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How tiny can tiny insects be? Ed Yong of Not Exactly Rocket Science, told us of the wasp Megaphragma mymaripenne, which is actually smaller than an amoeba! Thrips are tiny insects, typically just a millimetre in length. Some are barely half that size. If that’s how big the adults are, imagine how small a thrips’ egg must be. Now, consider that there are insects that lay their eggs inside the egg of a thrips. That’s one of them in the image above – the wasp, Megaphragma mymaripenne. It’s pictured next to a Paramecium and an amoeba at the same scale. Even though both these creatures are made up of a single cell, the wasp – complete with eyes, brain, wings, muscles, guts and genitals – is actually smaller. At just 200 micrometres (a fifth of a millimetre), this wasp is the third smallest insect alive* and a miracle of miniaturisation.
How to solve this statistical problem? The question is: The random variable X is normally distributed with mean 79 and variance 144. It is known that P(79-a<= X <= 79 +b) = 0.6463. This information is shown in the image below: Given that P(X>=79+b) = 2P(X<= 79-a) Show that the area of the shaded region is 0.1179 Actually the answer includes ⅓(0.3537) = 0.1179 it’s just that I don’t know what the (⅓) is? or where did it come from? Can you please explain it? Thanks in advance
Neural networks explained Read below a sneak peek of the articles in our Mobile Machine Learning course with Nimish Narang. Neural networks are a network of interconnected nodes. Each node has weights and biases associated with it. Data flows through the network from the input to the output nodes. Each neural network contains layers of nodes. Each layer is connected to all the nodes in the next layer. Every input will travel through the network until it reaches the very end. It will contain certain values along the way that determine how important that particular pathway is. In more general terms, neural networks are a set of algorithms designed to recognize patterns. This makes them great at image classification and image recognition. To the machine or model that you build, and image is just a set of data, an array of values typically between 0 and 255 that represent pixel values. If it can represent certain patterns associated with certain outcomes, it can learn to solve a problem. The name ‘neural network’ is derived from their structure of a network of nodes. It’s modeled around the human brain, which contains many different neurons each connected to each other and requiring activation to produce results. Each network contains several layers. Each layer contains operations to either process inputs or map pathways through the network. These pathways produce specific outputs. Each layer is a mini-network itself of many interconnected nodes. The number of nodes depends on the complexity of the problem you’re trying to solve. Each node is assigned a weight and a bias. Weights are assigned an initial value that changes over time. When you train your model, you alter the weights. The weights are assigned specifically to a connection between nodes rather than one node. A bias is a constant value assigned to each node. How is the weight useful to us? The weight determines which path to take once a node receives an input. More specifically: how important that path is. This repeats until we reach the end of the network. At each layer an activation function will be attached to each node at the layer. Certain activation functions are better for certain tasks. An activation function is a way to sum up all the inputs of a layer. It will transform the sum depending on the function you use and will produce an output. The output will propagate throughout the network until the end. At the end, you can sum all the input values, perform a function, and produce a meaningful output. Machine learning example For example, suppose the end sum of your activation function produces an output of 0.1 on the inputs. Suppose in this example, we’re using a neural network to determine if an image is of a face. The closer to 1 that the output value is, the more likelihood it is that the image has a face. Based on this example, an output of 0.1 means we don’t have a face. If the sum of the weights after the activation function is 0.8, you probably have an image of a face. For each node in the middle of the network, the input of a node is the output to another node. During training, when you receive inputs and feed in a bunch of data to a network over and over again, the weights will be adjusted in such a way that it starts to learn certain patterns and associate them with outputs. The network adjusts the weights accordingly so that if you get a face image, the network will know to take certain pathways. Whereas if you get a non-face image, the network will know to take different pathways to the weights we’ve trained. The data runs through one side to the other until a pattern is recognized and we get similar data mapping to similar pathways.
A significant number of strikes and increasing union power led Congress to pass the Labor Management Relations Act (LMRA) in 1947. Also known as the Taft-Hartley Labor Act, the LMRA amended parts of the NLRA. In order to stem the number of strikes, the LMRA enlarged the National Labor Relations Board, firmly establishing its control over labor disputes. It also authorized the government to get an 80-day injunction against any strike thought to be a danger to public health or security and outlawed union contributions to political campaigns. Significantly, the LMRA outlawed secondary boycotts. Secondary boycotts were a measure used in lieu of or in addition to a traditional strike. A union would set up a picket line at a company -- one with which the union did not have a labor dispute -- to pressure it to not do business with another company that was involved in a labor dispute with the union. For example, if brewery workers had a problem with their employer, they might set up a secondary boycott of the glass company that supplied bottles to their brewery, thereby putting pressure on the brewery by protesting against its supplier. Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959 As you can see, the mid-twentieth century was an important -- and busy -- time for labor legislation. The Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act (LMRDA) established a "Bill of Rights" for union members. The act was also passed because of a concern about union involvement in organized crime, a lack of transparency in union activities and a lack of democracy within unions. The LMRDA’s provisions include freedom of speech and assembly, protection from undeserved punishment, a vote in determing dues and fees, and the right to file suit and to participate in union activities. Other clauses of the law include: - Requirements for reporting and disclosure by employers, labor relations consultants, union officers and employees and surety companies when engaging in certain activities - Rules for establishing and maintaining trusteeships - Safeguards for protecting union funds - Standards for conducting fair elections of union officers: As we said before, one of the main goals of the LMRDA was to increase the level of democracy within unions. The law's changes to how unions run officer elections were intended to increase participation, communication and transparency. According to the LMRDA, all union members have to be notified by mail at least 15 days before every election. Candidates are allowed to examine a union's membership list -- but only once -- within 30 days of the election. Union and employer funds cannnot be used to promote any candidates. Actual elections must be held at least every three years. Voting is done by secret ballot and election observors must be permitted to monitor the proceedings.
04 Feb Learn About Deforestation And Pollution From Your Science Tuition Teacher When your science tuition teacher tells you to do a project on how human activities affect the environment, what is the first thing you will think of? Human activities and interactions with the environment have improved living conditions, but some have caused substantial harm to environment and organisms. Major impacts include pollution. Pollution is the release of harmful substances and objects into the environment. Deforestation is the major clearing of trees and vegetation in a land area for human use (housing, transport facilities) and wood for other purposes (e.g. producing paper) Since forests are home to diverse range of organisms, deforestation makes their habitat unfavourable and unsuitable for them to live in Many plant species will die Food chain is disrupted. Herbivorous animals will be affected (population may decrease due to lack of food). Animals relying on herbivores have less food. This leads to endangerment of species which may have medicinal values for curing diseases. As plants, which takes carbon dioxide and replenishes oxygen during photosynthesis, are removed, carbon dioxide concentrations in the air would increase Deforestation affects the water cycle. Plants absorbing water from soil and release it into air are removed. Hence, there will be less water vapour for cloud formation and rainfall. As trees are removed, there are fewer roots to hold soil in the area. The soil is exposed to wind and water. The topmost layer of soil (rich in nutrients) is easily washed away by rain. This is called soil erosion. New plants are unlikely to grow in the area, landslides happen in the area become more frequently. Deforestation sometimes carried out by burning forests. It releases smoke and harmful gases. It causes severe air pollution, respiratory problems in humans and uncontrolled fires spread to other places. This threatens the life of organisms. Science tuition classes will reinforce these concepts more easily and quickly. In some countries, solid waste containing toxic substances is buried in landfills. This may easily seep into soil, contaminating land and killing organisms living in that area. Plants may absorb toxins and animals that feed on them may die. Rainwater may also wash these into water bodies and kill aquatic life. Land also becomes polluted with increased volume of rubbish collected in landfills. Buried waste takes up place requiring new landfills if the current one becomes full, taking up valuable land. This is especially for plastics which is not biodegradable. Biodegradable means easily broken down by decomposers and bacteria. Excessive fertilizers and pesticides used on crops makes land unsuitable for growing plants. Major cause of water pollution is waste water from human activities – cleaning, cooking, manufacturing processes in factories. It may be toxic and can kill aquatic organisms consuming aquatic life. They absorb poison that accumulates in bodies of aquatic life. Rubbish e.g. plastic bags, nets pollutes water if not thrown properly and ends up in water bodies; aquatic organisms may be killed due to entanglement with these objects or mistakenly consuming them. Soil erosion may also cause water pollution as rain washes soil particles into water bodies and make them cloudy. Less sunlight is available for aquatic plants and they eventually die, killing animals that directly or indirectly depend on them. Water pollution may also be caused by oil spills from tankers: Oil spills stop oxygen from reaching underwater. Many aquatic life will die. Animals come in contact with spills. The oil sticks to them and removes air trapped by feathers and fur that help insulate them. In cold conditions, they die without insulation. Animals are poisoned as they swallow toxic oil when they try to clean themselves, causing disorders or even death. Air pollution is caused by release of harmful gases from burning of fuels (vehicles, power station, factories), rubbish in incinerators and deforestation. It is harmful to plants as the ability to photosynthesise is hampered. Air pollutants such as ash, toxic gases combine with water droplets in air to form acid rain. It is harmful to organisms on land and in water. It also destroys buildings and monuments. It causes breathing difficulties, eye irritations, respiratory problems in humans. Toxic gases in air may be absorbed into bloodstream of animals and humans. There could be disastrous effects like lung cancers, organ failures and death. For example, lead particles from lead-containing fuels is extremely poisonous as it can cause severe brain damage in humans.
Imagine a world where the classroom is a garden, and computers are the seeds that help your knowledge grow. In today’s digital age, computers have become an integral part of education. They offer a plethora of advantages, such as enhanced learning experiences, increased student engagement, and access to vast resources. Computers also promote improved digital literacy, a crucial skill in the modern world. However, like any tool, they come with their fair share of disadvantages. For instance, there is the potential for cheating and a growing dependence on technology. Moreover, the cost and maintenance of computers can pose challenges for schools. In this article, we will explore the advantages and disadvantages of computers in school, allowing you to make an informed judgment on their role in education. Advantages of Computers in School The use of computers in schools has become increasingly important as technology continues to shape our world. Computers offer numerous advantages in the educational setting, including: 1. Enhanced Learning Experiences One advantage of using computers in school is that they provide students with a wider range of learning opportunities. Computers enable interactive lessons, where students can actively engage with the material through quizzes, games, and simulations. These interactive lessons make learning more enjoyable and help students understand complex concepts in a more practical and hands-on way. Additionally, computers allow for personalized feedback, where students can receive immediate assessments on their progress and areas for improvement. This individualized feedback helps students track their learning and make necessary adjustments to their study habits. Moreover, computers enable virtual field trips, where students can explore different places and cultures without leaving the classroom. Lastly, computers facilitate multimedia presentations, allowing students to present their ideas and projects in a dynamic and visually appealing manner. 2. Increased Student Engagement To further enhance your learning experiences, computers in school offer increased student engagement through various interactive activities and personalized feedback. By incorporating technology into the classroom, students are more motivated to participate in their learning. Interactive learning programs and games make the learning process enjoyable and engaging, capturing students’ attention and encouraging them to actively participate. Computers also provide personalized instruction, allowing students to learn at their own pace and receive individualized support. The real-time feedback provided by computer programs helps students track their progress and identify areas for improvement, promoting self-reflection and growth. Additionally, computers in school promote improved critical thinking skills, as students are encouraged to analyze information, solve problems, and think creatively. 3. Access to Vast Resources With computers in school, you can access a vast array of resources that are just a click away, providing you with a wealth of information and opportunities for learning. These educational resources can range from e-books, online journals, and educational websites to interactive learning platforms and virtual simulations. The internet opens up a world of knowledge, enabling you to explore various subjects and topics in depth. However, it’s important to be mindful of information overload, as the sheer amount of available resources can be overwhelming. By properly integrating technology into your education, you can enhance your academic performance by accessing relevant and up-to-date materials. Additionally, computers in school can help bridge the digital divide, ensuring that all students have equal access to educational resources, regardless of their socioeconomic background. 4. Improved Digital Literacy How can computers in school enhance your digital literacy skills? By integrating technology into the classroom, computers provide opportunities for students to develop essential digital skills. With access to online resources and educational software, students can learn how to navigate the digital landscape, search for information, and critically evaluate online content. Computer literacy is becoming increasingly important in today’s society, and schools play a crucial role in equipping students with the necessary skills. Through the use of computers, students can develop their understanding of technology, become proficient in using various digital tools, and gain the ability to adapt to new technologies. This improved digital literacy won’t only benefit students academically but also prepare them for future careers that require technological proficiency. 5. Facilitates Personalized Learning By utilizing computers in school, you can experience personalized learning that adapts to your individual needs and interests. The use of technology allows for personalized instruction and customized learning, creating an individualized education experience. With a tailored curriculum, you can focus on areas of strength and receive additional support in areas that need improvement. Computers enable a student-centered approach where you have the flexibility to learn at your own pace and explore topics that interest you. This personalized learning approach helps to increase engagement and motivation, as you’re more likely to be invested in your education when it aligns with your preferences and goals. Through the use of computers, you can have a more personalized and effective learning experience that caters to your unique learning style and needs. 6. Promotes Collaborative Work Collaborative work is promoted through the use of computers in school, allowing you to engage in group projects and activities with your peers. Computers provide a platform for collaborative projects where you can work together with your classmates to achieve a common goal. This fosters the development of teamwork skills, as you learn to communicate, delegate tasks, and solve problems together. Digital collaboration tools, such as shared documents and online discussion boards, make it easier to coordinate efforts and contribute to group assignments. With computers, you can also engage in cooperative learning, where you actively participate in discussions and share ideas with your classmates. This collaborative approach not only enhances your learning experience but also prepares you for future team-based work environments. 7. Prepares Students for the Future Using computers in school prepares you for the future by equipping you with the necessary digital skills and knowledge to thrive in an increasingly technology-driven world. As the future job market becomes more reliant on technological advancements, it’s crucial for students to develop these skills early on. Computers in school provide a platform for students to learn problem-solving skills and critical thinking through various educational software and online resources. By engaging with technology, students gain the ability to analyze and solve complex problems, a skill that will be highly valued in the future workplace. Additionally, using computers in school promotes digital citizenship, teaching students how to navigate the digital world responsibly and ethically. Disadvantages of Computers in School The widespread use of computers in schools has brought numerous advantages, such as improved learning efficiency, increased access to information, and enhanced collaboration. However, there are also several disadvantages associated with the use of computers in education, which include: 1. Student Distraction Levels To minimize distractions for students, it’s important to establish clear guidelines for computer use in the classroom. Student engagement and academic performance can be negatively affected by excessive internet distractions. With the unlimited access to the internet, students may easily get sidetracked and lose focus on the task at hand. Their attention span may decrease as they become more engrossed in online activities rather than the lesson being taught. This poses a challenge for classroom management as teachers need to constantly monitor and redirect students to stay on track. Additionally, the temptation to multitask can hinder students’ ability to fully comprehend and retain information. Therefore, it’s crucial for educators to implement strategies to minimize internet distractions and promote a productive learning environment. 2. Cybersecurity and Privacy To ensure student safety and protect their personal information, it’s essential for schools to address the potential drawbacks of computers in terms of cybersecurity and privacy. While computers in schools offer numerous benefits, they also come with online privacy risks. Without proper cybersecurity measures, students’ personal data may be vulnerable to data breaches and unauthorized access. Additionally, students may unknowingly expose themselves to online privacy risks through their digital footprint, leaving a trail of personal information that can be exploited by cybercriminals. Therefore, it’s crucial for schools to prioritize internet safety education and teach students about the importance of safeguarding their personal information. By implementing effective cybersecurity measures and educating students about online privacy risks, schools can create a safer digital environment for their students. 3. Increased Screen Time To address the potential drawbacks of computers in terms of increased screen time, it’s important for schools to consider the impact on students’ physical and mental well-being. One of the main concerns is eye strain, as prolonged exposure to screens can lead to dryness, discomfort, and even vision problems. Additionally, excessive screen time can contribute to decreased physical activity, as students may become more sedentary and less inclined to engage in outdoor or active play. Another disadvantage is the negative impact on social skills, as excessive screen time can limit face-to-face interactions and hinder the development of essential interpersonal skills. Moreover, the potential for addiction is a real concern, as students may become overly dependent on screens for entertainment and may struggle to disconnect. Lastly, increased screen time can disrupt sleep patterns, making it harder for students to get sufficient rest, which can impact their overall well-being and academic performance. It’s crucial for schools to find a balance and implement strategies to mitigate these potential negative effects. 4. Lack of Social Interaction One major disadvantage of computers in school is the limited social interaction experienced by students. While computers can enhance learning and provide access to vast amounts of information, they can also hinder the development of important social skills. Face to face communication and peer interaction are vital for the growth of emotional intelligence and the ability to form real-life connections. Interacting with classmates and teachers in person allows students to practice empathy, conflict resolution, and teamwork. Without these opportunities, students may struggle to navigate social situations and develop essential life skills. Additionally, excessive reliance on computers for communication can lead to a lack of social confidence and decreased ability to effectively express oneself. Therefore, it’s crucial to find a balance between technology and human interaction in order to foster well-rounded individuals. 5. Potential for Cheating You can easily cheat on assignments and exams using computers in school. The potential for cheating raises ethical concerns and challenges academic integrity. With the use of computers, students can access information and resources that can give them an unfair advantage over their peers. Cheating prevention is a crucial aspect to maintain the integrity of the educational system. To address this issue, schools have implemented various prevention strategies, such as the use of monitoring software. This software allows teachers to monitor students’ online activities and detect any suspicious behavior. However, while monitoring software can be effective, it also raises concerns about privacy invasion. Striking a balance between preventing cheating and respecting students’ privacy remains a challenge. Schools must continue to explore and implement effective measures to deter cheating while upholding ethical standards. 6. Dependence on Technology Relying too heavily on technology can hinder your ability to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills in school. Technology addiction is a real concern, as students become overly dependent on computers for their schoolwork. This addiction can lead to a reduction in physical activity, as students spend more time sitting and staring at screens, rather than engaging in physical activities. Moreover, the potential for information overload exists when students have access to a vast amount of information at their fingertips. This can make it difficult for them to discern relevant and reliable information from irrelevant or inaccurate data. Additionally, excessive use of technology can have detrimental effects on social skills. Students may become isolated and have difficulty interacting with their peers in face-to-face situations. It’s important to strike a balance and not let technology overshadow the development of important skills needed for success in the real world. 7. Cost and Maintenance Issues The cost and maintenance of computers in school can pose significant challenges. Implementing computer technology in educational institutions comes with cost implications that can strain budget constraints. Schools need to allocate funds for purchasing computers, software, and other necessary equipment, as well as for the installation of network infrastructure. Additionally, maintaining and servicing these computers can be a complex task. Schools may face maintenance challenges such as software updates, troubleshooting hardware issues, and providing technological support to students and teachers. The rapid pace of technological advancements also means that schools need to regularly upgrade their equipment to keep up with the latest software and hardware requirements. All these factors contribute to the overall cost and maintenance burden of computers in school. Conclusion on Advantages and Disadvantages of Computers in School In considering the advantages and disadvantages of computers in school, it’s essential to weigh the overall impact they’ve on student learning and development. Computers offer numerous benefits to education, such as improved access to information, enhanced student engagement, and the ability to personalize learning. These advantages can lead to improved student performance and academic outcomes. However, there are also some drawbacks to consider. Integration challenges, such as technical issues and limited resources, can hinder the effective use of computers in the classroom. Additionally, teacher training becomes crucial in order to maximize the benefits of computer integration. Despite these challenges, the positive impact that computers can have on education outweighs the negatives. With proper implementation and support, computers in school can empower students and enhance their educational experience.
Climate change has been a hot topic in recent years, with thousands of public figures, businesses, and private citizens joining the cause to reduce its effects. One of the most promising solutions that continues to gain traction is reforestation — the process of restoring a forest by planting trees and safeguarding ecological organizations. Reforestation has become increasingly important for its potential to mitigate global warming, improve air quality, and create healthier ecosystems. At the core of reforestation is its power to reduce carbon levels in the atmosphere. According to the World Resources Institute, forests are responsible for absorbing over a quarter of global carbon dioxide emissions, making them a powerful tool in the fight against climate change. Trees take in carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, and in turn, store the carbon as biomass. Deforestation — the destruction of forests — has a direct impact on global warming by releasing these accumulated carbon stores into the atmosphere. Reforestation combats this by decreasing the total amount of carbon released and removing carbon from the atmosphere in the process of photosynthesis. The environmental advantages of reforestation extend to much beyond just helping reduce global warming. Since trees restore natural habitats, their presence can be vital in helping to local flora and fauna thrive. It also provides crucial protection against soil erosion and helps to regulate water supplies. Furthermore, increasing the amount of greenery in an area can have substantial psychological benefits, as research from Harvard Medical School suggests that living near trees and other natural elements can improve physical and mental wellbeing. Reforestation is, of course, not a flawless solution to the climate crisis, as it can be critically impacted by a variety of political and economic factors. Many governments, for example, designated for planting trees for reforestation. If sufficient fiscal and political support is not provided, or the trees are not planted in areas that are conducive to sustaining life, the initiative may be inadequate or unsuccessful. Additionally, some larger-scale reforestation projects may create financial difficulties and take away jobs in a critical field. Overall, while reforestation is a viable methodology to explicitly address global warming, it must be implemented thoughtfully and sustainably. By using malleable technology and systems that can adjust to regional climates, as well as engaging local communities and economies, reforestation projects can reap the maximum benefits without doing more harm than good. Reforestation is an immensely important tool in the fight against climate change — one that has both environmental and financial rewards. For those who are interested in protecting the future of our planet, this initiative is highly recommended.
Fourth Grade with Ms. SanchezMath Our focus is on learning the standards involving estimation, multiplication, long division, and fractions. We study animal habitats, earthquakes and volcanoes, and rocks and minerals. Students advance comprehension and fluency skills by studying several novels including classics like: Bridge To Terabithia, and The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe We study California history including the Gold Rush, Native Americans, Western explorers, and the California Missions. Faith-based lesson topics include the Ten Commandments, beatitudes, and sacraments. We practice writing narrative, informative, opinion and research based papers. The final paper will culminate by incorporating a fun biography project. Hallmarks of Fourth Grade Fourth grade is known for the comprehensive projects students complete. Students are excited to research, build, and use their creativity for each unit. Some interesting projects include creating a World Monument, California Mission, and becoming a famous person during our Biography unit. In addition, we participate in fun field trips related to the 4th grade curriculum, including the Exploratorium, Academy of Sciences, the SF MOMA, a California Mission, and the SF Zoo.
Health Education I (7-8) Strand 5: NUTRITION (N)Students will develop lifelong strategies for healthy eating, body image, and understanding the food environment around them. Standard HI.N.2:Explain how nutrition and fitness contribute to long-term mental, physical, and social health and analyze situations where nutritional needs change throughout the lifespan. Students will be assessed on their understanding of how to read and understand nutrient information on food labels. 25 different food labels will be placed around the room. Students will work individually to answer the questions on their bingo cards by using the food labels. For example one question on the bingo card might say which food has the most saturated fat or grams of sugar? http://www.uen.org - in partnership with Utah State Board of Education (USBE) and Utah System of Higher Education (USHE). Send questions or comments to USBE Specialist - Jodi Parker and see the Health Education website. For general questions about Utah's Core Standards contact the Director - Jennifer Throndsen. These materials have been produced by and for the teachers of the State of Utah. Copies of these materials may be freely reproduced for teacher and classroom use. When distributing these materials, credit should be given to Utah State Board of Education. These materials may not be published, in whole or part, or in any other format, without the written permission of the Utah State Board of Education, 250 East 500 South, PO Box 144200, Salt Lake City, Utah 84114-4200.
The other day, I wandered into a Washington State University greenhouse and ran into my friend Mechthild Tegeder, a professor and expert on plants. She gently dug a small plant out of a pot so we could take a closer look. When she lifted it up, I pawed at the clumpy soil hanging from the bottom to reveal some stringy roots. “They’re amazing, aren’t they?” Tegeder said. “The root system functions like a web, anchoring the plant and the soil.” The plant had lots of short, fine roots growing near the surface. Tegeder explained that another kind of root is a taproot and it tends to grow straight down. You have eaten one of these before if you’ve ever had a carrot. While some roots grow near the surface, other roots make a journey deeper into the Earth. In fact, scientists have found roots nearly 200 feet below the surface of huge trees. These roots can grow wide, too. Like the underwater part of an iceberg, a plant’s underground web of roots can take up to about four times as much space as the plant itself. Whether you look at the roots of a giant tree, a little dandelion, or a carrot, they each have a couple things in common. As you know, they anchor plants to the soil. But they also deliver water and nutrients, or food, to the above-ground part of the plant. Plants actually do this using really tiny hairs that sprout out of their roots. These little root hairs absorb the water and nutrients from the dirt. They deliver them up the roots, to the stem, and the rest of the plant or tree. And roots look for these important resources anywhere they can. That’s part of the reason they will grow out in different directions. In fact, there is even a special part of these hairs that scientists believe helps the roots sense where they are going in the soil. It’s a bit like an obstacle course, or like using your hands to navigate through a dark room. These roots will grow in any space they can find. For small plants, this might mean empty space between clumps of soil. For big trees, it might mean roots that start to grow up and over sidewalks or walls. Not all roots grow down or underground, though. Roots can grow up and out of the soil to reach into the air for nutrients and water. Then there are plants that don’t have roots at all. But roots are really helpful to plants that do use them. As the roots and soil hang onto each other, they keep the important top layer of soil—the part we use to grow food—from washing away in the rain or blowing away in strong winds. Roots don’t just help the plant, but also the soil itself. As you can see, it really just takes a bit of digging to get to the bottom of it. Keep asking great science questions.
Science is all about understanding the world around us. At Kingsthorne, we aim to ensure children are equipped with the scientific knowledge required to understand the uses and implications of science, today and for the future through the three disciplines of biology, chemistry and physics. Science is all about enjoyment, awe and wonder. The children will learn to: - Ask questions stimulated by their exploration of their world. - Draw on their everyday experience to help answer questions. - Use their senses and simple equipment to make observations. - Respond to prompts to say what happened. Key Stage 1. In Key Stage 1 the children will: - Experience and observe phenomena, looking closely at the natural and human-made world around them. - Be encouraged to be curious and ask questions about what they notice. - Develop their understanding of scientific ideas through the use of first hand experiences of different types of scientific enquiry. - Use simple scientific language to talk about what they have found out and communicate this in a variety of ways. Key Stage 2. In Key Stage 2 the children will: - Broaden their scientific view of the world around them. - Explore, test and develop ideas about everyday phenomena. - Ask questions about what they observe and make decisions about which types of scientific enquiry are best to answer them. - Carry out simple comparative and fair tests. - Use scientific language to talk and write about what they have found out. - Draw conclusions based on their data and observations. - Read, spell and pronounce scientific vocabulary correctly.
A mass spectrum is the two-dimensional representation of ion abundance versus m/z. This implies that both an ion’s m/z and its abundance are detected. Ion abundance is reflected by the signal area, more simply by signal height. The most intensive peak of a mass spectrum is termed the base peak and the intensity of the others is represented as relative to the base peak. By normalization of the base peak intensity to 100 % the appearance of a mass spectrum becomes independent of the absolute amount of sample. Thereby, mass spectra can be compared even when they were generated from different amounts of sample and/or on different instruments. Often, mass spectra are simply displayed as histograms whereas profile spectra are employed when peak shape also plays role. A list of m/z and intensity values is useful for more detailed analysis of a spectrum. The signal at highest m/z within a spectrum normally reflects the molecular ion and the corresponding peak is generally termed molecular ion peak. All other signals must therefore represent fragment ions thereof. Some fragment ions are directly formed by dissociation of the molecular ion while others, mainly low-mass ions, often result from multi-step processes. The electron ionization mass spectrum of ascorbinic acid, the substance that already served to illustrate the dimensions of molecular size and mass, is shown below.
Mitosis and Cytokinesis The process in which cells divide, thereby producing more cells. “Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets, in two separate nuclei. It is a form of karyokinesis, or nuclear division. It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles, and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell.” This is a data visualization, but it plays on cell division. I just really like this one :3 I’ve always had an interest in nerves, the nervous system, and neural networks in general. “A biological neural network is composed of a group or groups of chemically connected or functionally associated neurons. A single neuron may be connected to many other neurons and the total number of neurons and connections in a network may be extensive. Connections, called synapses, are usually formed from axons to dendrites, though dendrodendritic microcircuits and other connections are possible. Apart from the electrical signaling, there are other forms of signaling that arise from neurotransmitter diffusion.” Below are some pretty cool visualizations. The lower one was done in Processing. When a plant moves its flowers and/or leaves to face the sun. Not to be mistaken with Phototropism (or directional growth, in which the plant grows toward the sun). Heliotropic flowers track the sun’s motion across the sky from east to west. During the night, the flowers may assume a random orientation, while at dawn they turn again toward the east where the sun rises. The motion is performed by motor cells in a flexible segment just below the flower, called a pulvinus. The motor cells are specialized in pumping potassium ions into nearby tissues, changing their turgor pressure. The segment flexes because the motor cells at the shadow side elongate due to a turgor rise. Heliotropism is a response to blue light. Some generative art While browsing the internet for heliotropism and generative art I found this little piece called Silk.
Brownish-gray to gray-purple with pink underparts. No hair, only short bristles on back, head, and tail. Where to find it: Up until several years ago, hippopotamus could be found in most places south of the Sahara where food and water were abundant. Hippopotamus are now confined to National Parks and Reserves, but still inhabit many major swamps and rivers. Hippopotamus can be found in almost any national park or reserve with large lakes and rivers bordering expansive grasslands. Hippos must find places to live with deep lakes and rivers that are within walking distance of grasslands. Since hippos eat about 130 lb (59 kg) of food each day, they must find pastures that can support up to 81 hippos per sq. mile (31/sq. km). Hippos must be submerged in water, especially on very hot days, in order to cool themselves since hippos have very thin, naked skin. Due to their thin skin, hippos can easily become dehydrated or overheated. Hippos are typically considered nocturnal, but are in some cases also diurnal. Most hippos walk about 2 to 3 miles (3-5 km) and sometimes a many as 6 miles (10 km) while in search of food. Their diet consists of fruit, vegetables, leaves and grass. On average, hippos will spend 5 hours foraging after dark and will then return to the water before dawn so that they can spend the day sleeping and socializing. All hippos, except for mothers and young offspring, are largely independent and roam waters and grasslands alone. While hippos are quite social animals, they do not rely on each other for protection since adult hippos do not have any predators. The water portion of the homeland is split into separate mating territories which are protected by mature bulls over the age of 20. These territories are generally 50-to 100-yd sections of rivers or 250- to 500-yd sections of lakes. Occasionally hippos will form small herds which generally contain 5 to 30 hippos, but can be as small as 2 or as large as 50. In extreme situations, there have been 200 or more hippos seen in one area, but this is very rare. Mating typically occurs during the dry season while the hippos spend the majority of their time in the water. The gestation period is 8 months so most calves are born during the rainy season. Females first conceive around age 9 and then continue to calve every 2 years from that point on. Males mature by the age of 7, but may not mate until age 12. Calves are vulnerable to lions, hyaenas, and crocodiles.
Definition - What does Chlorine Demand mean? Chlorine demand is the difference between total chlorine added in the water and residual chlorine. It is the amount which reacts with the substances in water, leaving behind an inactive form of chlorine. Chlorine demand can be caused in a water body due to rain containing ammonia or the addition of fertilizers which can be oxidized by chlorine. Corrosionpedia explains Chlorine Demand To purify water supplies and make them suitable for purposes like drinking, cooking and swimming, chlorine is added. Chlorine demand from the total chlorine added can be explained using the following equation: - Chlorine demand = Total chlorine – Chlorine residual The purity of water can be determined by monitoring the value of chlorine demand. If the value is zero, the water is already free of pathogenic microorganisms. If the value is less than the total chlorine, it shows that the amount of chlorine added initially to the water was sufficient.
Insect pollinators that have survived the impacts of agricultural intensification may have a greater ability to resist future environmental changes than previously thought, a new study has found. Pollination by insects, particularly bees, is vital to food production and humans because it affects the yield or quality of 75% of globally important crop types, but in recent years there has been increasing concern about the long-term stability of this service due to widespread declines in some species. Despite the negative impacts of agricultural intensification on plants and insect pollinators, researchers at the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology and the University of Reading found the species that remain in parts of the UK with a higher proportion of farmed land are more likely to survive a variety of potential environmental changes. However, the research, published in the Ecology Letters journal, suggested that was because these landscapes have already lost their most vulnerable species, retaining those insect and plant species that are more able to take whatever is thrown at them. The study drew on six million records from more than 30 years of citizen science data from thousands of volunteer naturalists, relating to sightings of species and visits to plants by pollinators such as bees, hoverflies and butterflies. The latter records enabled researchers to identify 16,000 unique interactions between plants and pollinators across Great Britain and, for the first time, the extent of how these ‘ecological networks’ vary with different types of landscapes across the country. John Redhead of the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, the lead researcher of the new study, said: “We think the plants and pollinators that remain in these landscapes represent the toughest species that can handle the stresses of intensive agriculture – the vulnerable ones are already long gone. “This means that they’re also able to cope with many future changes, so although we hear about reported declines in our wildlife, this may buy conservationists some time before we start to see the remaining plants and pollinators in agricultural areas really suffer.” The plants that have survived intensive agriculture include common weed species like brambles and thistles, which can cope with increased soil fertilization and reduced water availability. Meanwhile, the insects that have fared better are ‘generalist’ pollinators that can feed on a wide variety of plant species, including crops and weeds, plus can cope with fewer and more scattered floral and nesting sites. The study was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC). Potential landscape-scale pollinator networks across Great Britain: structure, stability and influence of agricultural land cover. John W. Redhead, Ben A. Woodcock, Michael J.O. Pocock, Richard F. Pywell, Adam J. Vanbergen, Tom H. Oliver. Ecology Letters. 2018. DOI: 10.1111/ele.13157
The earliest form of Sanskrit is found in the Rig Veda. After the Rig Veda was composed, Sanskrit language developed rapidly. The grammar became considerably simplified though still remaining complex. When the need was felt for proper pronunciation and understanding of the meaning of the older Vedic texts particularly at a time when many new words were introduced from non-Aryan sources, India developed the science of phonetics and grammar. There was also a belief that unless the Vedic texts were recited very accurately, it would bring misfortune to the reader. Panini’s great grammar the Ashtadhyayi was most probably composed towards the 4th century BC. It may be stated that with Panini the language attained its highest state of development and thereafter there was improvement only in its vocabulary. Side by side the sounds of Sanskrit were analysed with remarkable accuracy. The vowels and the consonants were all classified in a very scientific manner according to their mode of production. Panini’s grammar may be justly described as one of the grandest achievements of any civilization. Panini had formulated some 4000 grammatical rules. Later Indian grammar texts could only be commentaries on the matchless work of Panini. Sanskrit spread to other parts of the country including countries like Cambodia and Srilanka. When Buddhism emerged as a new religion people started speaking languages much simpler than Sanskrit. These were known as the Prakrit. In the pre-Gupta period the inscriptions especially the series of Ashoka’s edicts are in Prakrit. Prakrits were simpler than Sanskrit in respect of both sound and grammar. One of the early Prakrit of considerable importance was Pali which became the language of one sect of the Buddhists. Tamil is the oldest of Dravidian languages with a literature dating back to the earliest centauries after the beginning of the Christian era. These languages form an independent group with a distinctive character. From the very early times Tamil was affected by Sanskrit. Early Tamil literature contains relatively few words from Sanskrit and they were adapted to the Tamil phonetic system.
History of Mathematics: Its relation to CT 1 “The book of nature is written in the language of mathematics”. –Galileo “To be is to be the value of a bound variable.” —Willard Van Orman Quine “However, I maintain that in any particular doctrine of nature only so much genuine science can be found as there is mathematics to be found in it”. — Immanuel Kant, Preface to “Metaphysical Beginning Principles of Natural Science” Questions: Is absolute certainty attainable in mathematics? Is there a distinction between truth and certainty in mathematics? Should mathematics be defined as a language? What does it mean to say that mathematics is an axiomatic system? How is an axiomatic system of knowledge different from, or similar to, other systems of knowledge? Science as “the theory of the real”, the “seeing of the real”, is the will of this science to ground itself in the axiomatic knowledge of absolutely certain propositions; it is Descartes’ cogito ergo sum, “I think, therefore I am” . An axiom is a statement that is taken to be true, and serves as a premise or starting point for further reasoning and arguments. The word comes from the Greek axíōma: ‘that which is thought worthy or fit in itself’ or ‘that which commends itself as evident’. This “fittedness” and “self-evidentness” relates to the correspondence theory of truth, but it has its roots in the more primal Greek understanding of truth as aletheia, that which is “unconcealed” or “that which is revealed”. The axiomatic ground-plan or blueprint for all things allows the things to become accessible, to be able to be known, by establishing a relation between ourselves to them. But today, the relation of the knower to what is known is only of the kind of calculable thinking that conforms to this plan which is established beforehand and projected onto the things that are. Initially, this relation to things was called logos by the Greeks. The word initially meant “speech” or “communication”, but today it means “reason”, “logic” and is sometimes referred to as “theorems”. If we use an analogy, we see the things as “data” or “variables” that are much like the pixels on a computer screen that require a “system”, a blueprint, a framework so that the pixels/data/variables can be defined and bound, and in this defining and binding the things are made accessible so that they can conform to something that can be known, some thing that we bring with us beforehand which will allow them to be “seen” i.e. the body of the bodily, the plant-like of a plant, the animal-like of the animal, the thingness of a thing, the utility of a tool, and so on. The blueprint or mathematical projection allows the “data” to become “objective”; the data are not objective until they are placed within the system or framework. If they cannot conform to the blueprint, the framework, the system, to this manner of knowing, then we consider them “subjective” and they somehow have less “reality”; they are not a “fact” because they are less “calculable”. One sees the effect of this framing in our language and the texting that is now a popular mode of discourse for us. Grave consequences are the result of the thinking that is bound by, and bound to, the “mathematical projection”. The mathematical and numbers are obviously connected, but what is it that makes “numbers” primarily mathematical? The mathematics and its use of number and symbol that we study in Group 5 is a response to but does not ground our will to axiomatic knowledge i.e. the knowledge that comes from the axioms and the first principles that follow from those axioms. Modern mathematics, modern natural science and modern metaphysics all sprang from the same root that is the mathematical projection in the widest sense. It is within the “mathematical projection” that we receive our answers to the questions of “what is knowing?” and “what can be known?” i.e. to those chief concerns of our “Core Theme”. The change from ancient and medieval science to modern science required not only a change in our conceptions of what things are but in the “mathematics” necessary to realize this change, our “grasping” and “holding”, our “binding” of what the things are, what we ourselves bring to the things. The change is one from “bodies” to “mass”, “places” to “position”, “motion” to “inertia”, “tendencies” to “force”. “Things” become aggregates of calculable mass located on the grid of space-time, at the necessity of forces which are partly discernible and with various predictable jumps across the grid that we recognize as outcomes, values or results. When new discoveries in any area of knowledge require a change in design (what is sometimes called a “paradigm shift”, but are not, truly, paradigm shifts), the grid itself remains metaphysically imposed on the things. This grid, this mathematical projection, is at the mysterious heart of what is understood as technology in these writings. Modern Natural Science (physics, chemistry, biology) is dependent on mathematical physics. Modern Natural Science views the world through the lens of what is known as the “Reduction Thesis”: that there is a correspondence between science and the world, and that this correspondence can be demonstrated within the correspondence theory of truth using the principle of reason, the principle of non-contradiction, the principle of causality, and the principle of sufficient reason. Science is the theory of the real. The world, in ascending order of complexity, is composed of elementary particles (states of energy), higher, more complex, structures such as those observed by chemistry, yet more complex ones such as organisms that are observed in biology, and, lastly, human beings and their institutions (the Human Sciences). In a similar fashion, the sciences can be rank-ordered in a corresponding way with mathematical physics at one end and, at the other, the sciences concerned with the human: sociology, psychology, political science, among others which require more than simple mathematical results. The status of mathematical physics (where algebraic calculation becomes authoritative for what is called knowledge) turns on its ability to give us an account of the essential character of the world (essence = its whatness), rather than merely describing some of its accidents (an “accident” is a “non-essential” category for what a thing is. You have brown eyes and I have blue eyes but these are “accidents” and have no impact on our both being, essentially, human beings). Can mathematical physics make such a claim i.e. does mathematical physics describe or give an account of what and how the world really is? its essence? Ancient and Modern Representation of Number: “Representation”, through the correspondence theory of truth, includes the conceptual tools which inform a world-view, or, to mix ancient and modern analogies, “representation” refers to the horizons, the limits defining this or that Cave, city, nomos (convention), civilization, or age. These definitions or horizons are the ‘paradigms’, ‘the stamp’ of what is considered to be knowledge in those Caves and determines what will be education in them. In the narrower sense, representation refers to the operations of the mind as it deals with concepts as well as its reflections on those operations, such as what we are trying to do here in TOK. We will examine the narrower sense here. We will note that the notion of a “concept” has been completely taken up in modern representation through imagination and reason, and these bring about the “knowing” and “making” that is the essence of technology. We shall try to do this with a reflection on the nature of number. The Greek concept of number has a meaning which, when considered by First Philosophy (metaphysics), yields an ontology (the knowledge of ‘being-in-the-world’ and the beings in it) of one sort. The modern concept of number, on the other hand, while remaining initially faithful to this Greek meaning, yields an ontology or a way of being-in-the-world of a very different sort. For the Greeks (and the tradition subsequent to them) number, the Greek arithmos, refers, always, to a “definite number of definite things”. Five or cinq or penta can refer to either five apples or five people or five pixels, but it must refer to a definite number of definite things. Alexander, one of the Aristotelian commentators, said: “Every number is of some thing”; the Pythagoreans said “The things are numbers”. As for counting per se, it refers to things or objects of a different sort, namely monads or units, that is, to objects whose sole feature is unity, being a “one”. For example, it would be as unthinkable for an ancient mathematician such as Diophantus to assume that an “irrational ratio” such as pi, which is not divisible by one, is a number as it is for us moderns to divide a number by zero. (The neologism, “irrational ratio”, only means a ratio which yields, in our terminology, an irrational number.) Similar considerations hold for geometry. A triangle drawn in sand or on a whiteboard, which is an “image” of the object of the geometer’s representation, refers to an individual object, for example, to a triangle per se, if the representation concerns the features of triangles in general. For the Greeks, the objects of counting or of geometry are, if considered by the arithmetical or geometrical arts, in principle, incorporeal, without body. Hence a question arises as to their mode of existence. Plato’s and Aristotle’s answers (whatever the differences between them, they are agreed on this) are that to account for what it means to say that there are pure monads or pure triangles must begin from the common ground which has been condescendingly called “naive realism” by the moderns. For Plato, pure monads point to the existence of the Ideas, mind-independent objects of cognition, universals; for Aristotle, monads are to be accounted for on the basis of his answer to the question “What exists?”, namely mind-independent particulars, like Socrates, and their predicates, that is, by reference to substances (subjectum, objects) and their accidents. An accident, in philosophy, is an attribute that may or may not belong to a subject, without affecting its essence. Aristotle made a distinction between the essential and accidental properties of a thing. A few words on “intentionality” are needed here and to distinguish between first-order intentionality and second-order intentionality. We say that computers can be said to know things because their memories contain information; however, they do not know that they know these things in that we have no evidence that they can reflect on the state of their knowledge. Those computers which are able to reproduce haikus will not do so unless prompted, and so we can really question whether or not they have “knowledge” of what it is that we think they are capable of doing i.e. constructing haikus. They do not have “intelligence”, per se. Much of human behaviour can be understood in a similar manner: we carry out actions without really knowing what the actions are or what the actions intend. Intentionality is the term that is used to refer to the state of having a state of mind (knowing, believing, thinking, wanting, intending, etc) and these states may only be found in animate things. In these writings these states are referred to as Being or ontology. Awareness of the thought of Being is the purpose of this TOK course and this may be called a “second-order” intention. So first-order intentionality refers to the mind directed towards those beings or things which are nearby, ready-to-hand. They are the concepts that we use to understand the non-mental or material things. Second-order intentions deal with abstract, mental constructs. Much discussion of this is to be found in Medieval philosophy in their attempts to understand Aristotle. “First intention” is a designation for predications such as: ‘Socrates is a man’, ‘Socrates is an animal’, ‘Socrates is pale’. It not only serves as a designation for such statements or assertions about a thing, but it also characterizes their ontological reference or the ‘thing’ to which they refer i.e. to the being of what the thing is. Each of the predications listed above (man, animal, pale) has as an object of reference, a “first intention”; in Aristotelian terms a substance, in the Latin subjectum e.g., Socrates. It carries with it a “pointing towards”. (In this explanation, it is important to note language as “signs” in the word “de-sign-ation”. It is also important to note how our “reasoning” is based on the grammar/language of our sentences in English due to its roots in ancient Greek and Latin.) “First intentions” refer to our “first order” of questioning i.e. asking about the categories or characteristics of the things, their descriptions. We may say that the questioning about these characteristics is “first order” since they look at our assertions about the character of the the things and not about the thing’s “essence”. They are of the “first order” because they arise from our initial perceptions of the thing. According to the Greeks number refers directly, without mediation, to individual objects, to things, whether apples or monads. It is, in the language of the Schools (the medieval Scholastics), a “first intention”. Number, thus, is a concept which refers to mind-independent objects. In order to understand the modern concept of number, it is useful to say a few words about the distinction between first and second intentions and show how these have come to be related to our understanding of “first order” and “second order” questioning. With reference to representational thinking as understood by the ancients, not only is abstractness misapplied in this case of a ‘subject’ and its ‘predicates’, but the modern concept of number stands between us and an appreciation of why this is so. The Greek concept of number, arithmos, as stated in, say, penta, is a first intention i.e. it refers to mind-independent entities, whether it is apples or monads (things, units). The modern concept of number as “symbol generating abstraction” results from the identification, with respect to number, of the first and second intentions: both the mind-independent objects and the inquiring mind and its concepts are combined. It is what we have been calling the mathematical projection here. In order to make sense of the notion of a “symbol-generating abstraction”, we need to go to the modern concept of number. Symbolic mathematics, as in post-Cartesian algebra, is not merely a more general or more abstract form of mathematical presentation. It involves a wholly new understanding of abstraction which becomes a wholly new understanding of what it means for the mind to have access to general concepts i.e., second intentions, as well as implying a wholly new understanding of the nature and the mode of existence of general concepts, and thus, a wholly new determination of what things are through a wholly new manner of questioning. This new ‘representation’ allows symbolic mathematics to become the most important achievement of modern natural science. Let us look at how this came about. Viete and Descartes and the New Understanding of the Workings of the Mind: In order to display where Viete departs from the ancient mode of representation, we need to focus on the use of letter signs and Viete’s introduction of letter signs into mathematics in the West. We think that a letter sign is a mere notational convenience (a symbol in the ordinary sense of the word in our day) whose function is to allow for a greater generality of reference to the things it refers to. But this use of symbols, as the character of “symbol generating abstraction”, entails a wholly new mode of ontology or being-in-the-world and the representation of things of the world. Every number refers to a definite multitude of things, not only for ancient mathematicians but also for Viete. The letter sign, say, ‘a,’ refers to the general character of being a number; however, it does not refer to a thing or a multitude of things. Its reference is to a concept taken in a certain manner, that is, to the concept’s and the number’s indeterminate content, its variableness. In the language of the Scholastics, the letter sign designates a “second intention”; it refers to a concept, a product of the mind. But what is of critical importance: it does not refer to the concept of number per se but rather to its ‘what it is’, to “the general character of being a number”. The letter sign, ‘a‘, in other words, refers to a “conceptual content”, mere multiplicity for example which, as a matter of course, is identified with the concept. This matter-of-course, implicit, identification is the first step in the process of “symbol generating abstraction”. This step, which is entailed by Viete’s procedures and not merely by Viete’s reflections on his procedures, makes possible modern symbolic mathematics. In other words, at the outset, at the hands of its “onlie begetter” Viete, the modern concept of number suggests a radical contrast with ancient modes of representation. For Plato and Aristotle logos, discursive speech/ language, is human beings’ shared access to the “content” of a concept, what was known as “dialectic”. It is through language, and as language, that mathematical objects are accessible to the Greeks. Not so for modern representation. The letter sign refers and gives us access to “the general character of being a number”, mere multiplicity (arithmos) (although it was left to Descartes to work out the implications of this mode of representation. More will be said on Descartes below.) In addition, the letter sign indirectly, through rules, operational usages, and syntactical distinctions of an algebraic sort, also refers to things, for example, five units. This leads directly to the decisive and culminating step of “symbol generating abstraction” as it emerges out of Viete’s procedures. It occurs when the letter sign is treated as independent; that is, when the letter sign, because of its indirect reference to things or units, is accorded the status of a “first intention” but, and this is critical, all the while remaining identified with the general character of a number, i.e. a “second intention”. Jacob Klein in Greek Mathematical Thought and the Origin of Algebra sums up this momentous achievement: a potential object of cognition, the content of the concept of number, is made into an actual object of cognition, the object of a “first intention”. From now on, number is both independent of human cognition (not a product of the imagination or mind) i.e. objective, and also without reference to the world or any other mind-independent entity, which, from the point of view of the tradition (if not common sense) is paradoxical. What all of this means, according to Klein, is that “the one immense difficulty within ancient ontology, namely to determine the relation between the ‘being’ of the object itself and the ‘being’ of the object in thought is . . . accorded a ‘matter-of-course’ solution . . . whose significance . . . (is) . . . simply-by passed”. We can see now how the Quine statement beginning this writing (“To be is to be the value of a bound variable”) relates to this arrival of algebraic calculation. The mode of existence of the letter sign (in its operational context) is symbolic. Let us try to grasp Klein’s suggestion about what symbolic abstraction means by contrasting it with the Platonic and Aristotelian accounts of mathematical objects. For Plato the correlate of all thought which claims to be knowledge is the mind-independent form, the “outward appearance” (eidos) and the idea (idea) or, in the case of number, the monad, the “unique”, singular one; none of these are the ontological correlates of the symbolic, modern grasp of mathematics. For Aristotle the object of the arithmetical art results from abstraction, but abstraction understood in a precisely defined manner. The abstraction of Aristotle is diaeresis where attention is paid to the predicates of things rather than the whole of a thing and the predicate is subtracted from the whole so that individual attention may be given to it. The subtracted thing has real existence outside of the mind. The mode of existence of what the letter sign refers to in modern mathematics is not abstract in this Aristotelian sense, but is symbolic; it is more general. In the modern sense, both the symbol and what it refers to are not only unique, arising out of the new understanding of number implied by the algebraic art of Viete, they are, as well, logical correlates of one another, symmetrically and transitively implying each other i.e. such that, if a relation applies between successive members of a sequence, it must also apply between any two members taken in order. For instance, if A is larger than B, and B is larger than C, then A is larger than C.. That is, symbol in “symbol generating abstraction” is not a place marker which refers to some thing, as in the ordinary sense of symbol of our day such as a stop sign; rather it is the logical, conceptual, and thus quasi-ontological correlate of what it refers to, namely the “conceptual content” of the concept of number i.e. multiplicity. From this will follow (Newton) that all ‘things’ become ‘uniform’ masses located in ‘uniform’ spaces. The philosopher Kant will ground this viewing in his Critique of Pure Reason. But at the same time, while bound to the ancient concept, the modern version is, paradoxically, less general. “Abstraction” in the non-Aristotelian sense, the label for symbolic modes of thought, can be grasped in at least two ways. First, it presents itself as a term of distinction as in the pair abstract/concrete. Whereas the concrete stands before us in its presence or can be presented through or by an image, the “abstract” cannot. Alternatively, “abstract” in the modern interpretation can also be illustrated by an ascending order of generality: Socrates, man, animal, species, genus. The scope of the denotation, or the extension, increases as abstractness increases, and, once again, the more general is also the less imaginable. But this is precisely what symbolic abstraction is not. The mathematical symbol ‘a‘ in context has no greater extension than the ancient number, say, penta. Rather, the symbol is a “way” or, in the modern interpretation of method which Descartes inaugurates, a step in a “method” of grasping the general through a particular (links to inductive reasoning and the scientific method may be made here as well as to the Greek understanding of dianoia). It is a way of imagining the unimaginable, namely the content of a “second intention”, which is at the same time through procedural rules, taken up as a “first intention”, i.e., something which represents a concrete ‘this one’. One consequence of this reinterpretation of the concept of arithmos is that the “ontological” science of the ancients is replaced by a symbolic procedure whose ontological presuppositions are left unclarified” (Klein, Greek Mathematical Thought, p. 184). What are the things which are represented here? Descartes’ suggestion that the mind has such a power answers to the requirements of Viete’s supposition that the letter sign of algebraic notation can refer meaningfully to the “conceptual content” of number. The “new possibility of understanding” required is, if Descartes is correct, none other than a faculty of intellectual “intuition” (which we commonly call imagination). But this faculty of intellectual intuition is not understood in terms of the Kantian faculty of intellectual intuition. The Cartesian version, implied by Descartes’ account of the mind’s capacity to reflect on its knowing, unlike its Kantian counterpart, is not informed by an object outside of the mind. (Of course, since for Kant the human intellect cannot intuit objects outside the mind in the absence of sensation, there is no innate human faculty of “intellectual intuition”. It is, for Kant, a faculty that is impossible and illustrates a limitation on human knowing.) Moreover, this power of intuition has “no relation at all to the world . . . and the things in the world” (Klein, p. 202). In other words, it is not to be characterized so much as either incorporeal or dealing with the incorporeal but, rather, as unrelated to both the corporeal and the incorporeal, and so perhaps is an intermediate between the “mind the core of traditional interpretations of Descartes. In the simplest terms, the objects of mathematical thought are given to the mind by its own activity, or, mathematics is metaphysically neutral; it says nothing about the being of a world outside of the mind’s own activities; it stresses subjectivity and subjectiveness.” The consequences of such thinking are immense and have been immense. Nonetheless, this unrelatedness of mathematics and world does not mean that mathematical thought is like Aristotle’s Prime Mover merely dealing with itself alone. It requires, according to Descartes, the aid of the imagination. The mind must “make use of the imagination” by representing “indeterminate manyness” through symbolic means” (Klein, p. 201). A shift in ontology, the passage from the determinateness of arithmos and its reference to the world, even if it is to the world of the Forms of Plato, to a symbolic mode of reference becomes absorbed by what appears to be a mere notational convenience, its means of representation, i.e., letter signs, coordinate axes, superscripts, etc., thus preparing the way for an understanding of method as independent of metaphysics, or of the “onto-language” of the schools of our day. The conceptual shift from methodos (the ancient “way” particular to, appropriate to, and shaped in each case by its heterogeneous objects) to the modern concept of a “universal method” (universally applicable to homogeneous objects, uniform masses in uniform space) is thus laid down. Through this, the way is prepared for a science of politics (and all human sciences) whose methodology is “scientific” and to their reference within these sciences of human beings as objects and ‘masses’. The interpretation of Viete’s symbolic art by Descartes as a process of abstraction by the intellect, and of the representation of that which is abstracted for and by the imagination is, then, “symbol generating abstraction” as a fully developed mode of representation (Klein, pp. 202, 208; cp. pp. 175, 192). Consider two results of this intellectual revolution. 1. In order to account for the mind’s ability to grasp concepts unrelated to the world, Descartes introduces a separate mode of knowing which knows the extendedness of extension or the mere multiplicity of number without reference to objects universal or particular outside of the mind. This not only allows, but logically implies, a metaphysically neutral understanding of mathematics. A mathematician in Moscow, Idaho, and one in Moscow, Russia, are dealing with the same objects although no reference to the world, generic or ontological, needs to be imputed. 2. “Symbol generating abstraction” yields an amazingly rich and varied “realm” (to use Leibniz’s sly terminology) of divisions and subdivisions of one and the same discipline, mathematics. For confirmation, one need only glance at the course offerings of a major university calendar under the heading “Mathematics”. Yet the source of this “realm” is at once unrelated to the world and deals with the “essence” of the world through mathematical physics in its essentialist mode. This is possible because the imagination is Janus-like. It is the medium for symbol generating and also a bridge to the world, since the world and the imagination share the same “nature” i.e., corporeality or, what comes to the same thing, the “real nature” of corporeality, extension. Viete for one, as well as Fermat, simplified their achievements. They understood the “complex conceptual process” of symbol generating abstraction as merely a higher order of “generalization” thereby setting the stage for what has come to be habitual for modern consciousness, the passing over of the theoretical and exceptional, so that, in Klein’s phrase, it is simply “by-passed” or overlooked (Klein, p. 92). (All this is an inversion of Heidegger’s insistence that the passing over of the ‘proximal’ and ‘everyday’ must be overcome to appropriate Being in our day.) But this blindness to its own achievements, from which the modern science of nature suffers, is a condition of its success. Only if the symbol is understood in this way merely as a higher level of generality can its relation to the world be taken for granted and its dependence on intuition be “by-passed”. Only if symbol is understood as abstract in modern opinion’s meaning of the word would it have been possible to arrive at the bold new structure of modern mathematical physics on the foundations of the old. It is important to grasp the conditions of the success of the modern concept of number. One of these is that modern mathematics is metaphysically neutral. This means, first of all, that modern mathematics does not entail, of itself, or presuppose of itself, metaphysical theses concerning what exists or what is the meaning of Being. For a contrast, one need only follow Klein’s patient exegesis of Diophantus’ Arithmetic; there, object, mode of presentation, scope of proof, and rigor of procedure are intermingled with metaphysics (Klein, pp. 126-49). Klein shows that “Aristotle’s theory … of mathematical concepts . . . was assimilated… by Diophantus and Pappus. Secondly, and more conclusively, the proofs and content of modern mathematical arguments need not be considered in conjunction with the metaphysical orientation of the mathematician presenting the argument, and so, whereas the pre-modern world could distinguish between Platonic and, say, Epicurean physics, no analogous distinction is viable in the modern world. There is yet a third way in which modern symbolic mathematics is metaphysically neutral and this in the strongest sense. It is neutral because it is all consistent with all metaphysical doctrines, nominalist or realist, relativist or objectivist. Whatever the metaphysics, to date, there is an interpretation of modern mathematics which leaves it unscarred. This is not the case for the ancient conception. For example, Euclid’s division of the theory of proportions into one for multitudes and another for magnitudes is rooted in the nature of things, in an “ontological commitment” to the difference between the two. Only after the metaphysical neutrality of the modern conception is taken for granted and bypassed, is it possible to do away with Euclid’s division as a matter of notational convenience.- None of this holds true for mathematical physics in its authoritative mode, as arbiter of what there is (and what can, therefore, be claimed to be knowledge), in the version it must assume to serve as a ground for the acceptance of the victory of the Moderns over the Ancients at the level of First Principles (metaphysics). Mathematical physics does make in this mode metaphysical claims. It is not metaphysically neutral. Elementary particles are, for example, if mathematical physics is arbiter of what there is. But are they? One can see a corollary application of this thinking in the “objectlessness” of modern art. Take, to begin with, the most influential version of ontology for those who accept the Reduction Thesis, that is, Willard Van Orman Quine’s famous dictum that “to be means to be the value of a bound variable.” Drawn as the dictum is in order to make metaphysics safe for physics, does it entail the existence of, say, elementary particles? All we know is that if we claim that particles are, that is, are in reality and not merely operationally defined then our claim will fit this semantic model. Conversely, sets, aggregates, mathematical infinities also qualify as “existents” in this semantic sense, but they cannot give us any knowledge of the world, since we need not impute to them any reference to a world outside the mind when we deal with them as pure objects of mathematics. In other words, as long as, in Cartesian terms, the identification of the real nature of body as extendedness with the objects of mathematical thought remains unproven and is merely, in effect, asserted, Sir Arthur Eddington’s hope that mathematical physics gives us an essentialist account of the world will remain just that, a hope. All of the above means that Klein’s book is a key to understanding modernity’s most profound opinion about the nature of Being, of bringing to light the very character of these modern opinions in a manner which discloses not only their historical genesis but lays open to inspection why they are not only opinions but also conventions. Thus his book Greek Mathematical Thought and the Origin of Algebra is a key to renewing that most daunting of human tasks, liberating us from the confines of our Cave.
What is or causes Wind? The main cause of wind are pressure differences (High’s/Low’s) over large areas. The term pressure difference relates to our changing weather systems worldwide. We have big weather systems in the upper atmosphere, as well as comparably smaller ones in the lower atmosphere. The small weather systems are those we experience every day on earth. How do the weather systems form? Because sun rays strike the earth at different angles all over the world, our planet is heated unequally everywhere. Just take a look at the picture. This results in different temperatures over big land areas (i.e.: ocean/land) and thus different radiation (radiation= air leaving the ground because it’s warmer and, therefore, lighter than it’s surrounding) into the atmosphere. This lifting of air is in turn responsible for the different pressure patterns (Highs/lows) that forms as a result. How is wind actually measured? Wind is measured at a height of about 10M over the surface by a so-called “anemometer”. The air (or wind) turns the cups. Their rotation is directly proportional to the wind speed.
Hybrid vehicles save fuel by running on electricity instead of gasoline or diesel fuel etc. MOSTLY FALSE!! Excluding vehicles adapted to draw from an external power source: 100% FALSE!! Excluding for now vehicles that can have their batteries recharged from the power company, the hybrid vehicle DERIVES 100% OF ITS PROPULSION AND POWER FOR LIGHTING, STEREO, AC ETC. FROM ITS FUEL TANK. When the gasoline (or diesel) engine is off the vehicle is running on surplus power from that gasoline or diesel engine which was converted into electricity and stored in the batteries. When the vehicle is going downhill and using not traditional friction braking but rather “regenerative” braking the batteries are recharged. This is not free, however. Ultimately 100% of the energy being stored in the batteries came from the traditional engine and the fuel tank. It might be the last time the vehicle accelerated or climbed the hill or considerably earlier but it all came originally from the fuel tank. So how does hybrid technology enhance fuel mileage? Every time energy is converted from one form to another, for example from the kinetic energy of a 50 mph speed to electricity, from fuel burned in an internal combustion engine to electricity stored in batteries, from battery charge to vehicle movement through electric motors, some is wasted because no man-made mechanism is 100% efficient. However, turning some of the energy that got the vehicle up to speed into electricity to recharge batteries — using generators for braking — reclaims for future use a percentage of that energy derived from burning a fuel. Traditional friction braking reclaims none — its all turned into heat to be dissipated to the atmosphere by the brake drums and rotors. (If the car received a brake job at a typical brake franchise a significant amount of the energy might be converted into sound). Very sophisticated computer programming ensures that the traditional internal combustion engine will run only at the highest possible mode of efficiency through the elimination of idling and other wasteful modes. The battery and electric motor portion of the drivetrain is essential to provide a means to store and use later the extra power produced when the traditional engine is running. The vehicle might be able to stop and go several times from what is stored in the batteries before there is a need to start the traditional engine but when that happens be assured it will run with the maximum efficiency state-of-the-art engineering allows. What about vehicles plugged in at night? Depending on driving scenarios such a vehicle might be operated indefinitely never taking a drop from the fuel tank. Unfortunately, it will be ultimately powered primarily by coal in most areas or perhaps by nuclear means. The electric company that generates significant power from wind, or solar panels is rare indeed. In some areas hydroelectric power is significant. By and large, however, the electricity, and hence the propulsion of the vehicle plugged in the night before, comes from burning a fossil fuel. There’s still pollution but it has been relocated. The relative amounts of pollution from a modern gasoline engine versus coal burned in a modern power plant and the relative gasoline versus electric bill costs are WAY beyond the scope of this piece — and also my knowledge! It’s somehow harmful to start your car without first turning off the radio, air conditioner etc. FALSE!! The current these devices draw is negligible compared with what the starter requires. In any case the ignition switch disables them in the start position. Storing car batteries directly on a cement floor drains their energy. FALSE!! Putting a piece of wood under the battery — advisable according to legend — serves no purpose. The plastic case is far more than adequate to block electrical leakage from inside the battery. It is true that batteries gradually self-discharge internally. Also, the colder they are the less of whatever electrical energy they contain is immediately available. Coca-Cola is good for cleaning battery connections. FALSE!! This flies in the face of basic chemistry. The whole problem with battery connections is corrosion due to their acidic environment. Carbonated beverages are acidic and cannot neutralize the troublesome battery acid. Baking soda is alkaline and hence a far better choice. Greedy gas station proprietors sometimes water down the fuel they sell. FALSE!! We all know that water and oil don’t mix. Like oil, gasoline is a petroleum product that won’t mix with water. Water in the underground tanks will sink and whoever is unlucky enough to pump it into his or her tank will probably not make it more than a hundred yards. It is possible to emulsify a small amount of water with gasoline through the addition of a co-solvent of the alcohol family such as methanol. Overfilling an engine or transmission will blow out seals. FALSE!! The inside of an engine produces the potential of pressure primarily due to heat. Also, a little bit of combustion exhaust inevitably leaks past the piston rings and is called “blowby.” For this reason the crankcase is vented to outside atmospheric pressure or even has slight vacuum applied to prevent forcing oil out of every seal and gasket. All transmissions and differentials are vented to accommodate heat build-up and barometric pressure changes. Overfilling an engine, transmission or differential may well overflow oil out the vent or elsewhere but will NOT damage seals. Don’t let your gas tank get nearly empty or accumulated crud from the bottom of tank will get sucked up causing fuel system problems. MOSTLY FALSE!! The pickup screen for the fuel pump is at the bottom of the tank and ALWAYS pulls from there. Particularly in cold climates, however, it is wise to keep the tank relatively full so there is less exposed surface area inside the tank where condensation could occur to contaminate the fuel with rust particles and water. Running out of gas is stressful to the in-tank electric fuel pump in modern vehicles as which relies on fuel for cooling and lubrication. There have been devices invented that allow an ordinary car to get 100 or more miles per gallon with drastically reduced emissions, increased power and no engine wear. They have been suppressed by the oil companies or car manufacturers. FALSE!! No need to say much about this one, but I will point out that if fuel line magnets and such had even a slight benefit you can bet they would be used in the racing community which will do anything for even the slightest edge. Needless-to-say, racers don’t waste their time with such. There have been variations on this myth for as long as there have been automobiles. The higher the octane of the fuel you put in your tank, the more horsepower, the more miles per gallon. TRUE UNDER SPECIFIC CIRCUMSTANCES!! This has been widely believed for many decades and, until relatively recently was false. Octane is NOT a rating of the amount of energy in a gallon of gasoline, nor it’s detergent qualities. Octane refers specifically to the gasoline’s resistance to entering an undesirable truly explosive mode of combustion causing “knock” or “ping” — encouraged by heavy engine load, high temperatures, high compression, advanced timing and other factors. On a pre-computer vehicle higher octane than necessary to prevent excess pinging was strictly money down the toilet. Timing, high compression ratios and high engine temperatures are key to a different situation now. In a modern computer-controlled vehicle these parameters are pushed close to, and sometimes beyond the limit where pinging occurs. This is done in the interest of reduced emissions, greater fuel efficiency and performance. When tolerances are such that the limit is exceeded a device called a “knock sensor” — essentially a tuned microphone — picks up the sound of the “ping” and signals the on-board computer to retard ignition timing until most of the harmful “pinging” is suppressed — to the detriment of horsepower and fuel mileage. High octane fuel reduces this compromise. An environmentally responsible citizen never uses the air conditioner of his or her older car that contains R12 freon — a substance known to damage the ionosphere. FALSE!! The system is under pressure even when the car is turned off — the suction side higher in pressure than with the AC in use and the discharge side lower — but prone to leakage in any case. In some ways more so if allowed to atrophy because refrigerant oil is not circulated to discourage corrosion of fittings and deterioration of “o”- rings and seals. The use of an AC system does not cause anything to be emitted except cold air towards the face.
Convicts’ ColonyBuy tickets In 1788, the penal colony of New South Wales was established on the Country of the Gadigal people. Convicted prisoners were shipped to New South Wales to serve their sentences and to build and populate a British settlement. As the colony grew in the first few decades, convicts lived under conditions of relative freedom and opportunity – but this was not to last. Life in early Sydney Convicts by origin Who were the barracks convicts? CONVICTS BY ORIGIN - 70% English - 24% Irish - 5% Scottish - 1% other PERCENTAGE OF CONVICTS WHO LEFT THE COLONY AFTER THEIR SENTENCE ENDED Between 1787 and 1868, around 166,000 convicts were transported to Australia. Mainly working-class people, they came from the urban centres and rural areas of England and Scotland, and the rural counties of Ireland. A smaller number were sent from across the British Empire, including India, Canada, New Zealand, Hong Kong and the Caribbean. One in seven (or around 25,000) were women. Most convicts were under 35 years old, and more than half were between the ages of 16 and 25. They were typically single and without children, and more than half could read or write. Some were violent and hardened criminals, army deserters, mutineers and political rebels, but three-quarters of all convicts were petty criminals charged with property crimes, and many were repeat offenders. ‘[The land] was invaded by the redcoats, the British, and taken off the Aboriginal people … We do matter, and we haven’t gone away, and we’re still here.’ ARTIST GORDON SYRON, 2018 The British named this place Sydney Cove, but to the local Gadigal clan of the Darug nation it was Warrane. The appropriation of Warrane by the First Fleet was the first step in an unfolding saga of devastation and dispossession of Aboriginal society. Path to freedom Path to freedom Well-behaved convicts or those with useful skills could earn privileges, from extra tobacco or food rations to elevation to the role of an overseer or constable, and even petition for early release. The most common reward was a ticket of leave. Typically issued after a period of time had been served, this allowed a convict to live and work as a free citizen for the remainder of their sentence, provided they stayed in a given area. The ultimate reward was a pardon. A conditional pardon granted a convict almost all of the entitlements of free settlers, including the right to move, work and participate freely in colonial society. An absolute pardon went one step further, allowing recipients to leave the colony, if they wished, and return to Britain. On the completion of their sentence, whether by pardon or after time fully served, convicts were granted a Certificate of Freedom, giving them the same rights as free settlers. Becoming a convict Becoming a convict A convict is a person convicted of committing a crime and sentenced in a court to be punished. Offenders facing a British judge in the late 18th and early 19th centuries were at the mercy of a system of criminal justice based on the belief that the threat of severe punishment would deter crime. Until the 1830s, more than 200 crimes, from murder and rape to robbery, carried a death sentence. Courts could also impose fines, whippings and sentences of transportation. Seven years in faraway New South Wales was most common, but convicts were also sentenced to 14 years or life in the colony. ‘Transportation for life’ was given for serious crimes or as a reprieve to people originally sentenced to hang. Before leaving for the colonies, some convicts created ‘love tokens’ to give to family or sweethearts as mementos. These were hand-engraved coins sometimes inscribed with messages of affection or popular rhymes. This love token is a smoothed halfpenny with the words: ‘JOSEPH SMYTH/CAST FOR DEATH/4TH JULY 1817/AGED 33’, and ‘MARY ANN SMYTH/AGED 27’. It was engraved for convicted burglar Joseph Smith (or Smyth) as he awaited execution in a London lock-up, to give to his wife, Mary Ann. Joseph was saved from the gallows, his sentence commuted to transportation for life. Poignant and rare, love tokens remind us of the uncertainty of the convicts’ fate, and the impact on family and friends left behind. Voyage to New South Wales By the 1810s, what had once been a voyage into the unknown was now a well-travelled route of 13,000 miles (21,000 kilometres). During a crossing of four or five months, convict ships stopped at Rio de Janeiro in Brazil or Cape Town in South Africa to take on provisions, before making their way across the vast Southern Ocean south of Australia and up the eastern seaboard to Sydney. Convicts endured cramped and poorly ventilated berths, and were only permitted to go above deck for short stints. In the early years, many convicts had arrived at Sydney Cove suffering scurvy, dysentery and other illnesses, and some died on the voyage. Following changes in 1815 to shipboard hygiene and procedures, including the placement of a Royal Navy surgeon on board with authority over convict welfare, convicts arrived in relatively good health. By the mid-1810s, the colonial population of New South Wales was almost 13,000, made up of convicts, ex-convicts and their families, together with soldiers, government and military officials, and a few free settlers. Sydney Town was nestled between two ridges, one crowned with a military barracks and parade grounds, while on the opposite ridge was the new general hospital, still being built. Windmills ground grain from government farms and private crops, and trading, transport and whaling vessels navigated the harbour, passing Aboriginal women fishing in nawi (canoes). The town’s paved streets lined with shops, taverns, cottages, villas and warehouses often looked familiar to newly arrived convicts, like something out of an English village. Red-coated soldiers manned the town’s fortifications, guarding against local unrest and possible attack by Britain’s enemies. A number of convicts, known as ‘government men’, worked on public projects and government worksites. Most carried out gruelling manual labour – clearing trees, sawing timber, breaking rocks and carting supplies – but some were skilled workers such as wheelwrights, carpenters, boatbuilders, brickmakers and blacksmiths. To enable close supervision by overseers, government men were organised into gangs. Specialist gangs might number only three or four convicts, while those working on the roads or in the cavernous sandstone quarries could comprise 60 or more. Major General Lachlan Macquarie Major General Lachlan Macquarie was sworn in as governor of New South Wales on 1 January 1810, and immediately began an ambitious public works program to build fine churches, courthouses, hospitals and schools, and properly laid-out streets, all signs of the colony’s moral improvement and civic progress. Macquarie’s building program required a more disciplined convict workforce. To house them, he decided to build a dormitory. This would provide accommodation and reduce the nuisance of government convicts in town at night, gambling, drinking and stealing; supply a more reliable and better-fed workforce to labour on government projects; and increase discipline and supervision to encourage and reward hard work. The Hyde Park Barracks, Macquarie believed, would bring peace and security to the town and provide convicts with a practical path to reform. A barracks rises A barracks rises The site selected for the Hyde Park Barracks was a patch of ground at the southern end of Macquarie Street. The foundations were laid in April 1817. Like most colonial buildings, the Hyde Park Barracks was a completely handmade structure, its core materials stripped from Aboriginal Country. Sandstone came from nearby quarries; clay was baked into bricks at government and private brickyards; and wood was felled and milled in outlying timber-getting camps and processed through the government lumberyard. Throughout 1817–18, convict stonecutters, bricklayers, carpenters and sawyers worked under the directions of convict architect Francis Greenway and the chief engineer, Major George Druitt. Hundreds of convicts laboured on the site, climbing up and down the scaffolding, mixing mortar, cutting and laying stone, laying bricks, timber beams and flooring, raising the roof structure and laying out the shingling. Francis Greenway, the colony’s civil architect from 1816 to 1822, was critical to realising Macquarie’s vision for New South Wales. A talented architect from Bristol, Greenway arrived in Sydney in 1814 with a 14-year sentence for forgery. Within a month he received a ticket of leave, allowing him to work for himself and support his wife and children, who had followed him to Sydney. When the Hyde Park Barracks was completed, Macquarie granted Greenway an absolute pardon. Greenway’s career was marked by a prolific output but plagued by clashes with colonial officials, chief engineers, influential settlers and military officers. As a result, he was dismissed as civil architect in late 1822. In debt, socially and professionally shunned, and resentful of his perceived mistreatment, Greenway died in 1837 at the age of 59 in a simple cottage in the Hunter Valley, north of Sydney. He was buried far from the elegant buildings that sprang from his talents. The barracks opens 4 June 1819 HYDE PARK BARRACKS NUMBER CRUNCH EXTERIOR BRICKS 90,460 ROOF SHINGLES 21,400 ROOF TRUSSES 11 WEIGHT OF ROOF 30+ tons LENGTH OF BARRACKS 123 feet (37.5 metres) HEIGHT OF BARRACKS 48 feet (14.5 metres) WIDTH OF BARRACKS 48 feet 6 inches (14.8 metres) The Hyde Park Barracks compound was completed in mid-1819. From the outside, it was a study in Georgian design, with its high-quality brickwork and stonemasonry, delicate window joinery, relieving arches, domed pavilions and architectural symmetry. Inside, the spaces were bare and functional. The 12 sleeping wards had hardwood floorboards, plain doorways and joinery, and rough brick walls painted in lime wash. The barracks was ready for its first residents. A new colony In January 1788, a fleet of 11 British tall ships sailed into a sheltered harbour, which the British called Port Jackson. Just over 1000 people stepped ashore at a small bay. More than 700 were convicts; the rest were soldiers and officials, some with their families and servants. The new governor named the bay Sydney Cove, but to the Gadigal clan who lived there it was Warrane. Like all the surrounding country, and everywhere beyond, the Sydney region was already occupied and cultivated, deeply etched with ancestral memory and interconnected by ceremony and song. British authorities had used the system of convict transportation – banishing prisoners to serve their sentences overseas – as a form of punishment since the early 17th century, sending convicts mainly to the colonies in North America. In Britain itself, prisons were generally used as short-term confinement for debtors and those awaiting trial or punishment. With the outbreak of the American War of Independence in 1775, a new place of exile was needed. From 1784, the colonies of Gibraltar and Bermuda took transported convicts, but after 1788, most were sent to New South Wales. The settlement of New South Wales was founded with a dual purpose and an extraordinary vision. Britain could rid itself of thousands of criminals, but once landed they were not imprisoned. Rather, their labour was put to productive use, to build a colony, and eventually to sustain themselves and their families on land granted to them after they had served their sentence. This was a unique social experiment, where convicts and ex-convicts cleared trees, formed roads and constructed bridges, established farms, ran businesses and built the towns. Building new lives By the early 19th century, most convicts lived with and worked for private masters, many of whom were ex-convicts. They toiled on farms, tended livestock, orchards and gardens, or worked in households, shops or businesses as servants and clerks. Some establishments, owned by wealthy landowners, colonial officials or powerful military families, were large and grand. Other workplaces were simple shops and offices, or lowly stone cottages and huts. A number of convicts were selected for government work or public projects. Without dedicated lodgings, these convicts – known as government men – organised their own accommodation. Many built their own homes, sometimes living with partners and children. Others shared group houses, rented rooms, or slept in the corners of other people’s kitchens in exchange for bartered goods or household chores. Government convicts worked under an arrangement known as ‘task work’. Once they had completed their set tasks or hours, they were free to spend their time at leisure or hire themselves out to private employers around town. The authorities were uneasy about allowing convicts such independence, but labour was in short supply and they did not have much choice. The system had unexpected advantages: convict enterprise helped to boost the local economy with businesses, trades and goods. Further, convicts’ eagerness to earn a livelihood and build new lives and communities gave the colony a surprising character. Thirty years after convicts first stepped ashore, Sydney was neither a prison settlement nor, for most, a hellish outpost. In fact, it was a ‘convicts’ colony’. Yet Sydney would not stay a fledgling settlement forever. From 1815, new forces, both in Britain and in New South Wales, began to change the character of the colony, leading directly to the building of the Hyde Park Barracks.
In this quick tutorial you'll learn how to draw a Mojarra in 5 easy steps - great for kids and novice artists. The images above represents how your finished drawing is going to look and the steps involved. Below are the individual steps - you can click on each one for a High Resolution printable PDF version. At the bottom you can read some interesting facts about the Mojarra. Make sure you also check out any of the hundreds of drawing tutorials grouped by category. How to Draw a Mojarra - Step-by-Step Tutorial Step 1: Start by drawing the head and lips of the fish. The head has a triangular shapes and the lips are in the point of the triangle Step 2: Draw the eye and the teeth. Make the teeth jagged lines coming out from each side of the mouth. Draw a circle with another filled in circle inside it to create the eyed. Step 3: Draw the round body by making two big curved lines. Connect them with a slightly curved vertical line at the tail Step 4: Draw two fins and a tail. One fin is in the middle of the body, and the other is underneath the body. The tail has two parts Step 5: Draw the top and bottom fins to finish. The top fins are spikey and rectangular. Draw it by making one section at a time since the spines are uneven Interesting Facts about Mojarra Fish The Mojarra fish is a native fish to the Atlantic slope of Northern Mexico. It is restricted to living in the headwaters and tributaries of the Rio Gallinas drainage which is a tributary to Rio Santa Maria above Cascada de Tamul.The threat to the Mojarra fish is that it’s currently being impacted by heavy pollution by the sugar mills in the area. However, the sugar mills are on the main river stretch and not on the two tributaries where this species lives and are still intact. Did you know? - The global population size and its trend are currently unknown. - There are no conservation measures in place for the Mjoarra fish. - It only inhabits rivers with well-developed riffles and long pools of clear, hard water in depths up to 6 feet. They are a freshwater fish. The Mojarra fish has an area of less than 3,200 square miles and only lives in two locations. There is evidence that there is decline in population for the quality of the habitat. Close proximity to urban areas that could be colonized makes this fish available for near threatened.
Protect Yourself With Healthy Habits Healthy habits prevent germs and infectious diseases from spreading. Learn, practice, and teach healthy habits. Food can carry germs. Wash hands, utensils, and surfaces often when preparing any food, especially raw meat. Always wash fruits and vegetables. Cook and keep foods at proper temperatures. Don’t leave food out – refrigerate promptly. One of the most important healthy habits to prevent the spread of germs is to clean your hands. Our hands can carry germs, so it is important to wash them often, even if they don’t look dirty. When to Wash Your Hands Make sure to clean your hands before and after: - Using the bathroom or changing diapers - Cooking or serving food - Treating a cut or wound - Contact with a sick person - Putting on and removing protective equipment like a face mask Clean your hands after these actions: - Coughing, sneezing, or blowing your nose - Touching another person’s hands or touching an animal or pet - Handling garbage Touching frequently touched areas (doorknobs) or contaminated items (dirty laundry or dishes). How to Wash Hands with Soap and Water - Wet hands and apply soap. - Rub hands for at least 20 seconds. Scrub all surfaces. - Rinse hands. - Dry hands with a clean cloth or paper towel. If in a public place, use the paper towel to turn off the faucet. Then, throw in the trash. When helping a child, wash their hands first, and then your own. How to Clean Hands with Hand Sanitizer - Use hand sanitizer if soap and water are not available and if your hands do not look dirty. To be effective, hand sanitizer must have at least 60% alcohol content. - Apply hand sanitizer to both hands. - Rub hands covering all surfaces until dry. If your hands dry before 10 seconds you did not use enough. Apply more and repeat. Although not as effective as washing one’s hands with soap and water or using hand sanitizer, pre-moistened cleansing towelettes with at least 60% alcohol content can be an alternative. Germs can live on surfaces. Cleaning with soap and water is usually enough. However, you should disinfect your bathroom and kitchen regularly. Disinfect other areas if someone in the house is ill. You can use an EPA certified disinfectant (look for the EPA registration number on the label) or a bleach solution. If you are sick, the air that comes out of your mouth when you cough or sneeze may contain germs. Someone close by can breathe in your air, or touch a surface contaminated with your germs, and become ill. Cough or sneeze into a tissue or your shirt sleeve-not into your hands. Remember to throw away the tissue and wash your hands. You can wear a face mask when you are sick with a cough or sneezing illness. Learn how to put on and remove a face mask. Avoid sharing personal items that can’t be disinfected, like toothbrushes and razors, or sharing towels between washes. Needles should never be shared, should only be used once, and then thrown away properly. Vaccines can prevent many infectious diseases. You should get some vaccinations in childhood, some as an adult, and some for special situations like pregnancy and travel. Make sure you and your family are up-to-date on your vaccinations. If your regular doctor does not offer the vaccine you need, visit the Adult Immunization and Travel Clinic. You and your pets should avoid touching wild animals which can carry germs that cause infectious diseases. If you are bitten, talk to your doctor. Make sure that your pet’s vaccinations are up-to-date. When you are sick, stay home and rest. You will get well sooner, and will not spread germs.
When biologists recovered a previously ringed bat in northern Spain, they were baffled. The small Nathusius’ pipistrelle male had travelled more than 2,200 km from Latvia – making its journey a long-distance record among migratory bats worldwide. By Juan Tomás Alcalde Bats are the only mammals capable of active flight. This ability allows them to travel long distances each night, compared to their small size. In temperate zones, some species have even developed migratory habits, which means they fly long distances from their breeding grounds to winter hibernation areas. In Eastern Europe, migratory movements of bats tend to be in a northeast-southwest direction and can exceed 1,000 km. Nathusius’ pipistrelle (Pipistrellus nathusii) is the European bat that flies the longest distances, despite its small size (5-6 cm) and weight (usually less than 10 g). Its distribution covers major parts of Europe, from Fennoscandia and the British Isles in the north to Mediterranean areas in the south. The small bat feeds on aquatic flies, midges, mosquitoes and caddis flies, and roosts in trees and buildings. Since many migratory species seem to be affected by global climate change, a group of biologists from Latvia and Germany wanted to find out if the same applies for Nathusius’ pipistrelles. To track the small insectivores, they banded about 17,000 of these bats between 2014 and 2018 at the Ornithological Station Pape, which is located on the southwestern coastline of Latvia. One of their goals was to compare recent migratory routes with data from 1985-1992. They caught the bats by using funnel traps, which were set at their migratory corridor along the shore of the Baltic Sea. A record-setting journey Ultimately, one of these bats, a male Nathusius’ pipistrelle, ringed in August 2015, was recovered dead in northern Spain, in the Pitillas’ Lagoon Natural Reserve, in March 2017. According to the researchers, this observation suggests that the individual flew a minimum distance of 2,224 km, from northeast to southwest Europe. This is the longest documented movement of a banded bat in the world and the only one that exceeds 2,000 km. The previous record of long-distance migratory flight was also held by a male Nathusius’ pipistrelle, which flew 1905 km from Latvia to France. In general, Nathusius’ pipistrelles follow the coastline of the Baltic countries, which suggests that the recovered bat did not migrate between Latvia and Spain in a straight line. Therefore, the recorded travel distance of 2,224 km is most likely even underestimated. The finding of this bat in early March suggests that it most likely hibernated at the Iberian Peninsula, yet the researchers have no information about its arrival at the hibernation site. Also, they are unaware of where the bat travelled throughout the 567-day period between its ringing and recovery. Nathusius’ pipistrelle is scarce in Spain, but several records in the north of the country have been recently published, most of them in late summer and autumn, suggesting that the northern Iberian Peninsula may be an important wintering place for their migrating populations, as it has also been found for lesser noctules (Nyctalus leisleri). One of these records originates from a Nathusius’ pipistrelle carcass found at a wind farm. Taking into account that this species is one of the most threatened by wind turbines in Europe, the researchers stress: “International efforts should be taken along these bats’ migration route to reduce their mortality at wind turbines and to protect habitats essential for migration.” You can learn more in the original article here: Juan Tomás Alcalde, Montserrat Jiménez, Ilze Brila, Viesturs Vintulis, Christian C. Voigt & Gunars Petersons: Transcontinental 2200 km migration of a Nathusius’ pipistrelle (Pipistrellus nathusii) across Europe, 20.10.2020.
Cryptography has been used throughout the ages. The Spartans used a form of cryptography to send information to their generals in the field called Scytale. Ancient Hebrews used a basic cryptographic system called ATBASH. Even Julius Caesar used a form of encryption to send messages back to Rome in what is known as Caesar's cipher. Although many might not consider it a true form of encryption, Caesar's cipher worked by what we now call a simple substitution cipher. In Caesar's cipher, there was a plaintext alphabet and a ciphertext alphabet. The alphabets were arranged as shown in Figure 12.1. Figure 12.1. Caesar's cipher. When Caesar was ready to send a message, encryption required that he move forward three characters. As an example, using Caesar's cipher to encrypt the word cat would result in fdw. You can try this yourself by referring to Figure 12.1; just look up each of the message's letters in the top row and write down the corresponding letter from the bottom row. Believe it or not, you have now been introduced to many of the elementary items used in all cryptosystems. First, there was the algorithm. In the case of Caesar's cipher, it was to convert letter by letter each plaintext character with the corresponding ciphertext character. There was also the key. This was Caesar's decision to move forward three characters for encryption and to move back three characters for decryption. Next, there was the plaintext. In our example, the plaintext was cat. Finally, there was the ciphertext. Our ciphertext was the value fdw. Before this continues too far into our discussion of encryption, let's spend a few minutes reviewing these basic and important terms: Around the beginning of the twentieth century, the United States became much more involved in encryption and cryptanalysis. Events such as WWI and WWII served to fuel the advances in cryptographic systems. Although some of these systems, such as the Japanese Purple Machine and the Germans Enigma, were rather complex mechanical devices; others were simply based on languages or unknown codes. Anyone who has ever seen the movie Windtalkers knows of one such story. In the movie, the U.S. military is faced with the need of an encryption scheme that would be secure against the Japanese, so they turned to the Navajo Indians. The unwritten Navajo language became the key used to create a code for the U.S. Marine Corps. Using their native tongue, Navajo code talkers transmitted top secret military messages that the Japanese were unable to decrypt. This helped to turn the war against Japan and helped hasten its defeat. Entire government agencies were eventually created, such as the National Security Agency (NSA), to manage the task of coming up with new methods of keeping secret messages secure. These same agencies were also tasked with breaking the enemy's secret messages. Today, encryption is no longer just a concern of the government; it can be found all around us and is used to perform transactions on the Internet, secure your email, maintain the privacy of your cell phone call, and to protect intellectual property rights. Part I: Exam Preparation The Business Aspects of Penetration Testing The Technical Foundations of Hacking Footprinting and Scanning Enumeration and System Hacking Linux and Automated Security Assessment Tools Trojans and Backdoors Sniffers, Session Hijacking, and Denial of Service Web Server Hacking, Web Applications, and Database Attacks Wireless Technologies, Security, and Attacks IDS, Firewalls, and Honeypots Buffer Overflows, Viruses, and Worms Cryptographic Attacks and Defenses Physical Security and Social Engineering Part II: Final Review Part III: Appendixes Appendix A. Using the ExamGear Special Edition Software
Definition: the air-filled cavity within the skull of vertebrates that lies between the outer ear and the inner ear. It is linked to the pharynx (and therefore to outside air) via the Eustachian tube and in mammals contains the three ear ossicles, which transmit auditory vibrations from the outer ear (via the tympanum) to the inner ear Definition: Because of the difference in refractive index between air and water (or corneal tissue), a curved cornea is an image-forming lens in its own right. Its focal length is determined by the radius of curvature of the cornea. Many corneal eyes (eg: in land vertebrates) also have lenses, but the lens is flattened and weakened compared with an aquatic lens; most of the refractive power is provided by the cornea. Corneal eyes cannot focus in aquatic habitat.
These pieces originally appeared as a weekly column entitled “Lessons” in The New York Times between 1999 and 2003. [ THIS ARTICLE FIRST APPEARED IN THE NEW YORK TIMES ON APRIL 4, 2001 ] A Passover Way to Teach This Saturday, Jews will celebrate Passover with a ceremonial dinner called a Seder. Guided by a 2,000-year-old booklet, the Haggadah, participants tell the story of Moses and his followers’ escape from Egyptian slavery. The Seder suggests that today’s educational debates are not new. Its account of ancient history begins only after the youngest participant poses four ritual questions. Answers contain yet more questions, describing four children who ask about the tradition in different ways. Teachers have long debated if dialogue or lecture is more effective and how children with varied abilities and learning styles should be taught. The Haggadah includes a balance of approaches, in contrast to all-or- nothing stances common in education today. As the Book of Proverbs suggests (22:6, “Train a child according to his way”), the Haggadah states and answers questions differently for children with different knowledge or attitudes. Each alternative refers to a separate Biblical mandate to teach children about the Israelites’ ancient liberation. Jewish tradition says that because God would not needlessly repeat it, the instruction recurs so that the story can be retold for each way of learning. Today, similar concerns about standardized instruction take many forms. Advocates of smaller classes say they permit teachers to adapt strategies to individual needs. Proponents of higher standards say tracking systems undercut students’ potential by placing the less able in easier courses. And special educators debate whether pupils with disabilities benefit from inclusion in regular classes. E. D. Hirsch, a professor at the University of Virginia, suggests that a standard curriculum for all children should be organized around the same core knowledge needed for citizenship. Some educators say, however, that there is too much in this corpus for children to absorb, so learning should be guided instead by pupils’ own questions. Howard Gardner, a professor at Harvard, defines seven types of intelligence. Some students, Dr. Gardner says, are more skilled with language. Others are more logical or spatially perceptive. Some learn by physically acting out new skills. Others are better listeners. Some learn better in groups. Others are more introspective. Controversies about teaching history now pit those who want students to develop extensive factual knowledge against those who think history can be better understood if students experience a few events in depth, imagining they themselves were making historic decisions. The Haggadah balances these views. Like Professor Hirsch, the Passover pedagogy emphasizes a common tradition. But it also insists that it be taught in response to questions. Like Dr. Gardner, the Haggadah prescribes different teaching for those with different abilities. But it does not predict whether this assures that all participants gain comparable understanding or if, at the end of the process, differences will be as great as before. And because ancient rabbis worried about holding children’s interest, the Seder’s lectures are interspersed with songs and games. The Haggadah invokes a first child who asks for detailed descriptions of laws Israelites must obey. The child is termed wise not only because he seeks detail, but also because he talks as if he himself had been liberated from slavery thousands of years before. Then, the question is restated by a second child, one with an “attitude” who is defensive about being taught. The Haggadah calls this child wicked because he cannot picture himself as part of the Exodus. But he might better be described as self-centered and thus hard to educate. The Haggadah asks all participants to have historical imagination, pretending they themselves also wandered the desert. This passage is particularly suggestive for Americans. Can an immigrant nation forge a definition of common citizenship without each participant coming to feel that “we” fought the Revolutionary War, “we” participated in the struggle to end slavery, or “we” liberated Europe from Nazism? The Haggadah describes a third child who is simple and a fourth who does not even know how to ask. The simple child gets an answer without much detail. The last child is not ignored. Though no question was posed, instruction is still tried. Secular educators today face issues of inquiry learning and curricular standardization that also concerned the ancients. The Talmud, a collection of Jewish laws developed more than 1,500 years ago, says the Seder cannot succeed unless children become curious enough to question it. And it adds, as in Proverbs, teaching should take place “in a manner appropriate to the understanding of the child.” After so many years, educators still have not quite figured out how to do this.
At Duke University, scientists used a single basal cell to grow hollow spheres of differentiated ciliary and secretory lung cells. This type of research should help investigators to learn more about lung health and to develop new treatments using a standalone test platform that resembles real lungs. The scientists isolated basal cells, set each separately in a gel suspension, and observed the cells growing into a hollow sphere as they divided. Analysis shows that the basal cells remain on the outside of the sphere, while inside the hollow was lined in an equal arrangement of cilial and secretory cells, as in nature. “This basal cell is making daughters, which are polarized and retain their orientation so that they will form a structure with luminal (airway lining) cells on the inside,” Hogan [Brigid Hogan, chair of the Duke Department of Cell Biology] said. “Only about 5 percent of the basal cells we isolated and put into gel formed these spheres; perhaps these are the ones that are normally ready to leap into action when they are challenged.” After painstakingly sorting individual green fluorescent mouse basal cells from the other lung tissue cells, the scientists studied the genes expressed in these mouse cells using microarray technology. They found more than 600 genes preferentially expressed in the basal cells compared with the other cells. “We found that many of these genes are similar to genes expressed in stem cells in other tissues,” Hogan said. “We think these genes are helping these cells to stay â€˜quiet’ and keep them from dividing until they get the right signal.” The researchers also found that one gene expressed in the basal cells encodes a surface receptor, also found on human lung basal cells. “This meant we were able to use a labeled antibody against this receptor to efficiently extract human lung basal cells to create the human bronchospheres for study,” Hogan said. Press release: Duke Scientists Create Model to Study Lung Diseases… Image: Ciliary and secretory cells (green) form inside the basal stem cell (red) Abstract in PNAS: Basal cells as stem cells of the mouse trachea and human airway epithelium
Alphabet Walk - #11 \|Alphabet Walk - #11\| \|Section:\|\|Warm-Up & Cool-Down\| \|Movement Concept(s):\|\|Effort (time, force, flow)\| \|Skill Theme(s):\|\|Traveling, jumping & landing\| - Students are scattered throughout the activity area. - Students imagine their feet have been dipped in paint. They will explore how the body moves by painting letters and numbers on the ground. - Provide students with a painting project. For example, ask students to paint their first/last name, best friend’s name, name of their favorite book/movie/ice cream/movement, the entire alphabet, the name of their teacher/school/principal, a math problem, individual letters/numbers, vowels/consonants, vocabulary words, etc. - Combine the painting project with a contrasting concept of effort: Time – paint fast/slow, paint like a cheetah/snail, paint like a train that chugs faster and faster and then gets slower and slower. Force – paint and glide/stomp, paint moving sneaky/scared, paint feeling angry/sad/happy/confused. Flow – paint like you are floating in the sky/climbing a ladder, paint with exploding jump stops/drifting lazy walk. - For young readers, hold up signs indicating letters of the alphabet, numbers or words. - Alter the size of the painting space. A large “canvas” requires painting in the entire activity area, a small “canvas” requires painting in self space. Now Try This: - Allow students to invent their own methods for demonstrating how the body moves and teach their ideas to a partner. - Have pairs hold hands or stand one behind the other and paint together.
During the power crisis in New Zealand this winter (caused by a shortage of rain and hence low levels in the hydro dams), a contingency scheme was developed to turn off the power to areas of the country in a systematic, totally fair, manner. The country was divided up into N regions (Auckland was region number 1, and Wellington number 13). A number, m, would be picked `at random', and the power would first be turned off in region 1 (clearly the fairest starting point) and then in every m'th region after that, wrapping around to 1 after N, and ignoring regions already turned off. For example, if N = 17 and m = 5, power would be turned off to the regions in The problem is that it is clearly fairest to turn off Wellington last (after all, that is where the Electricity headquarters are), so for a given N, the `random' number m needs to be carefully chosen so that region 13 is the last region selected. Write a program that will read in the number of regions and then determine the smallest number m that will ensure that Wellington (region 13) can function while the rest of the country is blacked out. Hint: Use Queues. Input and Output Input will consist of a series of lines, each line containing the number of regions (N) with 13 <= N < 100. The file will be terminated by a line consisting of a single 0. Output will consist of a series of lines, one for each line of the input. Each line will consist of the number m according to the above scheme.
The purpose of the TRU domain-general and mathematics-specific Conversation Guides (Baldinger, Louie, & the Algebra Teaching Study and Mathematics Assessment Project, 2016; Louie, Baldinger, & the Algebra Teaching Study and Mathematics Assessment Project, 2016) is to facilitate coherent and ongoing discussions in which teachers, administrators, coaches, and others learn together. We hope that the questions in the Conversation Guide will support educators with different experiences, different expertise, and different strengths to work together to develop a common vision, common priorities, and common language, in order to collaboratively improve instruction and better support students to develop robust understandings. The Conversation Guides can be used to support many different kinds of conversations, including (but not limited to): - Conversations to develop common vision and priorities across groups of educators (such as subject-matter departments, grade-level teams, or an entire school faculty) - Conversations between teachers and administrators and instructional coaches around classroom observations (see also the TRU Observation Guides) - Conversations between teachers around peer observations - Conversations around video recordings of classroom teaching and learning - Conversations about planning a particular unit or lesson - Conversations about a particular instructional strategy or set of strategies (not necessarily content-specific) - Ongoing individual reflection There are two guides, one domain-general and one specific to mathematics. Each guide describes the purposes of the guide (as above) and how it might be used – both for planning lessons and for reflection on them. The body of each guide focuses on reflective questions.
Weather Station Activity A possible activity relating to climate change is to have students record the temperature at the same time during the day for 1 month. The teacher can record this data and keep it in a safe place for next year. At that time, the same process can be repeated and a comparison of the averages can be made. In this way, the students can witness the increase in global temperature that is expected for themselves. This also creates a record of temperatures created by the students themselves, hopefully giving the students a sense of scientific accomplishment. The data can be emailed to the CWC, and we will post it on our website if that is desired. Math Activity (for more advanced students) Students with a higher aptitude for math could be asked to generate a general equation that relates the increase in temperature from sunrise to noon as a function of time. The resulting equation, of course, would be a simple linear function of the form y=mx+b. The assumption of linearity in this could either be presented to the students at the beginning of the lesson, held back as a talking point if the students do not arrive at the realization of the assumption themselves, or simply ignored for the sake of simplicity.
Gondwanaland, we started out on this big continent. Answer True or False to the following statements. 1. According to the Theory of Evolution, humans evolved from monkeys. (Yes) 2. Evolution is a theory, and therefore is not considered to be a scientific truth. (Yes) 3. Charles Darwin proposed the Theory of Evolution, but he later recanted his theory. 4. Natural Selection is the mechanism by which evolution occurs. (Yes) 5. Theories are supported by facts and evidence, and can be revised if new evidence is found. (Yes) 6. Only atheists (those who do not believe in God) believe the Theory of Evolution. 7. Creationism is another scientific theory that addresses the origins of humans. (No) 8. Because there is a ≥missing link≤, the Theory of Evolution cannot be proven. (No) 9. Schools are required by law to teach the Theory of Evolution. (No) 10. Charles Darwin was the only scientist to propose and support the Theory of Evolution.
What is Federal Common Law? Federal common law refers to the law that is created by judges within the federal court system. There is a common misconception that there is no federal common law. Federal judicial decisions are binding in a number of areas where Congress has granted the federal courts jurisdiction. Federal Common Law is Derived from Judges, not Statutes Federal common law is created by federal judges, which differentiates it from statutory based laws. The decisions made by these federal judges, regarding a specific legal issue, are binding within that court and lower federal courts within the same jurisdiction. The goal is to set uniformity and predictability with federal laws. There is Federal Common Law, but Only for Federal Cases The Supreme Court has ruled, in Erie Railroad v. Tomkins, that there is no federal general common law. Erie, 304 U.S. 64 (1938). This means that the federal courts, while sitting in diversity jurisdiction (where a federal judge hears a claim under state law), will not create law to judge state law cases. Instead, the prior decisions of the state judges will be followed by the federal judges. However, when it is an area of federal jurisdiction, the federal judges will create, and follow, federal common law. Federal Judicial Decisions Affect Areas such as Maritime, Bankruptcy and Civil rights Federal judicial decisions are binding in areas such as maritime, bankruptcy, and a number of other legal areas. The Supreme Court, and lower federal courts, can establish law where Congress has been silent. Recently, the Supreme Court, in Exxon v. Baker, established federal common law which placed strict limits on maritime punitive damage awards. Exxon, 554 U.S. 471 (2008). But when Congress acts, the statutes they pass will trump prior federal judicial decisions. - Why is Common Law important? - What is a common law crime? - What Is the Difference Between Common Law and Civil Law? - Does Common Law apply to me? - What is the opposite of common law?
What are X-Rays? We can define X-Rays or X-radiation as a form of electromagnetic radiation. They are powerful waves of electromagnetic energy. Most of them have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV. Who invented the X-Ray? German physicist Wilhelm Rontgen is typically credited for the discovery of X-Rays in 1895 because he was the first to comprehensively study them, though he is not thought to be the first to have seen and perceived their effects. They were found emanating from Crookes tubes, experimental discharge tubes invented around 1875, by scientists looking into the cathode rays, that is energetic electron beams, that were first formed in the tubes. How do X-Rays work? They are produced when high-velocity electrons collide with the metal plates, thereby giving the energy as the X-Rays and themselves absorbed by the metal plate. - The X-Ray beam travels through the air and comes in contact with the body tissues, and produces an image on a metal film. - Soft tissue like organs and skin, cannot absorb the high-energy rays, and the beam passes through them. - Dense materials inside our bodies, like bones, absorb the radiation. Much like a camera, the X-Ray film develops depending on the areas which were exposed to the X-Rays. White areas show the denser tissues, such as bones which have absorbed the X-Rays whereas black areas on an X-Ray represent areas where the X-Rays have passed through soft tissues. Properties of X-Rays The X-Rays properties are given below: - They have a shorter wavelength of the electromagnetic spectrum. - Requires high voltage to produce X-Rays. - They use to capture the human skeleton defects. - They travel in a straight line and do not carry an electric charge with them. - They are capable of travelling in the vacuum. Types of X-Rays Medical science recognizes different types of X-Rays. But some important types of X-Rays are given in the points below. - Standard Computed Tomography - Kidney, Ureter, and Bladder X-ray - Teeth and bones X-rays - Chest X-rays - Lungs X-rays - Abdomen X-rays Since the discovery of X-radiation, they are used in the various field and for various purposes. Some uses of X-Ray are given below. - Medical Science They are used for medical purposes to detect the breakage in human bones. They are used as a scanner to scan the luggage of passengers in airports, rail terminals, and other places. It is emitted by celestial objects are studied to understand the environment. It is widely used to detect the defects in the welds. They are used to restore old paintings. If you wish to learn more physics concepts with the help of interactive video lessons, download BYJU’S – The Learning App.
This science game uses the periodic table as the key code to crack all the codes. A printable periodic table is provided with this game, so the players DO NOT have to have knowledge of the table to play. If you are trying to use this as a learning tool for older kids (high schoolers) then you can simply by not letting them use the periodic table to help. With the periodic table it is much easier and can be played by children that are old enough to use a calculator to add and subtract. The science treasure hunt features pictures of recognizable people, cartoons, candy. They have to fill in the blanks with the name of the picture and then use their copy of the periodic table to find the numbers that match the letters. Once they do this they simply use their calculators to solve the math problem. The answer to the math problem is where the next clue is located. One of the best parts about this science treasure hunt is that you get to decide where the hiding locations are. The players are provided with a clue location key. This is a list numbered 1-50. You will fill in that list with potential hiding locations for clues. You get to decide what those 50 places are - though you will only actually hide clues in 15 of them - the others are decoys. The answers to each clue will be a number between 1 -50. They simply find the numerical answer on the clue location key and it will tell them where to look for the next clue. This way you can play this hunt anywhere; home, school, outdoors..etc. The above example features a picture of the smurf. When the players fill in the blank they will get: SM + U – RF – S When they look on their periodic tables they will find these symbols match the following numbers: SM = 62 U = 92 RF = 104 S = 16 Now they simply use their calculators to add and subtract according to the clue card: 62 + 92 – 104 – 16 = 34 Now the teams look at their clue location guide to find out what hiding location is listed as #34. That’s where they’ll go to find the next clue. There are 15 clues all together. You let the players work together all in one big team to solve all 15 problems. You can also remove some clues if you want to make the game shorter. Another way you can play is by dividing the clues in half and let two teams compete to be the first to finish. Each team will receive 8 clues. To do this each team will receive seven different clues, and the eighth clue (the one that leads to the winner’s ticket) will be identical. The players race to solve and find all their clues until they finally find the winners ticket and claim victory.
What is Diverticular disease? Diverticular disease, also known as diverticulosis, is the presence of outpouchings (diverticulae) in the gastrointestinal tract, most frequently in the colon. They are seen in elderly persons whose diet is low in fibre. Infection of colonic diverticulae results in diverticulis which presents as right lower quadrant pain and guarding. Diverticulae can also be a cause of lower GI bleed (malena). Questions and answers on "Diverticular disease" Health resources related to Diverticular disease - Treatment and cure for diverticular disease - Have diverticular disease suggest best diet - Small bowel diverticular disease - Best diet to prevent diverticular disease - The links between diverticular disease and diet - Suggest treatment for diverticular disease - Diverticular disease gp notebook - Diverticular disease is it alcohol related - Diverticular disease contagious or non - Sigmoid colectomy for diverticular disease
Algebraic equations can look pretty puzzling, especially if you don’t consider yourself a math person or if it has been a long time since you worked one out for yourself. If you’re struggling with quadratic equations, or need a quick review, we put this guide together to go over the basics of solving these equations and help you memorize the formulas that you need to know. What is a Quadratic Equation? A quadratic equation is a univariate equation with two solutions or roots. Wait, what does that mean? Basically, univariate means there is one variable that needs to be solved for, x. All other values in the equation are known. So if you’re only trying to solve for one value, x, why does the equation have two answers? Quadratic equations are graphed as parabolas, symmetrically curved lines. X has two values because it represents the two places where the parabola will cross the x axis, like in the graph at the left. How to Identify Quadratic Equations The standard form of a quadratic equation looks like this: ax2 + bx + c = 0. A, b, and c stand for actual numbers, or known values, and x stands for the unknown value, or variable. When you solve the equation, you will be determining the values for x. Here’s an example of a quadratic equation with the known values plugged in: 2x2 + 8x + 7 = 0. Note that in standard form, quadratic equations always equal zero. Some sneaky math teachers might present you with an equation that looks like this: x2 + 2x = 3. Don’t let this trick fool you! Simply subtract 3 from each side of the equation so that it equals zero. Remember: you have to subtract from both sides of the equation to keep it even! The result looks like this: x2 + 2x – 3 = 0. Factoring Quadratic Equations Some of the “easier” quadratic equations can be solved by a process called factoring. To factor a quadratic equation, take a look at the b and c values. You’ll need to find two numbers when multiplied together equal c, but when added together equal b. Don’t worry if this sounds kind of abstract. Let’s take a look at an example so you can see how factoring works. x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 To solve this equation, you’ll need to think of two numbers that add up to five and multiply to make six. You can add two and three to make five, or multiply two times three to get six, so these are your factors for this example. You’ll want to write your answer like this: x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 3)(x + 2). You can check your work by multiplying the factors (x + 3) and (x + 2) to make sure they equal the original equation. Factoring an equation with negative numbers involved can be a little trickier. If c is positive, then the factors are either both positive or both negative. If b is negative and c is positive, both factors are negative. If b is positive and c is positive, both factors are positive. If you’re looking at an equation and c is negative, this means that one factor is negative and one factor is positive. If b is positive, the larger factor is positive. If b is negative, the larger factor is negative. Using the Quadratic Formula Sometimes, because life isn’t fair, quadratic equations can’t be solved with simple factoring. When you come across one of these weird and wily equations, you’ll need to bust out the quadratic formula to get the job done. The quadratic formula looks like this: \|Note that before the square root sign, there is a plus sign and a minus sign. This stands for plus or minus, which means the formula must be solved twice, once adding the root to -b and once subtracting in order to get both values for x.\| To get started, plug the values in for a, b, and c. Once you have your numbers plugged in, solve for x following the order of operations: parentheses, exponents, multiply, divide, add, subtract. A common mnemonic phrase to help you memorize the order of operations is “please excuse my dear aunt Sally”; the first letter of each word in this phrase is the same as the order of operations. For example, solving the equation x2 + 3x – 4 = 0 would look like this: Since this equation can be factored (x + 4, x = -4, and x – 1, x = 1), you can easily check your work. As you can see, once you have the values plugged in to the correct place in the quadratic formula, working out the answer is fairly simple. Students tend to struggle most with remembering how to construct the quadratic formula. Here are a couple of tips to memorizing this magic formula. - Sing it to the tune of “Pop Goes the Weasel”, using these lyrics: x equals negative b plus or minus the square root of b squared minus 4ac all over 2a - Memorize this story: There once was a negative boy, who was all mixed up, so he went to a radical party, but because he was square, he lost out on four awesome chicks, so he cried his way home and when the night was all over, it was 2 AM. - Just stare at this GIF until you become one with the formula (not the best method, but it could work I guess): If you’re still having trouble working through quadratic equations, an academic tutor can give you personal attention and help you with any questions you might have. TakeLessons tutors are qualified, prescreened, and motivated to help you succeed. Tutors are available online and in-person, so search for your perfect tutor today!
Lesson Plans and Worksheets Browse by Subject Cartography Teacher Resources Find teacher approved Cartography educational resource ideas and activities Eighth graders examine how map making has changed over time. In this map skills lesson, students determine how technological advances have changed map making and provided more accurate maps. Students analyze several maps made in different historical time periods. Students also use GPS devices to create their own contour maps.
Finding answers to social equity and justice in education starts with asking the tough questions. The equal right to a high-quality education is one of the defining beliefs of our educational system and even part of how many describe the American Dream. Yet equal rights do not always result in equal access and in our current political and socio-economic climate, the achievement gap is undoubtedly growing. The question today lingers: how can educators create an environment where all students can succeed? Paving the way to a level playing field. Research shows that a quality education helps level the playing field for disadvantaged youth. Unfortunately, those most in need often lack access to the core elements of a quality education. According to a Department of Education Study, 45% of high-poverty schools received, on average, less state and local funding than other more affluent schools in their area. But funding is only part of the story. Lack of achievement for any student and the achievement gaps seen between subgroups of students can be linked to a number of factors that run the gamut from institutional and internal systemic issues, to social, and even public health concerns characteristic to those in marginalized populations. In all of these areas, you’ll find issues of inequity and injustice. Christopher Gaines, the president of AASA, the School Superintendents association, a professional organization that advocates for equitable access for all students and supports school system leaders, explains, “Our schools are not immune from the inequities and injustice that plague other public systems. In fact, they reflect them.” Continuing, “People of color, people living in poverty, and immigrant populations all face inequitable access and outcomes.” Race and socioeconomic status cannot be ignored. For example, the American Psychological Association reports that even high-achieving African American students face challenges because they are disproportionately exposed to less rigorous curriculums, attend schools with fewer resources, and have teachers who expect less of them academically. Moreover, findings from the National Assessment Governing Board and National Center for Education Statistics’ 2017 National Assessment of Education Progress revealed that income-based achievement gaps continue to widen, reflecting the greater overall environment of income inequality. The question remains, ‘How do we enhance achievement for all students?’ “This is the question that keeps school superintendents up at night,” Gaines admits. “Our members around the country work ceaselessly to seek out solutions that will bring a quality education to every student in our nation. We’re cognizant of the fact that they need our help–particularly marginalized students: children in poverty, children of color, and those from non-English speaking homes.” It’s one of the complex issues Gaines says AASA will examine carefully at its National Conference on Education held February 2019 in Los Angeles. The annual event gathers school superintendents and other education professionals for seminars, keynotes, panels, and discussions on the key issues they face every day. This year, attendees will explore the theme “Effective Leadership Creates Success” and one hot button issue sure to be discussed is how race and economic status impact educational policy, practice and outcomes. To learn more about the National Conference on Education and register to attend, visit http://nce.aasa.org/.
Middle School Curriculum English Language Arts Students will become effective communicators through reading, writing, speaking and listening in order to convey God’s story. Children learn to read and write by reading and writing; therefore, SCS uses the workshop approach for reading and writing. In the workshop approach, students participate in a mini lesson and then are off to read and write for extended amounts of time, with the teacher providing one-on-one conferencing to enhance student skills. Writing includes instruction in writing narrative, informational, and opinion pieces through the use of mentor texts and self-assessment. Grammar study is an integral part of our writing curriculum. Through the study of fiction and nonfiction, students deepen literal and interpretive comprehension and become discerning, lifelong readers. Grades 5-8 learn and practice speaking skills by participating in classroom and regional presentations of speeches, both published scripts and their own written speeches. Students will persevere to reach their God-given potential through problem solving, critical thinking, and collaborative real life applications. Mathematics helps us see the order and beauty of God’s creation and thus of God Himself. Therefore, mathematics derives its purpose, meaning, and value from God. Mathematics does not exist in isolation, but rather has clear connections with all aspects of God’s creation. Teachers use teaching methods that actively engage students’ minds and bodies, and discuss in their classes how the surrounding cultures view mathematics and how a Christian perspective differs. Teachers foster an attitude of appreciation for mathematics as a gift from God. Students participate in a 40 minutes daily math class where the mathematical practices are applied and the standards are taught for each specific grade level. 8th Grade: Linear algebra and linear functions Opportunities for intervention and challenges are provided. Production Period and Study Place are times outside of math class for students to ask questions to gain better understanding. Students also have the opportunity to participate in the Lakeland University and Trinity Christian College math meets twice a year. Sheboygan Christian School science engages students in God’s creation through discovery and investigation so that they may marvel in and transform the world. Science is the systematic study of God’s creation. To accomplish this SCS uses a balanced approach of instruction, demonstration, observation, inquiry, and hands on learning. Middle School science focuses on three broad areas of study. 6th grade students study physical science; 7th grade students focus on life science; 8th grade students study earth and space science. Students will grow in their knowledge of scripture resulting in a heart for God and His world. The Bible is God’s Word; it is light and truth. God reveals His plan of salvation to us and His will of how to live our lives through His word. We must first recognize our sin and how Jesus Christ has come to tabernacle and dwell among us. God desires to see us living as faithful servants seeking to witness, transform, and restore His creation into a right relation with Him. The 6th grade Bible curriculum covers the lives of the patriarchs, Israel’s delivery from Egypt, the journey to Canaan, the conquests, Judges and Ruth, and Israel’s early monarchy under David. The 7th grade Bible curriculum addresses the divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah, the days of exile, the return from captivity, and the time between the Old and New Testaments. The 8th Bible curriculum is totally immersed in the life of Jesus Christ. The study begins with Christ’s baptism and study in close details the life and words of Jesus Christ through his speeches, parables, and miracles. Considerable time is spent in Passion Week studying the great gift of salvation and the life eternal we receive through his resurrection. 8th grade students are challenged to participate in Bible topics discussions which address various issues present in 21st Century America. These topics include fashions, music, movies, euthanasia, abortion, capital punishment and many more. Students will encounter God’s call to obedient living, develop data-based arguments, evaluate culture on biblical principles, and become God’s agents of justice. The most important focus to our history and social studies curriculum is for the child to understand the unfolding of God’s plan in the events of the world. From Creation until the present, God is guiding and directing the affairs of man. All of history is a study of God’s guiding hand in the day to day events of the entire world. Students should learn to recognize how sin has impacted human relationships. The most important events in the history of mankind were the Creation by God through His Son, the Word; the coming of Christ into the world as God incarnate; and the coming of Christ into the world as reigning Savior and Lord. History and social studies should teach students the value of living in harmony with God and their neighbor. The 6th grade curriculum focuses on the various ancient civilizations. We travel to the various continents discovering the history and geography of each place. Main important areas of focus are Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, India, China, Africa, and South America. The study of the ancient people includes their desire to find and worship God which leads to a close examination of the world’s main religions. The history and geography of North America are excluded from 6th Social Studies. The 7th grade curriculum focuses on... The 8th grade curriculum spends one semester intently focusing on the US Constitution. Review is given to the nature of government and how it formed here in the American colonies. A majority of the time is spent studying the actual words and phrases found in the Constitution. The second semester focuses on the 20th Century US History beginning with the Great Depression. Sheboygan Christian School prepares students for their part in God’s culturally diverse world using inspiring, engaging and relevant language learning. Students will achieve the basic skills to understand and communicate in Spanish, and will develop an interest and appreciation of the Hispanic culture, in and outside of the U.S. In the Spanish classroom, SCS focuses on communication, cultures, connections, comparisons, and communities. Students learn through the use of technology, songs, group work, conversation, and games. The classroom is a positive, challenging, fun and energetic environment that motivates and helps students succeed at becoming proficient in the language. By learning a new language, students’ minds are opened to new cultures and therefore new ideas and different ways of looking at God’s diverse world. In Middle School, students dive deeper into the Spanish language and are prepared to enter Spanish II when they enter high school. Students learn to communicate more in depth with their peers in the target language. Students continue to learn basic vocabulary and grammar. Verbs and verb conjugations are in the present tense. Sheboygan Christian School’s physical education program seeks to support the growth of a Christian student in the image of God and provide understanding of our purpose and value in service to God. God created man in His image and likeness, able to develop socially, mentally, physically, and spiritually. God desires to have a close relationship with us. Since sin came into the world through Adam and Eve our body and soul have been tainted by sin. I Corinthians 6:19-20 reminds us that “Do you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit, who is in you, whom you have received from God? You are not your own; you were bought at a price. Therefore honor God with your body.” Christians need to do everything in their power to maintain their bodies in excellent condition to honor God and to be ready and able to serve God. Maintaining our bodies is a lifelong desire that involves exercise, proper nutrition, and sufficient rest. Students participate in a variety of games and activities that encourage teamwork, fitness, and good sportsmanship. Middle school technology class covers a wide variety of topics and lessons needed to navigate the highly technological world around us. Lessons cover basics such as learning how to use Google Slides, Google Sheets, and Google Documents in ways applicable to assignments they get from other teachers. The class spends time learning about coding as well. Discussion topics include digital footprints, internet safety, and privacy settings and scams. Students learn about banking, checking, and budgets. The class also practices data entry, formulas, and graphs while learning about the stock market and investments.
COPYRIGHT 2010 DICK NEWELL \| A BASIC STUDY OF ANIMAL GAITS AND PATTERNS \| Interpreting patterns and understanding gaits can be a frustrating experience for the novice tracker. Much of the following information was originally developed by Mark Elbroch * and reported in his outstanding text on Mammal Tracks & Sign and it was only after studying his work that track patterns started to make much sense. The absolute best way to begin to understand gaits is to watch animals moving. This can be done by watching live animals in the zoo or perhaps at a local dog park, or by studying wildlife programs or videos. While a few animals have a unique gait, most will use a variation of one or more of the following. We are going to divide the most common animal gaits in to four types. The first two are the WALK and the TROT. In each of these there is a balance, a rhythmic set to the feet landing and with no noticeable break between each set of four tracks. The next two gaits we will look at are the LOPE and the GALLOP. Novices can remember these two belong together as the word "lope" is contained within the word "gallop". Each of these two gaits will be distinguished by a large space or gap showing between each set of four tracks and the sets will not be balanced. When an animal starts to walk or move slowly it begins by moving both of the legs on one side of its body before moving the legs on the other side. Usually it begins by moving one of its hind legs followed by the front leg on the same side. About the time these two legs have completed their movement the legs on the other side of the body will move in a similar fashion. This is frequently referred to as an "alternate" foot movement or walking gait. When you see this gait in the dirt you will observe a front track followed by the hind track of the same side and they will be directly in line with each other. On the other side of the center line of the animal’s trail you will observe a similar pattern but ahead of or behind the first set by a distance equal to that of the space between the hips and shoulder of the animal. There will be a rhythmic pattern to these tracks with no noticeable breaks between the sets, ie., 1-2-3-4-1-2-3-4-1-2-3-4 etc. As the speed of the walk increases the front foot track may be behind that of the hind track. As an animal starts to increase its speed it will shift to a trot. This is a "diagonal" foot movement meaning that as the left-hind leg starts to move forward the right-front leg will move forward at the same time and same distance, followed by the right-hind leg and left-front legs moving in unison. When you see this gait in the ground you may observe the two right tracks together on one side and the two left tracks together on the other side. The hind track may be alongside of the front, on top of it, in front of it or behind it depending on the type of trot and the speed of the animal. Generally, if the hind foot is put down behind the front foot it is a slower gait and if the hind foot passes the front foot it is a faster gait. As the speed of the trot increases the width of the trail will decrease. Never-the-less there will be a rhythmic pattern to these tracks with no noticeable breaks between the sets, ie., 1-2-1-2-1-2-1-2, etc. Number one indicating a left and a right foot landing at the same time and number two being the other two feet landing at the same time. Look for an increased distance between the sets to distinguish the trot from a walk. To facilitate an increase in speed the animal will shift to either a lope or a gallop. After each set of four tracks you will notice a considerable space that generally increases in distance as the speed of the animal increases. This free space produces an unequal or unbalanced pattern. In the gallop you might observe an even greater space between the sets and you will also notice that the first two tracks will always be the front feet followed by the hind feet. The hind feet may or may not land side-by-side but again, they will always be in the following sequence: front, front, rear, rear. Each species has its own preferred gait and each track pattern may differ somewhat but that also makes identifying the species and interpreting the track easier. Some animals such as rodents, rabbits, weasels, etc, will normally use a bounding movement which is really a gallop while others such as the felines and the fox will often direct register (one foot print directly on top of another). Remember that it is the time you spend in the dirt studying the tracks that will bring understanding and along with that will come the great pleasure of learning more about nature. * MARK ELBROCH'S pre-eminent website, WILDLIFE TRACKING IN NORTH AMERICA, can be reached HERE. There are two types of lopes. In the first example you will observe a front track followed by a hind track followed by the other front and then the other hind. Notice that these will always alternate. It will show in the dirt as 1-2-3-4 --- 1-2-3-4 --- In the second example we have what is called a 3x4 lope. It will show in the dirt as 1-2/3-4... The first track will always be a front foot and the last one will always be a hind foot. What makes this particular lope different than the other is the position of the middle two tracks which will either be side-by-side or partially overlapping. The rule for interpreting this gait is that if any portion of the center two tracks overlap, then the gait must be deemed to be a lope.
Ice presents a big problem for organisms that live in frigid climates. Once the temperature drops below freezing, ice crystals form within cells and eventually burst. However, to this day organisms are found living in these harsh conditions. So how do they do it? Organisms of all types including plants, animals, fungi and bacteria have developed ways to combat the threat of ice formation. One way organisms deal with these conditions is to produce antifreeze proteins (AFP’s). These are specialized proteins that aid in protecting the organism as the temperature drops. Key points in the presentation would include: o Different organisms that utilize AFP's o Animals, plants, insects · Background Information o Previous research o Why important? § First discovery of APF's · Current research § Diversity of APF's o Analysis of data o Why important? o Applications of AFP's in society § food technology, preservation of cell lines, organs, cryosurgery, and cold hardy transgenic plants and animals, ice cream preservative, preserve frozen organs and tissues \|The antifreeze molecules allow icefish to live in subfreezing water by plugging gaps in existing small ice crystals and preventing the attachment of more ice molecules. Ice crystal growth is thus effectively stopped.\| - For background information and description of the source and properties of AFP's along with their current application and future potential click here. - For information on how AFP's inhibit the formation of ice click here. - For more information on the presence of APF's in overwintering plants click here. - For more information on the structure and function of AFP's click here. - For more information on the diversity of AFP's click here.
This file includes 12 stations of independent practice with QR code scanning to help the students check their understanding. Each station the students will 1. write the equations in y=mx+b 2. identify the growth and y-intercept for each equation 3. graph the equations 4.identify the type of line (intersecting, parallel, or coinciding) 5. identify the solution (coordinate pair, no solution, infinite solutions) 6. check their solution. Each station is embedded with a 3 step check with QR codes... check 1: check the growth and y-intercepts before they graph check 2: check the type of lines they have check 3: check the solution. I have also included 2 examples to do together as a class before they begin the 12 stations that are also included, with a total of 14 practices included in this download.
The image above shows the globular star cluster known as M3. The cluster is made up of several hundred thousand stars. It is a member of our Milky Way Galaxy, located nearly 34,000 light years from our solar system. This star cluster is located within the constellation of Canes Venatici, the hunting dogs. In 1764 the French comet hunter Charles Messier made it the third object, M3, of his now famous catalog. M3 is thought to be about 180 light-years across, although half of the cluster's stars are located within its innermost 22 light years. M3 contains a relatively large number of "Blue Straggler" stars. These are stars that are bluer than most other stars within the cluster. They are thought to have had their outer layers stripped away by close encounters with other stars in the dense inner regions of the cluster.This infrared image was taken by Tom Jarrett (Infrared Processing and Analysis Center / Spitzer Science Center / Caltech) using the Palomar Observatory's 200-inch Hale Telescope with its Wide-field Infrared Camera.
Just like any other animals, primates have various ways to obtain nutrition through the foods that they eat. Much like what we might see in Benson or in the Pit, how primates get the foods they do affects aspects of their social behavior and social organizations. In primates, we see two major types of foods: high quality foods and low quality foods. High quality foods, such as easily digestible foods that are high in protein like fruits and insects are high in caloric value while low quality foods might be considered fall back foods at times when those high quality are unavailable. The different types of foods are important because of the ways in which they are distributed. A major part of social organization related to food is how types of foods are distributed, or how they are laid out within a primates habitat or niche. “Food patches” occur when food resources inhabit patchy distributions. High quality foods occur in patchier distribution, according to Strier, which creates competition in primates. This competition is what inevitably creates or highlights social organization within primates. As we talked about in class, there are many forms of competition. One form of competition that can create social organizations within primates is called “contest competition” when there are clear winners and losers in competition for food resources, while scramble competition is more like a tragedy of the commons scenario, where everyone may have access, but resources dry up quickly. Feeding groups in primates are largely affected by the size of the food patch, dictated by this competition for food resources I just mentioned. In contest competition, social hierarchies come into play regarding who has access to resources. Higher ranking individuals will gain access to better resources while lower ranking primates generally wait until the others are done. Strier mentions that many primates in lower ranks might even be better off foraging alone, something that I found particularly interesting from our readings. I also found it interesting the role that being a female plays regarding social organization and food availability. Many female groups and their social structures are even more closely related to the food that is available, because of the high metabolic costs of female reproductive processes. As a female, gestation and pregnancy requires more food to be sustained, and the process of nursing newborn babies is even more metabolically costly. Because of this increased need for food, female social structures and competition will be highly dependent upon the food that is available. It seems as though female social structures will be more fluid to avoid competition and therefore many females will end up going off alone to forage. I also found interesting, but not necessarily surprising that reproductive cycles will be in align with periods that have plentiful amounts of food. It is often beneficial to look at species that are closely related and compare their behavior regarding food foraging and social structure, because while there are always similarities, differences in behavior can reveal much about the nature of social structure and food resources. Chimpanzees and bonobos are good examples of closely related species that exhibit varying behaviors regarding food foraging. Bonobo societies are cohesive and have much social stability. It is easier for female bonobos to forage together and avoid competition. On the other hand, chimpanzees are much more fluid, the status of female chimpanzees is weakly defined and can therefore be adjusted to account for varying food patches and scarcity. Both of these tactics to address how females get food have pros and cons, but seem to work for each species! This might also be related to varying behaviors in chimpanzees and bonobos when dealing with competition outside of food. I’ve included some pictures of chimps and bonobos eating food.
Scientists were amazed to find that huge baby galaxies were being swallowed up by a "knot" of dark matter. Scientists have made an amazing discovery: a huge knot of giant galaxies from the beginning of our universe completely surrounded by a large amount of dark matter. Scientists have long suspected that the universe has a massive dark matter web that threads between our galaxies based on the gravitational influence on space-time we can witness, leading them to believe dark matter accounts for 85 percent of all known mass in the universe, according to a Discovery News report. Now, scientists are trying to understand how this dark matter web influenced the first galaxies to form after the Big Bang created the universe. And they may have stumbled upon an important clue after finding a huge cluster of starburst galaxies of incredible size. These galaxies date back 11.5 billion years ago, not too long after the Big Bang. Scientists used the Atacama Large Millimeter / submillimeter Array (ALMA) telescope to make their observations, which is difficult to do as starburst galaxies from early in the universe have large quantities of obscuring dust. However, their tremendous submillimeter emissions allows ALMA to observe them. The researchers were able to measure teh distance of nine of the massive galaxies in one small patch of sky, comparing their locations with observations made elsewhere with other telescopes to determine the gravitational location of a huge intersection of dark matter. It’s an important finding that helps scientists better understand how the huge galaxies formed at the beginning of the universe and how much dark matter is involved, which could help us better understand dark matter in general and what role it plays in our universe, particularly at the beginning as galaxies evolved.
By CNN Mexico Staff The remains of a mammoth have been uncovered south of Mexico City, researchers at Mexico's National Institute for Anthropology and History said. "For the first time in Latin America, magnetic, electric and ground-penetrating radar methods were applied in paleontology... (methods that are) commonly used in archaeological excavations to detect architectural (findings)," the institute said. Ground-penetrating radar is a technique that uses electromagnetic radiation to generate a picture of the subsurface. Paleontologists and archaeologists worked together to use these approaches, which saved the scientists time, and helped them determine the magnitude of the discovery before the excavation process started last March.
Our intention is to acquire and make available ALL picture books featuring indigenous people and people of color published in the U.S. since 2002, including reprints. Inclusion of a title in the collection DOES NOT EQUAL recommendation. See our related readings page for suggested links for evaluating books. A little boy plants an apple seed, and as soon as it sprouts the boy can see the apple tree it is meant to be. But the little apple tree isn't so sure. Young and impatient, the tree begins to doubt its calling, especially after apples fail to appear that first October. How can the little boy encourage the tree to give the seasons and years the time to work their magic? Includes Cherokee syllabary While walking through a forest of sequoias, a father tells his family the story of the tree's namesake. Sequoyah was a Cherokee man who invented a system of writing for his people. His neighbors feared the symbols he wrote and burned down his home. All of his work was lost, but, still determined, he tried another approach. The Cherokee people finally accepted the written language after Sequoyah taught his six-year-old daughter to read
A spacecraft's transition from interplanetary cruising to arrival has proved to be one of the most challenging phases in the exploration of Mars. In 1993, contact with NASA's Mars Observer was lost as the satellite neared Mars, probably after a fuel-system explosion. Six years later, a mix-up between imperial and metric units in calculating trajectory put the Climate Orbiter too close to Mars, causing it to burn up in the atmosphere. The Polar Lander vanished three months later, probably because a software error caused it to plunge to the surface. The back-to-back losses in 1999 underscored the difficulty of getting to Mars: Fewer than one-third of the 30 missions launched to the planet by the United States and other countries since 1960 have succeeded. The two botched missions also forced the space agency to scale back what had been an ambitious program to explore the planet. Originally, Odyssey was supposed to be joined by a spacecraft that would put a rover on the surface of Mars. But the lander was scrapped, leaving Odyssey to wend its way alone to Mars after its launch last April. To avoid another fiasco, NASA added staff, did extra checks on software and took precautions to prevent a repeat of the imperial-metric mix-up. Despite the recent failures, NASA has continued to explore Mars from orbit via the Global Surveyor, which arrived in 1997 and has transmitted thousands of highly detailed images of the Martian surface and dust storms in its atmosphere. Odyssey was equipped with two instruments to map the distribution of minerals and search for water across the dusty surface of Mars. Liquid water is considered a necessary element for life; finding reservoirs could help determine whether life ever existed on the Red Planet. A third instrument was designed to measure radiation on Mars and how that might endanger humans if they are ever sent to explore the planet. Odysseya box seven feet (2.1-metres) long, five feet (1.6 metres) tall and eight feet (2.5 metres) wide, with an 18-foot (5.6-metre) solar panel and antennaswas also designed to help pick landing sites for future missions, including twin rovers NASA intends to launch in 2003. Copyright 2001 The Canadian Press National Geographic Space Resources Recent News Stories Total Eclipse May Help Solve Mystery of Sun's "Halo" Spacecraft to Touch Down on Asteroid Mission to Mars: A Journey of Magellanic Proportions India Sets Its Sites on the Moon Interactive Space Features Virtual Solar System Star Trekkers: Teenagers on a Simulated Mission at U.S. Space Camp Resources for Teachers Related Lesson Plan: Use this National Geographic News article in your classroom with the Xpeditions lesson plan: The Sun and The Earth National Geographic Channel National Geographic Today, 7 p.m. ET/PT in the United States, is a daily news magazine that features regular updates on space stories. Click here to request the National Geographic Channel.
Monoculture rubber plantations and primary tropical forests are highly variable in physiological traits related to the water balance. Therefore, the change in canopy temperature in relation to the responses of the two communities to expected climate change might also be variable. Researchers from Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden (XTBG) evaluated canopy temperature in a rubber plantation and tropical rainforest in Xishuangbanna, southwestern China. An infrared temperature sensor was installed at each site to measure canopy temperature. The results showed constant difference between the two forests, with the rubber plantation having a higher (canopy temperature – air temperature) than the tropical forest throughout the whole year. The greater heating of canopy leaves in rubber plantation is likely the result of general low canopy stomatal conductance, leading to low transpirative cooling. Plants under soil water deficit decrease stomatal conductance, thereby reducing transpiration and increasing leaf temperature. The reduction in transpiration in the dominant canopy trees during the dry season (with high evaporative demand) could partly explain the increase of canopy to air temperature difference. The study entitled “Comparison of infrared canopy temperature in a rubber plantation and tropical rain forest” has been published online in International Journal of Biometeorology. ZHANG Yiping Ph.D Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan 666303, China
The astonishingly simple technology employed by the TONEWHEELS project creates sound directly from light by means of an optoelectronic sensor. In the diagram above, a LIGHT SOURCE is directed through two transparent, spinning disks. The first disk, the TONEWHEEL, has patterns representing sound waves printed on it. This disk modulates the light in a similar manner as the optical soundtrack of 16mm and 35mm motion picture film. The tone produced depends on both the number of peaks printed on the disk, and the speed at which the disk rotates. After the first TONEWHEEL, any number of secondary MASKWHEELS may be used to further filter or modulate the light before it reaches the sensor. These MASKWHEELS create the same kind of amplitude modulation as the low-frequency oscillators in analog synthesizers, and are heard as anything from a rhythmic pulse to additional sonic frequencies. Once the light has passed through these various wheels, it falls on the OPTOELECTRONIC SENSOR, typically a phototransistor or photodiode. This sensor allows five volts of direct electrical current to pass through when exposed to light, and blocks the current when in shadow. From there, the modulated current may be used as an audio signal by connecting the AUDIO OUTPUT to an amplifier and speaker, or it may be sent through a mixer and various other electronic effects for further treatment. LIGHT SENSOR ELECTRONICS In order to connect an optoelectronic sensor to many types of audio equipment (mixer inputs, guitar effects, modular synthesizers, etc etc), it is necessary to create an output buffer. Buffers are simple circuits, often using one or more op-amps, which act as the middle-man and help other circuits talk to each other in the the world of electronics. The light to sound converter circuit above was designed by Alex at 5volt.eu. It uses a BPW34 photodiode instead of a phototransistor, and the diode makes a connection to ground rather than to power. That is followed by U1, which uses an LM358 op-amp chip as the buffer. The op-amp is configured as an inverting op-amp, which means it will give positive voltage at the output (pin 1) when it sees a connection to ground at the inverting input (pin 2). R1 is a potentiometer, which controls the threshold of the op-amp. This means that you can adjust the circuit to the contrast between light and shadow in order to give the strongest signal out. R2 is another potentiometer, which controls the output volume, and C2 is a capacitor which blocks any DC voltage (the constant part of the signal, rather than the part which is AC–the audio part) from going further in the circuit. If you plan to connect this circuit to a mixer, then an output jack can be inserted between C2 and pin 3 of U2, the LM386 amplifier. I have designed a Printed Circuit Board for this circuit with an added output jack for connecting to a mixer. R4 and C5 have been omitted from my design: Here is the parts overlay for the project (enlarged from PCB for clarity, click for full size): And here is a photo of the completed project: In order to control the speed of the motor which spins the TONEWHEEL in front of the optoelectronic sensor, you can use this Pulse Width Modulation Motor Speed Controller. The circuit is based on the commonly-available 555 timer Integrated Circuit. It should work with Direct Current motors up to 1 or even 1.5 Amps, and has a wide range of control over nearly the entire rotation of the potentiometer. Almost any pot from 25K – 250K could be used in place of the 100K I specify in the parts overlay below. It is not recommended to use the same power supply for the motors and the light-to-sound converter, as the motor controller produces a lot of electromagnetic noise. I have also designed a PCB and parts overlay for this motor controller:
The mineral of the month for this update is Mary Ellen Jasper. Unless you live in Minnesota, you may not be familiar with this interesting form of microcrystalline quartz. This rock formed more than two billion years ago in the area that is now the Mesabi Iron Range in Northern, Minnesota. At that time one of the early life forms evolved in the ancient seas. These blue-green single-celled cyanobacteria contained chlorophyll and were able to harvest the energy of the sun to photosynthesize and produce their own food. Energy from sunlight was used to split carbon dioxide into carbon and oxygen. The carbon was absorbed, becoming part of the growing organism, and the oxygen was released into the atmosphere. Prior to the evolution of cyanobacteria, there was almost no oxygen in the atmosphere. Once these organisms developed, they proliferated and helped to trigger drastic changes in the earth’s atmosphere, climate, and environment. Some of the cyanobacteria lived in colonies that produced macro-scale structures called stromatolites. A drawing depicting what a stromatolite shoreline may have looked like during the latter part of the Archean period is shown below. Evidence of fossil stromatolite formations have been found throughout the world so these mushroom-shaped mounds dominated the shores of all the newly developing landmasses, including the area where the Mary Ellen Jasper developed. The earliest stromatolite of confirmed origin dates to 2,724 million years ago. A recent discovery, however, provides strong evidence that microbial stromatolites extending as far back as 3,450 million years ago. These organisms were extremely resilient and adaptable, allowing them to be a major constituent of the fossil record for the first 3,500 million years of life on earth, with their abundance peaking about 1,250 million years ago. Until the mid-1950s, scientists thought that stromatolites were long since extinct. That all changed in 1956 when living stromatolites were found in the Hamlin Pool located on the south end of Sharks Bay in Western Australia. Since then, live stromatolites have also been found in several sites in the Bahamas. Pictures of both are included below. Stromatolites are stony structures built up by algae and cyanobacteria. The microbes live in gooey mats on the top surface of the structures. These mats trap fine sediments carried across them by tidal currents. As the mats fill in with sediments and become opaque, the microbes move upwards seeking sunlight. Stromatolites differ from normal fossils because they are formed by the activities of micro-organisms. They result from a combination of trapping, binding and precipitation of sediment. One of the biggest impacts that stromatolites had on the earth was the release of free oxygen, which was a byproduct of their photosynthesis. When stromatolites first evolved, the earth’s atmosphere had less than one percent oxygen. After the stromatolites evolved, significant amounts of oxygen did not accumulate in the atmosphere right away because of the vast quantities of oxidizable materials in the earth’s crust as well as the dissolved eager-to-combine iron in the oceans. For more than a hundred million years, these materials absorbed any free oxygen that was produced. Mary Ellen Jasper developed not only from the remains of the stromatolites, but also from the oxidization of iron that was present in the area that is now northern Minnesota. A few more pictures of Mary Ellen Jasper are included below. The first two pictures are of a thin polished slab. The first is displayed with front lighting and the second with back lighting. Coincidently, I just polished a piece of Mary Ellen Jasper for a customer a couple of days ago. Here is a picture of that specimen.
NASA News & Feature Releases El Niño, La Niña Rearrange South Pole Sea Ice Scientists have been mystified by observations that when sea ice on one side of the South Pole recedes, it advances farther out on the other side. New findings from NASA's Office of Polar Programs suggests for the first time that this is the result of El Niños and La Niñas driving changes in the subtropical jet stream, which then alter the path of storms that move sea ice around the South Pole. The results have important implications for understanding global climate change better because sea ice contributes to the Earth's energy balance. The presence of sea ice, which is generated around each pole when the water gets cold enough to freeze, reflects solar energy back out to space, cooling the planet. When there is less sea ice, the ocean absorbs the sun's heat and that amplifies climate warming. By looking at the relationship between temperature changes in the ocean, atmospheric winds, storms, and sea ice, the new study pinpoints causes for retreating and advancing ice in the Atlantic and Pacific ocean basins on either side of the South Pole, called the "Antarctic dipole." El Niños and La Niñas appear to be the originating agents for helping generate the sea ice dipole observed in the ocean basins around the Antarctic," said David Rind, lead author of the study and a senior climate researcher at the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies. The study appears in the Sep. 17 issue of Journal of Geophysical Research. During El Niño years, when the waters of the Eastern Pacific heat up, warm air rises. As the air rises it starts to move toward the South Pole, but the earth's rotation turns the winds eastward. The Earth's rotation is just strong enough to cause this rising air to strengthen the subtropical jet stream, a band of atmospheric wind near the equator that also blows eastward. When the subtropical jet stream gets stronger over the Pacific basin, it diverts storms away from the Pacific side of the South Pole. Since there are fewer storms near the Pacific-Antarctic region during El Niño years, there are less winds to blow sea ice farther out into the ocean, and ice stays close to shore. At the same time, the air in the tropical Atlantic basin sinks instead of rising. That sinking air weakens the subtropical jet stream over the Atlantic, guiding storms towards the South Pole. The storms, which intensify as they meet the cooler Antarctic air, then blow sea ice away from the pole farther into the Atlantic. During La Niña years, when the Eastern and central Pacific waters cool, there is an opposite effect, where sea ice subsides on the Atlantic side, and advances on the Pacific side. The study is important because the amount of sea ice that extends out into the ocean plays a key role in amplifying or decreasing the warming effects of the sun on our climate. Also, the study explains causes of the Antarctic sea ice dipole for the first time, and provides researchers with a greater understanding of the effects of El Niño and La Niña on sea ice. Scientists may use these findings in global climate models to gauge past, present and future climate changes. "Understanding how changes in the temperature in the different ocean basins will affect sea ice is an important part of the puzzle in understanding climate sensitivity," Rind said. Rind, D., M. Chandler, J. Lerner, D.G. Martinson, and X. Yuan 2001. Climate response to basin-specific changes in latitudinal temperature gradients and implications for sea ice variability. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 20161-20173. Lynn Chandler, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD. Phone 301-286-2806. This article was derived from the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Top Story.
The roseate spoonbill is a large wading bird known for its pink plumage and distinctive spoon-shaped bill. Its upper neck and back are colored white, while the wings and feathers underneath display the more recognizable light shade of pink. The wings and tail coverts are deep red, along with the legs and the iris of the eyes. Part of the spoonbill's head is a distinct yellow-green. When they are young, the birds are duller in appearance, brightening as they mature. Reaching a height of up to 2.5 feet (80 centimeters), the roseate spoonbill's wingspan can stretch 1.5 times as wide, reaching up to 4 feet (120 centimeters). In the United States, the roseate spoonbill can be found in southern Florida, coastal Texas and southwestern Louisiana. Their breeding range extends south from Florida through the Greater Antilles to Argentina, Chile and Uruguay. Roseate spoonbills usually live in marsh-like areas and mangroves. While feeding, spoonbills utter a low, guttural sound. They are also known to call during breeding displays and when flying. Using its spoon-like bill to scoop prey up from shallow water, the roseate spoonbill's diet typically includes minnows, small crustaceans, insects and bits of plants. They feed in the early morning and evening hours in both fresh and saltwater wetlands. It is believed the roseate spoonbill receives its bright coloring from the pigments of the crustaceans that it eats. At the Smithsonian's National Zoo, they are fed flamingo pellets, sea duck pellets and insects. Typically roseate spoonbills do not breed until their third year. To attract one another, courtship displays include ritualized exchanges of nest material, dancing and clapping. Female spoonbills create deep, well-constructed nests out of sticks using materials brought to them by males. The Florida population usually nests in red and black mangroves sometimes with wood storks, while the Texas and Louisiana populations often nest on the ground in offshore island mixed colonies with gulls, terns and herons. A female lays a clutch of one to five eggs. Both parents share incubation duties, which last about 22 to 24 days. A newly hatched chick has mostly pink skin with a sparse covering of white down. The parents feed the chick by dribbling regurgitated material into the baby's upturned bill. After one month, the chick will begin to exercise by clambering through the branches or foliage surrounding the nest, and by six weeks, it will have developed wing feathers large enough for flight. The roseate spoonbill sleeps standing, usually on one leg, with its head tucked beneath its back and shoulder feathers. They can live up to 15 years in human care and an estimated 10 years in the wild. Between 1850 and 1890, the number of roseate spoonbills dropped dramatically as hunters began killing the birds for their feathers, which they sold for use in the construction of ladies' fans and hats, as well as for their meat. By the 1930s, the population dropped to a low of 30 to 40 breeding pairs nesting in a few small colonies on the keys of Florida Bay. The species eventually began to rebound, especially in isolated areas, once they gained full legal protection from hunting. Now the birds' main threat is the destruction of their natural habitat. The ground nesting colonies in Texas and Louisiana are vulnerable to predators making their way in from the shore islands. Often this forces entire colonies to shift locations, sometimes to more vulnerable sites. Some populations show high levels of pesticides in their eggs, but they do not appear to be significantly impacted by egg shell thinning.
How to teach one Hour of Code Join the movement and introduce a group of students to their first hour of computer science with these steps: 1) Watch this how-to video 2) Choose a tutorial for your hour: We provide a variety of fun, hour-long tutorials for students of all ages, created by a variety of partners. Student-guided Hour of Code tutorials: - Require minimal prep-time for teachers - Are self-guided - allowing students to work at their own pace and skill-level Teacher-guided Hour of Code tutorials: - Are lesson plans that require some advance teacher preparation - Are categorized by grade level and by subject area (eg Math, English, etc) 3) Promote your Hour of Code Promote your Hour of Code with these tools and encourage others to host their own events. 4) Plan your technology needs - computers are optional The best Hour of Code experience includes Internet-connected computers. But you don’t need a computer for every child, and you can even do the Hour of Code without a computer at all. Plan Ahead! Do the following before your event starts: - Test tutorials on student computers or devices. Make sure they work properly on browsers with sound and video. - Provide headphones for your class, or ask students to bring their own, if the tutorial you choose works best with sound. Don't have enough devices? Use pair programming. When students partner up, they help each other and rely less on the teacher. They’ll also see that computer science is social and collaborative. Have low bandwidth? Plan to show videos at the front of the class, so each student isn't downloading their own videos. Or try the unplugged / offline tutorials. 5) Start your Hour of Code off with an inspiring speaker or video Invite a local volunteer to inspire your students by talking about the breadth of possibilities in computer science. There are thousands of volunteers around the world ready to help with your Hour of Code. Use this map to find local volunteers who can visit your classroom or join a video chat with your students. Show an inspirational video: It’s okay if both you and your students are brand new to computer science. Here are some ideas to introduce your Hour of Code activity: - Explain ways that technology impacts our lives, with examples both boys and girls will care about (Talk about saving lives, helping people, connecting people, etc.). - As a class, list things that use code in everyday life. - See tips for getting girls interested in computer science here. Need more guidance? Download this template lesson plan. Want more teaching ideas? Check out best practices from experienced educators. Direct students to the activity When your students come across difficulties it's okay to respond: - “I don’t know. Let’s figure this out together.” - “Technology doesn’t always work out the way we want.” - “Learning to program is like learning a new language; you won’t be fluent right away.” Check out these teaching tips What to do if a student finishes early? - Students can see all tutorials and try another Hour of Code activity at hourofcode.com/learn - Or, ask students who finish early to help classmates who are having trouble with the activity. Other Hour of Code resources for educators: What comes after the Hour of Code? The Hour of Code is just the first step on a journey to learn more about how technology works and how to create software applications. To continue this journey: - Encourage students to continue to learn online. Attend a 1-day, in-person workshop to receive instruction from an experienced computer science facilitator. (US educators only)
For me, the Imbuhan Awalan teR is the easiest to understand. To help you primary school child understand understand the Imbuhan Awalan teR.. - Explain the standard rules (in general as in beR use te for words starting with R and ter for others) - Explain the meaning of the word when "teR" is added to the kata dasar or root word and finally (the most common is "accidentally" or "the most" - Imbuhan Practise. Here are the resources to do the above: - Read up about Imbuhan teR and Explain the usage rules for Imbuhan teR - Explain the meaning of the words when the Imbuhan teR is included Note: In the Malay Language "Imbuhan Awalan" is the affixing of affixes (Imbuhan Awalan) onto a root word (Kata Dasar). "Imbuhan Akhiran" are called Suffixes. I have prepared this for teaching my 8 year old who is doing the KSSR Primary 2 this year so I have picked resources which are simple and easy to understand. My Primary 4 girl learns some new things from this too. - Nilai Murni For Bahasa Malaysia Paper UPSR Format - Imbuhan Awalan beR For Primary School - Imbuhan Awalan meN for Primary School - Imbuhan Akhiran an, kan dan i Glitter Text Generator
PHYSICAL BASED RENDERING TEXTURES PBR Texture or physical based rendering Textures used life-like lighting or shading models along with computed surface values to precisely depict the real-world materials. Or it can also define as the combination of physically accurate shading, lighting, and properly measured art content. Subsequently, we have discussed the fundamental principles behind how physical-based rendering (PBR) computed the shading and lighting. Diffuse and reflected Diffuse and reflected lights are the terms that demonstrate the interaction between the material and the light. The reflected light is the light that strikes the surface and bounces off. On a smooth surface, the light will be reflected in the same direction and create a mirror-like appearance. Diffuse light is the light that penetrates the inside of the object. There it gets absorbed or scattered in the material and re-emerged. Unlike the reflected light, the diffused light is uniform in direction. The light which is not absorbed provides the material its color. Diffused color is also known as Albedo or base color. The total light hitting the material is equal to the sum of the reflected light and diffusive light. If the material is highly reflective then it will show less diffusive color. In contrast, If the material has a rich diffusive color, it can not reflect enough. Metals & Non-metals It is essential to know the nature of the material. whether the material is a conductor (metal) or an insulator (non-metal). Because it determines how the material behaves with the light. Metals are usually reflective whereas non-metals are not. Therefore, metals reflect the color as diffusive whereas non-metals on reflection appear white. Due to these differences, a PBR workflow has the property of metalness which makes things easier by defining either the material is metal or non-metal. Fresnel is a term defined as the different angles show the different extent of reflectivity. The light that hits near the edges shows more reflection than the light that falls at 0 angles. The detail of the microsurface is a very significant characteristic for any material. Because it explains how smooth or rough a surface is. Some PBR systems use Glossiness and some use roughness, They both are the same thing. Glossiness is the inverse of roughness and vise versa.
Newton's law of gravitation Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus, Medical, Wikipedia. The Law of Universal Gravitation The Relativistic Explanation of Gravitation The Search for Gravity Waves The Force of Gravity See A. S. Eddington, Space, Time and Gravitation (1920); J. A. Wheeler, A Journey into Gravity and Spacetime (1990); M. Bartusiak, Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: Listening to the Sounds of Space-Time (2000). Newton's law of gravitationSee gravitation. Newton’s Law of Gravitation one of the universal laws of nature. According to Newton’s law of gravitation, all physical bodies attract one another, and the magnitude of the force of attraction is independent of the physical and chemical properties of the bodies, the state of motion of the bodies, and the properties of the medium in which the bodies are located. On the earth, gravitation is manifested primarily in the existence of a gravitational force, which is a result of the attraction of any physical body by the earth. Newton’s law of gravitation, which was discovered in the 17th century by I. Newton, may be stated in the following way. Any two mass points attract each other with a force F that is directly proportional to their masses m1 and m2 and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between them: Here, the force F is directed along the line that connects these points. The proportionality factor G, which is a constant, is called the constant of gravitation. In the cgs system, G ≈ 6.7 × 10−8 dyne · cm2 · g−2. Here, the term “mass points” is understood to mean bodies whose dimensions are negligibly small in comparison with the distances between the bodies. Newton’s law of gravitation may be interpreted differently, if we assume that any mass point with a mass m1 creates around itself a field of attraction (a gravitational field) in which any other free mass point located at a distance r from the center of the field receives an acceleration that is independent of the mass of this second particle and that is equal to and is directed toward the center of the field. The gravitational forces and gravitational fields of separate particles possess the property of additivity; that is, the force acting on a certain particle produced by several other particles is equal to the geometric sum of the forces produced by each particle. It follows that the attraction between real physical bodies, taking into account the size, shape, and density distribution of the bodies, can be determined by calculating the sum of the attractive forces of separate small particles into which the bodies may be mentally divided; in such a calculation, the direction of the components of the forces is taken into account. It has been established in this manner that a spherical body, homogeneous or having a spherical distribution of mass density, has precisely the same force of attraction as that of a mass point if the distance r is measured from the center of the sphere. The nature of the motion of celestial bodies in space is determined primarily by gravitational forces. Indeed, Newton’s law of gravitation was discovered and subsequently rigorously substantiated in the study of the motion of the planets and planetary satellites. In the early 17th century, J. Kepler empirically established the fundamental laws governing planetary motion, which are called Kepler’s laws. Proceeding from these laws, Newton’s contemporaries, such as the French astronomer I. Boullian, the Italian physicist G. A. Borelli, and the British physicist R. Hooke, reasoned that planetary motions may be attributed to the action of a force that attracts every planet to the sun and that decreases in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from the sun. However, this was not rigorously proved until Newton did so in 1687 in the Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematical, his proof was based on his first two laws of motion and his newly devised mathematical methods that constituted the foundation of the differential and integral calculi. Newton proved that the motion of every planet must obey Kepler’s first two laws if it moves under the gravitational force of the sun in accordance with formula (1). Newton further showed that the motion of the moon can be approximately explained by using an analogous force field for the earth and that the gravitational force of the earth results from the action of this force field on physical bodies near the surface of the earth. Newton concluded, on the basis of his third law of motion, that attraction is a reciprocal property, and he formulated his law of gravitation for all physical bodies. Derived from empirical data based on necessarily approximate observational results, Newton’s law of gravitation was originally a working hypothesis. An enormous amount of work over a period of 200 years was subsequently required in order to rigorously substantiate this law. Newton’s law of gravitation was the foundation for celestial mechanics. In the 17th to 19th centuries, one of the fundamental tasks of celestial mechanics was to prove that gravitational interaction according to Newton’s law explains precisely the observed motions of celestial bodies in the solar system. Newton himself showed that the mutual attraction among the earth, moon, and sun explains quite accurately a number of peculiarities in the motion of the moon that had been observed much earlier, such as the lunar variations, the regression of the nodes, the motion of the perigee, and fluctuations in the inclination of the lunar orbit; he also showed that the earth, because of its rotation and the action of gravitational forces between the particles that make up the earth, should be flattened at the poles. Newton also attributed to gravitational forces such phenomena as the tides and the precession of the earth’s axis. One of the most brilliant confirmations of the validity of the law of universal gravitation in the history of astronomy was the discovery in 1845–46 of the planet Neptune as a result of preliminary theoretical calculations that predicted the planet’s position. Modern theories of the motion of the earth, moon, and planets that are based on Newton’s law of gravitation account for the observed motions of these bodies in all details, except for certain effects, such as the motions of the perihelia of Mercury, Venus, and Mars; these effects are explained in relativistic celestial mechanics, which is based on Einstein’s theory of gravitation. According to Newton’s law of gravitation, gravitational interaction plays the primary role in the motion of such stellar systems as binary and multiple stars and within star clusters and galaxies. However, the gravitational fields within star clusters and galaxies are quite complex and have not yet been adequately studied. Consequently, the motions within these clusters are studied by methods that differ from those of celestial mechanics (seeSTELLAR ASTRONOMY). Gravitational interaction also plays a significant role in all cosmic processes in which concentration of large masses takes part. Newton’s law of gravitation is the basis for the study of the motion of artificial celestial bodies, in particular, space probes and artificial earth and lunar satellites. Gravimetry is based on Newton’s law of gravitation. The attractive forces between ordinary macroscopic bodies on the earth can be detected and measured but do not have any significant practical role. In a microcosm, gravitational forces are negligibly small in comparison with intramolecular and intranuclear forces. Newton left unanswered the question of the nature of gravitation and did not explain the hypothesis of instantaneous propagation of gravitation in space, that is, the hypothesis that as the positions of bodies change there is an instantaneous change in the gravitational force between the bodies. This hypothesis is closely related to the nature of gravitation. The associated difficulties were not eliminated until Einstein’s theory of gravitation, which represents a new stage in the understanding of objective natural laws. REFERENCESIsaak N’iuton, 1643–1727 (a collection of articles commemorating Newton’s 300th birthday). Edited by Academician S. I. Vavilov. Moscow-Leningrad, 1943. Berry, A. Kratkaia istoriia astronomii. Moscow-Leningrad, 1946. (Translated from English.) Subbotin, M. F. Vvedenie ν teoreticheskuiu astronomiiu. Moscow, 1968. IU. A. RIABOV
- Subject(s):English Literature - Qualification:Cambridge IGCSE - Author(s):Russell Carey - Available from: May 2018 This updated resource provides full support for the Cambridge IGCSE®, IGCSE (9-1) and O Level Literature in English syllabuses (0475 / 0992 / 2010) as well as IGCSE World Literature (0408). Send a Query× Analyse how Carol Ann Duffy uses structure to convey meaning in ‘Row’, explore Anita Desai’s first-person narratives and engage with characters in Tennessee Williams’ play The Glass Menagerie. This Cambridge Elevate edition encourages an enjoyment of literature while helping students write critical essays. It contains poetry, prose and drama from around the world to appeal to international students aged 14–16. This digital resource takes an active approach to learning and stresses the importance of developing informed personal responses on close textual study. Indicative answers to coursebook questions are in the teacher’s resource and further practice is available in the workbook. Personalise Cambridge Elevate editions to your needs – set homework, link to the web and share annotations with your class. Take an active approach to literature: Activities use active learning techniques – for example, some require students to act out scenes to encourage them to think about characters and plot. Understand the aims of the course: The introduction provides a clear overview of Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Literature syllabuses so students know what to expect. Analyse poetry, prose and drama: With a rich variety of texts and guidance on answering different question types, students learn to tackle each element of the course. Improve writing skills: Top tips and sample answers help students develop their critical writing skills and essay technique. Approach any text with confidence: Strategies for dealing with unseen texts help students overcome common concerns and develop the skills they need. Encourage students to reflect on their learning: ‘Check your progress’ sections summarise the key points of each unit and encourage self-evaluation. Inspire students to explore other texts: Further reading boxes and extension activities provide extra challenge. Cambridge Elevate is simple to navigate for both students and teachers – find notes quickly with highlights and bookmarks, and link directly into Cambridge Elevate from Moodle, Blackboard and any other VLE. Access a library of Cambridge books anywhere, anytime whether online or offline (via the app). For more information, please visit elevate.cambridge.org/support. - Part 1. Introduction - Part 2. Building your skills: Poetry - Part 3. Building your skills: Prose - Part 4. Building your skills: Drama - Part 5. Consolidating your writing skills - Part 6. Preparing for assessment Thank you for your feedback which will help us improve our service. If you requested a response, we will make sure to get back to you shortly.×
© JIE ZHAO/GETTY IMAGES White stripes, each about a meter wide, painted the land for as far as the eye could see. I was visiting the dry areas of the autonomous Ningxia region in northwest China with colleagues from the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences and the nonprofit Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International. Those strips of plastic sheeting, I was told, allow farmers to grow cash crops and grains despite the desert-like conditions. The sheets, usually composed of polyethylene, help conserve water, suppress weeds, and boost soil temperatures, effectively increasing crop yields by 20 to 60 percent. The use of plastic “mulch” to grow crops, known as the White Revolution, began in China in the late 1970s, and now covers 20 million hectares of the country’s agricultural land, an area equivalent to... Used sheets are expensive to collect and discard or recycle, leading some farmers to leave them on the field or illegally dump or burn them; often the sheets are not fully removed, as the thin plastic readily tears into small fragments that remain on the farmland, forming what is known in China as “white pollution.” As new plastic mulch is applied year after year, soils can become enriched with plastic residues, which change the physical and chemical properties of the habitat that so many plants, animals, and microorganisms call home. The use of plastic “mulch” to grow crops, known as the White Revolution, began in China in the late 1970s, and now covers 20 million hectares of the country’s agricultural land. The effects of plastic pollution in terrestrial environments remain largely unknown. To date, the majority of research has focused on aquatic systems, as 10 million to 20 million tons of plastic litter find their way to the oceans each year. Starting in the early 1960s, researchers began documenting dead seabirds with stomachs full of plastic. Then, in 1997, racing boat captain and oceanographer Charles Moore captured the public’s attention with his accounts of floating plastic debris in an area now known as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, ranging from the West Coast of North America to Japan. In addition to large plastic trash, Moore described tiny colorful fragments, what are today known as microplastics, suggesting that a subtler pollutant was accumulating in the environment. In addition to resulting from the physical fragmentation of larger plastic products, microplastics—loosely defined as particles in the size range of 100 nanometers to 5 millimeters—are introduced into the environment as a result of their use in a wide range of applications, from personal-care products to industrial abrasives employed in paint removal or cleaning. Nanoplastic particles of less than 100 nanometers have also found a wide range of applications in adhesives, paints, electronics, and more. Marine organisms across all trophic levels have turned up with microplastics in their guts, and evidence is emerging from experimental studies that the plastic particles and the cocktail of chemicals they carry can wreak havoc on physiology, reproduction, development, and behavior in a range of species. A steady diet of plastic \|TYPES OF PLASTIC POLLUTION\| Macroplastics: Greater than 5 cm Plastic trash and large debris that results from its fragmentation Mesoplastics: 5 mm–5 cm Plastic trash and large debris that results from its fragmentation Microplastics: 100 nm–5 mm Results from general wear-and-tear of plastic materials, including washing synthetic fabrics and abrasion of car tires; also used in diverse products Nanoplastics: Less than 100 nm Results from general wear-and-tear of plastic materials; increasingly used in diverse products Estimates of nano- and microplastic loading in terrestrial environments remain sparse, in part hindered by the heterogeneous nature of soil. But substantial levels of plastic pollution can be expected. Farmlands may be at particularly high risk. Even in areas that don’t employ plastic mulching, farmers may apply microplastics-ridden sewage sludge as fertilizer, and treated wastewater is an important source of water for irrigating farmland. Last year, estimates by a group of Scandinavian and Czech researchers suggested that we could be inadvertently adding some 44,000 to 300,000 metric tons of microplastics annually to farmlands in North America, and another 63,000 to 430,000 tons in Europe. The quantities from each region alone, the researchers said, would exceed the estimated 93,000 to 236,000 tons of microplastics in the surface water of all Earth’s oceans.1 And new studies of terrestrial environments are showing that, like marine animals, soil organisms ingest these microplastics. While humanity moves slowly on addressing the plastics conundrum, small aquatic organisms are already making themselves at home on microplastic debris. In 2014, Julia Reisser of the University of Western Australia and her colleagues found that a diversity of algae, marine worms, barnacles, insect eggs, and microbes inhabit microplastics floating in the oceans surrounding Australia.2 Animals higher up in the food web that eat these organisms ingest the plastics along with the prey, setting the potential for harm to reverberate through the ecosystem. Last November, Matthew Savoca and his colleagues at University of California, Davis, provided evidence that the plastics may smell good to certain consumers. The researchers placed plastic beads in mesh bags tied to an oceanographic monitoring system, then recovered the beads after three weeks in the ocean. The team found that the beads emitted dimethyl sulfide—a compound produced by phytoplankton in response to grazing by zooplankton, which in turn attracts predators of the zooplankton. Using field data collected from 13,350 seabirds of 25 Procellariiform species, including albatrosses and petrels, the researchers found that bird species known to be attracted to dimethyl sulfide ingested the greatest amounts of plastic.3 The growing levels of microplastics in the environment—both aquatic and terrestrial—should thus be cause for concern. As plastic particles get smaller, a wider range of organisms is at risk of uptake or ingestion, and at the nanoscale, the particles can enter cells and move beyond the gastrointestinal system. Scientists’ understanding of the scale of the problem, in terms of both how much plastic pollution exists in the environment and the nature of the consequences for organisms and ecosystems, remains woefully inadequate. The environmental toll © Al Granberg. Source: Nature, 537:488, 2016; Science, 347:768-71, 2015When examining the effects of plastic on the environment, researchers must assess not just the plastic polymer itself, which is generally considered inert, but the various chemicals (called additives) mixed in during the manufacturing process. A cocktail of plasticizers, such as phthalates, as well as flame retardants, stabilizers, pigments, and antimicrobials can improve the product’s properties, such as transparency, flexibility, and durability. Plastics also act as magnets for hydrophobic, or water-repelling, organic and inorganic pollutants, courtesy of their chemical and physical properties. Persistent organic pollutants, such as dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), have been detected hitchhiking on marine plastics. Researchers have begun to document the toll of plastic additives and organic pollutants carried by microplastics on aquatic animals. Once plastics have been consumed, some of the chemicals are released from the plastic and transferred to the animal. If the chemical is fat soluble, it may accumulate in an organism’s tissues. In one experiment, an international research team fed shearwater chicks in Tokyo Bay PCB-contaminated polyethylene resin pellets, and later measured increasing levels of PCB in the birds’ preen gland oil.4 And laboratory experiments using rodent models have shown that exposure to plastic additives can disrupt the endocrine system, cause birth defects, reduce sperm production, trigger insulin resistance, and impair learning and memory.5 Research on the terrestrial environment is only starting, decades behind that on the marine environment. On land, nearly a half century of plastic mulching has provided initial insights into the terrestrial ecosystem’s plastic burden. Last year, for example, a team of researchers in China found that soil microbial biomass and the microbes’ overall metabolic activity decreased with increasing plastic mulch residues in the soil. The microbes’ functional diversity, as measured by their use of different carbon sources, was also reduced.6 Also last year, Esperanza Huerta Lwanga, a visiting researcher at Wageningen University and Research Center in the Netherlands, and colleagues found that earthworms fed microplastic-tainted plant litter grew more slowly and died earlier, although reproduction was unaffected.7 Another study, published this January, pointed to increased gut inflammation in microplastic-exposed worms.8 On land, the lifetime of plastics is estimated to be in the range of centuries. Because we currently have no way to get rid of them, microplastics will continue to persist and accumulate in soil and water. Huerta Lwanga and her colleagues have also shown that earthworms play a role in transporting microplastics from the surface of the soil deeper into the ground. In experiments using thin boxes called formicaria that allow observation of the tunnels made by earthworms, the researchers found microplastics along the tunnels. A study published in March reported that springtails, a highly abundant group of microarthropods, can also transport microplastics in the soil.9 This movement of microplastics presumably makes the pollutants accessible to other soil organisms, though the possibility for bioaccumulation along the soil food web has yet to be determined. If plastics are making their way through terrestrial ecosystems, the risks to plants, which form the base of many terrestrial food webs, must be assessed. Microplastics are not expected to be a problem for plants, as their large molecular weight would prevent them from passing through plant cell walls. Nanoplastics, however, can and do get inside plant cells. A study using tobacco plant cells showed that nanopolystyrene beads of 20 to 40 nm were taken up, while beads of 100 nm were not.10 More research is needed to determine how plants are affected, however, and whether there are any knock-on effects in the ecosystem. Top Left and Bottom Left: NOAA Top right: Vberger/Wikimedia Commons; Bottom Right: Chris Jordan/U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Headquarters Plastics, plastics everywhere Back in China, shipping containers full of plastic arrive at thousands of processing centers, ranging from small, family-run businesses to large operations. Almost half of recycled plastic waste in the U.S., Europe, and Australia is exported, and China is its biggest importer, using old plastic to make new products. China is the largest producer of plastic products. In the award-winning documentary Plastic China, released in January of this year, director Wang Jiuliang captured images portraying the human and environmental costs of the plastic recycling trade: children playing amidst hills of trash, standing under a shower of fluffy plastic fibers, and using discarded surgical gloves as balloons. While the questions of environmental impacts and human health risk remain open (see “The Human Consequence”), the world continues to rely heavily on plastics that pollute the environment. Some 8 percent of global oil production is used in plastic manufacturing, both as the raw material and for energy to power the process. In Australia alone, 1.4 megatons of plastics were used during the 2011 to 2012 financial year. That is equivalent to the mass of some 1 million SUVs consumed by a country with a population of fewer than 23 million people. © iSTOCK.COM/YOUNG777Ironically, durability, the characteristic that has made plastic so useful to humans, is a double-edged sword. A stark reminder of how persistent plastics are and how far they can travel from their point of origin came in 2005, when an albatross was found with plastic debris in its guts from a World War II plane that had crashed in the sea some 9,000 kilometers away six decades earlier. On land, the lifetime of plastics is estimated to be in the range of centuries. Because we currently have no way to get rid of them, microplastics will continue to persist and accumulate in soil and water. So, what is the best thing to do based on current knowledge? We know that microplastics do not degrade easily in the environment. We know that nanoplastics can enter cells. We have observed that nano- and microplastics are ingested or taken up in a range of marine and terrestrial organisms and that some pollutants carried by microplastics are transferred from food to these consumers, with adverse effects. With such high stakes, we must engage in existing solutions rather than wait for definitive answers. As stated in the 1998 Wingspread Statement on the precautionary principle, “When the health of humans and the environment is at stake, it may not be necessary to wait for scientific certainty to take protective action.” Our priority should be to eliminate the unnecessary use of plastics, to improve and insist on biodegradable alternatives, and, above all, to fully understand what it means to live in a plasticized world. Ee Ling Ng is a research fellow at the University of Melbourne and manager for the Australia-China Joint Research Centre: Healthy Soils for Sustainable Food Production and Environmental Quality. © AL GRANBERG As plastic pollution invades Earth’s numerous ecosystems, it should come as no surprise that small particles and plastic additives have found their way into the human food supply. In 2014, Lisbeth Van Cauwenberghe and Colin Janssen of Ghent University in Belgium tested for microplastics in two filter-feeding bivalve species grown for human consumption—blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) and Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas). They found levels of microplastics in the animals’ tissues that would translate to human dietary exposure of between 1,800 and 11,000 microplastic particles per year for Europe’s minor and top mollusk consumers respectively.11 A 2015 survey of 44 samples of 10 vegetables (capsicum, cucumber, Chinese cabbage, radish, green cabbage, lettuce, chrysanthemum, celery, spinach, and mustard) grown with plastic mulch in suburban greenhouses around Nanjing, China, documented the presence of a group of phthalates in all 44 samples.12 Several had concentrations that exceeded allowable limits for human consumption or for soils set by both European and US governments. Microplastics have even been found in salt, unsurprising given that our seawater is being enriched with them.13 To date, no guidelines or regulations exist to limit the level of microplastics found in food products. And whether consuming these plastics will have effects on human health remains to be seen. Documenting such effects will require tracing each step along the pathways of exposure; food consumption is only one of those steps. It will also require research to reveal in greater detail how plastics, plastic additives, and other chemicals hitchhiking onto plastic during its residence in the environment act inside the body. We do know that plastic additives such as phthalates are already widespread in human populations, based on monitoring in the U.S. and Europe. And human epidemiological studies have revealed links between plastic additives and metabolic, thyroid, reproductive, and respiratory problems.14 But the pathways of exposure to these plastic additives are numerous, and ingestion of microplastics, based on current knowledge, is not expected to be the major contributor of these plastic additives found in people. Indeed, in a report on nano- and microplastics in food released in May 2016, the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain stated that, while there is insufficient data for a complete human risk assessment, current evidence indicates microplastics in food are unlikely to be harmful. - L. Nizzetto et al., “Pollution: Do microplastics spill on to farm soils?” Nature, 537:488, 2016. - J. Reisser et al., “Millimeter-sized marine plastics: A new pelagic habitat for microorganisms and invertebrates,” PLOS ONE, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0100289, 2014. - M.S. Savoca et al., “Marine plastic debris emits a keystone infochemical for olfactory foraging seabirds,” Science Advances, 2:e1600395, 2016. - E.L. Teuten et al., “Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife,” Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 364:2027-45, 2009. - C.E. Talsness et al., “Components of plastic: Experimental studies in animals and relevance for human health,” Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 364:2079-96, 2009. - J. Wang et al., “Effects of plastic film residues on occurrence of phthalates and microbial activity in soils,” Chemosphere, 151:171-77, 2016. - E. Huerta Lwanga et al., “Microplastics in the terrestrial ecosystem: Implications for Lumbricus terrestris (Oligochaeta, Lumbricidae),” Environ Sci Technol, 50:2685-91, 2016. - A. Rodriguez-Seijo et al., “Histopathological and molecular effects of microplastics in Eisenia andrei Bouché,” Environ Pollut, 220A:495-503, 2017. - S. Maaß et al., “Transport of microplastics by two collembolan species,” Environ Pollut, 225:456-59, 2017. - V. Bandmann et al., “Uptake of fluorescent nano beads into BY2-cells involves clathrin-dependent and clathrin-independent endocytosis”, FEBS Lett, 586:3626-32, 2012. - L. Van Cauwenberghe, C.R. Janssen, “Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption,” Environ Pollut, 193:65-70, 2014. - J. Wang et al., “Occurrence and risk assessment of phthalate esters (PAEs) in vegetables and soils of suburban plastic film greenhouses,” Sci Total Environ, 523:129-37, 2015. - D. Yang et al., “Microplastic pollution in table salts from China,” Environ Sci Technol, 49:13622-27, 2015. - J.D. Meeker et al., “Phthalates and other additives in plastics: human exposure and associated health outcomes,” Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0268, 2009.
Learn about the solar system for kids with these super cute, solar system coloring pages. These planet coloring pages are a fun way for toddler, preschool, pre-k, kindergarten, first grade, 2nd grade, 3rd grade, 4th grade, 5th grade, and 6th graders to learn about planets for kids. These solar system colouring pages include the object, key word to trace, and information too. There are over 15 different pages in this free printable solar system coloring pages pack to learn about Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, the Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Asteroid Belt, Pluto, and the Milky Way Galaxy. Simply print the planets coloring pages pdf file and you are ready for a no-prep solar system activity for kids. Solar System Coloring Pages Help kids begin to learn about the amazing thigns in our outer space by colouring a cute solar system coloring page. This pack of solar system coloring pages include LOTs of pages with one planet coloring page per planet plus solar system coloring sheets for the asteroid belt, sun, moon, and more! Whether you use them one at a time for a solar system unit, make them all and put them into a book, or simply learn about one planet in our Milky way Galaxy at a time, you will love these beautiful printable solar system coloring pages. Try this solar system coloring with preschoolers, kindergartners, grade 1, grade 2, grade 3, grade 4, grade 5, and grade 6 students. These solar system coloring sheet pages are sure to make learning about our amazing solar system fun by coloring in the planets an reading the text. Whether you are a parent, teacher, or homeschooler – you will love these handy solar system worksheets for making learning fun! Use them as extra practice, summer learning, center in your classroom, or supplement to your homeschool science curriculum. Planet coloring pages Planets coloring pages All you need for this planet activity for kids are: - planets coloring pages pdf - crayons, markers, or colored pencils That’s it! You are ready to color and learn about the solar system for kids! Solar system colouring pages Each free solar system coloring pages includes a picture to color, word to trace, and information about the solar system object. Have your child use crayons, markers, or colored pencils to work on solar system coloring the planet and trace the planet name. Then read the information on the solar system coloring sheets to learn more about the cool planets in our solar system. Solar system coloring pages pdf Included in this large pack of solar system printable coloring pages are the following coloring sheets for students to color and learn: - Solar system - Sun – The sun is a star that is very, very hot. Its heat keeps plants and animals on earth alive. All the other planets in our galaxy go around the sun. - Mercury – Of the 8 big planets that orbit the sun, Mercury is the smallest and closet to the sun. Mercury is about the size of our moon and gets very hot at day and very cold at night. - Venus – Venus is the 2nd planet from the sun and the hottest planet in our solar system. Most of Venus is covered in lava rock that comes from volcanoes. - Earth – The Earth is our home; it is the only planet known to support life. - Moon (our moon) – You’ve seen the moon up in the night sky, but it ‘s actually just one of many moons in our solar system. We only have one moon; astronauts have landed on the moon times. Our moon looks bright at night because the sun’s light is bouncing off the surface. - Mars – Mars is the 4th planet from our sun; it looks reddish because there is a lot of iron in the rocks on the surface. Mars has 2 moons: Phobos and Deimos. - Jupiter -Jupiter is the biggest planet in our solar system. It is so big that all the other planets in our solar system could fit inside it. Jupiter looks cloudy because it spins very fast pulling clouds into bands around the earth. Jupiter has 63 moons! - Saturn – Saturn is the 6th planet from our sun. It would take 4 years for a spaceship from Erath to get here. Saturn’s thousands of rings are made up of icy rocks; some as small as a speck of dust. Saturn has at least 53 moons. - Neptune – Neptune is the 8th planet around our sun. Like Jupiter, Neptune is known as a gas giant. This planet has wild weather with winds more than 1,000 miles an hour. - Uranus – The 7th planet from our sun is sipped onto its ide and is called Uranus. This planet is the coldest of our 8 big planets. It has at least 27 moons. - Pluto – Once considered the 9th planet from the sun, this planet is now considered a dwarf planet. Pluto has 3 small moons that orbit this cold planet. - Asteroid Belt – The asteroid belt is a rig of rocks that orbit our sun between Mars and Jupiter. It separates the rocky planets from the gas planets. - Milky Way Galaxy – Earth is in the Milk Way Galaxy. The milky way is made up of billions of stars and is just one of the galaxies in our universe! Solar System Activities for Kids Looking for more fun, hands on science activities to teach kids about astronomy or to round out your solar system for kids unit. You will love these hands on solar system activities and lessons: - The Sun Activities for Kindergarten – learn about the sun and how the planets orbit around it including a fun planets game for kids! - Moon Activities for Kids & Astronauts Too – make oreo moon phases, DIY telescope, learn about the astronauts who landed on the moon, and more! - Inner Planets for Kids (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) – Use our free planet worksheets and fun hands-on activities like Mercury craters, Venus’ melting rocks, layers of the earth, and Erupting Mars Volcano - Outer Planets for Kids (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) – combination of hands-on solar system projects and solar system printables; gaseous Jupiter, Saturn Rocket, plus cloudy Uranus and Neptune. - Pluto, Asteroid Belt, Comets, and Stars for Kids – make a FUN constellation projector, cold Pluto ice cream project, and grape constellation project - Yarn Solar System Project – fun, unique, and easy solar system model that is cheap and so pretty! - Paint Stick Solar System Project – easy-to-make solar system model for kids that doubles as an activity for learning the names and order of the planets - Pipe Cleaner Constellations – fun hands on pipe cleaner constellations activity for kids - Simple Galaxy Science Experiments - Looking for more fun, engaging, creative, and memorable moon projects for kids? You will love this 50 Moon Activities for Kids & Crafts collection with the best ideas from the whole internet! - TONS of really cool Solar System Project Ideas for kids of all ages - Kids will love this fun fizzy planets space experiments for kids - Use playdough for this planets project Free Solar System Printables Plus, don’t forget to add these free solar system worksheets and printables to your lesson plan: - HUGE pack of FREE Solar System Worksheets for elementary age kids - Planet worksheets for kindergarten with solar system themed math and literacy activities for preschoolers, kindergartners, and grade 1 students - Simple Astronaut Coloring Pages - Space Worksheets Preschool - Free Constellation Worksheets - Solar System Coloring Pages to read, learn, and color the solar system - Printable Free Constellations Printable pdf for children to learn about stars and the patterns they make in the night sky - Cootie Catcher Constellation Activities for Kids - Free Constellation Cards - Moon Phases Kindergarten Worksheets – HUGE pack! - Planets Solar System for Kids pdf Book for students to learn about all the planets in our solar system - Moon Phases Printable Mini Book for kids to learn about the phases of the moon Solar system coloring page By using resources from my site you agree to the following: - This is for personal use only (teachers please see my TPT store) - This may NOT be sold, hosted, reproduced, or stored on any other site (including blog, Facebook, Dropbox, etc.) - Graphics Purchased and used with permission from Scrappin Doodles License #94836 and Glitter Meets Glue Designs - I offer free printables to bless my readers AND to provide for my family. 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What is the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment and when did it pass? The Equal Protection Clause is part of the first section of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The clause, which took effect in 1868, provides “nor shall any State deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws”. What does the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment prohibit quizlet? Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment prohibits any state from passing a law that denies to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Challenge may arise where there is a difference in treatment based on discriminatory classification. What does the 14th Amendment prohibits unfair actions from? The 14th Amendment says that anyone born or naturalized in the United States is a citizen and prevents states from denying “any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.” The amendment also requires states to provide all citizens with “equal protection of the laws.” What does the Equal Protection Clause protect quizlet? It prohibits laws that unreasonably and unfairly favor some groups over others or arbitrarily discriminate against persons. Explain why neither state governments nor the national government can deprive people of equal protection of the laws. The Fourteenth Amendment applies it to the state. What does the equal protection clause prohibit quizlet? What does the 14th Amendment mean quizlet? 14th Amendment. Granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. including former slaves. Citizenship Clause. gives individual born in the United States the right to citizenship. Due Process Clause. What is the meaning of Equal Protection Clause? Legal Definition of equal protection clause : the clause in the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution that prohibits any state from denying to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. What is the meaning of equal protection of the law? equal protection of the law. n. the right of all persons to have the same access to the law and courts and to be treated equally by the law and courts, both in procedures and in the substance of the law. What is the Equal Rights Amendment quizlet? Equal Rights Amendment. The proposed Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) states that the rights guaranteed by the Constitution apply equally to all persons regardless of their sex. What does the equal protection clause protect quizlet? Why was the equal protection clause added to the Fourteenth Amendment? Finally, the “equal protection clause” (“nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws”) was clearly intended to stop state governments from discriminating against Black Americans, and over the years would play a key role in many landmark civil rights cases. Where is the equal protection clause What does this imply quizlet? Where is the “equal protection clause”? What does this imply? The fourteenth amendment. It implies that no state shall deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. What does the 14th Amendment provide for? A major provision of the 14th Amendment was to grant citizenship to “All persons born or naturalized in the United States,” thereby granting citizenship to formerly enslaved people. What was the purpose of the Equal Rights Amendment? The Equal Rights Amendment would provide a fundamental legal remedy against sex discrimination by guaranteeing that constitutional rights may not be denied or abridged on account of sex. What was the intent of the Equal Rights Amendment? First proposed by the National Woman’s political party in 1923, the Equal Rights Amendment was to provide for the legal equality of the sexes and prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex. More than four decades later, the revival of feminism in the late 1960s spurred its introduction into Congress. What does the 14th Amendment actually say? What does the 14th Amendment actually say? No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. What clause is included in the 14th Amendment? fundamental rights that are not specifically enumerated elsewhere in the Constitution, including the right to marry, the right to use contraception, and the right to abortion. The Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment echoes that of the Fifth Amendment. The Fifth Amendment, however, applies only against the federal government. What are the key provisions of the 14th Amendment? It made full citizens of the freed slaves and granted them full enumeration for Representation ( undoing the 3/5 clause ). What is the purpose of the 14th Amendment? Plessy v. Ferguson (18 May 1896) ―The Louisiana legislature had passed a law requiring black and white residents to ride separate,but equal,train cars.…
An artist's rendering of J1407b passing in front of its parent star. (Credit: Ron Miller) A newly discovered planet makes Saturn’s famed ring collection look downright tiny by comparison. Astronomers from the Leiden Observatory in Netherlands and Rochester University in the United States discovered a planet encircled by a ring system more than 200 times the diameter of Saturn’s. With more than 30 rings, it’s the first system of its kind to be discovered outside our solar system, and it may be churning out more moons and protoplanets. Rings Around the Gas Giant SuperWASP is the United Kingdom’s top exoplanet detection program, and consists of two robotic observatories that operate year-round. Using data from the SuperWASP project, astronomers discovered an unusual series of eclipses that occurred in 2007 and obscured light from a Sun-like star called J1407. For 56 days light from J1407 faded in and out in a complex pattern, and at times more than 95 percent of the star’s light was blocked. Astronomers concluded that a ring system must have caused J1407’s peculiar dimming. Here’s how the thinking goes: As a ring system passes in front of a star, it blocks light where dust and debris is thickest. More light passes through gaps in the rings, where orbiting moons or protoplanets forged paths through the debris field. The pattern they observed is thus similar to watching flickering sunlight through the windows of a moving train or bus. We can’t actually observe the rings, but based on the light curve from SuperWASP data, astronomers estimate that the ring system is more than 74 million miles in diameter, which is roughly 200 times the diameter of Saturn’s ring system. The rings are also incredibly thick, as it takes quite a lot of material to block more than 95 percent of a Sun-like star’s light. Astronomers believe the system contains about an Earth’s mass in dust particles. At the center of the rings is a giant planet, called J1407b, which is roughly 10 to 40 Jupiter masses and orbits its star once per decade. Researchers published their findings this week in the online journal arXiv. If the rings around J1407b were put around Saturn, we could see them at dusk with our own eyes, as in this illustration. Credit: M. Kenworthy/Leiden But Wait, There’s More Astronomers believe J1407b’s ring system will become more transparent over the next several million years as moons and other satellites continue to form in the debris field. Both Jupiter and Saturn went through a similar development process, so observing J1407b is a bit like looking back in time. Therefore, astronomers can further study J1407b to decipher the physical and chemical properties of satellite-spawning planetary disks – before they settle down into stable, mature planets sporting a lot less bling and a lot more little offspring.
American researchers have revealed a link between the extinction of large herbivores that disappeared thousands of years ago and the change in wildfires map in various regions of the world. Climatologists link the outbreak of forest fires in recent years and the phenomenon of climate change, but these scientists are seeking to find a new and additional explanation for these fires by returning to the ancient past. Weeds fuel forest fires From 50,000 years to 6,000 years ago, many of the world’s largest animals, including such iconic grassland grazers as the woolly mammoth, giant bison, and ancient horses, went extinct. The loss of these grazing species triggered a dramatic increase in fire activity in the world’s grasslands, according to a new Yale-led study published Nov. 26 in the journal Science. In collaboration with the Utah Natural History Museum, Yale scientists compiled lists of extinct large mammals and their approximate dates of extinctions across four continents. The data showed that South America lost the most grazers (83% of all species), followed by North America (68%). These losses were significantly higher than in Australia (44%) and Africa (22%). They then compared these findings with records of fire activity as revealed in lake sediments. Using charcoal records from 410 global sites, which provided a historical record of regional fire activity across continents, they found that fire activity increased after the megagrazer extinctions. Continents that lost more grazers (South America, then North America) saw larger increases in fire extent, whereas continents that saw lower rates of extinction (Australia and Africa) saw little change in grassland fire activity. “These extinctions led to a cascade of consequences,” said Allison Karp, a postdoctoral associate in Yale’s Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology and corresponding author of the paper. “Studying these effects helps us understand how herbivores shape global ecology today.” Grazing and fighting forest fires Widespread megaherbivore extinctions had major impacts on ecosystems — ranging from predator collapse to loss of fruit-bearing trees that once depended on herbivores for dispersal. But Karp and senior author Carla Staver, associate professor of ecology and evolutionary biology in Yale’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences, wondered if there was also an increase in fire activity in the world’s ecosystems, specifically due to a buildup of dry grass, leaves, or wood caused by the loss of giant herbivores. They found that, in grasslands, grass-fueled fires increased. Karp and Staver note that many ancient browser species — such as mastodons, diprotodons, and giant sloths, which foraged on shrubs and trees in wooded areas — also went extinct during the same period but that their losses had less impact on fires in wooded areas. Grassland ecosystems across the world were transformed after the loss of grazing-tolerant grasses due to the disappearance of herbivores and the increase in fires. New grazers, including livestock, eventually adapted to the new ecosystems. That’s why scientists should consider the role of grazing livestock and wild grazers in fire mitigation and climate change, the authors said. “This work really highlights how important grazers may be for shaping fire activity,” Staver said. “We need to pay close attention to these interactions if we want to accurately predict the future of fires.”
Touring the Constellation TriangulumDecember 11, 2017 1. An Ancient Celestial Triangle It's not much to look at, but the ancient constellation Triangulum is a worthy stop on any tour of the autumn stars and constellations. Situated about 10 degrees due south of the star Almaak (γ Andromedae), Triangulum is a small, dim constellation, the name of which, unsurprisingly, is Latin for "triangle" because of the layout of its three brightest stars (see Figure 1). The stars beta and gamma Trianguli, magnitudes 3.0 and 4.0 respectively, form the base of the little triangle. Alpha Trianguli, at the apex, is a star of magnitude 3.4. The shape of this little constellation caused ancient Greek stargazers to link it to the Nile Delta, while Roman stargazers likened the constellation it to the island of Trinacria (now called Sicily) which has a somewhat triangular shape. Triangulum is surrounded by Andromeda to the north and west, Pisces to the southwest, Aries to the south, and Perseus to the northeast. Beta Trianguli, the brightest star, is a spectroscopic binary star about 127 light years away. Alpha (α) Trianguli, also called Mothallah, which is Arabic for triangle, also has a close companion detectable only through their spectra. Gamma (γ) Trianguli is a whitish main sequence star. It makes an excellent optical triple star for binoculars along with delta Trianguli and 7 Trianguli. The stars are not physically associated. 2. Open Star Cluster NGC 752 While often overlooked for Andromeda, Perseus, and other larger constellations in the autumn sky, Triangulum offers a few fine deep-sky objects for observers with a small telescope. Iota (ι) Trianguli is a fine double star with a yellow and blue component separated by a little less than 4". It makes for good viewing at 100x or more in nearly any telescope. Each component is itself a tightly-spaced and unresolvable double star, which means iota Tri is a four-star system. The stars is sometimes cataloged as 6 Trianguli. And there's NGC 752, a pleasant star cluster often overlooked for more famous deep sky sights in this part of sky. The cluster is easily visible to the unaided eye in clear and dark sky a little less than halfway between the 3rd-magnitude beta (β) Trianguli and 4th-magnitude upsilon (υ) Andromedae. NGC 752 is a somewhat sprawling cluster, ideal for 3" to 4" scopes at low magnification. Use an eyepiece that takes ina wide field of view, at least 1 degree. At 50x, the cluster reveals 70-90 faint stars spread over 40'. Many stars within the cluster are yellow and orange, which implies the bright blue and white stars have long ago burned out. Indeed NGC 752 is more than 2 billion years old, a very great age for an open star cluster. The cluster lacks a well-defined central region or outer boundaries. This is another common feature of older clusters, as many of its constituent stars have been stripped away by gravitational interaction with other stars and molecular clouds. Near the center of NGC 752, look for an orange 7th magnitude star in a tight triangle with two fainter stars. The orange star is likely not related to the cluster. Less than half a degree southwest of the cluster, look for a pair of 6th-magnitude stars with orange and gold hues (see Figure 2). 3. The Triangulum Galaxy (M33) The jewel of Triangulum is the small spiral galaxy M33, the second-closest spiral galaxyafter the Andromeda Galaxy, M31. Part of our own Local Group of galaxies, M33 is about 1/15 the mass of the Andromeda Galaxy, and it may be a distant satellite of M31.Often called the Triangulum Galaxy, in photographs M33 is lovely as a lotus-blossom and rich with new blue stars and pink nebulae along its spiral arms. It is a challenging object for visual observers, however, but still worthy of careful inspection in a small telescope in dark skies. M33 is listed as magnitude 5.7, so you may think it's bright enough to see easily in a telescope. It is not. Its brightness is spread over an area 4 times larger than the full moon, so M33 has a low surface brightness and is notoriously hard to find in light-polluted or moonlit sky. Some observers use M33 as a sky test: if you can see M33 with your naked eye, you have extremely dark and clear sky (and pretty good vision, too). The galaxy is 2.7 million light years away. That makes it is the farthest object visible without optical aid for most observers. To find this fine galaxy, slowly sweep the region about 4.5 degrees west-northwest of 3rd-magnitude alpha (α) Trianglulum. Use low power. Moving your scope or tapping on its side may help you see this faint galaxy. Stay with low magnification to take it all in. You may see some structure and mottling in the spiral arms with a 4" to 6" telescope. Higher magnification with an 8" to 12" telescope seems to dim the view somewhat, but often brings out more structure in the arms, especially the tiny knots of nebulosity of star-forming regions. 4. And an Extra-Galactic Nebula... The spiral arms of M33 are festooned with the pink glow of star-forming nebulae. The largest such region, NGC 604, is visible in a 4" or larger telescope under good conditions. This is an amazing circumstance: to see a star-forming nebula in another galaxy with a small telescope from your own backyard. NGC 604 is visible as a tiny star-like region about 12' northeast of the nucleus of M33. A 10th-magnitude foreground star is just 1' to the southeast of the nebula. The star and the nebula look at first like a double star, but you will notice one of the stars will not come to a focus. That's the nebula. Pop in a nebula filter to improve the contrast of this extremely distant region of ionized gas and newly formed stars. NGC 604 is visible with a small telescope from such a great distance because it is amazingly large - about 100x the size of the Orion Nebula - and it is illuminated by more than 200 massive stars at its center. This article is © AstronomyConnect 2017. All rights reserved. Please login or register to watch, comment, or like this article.
The value and meaning of education have surely changed over time. Having an education was often seen to be more of a privilege than what education stands for today. Many people see early education as preparation for adulthood, whilst further education as a means to develop one’s own understanding of a subject. Argued to be one of the most influential philosophical accounts of education is Plato’s ‘Allegory of the Cave’. The ‘Allegory of the Cave’ can be found in Book 7 of ‘The Republic’. In Plato’s ‘Allegory of the Cave’, Socrates asks Glaucon to picture a group of human beings living in an underground cave. They are only able to see what is in front of them as they bound chains and unable to move. Behind the people there is a fire which is a little higher up and between them and the fire is a small wall. Socrates describes this like a screen at a puppet theatre. People walk behind this wall carrying numerous objects. The objects project shadows onto the wall in front of the prisoners formed by the light of the fire. Socrates suggests that the prisoners would take these shadows to be real things as they have no knowledge on how these shadows are made. Socrates asks what would happen if one of the prisoners were to be set free and released from the chains and look towards the light of the fire situated behind him. The prisoner takes comfort with what is familiar and refuses the knowledge that the shadows are simply created by the objects that are carried in front of the fire. The prisoner is unable to realize the truth. The freed prisoner is forcibly dragged out of the cave and into the light of the outside world. Socrates suggests that that when outside the cave, he would be more confused and “completely dazzled by the glare of the sun” and “would not be able to see clearly”. At first, he would only be able to look at the shadow-like objects such as the shadows and reflections and gradually, he would be able to look at the sun without using reflections in the water. Socrates then asks Glaucon to think about what would happen to the liberated prisoner if he were then to return to the cave. He would be blinded by the darkness and he would not be able to recognize the shadows like the prisoners remaining in the cave. Socrates suggests that he would be ridiculed and mocked and if he tried to lead others out of the cave as “they would kill him if they could lay hands on him”. The allegory presents a relation between ignorance and understanding. It is this gap between ignorance and understanding what we can call education. In order to understand what the allegory tells us about education, we have to interpret what it means. The prisoners in the cave do not want to be free as they are comfortable in their own ignorance. The prisoners are hostile to people who give them information in order for them to be free too. This is demonstrated in the allegory when the freed prisoner returns to the cave. The people in the cave represent society and Plato is suggesting that we are the prisoners simply looking at the shadow of things. The process of getting out of the cave can be compared to getting educated but the process of getting out of the cave is difficult as we are often blinded by the light. The process of getting out of the cave requires assistance. This implies that throughout our education, there is sometimes a struggle involved. This can be said to be the struggle to see the truth. Ignorance is sometimes bliss as seeing the truth can be painful. The prisoner who was able to leave the cave would question his beliefs whereas the prisoners in the cave accept what they are shown as they know nothing else apart from what the shadows they can see that are cast by the light of the fire that is behind them. Although they do not see things exactly how they are, they are also not aware of the true nature of the things that they see. To an extent, they are ignorant, but they are not lacking in all knowledge. The essential function of education is not to give us the truth but help guide us towards the truth. For Plato, education allows us to see things differently. Therefore, when the perception of truth changes and so does education. Everyone has the capacity to learn, however not everyone has the desire to learn just like the trapped prisoners in the cave. Consequently, desire and resistance are important when it comes to education because you have to willing to learn the truth in order to be educated. One must have the desire to free their soul from the chains and darkness.
Published: November 2007 Author(s): Mary J. Linders and Derek W. Stinson The western gray squirrel is a native arboreal squirrel best known for its large size, gray pelage, and plumose, white-tipped tail. Western gray squirrels are often confused with introduced eastern gray squirrels that are increasingly common in Washington's urban areas. Historically, western gray squirrels in Washington were widely distributed in transitional forests of mast-producing Oregon white oak, ponderosa pine, and Douglas-fir. Western gray squirrels play an important role in maintaining oak woodlands by planting acorns and disseminating spores of mycorrhizal fungi that aid tree growth. During the 20th century the Washington population of western gray squirrels experienced great reductions in both numbers and distribution. The species now occurs as separate populations in the Puget Trough, Klickitat, and Okanogan regions that are estimated to total between 468 and 1,405 individuals. These three populations are genetically isolated from one another, and have been isolated from those in Oregon and California for at least 12,000 years. None of the three current populations seem to be large enough to avoid a decline in genetic diversity and at least two may suffer from the negative effects of inbreeding. The western gray squirrel was listed as a threatened species in Washington in 1993 by the Washington Fish and Wildlife Commission, and its native oak habitat is recognized as a Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife Priority Habitat. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service considers the western gray squirrel a "species of concern" in western Washington, and the U.S. Forest Service recognizes it as a "sensitive" species and a "management indicator species" for oak-pine communities. Washington populations of the western gray squirrel have not recovered from past reductions in their range and existing populations face significant threats to their survival. The western gray squirrel is vulnerable because of the small size and isolation of remnant populations. Major threats to the western gray squirrel in Washington include habitat loss and degradation, road-kill mortality, and disease. Populations of eastern gray squirrels, fox squirrels, California ground squirrels and wild turkeys are expanding and may compete with, and negatively impact western gray squirrel populations. Competition with eastern gray squirrels may be an important current issue for the Puget Trough population and in southwestern Klickitat County, while fox squirrels may affect western gray squirrels in portions of the Okanogan region. California ground squirrels, which became established in Washington in the 20th century, may compete with western gray squirrels in Klickitat and Yakima counties. Habitat has been lost to urbanization and other development, particularly in the south Puget Sound area, and to catastrophic wild fires in Yakima County and the Okanogan. Conifer dominated stands of large diameter and mast-producing trees of pine and oak with interconnected crowns are particularly important in the life history of the western gray squirrel. Logging that removes the large mast-producing trees and results in evenly spaced trees with few or no canopy connections reduces habitat quality. Habitat also has been degraded by fire exclusion and historic over-grazing. In the south Puget Sound area oak woodland is being degraded by the invasion of Scotch broom. Road-kill is a frequent source of mortality for western gray squirrels and is known to be a major source of mortality for the Puget Trough population. Notoedric mange, a disease caused by mites, periodically becomes epidemic in western gray squirrel populations and appears to be the predominant source of mortality in some years. The incidence and severity of mange epidemics appears to be related to stresses in the local population precipitated by periodic food shortages. Recovery actions are needed to maintain and restore western gray squirrel populations in Washington. The recovery plan identifies western gray squirrel recovery areas and interim recovery objectives for these areas. The recovery plan outlines strategies intended to restore a viable western gray squirrel population in the South Cascade Recovery Area and increase and maintain populations in the Puget Trough and North Cascades recovery areas. The western gray squirrel will be reclassified from State Threatened to State Sensitive status when management plans, agreements, regulations, and other mechanisms are in place that effectively protect the habitat values for western gray squirrel populations, and the following population levels are maintained: - a total population of 3,300 adult western gray squirrels in the South Cascades Recovery Area; - a total population of 1,000 adult western gray squirrels in the North Cascades Recovery Area; - and a population of >300 adults is restored and maintained in the Puget Trough Recovery Area. Recovery objectives may be modified as more is learned about the habitat needs and population structure of this species. Increasing and maintaining a population in the Puget Trough and the North Cascades may require augmentation with individuals from healthier populations. Western gray squirrel recovery strategies include protecting and monitoring populations, restoring depleted populations and degraded habitat, and protecting suitable oak-conifer habitat from harmful timber practices, catastrophic fires, and loss to development. Research is needed on the habitat requirements and factors limiting western gray squirrel populations, the role of disease in dynamics of populations, and to refine survey and population monitoring methods. Successful recovery of the western gray squirrel in Washington will depend on cooperative efforts of large and small private landowners, Native American tribes, counties, and multiple public agencies. Linders, M. J., and D. W. Stinson 2007. Washington State Recovery Plan for the Western Gray Squirrel. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia. 128+ viii pp. Draft documents are provided for informational purposes only. Drafts may contain factual inaccuracies and may not reflect current WDFW policy.
Reciprocating compressors use crankshaft-driven pistons to compress gases used in various processes. They fall into the category of positive-displacement compressors. Positive displacement compressors deal with a specific quantity of air or gas is contained in a compression chamber and its volume is mechanically reduced, thus increasing its pressure. Figure 1 - Typical compressors classification table Similar to internal combustion engines, the rotary motion of the crankshaft is transformed into linear motion of the piston. As the piston moves, it sucks in low pressure gas and increases its pressure. Structure of reciprocating compressors Compression cylinders, also known as stages, confine the process gas during compression. Arrangements may be of single-or dual-acting design: in the dual-acting design, compression occurs on both sides of the piston. Unlike internal combustion engines, there is no ignition involved: the gas just leaves the compressor cylinder at a highet pressure than the suction pressure. Reciprocating compressors are typically used where high compression ratio (ratio of discharge to suction pressures) is required at relevantly small flow rates, and the process fluid is relatively dry. Axial flow compressors are mostly suitable for high flow, low compression ratio processes. Reciprocating compressors intended for higher compression ratio are designed as multistage compressors, that is with several working cylinders working in sequence. These cylinders are driven by the same shaft, connected to a driver motor. Reciprocating compressors are typically low-speed devices and are most often direct- or belt-driven by an electric motor. Some times the motor is integral to the compressor, thus the motor shaft and compressor crankshaft are one piece, therefore eliminating the need for interconnecting coupling. At constant speed, the air flow remains almost constant with variations in discharge pressure. Applications of reciprocating compressors Reciprocating compressors are used to compress natural gas (gas transmission pipeline applications), supply high-pressure gas for oil well drilling for gas lift, as well as in various industrial or chemical applications involving air and refrigerant compression, e.g. in refrigeration plants. Figure 2 - Motor-driven six-cylinder reciprocating compressor
The Celebrated Jumping Frog This lesson explores the math of the electoral college. This unit explores the math lesson to include salaries in percent ratios,area, with a focus throughout on building problems and most important solving and reasoning skills. This is a three part lesson including "why is Calfornia so important","How could that happen",and A Swath of Red" .These three lessons are to provide and strengthen the understanding of fluency with decimal,percent,estimating area,graphing, and ratios . These activites /lesson can be used in social studies class. - Determine two or more central ideas in a text and analyze their development over the course of the text; provide an objective summary of the text. - Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 7 topics, texts,... - Analyze the main ideas and supporting details presented in diverse media and formats (e.g., visually, quantitatively, orally) and explain how the... - GLE 0701.2.7 - Participate in work teams and group discussions. - GLE 0701.6.1 - Comprehend and summarize the main ideas and supporting details of informational texts. - GLE 0706.1.1 - Use mathematical language, symbols, and definitions while developing mathematical reasoning. - SPI 0701.2.7 - Select the most appropriate behaviors for participating productively in a team (e.g., ask primarily relevant questions that move the team toward its goal and... - Prepare for collaborative discussions on 7th grade level topics and texts; engage effectively with varied partners, building on others' ideas and... - Analyze the main ideas and supporting details presented in diverse media formats; explain how this clarifies a topic, text, or issue under study. Alignment of this item to academic standards is based on recommendations from content creators, resource curators, and visitors to this website. It is the responsibility of each educator to verify that the materials are appropriate for your content area, aligned to current academic standards, and will be beneficial to your specific students. Students will be able to: - Measure distances jumped in a simulated jumping-frog contest. - Record data. - Determine median and range of the obtained data. - Could the Total Distance ever equal the Official Distance? - Collect the data for each group. Determine a class median and range for both the total distances and the official distances. Guide the students as they compare the data for their group with the data for the class. - Help the students to set up contests and simulations of their own. - Move on to the next lesson, Spinning Tops. - The Celebrated Jumping Frog Activity Sheet - Centimeter Rulers - Cotton Balls - Large Paper Clips
Landmark Lesson Plan Legacy of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring Lesson Plan – The following inquiry-based student activities are designed for use in high school lesson planning. The handout, activities and video will help students understand the reasons for the widespread use of the insecticide DDT earlier in history as well as its subsequent banning. They will be able to see the lasting effect Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring has had on chemistry itself, our view of the environment and how we weigh the benefits and drawbacks of new materials and technology. ChemMatters is a magazine that helps high school students find connections between chemistry and the world around them. Profile \| Tyler Thrasher Makes Dead Bugs Sparkle - About three years ago, as Tyler Thrasher was finishing a college degree in computer animation, he decided that he didn’t want to be a computer animator. For inspiration, he flipped through his notebooks, in which he had been sketching objects that fascinated him. His caving excursions exposed him to sparkling minerals, and led him to produce crystal drawings. Consider joining AACT for access to many more resources for chemistry teachers year-round and connect with a community of K–12 chemistry teachers. Butterflies – Review this amazing collection of activities, magnified images, posters, and citizen science projects help you engage the public through the fascinating world of butterflies. Earth Day – A best of list of resources from the National Informal STEM Education Network, NASA, and others featuring hands-on activities, citizen science projects, apps, poster, and interactives, to celebrate our favorite planet with our favorite people. Bugs to Dye For Cochineal bugs are used today to color many things including food, beverages, and cosmetics. Try this activity to discover how! Taking the Sting Out of Bites Bites or stings from certain bugs, such as red fire ants or bees, can be extra irritating. Explore some common remedies and see how effective they are! In this activity, you will assemble some common aromas from natural fruits and flowers and from products that use scents as part of their ingredients. Illustrated Poem Contest - As part of every CCEW celebration, ACS sponsors a national illustrated poem contest for K-12 students. To participate, contact your local section CCEW Coordinator. CCEW Lesson Plan Contest for K-12 Teachers AACT is excited to offer a content writing opportunity for K–12 teacher members! Participants submit an idea for one exciting and unique lesson plan reflecting the 2022 Chemists Celebrate Earth Week theme, The Buzz About Bugs: Insect Chemistry. AACT will select one winning lesson plan for the K–8 grade level, and one winning lesson plan for the high school grade level. The winning lessons will receive $250 and be featured on social media! Learn more and enter today! Resources from the Earth Day Network Plan an effective teach-in on topics like reforestation, climate change, food waste, plastic use, and more! Bring your community together and build capacity to make change! Climate Civics Toolkit Explore ways to learn more about the local impacts of climate change and what it means to be an active participant in community civic action. A week’s worth of activities and lessons for learners ages 8-18 and beyond.
Invasive plants are a concern because they reduce habitat for native wildlife. Because of their ability to spread quickly, they often out-compete native plants and “take over” habitats. Invasives often emerge earlier in the spring and push natives out through fast reproduction. This limits habitat available for native wildlife and disrupts the food chain. One example is the invasive plant, garlic mustard. Native butterflies lay eggs on garlic mustard, and they either die or the caterpillars don’t properly grow. It’s easier and cheaper to control invasive plants when only a few individuals or populations need to be treated. Being aware of potential invaders and being prepared with early detection and rapid response is critical for limiting their negative impacts. Emerging Invasive Concerns Pennsylvania monitors invasive plant species that are up-and-coming threats. Here are five invasive plants to be on the lookout for in Pennsylvania. They have not yet been observed in the state or they are only known in certain locations. These plant species were ranked as invasive using information available from invasive species databases, scientific literature, expert opinion, and observation by the Pennsylvania Natural Heritage Program through a Wild Resource Conservation Program-funded project. Diffuse knapweed (Centaurea diffusa) is native to the eastern Mediterranean region. It resembles its cousin, spotted knapweed, and utilizes open disturbed areas such as plains, rangelands, and open forest areas with light, dry, porous soils. It was first observed in North America in the early 1900s likely because of contaminated seed. This species forms large stands that crowd out native plants, deplete soil and water resources, and decrease biodiversity. It also produces a chemical that inhibits other plants from growing. Diffuse knapweed is prolific -- one plant can produce up to almost 20,000 seeds, which can lie dormant in the soil for several years. It has been found to the north and west of Pennsylvania, including neighbors Ohio, New York, and New Jersey. Marsh thistle (Cirsium palustre) is native to Europe and Siberia. As the name suggests, marsh thistle prefers areas of moist, acidic ground including wetlands, wet fields, wet ditches, riparian areas, and edges of wet woods. This species has a long history of being spread by humans and agriculture. This prickly plant creates dense stands that crowd native plants out and decrease habitat for native wildlife. It can produce up to 2,000 wind-borne seeds per plant. The reduction in biodiversity and species diversity this plant creates can be detrimental where rare species exist. Marsh thistle has been observed in New England, Canada, and the Great Lakes States, as well as Clinton County, Pa. Swamp stonecrop (Crassula helmsii) is a wetland plant that can grow in mud, or partially submerged in still or flowing water. This succulent plant carpets the ground in wet areas, competing with native vegetation and blocking drainage channels and causing flooding. It can deplete oxygen levels from the water, making habitat unsuitable for wildlife like frogs and fish. It’s a native to Australia and New Zealand and is a problem in Europe and Great Britain; but has not been documented yet in North America. Water soldier (Stratiotes aloides) was first introduced as an aquatic ornamental plant and prefers slow water of canals, ponds, and ditches. It can also be found in shallow water of sheltered bays and large lakes. It forms dense mats that can crowd out native wetland plants, decreasing biodiversity and species abundance. It is also harmful to recreation, because the sharp serrated leaves can be dangerous to swimmers or others who try to handle the plant. Water soldier looks similar to arrowhead, eel-grass, or bur-reed, but the serrated edges help identify it. So far, the only place water soldier has been found in North America is Ontario. Java dropwort (Oenanthe javanica) is a native of East Asia and Australia. This plant was introduced into North America as an ornamental wetland plant. It also is sometimes marketed as an exotic vegetable and medicinal herb; however, it escapes cultivation. Java dropwort grows aggressively and can form dense colonies and spread into wetlands and choke streams and waterways. It can root from broken fragments of the plant, which allow it to spread even more quickly. Dense colonies of this plant decrease biodiversity, ecological integrity, and recreational value. Java dropwort has been found in Virginia, Georgia, and Indiana. How You Can Help Stop the Spread Learning to identify invasive plants is the first step in understanding and combatting the problem. If you see one these species -- report them at the Pennsylvania iMapInvasives website! Invasives can be difficult to control, but by taking some steps at home and in the wild, you can help limit the spread of these troublesome plants. Learn more about these and other emerging invasive plants at the PA iMapInvasives website. Learn more about invasive plants in Pennsylvania and how you can help control their spread at DCNR’s website.
How to Calculate Fractions: A Step-By-Step Guide Updated September 2021 What Are Fractions? Fractions are numerical quantities that represent values of less than one. Also known as fractional numbers, they are commonly used to measure parts of a whole, such as: - One half (1/2) - One fifth (1/5) - Two thirds (2/3) Fractions are made up of two numbers, one above and one below a dividing line. The bottom number is known as the denominator and refers to the separate parts of the whole. When we talk about the denominator, we use ordinal numbers – that is, numbers that define a position, like ‘third’ or ‘fourth’. The top number of a fraction is called the numerator and refers to how many parts of the whole we are dealing with. The simplest way to define a fraction is to imagine a pie that is equally divided into six pieces. The pie itself is the whole and the individual slices are the parts of the whole. Since we have six equal parts of one whole, our denominator here is 6. If we take one slice of the pie, we have one-sixth (1/6). Two slices are the equivalent of two-sixths (2/6) and so on. This in itself is fairly simple to understand. However, there are different types of fractions and different methods for performing each type of fractional equation. Key Fraction Facts To understand how to work out fractions, it’s important to get to grips with the fundamentals. First, let’s look at the three different types of fractions: Fraction Definitions and Examples Proper fraction – A proper fraction is a fraction in which the numerator is of lesser value than the denominator. 1/2, 10/15, and 85/100 are all examples of proper fractions. The overall value of a proper fraction is always less than one. Improper fraction – In an improper fraction, the value of the numerator is greater than that of the denominator. 6/3, 25/18 and 50/20 are all examples of improper fractions. The overall value of an improper fraction is always more than one. Mixed fractions – A mixed fraction is presented as a whole number followed by a fractional number, such as 2⅔, 6⅘ or 25⅝. Mixed fractions are also known as mixed numbers. Now we know the different types of fractions, let’s look at some other key terms and phrases: Equivalent fractions – These are fractions that appear different but hold the same value. For example, 2/3 is the same as 4/6. Simplified fractions – These are fractions reduced to their lowest form. Basically, a lower equivalent of a higher fraction. So, using the example above, 2/3 is a simplified version of 4/6. Reciprocals – This is where the fraction is reversed by placing the denominator above the numerator. As an example, the reciprocal of 2/3 is 3/2. Reciprocals are used when dividing and multiplying fractions (5 ÷ 1/5 is the same as 5 x 5/1 or 5 x 5). Fractions can also be presented as decimals and percentages. We’ll look at how to convert fractions in the example equations below. 10 Simple Fraction Problems and How to Solve Them Below are ten examples of fractional equations and guidance on how to solve them. If you’re working with fractions in an exam setting, always be sure to show your method. 1. How to Convert a Mixed Fraction to an Improper Fraction As discussed, a mixed fraction consists of a whole number followed by a fractional number. In this example, we’ll use the mixed fraction of seven and four-fifths, written numerically as 7⅘. When asked to convert a mixed fraction to an improper fraction: - First, multiply the whole number by the denominator of the fractional part. - Take the resulting figure and add it to the fraction’s numerator. - Take this final figure as your new numerator and place it over the original denominator. This gives you your improper fraction. Using our mixed fraction of 7⅘: - Whole number multiplied by fractional denominator: 7 x 5 = 35 - Add the result to the fractional numerator: 35 + 4 = 39 - Place it over the original denominator: 39/5 Therefore, the correct answer is: 7⅘ = 39/5 2. How to Convert a Fraction to a Decimal Since both are used to identify values of less than one, a decimal is just a different way of representing a fraction. The method used to convert a fraction to a decimal is a simple division: you just divide the numerator by the denominator. Take the fraction 3/10. Divide the numerator by the denominator to get the decimal figure: 3 ÷ 10 = 0.3 The easiest way to remember how to work out fractions as decimals is to think of the line separating the numerator and the denominator as a division symbol. 3. How to Convert a Fraction to a Percentage There are three easy ways to convert a fraction to a percentage. We’ll cover them all here using the same fraction of 7/20. Divide the numerator by the denominator, then multiply the resulting figure by 100 to get the percentage conversion: 7 ÷ 20 = 0.35 0.35 x 100 = 35% Multiply the numerator by 100, then divide the resulting figure by the denominator: 7 x 100 = 700 700 ÷ 20 = 35% Divide the numerator by the denominator and move the decimal point of your answer two places to the right: 7 ÷ 20 = 0.35 Moving the decimal point gives you the conversion of 35%. When converting a fraction to a percentage, always remember to include the % sign in your answer. 4. How to Add Fractions The process for adding fractions is straightforward provided the denominators are the same. As a basic example, take 1/6 + 3/6. In this case, you have equal denominators, so simply add the numerators of both fractions, sticking with the lower figure of 6: 1 + 3 = 4 So, 1/6 + 3/6 = 4/6 When adding fractions where the lower figures don’t tally, you’ll first need to find the lowest common denominator. This is the lowest number wholly divisible by both existing denominators. 1/4 + 2/3 The lowest figure divisible by both 4 and 3 is 12. This is your common denominator. You now need to find equivalent fractions using 12 as your bottom figure. To turn 4 into 12, you multiply it by 3, so you must also multiply the numerator by 3 to keep the fraction equivalent: 4 x 3 = 12 and 1 x 3 = 3 Your equivalent fraction to 1/4 is therefore 3/12 Follow the same method for the second fraction: 3 x 4 = 12 and 2 x 4 = 8 Your equivalent fraction to 2/3 is 8/12 Now simply add the numerators together and place the answer over 12: 3 + 8 = 11 So, 3/12 + 8/12 = 11/12 The correct answer to the equation 1/4 + 2/3 is: 11/12 5. How to Subtract Fractions As with addition, subtracting fractions is easy when the denominators are the same. It’s simply a matter of subtracting the second numerator from the first, keeping the bottom number the same. Take the equation 4/7 – 3/7. You have a common denominator, so just subtract 3 from 4: 4 – 3 = 1 So, 4/7 – 3/7 = 1/7 Now, let’s look at subtracting fractions with different denominators. Take the equation 4/5 – 2/3 First, find the lowest common denominator; in this case, 15. Now, find your equivalent fractions: 4/5 becomes 12/15 (both sides are multiplied by 3) 2/3 becomes 10/15 (both sides are multiplied by 5) You can now subtract your numerators: 12 – 10 = 2 So, 12/15 – 10/15 = 2/15 The answer to the equation 4/5 – 2/5 is: 2/15 6. How to Divide Fractions To divide one fraction by another, you first need to turn the dividing fraction into a reciprocal by switching the denominator and the numerator. Taking the example of 1/2 ÷ 1/5, the latter fraction as a reciprocal is 5/1. Now multiply your first fraction by your reciprocal: 1/2 x 5/1 To do this, multiply both your numerators and denominators: 1 x 5 = 5 (numerators) 2 x 1 = 2 (denominators) So, 1/2 x 5/1 = 5/2 The answer to the equation 1/2 ÷ 1/5 is: 5/2 or 2½ 7. How to Multiply Fractions The process of how to work out fractions as multiplications of each other is a simple one: - Multiply your numerators - Multiply your denominators - Write your new numerator over your new denominator Using an example equation of 1/2 x 1/6: 1 x 1 = 1 (numerators) 2 x 6 = 12 (denominators) The answer to 1/2 x 1/6 is: 1/12 8. How to Simplify a Fraction To simplify a fraction is to reduce it to its most basic form. Essentially, to find the lowest equivalent fraction possible. First, find the greatest common factor. This is the highest whole number by which both numerator and denominator are divisible. To do this, write down all the factors for both parts of your fraction, as shown below using the example of 32/48: - Factors of 32: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 - Factors of 48: 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 12, 16, 24, 48 The greatest common factor here is: 16 Now divide both numerator and denominator by this number to find your simplified fraction: 32 ÷ 16 = 2 (numerators) 48 ÷ 16 = 3 (denominators) Therefore, 32/48 simplified is: 2/3 When completing any form of fractional equation, always simplify your answer to the lowest possible form. 9. How to Work out Fractions of Quantities When presented with a quantity and asked to work out a fractional portion, simply divide the given amount by the fraction’s denominator, then multiply this figure by the numerator. You have 55 sweets, you want to give your neighbor two-fifths of them to take home. How many sweets would she take? Divide the given amount by the fraction’s denominator: 55 ÷ 5 = 11 Multiply this figure by the numerator: 11 x 2 = 22 Therefore, the correct answer is: 22 sweets 10. How to Determine Equivalent Fractions To determine if one fraction is equivalent to another, either multiply or divide both parts of one fraction by the same whole number. If your answers are also both whole numbers, then the fraction keeps its value and is equivalent. To work out if 12/15 is equivalent to 4/5, divide both 12 and 15 by a whole number: 12 ÷ 2 = 6 15 ÷ 2 = 7.5 Since you do not have a whole figure as your answer here, move on to the next primary number: 12 ÷ 3 = 4 15 ÷ 3 = 5 This shows that 12/15 and 4/5 are equivalent fractions. You can also do this in reverse, multiplying both parts of the lower fraction: 4 x 3 = 12 5 x 3 = 15 Essentially, if one fraction is a simplified version of another, then they are equivalent. Fractions are numerical quantities that help us measure equal parts of a whole. They come in the form of proper, improper and mixed fractions, and can be easily converted into decimal points and percentages. The methods used in fractional equations differ depending on the problem you are solving and each must be practiced with care, making sure you fully understand the question and showing your workings as you go. Although they can seem daunting at first, taking the time to understand the basic rules should help you master how to work out fractions with ease.
In the late Jurassic period, about 150 million years ago, the Altmühl valley in Bavaria was part of the northern tropics and covered by a shallow sea. It is from this region, that all known specimens of Archaeopteryx have come. Archaeopteryx is of particular interest to paleontologists because it is considered an early bird and a late dinosaur. The animal, which was at most the size of a raven, represents a transition and may yield important clues about how dinosaurs took to the air. New research, published in the journal Nature by paleontologists of Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet (LMU) in Munich takes a closer look at a new specimen with the best preserved plumage found to date. This preservation, primarily as impressions in the rock matrix, allows for comparison with other feathered dinosaurs. A team led by Dr. Oliver Rauhut, a paleontologist in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at LMU Munich, is conducting a highly detailed analysis of the specimen. “For the first time, it has become possible to examine the detailed structure of the feathers on the body, the tail and, above all, on the legs,” said Rauhut in a statement. One of the most striking discoveries the team has made to date is that feathers appear to have evolved independently, prior to flight. “Comparisons with other feathered predatory dinosaurs indicate that the plumage in the different regions of the body varied widely between these species. That suggests that primordial feathers did not evolve in connection with flight-related roles, but originated in other functional contexts,” noted Dr. Christian Foth of LMU and the Bavarian State Collection for Paleontology and Geology in Munich. Predatory theropods with body plumage are known to predate the Archaeopteryx. It is believed that their feathers probably evolved to provide insulation. Feathered forearms may have also been used to aid in balance while running, similar to modern ostriches. Brooding, camouflage and display are also possible reasons for the evolution of feathers. “If feathers had evolved originally for flight, functional constraints should have restricted their range of variation. And in primitive birds we do see less variation in wing feathers than in those on the hind-limbs or the tail,” explained Foth. Once feathers were present, they could have been easily co-opted for flight and aerial navigation. It is also possible that flight, in early birds, was an on again – off again proposition. “It is even possible that the ability to fly evolved more than once within the theropods. Since the feathers were already present, different groups of predatory dinosaurs and their descendants, the birds, could have exploited these structures in different ways,” said Rauhut. The researchers’ work with the 11th known archaeopteryx specimen is ongoing and will likely yield more interesting results.
Click on the page icon for Lesson 1 in Adobe Acrobat format (90K). Includes Take-Home Pages. Science, social studies 1. Have students imagine they are going on a trip to the coast (to a famous resort or less visited spot) or designing a travel poster for a beach vacation. Ask them to think of words that characterize this location (e.g., beach, sand, surf, or waves) and have them describe the weather conditions they would expect to find there. 2. Using a globe or world map, ask students to locate the places that the class has mentioned. Then ask them to find the coast of Maine and the islands of the Caribbean, two locations that they will later compare in detail. Review the concept of latitude, measured in imaginary lines that circle the globe parallel to the equator. (Latitude increases as one travels north or south toward the poles and away from the equator, which is located at zero degrees latitude.) Have students estimate the latitude of each location they found on the map or globe. (Maine and the islands of the Caribbean are located at about forty-five and twenty-five degrees north latitude, respectively.) Ask students which location is closer to the equator and has a warmer, sunnier climate (the Caribbean); which probably has a cold winter (Maine); and which has the same warm temperatures all year long (the Caribbean). 3. Ask students to name an instrument that measures temperature (thermometer) and have them discuss briefly how temperature affects their daily lives (e.g., in deciding how to dress according to the weather). Ask your students if they know the names of the two most common temperature scales (Fahrenheit and Celsius). Then ask them how winter temperatures in Maine might be different from those in the Caribbean. (Maine has colder winter temperatures.) Would they expect to see the same plants and animals in each place? (No: Some animals live better in cold places, and others in warm.) Tell your students that temperatures limit the kinds of organisms that can live in a given location. Stress that close-in currents, which act like rivers flowing within the oceans, also influence a coastal region's temperature. Currents that begin near the equator, like the Northern Equatorial or the Gulf Stream, are warm. Currents that begin in Greenland or Labrador (show these locations on a globe) begin closer to the North Pole and are cold. (For more information on currents, oceans, and weather, see Art to Zoo, September/October 1995, Tomorrow's Forecast: Oceans and Weather.) 4. Hand out copies of the Take-Home pages. After students have completed the exercises individually, review the correct answers. Ask your students to predict which of the two locations has the greater average amount of sunlight. (Be sure to remind students that the equator has a latitude of zero degrees and that lower latitudes generally have warmer climates and more hours of direct sunlight.) Tell your students that sunlight is the source of energy that fuels each living community or ecosystem. Plants use the Sun's energy, nutrients in the water, and carbon dioxide to produce sugars that animals then eat. To conclude the lesson, ask students to predict the temperature conditions of other locations along the Atlantic coast as shown on the map. Students will conclude that coral reefs are located close to the equator and that rocky, temperate coasts are further north.
Scientists know that sea turtle nests are highly susceptible to climatic variations. Under natural conditions, primary sex determinations are dependent on temperature with lower incubation temperatures resulting in male turtles and higher temperatures resulting in female turtles. In moderate climate change scenarios, rising temperatures are likely to skew primary sex ratios. In more severe climate change scenarios, rising temperatures will result in widespread hatchling mortality as nests exceed temperature thresholds conducive to healthy embryonic development. How will climate change impact turtles at sea? The oceans, where sea turtles spend most of their lives, are warming and are expected to absorb 80% of the excess heat trapped on our planet. Changes in ocean temperature are likely to have a wide range of effects on the survival and behavior sea turtles. Female turtles may not be able to find sufficient prey in warming oceans to consume enough calories to meet the resource requirements of nesting. Even if prey is available in the same quantities but distributed more diffusely, turtles may expend more energy in search of prey. Ecological conditions may then impact physiological conditions resulting in less frequent nesting and production of fewer offspring. Changing oceanic currents resulting from climatic shifts are also likely to impact hatchling dispersal as well as hatchlings’ ability to avoid predators in the dispersal phase. Hatchlings typically engage in a frenzied swim to escape coastal waters during the first hours or days after hatching until they become entrained in eddies and currents taking them to zones offshore with lower densities of predators where they can grow and decrease risk of predation. Changes in intensity and location of ocean currents, are likely to negatively impact hatchling survival rates in this critical life history phase. Take Action for Sea Turtles! Lower Your Carbon Footprint: Walk, ride your bike or use public transportation whenever possible. If driving is a necessity, consider carpooling! Source clean energy for your home and office. Reduce your consumption of animal products and other consumer goods with high carbon footprints. Support businesses with carbon negative or carbon neutral policies. Advocate for legislative solutions (e.g., carbon tax).
Simply put, matter is anything that occupies space, has mass, and offers resistance. A matter is basically divided into physical and chemical groups. Chemistry is a branch of science that deals with properties, transformation, and composition of matter. A matter is anything that occupies space, has mass, and offers resistance. The amount of matter contained in a body is known as its mass. The force exerted by the gravitational force on an object is called its weight. Physically, matter is classified into three states: solid, liquid, and gas. Chemically, matter is divided into pure and impure (mixture) substances. Mixtures can be separated into individual components by different processes. Methods of separation depend on the physical characters of individual components of the mixture. The process of separating an insoluble solid component from the liquid completely by passing through a porous membrane is called filtration. The process of converting solid substances directly into the vapour state without converting it into the intermediate liquid state by applying heat is called sublimation. Above we discuss basic information about atoms, molecules, valency, and radicals. This means an atom is unstable. For example- Hydrogen gas is the smallest molecule which is composed of two atoms of hydrogen. Similarly, Helium, Neon, Argon, etc. are examples of an atom. A molecule can be defined as the smallest particle of an element or a compound, which does not generally participate in a chemical reaction but has an independent existence. This means a molecule is stable. Chemical equations are the short representation of the chemical change in which reactants and products are written in symbols (in the case of an element) and formula (in the case of a compound). Here, we learn about various topics related to chemical equations. Transformation of one kind of chemical substance into another kind of chemical substances having different properties is known as a chemical reaction. It is a chemical change which takes place by simple contact, heat, light, pressure etc. Any chemical change, which is represented by symbol and formula is known as a chemical equation. There are many types of chemical reactions and many factors that cause a chemical reaction.
Asbestos-Containing Material (ACM) Definition - What does Asbestos-Containing Material (ACM) mean? Asbestos-Containing Material (ACM) is any material containing more than one percent asbestos. These materials are considered hazardous and associated with certain diseases and health concerns. Safeopedia explains Asbestos-Containing Material (ACM) Asbestos is the name for a particular group of minerals containing many small fibers. It only becomes a risk to health when inhaled as a fine dust. If inhaled this dust sticks to the inside of your lungs and can lead to breathing difficulties and lung cancer. The risk of disease is directly related to the amount of exposure. Asbestos materials have been popular because of exceptional fire-resistant, insulating and reinforcing properties. Some examples are sprayed on fireproofing, linoleum, roofing materials, ceiling tiles, wall and ceiling plaster, mastic and floor tile, troweled plaster, boiler or piping insulation, gasket material, transite shingles and others. There are several types of asbestos covered by ACM including chrysotile, amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite, actinolite and any of these that have been treated or altered.
Key Writing Concepts You Should Know. Have you mastered your writing concepts or terminology? Like many other disciplines, the writing world has a number of literary terms. These are concepts and phrases that you will come across, sooner or later. These terms are used in discussions, classifications, criticisms, novels, picture books etc. In order to stay on top of your writing and not feel alienated and lost, it is important to master these terms, which you cannot, as a writer, do without. I have compiled a list for your reference. This is not a complete list or glossary but I have ensured the ones here are those you need most - Agent: An agent is that person who markets creative works to publishers. agents charge a commission of around 20-30 percent. - Antagonist: He is the main character or force in a work of fiction that tries to stop the protagonist from achieving his goals. - Autobiography: If I write my own life story, it is called autobiography. It is the writer's own life story. - Bibliography: This simply means a list of resources (journals, books magazines, people, websites), you consulted in the course of writing a book, article or paper. - Biography: This is the story of someone order than the writer. - Book Review: This is the summary of a book, including its critique. - Characterisation: This means the author's expression of a character personally through the use of actions, dialogue, thought or commentary. - Climax: This is the moment of greatest intensity in a story. - Copyright: This simply means the ownership by an author of his or her own work. It is protected by copyright laws. - Cover Letter: This is a short letter accompanying a piece of work (manuscript, proposal etc) that introduces you, your work and your credit. - Advance: This is a percentage of money paid to the writer by a publisher prior to publication of the book. - Dialogue: The words spoken by the characters of a story. - Editor: A professional commissioned to edit articles for a publication. - Euphemism: A phrase used in place of something disagreeable or upsetting. - E-zine: Electronic magazine- a magazine published online. - Figures of Speech: These are ways of using language that deviate from the literal meaning of words in order to suggest additional meanings and effects. - Flash Fiction: This is a piece of fiction written in less than 500 words. - Genre: A type of category of writing, like mystery, science fiction, romance, fantasy etc. - Ghost Writer: One paid to write for someone else. - Hyperbole: This is simply deliberate exaggeration. - Imagery: A collection of images in literary way used to evoke atmosphere or mood. - Irony: This is when a person, situation, statement or circumstance is not what it seems to be but the exact opposite. - Manuscript: The author's copy of a novel, non-fiction, article or screenplay. - Metaphor: A figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unlikely things without using like or as. e.g Life is a bitch. - Narrative: A collection of events that tell a story which may be true o not. - Novella/novelette: Short works of fiction consisting of between 7500-40,000 words. - Onomatopoeia: The use of words that resemble the sound they denote. - Paradox: A statement that appears to be contradictory but on closer inspection turns out to make sense. - Personification: A form of writing where human characteristics are attributed to none-human things. - Plagiarism: This means presenting another author's works or words as your own. - Plot: The main events of a story are referred to as the plot. - Protagonist: The main Character or hero of a play whose actions and goal drive the plots forwards. Writing Concepts: Have Your Say!!! Have A Great Story About This Topic? Do you have a great story about this? Share it! Click Here to Leave Writing Concepts to Home Page
CBSE Physics Foriegn Question Paper for Class 12 CBSE exams for CBSE Students. Based on CBSE and CCE guidelines. The students should practice these Question Papers to gain perfection which will help him to get more marks in CBSE examination. Please refer to more CBSE Class 12 question papers in other links. The CBSE Question papers are of past examinations. Its always recommended by CBSE to practice the papers released by CBSE to get better exams in CBSE exams. CBSE Last Year Question Papers for class XII for final/ term/ SA1/ SA2 Examinations conducted by Central Board of Secondary Education for all CBSE affiliated schools in India and abroad. General Instructions : (i) All questions are compulsory. (ii) There is no overall choice. However, an internal choice has been provided in one question of two marks, one question of three marks and one question of five marks. You have to attempt only one of the choices in such questions. (iii) Question numbers 1 to 5 are very short answer type questions, carrying one mark each. (iv) Question numbers 6 to 12 are short answer type questions, carrying two marks each. (v) Question numbers 13 to 24 are also short answer type questions, carrying three marks each. (vi) Question numbers 25 to 27 are long answer type questions, carrying five marks each. (vii) Use of calculators is not permitted. However, you may use log tables, if necessary. (viii) You may use the following values of physical constants wherever necessary : 1. Sketch the electric field lines around a system of two equal positive point charges placed at a distance. 2. In a certain arrangement a proton does not get deflected while passing through a magnetic field region. Under what condition is this possible ? 3. The current passing through the wire AB is increasing. In which direction does the induced current flow in the closed loop ? 4. Two metals M1 and M2 have work functions 2 eV and 4 eV respectively. Which of the two metals has a lower threshold wavelength for photoelectric emission ? 5. What is a sky wave ? 6. Two polaroids P1 and P2 are placed 90° to each other. Find the transmitted intensity if a third polaroid P3 is placed between P1 and P2 bisecting the angle between them. 7. How does mutual inductance of a pair of coils kept coaxially at a distance in air change when (i) the distance between the coils is increased ? (ii) an iron rod is kept between them ? 8. A wheel with 10 metallic spokes each 0.5 m long is rotated with angular speed of 120 revolutions per minute in a plane normal to the earth’s magnetic field. If the earth’s magnetic field at the given place is 0.4 gauss, find the emf induced between the axle and the rim of the wheel. 10. A parallel plate capacitor is charged to V volts by a d.c. source. The capacitor is then disconnected from the source. If the distance between the plates is doubled, state, with reason, how (i) capacitance, and (ii) energy stored in the capacitor, will change. Please refer to attached file for CBSE Class 12 Physics Foriegn Question Paper 2013 (1)
\|Live Science \| Oct 2, 2014\| Scientists have created some of the most vivid maps yet of the deepest and most mysterious spots beneath the ocean. Their effort, detailed in the Oct. 3, 2014, issue of the journal Science, has uncovered thousands of undersea mountains called seamounts that rise up from the seafloor. To create the seafloor map, which covers the world's oceans, the scientists relied on measurements taken from high-resolution altimeters onboard the European Space Agency's (ESA) CryoSat-2 satellite and NASA's Jason-1 satellite, along with information resulting from new data-processing methods. The results also shed light on seafloor tectonics, or the movements of massive oceanic plates that can shape the rifts, ridges and trenches decorating the ocean bottom. Here's a look at what the researchers uncovered. The satellite altimeters worked by bouncing a radar signal or laser off the surface of the ocean being targeted and measuring how long it took the signal to return. That time can reveal the dips and peaks, or topography, of the ocean surface to within centimeters, scientists say. The sea-surface topography roughly mirrors changes in Earth's gravity. For instance, if an underwater volcano or mountain were hidden along the seafloor, the structure would push up against the sea surface and cause it to bulge. A trench, on the other hand, would cause the surface to sag.
Types of Verbal Communication Verbal communication is the exchange of message by using either written or oral words. It entails the use of words in delivering the intended message. Thus it seems that verbal communication is of type’s written communication and oral communication. The following figure depicts the types of verbal communication: Written communication: Written communication means exchanging information in written words. This type of communication is indispensable for formal business communications and issuing legal instructions. In this method of communication, words are used not orally but in written form. So by written communication we mean meaningful application of written words in communication. Here communicator presents all his thoughts, views, opinions etc. in written form. Without reading the message, receiver cannot understand it. Oral communication: Oral communication is the exchange of information through oral use of words. Generally, oral communication takes place in face-to-face conversation, meeting, interviews, telephonic conversation etc. In case of oral communication, information is exchanged between sender and receiver directly. The effectiveness of oral conversations depends on the clarity of speech, voice modulation, pitch, volume, speed, and even non-verbal communications such as body language and visual cues. In modern business most of the communication is performed through oral means.
The Sun’s layers are a bit unusual, since the outermost one can reach temperatures higher than those of the two middle layers put together, and only the core can exceed it. This layer, called corona, kept baffling scientists for a long period of time, but they might have finally managed to find an explanation. The answer might be lying in a phenomenon incredibly hard to spot from Earth. Solar flares lead to high temperatures in the solar corona With the help of the high-tech instrument FOXSI (Focusing Optics X-Ray Solar Imager), scientists might have found the thing that drives the huge temperatures from the coronal layer of the Sun. They suspect the tiny nanoflares have contributed to the fiery environment. They have measured the average temperatures reached by the solar core, as well as the corona. The core usually reaches around 15 million degrees Celsius, while the corona’s temperature revolves around two million. However, certain areas of this outer layer can get really hot, and exceed 20 million degrees. These areas are called solar flares. Nanoflares and huge temperatures can only coexist Scientists combined the findings of the FOXSI instrument with those collected in the Hinode solar observatory. This is how they found out that the frequent occurrence of flares on the surface of the corona maintained its temperature close to the range of several millions. The FOXSI documented the presence of different types of X-rays on the corona, which are solid proof for the existence of nanoflares. These kinds of X-rays can only be produced by solar material at incredibly high temperatures. Since the observations showed how they were spread all over the corona most of the time, it was revealed that they keep its temperature high. In fact, it’s a circle of life. The high temperature of the corona maintains the X-ray in the flares, while the flares keep the outer layer hot. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons
Exciting news for all werewolves, vampires and other creatures of the night – a pitch black planet has been discovered! The new world is an “exoplanet”, which means it orbits a star far beyond our Solar System. So far, we've found more than 3500 exoplanets, and some of them are strange indeed. There are worlds being ripped apart by their parent stars, while others are battered by winds moving at thousands of miles an hour. On one distant planet the surface is covered in burning ice! In fact, it seems like the rarest planets in the Universe are those like our home, Earth. So, why are we excited about this spooky black planet? Because it's amazing that we were able to work out its colour at all! Exoplanets are so small and far away that it’s incredibly difficult to see them. It's pretty much impossible to make out any details. Luckily, astronomers have a few tricks up their sleeves. Exoplanets don’t make their own light, they simple reflect the light of their star. By measuring how much light the planet reflects, we can work out all sorts of details, including its colour. Surfaces like snow and ice reflect a lot of light, while darker surfaces, like grass or tarmac, are less reflective. The new planet is blacker than fresh asphalt and gobbles up most of the starlight that hits it. In fact, just 10% of light is reflected. To put that into perspective, our Moon reflects twice as much light. The colour is down to the planet’s temperature, which reaches well over 2,000 degrees. The extreme heat affects the planet’s atmosphere and stops clouds forming, which would reflect more light. The most reflective world in our Solar System is one of Saturn’s icy moons, called Enceladus ("en-SELL-ah-dus"). Our own Moon only reflects 14% of the light that hits it, whereas Enceladus reflects more than 99%!
Iron is an essential element of various metabolic processes in humans, including DNA synthesis, electron transport, and oxygen transport. Unlike other minerals, iron levels in the human body are controlled only by absorption. The mechanism of iron excretion is an unregulated process arrived at through loss in sweat, menstruation, shedding of hair and skin cells, and rapid turnover and excretion of enterocytes. In the human body, iron exists mainly in erythrocytes as the heme compound hemoglobin (approximately 2 g of iron in men and 1.5 g in women), to a lesser extent in storage compounds (ferritin and hemosiderin) and in muscle cells as myoglobin. Iron is also found bound to proteins (hemoprotein) and non-heme enzymes involved in oxidation-reduction reactions and the transfer of electrons (cytochromes and catalase). Additionally, approximately 2.2% of total body iron is found in the so-called labile pool, a poorly defined and reactive pool of iron that forms reactive oxygen species via the Fenton Reaction, which forms complexes with a drug class known as chelators. Iron chelators treat iron overload, a condition often caused by transfusion therapies used to treat thalassemias and other anemias. There are two types of absorbable dietary iron: heme and non-heme iron. - Heme iron, derived from hemoglobin and myoglobin of animal food sources (meat, seafood, poultry), is the most easily absorbable form (15% to 35%) and contributes 10% or more of our total absorbed iron. - Non-heme iron is derived from plants and iron-fortified foods and is less well absorbed. Despite its relative abundance in the environment and the relatively low daily iron requirements (10 mg ingested/1 mg absorbed) of humans, iron is often a growth-limiting nutrient in the human diet. Low intake of iron accounts for most anemia in developed countries and is responsible for nearly half of the anemias in non-industrialized nations. One reason for the lack of adequate iron absorption is that upon exposure to oxygen, iron forms highly insoluble oxides, which are unavailable for absorption in the human gastrointestinal tract. Human enterocytes contain apical membrane-bound enzymes whose activity can be regulated and which function to reduce insoluble ferric (Fe3+) to absorbable ferrous (Fe2+) ions. Although iron deficiency is a relatively common problem, it is not the only extreme of the iron-balance spectrum that must be avoided. Iron overload can be particularly damaging to the heart, liver, and endocrine organs. Excess ferrous iron forms free hydroxyl radicals via the Fenton reaction that cause damage to tissues through oxidative reactions with lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Thus, dietary iron absorption and factors affecting bioavailability in the body are tightly regulated where possible. The absorption of most dietary iron occurs in the duodenum and proximal jejunum and depends heavily on the physical state of the iron atom. At physiological pH, iron exists in the oxidized, ferric (Fe3+) state. To be absorbed, iron must be in the ferrous (Fe2+) state or bound by a protein such as heme. The low pH of gastric acid in the proximal duodenum allows a ferric reductase enzyme, duodenal cytochrome B (Dcytb), on the brush border of the enterocytes to convert the insoluble ferric (Fe3+) to absorbable ferrous (Fe2+) ions. Gastric acid production plays a key role in plasma iron homeostasis. When proton-pump inhibiting drugs such as omeprazole are used, iron absorption is greatly reduced. Once ferric iron is reduced to ferrous iron in the intestinal lumen, a protein on the apical membrane of enterocytes called divalent metal cation transporter 1 (DMT1) transports iron across the apical membrane and into the cell. Levels of DMT1 and Dcytb are upregulated in the hypoxic environment of the intestinal mucosa by hypoxia-inducible factor-2 (HIF-2α). The duodenal pH-dependent process of iron absorption is inhibited or enhanced by certain dietary compounds. - Inhibitors of iron absorption include phytate, which is a compound found in plant-based diets that demonstrate a dose-dependent effect on iron absorption. Polyphenols are found in black and herbal tea, coffee, wine, legumes, cereals, fruit, and vegetables and have been demonstrated to inhibit iron absorption. Unlike other inhibitors such as polyphenols and phytates, which prevent only non-heme iron absorption, calcium inhibits both heme and non-heme iron at the point of initial uptake into enterocytes. Animal proteins such as casein, whey, egg whites, and proteins from plants (soy protein) have been shown to inhibit iron absorption in humans. Oxalic acid is found in spinach, chard, beans, and nuts and acts to bind and inhibit iron absorption. - Enhancers of iron absorption are dominated by the effect of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), which can overcome the effects of all dietary inhibitors when it is included in a diet with high non-heme iron availability (usually a meal heavy in vegetables). Ascorbic acid forms a chelate with ferric (Fe3+) iron in the low pH of the stomach, which persists and remains soluble in the alkaline environment of the duodenum. Once inside the enterocyte, iron can be stored as ferritin or transported through the basolateral membrane and into circulation bound to ferroportin. (Ferritin that is not bound to iron is called apoferritin, which has an intrinsic catalytic activity that oxidizes ferrous iron into ferric iron to be bound and stored as ferritin.) Ferritin is a hollow, spherical protein consisting of 24 subunits that potentiate the storage and regulation of iron levels within the body. Iron is stored in the Fe3+ state on the inside of the ferritin sphere through incorporation into a solid crystalline mineral called ferrihydrite [FeO(OH)]8[FeO(H2PO4)]. Monomers of the ferritin molecule have ferroxidase activity (Fe3+ ↔ Fe2+), allowing the mobilization of Fe2+ ions out of the ferrihydrite mineral lattice structure enabling its subsequent efflux out of the enterocyte via ferroportin and into circulation across the basolateral membrane of the enterocyte. The transmembrane protein ferroportin is the only efflux route of cellular iron and is regulated almost exclusively by hepcidin levels. High levels of iron, inflammatory cytokines, and oxygen lead to increased levels of the peptide hormone hepcidin. Hepcidin binds ferroportin, resulting in its internalization and degradation and effectively shunting cellular iron into ferritin stores and preventing its absorption into the blood. Thereby, hepcidin also potentiates the excretion of iron through the sloughing of enterocytes (and their ferritin stores) into the feces and out of the body. If hepcidin levels are low and ferroportin is not downregulated, ferrous iron (Fe2+) can be released from the enterocyte, where it is oxidized once again into ferric iron (Fe3+) for binding to transferrin, which is its carrier protein present in the plasma. Two copper-containing enzymes, ceruloplasmin in the plasma and hephaestin on the basolateral membrane of the enterocyte, catalyze the oxidation of and subsequent binding of ferrous iron to transferrin in the plasma. The principal role of transferrin is to chelate iron to be rendered soluble, prevent the formation of reactive oxygen species, and facilitate its transport into cells. Enterocyte DMT1 and Dcytb levels are upregulated in cases of iron deficiency anemia, and mutations in DMT1 have been shown to give rise to microcytic anemias and liver iron overload. Conditions that degrade the mucosa of the duodenum will decrease absorption of iron and include: - Celiac disease - Tropical sprue - Crohn’s disease - Duodenal cancer - Duodenal ulcers - Familial adenomatous polyposis Anemia of chronic disease is a normochromic, normocytic anemia that shows characteristically elevated ferritin stores but lower total body iron. Inflammatory states increase cytokine release (IL-6), which stimulates hepcidin expression in the liver. Hepcidin causes decreased iron absorption through ferroportin degradation and decreases the release of iron from macrophages. The iron that accumulates in cells in anemia of chronic disease is stored as ferritin. Iron-deficiency anemia is a hypochromic, microcytic anemia caused by hemorrhage (most commonly through trauma or gastrointestinal lesions), decreased dietary iron, or decreased iron absorption. Menstruating women of reproductive age require twice the amount of iron as similarly-aged men. Pregnancy and breastfeeding also significantly increase the iron requirements of women, helping to make iron deficiency the most common dietary deficiency in the world.
A reaction intermediate or simply intermediate is a molecule that is formed during a chemical reaction. It is not the final product, but it is something that is more like the product than the reactants. After every step in a reaction mechanism, an intermediate is formed. Intermediates usually stay around for a little time because they are very reactive. However, it is important not to confuse an intermediate with a transition state. The latter is at a point of maximum energy. An intermediate instead is at a point of minimum energy, i.e. it is a stable molecule. Intermediates can be isolated from a reaction if needed. For example, in the reaction: A + B → X → C + D X is the intermediate. In going from A + B to X and from X to C + D, the reaction will go through a transition state.
Wonder Book Study Note: This is a digital download. No physical copy will be shipped. Wonder by R. J. Palacio forces both kids and adults alike to think about being intentionally kind with our words and actions. In the story, 10 year old August has a severe facial physical deformity. Because of dozens of surgeries, he has been homeschooled his whole life. Now, with his surgeries behind him, August, or Auggie as he likes to be called, faces his next hurdle: middle school. Through the new world of middle school, Auggie makes friends and encounters bullies, but ultimately learns to conquer his fears and challenges. Wonder is written from the perspective of multiple characters, making it more interesting to "walk a mile in someone else's shoes." It is filled with valuable life lessons, and a rich writing style. This book study includes: - Information about the book - Discussion Questions - Walking in Another Person's Shoes (character analysis) - Who is August Pullman? (character analysis of Auggie) - Vocabulary Words Worksheet - Figurative Language - Kindness and Bullying in the Bible (can be skipped for a secular perspective) - Answer Key for Figurative Language This study is designed to help students use critical thinking skills to examine the novel, and hopefully examine their own lives. You can use it in a homeschool/private school setting, or a public school setting. There are 5 pages of worksheets that can be used for a five day unit study, as well as an additional Bible lesson page relating Bible stories on kindness and bullying to Wonder.
At Kerem, Essential Letters and Sounds (ELS) is our chosen Phonics programme. By using this scheme, we are drawing on the already excellent practise of our teachers and ensuring that the teaching of Phonics (including tricky words) and early reading are well embedded, and have clear progression. This ensures that children’s learning of Phonics stays in their long-term memory, which is vital in our aim of ensuring that children become confident, fluent readers. Click here to access an overview of the progression of Phonics teaching at Kerem. The following documents offer further information about the sounds that pupils will learn in each phase of their Phonics learning: In the lower school (Reception to Year 2), children go home with both paper and e-books that have been carefully matched to their Phonic knowledge. In Reception, initially, the children are given a book either with words or just a picture book. A book with words is given when the child is able to sound talk. If your child is unable to sound talk they will receive a picture book until we feel they are ready. Books are changed once or twice a week, depending on the child’s ability. The class teacher will communicate with parents to ensure they know which days the books are changed. Reading books are changed twice a week in Year 1 and three times a week in Year 2. Class teachers will communicate with parents to ensure that they know which days the books will be changed on. From Year 3 onwards, the children’s reading books become longer and therefore, the days on which they are changed will vary according to the length of each book. Class teachers will communicate with parents to ensure that they know how reading books are managed in each class. Children will need the support of an adult to listen to them read at home and encourage them to read with confidence, fluency and expression. For this reason, we ask that children read their reading book at least twice at home before it is changed. Click here for our guidance on how to support your child when reading their reading books at home. This information can also be found on the inside cover of your child’s reading record. Children will be sent home with a varied range of book types. These book types include: Decodable Reading Books Decoding simply means reading - we do this by applying our knowledge of the letters we see and the sounds they make. A decodable reading book means that the text will only consist of sounds that the children have been taught so far in their Phonics lessons. Class teachers will send home this type of book in order to consolidate children’s most recent Phonics learning. Although children may still require support when reading a decodable reading book, they will not have to guess or encounter a sound that they haven’t learnt yet. E-books enable children to access books from the ELS Phonics scheme online. All of our ebooks are also decodable books. Each week, children will be assigned one e-book to read in addition to a physical book. The e-books are accessed via the Oxford Owl website, which can be found at this link. In Reception, your child will receive their login details once they start their Phonics lessons. In Year 1 upwards, children can find their login details inside the front cover of their yellow reading record. Shared Reading Books Your child’s reading practice may also be supplemented with ‘shared reading’ books. These are reading books that may contain some words with sounds that are not fully decodable to them yet. This is when the reading becomes a shared process between adult and child; instead of asking children to guess until they are correct, the adult reading with the child can help and join in. These books will be labelled with a ‘shared reader’ label. Once children have learnt enough Phonics, most books become decodable to them. They will then be able to select books from their class reading corner to take home as their reading book, instead of being matched with a book by a teacher. This is called a ‘Free Reader’. Children are expected to move onto Free Readers by the time they leave Year 3. Supporting Phonics Resources Each week, children will be sent home with flashcards containing the sounds they have been taught in each Phonics lesson. They will also be given flashcards for ‘Tricky Words’. Tricky Words are words that do not follow the Phonics rules that children have learnt so far, meaning they must learn the whole word by sight as Tricky Words cannot be decoded. Some tricky word examples include ‘the’, ‘you’, ‘me’, ‘was’ and ‘people’. It is important for parents to consolidate their child’s learning by practising the flashcards they receive each week until your child can read them confidently.
the Sun is not the same solid as the Earth. To prove it very simply: the surface temperature of the Sun reaches 6000°C. At this temperature, any metal or stone turns into gas, so the Sun must be gas ball! The sun is actually made up of gases: 75% hydrogen and 25% helium. In the past, scientists believed that the sun's light and heat are the result of combustion. But the surface of the Sun is hot already hundreds of millions of years, and so long nothing can not burn. Today scientists believe that the Sun generates heat as a result of processes similar to those that occur in a nuclear bomb. The sun converts matter into energy. This energy is released in the Sun in thermo-nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium. However, the Sun will be so hot not forever. As the hydrogen in the core of the Sun will burn out, its outer shell will begin to expand, and the core is compressed and heated. This process will begin, according to scientists ' estimates, after 4-5 billion years. After the end of the phase of expansion, the Sun will cool down and turn into a nebula.
The Evolution of the Modern Day Calendar Perfecting a method of foretelling and predicting the passage of time preoccupied our ancestors from the earliest recorded history. The unending journey of the Sun, Moon and stars across the great expanse of the sky provides clues for numerous methods of marking time, the most obvious to primitive man being the passage of a day (light/dark) and that of a month (based on phases of the Moon). Measuring the exact length of a year is difficult, but for our ancient ancestors’ less stringent parameters, such as when a certain tree would bloom, was sufficient proof to denote the beginning of a new year. The ancient Egyptians knew that to calculate an accurate measurement of a year, it was necessary to take note of where the stars are in the sky at any given time. Specifically, the priests of Egypt used Sirius, the Dog Star, to predict the flooding of the Nile annually, which gave them the appearance of being able to foretell this event. Studying Sirius also enabled the Egyptians to become the first civilization to switch from a lunar to a solar calendar. The ancient Babylonians utilized a lunar calendar. Even today, the Muslim and Jewish calendars remain lunar-based. Nice, if you like tradition, but using a lunar calendar poses a major problem as well. A lunar month is 29.5 days, meaning 12 lunar months add up to 354 lunar days, which is about 11 days short of a solar year. To solve this problem, some lunar calendars add an extra month every now and then to make up for lost time, which is how it is handled with the Jewish calendar. However, the Egyptian priests’ study of Sirius allowed them to count the exact number of days in a solar year. They then arranged the lunar months into 12 month intervals, making each of them 30 days in length with five added days at the end of the year. Sounds pretty good, but there is a problem, which is that every four years Sirius shows up a day late. The reason for this is that the solar year is really closer to 365 days and six hours, which the Egyptians never took into account, though they were aware of the issue. This resulted in the calendar taking a backward slide as a lunar one would do, only at a much slower pace. By the time of the Roman Empire under Julius Caesar, the calendar, which was out of sync by about three months, was in desperate need of tweaking. With the help of Sosigenes, a renowned astronomer from Alexandria, Julius Caesar started a new calendar on January 1, 45 B.C.- a calendar that came closer to the solar year than any of its predecessors and became known as the “Julian Calendar”. Sosigenes informed Caesar that the actual length of the solar year is 365 days and six hours, as the Egyptian priests had known. Sosigenes felt the logical solution was to simply add a day to February, the shortest of the Roman months, every fourth year. This made up the difference, and with this clever idea the leap year was born. This calendar quickly spread across the entire Roman Empire, and was also used throughout Christendom for centuries. And yet, once again, an error popped up. It turns out, that the solar year isn’t actually 365 days and six hours after all. It’s actually 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds. This only amounts to a discrepancy of a single day over 130 years, but when you’re talking millennia you have no choice but to nitpick. By the 1500s, the seemingly minor glitch of calculating the solar year to be 11 minutes and 14 seconds shorter than it is led to about a 10 day gap between the calendar and the real solar year. This posed a particular problem around the equinoxes, which were occurring 10 days earlier than the dates on the calendar denoted they should be. Clearly something needed to be done, so Pope Gregory XIII asked Christopher Clavius, a Jesuit astronomer, to help him solve the problem. Quickly discovering that the error in question amounts to 3 days over a span of 400 years, he devised a brilliant solution to the predicament. The ingenious astronomer put forth the suggestion that years ending in ’00 should from that point on only be leap years if they could be divided by 400. By doing so, three leap years are eradicated every three centuries, providing a tidy solution to the problem. The proposal, named after the Pope responsible for hiring its mastermind (rather than the mastermind), was put into use in the Papal States in 1582. The Gregorian calendar was quickly picked up by Spain, Portugal, France and the Italian states the following year. This was a time of great religious upheaval in Europe, and many of the Protestant states were in no great rush to concede that the Bishop of Rome was right about anything. The Lutheran states of Germany finally got around to making the change in 1700, while Great Britain put it off until 1752. Even though by that point Britain had accrued a sizable gap of 11 days, many people protested violently when the change was made. Russia did not convert to the Gregorian calendar until after the Russian Revolution in 1917. (The funny thing was, in 1908, the Russian Olympic team arrived 12 days late to the London Olympics because of it.) Further technological advances in the 20th century made it possible to hone the accuracy of the Gregorian calendar even more. For instance, it has been suggested that to fix a small error in the Gregorian calendar, one day should be added every 3,323 years, and years divisible by the number 4000 will not be leap years. So, the next time you’re scribbling down your next dental appointment on your handy-dandy calendar, take a moment to appreciate its long and noble evolution. The calendar so casually given to you during the Holidays sits in your hands thanks to the input of Egyptian priests, Julius Caesar and co. and a Pope and his trusty Jesuit astronomer. - The Origin of the Phrase “Once in a Blue Moon” - Why We Have a Seven Day Week and the Origin of the Names of the Days of the Week - Why We Divide the Day Into Seconds, Minutes, and Hours - The Origin of the Names of the Continents - Why the Hottest Part of the Summer is Called “The Dog Days” - On the other side of the pond a calendar had been devised, not unlike the one the Romans had come up with, by a culture in Central America called the Olmecs, and was fined tuned around the first century AD by the Mayans. The Mayans, having concluded that there were 365 days in a year, fashioned a calendar consisting of 18 months including 20 days each. They rounded out the year by adding five days at the end which were considered to be very unlucky. Another aspect unique to the Mayan calendar is what is called the “Calendar Round”, which is a cycle lasting 52 years in which every day has its own individual name – none are repeated. \|Share the Knowledge!\|
5th Grade Mathematics Skills Prior Standards Implementation The standards listed below have been replaced by a newer set of standards. Please go to Current 5th Grade Math Standards for current resources. Number & Operations - Links to previous number and operations standards (e.g. add, subtract, multiply and divide whole numbers and decimals; compare and order fractions; identify place value of a given digit from millions to thousandths). Algebra - Links to previous algebra standards (e.g. connect open sentences to real world situations; generalize numerical patterns using a variable; select equation that represents a given mathematical relationship). Geometry - Links to previous geometry standards (e.g. identify lines, line segments, rays, and angles; classify geometric figures using properties; locate and specify a point in Quadrant I of a coordinate system). Measurement - Links to previous measurement standards (e.g. read temperatures on a thermometer; addition and subtraction of measurements; perimeter and area of rectangles). Data Analysis & Probability - Links to previous data analysis and probability standards (e.g. interpret and represent data in a graph; mean, median and mode of a data set; make predictions based on data). Return to Grade Level Help. Worksheet Generator - This site will allow you to create printable math worksheets from your browser. Including: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, mixed problems, fractions, measurement, graphing, telling time, and other charts. Math Teachers' Toolkit - Compilation of resources to help students understand concepts.
Closing the gender pay gap is still a challenge for EU. The gender wage gap is caused by a number of correlated factors and it still exists today due to wider gender inequalities across the society and the economy. In this article we will try to give you a general overview about the complex causes of this issue. The principles “equal pay for equal work” and “equal pay for work of equal value” have been established in 1957 by the European Treaty of Rome and in 1975 by the Equal Pay Directive, but according to the latest data released by Eurostat (the statistical office of the European Union) the EU still shows an average gender pay gap of 16%. That means that women earned on average 84 cents for every euro a man makes per hour. Unfortunately, it seems that even the top economies in Europe are leaving women behind when it comes to equality in pay. There are huge differences among the 28 member states: the gender pay gap ranged from just over 5% in Romania and Italy, to more than 25% in Estonia, followed by the Czech Republic and Germany (almost 22%). The overall employment rate for women aged 20-64 in Europe is 63%, compared to 76% for men. Women are the majority of part-time workers in the EU, with almost 32% of women working part-time against only 8% of men. This has a negative impact on career progression, training opportunities, pension rights and unemployment benefits and all of these factors affect the gender pay gap. Gender roles and traditions shape women’s and men’s roles in society. Gender roles may influence, for example, the choice of educational path taken. These decisions are affected by traditional values and assumptions about working patterns. Women and men carry out different jobs and are often active in different sectors. Sectors where women are in the majority have lower wages than those dominated by men. Women’s skills and competences are often undervalued, especially in occupations where they are in the majority because they are seen to reflect female characteristics, rather than acquired skills and competences. In certain cases, women and men are not paid the same wages although they carry out the same work or work of equal value. This may be the result of so-called “direct discrimination” where women are simply treated less favourably than men. Or it may be due to a policy or practice that, although not designed to discriminate, results in unequal treatment between men and women. Moreover women and men are affected by different workplace practices, such as access to career development and training opportunities. Often this discrimination arises because of historical and cultural factors that impact on how wages are set and that prevents women from reaching the highest paid positions and leadership roles. As women bear the burden of unpaid work and childcare they tend to work shorter hours. They also generally work in sectors and occupations where jobs are compatible with their family responsibilities. As a result, women are more likely to work part-time, be employed in low-paid jobs and reach management positions. Women work shorter hours and often part-time in order to combine their family responsibilities with paid work. One might argue that pay discriminations result from different career and individual choices of women: If women were working in the same sectors as men and if they were working full-time and did not interrupt their careers, the pay differences would be lower. The argument that the gender pay gap results from women’s individual choices or preferences needs to be questioned.First, the “individual choices” are embedded in institutional structures such as the welfare system and its gender regimes. Additionally, wage composition is often based on gender stereotypes, historical developments and power relations that must be overcome. For these reasons it is necessary to contextualize wage differences against this institutional background. Sisterality Italian Team
It aims to prepare children to participate in our increasingly digital world by equipping them with the skills they need; not just to become competent consumers of technology, but to design and create our shared technological future. This comes at a time when digital technologies and associated industries represent 16% of the Australian GDP and are recognised as having the fastest growth. The proposed curriculum is a crucial step in the right direction toward engaging Australian students to consider computing pathways, particularly females who are significantly underrepresented in the field. The curriculum focuses on developing algorithmic and computational thinking skills, gradually building toward the use of visual programming and, in the later years, general-purpose programming. It underwent a rigorous development and review process, in partnership with the IT industry, universities, and school educators and is now awaiting final Minister endorsement. The recent review of the Digital Technologies curriculum has caused serious concern among computing and education experts. The report does not acknowledge the importance of this learning area for a modern curriculum, particularly in years F-6. In contrast, current recommendations are made to introduce the learning area from Year 9. This collapses a detailed and comprehensive exploration of STEM and ICT into two years, thus depriving students from studying fundamental concepts. Moreover, researchers recommend STEM gender gap interventions are best served by designing educational environments that will engage children in STEM-relevant activities, from the very early years of school. This introduction at such a late stage in the development of students will disengage a vast majority, including seriously underrepresented groups, such as females. Reviewers claim the F-8 curriculum is overcrowded, yet, fail to acknowledge that Australian teachers already integrate learning areas in primary years and thus have shown that they have the capability and skills to incorporate complex curricula. Research has also shown that computing lends itself extremely well to other F-6 areas, particularly literacy and mathematics and allows for fundamental skill development in these areas. Teacher professional development (PD) has been recognised as a challenge in the review and early curriculum development, however, should not be the reason to exclude an essential learning area. Industry, academics and educators have already been proactively collaborating to deliver free PD and resources across Australia. This support will continue to grow. The Australian Government recently announced a 12 million dollar investment to restore STEM in schools with computational thinking and coding across the curriculum; an initiative best served and supported with an F-10 Digital Technologies curriculum. Australia has a valuable opportunity to prepare our Australian students for jobs of the future and to participate in an increasingly digital workforce. Australia's curriculum is timely, at a time when England, Finland, New Zealand and many other leading nations are implementing computing curriculum into primary and secondary classrooms. Australia can lead F-10 computing education by providing every child an opportunity to understand how the technologies they use function, to develop fundamental literacy in coding and to have opportunities to create digital projects. Let’s prepare our future generations to be creators, not just consumers of digital technology!
Sea ice plays a key role in the earth climate system as it controls the fluxes between ocean and atmosphere and drives the global circulation due to its seasonal cycle of melting and freezing. Ice covered oceans also govern the earth's albedo and, therefore, the atmosphere's energy flux.Although satellites provide information on sea ice extent and seasonal variability, very little is known about the thickness of the sea ice and its long term thinning or thickening.Electromagnetic methods are perfectly suitable for sea ice thickness measurements as the ice represents a resistive layer covering a highly conductive ocean. For more than ten years, the Alfred Wegener Institute uses active frequency domain EM devices to assess the spatial and temporal evolution of Arctic and Antarctic sea ice. For that purpose Geonics' EM31 has been towed with sledges on ice surfaces and suspended from the ship's bow crane for continuos measurements while steaming through sea ice. Since 2001 a purpose built helicopter EM system is operating from ships and land stations delivering a unique sea ice thickness dataset in space and time.A ramac GPR system was used on sea ice in March and October 2003 in the Arctic and Antarctic respectively. These campaigns where one of the first successful adoptions of the GPR technique on sea ice. Helmholtz Research Programs > MARCOPOLI (2004-2008) > POL1-Processes and interactions in the polar climate system
Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer. 2005 November 30 Credit & Copyright: Daniel Verschatse (Antilhue Observatory) Explanation: Sculpted by stellar winds and radiation, a magnificent interstellar dust cloud by chance has assumed this recognizable shape. Fittingly named the Horsehead Nebula, it is some 1,500 light-years distant, embedded in the vast Orion cloud complex. About five light-years "tall", the dark cloud is cataloged as Barnard 33 and is visible only because its obscuring dust is silhouetted against the glowing red emission nebula IC 434. Contrasting blue reflection nebula NGC 2023 is visible on the lower left. In this gorgeous color image, both Horsehead and NGC 2023 seem to be caught in beams of light shining from above -- but the beams are actually just internal reflections from bright star Sigma Orionis, just off the upper edge of the view. Authors & editors: NASA Web Site Statements, Warnings, and Disclaimers NASA Official: Jay Norris. Specific rights apply. A service of: EUD at NASA / GSFC & Michigan Tech. U.
Gars and bowfin have been around since the dinosaurs; in fact, they’ve outlasted them. More recently, however, a modern creature has threatened these ancient fishes: humans. Misunderstood and much-maligned, these fishes were targets of eradication efforts for more than a century (1). Now, perceptions of these toothy predators may be changing. Recent interest in these “living fossils” has led to new research and even reintroduction efforts to bring back a lost species (2,3). All species of gars and bowfin are important parts of native biodiversity and ecosystem function, but could they also impact invasive species? Their appearance hasn’t changed much since the Cretaceous period over 65 million years ago. Gars (family Lepisosteidae) look like alligators with fins instead of legs, characterized by elongated snouts filled with sharp teeth, armor-like rhomboid scales, and the ability to breathe air. Shorten the snout (keep the teeth), add more slime and a bow-shaped dorsal fin, and you’ve essentially got a bowfin (Amia calva). It’s no wonder these fishes are often considered less desirable than more traditional sport fish such as bass, perch and walleye. Because of their menacing appearance, misconceptions about eating valuable sport fishes and perceived lack of value (often considered “trash fish”), humans have historically sought to remove gars and bowfin throughout much of their range (1). Sometimes removal occurred indirectly by habitat modification and subsequent loss of spawning grounds (3). In fact, humans have been quite successful in some areas; the alligator gar, the largest species of the group (they can grow over 9 feet long and weigh more than 300 pounds), was driven to local extinction from the northern extent of its range in Illinois by the 1960s (3). When caught, other gars and bowfin are often simply cast aside on the riverbank. It was once illegal in several states to return gars to the water alive! Fortunately, perceptions of these ancient fishes are slowly changing, as new research and renewed interest from anglers are garnering a more positive image of these misunderstood fishes. For example, gar fishing guides in Texas host anglers from all over the world for the opportunity to catch (and release) a 200-pound real-life river monster. Earlier this year, scientists discovered that the genetic make-up of spotted gars can help us better understand human development and disease (4,5). Further, in an effort to restore what was lost decades ago, the Illinois Department of Natural Resources (IDNR) is reintroducing the alligator gar to several Illinois rivers to increase biodiversity and create a trophy sport fishery. There are seven species of gars and one species of bowfin, all native to North America, ranging from southern Canada to Costa Rica. As apex predators, what do they eat? Considered opportunistic feeders, these fishes tend to consume whatever prey items are most abundant in the area, such as forage fish, sunfish, and crustaceans. Humans, however, are not part of their diets. In fact, there have been no verified cases of attack (not even the giant alligator gar), showing that these ancient fishes pose no threat to humans. As native top predators, the question has been raised, could gars and bowfin also have an impact on invasive species such as Asian carp? What does the science tell us? Recent research from Western Illinois University (6) showed that in some cases, shortnose gars and other native predatory fishes do in fact select for Asian carp, as young carp were found in higher numbers in gar stomachs than other prey items. However, a new study (7) showed that predation by spotted gars and bowfin had no significant impact on common carp populations. Many scientists agree that alligator gars can and do consume Asian carp, but the extent to which carp comprise their diet and the impact on Asian carp populations are relatively understudied. So, gars and bowfin are eating carp, and it’s great to see a native species preying on invasive species; other recent examples include smallmouth bass preying on round goby, and lake whitefish eating zebra mussels in the Great Lakes. But, could gar predation on Asian carp make a significant ecological impact? The numbers suggest no. When discussing Asian carp, IDNR fisheries scientists speak in terms of tons of carp per river mile. Alternatively, even a successful reintroduction of alligator gars may be only one or two fish per river mile in several Illinois tributaries (note: alligator gars are not being stocked in the Great Lakes basin). Vastly different reproductive rates are also an issue. Asian carp mature around age 3 and reproduce in larger numbers than alligator gars, which don’t mature until they’re about 11 years old and may not spawn every year. There are simply too many carp and too few gars to expect a significant impact. Time, research, and the fishes will tell us how gars and other native species may impact this gargantuan threat. Regardless of their impact on invasive species, gars and bowfin are valuable components of native biodiversity and play important roles in ecosystem function. As top predators, gars and bowfin can help prevent overpopulation of forage fishes (such as shad) and stunting in game fishes (like sunfish), therefore helping maintain ecosystem balance (1). They can also be indicators of ecosystem health. Great Lakes spotted gars prefer clear, highly-vegetated waters, which in turn are prime nursery areas for other game species such as bass and perch; finding the gar can indicate good habitat for other sport fishes. Alligator gars are also migratory fish, relying on river-floodplain connections for spawning; successful reproduction and recruitment can indicate quality habitat connectivity for other migratory species. Shedd Aquarium’s team of research scientists is actively involved in studying native and invasive species in the Great Lakes region, as well as rivers throughout the state of Illinois that are home to ancient fishes like gars and bowfin. In our Great Lakes migratory fishes research, finding bowfin and gars was an example of successful wetland habitat restoration, indicating several fish species quickly take advantage of newly available habitat for spawning. As we continue our research efforts in the region, we seek to find ways to protect native species from disappearing from their natural range, to maintain balanced ecosystems, and ensure sustainable populations for future generations. While we are not directly involved in the reintroduction of alligator gar, this work can benefit ecosystems and species we do spend so much time studying.Dr. Solomon David with an alligator gar sampled during fieldwork with Nicholls State University in Louisiana. © Solomon David. A close colleague of ours, Dr. Jeffrey Stein of the Illinois Natural History Survey’s Sport Fish Ecology Lab, is leading an effort to better understand and conserve these ancient fishes. As a collaborator on the “Ancient Sport Fish Project,” we are gathering data on age, growth and other characteristics of gar and bowfin species throughout the state. The primary goal is to evaluate the status and trends of Illinois gar and bowfin populations and provide managers with objective data needed to develop strategies for a sustainable [ancient] sport fishery. Since 2015, in partnership with IDNR, the team has tagged thousands of gars and bowfin and will eventually include alligator gar in our research efforts. You can follow along with #AncientSportFish on Twitter for updates on the project! For more information about the reintroduction of alligator gar, listen to this podcast from the IDNR or visit their website. You can also learn about Shedd Aquarium’s research on native and invasive species on our website. *Shedd Aquarium in partnership with University of Wisconsin-Madison and Green Bay, The Nature Conservancy - Scarnecchia 1992. A Reappraisal of Gars and Bowfins in Fishery Management - Illinois Department of Natural Resources 2016. The Return of the Dinosaurs - Thomas & Hilsabeck 2011. Return of the Giants. - Braasch et al 2016. The spotted gar genome illuminates vertebrate evolution and facilitates human-teleost comparisons. - Parichy 2016. The gar is a fish… is a bird… is a mammal? - Anderson 2016. http://gradworks.umi.com/10/11/10117282.html - Van Middlesworth et al 2016. Food habits and relative abundances of native piscivores: implications for controlling common carp.
Chemical Reaction Explained at a Fast Rate from Experts Under One Roof Studying chemical reaction is akin to delving into the heart of chemistry. Reactions are all about many changes of atoms and molecules. The most ancient chemical reaction witnessed by humans was combustion in fire, fermentation and reduction from ores to metals. Another would be witnessed when you seek chemical reaction assignment help. We can help you 24x7assignmenthelp.com is your gaming cheat code to chemical reaction assignment help. Our experts are the best in the industry with professional expertise in all facets of science. Here’s a sneak peek at what we have in store for you. We have a team of experts who can provide students with excellent chemical reaction homework help. So, next time onwards, if you face any difficulty then don’t forget to contact us. We offer 100% authentic, well-researched and plagiarism free content. The charges are also affordable. A chemical reaction is a process leading to transformation of one set of substances to another. Chemical substances are a form of matter that has constant composition and characteristic properties. These cannot be separated into components by physical separation method with their bonds intact. So what does it actually mean? Chemical reaction is the change that takes place on the interaction of molecules. The atoms have basic bonds which break leading to formation of new molecules. Bonds are shared relationships between electrons in an atom. The key points regarding this are: – When hydrogen and nitrogen is mixed, it leads to ammonia. Such changes are good and are a result of creation of a new molecule on the changing of bonds. This process can happen with anything. It could include ions, compounds, atoms or molecules in a single element. Single reactions are always part of a large series of them. There are several intermediary reactions in creation of a final human useful product. Many bonds are created and destroyed in the process for chemical reaction. You can also avail such detailed descriptions about the subject in your assignments. All you have to do is to seek for chemical reaction homework help from us. Rate of Change They occur no matter the external influence and environment. These happen over and over, however, never at the same speed. This speed is referred to as rate. There are several terms to defining the characteristics of rate. These terms are self-explanatory and are: – Forward reaction rate Reverse reaction rate Difference between forward and reverse rate Speed from start to finish Speed at any given moment There are various factors affecting this rate. Some of them are: – Molecules tend to bounce around a lot on raising temperature. This leads to them having more energy and tremendously increases chances of collision. When there is more substance in a system, chances of collision are more speeding up the rate of reaction and vice versa. On increasing the pressure, the molecules tend to have less space to move around. The increase in density increases the no. of collisions. However, this works only in the case of gases. Also, pressure is negatively related to concentration and volume. There are many more concepts to be learnt in chemical reaction. However, if you are specifically looking for to chemical reaction assignment help then do look up our services at 24x7assignmenthelp.com because we are simply the best.
FIRST. Define Moral Government. SECOND. Show what is implied in it. First. Define Moral Government. 1. Moral Government, when opposed to physical, is the government of mind in opposition to the government of matter. 2. It is a government of motive or moral suasion, in opposition to a government of force. 3. Moral Government is the influence of moral considerations over the minds of moral agents. 4. Moral Government, in its most extensive sense, includes the whole influence of God's character as revealed in his works, providence, and word, over the universe of moral beings. It includes whatever influence God exerts to control the minds of moral agents, in conformity with the eternal principles of righteousness. Second. Show what is implied in Moral Government. 1. Moral Government cannot be an end, but a means; and therefore implies and end, to which it sustains the relation of a means. 2. All rightful Moral Government implies that the end to which it sustains the relation of a means is good. 3. Rightful Moral Government implies the mutual dependence of both the ruler and the subject upon this means for the promotion of the desired end. 4. Moral Government, therefore, implies a necessity for its existence. 5. It implies that both the ruler and the ruled are moral agents. 6. It implies the existence of moral law. 7. It implies that both the ruler and the ruled are under a moral obligation, to obey the law, so far as it is applicable to the circumstances of each. 8. It implies the existence of a ruler who has a right to enforce moral obligation. 9. It implies that the ruler is under moral obligation to do this.
This volume demonstrates the importance of history and philosophy of science for science education. It provides a case study of the pendulum, showing the pivotal role played by the pendulum in the Scientific Revolution. It describes how the pendulum enabled the creation of accurate clocks that, among other things, enabled the long-standing problem of longitude to be solved. The book charts how the solution of the longitude problem was of enormous social, economic and cultural significance for European and consequently world history. Further, the book shows how the discovery of the laws of pendulum motion by Galileo, Huygens and Newton hinged on the acceptance of a new methodology for science. The pendulum laws are a window through which to view the fascinating mixture of experiment, mathematics and philosophy that characterized the foundations of modern science, the Galilean-Newtonian paradigm, and distinguished it from Aristotelian, medieval and commonsense science. Back to top Rent Time for Science Education 1st edition today, or search our site for Michael R. textbooks. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Springer.
- Apply the characteristics of a normal distribution to solving problems. The normal distribution is the foundation for statistical inference and will be an essential part of many of those topics in later chapters. In the meantime, this section will cover some of the types of questions that can be answered using the properties of a normal distribution. The first examples deal with more theoretical questions that will help you master basic understandings and computational skills, while the later problems will provide examples with real data, or at least a real context. Unknown Value Problems If you understand the relationship between the area under a density curve and mean, standard deviation, and -scores, you should be able to solve problems in which you are provided all but one of these values and are asked to calculate the remaining value. In the last lesson, we found the probability that a variable is within a particular range, or the area under a density curve within that range. What if you are asked to find a value that gives a particular probability? Example: Given the normally-distributed random variable , with and , what is the value of where the probability of experiencing a value less than it is 80%? As suggested before, it is important and helpful to sketch the distribution. If we had to estimate an actual value first, we know from the Empirical Rule that about 84% of the data is below one standard deviation to the right of the mean. Therefore, we expect the answer to be slightly below this value. When we were given a value of the variable and were asked to find the percentage or probability, we used a -table or the 'normalcdf(' command on a graphing calculator. But how do we find a value given the percentage? Again, the table has its limitations in this case, and graphing calculators and computer software are much more convenient and accurate. The command on the TI-83/84 calculator is 'invNorm('. You may have seen it already in the DISTR menu. The syntax for this command is as follows: 'InvNorm(percentage or probability to the left, mean, standard deviation)' Make sure to enter the values in the correct order, such as in the example below: Unknown Mean or Standard Deviation Example: For a normally distributed random variable, , and , Estimate . To solve this problem, first draw a sketch: Remember that about 95% of the data is within 2 standard deviations of the mean. This would leave 2.5% of the data in the lower tail, so our 5% value must be less than 9 units from the mean. Because we do not know the mean, we have to use the standard normal curve and calculate a -score using the 'invNorm(' command. The result, , confirms the prediction that the value is less than 2 standard deviations from the mean. Now, plug in the known quantities into the -score formula and solve for as follows: Example: For a normally-distributed random variable, , and . Find . Again, let’s first look at a sketch of the distribution. Since about 97.5% of the data is below 2 standard deviations, it seems reasonable to estimate that the value is less than two standard deviations away from the mean and that might be around 7 or 8. Again, the first step to see if our prediction is right is to use 'invNorm(' to calculate the -score. Remember that since we are not entering a mean or standard deviation, the result is based on the assumption that and . Now, use the -score formula and solve for as follows: Technology Note: Drawing a Distribution on the TI-83/84 Calculator The TI-83/84 calculator will draw a distribution for you, but before doing so, we need to set an appropriate window (see screen below) and delete or turn off any functions or plots. Let’s use the last example and draw the shaded region below 94 under a normal curve with and . Remember from the Empirical Rule that we probably want to show about 3 standard deviations away from 83 in either direction. If we use 9 as an estimate for , then we should open our window 27 units above and below 83. The settings can be a bit tricky, but with a little practice, you will get used to determining the maximum percentage of area near the mean. The reason that we went below the -axis is to leave room for the text, as you will see. Now, press [2ND][DISTR] and arrow over to the DRAW menu. Choose the 'ShadeNorm(' command. With this command, you enter the values just as if you were doing a 'normalcdf(' calculation. The syntax for the 'ShadeNorm(' command is as follows: 'ShadeNorm(lower bound, upper bound, mean, standard deviation)' Enter the values shown in the following screenshot: Next, press [ENTER] to see the result. It should appear as follows: Technology Note: The 'normalpdf(' Command on the TI-83/84 Calculator You may have noticed that the first option in the DISTR menu is 'normalpdf(', which stands for a normal probability density function. It is the option you used in lesson 5.1 to draw the graph of a normal distribution. Many students wonder what this function is for and occasionally even use it by mistake to calculate what they think are cumulative probabilities, but this function is actually the mathematical formula for drawing a normal distribution. You can find this formula in the resources at the end of the lesson if you are interested. The numbers this function returns are not really useful to us statistically. The primary purpose for this function is to draw the normal curve. To do this, first be sure to turn off any plots and clear out any functions. Then press [Y=], insert 'normalpdf(', enter 'X', and close the parentheses as shown. Because we did not specify a mean and standard deviation, the standard normal curve will be drawn. Finally, enter the following window settings, which are necessary to fit most of the curve on the screen (think about the Empirical Rule when deciding on settings), and press [GRAPH]. The normal curve below should appear on your screen. Normal Distributions with Real Data The foundation of performing experiments by collecting surveys and samples is most often based on the normal distribution, as you will learn in greater detail in later chapters. Here are two examples to get you started. Example: The Information Centre of the National Health Service in Britain collects and publishes a great deal of information and statistics on health issues affecting the population. One such comprehensive data set tracks information about the health of children. According to its statistics, in 2006, the mean height of 12-year-old boys was 152.9 cm, with a standard deviation estimate of approximately 8.5 cm. (These are not the exact figures for the population, and in later chapters, we will learn how they are calculated and how accurate they may be, but for now, we will assume that they are a reasonable estimate of the true parameters.) If 12-year-old Cecil is 158 cm, approximately what percentage of all 12-year-old boys in Britain is he taller than? We first must assume that the height of 12-year-old boys in Britain is normally distributed, and this seems like a reasonable assumption to make. As always, draw a sketch and estimate a reasonable answer prior to calculating the percentage. In this case, let’s use the calculator to sketch the distribution and the shading. First decide on an appropriate window that includes about 3 standard deviations on either side of the mean. In this case, 3 standard deviations is about 25.5 cm, so add and subtract this value to/from the mean to find the horizontal extremes. Then enter the appropriate 'ShadeNorm(' command as shown: From this data, we would estimate that Cecil is taller than about 73% of 12-year-old boys. We could also phrase our assumption this way: the probability of a randomly selected British 12-year-old boy being shorter than Cecil is about 0.73. Often with data like this, we use percentiles. We would say that Cecil is in the percentile for height among 12-year-old boys in Britain. How tall would Cecil need to be in order to be in the top 1% of all 12-year-old boys in Britain? Here is a sketch: In this case, we are given the percentage, so we need to use the 'invNorm(' command as shown. Our results indicate that Cecil would need to be about 173 cm tall to be in the top 1% of 12-year-old boys in Britain. Example: Suppose that the distribution of the masses of female marine iguanas in Puerto Villamil in the Galapagos Islands is approximately normal, with a mean mass of 950 g and a standard deviation of 325 g. There are very few young marine iguanas in the populated areas of the islands, because feral cats tend to kill them. How rare is it that we would find a female marine iguana with a mass less than 400 g in this area? Using a graphing calculator, we can approximate the probability of a female marine iguana being less than 400 grams as follows: With a probability of approximately 0.045, or only about 5%, we could say it is rather unlikely that we would find an iguana this small. In order to find the percentage of data in-between two values (or the probability of a randomly chosen value being between those values) in a normal distribution, we can use the 'normalcdf(' command on the TI-83/84 calculator. When you know the percentage or probability, use the 'invNorm(' command to find a -score or value of the variable. In order to use these tools in real situations, we need to know that the distribution of the variable in question is approximately normal. When solving problems using normal probabilities, it helps to draw a sketch of the distribution and shade the appropriate region. Point to Consider - How do the probabilities of a standard normal curve apply to making decisions about unknown parameters for a population given a sample? For an example of finding the probability between values in a normal distribution (4.0)(7.0), see EducatorVids, Statistics: Applications of the Normal Distribution (1:45). For an example showing how to find the mean and standard deviation of a normal distribution (8.0), see ExamSolutions, Normal Distribution: Finding the Mean and Standard Deviation (6:01). For the continuation of finding the mean and standard deviation of a normal distribution (8.0), see ExamSolutions, Normal Distribution: Finding the Mean and Standard Deviation (Part 2) (8:09). - Which of the following intervals contains the middle 95% of the data in a standard normal distribution? - For each of the following problems, is a continuous random variable with a normal distribution and the given mean and standard deviation. is the probability of a value of the distribution being less than . Find the missing value and sketch and shade the distribution. - What is the -score for the lower quartile in a standard normal distribution? - The manufacturing process at a metal-parts factory produces some slight variation in the diameter of metal ball bearings. The quality control experts claim that the bearings produced have a mean diameter of 1.4 cm. If the diameter is more than 0.0035 cm too wide or too narrow, they will not work properly. In order to maintain its reliable reputation, the company wishes to insure that no more than one-tenth of 1% of the bearings that are made are ineffective. What would the standard deviation of the manufactured bearings need to be in order to meet this goal? - Suppose that the wrapper of a certain candy bar lists its weight as 2.13 ounces. Naturally, the weights of individual bars vary somewhat. Suppose that the weights of these candy bars vary according to a normal distribution, with ounces and ounces. - What proportion of the candy bars weigh less than the advertised weight? - What proportion of the candy bars weight between 2.2 and 2.3 ounces? - A candy bar of what weight would be heavier than all but 1% of the candy bars out there? - If the manufacturer wants to adjust the production process so that no more than 1 candy bar in 1000 weighs less than the advertised weight, what would the mean of the actual weights need to be? (Assume the standard deviation remains the same.) - If the manufacturer wants to adjust the production process so that the mean remains at 2.2 ounces and no more than 1 candy bar in 1000 weighs less than the advertised weight, how small does the standard deviation of the weights need to be? On the Web http://davidmlane.com/hyperstat/A25726.html Contains the formula for the normal probability density function. http://www.willamette.edu/~mjaneba/help/normalcurve.html Contains background on the normal distribution, including a picture of Carl Friedrich Gauss, a German mathematician who first used the function. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution Is highly mathematical. Starting from the mean and heading outward to the left and right, the curve is concave down. After passing these points, the curve is concave up. Cumulative density function to calculate probabilities for a normal density curve using what is called a cumulative density function. A curve where the area under the curve equals exactly one. States what percentages of data in a normal distribution lies within 1, 2, and 3 standard deviations of the mean. A point where the curve changes concavity (from concave up to concave down, or concave down to concave up). A continuous probability distribution that has a symmetric bell-shaped curve with a single peak. Normal probability plot A normal probability plot can also be used to determine normality. Normal quantile plot If we calculate the scores for a data set and plot them against the actual values, we have what is called a normal probability plot, or a normal quantile plot. If the data set is normal, then this plot will be perfectly linear. Probability density function DISTR menu is 'normalpdf(', which stands for a normal probability density function. Standard normal curve We have to use the standard normal curve and calculate a score using the 'invNorm(' command. Standard normal distribution A normal distribution with and . the curve will not be as we have seen so far, with and . When using a table, you will first have to standardize the distribution by calculating the score(s). A measure of the number of standard deviations a particular data point is away from the mean.

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