text: Features::Feature_number	Languages::Order_number	Comments_on_value_assignment	Record_modification_date	Record_modifier	Data_record_id	Language_ID
  5	60	There is no functional distinction between the two positions. The head-initial order, as in example 60-6, is the unmarked one. Fronting, as in example 60-5, is used to convey contrast (i.e., 'this man, not that other one').  	07/01/2015	Susanne	290110389324110423031208	888259863055110007031208
  13	60	singular: yé (animates, male and female) versus yangó́ (inanimates); plural: bangó (animates, male and female) versus yangó (inanimates)	10/02/2014	Susanne	302245076327110423031208	888259863055110007031208
  28	60	There are means, but outside the articles, to express whether the referent of a noun is either, on the one hand, definite or indefinite-specific or, on the other, indefinite-nonspecific. (a) For singular and plural nouns: Mókó ('one') and mosúsu ('other') may be used to determine a noun whose referent is indefinite-specific, i.e. the speaker has a specific referent in mind but wishes to keep it undefined. In this usage type, mókó and mosúsu are used with singular as well as plural nouns and always remain invariable. molakisi mókó 'some/a teacher'milakisi mókó 'some teachers'lopángo mókó ‘some/a compound’mapángo mókó ‘some compounds’molakisi mosúsu ‘some teacher’milakisi mosúsu ‘some teachers’lopángo mosúsu ‘some compound’mapángo mosúsu ‘some compounds’(b) For plural nouns: (i) see the uses of mókó and mosúsu above(ii) The prefix ba- occurs quite frequently as a supplementary prefix. It may be added to both singular and plural nouns, except to nouns in classes 2 and 10, whose primary prefix is already ba- (thus avoiding *ba-ba-). The meaning distinction between on the one hand a noun’s “regular” plural (i.e. formed by changing the primary prefix) and, on the other, its plural produced by adding ba- to its singular or plural form, is the following. The regular plural is used when the referent is indefinite and nonspecific. Informants unanimously respond that supplementary ba- is excluded in such usage types. Supplementary ba- is used when the referent is indefinite-specific or definite. The first sentence below, using the word likásá ('leaf', regular plural makásá) is an example of an indefinite nonspecific referent, the second of an indefinite-specific one, and the third of a definite one.Lukélá ngáí makásá nápelisa mótoLuk-él-á ngáí makásá ná-pel-is-a móto[search-APPL-IMP 1SG leaves 1SG.SUBJ-burn-CAUS-FV fire]'Find me leaves so that I can light the fire (i.e., any leaves).'Namóní bamakásá ya minéneNa-món-í ba-makásá ya mi-néne[1SG-see-PRS.PRF ba-leaves CONN PL-big]'I've seen some big leaves.'Bamakásá óyo ezalí malámu téBa-makásá óyo e-zal-í malámu té[ba-leaves DEM1 3SG.INAN-be-PRS.PRF good NEG]‘These leaves are not good.’ 	14/02/2014	Susanne	556338684985110423031208	888259863055110007031208
  42	60	Secondary surpass marking is especially preferred when the phrases referring to the topic, the standard and/or the domain of comparison are long. In such cases, primary surpass marking is avoided.Mosálá óyo e-sál-ám-áká na eleko ya bakóko, e-zal-í moké ko-lek-a mosálá ya ndéngé mókó óyo e-zô-sál-ám-a leló[work REL 3SG.INAN-do-PAST in era of ancestors, 3SG.INAN-be-PRS.PRF small INF-surpass-FV work of manner one REL 3SG.INAN-PRS.PROG-do-PASS-FV today]'The work that was done in the times of our ancestors, is lighter than the same work done today'.	07/01/2015	Susanne	969957790089110423031208	888259863055110007031208
  43	60	Only the future marker -ko- is preradical; all other TAM markers are postradical. Apart from future -ko-, another preradical TA marker is -zô-, marking Present Progressive, but this is the contracted variant of a periphrastic form.Nazalí kolámba sósóNa-zal-í ko-lámb-a sósó1SG-be-PRS.PRF INF-cook-FV chicken'I am preparing chicken'=Nazôlámba sósóNa-zô-lámb-a sósó1SG-PRS.PROG-cook-FV chicken'I’m preparing chicken'	07/01/2015	Susanne	543712901856110423031208	888259863055110007031208
  48	60	With stative verbs, habitual and current state can also be expressed by means of the Present marker -í. Nabángí NzámbeNa-báng-í Nzámbe1sg-fear-PRS.PRF God'I fear God.'The difference between the variant with the Habitual marker -aka (example 60-66) and that with the Present marker -í, is that the former expresses a discontinuous, iterative habit or state (I fear God, each time I enter a church) and the latter a continuous one (I fear God, in general, incessantly).	07/01/2015	Susanne	217917298673110423031208	888259863055110007031208
  55	60	Another ability-expressing verb is koyéba ('to know'), which expresses participant-internal ability (in contrast to kokoka, which expresses participant-external ability). Koyéba cannot be used for epistemic possibility.	07/01/2015	Susanne	536582116752110423031208	888259863055110007031208
  66	60	Note that the construction as appearing in example 60-93 is not used to convey 'headache' in the 'internal', pathological sense, but rather 'external' pain on one’s head, for instance as the result of bumping one’s head against something hard or of receiving a hard object on one’s forehead.	07/01/2015	Susanne	478562390607110423031208	888259863055110007031208
  69	60	Rarely, instrument is expressed by means of an applicative construction. This only occurs when there is no risk of ambiguity, i.e. when the complement cannot be interpreted as beneficiary.A:O-zw-í mbelí pó na níni?[2SG-fetch-PRS.PRF knife for to what]'Why have you taken the knife?'B:Na-kát-él-í yangó nyama[1SG-cut-APPL-PRS.PRF 3SG.INAN meat]'I’ve used it to cut the meat'Mbelí óyo na-kát-él-í lípa, e-zal-í mo-néne[knife REL 1SG-cut-APPL-PRS.PRF bread, 3SG.INAN-be-PRS.PRF SG-big]'The knife with which I’ve cut the bread, is big'	07/01/2015	Susanne	705354239607110423031208	888259863055110007031208
  70	60	Rarely, instrument is expressed, not by means of the comitative, but by means of an applicative construction. This only occurs when there is no risk of ambiguity, i.e. when the complement cannot be interpreted as beneficiary.A:O-zw-í mbelí pó na níni?[2SG-fetch-PRS.PRF knife for to what]'Why have you taken the knife?'B:Na-kát-él-í yangó nyama[1SG-cut-APPL-PRS.PRF 3SG.INAN meat]'I’ve used it to cut the meat'Mbelí óyo na-kát-él-í lípa, e-zal-í mo-néne[knife REL 1SG-cut-APPL-PRS.PRF bread, 3SG.INAN-be-PRS.PRF SG-big]'The knife with which I’ve cut the bread, is big'	12/01/2015	Susanne	279918409967110423031208	888259863055110007031208
  85	60	In 'take' serial verb constructions, there is always a consecutive reading, the 'take' event being performed before (in time) the event referred to by the following verb.A-zw-í mbelí a-pés-í ngáí[3SG.AN-take-PRS.PRF knife 3SG.AN-give-PRS.PRF 1SG]'She took the knife and then gave it to me'.	07/01/2015	Susanne	500861251261110423031208	888259863055110007031208
  90	60	In addition to the typical passive construction, exemplified in 60-126, Lingala speakers have three other constructions at their disposal to express passiveness. One is the so-called 'agentless passive' (also called 'stative', 'neute', and 'passive-active'). The form is neither passive nor active: in contrast to actives, the grammatical subject is not the agent, and, in contrast to passives, no agent can be explicated or is implied. In other words, the speaker conveys that the subject is affected by the action, but ignores the involvement of an agent.O-yéb-án-í[2SG-know-NEUT-PRES1]‘You are known’A second one is the non-promotional passive, which leaves the verb in the active voice, followed by the original patient complement; replaces the subject marker with the 3PL.AN marker having impersonal or generic reference ('they', 'people'); and identifies the agent in the same way as is done in the typical passive construction, i.e. by means of a prepositional phrase with na.Ba-ko-fíng-a ngáí na molakisi[3PL.AN-FUT-insult-FV 1SG by teacher]'I will be insulted by the teacher'.A third construction consists in the combination of the (preradical) reflexive marker -mí- and the (postradical) causative marker -is-. In some contexts this combination conveys, as might be predicated, that the subject referent causes him- or herself to perform the action referred to by the verb root. But in other contexts it concomitantly generates a causative and a passive meaning. Thus, in the example below, the subject referent will not cause himself to insult (someone), but will cause himself to be insulted. In comparison with the typical passive, this construction stresses the responsibility of the subject referent in causing the situation he or she undergoes as patient.Na-ko-mí-fíng-is-a na molakisi[1SG-FUT-REFL-insult-CAUS-FV by teacher]'I will get myself insulted by the teacher'.	07/01/2015	Susanne	422212443091110423031208	888259863055110007031208
  91	60	One of the other functions of the applicative, albeit a rare one, is the expression of use of an instrument. This only occurs when there is no risk of ambiguity, i.e. when the complement cannot be interpreted as beneficiary.A:O-zw-í mbelí pó na níni?[2SG-fetch-PRS.PRF knife for to what]'Why have you taken the knife?'B:Na-kát-él-í yangó nyama[1SG-cut-APPL-PRS.PRF 3SG.INAN meat]'I’ve used it to cut the meat'Mbelí óyo na-kát-él-í lípa, e-zal-í mo-néne[knife REL 1SG-cut-APPL-PRS.PRF bread, 3SG.INAN-be-PRS.PRF SG-big]'The knife with which I’ve cut the bread, is big'	07/01/2015	Susanne	896907431909110423031208	888259863055110007031208
  