text: /*
   * History: First version dated from 3/97, derived from my SCMLIB version
   * for win16.
   */
  /*
   * Related Work:
   *      - calldll       http://www.nightmare.com/software.html
   *      - libffi        http://sourceware.cygnus.com/libffi/
   *      - ffcall        http://clisp.cons.org/~haible/packages-ffcall.html
   *   and, of course, Don Beaudry's MESS package, but this is more ctypes
   *   related.
   */
  
  
  /*
    How are functions called, and how are parameters converted to C ?
  
    1. _ctypes.c::PyCFuncPtr_call receives an argument tuple 'inargs' and a
    keyword dictionary 'kwds'.
  
    2. After several checks, _build_callargs() is called which returns another
    tuple 'callargs'.  This may be the same tuple as 'inargs', a slice of
    'inargs', or a completely fresh tuple, depending on several things (is it a
    COM method?, are 'paramflags' available?).
  
    3. _build_callargs also calculates bitarrays containing indexes into
    the callargs tuple, specifying how to build the return value(s) of
    the function.
  
    4. _ctypes_callproc is then called with the 'callargs' tuple.  _ctypes_callproc first
    allocates two arrays.  The first is an array of 'struct argument' items, the
    second array has 'void *' entries.
  
    5. If 'converters' are present (converters is a sequence of argtypes'
    from_param methods), for each item in 'callargs' converter is called and the
    result passed to ConvParam.  If 'converters' are not present, each argument
    is directly passed to ConvParm.
  
    6. For each arg, ConvParam stores the contained C data (or a pointer to it,
    for structures) into the 'struct argument' array.
  
    7. Finally, a loop fills the 'void *' array so that each item points to the
    data contained in or pointed to by the 'struct argument' array.
  
    8. The 'void *' argument array is what _call_function_pointer
    expects. _call_function_pointer then has very little to do - only some
    libffi specific stuff, then it calls ffi_call.
  
    So, there are 4 data structures holding processed arguments:
    - the inargs tuple (in PyCFuncPtr_call)
    - the callargs tuple (in PyCFuncPtr_call)
    - the 'struct arguments' array
    - the 'void *' array
  
   */
  
  #include "Python.h"
  #include "structmember.h"
  
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
  #include <windows.h>
  #include <tchar.h>
  #else
  #include "ctypes_dlfcn.h"
  #endif
  
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
  #include <malloc.h>
  #endif
  
  #include <ffi.h>
  #include "ctypes.h"
  #ifdef HAVE_ALLOCA_H
  /* AIX needs alloca.h for alloca() */
  #include <alloca.h>
  #endif
  
  #ifdef _Py_MEMORY_SANITIZER
  #include <sanitizer/msan_interface.h>
  #endif
  
  #if defined(_DEBUG) || defined(__MINGW32__)
  /* Don't use structured exception handling on Windows if this is defined.
     MingW, AFAIK, doesn't support it.
  */
  #define DONT_USE_SEH
  #endif
  
  #define CTYPES_CAPSULE_NAME_PYMEM "_ctypes pymem"
  
  static void pymem_destructor(PyObject *ptr)
  {
      void *p = PyCapsule_GetPointer(ptr, CTYPES_CAPSULE_NAME_PYMEM);
      if (p) {
          PyMem_Free(p);
      }
  }
  
  /*
    ctypes maintains thread-local storage that has space for two error numbers:
    private copies of the system 'errno' value and, on Windows, the system error code
    accessed by the GetLastError() and SetLastError() api functions.
  
    Foreign functions created with CDLL(..., use_errno=True), when called, swap
    the system 'errno' value with the private copy just before the actual
    function call, and swapped again immediately afterwards.  The 'use_errno'
    parameter defaults to False, in this case 'ctypes_errno' is not touched.
  
    On Windows, foreign functions created with CDLL(..., use_last_error=True) or
    WinDLL(..., use_last_error=True) swap the system LastError value with the
    ctypes private copy.
  
    The values are also swapped immeditately before and after ctypes callback
    functions are called, if the callbacks are constructed using the new
    optional use_errno parameter set to True: CFUNCTYPE(..., use_errno=TRUE) or
    WINFUNCTYPE(..., use_errno=True).
  
    New ctypes functions are provided to access the ctypes private copies from
    Python:
  
    - ctypes.set_errno(value) and ctypes.set_last_error(value) store 'value' in
      the private copy and returns the previous value.
  
    - ctypes.get_errno() and ctypes.get_last_error() returns the current ctypes
      private copies value.
  */
  
  /*
    This function creates and returns a thread-local Python object that has
    space to store two integer error numbers; once created the Python object is
    kept alive in the thread state dictionary as long as the thread itself.
  */
  PyObject *
  _ctypes_get_errobj(int **pspace)
  {
      PyObject *dict = PyThreadState_GetDict();
      PyObject *errobj;
      static PyObject *error_object_name;
      if (dict == 0) {
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_RuntimeError,
                          "cannot get thread state");
          return NULL;
      }
      if (error_object_name == NULL) {
          error_object_name = PyUnicode_InternFromString("ctypes.error_object");
          if (error_object_name == NULL)
              return NULL;
      }
      errobj = PyDict_GetItem(dict, error_object_name);
      if (errobj) {
          if (!PyCapsule_IsValid(errobj, CTYPES_CAPSULE_NAME_PYMEM)) {
              PyErr_SetString(PyExc_RuntimeError,
                  "ctypes.error_object is an invalid capsule");
              return NULL;
          }
          Py_INCREF(errobj);
      }
      else {
          void *space = PyMem_Malloc(sizeof(int) * 2);
          if (space == NULL)
              return NULL;
          memset(space, 0, sizeof(int) * 2);
          errobj = PyCapsule_New(space, CTYPES_CAPSULE_NAME_PYMEM, pymem_destructor);
          if (errobj == NULL) {
              PyMem_Free(space);
              return NULL;
          }
          if (-1 == PyDict_SetItem(dict, error_object_name,
                                   errobj)) {
              Py_DECREF(errobj);
              return NULL;
          }
      }
      *pspace = (int *)PyCapsule_GetPointer(errobj, CTYPES_CAPSULE_NAME_PYMEM);
      return errobj;
  }
  
  static PyObject *
  get_error_internal(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, int index)
  {
      int *space;
      PyObject *errobj = _ctypes_get_errobj(&space);
      PyObject *result;
  
      if (errobj == NULL)
          return NULL;
      result = PyLong_FromLong(space[index]);
      Py_DECREF(errobj);
      return result;
  }
  
  static PyObject *
  set_error_internal(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, int index)
  {
      int new_errno, old_errno;
      PyObject *errobj;
      int *space;
  
      if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "i", &new_errno))
          return NULL;
      errobj = _ctypes_get_errobj(&space);
      if (errobj == NULL)
          return NULL;
      old_errno = space[index];
      space[index] = new_errno;
      Py_DECREF(errobj);
      return PyLong_FromLong(old_errno);
  }
  
  static PyObject *
  get_errno(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      return get_error_internal(self, args, 0);
  }
  
  static PyObject *
  set_errno(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      return set_error_internal(self, args, 0);
  }
  
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
  
  static PyObject *
  get_last_error(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      return get_error_internal(self, args, 1);
  }
  
  static PyObject *
  set_last_error(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      return set_error_internal(self, args, 1);
  }
  
  PyObject *ComError;
  
  static WCHAR *FormatError(DWORD code)
  {
      WCHAR *lpMsgBuf;
      DWORD n;
      n = FormatMessageW(FORMAT_MESSAGE_ALLOCATE_BUFFER | FORMAT_MESSAGE_FROM_SYSTEM,
                         NULL,
                         code,
                         MAKELANGID(LANG_NEUTRAL, SUBLANG_DEFAULT), /* Default language */
                 (LPWSTR) &lpMsgBuf,
                 0,
                 NULL);
      if (n) {
          while (iswspace(lpMsgBuf[n-1]))
              --n;
          lpMsgBuf[n] = L'\0'; /* rstrip() */
      }
      return lpMsgBuf;
  }
  
  #ifndef DONT_USE_SEH
  static void SetException(DWORD code, EXCEPTION_RECORD *pr)
  {
      /* The 'code' is a normal win32 error code so it could be handled by
      PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(). However, for some errors, we have additional
      information not included in the error code. We handle those here and
      delegate all others to the generic function. */
      switch (code) {
      case EXCEPTION_ACCESS_VIOLATION:
          /* The thread attempted to read from or write
             to a virtual address for which it does not
             have the appropriate access. */
          if (pr->ExceptionInformation[0] == 0)
              PyErr_Format(PyExc_OSError,
                           "exception: access violation reading %p",
                           pr->ExceptionInformation[1]);
          else
              PyErr_Format(PyExc_OSError,
                           "exception: access violation writing %p",
                           pr->ExceptionInformation[1]);
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_BREAKPOINT:
          /* A breakpoint was encountered. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: breakpoint encountered");
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_DATATYPE_MISALIGNMENT:
          /* The thread attempted to read or write data that is
             misaligned on hardware that does not provide
             alignment. For example, 16-bit values must be
             aligned on 2-byte boundaries, 32-bit values on
             4-byte boundaries, and so on. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: datatype misalignment");
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_SINGLE_STEP:
          /* A trace trap or other single-instruction mechanism
             signaled that one instruction has been executed. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: single step");
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_ARRAY_BOUNDS_EXCEEDED:
          /* The thread attempted to access an array element
             that is out of bounds, and the underlying hardware
             supports bounds checking. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: array bounds exceeded");
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_FLT_DENORMAL_OPERAND:
          /* One of the operands in a floating-point operation
             is denormal. A denormal value is one that is too
             small to represent as a standard floating-point
             value. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: floating-point operand denormal");
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_FLT_DIVIDE_BY_ZERO:
          /* The thread attempted to divide a floating-point
             value by a floating-point divisor of zero. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: float divide by zero");
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_FLT_INEXACT_RESULT:
          /* The result of a floating-point operation cannot be
             represented exactly as a decimal fraction. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: float inexact");
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_FLT_INVALID_OPERATION:
          /* This exception represents any floating-point
             exception not included in this list. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: float invalid operation");
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_FLT_OVERFLOW:
          /* The exponent of a floating-point operation is
             greater than the magnitude allowed by the
             corresponding type. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: float overflow");
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_FLT_STACK_CHECK:
          /* The stack overflowed or underflowed as the result
             of a floating-point operation. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: stack over/underflow");
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_STACK_OVERFLOW:
          /* The stack overflowed or underflowed as the result
             of a floating-point operation. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: stack overflow");
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_FLT_UNDERFLOW:
          /* The exponent of a floating-point operation is less
             than the magnitude allowed by the corresponding
             type. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: float underflow");
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_INT_DIVIDE_BY_ZERO:
          /* The thread attempted to divide an integer value by
             an integer divisor of zero. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: integer divide by zero");
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_INT_OVERFLOW:
          /* The result of an integer operation caused a carry
             out of the most significant bit of the result. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: integer overflow");
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_PRIV_INSTRUCTION:
          /* The thread attempted to execute an instruction
             whose operation is not allowed in the current
             machine mode. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: privileged instruction");
          break;
  
      case EXCEPTION_NONCONTINUABLE_EXCEPTION:
          /* The thread attempted to continue execution after a
             noncontinuable exception occurred. */
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                          "exception: nocontinuable");
          break;
  
      default:
          PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(code);
          break;
      }
  }
  
  static DWORD HandleException(EXCEPTION_POINTERS *ptrs,
                               DWORD *pdw, EXCEPTION_RECORD *record)
  {
      *pdw = ptrs->ExceptionRecord->ExceptionCode;
      *record = *ptrs->ExceptionRecord;
      /* We don't want to catch breakpoint exceptions, they are used to attach
       * a debugger to the process.
       */
      if (*pdw == EXCEPTION_BREAKPOINT)
          return EXCEPTION_CONTINUE_SEARCH;
      return EXCEPTION_EXECUTE_HANDLER;
  }
  #endif
  
  static PyObject *
  check_hresult(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      HRESULT hr;
      if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "i", &hr))
          return NULL;
      if (FAILED(hr))
          return PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(hr);
      return PyLong_FromLong(hr);
  }
  
  #endif
  
  /**************************************************************/
  
  PyCArgObject *
  PyCArgObject_new(void)
  {
      PyCArgObject *p;
      p = PyObject_New(PyCArgObject, &PyCArg_Type);
      if (p == NULL)
          return NULL;
      p->pffi_type = NULL;
      p->tag = '\0';
      p->obj = NULL;
      memset(&p->value, 0, sizeof(p->value));
      return p;
  }
  
  static void
  PyCArg_dealloc(PyCArgObject *self)
  {
      Py_XDECREF(self->obj);
      PyObject_Del(self);
  }
  
  static int
  is_literal_char(unsigned char c)
  {
      return c < 128 && _PyUnicode_IsPrintable(c) && c != '\\' && c != '\'';
  }
  
  static PyObject *
  PyCArg_repr(PyCArgObject *self)
  {
      char buffer[256];
      switch(self->tag) {
      case 'b':
      case 'B':
          sprintf(buffer, "<cparam '%c' (%d)>",
              self->tag, self->value.b);
          break;
      case 'h':
      case 'H':
          sprintf(buffer, "<cparam '%c' (%d)>",
              self->tag, self->value.h);
          break;
      case 'i':
      case 'I':
          sprintf(buffer, "<cparam '%c' (%d)>",
              self->tag, self->value.i);
          break;
      case 'l':
      case 'L':
          sprintf(buffer, "<cparam '%c' (%ld)>",
              self->tag, self->value.l);
          break;
  
      case 'q':
      case 'Q':
          sprintf(buffer,
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
              "<cparam '%c' (%I64d)>",
  #else
              "<cparam '%c' (%lld)>",
  #endif
              self->tag, self->value.q);
          break;
      case 'd':
          sprintf(buffer, "<cparam '%c' (%f)>",
              self->tag, self->value.d);
          break;
      case 'f':
          sprintf(buffer, "<cparam '%c' (%f)>",
              self->tag, self->value.f);
          break;
  
      case 'c':
          if (is_literal_char((unsigned char)self->value.c)) {
              sprintf(buffer, "<cparam '%c' ('%c')>",
                  self->tag, self->value.c);
          }
          else {
              sprintf(buffer, "<cparam '%c' ('\\x%02x')>",
                  self->tag, (unsigned char)self->value.c);
          }
          break;
  
  /* Hm, are these 'z' and 'Z' codes useful at all?
     Shouldn't they be replaced by the functionality of c_string
     and c_wstring ?
  */
      case 'z':
      case 'Z':
      case 'P':
          sprintf(buffer, "<cparam '%c' (%p)>",
              self->tag, self->value.p);
          break;
  
      default:
          if (is_literal_char((unsigned char)self->tag)) {
              sprintf(buffer, "<cparam '%c' at %p>",
                  (unsigned char)self->tag, self);
          }
          else {
              sprintf(buffer, "<cparam 0x%02x at %p>",
                  (unsigned char)self->tag, self);
          }
          break;
      }
      return PyUnicode_FromString(buffer);
  }
  
  static PyMemberDef PyCArgType_members[] = {
      { "_obj", T_OBJECT,
        offsetof(PyCArgObject, obj), READONLY,
        "the wrapped object" },
      { NULL },
  };
  
  PyTypeObject PyCArg_Type = {
      PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
      "CArgObject",
      sizeof(PyCArgObject),
      0,
      (destructor)PyCArg_dealloc,                 /* tp_dealloc */
      0,                                          /* tp_print */
      0,                                          /* tp_getattr */
      0,                                          /* tp_setattr */
      0,                                          /* tp_reserved */
      (reprfunc)PyCArg_repr,                      /* tp_repr */
      0,                                          /* tp_as_number */
      0,                                          /* tp_as_sequence */
      0,                                          /* tp_as_mapping */
      0,                                          /* tp_hash */
      0,                                          /* tp_call */
      0,                                          /* tp_str */
      0,                                          /* tp_getattro */
      0,                                          /* tp_setattro */
      0,                                          /* tp_as_buffer */
      Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,                         /* tp_flags */
      0,                                          /* tp_doc */
      0,                                          /* tp_traverse */
      0,                                          /* tp_clear */
      0,                                          /* tp_richcompare */
      0,                                          /* tp_weaklistoffset */
      0,                                          /* tp_iter */
      0,                                          /* tp_iternext */
      0,                                          /* tp_methods */
      PyCArgType_members,                         /* tp_members */
  };
  
  /****************************************************************/
  /*
   * Convert a PyObject * into a parameter suitable to pass to an
   * C function call.
   *
   * 1. Python integers are converted to C int and passed by value.
   *    Py_None is converted to a C NULL pointer.
   *
   * 2. 3-tuples are expected to have a format character in the first
   *    item, which must be 'i', 'f', 'd', 'q', or 'P'.
   *    The second item will have to be an integer, float, double, long long
   *    or integer (denoting an address void *), will be converted to the
   *    corresponding C data type and passed by value.
   *
   * 3. Other Python objects are tested for an '_as_parameter_' attribute.
   *    The value of this attribute must be an integer which will be passed
   *    by value, or a 2-tuple or 3-tuple which will be used according
   *    to point 2 above. The third item (if any), is ignored. It is normally
   *    used to keep the object alive where this parameter refers to.
   *    XXX This convention is dangerous - you can construct arbitrary tuples
   *    in Python and pass them. Would it be safer to use a custom container
   *    datatype instead of a tuple?
   *
   * 4. Other Python objects cannot be passed as parameters - an exception is raised.
   *
   * 5. ConvParam will store the converted result in a struct containing format
   *    and value.
   */
  
  union result {
      char c;
      char b;
      short h;
      int i;
      long l;
      long long q;
      long double D;
      double d;
      float f;
      void *p;
  };
  
  struct argument {
      ffi_type *ffi_type;
      PyObject *keep;
      union result value;
  };
  
  /*
   * Convert a single Python object into a PyCArgObject and return it.
   */
  static int ConvParam(PyObject *obj, Py_ssize_t index, struct argument *pa)
  {
      StgDictObject *dict;
      pa->keep = NULL; /* so we cannot forget it later */
  
      dict = PyObject_stgdict(obj);
      if (dict) {
          PyCArgObject *carg;
          assert(dict->paramfunc);
          /* If it has an stgdict, it is a CDataObject */
          carg = dict->paramfunc((CDataObject *)obj);
          if (carg == NULL)
              return -1;
          pa->ffi_type = carg->pffi_type;
          memcpy(&pa->value, &carg->value, sizeof(pa->value));
          pa->keep = (PyObject *)carg;
          return 0;
      }
  
      if (PyCArg_CheckExact(obj)) {
          PyCArgObject *carg = (PyCArgObject *)obj;
          pa->ffi_type = carg->pffi_type;
          Py_INCREF(obj);
          pa->keep = obj;
          memcpy(&pa->value, &carg->value, sizeof(pa->value));
          return 0;
      }
  
      /* check for None, integer, string or unicode and use directly if successful */
      if (obj == Py_None) {
          pa->ffi_type = &ffi_type_pointer;
          pa->value.p = NULL;
          return 0;
      }
  
      if (PyLong_Check(obj)) {
          pa->ffi_type = &ffi_type_sint;
          pa->value.i = (long)PyLong_AsUnsignedLong(obj);
          if (pa->value.i == -1 && PyErr_Occurred()) {
              PyErr_Clear();
              pa->value.i = PyLong_AsLong(obj);
              if (pa->value.i == -1 && PyErr_Occurred()) {
                  PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OverflowError,
                                  "int too long to convert");
                  return -1;
              }
          }
          return 0;
      }
  
      if (PyBytes_Check(obj)) {
          pa->ffi_type = &ffi_type_pointer;
          pa->value.p = PyBytes_AsString(obj);
          Py_INCREF(obj);
          pa->keep = obj;
          return 0;
      }
  
  #ifdef CTYPES_UNICODE
      if (PyUnicode_Check(obj)) {
          pa->ffi_type = &ffi_type_pointer;
          pa->value.p = _PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(obj);
          if (pa->value.p == NULL)
              return -1;
          pa->keep = PyCapsule_New(pa->value.p, CTYPES_CAPSULE_NAME_PYMEM, pymem_destructor);
          if (!pa->keep) {
              PyMem_Free(pa->value.p);
              return -1;
          }
          return 0;
      }
  #endif
  
      {
          PyObject *arg;
          arg = PyObject_GetAttrString(obj, "_as_parameter_");
          /* Which types should we exactly allow here?
             integers are required for using Python classes
             as parameters (they have to expose the '_as_parameter_'
             attribute)
          */
          if (arg) {
              int result;
              result = ConvParam(arg, index, pa);
              Py_DECREF(arg);
              return result;
          }
          PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                       "Don't know how to convert parameter %d",
                       Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST(index, Py_ssize_t, int));
          return -1;
      }
  }
  
  
  ffi_type *_ctypes_get_ffi_type(PyObject *obj)
  {
      StgDictObject *dict;
      if (obj == NULL)
          return &ffi_type_sint;
      dict = PyType_stgdict(obj);
      if (dict == NULL)
          return &ffi_type_sint;
  #if defined(MS_WIN32) && !defined(_WIN32_WCE)
      /* This little trick works correctly with MSVC.
         It returns small structures in registers
      */
      if (dict->ffi_type_pointer.type == FFI_TYPE_STRUCT) {
          if (can_return_struct_as_int(dict->ffi_type_pointer.size))
              return &ffi_type_sint32;
          else if (can_return_struct_as_sint64 (dict->ffi_type_pointer.size))
              return &ffi_type_sint64;
      }
  #endif
      return &dict->ffi_type_pointer;
  }
  
  
  /*
   * libffi uses:
   *
   * ffi_status ffi_prep_cif(ffi_cif *cif, ffi_abi abi,
   *                         unsigned int nargs,
   *                         ffi_type *rtype,
   *                         ffi_type **atypes);
   *
   * and then
   *
   * void ffi_call(ffi_cif *cif, void *fn, void *rvalue, void **avalues);
   */
  static int _call_function_pointer(int flags,
                                    PPROC pProc,
                                    void **avalues,
                                    ffi_type **atypes,
                                    ffi_type *restype,
                                    void *resmem,
                                    int argcount)
  {
  #ifdef WITH_THREAD
      PyThreadState *_save = NULL; /* For Py_BLOCK_THREADS and Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS */
  #endif
      PyObject *error_object = NULL;
      int *space;
      ffi_cif cif;
      int cc;
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
      int delta;
  #ifndef DONT_USE_SEH
      DWORD dwExceptionCode = 0;
      EXCEPTION_RECORD record;
  #endif
  #endif
      /* XXX check before here */
      if (restype == NULL) {
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_RuntimeError,
                          "No ffi_type for result");
          return -1;
      }
  
      cc = FFI_DEFAULT_ABI;
  #if defined(MS_WIN32) && !defined(MS_WIN64) && !defined(_WIN32_WCE)
      if ((flags & FUNCFLAG_CDECL) == 0)
          cc = FFI_STDCALL;
  #endif
      if (FFI_OK != ffi_prep_cif(&cif,
                                 cc,
                                 argcount,
                                 restype,
                                 atypes)) {
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_RuntimeError,
                          "ffi_prep_cif failed");
          return -1;
      }
  
      if (flags & (FUNCFLAG_USE_ERRNO | FUNCFLAG_USE_LASTERROR)) {
          error_object = _ctypes_get_errobj(&space);
          if (error_object == NULL)
              return -1;
      }
  #ifdef WITH_THREAD
      if ((flags & FUNCFLAG_PYTHONAPI) == 0)
          Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS
  #endif
      if (flags & FUNCFLAG_USE_ERRNO) {
          int temp = space[0];
          space[0] = errno;
          errno = temp;
      }
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
      if (flags & FUNCFLAG_USE_LASTERROR) {
          int temp = space[1];
          space[1] = GetLastError();
          SetLastError(temp);
      }
  #ifndef DONT_USE_SEH
      __try {
  #endif
          delta =
  #endif
                  ffi_call(&cif, (void *)pProc, resmem, avalues);
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
  #ifndef DONT_USE_SEH
      }
      __except (HandleException(GetExceptionInformation(),
                                &dwExceptionCode, &record)) {
          ;
      }
  #endif
      if (flags & FUNCFLAG_USE_LASTERROR) {
          int temp = space[1];
          space[1] = GetLastError();
          SetLastError(temp);
      }
  #endif
      if (flags & FUNCFLAG_USE_ERRNO) {
          int temp = space[0];
          space[0] = errno;
          errno = temp;
      }
  #ifdef WITH_THREAD
      if ((flags & FUNCFLAG_PYTHONAPI) == 0)
          Py_BLOCK_THREADS
  #endif
      Py_XDECREF(error_object);
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
  #ifndef DONT_USE_SEH
      if (dwExceptionCode) {
          SetException(dwExceptionCode, &record);
          return -1;
      }
  #endif
  #ifdef MS_WIN64
      if (delta != 0) {
          PyErr_Format(PyExc_RuntimeError,
                   "ffi_call failed with code %d",
                   delta);
          return -1;
      }
  #else
      if (delta < 0) {
          if (flags & FUNCFLAG_CDECL)
              PyErr_Format(PyExc_ValueError,
                       "Procedure called with not enough "
                       "arguments (%d bytes missing) "
                       "or wrong calling convention",
                       -delta);
          else
              PyErr_Format(PyExc_ValueError,
                       "Procedure probably called with not enough "
                       "arguments (%d bytes missing)",
                       -delta);
          return -1;
      } else if (delta > 0) {
          PyErr_Format(PyExc_ValueError,
                   "Procedure probably called with too many "
                   "arguments (%d bytes in excess)",
                   delta);
          return -1;
      }
  #endif
  #endif
      if ((flags & FUNCFLAG_PYTHONAPI) && PyErr_Occurred())
          return -1;
      return 0;
  }
  
  /*
   * Convert the C value in result into a Python object, depending on restype.
   *
   * - If restype is NULL, return a Python integer.
   * - If restype is None, return None.
   * - If restype is a simple ctypes type (c_int, c_void_p), call the type's getfunc,
   *   pass the result to checker and return the result.
   * - If restype is another ctypes type, return an instance of that.
   * - Otherwise, call restype and return the result.
   */
  static PyObject *GetResult(PyObject *restype, void *result, PyObject *checker)
  {
      StgDictObject *dict;
      PyObject *retval, *v;
  
      if (restype == NULL)
          return PyLong_FromLong(*(int *)result);
  
      if (restype == Py_None) {
          Py_INCREF(Py_None);
          return Py_None;
      }
  
      dict = PyType_stgdict(restype);
      if (dict == NULL)
          return PyObject_CallFunction(restype, "i", *(int *)result);
  
      if (dict->getfunc && !_ctypes_simple_instance(restype)) {
          retval = dict->getfunc(result, dict->size);
          /* If restype is py_object (detected by comparing getfunc with
             O_get), we have to call Py_DECREF because O_get has already
             called Py_INCREF.
          */
          if (dict->getfunc == _ctypes_get_fielddesc("O")->getfunc) {
              Py_DECREF(retval);
          }
      } else
          retval = PyCData_FromBaseObj(restype, NULL, 0, result);
  
      if (!checker || !retval)
          return retval;
  
      v = PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(checker, retval, NULL);
      if (v == NULL)
          _PyTraceback_Add("GetResult", "_ctypes/callproc.c", __LINE__-2);
      Py_DECREF(retval);
      return v;
  }
  
  /*
   * Raise a new exception 'exc_class', adding additional text to the original
   * exception string.
   */
  void _ctypes_extend_error(PyObject *exc_class, const char *fmt, ...)
  {
      va_list vargs;
      PyObject *tp, *v, *tb, *s, *cls_str, *msg_str;
  
      va_start(vargs, fmt);
      s = PyUnicode_FromFormatV(fmt, vargs);
      va_end(vargs);
      if (!s)
          return;
  
      PyErr_Fetch(&tp, &v, &tb);
      PyErr_NormalizeException(&tp, &v, &tb);
      cls_str = PyObject_Str(tp);
      if (cls_str) {
          PyUnicode_AppendAndDel(&s, cls_str);
          PyUnicode_AppendAndDel(&s, PyUnicode_FromString(": "));
          if (s == NULL)
              goto error;
      } else
          PyErr_Clear();
      msg_str = PyObject_Str(v);
      if (msg_str)
          PyUnicode_AppendAndDel(&s, msg_str);
      else {
          PyErr_Clear();
          PyUnicode_AppendAndDel(&s, PyUnicode_FromString("???"));
      }
      if (s == NULL)
          goto error;
      PyErr_SetObject(exc_class, s);
  error:
      Py_XDECREF(tp);
      Py_XDECREF(v);
      Py_XDECREF(tb);
      Py_XDECREF(s);
  }
  
  
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
  
  static PyObject *
  GetComError(HRESULT errcode, GUID *riid, IUnknown *pIunk)
  {
      HRESULT hr;
      ISupportErrorInfo *psei = NULL;
      IErrorInfo *pei = NULL;
      BSTR descr=NULL, helpfile=NULL, source=NULL;
      GUID guid;
      DWORD helpcontext=0;
      LPOLESTR progid;
      PyObject *obj;
      LPOLESTR text;
  
      /* We absolutely have to release the GIL during COM method calls,
         otherwise we may get a deadlock!
      */
  #ifdef WITH_THREAD
      Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
  #endif
  
      hr = pIunk->lpVtbl->QueryInterface(pIunk, &IID_ISupportErrorInfo, (void **)&psei);
      if (FAILED(hr))
          goto failed;
  
      hr = psei->lpVtbl->InterfaceSupportsErrorInfo(psei, riid);
      psei->lpVtbl->Release(psei);
      if (FAILED(hr))
          goto failed;
  
      hr = GetErrorInfo(0, &pei);
      if (hr != S_OK)
          goto failed;
  
      pei->lpVtbl->GetDescription(pei, &descr);
      pei->lpVtbl->GetGUID(pei, &guid);
      pei->lpVtbl->GetHelpContext(pei, &helpcontext);
      pei->lpVtbl->GetHelpFile(pei, &helpfile);
      pei->lpVtbl->GetSource(pei, &source);
  
      pei->lpVtbl->Release(pei);
  
    failed:
  #ifdef WITH_THREAD
      Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
  #endif
  
      progid = NULL;
      ProgIDFromCLSID(&guid, &progid);
  
      text = FormatError(errcode);
      obj = Py_BuildValue(
          "iu(uuuiu)",
          errcode,
          text,
          descr, source, helpfile, helpcontext,
          progid);
      if (obj) {
          PyErr_SetObject(ComError, obj);
          Py_DECREF(obj);
      }
      LocalFree(text);
  
      if (descr)
          SysFreeString(descr);
      if (helpfile)
          SysFreeString(helpfile);
      if (source)
          SysFreeString(source);
  
      return NULL;
  }
  #endif
  
  #if (defined(__x86_64__) && (defined(__MINGW64__) || defined(__CYGWIN__))) || \
      defined(__aarch64__)
  #define CTYPES_PASS_BY_REF_HACK
  #define POW2(x) (((x & ~(x - 1)) == x) ? x : 0)
  #define IS_PASS_BY_REF(x) (x > 8 || !POW2(x))
  #endif
  
  /*
   * Requirements, must be ensured by the caller:
   * - argtuple is tuple of arguments
   * - argtypes is either NULL, or a tuple of the same size as argtuple
   *
   * - XXX various requirements for restype, not yet collected
   */
  PyObject *_ctypes_callproc(PPROC pProc,
                      PyObject *argtuple,
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
                      IUnknown *pIunk,
                      GUID *iid,
  #endif
                      int flags,
                      PyObject *argtypes, /* misleading name: This is a tuple of
                                             methods, not types: the .from_param
                                             class methods of the types */
              PyObject *restype,
              PyObject *checker)
  {
      Py_ssize_t i, n, argcount, argtype_count;
      void *resbuf;
      struct argument *args, *pa;
      ffi_type **atypes;
      ffi_type *rtype;
      void **avalues;
      PyObject *retval = NULL;
  
      n = argcount = PyTuple_GET_SIZE(argtuple);
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
      /* an optional COM object this pointer */
      if (pIunk)
          ++argcount;
  #endif
  
      args = (struct argument *)alloca(sizeof(struct argument) * argcount);
      if (!args) {
          PyErr_NoMemory();
          return NULL;
      }
      memset(args, 0, sizeof(struct argument) * argcount);
      argtype_count = argtypes ? PyTuple_GET_SIZE(argtypes) : 0;
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
      if (pIunk) {
          args[0].ffi_type = &ffi_type_pointer;
          args[0].value.p = pIunk;
          pa = &args[1];
      } else
  #endif
          pa = &args[0];
  
      /* Convert the arguments */
      for (i = 0; i < n; ++i, ++pa) {
          PyObject *converter;
          PyObject *arg;
          int err;
  
          arg = PyTuple_GET_ITEM(argtuple, i);            /* borrowed ref */
          /* For cdecl functions, we allow more actual arguments
             than the length of the argtypes tuple.
             This is checked in _ctypes::PyCFuncPtr_Call
          */
          if (argtypes && argtype_count > i) {
              PyObject *v;
              converter = PyTuple_GET_ITEM(argtypes, i);
              v = PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(converter, arg, NULL);
              if (v == NULL) {
                  _ctypes_extend_error(PyExc_ArgError, "argument %d: ", i+1);
                  goto cleanup;
              }
  
              err = ConvParam(v, i+1, pa);
              Py_DECREF(v);
              if (-1 == err) {
                  _ctypes_extend_error(PyExc_ArgError, "argument %d: ", i+1);
                  goto cleanup;
              }
          } else {
              err = ConvParam(arg, i+1, pa);
              if (-1 == err) {
                  _ctypes_extend_error(PyExc_ArgError, "argument %d: ", i+1);
                  goto cleanup; /* leaking ? */
              }
          }
      }
  
      rtype = _ctypes_get_ffi_type(restype);
      resbuf = alloca(max(rtype->size, sizeof(ffi_arg)));
  
  #ifdef _Py_MEMORY_SANITIZER
      /* ffi_call actually initializes resbuf, but from asm, which
       * MemorySanitizer can't detect. Avoid false positives from MSan. */
      if (resbuf != NULL) {
          __msan_unpoison(resbuf, max(rtype->size, sizeof(ffi_arg)));
      }
  #endif
      avalues = (void **)alloca(sizeof(void *) * argcount);
      atypes = (ffi_type **)alloca(sizeof(ffi_type *) * argcount);
      if (!resbuf || !avalues || !atypes) {
          PyErr_NoMemory();
          goto cleanup;
      }
      for (i = 0; i < argcount; ++i) {
          atypes[i] = args[i].ffi_type;
  #ifdef CTYPES_PASS_BY_REF_HACK
          size_t size = atypes[i]->size;
          if (IS_PASS_BY_REF(size)) {
              void *tmp = alloca(size);
              if (atypes[i]->type == FFI_TYPE_STRUCT)
                  memcpy(tmp, args[i].value.p, size);
              else
                  memcpy(tmp, (void*)&args[i].value, size);
  
              avalues[i] = tmp;
          }
          else
  #endif
          if (atypes[i]->type == FFI_TYPE_STRUCT)
              avalues[i] = (void *)args[i].value.p;
          else
              avalues[i] = (void *)&args[i].value;
      }
  
      if (-1 == _call_function_pointer(flags, pProc, avalues, atypes,
                                       rtype, resbuf,
                                       Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST(argcount,
                                                        Py_ssize_t,
                                                        int)))
          goto cleanup;
  
  #ifdef WORDS_BIGENDIAN
      /* libffi returns the result in a buffer with sizeof(ffi_arg). This
         causes problems on big endian machines, since the result buffer
         address cannot simply be used as result pointer, instead we must
         adjust the pointer value:
       */
      /*
        XXX I should find out and clarify why this is needed at all,
        especially why adjusting for ffi_type_float must be avoided on
        64-bit platforms.
       */
      if (rtype->type != FFI_TYPE_FLOAT
          && rtype->type != FFI_TYPE_STRUCT
          && rtype->size < sizeof(ffi_arg))
          resbuf = (char *)resbuf + sizeof(ffi_arg) - rtype->size;
  #endif
  
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
      if (iid && pIunk) {
          if (*(int *)resbuf & 0x80000000)
              retval = GetComError(*(HRESULT *)resbuf, iid, pIunk);
          else
              retval = PyLong_FromLong(*(int *)resbuf);
      } else if (flags & FUNCFLAG_HRESULT) {
          if (*(int *)resbuf & 0x80000000)
              retval = PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(*(int *)resbuf);
          else
              retval = PyLong_FromLong(*(int *)resbuf);
      } else
  #endif
          retval = GetResult(restype, resbuf, checker);
    cleanup:
      for (i = 0; i < argcount; ++i)
          Py_XDECREF(args[i].keep);
      return retval;
  }
  
  static int
  _parse_voidp(PyObject *obj, void **address)
  {
      *address = PyLong_AsVoidPtr(obj);
      if (*address == NULL)
          return 0;
      return 1;
  }
  
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
  
  static const char format_error_doc[] =
  "FormatError([integer]) -> string\n\
  \n\
  Convert a win32 error code into a string. If the error code is not\n\
  given, the return value of a call to GetLastError() is used.\n";
  static PyObject *format_error(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      PyObject *result;
      wchar_t *lpMsgBuf;
      DWORD code = 0;
      if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "|i:FormatError", &code))
          return NULL;
      if (code == 0)
          code = GetLastError();
      lpMsgBuf = FormatError(code);
      if (lpMsgBuf) {
          result = PyUnicode_FromWideChar(lpMsgBuf, wcslen(lpMsgBuf));
          LocalFree(lpMsgBuf);
      } else {
          result = PyUnicode_FromString("<no description>");
      }
      return result;
  }
  
  static const char load_library_doc[] =
  "LoadLibrary(name) -> handle\n\
  \n\
  Load an executable (usually a DLL), and return a handle to it.\n\
  The handle may be used to locate exported functions in this\n\
  module.\n";
  static PyObject *load_library(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      const WCHAR *name;
      PyObject *nameobj;
      PyObject *ignored;
      HMODULE hMod;
  
      if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "U|O:LoadLibrary", &nameobj, &ignored))
          return NULL;
  
      name = _PyUnicode_AsUnicode(nameobj);
      if (!name)
          return NULL;
  
      hMod = LoadLibraryW(name);
      if (!hMod)
          return PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(GetLastError());
  #ifdef _WIN64
      return PyLong_FromVoidPtr(hMod);
  #else
      return Py_BuildValue("i", hMod);
  #endif
  }
  
  static const char free_library_doc[] =
  "FreeLibrary(handle) -> void\n\
  \n\
  Free the handle of an executable previously loaded by LoadLibrary.\n";
  static PyObject *free_library(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      void *hMod;
      if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O&:FreeLibrary", &_parse_voidp, &hMod))
          return NULL;
      if (!FreeLibrary((HMODULE)hMod))
          return PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(GetLastError());
      Py_INCREF(Py_None);
      return Py_None;
  }
  
  static const char copy_com_pointer_doc[] =
  "CopyComPointer(src, dst) -> HRESULT value\n";
  
  static PyObject *
  copy_com_pointer(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      PyObject *p1, *p2, *r = NULL;
      struct argument a, b;
      IUnknown *src, **pdst;
      if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "OO:CopyComPointer", &p1, &p2))
          return NULL;
      a.keep = b.keep = NULL;
  
      if (-1 == ConvParam(p1, 0, &a) || -1 == ConvParam(p2, 1, &b))
          goto done;
      src = (IUnknown *)a.value.p;
      pdst = (IUnknown **)b.value.p;
  
      if (pdst == NULL)
          r = PyLong_FromLong(E_POINTER);
      else {
          if (src)
              src->lpVtbl->AddRef(src);
          *pdst = src;
          r = PyLong_FromLong(S_OK);
      }
    done:
      Py_XDECREF(a.keep);
      Py_XDECREF(b.keep);
      return r;
  }
  #else
  
  static PyObject *py_dl_open(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      PyObject *name, *name2;
      char *name_str;
      void * handle;
  #if HAVE_DECL_RTLD_LOCAL
      int mode = RTLD_NOW | RTLD_LOCAL;
  #else
      /* cygwin doesn't define RTLD_LOCAL */
      int mode = RTLD_NOW;
  #endif
      if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O|i:dlopen", &name, &mode))
          return NULL;
      mode |= RTLD_NOW;
      if (name != Py_None) {
          if (PyUnicode_FSConverter(name, &name2) == 0)
              return NULL;
          if (PyBytes_Check(name2))
              name_str = PyBytes_AS_STRING(name2);
          else
              name_str = PyByteArray_AS_STRING(name2);
      } else {
          name_str = NULL;
          name2 = NULL;
      }
      handle = ctypes_dlopen(name_str, mode);
      Py_XDECREF(name2);
      if (!handle) {
          char *errmsg = ctypes_dlerror();
          if (!errmsg)
              errmsg = "dlopen() error";
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                                 errmsg);
          return NULL;
      }
      return PyLong_FromVoidPtr(handle);
  }
  
  static PyObject *py_dl_close(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      void *handle;
  
      if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O&:dlclose", &_parse_voidp, &handle))
          return NULL;
      if (dlclose(handle)) {
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                                 ctypes_dlerror());
          return NULL;
      }
      Py_INCREF(Py_None);
      return Py_None;
  }
  
  static PyObject *py_dl_sym(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      char *name;
      void *handle;
      void *ptr;
  
      if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O&s:dlsym",
                            &_parse_voidp, &handle, &name))
          return NULL;
      ptr = ctypes_dlsym((void*)handle, name);
      if (!ptr) {
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_OSError,
                                 ctypes_dlerror());
          return NULL;
      }
      return PyLong_FromVoidPtr(ptr);
  }
  #endif
  
  /*
   * Only for debugging so far: So that we can call CFunction instances
   *
   * XXX Needs to accept more arguments: flags, argtypes, restype
   */
  static PyObject *
  call_function(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      void *func;
      PyObject *arguments;
      PyObject *result;
  
      if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args,
                            "O&O!",
                            &_parse_voidp, &func,
                            &PyTuple_Type, &arguments))
          return NULL;
  
      result =  _ctypes_callproc((PPROC)func,
                          arguments,
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
                          NULL,
                          NULL,
  #endif
                          0, /* flags */
                  NULL, /* self->argtypes */
                  NULL, /* self->restype */
                  NULL); /* checker */
      return result;
  }
  
  /*
   * Only for debugging so far: So that we can call CFunction instances
   *
   * XXX Needs to accept more arguments: flags, argtypes, restype
   */
  static PyObject *
  call_cdeclfunction(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      void *func;
      PyObject *arguments;
      PyObject *result;
  
      if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args,
                            "O&O!",
                            &_parse_voidp, &func,
                            &PyTuple_Type, &arguments))
          return NULL;
  
      result =  _ctypes_callproc((PPROC)func,
                          arguments,
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
                          NULL,
                          NULL,
  #endif
                          FUNCFLAG_CDECL, /* flags */
                          NULL, /* self->argtypes */
                          NULL, /* self->restype */
                          NULL); /* checker */
      return result;
  }
  
  /*****************************************************************
   * functions
   */
  static const char sizeof_doc[] =
  "sizeof(C type) -> integer\n"
  "sizeof(C instance) -> integer\n"
  "Return the size in bytes of a C instance";
  
  static PyObject *
  sizeof_func(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj)
  {
      StgDictObject *dict;
  
      dict = PyType_stgdict(obj);
      if (dict)
          return PyLong_FromSsize_t(dict->size);
  
      if (CDataObject_Check(obj))
          return PyLong_FromSsize_t(((CDataObject *)obj)->b_size);
      PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                      "this type has no size");
      return NULL;
  }
  
  static const char alignment_doc[] =
  "alignment(C type) -> integer\n"
  "alignment(C instance) -> integer\n"
  "Return the alignment requirements of a C instance";
  
  static PyObject *
  align_func(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj)
  {
      StgDictObject *dict;
  
      dict = PyType_stgdict(obj);
      if (dict)
          return PyLong_FromSsize_t(dict->align);
  
      dict = PyObject_stgdict(obj);
      if (dict)
          return PyLong_FromSsize_t(dict->align);
  
      PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                      "no alignment info");
      return NULL;
  }
  
  static const char byref_doc[] =
  "byref(C instance[, offset=0]) -> byref-object\n"
  "Return a pointer lookalike to a C instance, only usable\n"
  "as function argument";
  
  /*
   * We must return something which can be converted to a parameter,
   * but still has a reference to self.
   */
  static PyObject *
  byref(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      PyCArgObject *parg;
      PyObject *obj;
      PyObject *pyoffset = NULL;
      Py_ssize_t offset = 0;
  
      if (!PyArg_UnpackTuple(args, "byref", 1, 2,
                             &obj, &pyoffset))
          return NULL;
      if (pyoffset) {
          offset = PyNumber_AsSsize_t(pyoffset, NULL);
          if (offset == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
              return NULL;
      }
      if (!CDataObject_Check(obj)) {
          PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError,
                       "byref() argument must be a ctypes instance, not '%s'",
                       Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_name);
          return NULL;
      }
  
      parg = PyCArgObject_new();
      if (parg == NULL)
          return NULL;
  
      parg->tag = 'P';
      parg->pffi_type = &ffi_type_pointer;
      Py_INCREF(obj);
      parg->obj = obj;
      parg->value.p = (char *)((CDataObject *)obj)->b_ptr + offset;
      return (PyObject *)parg;
  }
  
  static const char addressof_doc[] =
  "addressof(C instance) -> integer\n"
  "Return the address of the C instance internal buffer";
  
  static PyObject *
  addressof(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj)
  {
      if (CDataObject_Check(obj))
          return PyLong_FromVoidPtr(((CDataObject *)obj)->b_ptr);
      PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                      "invalid type");
      return NULL;
  }
  
  static int
  converter(PyObject *obj, void **address)
  {
      *address = PyLong_AsVoidPtr(obj);
      return *address != NULL;
  }
  
  static PyObject *
  My_PyObj_FromPtr(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      PyObject *ob;
      if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O&:PyObj_FromPtr", converter, &ob))
          return NULL;
      Py_INCREF(ob);
      return ob;
  }
  
  static PyObject *
  My_Py_INCREF(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg)
  {
      Py_INCREF(arg); /* that's what this function is for */
      Py_INCREF(arg); /* that for returning it */
      return arg;
  }
  
  static PyObject *
  My_Py_DECREF(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg)
  {
      Py_DECREF(arg); /* that's what this function is for */
      Py_INCREF(arg); /* that's for returning it */
      return arg;
  }
  
  static PyObject *
  resize(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      CDataObject *obj;
      StgDictObject *dict;
      Py_ssize_t size;
  
      if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args,
                            "On:resize",
                            &obj, &size))
          return NULL;
  
      dict = PyObject_stgdict((PyObject *)obj);
      if (dict == NULL) {
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                          "excepted ctypes instance");
          return NULL;
      }
      if (size < dict->size) {
          PyErr_Format(PyExc_ValueError,
                       "minimum size is %zd",
                       dict->size);
          return NULL;
      }
      if (obj->b_needsfree == 0) {
          PyErr_Format(PyExc_ValueError,
                       "Memory cannot be resized because this object doesn't own it");
          return NULL;
      }
      if ((size_t)size <= sizeof(obj->b_value)) {
          /* internal default buffer is large enough */
          obj->b_size = size;
          goto done;
      }
      if (!_CDataObject_HasExternalBuffer(obj)) {
          /* We are currently using the objects default buffer, but it
             isn't large enough any more. */
          void *ptr = PyMem_Malloc(size);
          if (ptr == NULL)
              return PyErr_NoMemory();
          memset(ptr, 0, size);
          memmove(ptr, obj->b_ptr, obj->b_size);
          obj->b_ptr = ptr;
          obj->b_size = size;
      } else {
          void * ptr = PyMem_Realloc(obj->b_ptr, size);
          if (ptr == NULL)
              return PyErr_NoMemory();
          obj->b_ptr = ptr;
          obj->b_size = size;
      }
    done:
      Py_INCREF(Py_None);
      return Py_None;
  }
  
  static PyObject *
  unpickle(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
  {
      PyObject *typ;
      PyObject *state;
      PyObject *result;
      PyObject *tmp;
      _Py_IDENTIFIER(__new__);
      _Py_IDENTIFIER(__setstate__);
  
      if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "OO", &typ, &state))
          return NULL;
      result = _PyObject_CallMethodId(typ, &PyId___new__, "O", typ);
      if (result == NULL)
          return NULL;
      tmp = _PyObject_CallMethodId(result, &PyId___setstate__, "O", state);
      if (tmp == NULL) {
          Py_DECREF(result);
          return NULL;
      }
      Py_DECREF(tmp);
      return result;
  }
  
  static PyObject *
  POINTER(PyObject *self, PyObject *cls)
  {
      PyObject *result;
      PyTypeObject *typ;
      PyObject *key;
      char *buf;
  
      result = PyDict_GetItem(_ctypes_ptrtype_cache, cls);
      if (result) {
          Py_INCREF(result);
          return result;
      }
      if (PyUnicode_CheckExact(cls)) {
          const char *name = PyUnicode_AsUTF8(cls);
          if (name == NULL)
              return NULL;
          buf = PyMem_Malloc(strlen(name) + 3 + 1);
          if (buf == NULL)
              return PyErr_NoMemory();
          sprintf(buf, "LP_%s", name);
          result = PyObject_CallFunction((PyObject *)Py_TYPE(&PyCPointer_Type),
                                         "s(O){}",
                                         buf,
                                         &PyCPointer_Type);
          PyMem_Free(buf);
          if (result == NULL)
              return result;
          key = PyLong_FromVoidPtr(result);
          if (key == NULL) {
              Py_DECREF(result);
              return NULL;
          }
      } else if (PyType_Check(cls)) {
          typ = (PyTypeObject *)cls;
          buf = PyMem_Malloc(strlen(typ->tp_name) + 3 + 1);
          if (buf == NULL)
              return PyErr_NoMemory();
          sprintf(buf, "LP_%s", typ->tp_name);
          result = PyObject_CallFunction((PyObject *)Py_TYPE(&PyCPointer_Type),
                                         "s(O){sO}",
                                         buf,
                                         &PyCPointer_Type,
                                         "_type_", cls);
          PyMem_Free(buf);
          if (result == NULL)
              return result;
          Py_INCREF(cls);
          key = cls;
      } else {
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "must be a ctypes type");
          return NULL;
      }
      if (-1 == PyDict_SetItem(_ctypes_ptrtype_cache, key, result)) {
          Py_DECREF(result);
          Py_DECREF(key);
          return NULL;
      }
      Py_DECREF(key);
      return result;
  }
  
  static PyObject *
  pointer(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg)
  {
      PyObject *result;
      PyObject *typ;
  
      typ = PyDict_GetItem(_ctypes_ptrtype_cache, (PyObject *)Py_TYPE(arg));
      if (typ)
          return PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(typ, arg, NULL);
      typ = POINTER(NULL, (PyObject *)Py_TYPE(arg));
      if (typ == NULL)
                      return NULL;
      result = PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(typ, arg, NULL);
      Py_DECREF(typ);
      return result;
  }
  
  static PyObject *
  buffer_info(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg)
  {
      StgDictObject *dict = PyType_stgdict(arg);
      PyObject *shape;
      Py_ssize_t i;
  
      if (dict == NULL)
          dict = PyObject_stgdict(arg);
      if (dict == NULL) {
          PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                          "not a ctypes type or object");
          return NULL;
      }
      shape = PyTuple_New(dict->ndim);
      if (shape == NULL)
          return NULL;
      for (i = 0; i < (int)dict->ndim; ++i)
          PyTuple_SET_ITEM(shape, i, PyLong_FromSsize_t(dict->shape[i]));
  
      if (PyErr_Occurred()) {
          Py_DECREF(shape);
          return NULL;
      }
      return Py_BuildValue("siN", dict->format, dict->ndim, shape);
  }
  
  PyMethodDef _ctypes_module_methods[] = {
      {"get_errno", get_errno, METH_NOARGS},
      {"set_errno", set_errno, METH_VARARGS},
      {"POINTER", POINTER, METH_O },
      {"pointer", pointer, METH_O },
      {"_unpickle", unpickle, METH_VARARGS },
      {"buffer_info", buffer_info, METH_O, "Return buffer interface information"},
      {"resize", resize, METH_VARARGS, "Resize the memory buffer of a ctypes instance"},
  #ifdef MS_WIN32
      {"get_last_error", get_last_error, METH_NOARGS},
      {"set_last_error", set_last_error, METH_VARARGS},
      {"CopyComPointer", copy_com_pointer, METH_VARARGS, copy_com_pointer_doc},
      {"FormatError", format_error, METH_VARARGS, format_error_doc},
      {"LoadLibrary", load_library, METH_VARARGS, load_library_doc},
      {"FreeLibrary", free_library, METH_VARARGS, free_library_doc},
      {"_check_HRESULT", check_hresult, METH_VARARGS},
  #else
      {"dlopen", py_dl_open, METH_VARARGS,
       "dlopen(name, flag={RTLD_GLOBAL|RTLD_LOCAL}) open a shared library"},
      {"dlclose", py_dl_close, METH_VARARGS, "dlclose a library"},
      {"dlsym", py_dl_sym, METH_VARARGS, "find symbol in shared library"},
  #endif
      {"alignment", align_func, METH_O, alignment_doc},
      {"sizeof", sizeof_func, METH_O, sizeof_doc},
      {"byref", byref, METH_VARARGS, byref_doc},
      {"addressof", addressof, METH_O, addressof_doc},
      {"call_function", call_function, METH_VARARGS },
      {"call_cdeclfunction", call_cdeclfunction, METH_VARARGS },
      {"PyObj_FromPtr", My_PyObj_FromPtr, METH_VARARGS },
      {"Py_INCREF", My_Py_INCREF, METH_O },
      {"Py_DECREF", My_Py_DECREF, METH_O },
      {NULL,      NULL}        /* Sentinel */
  };
  
  /*
   Local Variables:
   compile-command: "cd .. && python setup.py -q build -g && python setup.py -q build install --home ~"
   End:
  */
  