text: {
      "Title": "The history of genetics: from Darwin to present day",
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      "Body": "",
      "InitialCaption": "In 1959 the story of genetics began...",
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        {
            "Body": "Evolution had been a topic of vigorous debate in the early 19th century. From his travels in East Asia, in 1858 Alfred Russel Wallace reported similar conclusions to those Charles Darwin had begun to formulate since his voyage to South America on the Beagle: that species arise as a result of natural selection. Darwin's friends persuaded him to publish his work. In 'On the Origin of Species', Darwin argued that those individuals that are best adapted to survive in their environments are most likely to breed successfully, and so pass on their beneficial traits to future generations. Over the eons of geological time this could lead to new species.\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1859",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1859-Darwin-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1859-Darwin-250",
            "UsedBy": [
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            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Charles Darwin publishes 'On the Origin of Species'",
            "JulianDayStart": 2400046,
            "StartDisplay": "1859",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1859",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 6389
        },
        {
            "Body": "Cyrill Napp, the Augustinian abbot of St Thomas's Abbey in Brünn (modern Brno, in the Czech Republic) took a keen interest in the breeding of sheep. He encouraged a friar, Gregor Mendel, to explore questions of heredity by breeding pea plants. Mendel crossed varieties with different characteristics, such as smooth or wrinkled seed cases, and discovered that in most cases characteristics did not blend, but continued to appear in subsequent generations in predictable ratios. He found that 'dominant' characteristics would appear even if inherited from only one parent, while offspring showed 'recessive' characteristics only if they inherited them from both parents. He published his work in the journal of his local natural history society.",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1866",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1866-Mendel-portrait-sketch-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1866-Mendel-portrait-sketch-250",
            "UsedBy": [
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            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Gregor Mendel publishes his theory of inheritance",
            "JulianDayStart": 2402603,
            "StartDisplay": "1866",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1866",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
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            "EventId": 14877
        },
        {
            "Body": "Francis Galton, an independent scientist in London and Charles Darwin's cousin, became convinced that Darwin's theory of natural selection applied as much to human ability as to the formation of species. He looked for evidence for this idea by analysing the pedigrees of distinguished judges, poets, statesmen, scientists and sportsmen. In 'Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into its Causes and Consequences', he applied statistical ideas such as error frequencies to show that human abilities were inherited. Concluding that such abilities might be improved by selective breeding, he later coined the term 'eugenics' to denote this practice.",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1869",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27070",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27060",
            "UsedBy": [
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            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Francis Galton publishes 'Hereditary Genius'",
            "JulianDayStart": 2403699,
            "StartDisplay": "1869",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1869",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 14885
        },
        {
            "Body": "Friedrich Miescher was a young Swiss physiological chemist working in Tübingen, Germany. Within a year of starting work he had isolated an acidic, phosphorus-rich component from the nuclei of white cells (leukocytes) which he had harvested from pus. He called the new substance nuclein: it was subsequently renamed nucleic acid.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1871",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1871-Miescher-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1871-Miescher-250",
            "UsedBy": [
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            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Friedrich Miescher publishes his discovery of 'nuclein'",
            "JulianDayStart": 2404429,
            "StartDisplay": "1871",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1871",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
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            "EventId": 15452
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        {
            "Body": "In his book 'On the Origin of Species', Charles Darwin had not explicitly state that humans were descended from apes, although Carl Linnaeus had classified both as primates in the 18th century, and others, including Jean Baptiste Lamarck, had suggested that they were related by descent. In his later book 'The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex', Darwin made the link explicit, and discussed many aspects of the question including sexual selection, race, the evolution of behaviour and the implications of evolution for society.",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1871",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1859-Darwin-engraving-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1859-Darwin-engraving-250",
            "UsedBy": [
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            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Charles Darwin proposes that humans are descended from apes",
            "JulianDayStart": 2404429,
            "StartDisplay": "1871",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1871",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15462
        },
        {
            "Body": " Walther Flemming, professor of anatomy at Kiel in Germany, used new dyes to stain cells and then examined the structures in the nucleus. He observed the whole process of cell division (which he termed 'mitosis'), noting that thread-like structures formed and then separated to the two poles of the dividing cell. Flemming published his findings in 1882 in 'Zell-substanz, Kern und Zelltheilung' ('Cytoplasm, Nucleus and Cell Division'). He coined the term 'chromatin' ('stainable material'), which is still in use today. The word 'chromosome' (meaning 'coloured body') was not introduced until 1888, when German anatomist Wilhelm Waldeyer used it to describe the thread-like bodies in the nucleus. <br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1882",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1882-Flemming-L0023905-100-NEW.jpg",
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            "UsedBy": [
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            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Walther Flemming discovers mitosis and chromosomes",
            "JulianDayStart": 2408447,
            "StartDisplay": "1882",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1882",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15472
        },
        {
            "Body": "August Weismann, professor of zoology at the University of Freiburg, published an essay entitled 'On the continuity of the germ plasm'. This outlined the evidence he had amassed that there is continuity between generations only through the egg and sperm (germ) cells, and that environmental influences that affect other body (somatic) cells cannot be transmitted to the germ cells. This separation became known as 'Weismann's barrier', and was a strong argument against the inheritance of acquired characteristics as proposed by Jean Baptiste Lamarck.<br />",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1885",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1885-Weismann-L0005266-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1885-Weismann-L0005266-250",
            "UsedBy": [
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            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "August Weismann states that all inheritance is via the germ cells",
            "JulianDayStart": 2409543,
            "StartDisplay": "1885",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1885",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15480
        },
        {
            "Body": "In his book 'Natural Inheritance', Francis Galton proposed that offspring receive half their inherited characteristics from each parent, a quarter from each grandparent and so on. This offered a statistical model for the reemergence in offspring of characteristics not seen in their parents.",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1889",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1889-Galton-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27079",
            "UsedBy": [
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            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Francis Galton publishes his law of ancestral inheritance",
            "JulianDayStart": 2411004,
            "StartDisplay": "1889",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1889",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15494
        },
        {
            "Body": "\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">The two most significant blood group systems were discovered by\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span></span><a title=\"Karl Landsteiner\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Landsteiner\" style=\"background-image: none; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(11,0,128); word-spacing: 0px; text-decoration: none\">Karl Landsteiner</a>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span>during early experiments with blood transfusion: the\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span></span><a title=\"ABO blood group system\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABO_blood_group_system\" style=\"background-image: none; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(11,0,128); word-spacing: 0px; text-decoration: none\">ABO group</a>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span>in 1901</span><sup id=\"cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\" style=\"line-height: 1em; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font-family: sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(0,0,0); font-weight: normal; word-spacing: 0px\"><a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_type#cite_note-67\" style=\"background-image: none; white-space: nowrap; color: rgb(11,0,128); text-decoration: none\">[68]</a></sup>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span>and in co-operation with</span><a title=\"Alexander S. Wiener\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_S._Wiener\" style=\"background-image: none; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(11,0,128); word-spacing: 0px; text-decoration: none\">Alexander S. Wiener</a>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span>the\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span></span><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Rhesus blood group system\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhesus_blood_group_system\" style=\"background-image: none; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(11,0,128); word-spacing: 0px; text-decoration: none\">Rhesus group</a>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span>in 1937.</span><sup id=\"cite_ref-68\" class=\"reference\" style=\"line-height: 1em; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font-family: sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(0,0,0); font-weight: normal; word-spacing: 0px\"><a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_type#cite_note-68\" style=\"background-image: none; white-space: nowrap; color: rgb(11,0,128); text-decoration: none\">[69]</a></sup>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span>Development of the\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span></span><a title=\"Coombs test\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coombs_test\" style=\"background-image: none; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(11,0,128); word-spacing: 0px; text-decoration: none\">Coombs test</a>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span>in 1945,</span><sup id=\"cite_ref-69\" class=\"reference\" style=\"line-height: 1em; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font-family: sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(0,0,0); font-weight: normal; word-spacing: 0px\"><a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_type#cite_note-69\" style=\"background-image: none; white-space: nowrap; color: rgb(11,0,128); text-decoration: none\">[70]</a></sup>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span>the advent of\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span></span><a title=\"Transfusion medicine\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfusion_medicine\" style=\"background-image: none; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(11,0,128); word-spacing: 0px; text-decoration: none\">transfusion medicine</a>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">, and the understanding of\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span></span><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABO_hemolytic_disease_of_the_newborn\" style=\"background-image: none; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(11,0,128); word-spacing: 0px; text-decoration: none\">ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn</a>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span>led to discovery of more blood groups, and now 30\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span></span><a title=\"Human blood group systems\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_blood_group_systems\" style=\"background-image: none; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(11,0,128); word-spacing: 0px; text-decoration: none\">human blood group systems</a>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span>are recognized by the\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span></span><a title=\"International Society of Blood Transfusion\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_of_Blood_Transfusion\" style=\"background-image: none; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(11,0,128); word-spacing: 0px; text-decoration: none\">International Society of Blood Transfusion</a>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span>(ISBT),</span><sup id=\"cite_ref-iccbba_1-2\" class=\"reference\" style=\"line-height: 1em; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font-family: sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(0,0,0); font-weight: normal; word-spacing: 0px\"><a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_type#cite_note-iccbba-1\" style=\"background-image: none; white-space: nowrap; color: rgb(11,0,128); text-decoration: none\">[2]</a></sup>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span>and across the 30 blood groups, over 600 different blood group antigens have been found;</span><sup id=\"cite_ref-newenglandblood1_3-1\" class=\"reference\" style=\"line-height: 1em; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font-family: sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(0,0,0); font-weight: normal; word-spacing: 0px\"><a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_type#cite_note-newenglandblood1-3\" style=\"background-image: none; white-space: nowrap; color: rgb(11,0,128); text-decoration: none\">[4]</a></sup>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span>many of these are very rare or are mainly found in certain ethnic groups. Blood types have been used in\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span></span><a title=\"Forensic science\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science\" style=\"background-image: none; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(11,0,128); word-spacing: 0px; text-decoration: none\">forensic science</a>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">and were formerly used to demonstrate impossibility of\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span></span><a title=\"Parental testing\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parental_testing\" style=\"background-image: none; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(11,0,128); word-spacing: 0px; text-decoration: none\">paternity</a>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span>(e.g., a type AB man cannot be the father of a type O infant), but both of these uses are being replaced by\n\t<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">&nbsp;</span></span><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Genetic fingerprinting\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_fingerprinting\" style=\"background-image: none; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(11,0,128); word-spacing: 0px; text-decoration: none\">genetic fingerprinting</a>\n<span style=\"text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; display: inline !important; font: 13px/19px sans-serif; white-space: normal; float: none; color: rgb(0,0,0); word-spacing: 0px\">, which provides greater certainty.</span><sup id=\"cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\" style=\"line-height: 1em; text-transform: none; background-color: rgb(255,255,255); font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; text-indent: 0px; letter-spacing: normal; font-family: sans-serif; white-space: normal; color: rgb(0,0,0); font-weight: normal; word-spacing: 0px\"><a href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_type#cite_note-70\" style=\"background-image: none; white-space: nowrap; color: rgb(11,0,128); text-decoration: none\">[71]</a></sup>",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1900",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/6413",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/6410",
            "UsedBy": [
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            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Human blood groups discovered",
            "JulianDayStart": 2415021,
            "StartDisplay": "1900",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1900",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 6416
        },
        {
            "Body": "Gregor Mendel had published his 'Experiments in Plant Hybridisation' in 1866, but his research was known only among fellow plant breeders. It was not until 16 years after his death in 1884 that his work was more widely acknowledged, when three competing European botanists published their work and recognised Mendel's priority. Hugo de Vries in Holland, Carl Correns in Germany and Erich Tschermak von Seysenegg in Austria had made similar observations on the segregation and recombination of observable characters, although they reached stronger conclusions about the existence of physical hereditary units that explained those characters. By 1902, the English geneticist William Bateson had translated Mendel's articles into English and argued strongly in their favour.<br />",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1900",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1900-Mendel-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1900-Mendel-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Mendel’s work is acknowledged",
            "JulianDayStart": 2415021,
            "StartDisplay": "1900",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1900",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15503
        },
        {
            "Body": "Working in Vienna, Karl Landsteiner discovered that blood samples from his colleagues behaved differently when mixed together. In some mixtures the red cells clumped together; in others they did not. He deduced that the cells had different surface antigens, which he called A and B, and that the blood serum contained antibodies against 'foreign' blood group antigens. A further blood type, O, was accepted by A or B types. The AB type, discovered later by two of his colleagues, contained both antigens and accepted any other type. This discovery led to the first  blood transfusion to employ blood typing and cross-matching (in 1907), and blood group became important as an inherited characteristic in genetics reseach.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1901",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1901-Landsteiner-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1901-Landsteiner-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Karl Landsteiner discovers ABO blood group system",
            "JulianDayStart": 2415386,
            "StartDisplay": "1901",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1901",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15511
        },
        {
            "Body": "Walter Sutton, a 25-year-old graduate student at Columbia University, was studying the chromosomes of the grasshopper Brachystola magna. He concluded that chromosomes were of distinct types, that they occurred in pairs, with one member of each pair contributed by each parent, and that the paired chromosomes separated as germ cells formed, and must rejoin at fertilisation. In Germany, cytologist Theodor Boveri concluded that male sperm nuclei and female egg nuclei contribute equivalent amounts of genetic information to sea urchin embryos, and that this equivalence was essential to normal development of the larvae.<br />",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1902",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1902-Sutton-B0008306-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1902-Sutton-B0008306-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri propose chromosome theory of inheritance",
            "JulianDayStart": 2415751,
            "StartDisplay": "1902",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1902",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15519
        },
        {
            "Body": "Archibald Garrod, a London physician working at the Great Ormond Street children's hospital in London, studied alkaptonuria, a disease in which urine exposed to air turns dark after several hours. Noting that in three of the four families he studied the parents were first cousins, Garrod concluded that the inheritance of alkaptonuria could be explained by Mendel's laws, and was a recessive disorder. Later, he described four 'inborn errors of metabolism': albinism, alkaptonuria, pentosuria and cystinuria. His book on the subject was first published in 1909 and revised in 1923.<br />",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1902",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1902-Garrod-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1902-Garrod-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "1902 Archibald Garrod and alkaptonuria",
            "JulianDayStart": 2415751,
            "StartDisplay": "1902",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1902",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15527
        },
        {
            "Body": "Writing to the zoologist Adam Sedgwick, the Cambridge biologist William Bateson used the word 'genetics' for the first time to refer to the study of inheritance and its physical basis. He subsequently used it in a speech to the Third International Conference on Hybridisation and Plant Breeding in 1906: the title of the conference proceedings was changed to 'Report of the Third 1906 International Conference on Genetics'.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1905",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1905-pineapple-graft-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1905-pineapple-graft-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "1905 William Bateson coins the term ‘genetics’",
            "JulianDayStart": 2416847,
            "StartDisplay": "1905",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1905",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15535
        },
        {
            "Body": "The US state of Indiana enacted a law that provided for the sterilisation of inmates in prisons and in institutions for the mentally deficient. The law was struck down by the state Supreme Court in 1921, but reinstated in 1927 and remained on the books until 1974. Following Indiana's lead, a total of 33 states eventually passed such legislation, and it is estimated that 65 000 people were compulsorily sterilised under its provisions.<br />",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1907",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "First US state enacts compulsory sterilisation law",
            "JulianDayStart": 2417577,
            "StartDisplay": "1907",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1907",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15552
        },
        {
            "Body": "\n<p>\nOn 15 November 1907, Mrs Sibyl Gotto presented a proposal for a Eugenics Education Society to the Committee of the Moral Education League in London. It was agreed to launch the Society as a distinct entity. Sir Francis Galton was appointed as the first President, and Mrs Gotto (later Mrs Neville Rolfe) its Honorary Secretary. In 1926 it was renamed the <a title=\"The Eugenics Society archive\" href=\"#\">Eugenics Society</a>. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Eugenics Society press cuttings (1907-1909)\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b16241617\">Login to view press cuttings from the Eugenics Society papers</a>\n</p>",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1907",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27630",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27627",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Eugenics Society founded in London",
            "JulianDayStart": 2417577,
            "StartDisplay": "1907",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1907",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15544
        },
        {
            "Body": "The Cambridge mathematician G H Hardy and the Stuttgart physician Wilhelm Weinberg independently came up with the principle that the frequency of alleles and genotypes remains constant in a population from one generation to the next unless one of a number of influences, such as selection, non-random mating or mutation, occurs to disturb it.<br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1908",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1908-Godfrey_Harold_Hardy_100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1908-Godfrey-Harold-Hardy-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium",
            "JulianDayStart": 2417942,
            "StartDisplay": "1908",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1908",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15560
        },
        {
            "Body": "\n<p>\nDanish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen showed that characteristics such as seed size are variable even in genetically identical plants. He coined the terms 'genotype' and 'phenotype' to distinguish between an organism's inheritance and its appearance, and argued that evolution can act only on variation in the genotype. In his book 'Elemente der exakten Erblichkeitslehre' ('The Elements of an Exact Theory of Heredity'), he rejected the term 'pangene' for the physical unit of heredity, and suggested 'gene' in its place.<br />\n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1909",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Wilhelm Johannsen coins the term ‘gene’",
            "JulianDayStart": 2418308,
            "StartDisplay": "1909",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1909",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15570
        },
        {
            "Body": "\n<p>\nKarl Pearson, a pioneering statistical geneticist working at the Galton Laboratory at University College London, launched a serial - the 'Treasury of Human Inheritance' - dedicated to documenting human inherited conditions. The series continued for almost 50 years. Most sections were written by Julia Bell, also at the Galton Laboratory, who trained as a doctor and conducted a substantial body of her own research in genetics.<br />\n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1909",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1909-Head-of-hare-L0031871-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1909-Head-of-hare-L0031871-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Treasury of Human Inheritance launched",
            "JulianDayStart": 2418308,
            "StartDisplay": "1909",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1909",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15581
        },
        {
            "Body": "\n<p>\nThe Director of the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in New York, the zoologist Charles Davenport, founded the Eugenics Record Office as a centre for the study of human heredity. He appointed Harry Laughlin as superintendent of the Office; both were enthusiastic proponents of the compulsory sterilisation of people deemed 'unfit'. The Eugenics Record Office merged with the Station for Experimental Evolution in 1920 to become the Department of Genetics at the Carnegie Institution at Cold Spring Harbor. <br />\n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1910",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Eugenics Record Office opens at Cold Spring Harbor",
            "JulianDayStart": 2418673,
            "StartDisplay": "1910",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1910",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15603
        },
        {
            "Body": "\n<p>\nAt Columbia University, Thomas Hunt Morgan wanted to know what the physical basis of hereditary factors might be. He chose the fruit fly Drosophila for his studies, as it was cheap, bred quickly and had large chromosomes. When a white-eyed variant spontaneously appeared among the red-eyed 'wild-type' flies, he discovered that its inheritance was linked to the sex of the flies, and so could be assigned to the X chromosome. This was the first unambiguous link between a specific chromosome and an inherited characteristic: many more would follow.<br />\n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1910",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1910-Morgan-B0001865-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1910-Morgan-B0001865-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Thomas Hunt Morgan links white eyes to the X chromosome in fruit flies",
            "JulianDayStart": 2418673,
            "StartDisplay": "1910",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1910",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15590
        },
        {
            "Body": "\n<p>\nMax von Laue, a physicist at the University of Munich, and his colleagues Walter Friedrich and Paul Knipping, showed that passing X-rays through a crystal of copper sulphate or zinc blende gave a diffraction pattern. Before the year ended, William Henry Bragg at the University of Leeds and his son William Lawrence Bragg had discovered that the pattern is related to the three-dimensional arrangement of the atoms in the crystal. In 1913 they published the crystal structure of sodium chloride or common salt, together with a simple formula (now known as Bragg's law) that related the intensity of X-ray reflections to the wavelength of the rays, their angle of incidence to the layers of atoms in the crystal, and the distance between the layers. X-ray crystallography later became the pre-eminent tool in the study of complex biological molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.<br />\n</p>",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1912",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1912-X-rays-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1912-X-rays-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "X-rays and crystal structure",
            "JulianDayStart": 2419403,
            "StartDisplay": "1912",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1912",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15612
        },
        {
            "Body": "Working with hybrids of maize, the plant physiologist G N Collins of the US Department of Agriculture showed that two characteristics, known as 'colourless aleurone'  and 'waxy endosperm', were usually inherited together (aleurone and endosperm are components of maize kernels). This observation of 'genetic linkage' contradicted Mendel's law that different characteristics are inherited independently. The search for linkage became one of the most powerful tools in the construction of genetic maps and the study of inherited medical conditions.<br />",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1912",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27101",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27098",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "G N Collins demonstrates linkage in maize",
            "JulianDayStart": 2419403,
            "StartDisplay": "1912",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1912",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15622
        },
        {
            "Body": "Alfred Sturtevant joined Thomas Hunt Morgan to study Drosophila genetics while still an undergraduate at Columbia University and took up the study of the linkage of genes. He proposed that genes that are closer together are less likely to become separated during 'crossing-over', when pairs of chromosomes from each parent exchange segments during the formation of sperm and egg cells. He calculated the percentages of crossing-over between the various traits and determined the relative distance between six  sex-linked genes on the X chromosome – the first genetic map.<br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1913",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Alfred Sturtevant constructs first genetic map",
            "JulianDayStart": 2419769,
            "StartDisplay": "1913",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1913",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15637
        },
        {
            "Body": "Passed by the House of Commons by a huge majority, the Mental Deficiency Act provided for the institutionalisation of &quot;idiots, imbeciles, the feeble minded and moral imbeciles&quot;. Policies for dealing with such &quot;mental defectives&quot; were a major preoccupation of the Eugenics Society, whose members campaigned in support of the Act. The Act remained in force until the passing of the Mental Health Act in 1959. <br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1913",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/6374",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "UK Mental Deficiency Act",
            "JulianDayStart": 2419769,
            "StartDisplay": "1913",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1913",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15647
        },
        {
            "Body": "",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1915",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1915-albino-mice-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1915-albino-mice-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "J B S Haldane shows genetic linkage in a mammal",
            "JulianDayStart": 2420499,
            "StartDisplay": "1915",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1915",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15656
        },
        {
            "Body": "Working in his spare time while employed as a teacher during World War I, the mathematician Ronald Fisher wrote an article on 'The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance'. This paper was one of the founding documents of population genetics, as it showed that continuous variation in traits such as height can arise from Mendelian principles. Fisher subsequently analysed data on plant genetics at the Rothamsted Experimental Station and made important advances in statistics. He was also a prominent eugenicist.<br />",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1918",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1918-fisher-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1918-fisher-250.jpg",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Ronald Fisher connects Mendelian genetics and evolutionary biology",
            "JulianDayStart": 2421595,
            "StartDisplay": "1918",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1918",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15719
        },
        {
            "Body": "William Bateson brought together a group of geneticists at the rooms of the Linnaean Society on 25 June, who agreed to found the Genetical Society (later renamed the Genetics Society). The following year, its first annual meeting was held in Cambridge.<br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1919",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1919-bateson-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1919-bateson-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Foundation of the Genetical Society in London",
            "JulianDayStart": 2421960,
            "StartDisplay": "1919",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1919",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15730
        },
        {
            "Body": "Working as Reader in Biochemistry at Cambridge, J B S Haldane began a series of highly theoretical papers in the 'Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society' entitled 'A mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection', which would continue for a decade. These papers, along with those of R A Fisher and Sewall Wright, would lay the mathematical groundwork for the 'modern synthesis' of Darwin's theory of natural selection and Mendel's laws of inheritance. Haldane later summarised these ideas in a book, 'The Causes of Evolution' (1932).<br />",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1924",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "J B S Haldane begins work on mathematical basis of evolutionary biology",
            "JulianDayStart": 2423786,
            "StartDisplay": "1924",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1924",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15747
        },
        {
            "Body": "Newly qualified as a doctor in London, Carlos Blacker wrote a series of articles on the implications of contraception in the 'Saturday Review', subsequently published as a book. Blacker, who supported the aims of the Eugenics Society, argued that birth control should be permitted, but kept under the control of &quot;medical men&quot;.<br />",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1926",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Publication of Carlos Blacker's 'Birth Control and the State'",
            "JulianDayStart": 2424517,
            "StartDisplay": "1926",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1926",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15762
        },
        {
            "Body": "US Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes gave a ruling that state statutes permitting sterilisation of the &quot;unfit&quot; without consent did not violate the 14th Amendment of the Constitution (concerning &quot;due process of law&quot;. He argued that such laws were permissible &quot;for the protection and health of the state&quot;. Of the defendant Carrie Buck and her mother and daughter, he said: &quot;Three generations of imbeciles is enough.&quot; This judgement led to a great increase in the number of compulsory sterilisations across the USA, and was explicitly cited as an influence on the eugenic policies of other countries, including Nazi Germany.<br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1927",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Buck v. Bell: US Supreme Court rules in favour of forced sterilisation",
            "JulianDayStart": 2424882,
            "StartDisplay": "1927",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1927",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15780
        },
        {
            "Body": "From 1912 to 1920, Hermann Muller was a member of Thomas Hunt Morgan's 'fly room' at Columbia University, seeking to map fruit-fly mutations to specific chromosomes. Later, at the University of Texas, he tested the idea that radiation would increase the frequency of mutations. He irradiated male fruit flies and then mated them to virgin females, publishing his results in 1927. As he said in his Nobel Prize lecture of 1946, the radiation induced &quot;over a hundred times as many mutations…as would have occurred…spontaneously in the course of a whole generation&quot;. Muller established that most mutations are detrimental, and that favourable mutations on which evolution by natural selection depends must be extremely rare.<br />",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1927",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1927-Muller-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1927-Muller-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Radiation induces mutation in fruit flies",
            "JulianDayStart": 2424882,
            "StartDisplay": "1927",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1927",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15772
        },
        {
            "Body": "Fred Griffith, a pathologist at the Ministry of Health in London, noticed that the appearance of colonies of the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (often called pneumococcus) changed from smooth to rough after some time in culture. When injected into mice, the rough cells were harmless, while the smooth cells were invariably fatal unless they had been killed by heat treatment beforehand. But when he injected live rough cells of one strain at the same time as dead smooth cells of a different strain, the mice died and he found them teeming with live smooth bacteria of the second strain. He concluded that previously true-breeding strains could be &quot;transformed&quot; by some &quot;principle&quot; that could be transferred from one strain to another.<br />",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1928",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1928-Griffin-B0007348-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1928-Griffin-B0007348-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Fred Griffith discovers transformation in bacteria",
            "JulianDayStart": 2425247,
            "StartDisplay": "1928",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1928",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15790
        },
        {
            "Body": "Barbara McClintock, working with student Harriet Creighton at Cornell University, published evidence that the genetic phenomenon of crossing-over, in which genetic variants from each parent are mixed in the offspring, correlated with a physical break and reconnection in the chromosomes of the maize plant.",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1931",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1931-corn-cobs-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1931-corn-cobs-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Barbara McClintock sees crossing-over in maize",
            "JulianDayStart": 2426343,
            "StartDisplay": "1931",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1931",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15803
        },
        {
            "Body": "Carlos Blacker had become interested in Francis Galton's theories of eugenic improvement while a student at Oxford. He took on the role of General Secretary of the Eugenics Society with the aim of pursuing these theories through scientific research.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1931",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27117",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27111",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Carlos Blacker appointed general secretary of the Eugenics Society",
            "JulianDayStart": 2426343,
            "StartDisplay": "1931",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1931",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15811
        },
        {
            "Body": "While working at a hospital for people with learning disabilities in Colchester, Penrose carried out a pioneering survey of patients and their families. He found that people with Down's syndrome (then called mongolism; Penrose later suggested the change of name) were more often born to older parents. Further analysis revealed that the effect was due solely to the age of the mother. The genetic cause of the disease - an extra copy of chromosome 21 - was discovered in 1959.<br />",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1933",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1933-Downs-syndrome-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1933-Downs-syndrome-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Lionel Penrose discovers the role of maternal age in Down’s syndrome",
            "JulianDayStart": 2427074,
            "StartDisplay": "1933",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1933",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15819
        },
        {
            "Body": "Asbjørn Følling, professor of nutrition at the University of Oslo, examined a brother and sister who had developed signs of severe mental retardation. Their mother had noticed that their urine smelled strongly, and Følling discovered that it contained high levels of phenylpyruvic acid. He concluded that the children's bodies were unable to break down the amino acid phenylalanine, and that he had discovered a metabolic disorder that affects the brain. The disease was later named phenylketonuria or PKU. Affected children inherit from both parents a recessive gene that fails to make the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. <br />",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1934",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1934-PKU-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1934-PKU-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Asbjørn Følling discovers phenylketonuria, an inherited cause of mental retardation",
            "JulianDayStart": 2427439,
            "StartDisplay": "1934",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1934",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15827
        },
        {
            "Body": "J D Bernal, lecturer in structural crystallography in the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge, was using the techniques pioneered by William and Henry Bragg to investigate biological molecules such as sterols. With his PhD student Dorothy Hodgkin, he published the first X-ray diffraction photograph of a protein, the digestive enzyme pepsin, that had been given to him by a visiting scientist. This marked the beginning of structural biology, the branch of science that would reveal the double helix of DNA.<br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1934",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1934-protein-crystallography-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1934-protein-crystallography-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "JD Bernal and Dorothy Hodgkin launch protein crystallography",
            "JulianDayStart": 2427439,
            "StartDisplay": "1934",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1934",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15835
        },
        {
            "Body": "R A Fisher, Galton Professor at University College, sets up a Serum Unit to collect and study examples of different blood types. He undertakes mathematical analysis of the inheritance of the various different blood group antigens that have been discovered since Landsteiner first described the ABO system. \n<p>\n&nbsp;\n</p>[link][SA/BGU/A.1/4/05]",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1935",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/6374",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Serum Unit established at the Galton Laboratory",
            "JulianDayStart": 2427804,
            "StartDisplay": "1935",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1935",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15852
        },
        {
            "Body": "R A Fisher, Galton Professor at University College, set up a Serum Unit to collect and study examples of different blood types. He undertook a mathematical analysis of the inheritance of the various different blood group antigens that had been discovered since Landsteiner first described the ABO system in the early 1900s.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1935",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Serum Unit established at the Galton Laboratory",
            "JulianDayStart": 2427804,
            "StartDisplay": "1935",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1935",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15844
        },
        {
            "Body": "In the 1930s Soviet Union, Mendelian genetics was regarded as bourgeois and hence politically suspect. The agronomist Trofim Lysenko championed a Marxist-Leninist alternative, a variant of Lamarckism, based on the idea that crop yields could be massively increased by exposing seeds to cold and moisture. Although his experiments were poorly (even fraudulently) conducted, in 1937 he was appointed President of the Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. The Moscow Medical Genetics Institute was closed, and the 7th International Congress of Genetics in Moscow was cancelled. Many geneticists, including Nikolai Vavilov, the former head of the Institute of Applied Botany in Moscow, were shot or died in prison. Lysenkoism dominated Soviet biology until the early 1960s. <br />",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1937",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Russian genetics under threat",
            "JulianDayStart": 2428535,
            "StartDisplay": "1937",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1937",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15872
        },
        {
            "Body": "J B S Haldane and his colleague Julia Bell found cases of both haemophilia and colour blindness in six families. They concluded that the genes for the conditions were located near one another on the X chromosome. The study was the first step towards a full genetic map of human inherited conditions. <br />",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1937",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27133",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27127",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "J B S Haldane and Julia Bell publish first evidence of linkage in humans",
            "JulianDayStart": 2428535,
            "StartDisplay": "1937",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1937",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15865
        },
        {
            "Body": "The 7th International Congress of Genetics took place in Edinburgh in August 1939, ending a few days before Britain's declaration of war with Germany. In response to a journalist's question about human genetic improvement, a group of geneticists wrote a manifesto entitled 'Of Men and Mice in Edinburgh'. It declared that the possibility of genetic changes was secondary to addressing social and political problems such as war and deprivation, before giving a critical scientific appraisal of the likely effectiveness of eugenic policies. The original signatories included J B S Haldane.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1939",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1939-geneticists-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1939-geneticists-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "The geneticists’ manifesto",
            "JulianDayStart": 2429265,
            "StartDisplay": "1939",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1939",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15883
        },
        {
            "Body": "Alexander Wiener, working in New York with Karl Landsteiner, who had originally identified the ABO blood group system, discovered that the Rhesus factor that they had identified in 1937 could cause an antibody reaction in blood transfusions. This meant that there were dangers if a mother and her unborn child did not have the same rhesus antigens - so-called haemolytic disease of the newborn.<br />",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1940",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Landsteiner and Wiener publish their discovery of the Rhesus factor",
            "JulianDayStart": 2429630,
            "StartDisplay": "1940",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1940",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15891
        },
        {
            "Body": "George Beadle and his colleague Edward Tatum at Stanford University in California irradiated the bread mould Neurospora to induce genetic mutations. They found that some of the colonies of mutated organisms could no longer grow on a medium that was nutritionally deficient. By replacing nutrients one by one, Beadle and Tatum discovered which metabolic pathway had been lost. They showed that these failures were due to induced mutations in single genes, establishing the principle that each gene specifies a protein with a precise function.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1941",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "‘One gene, one enzyme’",
            "JulianDayStart": 2429996,
            "StartDisplay": "1941",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1941",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15899
        },
        {
            "Body": "Working with the surgeon Tom Gibson at the burns unit in Glasgow Royal Infirmary, Peter Medawar studied tissue changes in skin grafts taken either from the patients themselves (autografts) or from a related donor (homografts). He showed that homografts were rejected over a period of weeks, but that later grafts taken from the same donor were rejected immediately. He formulated a theory of the immune mechanisms of rejection that still holds good today.<br />",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1943",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1943-Medawar-drawing-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1943-medawar-drawing-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Peter Medawar discovers the basis of immune rejection",
            "JulianDayStart": 2430726,
            "StartDisplay": "1943",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1943",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15907
        },
        {
            "Body": "Arriving at University College London as a refugee from Nazi Germany, Hans Grüneberg established a laboratory in J B S Haldane's department investigating the development of mice with a variety of mutations. Forced to suspend his research when UCL was evacuated during World War II, he summarised his findings in a book. It became a standard text on mouse genetics, and was revised and updated in 1952.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1943",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1943-gruneberg-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1943-gruneberg-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Hans Grüneberg publishes The Genetics of the Mouse",
            "JulianDayStart": 2430726,
            "StartDisplay": "1943",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1943",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15915
        },
        {
            "Body": "Oswald Avery and his colleagues at the Rockefeller Institute in New York State showed that dead, virulent bacteria added to colonies of a live, non-virulent strain transformed the colonies to the virulent form, as Fred Griffith had found in 1928. He purified the 'transforming agent' from the dead bacteria, and tested it with methods that would destroy either protein or nucleic acids. Avery concluded that the transforming agent was made of deoxyribose nucleic acid - DNA. His experiments showed that the transformation was transmitted from generation to generation, but he stopped short of identifying DNA as the physical basis of the gene. <br />",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1944",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1944-bacteria-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1944-bacteria-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Oswald Avery discovers the transforming power of DNA",
            "JulianDayStart": 2431091,
            "StartDisplay": "1944",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1944",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15928
        },
        {
            "Body": "The Royal Commission on Population was the first to look seriously at the postwar planning of population and birth-control policies. As General Secretary of the Eugenics Society and adviser to the Ministry of Health, Carlos Blacker played an influential role in establishing this commission. <br />",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1944",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Royal Commission on Population established in UK",
            "JulianDayStart": 2431091,
            "StartDisplay": "1944",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1944",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15949
        },
        {
            "Body": "Following her 1931 discovery of physical crossing-over, Barbara McClintock showed that genetic elements from the break points can move from one location on a chromosome to another, or even to another chromosome. The rate of appearance of contrasting patches of colour on the leaves of a plant when such transposition has taken place meant that these elements, later known as transposons or jumping genes, could control the activity of neighbouring genes.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1944",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1944-corn_and_microscope-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1944-corn_and_microscope-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Barbara McClintock discovers jumping genes",
            "JulianDayStart": 2431091,
            "StartDisplay": "1944",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1944",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15940
        },
        {
            "Body": "In 1944, Robert Race had published in 'Nature' a prediction that there would be three closely associated pairs of alleles in the Rhesus blood group system (C-c, D-D and E-e), which he developed in discussion with his PhD supervisor at Cambridge, R A Fisher. Arthur Mourant joined the staff of the North East London Blood supply depot in 1944, as a newly qualified doctor. Testing this prediction, he discovered antibodies to Rhesus e. The discovery helped to confirm Race and Fisher's theory and the discovery of the first gene complex in humans. It also refined the process of blood matching and provided further insight into haemolytic disease of the newborn.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1945",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26566",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/Mourant-notebook-1945-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Arthur Mourant discovers the Rhesus anti-e antibody",
            "JulianDayStart": 2431457,
            "StartDisplay": "1945",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1945",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15964
        },
        {
            "Body": "Working on the bacterium Escherichia coli at Yale with Edward Tatum, Joshua Lederberg adopted the 'nutritional mutant' technique developed by Beadle and Tatum for their studies of the mould Neurospora. He found that, in a small number of mixed colonies, later generations recovered the ability to synthesise the nutrients they needed. He showed that the change was due to genetic crosses between the mutant strains, proving that sexual reproduction had taken place (previously bacteria had been thought to reproduce only by cell division). His work launched a new era in bacterial genetics, and laid the foundation for recombinant DNA technology.<br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1946",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1946-ecoli-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1946-ecoli-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Joshua Lederberg describes sexual reproduction in bacteria",
            "JulianDayStart": 2431822,
            "StartDisplay": "1946",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1946",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15973
        },
        {
            "Body": "The former Galton Laboratory Serum Unit was re-established as the Medical Research Council Blood Group Unit at the Lister Institute in London, under the direction of Robert Race. At the same time, a separate Blood Group Reference Laboratory was set up in the same institute, under the direction of Arthur Mourant.<br />",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1946",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "MRC Blood Group Unit established in London",
            "JulianDayStart": 2431822,
            "StartDisplay": "1946",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1946",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15981
        },
        {
            "Body": "In this book, Grüneberg extended his argument for the relevance of genetic studies in mice and other models to our understanding of human disease. After introducing the concept of inherited diseases in general, he went on to discuss the advantages and limitations of working with different inbred strains to tease out the influence of genes on physical characteristics. Topics covered included development, the central nervous system and immunity.<br />",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1947",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Hans Grüneberg publishes 'Animal Genetics and Medicine'",
            "JulianDayStart": 2432187,
            "StartDisplay": "1947",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1947",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15990
        },
        {
            "Body": "The influence of the agriculturalist Trofim Lysenko in the Soviet Union reached its peak when he denounced genetics as &quot;a bourgeois pseudoscience&quot;. The Soviet Academy of Sciences banned the teaching of Mendelian genetics throughout the Soviet Union, replacing it with the spurious theories of the neo-Lamarckian I V Michurin. Soviet science would not fully return to the mainstream of genetics research until Lysenko was disgraced and forced to resign from his post in 1965. Joseph Stalin's successor, Nikita Khrushchev, eventually declared that, under Lysenko's leadership, &quot;Soviet agricultural research spent over 30 years in darkness&quot;. <br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1948",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1948-Lysenko-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1948-Lysenko-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "USSR bans genetics",
            "JulianDayStart": 2432552,
            "StartDisplay": "1948",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1948",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 15998
        },
        {
            "Body": "The American Society of Human Genetics was founded &quot;to provide leadership in research, education and service in human genetics&quot;. The first President was Herman J Muller. The following year, the first issue of the influential 'American Journal of Human Genetics' appeared, and a meeting has taken place in a major US city every year since. The importance of the Society as a body representing geneticists in the USA was greatly increased with the advent of medical genetics services in the late 1950s; by the 1980s, genetic counselling had grown to such an extent that a new body, the Americal College of Medical Genetics, was founded to represent its practitioners.<br />",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1948",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "American Society of Human Genetics founded",
            "JulianDayStart": 2432552,
            "StartDisplay": "1948",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1948",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16006
        },
        {
            "Body": "In the late 1940s it was still not possible to discern the differences between mammalian chromosomes accurately. The Canadian neuroscientist Murray Barr discovered dark-staining bodies in the nuclei of the neurons of female cats. He and his colleague E G Bertram found that they were made of chromosomal material. He confirmed that other female mammals also have these structures, which were later called 'sex chromatin' or 'Barr bodies'. This made it possible to diagnose individuals who had conditions attributed to extra or missing copies of the X chromosome.<br />",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1949",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Murray Barr discovers sex chromatin",
            "JulianDayStart": 2432918,
            "StartDisplay": "1949",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1949",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16015
        },
        {
            "Body": "\n<p>\nHeaded by Max Perutz, the Unit for Research in the Molecular Structure of Biological Systems at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge was using X-ray crystallography to discover the three-dimensional structure of proteins. On joining the unit, aged 34, Francis Crick began a new programme of PhD research. His thesis, 'Polypeptides and proteins: X-ray studies', was submitted in July 1953.\n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp;\n</p>",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1949",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Francis Crick joins the Medical Research Council’s unit at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge",
            "JulianDayStart": 2432918,
            "StartDisplay": "1949",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1949",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16031
        },
        {
            "Body": "\n<p>\nLinus Pauling, a professor of organic chemistry at Caltech, proposed that sickle-cell disease, a recessive disorder inherited in Mendelian fashion, is caused by a small change in the haemoglobin molecule. In the same year, J B S Haldane independently suggested that haemoglobin mutations are selected for in malarial environments, because they provide some protection to carriers who have only one copy of the gene. In 1954, Tony Allison, unaware of Haldane's speculation, provided evidence that this was true. In 1957, Vernon Ingram at the MRC molecular biology unit in Cambridge showed that sickle-cell disease was caused by a single amino acid difference in one of the haemoglobin molecule's protein chains. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Sickle cell anemia a molecular disease\" href=\"http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/blood/papers/1949p.15.html\">Read the original paper</a>\n</p>",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1949",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1949-sickle-cell-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1949-sickle-cell-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Linus Pauling suggests that sickle cell disease is a molecular disorder",
            "JulianDayStart": 2432918,
            "StartDisplay": "1949",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1949",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16023
        },
        {
            "Body": "\n<p>\nRudolf Signer of Bern, Switzerland, had developed a method of extracting good-quality DNA from calf thymus. At a meeting of the Faraday Society in May, he gave away samples of it to several scientists including Maurice Wilkins of King's College London. Wilkins invited Raymond Gosling, a PhD student at King's, to take X-ray diffraction photographs of the DNA. Gosling and Wilkins discovered that they could get an excellent diffraction image by keeping bundles of fibres moist. The following year Wilkins presented the image at a conference in Naples. James Watson was in the audience, and Wilkins's talk made him determined to work on the structure of DNA. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Wilkins video on DNA\" href=\"http://www.dnalc.org/view/15337-Use-of-X-ray-crstallography-to-prove-that-DNA-is-crystalline-Maurice-Wilkins.html\" target=\"_blank\">Watch Wilkins talk about his use of x-ray crystallography to&nbsp;prove that DNA is crytalline<br /></a>\n</p>",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1950",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Maurice Wilkins begins to study DNA",
            "JulianDayStart": 2433283,
            "StartDisplay": "1950",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1950",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16047
        },
        {
            "Body": "\n<p>\nNucleic acids are polymers made up of four nucleotide bases linked to a sugar-phosphate backbone. Erwin Chargaff and Ernst Vischer at Columbia University analysed DNA from different sources and found that the proportions of the four bases - the two purines, adenine (A) and guanine (G), and the two pyrimidines, thymine (T) and cytosine (C) - were not equal. But there were always the same number of As as Ts and the same number of Gs as Cs. Three years later, this observation provided James Watson and Francis Crick with a vital insight that led to the discovery of the double helix: that A is always paired with T, and C with G. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Chagraff article on base pair rations\" href=\"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02173653\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper<br /></a>\n</p>",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1950",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1950-base-pairs-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1950-base-pairs-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Erwin Chargaff discovers equal base ratios in DNA",
            "JulianDayStart": 2433283,
            "StartDisplay": "1950",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1950",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16039
        },
        {
            "Body": "\n<p>\n'Blood Groups in Man' was the first text (and for 25 years the definitive text) on the genetics of the systems of blood group antigens that determine the safety of transfusions. Robert Race was Director of the MRC Blood Group Research Unit at the Lister Institute in London; Sanger was his colleague and later became his wife. The book went through six editions up to 1975. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Blood groups in man b18023964\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18023964#0/5/-1.0039,-0.1992,3.0078,1.8549\" target=\"_blank\">Read the digitised book </a><br />\n</p>",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1950",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27641",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27638",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Robert Race and Ruth Sanger publish 'Blood Groups in Man'",
            "JulianDayStart": 2433283,
            "StartDisplay": "1950",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1950",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16055
        },
        {
            "Body": "James Watson trained in the genetics of bacteriophage (tiny viruses) at the University of Indiana before being sent to Copenhagen in 1950 to learn nucleic acid chemistry. The following year, he moved to the Medical Research Council Unit at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, where he met and became friends with Francis Crick. Watson persuaded Crick that DNA, rather than protein, should be the focus of their studies. Crick agreed, although he knew that Maurice Wilkins was working on DNA at King's College London. Watson and Crick produced their first model of the structure of DNA within the year, but this proved to be incorrect.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1951",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "James Watson arrives at the MRC Unit in Cambridge and meets Francis Crick",
            "JulianDayStart": 2433648,
            "StartDisplay": "1951",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1951",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16064
        },
        {
            "Body": "Proteins consist of long chains made up of 20 different amino acids, but their arrangement in the chain was unknown. In the Department of Biochemistry at the University of Cambridge, Fred Sanger developed a method of radioactively labelling the amino acids at the ends of fragments of the protein insulin. He separated the fragments using paper chromatography and recorded the patterns on photographic film. Analysing the amino acid content of each fragment enabled him to reconstruct the full sequences of the molecule's B chain. The A chain followed two years later, and the bonds between the two in 1955. His results showed that each protein had a unique sequence. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1958.<br />",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1951",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1951-insulin-model-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1951-insulin-model-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Fred Sanger sequences the insulin protein chain  ",
            "JulianDayStart": 2433648,
            "StartDisplay": "1951",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1951",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16072
        },
        {
            "Body": "To determine whether protein or DNA carries virus infection into cells, Alfred Hershey and his colleague Martha Chase at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York, grew bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) with radioactively labelled sulphur (which will mark only protein) and phosphorus (which will mark only DNA). Using a kitchen blender to separate the cytoplasm of the infected bacteria from their cell walls, Hershey and Chase showed that DNA from the bacteriophage ended up inside the bacterium, while the bacteriophage protein was stuck to the outer membrane. The 'Waring blender experiment' helped to confirm that DNA is the genetic material.<br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1952",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase show that viral DNA enters host cells",
            "JulianDayStart": 2434013,
            "StartDisplay": "1952",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1952",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16080
        },
        {
            "Body": "Working at Birmingham University and (from 1951 onwards) UCL, Medawar and his colleagues Rupert Billingham and Leslie Brent showed that mice can accept skin grafts from genetically dissimilar strains if they have been injected with cells from those strains before birth. The work confirmed Frank Macfarlane Burnet's hypothesis that immunity develops around the time of birth and shortly afterwards.<br />",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1952",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26626",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/Medawar-notebook-1952-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Peter Medawar publishes evidence of acquired immunological tolerance",
            "JulianDayStart": 2434013,
            "StartDisplay": "1952",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1952",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16088
        },
        {
            "Body": "In his book 'Eugenics: Galton and after', Carlos Blacker acknowledged the increasingly negative public attitude to eugenics in the aftermath of the 'racial hygiene' policies of the National Socialist government of Germany under Adolf Hitler. Around this time, he resigned from his post of General Secretary at the Eugenics Society.<br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1952",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Carlos Blacker publishes 'Eugenics: Galton and after'",
            "JulianDayStart": 2434013,
            "StartDisplay": "1952",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1952",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16096
        },
        {
            "Body": "Working at the University of Glasgow, Guido Pontecorvo discovered that the fungus Aspergillus nidulans can recombine genetic information and generate variability by fusing cells that are not sex cells. He found that this was part of a cycle that he dubbed the parasexual cycle. Years later, his work was applied in studies of human cells in culture.<br />",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1952",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Guido Pontecorvo discovers gene mixing without sex",
            "JulianDayStart": 2434013,
            "StartDisplay": "1952",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1952",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16113
        },
        {
            "Body": "At King's College London, Rosalind Franklin was preparing samples of DNA with different amounts of water in the molecule for X-ray diffraction studies. She called her DNA samples the 'A' and 'B' forms. Photo 51, which revealed evidence that the structure of DNA is a helix, was an X-ray diffraction pattern of the B form. She put it aside to continue working on the A form. The following year, after Franklin had decided to leave King's and had been ordered to give up work on DNA, Wilkins showed the photo to James Watson. It was crucially important in Watson and Francis Crick's discovery of the double helix.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1952",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1952-xray-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1952-xray-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Rosalind Franklin produces ‘Photo 51’ of DNA",
            "JulianDayStart": 2434013,
            "StartDisplay": "1952",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1952",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16104
        },
        {
            "Body": "In the 25 April 1953 issue of Nature, James Watson and Francis Crick published their model of the structure of DNA - two chains of complementary nucleotide bases wound into a double helix. Working in the Medical Research Council Unit at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, they had deduced this structure from their own model building, and from crystallographic studies by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin at King's College London (who also published papers in the same issue). Watson and Crick published a second paper in May that proposed a mechanism for DNA replication. Crick, Watson and Wilkins shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery in 1962.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1953",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1953-double-helix-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1953-double-helix-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "James Watson and Francis Crick publish the double helix structure of DNA",
            "JulianDayStart": 2434379,
            "StartDisplay": "1953",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1953",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16121
        },
        {
            "Body": "The German paediatrician Horst Bickel, then working at the Children's Hospital in Birmingham, showed that the metabolic disorder phenylketonuria could be treated by strictly controlling the amount of phenylalanine in the diet of affected children. Whereas untreated children had learning difficulties, those on the restricted diet developed normal brain function. The discovery opened the way to national screening programmes for newborn children so that affected children could be placed on the diet from birth.<br />",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1953",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Horst Bickel demonstrates dietary treatment of PKU",
            "JulianDayStart": 2434379,
            "StartDisplay": "1953",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1953",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16129
        },
        {
            "Body": "Mourant was head of the Medical Research Council's Blood Group Reference Laboratory, which from 1952 had incorporated the World Health Organization's International Blood Group Reference Laboratory. He created world maps showing variations in the frequency of different blood types in the world's populations. The fact that all humans share the same blood group systems suggested close genetic similarity among races, while the differences in the blood group frequencies were a source of information about recent human evolutionary history.<br />",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1954",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26641",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/Mourant-1954-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Arthur Mourant publishes 'The Distribution of Human Blood Groups'",
            "JulianDayStart": 2434744,
            "StartDisplay": "1954",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1954",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16138
        },
        {
            "Body": "James Renwick and Sylvia Lawler, then both young researchers at the Galton Laboratory at UCL, published a study of five large pedigrees in which they demonstrated linkage between the ABO blood group system and a birth defect called nail patella syndrome. The study, which used statistical methods to compare the likelihood of linkage with the likelihood that such associations would arise by chance, set new standards in both documentation and analysis.<br />",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1955",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "First study to exploit statistical methods to find linkage in large families",
            "JulianDayStart": 2435109,
            "StartDisplay": "1955",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1955",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16146
        },
        {
            "Body": "This was the immunologist’s first published collection of essays, and included the title essay on the fascination of transplantation immunology. He described the book as giving ‘a true picture of what young biologists were thinking about before the Enlightenment ushered in by the recognition of DNA as the vector of genetic information’.",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1955",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Peter Medawar publishes 'The Uniqueness of the Individual'",
            "JulianDayStart": 2435109,
            "StartDisplay": "1955",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1955",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16162
        },
        {
            "Body": "In 1923, Theophilis Painter reported, incorrectly, that human cells have 48 chromosomes. For more than 30 years, scientists accepted this as fact, until Javan-born plant geneticist Joe Hin Tjio, working in Albert Levan's Institute of Genetics at the University of Lund in Sweden, used a drug called colchicine to freeze human cells at a stage in the cell's reproductive cycle called metaphase. He then spread out the chromosomes so that they could be seen individually. This enabled him to see that human cells have 46 chromosomes, a discovery that launched the field of human cytogenetics. <br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1956",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1956-chromosomes-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1956-chromosomes-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Correct human chromosome count revealed",
            "JulianDayStart": 2435474,
            "StartDisplay": "1956",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1956",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16154
        },
        {
            "Body": "In a lecture on protein synthesis for the Society of Experimental Biology in London, Francis Crick proposed that the DNA sequence is a code for the protein sequence. As he had done two years previously in an unpublished note circulated to the members of the 'RNA Tie Club', he predicted the existence of 'adaptors' that transfer the information (later found to be transfer RNAs). His 'central dogma' asserted that information flows from DNA to protein, but not back again. The lecture was published the following year as 'On Protein Synthesis'.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1957",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1957-crick-centraldogma-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1957-crick-centraldogma-250",
            "UsedBy": [
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            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Francis Crick proposes the ‘sequence hypothesis’ and the ‘central dogma’",
            "JulianDayStart": 2435840,
            "StartDisplay": "1957",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1957",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16170
        },
        {
            "Body": "At the Medical Research Council Unit at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, Vernon Ingram was analysing normal and sickle cell haemoglobin using Fred Sanger's protein sequencing techniques. He began by breaking the haemoglobin into fragments using an enzyme called trypsin. In 1956, he showed that only one of these protein fragments differed between normal and sickle cell haemoglobin, and in 1957 he showed that this was due to the substitution of just one amino acid: sickle cell haemoglobin has valine instead of glutamate in a particular position. This was the first evidence that a single amino acid substitution in a single protein can cause a serious disease.<br />",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1957",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1957-sickle-cell-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1957-sickle-cell-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Vernon Ingram discovers that a single change in haemoglobin causes sickle cell anaemia",
            "JulianDayStart": 2435840,
            "StartDisplay": "1957",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1957",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16178
        },
        {
            "Body": "Arthur Kornberg at Washington University in St Louis successfully extracted from E. coli bacteria an enzyme that catalyses the rebuilding of double-stranded DNA from a single DNA strand and a supply of the four nucleotides A, C, G and T. He concluded that the single-stranded DNA acted as a template and that the enzyme, DNA polymerase, extended the complementary strand one nucleotide at a time. His paper on the discovery was initially rejected but was published in 1958, and he won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine the following year.<br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1958",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
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            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Arthur Kornberg discovers the enzyme that builds DNA",
            "JulianDayStart": 2436205,
            "StartDisplay": "1958",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1958",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16186
        },
        {
            "Body": "In 1953, Max Perutz at the Medical Research Council Unit in Cambridge had developed the 'heavy atom' method to obtain interpretable X-ray diffraction images of the haemoglobin molecule. His colleague John Kendrew used this method, together with some of the first crystallographic computer programs, to solve the structure of the myoglobin protein at low resolution. They were surprised to find that the molecule was complex and irregular. In 1959 Perutz published a similar low-resolution structure for haemoglobin, showing that each of its four subunits bore a close resemblance to myoglobin, even though Kendrew's molecule had come from whale meat and Perutz's from horse blood. The discoveries provided evidence that Darwin's theory of evolution holds true at the level of individual molecules. Perutz and Kendrew were awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. <br />",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1958",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1958_john_kendrew-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1958_john_kendrew-250",
            "UsedBy": [
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            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "John Kendrew solves the first protein structure",
            "JulianDayStart": 2436205,
            "StartDisplay": "1958",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1958",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16194
        },
        {
            "Body": "While studying protein synthesis in cell-free extracts of rat liver at the Huntington Laboratory at Massachusetts General Hospital, Mahlon Hoagland and Paul Zamecnik noticed that small RNA molecules briefly associated with radiolabelled amino acids. They correctly inferred that they had discovered the 'adaptor' predicted by Francis Crick that mediated between the messenger RNA template and the protein chain. It was subsequently called transfer RNA, or tRNA.<br />",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1958",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
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            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Mahlon Hoagland and Paul Zamecnik discover transfer RNA",
            "JulianDayStart": 2436205,
            "StartDisplay": "1958",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1958",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16203
        },
        {
            "Body": "In 1956, Joe-Hin Tijo and Albert Levan discovered that humans normally have 46 chromosomes. Three years later, in a study of cells taken from the skin of nine children with Down's syndrome, Jerome Lejeune and Marthe Gautier - working in the laboratory of the geneticist and paediatrician Raymond Turpin in Paris - showed that children with Down's syndrome have 47 chromosomes. Later work showed that Down's syndrome is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. The same year, others identified chromosomal abnormalities in Turner syndrome (females who lack all or part of an X chromosome) and Klinefelter syndrome (males who have at least one extra X chromosome).<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1959",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26669",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1959-chromosome21-250",
            "UsedBy": [
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            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "French scientists discover an extra chromosome in Down’s syndrome",
            "JulianDayStart": 2436570,
            "StartDisplay": "1959",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1959",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16211
        },
        {
            "Body": "Malcolm Ferguson-Smith, a young doctor and researcher in clinical genetics, moved from the University of Glasgow to the Department of Medical Genetics at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, newly established by Victor McKusick. He worked on chromosomal abnormalities and set up the first diagnostic service in the USA specifically to look for them.<br />",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1959",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
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            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "First diagnostic genetics service in the US",
            "JulianDayStart": 2436570,
            "StartDisplay": "1959",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1959",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16219
        },
        {
            "Body": "How can the four nucleic acid letters - A, T, C and G - be translated into the 20 amino acids that make up proteins? To answer this question, Francis Crick, Sydney Brenner and their assistant Leslie Barnett induced mutations in the DNA of bacteriophage T4, a virus that infects bacteria. The mutations inserted or deleted individual bases in the DNA, knocking out the function of a crucial phage gene. Two or four mutations rendered the gene inactive, but with three mutations it started to work again. They concluded that the genetic code is a triplet code: three bases code for one amino acid.<br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1961",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26675",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1961-crick-brenner-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Francis Crick and Sydney Brenner discover that the genetic code is a triplet code",
            "JulianDayStart": 2437301,
            "StartDisplay": "1961",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1961",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16227
        },
        {
            "Body": "The first computer program that could correctly calculate the likelihood of genetic linkage in large family pedigrees was published by James Renwick of the University of Glasgow and Jane Schulze of Johns Hopkins University.<br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1961",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26679",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1960-computer-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "First computer program to calculate genetic linkage",
            "JulianDayStart": 2437301,
            "StartDisplay": "1961",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1961",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16235
        },
        {
            "Body": "Jacques Monod, François Jacob and Arthur Pardee at the Pasteur Institute in Paris were working on the problem of gene regulation: how it is that every cell has the same DNA, but different types of cell produce different proteins. Experimenting with E. coli bacteria that produce the enzyme -galactosidase under different conditions, they concluded that the production of the enzyme was under a system of control that included both 'operator' and 'repressor' genes, which could be inactivated by environmental or genetic influences.<br />",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1961",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Regulation of gene expression",
            "JulianDayStart": 2437301,
            "StartDisplay": "1961",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1961",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16243
        },
        {
            "Body": "Since the discovery of the DNA double helix, a group of researchers in the UK, the USA and France (dubbed the 'RNA Tie Club' by the physicist George Gamow) had been tackling the problem of how the DNA code in the nucleus gives rise to new proteins in the cytoplasm. Sydney Brenner and Francis Crick in Cambridge had speculated that RNA, made on the DNA template, carries its message into the cytoplasm where it provides the template for protein production on structures called ribosomes. Working with phage-infected E. coli, Brenner and François Jacob successfully confirmed the idea in Matthew Meselson's laboratory in California.<br />",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1961",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "RNA is the messenger",
            "JulianDayStart": 2437301,
            "StartDisplay": "1961",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1961",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16251
        },
        {
            "Body": "Mary Lyon at the Medical Research Council's Radiobiology Research Unit in Oxfordshire noticed that the female offspring of a normal dark mouse and a white mouse with an X chromosome mutation had speckled fur. She suggested that in early development, one of each pair of X chromosomes in the cells of a female, and all descendants of that cell, are inactivated. The inactivated X chromosomes turned out to correspond to the dense 'Barr bodies' identified in the cells of female mammals by Barr and Bertram in 1949. The process came to be known as X chromosome inactivation, or 'lyonisation', and proved to be significant in understanding human inherited disorders.<br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1961",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26685",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1961-Mary-Lyon-250.jpg",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Mary Lyon discovers X chromosome inactivation",
            "JulianDayStart": 2437301,
            "StartDisplay": "1961",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1961",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16260
        },
        {
            "Body": "While working at the MRC Blood Group Research Unit in London, Race and Sanger analysed samples of blood and serum from all over the world. They discovered a new antigen, Xg, which in 1963 they located on the short arm of the X chromosome. The discovery was significant because the antigen assisted with linkage studies for genetic disorders associated with the X chromosome.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1962",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26691",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1962-race-sanger-blood-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Robert Race and Ruth Sanger discover an X-linked blood group antigen",
            "JulianDayStart": 2437666,
            "StartDisplay": "1962",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1962",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16268
        },
        {
            "Body": "Lionel Penrose had been Galton Professor of Eugenics since 1945 but disliked the term, which did not reflect his own interest in medical genetics. From 1954 he changed the name of the Galton Laboratory's journal from 'Annals of Eugenics' to 'Annals of Human Genetics', but it was not until 1963 that he was able to persuade the authorities at UCL to change the name of the chair to the Galton Professorship in Human Genetics.<br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1963",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
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            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Lionel Penrose renames his chair in eugenics as the Galton Professorship in Human Genetics",
            "JulianDayStart": 2438031,
            "StartDisplay": "1963",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1963",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16277
        },
        {
            "Body": "Recognising that eugenic ideals had fallen into disfavour, the Eugenics Society applied for charitable status as an educational foundation and has since ceased to campaign for eugenic policies. It is now known as the Galton Institute.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1963",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27649",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27646",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Eugenics Society ceases propaganda activities",
            "JulianDayStart": 2438031,
            "StartDisplay": "1963",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1963",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16286
        },
        {
            "Body": "Watson's textbook 'The Molecular Biology of the Gene' became required reading for biology students and subsequently went through five further editions.<br />",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1965",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1965-watson-draft-ch1-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1965-watson-draft-ch1-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "James Watson publishes 'The Molecular Biology of the Gene'",
            "JulianDayStart": 2438762,
            "StartDisplay": "1965",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1965",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16294
        },
        {
            "Body": "How did the specific sequence of bases in DNA, and in the RNA copied from this DNA, code for the amino acids that make up proteins? In 1961, Marshall Nirenberg and Heinrich Matthaei at the US National Institutes of Health uncovered the first part of this code. They created a synthetic form of RNA made only of uracil (one of the four RNA nucleotides), which drove the production of a protein made only of the amino acid phenylalanine - they had discovered that UUU 'spells' phenylalanine. Other researchers, notably Har Gobind Khorana in Wisconsin, took up the challenge to determine the rest of the code. By 1966 it was complete, and Francis Crick was able to draw up a table that showed how each combination of RNA letters spells out an amino acid or a 'nonsense codon' marking the end of a sequence.",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1966",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
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            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "The genetic code is cracked",
            "JulianDayStart": 2439127,
            "StartDisplay": "1966",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1966",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16302
        },
        {
            "Body": "James Watson's personal account of the 1953 discovery of the DNA structure was a radical departure from conventional scientific autobiography. He supplemented his memory of Cambridge in the early 1950s with the letters he wrote to his parents at the time. Both Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins saw the draft and were opposed to publication, partly because of the book's unfair depiction of Rosalind Franklin, who had died in 1958. Harvard University Press withdrew its offer to publish, but Athenaeum took it on instead. It appeared with an apologetic epilogue reappraising Franklin's contribution.",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1968",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
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            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "James Watson publishes The Double Helix",
            "JulianDayStart": 2439857,
            "StartDisplay": "1968",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1968",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16311
        },
        {
            "Body": "At Johns Hopkins University, Smith isolated an enzyme, endonuclease R, from the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae. He showed that it cut double-stranded DNA from a virus called phage P22 at specific sites and into roughly equal-sized pieces. Such restriction enzymes would act as the molecular 'scissors' necessary to break and recombine DNA molecules, and help to launch the recombinant DNA revolution.",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1970",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Hamilton Smith discovers the first restriction enzymes",
            "JulianDayStart": 2440588,
            "StartDisplay": "1970",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1970",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16319
        },
        {
            "Body": "Peter Duesberg and Peter Vogt in the USA discovered that a sequence of nucleotides within the RNA of the Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), which causes cancer in chickens, was responsible for its carcinogenic activity. This was subsequently isolated and recognised as a gene, src, the first oncogene (cancer-causing gene). Others would discover later that this gene exists in healthy animals of other species, including humans. Oncogenes turned out to be part of our normal genetic make-up, and much cancer research today is directed towards finding the molecular triggers that activate them.",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1970",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1970-oncogene-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1970-oncogene-250",
            "UsedBy": [
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            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Peter Duesberg and Peter Vogt discover the first oncogene",
            "JulianDayStart": 2440588,
            "StartDisplay": "1970",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1970",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16335
        },
        {
            "Body": "Francis Crick's 'central dogma of biology' stated that information could flow only from DNA to RNA to protein. But some viruses, such as Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), have genetic material that is RNA and not DNA. Howard Temin at the University of Wisconsin-Madison proposed that the RNA of infecting RSV acted as a template for the synthesis of viral DNA in the host cell - in other words, reverse transcription - and discovered the enzyme responsible. David Baltimore at MIT simultaneously made the same discovery. The enzyme, reverse transcriptase, became an extremely valuable tool in molecular biology as it can make complementary DNA copies of messenger RNA.",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1970",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1970-transcriptase-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1970-transcriptase-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Howard Temin and David Baltimore independently discover reverse transcriptase",
            "JulianDayStart": 2440588,
            "StartDisplay": "1970",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1970",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16327
        },
        {
            "Body": "More than five years after the genetic code had been cracked, there was no easy way to read DNA. At Cornell University, Ray Wu and Ellen Taylor succeeded in reading the sequence of unpaired nucleotides at either end of the DNA molecule from the virus bacteriophage lambda. Using enzymes to cut and repair this sequence, followed by sequencing of the separate pieces, the researchers could read off the 12 nucleotides at one end as GGGCGGCGACCT. The sequence at the other end was exactly complementary, as expected as the two 'sticky ends' of the DNA molecule can pair with one another to form a circular chromosome when the phage infects a bacterial cell.",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1971",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
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            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "First DNA sequence produced",
            "JulianDayStart": 2440953,
            "StartDisplay": "1971",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1971",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16344
        },
        {
            "Body": "California-based Cetus - founded by Ronald Cape, Peter Farley and the Nobel Prize-winning physicist Donald Glaser - began by offering a a fast screening service to pharmaceutical and other companies looking for microbes that could increase the production of antibiotics or other products. It went on to develop the use of recombinant technology to produce medically useful agents. Many competitors soon sprang up, including Genentech and Chiron. ",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1971",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
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            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "First biotechnology company, Cetus, is formed",
            "JulianDayStart": 2440953,
            "StartDisplay": "1971",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1971",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16351
        },
        {
            "Body": "Inspired by work he did as a young researcher with Guido Pontecorvo at Glasgow, Frank H Ruddle at Yale was using the somatic cell hybridisation method to find genes. He convened the first workshop at Yale for researchers interested in locating genes on human chromosomes. One hundred genes were located at this workshop, and subsequent regular workshops would assign around 2000 genes to chromosomal locations before the launch of the Human Genome Project in 1989. The mapping data were stored in a publicly available database, setting a precedent for the sharing of human genome information.",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1973",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
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            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "First human gene mapping workshop",
            "JulianDayStart": 2441684,
            "StartDisplay": "1973",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1973",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16365
        },
        {
            "Body": "Working at the MRC Mammalian Genetics Unit in Edinburgh, Edwin Southern became frustrated with his attempts to find a gene by analysing pieces of DNA on a gel. He developed a new method: he soaked his gels and used paper towels to draw the DNA out, fixing it to a fine membrane filter. He then used a radioactively labelled piece of complementary DNA or RNA to probe for the matching gene and located it using photographic film. The method, nicknamed Southern blotting, would prove crucial to the success of later discoveries such as DNA fingerprinting.",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1975",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1975-southern-blot-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1975-southern-blot-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Ed Southern finds a quick way of finding individual genes",
            "JulianDayStart": 2442414,
            "StartDisplay": "1975",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1975",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16373
        },
        {
            "Body": "At the Asilomar Conference on California's Monterey Peninsula, about 140 biologists, doctors and lawyers debated the legal, ethical and biosafety aspects of continuing with research on recombinant DNA. A year previously, a committee of the US National Academy of Sciences had called for all such research to be halted until such a conference had taken place. The Asilomar Conference, organised by the Stanford University geneticist Paul Berg, established guidelines that allowed research to continue under conditions that ensured the acceptable containment of genetically modified organisms.",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1975",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
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            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Geneticists agree guidelines on recombinant research",
            "JulianDayStart": 2442414,
            "StartDisplay": "1975",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1975",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16382
        },
        {
            "Body": "Fred Sanger and his colleague Alan Coulson at the Medical Research Council's Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge developed what they called the 'plus and minus' method to sequence the DNA of the bacteriophage ?X174, a tiny virus. The sequence was almost complete when he and his colleagues developed an even quicker and simpler method, known as the dideoxy chain termination method. Using this method they quickly finished the ?X174 genome, which consisted of 5386 base pairs. The dideoxy method was the basis of the automated, high-speed sequencing technology that would complete the human genome by 2003.",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1977",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Fred Sanger sequences first DNA genome",
            "JulianDayStart": 2443145,
            "StartDisplay": "1977",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1977",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16389
        },
        {
            "Body": "Working independently, Richard Roberts at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory and Philip Sharp at MIT discovered that sequences of DNA that encode proteins can be interrupted by non-coding sequences. They concluded that the process of transcription into messenger RNA includes a step in which the unwanted loops or 'introns' are edited out and the coding sequence or 'exons' spliced together. One consequence is that the same gene, spliced in different ways, may give rise to different products. During evolution, individual exons may have been shuffled between genes, providing an alternative and more rapid source of variation than random, single-nucleotide mutations.",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1977",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Richard Roberts and Philip Sharp discover split genes",
            "JulianDayStart": 2443145,
            "StartDisplay": "1977",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1977",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16402
        },
        {
            "Body": "David Goeddel and colleagues at the California biotech company Genentech and the nearby City of Hope Medical Centre succeeded in producing human insulin from E. coli bacteria transformed with the human insulin gene. The technology was licensed to the pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly, which obtained federal approval to market the recombinant insulin in 1982. Genentech went on to market recombinant interferon and human growth hormone.",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1978",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1978-insulin-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1978-insulin-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Recombinant human insulin produced",
            "JulianDayStart": 2443510,
            "StartDisplay": "1978",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1978",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16410
        },
        {
            "Body": "Using restriction enzymes, it is possible to make 'restriction maps' that represent genes or genomes as a series of DNA fragments of characteristic sizes. Genetic variation shows up as differences in the sizes of the fragments, known as restriction fragment length polymorphisms, or RFLPs. In 1980, David Botstein at MIT and his colleagues proposed that if RFLPs could be identified at regular intervals throughout the whole human genome, they would act as markers in linkage studies of human disease genes. The strategy was very successful, and the first disease gene - for Huntington's disease - was mapped using RFLPs as markers just three years later.<br />",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1980",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Landmarks on the map of disease genes",
            "JulianDayStart": 2444240,
            "StartDisplay": "1980",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1980",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16419
        },
        {
            "Body": "Fred Sanger was the first person to sequence a human genome, while working at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge. It was not the 'nuclear' human genome (the chromosomes found in the nucleus of human cells, which were not sequenced until the 2000s) but the much smaller genome found in mitochondria, the structures that provide energy to the cells. Sanger used the 'shotgun' method to break up the mitochondrial DNA into randomly sized fragments and then sequenced its 16 569 base pairs. His manual sequence was later shown to be 99.93 per cent correct, a remarkable result. <br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1981",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Human mitochondrial DNA sequenced",
            "JulianDayStart": 2444606,
            "StartDisplay": "1981",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1981",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16428
        },
        {
            "Body": "While searching for repeated sequences or 'minisatellites' in the non-coding regions of human DNA, Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester ran radioactively labelled samples from several individuals through a gel. He found that the exact sequence pattern in the minisatellites was unique to each individual - each person had, in effect, a DNA fingerprint, which looks something like a bar code. Almost immediately the technology was applied in forensic investigations, paternity testing and immigration disputes.<br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1984",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26742",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1984-genetic-fingerprinting-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Alec Jeffreys discovers DNA fingerprinting",
            "JulianDayStart": 2445701,
            "StartDisplay": "1984",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1984",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16436
        },
        {
            "Body": "Kary Mullis at the Cetus Corporation, a Californian biotechnology company, discovered that if he separated the two strands of a piece of DNA, attached primers (short lengths of DNA) to each strand and then added the enzyme DNA polymerase, the two strands would each be reconstituted as a double helix.  By repeating the process - termed the polymerase chain reaction, or PCR - an initially tiny DNA sample could be amplified to an amount that could be tested or used in experiments. The crucial breakthrough was to use a DNA polymerase from a heat-tolerant bacterium, Thermus aquaticus (known as Taq), because the DNA sample has to be heated to separate the strands. PCR became an essential tool in biomedical and forensic science.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1985",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Kary Mullis invents the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify DNA",
            "JulianDayStart": 2446067,
            "StartDisplay": "1985",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1985",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16444
        },
        {
            "Body": "Subtitled 'A personal view of scientific discovery', Crick's intellectual autobiography was a much cooler account of the story of the discovery of the structure of DNA, and of his subsequent career, than James Watson had offered in 'The Double Helix'.<br />",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1988",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Francis Crick publishes 'What Mad Pursuit'",
            "JulianDayStart": 2447162,
            "StartDisplay": "1988",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1988",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16453
        },
        {
            "Body": "After a meeting at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, an international group of scientists met and founded an organisation to coordinate genome research. They invited Victor McKusick to chair it and called it the Human Genome Organisation, or HUGO. Initial funding came from a range of non-governmental sources, including the Howard Hughes Foundation, the Wellcome Trust and the Imperial Cancer Research Fund. Its Single Chromosome Workshops and other meetings take over from the Human Genome Mapping workshops started in 1973. <br />",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1988",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "The Human Genome Organisation (HUGO)",
            "JulianDayStart": 2447162,
            "StartDisplay": "1988",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1988",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16462
        },
        {
            "Body": "The Eugenics Society moves out of Eccleston Square in London, its home for more than 50 years, and changes its name to the Galton Institute in honour of its founder. The Institute promotes understanding of the biological and social aspects of human genetics.",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1989",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/6374",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Eugenics Society is renamed the Galton Institute",
            "JulianDayStart": 2447528,
            "StartDisplay": "1989",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1989",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16496
        },
        {
            "Body": "After some years of discussion, the US Department of Energy and National Institutes of Health (NIH) signed a memorandum of understanding to collaborate on the sequencing of the human genome in 1988. The following year James Watson was appointed the first Director of the NIH's National Center for Human Genome Research (later the National Human Genome Research Institute). Watson was instrumental in persuading the Wellcome Trust to fund a sequencing programme in the UK under John Sulston, then at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology. Watson resigned in 1992 after a difference of opinion with the NIH Director, Bernardine Healy, over the patenting of gene sequences.<br />",
            "Priority": 3,
            "Year": "1989",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "James Watson is appointed Director of the Office of Genome Research",
            "JulianDayStart": 2447528,
            "StartDisplay": "1989",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1989",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16472
        },
        {
            "Body": "In the 1980s, research groups in several countries were hunting for the gene involved in cystic fibrosis. The race was won by Lap-Chee Tsui at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto and Francis Collins at the University of Michigan, who used genetic markers to home in on a region of chromosome 7. They discovered that most cystic fibrosis patients were missing a set of three nucleotides on both of their chromosomes. The mutation was in a gene that codes for a protein called cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator, or CFTR, which regulates the flow of chloride ions across membranes in the lungs and other tissues. The discovery opened the way to further study of the protein and its function but did not instantly lead to new therapies.<br />",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1989",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Cystic fibrosis gene isolated",
            "JulianDayStart": 2447528,
            "StartDisplay": "1989",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1989",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16482
        },
        {
            "Body": "The US Department of Energy and National Institutes of Health presented a five-year plan to the US Congress, formally inaugurating the first phase of what was planned as a 15-year project to sequence the human genome and the genomes of model organisms including yeast, roundworm and fruit fly.<br />",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1990",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26771",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1990-hgp-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Launch of the Human Genome Project",
            "JulianDayStart": 2447893,
            "StartDisplay": "1990",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1990",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16504
        },
        {
            "Body": "\n<p>\nThe first approved gene therapy trial in humans was carried out by Dr W French Anderson and colleagues at the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute in the USA. They treated Ashanti DeSilva, a four-year-old girl with severe combined immunodeficiency disease, by engineering some of her own white blood cells to contain a healthy copy of the malfunctioning gene. They then injected the cells back into the girl. She showed some improvement, although she continued to need regular injections of the enzyme adenosine deaminase.\n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp;\n</p>",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1990",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "First approved gene therapy treatment",
            "JulianDayStart": 2447893,
            "StartDisplay": "1990",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1990",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16512
        },
        {
            "Body": "John Sulston, who was working on the genome of the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, applied to the Wellcome Trust in 1992 to establish a sequencing facility that would complete the work on the worm and begin the task of sequencing the human genome. The Trust agreed to establish a major genome sequencing centre at Hinxton, near Cambridge, and the Sanger Centre - named after Fred Sanger, the double Nobel Prize-winning biochemist whose DNA-sequencing technique would underpin the Centre's work - officially opened in 1993 in temporary laboratories with Sulston as its first Director.",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1993",
            "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1993-sanger-100.jpg",
            "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1993-sanger-250",
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Wellcome Trust Sanger Centre opens near Cambridge",
            "JulianDayStart": 2448989,
            "StartDisplay": "1993",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1993",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16520
        },
        {
            "Body": "Nancy Wexler of the Hereditary Disease Foundation in California had been collecting samples from a large family living near Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela since 1979. The high frequency of Huntington's disease in this family enabled her and her collaborators to identify a marker that was inherited with the disease in 1983 and to locate the gene on chromosome 4 a decade later. The error was not a deletion or substitution of one or more nucleotides, but an expanded sequence of repeats of the three nucleotides CAG.",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1993",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Huntington’s disease gene discovered",
            "JulianDayStart": 2448989,
            "StartDisplay": "1993",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1993",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16528
        },
        {
            "Body": "Victor Ambros, working at Dartmouth College in the USA, discovered that the lin-4 gene of the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans produces 22-nucleotide molecules of single-stranded RNA. This was a surprise because lin-4 regulates the worm's development, and it was expected to do so by producing a protein. Such RNA molecules, known as 'microRNAs', have subsequently been shown to play an important part in controlling the expression of genes in all eukaryotic species, including humans.",
            "Priority": 4,
            "Year": "1993",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Discovery of micro RNAs",
            "JulianDayStart": 2448989,
            "StartDisplay": "1993",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1993",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16538
        },
        {
            "Body": "Three to five per cent of breast cancer cases are known to involve an inherited predisposition to the disease. By the early 1990s, teams in the USA and the UK had narrowed down the search for a gene that caused such predisposition - 'breast cancer 1' or BRCA1 - to a region on chromosome 17. The first person to locate the gene, in 1994, was Mark Skolnick of Myriad Genetics in the USA. The following year a second gene, BRCA2, was located on chromosome 13 by Mike Stratton and colleagues at the Institute of Cancer Research in London. Women with mutations in these genes carry a very high risk of breast and ovarian cancer.",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1994",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "BRCA1 gene for breast cancer discovered",
            "JulianDayStart": 2449354,
            "StartDisplay": "1994",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1994",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16546
        },
        {
            "Body": "At a strategy meeting of lab heads involved in the Human Genome Project, held in Bermuda, participants agreed that assembled genome sequence data should be made public. They also agreed that it should be placed in public databases within a short time of being produced - ideally, on the same day.",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1996",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "‘Bermuda agreement’ on free release of genomic data",
            "JulianDayStart": 2450084,
            "StartDisplay": "1996",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1996",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16555
        },
        {
            "Body": "Ian Wilmut, Keith Campbell and colleagues at the Roslin Institute near Edinburgh (working with the commercial company PPL Therapeutics) were the first to clone a mammal from a somatic cell. They removed the nucleus from an egg cell of one sheep and replaced it with a nucleus taken from an udder cell of another sheep. The egg was then implanted in the uterus of a third sheep. A single lamb, named Dolly (after Dolly Parton), was born on 5 July.",
            "Priority": 5,
            "Year": "1996",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Birth of Dolly, the cloned sheep",
            "JulianDayStart": 2450084,
            "StartDisplay": "1996",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1996",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16567
        },
        {
            "Body": "The first complete genome of a eukaryotic organism (one whose cells have nuclei) was sequenced by an international collaboration funded as part of the Human Genome Project. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, or baker's yeast, has more than 12 million base pairs split over 16 chromosomes, and 5500-6000 genes.",
            "Priority": 2,
            "Year": "1996",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
              "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/"
            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Completion of the yeast genome",
            "JulianDayStart": 2450084,
            "StartDisplay": "1996",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1996",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16575
        },
        {
            "Body": "At the annual Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory symposium in May, Craig Venter of The Institute of Genomic Research in Rockville, Maryland, announced that he had obtained funding to set up a commercial company (later called Celera Genomics). His aim was to use the 'whole-genome shotgun' method, which leaves out the preliminary chromosome mapping, to produce a 'definitive' human genome sequence and to license it commercially. The Wellcome Trust doubled its funding for human genome sequencing at the Sanger Centre, enabling it to sequence one-third of the genome, and the publicly funded Human Genome Project set a new target to have a 'working draft' of the genome complete by 2001.",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "1996",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
            "FeatureImagePath": null,
            "UsedBy": [
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            ],
            "FirstUsage": "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "Title": "Launch of Celera Genomics",
            "JulianDayStart": 2450084,
            "StartDisplay": "1996",
            "StartDisplayYear": "1996",
            "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
            "EndDisplay": null,
            "EndDisplayYear": null,
            "EventId": 16589
        },
        {
            "Body": "\n<p>\nModern genetics combines the insights of the early geneticists with the discoveries of the molecular biologists, giving us powerful tools in the study of medicine and of human populations. The use we make of these tools is fraught with ethical dilemmas, however. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Timeline test\" href=\"http://library.wellcome.ac.uk/player/b19872586#0/4/-0.0457,0.0866,1.3071,0.6619\">View full item online</a>\n</p>",
            "Priority": 1,
            "Year": "2012",
            "ThumbnailPath": null,
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