text: /*P:100
   * This is the Launcher code, a simple program which lays out the "physical"
   * memory for the new Guest by mapping the kernel image and the virtual
   * devices, then opens /dev/lguest to tell the kernel about the Guest and
   * control it.
  :*/
  #define _LARGEFILE64_SOURCE
  #define _GNU_SOURCE
  #include <stdio.h>
  #include <string.h>
  #include <unistd.h>
  #include <err.h>
  #include <stdint.h>
  #include <stdlib.h>
  #include <elf.h>
  #include <sys/mman.h>
  #include <sys/param.h>
  #include <sys/types.h>
  #include <sys/stat.h>
  #include <sys/wait.h>
  #include <sys/eventfd.h>
  #include <fcntl.h>
  #include <stdbool.h>
  #include <errno.h>
  #include <ctype.h>
  #include <sys/socket.h>
  #include <sys/ioctl.h>
  #include <sys/time.h>
  #include <time.h>
  #include <netinet/in.h>
  #include <net/if.h>
  #include <linux/sockios.h>
  #include <linux/if_tun.h>
  #include <sys/uio.h>
  #include <termios.h>
  #include <getopt.h>
  #include <assert.h>
  #include <sched.h>
  #include <limits.h>
  #include <stddef.h>
  #include <signal.h>
  #include <pwd.h>
  #include <grp.h>
  
  #include <linux/virtio_config.h>
  #include <linux/virtio_net.h>
  #include <linux/virtio_blk.h>
  #include <linux/virtio_console.h>
  #include <linux/virtio_rng.h>
  #include <linux/virtio_ring.h>
  #include <asm/bootparam.h>
  #include "../../../include/linux/lguest_launcher.h"
  /*L:110
   * We can ignore the 42 include files we need for this program, but I do want
   * to draw attention to the use of kernel-style types.
   *
   * As Linus said, "C is a Spartan language, and so should your naming be."  I
   * like these abbreviations, so we define them here.  Note that u64 is always
   * unsigned long long, which works on all Linux systems: this means that we can
   * use %llu in printf for any u64.
   */
  typedef unsigned long long u64;
  typedef uint32_t u32;
  typedef uint16_t u16;
  typedef uint8_t u8;
  /*:*/
  
  #define PAGE_PRESENT 0x7 	/* Present, RW, Execute */
  #define BRIDGE_PFX "bridge:"
  #ifndef SIOCBRADDIF
  #define SIOCBRADDIF	0x89a2		/* add interface to bridge      */
  #endif
  /* We can have up to 256 pages for devices. */
  #define DEVICE_PAGES 256
  /* This will occupy 3 pages: it must be a power of 2. */
  #define VIRTQUEUE_NUM 256
  
  /*L:120
   * verbose is both a global flag and a macro.  The C preprocessor allows
   * this, and although I wouldn't recommend it, it works quite nicely here.
   */
  static bool verbose;
  #define verbose(args...) \
  	do { if (verbose) printf(args); } while(0)
  /*:*/
  
  /* The pointer to the start of guest memory. */
  static void *guest_base;
  /* The maximum guest physical address allowed, and maximum possible. */
  static unsigned long guest_limit, guest_max;
  /* The /dev/lguest file descriptor. */
  static int lguest_fd;
  
  /* a per-cpu variable indicating whose vcpu is currently running */
  static unsigned int __thread cpu_id;
  
  /* This is our list of devices. */
  struct device_list {
  	/* Counter to assign interrupt numbers. */
  	unsigned int next_irq;
  
  	/* Counter to print out convenient device numbers. */
  	unsigned int device_num;
  
  	/* The descriptor page for the devices. */
  	u8 *descpage;
  
  	/* A single linked list of devices. */
  	struct device *dev;
  	/* And a pointer to the last device for easy append. */
  	struct device *lastdev;
  };
  
  /* The list of Guest devices, based on command line arguments. */
  static struct device_list devices;
  
  /* The device structure describes a single device. */
  struct device {
  	/* The linked-list pointer. */
  	struct device *next;
  
  	/* The device's descriptor, as mapped into the Guest. */
  	struct lguest_device_desc *desc;
  
  	/* We can't trust desc values once Guest has booted: we use these. */
  	unsigned int feature_len;
  	unsigned int num_vq;
  
  	/* The name of this device, for --verbose. */
  	const char *name;
  
  	/* Any queues attached to this device */
  	struct virtqueue *vq;
  
  	/* Is it operational */
  	bool running;
  
  	/* Device-specific data. */
  	void *priv;
  };
  
  /* The virtqueue structure describes a queue attached to a device. */
  struct virtqueue {
  	struct virtqueue *next;
  
  	/* Which device owns me. */
  	struct device *dev;
  
  	/* The configuration for this queue. */
  	struct lguest_vqconfig config;
  
  	/* The actual ring of buffers. */
  	struct vring vring;
  
  	/* Last available index we saw. */
  	u16 last_avail_idx;
  
  	/* How many are used since we sent last irq? */
  	unsigned int pending_used;
  
  	/* Eventfd where Guest notifications arrive. */
  	int eventfd;
  
  	/* Function for the thread which is servicing this virtqueue. */
  	void (*service)(struct virtqueue *vq);
  	pid_t thread;
  };
  
  /* Remember the arguments to the program so we can "reboot" */
  static char **main_args;
  
  /* The original tty settings to restore on exit. */
  static struct termios orig_term;
  
  /*
   * We have to be careful with barriers: our devices are all run in separate
   * threads and so we need to make sure that changes visible to the Guest happen
   * in precise order.
   */
  #define wmb() __asm__ __volatile__("" : : : "memory")
  #define mb() __asm__ __volatile__("" : : : "memory")
  
  /*
   * Convert an iovec element to the given type.
   *
   * This is a fairly ugly trick: we need to know the size of the type and
   * alignment requirement to check the pointer is kosher.  It's also nice to
   * have the name of the type in case we report failure.
   *
   * Typing those three things all the time is cumbersome and error prone, so we
   * have a macro which sets them all up and passes to the real function.
   */
  #define convert(iov, type) \
  	((type *)_convert((iov), sizeof(type), __alignof__(type), #type))
  
  static void *_convert(struct iovec *iov, size_t size, size_t align,
  		      const char *name)
  {
  	if (iov->iov_len != size)
  		errx(1, "Bad iovec size %zu for %s", iov->iov_len, name);
  	if ((unsigned long)iov->iov_base % align != 0)
  		errx(1, "Bad alignment %p for %s", iov->iov_base, name);
  	return iov->iov_base;
  }
  
  /* Wrapper for the last available index.  Makes it easier to change. */
  #define lg_last_avail(vq)	((vq)->last_avail_idx)
  
  /*
   * The virtio configuration space is defined to be little-endian.  x86 is
   * little-endian too, but it's nice to be explicit so we have these helpers.
   */
  #define cpu_to_le16(v16) (v16)
  #define cpu_to_le32(v32) (v32)
  #define cpu_to_le64(v64) (v64)
  #define le16_to_cpu(v16) (v16)
  #define le32_to_cpu(v32) (v32)
  #define le64_to_cpu(v64) (v64)
  
  /* Is this iovec empty? */
  static bool iov_empty(const struct iovec iov[], unsigned int num_iov)
  {
  	unsigned int i;
  
  	for (i = 0; i < num_iov; i++)
  		if (iov[i].iov_len)
  			return false;
  	return true;
  }
  
  /* Take len bytes from the front of this iovec. */
  static void iov_consume(struct iovec iov[], unsigned num_iov, unsigned len)
  {
  	unsigned int i;
  
  	for (i = 0; i < num_iov; i++) {
  		unsigned int used;
  
  		used = iov[i].iov_len < len ? iov[i].iov_len : len;
  		iov[i].iov_base += used;
  		iov[i].iov_len -= used;
  		len -= used;
  	}
  	assert(len == 0);
  }
  
  /* The device virtqueue descriptors are followed by feature bitmasks. */
  static u8 *get_feature_bits(struct device *dev)
  {
  	return (u8 *)(dev->desc + 1)
  		+ dev->num_vq * sizeof(struct lguest_vqconfig);
  }
  
  /*L:100
   * The Launcher code itself takes us out into userspace, that scary place where
   * pointers run wild and free!  Unfortunately, like most userspace programs,
   * it's quite boring (which is why everyone likes to hack on the kernel!).
   * Perhaps if you make up an Lguest Drinking Game at this point, it will get
   * you through this section.  Or, maybe not.
   *
   * The Launcher sets up a big chunk of memory to be the Guest's "physical"
   * memory and stores it in "guest_base".  In other words, Guest physical ==
   * Launcher virtual with an offset.
   *
   * This can be tough to get your head around, but usually it just means that we
   * use these trivial conversion functions when the Guest gives us its
   * "physical" addresses:
   */
  static void *from_guest_phys(unsigned long addr)
  {
  	return guest_base + addr;
  }
  
  static unsigned long to_guest_phys(const void *addr)
  {
  	return (addr - guest_base);
  }
  
  /*L:130
   * Loading the Kernel.
   *
   * We start with couple of simple helper routines.  open_or_die() avoids
   * error-checking code cluttering the callers:
   */
  static int open_or_die(const char *name, int flags)
  {
  	int fd = open(name, flags);
  	if (fd < 0)
  		err(1, "Failed to open %s", name);
  	return fd;
  }
  
  /* map_zeroed_pages() takes a number of pages. */
  static void *map_zeroed_pages(unsigned int num)
  {
  	int fd = open_or_die("/dev/zero", O_RDONLY);
  	void *addr;
  
  	/*
  	 * We use a private mapping (ie. if we write to the page, it will be
  	 * copied). We allocate an extra two pages PROT_NONE to act as guard
  	 * pages against read/write attempts that exceed allocated space.
  	 */
  	addr = mmap(NULL, getpagesize() * (num+2),
  		    PROT_NONE, MAP_PRIVATE, fd, 0);
  
  	if (addr == MAP_FAILED)
  		err(1, "Mmapping %u pages of /dev/zero", num);
  
  	if (mprotect(addr + getpagesize(), getpagesize() * num,
  		     PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE) == -1)
  		err(1, "mprotect rw %u pages failed", num);
  
  	/*
  	 * One neat mmap feature is that you can close the fd, and it
  	 * stays mapped.
  	 */
  	close(fd);
  
  	/* Return address after PROT_NONE page */
  	return addr + getpagesize();
  }
  
  /* Get some more pages for a device. */
  static void *get_pages(unsigned int num)
  {
  	void *addr = from_guest_phys(guest_limit);
  
  	guest_limit += num * getpagesize();
  	if (guest_limit > guest_max)
  		errx(1, "Not enough memory for devices");
  	return addr;
  }
  
  /*
   * This routine is used to load the kernel or initrd.  It tries mmap, but if
   * that fails (Plan 9's kernel file isn't nicely aligned on page boundaries),
   * it falls back to reading the memory in.
   */
  static void map_at(int fd, void *addr, unsigned long offset, unsigned long len)
  {
  	ssize_t r;
  
  	/*
  	 * We map writable even though for some segments are marked read-only.
  	 * The kernel really wants to be writable: it patches its own
  	 * instructions.
  	 *
  	 * MAP_PRIVATE means that the page won't be copied until a write is
  	 * done to it.  This allows us to share untouched memory between
  	 * Guests.
  	 */
  	if (mmap(addr, len, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE,
  		 MAP_FIXED|MAP_PRIVATE, fd, offset) != MAP_FAILED)
  		return;
  
  	/* pread does a seek and a read in one shot: saves a few lines. */
  	r = pread(fd, addr, len, offset);
  	if (r != len)
  		err(1, "Reading offset %lu len %lu gave %zi", offset, len, r);
  }
  
  /*
   * This routine takes an open vmlinux image, which is in ELF, and maps it into
   * the Guest memory.  ELF = Embedded Linking Format, which is the format used
   * by all modern binaries on Linux including the kernel.
   *
   * The ELF headers give *two* addresses: a physical address, and a virtual
   * address.  We use the physical address; the Guest will map itself to the
   * virtual address.
   *
   * We return the starting address.
   */
  static unsigned long map_elf(int elf_fd, const Elf32_Ehdr *ehdr)
  {
  	Elf32_Phdr phdr[ehdr->e_phnum];
  	unsigned int i;
  
  	/*
  	 * Sanity checks on the main ELF header: an x86 executable with a
  	 * reasonable number of correctly-sized program headers.
  	 */
  	if (ehdr->e_type != ET_EXEC
  	    || ehdr->e_machine != EM_386
  	    || ehdr->e_phentsize != sizeof(Elf32_Phdr)
  	    || ehdr->e_phnum < 1 || ehdr->e_phnum > 65536U/sizeof(Elf32_Phdr))
  		errx(1, "Malformed elf header");
  
  	/*
  	 * An ELF executable contains an ELF header and a number of "program"
  	 * headers which indicate which parts ("segments") of the program to
  	 * load where.
  	 */
  
  	/* We read in all the program headers at once: */
  	if (lseek(elf_fd, ehdr->e_phoff, SEEK_SET) < 0)
  		err(1, "Seeking to program headers");
  	if (read(elf_fd, phdr, sizeof(phdr)) != sizeof(phdr))
  		err(1, "Reading program headers");
  
  	/*
  	 * Try all the headers: there are usually only three.  A read-only one,
  	 * a read-write one, and a "note" section which we don't load.
  	 */
  	for (i = 0; i < ehdr->e_phnum; i++) {
  		/* If this isn't a loadable segment, we ignore it */
  		if (phdr[i].p_type != PT_LOAD)
  			continue;
  
  		verbose("Section %i: size %i addr %p\n",
  			i, phdr[i].p_memsz, (void *)phdr[i].p_paddr);
  
  		/* We map this section of the file at its physical address. */
  		map_at(elf_fd, from_guest_phys(phdr[i].p_paddr),
  		       phdr[i].p_offset, phdr[i].p_filesz);
  	}
  
  	/* The entry point is given in the ELF header. */
  	return ehdr->e_entry;
  }
  
  /*L:150
   * A bzImage, unlike an ELF file, is not meant to be loaded.  You're supposed
   * to jump into it and it will unpack itself.  We used to have to perform some
   * hairy magic because the unpacking code scared me.
   *
   * Fortunately, Jeremy Fitzhardinge convinced me it wasn't that hard and wrote
   * a small patch to jump over the tricky bits in the Guest, so now we just read
   * the funky header so we know where in the file to load, and away we go!
   */
  static unsigned long load_bzimage(int fd)
  {
  	struct boot_params boot;
  	int r;
  	/* Modern bzImages get loaded at 1M. */
  	void *p = from_guest_phys(0x100000);
  
  	/*
  	 * Go back to the start of the file and read the header.  It should be
  	 * a Linux boot header (see Documentation/x86/i386/boot.txt)
  	 */
  	lseek(fd, 0, SEEK_SET);
  	read(fd, &boot, sizeof(boot));
  
  	/* Inside the setup_hdr, we expect the magic "HdrS" */
  	if (memcmp(&boot.hdr.header, "HdrS", 4) != 0)
  		errx(1, "This doesn't look like a bzImage to me");
  
  	/* Skip over the extra sectors of the header. */
  	lseek(fd, (boot.hdr.setup_sects+1) * 512, SEEK_SET);
  
  	/* Now read everything into memory. in nice big chunks. */
  	while ((r = read(fd, p, 65536)) > 0)
  		p += r;
  
  	/* Finally, code32_start tells us where to enter the kernel. */
  	return boot.hdr.code32_start;
  }
  
  /*L:140
   * Loading the kernel is easy when it's a "vmlinux", but most kernels
   * come wrapped up in the self-decompressing "bzImage" format.  With a little
   * work, we can load those, too.
   */
  static unsigned long load_kernel(int fd)
  {
  	Elf32_Ehdr hdr;
  
  	/* Read in the first few bytes. */
  	if (read(fd, &hdr, sizeof(hdr)) != sizeof(hdr))
  		err(1, "Reading kernel");
  
  	/* If it's an ELF file, it starts with "\177ELF" */
  	if (memcmp(hdr.e_ident, ELFMAG, SELFMAG) == 0)
  		return map_elf(fd, &hdr);
  
  	/* Otherwise we assume it's a bzImage, and try to load it. */
  	return load_bzimage(fd);
  }
  
  /*
   * This is a trivial little helper to align pages.  Andi Kleen hated it because
   * it calls getpagesize() twice: "it's dumb code."
   *
   * Kernel guys get really het up about optimization, even when it's not
   * necessary.  I leave this code as a reaction against that.
   */
  static inline unsigned long page_align(unsigned long addr)
  {
  	/* Add upwards and truncate downwards. */
  	return ((addr + getpagesize()-1) & ~(getpagesize()-1));
  }
  
  /*L:180
   * An "initial ram disk" is a disk image loaded into memory along with the
   * kernel which the kernel can use to boot from without needing any drivers.
   * Most distributions now use this as standard: the initrd contains the code to
   * load the appropriate driver modules for the current machine.
   *
   * Importantly, James Morris works for RedHat, and Fedora uses initrds for its
   * kernels.  He sent me this (and tells me when I break it).
   */
  static unsigned long load_initrd(const char *name, unsigned long mem)
  {
  	int ifd;
  	struct stat st;
  	unsigned long len;
  
  	ifd = open_or_die(name, O_RDONLY);
  	/* fstat() is needed to get the file size. */
  	if (fstat(ifd, &st) < 0)
  		err(1, "fstat() on initrd '%s'", name);
  
  	/*
  	 * We map the initrd at the top of memory, but mmap wants it to be
  	 * page-aligned, so we round the size up for that.
  	 */
  	len = page_align(st.st_size);
  	map_at(ifd, from_guest_phys(mem - len), 0, st.st_size);
  	/*
  	 * Once a file is mapped, you can close the file descriptor.  It's a
  	 * little odd, but quite useful.
  	 */
  	close(ifd);
  	verbose("mapped initrd %s size=%lu @ %p\n", name, len, (void*)mem-len);
  
  	/* We return the initrd size. */
  	return len;
  }
  /*:*/
  
  /*
   * Simple routine to roll all the commandline arguments together with spaces
   * between them.
   */
  static void concat(char *dst, char *args[])
  {
  	unsigned int i, len = 0;
  
  	for (i = 0; args[i]; i++) {
  		if (i) {
  			strcat(dst+len, " ");
  			len++;
  		}
  		strcpy(dst+len, args[i]);
  		len += strlen(args[i]);
  	}
  	/* In case it's empty. */
  	dst[len] = '\0';
  }
  
  /*L:185
   * This is where we actually tell the kernel to initialize the Guest.  We
   * saw the arguments it expects when we looked at initialize() in lguest_user.c:
   * the base of Guest "physical" memory, the top physical page to allow and the
   * entry point for the Guest.
   */
  static void tell_kernel(unsigned long start)
  {
  	unsigned long args[] = { LHREQ_INITIALIZE,
  				 (unsigned long)guest_base,
  				 guest_limit / getpagesize(), start };
  	verbose("Guest: %p - %p (%#lx)\n",
  		guest_base, guest_base + guest_limit, guest_limit);
  	lguest_fd = open_or_die("/dev/lguest", O_RDWR);
  	if (write(lguest_fd, args, sizeof(args)) < 0)
  		err(1, "Writing to /dev/lguest");
  }
  /*:*/
  
  /*L:200
   * Device Handling.
   *
   * When the Guest gives us a buffer, it sends an array of addresses and sizes.
   * We need to make sure it's not trying to reach into the Launcher itself, so
   * we have a convenient routine which checks it and exits with an error message
   * if something funny is going on:
   */
  static void *_check_pointer(unsigned long addr, unsigned int size,
  			    unsigned int line)
  {
  	/*
  	 * Check if the requested address and size exceeds the allocated memory,
  	 * or addr + size wraps around.
  	 */
  	if ((addr + size) > guest_limit || (addr + size) < addr)
  		errx(1, "%s:%i: Invalid address %#lx", __FILE__, line, addr);
  	/*
  	 * We return a pointer for the caller's convenience, now we know it's
  	 * safe to use.
  	 */
  	return from_guest_phys(addr);
  }
  /* A macro which transparently hands the line number to the real function. */
  #define check_pointer(addr,size) _check_pointer(addr, size, __LINE__)
  
  /*
   * Each buffer in the virtqueues is actually a chain of descriptors.  This
   * function returns the next descriptor in the chain, or vq->vring.num if we're
   * at the end.
   */
  static unsigned next_desc(struct vring_desc *desc,
  			  unsigned int i, unsigned int max)
  {
  	unsigned int next;
  
  	/* If this descriptor says it doesn't chain, we're done. */
  	if (!(desc[i].flags & VRING_DESC_F_NEXT))
  		return max;
  
  	/* Check they're not leading us off end of descriptors. */
  	next = desc[i].next;
  	/* Make sure compiler knows to grab that: we don't want it changing! */
  	wmb();
  
  	if (next >= max)
  		errx(1, "Desc next is %u", next);
  
  	return next;
  }
  
  /*
   * This actually sends the interrupt for this virtqueue, if we've used a
   * buffer.
   */
  static void trigger_irq(struct virtqueue *vq)
  {
  	unsigned long buf[] = { LHREQ_IRQ, vq->config.irq };
  
  	/* Don't inform them if nothing used. */
  	if (!vq->pending_used)
  		return;
  	vq->pending_used = 0;
  
  	/* If they don't want an interrupt, don't send one... */
  	if (vq->vring.avail->flags & VRING_AVAIL_F_NO_INTERRUPT) {
  		return;
  	}
  
  	/* Send the Guest an interrupt tell them we used something up. */
  	if (write(lguest_fd, buf, sizeof(buf)) != 0)
  		err(1, "Triggering irq %i", vq->config.irq);
  }
  
  /*
   * This looks in the virtqueue for the first available buffer, and converts
   * it to an iovec for convenient access.  Since descriptors consist of some
   * number of output then some number of input descriptors, it's actually two
   * iovecs, but we pack them into one and note how many of each there were.
   *
   * This function waits if necessary, and returns the descriptor number found.
   */
  static unsigned wait_for_vq_desc(struct virtqueue *vq,
  				 struct iovec iov[],
  				 unsigned int *out_num, unsigned int *in_num)
  {
  	unsigned int i, head, max;
  	struct vring_desc *desc;
  	u16 last_avail = lg_last_avail(vq);
  
  	/* There's nothing available? */
  	while (last_avail == vq->vring.avail->idx) {
  		u64 event;
  
  		/*
  		 * Since we're about to sleep, now is a good time to tell the
  		 * Guest about what we've used up to now.
  		 */
  		trigger_irq(vq);
  
  		/* OK, now we need to know about added descriptors. */
  		vq->vring.used->flags &= ~VRING_USED_F_NO_NOTIFY;
  
  		/*
  		 * They could have slipped one in as we were doing that: make
  		 * sure it's written, then check again.
  		 */
  		mb();
  		if (last_avail != vq->vring.avail->idx) {
  			vq->vring.used->flags |= VRING_USED_F_NO_NOTIFY;
  			break;
  		}
  
  		/* Nothing new?  Wait for eventfd to tell us they refilled. */
  		if (read(vq->eventfd, &event, sizeof(event)) != sizeof(event))
  			errx(1, "Event read failed?");
  
  		/* We don't need to be notified again. */
  		vq->vring.used->flags |= VRING_USED_F_NO_NOTIFY;
  	}
  
  	/* Check it isn't doing very strange things with descriptor numbers. */
  	if ((u16)(vq->vring.avail->idx - last_avail) > vq->vring.num)
  		errx(1, "Guest moved used index from %u to %u",
  		     last_avail, vq->vring.avail->idx);
  
  	/*
  	 * Grab the next descriptor number they're advertising, and increment
  	 * the index we've seen.
  	 */
  	head = vq->vring.avail->ring[last_avail % vq->vring.num];
  	lg_last_avail(vq)++;
  
  	/* If their number is silly, that's a fatal mistake. */
  	if (head >= vq->vring.num)
  		errx(1, "Guest says index %u is available", head);
  
  	/* When we start there are none of either input nor output. */
  	*out_num = *in_num = 0;
  
  	max = vq->vring.num;
  	desc = vq->vring.desc;
  	i = head;
  
  	/*
  	 * If this is an indirect entry, then this buffer contains a descriptor
  	 * table which we handle as if it's any normal descriptor chain.
  	 */
  	if (desc[i].flags & VRING_DESC_F_INDIRECT) {
  		if (desc[i].len % sizeof(struct vring_desc))
  			errx(1, "Invalid size for indirect buffer table");
  
  		max = desc[i].len / sizeof(struct vring_desc);
  		desc = check_pointer(desc[i].addr, desc[i].len);
  		i = 0;
  	}
  
  	do {
  		/* Grab the first descriptor, and check it's OK. */
  		iov[*out_num + *in_num].iov_len = desc[i].len;
  		iov[*out_num + *in_num].iov_base
  			= check_pointer(desc[i].addr, desc[i].len);
  		/* If this is an input descriptor, increment that count. */
  		if (desc[i].flags & VRING_DESC_F_WRITE)
  			(*in_num)++;
  		else {
  			/*
  			 * If it's an output descriptor, they're all supposed
  			 * to come before any input descriptors.
  			 */
  			if (*in_num)
  				errx(1, "Descriptor has out after in");
  			(*out_num)++;
  		}
  
  		/* If we've got too many, that implies a descriptor loop. */
  		if (*out_num + *in_num > max)
  			errx(1, "Looped descriptor");
  	} while ((i = next_desc(desc, i, max)) != max);
  
  	return head;
  }
  
  /*
   * After we've used one of their buffers, we tell the Guest about it.  Sometime
   * later we'll want to send them an interrupt using trigger_irq(); note that
   * wait_for_vq_desc() does that for us if it has to wait.
   */
  static void add_used(struct virtqueue *vq, unsigned int head, int len)
  {
  	struct vring_used_elem *used;
  
  	/*
  	 * The virtqueue contains a ring of used buffers.  Get a pointer to the
  	 * next entry in that used ring.
  	 */
  	used = &vq->vring.used->ring[vq->vring.used->idx % vq->vring.num];
  	used->id = head;
  	used->len = len;
  	/* Make sure buffer is written before we update index. */
  	wmb();
  	vq->vring.used->idx++;
  	vq->pending_used++;
  }
  
  /* And here's the combo meal deal.  Supersize me! */
  static void add_used_and_trigger(struct virtqueue *vq, unsigned head, int len)
  {
  	add_used(vq, head, len);
  	trigger_irq(vq);
  }
  
  /*
   * The Console
   *
   * We associate some data with the console for our exit hack.
   */
  struct console_abort {
  	/* How many times have they hit ^C? */
  	int count;
  	/* When did they start? */
  	struct timeval start;
  };
  
  /* This is the routine which handles console input (ie. stdin). */
  static void console_input(struct virtqueue *vq)
  {
  	int len;
  	unsigned int head, in_num, out_num;
  	struct console_abort *abort = vq->dev->priv;
  	struct iovec iov[vq->vring.num];
  
  	/* Make sure there's a descriptor available. */
  	head = wait_for_vq_desc(vq, iov, &out_num, &in_num);
  	if (out_num)
  		errx(1, "Output buffers in console in queue?");
  
  	/* Read into it.  This is where we usually wait. */
  	len = readv(STDIN_FILENO, iov, in_num);
  	if (len <= 0) {
  		/* Ran out of input? */
  		warnx("Failed to get console input, ignoring console.");
  		/*
  		 * For simplicity, dying threads kill the whole Launcher.  So
  		 * just nap here.
  		 */
  		for (;;)
  			pause();
  	}
  
  	/* Tell the Guest we used a buffer. */
  	add_used_and_trigger(vq, head, len);
  
  	/*
  	 * Three ^C within one second?  Exit.
  	 *
  	 * This is such a hack, but works surprisingly well.  Each ^C has to
  	 * be in a buffer by itself, so they can't be too fast.  But we check
  	 * that we get three within about a second, so they can't be too
  	 * slow.
  	 */
  	if (len != 1 || ((char *)iov[0].iov_base)[0] != 3) {
  		abort->count = 0;
  		return;
  	}
  
  	abort->count++;
  	if (abort->count == 1)
  		gettimeofday(&abort->start, NULL);
  	else if (abort->count == 3) {
  		struct timeval now;
  		gettimeofday(&now, NULL);
  		/* Kill all Launcher processes with SIGINT, like normal ^C */
  		if (now.tv_sec <= abort->start.tv_sec+1)
  			kill(0, SIGINT);
  		abort->count = 0;
  	}
  }
  
  /* This is the routine which handles console output (ie. stdout). */
  static void console_output(struct virtqueue *vq)
  {
  	unsigned int head, out, in;
  	struct iovec iov[vq->vring.num];
  
  	/* We usually wait in here, for the Guest to give us something. */
  	head = wait_for_vq_desc(vq, iov, &out, &in);
  	if (in)
  		errx(1, "Input buffers in console output queue?");
  
  	/* writev can return a partial write, so we loop here. */
  	while (!iov_empty(iov, out)) {
  		int len = writev(STDOUT_FILENO, iov, out);
  		if (len <= 0)
  			err(1, "Write to stdout gave %i", len);
  		iov_consume(iov, out, len);
  	}
  
  	/*
  	 * We're finished with that buffer: if we're going to sleep,
  	 * wait_for_vq_desc() will prod the Guest with an interrupt.
  	 */
  	add_used(vq, head, 0);
  }
  
  /*
   * The Network
   *
   * Handling output for network is also simple: we get all the output buffers
   * and write them to /dev/net/tun.
   */
  struct net_info {
  	int tunfd;
  };
  
  static void net_output(struct virtqueue *vq)
  {
  	struct net_info *net_info = vq->dev->priv;
  	unsigned int head, out, in;
  	struct iovec iov[vq->vring.num];
  
  	/* We usually wait in here for the Guest to give us a packet. */
  	head = wait_for_vq_desc(vq, iov, &out, &in);
  	if (in)
  		errx(1, "Input buffers in net output queue?");
  	/*
  	 * Send the whole thing through to /dev/net/tun.  It expects the exact
  	 * same format: what a coincidence!
  	 */
  	if (writev(net_info->tunfd, iov, out) < 0)
  		errx(1, "Write to tun failed?");
  
  	/*
  	 * Done with that one; wait_for_vq_desc() will send the interrupt if
  	 * all packets are processed.
  	 */
  	add_used(vq, head, 0);
  }
  
  /*
   * Handling network input is a bit trickier, because I've tried to optimize it.
   *
   * First we have a helper routine which tells is if from this file descriptor
   * (ie. the /dev/net/tun device) will block:
   */
  static bool will_block(int fd)
  {
  	fd_set fdset;
  	struct timeval zero = { 0, 0 };
  	FD_ZERO(&fdset);
  	FD_SET(fd, &fdset);
  	return select(fd+1, &fdset, NULL, NULL, &zero) != 1;
  }
  
  /*
   * This handles packets coming in from the tun device to our Guest.  Like all
   * service routines, it gets called again as soon as it returns, so you don't
   * see a while(1) loop here.
   */
  static void net_input(struct virtqueue *vq)
  {
  	int len;
  	unsigned int head, out, in;
  	struct iovec iov[vq->vring.num];
  	struct net_info *net_info = vq->dev->priv;
  
  	/*
  	 * Get a descriptor to write an incoming packet into.  This will also
  	 * send an interrupt if they're out of descriptors.
  	 */
  	head = wait_for_vq_desc(vq, iov, &out, &in);
  	if (out)
  		errx(1, "Output buffers in net input queue?");
  
  	/*
  	 * If it looks like we'll block reading from the tun device, send them
  	 * an interrupt.
  	 */
  	if (vq->pending_used && will_block(net_info->tunfd))
  		trigger_irq(vq);
  
  	/*
  	 * Read in the packet.  This is where we normally wait (when there's no
  	 * incoming network traffic).
  	 */
  	len = readv(net_info->tunfd, iov, in);
  	if (len <= 0)
  		err(1, "Failed to read from tun.");
  
  	/*
  	 * Mark that packet buffer as used, but don't interrupt here.  We want
  	 * to wait until we've done as much work as we can.
  	 */
  	add_used(vq, head, len);
  }
  /*:*/
  
  /* This is the helper to create threads: run the service routine in a loop. */
  static int do_thread(void *_vq)
  {
  	struct virtqueue *vq = _vq;
  
  	for (;;)
  		vq->service(vq);
  	return 0;
  }
  
  /*
   * When a child dies, we kill our entire process group with SIGTERM.  This
   * also has the side effect that the shell restores the console for us!
   */
  static void kill_launcher(int signal)
  {
  	kill(0, SIGTERM);
  }
  
  static void reset_device(struct device *dev)
  {
  	struct virtqueue *vq;
  
  	verbose("Resetting device %s\n", dev->name);
  
  	/* Clear any features they've acked. */
  	memset(get_feature_bits(dev) + dev->feature_len, 0, dev->feature_len);
  
  	/* We're going to be explicitly killing threads, so ignore them. */
  	signal(SIGCHLD, SIG_IGN);
  
  	/* Zero out the virtqueues, get rid of their threads */
  	for (vq = dev->vq; vq; vq = vq->next) {
  		if (vq->thread != (pid_t)-1) {
  			kill(vq->thread, SIGTERM);
  			waitpid(vq->thread, NULL, 0);
  			vq->thread = (pid_t)-1;
  		}
  		memset(vq->vring.desc, 0,
  		       vring_size(vq->config.num, LGUEST_VRING_ALIGN));
  		lg_last_avail(vq) = 0;
  	}
  	dev->running = false;
  
  	/* Now we care if threads die. */
  	signal(SIGCHLD, (void *)kill_launcher);
  }
  
  /*L:216
   * This actually creates the thread which services the virtqueue for a device.
   */
  static void create_thread(struct virtqueue *vq)
  {
  	/*
  	 * Create stack for thread.  Since the stack grows upwards, we point
  	 * the stack pointer to the end of this region.
  	 */
  	char *stack = malloc(32768);
  	unsigned long args[] = { LHREQ_EVENTFD,
  				 vq->config.pfn*getpagesize(), 0 };
  
  	/* Create a zero-initialized eventfd. */
  	vq->eventfd = eventfd(0, 0);
  	if (vq->eventfd < 0)
  		err(1, "Creating eventfd");
  	args[2] = vq->eventfd;
  
  	/*
  	 * Attach an eventfd to this virtqueue: it will go off when the Guest
  	 * does an LHCALL_NOTIFY for this vq.
  	 */
  	if (write(lguest_fd, &args, sizeof(args)) != 0)
  		err(1, "Attaching eventfd");
  
  	/*
  	 * CLONE_VM: because it has to access the Guest memory, and SIGCHLD so
  	 * we get a signal if it dies.
  	 */
  	vq->thread = clone(do_thread, stack + 32768, CLONE_VM | SIGCHLD, vq);
  	if (vq->thread == (pid_t)-1)
  		err(1, "Creating clone");
  
  	/* We close our local copy now the child has it. */
  	close(vq->eventfd);
  }
  
  static void start_device(struct device *dev)
  {
  	unsigned int i;
  	struct virtqueue *vq;
  
  	verbose("Device %s OK: offered", dev->name);
  	for (i = 0; i < dev->feature_len; i++)
  		verbose(" %02x", get_feature_bits(dev)[i]);
  	verbose(", accepted");
  	for (i = 0; i < dev->feature_len; i++)
  		verbose(" %02x", get_feature_bits(dev)
  			[dev->feature_len+i]);
  
  	for (vq = dev->vq; vq; vq = vq->next) {
  		if (vq->service)
  			create_thread(vq);
  	}
  	dev->running = true;
  }
  
  static void cleanup_devices(void)
  {
  	struct device *dev;
  
  	for (dev = devices.dev; dev; dev = dev->next)
  		reset_device(dev);
  
  	/* If we saved off the original terminal settings, restore them now. */
  	if (orig_term.c_lflag & (ISIG|ICANON|ECHO))
  		tcsetattr(STDIN_FILENO, TCSANOW, &orig_term);
  }
  
  /* When the Guest tells us they updated the status field, we handle it. */
  static void update_device_status(struct device *dev)
  {
  	/* A zero status is a reset, otherwise it's a set of flags. */
  	if (dev->desc->status == 0)
  		reset_device(dev);
  	else if (dev->desc->status & VIRTIO_CONFIG_S_FAILED) {
  		warnx("Device %s configuration FAILED", dev->name);
  		if (dev->running)
  			reset_device(dev);
  	} else if (dev->desc->status & VIRTIO_CONFIG_S_DRIVER_OK) {
  		if (!dev->running)
  			start_device(dev);
  	}
  }
  
  /*L:215
   * This is the generic routine we call when the Guest uses LHCALL_NOTIFY.  In
   * particular, it's used to notify us of device status changes during boot.
   */
  static void handle_output(unsigned long addr)
  {
  	struct device *i;
  
  	/* Check each device. */
  	for (i = devices.dev; i; i = i->next) {
  		struct virtqueue *vq;
  
  		/*
  		 * Notifications to device descriptors mean they updated the
  		 * device status.
  		 */
  		if (from_guest_phys(addr) == i->desc) {
  			update_device_status(i);
  			return;
  		}
  
  		/*
  		 * Devices *can* be used before status is set to DRIVER_OK.
  		 * The original plan was that they would never do this: they
  		 * would always finish setting up their status bits before
  		 * actually touching the virtqueues.  In practice, we allowed
  		 * them to, and they do (eg. the disk probes for partition
  		 * tables as part of initialization).
  		 *
  		 * If we see this, we start the device: once it's running, we
  		 * expect the device to catch all the notifications.
  		 */
  		for (vq = i->vq; vq; vq = vq->next) {
  			if (addr != vq->config.pfn*getpagesize())
  				continue;
  			if (i->running)
  				errx(1, "Notification on running %s", i->name);
  			/* This just calls create_thread() for each virtqueue */
  			start_device(i);
  			return;
  		}
  	}
  
  	/*
  	 * Early console write is done using notify on a nul-terminated string
  	 * in Guest memory.  It's also great for hacking debugging messages
  	 * into a Guest.
  	 */
  	if (addr >= guest_limit)
  		errx(1, "Bad NOTIFY %#lx", addr);
  
  	write(STDOUT_FILENO, from_guest_phys(addr),
  	      strnlen(from_guest_phys(addr), guest_limit - addr));
  }
  
  /*L:190
   * Device Setup
   *
   * All devices need a descriptor so the Guest knows it exists, and a "struct
   * device" so the Launcher can keep track of it.  We have common helper
   * routines to allocate and manage them.
   */
  
  /*
   * The layout of the device page is a "struct lguest_device_desc" followed by a
   * number of virtqueue descriptors, then two sets of feature bits, then an
   * array of configuration bytes.  This routine returns the configuration
   * pointer.
   */
  static u8 *device_config(const struct device *dev)
  {
  	return (void *)(dev->desc + 1)
  		+ dev->num_vq * sizeof(struct lguest_vqconfig)
  		+ dev->feature_len * 2;
  }
  
  /*
   * This routine allocates a new "struct lguest_device_desc" from descriptor
   * table page just above the Guest's normal memory.  It returns a pointer to
   * that descriptor.
   */
  static struct lguest_device_desc *new_dev_desc(u16 type)
  {
  	struct lguest_device_desc d = { .type = type };
  	void *p;
  
  	/* Figure out where the next device config is, based on the last one. */
  	if (devices.lastdev)
  		p = device_config(devices.lastdev)
  			+ devices.lastdev->desc->config_len;
  	else
  		p = devices.descpage;
  
  	/* We only have one page for all the descriptors. */
  	if (p + sizeof(d) > (void *)devices.descpage + getpagesize())
  		errx(1, "Too many devices");
  
  	/* p might not be aligned, so we memcpy in. */
  	return memcpy(p, &d, sizeof(d));
  }
  
  /*
   * Each device descriptor is followed by the description of its virtqueues.  We
   * specify how many descriptors the virtqueue is to have.
   */
  static void add_virtqueue(struct device *dev, unsigned int num_descs,
  			  void (*service)(struct virtqueue *))
  {
  	unsigned int pages;
  	struct virtqueue **i, *vq = malloc(sizeof(*vq));
  	void *p;
  
  	/* First we need some memory for this virtqueue. */
  	pages = (vring_size(num_descs, LGUEST_VRING_ALIGN) + getpagesize() - 1)
  		/ getpagesize();
  	p = get_pages(pages);
  
  	/* Initialize the virtqueue */
  	vq->next = NULL;
  	vq->last_avail_idx = 0;
  	vq->dev = dev;
  
  	/*
  	 * This is the routine the service thread will run, and its Process ID
  	 * once it's running.
  	 */
  	vq->service = service;
  	vq->thread = (pid_t)-1;
  
  	/* Initialize the configuration. */
  	vq->config.num = num_descs;
  	vq->config.irq = devices.next_irq++;
  	vq->config.pfn = to_guest_phys(p) / getpagesize();
  
  	/* Initialize the vring. */
  	vring_init(&vq->vring, num_descs, p, LGUEST_VRING_ALIGN);
  
  	/*
  	 * Append virtqueue to this device's descriptor.  We use
  	 * device_config() to get the end of the device's current virtqueues;
  	 * we check that we haven't added any config or feature information
  	 * yet, otherwise we'd be overwriting them.
  	 */
  	assert(dev->desc->config_len == 0 && dev->desc->feature_len == 0);
  	memcpy(device_config(dev), &vq->config, sizeof(vq->config));
  	dev->num_vq++;
  	dev->desc->num_vq++;
  
  	verbose("Virtqueue page %#lx\n", to_guest_phys(p));
  
  	/*
  	 * Add to tail of list, so dev->vq is first vq, dev->vq->next is
  	 * second.
  	 */
  	for (i = &dev->vq; *i; i = &(*i)->next);
  	*i = vq;
  }
  
  /*
   * The first half of the feature bitmask is for us to advertise features.  The
   * second half is for the Guest to accept features.
   */
  static void add_feature(struct device *dev, unsigned bit)
  {
  	u8 *features = get_feature_bits(dev);
  
  	/* We can't extend the feature bits once we've added config bytes */
  	if (dev->desc->feature_len <= bit / CHAR_BIT) {
  		assert(dev->desc->config_len == 0);
  		dev->feature_len = dev->desc->feature_len = (bit/CHAR_BIT) + 1;
  	}
  
  	features[bit / CHAR_BIT] |= (1 << (bit % CHAR_BIT));
  }
  
  /*
   * This routine sets the configuration fields for an existing device's
   * descriptor.  It only works for the last device, but that's OK because that's
   * how we use it.
   */
  static void set_config(struct device *dev, unsigned len, const void *conf)
  {
  	/* Check we haven't overflowed our single page. */
  	if (device_config(dev) + len > devices.descpage + getpagesize())
  		errx(1, "Too many devices");
  
  	/* Copy in the config information, and store the length. */
  	memcpy(device_config(dev), conf, len);
  	dev->desc->config_len = len;
  
  	/* Size must fit in config_len field (8 bits)! */
  	assert(dev->desc->config_len == len);
  }
  
  /*
   * This routine does all the creation and setup of a new device, including
   * calling new_dev_desc() to allocate the descriptor and device memory.  We
   * don't actually start the service threads until later.
   *
   * See what I mean about userspace being boring?
   */
  static struct device *new_device(const char *name, u16 type)
  {
  	struct device *dev = malloc(sizeof(*dev));
  
  	/* Now we populate the fields one at a time. */
  	dev->desc = new_dev_desc(type);
  	dev->name = name;
  	dev->vq = NULL;
  	dev->feature_len = 0;
  	dev->num_vq = 0;
  	dev->running = false;
  
  	/*
  	 * Append to device list.  Prepending to a single-linked list is
  	 * easier, but the user expects the devices to be arranged on the bus
  	 * in command-line order.  The first network device on the command line
  	 * is eth0, the first block device /dev/vda, etc.
  	 */
  	if (devices.lastdev)
  		devices.lastdev->next = dev;
  	else
  		devices.dev = dev;
  	devices.lastdev = dev;
  
  	return dev;
  }
  
  /*
   * Our first setup routine is the console.  It's a fairly simple device, but
   * UNIX tty handling makes it uglier than it could be.
   */
  static void setup_console(void)
  {
  	struct device *dev;
  
  	/* If we can save the initial standard input settings... */
  	if (tcgetattr(STDIN_FILENO, &orig_term) == 0) {
  		struct termios term = orig_term;
  		/*
  		 * Then we turn off echo, line buffering and ^C etc: We want a
  		 * raw input stream to the Guest.
  		 */
  		term.c_lflag &= ~(ISIG|ICANON|ECHO);
  		tcsetattr(STDIN_FILENO, TCSANOW, &term);
  	}
  
  	dev = new_device("console", VIRTIO_ID_CONSOLE);
  
  	/* We store the console state in dev->priv, and initialize it. */
  	dev->priv = malloc(sizeof(struct console_abort));
  	((struct console_abort *)dev->priv)->count = 0;
  
  	/*
  	 * The console needs two virtqueues: the input then the output.  When
  	 * they put something the input queue, we make sure we're listening to
  	 * stdin.  When they put something in the output queue, we write it to
  	 * stdout.
  	 */
  	add_virtqueue(dev, VIRTQUEUE_NUM, console_input);
  	add_virtqueue(dev, VIRTQUEUE_NUM, console_output);
  
  	verbose("device %u: console\n", ++devices.device_num);
  }
  /*:*/
  
  /*M:010
   * Inter-guest networking is an interesting area.  Simplest is to have a
   * --sharenet=<name> option which opens or creates a named pipe.  This can be
   * used to send packets to another guest in a 1:1 manner.
   *
   * More sopisticated is to use one of the tools developed for project like UML
   * to do networking.
   *
   * Faster is to do virtio bonding in kernel.  Doing this 1:1 would be
   * completely generic ("here's my vring, attach to your vring") and would work
   * for any traffic.  Of course, namespace and permissions issues need to be
   * dealt with.  A more sophisticated "multi-channel" virtio_net.c could hide
   * multiple inter-guest channels behind one interface, although it would
   * require some manner of hotplugging new virtio channels.
   *
   * Finally, we could implement a virtio network switch in the kernel.
  :*/
  
  static u32 str2ip(const char *ipaddr)
  {
  	unsigned int b[4];
  
  	if (sscanf(ipaddr, "%u.%u.%u.%u", &b[0], &b[1], &b[2], &b[3]) != 4)
  		errx(1, "Failed to parse IP address '%s'", ipaddr);
  	return (b[0] << 24) | (b[1] << 16) | (b[2] << 8) | b[3];
  }
  
  static void str2mac(const char *macaddr, unsigned char mac[6])
  {
  	unsigned int m[6];
  	if (sscanf(macaddr, "%02x:%02x:%02x:%02x:%02x:%02x",
  		   &m[0], &m[1], &m[2], &m[3], &m[4], &m[5]) != 6)
  		errx(1, "Failed to parse mac address '%s'", macaddr);
  	mac[0] = m[0];
  	mac[1] = m[1];
  	mac[2] = m[2];
  	mac[3] = m[3];
  	mac[4] = m[4];
  	mac[5] = m[5];
  }
  
  /*
   * This code is "adapted" from libbridge: it attaches the Host end of the
   * network device to the bridge device specified by the command line.
   *
   * This is yet another James Morris contribution (I'm an IP-level guy, so I
   * dislike bridging), and I just try not to break it.
   */
  static void add_to_bridge(int fd, const char *if_name, const char *br_name)
  {
  	int ifidx;
  	struct ifreq ifr;
  
  	if (!*br_name)
  		errx(1, "must specify bridge name");
  
  	ifidx = if_nametoindex(if_name);
  	if (!ifidx)
  		errx(1, "interface %s does not exist!", if_name);
  
  	strncpy(ifr.ifr_name, br_name, IFNAMSIZ);
  	ifr.ifr_name[IFNAMSIZ-1] = '\0';
  	ifr.ifr_ifindex = ifidx;
  	if (ioctl(fd, SIOCBRADDIF, &ifr) < 0)
  		err(1, "can't add %s to bridge %s", if_name, br_name);
  }
  
  /*
   * This sets up the Host end of the network device with an IP address, brings
   * it up so packets will flow, the copies the MAC address into the hwaddr
   * pointer.
   */
  static void configure_device(int fd, const char *tapif, u32 ipaddr)
  {
  	struct ifreq ifr;
  	struct sockaddr_in sin;
  
  	memset(&ifr, 0, sizeof(ifr));
  	strcpy(ifr.ifr_name, tapif);
  
  	/* Don't read these incantations.  Just cut & paste them like I did! */
  	sin.sin_family = AF_INET;
  	sin.sin_addr.s_addr = htonl(ipaddr);
  	memcpy(&ifr.ifr_addr, &sin, sizeof(sin));
  	if (ioctl(fd, SIOCSIFADDR, &ifr) != 0)
  		err(1, "Setting %s interface address", tapif);
  	ifr.ifr_flags = IFF_UP;
  	if (ioctl(fd, SIOCSIFFLAGS, &ifr) != 0)
  		err(1, "Bringing interface %s up", tapif);
  }
  
  static int get_tun_device(char tapif[IFNAMSIZ])
  {
  	struct ifreq ifr;
  	int netfd;
  
  	/* Start with this zeroed.  Messy but sure. */
  	memset(&ifr, 0, sizeof(ifr));
  
  	/*
  	 * We open the /dev/net/tun device and tell it we want a tap device.  A
  	 * tap device is like a tun device, only somehow different.  To tell
  	 * the truth, I completely blundered my way through this code, but it
  	 * works now!
  	 */
  	netfd = open_or_die("/dev/net/tun", O_RDWR);
  	ifr.ifr_flags = IFF_TAP | IFF_NO_PI | IFF_VNET_HDR;
  	strcpy(ifr.ifr_name, "tap%d");
  	if (ioctl(netfd, TUNSETIFF, &ifr) != 0)
  		err(1, "configuring /dev/net/tun");
  
  	if (ioctl(netfd, TUNSETOFFLOAD,
  		  TUN_F_CSUM|TUN_F_TSO4|TUN_F_TSO6|TUN_F_TSO_ECN) != 0)
  		err(1, "Could not set features for tun device");
  
  	/*
  	 * We don't need checksums calculated for packets coming in this
  	 * device: trust us!
  	 */
  	ioctl(netfd, TUNSETNOCSUM, 1);
  
  	memcpy(tapif, ifr.ifr_name, IFNAMSIZ);
  	return netfd;
  }
  
  /*L:195
   * Our network is a Host<->Guest network.  This can either use bridging or
   * routing, but the principle is the same: it uses the "tun" device to inject
   * packets into the Host as if they came in from a normal network card.  We
   * just shunt packets between the Guest and the tun device.
   */
  static void setup_tun_net(char *arg)
  {
  	struct device *dev;
  	struct net_info *net_info = malloc(sizeof(*net_info));
  	int ipfd;
  	u32 ip = INADDR_ANY;
  	bool bridging = false;
  	char tapif[IFNAMSIZ], *p;
  	struct virtio_net_config conf;
  
  	net_info->tunfd = get_tun_device(tapif);
  
  	/* First we create a new network device. */
  	dev = new_device("net", VIRTIO_ID_NET);
  	dev->priv = net_info;
  
  	/* Network devices need a recv and a send queue, just like console. */
  	add_virtqueue(dev, VIRTQUEUE_NUM, net_input);
  	add_virtqueue(dev, VIRTQUEUE_NUM, net_output);
  
  	/*
  	 * We need a socket to perform the magic network ioctls to bring up the
  	 * tap interface, connect to the bridge etc.  Any socket will do!
  	 */
  	ipfd = socket(PF_INET, SOCK_DGRAM, IPPROTO_IP);
  	if (ipfd < 0)
  		err(1, "opening IP socket");
  
  	/* If the command line was --tunnet=bridge:<name> do bridging. */
  	if (!strncmp(BRIDGE_PFX, arg, strlen(BRIDGE_PFX))) {
  		arg += strlen(BRIDGE_PFX);
  		bridging = true;
  	}
  
  	/* A mac address may follow the bridge name or IP address */
  	p = strchr(arg, ':');
  	if (p) {
  		str2mac(p+1, conf.mac);
  		add_feature(dev, VIRTIO_NET_F_MAC);
  		*p = '\0';
  	}
  
  	/* arg is now either an IP address or a bridge name */
  	if (bridging)
  		add_to_bridge(ipfd, tapif, arg);
  	else
  		ip = str2ip(arg);
  
  	/* Set up the tun device. */
  	configure_device(ipfd, tapif, ip);
  
  	/* Expect Guest to handle everything except UFO */
  	add_feature(dev, VIRTIO_NET_F_CSUM);
  	add_feature(dev, VIRTIO_NET_F_GUEST_CSUM);
  	add_feature(dev, VIRTIO_NET_F_GUEST_TSO4);
  	add_feature(dev, VIRTIO_NET_F_GUEST_TSO6);
  	add_feature(dev, VIRTIO_NET_F_GUEST_ECN);
  	add_feature(dev, VIRTIO_NET_F_HOST_TSO4);
  	add_feature(dev, VIRTIO_NET_F_HOST_TSO6);
  	add_feature(dev, VIRTIO_NET_F_HOST_ECN);
  	/* We handle indirect ring entries */
  	add_feature(dev, VIRTIO_RING_F_INDIRECT_DESC);
  	set_config(dev, sizeof(conf), &conf);
  
  	/* We don't need the socket any more; setup is done. */
  	close(ipfd);
  
  	devices.device_num++;
  
  	if (bridging)
  		verbose("device %u: tun %s attached to bridge: %s\n",
  			devices.device_num, tapif, arg);
  	else
  		verbose("device %u: tun %s: %s\n",
  			devices.device_num, tapif, arg);
  }
  /*:*/
  
  /* This hangs off device->priv. */
  struct vblk_info {
  	/* The size of the file. */
  	off64_t len;
  
  	/* The file descriptor for the file. */
  	int fd;
  
  };
  
  /*L:210
   * The Disk
   *
   * The disk only has one virtqueue, so it only has one thread.  It is really
   * simple: the Guest asks for a block number and we read or write that position
   * in the file.
   *
   * Before we serviced each virtqueue in a separate thread, that was unacceptably
   * slow: the Guest waits until the read is finished before running anything
   * else, even if it could have been doing useful work.
   *
   * We could have used async I/O, except it's reputed to suck so hard that
   * characters actually go missing from your code when you try to use it.
   */
  static void blk_request(struct virtqueue *vq)
  {
  	struct vblk_info *vblk = vq->dev->priv;
  	unsigned int head, out_num, in_num, wlen;
  	int ret;
  	u8 *in;
  	struct virtio_blk_outhdr *out;
  	struct iovec iov[vq->vring.num];
  	off64_t off;
  
  	/*
  	 * Get the next request, where we normally wait.  It triggers the
  	 * interrupt to acknowledge previously serviced requests (if any).
  	 */
  	head = wait_for_vq_desc(vq, iov, &out_num, &in_num);
  
  	/*
  	 * Every block request should contain at least one output buffer
  	 * (detailing the location on disk and the type of request) and one
  	 * input buffer (to hold the result).
  	 */
  	if (out_num == 0 || in_num == 0)
  		errx(1, "Bad virtblk cmd %u out=%u in=%u",
  		     head, out_num, in_num);
  
  	out = convert(&iov[0], struct virtio_blk_outhdr);
  	in = convert(&iov[out_num+in_num-1], u8);
  	/*
  	 * For historical reasons, block operations are expressed in 512 byte
  	 * "sectors".
  	 */
  	off = out->sector * 512;
  
  	/*
  	 * In general the virtio block driver is allowed to try SCSI commands.
  	 * It'd be nice if we supported eject, for example, but we don't.
  	 */
  	if (out->type & VIRTIO_BLK_T_SCSI_CMD) {
  		fprintf(stderr, "Scsi commands unsupported\n");
  		*in = VIRTIO_BLK_S_UNSUPP;
  		wlen = sizeof(*in);
  	} else if (out->type & VIRTIO_BLK_T_OUT) {
  		/*
  		 * Write
  		 *
  		 * Move to the right location in the block file.  This can fail
  		 * if they try to write past end.
  		 */
  		if (lseek64(vblk->fd, off, SEEK_SET) != off)
  			err(1, "Bad seek to sector %llu", out->sector);
  
  		ret = writev(vblk->fd, iov+1, out_num-1);
  		verbose("WRITE to sector %llu: %i\n", out->sector, ret);
  
  		/*
  		 * Grr... Now we know how long the descriptor they sent was, we
  		 * make sure they didn't try to write over the end of the block
  		 * file (possibly extending it).
  		 */
  		if (ret > 0 && off + ret > vblk->len) {
  			/* Trim it back to the correct length */
  			ftruncate64(vblk->fd, vblk->len);
  			/* Die, bad Guest, die. */
  			errx(1, "Write past end %llu+%u", off, ret);
  		}
  
  		wlen = sizeof(*in);
  		*in = (ret >= 0 ? VIRTIO_BLK_S_OK : VIRTIO_BLK_S_IOERR);
  	} else if (out->type & VIRTIO_BLK_T_FLUSH) {
  		/* Flush */
  		ret = fdatasync(vblk->fd);
  		verbose("FLUSH fdatasync: %i\n", ret);
  		wlen = sizeof(*in);
  		*in = (ret >= 0 ? VIRTIO_BLK_S_OK : VIRTIO_BLK_S_IOERR);
  	} else {
  		/*
  		 * Read
  		 *
  		 * Move to the right location in the block file.  This can fail
  		 * if they try to read past end.
  		 */
  		if (lseek64(vblk->fd, off, SEEK_SET) != off)
  			err(1, "Bad seek to sector %llu", out->sector);
  
  		ret = readv(vblk->fd, iov+1, in_num-1);
  		verbose("READ from sector %llu: %i\n", out->sector, ret);
  		if (ret >= 0) {
  			wlen = sizeof(*in) + ret;
  			*in = VIRTIO_BLK_S_OK;
  		} else {
  			wlen = sizeof(*in);
  			*in = VIRTIO_BLK_S_IOERR;
  		}
  	}
  
  	/* Finished that request. */
  	add_used(vq, head, wlen);
  }
  
  /*L:198 This actually sets up a virtual block device. */
  static void setup_block_file(const char *filename)
  {
  	struct device *dev;
  	struct vblk_info *vblk;
  	struct virtio_blk_config conf;
  
  	/* Creat the device. */
  	dev = new_device("block", VIRTIO_ID_BLOCK);
  
  	/* The device has one virtqueue, where the Guest places requests. */
  	add_virtqueue(dev, VIRTQUEUE_NUM, blk_request);
  
  	/* Allocate the room for our own bookkeeping */
  	vblk = dev->priv = malloc(sizeof(*vblk));
  
  	/* First we open the file and store the length. */
  	vblk->fd = open_or_die(filename, O_RDWR|O_LARGEFILE);
  	vblk->len = lseek64(vblk->fd, 0, SEEK_END);
  
  	/* We support FLUSH. */
  	add_feature(dev, VIRTIO_BLK_F_FLUSH);
  
  	/* Tell Guest how many sectors this device has. */
  	conf.capacity = cpu_to_le64(vblk->len / 512);
  
  	/*
  	 * Tell Guest not to put in too many descriptors at once: two are used
  	 * for the in and out elements.
  	 */
  	add_feature(dev, VIRTIO_BLK_F_SEG_MAX);
  	conf.seg_max = cpu_to_le32(VIRTQUEUE_NUM - 2);
  
  	/* Don't try to put whole struct: we have 8 bit limit. */
  	set_config(dev, offsetof(struct virtio_blk_config, geometry), &conf);
  
  	verbose("device %u: virtblock %llu sectors\n",
  		++devices.device_num, le64_to_cpu(conf.capacity));
  }
  
  /*L:211
   * Our random number generator device reads from /dev/random into the Guest's
   * input buffers.  The usual case is that the Guest doesn't want random numbers
   * and so has no buffers although /dev/random is still readable, whereas
   * console is the reverse.
   *
   * The same logic applies, however.
   */
  struct rng_info {
  	int rfd;
  };
  
  static void rng_input(struct virtqueue *vq)
  {
  	int len;
  	unsigned int head, in_num, out_num, totlen = 0;
  	struct rng_info *rng_info = vq->dev->priv;
  	struct iovec iov[vq->vring.num];
  
  	/* First we need a buffer from the Guests's virtqueue. */
  	head = wait_for_vq_desc(vq, iov, &out_num, &in_num);
  	if (out_num)
  		errx(1, "Output buffers in rng?");
  
  	/*
  	 * Just like the console write, we loop to cover the whole iovec.
  	 * In this case, short reads actually happen quite a bit.
  	 */
  	while (!iov_empty(iov, in_num)) {
  		len = readv(rng_info->rfd, iov, in_num);
  		if (len <= 0)
  			err(1, "Read from /dev/random gave %i", len);
  		iov_consume(iov, in_num, len);
  		totlen += len;
  	}
  
  	/* Tell the Guest about the new input. */
  	add_used(vq, head, totlen);
  }
  
  /*L:199
   * This creates a "hardware" random number device for the Guest.
   */
  static void setup_rng(void)
  {
  	struct device *dev;
  	struct rng_info *rng_info = malloc(sizeof(*rng_info));
  
  	/* Our device's privat info simply contains the /dev/random fd. */
  	rng_info->rfd = open_or_die("/dev/random", O_RDONLY);
  
  	/* Create the new device. */
  	dev = new_device("rng", VIRTIO_ID_RNG);
  	dev->priv = rng_info;
  
  	/* The device has one virtqueue, where the Guest places inbufs. */
  	add_virtqueue(dev, VIRTQUEUE_NUM, rng_input);
  
  	verbose("device %u: rng\n", devices.device_num++);
  }
  /* That's the end of device setup. */
  
  /*L:230 Reboot is pretty easy: clean up and exec() the Launcher afresh. */
  static void __attribute__((noreturn)) restart_guest(void)
  {
  	unsigned int i;
  
  	/*
  	 * Since we don't track all open fds, we simply close everything beyond
  	 * stderr.
  	 */
  	for (i = 3; i < FD_SETSIZE; i++)
  		close(i);
  
  	/* Reset all the devices (kills all threads). */
  	cleanup_devices();
  
  	execv(main_args[0], main_args);
  	err(1, "Could not exec %s", main_args[0]);
  }
  
  /*L:220
   * Finally we reach the core of the Launcher which runs the Guest, serves
   * its input and output, and finally, lays it to rest.
   */
  static void __attribute__((noreturn)) run_guest(void)
  {
  	for (;;) {
  		unsigned long notify_addr;
  		int readval;
  
  		/* We read from the /dev/lguest device to run the Guest. */
  		readval = pread(lguest_fd, &notify_addr,
  				sizeof(notify_addr), cpu_id);
  
  		/* One unsigned long means the Guest did HCALL_NOTIFY */
  		if (readval == sizeof(notify_addr)) {
  			verbose("Notify on address %#lx\n", notify_addr);
  			handle_output(notify_addr);
  		/* ENOENT means the Guest died.  Reading tells us why. */
  		} else if (errno == ENOENT) {
  			char reason[1024] = { 0 };
  			pread(lguest_fd, reason, sizeof(reason)-1, cpu_id);
  			errx(1, "%s", reason);
  		/* ERESTART means that we need to reboot the guest */
  		} else if (errno == ERESTART) {
  			restart_guest();
  		/* Anything else means a bug or incompatible change. */
  		} else
  			err(1, "Running guest failed");
  	}
  }
  /*L:240
   * This is the end of the Launcher.  The good news: we are over halfway
   * through!  The bad news: the most fiendish part of the code still lies ahead
   * of us.
   *
   * Are you ready?  Take a deep breath and join me in the core of the Host, in
   * "make Host".
  :*/
  
  static struct option opts[] = {
  	{ "verbose", 0, NULL, 'v' },
  	{ "tunnet", 1, NULL, 't' },
  	{ "block", 1, NULL, 'b' },
  	{ "rng", 0, NULL, 'r' },
  	{ "initrd", 1, NULL, 'i' },
  	{ "username", 1, NULL, 'u' },
  	{ "chroot", 1, NULL, 'c' },
  	{ NULL },
  };
  static void usage(void)
  {
  	errx(1, "Usage: lguest [--verbose] "
  	     "[--tunnet=(<ipaddr>:<macaddr>|bridge:<bridgename>:<macaddr>)\n"
  	     "|--block=<filename>|--initrd=<filename>]...\n"
  	     "<mem-in-mb> vmlinux [args...]");
  }
  
  /*L:105 The main routine is where the real work begins: */
  int main(int argc, char *argv[])
  {
  	/* Memory, code startpoint and size of the (optional) initrd. */
  	unsigned long mem = 0, start, initrd_size = 0;
  	/* Two temporaries. */
  	int i, c;
  	/* The boot information for the Guest. */
  	struct boot_params *boot;
  	/* If they specify an initrd file to load. */
  	const char *initrd_name = NULL;
  
  	/* Password structure for initgroups/setres[gu]id */
  	struct passwd *user_details = NULL;
  
  	/* Directory to chroot to */
  	char *chroot_path = NULL;
  
  	/* Save the args: we "reboot" by execing ourselves again. */
  	main_args = argv;
  
  	/*
  	 * First we initialize the device list.  We keep a pointer to the last
  	 * device, and the next interrupt number to use for devices (1:
  	 * remember that 0 is used by the timer).
  	 */
  	devices.lastdev = NULL;
  	devices.next_irq = 1;
  
  	/* We're CPU 0.  In fact, that's the only CPU possible right now. */
  	cpu_id = 0;
  
  	/*
  	 * We need to know how much memory so we can set up the device
  	 * descriptor and memory pages for the devices as we parse the command
  	 * line.  So we quickly look through the arguments to find the amount
  	 * of memory now.
  	 */
  	for (i = 1; i < argc; i++) {
  		if (argv[i][0] != '-') {
  			mem = atoi(argv[i]) * 1024 * 1024;
  			/*
  			 * We start by mapping anonymous pages over all of
  			 * guest-physical memory range.  This fills it with 0,
  			 * and ensures that the Guest won't be killed when it
  			 * tries to access it.
  			 */
  			guest_base = map_zeroed_pages(mem / getpagesize()
  						      + DEVICE_PAGES);
  			guest_limit = mem;
  			guest_max = mem + DEVICE_PAGES*getpagesize();
  			devices.descpage = get_pages(1);
  			break;
  		}
  	}
  
  	/* The options are fairly straight-forward */
  	while ((c = getopt_long(argc, argv, "v", opts, NULL)) != EOF) {
  		switch (c) {
  		case 'v':
  			verbose = true;
  			break;
  		case 't':
  			setup_tun_net(optarg);
  			break;
  		case 'b':
  			setup_block_file(optarg);
  			break;
  		case 'r':
  			setup_rng();
  			break;
  		case 'i':
  			initrd_name = optarg;
  			break;
  		case 'u':
  			user_details = getpwnam(optarg);
  			if (!user_details)
  				err(1, "getpwnam failed, incorrect username?");
  			break;
  		case 'c':
  			chroot_path = optarg;
  			break;
  		default:
  			warnx("Unknown argument %s", argv[optind]);
  			usage();
  		}
  	}
  	/*
  	 * After the other arguments we expect memory and kernel image name,
  	 * followed by command line arguments for the kernel.
  	 */
  	if (optind + 2 > argc)
  		usage();
  
  	verbose("Guest base is at %p\n", guest_base);
  
  	/* We always have a console device */
  	setup_console();
  
  	/* Now we load the kernel */
  	start = load_kernel(open_or_die(argv[optind+1], O_RDONLY));
  
  	/* Boot information is stashed at physical address 0 */
  	boot = from_guest_phys(0);
  
  	/* Map the initrd image if requested (at top of physical memory) */
  	if (initrd_name) {
  		initrd_size = load_initrd(initrd_name, mem);
  		/*
  		 * These are the location in the Linux boot header where the
  		 * start and size of the initrd are expected to be found.
  		 */
  		boot->hdr.ramdisk_image = mem - initrd_size;
  		boot->hdr.ramdisk_size = initrd_size;
  		/* The bootloader type 0xFF means "unknown"; that's OK. */
  		boot->hdr.type_of_loader = 0xFF;
  	}
  
  	/*
  	 * The Linux boot header contains an "E820" memory map: ours is a
  	 * simple, single region.
  	 */
  	boot->e820_entries = 1;
  	boot->e820_map[0] = ((struct e820entry) { 0, mem, E820_RAM });
  	/*
  	 * The boot header contains a command line pointer: we put the command
  	 * line after the boot header.
  	 */
  	boot->hdr.cmd_line_ptr = to_guest_phys(boot + 1);
  	/* We use a simple helper to copy the arguments separated by spaces. */
  	concat((char *)(boot + 1), argv+optind+2);
  
  	/* Boot protocol version: 2.07 supports the fields for lguest. */
  	boot->hdr.version = 0x207;
  
  	/* The hardware_subarch value of "1" tells the Guest it's an lguest. */
  	boot->hdr.hardware_subarch = 1;
  
  	/* Tell the entry path not to try to reload segment registers. */
  	boot->hdr.loadflags |= KEEP_SEGMENTS;
  
  	/*
  	 * We tell the kernel to initialize the Guest: this returns the open
  	 * /dev/lguest file descriptor.
  	 */
  	tell_kernel(start);
  
  	/* Ensure that we terminate if a device-servicing child dies. */
  	signal(SIGCHLD, kill_launcher);
  
  	/* If we exit via err(), this kills all the threads, restores tty. */
  	atexit(cleanup_devices);
  
  	/* If requested, chroot to a directory */
  	if (chroot_path) {
  		if (chroot(chroot_path) != 0)
  			err(1, "chroot(\"%s\") failed", chroot_path);
  
  		if (chdir("/") != 0)
  			err(1, "chdir(\"/\") failed");
  
  		verbose("chroot done\n");
  	}
  
  	/* If requested, drop privileges */
  	if (user_details) {
  		uid_t u;
  		gid_t g;
  
  		u = user_details->pw_uid;
  		g = user_details->pw_gid;
  
  		if (initgroups(user_details->pw_name, g) != 0)
  			err(1, "initgroups failed");
  
  		if (setresgid(g, g, g) != 0)
  			err(1, "setresgid failed");
  
  		if (setresuid(u, u, u) != 0)
  			err(1, "setresuid failed");
  
  		verbose("Dropping privileges completed\n");
  	}
  
  	/* Finally, run the Guest.  This doesn't return. */
  	run_guest();
  }
  /*:*/
  
  /*M:999
   * Mastery is done: you now know everything I do.
   *
   * But surely you have seen code, features and bugs in your wanderings which
   * you now yearn to attack?  That is the real game, and I look forward to you
   * patching and forking lguest into the Your-Name-Here-visor.
   *
   * Farewell, and good coding!
   * Rusty Russell.
   */
  