Hawthorn, Gunawardhana, Meyer, Parkinson, Drinkwater,
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Wijesinghe, D. B., Hopkins, A. M., Brough, S., Taylor, E. N.,
  Norberg, P., Bauer, A., Brown, M. J. I., Cameron, E., Conselice,
  C. J., Croom, S., Driver, S., Grootes, M. W., Jones, D. H., Kelvin,
  L., Loveday, J., Pimbblet, K. A., Popescu, C. C., Prescott, M.,
  Sharp, R., Baldry, I., Sadler, E. M., Liske, J., Robotham,
  A. S. G., Bamford, S., Bland-Hawthorn, J., Gunawardhana, M., Meyer,
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[Woo et al.(2013)Woo, Dekel, Faber, Noeske, Koo,
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Woo, J., Dekel, A., Faber, S. M., Noeske, K., Koo, D. C., Gerke,
  B. F., Cooper, M. C., Salim, S., Dutton, A. A., Newman, J., Weiner,
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[Yan et al.(2016a)Yan, Bundy, Law, Bershady,
  Andrews, Cherinka, Diamond-Stanic, Drory, MacDonald,
  Sánchez-Gallego, Thomas, Wake, Weijmans, Westfall, Zhang,
  Aragón-Salamanca, Belfiore, Bizyaev, Blanc, Blanton,
  Brownstein, Cappellari, D'Souza, Emsellem, Fu, Gaulme, Graham,
  Goddard, Gunn, Harding, Jones, Kinemuchi, Li, Li, Maiolino,
  Mao, Maraston, Masters, Merrifield, Oravetz, Pan, Parejko,
  Sanchez, Schlegel, Simmons, Thanjavur, Tinker, Tremonti, van den
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Yan, R., Bundy, K., Law, D. R., Bershady, M. A., Andrews, B.,
  Cherinka, B., Diamond-Stanic, A. M., Drory, N., MacDonald, N.,
  Sánchez-Gallego, J. R., Thomas, D., Wake, D. A., Weijmans, A.-M.,
  Westfall, K. B., Zhang, K., Aragón-Salamanca, A., Belfiore, F.,
  Bizyaev, D., Blanc, G. A., Blanton, M. R., Brownstein, J.,
  Cappellari, M., D'Souza, R., Emsellem, E., Fu, H., Gaulme, P.,
  Graham, M. T., Goddard, D., Gunn, J. E., Harding, P., Jones, A.,
  Kinemuchi, K., Li, C., Li, H., Maiolino, R., Mao, S., Maraston,
  C., Masters, K., Merrifield, M. R., Oravetz, D., Pan, K., Parejko,
  J. K., Sanchez, S. F., Schlegel, D., Simmons, A., Thanjavur, K.,
  Tinker, J., Tremonti, C., van den Bosch, R., & Zheng, Z.
  2016a, , 152, 197

[Yan et al.(2016b)Yan, Tremonti, Bershady,
  Law, Schlegel, Bundy, Drory, MacDonald, Bizyaev, Blanc,
  Blanton, Cherinka, Eigenbrot, Gunn, Harding, Hogg,
  Sánchez-Gallego, Sánchez, Wake, Weijmans, Xiao, &
  Zhang]yanetal2016a
Yan, R., Tremonti, C., Bershady, M. A., Law, D. R., Schlegel, D. J.,
  Bundy, K., Drory, N., MacDonald, N., Bizyaev, D., Blanc, G. A.,
  Blanton, M. R., Cherinka, B., Eigenbrot, A., Gunn, J. E., Harding,
  P., Hogg, D. W., Sánchez-Gallego, J. R., Sánchez, S. F.,
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[Yang et al.(2009)Yang, Mo, & van den Bosch]yangetal2009
Yang, X., Mo, H. J., & van den Bosch, F. C. 2009, , 695, 900

[Yang et al.(2007)Yang, Mo, van den Bosch, Pasquali, Li,
  & Barden]yangetal2007
Yang, X., Mo, H. J., van den Bosch, F. C., Pasquali, A., Li, C., &
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