text: import copy
  import math
  import numpy as np
  import pandas as pd
  import logging
  import pdb
  from collections import OrderedDict, namedtuple
  from dowhy.causal_refuter import CausalRefutation
  from dowhy.causal_refuter import CausalRefuter
  from dowhy.causal_estimator import CausalEstimator,CausalEstimate
  
  from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression
  from sklearn.neighbors import KNeighborsRegressor
  from sklearn.svm import SVR
  from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestRegressor
  from sklearn.neural_network import MLPRegressor
  
  TestFraction = namedtuple('TestFraction', ['base','other'])
  
  class DummyOutcomeRefuter(CausalRefuter):
      """Refute an estimate by replacing the outcome with a randomly generated variable.
  
      This allows us to have a well defined effect of the treatment on the outcome.
  
      1. We find f(W) for a fixed value of t
      2. For all the other values of t. We obtain the value of dummy outcome as:
         ``y_dummy = h(t) + f(W)``
  
      ::
  
          If we originally started out with
  
                 W
              /    \\
              t --->y
  
          On estimating,
          y_dummy = f(W)
  
                 W
              /     \\
              t --|->y
  
          This ensures that we try to capture as much of W--->Y as possible
  
          On adding h(t)
  
                 W
              /    \\
              t --->y
                h(t)
  
      Supports additional parameters that can be specified in the refute_estimate() method.
  
      :param num_simulations: The number of simulations to be run, which defaults to ``CausalRefuter.DEFAULT_NUM_SIMULATIONS``
      :type num_simulations: int, optional
  
      :param transformation_list: It is a list of actions to be performed to obtain the outcome, which defaults to ``DummyOutcomeRefuter.DEFAULT_TRANSFORMATION``.
        The default transformation is as follows:
  
        ``[("zero",""),("noise", {'std_dev':1} )]``
      :type transformation_list: list, optional
  
      Each of the actions within a transformation is one of the following types:
  
      * function argument: function ``pd.Dataframe -> np.ndarray``
  
          It takes in a function that takes the input data frame as the input and outputs the outcome
          variable. This allows us to create an output varable that only depends on the covariates and does not depend
          on the treatment variable.
  
      * string argument
  
          * Currently it supports some common estimators like
  
              1. Linear Regression
              2. K Nearest Neighbours
              3. Support Vector Machine
              4. Neural Network
              5. Random Forest
  
          * Or functions such as:
  
              1. Permute
                 This permutes the rows of the outcome, disassociating any effect of the treatment on the outcome.
              2. Noise
                 This adds white noise to the outcome with white noise, reducing any causal relationship with the treatment.
              3. Zero
                 It replaces all the values in the outcome by zero
  
          Examples:
              The ``transformation_list`` is of the following form:
  
          * If the function ``pd.Dataframe -> np.ndarray`` is already defined.
            ``[(func,func_params),('permute',{'permute_fraction':val}),('noise',{'std_dev':val})]``
  
            Every function should be able to support a minimum of two arguments ``X_train`` and  ``outcome_train`` which correspond to the training data and the outcome that
            we want  to predict, along with additional parameters such as the learning rate or the momentum constant can be set with the help of ``func_args``.
  
            ``[(neural_network,{'alpha': 0.0001, 'beta': 0.9}),('permute',{'permute_fraction': 0.2}),('noise',{'std_dev': 0.1})]``
  
            The neural network is invoked as ``neural_network(X_train, outcome_train, **args)``.
  
          * If a function from the above list is used
            ``[('knn',{'n_neighbors':5}), ('permute', {'permute_fraction': val} ), ('noise', {'std_dev': val} )]``
  
      :param true_causal_effect: A function that is used to get the True Causal Effect for the modelled dummy outcome.
        It defaults to ``DummyOutcomeRefuter.DEFAULT_TRUE_CAUSAL_EFFECT``, which means that there is no relationship between the treatment and outcome in the
        dummy data.
      :type true_causal_effect: function
  
      The equation for the dummy outcome is given by
      ``y_hat = h(t) + f(W)``
  
      where
  
      * ``y_hat`` is the dummy outcome
      * ``h(t)`` is the function that gives the true causal effect
      * ``f(W)`` is the best estimate of ``y`` obtained keeping ``t`` constant. This ensures that the variation in output of function ``f(w)`` is not caused by ``t``.
  
      .. note:: The true causal effect should take an input of the same shape as the treatment and the output should match the shape of the outcome
  
      :param required_variables: The list of variables to be used as the input for ``y~f(W)``
        This is ``True`` by default, which in turn selects all variables leaving the treatment and the outcome
      :type required_variables: int, list, bool, optional
  
      1. An integer argument refers to how many variables will be used for estimating the value of the outcome
      2. A list explicitly refers to which variables will be used to estimate the outcome
         Furthermore, it gives the ability to explictly select or deselect the covariates present in the estimation of the
         outcome. This is done by either adding or explicitly removing variables from the list as shown below:
  
      .. note::
              * We need to pass required_variables = ``[W0,W1]`` if we want ``W0`` and ``W1``.
              * We need to pass required_variables = ``[-W0,-W1]`` if we want all variables excluding ``W0`` and ``W1``.
  
      3. If the value is True, we wish to include all variables to estimate the value of the outcome.
  
      .. warning:: A ``False`` value is ``INVALID`` and will result in an ``error``.
  
      .. note:: These inputs are fed to the function for estimating the outcome variable. The same set of required_variables is used for each
          instance of an internal estimation function.
  
      :param bucket_size_scale_factor: For continuous data, the scale factor helps us scale the size of the bucket used on the data.
        The default scale factor is ``DummyOutcomeRefuter.DEFAULT_BUCKET_SCALE_FACTOR``.
      :type bucket_size_scale_factor: float, optional
          ::
  
              The number of buckets is given by:
                  (max value - min value)
                  ------------------------
                  (scale_factor * std_dev)
  
      :param min_data_point_threshold: The minimum number of data points for an estimator to run.
        This defaults to ``DummyOutcomeRefuter.MIN_DATA_POINT_THRESHOLD``. If the number of data points is too few
        for a certain category, we make use of the ``DummyOutcomeRefuter.DEFAULT_TRANSFORMATION`` for generaring the dummy outcome
      :type min_data_point_threshold: int, optional
      """
  
      # The currently supported estimators
      SUPPORTED_ESTIMATORS = ["linear_regression", "knn", "svm", "random_forest", "neural_network"]
      # The default standard deviation for noise
      DEFAULT_STD_DEV = 0.1
      # The default scaling factor to determine the bucket size
      DEFAULT_BUCKET_SCALE_FACTOR = 0.5
      # The minimum number of points for the estimator to run
      MIN_DATA_POINT_THRESHOLD = 30
      # The Default Transformation, when no arguments are given, or if the number of data points are insufficient for an estimator
      DEFAULT_TRANSFORMATION = [("zero",""),("noise", {'std_dev': 1} )]
      # The Default True Causal Effect, this is taken to be ZERO by default
      DEFAULT_TRUE_CAUSAL_EFFECT = lambda x: 0
      # The Default split for the number of data points that fall into the training and validation sets
      DEFAULT_TEST_FRACTION = [TestFraction(0.5, 0.5)]
  
      def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
          super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
  
          self._num_simulations = kwargs.pop("num_simulations", CausalRefuter.DEFAULT_NUM_SIMULATIONS)
          self._transformation_list = kwargs.pop("transformation_list", DummyOutcomeRefuter.DEFAULT_TRANSFORMATION)
          self._true_causal_effect = kwargs.pop("true_causal_effect", DummyOutcomeRefuter.DEFAULT_TRUE_CAUSAL_EFFECT)
          self._bucket_size_scale_factor = kwargs.pop("bucket_size_scale_factor", DummyOutcomeRefuter.DEFAULT_BUCKET_SCALE_FACTOR)
          self._min_data_point_threshold = kwargs.pop("min_data_point_threshold", DummyOutcomeRefuter.MIN_DATA_POINT_THRESHOLD)
          self._test_fraction = kwargs.pop("_test_fraction", DummyOutcomeRefuter.DEFAULT_TEST_FRACTION)
          required_variables = kwargs.pop("required_variables", True)
  
          if required_variables is False:
              raise ValueError("The value of required_variables cannot be False")
  
          self._chosen_variables = self.choose_variables(required_variables)
  
          if 'logging_level' in kwargs:
              logging.basicConfig(level=kwargs['logging_level'])
          else:
              logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)
  
          self.logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
  
      def refute_estimate(self):
  
          # We need to change the identified estimand
          # We thus, make a copy. This is done as we don't want
          # to change the original DataFrame
          identified_estimand = copy.deepcopy(self._target_estimand)
          identified_estimand.outcome_variable = ["dummy_outcome"]
  
          self.logger.info("Refutation over {} simulated datasets".format(self._num_simulations) )
          self.logger.info("The transformation passed: {}".format(self._transformation_list) )
  
          simulation_results = []
          refute_list = []
  
          # We use collections.OrderedDict to maintain the order in which the data is stored
          causal_effect_map = OrderedDict()
  
          # Check if we are using an estimator in the transformation list
          estimator_present = self._has_estimator()
  
          # The rationale behind ordering of the loops is the fact that we induce randomness everytime we create the
          # Train and the Validation Datasets. Thus, we run the simulation loop followed by the training and the validation
          # loops. Thus, we can get different values everytime we get the estimator.
          for _ in range( self._num_simulations ):
              estimates = []
  
              if estimator_present == False:
  
                  # Warn the user that the specified parameter is not applicable when no estimator is present in the transformation
                  if self._test_fraction != DummyOutcomeRefuter.DEFAULT_TEST_FRACTION:
                      self.logger.warning("'test_fraction' is not applicable as there is no base treatment value.")
  
                  # We set X_train = 0 and outcome_train to be 0
                  validation_df = self._data
                  X_train = None
                  outcome_train = None
                  X_validation = validation_df[self._chosen_variables].values
                  outcome_validation = validation_df['y'].values
  
                  # Get the final outcome, after running through all the values in the transformation list
                  outcome_validation = self.process_data(X_train, outcome_train, X_validation, outcome_validation, self._transformation_list)
  
                  # Check if the value of true effect has been already stored
                  # We use None as the key as we have no base category for this refutation
                  if None not in causal_effect_map:
                      # As we currently support only one treatment
                      causal_effect_map[None] = self._true_causal_effect( validation_df[ self._treatment_name[0] ] )
  
                  outcome_validation += causal_effect_map[None]
                  new_data = validation_df.assign(dummy_outcome=outcome_validation)
                  new_estimator = CausalEstimator.get_estimator_object(new_data, identified_estimand, self._estimate)
                  new_effect = new_estimator.estimate_effect()
                  estimates.append(new_effect.value)
  
              else:
                  groups = self.preprocess_data_by_treatment()
                  group_count = 0
  
                  if len(self._test_fraction) == 1:
                      self._test_fraction = len(groups) * self._test_fraction
  
                  for key_train, _ in groups:
                      base_train = groups.get_group(key_train).sample(frac=self._test_fraction[group_count].base)
                      train_set = set( [ tuple(line) for line in base_train.values ] )
                      total_set = set( [ tuple(line) for line in groups.get_group(key_train).values ] )
                      base_validation = pd.DataFrame( list( total_set.difference(train_set) ), columns=base_train.columns )
  
                      X_train = base_train[self._chosen_variables].values
                      outcome_train = base_train['y'].values
  
                      validation_df = []
                      transformation_list = self._transformation_list
                      validation_df.append(base_validation)
  
                      for key_validation, _ in groups:
                          if key_validation != key_train:
                              validation_df.append(groups.get_group(key_validation).sample(frac=self._test_fraction[group_count].other))
  
                      validation_df = pd.concat(validation_df)
                      X_validation = validation_df[self._chosen_variables].values
                      outcome_validation = validation_df['y'].values
  
                      # If the number of data points is too few, run the default transformation: [("zero",""),("noise", {'std_dev':1} )]
                      if X_train.shape[0] <= self._min_data_point_threshold:
                          transformation_list = DummyOutcomeRefuter.DEFAULT_TRANSFORMATION
                          self.logger.warning("The number of data points in X_train:{} for category:{} is less than threshold:{}".format(X_train.shape[0], key_train, self._min_data_point_threshold))
                          self.logger.warning("Therefore, defaulting to the minimal set of transformations:{}".format(transformation_list))
  
                      outcome_validation = self.process_data(X_train, outcome_train, X_validation, outcome_validation, transformation_list)
  
                      # Check if the value of true effect has been already stored
                      # This ensures that we calculate the causal effect only once.
                      # We use key_train as we map data with respect to the base category of the data
  
                      if key_train not in causal_effect_map:
                          # As we currently support only one treatment
                          causal_effect_map[key_train] = self._true_causal_effect( validation_df[ self._treatment_name[0] ] )
  
                      # Add h(t) to f(W) to get the dummy outcome
                      outcome_validation += causal_effect_map[key_train]
                      new_data = validation_df.assign(dummy_outcome=outcome_validation)
                      new_estimator = CausalEstimator.get_estimator_object(new_data, identified_estimand, self._estimate)
                      new_effect = new_estimator.estimate_effect()
                      estimates.append(new_effect.value)
                      group_count += 1
  
              simulation_results.append(estimates)
  
          # We convert to ndarray for ease in indexing
          # The data is of the form
          # sim1: cat1 cat2 ... catn
          # sim2: cat1 cat2 ... catn
          simulation_results = np.array(simulation_results)
  
          # Note: We would like the causal_estimator to find the true causal estimate that we have specified through this
          # refuter. Let the value of the true causal effect be h(t). In the following section of code, we wish to find out if h(t) falls in the
          # distribution of the refuter.
  
          if estimator_present == False:
  
              dummy_estimate = CausalEstimate(
                      estimate = causal_effect_map[None],
                      target_estimand =self._estimate.target_estimand,
                      realized_estimand_expr=self._estimate.realized_estimand_expr)
  
              refute = CausalRefutation(
                          dummy_estimate.value,
                          np.mean(simulation_results),
                          refutation_type="Refute: Use a Dummy Outcome"
                      )
  
              refute.add_significance_test_results(
                  self.test_significance(dummy_estimate, np.ravel(simulation_results))
              )
  
              refute.add_refuter(self)
              refute_list.append(refute)
  
          else:
              # True Causal Effect list
              causal_effect_list = list( causal_effect_map.values() )
              # Iterating through the refutation for each category
              for train_category in range(simulation_results.shape[1]):
                  dummy_estimate = CausalEstimate(
                      estimate = causal_effect_list[train_category],
                      target_estimand =self._estimate.target_estimand,
                      realized_estimand_expr=self._estimate.realized_estimand_expr)
  
                  refute = CausalRefutation(
                      dummy_estimate.value,
                      np.mean(simulation_results[:, train_category]),
                      refutation_type="Refute: Use a Dummy Outcome"
                  )
  
                  refute.add_significance_test_results(
                      self.test_significance(dummy_estimate, simulation_results[:, train_category])
                  )
  
                  refute.add_refuter(self)
                  refute_list.append(refute)
          return refute_list
  
      def process_data(self, X_train, outcome_train, X_validation, outcome_validation, transformation_list):
          """
          We process the data by first training the estimators in the transformation_list on ``X_train`` and ``outcome_train``.
          We then apply the estimators on ``X_validation`` to get the value of the dummy outcome, which we store in ``outcome_validation``.
  
          :param X_train: The data of the covariates which is used to train an estimator. It corresponds to the data of a single category of the treatment
          :type X_train: np.ndarray
          :param outcome_train: This is used to hold the intermediate values of the outcome variable in the transformation list
          :type outcome_train: np.ndarray
  
          For Example:
  
          ``[ ('permute', {'permute_fraction': val} ), (func,func_params)]``
  
          The value obtained from permutation is used as an input for the custom estimator.
  
          :param X_validation: The data of the covariates that is fed to a trained estimator to generate a dummy outcome
          :type X_validation: np.ndarray
          :param outcome_validation: This variable stores the dummy_outcome generated by the transformations
          :type outcome_validation: np.ndarray
          :param transformation_list: The list of transformations on the outcome data required to produce a dummy outcome
          :type transformation_list: np.ndarray
          """
          for action, func_args in transformation_list:
              if callable(action):
                  estimator = action(X_train, outcome_train, **func_args)
                  outcome_train = estimator(X_train)
                  outcome_validation = estimator(X_validation)
              elif action in DummyOutcomeRefuter.SUPPORTED_ESTIMATORS:
                  estimator = self._estimate_dummy_outcome(action, X_train, outcome_train, **func_args)
                  outcome_train = estimator(X_train)
                  outcome_validation = estimator(X_validation)
              elif action == 'noise':
                  if X_train is not None:
                      outcome_train = self.noise(outcome_train, **func_args)
                  outcome_validation = self.noise(outcome_validation, **func_args)
              elif action == 'permute':
                  if X_train is not None:
                      outcome_train = self.permute(outcome_train, **func_args)
                  outcome_validation = self.permute(outcome_validation, **func_args)
              elif action =='zero':
                  if X_train is not None:
                      outcome_train = np.zeros(outcome_train.shape)
                  outcome_validation = np.zeros(outcome_validation.shape)
  
          return outcome_validation
  
      def _has_estimator(self):
          """
          This function checks if there is an estimator in the transformation list.
  
          If there are no estimators, we can optimize processing by skipping the
          data preprocessing and running the transformations on the whole dataset.
          """
          for action,_ in self._transformation_list:
              if callable(action) or action in DummyOutcomeRefuter.SUPPORTED_ESTIMATORS:
                  return True
  
          return False
  
      def preprocess_data_by_treatment(self):
          """
          This function groups data based on the data type of the treatment.
  
          Expected variable types supported for the treatment:
  
          * bool
          * pd.categorical
          * float
          * int
  
          :returns: ``pandas.core.groupby.generic.DataFrameGroupBy``
          """
          assert len(self._treatment_name) == 1, "At present, DoWhy supports a simgle treatment variable"
  
          treatment_variable_name = self._treatment_name[0] # As we only have a single treatment
          variable_type = self._data[treatment_variable_name].dtypes
  
          if bool == variable_type:
              groups = self._data.groupby(treatment_variable_name)
              return groups
          # We use string arguments to account for both 32 and 64 bit varaibles
          elif 'float' in variable_type.name or \
                 'int' in variable_type.name:
              # action for continuous variables
              data =  self._data
              std_dev = data[treatment_variable_name].std()
              num_bins = ( data.max() - data.min() )/ (self._bucket_size_scale_factor * std_dev)
              data['bins'] = pd.cut(data[treatment_variable_name], num_bins)
              groups = data.groupby('bins')
              data.drop('bins', axis=1, inplace=True)
              return groups
  
          elif 'categorical' in variable_type.name:
              # Action for categorical variables
              groups = data.groupby(treatment_variable_name)
              groups = data.groupby('bins')
              return groups
          else:
              raise ValueError("Passed {}. Expected bool, float, int or categorical.".format(variable_type.name))
  
      def _estimate_dummy_outcome(self, action, X_train, outcome, **func_args):
          """
          A function that takes in any sklearn estimator and returns a trained estimator
  
          - 'action': str
          The sklearn estimator to be used.
          - 'X_train': np.ndarray
          The variable used to estimate the value of outcome.
          - 'outcome': np.ndarray
          The variable which we wish to estimate.
          - 'func_args': variable length keyworded argument
          The parameters passed to the estimator.
          """
          estimator = self._get_regressor_object(action, **func_args)
          X = X_train
          y = outcome
          estimator = estimator.fit(X, y)
  
          return estimator.predict
  
      def _get_regressor_object(self, action, **func_args):
          """
          Return a sklearn estimator object based on the estimator and corresponding parameters
  
          - 'action': str
          The sklearn estimator used.
          - 'func_args': variable length keyworded argument
          The parameters passed to the sklearn estimator.
          """
          if  action == "linear_regression":
              return LinearRegression(**func_args)
          elif action == "knn":
              return KNeighborsRegressor(**func_args)
          elif action == "svm":
              return SVR(**func_args)
          elif action == "random_forest":
              return RandomForestRegressor(**func_args)
          elif action == "neural_network":
              return MLPRegressor(**func_args)
          else:
              raise ValueError("The function: {} is not supported by dowhy at the moment.".format(action))
  
      def permute(self, outcome, permute_fraction):
          '''
          If the permute_fraction is 1, we permute all the values in the outcome.
          Otherwise we make use of the Fisher Yates shuffle.
          Refer to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher%E2%80%93Yates_shuffle for more details.
  
          'outcome': np.ndarray
          The outcome variable to be permuted.
          'permute_fraction': float [0, 1]
          The fraction of rows permuted.
          '''
          if permute_fraction == 1:
              outcome = pd.DataFrame(outcome)
              outcome.columns = ['y']
              return outcome['y'].sample(frac=1).values
          elif permute_fraction < 1:
              permute_fraction /= 2 # We do this as every swap leads to two changes
              changes = np.where( np.random.uniform(0,1,outcome.shape[0]) <= permute_fraction )[0] # As this is tuple containing a single element (array[...])
              num_rows = outcome.shape[0]
              for change in changes:
                  if change + 1 < num_rows:
                      index = np.random.randint(change+1,num_rows)
                      temp = outcome[change]
                      outcome[change] = outcome[index]
                      outcome[index] = temp
              return outcome
          else:
              raise ValueError("The value of permute_fraction is {}. Which is greater than 1.".format(permute_fraction))
  
      def noise(self, outcome, std_dev):
          """ Add white noise with mean 0 and standard deviation = std_dev
  
          :param 'outcome': np.ndarray
          The outcome variable, to which the white noise is added.
          :param 'std_dev': float
          The standard deviation of the white noise.
  
          :returns: input with added noise.
          """
          return outcome + np.random.normal(scale=std_dev,size=outcome.shape[0])
  