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UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Neuroscientist Explains One Concept in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
opqIa5Jiwuw
| 583
|
[
{
"end_time": 36,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "Intro"
},
{
"end_time": 95,
"start_time": 36,
"title": "What is the Connectome"
},
{
"end_time": 161,
"start_time": 95,
"title": "Brain Cells"
},
{
"end_time": 272,
"start_time": 161,
"title": "Connectome"
},
{
"end_time": 583,
"start_time": 272,
"title": "Wiring Map"
}
] |
[
{
"text": " Hi, I'm Jim Carosa.",
"timestamp": [
0,
1.64
]
},
{
"text": " I'm a professor at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst.",
"timestamp": [
1.64,
4.92
]
},
{
"text": " And I've been challenged to describe the internet",
"timestamp": [
4.92,
7.44
]
},
{
"text": " in five levels of increasing difficulty.",
"timestamp": [
7.44,
10.28
]
},
{
"text": " The internet is the most technically complex system",
"timestamp": [
10.28,
13.64
]
},
{
"text": " that humanity has ever built. The internet",
"timestamp": [
13.64,
16.52
]
},
{
"text": " is a network of networks.",
"timestamp": [
16.52,
18.04
]
},
{
"text": " It's a platform on which all of the internet applications",
"timestamp": [
18.04,
21.92
]
},
{
"text": " that you've heard of can be built. Hi, it's really, really nice to meet you.",
"timestamp": [
21.92,
28.16
]
},
{
"text": " What's your name?",
"timestamp": [
28.16,
29.16
]
},
{
"text": " My name is Skylar.",
"timestamp": [
29.16,
30.16
]
},
{
"text": " Skylar, we're here to talk about the internet, and I bet you must use the internet a lot,",
"timestamp": [
30.16,
33.6
]
},
{
"text": " right?",
"timestamp": [
33.6,
34.6
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
34.6,
35.6
]
},
{
"text": " What's your conception about what the internet is?",
"timestamp": [
35.6,
36.6
]
},
{
"text": " The internet, for me, it's just something to use when I need to search up something",
"timestamp": [
36.6,
42.64
]
},
{
"text": " or watch videos.",
"timestamp": [
42.64,
45
]
},
{
"text": " The internet is physically these computers",
"timestamp": [
45.68,
49.52
]
},
{
"text": " that all talk to each other,",
"timestamp": [
49.52,
50.8
]
},
{
"text": " billions of computers in the case of the internet.",
"timestamp": [
50.8,
53.2
]
},
{
"text": " The internet allows us to do a lot of",
"timestamp": [
53.2,
56.8
]
},
{
"text": " really, really interesting, what we call applications.",
"timestamp": [
56.8,
59.8
]
},
{
"text": " You ever think about how that video",
"timestamp": [
59.8,
61.84
]
},
{
"text": " gets to you over the internet?",
"timestamp": [
61.84,
63.64
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, I have no idea.",
"timestamp": [
63.64,
64.48
]
},
{
"text": " Got a favorite movie?",
"timestamp": [
64.48,
65.74
]
},
{
"text": " Matilda.",
"timestamp": [
65.74,
66.58
]
},
{
"text": " Matilda, all right.",
"timestamp": [
66.58,
67.66
]
},
{
"text": " We're gonna actually build an internet.",
"timestamp": [
67.66,
69.02
]
},
{
"text": " I've got a couple of things here that I wanna show you,",
"timestamp": [
69.02,
72.48
]
},
{
"text": " or a couple of toys, actually.",
"timestamp": [
72.48,
74.1
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, let's pretend that these round balls are computers,",
"timestamp": [
74.1,
77.38
]
},
{
"text": " and the internet is something that connects them.",
"timestamp": [
77.38,
79.7
]
},
{
"text": " And right now, the internet is just one communication link,",
"timestamp": [
79.7,
83.74
]
},
{
"text": " and Matilda is sent over the internet from this computer to your computer.",
"timestamp": [
83.74,
89.72
]
},
{
"text": " So the internet is a network for carrying information from one computer to another.",
"timestamp": [
89.72,
95.24
]
},
{
"text": " Now this network here looks pretty simple, doesn't it?",
"timestamp": [
95.24,
98.24
]
},
{
"text": " It's just one thing.",
"timestamp": [
98.24,
99.24
]
},
{
"text": " Should we add some more friends in?",
"timestamp": [
99.24,
100.92
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
100.92,
101.92
]
},
{
"text": " Let's say we want to get a video from here over to here.",
"timestamp": [
101.92,
105.76
]
},
{
"text": " How do you think that video would sort of travel through this network? Maybe it could go to here, to here, to here, to here. That's right. So that's pretty cool. There are actually",
"timestamp": [
111.44,
116.16
]
},
{
"text": " lots of different ways to actually go through the internet to get from what we call a source,",
"timestamp": [
116.16,
123.12
]
},
{
"text": " the place that's sending the information to the source, the place that's sending the information,",
"timestamp": [
123.76,
126
]
},
{
"text": " to the receiver, the place that's actually gathering the information together.",
"timestamp": [
126,
130.2
]
},
{
"text": " And that's something we actually call routing.",
"timestamp": [
130.2,
132.2
]
},
{
"text": " Huh. But wouldn't it just be easier for it to go from here to here,",
"timestamp": [
132.2,
136.7
]
},
{
"text": " instead of going from here to here to here to here?",
"timestamp": [
136.7,
139.9
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah. So that's a really good observation.",
"timestamp": [
139.9,
143.4
]
},
{
"text": " In most pieces of the Internet, that's exactly what would happen.",
"timestamp": [
143.4,
146.6
]
},
{
"text": " We want to take what's called a shortest path.",
"timestamp": [
146.6,
149.44
]
},
{
"text": " But still, there are multiple paths.",
"timestamp": [
149.44,
151.68
]
},
{
"text": " Why do you think that might be valuable?",
"timestamp": [
151.68,
153.52
]
},
{
"text": " Maybe one way like messed up or broken so you can't go away?",
"timestamp": [
153.52,
157.12
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah. Exactly. So Skylar,",
"timestamp": [
157.12,
159.72
]
},
{
"text": " that was a great discussion about what we just built.",
"timestamp": [
159.72,
163.2
]
},
{
"text": " I wanted to talk to you about, or ask you about maybe one other",
"timestamp": [
163.2,
167.1
]
},
{
"text": " really important part about networks.",
"timestamp": [
167.1,
169.64
]
},
{
"text": " And it's not so much the thing itself,",
"timestamp": [
169.64,
172.82
]
},
{
"text": " the physical thing, but more about the rules",
"timestamp": [
172.82,
176.46
]
},
{
"text": " about communication.",
"timestamp": [
176.46,
178.12
]
},
{
"text": " That's governed by something that are called protocols.",
"timestamp": [
178.12,
181.74
]
},
{
"text": " Are you up for one?",
"timestamp": [
181.74,
182.58
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
182.58,
183.42
]
},
{
"text": " Knock, knock.",
"timestamp": [
183.42,
184.24
]
},
{
"text": " Who's there? Lettuce. Lett for one? Yeah. Knock, knock. Who's there?",
"timestamp": [
184.24,
185.06
]
},
{
"text": " Lettuce.",
"timestamp": [
185.06,
185.9
]
},
{
"text": " Lettuce who?",
"timestamp": [
185.9,
186.72
]
},
{
"text": " Lettuce go on.",
"timestamp": [
186.72,
187.56
]
},
{
"text": " A knock-knock joke is an example of a protocol, right?",
"timestamp": [
187.56,
191.44
]
},
{
"text": " The computer that you're using, say, makes a request.",
"timestamp": [
191.44,
194.68
]
},
{
"text": " You ask for something, you get something in return.",
"timestamp": [
194.68,
197.28
]
},
{
"text": " In the internet, there are protocols everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
197.28,
199.76
]
},
{
"text": " So that two computers that have never talked",
"timestamp": [
199.76,
201.84
]
},
{
"text": " to each other before know the rules for talking to each other.",
"timestamp": [
201.84,
206.48
]
},
{
"text": " This global internet with billions of people using it",
"timestamp": [
206.48,
210.36
]
},
{
"text": " are just lots of smaller networks",
"timestamp": [
210.36,
212.88
]
},
{
"text": " that are all hooked together to each other.",
"timestamp": [
212.88,
215.24
]
},
{
"text": " But also what the internet allows",
"timestamp": [
215.24,
218.48
]
},
{
"text": " are all of these what we call applications,",
"timestamp": [
218.48,
221.92
]
},
{
"text": " Zoom, video playing services,",
"timestamp": [
221.92,
224.72
]
},
{
"text": " can all run on top of the same Internet.",
"timestamp": [
224.72,
227.34
]
},
{
"text": " Yes, there's one Internet for all of them.",
"timestamp": [
227.34,
229.4
]
},
{
"text": " Exactly. There's one Internet and",
"timestamp": [
229.4,
231.88
]
},
{
"text": " lots and lots and lots of",
"timestamp": [
231.88,
233.38
]
},
{
"text": " things that you can do on top of it.",
"timestamp": [
233.38,
235.24
]
},
{
"text": " So you're a student in high school, is that right?",
"timestamp": [
235.24,
241.12
]
},
{
"text": " Yes, I'm a sophomore.",
"timestamp": [
241.12,
242.44
]
},
{
"text": " Well, we're going to be talking about computers here today, and we're going to be talking",
"timestamp": [
242.44,
245.64
]
},
{
"text": " about the internet.",
"timestamp": [
245.64,
246.8
]
},
{
"text": " I always like to think of the internet by analogy to, say, road systems, for example,",
"timestamp": [
246.8,
251.84
]
},
{
"text": " where you have roads in your neighborhood, you have state roads, you have the interstate",
"timestamp": [
251.84,
255.76
]
},
{
"text": " highway system.",
"timestamp": [
255.76,
256.76
]
},
{
"text": " And so the internet is a lot like that.",
"timestamp": [
256.76,
258.56
]
},
{
"text": " It's an interconnection of local roads, local networks, like the network in your house,",
"timestamp": [
258.56,
264.48
]
},
{
"text": " for example.",
"timestamp": [
264.48,
265.4
]
},
{
"text": " How does all of the networks in my house connect to all the city networks?",
"timestamp": [
265.4,
270.76
]
},
{
"text": " Wow, great question.",
"timestamp": [
270.76,
273.08
]
},
{
"text": " Often it's a little blue wire called an Ethernet cable.",
"timestamp": [
273.08,
276.48
]
},
{
"text": " So that cable is able to bring bits of information up into your apartment at, say, a billion",
"timestamp": [
276.48,
282.76
]
},
{
"text": " bits per second.",
"timestamp": [
282.76,
284
]
},
{
"text": " That's pretty fast, right?",
"timestamp": [
284,
285.8
]
},
{
"text": " Literally a wire that goes between a box in your apartment,",
"timestamp": [
285.8,
290.42
]
},
{
"text": " sometimes called a router, or a modem in your apartment",
"timestamp": [
290.42,
293.9
]
},
{
"text": " that comes from an internet service provider,",
"timestamp": [
293.9,
295.8
]
},
{
"text": " come into this first network,",
"timestamp": [
295.8,
297.68
]
},
{
"text": " and then that network connects to another network,",
"timestamp": [
297.68,
299.84
]
},
{
"text": " connects to another network, connects to another network.",
"timestamp": [
299.84,
302
]
},
{
"text": " You could FaceTime somebody who's like in Australia.",
"timestamp": [
302,
306.08
]
},
{
"text": " You can talk to them at the same time and like you're reaching the same signals.",
"timestamp": [
306.08,
309.52
]
},
{
"text": " So how is it that it gets there so fast?",
"timestamp": [
309.52,
311.52
]
},
{
"text": " We could talk about that by analogy to a road system.",
"timestamp": [
311.52,
314.88
]
},
{
"text": " It's not just one big super highway.",
"timestamp": [
314.88,
318.16
]
},
{
"text": " It's a lot of smaller super highways that are all interconnected.",
"timestamp": [
318.8,
322.8
]
},
{
"text": " And those interchanges are what are called routers.",
"timestamp": [
322.8,
325.4
]
},
{
"text": " That's where the links come together.",
"timestamp": [
325.4,
327.04
]
},
{
"text": " We're talking about talking to a friend in Australia.",
"timestamp": [
327.04,
329.16
]
},
{
"text": " So, oh, it's coming in from the East Coast",
"timestamp": [
329.16,
330.92
]
},
{
"text": " of the United States to this router,",
"timestamp": [
330.92,
332.8
]
},
{
"text": " and it's going out, say that router's in San Francisco,",
"timestamp": [
332.8,
335.56
]
},
{
"text": " it's going out on an underseas cable over to Australia,",
"timestamp": [
335.56,
339.64
]
},
{
"text": " rather than in this direction up to Japan.",
"timestamp": [
339.64,
341.56
]
},
{
"text": " So there is an underseas cable.",
"timestamp": [
341.56,
343.44
]
},
{
"text": " The underseas cables are so cool.",
"timestamp": [
343.44,
345.56
]
},
{
"text": " They're these big cables that are laid down by switches.",
"timestamp": [
345.56,
348.98
]
},
{
"text": " They cross both the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian Ocean.",
"timestamp": [
348.98,
352
]
},
{
"text": " So the underseas cables are how the networks in Europe, the United States, Asia are all",
"timestamp": [
352,
358.52
]
},
{
"text": " connected together.",
"timestamp": [
358.52,
359.6
]
},
{
"text": " How do you connect like wirelessly?",
"timestamp": [
359.6,
361.52
]
},
{
"text": " That's really what we call the first hop.",
"timestamp": [
361.52,
364.16
]
},
{
"text": " It's like from your phone, from your tablet,",
"timestamp": [
364.16,
366.48
]
},
{
"text": " from the computer that you're on.",
"timestamp": [
366.48,
368.16
]
},
{
"text": " There's no cables coming in.",
"timestamp": [
368.16,
369.52
]
},
{
"text": " You go over a wireless connection.",
"timestamp": [
369.52,
371.48
]
},
{
"text": " Wi-Fi is the protocol that allows your computer",
"timestamp": [
371.48,
374.28
]
},
{
"text": " to talk to that first hop router",
"timestamp": [
374.28,
376.32
]
},
{
"text": " over a wireless communication link.",
"timestamp": [
376.32,
378.64
]
},
{
"text": " And I was wondering like how there's so many different",
"timestamp": [
378.64,
381.44
]
},
{
"text": " movies or TV shows that you can download",
"timestamp": [
381.44,
383.48
]
},
{
"text": " and that they're all there.",
"timestamp": [
383.48,
384.92
]
},
{
"text": " And like, if you just play it, it just knows what to play.",
"timestamp": [
384.92,
388.12
]
},
{
"text": " But they're all in one spot.",
"timestamp": [
388.12,
389.4
]
},
{
"text": " Ah, you said they're all in one spot.",
"timestamp": [
389.4,
392.22
]
},
{
"text": " In fact, they're in lots of spots in Netflix.",
"timestamp": [
392.22,
395.4
]
},
{
"text": " And so most applications would like to connect you",
"timestamp": [
395.4,
398.28
]
},
{
"text": " with a server that's close to you.",
"timestamp": [
398.28,
400.36
]
},
{
"text": " Server's really just a big computer with a lot of memory,",
"timestamp": [
400.36,
403.56
]
},
{
"text": " a lot of disks that store all the Netflix movies.",
"timestamp": [
403.56,
407.28
]
},
{
"text": " And also so that you don't have to cross over",
"timestamp": [
407.28,
409.66
]
},
{
"text": " too many internet links to get from where the server is",
"timestamp": [
409.66,
413.18
]
},
{
"text": " to the TV or the device in your home.",
"timestamp": [
413.18,
415.84
]
},
{
"text": " So when I'm watching Vampire Diaries in my house,",
"timestamp": [
415.84,
418.48
]
},
{
"text": " how does it know exactly what to do",
"timestamp": [
418.48,
420.52
]
},
{
"text": " without getting scrambled up?",
"timestamp": [
420.52,
421.72
]
},
{
"text": " Ah, another great question.",
"timestamp": [
421.72,
423.68
]
},
{
"text": " There's a couple of things",
"timestamp": [
423.68,
425.22
]
},
{
"text": " that could happen inside the Internet.",
"timestamp": [
425.22,
427.12
]
},
{
"text": " Information is sent in these little packets of",
"timestamp": [
427.12,
429.54
]
},
{
"text": " information from the Netflix server to your display device.",
"timestamp": [
429.54,
434.16
]
},
{
"text": " Literally, each packet that arrives says,",
"timestamp": [
434.16,
436.84
]
},
{
"text": " this is the first packet for Jenna,",
"timestamp": [
436.84,
438.48
]
},
{
"text": " this is the second, this is the third,",
"timestamp": [
438.48,
440.26
]
},
{
"text": " this is the fifth, this is the fourth,",
"timestamp": [
440.26,
442.58
]
},
{
"text": " and they're reordered for you.",
"timestamp": [
442.58,
444.46
]
},
{
"text": " Matter of fact, your computer will say using the TCP protocol to the fifth, this is the fourth. And they're reordered for you. As a matter of fact, your computer will say,",
"timestamp": [
444.46,
446.24
]
},
{
"text": " using the TCP protocol to the server,",
"timestamp": [
446.24,
448.24
]
},
{
"text": " hey, I didn't get packet four, can you resend it again?",
"timestamp": [
448.24,
451.48
]
},
{
"text": " And again, the Netflix server is very happy",
"timestamp": [
451.48,
453.56
]
},
{
"text": " to send you packet four again.",
"timestamp": [
453.56,
455.08
]
},
{
"text": " The other is the internet protocol.",
"timestamp": [
455.08,
457.28
]
},
{
"text": " If you think about sending letters",
"timestamp": [
457.28,
459.24
]
},
{
"text": " through the US Postal Service,",
"timestamp": [
459.24,
461.48
]
},
{
"text": " how you've got an address on it.",
"timestamp": [
461.48,
462.98
]
},
{
"text": " So every packet that flows from the Netflix server to you has an address on it.",
"timestamp": [
462.98,
467.26
]
},
{
"text": " So this is going to Jenna.",
"timestamp": [
467.26,
468.72
]
},
{
"text": " It's going to what's called",
"timestamp": [
468.72,
470.08
]
},
{
"text": " the Internet Protocol address of your device.",
"timestamp": [
470.08,
473.18
]
},
{
"text": " Think of all the range of",
"timestamp": [
473.18,
475
]
},
{
"text": " devices that are hooked up to the Internet.",
"timestamp": [
475,
476.52
]
},
{
"text": " It's totally amazing.",
"timestamp": [
476.52,
477.92
]
},
{
"text": " Every single one of them has one thing in common,",
"timestamp": [
477.92,
480.94
]
},
{
"text": " and that is they speak the IP protocol,",
"timestamp": [
480.94,
483.6
]
},
{
"text": " the Internet Protocol. That was a great question.",
"timestamp": [
483.6,
486
]
},
{
"text": " So tell me a little bit about yourself.",
"timestamp": [
486,
490.56
]
},
{
"text": " I am a senior at New York University.",
"timestamp": [
490.56,
493.4
]
},
{
"text": " I study computer science.",
"timestamp": [
493.4,
494.84
]
},
{
"text": " Have you taken any courses on the Internet or studied it at all?",
"timestamp": [
494.84,
497.96
]
},
{
"text": " I've taken applied Internet technology.",
"timestamp": [
497.96,
499.92
]
},
{
"text": " So we've talked about back-end,",
"timestamp": [
499.92,
502.4
]
},
{
"text": " slash front-end frameworks and libraries, things like that.",
"timestamp": [
502.4,
506.72
]
},
{
"text": " So really at the application level.",
"timestamp": [
506.72,
508.24
]
},
{
"text": " At the application level, for sure.",
"timestamp": [
508.24,
509.24
]
},
{
"text": " I wanted to ask you a little bit about what you know about the history of the Internet.",
"timestamp": [
509.24,
513.84
]
},
{
"text": " Have you heard of ARPANET, for example?",
"timestamp": [
513.84,
515.68
]
},
{
"text": " I have not heard of ARPANET.",
"timestamp": [
515.68,
518.34
]
},
{
"text": " Back into the 1960s, there was a research agency in the United States called DARPA,",
"timestamp": [
518.34,
523.2
]
},
{
"text": " the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency.",
"timestamp": [
523.2,
525.84
]
},
{
"text": " Actually, it was called ARPA at the time.",
"timestamp": [
525.84,
528.04
]
},
{
"text": " They wanted to build this notion of a packet switching network, not a circuit switch network",
"timestamp": [
528.04,
533.72
]
},
{
"text": " like a phone network where you get a dedicated path and a dedicated set of bandwidth and",
"timestamp": [
533.72,
538.66
]
},
{
"text": " links from source to destination.",
"timestamp": [
538.66,
540.6
]
},
{
"text": " So what would packet switching enable?",
"timestamp": [
540.6,
542.84
]
},
{
"text": " I'm sure there's something big here for sure.",
"timestamp": [
542.84,
545
]
},
{
"text": " There's a lot big, right?",
"timestamp": [
545,
547
]
},
{
"text": " And so remember this was a Department of Defense.",
"timestamp": [
547,
549
]
},
{
"text": " They wanted to have forms of communication that were very robust, that were survivable.",
"timestamp": [
549,
555
]
},
{
"text": " Packets could all find their own ways, be routed differently through the network.",
"timestamp": [
555,
559
]
},
{
"text": " So if parts of the network failed, you could route around failures.",
"timestamp": [
559,
562
]
},
{
"text": " Sounds like the reason for a request response type of structure.",
"timestamp": [
562,
569.26
]
},
{
"text": " So you can see how the network architecture that wasn't designed to be",
"timestamp": [
569.26,
575.08
]
},
{
"text": " 100 percent reliable inside the core of the network and had",
"timestamp": [
575.08,
578.5
]
},
{
"text": " that complexity built into the edges of the network.",
"timestamp": [
578.5,
582.26
]
},
{
"text": " To me, the really cool thing is you put this infrastructure in place,",
"timestamp": [
582.26,
586.84
]
},
{
"text": " and then all these super creative people think",
"timestamp": [
586.84,
589.6
]
},
{
"text": " about amazing things to build on top of it.",
"timestamp": [
589.6,
593.28
]
},
{
"text": " You see this proliferation of amazing applications.",
"timestamp": [
593.28,
596.84
]
},
{
"text": " Abstraction, I think it's the reason why everything.",
"timestamp": [
596.84,
600.72
]
},
{
"text": " Spoken like a real computer scientist.",
"timestamp": [
600.72,
602.84
]
},
{
"text": " Right.",
"timestamp": [
602.84,
603.36
]
},
{
"text": " You're a computer scientist, I'm a computer scientist. We talk about APIs, Application Programming Inter computer scientist. Right. Your computer scientists, I'm a computer scientist.",
"timestamp": [
603.36,
605.24
]
},
{
"text": " We talk about APIs,",
"timestamp": [
605.24,
606.52
]
},
{
"text": " Application Programming Interfaces.",
"timestamp": [
606.52,
608.56
]
},
{
"text": " The API for the Internet is something called a socket.",
"timestamp": [
608.56,
613.16
]
},
{
"text": " A socket simply says,",
"timestamp": [
613.16,
614.96
]
},
{
"text": " I can communicate if I know your Internet address,",
"timestamp": [
614.96,
618.08
]
},
{
"text": " 128.119.40.186, that number is",
"timestamp": [
618.08,
622.44
]
},
{
"text": " the IP address of my server,",
"timestamp": [
622.44,
624.2
]
},
{
"text": " the University of Massachusetts.",
"timestamp": [
624.2,
625.68
]
},
{
"text": " If you know that,",
"timestamp": [
625.68,
627.12
]
},
{
"text": " you can write a program anywhere in the world and send",
"timestamp": [
627.12,
630.14
]
},
{
"text": " a message and it'll pop out at my end.",
"timestamp": [
630.14,
633.04
]
},
{
"text": " I will be remembering that.",
"timestamp": [
633.04,
635.16
]
},
{
"text": " I've heard that there are seven keys to the Internet,",
"timestamp": [
635.16,
640
]
},
{
"text": " something like that.",
"timestamp": [
640,
641.08
]
},
{
"text": " Okay. Well, I don't know about the number seven,",
"timestamp": [
641.08,
644.52
]
},
{
"text": " but there's something in the Internet that's similar to that. Okay, well, I don't know about the number seven, but there's something in the internet",
"timestamp": [
644.52,
647.32
]
},
{
"text": " that's sort of similar to that.",
"timestamp": [
647.32,
649.48
]
},
{
"text": " It's called the domain name system.",
"timestamp": [
649.48,
651.48
]
},
{
"text": " The DNS's role is to translate names,",
"timestamp": [
651.48,
655.52
]
},
{
"text": " like gaia.cs.ums.edu or ibm.com or facebook.com",
"timestamp": [
655.52,
660.24
]
},
{
"text": " to an IP address so that your application",
"timestamp": [
660.24,
663.64
]
},
{
"text": " can actually send a message to that name, to that named service.",
"timestamp": [
663.64,
668
]
},
{
"text": " This whatever quantity of people is able to have some form of control.",
"timestamp": [
668,
673
]
},
{
"text": " So that's a great question. Who do you think controls the Internet?",
"timestamp": [
673,
676
]
},
{
"text": " I'm pretty sure the Internet is fairly decentralized.",
"timestamp": [
676,
680
]
},
{
"text": " Okay. What does that mean?",
"timestamp": [
680,
681
]
},
{
"text": " No one authority holds control over any sort of decisions or destinations.",
"timestamp": [
681,
688.36
]
},
{
"text": " So that's 98% true, right?",
"timestamp": [
688.36,
692.56
]
},
{
"text": " And if you own a network like your AT&T.com or your Verizon.com, you can do within that",
"timestamp": [
692.56,
699.32
]
},
{
"text": " network, you can do what you want, right?",
"timestamp": [
699.32,
701.92
]
},
{
"text": " So in that sense, the internet is very decentralized, that the control",
"timestamp": [
701.92,
705.92
]
},
{
"text": " of the network is up to whoever owns the network. The 2% where you said there's nobody in control,",
"timestamp": [
705.92,
712.48
]
},
{
"text": " there's a little bit of centralized control. There's an organization called the Internet",
"timestamp": [
712.48,
716.8
]
},
{
"text": " Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. Its responsibility is to handle, as the name",
"timestamp": [
716.8,
722.48
]
},
{
"text": " I can suggest, names and numbers.",
"timestamp": [
722.48,
725.24
]
},
{
"text": " It's that little bit of centralization,",
"timestamp": [
725.24,
728
]
},
{
"text": " central authority that you need.",
"timestamp": [
728,
729.8
]
},
{
"text": " When can we see the next tenfold increase in Wi-Fi speed?",
"timestamp": [
729.8,
734.8
]
},
{
"text": " You know, in terms of tenfold speeds of increases,",
"timestamp": [
735.12,
738.7
]
},
{
"text": " depending on what device you're using right now,",
"timestamp": [
738.7,
741
]
},
{
"text": " it's available, all you need to do is upgrade, right?",
"timestamp": [
741,
743.46
]
},
{
"text": " So the Wi-Fi protocol is called 802.11.",
"timestamp": [
743.46,
746.92
]
},
{
"text": " And this is sometimes a source of confusion for people.",
"timestamp": [
746.92,
749.68
]
},
{
"text": " How can it be that I've got a connection",
"timestamp": [
749.68,
752.24
]
},
{
"text": " at 100 megabits per second from our TV into our router,",
"timestamp": [
752.24,
756.4
]
},
{
"text": " 100 megabits per second, not enough?",
"timestamp": [
756.4,
759.04
]
},
{
"text": " Packets dropping.",
"timestamp": [
759.04,
760.44
]
},
{
"text": " Where do they get dropped, do you think?",
"timestamp": [
760.44,
763.2
]
},
{
"text": " Somewhere in their travel process.",
"timestamp": [
763.2,
764.96
]
},
{
"text": " Exactly, right? And maybe they're dropped, do you think? Somewhere in their travel process.",
"timestamp": [
764.96,
765.08
]
},
{
"text": " Exactly, right? And maybe they're dropped in your apartment, but much more likely",
"timestamp": [
765.2,
769.24
]
},
{
"text": " they're dropped because of congestion somewhere between",
"timestamp": [
769.6,
772.4
]
},
{
"text": " the Hulu or the Netflix or the Disney server if you're watching a video and your home. So even though you've got",
"timestamp": [
772.84,
778.96
]
},
{
"text": " 200 megabits per second on that last hop, you don't have 200 megabits per second from the server",
"timestamp": [
779.96,
785.76
]
},
{
"text": " into your apartment. I see. I'm curious, has our conversation sort of changed your view or",
"timestamp": [
786.32,
793.36
]
},
{
"text": " sort of taught you new things about the internet? I think that I've sort of realized that it's a,",
"timestamp": [
793.36,
798.64
]
},
{
"text": " the internet is a technology that's dependent upon so many other factors, some more in our control, some less.",
"timestamp": [
799.36,
806.32
]
},
{
"text": " Tell us a little bit about yourself.",
"timestamp": [
809.44,
810.88
]
},
{
"text": " I'm Casper Lant.",
"timestamp": [
810.88,
812.08
]
},
{
"text": " I'm a PhD student at Columbia University",
"timestamp": [
812.08,
814.24
]
},
{
"text": " under Henning Schulze-Rinne's tutelage.",
"timestamp": [
814.24,
816.32
]
},
{
"text": " Oh, good pronunciation.",
"timestamp": [
816.32,
817.68
]
},
{
"text": " Thank you.",
"timestamp": [
817.68,
818
]
},
{
"text": " I'm interested in networking, IoT,",
"timestamp": [
818.56,
820.96
]
},
{
"text": " and sort of what kind of data science you can use",
"timestamp": [
820.96,
823.36
]
},
{
"text": " with the data sets that",
"timestamp": [
823.36,
825.28
]
},
{
"text": " you get from such devices.",
"timestamp": [
825.28,
826.8
]
},
{
"text": " One of the things that I designed before starting my PhD with heading was a IoT pill dispenser,",
"timestamp": [
826.8,
833.52
]
},
{
"text": " essentially, which pairs with your smartphone, which does facial detection and other computer",
"timestamp": [
833.52,
838
]
},
{
"text": " vision controls and can basically tell who's taking some sensitive medication and make",
"timestamp": [
838,
843.72
]
},
{
"text": " sure that they've taken it correctly.",
"timestamp": [
843.72,
845.4
]
},
{
"text": " We have these low power devices,",
"timestamp": [
845.4,
846.76
]
},
{
"text": " they're sort of at the edge.",
"timestamp": [
846.76,
848.56
]
},
{
"text": " Is it just connecting them in across a wireless device,",
"timestamp": [
848.56,
851.6
]
},
{
"text": " across a wireless link, is that the primary challenge or?",
"timestamp": [
851.6,
854.74
]
},
{
"text": " Well, I think the primary challenge is that for sure,",
"timestamp": [
854.74,
857.64
]
},
{
"text": " but then an additional challenge is",
"timestamp": [
857.64,
859.92
]
},
{
"text": " keeping everything configured in the way",
"timestamp": [
859.92,
861.52
]
},
{
"text": " that you expect it to be configured.",
"timestamp": [
861.52,
863.6
]
},
{
"text": " So for example, most IoT devices require you, when you're configuring them,",
"timestamp": [
863.6,
867.84
]
},
{
"text": " for you to enter some kind of captive login portal,",
"timestamp": [
867.84,
871.6
]
},
{
"text": " where you connect to a local network that the IoT device produces,",
"timestamp": [
871.6,
876.04
]
},
{
"text": " and then you can input your Wi-Fi SSID and password.",
"timestamp": [
876.04,
879.76
]
},
{
"text": " But then say if you were to change the password or the name of your Wi-Fi network,",
"timestamp": [
879.76,
884.04
]
},
{
"text": " or you move to a new place, then suddenly everything needs to be reconfigured.",
"timestamp": [
884.04,
888.28
]
},
{
"text": " That's a problem that scales linearly. Right, that you don't want the",
"timestamp": [
888.28,
892.2
]
},
{
"text": " complexity of managing them to go up linearly with that. You'd like it to",
"timestamp": [
892.2,
896.92
]
},
{
"text": " stay pretty flat as you start adding. Right, exactly. I mean the good thing",
"timestamp": [
896.92,
900.6
]
},
{
"text": " about IoT devices is that they tend to transmit very, very small amounts of data.",
"timestamp": [
900.6,
905.4
]
},
{
"text": " We're used to Ethernet cables that can handle",
"timestamp": [
905.4,
907.62
]
},
{
"text": " many hundreds of gigabits per second over a wired device.",
"timestamp": [
907.62,
911.1
]
},
{
"text": " What are the typical data rates for IoT devices?",
"timestamp": [
911.1,
914.4
]
},
{
"text": " I mean, not hundreds of gigabits, for example.",
"timestamp": [
914.4,
916
]
},
{
"text": " No, I mean, I would imagine upper bound KB per second.",
"timestamp": [
916,
920.6
]
},
{
"text": " Lower bound, you could see bytes per second,",
"timestamp": [
920.6,
922.46
]
},
{
"text": " just on average.",
"timestamp": [
922.46,
923.48
]
},
{
"text": " But I mean, say that you have a temperature sensor",
"timestamp": [
923.48,
927.12
]
},
{
"text": " running off of your Arduino that's reporting",
"timestamp": [
927.12,
929.12
]
},
{
"text": " the temperature in your house every minute,",
"timestamp": [
929.12,
931.6
]
},
{
"text": " that's going to be far less than",
"timestamp": [
931.6,
933.16
]
},
{
"text": " kilobytes per second on average.",
"timestamp": [
933.16,
934.68
]
},
{
"text": " My sense is you're spot on,",
"timestamp": [
934.68,
936.84
]
},
{
"text": " but they'll produce over time a lot of data",
"timestamp": [
936.84,
940.24
]
},
{
"text": " and that a lot of IoT is about computing on that data.",
"timestamp": [
940.24,
943.84
]
},
{
"text": " That computation happened mostly at the edge or somehow a combination",
"timestamp": [
943.84,
947.64
]
},
{
"text": " between the edge and something happening in a faraway data center?",
"timestamp": [
947.64,
952
]
},
{
"text": " Well, my sense is right now that all that data tends to be centralized",
"timestamp": [
952,
955
]
},
{
"text": " because IoT devices are usually the commercial products of companies.",
"timestamp": [
955,
959.16
]
},
{
"text": " Do you think they'll share it?",
"timestamp": [
959.16,
960.24
]
},
{
"text": " Not without some persuasion,",
"timestamp": [
960.24,
962.46
]
},
{
"text": " but I agree that these data have massive, massive research value.",
"timestamp": [
962.46,
966.6
]
},
{
"text": " Something I'm interested in with my research is collaborating with people who manage these distributed sensor devices",
"timestamp": [
966.6,
973.3
]
},
{
"text": " and then taking advantage of those data sets and comparing them to, say,",
"timestamp": [
973.3,
978.6
]
},
{
"text": " say you were interested in doing a research project on how daily rush hour traffic impacts the acoustic landscape",
"timestamp": [
978.6,
985.16
]
},
{
"text": " of New York City. Figuring out, look this street next to this school is causing",
"timestamp": [
985.16,
990.26
]
},
{
"text": " decimal ratings above what we mandate and so there needs to be an intervention.",
"timestamp": [
990.26,
994.68
]
},
{
"text": " I think for a long time the internet hasn't grappled with but now has with",
"timestamp": [
994.68,
999.2
]
},
{
"text": " IOT and also with cellular networks generally is the question of mobility. Do",
"timestamp": [
999.2,
1003.8
]
},
{
"text": " you imagine in the future that it might be possible",
"timestamp": [
1003.8,
1006.44
]
},
{
"text": " for mobile devices not to always have to connect",
"timestamp": [
1006.44,
1009.48
]
},
{
"text": " through the same provider to go from one network to another?",
"timestamp": [
1009.48,
1012.32
]
},
{
"text": " Definitely.",
"timestamp": [
1012.32,
1012.82
]
},
{
"text": " I mean, we're already seeing long-range networks",
"timestamp": [
1012.82,
1015.02
]
},
{
"text": " like LoRa that can, first of all,",
"timestamp": [
1015.02,
1017.16
]
},
{
"text": " provide access over a much larger coverage area,",
"timestamp": [
1017.16,
1019.68
]
},
{
"text": " but then also look the same because they're",
"timestamp": [
1019.68,
1022.04
]
},
{
"text": " set up to the same specification regardless of where",
"timestamp": [
1022.04,
1024.68
]
},
{
"text": " the individual gateway is.",
"timestamp": [
1024.68,
1026
]
},
{
"text": " Hey Jen, it's great to see you again.",
"timestamp": [
1026,
1030.44
]
},
{
"text": " Good to see you, Jim.",
"timestamp": [
1030.44,
1031.2
]
},
{
"text": " We're in level five now,",
"timestamp": [
1031.2,
1032.96
]
},
{
"text": " so you're the expert expert.",
"timestamp": [
1032.96,
1035.12
]
},
{
"text": " I'm a huge fan of the work that you did in RCP,",
"timestamp": [
1035.12,
1038.36
]
},
{
"text": " the routing control platform being a precursor to software-defined networking,",
"timestamp": [
1038.36,
1043.56
]
},
{
"text": " and the notion that rather than having protocols",
"timestamp": [
1043.56,
1046.36
]
},
{
"text": " actually always compute things,",
"timestamp": [
1046.36,
1047.88
]
},
{
"text": " that we could compute things in data centers.",
"timestamp": [
1047.88,
1051.08
]
},
{
"text": " I'd be interested if you could sort of just reflect back",
"timestamp": [
1051.08,
1053.52
]
},
{
"text": " on that time and sort of the beginnings of SDN",
"timestamp": [
1053.52,
1056.12
]
},
{
"text": " and where it's come since then.",
"timestamp": [
1056.12,
1057.48
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, and when we were at AT&T,",
"timestamp": [
1057.48,
1059.2
]
},
{
"text": " the thing we found most frustrating",
"timestamp": [
1059.2,
1060.64
]
},
{
"text": " is AT&T would buy routers",
"timestamp": [
1060.64,
1062.16
]
},
{
"text": " and they would come pre-baked with a set of protocols,",
"timestamp": [
1062.16,
1065.48
]
},
{
"text": " a set of knobs that you could turn if you wanted to influence how the traffic flowed,",
"timestamp": [
1065.48,
1069.36
]
},
{
"text": " and a set of dials you could read to understand what was going on inside the network.",
"timestamp": [
1069.36,
1073.16
]
},
{
"text": " Right, you couldn't directly do what you wanted to do.",
"timestamp": [
1073.16,
1075.88
]
},
{
"text": " Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
1075.88,
1076.88
]
},
{
"text": " And so we started thinking about earlier work that was done in the telephony network, the",
"timestamp": [
1076.88,
1079.56
]
},
{
"text": " old telephone network, and there they had the same problem.",
"timestamp": [
1079.56,
1082.12
]
},
{
"text": " And they had the idea of having a computer running a program tell a distributed set of telephony switches what to do. But",
"timestamp": [
1082.12,
1089.24
]
},
{
"text": " the idea was like, wow, it was kind of a revelation. Like, what would that look like if we did",
"timestamp": [
1089.24,
1092.34
]
},
{
"text": " that? Not for the whole internet, but at least AT&T is part of the internet. So in other",
"timestamp": [
1092.34,
1096.08
]
},
{
"text": " words, use software instead of distributed protocols to tell the network what to do.",
"timestamp": [
1096.08,
1100.56
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah. Do you see the softwareization of the internet",
"timestamp": [
1100.56,
1103.16
]
},
{
"text": " as a whole happening? So, So far it hasn't very much.",
"timestamp": [
1103.16,
1106.52
]
},
{
"text": " I mean, basically software-defined networking exists, let's say, within a single provider",
"timestamp": [
1106.52,
1110.16
]
},
{
"text": " backbone or a single cloud provider's network or a single campus.",
"timestamp": [
1110.16,
1114.48
]
},
{
"text": " There's been some work on doing it at the juncture points between a pair of networks.",
"timestamp": [
1114.48,
1118
]
},
{
"text": " But one other trend that's happening that makes it more possible is it used to be that",
"timestamp": [
1118,
1121.56
]
},
{
"text": " to get from one end of the internet to the other, you have access networks getting much closer",
"timestamp": [
1121.56,
1126.72
]
},
{
"text": " to say Google or Microsoft or other large cloud providers,",
"timestamp": [
1126.72,
1130.62
]
},
{
"text": " where even you might only go through two networks.",
"timestamp": [
1130.62,
1133.3
]
},
{
"text": " Right, so some people have called that",
"timestamp": [
1133.3,
1134.54
]
},
{
"text": " the flattening of the internet, right?",
"timestamp": [
1134.54,
1136.24
]
},
{
"text": " So I think it used to be on average,",
"timestamp": [
1136.24,
1137.6
]
},
{
"text": " you would go through 10 different networks",
"timestamp": [
1137.6,
1140.26
]
},
{
"text": " to get from a source to a destination.",
"timestamp": [
1140.26,
1142.24
]
},
{
"text": " Exactly, and if you take that even further,",
"timestamp": [
1142.24,
1144.04
]
},
{
"text": " there's starting to be more edge computing",
"timestamp": [
1144.04,
1145.56
]
},
{
"text": " where you might imagine you might have a cell tower",
"timestamp": [
1145.56,
1148.16
]
},
{
"text": " connected to a small number of routers",
"timestamp": [
1148.16,
1149.76
]
},
{
"text": " connected directly to a server",
"timestamp": [
1149.76,
1151.2
]
},
{
"text": " that's gonna be running the application.",
"timestamp": [
1151.2,
1153.12
]
},
{
"text": " In that case, the entire infrastructure",
"timestamp": [
1153.12,
1154.92
]
},
{
"text": " might be controlled by a single party.",
"timestamp": [
1154.92,
1156.32
]
},
{
"text": " It's totally fascinating to me",
"timestamp": [
1156.32,
1157.6
]
},
{
"text": " that we have such an important global infrastructure,",
"timestamp": [
1157.6,
1162.56
]
},
{
"text": " and yet the laws that govern it tend to be very, very local.",
"timestamp": [
1162.56,
1168
]
},
{
"text": " There are tens of thousands of separately administered networks, and of course in hundreds",
"timestamp": [
1168,
1172.2
]
},
{
"text": " of countries, and the fact that it even holds together at all is kind of a miracle.",
"timestamp": [
1172.2,
1176
]
},
{
"text": " Right.",
"timestamp": [
1176,
1177
]
},
{
"text": " Well, it holds together because we have standards and we have protocols that you mentioned.",
"timestamp": [
1177,
1180.4
]
},
{
"text": " Exactly, the protocol standards for how the equipment talks to one another, and increasingly",
"timestamp": [
1180.4,
1184.38
]
},
{
"text": " certificate authorities that help bootstrap the secure, encrypted communication between",
"timestamp": [
1184.38,
1189.52
]
},
{
"text": " end hosts.",
"timestamp": [
1189.52,
1190.52
]
},
{
"text": " So there are a few of these sort of centrally kind of agreed upon kinds of infrastructure,",
"timestamp": [
1190.52,
1194.8
]
},
{
"text": " but for the most part, each network runs itself.",
"timestamp": [
1194.8,
1197.36
]
},
{
"text": " And certainly we've heard about some countries that impose firewalls that don't let certain",
"timestamp": [
1197.36,
1201.64
]
},
{
"text": " kinds of traffic out or certain kinds of traffic in.",
"timestamp": [
1201.64,
1205.52
]
},
{
"text": " So there's no global body that is regulating that.",
"timestamp": [
1205.52,
1208.88
]
},
{
"text": " Not really, because each country really can have its own laws, its own norms.",
"timestamp": [
1208.88,
1212.64
]
},
{
"text": " And so they can decide, like the Great Firewall of China can decide,",
"timestamp": [
1212.64,
1216.24
]
},
{
"text": " they don't want to let certain content be accessed by the citizens inside that country.",
"timestamp": [
1216.24,
1220
]
},
{
"text": " So if a country decides they don't want to answer requests for a particular domain name,",
"timestamp": [
1220,
1223.44
]
},
{
"text": " they say, hey, I don't want to let someone know the IP address of this website.",
"timestamp": [
1223.44,
1226.64
]
},
{
"text": " They can decide not to let those answers be delivered inside their country.",
"timestamp": [
1226.64,
1230.44
]
},
{
"text": " And so encryption plays a role in helping people keep their privacy or prevent surveillance,",
"timestamp": [
1230.44,
1236.16
]
},
{
"text": " but it's not perfect.",
"timestamp": [
1236.16,
1237.16
]
},
{
"text": " It's often possible still to know a fair amount about what people are doing, even if you can't",
"timestamp": [
1237.16,
1241.92
]
},
{
"text": " look inside the envelope at the letter that's written.",
"timestamp": [
1241.92,
1244.56
]
},
{
"text": " Right. I mean, even you could just tell that two people are doing, even if you can't look inside the envelope at the letter that's written. Right, I mean, even you could just tell",
"timestamp": [
1244.56,
1246.08
]
},
{
"text": " that two people are communicating,",
"timestamp": [
1246.08,
1247.52
]
},
{
"text": " even though the traffic itself is encrypted.",
"timestamp": [
1247.52,
1249.96
]
},
{
"text": " So you don't know what they're saying,",
"timestamp": [
1249.96,
1251.48
]
},
{
"text": " just even knowing two devices are communicating.",
"timestamp": [
1251.48,
1254.24
]
},
{
"text": " Exactly, and in fact, if you look at, say,",
"timestamp": [
1254.24,
1256.52
]
},
{
"text": " the sizes of the transfers that they're doing,",
"timestamp": [
1256.52,
1258.84
]
},
{
"text": " you may know, hey, I'm talking to Netflix,",
"timestamp": [
1258.84,
1260.56
]
},
{
"text": " and by the way, this is the length of the movie I watched,",
"timestamp": [
1260.56,
1263.36
]
},
{
"text": " and this is the size of each of the frames.",
"timestamp": [
1263.36,
1264.2
]
},
{
"text": " Right, so you can infer or guess a lot of things. Exactly. You're one of the most",
"timestamp": [
1264.2,
1267.92
]
},
{
"text": " awesome networking researchers that I know. I'm curious, just to pick your brain, what do you",
"timestamp": [
1267.92,
1271.76
]
},
{
"text": " think are some of the hot topics in networking research? Where do you think the field is heading?",
"timestamp": [
1271.76,
1276.16
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, I'm excited about the convergence of wireless communications, cellular networks,",
"timestamp": [
1276.16,
1281.04
]
},
{
"text": " Wi-Fi, with networking and cloud computing. And in particular, we're seeing in edge computing a convergence of all three, where you might",
"timestamp": [
1281.04,
1288.52
]
},
{
"text": " have a mobile phone or a drone or some other kind of device connecting over the wireless",
"timestamp": [
1288.52,
1293.2
]
},
{
"text": " medium directly to a network that connects you directly to the server that might run",
"timestamp": [
1293.2,
1297.24
]
},
{
"text": " your application.",
"timestamp": [
1297.24,
1298.24
]
},
{
"text": " So you want the computation close to where the end point is.",
"timestamp": [
1298.24,
1302.6
]
},
{
"text": " Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
1302.6,
1303.6
]
},
{
"text": " And I think that what's now exciting about that",
"timestamp": [
1303.6,
1305.34
]
},
{
"text": " is all three of these technologies,",
"timestamp": [
1305.34,
1306.86
]
},
{
"text": " wireless, networking, and cloud,",
"timestamp": [
1306.86,
1308.46
]
},
{
"text": " which are normally three different communities,",
"timestamp": [
1308.46,
1310.32
]
},
{
"text": " three different sets of technologies,",
"timestamp": [
1310.32,
1312.06
]
},
{
"text": " three different sets of standards or practices,",
"timestamp": [
1312.06,
1314.26
]
},
{
"text": " now have to work together in close harmony",
"timestamp": [
1314.26,
1317.1
]
},
{
"text": " to be able to service applications that are really critical",
"timestamp": [
1317.1,
1320.3
]
},
{
"text": " and that might be interacting with the physical world",
"timestamp": [
1320.3,
1322.36
]
},
{
"text": " in ways where safety is a potential concern.",
"timestamp": [
1322.36,
1324.94
]
},
{
"text": " You know, we've had cellular networks now for 20, 30 years.",
"timestamp": [
1324.94,
1329.4
]
},
{
"text": " So when we hear about 5G, what's trumpeted the most",
"timestamp": [
1329.4,
1332
]
},
{
"text": " is the fact that, oh, super high bandwidth, right?",
"timestamp": [
1332,
1334.6
]
},
{
"text": " But I sense that the exciting things are more",
"timestamp": [
1334.6,
1337.08
]
},
{
"text": " than just the network being faster.",
"timestamp": [
1337.08,
1340.16
]
},
{
"text": " I agree.",
"timestamp": [
1340.16,
1341
]
},
{
"text": " It's both the high bandwidth, it's the low delay",
"timestamp": [
1341,
1343.04
]
},
{
"text": " so that you can have these applications that interact with the physical world and need answers in real time. It's about having",
"timestamp": [
1343.04,
1349.44
]
},
{
"text": " the compute really close so that you can integrate computation and communication. It's about having",
"timestamp": [
1349.44,
1355.28
]
},
{
"text": " more coverage. Coming back again to the softwareization, SDN and softwareization is",
"timestamp": [
1355.28,
1360.4
]
},
{
"text": " maybe a little bit behind the covers that you wouldn't normally see it as a user",
"timestamp": [
1361.12,
1365.98
]
},
{
"text": " going from 3G to 4G to 5G,",
"timestamp": [
1365.98,
1368.58
]
},
{
"text": " you just see an increase in speed.",
"timestamp": [
1368.58,
1370.18
]
},
{
"text": " But yet, the way the network is now being managed again,",
"timestamp": [
1370.18,
1374.14
]
},
{
"text": " I think, is bringing the cellular networking world",
"timestamp": [
1374.14,
1376.62
]
},
{
"text": " sort of into the internet world",
"timestamp": [
1376.62,
1378.08
]
},
{
"text": " in terms of the softwareization of all the management.",
"timestamp": [
1378.08,
1381.42
]
},
{
"text": " And I think the bringing in of compute and storage",
"timestamp": [
1381.42,
1383.38
]
},
{
"text": " is important too.",
"timestamp": [
1383.38,
1384.22
]
},
{
"text": " I think when you think just about networking,",
"timestamp": [
1384.22,
1386.46
]
},
{
"text": " it really is often just one part of the IT,",
"timestamp": [
1386.46,
1389.34
]
},
{
"text": " you know, the information technology ecosystem",
"timestamp": [
1389.34,
1391.54
]
},
{
"text": " as there's often compute and storage as well.",
"timestamp": [
1391.54,
1394.82
]
},
{
"text": " And so I think now there's an opportunity",
"timestamp": [
1394.82,
1396.54
]
},
{
"text": " to have all of those parts of the infrastructure",
"timestamp": [
1396.54,
1398.7
]
},
{
"text": " work together towards an even higher level goal.",
"timestamp": [
1398.7,
1401.1
]
},
{
"text": " And so I think it's a really exciting time",
"timestamp": [
1401.1,
1403.34
]
},
{
"text": " to be in the field",
"timestamp": [
1403.34,
1404.34
]
},
{
"text": " because now the plumbing is getting close to the application in a way that it wasn't before.",
"timestamp": [
1404.34,
1408.8
]
},
{
"text": " So I really hope you've enjoyed this video and I hope you've also understood",
"timestamp": [
1411.36,
1415.04
]
},
{
"text": " the internet is part of the worldwide global communication fabric.",
"timestamp": [
1415.04,
1420.32
]
},
{
"text": " Absolutely fascinating how it works.",
"timestamp": [
1420.32,
1426.72
]
}
] |
[
[
"Intro",
" Hi, I'm Jim Carosa. I'm a professor at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. And I've been challenged to describe the internet in five levels of increasing difficulty. The internet is the most technically complex system that humanity has ever built. The internet is a network of networks. It's a platform on which all of the internet applications that you've heard of can be built. Hi, it's really, really nice to meet you. What's your name? My name is Skylar. Skylar, we're here to talk about the internet, and I bet you must use the internet a lot, right? Yeah. What's your conception about what the internet is?"
],
[
"What is the Connectome",
" The internet, for me, it's just something to use when I need to search up something or watch videos. The internet is physically these computers that all talk to each other, billions of computers in the case of the internet. The internet allows us to do a lot of really, really interesting, what we call applications. You ever think about how that video gets to you over the internet? Yeah, I have no idea. Got a favorite movie? Matilda. Matilda, all right. We're gonna actually build an internet. I've got a couple of things here that I wanna show you, or a couple of toys, actually. Okay, let's pretend that these round balls are computers, and the internet is something that connects them. And right now, the internet is just one communication link, and Matilda is sent over the internet from this computer to your computer. So the internet is a network for carrying information from one computer to another."
],
[
"Brain Cells",
" Now this network here looks pretty simple, doesn't it? It's just one thing. Should we add some more friends in? Yeah. Let's say we want to get a video from here over to here. How do you think that video would sort of travel through this network? Maybe it could go to here, to here, to here, to here. That's right. So that's pretty cool. There are actually lots of different ways to actually go through the internet to get from what we call a source, the place that's sending the information to the source, the place that's sending the information, to the receiver, the place that's actually gathering the information together. And that's something we actually call routing. Huh. But wouldn't it just be easier for it to go from here to here, instead of going from here to here to here to here? Yeah. So that's a really good observation. In most pieces of the Internet, that's exactly what would happen. We want to take what's called a shortest path. But still, there are multiple paths. Why do you think that might be valuable? Maybe one way like messed up or broken so you can't go away? Yeah. Exactly. So Skylar, that was a great discussion about what we just built."
],
[
"Connectome",
" I wanted to talk to you about, or ask you about maybe one other really important part about networks. And it's not so much the thing itself, the physical thing, but more about the rules about communication. That's governed by something that are called protocols. Are you up for one? Yeah. Knock, knock. Who's there? Lettuce. Lett for one? Yeah. Knock, knock. Who's there? Lettuce. Lettuce who? Lettuce go on. A knock-knock joke is an example of a protocol, right? The computer that you're using, say, makes a request. You ask for something, you get something in return. In the internet, there are protocols everywhere. So that two computers that have never talked to each other before know the rules for talking to each other. This global internet with billions of people using it are just lots of smaller networks that are all hooked together to each other. But also what the internet allows are all of these what we call applications, Zoom, video playing services, can all run on top of the same Internet. Yes, there's one Internet for all of them. Exactly. There's one Internet and lots and lots and lots of things that you can do on top of it. So you're a student in high school, is that right? Yes, I'm a sophomore. Well, we're going to be talking about computers here today, and we're going to be talking about the internet. I always like to think of the internet by analogy to, say, road systems, for example, where you have roads in your neighborhood, you have state roads, you have the interstate highway system. And so the internet is a lot like that. It's an interconnection of local roads, local networks, like the network in your house, for example. How does all of the networks in my house connect to all the city networks? Wow, great question."
],
[
"Wiring Map",
" Often it's a little blue wire called an Ethernet cable. So that cable is able to bring bits of information up into your apartment at, say, a billion bits per second. That's pretty fast, right? Literally a wire that goes between a box in your apartment, sometimes called a router, or a modem in your apartment that comes from an internet service provider, come into this first network, and then that network connects to another network, connects to another network, connects to another network. You could FaceTime somebody who's like in Australia. You can talk to them at the same time and like you're reaching the same signals. So how is it that it gets there so fast? We could talk about that by analogy to a road system. It's not just one big super highway. It's a lot of smaller super highways that are all interconnected. And those interchanges are what are called routers. That's where the links come together. We're talking about talking to a friend in Australia. So, oh, it's coming in from the East Coast of the United States to this router, and it's going out, say that router's in San Francisco, it's going out on an underseas cable over to Australia, rather than in this direction up to Japan. So there is an underseas cable. The underseas cables are so cool. They're these big cables that are laid down by switches. They cross both the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian Ocean. So the underseas cables are how the networks in Europe, the United States, Asia are all connected together. How do you connect like wirelessly? That's really what we call the first hop. It's like from your phone, from your tablet, from the computer that you're on. There's no cables coming in. You go over a wireless connection. Wi-Fi is the protocol that allows your computer to talk to that first hop router over a wireless communication link. And I was wondering like how there's so many different movies or TV shows that you can download and that they're all there. And like, if you just play it, it just knows what to play. But they're all in one spot. Ah, you said they're all in one spot. In fact, they're in lots of spots in Netflix. And so most applications would like to connect you with a server that's close to you. Server's really just a big computer with a lot of memory, a lot of disks that store all the Netflix movies. And also so that you don't have to cross over too many internet links to get from where the server is to the TV or the device in your home. So when I'm watching Vampire Diaries in my house, how does it know exactly what to do without getting scrambled up? Ah, another great question. There's a couple of things that could happen inside the Internet. Information is sent in these little packets of information from the Netflix server to your display device. Literally, each packet that arrives says, this is the first packet for Jenna, this is the second, this is the third, this is the fifth, this is the fourth, and they're reordered for you. Matter of fact, your computer will say using the TCP protocol to the fifth, this is the fourth. And they're reordered for you. As a matter of fact, your computer will say, using the TCP protocol to the server, hey, I didn't get packet four, can you resend it again? And again, the Netflix server is very happy to send you packet four again. The other is the internet protocol. If you think about sending letters through the US Postal Service, how you've got an address on it. So every packet that flows from the Netflix server to you has an address on it. So this is going to Jenna. It's going to what's called the Internet Protocol address of your device. Think of all the range of devices that are hooked up to the Internet. It's totally amazing. Every single one of them has one thing in common, and that is they speak the IP protocol, the Internet Protocol. That was a great question. So tell me a little bit about yourself. I am a senior at New York University. I study computer science. Have you taken any courses on the Internet or studied it at all? I've taken applied Internet technology. So we've talked about back-end, slash front-end frameworks and libraries, things like that. So really at the application level. At the application level, for sure. I wanted to ask you a little bit about what you know about the history of the Internet. Have you heard of ARPANET, for example? I have not heard of ARPANET. Back into the 1960s, there was a research agency in the United States called DARPA, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. Actually, it was called ARPA at the time. They wanted to build this notion of a packet switching network, not a circuit switch network like a phone network where you get a dedicated path and a dedicated set of bandwidth and links from source to destination. So what would packet switching enable? I'm sure there's something big here for sure. There's a lot big, right? And so remember this was a Department of Defense. They wanted to have forms of communication that were very robust, that were survivable. Packets could all find their own ways, be routed differently through the network. So if parts of the network failed, you could route around failures. Sounds like the reason for a request response type of structure. So you can see how the network architecture that wasn't designed to be 100 percent reliable inside the core of the network and had that complexity built into the edges of the network. To me, the really cool thing is you put this infrastructure in place,"
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Biologist Explains One Concept in 5 Levels of Difficulty - CRISPR | WIRED
|
sweN8d4_MUg
| 1,013
|
[
{
"end_time": 28,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "Intro"
},
{
"end_time": 86,
"start_time": 28,
"title": "What is CRISPR"
},
{
"end_time": 183,
"start_time": 86,
"title": "What is a genome"
},
{
"end_time": 286,
"start_time": 183,
"title": "CRISPR"
},
{
"end_time": 437,
"start_time": 286,
"title": "Ethics"
},
{
"end_time": 585,
"start_time": 437,
"title": "Genetics"
},
{
"end_time": 708,
"start_time": 585,
"title": "Jurassic Park"
},
{
"end_time": 752,
"start_time": 708,
"title": "Mutations"
},
{
"end_time": 794,
"start_time": 752,
"title": "Data"
},
{
"end_time": 1013,
"start_time": 794,
"title": "Ethical Issues"
}
] |
[
{
"text": " Hi, I'm Sean Carroll. I'm a theoretical physicist here at the California Institute of Technology.",
"timestamp": [
0,
5.12
]
},
{
"text": " I've been challenged to explain dimensions to five different levels.",
"timestamp": [
5.12,
8.64
]
},
{
"text": " The idea of a dimension, sometimes in pop culture, is misunderstood.",
"timestamp": [
9.6,
14.16
]
},
{
"text": " Like, there's an extra place you can go, a mystical dimension or something like that.",
"timestamp": [
14.16,
18.52
]
},
{
"text": " To a physicist or a mathematician, a dimension is just the direction you can go in.",
"timestamp": [
18.52,
23.4
]
},
{
"text": " Up, down, left, right, forward, backward.",
"timestamp": [
23.4,
25.7
]
},
{
"text": " To you and me, we think there's three dimensions around us,",
"timestamp": [
25.7,
28.18
]
},
{
"text": " but then physicists start talking about extra dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
28.18,
31.06
]
},
{
"text": " How can you hide them?",
"timestamp": [
31.06,
32.42
]
},
{
"text": " You know, where might they be?",
"timestamp": [
32.42,
33.78
]
},
{
"text": " I'm hopeful that we'll learn something at each level.",
"timestamp": [
33.78,
36.42
]
},
{
"text": " We're gonna talk about some science.",
"timestamp": [
39.42,
41.14
]
},
{
"text": " Do you like science?",
"timestamp": [
41.14,
42.18
]
},
{
"text": " Yes, a lot.",
"timestamp": [
42.18,
43.34
]
},
{
"text": " Oh, very good.",
"timestamp": [
43.34,
44.16
]
},
{
"text": " You've come to the right place. So we're gonna think about physics. Have you heard the word physics before?",
"timestamp": [
44.16,
48.48
]
},
{
"text": " Do you know what that is? Yeah, kind of. What's your idea what physics is? I'm not",
"timestamp": [
48.48,
54.34
]
},
{
"text": " so sure. Okay, I just think of physics as, you know, the study of everything. What",
"timestamp": [
54.34,
58.84
]
},
{
"text": " stuff is, what stuff does. So today we're gonna talk about space and in particular",
"timestamp": [
58.84,
63.92
]
},
{
"text": " the idea of dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
63.92,
66.68
]
},
{
"text": " Have you heard about dimensions? At the camp I'm in a 3D printing one. 3D printing, good.",
"timestamp": [
66.68,
73.68
]
},
{
"text": " So I don't choose the size, all I have to do is the shape. But do you know what 3D means?",
"timestamp": [
73.68,
80.92
]
},
{
"text": " It's three dimensional. Three dimensional, as opposed to what is ordinary printing? So, ordinary printing would be 2D.",
"timestamp": [
80.92,
87
]
},
{
"text": " What do you say when something is one-dimensional?",
"timestamp": [
87,
89
]
},
{
"text": " What's an example of something that's one-dimensional?",
"timestamp": [
89,
91
]
},
{
"text": " Hmm, I think one-dimensional might be a circle, I guess, or maybe a line.",
"timestamp": [
91,
97
]
},
{
"text": " A line is a perfect example because it's one thing that's straight, right?",
"timestamp": [
97,
101
]
},
{
"text": " So here's some toys. We're going to build some dimensions, right?",
"timestamp": [
101,
104
]
},
{
"text": " So what would you say about this? That's one-dimensional. Exactly. It's're gonna build some dimensions, right? So what would you say about this?",
"timestamp": [
104,
105.68
]
},
{
"text": " That's one dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
105.68,
107
]
},
{
"text": " Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
107,
108
]
},
{
"text": " It's not really one dimensional, right?",
"timestamp": [
108,
110
]
},
{
"text": " Everything has to be one or two dimensional before it's three dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
110,
113.8
]
},
{
"text": " And how would you find yourself, like if someone said, where are you?",
"timestamp": [
113.8,
116.76
]
},
{
"text": " Like could you use some words or ideas to say where you are on that line?",
"timestamp": [
116.76,
122.08
]
},
{
"text": " I think I would be maybe there since I'm facing it.",
"timestamp": [
122.08,
126.96
]
},
{
"text": " But here's what I want you to think about.",
"timestamp": [
126.96,
128.36
]
},
{
"text": " If I say I'm at this point on the line,",
"timestamp": [
128.36,
130.64
]
},
{
"text": " I could translate that into saying",
"timestamp": [
130.64,
132.32
]
},
{
"text": " I'm at the three centimeter point.",
"timestamp": [
132.32,
134.8
]
},
{
"text": " If I were here, I'd be at the four centimeter point,",
"timestamp": [
134.8,
136.84
]
},
{
"text": " the five centimeter point, right?",
"timestamp": [
136.84,
138.8
]
},
{
"text": " So every point, every location on our little line.",
"timestamp": [
138.8,
142.48
]
},
{
"text": " Has its own unit.",
"timestamp": [
142.48,
143.88
]
},
{
"text": " Has its own unit, its own unit has one number",
"timestamp": [
143.88,
145.52
]
},
{
"text": " We need one number to tell you where we are. That's one dimension. That's what it means to be one-dimensional",
"timestamp": [
145.58,
151.12
]
},
{
"text": " I only need to tell you one number to figure out where we are",
"timestamp": [
151.12,
154.68
]
},
{
"text": " I'm like free dimensional",
"timestamp": [
154.68,
156.08
]
},
{
"text": " You have to tell a lot because if it's like a sphere you kind of have start using points. There you go",
"timestamp": [
156.08,
161.94
]
},
{
"text": " Exactly. We're gonna build a little",
"timestamp": [
162.14,
165.04
]
},
{
"text": " Two-dimensional space you want to do it you want to do the honors here? Why don't you put those two lines together?",
"timestamp": [
169.92,
170.16
]
},
{
"text": " If you make it",
"timestamp": [
172.16,
173.28
]
},
{
"text": " Dimensional is this a corner exactly another way is if you have this space in between",
"timestamp": [
180.08,
180.24
]
},
{
"text": " Is an angle I think you should be in this chair and you should be explaining this to me. You're much better than this than I am.",
"timestamp": [
185.08,
186.56
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
186.56,
187.4
]
},
{
"text": " So those are the dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
187.4,
189.72
]
},
{
"text": " That's how we think about dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
189.72,
191.24
]
},
{
"text": " Remember, we just needed one number",
"timestamp": [
191.24,
193.9
]
},
{
"text": " to find ourselves on the line.",
"timestamp": [
193.9,
195.3
]
},
{
"text": " We need two numbers to find ourselves on the plane.",
"timestamp": [
195.3,
198.68
]
},
{
"text": " I think that would be an X or a Y axis.",
"timestamp": [
198.68,
201.64
]
},
{
"text": " There you go.",
"timestamp": [
201.64,
202.58
]
},
{
"text": " So do you think we could have more than three dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
202.58,
205.92
]
},
{
"text": " 3D is the maximum of dimensions for shapes.",
"timestamp": [
206.84,
211.52
]
},
{
"text": " Well as far as we know. This is why",
"timestamp": [
211.92,
214.76
]
},
{
"text": " physicists think about things we don't know about. We're wondering whether it could be extra dimensions",
"timestamp": [
215.48,
220.04
]
},
{
"text": " you've never seen that are tinier than atoms. So, okay, so what have you learned?",
"timestamp": [
220.04,
225.2
]
},
{
"text": " What do you know about dimensions now?",
"timestamp": [
225.2,
226.74
]
},
{
"text": " How do you think about dimensions",
"timestamp": [
226.74,
228.04
]
},
{
"text": " in a slightly different way than you did before?",
"timestamp": [
228.04,
230.14
]
},
{
"text": " So at least everything has a certain dimension.",
"timestamp": [
230.14,
233.72
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, do you think you'd be excited",
"timestamp": [
233.72,
235.24
]
},
{
"text": " if physicists said that they found",
"timestamp": [
235.24,
236.62
]
},
{
"text": " extra dimensions of space?",
"timestamp": [
236.62,
238.92
]
},
{
"text": " That would be amazing, February.",
"timestamp": [
238.92,
242.16
]
},
{
"text": " The news would be spreaded around the world rapidly.",
"timestamp": [
242.16,
247.28
]
},
{
"text": " I think so, I think you're right.",
"timestamp": [
247.28,
248.72
]
},
{
"text": " All right, Hank, we want you to keep up studying,",
"timestamp": [
248.72,
251.5
]
},
{
"text": " learn a lot of math and physics,",
"timestamp": [
251.5,
252.74
]
},
{
"text": " and help us discover new dimensions someday.",
"timestamp": [
252.74,
254.52
]
},
{
"text": " Does that sound like a fun idea?",
"timestamp": [
254.52,
255.84
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
255.84,
256.68
]
},
{
"text": " [\"Jingle Bells\"]",
"timestamp": [
256.68,
259.28
]
},
{
"text": " Do you like science?",
"timestamp": [
259.28,
260.12
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, I do. Is that something",
"timestamp": [
260.12,
260.94
]
},
{
"text": " you think about?",
"timestamp": [
260.94,
261.78
]
},
{
"text": " What kind of science?",
"timestamp": [
261.78,
262.62
]
},
{
"text": " I like biology and computer science.",
"timestamp": [
262.62,
264.56
]
},
{
"text": " All right, you're in the wrong place.",
"timestamp": [
264.56,
266.08
]
},
{
"text": " We're not gonna be talking about biology, computer science.",
"timestamp": [
266.08,
268.64
]
},
{
"text": " So we wanna talk about the idea of dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
268.64,
271.4
]
},
{
"text": " Do you know what a dimension is?",
"timestamp": [
271.4,
272.44
]
},
{
"text": " How you define dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
272.44,
274.7
]
},
{
"text": " I guess, I don't know how to exactly define it,",
"timestamp": [
274.7,
277.88
]
},
{
"text": " but I know like the first four.",
"timestamp": [
277.88,
280.76
]
},
{
"text": " Right, you know the difference between like one dimension,",
"timestamp": [
280.76,
282.92
]
},
{
"text": " two dimensions, three dimensions, et cetera.",
"timestamp": [
282.92,
284.44
]
},
{
"text": " So let's do a little experiment here. So there's one dimension, I'll give that to you.",
"timestamp": [
284.44,
287.52
]
},
{
"text": " Now here's your task. I'm going to give you another dimension and I'm going to ask, hold those two",
"timestamp": [
287.52,
293.6
]
},
{
"text": " things at right angles to each other. It's easy to do. Yeah, there's no tricks here. I'm not trying",
"timestamp": [
294.16,
299.36
]
},
{
"text": " to fool you here. Okay, now this is gonna be slightly trickier. I'm going to give you this.",
"timestamp": [
299.36,
302.8
]
},
{
"text": " I want you to hold all three of them",
"timestamp": [
302.8,
305.74
]
},
{
"text": " at right angles to all the others at the same time.",
"timestamp": [
305.74,
308.64
]
},
{
"text": " There you go.",
"timestamp": [
312.22,
313.06
]
},
{
"text": " So what that's doing is when you had just two,",
"timestamp": [
313.06,
315.86
]
},
{
"text": " that was describing a two-dimensional plane, right?",
"timestamp": [
315.86,
318.46
]
},
{
"text": " Like the two things pick out a plane,",
"timestamp": [
318.46,
320.38
]
},
{
"text": " the three things pick out all three-dimensional space.",
"timestamp": [
320.38,
323.18
]
},
{
"text": " Now I'm gonna give you one more,",
"timestamp": [
323.18,
324.74
]
},
{
"text": " and I'm gonna ask you to hold that fourth one",
"timestamp": [
324.74,
327.14
]
},
{
"text": " So that it's at a right angle to all the other three at the same time",
"timestamp": [
327.32,
331.32
]
},
{
"text": " All right now I am",
"timestamp": [
335.72,
337.72
]
},
{
"text": " Right, you can't do it. So we just",
"timestamp": [
337.72,
339.72
]
},
{
"text": " Experimentally proved that space is three-dimensional",
"timestamp": [
340.32,
343.34
]
},
{
"text": " That's sort of what it means to be",
"timestamp": [
343.34,
345.16
]
},
{
"text": " Three-dimensional that there are three different directions you can move in and there's not four or five or six directions you can move in",
"timestamp": [
346,
352.64
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, there you go. Three-dimensional space, right? Mm-hmm. So have you thought about",
"timestamp": [
352.76,
357.36
]
},
{
"text": " Using coordinates in three dimensions. Yeah, I was actually doing SAT prep. There you go",
"timestamp": [
358.12,
364.56
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, I was actually doing SAT prep. There you go.",
"timestamp": [
364,
365
]
},
{
"text": " It showed like the X, Y, and Z axis as well.",
"timestamp": [
365,
369
]
},
{
"text": " That's right. So that's exactly what these would be.",
"timestamp": [
369,
371
]
},
{
"text": " Have you heard that there are other coordinate systems other than X, Y, Z?",
"timestamp": [
371,
375
]
},
{
"text": " No.",
"timestamp": [
375,
376
]
},
{
"text": " But we could also say how far we are away from the center, just the distance,",
"timestamp": [
376,
381
]
},
{
"text": " and then the angle that our little line makes with, let's say, the x-axis.",
"timestamp": [
381,
386.08
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
386.08,
386.58
]
},
{
"text": " So that's a different way of giving you two numbers and locating yourself, and we call those polar coordinates.",
"timestamp": [
386.58,
391.2
]
},
{
"text": " It's a different coordinate system. What we want to do as physicists is look for extra dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
391.2,
396
]
},
{
"text": " Can you imagine, can you think of any way that there could be extra dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
396,
399.28
]
},
{
"text": " Time?",
"timestamp": [
399.28,
399.78
]
},
{
"text": " Time. Yes, Einstein said that we can think of time as a fourth dimension, and that's a very fascinating thing that we could talk about all by itself.",
"timestamp": [
399.78,
407.34
]
},
{
"text": " But what about space? What about the solar system?",
"timestamp": [
407.34,
409.72
]
},
{
"text": " Like, if you wanted to tell me where a certain star was in the sky,",
"timestamp": [
409.72,
414.14
]
},
{
"text": " do you know what, how we do that?",
"timestamp": [
414.14,
416.4
]
},
{
"text": " I have no idea.",
"timestamp": [
416.4,
417.72
]
},
{
"text": " It's exactly the same thing as latitude and longitude,",
"timestamp": [
417.72,
421.06
]
},
{
"text": " but we put coordinates on the sky.",
"timestamp": [
421.06,
424.48
]
},
{
"text": " So astronomers call them right ascension and declination,",
"timestamp": [
424.48,
427.8
]
},
{
"text": " which are two terrible words.",
"timestamp": [
427.8,
429.56
]
},
{
"text": " But basically, you've seen on the globe",
"timestamp": [
429.56,
432.24
]
},
{
"text": " where you draw latitude and longitude, what it looks like.",
"timestamp": [
432.24,
434.96
]
},
{
"text": " Sort of the peels of an orange kind of thing, right?",
"timestamp": [
434.96,
437.6
]
},
{
"text": " So you can define something as well,",
"timestamp": [
437.6,
439.2
]
},
{
"text": " how high above a certain location on Earth it is,",
"timestamp": [
439.2,
442.6
]
},
{
"text": " but the Earth is rotating and revolving around the sun,",
"timestamp": [
442.6,
444.88
]
},
{
"text": " so we have to define separate celestial coordinates. So there's like mold how many dimensions would there be?",
"timestamp": [
444.88,
451.9
]
},
{
"text": " We don't know, you know",
"timestamp": [
452.62,
454.16
]
},
{
"text": " The optimistic view is that there are six but the thing is some of them might be really really really really really small",
"timestamp": [
454.16,
460.62
]
},
{
"text": " Like way too small for us to ever see. And some of them might be medium size",
"timestamp": [
460.62,
465.34
]
},
{
"text": " that hopefully we can see.",
"timestamp": [
465.34,
466.48
]
},
{
"text": " Oh, okay.",
"timestamp": [
466.48,
467.56
]
},
{
"text": " So since it's all theoretical,",
"timestamp": [
467.56,
469.24
]
},
{
"text": " like this could not be three dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
469.24,
472.04
]
},
{
"text": " Absolutely right.",
"timestamp": [
472.04,
472.86
]
},
{
"text": " And this is sort of the state of uncertainty",
"timestamp": [
472.86,
474.72
]
},
{
"text": " that physicists are stuck living in.",
"timestamp": [
474.72,
477.12
]
},
{
"text": " You know, honestly out there,",
"timestamp": [
477.12,
478.12
]
},
{
"text": " if you go out onto campus and talk to the physicists,",
"timestamp": [
478.12,
480.48
]
},
{
"text": " half of them will say probably extra dimensions exist",
"timestamp": [
480.48,
482.96
]
},
{
"text": " and half of them say, no, that's just nonsense. We really don't know.",
"timestamp": [
482.96,
486.16
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
486.16,
486.66
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, after all this, someone comes up to you on the street and says, what's a dimension?",
"timestamp": [
486.66,
491.46
]
},
{
"text": " Oh man, I mean, I guess what I've learned today is just that there are not just three dimensions,",
"timestamp": [
492.48,
499.6
]
},
{
"text": " or at least we think. I mean, everything's theoretical. It's all just really kind of confusing.",
"timestamp": [
499.6,
504.96
]
},
{
"text": " That's right. And you know, if they're still bugging you, you can just like give them some",
"timestamp": [
505.68,
508.56
]
},
{
"text": " sticks and ask them to put them together and that would shut them up.",
"timestamp": [
508.56,
513.36
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
513.36,
514.36
]
},
{
"text": " Where do you go to school and what do you study?",
"timestamp": [
514.36,
517.3
]
},
{
"text": " I'm going to be a sophomore at Pomona College and I study math and physics.",
"timestamp": [
517.3,
521.36
]
},
{
"text": " Oh, math and physics.",
"timestamp": [
521.36,
522.36
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, what kind of physicist do you want to be?",
"timestamp": [
522.36,
523.8
]
},
{
"text": " Do you know?",
"timestamp": [
523.8,
524.8
]
},
{
"text": " I really don't know. I like theory and experimental",
"timestamp": [
524.8,
527.44
]
},
{
"text": " So it's kind of tough for me to say usually if it's math and physics you end up as a theoretical physicist, right?",
"timestamp": [
527.44,
531.92
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, experimental one. So our theme here today is dimensions",
"timestamp": [
531.92,
535.7
]
},
{
"text": " So this is great that you have some math backgrounds mathematicians think about dimensions in a different way. Yeah",
"timestamp": [
535.84,
541.28
]
},
{
"text": " So, how would you explain to your friends",
"timestamp": [
541.28,
545
]
},
{
"text": " who are not math and physics majors,",
"timestamp": [
545,
546.72
]
},
{
"text": " what is a dimension yourself?",
"timestamp": [
546.72,
548.28
]
},
{
"text": " My first intuitive thought is what are the coordinates?",
"timestamp": [
548.28,
551.6
]
},
{
"text": " So if we were looking at things,",
"timestamp": [
551.6,
553.56
]
},
{
"text": " if we're looking at a dot, or a line rather,",
"timestamp": [
553.56,
556.2
]
},
{
"text": " that's one dimensional because we can only measure it",
"timestamp": [
556.2,
558.04
]
},
{
"text": " one way, but then if we look at a square,",
"timestamp": [
558.04,
560.4
]
},
{
"text": " then we're increasing like that.",
"timestamp": [
560.4,
561.48
]
},
{
"text": " So it's all, basically what coordinates we can use",
"timestamp": [
561.48,
564.32
]
},
{
"text": " to measure something. That's exactly right. Then we're increasing like that. So it's like all basically the what coordinates we can use to",
"timestamp": [
564.32,
565
]
},
{
"text": " Measure something and that's exactly right. And so you've heard of space-time",
"timestamp": [
569.12,
569.16
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah being four-dimensional right now in some sense That's kind of trivial to you and me because of course you have space which is three-dimensional you have time which is one-dimensional",
"timestamp": [
572.54,
579
]
},
{
"text": " So space-time is four-dimensional, but it didn't turn out",
"timestamp": [
579.16,
583.12
]
},
{
"text": " It didn't occur to anyone that that was a sensible way to talk until really",
"timestamp": [
583.12,
587.82
]
},
{
"text": " relativity. This is the crucial thing, right, is that what Einstein realized is that",
"timestamp": [
587.96,
592.68
]
},
{
"text": " sure, there's both time and space, but how we divide",
"timestamp": [
593.48,
597.22
]
},
{
"text": " space-time into time and space can be different for different people and really there's a real sense in which",
"timestamp": [
597.8,
604.2
]
},
{
"text": " four-dimensional space-time is kind of a generalization of three-dimensional space and I think to really explain this we're gonna need a blackboard",
"timestamp": [
605.08,
612.44
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, let's bring one in",
"timestamp": [
612.44,
614.44
]
},
{
"text": " All right thing about relativity is that they really want you to think of space-time as one four-dimensional thing, right",
"timestamp": [
616.08,
623.34
]
},
{
"text": " It's kind of like space. It's not just three dimensions of space intime as one four-dimensional thing, right? It's kind of like space.",
"timestamp": [
623.34,
625.1
]
},
{
"text": " It's not just three dimensions of space",
"timestamp": [
625.1,
627
]
},
{
"text": " and one dimension of time.",
"timestamp": [
627,
628.1
]
},
{
"text": " Why, though?",
"timestamp": [
628.1,
629.1
]
},
{
"text": " Why? This is a very good question.",
"timestamp": [
629.1,
630.4
]
},
{
"text": " So, let's just start with space, right?",
"timestamp": [
630.4,
632.7
]
},
{
"text": " You know a little bit about space.",
"timestamp": [
632.7,
633.7
]
},
{
"text": " So, here's my simple-minded way of drawing space.",
"timestamp": [
633.7,
636.7
]
},
{
"text": " Two dimensions, because that's how many I can draw",
"timestamp": [
636.7,
638.5
]
},
{
"text": " on the blackboard, let's say, x and y.",
"timestamp": [
638.5,
640.4
]
},
{
"text": " And what is special about space?",
"timestamp": [
640.4,
642.1
]
},
{
"text": " There's many things, but one is that if I have, you know,",
"timestamp": [
642.1,
644.4
]
},
{
"text": " a curve or a path between two points",
"timestamp": [
644.4,
647.5
]
},
{
"text": " There's a distance that you can calculate right and the distance between those two points doesn't depend on your coordinates",
"timestamp": [
647.5,
654.9
]
},
{
"text": " It doesn't depend on whether you're in radial coordinates or Cartesian coordinates or whatever",
"timestamp": [
654.9,
658.68
]
},
{
"text": " I'm allowed to imagine a curve that does something like this",
"timestamp": [
658.68,
661.66
]
},
{
"text": " between those two points and if I were a",
"timestamp": [
662.22,
664.22
]
},
{
"text": " a curve that does something like this, between those two points, and if I were a person walking on that curve, I would have an odometer with me maybe, and I",
"timestamp": [
664.08,
669.36
]
},
{
"text": " would know, you would know, even without having done that, this path is",
"timestamp": [
669.36,
673.4
]
},
{
"text": " always going to be longer than that path. There's a formula. Pythagoras is the",
"timestamp": [
673.4,
677.16
]
},
{
"text": " error, it tells you what the shortest distance path is. That's the point, the",
"timestamp": [
677.16,
680.1
]
},
{
"text": " physicalness of what is real is the distance along a certain curve. So",
"timestamp": [
680.1,
683.56
]
},
{
"text": " spacetime is like that. That's why it is the distance along a certain curve. So space-time is like that.",
"timestamp": [
683.56,
685.28
]
},
{
"text": " That's why it is useful to think about space-time.",
"timestamp": [
685.28,
687.88
]
},
{
"text": " So let me draw space-time.",
"timestamp": [
687.88,
690.08
]
},
{
"text": " That's how we usually draw it.",
"timestamp": [
690.08,
691.28
]
},
{
"text": " I'll just say x, but all of space is condensed to this one direction.",
"timestamp": [
691.28,
695.92
]
},
{
"text": " And this is time.",
"timestamp": [
695.92,
697.44
]
},
{
"text": " OK?",
"timestamp": [
697.44,
698.24
]
},
{
"text": " So if you're a little person, you start at some event.",
"timestamp": [
698.24,
702.16
]
},
{
"text": " So you start, you're located somewhere in space, somewhere in the three coordinates of space, and whether you like it or not,",
"timestamp": [
702.16,
708.92
]
},
{
"text": " you're moving through space-time, just by getting older. Yeah, when people ask me,",
"timestamp": [
708.92,
713.08
]
},
{
"text": " can you travel through time? I say, yes, yesterday I traveled 24 hours into the",
"timestamp": [
713.08,
717.72
]
},
{
"text": " future and here I am, you know, a day later. So that's just this, okay? You're",
"timestamp": [
717.72,
722.68
]
},
{
"text": " moving through time, like it or not.",
"timestamp": [
722.68,
725.4
]
},
{
"text": " So what Einstein says is, look,",
"timestamp": [
725.4,
727.64
]
},
{
"text": " I can travel through space-time in different ways.",
"timestamp": [
727.64,
731
]
},
{
"text": " Like I could hop in a rocket ship",
"timestamp": [
731,
733.26
]
},
{
"text": " and fly out and then fly back.",
"timestamp": [
733.26,
735.92
]
},
{
"text": " And then I could meet you there.",
"timestamp": [
735.92,
736.76
]
},
{
"text": " So this is a different trajectory through space-time, right?",
"timestamp": [
736.76,
740.72
]
},
{
"text": " And it's almost exactly like the space story.",
"timestamp": [
740.72,
744.52
]
},
{
"text": " The space story says there's a distance",
"timestamp": [
744.52,
746.6
]
},
{
"text": " Distance is different along different curves",
"timestamp": [
747.28,
749.28
]
},
{
"text": " Einstein says there's something that measures the length of these curves and we call it the proper time",
"timestamp": [
749.92,
757.36
]
},
{
"text": " It is literally the time that you would read on your wristwatch",
"timestamp": [
757.48,
760.48
]
},
{
"text": " So it's kind of like our like fundamental time like our base time",
"timestamp": [
760.48,
763.48
]
},
{
"text": " Well kind of what Einstein wants to get across",
"timestamp": [
763.52,
766.3
]
},
{
"text": " is there's no such thing as fundamental.",
"timestamp": [
766.3,
767.96
]
},
{
"text": " Like, there's the universe's time, this big letter T",
"timestamp": [
767.96,
771.86
]
},
{
"text": " that might tell you how old the universe is,",
"timestamp": [
771.86,
773.9
]
},
{
"text": " but then every individual has a clock with them.",
"timestamp": [
773.9,
776.84
]
},
{
"text": " And they measure their own time depending",
"timestamp": [
776.84,
778.54
]
},
{
"text": " on how they're moving through the universe.",
"timestamp": [
778.54,
780.08
]
},
{
"text": " And the crucial difference is the time is not the same",
"timestamp": [
780.08,
784.24
]
},
{
"text": " for this person who stayed behind and sat in their chair and this person who zoomed out there.",
"timestamp": [
784.24,
788.56
]
},
{
"text": " Why is that that this one's shorter than?",
"timestamp": [
788.56,
790.16
]
},
{
"text": " There is what we call a metric on space-time.",
"timestamp": [
790.16,
793.2
]
},
{
"text": " And when we talk about Euclidean space versus a curved space versus a sphere or something, that's a different metric. Space-time has its own metric which says the following thing that the path between two events in space-time",
"timestamp": [
793.2,
805.92
]
},
{
"text": " That is a straight line will always be the longest time. I see. Okay. That's the difference. All right",
"timestamp": [
806.16,
813.04
]
},
{
"text": " So what when Einstein had this idea, oh gravity could be related to the curvature of space-time. He did some equations",
"timestamp": [
813.84,
821.08
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, so he got it. That's a long story. We'll put that aside",
"timestamp": [
821.12,
823.52
]
},
{
"text": " What he figured out was that rather than gravity living on top of space-time",
"timestamp": [
823.52,
827.72
]
},
{
"text": " It's a manifestation of the curvature of space-time",
"timestamp": [
827.84,
830.96
]
},
{
"text": " So when you have like the earth the Sun the moon they cause a gravitational field",
"timestamp": [
830.96,
835.72
]
},
{
"text": " They're actually warping the space-time around them. They're giving it a different geometry",
"timestamp": [
835.96,
840.24
]
},
{
"text": " Would it be if I had like a spring or not spring like a like a sheet and I dropped like a book in the",
"timestamp": [
840.24,
845.54
]
},
{
"text": " Sheet curves down. Yeah, exactly",
"timestamp": [
845.54,
847.54
]
},
{
"text": " If you if you had a sheet that was originally flat and you know",
"timestamp": [
847.54,
850.1
]
},
{
"text": " You send a marble on it would go in a straight line",
"timestamp": [
850.1,
852.46
]
},
{
"text": " But then if you put something on it, so it warps it that marble is now going to be deflected",
"timestamp": [
852.46,
856.9
]
},
{
"text": " I see Einstein says that gravity is just like that",
"timestamp": [
856.9,
859.06
]
},
{
"text": " I see but there are no straight lines because space-time itself is curved",
"timestamp": [
859.06,
862.46
]
},
{
"text": " So do you think if you had to explain relativity, what would you say?",
"timestamp": [
862.46,
865.92
]
},
{
"text": " I think I would go with the train paradox.",
"timestamp": [
865.92,
869.24
]
},
{
"text": " Let's say I'm stationary and someone's moving past me on the train.",
"timestamp": [
869.24,
871.94
]
},
{
"text": " They think they're stationary on the train.",
"timestamp": [
871.94,
873.8
]
},
{
"text": " They think that they're not accelerating.",
"timestamp": [
873.8,
875.6
]
},
{
"text": " But if they start walking through the train cars, then they are accelerating in their",
"timestamp": [
875.6,
879.12
]
},
{
"text": " frame.",
"timestamp": [
879.12,
880.12
]
},
{
"text": " But then from my outside frame, where I'm completely removed, I see they are accelerating.",
"timestamp": [
880.12,
885.08
]
},
{
"text": " So I guess that relativity is all about perspective,",
"timestamp": [
885.08,
887.78
]
},
{
"text": " I guess, in a way.",
"timestamp": [
887.78,
888.8
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, that's right, and it goes exactly back",
"timestamp": [
888.8,
890.44
]
},
{
"text": " to what we drew on the board,",
"timestamp": [
890.44,
891.88
]
},
{
"text": " where how those two people in the train and on the ground",
"timestamp": [
891.88,
895.56
]
},
{
"text": " would divide space-time up differently to space and time.",
"timestamp": [
895.56,
899.36
]
},
{
"text": " That was pretty good.",
"timestamp": [
899.36,
900.2
]
},
{
"text": " I learned a lot.",
"timestamp": [
900.2,
901.04
]
},
{
"text": " It's a lot of fun stuff to talk about.",
"timestamp": [
901.04,
902.6
]
},
{
"text": " [\"The Fourth of July\"] So observational cosmology, so what would you look at? I don't know why. Yeah, it's a lot of fun stuff to talk about.",
"timestamp": [
902.6,
905.88
]
},
{
"text": " So observational cosmology, so like what do you look at?",
"timestamp": [
905.88,
909.34
]
},
{
"text": " So I work on two ground-based surveys in the optical, and we're basically trying to make",
"timestamp": [
909.34,
914.16
]
},
{
"text": " huge maps of the universe so that we can study dark energy.",
"timestamp": [
914.16,
917.02
]
},
{
"text": " I'm sure you've heard about extra dimensions a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
917.02,
920.12
]
},
{
"text": " I've heard it, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
920.12,
921.12
]
},
{
"text": " I'm thinking about the idea that there might be more than three dimensions of space.",
"timestamp": [
921.12,
925.52
]
},
{
"text": " What is your impression of theoretical physicists who think about things like extra dimensions",
"timestamp": [
925.52,
930.1
]
},
{
"text": " of space that they haven't ever seen?",
"timestamp": [
930.1,
932.58
]
},
{
"text": " I get a little scared because I think, how can you prove these theories?",
"timestamp": [
932.58,
937.84
]
},
{
"text": " One theory I've heard of, I don't know if this fits in with that, is bubble universes.",
"timestamp": [
937.84,
941.6
]
},
{
"text": " Is that an extra dimension?",
"timestamp": [
941.6,
943.84
]
},
{
"text": " Does that fit into that",
"timestamp": [
943.84,
945.1
]
},
{
"text": " or is that something?",
"timestamp": [
945.1,
946.3
]
},
{
"text": " It does. In fact, one way that different universes might sort of be created and be different",
"timestamp": [
946.3,
951.86
]
},
{
"text": " from each other is that different universes could have effectively different numbers of",
"timestamp": [
951.86,
956.54
]
},
{
"text": " dimensions. Like we have three dimensions around us, but there's people out there, aliens,",
"timestamp": [
956.54,
960.54
]
},
{
"text": " who could live in five dimensional universes.",
"timestamp": [
960.54,
962.78
]
},
{
"text": " And are each of those dimensions, are they governed by the same laws of physics?",
"timestamp": [
962.78,
966.6
]
},
{
"text": " Or is there like a separate Lagrangian for each universe?",
"timestamp": [
966.6,
970.52
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
970.52,
970.88
]
},
{
"text": " How does that work?",
"timestamp": [
970.88,
971.88
]
},
{
"text": " We think that it would be, you know, all this is incredibly speculative and we don't know for sure.",
"timestamp": [
971.88,
976.48
]
},
{
"text": " But the idea is that there is some deep down underlying laws that are universal and the same,",
"timestamp": [
976.48,
981.48
]
},
{
"text": " but they show up differently.",
"timestamp": [
981.48,
982.96
]
},
{
"text": " So they appear different so the specific",
"timestamp": [
982.96,
985.06
]
},
{
"text": " Particles and forces and masses would be completely different in different parts of the multiverse",
"timestamp": [
985.56,
990.72
]
},
{
"text": " Okay",
"timestamp": [
991.36,
992.52
]
},
{
"text": " Why in the world would you think that there are extra dimensions right so you've heard of string theory I have so the string theory",
"timestamp": [
992.52,
998.76
]
},
{
"text": " Is basically a theory of quantum gravity mm-hmm so we have quantum mechanics right right? The theory of atoms and so forth and how those work.",
"timestamp": [
998.76,
1006.68
]
},
{
"text": " And then we have gravity.",
"timestamp": [
1006.68,
1008.12
]
},
{
"text": " And gravity doesn't seem to fit in.",
"timestamp": [
1008.12,
1011.28
]
},
{
"text": " It's the one force of nature that we can't really easily",
"timestamp": [
1011.28,
1014
]
},
{
"text": " fit into this quantum mechanical framework.",
"timestamp": [
1014,
1015.8
]
},
{
"text": " So string theory is one of the best ideas.",
"timestamp": [
1015.8,
1019.36
]
},
{
"text": " That's the good news.",
"timestamp": [
1019.36,
1020.24
]
},
{
"text": " The bad news is that it only seems to work",
"timestamp": [
1020.24,
1022.08
]
},
{
"text": " if spacetime is 10 dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
1022.08,
1024.48
]
},
{
"text": " So you would say, well, then it's wrong. It can't be right. Space-time is not 10-dimensional. Space-time is 4-dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
1024.48,
1029.32
]
},
{
"text": " We've observed that. But instead we say if space-time looks 4-dimensional to us, but string theory,",
"timestamp": [
1029.32,
1035.72
]
},
{
"text": " which might be the best theory we have of quantum gravity, says it must be 10-dimensional,",
"timestamp": [
1035.72,
1039.34
]
},
{
"text": " maybe we can hide those extra 6 dimensions somehow. So here is how we could get lucky.",
"timestamp": [
1039.52,
1044.88
]
},
{
"text": " We could imagine that there are extra dimensions of space that are curled up Maybe we could hide those extra six dimensions somehow. So here is how we could get lucky.",
"timestamp": [
1044.88,
1045.12
]
},
{
"text": " We could imagine that there are extra dimensions of space",
"timestamp": [
1045.12,
1047.38
]
},
{
"text": " that are curled up somehow,",
"timestamp": [
1047.38,
1049.32
]
},
{
"text": " that are so small that we can't see them.",
"timestamp": [
1049.32,
1050.86
]
},
{
"text": " This is actually an old idea.",
"timestamp": [
1050.86,
1052.24
]
},
{
"text": " It goes back to Kaluzza and Klein",
"timestamp": [
1052.24,
1054.12
]
},
{
"text": " right after general relativity was invented in 1915.",
"timestamp": [
1054.12,
1057.48
]
},
{
"text": " But there's a more recent idea",
"timestamp": [
1057.48,
1059.6
]
},
{
"text": " that says there could actually be",
"timestamp": [
1059.6,
1060.72
]
},
{
"text": " relatively large extra dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1060.72,
1063.04
]
},
{
"text": " There could be extra dimensions that are actually that big,",
"timestamp": [
1063.04,
1065.44
]
},
{
"text": " like a millimeter across, that you would not have noticed.",
"timestamp": [
1065.44,
1068.28
]
},
{
"text": " But here's the new exciting idea.",
"timestamp": [
1068.28,
1070.5
]
},
{
"text": " So let's imagine, OK, this is a piece of paper.",
"timestamp": [
1070.5,
1074.08
]
},
{
"text": " But let's imagine this is our entire world.",
"timestamp": [
1074.08,
1077.48
]
},
{
"text": " So in other words, our real world is three dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
1077.48,
1080.36
]
},
{
"text": " But let's imagine that we're just idealizing it down",
"timestamp": [
1080.36,
1082.32
]
},
{
"text": " to two dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1082.32,
1083.04
]
},
{
"text": " So we all live here.",
"timestamp": [
1083.04,
1083.96
]
},
{
"text": " You and I live here. But let's imagine that we're just idealizing it down to two dimensions. So we all live here you and I live here But let's imagine that we're embedded in this bigger space. So there are extra dimensions that are actually big",
"timestamp": [
1083.96,
1089.92
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, let's imagine that when I say we live on this three-dimensional world",
"timestamp": [
1090.16,
1093.7
]
},
{
"text": " What I mean is imagine that the particles that you and I are made of right the quarks the leptons the electrons and everything",
"timestamp": [
1093.7,
1099.84
]
},
{
"text": " all the forces we know about",
"timestamp": [
1100.16,
1102.16
]
},
{
"text": " Electromagnetism the weak nuclear force, the strong nuclear force,",
"timestamp": [
1102.92,
1105.5
]
},
{
"text": " imagine that they can't leave this surface.",
"timestamp": [
1105.5,
1108.5
]
},
{
"text": " This is what we call a brain. B-R-A-N-E.",
"timestamp": [
1108.5,
1112
]
},
{
"text": " Have you heard this word before?",
"timestamp": [
1112,
1113
]
},
{
"text": " I've heard, yes.",
"timestamp": [
1113,
1114
]
},
{
"text": " Do you know where it comes from?",
"timestamp": [
1114,
1115
]
},
{
"text": " No.",
"timestamp": [
1115,
1115.5
]
},
{
"text": " From membranes.",
"timestamp": [
1115.5,
1116.5
]
},
{
"text": " We have lines, one dimension.",
"timestamp": [
1116.5,
1118.5
]
},
{
"text": " We have two-dimensional surfaces.",
"timestamp": [
1118.5,
1120.5
]
},
{
"text": " So if you have a line that is a vibrating physical thing, you call it a string.",
"timestamp": [
1120.5,
1124
]
},
{
"text": " Right?",
"timestamp": [
1124,
1124.5
]
},
{
"text": " Right. If you have a two-dimensional surface that vibrates and is a physical thing, we call that a membrane.",
"timestamp": [
1124.5,
1129.08
]
},
{
"text": " Membrane theory goes back. It never was as popular as string theory, but it's been around for a while.",
"timestamp": [
1129.08,
1133.28
]
},
{
"text": " But if you have extra dimensions of space, then you can have three-dimensional vibrating things and four-dimensional vibrating things.",
"timestamp": [
1133.28,
1140.04
]
},
{
"text": " So how do these strings give rise to things like mass and charge and",
"timestamp": [
1140.04,
1146.04
]
},
{
"text": " Basically give us the properties of the particles we see well basically the strings are the particles that we see",
"timestamp": [
1147.04,
1153.08
]
},
{
"text": " It's exactly the same thing as we said you know for the straw if you look at it far away",
"timestamp": [
1153.08,
1156.24
]
},
{
"text": " It looks one-dimensional a little loop of string so a little one-dimensional circle that is vibrating",
"timestamp": [
1156.24,
1161.64
]
},
{
"text": " If you look at it from very very far away",
"timestamp": [
1161.64,
1163.36
]
},
{
"text": " It just looks like a particle so in theory, an electron is a little string.",
"timestamp": [
1163.36,
1167
]
},
{
"text": " A photon is a little string.",
"timestamp": [
1167,
1169
]
},
{
"text": " So is string theory part of what they call the grand unified theory?",
"timestamp": [
1169,
1173
]
},
{
"text": " Is it supposed to be the last thing that sort of unifies all the forces together?",
"timestamp": [
1173,
1179
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, string theory is even better.",
"timestamp": [
1179,
1180
]
},
{
"text": " So the phrase grand unified theory was coined in the 1970s",
"timestamp": [
1180,
1184
]
},
{
"text": " for theories that",
"timestamp": [
1184,
1185.72
]
},
{
"text": " joined electricity and magnetism. So a good string theory is gravity plus a grand unified",
"timestamp": [
1185.72,
1191.8
]
},
{
"text": " theory. It's even better. It's the theory of everything. What would you tell a friend",
"timestamp": [
1191.8,
1196.32
]
},
{
"text": " of yours if they asked you what dimensions are, what extra dimensions are, what a brain",
"timestamp": [
1196.32,
1200.44
]
},
{
"text": " is?",
"timestamp": [
1200.44,
1201.56
]
},
{
"text": " So we have three spatial dimensions. A brain is sort of the next level.",
"timestamp": [
1201.56,
1206.92
]
},
{
"text": " So a brain is a higher dimensional object",
"timestamp": [
1206.92,
1209
]
},
{
"text": " that vibrates through space.",
"timestamp": [
1209,
1210.76
]
},
{
"text": " That's right, and we could live there.",
"timestamp": [
1210.76,
1212.12
]
},
{
"text": " The world we see around us, the three dimensions of space",
"timestamp": [
1212.12,
1214.56
]
},
{
"text": " around us, could reflect the fact",
"timestamp": [
1214.56,
1216.7
]
},
{
"text": " that we are somehow stuck on a three dimensional brain",
"timestamp": [
1216.7,
1219.8
]
},
{
"text": " trying to escape.",
"timestamp": [
1219.8,
1220.88
]
},
{
"text": " It was really cool to learn about strings and brains",
"timestamp": [
1220.88,
1223.56
]
},
{
"text": " and how looking at gravity on small",
"timestamp": [
1223.56,
1226.12
]
},
{
"text": " scales is actually connected to what I do in looking at gravity on these cosmological",
"timestamp": [
1226.12,
1230.76
]
},
{
"text": " scales and it's definitely something I'm going to think about in my research.",
"timestamp": [
1230.76,
1237.36
]
},
{
"text": " You're a string theorist, so tell us what kind of string theory you do, what it means",
"timestamp": [
1237.36,
1240.28
]
},
{
"text": " to be a string theorist.",
"timestamp": [
1240.28,
1241.46
]
},
{
"text": " One of the things that's key in the whole story of string theory is the piece of it that talks about quantum theories",
"timestamp": [
1241.46,
1247.8
]
},
{
"text": " of gravity.",
"timestamp": [
1247.8,
1248.76
]
},
{
"text": " So I'm very excited about what happens to space time,",
"timestamp": [
1248.76,
1251.4
]
},
{
"text": " what does it even mean at the quantum level.",
"timestamp": [
1251.4,
1253.52
]
},
{
"text": " Cool, so do you think a lot about extra dimensions",
"timestamp": [
1253.52,
1255.56
]
},
{
"text": " in your everyday life?",
"timestamp": [
1255.56,
1257
]
},
{
"text": " Yes, I do.",
"timestamp": [
1257,
1257.76
]
},
{
"text": " And so when you think about extra dimensions,",
"timestamp": [
1257.76,
1259.64
]
},
{
"text": " you put them together with brains and different fields",
"timestamp": [
1259.64,
1262.52
]
},
{
"text": " wrapping around the extra dimensions and so forth, right?",
"timestamp": [
1262.52,
1264.88
]
},
{
"text": " Yes. A lot of people, a lot of string theorists, they care a lot about all the different ways in which we could hide",
"timestamp": [
1264.88,
1270.16
]
},
{
"text": " the extra dimensions. As someone who cares about cosmology, I want to start asking",
"timestamp": [
1270.48,
1274.94
]
},
{
"text": " why are the extra dimensions small at all? How did that happen? Is this something you think about yourself?",
"timestamp": [
1274.96,
1280.96
]
},
{
"text": " Yes, well, ultimately we'd like to understand the observable universe.",
"timestamp": [
1280.96,
1286.64
]
},
{
"text": " If string theory turns out to be the thing that the universe cares about, we'd like to",
"timestamp": [
1286.64,
1290.48
]
},
{
"text": " know with all of these possibilities that are in string theory, how do we get the one",
"timestamp": [
1290.48,
1295.6
]
},
{
"text": " that looks like the world we live in?",
"timestamp": [
1295.6,
1298
]
},
{
"text": " The thing I want to talk about is this paper I wrote with Matt Johnson and Lisa Randall",
"timestamp": [
1298,
1301.76
]
},
{
"text": " where we realized there's another way to compactify extra dimensions",
"timestamp": [
1301.76,
1305.9
]
},
{
"text": " Spontaneously dynamically if you imagine starting with this big piece of paper you couldn't wrap up everything",
"timestamp": [
1306.42,
1312.6
]
},
{
"text": " But within some region of space you could make a tube okay, right and down there in the tube",
"timestamp": [
1312.7,
1317.84
]
},
{
"text": " It looks like you're a long thing that is compactified in one direction and infinitely extend in the other direction",
"timestamp": [
1317.84,
1323.84
]
},
{
"text": " So there's one less macroscopic dimension of space.",
"timestamp": [
1323.84,
1326.4
]
},
{
"text": " Hmm. Okay.",
"timestamp": [
1326.4,
1327.56
]
},
{
"text": " That sounds plausible to you?",
"timestamp": [
1327.56,
1329
]
},
{
"text": " It sounds like fun.",
"timestamp": [
1329,
1330.08
]
},
{
"text": " Uh, what I would immediately ask is whether the large dimensions come from in the first place.",
"timestamp": [
1330.08,
1336
]
},
{
"text": " Is that something you address or you just assume that large, all the dimensions are large as a starting point?",
"timestamp": [
1336,
1343.36
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah. So we certainly assume that they're all large as a starting point and it's worse than that.",
"timestamp": [
1343.36,
1347.08
]
},
{
"text": " So in our paper, we imagine you start in desitter space.",
"timestamp": [
1347.08,
1351.16
]
},
{
"text": " You start in a universe with no matter, no anything like that, just empty space,",
"timestamp": [
1351.38,
1356
]
},
{
"text": " but with an energy that is positive and all the dimensions are large.",
"timestamp": [
1356,
1359.3
]
},
{
"text": " But where did it come from?",
"timestamp": [
1359.4,
1360.9
]
},
{
"text": " It was always there.",
"timestamp": [
1360.9,
1362.4
]
},
{
"text": " Why?",
"timestamp": [
1362.4,
1363.4
]
},
{
"text": " Why not?",
"timestamp": [
1363.4,
1364.4
]
},
{
"text": " Okay.",
"timestamp": [
1364.4,
1365.72
]
},
{
"text": " Well, you know, I think that this is a good, again, this is...",
"timestamp": [
1365.72,
1368.32
]
},
{
"text": " You're replacing one prejudice with a different prejudice.",
"timestamp": [
1368.32,
1370.4
]
},
{
"text": " I would say that we shouldn't be prejudiced one way or the other.",
"timestamp": [
1370.4,
1373.52
]
},
{
"text": " Just a large, you know, 10 or 11 dimensions with a cosmological constant doesn't seem",
"timestamp": [
1373.52,
1379.88
]
},
{
"text": " like a fundamental starting point.",
"timestamp": [
1379.88,
1381.96
]
},
{
"text": " It sounds like there needs to be something to underlie that.",
"timestamp": [
1381.96,
1386.04
]
},
{
"text": " But it's a fun scenario.",
"timestamp": [
1386.04,
1387.36
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, so let me tell you a little bit more",
"timestamp": [
1387.36,
1388.36
]
},
{
"text": " about the scenario.",
"timestamp": [
1388.36,
1389.2
]
},
{
"text": " So you know there are black holes, good, right?",
"timestamp": [
1389.2,
1391.88
]
},
{
"text": " I've heard of them.",
"timestamp": [
1391.88,
1392.72
]
},
{
"text": " There are black brains as well.",
"timestamp": [
1392.72,
1394.6
]
},
{
"text": " Indeed.",
"timestamp": [
1394.6,
1395.44
]
},
{
"text": " Why don't you explain to us what a black brain is?",
"timestamp": [
1395.44,
1397.2
]
},
{
"text": " Well, in some ways, it's very much like a black hole",
"timestamp": [
1397.2,
1400.96
]
},
{
"text": " in that you have far away from it,",
"timestamp": [
1400.96,
1403.12
]
},
{
"text": " you have these large, just flat dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1403.12,
1406.92
]
},
{
"text": " As you move in, there's something in the interior.",
"timestamp": [
1406.92,
1410.12
]
},
{
"text": " It has itself higher dimensions,",
"timestamp": [
1410.12,
1411.88
]
},
{
"text": " and so because physicists love to joke,",
"timestamp": [
1411.88,
1414.24
]
},
{
"text": " they thought, well, it's like a membrane,",
"timestamp": [
1414.24,
1416.16
]
},
{
"text": " but it can have many different dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1416.16,
1418.1
]
},
{
"text": " Let's use P to stand in for those number of dimensions,",
"timestamp": [
1418.1,
1421.4
]
},
{
"text": " and so they call them P-brains.",
"timestamp": [
1421.4,
1422.96
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, I've been trying to explain that to lower levels,",
"timestamp": [
1422.96,
1425.4
]
},
{
"text": " and they always look at me like,",
"timestamp": [
1425.4,
1426.48
]
},
{
"text": " are you pulling my leg here a little bit,",
"timestamp": [
1426.48,
1428.26
]
},
{
"text": " or is this the real thing that they use?",
"timestamp": [
1428.26,
1429.64
]
},
{
"text": " Yes, it is the real thing they use.",
"timestamp": [
1429.64,
1431.08
]
},
{
"text": " We study these brains in the sitter space,",
"timestamp": [
1431.08,
1435
]
},
{
"text": " and so what we found is that there are black brain solutions",
"timestamp": [
1435,
1438.42
]
},
{
"text": " which, instead of having a singularity inside,",
"timestamp": [
1438.42,
1442.32
]
},
{
"text": " are non-singular and stable and compactified. Is this a familiar thing? I know things like this have been discussed. Yeah",
"timestamp": [
1442.32,
1448.5
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah",
"timestamp": [
1448.5,
1448.88
]
},
{
"text": " So a lot of the brains that are relevant for studying things to do with antidecidious spacetimes in various dimensions",
"timestamp": [
1448.88,
1454.78
]
},
{
"text": " Actually start out as these non-singular type brains and then you find in the core",
"timestamp": [
1455.18,
1459.68
]
},
{
"text": " There's actually an antidecidious spacetime. Right. Imagine that rather than going down to a point,",
"timestamp": [
1459.68,
1465.22
]
},
{
"text": " it just asymptotes to some fixed radius.",
"timestamp": [
1465.22,
1468.56
]
},
{
"text": " It continues infinitely far down.",
"timestamp": [
1468.56,
1470.24
]
},
{
"text": " But then you can ask, OK, what about the rest of the universe?",
"timestamp": [
1470.24,
1472.86
]
},
{
"text": " You have some sphere, some two dimensions compactified.",
"timestamp": [
1472.86,
1476.28
]
},
{
"text": " And the balance between the cosmological constant",
"timestamp": [
1476.28,
1479.66
]
},
{
"text": " and the electromagnetic field keeps it at a fixed distance.",
"timestamp": [
1479.66,
1483.4
]
},
{
"text": " But then the other dimensions, the transverse dimensions, don't need to be anti-de Sitter.",
"timestamp": [
1483.4,
1487.28
]
},
{
"text": " They can have either positive, zero, or negative cosmological constant. So you can basically get any sort of cosmological solution",
"timestamp": [
1487.28,
1493.6
]
},
{
"text": " times a compactified sphere.",
"timestamp": [
1493.84,
1495.68
]
},
{
"text": " Is it that these have the lowest action of all the things that could possibly, all the possible solutions?",
"timestamp": [
1495.68,
1500.44
]
},
{
"text": " I guess. I mean, maybe, maybe you think otherwise again, or maybe could change my mind.",
"timestamp": [
1500.44,
1503.8
]
},
{
"text": " I think that as long as it can happen, it will happen some of the time, right?",
"timestamp": [
1503.8,
1508
]
},
{
"text": " I mean, it's one of the things that could happen.",
"timestamp": [
1508,
1510
]
},
{
"text": " It's quantum, baby!",
"timestamp": [
1510,
1512
]
},
{
"text": " It's quantum, if it's allowed, it's going to happen.",
"timestamp": [
1512,
1515
]
},
{
"text": " I stole that from Keanu Reeves, I'm afraid.",
"timestamp": [
1515,
1517
]
},
{
"text": " Someone probably wrote it for you.",
"timestamp": [
1517,
1520
]
},
{
"text": " So it's possible that if you do have this starting point of an empty de Sitter",
"timestamp": [
1520,
1525.4
]
},
{
"text": " space with positive cosmological constants and fields lying around, you inevitably get",
"timestamp": [
1525.4,
1528.92
]
},
{
"text": " a multiverse. It just happens. It's just part of quantum nucleation to different things.",
"timestamp": [
1528.92,
1533.96
]
},
{
"text": " And then maybe you need to explain why we live in this universe rather than some other",
"timestamp": [
1533.96,
1537.46
]
},
{
"text": " one via the anthropic principle or something like that. So how does our kind of low-tech,",
"timestamp": [
1537.46,
1542.64
]
},
{
"text": " old-fashioned way of making new universes intersect with the kinds",
"timestamp": [
1542.64,
1545.8
]
},
{
"text": " of things you think about?",
"timestamp": [
1545.8,
1546.92
]
},
{
"text": " Well, it's interesting because there's",
"timestamp": [
1546.92,
1549.28
]
},
{
"text": " a lot of activity going on inspired by things",
"timestamp": [
1549.28,
1552.2
]
},
{
"text": " we learned from working in anti-de Sitter space,",
"timestamp": [
1552.2,
1554.92
]
},
{
"text": " where the cosmological constant has the wrong sign.",
"timestamp": [
1554.92,
1557.76
]
},
{
"text": " So you will find that there are a number of papers,",
"timestamp": [
1557.76,
1560.16
]
},
{
"text": " as many of which you've probably read.",
"timestamp": [
1560.16,
1561.7
]
},
{
"text": " Probably you've read more of them",
"timestamp": [
1561.7,
1563.08
]
},
{
"text": " than I have, which try then to take different kinds of brains,",
"timestamp": [
1563.08,
1568.14
]
},
{
"text": " these extended solutions,",
"timestamp": [
1568.14,
1569.72
]
},
{
"text": " and there are many different kinds doing different things.",
"timestamp": [
1569.72,
1571.86
]
},
{
"text": " We understand them well enough now",
"timestamp": [
1571.86,
1573.18
]
},
{
"text": " that we can put them together in various ways.",
"timestamp": [
1573.18,
1575.02
]
},
{
"text": " They intersect, they dissolve inside each other,",
"timestamp": [
1575.02,
1579.18
]
},
{
"text": " they wrap each other, they overlap.",
"timestamp": [
1579.18,
1581.46
]
},
{
"text": " And you do them in all sorts of different ways",
"timestamp": [
1581.46,
1584.66
]
},
{
"text": " and show that you can construct",
"timestamp": [
1584.66,
1587
]
},
{
"text": " four dimensional universes with a cosmological constant of your desire depending upon how",
"timestamp": [
1587,
1593.52
]
},
{
"text": " you did the construction.",
"timestamp": [
1593.52,
1595.64
]
},
{
"text": " Not everyone buys that.",
"timestamp": [
1595.64,
1596.84
]
},
{
"text": " Not everyone buys that.",
"timestamp": [
1596.84,
1597.84
]
},
{
"text": " There's a big discussion in the literature right now.",
"timestamp": [
1597.84,
1600.2
]
},
{
"text": " And if we put aside for a second the concerns of our colleagues in other parts of physics,",
"timestamp": [
1600.2,
1603.72
]
},
{
"text": " and it's just amongst us chickens, what do you think about the future of cosmology and",
"timestamp": [
1603.72,
1607.88
]
},
{
"text": " string theory and the dynamics of these extra dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
1607.88,
1610.2
]
},
{
"text": " I think it's going to get way more interesting than we're currently able to grapple with",
"timestamp": [
1610.2,
1615.56
]
},
{
"text": " right now, and I think there are hints of it.",
"timestamp": [
1615.56,
1617.32
]
},
{
"text": " There could be a description of the physics that might be our early universe that is like",
"timestamp": [
1617.32,
1622.66
]
},
{
"text": " that molecular description, and then from that emerges flat space-time",
"timestamp": [
1622.66,
1627.22
]
},
{
"text": " It's maybe four maybe some mechanism tells you it's four and not something else",
"timestamp": [
1627.22,
1630.42
]
},
{
"text": " I think that's where we're going if the viewers want to know more about how space-time can emerge from quantum mechanics",
"timestamp": [
1630.42,
1635.5
]
},
{
"text": " They could read the graphic novel you just wrote right? Yes",
"timestamp": [
1635.5,
1638.48
]
},
{
"text": " I wrote in geographic novel called the dialogues",
"timestamp": [
1638.48,
1640.82
]
},
{
"text": " conversations about the nature of the universe and I just wrote a book called Something Deeply Hidden about many worlds, quantum mechanics,",
"timestamp": [
1641.1,
1646.56
]
},
{
"text": " and how space-time can emerge from it.",
"timestamp": [
1646.56,
1648.52
]
},
{
"text": " Plenty of reading material for the audience out there.",
"timestamp": [
1648.52,
1650.6
]
},
{
"text": " Excellent.",
"timestamp": [
1650.6,
1651.6
]
},
{
"text": " So that was fun.",
"timestamp": [
1651.6,
1655.12
]
},
{
"text": " I hope that everyone did learn something.",
"timestamp": [
1655.12,
1656.68
]
},
{
"text": " I know that I did.",
"timestamp": [
1656.68,
1657.68
]
},
{
"text": " It was very nice to see how the idea of dimensions and space resonates in different ways with",
"timestamp": [
1657.68,
1663.28
]
},
{
"text": " different people, all the way up to talking to Clifford about the forefront of modern research.",
"timestamp": [
1663.28,
1667
]
},
{
"text": " I really do think that we're not done understanding how dimensions work.",
"timestamp": [
1667,
1671
]
},
{
"text": " There are three dimensions of space. Why that? Why not two? Why not 27?",
"timestamp": [
1671,
1676
]
},
{
"text": " I think that we really don't yet have the data or ideas to think about this,",
"timestamp": [
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},
{
"text": " but we're creeping up on it. I'm optimistic about progress in the near future.",
"timestamp": [
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},
{
"text": " about this, but we're creeping up on it. I'm optimistic about progress in the near future.",
"timestamp": [
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},
{
"text": " I'm a professor at the University of Waterloo.",
"timestamp": [
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},
{
"text": " And I'm a sleep scientist at UCSF.",
"timestamp": [
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},
{
"text": " Today I've been challenged to explain lasers.",
"timestamp": [
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},
{
"text": " To explain the topic of sleep at five different levels.",
"timestamp": [
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}
] |
[
[
"Intro",
" Hi, I'm Sean Carroll. I'm a theoretical physicist here at the California Institute of Technology. I've been challenged to explain dimensions to five different levels. The idea of a dimension, sometimes in pop culture, is misunderstood. Like, there's an extra place you can go, a mystical dimension or something like that. To a physicist or a mathematician, a dimension is just the direction you can go in. Up, down, left, right, forward, backward. To you and me, we think there's three dimensions around us,"
],
[
"What is CRISPR",
" but then physicists start talking about extra dimensions. How can you hide them? You know, where might they be? I'm hopeful that we'll learn something at each level. We're gonna talk about some science. Do you like science? Yes, a lot. Oh, very good. You've come to the right place. So we're gonna think about physics. Have you heard the word physics before? Do you know what that is? Yeah, kind of. What's your idea what physics is? I'm not so sure. Okay, I just think of physics as, you know, the study of everything. What stuff is, what stuff does. So today we're gonna talk about space and in particular the idea of dimensions. Have you heard about dimensions? At the camp I'm in a 3D printing one. 3D printing, good. So I don't choose the size, all I have to do is the shape. But do you know what 3D means? It's three dimensional. Three dimensional, as opposed to what is ordinary printing? So, ordinary printing would be 2D."
],
[
"What is a genome",
" What do you say when something is one-dimensional? What's an example of something that's one-dimensional? Hmm, I think one-dimensional might be a circle, I guess, or maybe a line. A line is a perfect example because it's one thing that's straight, right? So here's some toys. We're going to build some dimensions, right? So what would you say about this? That's one-dimensional. Exactly. It's're gonna build some dimensions, right? So what would you say about this? That's one dimensional. Exactly. It's not really one dimensional, right? Everything has to be one or two dimensional before it's three dimensional. And how would you find yourself, like if someone said, where are you? Like could you use some words or ideas to say where you are on that line? I think I would be maybe there since I'm facing it. But here's what I want you to think about. If I say I'm at this point on the line, I could translate that into saying I'm at the three centimeter point. If I were here, I'd be at the four centimeter point, the five centimeter point, right? So every point, every location on our little line. Has its own unit. Has its own unit, its own unit has one number We need one number to tell you where we are. That's one dimension. That's what it means to be one-dimensional I only need to tell you one number to figure out where we are I'm like free dimensional You have to tell a lot because if it's like a sphere you kind of have start using points. There you go Exactly. We're gonna build a little Two-dimensional space you want to do it you want to do the honors here? Why don't you put those two lines together? If you make it Dimensional is this a corner exactly another way is if you have this space in between"
],
[
"CRISPR",
" Is an angle I think you should be in this chair and you should be explaining this to me. You're much better than this than I am. Yeah. So those are the dimensions. That's how we think about dimensions. Remember, we just needed one number to find ourselves on the line. We need two numbers to find ourselves on the plane. I think that would be an X or a Y axis. There you go. So do you think we could have more than three dimensions? 3D is the maximum of dimensions for shapes. Well as far as we know. This is why physicists think about things we don't know about. We're wondering whether it could be extra dimensions you've never seen that are tinier than atoms. So, okay, so what have you learned? What do you know about dimensions now? How do you think about dimensions in a slightly different way than you did before? So at least everything has a certain dimension. Yeah, do you think you'd be excited if physicists said that they found extra dimensions of space? That would be amazing, February. The news would be spreaded around the world rapidly. I think so, I think you're right. All right, Hank, we want you to keep up studying, learn a lot of math and physics, and help us discover new dimensions someday. Does that sound like a fun idea? Yeah. [\"Jingle Bells\"] Do you like science? Yeah, I do. Is that something you think about? What kind of science? I like biology and computer science. All right, you're in the wrong place. We're not gonna be talking about biology, computer science. So we wanna talk about the idea of dimensions. Do you know what a dimension is? How you define dimensions? I guess, I don't know how to exactly define it, but I know like the first four. Right, you know the difference between like one dimension, two dimensions, three dimensions, et cetera. So let's do a little experiment here. So there's one dimension, I'll give that to you."
],
[
"Ethics",
" Now here's your task. I'm going to give you another dimension and I'm going to ask, hold those two things at right angles to each other. It's easy to do. Yeah, there's no tricks here. I'm not trying to fool you here. Okay, now this is gonna be slightly trickier. I'm going to give you this. I want you to hold all three of them at right angles to all the others at the same time. There you go. So what that's doing is when you had just two, that was describing a two-dimensional plane, right? Like the two things pick out a plane, the three things pick out all three-dimensional space. Now I'm gonna give you one more, and I'm gonna ask you to hold that fourth one So that it's at a right angle to all the other three at the same time All right now I am Right, you can't do it. So we just Experimentally proved that space is three-dimensional That's sort of what it means to be Three-dimensional that there are three different directions you can move in and there's not four or five or six directions you can move in Okay, there you go. Three-dimensional space, right? Mm-hmm. So have you thought about Using coordinates in three dimensions. Yeah, I was actually doing SAT prep. There you go Yeah, I was actually doing SAT prep. There you go. It showed like the X, Y, and Z axis as well. That's right. So that's exactly what these would be. Have you heard that there are other coordinate systems other than X, Y, Z? No. But we could also say how far we are away from the center, just the distance, and then the angle that our little line makes with, let's say, the x-axis. Yeah. So that's a different way of giving you two numbers and locating yourself, and we call those polar coordinates. It's a different coordinate system. What we want to do as physicists is look for extra dimensions. Can you imagine, can you think of any way that there could be extra dimensions? Time? Time. Yes, Einstein said that we can think of time as a fourth dimension, and that's a very fascinating thing that we could talk about all by itself. But what about space? What about the solar system? Like, if you wanted to tell me where a certain star was in the sky, do you know what, how we do that? I have no idea. It's exactly the same thing as latitude and longitude, but we put coordinates on the sky. So astronomers call them right ascension and declination, which are two terrible words. But basically, you've seen on the globe where you draw latitude and longitude, what it looks like. Sort of the peels of an orange kind of thing, right?"
],
[
"Genetics",
" So you can define something as well, how high above a certain location on Earth it is, but the Earth is rotating and revolving around the sun, so we have to define separate celestial coordinates. So there's like mold how many dimensions would there be? We don't know, you know The optimistic view is that there are six but the thing is some of them might be really really really really really small Like way too small for us to ever see. And some of them might be medium size that hopefully we can see. Oh, okay. So since it's all theoretical, like this could not be three dimensional. Absolutely right. And this is sort of the state of uncertainty that physicists are stuck living in. You know, honestly out there, if you go out onto campus and talk to the physicists, half of them will say probably extra dimensions exist and half of them say, no, that's just nonsense. We really don't know. Yeah. Okay, after all this, someone comes up to you on the street and says, what's a dimension? Oh man, I mean, I guess what I've learned today is just that there are not just three dimensions, or at least we think. I mean, everything's theoretical. It's all just really kind of confusing. That's right. And you know, if they're still bugging you, you can just like give them some sticks and ask them to put them together and that would shut them up. Yeah. Where do you go to school and what do you study? I'm going to be a sophomore at Pomona College and I study math and physics. Oh, math and physics. Okay, what kind of physicist do you want to be? Do you know? I really don't know. I like theory and experimental So it's kind of tough for me to say usually if it's math and physics you end up as a theoretical physicist, right? Yeah, experimental one. So our theme here today is dimensions So this is great that you have some math backgrounds mathematicians think about dimensions in a different way. Yeah So, how would you explain to your friends who are not math and physics majors, what is a dimension yourself? My first intuitive thought is what are the coordinates? So if we were looking at things, if we're looking at a dot, or a line rather, that's one dimensional because we can only measure it one way, but then if we look at a square, then we're increasing like that. So it's all, basically what coordinates we can use to measure something. That's exactly right. Then we're increasing like that. So it's like all basically the what coordinates we can use to Measure something and that's exactly right. And so you've heard of space-time Yeah being four-dimensional right now in some sense That's kind of trivial to you and me because of course you have space which is three-dimensional you have time which is one-dimensional So space-time is four-dimensional, but it didn't turn out It didn't occur to anyone that that was a sensible way to talk until really"
],
[
"Jurassic Park",
" relativity. This is the crucial thing, right, is that what Einstein realized is that sure, there's both time and space, but how we divide space-time into time and space can be different for different people and really there's a real sense in which four-dimensional space-time is kind of a generalization of three-dimensional space and I think to really explain this we're gonna need a blackboard Okay, let's bring one in All right thing about relativity is that they really want you to think of space-time as one four-dimensional thing, right It's kind of like space. It's not just three dimensions of space intime as one four-dimensional thing, right? It's kind of like space. It's not just three dimensions of space and one dimension of time. Why, though? Why? This is a very good question. So, let's just start with space, right? You know a little bit about space. So, here's my simple-minded way of drawing space. Two dimensions, because that's how many I can draw on the blackboard, let's say, x and y. And what is special about space? There's many things, but one is that if I have, you know, a curve or a path between two points There's a distance that you can calculate right and the distance between those two points doesn't depend on your coordinates It doesn't depend on whether you're in radial coordinates or Cartesian coordinates or whatever I'm allowed to imagine a curve that does something like this between those two points and if I were a a curve that does something like this, between those two points, and if I were a person walking on that curve, I would have an odometer with me maybe, and I would know, you would know, even without having done that, this path is always going to be longer than that path. There's a formula. Pythagoras is the error, it tells you what the shortest distance path is. That's the point, the physicalness of what is real is the distance along a certain curve. So spacetime is like that. That's why it is the distance along a certain curve. So space-time is like that. That's why it is useful to think about space-time. So let me draw space-time. That's how we usually draw it. I'll just say x, but all of space is condensed to this one direction. And this is time. OK? So if you're a little person, you start at some event. So you start, you're located somewhere in space, somewhere in the three coordinates of space, and whether you like it or not,"
],
[
"Mutations",
" you're moving through space-time, just by getting older. Yeah, when people ask me, can you travel through time? I say, yes, yesterday I traveled 24 hours into the future and here I am, you know, a day later. So that's just this, okay? You're moving through time, like it or not. So what Einstein says is, look, I can travel through space-time in different ways. Like I could hop in a rocket ship and fly out and then fly back. And then I could meet you there. So this is a different trajectory through space-time, right? And it's almost exactly like the space story. The space story says there's a distance Distance is different along different curves Einstein says there's something that measures the length of these curves and we call it the proper time"
],
[
"Data",
" It is literally the time that you would read on your wristwatch So it's kind of like our like fundamental time like our base time Well kind of what Einstein wants to get across is there's no such thing as fundamental. Like, there's the universe's time, this big letter T that might tell you how old the universe is, but then every individual has a clock with them. And they measure their own time depending on how they're moving through the universe. And the crucial difference is the time is not the same for this person who stayed behind and sat in their chair and this person who zoomed out there. Why is that that this one's shorter than? There is what we call a metric on space-time. And when we talk about Euclidean space versus a curved space versus a sphere or something, that's a different metric. Space-time has its own metric which says the following thing that the path between two events in space-time"
],
[
"Ethical Issues",
" That is a straight line will always be the longest time. I see. Okay. That's the difference. All right So what when Einstein had this idea, oh gravity could be related to the curvature of space-time. He did some equations Okay, so he got it. That's a long story. We'll put that aside What he figured out was that rather than gravity living on top of space-time It's a manifestation of the curvature of space-time So when you have like the earth the Sun the moon they cause a gravitational field They're actually warping the space-time around them. They're giving it a different geometry Would it be if I had like a spring or not spring like a like a sheet and I dropped like a book in the Sheet curves down. Yeah, exactly If you if you had a sheet that was originally flat and you know You send a marble on it would go in a straight line But then if you put something on it, so it warps it that marble is now going to be deflected I see Einstein says that gravity is just like that I see but there are no straight lines because space-time itself is curved So do you think if you had to explain relativity, what would you say? I think I would go with the train paradox. Let's say I'm stationary and someone's moving past me on the train. They think they're stationary on the train. They think that they're not accelerating. But if they start walking through the train cars, then they are accelerating in their frame. But then from my outside frame, where I'm completely removed, I see they are accelerating. So I guess that relativity is all about perspective, I guess, in a way. Yeah, that's right, and it goes exactly back to what we drew on the board, where how those two people in the train and on the ground would divide space-time up differently to space and time. That was pretty good. I learned a lot. It's a lot of fun stuff to talk about. [\"The Fourth of July\"] So observational cosmology, so what would you look at? I don't know why. Yeah, it's a lot of fun stuff to talk about. So observational cosmology, so like what do you look at? So I work on two ground-based surveys in the optical, and we're basically trying to make huge maps of the universe so that we can study dark energy. I'm sure you've heard about extra dimensions a little bit. I've heard it, yeah. I'm thinking about the idea that there might be more than three dimensions of space. What is your impression of theoretical physicists who think about things like extra dimensions of space that they haven't ever seen? I get a little scared because I think, how can you prove these theories? One theory I've heard of, I don't know if this fits in with that, is bubble universes. Is that an extra dimension? Does that fit into that or is that something? It does. In fact, one way that different universes might sort of be created and be different from each other is that different universes could have effectively different numbers of dimensions. Like we have three dimensions around us, but there's people out there, aliens, who could live in five dimensional universes. And are each of those dimensions, are they governed by the same laws of physics? Or is there like a separate Lagrangian for each universe? Yeah. How does that work? We think that it would be, you know, all this is incredibly speculative and we don't know for sure. But the idea is that there is some deep down underlying laws that are universal and the same, but they show up differently. So they appear different so the specific Particles and forces and masses would be completely different in different parts of the multiverse Okay Why in the world would you think that there are extra dimensions right so you've heard of string theory I have so the string theory Is basically a theory of quantum gravity mm-hmm so we have quantum mechanics right right? The theory of atoms and so forth and how those work. And then we have gravity. And gravity doesn't seem to fit in. It's the one force of nature that we can't really easily"
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Virtual Reality Engineer Explains One Concept in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
akveRNY6Ulw
| 952
|
[
{
"end_time": 23,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "JOHN CARMACK"
},
{
"end_time": 364,
"start_time": 23,
"title": "CHILD"
},
{
"end_time": 574,
"start_time": 364,
"title": "GRAD STUDENT"
},
{
"end_time": 952,
"start_time": 574,
"title": "EXPERT"
}
] |
[
{
"text": " I'm Donna Strickland. I'm a professor at the University of Waterloo. I study lasers and in particular",
"timestamp": [
0,
6
]
},
{
"text": " I like really high intensity lasers.",
"timestamp": [
6,
8
]
},
{
"text": " So a laser is a way to get light to actually just be a single color going in a single direction,",
"timestamp": [
8,
14
]
},
{
"text": " all of the waves peaking at the same time so that the intensity can get very high.",
"timestamp": [
14,
19
]
},
{
"text": " Today I've been challenged to explain lasers and highensity lasers at five different levels, from a child to a teenager",
"timestamp": [
19,
26
]
},
{
"text": " to a college student to a graduate student,",
"timestamp": [
26,
29
]
},
{
"text": " and finally to a colleague of mine.",
"timestamp": [
29,
31
]
},
{
"text": " So I was told that maybe science",
"timestamp": [
34,
36
]
},
{
"text": " is one of your favorite subjects at school, is that right?",
"timestamp": [
36,
39
]
},
{
"text": " Yes.",
"timestamp": [
39,
40
]
},
{
"text": " Have you actually studied light yet?",
"timestamp": [
40,
42
]
},
{
"text": " Yes.",
"timestamp": [
42,
43
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, what have you learned so far about light?",
"timestamp": [
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45.64
]
},
{
"text": " So we learned how to like actually light up a light bulb.",
"timestamp": [
45.64,
50.4
]
},
{
"text": " Oh really?",
"timestamp": [
50.4,
51.4
]
},
{
"text": " Oh excellent.",
"timestamp": [
51.4,
52.4
]
},
{
"text": " Well I'm somebody who like studies lasers.",
"timestamp": [
52.4,
55.04
]
},
{
"text": " So what do you think about lasers?",
"timestamp": [
55.04,
56.44
]
},
{
"text": " You haven't gotten to play with lasers.",
"timestamp": [
56.44,
59.96
]
},
{
"text": " So I brought one that's you know my friend's cat toy.",
"timestamp": [
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62.36
]
},
{
"text": " Do you ever use a laser as a cat toy?",
"timestamp": [
62.36,
64.48
]
},
{
"text": " No. And one of the fun things people do with lasers, the cat will try to grab that dot. So I brought one that's my friend's cat toy. Do you ever use a laser as a cat toy? Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
64.48,
65.36
]
},
{
"text": " And one of the fun things people do with lasers, the cat will try to grab that dot.",
"timestamp": [
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69.08
]
},
{
"text": " I'm sure what you have at home is a flashlight.",
"timestamp": [
69.08,
71.24
]
},
{
"text": " I brought a cute little one.",
"timestamp": [
71.24,
73.82
]
},
{
"text": " So the question is, do you see any difference between what a flashlight does and what a",
"timestamp": [
73.82,
79.08
]
},
{
"text": " laser does?",
"timestamp": [
79.08,
80.08
]
},
{
"text": " A flashlight is a bigger shine than a laser, it's just a dot. That's true, the laser's just a dot.",
"timestamp": [
80.08,
86.76
]
},
{
"text": " And so the other thing to notice though,",
"timestamp": [
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88.64
]
},
{
"text": " is that this seems like when I shine it in your eyes,",
"timestamp": [
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90.4
]
},
{
"text": " and I'm sorry if I do,",
"timestamp": [
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91.8
]
},
{
"text": " but it seems awfully bright, doesn't it?",
"timestamp": [
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94.32
]
},
{
"text": " And yet when you shine this down,",
"timestamp": [
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96.44
]
},
{
"text": " and you put the laser, which one do you see easier?",
"timestamp": [
96.44,
98.72
]
},
{
"text": " The laser.",
"timestamp": [
98.72,
99.8
]
},
{
"text": " The laser.",
"timestamp": [
99.8,
101.08
]
},
{
"text": " So which one do you think's more powerful?",
"timestamp": [
101.08,
103.2
]
},
{
"text": " The laser.",
"timestamp": [
103.2,
104.56
]
},
{
"text": " And yet it's not. Isn't that amazing?",
"timestamp": [
104.56,
106
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
106,
107
]
},
{
"text": " One of the things that lasers are great for",
"timestamp": [
107,
109
]
},
{
"text": " is that because it's a directed beam,",
"timestamp": [
109,
112
]
},
{
"text": " we can actually put that light where we want the light to go.",
"timestamp": [
112,
116
]
},
{
"text": " And sometimes we maybe just want to see something around a corner",
"timestamp": [
116,
120
]
},
{
"text": " and you can't see it, but with a laser you can actually,",
"timestamp": [
120,
123
]
},
{
"text": " and this is a smoky one, so you can actually watch it go.",
"timestamp": [
123,
127.08
]
},
{
"text": " You see it actually bending the corner?",
"timestamp": [
127.08,
129.5
]
},
{
"text": " And that's because the light will go through this glass,",
"timestamp": [
129.5,
132.12
]
},
{
"text": " but when it hits that corner, it has to bend.",
"timestamp": [
132.12,
134.44
]
},
{
"text": " And we actually send laser beams down glass fibers",
"timestamp": [
134.44,
138.08
]
},
{
"text": " the size of your hair.",
"timestamp": [
138.08,
139.42
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, so this obviously is much bigger than our hair, right?",
"timestamp": [
140.28,
145
]
},
{
"text": " Yes.",
"timestamp": [
145,
146
]
},
{
"text": " So this is just a demonstration.",
"timestamp": [
146,
147
]
},
{
"text": " If you have a laser like this, it actually bends and comes out.",
"timestamp": [
147,
150
]
},
{
"text": " I'm going to point it to you and you'll see it coming out the other end.",
"timestamp": [
150,
153
]
},
{
"text": " It hits these walls.",
"timestamp": [
153,
154
]
},
{
"text": " It has to go around and come out the other side.",
"timestamp": [
154,
157
]
},
{
"text": " Do you want to play?",
"timestamp": [
157,
158
]
},
{
"text": " So is this the first time you've seen a laser or have you gotten to play with lasers somewhere else?",
"timestamp": [
158,
162
]
},
{
"text": " I don't have a cat or...",
"timestamp": [
162,
164
]
},
{
"text": " So you don't need a cat toy, no.",
"timestamp": [
164,
167.24
]
},
{
"text": " Have you ever gone to a grocery store",
"timestamp": [
167.24,
169.16
]
},
{
"text": " and just scanned your objects over?",
"timestamp": [
169.16,
171.68
]
},
{
"text": " Yes.",
"timestamp": [
171.68,
172.52
]
},
{
"text": " Have you ever seen that maybe there's a little bit",
"timestamp": [
172.52,
173.88
]
},
{
"text": " of a red light when you do that?",
"timestamp": [
173.88,
175.52
]
},
{
"text": " Yes.",
"timestamp": [
175.52,
176.36
]
},
{
"text": " That's a laser.",
"timestamp": [
176.36,
177.18
]
},
{
"text": " We cut steel with them now.",
"timestamp": [
177.18,
178.48
]
},
{
"text": " We actually do surgery with lasers.",
"timestamp": [
178.48,
180.28
]
},
{
"text": " You know, when some people have either scars",
"timestamp": [
180.28,
182.34
]
},
{
"text": " or birthmarks that they don't want to see,",
"timestamp": [
182.34,
184.56
]
},
{
"text": " we can actually remove those with lasers now.",
"timestamp": [
184.56,
186.96
]
},
{
"text": " You've never seen a laser light show?",
"timestamp": [
186.96,
188.52
]
},
{
"text": " When they light up the sky with lasers,",
"timestamp": [
188.52,
190.4
]
},
{
"text": " it's almost like fireworks.",
"timestamp": [
190.4,
191.84
]
},
{
"text": " Wow, I saw a shooting star before.",
"timestamp": [
191.84,
193.76
]
},
{
"text": " Oh, you got to see a shooting star!",
"timestamp": [
193.76,
195.4
]
},
{
"text": " Well, that's cool.",
"timestamp": [
195.4,
196.36
]
},
{
"text": " That's nature giving you the show there.",
"timestamp": [
196.36,
198.32
]
},
{
"text": " So what do you think about lasers?",
"timestamp": [
198.32,
200
]
},
{
"text": " You think they're fun?",
"timestamp": [
200,
201.16
]
},
{
"text": " Yes, they're very cool.",
"timestamp": [
201.16,
202.96
]
},
{
"text": " And I like the green one.",
"timestamp": [
202.96,
208.08
]
},
{
"text": " And the next time you go to a grocery store,",
"timestamp": [
208.08,
209.8
]
},
{
"text": " take a peek at the red.",
"timestamp": [
209.8,
211.12
]
},
{
"text": " Okay.",
"timestamp": [
211.12,
211.96
]
},
{
"text": " Today we're here to talk about lasers.",
"timestamp": [
216.76,
219.4
]
},
{
"text": " So what do you think about lasers?",
"timestamp": [
219.4,
221.56
]
},
{
"text": " I think they're pretty cool.",
"timestamp": [
221.56,
223.36
]
},
{
"text": " They show up in a lot of my favorite books and movies,",
"timestamp": [
223.36,
226
]
},
{
"text": " like Star Wars or just a bunch of different sci-fi movies and books.",
"timestamp": [
226,
231
]
},
{
"text": " Do you know anything about lasers?",
"timestamp": [
231,
233
]
},
{
"text": " What makes a laser special, kind of like?",
"timestamp": [
233,
235
]
},
{
"text": " All I really know is from sci-fi books and movies",
"timestamp": [
235,
238
]
},
{
"text": " and the factory cutting lasers that they used to cut steel and stuff.",
"timestamp": [
238,
242
]
},
{
"text": " Do you even know maybe how to make a laser that it would be strong enough to cut steel?",
"timestamp": [
242,
247.84
]
},
{
"text": " No.",
"timestamp": [
247.84,
248.68
]
},
{
"text": " Oh, okay.",
"timestamp": [
248.68,
250.16
]
},
{
"text": " So one of the things about lasers",
"timestamp": [
250.16,
252.48
]
},
{
"text": " is if you've ever seen a laser beam,",
"timestamp": [
252.48,
254.2
]
},
{
"text": " you know, it's very directed.",
"timestamp": [
254.2,
255.44
]
},
{
"text": " Like what are they made out of?",
"timestamp": [
255.44,
257
]
},
{
"text": " What is a laser made out of?",
"timestamp": [
257,
258.64
]
},
{
"text": " Well, really, it's sort of the same thing",
"timestamp": [
258.64,
260.48
]
},
{
"text": " as a light bulb, right?",
"timestamp": [
260.48,
261.56
]
},
{
"text": " Because people-",
"timestamp": [
261.56,
262.4
]
},
{
"text": " So it's a beam?",
"timestamp": [
262.4,
263.22
]
},
{
"text": " So yeah, it's a light bulb,",
"timestamp": [
263.22,
264.28
]
},
{
"text": " and there's a couple of mirrors.",
"timestamp": [
264.28,
266.16
]
},
{
"text": " Now the light bulb has to be a little bit special.",
"timestamp": [
266.16,
268.48
]
},
{
"text": " It has to be a type of material that can store the energy",
"timestamp": [
268.48,
272.44
]
},
{
"text": " in an excited state, right?",
"timestamp": [
272.44,
273.88
]
},
{
"text": " It has to stay up there really energetic",
"timestamp": [
273.88,
276.48
]
},
{
"text": " and sit there for a while.",
"timestamp": [
276.48,
277.84
]
},
{
"text": " So that when the light comes along,",
"timestamp": [
277.84,
280.24
]
},
{
"text": " it takes that energy and becomes stronger light.",
"timestamp": [
280.24,
282.96
]
},
{
"text": " And then the mirror sends it back",
"timestamp": [
282.96,
284.32
]
},
{
"text": " and it does it again and again and again.",
"timestamp": [
284.32,
286.24
]
},
{
"text": " And between these two mirrors, it makes the light come out in a nice beam. In a laser,",
"timestamp": [
286.24,
290.98
]
},
{
"text": " it comes out as a single color.",
"timestamp": [
291.36,
293.36
]
},
{
"text": " They all come out with their waves at the same time. Every wave peaks at the same time,",
"timestamp": [
293.44,
297.84
]
},
{
"text": " which then makes it a giant wave. And it's this giant wave that has a tremendous amount of power,",
"timestamp": [
297.84,
303.04
]
},
{
"text": " so it can do something like cutting steel.",
"timestamp": [
303.28,
305.96
]
},
{
"text": " But when you cut steel, or if you're cutting the floor,",
"timestamp": [
305.96,
309.24
]
},
{
"text": " it's gray.",
"timestamp": [
309.24,
309.8
]
},
{
"text": " It actually will absorb the light.",
"timestamp": [
309.8,
311.56
]
},
{
"text": " That's why you don't see it, because the light isn't",
"timestamp": [
311.56,
314
]
},
{
"text": " bouncing back or through it.",
"timestamp": [
314,
315.84
]
},
{
"text": " So I like to use demos to explain how my laser works.",
"timestamp": [
315.84,
320.2
]
},
{
"text": " So I've brought basically a hammer and a nail.",
"timestamp": [
320.2,
324.08
]
},
{
"text": " I'm sure you've probably hammered a nail before",
"timestamp": [
324.08,
326.38
]
},
{
"text": " into a piece of wood, but the question is,",
"timestamp": [
326.38,
328.5
]
},
{
"text": " if you asked yourself why it is that we hit the big end",
"timestamp": [
328.5,
331.7
]
},
{
"text": " and it's the tiny end that we put on the piece of wood.",
"timestamp": [
331.7,
334.36
]
},
{
"text": " We would never pick up a hammer and hit the sharp end",
"timestamp": [
334.36,
337.9
]
},
{
"text": " and hope this would go into the piece of wood.",
"timestamp": [
337.9,
340.1
]
},
{
"text": " Because it needs to be centered",
"timestamp": [
340.1,
341.38
]
},
{
"text": " so it can more easily just go in.",
"timestamp": [
341.38,
343.34
]
},
{
"text": " That's right.",
"timestamp": [
343.34,
344.18
]
},
{
"text": " It's all the same force that we apply up here goes all the way through,",
"timestamp": [
344.18,
347.84
]
},
{
"text": " but then it can only basically come out when it contacts the wood in that one tiny spot.",
"timestamp": [
347.84,
353.28
]
},
{
"text": " And so sometimes it's the force that you push something with, but sometimes",
"timestamp": [
353.28,
357.68
]
},
{
"text": " it is that force per unit area. But sometimes it's not even the force per unit area. Because,",
"timestamp": [
357.68,
363.76
]
},
{
"text": " you know, push down as hard as you can on that,",
"timestamp": [
363.76,
366.24
]
},
{
"text": " and see if we can get it pushed in.",
"timestamp": [
366.24,
367.6
]
},
{
"text": " See, it doesn't really work, does it?",
"timestamp": [
367.6,
369.48
]
},
{
"text": " So the laser needs all three things?",
"timestamp": [
369.48,
372.4
]
},
{
"text": " It needs to be centered, it needs time to actually penetrate,",
"timestamp": [
372.4,
377.2
]
},
{
"text": " and then it needs...",
"timestamp": [
377.2,
378.8
]
},
{
"text": " Well, it depends.",
"timestamp": [
378.8,
379.88
]
},
{
"text": " So if you're cutting steel, you need to have the nail.",
"timestamp": [
379.88,
383.08
]
},
{
"text": " You need to have it concentrated all of the light,",
"timestamp": [
383.08,
386.28
]
},
{
"text": " not going in all directions,",
"timestamp": [
386.28,
387.48
]
},
{
"text": " but you need it into as small a point as possible.",
"timestamp": [
387.48,
390.24
]
},
{
"text": " And for that, we use a lens.",
"timestamp": [
390.24,
392.2
]
},
{
"text": " For a lens, the light's coming down as a column.",
"timestamp": [
392.2,
394.76
]
},
{
"text": " You put in a lens, it all focuses it down",
"timestamp": [
394.76,
397.32
]
},
{
"text": " in the same way as the nail.",
"timestamp": [
397.32,
398.86
]
},
{
"text": " And then it starts cutting that steel.",
"timestamp": [
398.86,
401.04
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, so that's sort of force per unit area.",
"timestamp": [
401.04,
403.64
]
},
{
"text": " So it's kind of like a magnifying glass,",
"timestamp": [
403.64,
405.38
]
},
{
"text": " like it magnifies the light down to a point?",
"timestamp": [
405.38,
407.42
]
},
{
"text": " Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
407.42,
408.26
]
},
{
"text": " You know, sometimes you want to have all of your energy,",
"timestamp": [
408.26,
412.04
]
},
{
"text": " not just in a small area, but in this small volume.",
"timestamp": [
412.04,
415.46
]
},
{
"text": " And so one of the other dimension is time or length.",
"timestamp": [
415.46,
418.94
]
},
{
"text": " But with light, time and length are the same thing,",
"timestamp": [
418.94,
421.9
]
},
{
"text": " because light always travels at the speed of light.",
"timestamp": [
421.9,
424.82
]
},
{
"text": " Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
424.82,
425.8
]
},
{
"text": " But if you send a one second long light pulse out into the skies there, the beginning of",
"timestamp": [
425.8,
430.6
]
},
{
"text": " the pulse is actually two thirds of the way to the moon.",
"timestamp": [
430.6,
434.24
]
},
{
"text": " It's 300,000 kilometers long.",
"timestamp": [
434.24,
437.34
]
},
{
"text": " So now if you talk about light being concentrated, that doesn't seem very concentrated.",
"timestamp": [
437.34,
442.08
]
},
{
"text": " The type of lasers I play with in my lab will be no thicker than this piece of paper.",
"timestamp": [
442.08,
447.28
]
},
{
"text": " So we take that energy that might be in 300,000 kilometers",
"timestamp": [
447.28,
451.56
]
},
{
"text": " and we squeeze it all the way down",
"timestamp": [
451.56,
454.52
]
},
{
"text": " into just this piece of paper.",
"timestamp": [
454.52,
456.72
]
},
{
"text": " And actually the beams are more the size",
"timestamp": [
456.72,
458.32
]
},
{
"text": " of this piece of paper.",
"timestamp": [
458.32,
460.12
]
},
{
"text": " And so in my lab, they would be flying,",
"timestamp": [
460.12,
462.28
]
},
{
"text": " pieces of paper like this would be flying through the sky,",
"timestamp": [
462.28,
465.24
]
},
{
"text": " but we can't see them.",
"timestamp": [
465.24,
466.24
]
},
{
"text": " Because they don't come in our eyes,",
"timestamp": [
466.24,
467.54
]
},
{
"text": " they fly by us, and they're infrared.",
"timestamp": [
467.54,
469.76
]
},
{
"text": " They'd be like little concentrated beams of light",
"timestamp": [
469.76,
472.12
]
},
{
"text": " just flying everywhere?",
"timestamp": [
472.12,
473.28
]
},
{
"text": " And so now, if we have light like that",
"timestamp": [
473.28,
475.08
]
},
{
"text": " that we want to machine with, I bring this funnel,",
"timestamp": [
475.08,
477.56
]
},
{
"text": " and so if we had a lens here and the light was coming down.",
"timestamp": [
477.56,
480.24
]
},
{
"text": " It funnels it into?",
"timestamp": [
480.24,
481.36
]
},
{
"text": " Into a spot.",
"timestamp": [
481.36,
482.2
]
},
{
"text": " So here would be my light coming from my laser,",
"timestamp": [
482.2,
484.28
]
},
{
"text": " and it would just be coming down, down, down, down, down.",
"timestamp": [
484.28,
486.36
]
},
{
"text": " Hit a lens and we would have to focus down.",
"timestamp": [
486.36,
489.04
]
},
{
"text": " But now all the light started out with this big of a spread.",
"timestamp": [
489.04,
492.5
]
},
{
"text": " So concentrated this much.",
"timestamp": [
492.5,
494.04
]
},
{
"text": " Eventually it would be here, more concentrated.",
"timestamp": [
494.04,
497.76
]
},
{
"text": " But by the end, right at the focal spot,",
"timestamp": [
497.76,
500.14
]
},
{
"text": " that's when I get all of my light,",
"timestamp": [
500.14,
501.88
]
},
{
"text": " all of the energy has been squeezed down",
"timestamp": [
501.88,
504.84
]
},
{
"text": " into fitting",
"timestamp": [
504.84,
506.3
]
},
{
"text": " inside this piece of paper.",
"timestamp": [
506.3,
507.88
]
},
{
"text": " And that's why I say that I built a laser hammer.",
"timestamp": [
507.88,
510.76
]
},
{
"text": " Because when this hits a piece of glass,",
"timestamp": [
510.76,
513.92
]
},
{
"text": " it just smacks those electrons right off the atoms",
"timestamp": [
513.92,
517.04
]
},
{
"text": " and there's nothing else for them to do.",
"timestamp": [
517.04,
518.38
]
},
{
"text": " They have to fly away.",
"timestamp": [
518.38,
519.8
]
},
{
"text": " So can you tell me what you learned",
"timestamp": [
519.8,
521.8
]
},
{
"text": " and maybe about the focusing of the light?",
"timestamp": [
521.8,
523.52
]
},
{
"text": " Well, what I learned is lasers, they aren't like particles.",
"timestamp": [
523.52,
526.82
]
},
{
"text": " They're more like a super concentrated beam of light that can be any color.",
"timestamp": [
526.82,
531.86
]
},
{
"text": " They get really concentrated and that's what makes them like lasers and that's why they",
"timestamp": [
531.86,
536.02
]
},
{
"text": " cut things and break things because it just moves the electrons out of the way.",
"timestamp": [
536.02,
540
]
},
{
"text": " So do you think that lasers are fun enough to talk with your friends about or?",
"timestamp": [
540,
543
]
},
{
"text": " Of course I'm going to have to share something about my experience learning about lasers",
"timestamp": [
543,
547.48
]
},
{
"text": " with an expert like you.",
"timestamp": [
547.48,
552.92
]
},
{
"text": " So you're a college student?",
"timestamp": [
552.92,
554.44
]
},
{
"text": " Yes.",
"timestamp": [
554.44,
555.44
]
},
{
"text": " And what's your major?",
"timestamp": [
555.44,
556.44
]
},
{
"text": " I'm an engineering physics major with a minor in math.",
"timestamp": [
556.44,
559.28
]
},
{
"text": " I'm in the 3-2 program for biomedical engineering.",
"timestamp": [
559.28,
562.12
]
},
{
"text": " Excellent!",
"timestamp": [
562.12,
563.12
]
},
{
"text": " I got an engineering physics degree.",
"timestamp": [
563.12,
565.16
]
},
{
"text": " There you go, something in common.",
"timestamp": [
565.16,
566.76
]
},
{
"text": " We're here today talking about lasers.",
"timestamp": [
566.76,
568.92
]
},
{
"text": " So have you had much exposure to lasers yet at school?",
"timestamp": [
568.92,
571.84
]
},
{
"text": " Not yet.",
"timestamp": [
571.84,
572.68
]
},
{
"text": " I'm really hoping that we will.",
"timestamp": [
572.68,
575.84
]
},
{
"text": " I think it's super interesting, just the field in general,",
"timestamp": [
575.84,
578.7
]
},
{
"text": " because I really do enjoy examining all the calculations",
"timestamp": [
578.7,
582.8
]
},
{
"text": " and being able to do a little bit more",
"timestamp": [
582.8,
585.02
]
},
{
"text": " of the math side of physics.",
"timestamp": [
585.02,
586.3
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, as opposed to the experimental side of it",
"timestamp": [
586.3,
588.78
]
},
{
"text": " and seeing things.",
"timestamp": [
588.78,
589.62
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, so I'm much more, I like to see the things happening.",
"timestamp": [
589.62,
592.38
]
},
{
"text": " So then the question is, what's so special",
"timestamp": [
592.38,
594.92
]
},
{
"text": " about making a light that's intense enough",
"timestamp": [
594.92,
597.86
]
},
{
"text": " to actually possibly blow things up?",
"timestamp": [
597.86,
600.26
]
},
{
"text": " Certainly we can blow atoms up with the laser hammer",
"timestamp": [
600.26,
602.78
]
},
{
"text": " and the laser light comes in and just smacks the electron right off the atom",
"timestamp": [
602.78,
606.44
]
},
{
"text": " And so the question really is is how do you make that back in the 70s and into the 80s?",
"timestamp": [
606.44,
610.64
]
},
{
"text": " I know that's a long time ago for you. We had big energy lasers and we had short pulse lasers",
"timestamp": [
610.64,
616.12
]
},
{
"text": " we couldn't have big energy short pulse lasers and",
"timestamp": [
616.48,
620
]
},
{
"text": " Actually, it was my supervisor and I that figured the way around that. And we got something called chirped pulse amplification.",
"timestamp": [
620.56,
628.3
]
},
{
"text": " Have you heard of chirped pulse amplification by any chance?",
"timestamp": [
628.3,
631.1
]
},
{
"text": " Vaguely.",
"timestamp": [
631.1,
631.8
]
},
{
"text": " Well, I brought a little bit of a prop to explain how chirped pulse amplification works.",
"timestamp": [
631.8,
636.5
]
},
{
"text": " Our short pulses are made of different colors.",
"timestamp": [
636.5,
639
]
},
{
"text": " So I've got a colored slinky here.",
"timestamp": [
639,
640.8
]
},
{
"text": " We probably could have called it stretched pulse amplification, but that's kind of boring.",
"timestamp": [
640.8,
644.3
]
},
{
"text": " So we used the word chirped. The word chirped comes around because birds",
"timestamp": [
644.3,
649.22
]
},
{
"text": " chirp. When the birds are singing, the notes are actually changing audio frequency with",
"timestamp": [
649.22,
654.14
]
},
{
"text": " time, and that's a chirp. The point is that when all the light is squeezed together like",
"timestamp": [
654.14,
659.62
]
},
{
"text": " this, it's a short pulse, and that's when it's a hammer, because all the light is now",
"timestamp": [
659.62,
663.58
]
},
{
"text": " concentrated. And you can imagine if this was coming along",
"timestamp": [
663.58,
666.56
]
},
{
"text": " and also using a lens to focus it small,",
"timestamp": [
666.56,
669.44
]
},
{
"text": " then all of that light at the focal spot concentrated.",
"timestamp": [
669.44,
672.44
]
},
{
"text": " And so that was the laser hammer.",
"timestamp": [
672.44,
674.08
]
},
{
"text": " So we can't have that in the laser.",
"timestamp": [
674.08,
676.6
]
},
{
"text": " So the question is, what could we do?",
"timestamp": [
676.6,
678.24
]
},
{
"text": " The fact that it's different colors,",
"timestamp": [
678.24,
679.96
]
},
{
"text": " and different colors because of dispersion,",
"timestamp": [
679.96,
682.26
]
},
{
"text": " travel different speeds inside material.",
"timestamp": [
682.26,
685.56
]
},
{
"text": " So we used a long fiber, 1.4 kilometers of fiber.",
"timestamp": [
685.56,
688.96
]
},
{
"text": " But in fiber, the red colors really",
"timestamp": [
688.96,
692.6
]
},
{
"text": " haven't got that much in common with the glass atoms,",
"timestamp": [
692.6,
694.96
]
},
{
"text": " and so they spend very little time interacting,",
"timestamp": [
694.96,
697.84
]
},
{
"text": " and they travel fast.",
"timestamp": [
697.84,
698.88
]
},
{
"text": " The red is going to start traveling faster than the green,",
"timestamp": [
698.88,
702.12
]
},
{
"text": " faster than the blue.",
"timestamp": [
702.12,
703.24
]
},
{
"text": " And as you travel down the fiber, next thing you know,",
"timestamp": [
703.24,
706.48
]
},
{
"text": " you have a long pulse.",
"timestamp": [
706.48,
708.48
]
},
{
"text": " And it's chirped from red at the beginning to blue at the back.",
"timestamp": [
708.48,
711.96
]
},
{
"text": " And so the frequency is going, whoop, like this.",
"timestamp": [
711.96,
714.68
]
},
{
"text": " So this is a chirped pulse.",
"timestamp": [
714.68,
716.72
]
},
{
"text": " And now it's a long pulse.",
"timestamp": [
716.72,
718.68
]
},
{
"text": " And so first, this is what we did.",
"timestamp": [
718.68,
720.84
]
},
{
"text": " We chirped it.",
"timestamp": [
720.84,
721.48
]
},
{
"text": " We stretched it.",
"timestamp": [
721.48,
722.28
]
},
{
"text": " Then we can safely amplify it, because it's not all concentrated.",
"timestamp": [
722.28,
726.28
]
},
{
"text": " And after we amplify it,",
"timestamp": [
726.28,
728.2
]
},
{
"text": " then we use something called a compressor",
"timestamp": [
728.2,
729.96
]
},
{
"text": " and we put all of the colors back together",
"timestamp": [
729.96,
731.92
]
},
{
"text": " and it was back being a short pulse,",
"timestamp": [
731.92,
733.6
]
},
{
"text": " but a high energy pulse.",
"timestamp": [
733.6,
735.28
]
},
{
"text": " And together, then we really had",
"timestamp": [
735.28,
737
]
},
{
"text": " what I like to call a laser hammer.",
"timestamp": [
737,
738.98
]
},
{
"text": " When this laser pulse goes inside,",
"timestamp": [
738.98,
741.28
]
},
{
"text": " it smacks those electrons right off the atom.",
"timestamp": [
741.28,
743.64
]
},
{
"text": " So the laser hammer that you were describing",
"timestamp": [
743.64,
745.24
]
},
{
"text": " with other types of lasers and the one in the chirped,",
"timestamp": [
745.24,
748.68
]
},
{
"text": " is it still the same premise?",
"timestamp": [
748.68,
750.32
]
},
{
"text": " Well, a lot of lasers, and when lasers first came along,",
"timestamp": [
750.32,
752.94
]
},
{
"text": " they were only single color.",
"timestamp": [
752.94,
754.32
]
},
{
"text": " Your cat toy will only be a single color,",
"timestamp": [
754.32,
756.04
]
},
{
"text": " probably a red one, and so that's just one color.",
"timestamp": [
756.04,
758.48
]
},
{
"text": " And one color means that it has to really be there",
"timestamp": [
758.48,
761.88
]
},
{
"text": " for the whole time.",
"timestamp": [
761.88,
762.72
]
},
{
"text": " One color is one wavelength of light.",
"timestamp": [
762.72,
765.34
]
},
{
"text": " And so it's just one wave that goes on and on and on.",
"timestamp": [
765.34,
768.28
]
},
{
"text": " If you want a short pulse,",
"timestamp": [
768.28,
770.12
]
},
{
"text": " you actually have to have all the colors.",
"timestamp": [
770.12,
772.28
]
},
{
"text": " And if you can imagine at one point in time,",
"timestamp": [
772.28,
774.56
]
},
{
"text": " and I like to say it's like a conductor of an orchestra.",
"timestamp": [
774.56,
777.32
]
},
{
"text": " When you're listening to an orchestra warm up,",
"timestamp": [
777.32,
779.64
]
},
{
"text": " they sound terrible.",
"timestamp": [
779.64,
780.6
]
},
{
"text": " They're all playing their own notes.",
"timestamp": [
780.6,
781.96
]
},
{
"text": " But when the conductor conducts them,",
"timestamp": [
781.96,
783.6
]
},
{
"text": " they all play different notes, but together it's beautiful music. So we have",
"timestamp": [
783.6,
787.72
]
},
{
"text": " something in a laser called a mode blocker, and it's like the conductor, and",
"timestamp": [
787.72,
791.4
]
},
{
"text": " it says go now, and all the colors will start together, but some colors are",
"timestamp": [
791.4,
796.92
]
},
{
"text": " long wavelength and others are shorter. So next thing you know you have peaks",
"timestamp": [
796.92,
800.28
]
},
{
"text": " meeting valleys and they cancel each other, and so the more colors you can",
"timestamp": [
800.28,
804.56
]
},
{
"text": " bring in the faster that happens and the shorter",
"timestamp": [
804.56,
806.56
]
},
{
"text": " the pulse you can make.",
"timestamp": [
806.56,
808.4
]
},
{
"text": " The necklace is something that was designed",
"timestamp": [
808.4,
811.48
]
},
{
"text": " for my Nobel Prize.",
"timestamp": [
811.48,
813.16
]
},
{
"text": " It's sold at the Nobel Museum and it is a chirped pulse.",
"timestamp": [
813.16,
817.36
]
},
{
"text": " So we've been talking a lot about lasers and applications.",
"timestamp": [
817.36,
819.84
]
},
{
"text": " What have you learned about chirped pulses?",
"timestamp": [
819.84,
822
]
},
{
"text": " I learned that it all stretches, which is super cool,",
"timestamp": [
822,
826.98
]
},
{
"text": " because red moves the fastest,",
"timestamp": [
827.4,
829.98
]
},
{
"text": " and so it kind of tugs around blue.",
"timestamp": [
829.98,
833.84
]
},
{
"text": " It really threw me off just how fast,",
"timestamp": [
833.84,
836.82
]
},
{
"text": " it's hard to imagine things happening that fast.",
"timestamp": [
836.82,
839.3
]
},
{
"text": " And I also learned how many of the things",
"timestamp": [
839.3,
840.86
]
},
{
"text": " that I know are lasers.",
"timestamp": [
840.86,
842.1
]
},
{
"text": " How many of the things that I've been looking for And like, how many of the things that I've been looking for,",
"timestamp": [
843.24,
846.32
]
},
{
"text": " like the answers to, it is in lasers.",
"timestamp": [
846.32,
849.56
]
},
{
"text": " [\"Squishy Stuff\"]",
"timestamp": [
849.56,
852.8
]
},
{
"text": " So I understand you're in grad school, where?",
"timestamp": [
852.8,
855.16
]
},
{
"text": " At NYU.",
"timestamp": [
855.16,
856
]
},
{
"text": " And what are you studying?",
"timestamp": [
856,
857
]
},
{
"text": " I'm studying soft matter physics,",
"timestamp": [
857,
858.68
]
},
{
"text": " which involves the physics of squishy stuff.",
"timestamp": [
858.68,
862.14
]
},
{
"text": " We make microswimmers in the laboratory",
"timestamp": [
862.14,
864.32
]
},
{
"text": " and we drive them with a laser.",
"timestamp": [
864.32,
866.32
]
},
{
"text": " And what kind of laser do you use?",
"timestamp": [
866.32,
868.04
]
},
{
"text": " We use a 10-watt laser.",
"timestamp": [
868.04,
870.16
]
},
{
"text": " It's a fiber laser.",
"timestamp": [
870.16,
871.24
]
},
{
"text": " Do you know a lot about lasers, or just about the laser",
"timestamp": [
871.24,
873.28
]
},
{
"text": " that you use?",
"timestamp": [
873.28,
873.96
]
},
{
"text": " Not a lot, just a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
873.96,
875.64
]
},
{
"text": " OK.",
"timestamp": [
875.64,
876.2
]
},
{
"text": " So this is about high-intensity lasers.",
"timestamp": [
876.2,
878.68
]
},
{
"text": " Not only how do you make them, but what was really",
"timestamp": [
878.68,
880.84
]
},
{
"text": " stopping them being made, in both cases,",
"timestamp": [
880.84,
883.24
]
},
{
"text": " is nonlinear optics.",
"timestamp": [
883.24,
884.76
]
},
{
"text": " You know, we want to do something",
"timestamp": [
884.76,
886.44
]
},
{
"text": " that requires a huge photon density application.",
"timestamp": [
886.44,
890.24
]
},
{
"text": " Yes.",
"timestamp": [
890.24,
891.08
]
},
{
"text": " And so that's how come we came up",
"timestamp": [
891.08,
891.92
]
},
{
"text": " with chirp pulse amplification,",
"timestamp": [
891.92,
893.48
]
},
{
"text": " so that we could stretch the pulse, safely amplify it,",
"timestamp": [
893.48,
897.24
]
},
{
"text": " then compress it at the end,",
"timestamp": [
897.24,
898.88
]
},
{
"text": " and then we're ready to do whatever we want at the end.",
"timestamp": [
898.88,
901.9
]
},
{
"text": " So what do you think the main difference is",
"timestamp": [
901.9,
903.6
]
},
{
"text": " between the continuous wave laser that you have",
"timestamp": [
903.6,
906.18
]
},
{
"text": " that runs at 10 watts and a chirp pulse amplifier?",
"timestamp": [
906.18,
910.54
]
},
{
"text": " I feel like the continuous laser delivers power",
"timestamp": [
910.54,
914.28
]
},
{
"text": " at a continuous rate, whereas you want all that power",
"timestamp": [
914.28,
917.16
]
},
{
"text": " to be delivered in a really, really short time",
"timestamp": [
917.16,
919.88
]
},
{
"text": " with your amplification.",
"timestamp": [
919.88,
921.4
]
},
{
"text": " And so we get the power with a lot less energy",
"timestamp": [
921.4,
923.44
]
},
{
"text": " because power is energy per unit time.",
"timestamp": [
923.44,
925.74
]
},
{
"text": " So we aren't depositing much energy in comparison.",
"timestamp": [
925.74,
929.02
]
},
{
"text": " Can I just ask, because you are using the thermal process",
"timestamp": [
929.02,
932.78
]
},
{
"text": " of it heating up.",
"timestamp": [
932.78,
933.54
]
},
{
"text": " But have you ever had the opportunity",
"timestamp": [
933.54,
935.62
]
},
{
"text": " to use laser tweezers?",
"timestamp": [
935.62,
937.78
]
},
{
"text": " I have, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
937.78,
938.78
]
},
{
"text": " We use optical tweezers to trap particles in solution.",
"timestamp": [
938.78,
942.18
]
},
{
"text": " OK, and twirl the motors or not twirl the motors?",
"timestamp": [
942.18,
944.82
]
},
{
"text": " No, I haven't worked with that.",
"timestamp": [
944.82,
947.04
]
},
{
"text": " So I was always curious, how much further,",
"timestamp": [
947.04,
949.4
]
},
{
"text": " like what higher power can we go now?",
"timestamp": [
949.4,
951.2
]
},
{
"text": " So trip pulse amplification took us sort of from,",
"timestamp": [
951.2,
954.32
]
},
{
"text": " we were at 10 to the 12.",
"timestamp": [
954.32,
955.48
]
},
{
"text": " But when I was working, the 10 to the 12",
"timestamp": [
955.48,
957.6
]
},
{
"text": " sort of sat on a football sized field.",
"timestamp": [
957.6,
959.18
]
},
{
"text": " It was a kilojoule laser with a nanosecond pulse.",
"timestamp": [
959.18,
962.64
]
},
{
"text": " And we brought it down to something we call tabletop",
"timestamp": [
962.64,
964.76
]
},
{
"text": " terawatt. So it was the same terawatt, but now it was one joule and one nanosecond pulse. Okay. And we brought it down to something we call tabletop terawatt, so it was the same terawatt,",
"timestamp": [
964.76,
966
]
},
{
"text": " but now it was one joule in one picosecond,",
"timestamp": [
966,
968
]
},
{
"text": " so it could fit on a basic optical bench",
"timestamp": [
968,
970
]
},
{
"text": " like you would have in your lab.",
"timestamp": [
970,
972
]
},
{
"text": " We were able to take that up to,",
"timestamp": [
972,
975
]
},
{
"text": " I think the record is right around somewhere",
"timestamp": [
975,
976
]
},
{
"text": " between 10 to the 22 and 10 to the 23 watts",
"timestamp": [
976,
979
]
},
{
"text": " per square centimeter.",
"timestamp": [
979,
981
]
},
{
"text": " So then in going forward, one of the holy grails is,",
"timestamp": [
981,
984
]
},
{
"text": " can we reach 10 to the 29 watts per square centimeter? So we in going forward, one of the holy grails is can we reach 10",
"timestamp": [
984,
985.56
]
},
{
"text": " to the 29 watts per square centimeter? So we still have six orders. So we've gone from",
"timestamp": [
985.56,
989.68
]
},
{
"text": " 10 to the 12 to 10 to the 23. So we've done, you know, 11 orders. So you think six isn't",
"timestamp": [
989.68,
995.88
]
},
{
"text": " so much harder. I have to tell you, over time, it's rolling over. We need another Nobel Prize",
"timestamp": [
995.88,
1001.16
]
},
{
"text": " winning idea. But if we get out there, that's where,",
"timestamp": [
1001.16,
1005.06
]
},
{
"text": " if you focus the intensity, the energy in that volume",
"timestamp": [
1005.06,
1009.18
]
},
{
"text": " is enough to break the vacuum.",
"timestamp": [
1009.18,
1010.62
]
},
{
"text": " We could probably use this to drive chemical reactions",
"timestamp": [
1010.62,
1013.3
]
},
{
"text": " at a very, very specific spot.",
"timestamp": [
1013.3,
1015.26
]
},
{
"text": " Like, if we want to target just a single cell in the body.",
"timestamp": [
1015.26,
1019.5
]
},
{
"text": " Yes.",
"timestamp": [
1019.5,
1020.94
]
},
{
"text": " And maybe, what, do pump probe spectroscopy",
"timestamp": [
1020.94,
1023.3
]
},
{
"text": " and watch the cell, or to ionize it?",
"timestamp": [
1023.3,
1025.36
]
},
{
"text": " I mean, I was thinking more on the lines of if we want to, let's say, destroy one cell,",
"timestamp": [
1025.36,
1029.76
]
},
{
"text": " like a tumor cell or something like that, so that the neighboring areas are not affected,",
"timestamp": [
1029.76,
1034.16
]
},
{
"text": " but just the cell burns.",
"timestamp": [
1034.16,
1036.34
]
},
{
"text": " I don't know of people working on that, because I'm not so much in the medical field, but",
"timestamp": [
1036.34,
1039.64
]
},
{
"text": " I should look into that and see if that's a possibility.",
"timestamp": [
1039.64,
1042.24
]
},
{
"text": " So after hearing about high intensity lasers,",
"timestamp": [
1042.24,
1045.16
]
},
{
"text": " can you think about next time you go back to the lab",
"timestamp": [
1045.16,
1047.56
]
},
{
"text": " and you're wondering how to do something",
"timestamp": [
1047.56,
1049.52
]
},
{
"text": " in the lab with lasers?",
"timestamp": [
1049.52,
1050.72
]
},
{
"text": " Can you see how short pulses might help you?",
"timestamp": [
1050.72,
1053.28
]
},
{
"text": " I think short pulses might help in my experiment",
"timestamp": [
1053.28,
1055.64
]
},
{
"text": " in the sense that if I drive my swimmers",
"timestamp": [
1055.64,
1058.04
]
},
{
"text": " with a continuous wave as opposed to a pulsed wave,",
"timestamp": [
1058.04,
1061.4
]
},
{
"text": " maybe a continuous wave would heat up the sample too much and a",
"timestamp": [
1061.4,
1065.58
]
},
{
"text": " pulse laser would deliver power exactly where I need it so that I could run my",
"timestamp": [
1065.58,
1071.16
]
},
{
"text": " experiment longer. That's true. Thank you very much. Thank you Donna. It was really nice to meet you.",
"timestamp": [
1071.16,
1076.6
]
},
{
"text": " Hello Donna, good to see you. Good to see you Mike. Nice to have you here with me.",
"timestamp": [
1076.6,
1084
]
},
{
"text": " So we go way back, 1991, the year I got married,",
"timestamp": [
1084,
1088
]
},
{
"text": " I moved across the country, left my husband in New Jersey",
"timestamp": [
1088,
1091
]
},
{
"text": " to work with you in Livermore.",
"timestamp": [
1091,
1093
]
},
{
"text": " I remember very much how hard it was to convince you",
"timestamp": [
1093,
1096
]
},
{
"text": " to travel across the country and work at the lab.",
"timestamp": [
1096,
1098
]
},
{
"text": " And stay there.",
"timestamp": [
1098,
1099
]
},
{
"text": " And stay there. I couldn't convince you to stay.",
"timestamp": [
1099,
1102
]
},
{
"text": " You could not convince me to stay, no.",
"timestamp": [
1102,
1104
]
},
{
"text": " But you were there long enough to make a big impression",
"timestamp": [
1104,
1105
]
},
{
"text": " and get some good work done.",
"timestamp": [
1105,
1106.3
]
},
{
"text": " And I've been talking, sort of, starting with sort of",
"timestamp": [
1106.3,
1108.7
]
},
{
"text": " what is a laser through linear optics, nonlinear optics,",
"timestamp": [
1108.7,
1112
]
},
{
"text": " high-intensity laser physics, and saying that, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1112,
1114.8
]
},
{
"text": " we're trying to get to that Schwinger limit",
"timestamp": [
1114.8,
1116.6
]
},
{
"text": " of 10 to the 29 watts per square centimeter.",
"timestamp": [
1116.6,
1119.6
]
},
{
"text": " We're at about somewhere just shy of 10 to the 23,",
"timestamp": [
1119.6,
1122
]
},
{
"text": " I think, at this point.",
"timestamp": [
1122,
1123.2
]
},
{
"text": " But even if we get to 100 petawatts and focus that down to a wavelength, we're not at 10 to the 23 I think at this point but even if we get to a hundred petawatts and focus that down to a wavelength we're not at 10 to",
"timestamp": [
1123.2,
1128.7
]
},
{
"text": " the 29. So you're hoping to build the biggest laser yes at Rochester but",
"timestamp": [
1128.7,
1134.96
]
},
{
"text": " we're still not going to get to the Schringer limit isn't that right? So just",
"timestamp": [
1134.96,
1137.64
]
},
{
"text": " a little bit back history again after you you know demonstrated CPA I was",
"timestamp": [
1137.64,
1143.52
]
},
{
"text": " intrigued by how powerful could we make lasers and",
"timestamp": [
1143.52,
1145.96
]
},
{
"text": " then how lasers are wonderful because they allow you to take energy",
"timestamp": [
1145.96,
1150.14
]
},
{
"text": " and compress it in space and time. So having high peak power is something that's",
"timestamp": [
1150.14,
1154.36
]
},
{
"text": " been a motivator for me for a long time. And so we at the University are making",
"timestamp": [
1154.36,
1159.44
]
},
{
"text": " proposals to build two 25 petawatt lasers, maybe 30 petawatt lasers. We'll",
"timestamp": [
1159.44,
1163.44
]
},
{
"text": " use them to be able to get combined power",
"timestamp": [
1163.44,
1166.2
]
},
{
"text": " of over 10 to the 24 watts per square centimeter,",
"timestamp": [
1166.2,
1169.2
]
},
{
"text": " still far from the Schwinner limit.",
"timestamp": [
1169.2,
1171.64
]
},
{
"text": " But we have a trick.",
"timestamp": [
1171.64,
1172.54
]
},
{
"text": " We're going to use one of these petawatt lasers",
"timestamp": [
1172.54,
1175.02
]
},
{
"text": " to make an electron beam.",
"timestamp": [
1175.02,
1176.56
]
},
{
"text": " And this electron beam will be relativistic.",
"timestamp": [
1176.56,
1178.84
]
},
{
"text": " We actually think we could make electron beam",
"timestamp": [
1178.84,
1181.04
]
},
{
"text": " maybe even hundreds of GEV up to TEV,",
"timestamp": [
1181.04,
1184.42
]
},
{
"text": " which would be another Nobel",
"timestamp": [
1184.42,
1185.48
]
},
{
"text": " Prize if we did that.",
"timestamp": [
1185.48,
1186.48
]
},
{
"text": " That's right.",
"timestamp": [
1186.48,
1187.48
]
},
{
"text": " If you can do that, go for it.",
"timestamp": [
1187.48,
1188.48
]
},
{
"text": " And then we will shine that laser onto that electron beam, and the electron's breast",
"timestamp": [
1188.48,
1192.36
]
},
{
"text": " frame will meet the Schwinger limit.",
"timestamp": [
1192.36,
1194.56
]
},
{
"text": " Okay.",
"timestamp": [
1194.56,
1195.56
]
},
{
"text": " But that's kind of cheating.",
"timestamp": [
1195.56,
1196.8
]
},
{
"text": " That's not getting to 10 to the 29.",
"timestamp": [
1196.8,
1198.84
]
},
{
"text": " If you could do it with 100% efficiency, that's all we need.",
"timestamp": [
1198.84,
1202.12
]
},
{
"text": " That's why I want to cheat.",
"timestamp": [
1202.12,
1203.12
]
},
{
"text": " That's the Nobel Prize-winning idea, idea, that's why I want to cheat.",
"timestamp": [
1203.12,
1205
]
},
{
"text": " Because again, if we're able to do this,",
"timestamp": [
1205,
1207
]
},
{
"text": " you know, with ways I can see today, right?",
"timestamp": [
1207,
1209
]
},
{
"text": " I can see us doing it today,",
"timestamp": [
1209,
1211
]
},
{
"text": " by just exploiting what we already know",
"timestamp": [
1211,
1213
]
},
{
"text": " and taking it to a limit,",
"timestamp": [
1213,
1214
]
},
{
"text": " then that would be a real motivator, I think,",
"timestamp": [
1214,
1216
]
},
{
"text": " to be able to even take these techniques further.",
"timestamp": [
1216,
1218
]
},
{
"text": " Cheating is not the right exact word.",
"timestamp": [
1218,
1220
]
},
{
"text": " It's taking advantage of relativity,",
"timestamp": [
1220,
1222
]
},
{
"text": " taking advantage of all physics,",
"timestamp": [
1222,
1223
]
},
{
"text": " not just optical physics.",
"timestamp": [
1223,
1224
]
},
{
"text": " That's why we want to do it this way.",
"timestamp": [
1224,
1226.08
]
},
{
"text": " We have to get into entertainment.",
"timestamp": [
1226.08,
1227.36
]
},
{
"text": " When is the high-intensity laser going to get into entertainment",
"timestamp": [
1227.36,
1229.96
]
},
{
"text": " so then there's real money?",
"timestamp": [
1229.96,
1231.76
]
},
{
"text": " Yes, yes. We have Star Trek. We have the photon torpedoes.",
"timestamp": [
1231.76,
1234.84
]
},
{
"text": " I always thought they actually knew what you were doing.",
"timestamp": [
1234.84,
1236.76
]
},
{
"text": " It was a photon torpedo, right?",
"timestamp": [
1236.76,
1238.2
]
},
{
"text": " Remember? Have you ever seen that on Star Trek?",
"timestamp": [
1238.2,
1240.56
]
},
{
"text": " I like science fiction.",
"timestamp": [
1240.56,
1241.72
]
},
{
"text": " Star Trek had photon torpedoes,",
"timestamp": [
1241.72,
1243.4
]
},
{
"text": " and they showed bursts of light about this long.",
"timestamp": [
1243.4,
1245.28
]
},
{
"text": " It was a few thousandth of a second pulse",
"timestamp": [
1245.28,
1248.32
]
},
{
"text": " in the ammogenerator, Gary.",
"timestamp": [
1248.32,
1250.6
]
},
{
"text": " And you could see it, on what it was scattering off of,",
"timestamp": [
1250.6,
1252.56
]
},
{
"text": " but you could see it, so it was a great thing.",
"timestamp": [
1252.56,
1254.4
]
},
{
"text": " So we could either cheat by doing laser accelerating",
"timestamp": [
1254.4,
1256.8
]
},
{
"text": " and going into that rest frame.",
"timestamp": [
1256.8,
1258.44
]
},
{
"text": " Yes.",
"timestamp": [
1258.44,
1259.28
]
},
{
"text": " And that's, like you said, we're stuck a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
1259.28,
1261
]
},
{
"text": " We're not up to that kind of acceleration,",
"timestamp": [
1261,
1263
]
},
{
"text": " so that would be a Nobel Prize winning possible idea. Or we need, going around and giving my talks now, I show how we're stuck a little bit, we're not up to that kind of acceleration, so that would be a Nobel Prize winning possible idea.",
"timestamp": [
1263,
1265.16
]
},
{
"text": " Or we need, going around and giving my talks now, I show how we're plateauing.",
"timestamp": [
1265.16,
1269.44
]
},
{
"text": " I showed how there was a plateau, CPA raises it up, but we're sort of starting to plateau again,",
"timestamp": [
1269.44,
1275.12
]
},
{
"text": " and we need another Nobel Prize winning idea.",
"timestamp": [
1275.12,
1277.84
]
},
{
"text": " And so do you think it's on the horizon? Do you see anything out there that really says,",
"timestamp": [
1277.84,
1281.84
]
},
{
"text": " oh yeah, that's a good way to go? Because we're gonna have to get out to the X-rays, right?",
"timestamp": [
1281.84,
1286.04
]
},
{
"text": " We can't stay in the visual.",
"timestamp": [
1286.04,
1289.36
]
},
{
"text": " So actually, I think there is potential ways",
"timestamp": [
1289.36,
1291.96
]
},
{
"text": " of doing it with optical or near optical radiation.",
"timestamp": [
1291.96,
1295.08
]
},
{
"text": " And there's been a lot of work done",
"timestamp": [
1295.08,
1297.12
]
},
{
"text": " in the defense department, other sources,",
"timestamp": [
1297.12,
1298.64
]
},
{
"text": " of how do I combine laser beams together",
"timestamp": [
1298.64,
1300.84
]
},
{
"text": " and make them act as one coherent source.",
"timestamp": [
1300.84,
1303.16
]
},
{
"text": " So one of the things that we'll be doing",
"timestamp": [
1303.16,
1304.52
]
},
{
"text": " with our two petawatts, we're going to see if we can actually combine them into",
"timestamp": [
1304.52,
1308.72
]
},
{
"text": " a 50. If you can do that, you can begin to imagine doing this with many lasers, many",
"timestamp": [
1308.72,
1314.96
]
},
{
"text": " petawatt lasers of the scale we're talking about. So one could possibly see an exawatt",
"timestamp": [
1314.96,
1319.76
]
},
{
"text": " from that, which people have been able to combine tens of lasers together for a coherent source",
"timestamp": [
1319.76,
1325.28
]
},
{
"text": " So you have to be able to phase lock them you have to be able to make them. You know there are phases be exactly",
"timestamp": [
1325.28,
1330.96
]
},
{
"text": " Connected and related and be able as they propagate through all the different optical components",
"timestamp": [
1331.48,
1336
]
},
{
"text": " Whatever may be to stay right across the beam don't you think that's gonna be the entire aperture?",
"timestamp": [
1336,
1340.44
]
},
{
"text": " It's because it's not like our beams are as perfect as we all like to think they are",
"timestamp": [
1340.44,
1343.78
]
},
{
"text": " So that's right, so you have to have, so over the aperture size, you have to have",
"timestamp": [
1344.2,
1347
]
},
{
"text": " the phase locked across the entire aperture, which will be a great challenge.",
"timestamp": [
1347,
1350
]
},
{
"text": " And people have done it again with small lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1350,
1352
]
},
{
"text": " The laser we'll be trying to do is about 40 centimeter aperture.",
"timestamp": [
1352,
1355
]
},
{
"text": " So we'll begin to start looking at this. And actually wavefront control,",
"timestamp": [
1355,
1358
]
},
{
"text": " I mean, be able to adaptive optics, other ways in which you can control",
"timestamp": [
1358,
1361
]
},
{
"text": " the uniformity of the phase, is something that's been developed in lots of ways now,",
"timestamp": [
1361,
1364
]
},
{
"text": " for defense applications, for science applications.",
"timestamp": [
1364,
1367.44
]
},
{
"text": " So we will do our best to make use of all these technologies.",
"timestamp": [
1367.44,
1370.2
]
},
{
"text": " Lasers, I think, have progressed so much,",
"timestamp": [
1370.2,
1372.16
]
},
{
"text": " just like the semiconductor business,",
"timestamp": [
1372.16,
1373.88
]
},
{
"text": " because there's such a market for them.",
"timestamp": [
1373.88,
1374.96
]
},
{
"text": " There's so many different applications for them.",
"timestamp": [
1374.96,
1376.36
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, so there's a lot of us working around the world",
"timestamp": [
1376.36,
1378.64
]
},
{
"text": " on these high-intensity lasers,",
"timestamp": [
1378.64,
1380.04
]
},
{
"text": " and so what do you think the real fun is?",
"timestamp": [
1380.04,
1381.88
]
},
{
"text": " What do you see the real excitement being?",
"timestamp": [
1381.88,
1383.48
]
},
{
"text": " I remember when lasers first demonstrated in 1960.",
"timestamp": [
1383.48,
1387.12
]
},
{
"text": " What could we do with this?",
"timestamp": [
1387.12,
1388.26
]
},
{
"text": " We already got light.",
"timestamp": [
1388.26,
1389.2
]
},
{
"text": " Now we can't live without lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1389.2,
1390.68
]
},
{
"text": " My cell phone that is in my pocket",
"timestamp": [
1390.68,
1392.36
]
},
{
"text": " has billions of transistors.",
"timestamp": [
1392.36,
1393.68
]
},
{
"text": " How is that made?",
"timestamp": [
1393.68,
1394.52
]
},
{
"text": " With lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1394.52,
1395.56
]
},
{
"text": " All integrated circuitry is done with lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1395.56,
1397.14
]
},
{
"text": " Actually now it's being using x-rays",
"timestamp": [
1397.14,
1399.64
]
},
{
"text": " made from laser heated matter",
"timestamp": [
1399.64,
1401.4
]
},
{
"text": " that came out of the laser fusion program.",
"timestamp": [
1401.4,
1403.52
]
},
{
"text": " So it is amazing the parallels parallels and optics is used everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
1403.52,
1407.2
]
},
{
"text": " We're going to possibly take over from CERN and we'll just do high energy physics with",
"timestamp": [
1407.2,
1411.64
]
},
{
"text": " lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1411.64,
1412.64
]
},
{
"text": " We're looking at gravity waves with lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1412.64,
1413.72
]
},
{
"text": " We want to do black holes with lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1413.72,
1415.68
]
},
{
"text": " We want to machine with lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1415.68,
1417.8
]
},
{
"text": " We want to do medicine with lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1417.8,
1419.72
]
},
{
"text": " It's everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
1419.72,
1421.6
]
},
{
"text": " And now with the Nobel Prize, people are hearing more about it, so they know lasers are everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
1421.6,
1425.88
]
},
{
"text": " I couldn't agree with you more,",
"timestamp": [
1425.88,
1426.96
]
},
{
"text": " and you winning the Nobel Prize",
"timestamp": [
1426.96,
1428.24
]
},
{
"text": " has been an inspiration to lots of people.",
"timestamp": [
1428.24,
1430.04
]
},
{
"text": " Only three women have won the Nobel Prize in physics,",
"timestamp": [
1430.04,
1433.58
]
},
{
"text": " and only one educated in the United States, you.",
"timestamp": [
1433.58,
1436.72
]
},
{
"text": " There you go.",
"timestamp": [
1436.72,
1437.56
]
},
{
"text": " And I use that every place, so trust me.",
"timestamp": [
1437.56,
1439.56
]
},
{
"text": " And only one Canadian.",
"timestamp": [
1439.56,
1440.68
]
},
{
"text": " There you go.",
"timestamp": [
1440.68,
1441.52
]
},
{
"text": " Today was fun. I got to explain the work I do at all",
"timestamp": [
1444.28,
1447.38
]
},
{
"text": " levels. It's always fun for me to talk to elementary school students because they",
"timestamp": [
1447.38,
1452.14
]
},
{
"text": " bring such enthusiasm. With a student who's already started to learn optics, to",
"timestamp": [
1452.14,
1455.88
]
},
{
"text": " a graduate student, and finally my own colleague where we can really get into a",
"timestamp": [
1455.88,
1459.26
]
},
{
"text": " huge conversation about what's the future of this field. Electronics was the",
"timestamp": [
1459.26,
1463.16
]
},
{
"text": " technology for the 20th century",
"timestamp": [
1463.16,
1465
]
},
{
"text": " and it brought us the transistor.",
"timestamp": [
1465,
1466
]
},
{
"text": " Electrons don't move nearly as fast as light",
"timestamp": [
1466,
1468
]
},
{
"text": " and so, trust me, photonics will take us",
"timestamp": [
1468,
1471
]
},
{
"text": " where we want to go in this century.",
"timestamp": [
1471,
1473
]
}
] |
[
[
"JOHN CARMACK",
" I'm Donna Strickland. I'm a professor at the University of Waterloo. I study lasers and in particular I like really high intensity lasers. So a laser is a way to get light to actually just be a single color going in a single direction, all of the waves peaking at the same time so that the intensity can get very high. Today I've been challenged to explain lasers and highensity lasers at five different levels, from a child to a teenager"
],
[
"CHILD",
" to a college student to a graduate student, and finally to a colleague of mine. So I was told that maybe science is one of your favorite subjects at school, is that right? Yes. Have you actually studied light yet? Yes. Okay, what have you learned so far about light? So we learned how to like actually light up a light bulb. Oh really? Oh excellent. Well I'm somebody who like studies lasers. So what do you think about lasers? You haven't gotten to play with lasers. So I brought one that's you know my friend's cat toy. Do you ever use a laser as a cat toy? No. And one of the fun things people do with lasers, the cat will try to grab that dot. So I brought one that's my friend's cat toy. Do you ever use a laser as a cat toy? Yeah. And one of the fun things people do with lasers, the cat will try to grab that dot. I'm sure what you have at home is a flashlight. I brought a cute little one. So the question is, do you see any difference between what a flashlight does and what a laser does? A flashlight is a bigger shine than a laser, it's just a dot. That's true, the laser's just a dot. And so the other thing to notice though, is that this seems like when I shine it in your eyes, and I'm sorry if I do, but it seems awfully bright, doesn't it? And yet when you shine this down, and you put the laser, which one do you see easier? The laser. The laser. So which one do you think's more powerful? The laser. And yet it's not. Isn't that amazing? Yeah. One of the things that lasers are great for is that because it's a directed beam, we can actually put that light where we want the light to go. And sometimes we maybe just want to see something around a corner and you can't see it, but with a laser you can actually, and this is a smoky one, so you can actually watch it go. You see it actually bending the corner? And that's because the light will go through this glass, but when it hits that corner, it has to bend. And we actually send laser beams down glass fibers the size of your hair. Yeah, so this obviously is much bigger than our hair, right? Yes. So this is just a demonstration. If you have a laser like this, it actually bends and comes out. I'm going to point it to you and you'll see it coming out the other end. It hits these walls. It has to go around and come out the other side. Do you want to play? So is this the first time you've seen a laser or have you gotten to play with lasers somewhere else? I don't have a cat or... So you don't need a cat toy, no. Have you ever gone to a grocery store and just scanned your objects over? Yes. Have you ever seen that maybe there's a little bit of a red light when you do that? Yes. That's a laser. We cut steel with them now. We actually do surgery with lasers. You know, when some people have either scars or birthmarks that they don't want to see, we can actually remove those with lasers now. You've never seen a laser light show? When they light up the sky with lasers, it's almost like fireworks. Wow, I saw a shooting star before. Oh, you got to see a shooting star! Well, that's cool. That's nature giving you the show there. So what do you think about lasers? You think they're fun? Yes, they're very cool. And I like the green one. And the next time you go to a grocery store, take a peek at the red. Okay. Today we're here to talk about lasers. So what do you think about lasers? I think they're pretty cool. They show up in a lot of my favorite books and movies, like Star Wars or just a bunch of different sci-fi movies and books. Do you know anything about lasers? What makes a laser special, kind of like? All I really know is from sci-fi books and movies and the factory cutting lasers that they used to cut steel and stuff. Do you even know maybe how to make a laser that it would be strong enough to cut steel? No. Oh, okay. So one of the things about lasers is if you've ever seen a laser beam, you know, it's very directed. Like what are they made out of? What is a laser made out of? Well, really, it's sort of the same thing as a light bulb, right? Because people- So it's a beam? So yeah, it's a light bulb, and there's a couple of mirrors. Now the light bulb has to be a little bit special. It has to be a type of material that can store the energy in an excited state, right? It has to stay up there really energetic and sit there for a while. So that when the light comes along, it takes that energy and becomes stronger light. And then the mirror sends it back and it does it again and again and again. And between these two mirrors, it makes the light come out in a nice beam. In a laser, it comes out as a single color. They all come out with their waves at the same time. Every wave peaks at the same time, which then makes it a giant wave. And it's this giant wave that has a tremendous amount of power, so it can do something like cutting steel. But when you cut steel, or if you're cutting the floor, it's gray. It actually will absorb the light. That's why you don't see it, because the light isn't bouncing back or through it. So I like to use demos to explain how my laser works. So I've brought basically a hammer and a nail. I'm sure you've probably hammered a nail before into a piece of wood, but the question is, if you asked yourself why it is that we hit the big end and it's the tiny end that we put on the piece of wood. We would never pick up a hammer and hit the sharp end and hope this would go into the piece of wood. Because it needs to be centered so it can more easily just go in. That's right. It's all the same force that we apply up here goes all the way through, but then it can only basically come out when it contacts the wood in that one tiny spot. And so sometimes it's the force that you push something with, but sometimes it is that force per unit area. But sometimes it's not even the force per unit area. Because, you know, push down as hard as you can on that,"
],
[
"GRAD STUDENT",
" and see if we can get it pushed in. See, it doesn't really work, does it? So the laser needs all three things? It needs to be centered, it needs time to actually penetrate, and then it needs... Well, it depends. So if you're cutting steel, you need to have the nail. You need to have it concentrated all of the light, not going in all directions, but you need it into as small a point as possible. And for that, we use a lens. For a lens, the light's coming down as a column. You put in a lens, it all focuses it down in the same way as the nail. And then it starts cutting that steel. Okay, so that's sort of force per unit area. So it's kind of like a magnifying glass, like it magnifies the light down to a point? Exactly. You know, sometimes you want to have all of your energy, not just in a small area, but in this small volume. And so one of the other dimension is time or length. But with light, time and length are the same thing, because light always travels at the speed of light. Exactly. But if you send a one second long light pulse out into the skies there, the beginning of the pulse is actually two thirds of the way to the moon. It's 300,000 kilometers long. So now if you talk about light being concentrated, that doesn't seem very concentrated. The type of lasers I play with in my lab will be no thicker than this piece of paper. So we take that energy that might be in 300,000 kilometers and we squeeze it all the way down into just this piece of paper. And actually the beams are more the size of this piece of paper. And so in my lab, they would be flying, pieces of paper like this would be flying through the sky, but we can't see them. Because they don't come in our eyes, they fly by us, and they're infrared. They'd be like little concentrated beams of light just flying everywhere? And so now, if we have light like that that we want to machine with, I bring this funnel, and so if we had a lens here and the light was coming down. It funnels it into? Into a spot. So here would be my light coming from my laser, and it would just be coming down, down, down, down, down. Hit a lens and we would have to focus down. But now all the light started out with this big of a spread. So concentrated this much. Eventually it would be here, more concentrated. But by the end, right at the focal spot, that's when I get all of my light, all of the energy has been squeezed down into fitting inside this piece of paper. And that's why I say that I built a laser hammer. Because when this hits a piece of glass, it just smacks those electrons right off the atoms and there's nothing else for them to do. They have to fly away. So can you tell me what you learned and maybe about the focusing of the light? Well, what I learned is lasers, they aren't like particles. They're more like a super concentrated beam of light that can be any color. They get really concentrated and that's what makes them like lasers and that's why they cut things and break things because it just moves the electrons out of the way. So do you think that lasers are fun enough to talk with your friends about or? Of course I'm going to have to share something about my experience learning about lasers with an expert like you. So you're a college student? Yes. And what's your major? I'm an engineering physics major with a minor in math. I'm in the 3-2 program for biomedical engineering. Excellent! I got an engineering physics degree. There you go, something in common. We're here today talking about lasers. So have you had much exposure to lasers yet at school? Not yet. I'm really hoping that we will."
],
[
"EXPERT",
" I think it's super interesting, just the field in general, because I really do enjoy examining all the calculations and being able to do a little bit more of the math side of physics. Okay, as opposed to the experimental side of it and seeing things. Okay, so I'm much more, I like to see the things happening. So then the question is, what's so special about making a light that's intense enough to actually possibly blow things up? Certainly we can blow atoms up with the laser hammer and the laser light comes in and just smacks the electron right off the atom And so the question really is is how do you make that back in the 70s and into the 80s? I know that's a long time ago for you. We had big energy lasers and we had short pulse lasers we couldn't have big energy short pulse lasers and Actually, it was my supervisor and I that figured the way around that. And we got something called chirped pulse amplification. Have you heard of chirped pulse amplification by any chance? Vaguely. Well, I brought a little bit of a prop to explain how chirped pulse amplification works. Our short pulses are made of different colors. So I've got a colored slinky here. We probably could have called it stretched pulse amplification, but that's kind of boring. So we used the word chirped. The word chirped comes around because birds chirp. When the birds are singing, the notes are actually changing audio frequency with time, and that's a chirp. The point is that when all the light is squeezed together like this, it's a short pulse, and that's when it's a hammer, because all the light is now concentrated. And you can imagine if this was coming along and also using a lens to focus it small, then all of that light at the focal spot concentrated. And so that was the laser hammer. So we can't have that in the laser. So the question is, what could we do? The fact that it's different colors, and different colors because of dispersion, travel different speeds inside material. So we used a long fiber, 1.4 kilometers of fiber. But in fiber, the red colors really haven't got that much in common with the glass atoms, and so they spend very little time interacting, and they travel fast. The red is going to start traveling faster than the green, faster than the blue. And as you travel down the fiber, next thing you know, you have a long pulse. And it's chirped from red at the beginning to blue at the back. And so the frequency is going, whoop, like this. So this is a chirped pulse. And now it's a long pulse. And so first, this is what we did. We chirped it. We stretched it. Then we can safely amplify it, because it's not all concentrated. And after we amplify it, then we use something called a compressor and we put all of the colors back together and it was back being a short pulse, but a high energy pulse. And together, then we really had what I like to call a laser hammer. When this laser pulse goes inside, it smacks those electrons right off the atom. So the laser hammer that you were describing with other types of lasers and the one in the chirped, is it still the same premise? Well, a lot of lasers, and when lasers first came along, they were only single color. Your cat toy will only be a single color, probably a red one, and so that's just one color. And one color means that it has to really be there for the whole time. One color is one wavelength of light. And so it's just one wave that goes on and on and on. If you want a short pulse, you actually have to have all the colors. And if you can imagine at one point in time, and I like to say it's like a conductor of an orchestra. When you're listening to an orchestra warm up, they sound terrible. They're all playing their own notes. But when the conductor conducts them, they all play different notes, but together it's beautiful music. So we have something in a laser called a mode blocker, and it's like the conductor, and it says go now, and all the colors will start together, but some colors are long wavelength and others are shorter. So next thing you know you have peaks meeting valleys and they cancel each other, and so the more colors you can bring in the faster that happens and the shorter the pulse you can make. The necklace is something that was designed for my Nobel Prize. It's sold at the Nobel Museum and it is a chirped pulse. So we've been talking a lot about lasers and applications. What have you learned about chirped pulses? I learned that it all stretches, which is super cool, because red moves the fastest, and so it kind of tugs around blue. It really threw me off just how fast, it's hard to imagine things happening that fast. And I also learned how many of the things that I know are lasers. How many of the things that I've been looking for And like, how many of the things that I've been looking for, like the answers to, it is in lasers. [\"Squishy Stuff\"] So I understand you're in grad school, where? At NYU. And what are you studying? I'm studying soft matter physics, which involves the physics of squishy stuff. We make microswimmers in the laboratory and we drive them with a laser. And what kind of laser do you use? We use a 10-watt laser. It's a fiber laser. Do you know a lot about lasers, or just about the laser that you use? Not a lot, just a little bit. OK. So this is about high-intensity lasers. Not only how do you make them, but what was really stopping them being made, in both cases, is nonlinear optics. You know, we want to do something that requires a huge photon density application. Yes. And so that's how come we came up with chirp pulse amplification, so that we could stretch the pulse, safely amplify it, then compress it at the end, and then we're ready to do whatever we want at the end. So what do you think the main difference is between the continuous wave laser that you have that runs at 10 watts and a chirp pulse amplifier? I feel like the continuous laser delivers power at a continuous rate, whereas you want all that power to be delivered in a really, really short time with your amplification. And so we get the power with a lot less energy because power is energy per unit time. So we aren't depositing much energy in comparison. Can I just ask, because you are using the thermal process of it heating up. But have you ever had the opportunity to use laser tweezers? I have, yeah. We use optical tweezers to trap particles in solution. OK, and twirl the motors or not twirl the motors? No, I haven't worked with that. So I was always curious, how much further, like what higher power can we go now? So trip pulse amplification took us sort of from,"
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Blockchain Expert Explains One Concept in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
hYip_Vuv8J0
| 1,070
|
[
{
"end_time": 225,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "<Untitled Chapter 1>"
},
{
"end_time": 520,
"start_time": 225,
"title": "Blockchain Technology"
},
{
"end_time": 758,
"start_time": 520,
"title": "What Is the Current State of Blockchain"
},
{
"end_time": 1070,
"start_time": 758,
"title": "How Do You Feel about the Hype Cycle around Blockchain Today"
}
] |
[
{
"text": " Hi, I'm Hilary Mason.",
"timestamp": [
0,
1.84
]
},
{
"text": " I'm a computer scientist,",
"timestamp": [
1.84,
3.3
]
},
{
"text": " and today I've been asked to explain",
"timestamp": [
3.3,
4.88
]
},
{
"text": " machine learning in five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
4.88,
8.42
]
},
{
"text": " Machine learning gives us the ability to learn things about",
"timestamp": [
8.42,
12.04
]
},
{
"text": " the world from large amounts of data that we as",
"timestamp": [
12.04,
15.08
]
},
{
"text": " human beings can't possibly study or appreciate.",
"timestamp": [
15.08,
18.4
]
},
{
"text": " So machine learning is when we teach computers to learn",
"timestamp": [
18.4,
21.44
]
},
{
"text": " patterns from looking at examples in data such that they can recognize",
"timestamp": [
21.44,
25.76
]
},
{
"text": " those patterns and apply them to new things that they haven't seen before.",
"timestamp": [
25.76,
29.52
]
},
{
"text": " Hi. Hi. I'm Hillary. What's your name? I'm Bryn. Do you know what machine learning means?",
"timestamp": [
33.68,
40.24
]
},
{
"text": " Have you heard that before? No. So machine learning is a way that we teach computers to learn things about the world",
"timestamp": [
40.24,
48.08
]
},
{
"text": " by looking at patterns and looking at examples of things.",
"timestamp": [
48.08,
51.9
]
},
{
"text": " So can I show you an example of how a machine might learn something?",
"timestamp": [
51.9,
56.56
]
},
{
"text": " Sure.",
"timestamp": [
56.56,
57.56
]
},
{
"text": " So is this a dog or a cat?",
"timestamp": [
57.56,
59.32
]
},
{
"text": " It's a dog.",
"timestamp": [
59.32,
61
]
},
{
"text": " And this one?",
"timestamp": [
61,
62
]
},
{
"text": " A cat.",
"timestamp": [
62,
63.32
]
},
{
"text": " And what makes a dog a dog and a cat a cat?",
"timestamp": [
63.32,
67.02
]
},
{
"text": " Well, dogs are very playful, I think, more than cats.",
"timestamp": [
67.02,
72.02
]
},
{
"text": " Cats lift themselves more than dogs, I think.",
"timestamp": [
72.1,
74.66
]
},
{
"text": " That's true.",
"timestamp": [
74.66,
75.62
]
},
{
"text": " Do you think, if we look at these pictures,",
"timestamp": [
75.62,
78.66
]
},
{
"text": " do you think maybe we could say,",
"timestamp": [
78.66,
80.54
]
},
{
"text": " well, they both have pointy ears,",
"timestamp": [
80.54,
82.62
]
},
{
"text": " but the dogs have a different kind of body",
"timestamp": [
82.62,
85.22
]
},
{
"text": " and the cats like to stand up a little different.",
"timestamp": [
85.22,
87.94
]
},
{
"text": " Do you think that makes sense?",
"timestamp": [
87.94,
89.32
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
89.32,
90.16
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, what about this one?",
"timestamp": [
90.16,
91.22
]
},
{
"text": " A dog.",
"timestamp": [
91.22,
92.06
]
},
{
"text": " A cat.",
"timestamp": [
93.6,
94.44
]
},
{
"text": " I think a cat?",
"timestamp": [
95.44,
97.64
]
},
{
"text": " Because it's more skinny and also its legs",
"timestamp": [
97.64,
102.32
]
},
{
"text": " are like really tall and its ears are a little pointy.",
"timestamp": [
102.32,
106.24
]
},
{
"text": " This one's a jackal and it's actually a kind of dog,",
"timestamp": [
106.24,
109.86
]
},
{
"text": " but you made a good guess.",
"timestamp": [
109.86,
111.46
]
},
{
"text": " That's what machines do too, they make guesses.",
"timestamp": [
111.46,
114.14
]
},
{
"text": " Is this a cat or a dog?",
"timestamp": [
114.14,
115.98
]
},
{
"text": " None.",
"timestamp": [
115.98,
116.82
]
},
{
"text": " None, what is it?",
"timestamp": [
116.82,
117.86
]
},
{
"text": " It's humans.",
"timestamp": [
117.86,
118.98
]
},
{
"text": " And how did you know that it's not a cat or a dog?",
"timestamp": [
118.98,
121.54
]
},
{
"text": " Because cats and dogs, because they walk on their paws",
"timestamp": [
121.54,
125.78
]
},
{
"text": " and their ears are like right here, not right here,",
"timestamp": [
125.78,
128.98
]
},
{
"text": " and they don't wear watches.",
"timestamp": [
128.98,
130.8
]
},
{
"text": " And so you did something pretty amazing there",
"timestamp": [
130.8,
133.26
]
},
{
"text": " because we asked the question, is it a cat or a dog?",
"timestamp": [
133.26,
136.42
]
},
{
"text": " And you said, I disagree with your question, it's a human.",
"timestamp": [
136.42,
139.78
]
},
{
"text": " So machine learning is when we teach machines",
"timestamp": [
139.78,
142.72
]
},
{
"text": " to make guesses about what things are",
"timestamp": [
142.72,
145.1
]
},
{
"text": " based on looking at a lot of different examples.",
"timestamp": [
145.1,
147.8
]
},
{
"text": " And I build products that use machine learning",
"timestamp": [
147.8,
150.1
]
},
{
"text": " to learn about the world",
"timestamp": [
150.1,
151.36
]
},
{
"text": " and make guesses about things in the world.",
"timestamp": [
151.36,
153.72
]
},
{
"text": " When we try to teach machines to recognize",
"timestamp": [
153.72,
156.32
]
},
{
"text": " things like cats and dogs, it takes a lot of examples.",
"timestamp": [
156.32,
160.32
]
},
{
"text": " We have to show them tens of thousands",
"timestamp": [
160.32,
163.44
]
},
{
"text": " or even millions of examples before they can get even close to as good at it as you are.",
"timestamp": [
163.44,
169.8
]
},
{
"text": " Do you have tests in school?",
"timestamp": [
169.8,
171.8
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, I have after every unit, we have a review and then we have a test.",
"timestamp": [
171.8,
176.6
]
},
{
"text": " Are those like the practice problems you do before the test?",
"timestamp": [
176.6,
180.1
]
},
{
"text": " Well, just like everything that's going to be on the test is on the review.",
"timestamp": [
180.1,
183.7
]
},
{
"text": " Which means that in the test, you're not seeing any problems that you don't know how to solve.",
"timestamp": [
183.7,
188.32
]
},
{
"text": " As long as you did all your practice, right?",
"timestamp": [
188.32,
190.64
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
190.64,
191.12
]
},
{
"text": " So machines work the same way. If you show them a lot of examples and give them practice,",
"timestamp": [
191.12,
195.68
]
},
{
"text": " they'll learn how to guess. And then when you give them the test, they should be able to do that.",
"timestamp": [
195.68,
201.76
]
},
{
"text": " So we looked at eight pictures and you were able to",
"timestamp": [
201.76,
205
]
},
{
"text": " answer really quickly, but what would you do if I gave you 10 million examples?",
"timestamp": [
205,
210.32
]
},
{
"text": " Would you be able to do that so quickly? So one of the differences between people",
"timestamp": [
210.32,
215.24
]
},
{
"text": " and machines is that people might be a little better at this but can't look at",
"timestamp": [
215.24,
220.96
]
},
{
"text": " 10 million different things. So now that we've been talking about machine learning,",
"timestamp": [
220.96,
225.04
]
},
{
"text": " is this something you want to learn how to do?",
"timestamp": [
225.04,
227.36
]
},
{
"text": " Kind of, because I want to become a spy,",
"timestamp": [
227.36,
232.56
]
},
{
"text": " and we used to do coding,",
"timestamp": [
232.56,
236.84
]
},
{
"text": " so I may be good at it.",
"timestamp": [
236.84,
239.48
]
},
{
"text": " Machine learning is a great way to use all those math skills,",
"timestamp": [
239.48,
242.94
]
},
{
"text": " all those coding skills,",
"timestamp": [
242.94,
244.32
]
},
{
"text": " and would be a super cool tool",
"timestamp": [
244.32,
246.56
]
},
{
"text": " for a spy.",
"timestamp": [
246.56,
247.28
]
},
{
"text": " Hello.",
"timestamp": [
247.28,
252.64
]
},
{
"text": " Hi.",
"timestamp": [
252.64,
253.16
]
},
{
"text": " Are you a student, Lucy?",
"timestamp": [
253.16,
254.32
]
},
{
"text": " Yes, I just finished ninth grade.",
"timestamp": [
254.32,
256.68
]
},
{
"text": " Congratulations.",
"timestamp": [
256.68,
258.08
]
},
{
"text": " Thank you.",
"timestamp": [
258.08,
258.84
]
},
{
"text": " It's very exciting.",
"timestamp": [
258.84,
259.8
]
},
{
"text": " Have you ever heard of machine learning before?",
"timestamp": [
259.8,
262.08
]
},
{
"text": " I'm going to assume that it means",
"timestamp": [
262.08,
264.12
]
},
{
"text": " humans being able to teach machines or robots how Have you ever heard of machine learning before? I'm going to assume that it means humans",
"timestamp": [
264.12,
265.04
]
},
{
"text": " being able to teach machines or robots how to learn themselves.",
"timestamp": [
265.04,
270.92
]
},
{
"text": " That's right.",
"timestamp": [
270.92,
271.68
]
},
{
"text": " When we teach machines to learn from data,",
"timestamp": [
271.68,
276.2
]
},
{
"text": " to build a model from that data or a representation of that,",
"timestamp": [
276.2,
280.08
]
},
{
"text": " and then to make a prediction.",
"timestamp": [
280.08,
281.72
]
},
{
"text": " One of the places we often find machine learning",
"timestamp": [
281.72,
284.32
]
},
{
"text": " in the real world is in things like recommendation systems.",
"timestamp": [
284.32,
288.24
]
},
{
"text": " So do you have an artist you really like?",
"timestamp": [
288.24,
290.2
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, Melanie Martinez.",
"timestamp": [
290.2,
292.12
]
},
{
"text": " So I'm gonna look up Melanie Martinez",
"timestamp": [
292.12,
294.12
]
},
{
"text": " and it says here, if you like Melanie Martinez,",
"timestamp": [
294.12,
297.58
]
},
{
"text": " one of the other songs you might like is by Aura.",
"timestamp": [
297.58,
300.56
]
},
{
"text": " Do you know who that is?",
"timestamp": [
300.56,
301.68
]
},
{
"text": " I do not.",
"timestamp": [
301.68,
302.56
]
},
{
"text": " So let's listen to a hint of this song.",
"timestamp": [
302.56,
306.2
]
},
{
"text": " Okay.",
"timestamp": [
306.2,
307.2
]
},
{
"text": " All right.",
"timestamp": [
307.2,
309.2
]
},
{
"text": " So why do you think Spotify might have recommended that song?",
"timestamp": [
309.2,
319.88
]
},
{
"text": " Well, I know that in Melanie Martinez's music, she used a lot of the filtered voice to make",
"timestamp": [
319.88,
324.72
]
},
{
"text": " it sound very deep and low.",
"timestamp": [
324.72,
326.98
]
},
{
"text": " And that song had that.",
"timestamp": [
326.98,
328.54
]
},
{
"text": " And that's actually a really interesting thing",
"timestamp": [
328.54,
330.46
]
},
{
"text": " to think about, because that creepy vibe is something",
"timestamp": [
330.46,
333.98
]
},
{
"text": " that you can perceive and I can perceive.",
"timestamp": [
333.98,
336.9
]
},
{
"text": " But it's actually really hard to describe to a machine.",
"timestamp": [
336.9,
339.66
]
},
{
"text": " What do you think might go into that?",
"timestamp": [
339.66,
341.54
]
},
{
"text": " Pitch of the music, if it's really low",
"timestamp": [
341.54,
344.26
]
},
{
"text": " or if it's super high, it could know that.",
"timestamp": [
344.26,
347.12
]
},
{
"text": " What can the machine understand?",
"timestamp": [
347.12,
348.68
]
},
{
"text": " It's a great question.",
"timestamp": [
348.68,
350.28
]
},
{
"text": " The machine can understand whatever we tell it to understand.",
"timestamp": [
350.28,
354.16
]
},
{
"text": " So there might be a person thinking about things like the pitch or the pacing or the",
"timestamp": [
354.16,
358.8
]
},
{
"text": " tone or sometimes machines can figure out things about music or images or videos that we don't",
"timestamp": [
358.8,
367.52
]
},
{
"text": " tell it to discover, but that it can learn from looking at a lot of different examples.",
"timestamp": [
367.52,
373.32
]
},
{
"text": " Why do you think companies might use machine learning?",
"timestamp": [
373.32,
375.96
]
},
{
"text": " I think things like Facebook or Instagram, they probably use it to target ads.",
"timestamp": [
375.96,
382.48
]
},
{
"text": " Sometimes the ads you see are really uncanny.",
"timestamp": [
382.48,
385.26
]
},
{
"text": " And I think that's because they're based on so much data.",
"timestamp": [
385.26,
389.28
]
},
{
"text": " They know where you live.",
"timestamp": [
389.28,
391.04
]
},
{
"text": " They know where your device is.",
"timestamp": [
391.04,
392.98
]
},
{
"text": " It's also important to realize that people in aggregate are actually pretty predictable.",
"timestamp": [
392.98,
397.64
]
},
{
"text": " Like when we talk to each other, we like to talk about the novel things.",
"timestamp": [
397.64,
401.7
]
},
{
"text": " Like here we're having this conversation.",
"timestamp": [
401.7,
403.38
]
},
{
"text": " We don't do this every day.",
"timestamp": [
403.38,
404.98
]
},
{
"text": " But we probably still eat breakfast,",
"timestamp": [
404.98,
406.92
]
},
{
"text": " we're gonna eat lunch, we're gonna eat dinner,",
"timestamp": [
406.92,
408.58
]
},
{
"text": " you probably are going to the same home",
"timestamp": [
408.58,
410.44
]
},
{
"text": " you go to most of the time,",
"timestamp": [
410.44,
412.12
]
},
{
"text": " and so they're able to take that data",
"timestamp": [
412.12,
414.6
]
},
{
"text": " that we already give them and make predictions based on that",
"timestamp": [
414.6,
417.96
]
},
{
"text": " as to what ads they should show us.",
"timestamp": [
417.96,
420.6
]
},
{
"text": " So you're saying I give them enough data, as it is,",
"timestamp": [
420.6,
424.96
]
},
{
"text": " about what I might be talking about or thinking about that they can read my mind, but just use the data that I've already given them, and it almost seems like they're watching us.",
"timestamp": [
424.96,
437
]
},
{
"text": " To do machine learning, we use something called algorithms. Have you heard of algorithms before?",
"timestamp": [
437,
442
]
},
{
"text": " A set of steps or a process carried out to complete something.",
"timestamp": [
442,
447.28
]
},
{
"text": " That's right.",
"timestamp": [
447.28,
448.28
]
},
{
"text": " So, do you think that we've been able to teach machines enough so that they can do things",
"timestamp": [
448.28,
452.5
]
},
{
"text": " that even we can't do?",
"timestamp": [
452.5,
454.92
]
},
{
"text": " And on the opposite side of that, do you think there are things that we can do that a machine",
"timestamp": [
454.92,
459.24
]
},
{
"text": " might never be able to do?",
"timestamp": [
459.24,
461.44
]
},
{
"text": " So there are things that machines are really great at that humans are actually not",
"timestamp": [
461.44,
465.68
]
},
{
"text": " great at. Imagine watching every video posted to TikTok every day. So we just don't have enough",
"timestamp": [
465.68,
471.76
]
},
{
"text": " time to do that at the rate at which we can actually watch those videos. But a machine can",
"timestamp": [
471.76,
477.76
]
},
{
"text": " analyze all of them and then make recommendations to us. And then thinking about things that machines are bad at",
"timestamp": [
477.76,
485.58
]
},
{
"text": " and people are good at,",
"timestamp": [
485.58,
486.58
]
},
{
"text": " people are really great with only one or two examples",
"timestamp": [
486.58,
490.8
]
},
{
"text": " of learning something new and incorporating that",
"timestamp": [
490.8,
493.14
]
},
{
"text": " into our model of the world to make good decisions.",
"timestamp": [
493.14,
496.22
]
},
{
"text": " Whereas machines often need tens of thousands of examples.",
"timestamp": [
496.22,
499.56
]
},
{
"text": " And that's not even getting into things like good judgment",
"timestamp": [
499.56,
503.36
]
},
{
"text": " because we care about people,",
"timestamp": [
503.36,
505.04
]
},
{
"text": " because we can imagine a future that we want to live in",
"timestamp": [
505.04,
509.24
]
},
{
"text": " that doesn't exist today.",
"timestamp": [
509.24,
511.12
]
},
{
"text": " And that's something that is still uniquely human.",
"timestamp": [
511.12,
513.5
]
},
{
"text": " Machines are great at predicting",
"timestamp": [
513.5,
515.04
]
},
{
"text": " based on what they've seen in the past,",
"timestamp": [
515.04,
517.02
]
},
{
"text": " but they're not creative.",
"timestamp": [
517.02,
518.12
]
},
{
"text": " They're not going to invent.",
"timestamp": [
518.12,
519.52
]
},
{
"text": " They're not gonna really change where we're gonna go.",
"timestamp": [
519.52,
522.54
]
},
{
"text": " That's up to us.",
"timestamp": [
522.54,
523.64
]
},
{
"text": " to really change where we're going to go. That's up to us.",
"timestamp": [
522.52,
523.4
]
},
{
"text": " I'm Sunny.",
"timestamp": [
523.4,
531.04
]
},
{
"text": " And what are you majoring in?",
"timestamp": [
531.04,
532.56
]
},
{
"text": " I study math and computer science.",
"timestamp": [
532.56,
534.52
]
},
{
"text": " So in your studies, have you learned about machine learning?",
"timestamp": [
534.52,
538.84
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, I have.",
"timestamp": [
538.84,
539.72
]
},
{
"text": " So to me, machine learning is essentially",
"timestamp": [
539.72,
544.84
]
},
{
"text": " exactly what it sounds like.",
"timestamp": [
544.84,
546.2
]
},
{
"text": " It's trying to teach a machine specifics about something",
"timestamp": [
546.2,
551.64
]
},
{
"text": " by inputting a lot of data points.",
"timestamp": [
551.64,
554.2
]
},
{
"text": " And slowly, the machine will build up knowledge about it",
"timestamp": [
554.2,
559.4
]
},
{
"text": " over time.",
"timestamp": [
559.4,
560.2
]
},
{
"text": " For example, my Gmail program, I assume",
"timestamp": [
560.2,
562.6
]
},
{
"text": " that there would be a lot of machine learning models",
"timestamp": [
562.6,
565.36
]
},
{
"text": " happening at once, right?",
"timestamp": [
565.36,
566.96
]
},
{
"text": " Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
566.96,
567.96
]
},
{
"text": " And that's a great example because you have models that are operating to do things like",
"timestamp": [
567.96,
571.72
]
},
{
"text": " figure out if a new email is spam or not.",
"timestamp": [
571.72,
574.56
]
},
{
"text": " So what would you think about if you were looking at an email and trying to decide if",
"timestamp": [
574.56,
579.2
]
},
{
"text": " it went in one category or another?",
"timestamp": [
579.2,
581.6
]
},
{
"text": " I'd probably look at certain keywords, maybe if the recipient",
"timestamp": [
581.6,
585.84
]
},
{
"text": " and the sender had exchanged emails before and what generally those fell",
"timestamp": [
585.84,
591.04
]
},
{
"text": " into in the past. So these are things we would call features. We go through a",
"timestamp": [
591.04,
594.96
]
},
{
"text": " process where we do feature engineering where somebody looks at the example and",
"timestamp": [
594.96,
599.68
]
},
{
"text": " says, okay, these are the things that I think might allow us to statistically",
"timestamp": [
599.68,
604.24
]
},
{
"text": " tell the difference",
"timestamp": [
604.24,
605.12
]
},
{
"text": " from something in one category versus another.",
"timestamp": [
605.12,
607.72
]
},
{
"text": " Say, for example, perhaps you don't speak Russian, you start getting a lot of email",
"timestamp": [
607.72,
611.56
]
},
{
"text": " in Russian.",
"timestamp": [
611.56,
612.56
]
},
{
"text": " Obviously, like the features that you just described are features which a person would",
"timestamp": [
612.56,
616.48
]
},
{
"text": " have had to think about.",
"timestamp": [
616.48,
617.96
]
},
{
"text": " Are there features which like the machine itself could learn?",
"timestamp": [
617.96,
621.9
]
},
{
"text": " This is a great question because it really gets to the difference between some of our",
"timestamp": [
621.9,
628
]
},
{
"text": " different tools in our machine learning tool belt in addressing problems like this.",
"timestamp": [
628,
632.68
]
},
{
"text": " So if we were to use a supervised learning classic classification approach, a person",
"timestamp": [
632.68,
639.46
]
},
{
"text": " would need to think about those features and creatively come up with them, an approach",
"timestamp": [
639.46,
644.34
]
},
{
"text": " we call the kitchen sink approach, which is just try everything you can possibly think of and see what works.",
"timestamp": [
644.34,
649.6
]
},
{
"text": " Unsupervised learning, where we don't have labeled data and we're trying to infer some",
"timestamp": [
649.6,
654.98
]
},
{
"text": " structure out of the data.",
"timestamp": [
654.98,
657.48
]
},
{
"text": " You're projecting that data into a space and looking for things like clusters.",
"timestamp": [
657.48,
662.24
]
},
{
"text": " And there's a bunch of really fun math about how you do that,",
"timestamp": [
662.24,
665.32
]
},
{
"text": " how you think about distance.",
"timestamp": [
665.32,
667.04
]
},
{
"text": " And by distance, I mean that if we have two data",
"timestamp": [
667.04,
670.72
]
},
{
"text": " points in space, how do we decide",
"timestamp": [
670.72,
672.92
]
},
{
"text": " if they're similar or not?",
"timestamp": [
672.92,
674.76
]
},
{
"text": " And how do the algorithms themselves",
"timestamp": [
674.76,
678.52
]
},
{
"text": " usually differ between unsupervised and supervised",
"timestamp": [
678.52,
681.28
]
},
{
"text": " learning?",
"timestamp": [
681.28,
682.04
]
},
{
"text": " Supervised learning, we have our labels,",
"timestamp": [
682.04,
684.52
]
},
{
"text": " and we're trying to figure out what statistically indicates",
"timestamp": [
684.52,
688.08
]
},
{
"text": " if something matches one label or another label.",
"timestamp": [
688.08,
691.64
]
},
{
"text": " Unsupervised learning, we don't necessarily",
"timestamp": [
691.64,
694.44
]
},
{
"text": " have those labels.",
"timestamp": [
694.44,
695.4
]
},
{
"text": " That's the thing we're trying to discover.",
"timestamp": [
695.4,
697.36
]
},
{
"text": " So reinforcement learning is another technique",
"timestamp": [
697.36,
699.8
]
},
{
"text": " that we use sometimes.",
"timestamp": [
699.8,
701.24
]
},
{
"text": " You can think about it like a turn in a game",
"timestamp": [
701.24,
703.36
]
},
{
"text": " and you can play millions and millions of trials so that you're able to develop a system that by",
"timestamp": [
703.36,
709.92
]
},
{
"text": " experimenting with reinforcement learning can eventually learn to play",
"timestamp": [
709.92,
713.84
]
},
{
"text": " these games pretty successfully. Deep learning, which is essentially using",
"timestamp": [
713.84,
718.12
]
},
{
"text": " neural networks and very large amounts of data to eventually iterate on a",
"timestamp": [
718.12,
723.72
]
},
{
"text": " network structure that can make predictions.",
"timestamp": [
723.72,
726.42
]
},
{
"text": " With reinforcement learning versus deep learning,",
"timestamp": [
726.42,
730.46
]
},
{
"text": " it seems to me that reinforcement learning,",
"timestamp": [
730.46,
733.76
]
},
{
"text": " is it sort of like the kitchen sink approach",
"timestamp": [
733.76,
735.62
]
},
{
"text": " that you were talking about earlier",
"timestamp": [
735.62,
737.14
]
},
{
"text": " where you're just kind of trying everything?",
"timestamp": [
737.14,
739.7
]
},
{
"text": " It is, but it also thrives in environments",
"timestamp": [
739.7,
743.1
]
},
{
"text": " where you have a decision point, a palette of actions to choose from,",
"timestamp": [
743.1,
748
]
},
{
"text": " and it actually comes historically from trying to train a robot to navigate a room.",
"timestamp": [
748,
753
]
},
{
"text": " If it bonks into this chair, it can't go forward anymore, and if it falls into that pit, you know, it's not going to succeed.",
"timestamp": [
753,
760
]
},
{
"text": " But if it keeps exploring, it'll eventually get to the goal.",
"timestamp": [
760,
764
]
},
{
"text": " Oh, like Roombas?",
"timestamp": [
764,
765
]
},
{
"text": " Yes.",
"timestamp": [
765,
766
]
},
{
"text": " Oh wow, I didn't realize it was that deep, almost.",
"timestamp": [
766,
769
]
},
{
"text": " Is there a situation in which you'd want to use a deep learning algorithm over a reinforcement learning algorithm?",
"timestamp": [
769,
775
]
},
{
"text": " So typically, you would choose deep learning if you have sufficient, high-quality data,",
"timestamp": [
775,
780
]
},
{
"text": " hopefully labeled in a useful way, if you really are happy not to necessarily understand",
"timestamp": [
780,
789.08
]
},
{
"text": " or be able to interpret what your system is doing, or you're willing to invest in another",
"timestamp": [
789.08,
793.82
]
},
{
"text": " set of work afterwards to understand what the system is doing once you've already trained",
"timestamp": [
793.82,
799.24
]
},
{
"text": " it.",
"timestamp": [
799.24,
800.24
]
},
{
"text": " And this also comes down to the fact that some things are actually really easy to solve",
"timestamp": [
800.24,
804.12
]
},
{
"text": " with linear regression or simple statistical approaches, that some things are actually really easy to solve with linear regression or simple statistical approaches and some things are",
"timestamp": [
804.12,
808.48
]
},
{
"text": " impossible. What would be the outcome if you were to choose the quote-unquote",
"timestamp": [
808.48,
812.52
]
},
{
"text": " wrong approach? You build a system that could actually be useless. So years ago I",
"timestamp": [
812.52,
817.92
]
},
{
"text": " had a client that was a big telecom company and they had a data scientist",
"timestamp": [
817.92,
822.28
]
},
{
"text": " who built a deep learning system to predict customer churn.",
"timestamp": [
822.28,
826
]
},
{
"text": " Actually was very accurate, but it wasn't useful",
"timestamp": [
826,
829
]
},
{
"text": " because nobody knew why the prediction was what it was.",
"timestamp": [
829,
832
]
},
{
"text": " So they could say, you know,",
"timestamp": [
832,
834
]
},
{
"text": " Sunny, you're likely to quit next month,",
"timestamp": [
834,
836
]
},
{
"text": " but they had no idea what to do about it.",
"timestamp": [
836,
838
]
},
{
"text": " And so I think there are a bunch of failure modes.",
"timestamp": [
838,
841
]
},
{
"text": " Would that be an example of linear regression",
"timestamp": [
841,
843
]
},
{
"text": " where the regression is accurate but for marketing",
"timestamp": [
843,
846.76
]
},
{
"text": " purposes, it's like, if you don't know why I'm quitting the service, then how can we",
"timestamp": [
846.76,
850.68
]
},
{
"text": " fix this?",
"timestamp": [
850.68,
851.68
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
851.68,
852.68
]
},
{
"text": " This is actually a good example of a very real-world kind of machine learning problem",
"timestamp": [
852.68,
857.84
]
},
{
"text": " where the solution to this was to build an interpretable system on top of the accurate",
"timestamp": [
857.84,
863.24
]
},
{
"text": " prediction, so not to throw it away, but to do a bunch more work to figure out the why.",
"timestamp": [
863.24,
867.4
]
},
{
"text": " How can we improve machine learning algorithms?",
"timestamp": [
867.4,
870.76
]
},
{
"text": " It's actually fairly new",
"timestamp": [
870.76,
873.76
]
},
{
"text": " that we're able to solve all of these problems",
"timestamp": [
873.76,
876.28
]
},
{
"text": " and start to build these products",
"timestamp": [
876.28,
878.12
]
},
{
"text": " and apply it in businesses and apply it everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
878.12,
881.88
]
},
{
"text": " And so we're still developing good practices",
"timestamp": [
881.88,
884.96
]
},
{
"text": " and what it",
"timestamp": [
884.96,
885.56
]
},
{
"text": " means to be a professional in machine learning. We're really developing a",
"timestamp": [
885.56,
889.8
]
},
{
"text": " notion of what good looks like.",
"timestamp": [
889.8,
893.16
]
},
{
"text": " I'm in my first year of PhD in computer science and I'm studying natural",
"timestamp": [
894.16,
901.12
]
},
{
"text": " language processing and machine learning. So would you mind telling me a bit about",
"timestamp": [
901.12,
904.48
]
},
{
"text": " what you've been working on or interested in lately?",
"timestamp": [
904.48,
907
]
},
{
"text": " I've been looking at understanding persuasion",
"timestamp": [
907,
909.98
]
},
{
"text": " and online text and the ways that we might be able",
"timestamp": [
909.98,
914.2
]
},
{
"text": " to automatically detect the intent behind that persuasion",
"timestamp": [
914.2,
918.5
]
},
{
"text": " or who it's targeted at",
"timestamp": [
918.5,
920.04
]
},
{
"text": " and what makes effective persuasive technique.",
"timestamp": [
920.04,
922.56
]
},
{
"text": " So what are some of the techniques you're applying to look at that debate data?",
"timestamp": [
922.56,
926.88
]
},
{
"text": " Something I'm interested in exploring",
"timestamp": [
926.88,
928.76
]
},
{
"text": " is how well it works to use deep learning",
"timestamp": [
928.76,
932.96
]
},
{
"text": " and sort of automatically extracted features",
"timestamp": [
932.96,
935.04
]
},
{
"text": " from this text versus using some of the more",
"timestamp": [
935.04,
937.8
]
},
{
"text": " traditional techniques that we have,",
"timestamp": [
937.8,
939.52
]
},
{
"text": " things like lexicons or some sort of template",
"timestamp": [
939.52,
942.56
]
},
{
"text": " matching techniques for extracting features from text.",
"timestamp": [
942.56,
946.48
]
},
{
"text": " That's a question I'm just interested in in general.",
"timestamp": [
946.48,
948.64
]
},
{
"text": " When do we really need deep learning",
"timestamp": [
948.64,
950.16
]
},
{
"text": " versus when can we use something",
"timestamp": [
950.16,
952.12
]
},
{
"text": " that's a little bit more interpretable,",
"timestamp": [
952.12,
953.56
]
},
{
"text": " something that's been around for a while?",
"timestamp": [
953.56,
955.2
]
},
{
"text": " Do you think there are going to be general principles",
"timestamp": [
955.2,
958.02
]
},
{
"text": " that guide those decisions?",
"timestamp": [
958.02,
959.52
]
},
{
"text": " Because right now it's generally up",
"timestamp": [
959.52,
961.72
]
},
{
"text": " to the machine learning engineer",
"timestamp": [
961.72,
963.4
]
},
{
"text": " to decide what tools they want to",
"timestamp": [
963.4,
965.16
]
},
{
"text": " apply.",
"timestamp": [
965.16,
966.16
]
},
{
"text": " I definitely think there is, but I also sort of see it varying a lot based on the use case.",
"timestamp": [
966.16,
973.06
]
},
{
"text": " Something that kind of works out of the box and maybe works a little bit more automatically",
"timestamp": [
973.06,
977.68
]
},
{
"text": " might be better.",
"timestamp": [
977.68,
978.68
]
},
{
"text": " And in other cases, you do sort of kind of, you want a lot of fine grain control.",
"timestamp": [
978.68,
982.96
]
},
{
"text": " So is that where some of that frustration around",
"timestamp": [
982.96,
985.88
]
},
{
"text": " the lack of controllability and interpretability comes from?",
"timestamp": [
985.88,
988.92
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, if you're building a model that just predicts",
"timestamp": [
988.92,
991.28
]
},
{
"text": " the next thing based off of everything it's seen",
"timestamp": [
991.28,
993.68
]
},
{
"text": " from text online, then yeah, you're really gonna be",
"timestamp": [
993.68,
996.28
]
},
{
"text": " replicating whatever that distribution online is.",
"timestamp": [
996.28,
999.52
]
},
{
"text": " If you train a model off of language off the internet,",
"timestamp": [
999.52,
1002.76
]
},
{
"text": " it sometimes says uncomfortable things",
"timestamp": [
1002.76,
1005.1
]
},
{
"text": " or inappropriate things,",
"timestamp": [
1005.1,
1006.64
]
},
{
"text": " and sometimes really biased things.",
"timestamp": [
1006.64,
1008.94
]
},
{
"text": " Have you ever run into this yourself?",
"timestamp": [
1008.94,
1010.76
]
},
{
"text": " And then how do you think about that problem",
"timestamp": [
1010.76,
1012.9
]
},
{
"text": " of potentially even measuring the bias",
"timestamp": [
1012.9,
1016.54
]
},
{
"text": " in a model that we've trained?",
"timestamp": [
1016.54,
1018.44
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, it's a really tricky question.",
"timestamp": [
1018.44,
1021.12
]
},
{
"text": " As you said, these models are trained",
"timestamp": [
1021.12,
1022.94
]
},
{
"text": " to sort of predict the next sequence of words",
"timestamp": [
1022.94,
1025.36
]
},
{
"text": " given a certain sequence of words.",
"timestamp": [
1025.36,
1026.96
]
},
{
"text": " So we could start with just sort of prompts",
"timestamp": [
1026.96,
1029.16
]
},
{
"text": " like the woman was versus the man was,",
"timestamp": [
1029.16,
1031.88
]
},
{
"text": " and kind of pull out common words",
"timestamp": [
1031.88,
1034
]
},
{
"text": " that are sort of more used with one phrase versus the other.",
"timestamp": [
1034,
1037.8
]
},
{
"text": " So that's sort of a qualitative way of looking at it.",
"timestamp": [
1037.8,
1040.92
]
},
{
"text": " It's not ever kind of a guarantee",
"timestamp": [
1040.92,
1042.92
]
},
{
"text": " of how the model is going to behave",
"timestamp": [
1042.92,
1044.92
]
},
{
"text": " in one particular instance.",
"timestamp": [
1044.92,
1046.24
]
},
{
"text": " And I think that's what's really tricky.",
"timestamp": [
1046.24,
1048.52
]
},
{
"text": " And that's why I sort of think it's really good",
"timestamp": [
1048.52,
1050.56
]
},
{
"text": " for creators of systems to just be honest",
"timestamp": [
1050.56,
1053.68
]
},
{
"text": " about this is sort of what we have seen.",
"timestamp": [
1053.68,
1056.24
]
},
{
"text": " And so then someone can make their own judgment",
"timestamp": [
1056.24,
1058.24
]
},
{
"text": " about is this going to be too high risk",
"timestamp": [
1058.24,
1060.24
]
},
{
"text": " for sort of my particular use case.",
"timestamp": [
1060.24,
1062.72
]
},
{
"text": " I imagine in the last few years,",
"timestamp": [
1062.72,
1064.28
]
},
{
"text": " we've seen a lot of changes and improvements",
"timestamp": [
1064.28,
1067.08
]
},
{
"text": " in the capabilities of NLP systems.",
"timestamp": [
1067.08,
1069.92
]
},
{
"text": " So is there anything in that",
"timestamp": [
1069.92,
1071.56
]
},
{
"text": " that you're particularly excited about exploring further?",
"timestamp": [
1071.56,
1074.52
]
},
{
"text": " I'm really interested in sort of the creative potential",
"timestamp": [
1074.52,
1079.52
]
},
{
"text": " that we've started to see from NLP systems",
"timestamp": [
1080.28,
1083
]
},
{
"text": " with things like GPD 3",
"timestamp": [
1083,
1084.48
]
},
{
"text": " and other really powerful language models,",
"timestamp": [
1084.48,
1086.22
]
},
{
"text": " it's really easy to write long grammatical passages.",
"timestamp": [
1086.22,
1091
]
},
{
"text": " Thinking about the way that we can then harness",
"timestamp": [
1091,
1093.58
]
},
{
"text": " the human ability to actually give meaning to those words",
"timestamp": [
1093.58,
1096.34
]
},
{
"text": " and sort of provide structure",
"timestamp": [
1096.34,
1097.98
]
},
{
"text": " and how we can combine those things",
"timestamp": [
1097.98,
1099.4
]
},
{
"text": " with the kind of generative capabilities of these models now",
"timestamp": [
1099.4,
1102.94
]
},
{
"text": " is really interesting.",
"timestamp": [
1102.94,
1103.9
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, I agree.",
"timestamp": [
1103.9,
1104.74
]
},
{
"text": " So hi, Claudia, it's so great to see you.",
"timestamp": [
1107.52,
1109.6
]
},
{
"text": " It has been far too long.",
"timestamp": [
1109.6,
1110.8
]
},
{
"text": " You know, we first met 10-11 years ago and machine learning has changed a lot since then.",
"timestamp": [
1110.8,
1116.72
]
},
{
"text": " Tooling that we now have, the capacity and also an elevation of the problem sets that we're dealing with and how to frame the problem.",
"timestamp": [
1116.72,
1127.2
]
},
{
"text": " And I'm almost struggling to figure out",
"timestamp": [
1127.2,
1130.76
]
},
{
"text": " whether it's a blessing or a curse",
"timestamp": [
1130.76,
1133.2
]
},
{
"text": " that it has become as accessible and as democratized",
"timestamp": [
1133.2,
1137.56
]
},
{
"text": " and as easy to execute.",
"timestamp": [
1137.56,
1139.88
]
},
{
"text": " And you just build another new company from scratch.",
"timestamp": [
1139.88,
1142.96
]
},
{
"text": " But so what's been kind been your reflection on that?",
"timestamp": [
1142.96,
1145.36
]
},
{
"text": " We are absolutely right that",
"timestamp": [
1145.36,
1147
]
},
{
"text": " the attention machine learning has",
"timestamp": [
1147,
1149.7
]
},
{
"text": " grown dramatically at 20 years ago going to",
"timestamp": [
1149.7,
1151.96
]
},
{
"text": " gatherings and telling people what I was working on and",
"timestamp": [
1151.96,
1154.56
]
},
{
"text": " have seen the blank face or the worse,",
"timestamp": [
1154.56,
1156.64
]
},
{
"text": " the turn and walk away.",
"timestamp": [
1156.64,
1158
]
},
{
"text": " Like, oh no. The accessibility of the tooling,",
"timestamp": [
1158,
1161.16
]
},
{
"text": " we can now do in five lines of code,",
"timestamp": [
1161.16,
1164.48
]
},
{
"text": " something that would have like five lines of code something that",
"timestamp": [
1164.48,
1165.22
]
},
{
"text": " would have taken 500 lines of very mathematical, messy, gnarly code even",
"timestamp": [
1165.22,
1170.5
]
},
{
"text": " five years ago. And that's not an exaggeration and there are tools that",
"timestamp": [
1170.5,
1175.14
]
},
{
"text": " mean that pretty much anyone can pick this up and start playing with it and",
"timestamp": [
1175.14,
1178.78
]
},
{
"text": " start to build with it and that is also really exciting.",
"timestamp": [
1178.78,
1182.46
]
},
{
"text": " In contrast, what I'm struggling with, the friend of mine who asked me to look at some healthcare data for him.",
"timestamp": [
1182.46,
1188.88
]
},
{
"text": " And despite the capabilities that we're having in all of the kind of",
"timestamp": [
1188.88,
1193.36
]
},
{
"text": " bigger societal problems alongside with data collection, engineering,",
"timestamp": [
1193.36,
1198.4
]
},
{
"text": " all the gnarly stuff, that is actually not the machine learning itself.",
"timestamp": [
1198.4,
1202.56
]
},
{
"text": " It's the rest of it where certain data isn't available.",
"timestamp": [
1202.56,
1207.04
]
},
{
"text": " And to me, it's staggering how difficult",
"timestamp": [
1207.04,
1209.32
]
},
{
"text": " it is to get it off the ground and actually use.",
"timestamp": [
1209.32,
1212.68
]
},
{
"text": " And part of the challenge of it is not the mathematics",
"timestamp": [
1212.68,
1217.16
]
},
{
"text": " of building models, but the challenge",
"timestamp": [
1217.16,
1218.8
]
},
{
"text": " is making sure that the data is sufficiently representative,",
"timestamp": [
1218.8,
1222.4
]
},
{
"text": " potentially high quality.",
"timestamp": [
1222.4,
1223.84
]
},
{
"text": " How transparent do I need to build it for it to be adopted at some point?",
"timestamp": [
1223.84,
1228.68
]
},
{
"text": " What types of biases in the data collection and then also in the usage?",
"timestamp": [
1228.68,
1234.96
]
},
{
"text": " We now call it a bias, but we're still struggling with the society not really living up to its",
"timestamp": [
1234.96,
1240.92
]
},
{
"text": " expectations and then machine learning bringing it to the forefront.",
"timestamp": [
1240.92,
1244.48
]
},
{
"text": " Right. And so to say that another way, when you're collecting data from the his expectations and then machine learning bringing it to the forefront. Right.",
"timestamp": [
1244.48,
1245.44
]
},
{
"text": " And so to say that another way, when you're collecting data from the real world and then",
"timestamp": [
1245.44,
1249.12
]
},
{
"text": " building machine learning systems that automate decisions based on that data, all of the biases",
"timestamp": [
1249.12,
1254.12
]
},
{
"text": " and problems that are already in the real world then can be magnified through that machine",
"timestamp": [
1254.12,
1259.08
]
},
{
"text": " learning system.",
"timestamp": [
1259.08,
1260.08
]
},
{
"text": " And so it can make many of these problems much worse.",
"timestamp": [
1260.08,
1262.96
]
},
{
"text": " Feeling increasingly challenged that my skill set of being very good at programming has",
"timestamp": [
1262.96,
1269.32
]
},
{
"text": " become somewhat secondary.",
"timestamp": [
1269.32,
1271.12
]
},
{
"text": " And it's really the bigger picture understanding of who would be using that, how transparent",
"timestamp": [
1271.12,
1278.52
]
},
{
"text": " do I need to build it for it to be adopted at some point. What types of biases in the data collection",
"timestamp": [
1278.52,
1286.46
]
},
{
"text": " and then also in the usage, I think,",
"timestamp": [
1286.46,
1288.54
]
},
{
"text": " in certain areas we have societal expectations",
"timestamp": [
1288.54,
1292.12
]
},
{
"text": " as to what is fair and what isn't.",
"timestamp": [
1292.12,
1295.08
]
},
{
"text": " And so it's not just the provenance of that data,",
"timestamp": [
1295.08,
1299.6
]
},
{
"text": " but it's sort of deeply understanding",
"timestamp": [
1299.6,
1301.44
]
},
{
"text": " why does it look the way it looks?",
"timestamp": [
1301.44,
1303.2
]
},
{
"text": " Why was it collected this way?",
"timestamp": [
1303.2,
1304.48
]
},
{
"text": " What are the limitations of it?",
"timestamp": [
1304.48,
1306.12
]
},
{
"text": " We need to think about that in entire process,",
"timestamp": [
1306.12,
1309.24
]
},
{
"text": " how we document that process.",
"timestamp": [
1309.24,
1311.46
]
},
{
"text": " This is an issue in companies",
"timestamp": [
1311.46,
1313
]
},
{
"text": " where somebody might create something",
"timestamp": [
1313,
1315.12
]
},
{
"text": " that even their peers can't recreate.",
"timestamp": [
1315.12,
1317.48
]
},
{
"text": " What have you seen in terms of which industries,",
"timestamp": [
1317.48,
1320.8
]
},
{
"text": " where they stand, like who is adopting now,",
"timestamp": [
1320.8,
1323.6
]
},
{
"text": " who is ready to utilize it, where",
"timestamp": [
1323.6,
1326.78
]
},
{
"text": " would you maybe wish they didn't even try?",
"timestamp": [
1326.78,
1329.96
]
},
{
"text": " These are great questions. So things like",
"timestamp": [
1329.96,
1332.5
]
},
{
"text": " actuarial science, operations research, where they actually are not using",
"timestamp": [
1332.5,
1336.38
]
},
{
"text": " machine learning as much as you might think, and then you have other sorts of",
"timestamp": [
1336.38,
1340.38
]
},
{
"text": " companies or on the fintech side or even the ad tech side of things where",
"timestamp": [
1340.38,
1345.1
]
},
{
"text": " they perhaps are using machine learning to the point of even absurdity.",
"timestamp": [
1345.1,
1350.1
]
},
{
"text": " So I spent about eight years working in ad tech and the motivation was really because",
"timestamp": [
1350.1,
1357.54
]
},
{
"text": " it was such an amazingly exciting playground to push that technology that",
"timestamp": [
1357.54,
1363.82
]
},
{
"text": " used to largely live in academia really",
"timestamp": [
1363.82,
1367
]
},
{
"text": " out in the world and see kind of what it can achieve. It has created such a hunger",
"timestamp": [
1367,
1372.84
]
},
{
"text": " for data that now everything is being collected. I'm curious when are we going",
"timestamp": [
1372.84,
1378.84
]
},
{
"text": " to make a foray into things like agriculture, about smart production of the things we eat.",
"timestamp": [
1378.84,
1388.4
]
},
{
"text": " You see and hear these interesting stories,",
"timestamp": [
1388.4,
1390.44
]
},
{
"text": " but I feel like we're not ready yet",
"timestamp": [
1390.44,
1393.04
]
},
{
"text": " to put that into a economically viable situation.",
"timestamp": [
1393.04,
1397.68
]
},
{
"text": " So when we think about the next five to 10 years,",
"timestamp": [
1397.68,
1400.9
]
},
{
"text": " the things that are really still holding us back",
"timestamp": [
1400.9,
1404.04
]
},
{
"text": " are these uneven applications",
"timestamp": [
1404.04,
1407.04
]
},
{
"text": " of resources to problems, because the problems that get attention are the high value ones",
"timestamp": [
1407.04,
1413.18
]
},
{
"text": " in terms of how much money you can make, or the things that are fashionable enough that",
"timestamp": [
1413.18,
1417.12
]
},
{
"text": " you can publish a paper on it.",
"timestamp": [
1417.12,
1418.88
]
},
{
"text": " So what do you think is holding us back?",
"timestamp": [
1418.88,
1420.88
]
},
{
"text": " I fully agree on the steps you pointed out and the processes. I think",
"timestamp": [
1420.88,
1426.24
]
},
{
"text": " there is a chicken and egg problem like your farmer example that these areas",
"timestamp": [
1426.24,
1431.16
]
},
{
"text": " that need to wait for data, the value of the data collection is then also",
"timestamp": [
1431.16,
1437
]
},
{
"text": " slightly less apparent and so it gets delayed further and you see that",
"timestamp": [
1437,
1442.08
]
},
{
"text": " happening. But what my experience has been,",
"timestamp": [
1442.08,
1445.56
]
},
{
"text": " there's unfortunately I feel a drifting apart",
"timestamp": [
1445.56,
1449.16
]
},
{
"text": " between academia and the uses of AI.",
"timestamp": [
1449.16,
1454.16
]
},
{
"text": " But I'm somewhat frustrated with a generation of students",
"timestamp": [
1454.16,
1459.16
]
},
{
"text": " who have standard data sets that they never think about",
"timestamp": [
1459.32,
1462.88
]
},
{
"text": " what the model needs to be used for,",
"timestamp": [
1462.88,
1465.28
]
},
{
"text": " that they never have to think about how the data was collected.",
"timestamp": [
1465.28,
1468.5
]
},
{
"text": " So with all of these challenges ahead of us, how optimistic are you about this world that",
"timestamp": [
1468.5,
1475.06
]
},
{
"text": " I deeply believe we can create and the steps towards it?",
"timestamp": [
1475.06,
1480.48
]
},
{
"text": " I am incredibly optimistic and perhaps it's a personality flaw,",
"timestamp": [
1480.48,
1485.12
]
},
{
"text": " but I can't help but look at the potential of",
"timestamp": [
1485.12,
1489.36
]
},
{
"text": " the technology to reduce harm,",
"timestamp": [
1489.36,
1492.24
]
},
{
"text": " to give us information,",
"timestamp": [
1492.24,
1493.44
]
},
{
"text": " to help us make better decisions,",
"timestamp": [
1493.44,
1495.4
]
},
{
"text": " and to think that we would choose",
"timestamp": [
1495.4,
1497.56
]
},
{
"text": " to address the big problems ahead of us.",
"timestamp": [
1497.56,
1500.8
]
},
{
"text": " I don't think we have a hope of addressing them",
"timestamp": [
1500.8,
1503.32
]
},
{
"text": " without figuring out the role that machine",
"timestamp": [
1503.32,
1505.38
]
},
{
"text": " learning will play.",
"timestamp": [
1505.38,
1506.7
]
},
{
"text": " And to think that we would then choose not to do that is just unthinkable.",
"timestamp": [
1506.7,
1511.22
]
},
{
"text": " Despite the rightfully raised concerns about the challenges ahead, but I think they also",
"timestamp": [
1511.22,
1517.62
]
},
{
"text": " make us as a society better.",
"timestamp": [
1517.62,
1520.38
]
},
{
"text": " They challenge us to be a lot clearer of what fairness means to all of us.",
"timestamp": [
1520.38,
1526.8
]
},
{
"text": " So with all of the setbacks,",
"timestamp": [
1526.8,
1529.92
]
},
{
"text": " I think we have exciting years to come.",
"timestamp": [
1529.92,
1534.04
]
},
{
"text": " I am looking forward to a world where a lot more of that is used for the right purposes.",
"timestamp": [
1534.04,
1539.96
]
},
{
"text": " I hope you learned something about machine learning.",
"timestamp": [
1539.96,
1548.32
]
},
{
"text": " There has never been a better time to study machine learning because you're now able to",
"timestamp": [
1548.32,
1553
]
},
{
"text": " build products that have tremendous potential and impact across any industry or area that",
"timestamp": [
1553,
1559.72
]
},
{
"text": " you might be excited about.",
"timestamp": [
1559.72,
1561.04
]
}
] |
[
[
"<Untitled Chapter 1>",
" Hi, I'm Hilary Mason. I'm a computer scientist, and today I've been asked to explain machine learning in five levels of increasing complexity. Machine learning gives us the ability to learn things about the world from large amounts of data that we as human beings can't possibly study or appreciate. So machine learning is when we teach computers to learn patterns from looking at examples in data such that they can recognize those patterns and apply them to new things that they haven't seen before. Hi. Hi. I'm Hillary. What's your name? I'm Bryn. Do you know what machine learning means? Have you heard that before? No. So machine learning is a way that we teach computers to learn things about the world by looking at patterns and looking at examples of things. So can I show you an example of how a machine might learn something? Sure. So is this a dog or a cat? It's a dog. And this one? A cat. And what makes a dog a dog and a cat a cat? Well, dogs are very playful, I think, more than cats. Cats lift themselves more than dogs, I think. That's true. Do you think, if we look at these pictures, do you think maybe we could say, well, they both have pointy ears, but the dogs have a different kind of body and the cats like to stand up a little different. Do you think that makes sense? Yeah. Yeah, what about this one? A dog. A cat. I think a cat? Because it's more skinny and also its legs are like really tall and its ears are a little pointy. This one's a jackal and it's actually a kind of dog, but you made a good guess. That's what machines do too, they make guesses. Is this a cat or a dog? None. None, what is it? It's humans. And how did you know that it's not a cat or a dog? Because cats and dogs, because they walk on their paws and their ears are like right here, not right here, and they don't wear watches. And so you did something pretty amazing there because we asked the question, is it a cat or a dog? And you said, I disagree with your question, it's a human. So machine learning is when we teach machines to make guesses about what things are based on looking at a lot of different examples. And I build products that use machine learning to learn about the world and make guesses about things in the world. When we try to teach machines to recognize things like cats and dogs, it takes a lot of examples. We have to show them tens of thousands or even millions of examples before they can get even close to as good at it as you are. Do you have tests in school? Yeah, I have after every unit, we have a review and then we have a test. Are those like the practice problems you do before the test? Well, just like everything that's going to be on the test is on the review. Which means that in the test, you're not seeing any problems that you don't know how to solve. As long as you did all your practice, right? Yeah. So machines work the same way. If you show them a lot of examples and give them practice, they'll learn how to guess. And then when you give them the test, they should be able to do that. So we looked at eight pictures and you were able to answer really quickly, but what would you do if I gave you 10 million examples? Would you be able to do that so quickly? So one of the differences between people and machines is that people might be a little better at this but can't look at 10 million different things. So now that we've been talking about machine learning,"
],
[
"Blockchain Technology",
" is this something you want to learn how to do? Kind of, because I want to become a spy, and we used to do coding, so I may be good at it. Machine learning is a great way to use all those math skills, all those coding skills, and would be a super cool tool for a spy. Hello. Hi. Are you a student, Lucy? Yes, I just finished ninth grade. Congratulations. Thank you. It's very exciting. Have you ever heard of machine learning before? I'm going to assume that it means humans being able to teach machines or robots how Have you ever heard of machine learning before? I'm going to assume that it means humans being able to teach machines or robots how to learn themselves. That's right. When we teach machines to learn from data, to build a model from that data or a representation of that, and then to make a prediction. One of the places we often find machine learning in the real world is in things like recommendation systems. So do you have an artist you really like? Yeah, Melanie Martinez. So I'm gonna look up Melanie Martinez and it says here, if you like Melanie Martinez, one of the other songs you might like is by Aura. Do you know who that is? I do not. So let's listen to a hint of this song. Okay. All right. So why do you think Spotify might have recommended that song? Well, I know that in Melanie Martinez's music, she used a lot of the filtered voice to make it sound very deep and low. And that song had that. And that's actually a really interesting thing to think about, because that creepy vibe is something that you can perceive and I can perceive. But it's actually really hard to describe to a machine. What do you think might go into that? Pitch of the music, if it's really low or if it's super high, it could know that. What can the machine understand? It's a great question. The machine can understand whatever we tell it to understand. So there might be a person thinking about things like the pitch or the pacing or the tone or sometimes machines can figure out things about music or images or videos that we don't tell it to discover, but that it can learn from looking at a lot of different examples. Why do you think companies might use machine learning? I think things like Facebook or Instagram, they probably use it to target ads. Sometimes the ads you see are really uncanny. And I think that's because they're based on so much data. They know where you live. They know where your device is. It's also important to realize that people in aggregate are actually pretty predictable. Like when we talk to each other, we like to talk about the novel things. Like here we're having this conversation. We don't do this every day. But we probably still eat breakfast, we're gonna eat lunch, we're gonna eat dinner, you probably are going to the same home you go to most of the time, and so they're able to take that data that we already give them and make predictions based on that as to what ads they should show us. So you're saying I give them enough data, as it is, about what I might be talking about or thinking about that they can read my mind, but just use the data that I've already given them, and it almost seems like they're watching us. To do machine learning, we use something called algorithms. Have you heard of algorithms before? A set of steps or a process carried out to complete something. That's right. So, do you think that we've been able to teach machines enough so that they can do things that even we can't do? And on the opposite side of that, do you think there are things that we can do that a machine might never be able to do? So there are things that machines are really great at that humans are actually not great at. Imagine watching every video posted to TikTok every day. So we just don't have enough time to do that at the rate at which we can actually watch those videos. But a machine can analyze all of them and then make recommendations to us. And then thinking about things that machines are bad at and people are good at, people are really great with only one or two examples of learning something new and incorporating that into our model of the world to make good decisions. Whereas machines often need tens of thousands of examples. And that's not even getting into things like good judgment because we care about people, because we can imagine a future that we want to live in that doesn't exist today. And that's something that is still uniquely human. Machines are great at predicting based on what they've seen in the past, but they're not creative. They're not going to invent. They're not gonna really change where we're gonna go."
],
[
"What Is the Current State of Blockchain",
" That's up to us. to really change where we're going to go. That's up to us. I'm Sunny. And what are you majoring in? I study math and computer science. So in your studies, have you learned about machine learning? Yeah, I have. So to me, machine learning is essentially exactly what it sounds like. It's trying to teach a machine specifics about something by inputting a lot of data points. And slowly, the machine will build up knowledge about it over time. For example, my Gmail program, I assume that there would be a lot of machine learning models happening at once, right? Absolutely. And that's a great example because you have models that are operating to do things like figure out if a new email is spam or not. So what would you think about if you were looking at an email and trying to decide if it went in one category or another? I'd probably look at certain keywords, maybe if the recipient and the sender had exchanged emails before and what generally those fell into in the past. So these are things we would call features. We go through a process where we do feature engineering where somebody looks at the example and says, okay, these are the things that I think might allow us to statistically tell the difference from something in one category versus another. Say, for example, perhaps you don't speak Russian, you start getting a lot of email in Russian. Obviously, like the features that you just described are features which a person would have had to think about. Are there features which like the machine itself could learn? This is a great question because it really gets to the difference between some of our different tools in our machine learning tool belt in addressing problems like this. So if we were to use a supervised learning classic classification approach, a person would need to think about those features and creatively come up with them, an approach we call the kitchen sink approach, which is just try everything you can possibly think of and see what works. Unsupervised learning, where we don't have labeled data and we're trying to infer some structure out of the data. You're projecting that data into a space and looking for things like clusters. And there's a bunch of really fun math about how you do that, how you think about distance. And by distance, I mean that if we have two data points in space, how do we decide if they're similar or not? And how do the algorithms themselves usually differ between unsupervised and supervised learning? Supervised learning, we have our labels, and we're trying to figure out what statistically indicates if something matches one label or another label. Unsupervised learning, we don't necessarily have those labels. That's the thing we're trying to discover. So reinforcement learning is another technique that we use sometimes. You can think about it like a turn in a game and you can play millions and millions of trials so that you're able to develop a system that by experimenting with reinforcement learning can eventually learn to play these games pretty successfully. Deep learning, which is essentially using neural networks and very large amounts of data to eventually iterate on a network structure that can make predictions. With reinforcement learning versus deep learning, it seems to me that reinforcement learning, is it sort of like the kitchen sink approach that you were talking about earlier where you're just kind of trying everything? It is, but it also thrives in environments where you have a decision point, a palette of actions to choose from, and it actually comes historically from trying to train a robot to navigate a room. If it bonks into this chair, it can't go forward anymore, and if it falls into that pit, you know, it's not going to succeed."
],
[
"How Do You Feel about the Hype Cycle around Blockchain Today",
" But if it keeps exploring, it'll eventually get to the goal. Oh, like Roombas? Yes. Oh wow, I didn't realize it was that deep, almost. Is there a situation in which you'd want to use a deep learning algorithm over a reinforcement learning algorithm? So typically, you would choose deep learning if you have sufficient, high-quality data, hopefully labeled in a useful way, if you really are happy not to necessarily understand or be able to interpret what your system is doing, or you're willing to invest in another set of work afterwards to understand what the system is doing once you've already trained it. And this also comes down to the fact that some things are actually really easy to solve with linear regression or simple statistical approaches, that some things are actually really easy to solve with linear regression or simple statistical approaches and some things are impossible. What would be the outcome if you were to choose the quote-unquote wrong approach? You build a system that could actually be useless. So years ago I had a client that was a big telecom company and they had a data scientist who built a deep learning system to predict customer churn. Actually was very accurate, but it wasn't useful because nobody knew why the prediction was what it was. So they could say, you know, Sunny, you're likely to quit next month, but they had no idea what to do about it. And so I think there are a bunch of failure modes. Would that be an example of linear regression where the regression is accurate but for marketing purposes, it's like, if you don't know why I'm quitting the service, then how can we fix this? Yeah. This is actually a good example of a very real-world kind of machine learning problem where the solution to this was to build an interpretable system on top of the accurate prediction, so not to throw it away, but to do a bunch more work to figure out the why. How can we improve machine learning algorithms? It's actually fairly new that we're able to solve all of these problems and start to build these products and apply it in businesses and apply it everywhere. And so we're still developing good practices and what it means to be a professional in machine learning. We're really developing a notion of what good looks like. I'm in my first year of PhD in computer science and I'm studying natural language processing and machine learning. So would you mind telling me a bit about what you've been working on or interested in lately? I've been looking at understanding persuasion and online text and the ways that we might be able to automatically detect the intent behind that persuasion or who it's targeted at and what makes effective persuasive technique. So what are some of the techniques you're applying to look at that debate data? Something I'm interested in exploring is how well it works to use deep learning and sort of automatically extracted features from this text versus using some of the more traditional techniques that we have, things like lexicons or some sort of template matching techniques for extracting features from text. That's a question I'm just interested in in general. When do we really need deep learning versus when can we use something that's a little bit more interpretable, something that's been around for a while? Do you think there are going to be general principles that guide those decisions? Because right now it's generally up to the machine learning engineer to decide what tools they want to apply. I definitely think there is, but I also sort of see it varying a lot based on the use case. Something that kind of works out of the box and maybe works a little bit more automatically might be better. And in other cases, you do sort of kind of, you want a lot of fine grain control. So is that where some of that frustration around the lack of controllability and interpretability comes from? Yeah, if you're building a model that just predicts the next thing based off of everything it's seen from text online, then yeah, you're really gonna be replicating whatever that distribution online is. If you train a model off of language off the internet, it sometimes says uncomfortable things or inappropriate things, and sometimes really biased things. Have you ever run into this yourself? And then how do you think about that problem of potentially even measuring the bias in a model that we've trained? Yeah, it's a really tricky question. As you said, these models are trained to sort of predict the next sequence of words given a certain sequence of words. So we could start with just sort of prompts like the woman was versus the man was, and kind of pull out common words that are sort of more used with one phrase versus the other. So that's sort of a qualitative way of looking at it. It's not ever kind of a guarantee of how the model is going to behave in one particular instance. And I think that's what's really tricky. And that's why I sort of think it's really good for creators of systems to just be honest about this is sort of what we have seen. And so then someone can make their own judgment about is this going to be too high risk for sort of my particular use case. I imagine in the last few years, we've seen a lot of changes and improvements in the capabilities of NLP systems. So is there anything in that"
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Musician Explains One Concept in 5 Levels of Difficulty ft. Jacob Collier & Herbie Hancock | WIRED
|
eRkgK4jfi6M
| 941
|
[
{
"end_time": 16,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "Intro"
},
{
"end_time": 64,
"start_time": 16,
"title": "Level 1 Harmony"
},
{
"end_time": 160,
"start_time": 64,
"title": "Level 2 Harmony"
},
{
"end_time": 285,
"start_time": 160,
"title": "Level 3 Harmony"
},
{
"end_time": 506,
"start_time": 285,
"title": "Level 4 Harmony"
},
{
"end_time": 941,
"start_time": 506,
"title": "Level 5 Courage"
}
] |
[
{
"text": " My name is Eric Prather and I'm a sleep scientist at UCSF.",
"timestamp": [
0,
3.36
]
},
{
"text": " I study the causes and consequences of insufficient sleep.",
"timestamp": [
3.36,
7.6
]
},
{
"text": " I also carry out interventions to improve sleep among people with insomnia.",
"timestamp": [
7.6,
11.88
]
},
{
"text": " Today I've been challenged to explain the topic of sleep at five different levels.",
"timestamp": [
11.88,
16.2
]
},
{
"text": " Everybody knows a little bit about what is happening when they sleep,",
"timestamp": [
16.2,
20
]
},
{
"text": " but I think they'll be surprised that there's a lot of science in there.",
"timestamp": [
20,
26.6
]
},
{
"text": " Nice to meet you, my name's Christopher. Hey Christopher, and how old are you?",
"timestamp": [
28.28,
30.12
]
},
{
"text": " I'm 10.",
"timestamp": [
30.12,
30.96
]
},
{
"text": " What grade is that?",
"timestamp": [
30.96,
32.16
]
},
{
"text": " I think fifth.",
"timestamp": [
32.16,
33.08
]
},
{
"text": " You think fifth?",
"timestamp": [
33.08,
34.04
]
},
{
"text": " What is your favorite subject?",
"timestamp": [
34.04,
35.36
]
},
{
"text": " Math and science.",
"timestamp": [
35.36,
36.96
]
},
{
"text": " Well that's awesome,",
"timestamp": [
36.96,
37.8
]
},
{
"text": " because we're gonna be talking about science today.",
"timestamp": [
37.8,
39.32
]
},
{
"text": " Cool.",
"timestamp": [
39.32,
40.16
]
},
{
"text": " And you know what we're gonna be talking about?",
"timestamp": [
40.16,
41.36
]
},
{
"text": " What?",
"timestamp": [
41.36,
42.2
]
},
{
"text": " Sleep.",
"timestamp": [
42.2,
43.08
]
},
{
"text": " Favorite part of the day.",
"timestamp": [
43.08,
44.16
]
},
{
"text": " Mine too, because I get to spend all day studying it. Because you know what we're gonna be talking about? What? Sleep. Favorite part of the day. Mine too, because I get to spend all day studying it.",
"timestamp": [
44.16,
46.72
]
},
{
"text": " Because you know what sleep does for you?",
"timestamp": [
46.72,
48.56
]
},
{
"text": " It rests your body like an electric car.",
"timestamp": [
48.56,
51
]
},
{
"text": " That's exactly right.",
"timestamp": [
51,
51.96
]
},
{
"text": " It kind of is like recharging your battery, right?",
"timestamp": [
51.96,
54.44
]
},
{
"text": " And sleep is so critical for so many parts",
"timestamp": [
54.44,
57.04
]
},
{
"text": " of our body and our mind, right?",
"timestamp": [
57.04,
59.02
]
},
{
"text": " It plays a really important way that we learn",
"timestamp": [
59.02,
61.64
]
},
{
"text": " and it helps us kind of recover from the day before.",
"timestamp": [
61.64,
64.68
]
},
{
"text": " It affects our immune system and our metabolism.",
"timestamp": [
64.68,
67.36
]
},
{
"text": " All of these things that we need to kind of be healthy.",
"timestamp": [
67.36,
69.8
]
},
{
"text": " Whoa.",
"timestamp": [
69.8,
70.64
]
},
{
"text": " So today we're gonna talk about some animals",
"timestamp": [
70.64,
72.52
]
},
{
"text": " and how they sleep.",
"timestamp": [
72.52,
73.64
]
},
{
"text": " So here's the first one.",
"timestamp": [
73.64,
75.12
]
},
{
"text": " What's that?",
"timestamp": [
76.04,
76.88
]
},
{
"text": " A giraffe.",
"timestamp": [
76.88,
77.7
]
},
{
"text": " Have you ever seen a giraffe in person?",
"timestamp": [
77.7,
79.08
]
},
{
"text": " Oh yeah.",
"timestamp": [
79.08,
79.92
]
},
{
"text": " They're pretty cool, right?",
"timestamp": [
79.92,
80.76
]
},
{
"text": " Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
80.76,
81.58
]
},
{
"text": " And so what's really cool about this",
"timestamp": [
81.58,
83.32
]
},
{
"text": " is that giraffes need to sleep like everybody else.",
"timestamp": [
83.32,
86.34
]
},
{
"text": " And so the way that it does is it kind of slumps over",
"timestamp": [
86.34,
89.28
]
},
{
"text": " and it gets down on its legs",
"timestamp": [
89.28,
91.14
]
},
{
"text": " and it kind of becomes this ball.",
"timestamp": [
91.14,
92.88
]
},
{
"text": " But what's crazy about the whole thing",
"timestamp": [
92.88,
94.92
]
},
{
"text": " is they only sleep for like 30 minutes a day.",
"timestamp": [
94.92,
97.6
]
},
{
"text": " 30 minutes, because it can't waste any more time",
"timestamp": [
97.6,
100.68
]
},
{
"text": " because it can't be vulnerable for any longer.",
"timestamp": [
100.68,
102.72
]
},
{
"text": " It can get eaten by lions and that kind of thing.",
"timestamp": [
102.72,
104.78
]
},
{
"text": " It is kind of evolved in a way that it can still survive",
"timestamp": [
104.78,
108.48
]
},
{
"text": " and still get all the restoration it needs",
"timestamp": [
108.48,
110.52
]
},
{
"text": " under such a short period of time.",
"timestamp": [
110.52,
112.52
]
},
{
"text": " I mean, how does it like recharge like humans?",
"timestamp": [
112.52,
115.4
]
},
{
"text": " So we think it works the same way,",
"timestamp": [
115.4,
117.76
]
},
{
"text": " but maybe just like more efficiently.",
"timestamp": [
117.76,
119.48
]
},
{
"text": " And so we're still really learning about how this works.",
"timestamp": [
119.48,
123.04
]
},
{
"text": " Sleep science itself is kind of a new field.",
"timestamp": [
123.04,
125.84
]
},
{
"text": " I had a sleepover on Saturday and I didn't sleep at all.",
"timestamp": [
125.84,
129.88
]
},
{
"text": " And how did you feel?",
"timestamp": [
129.88,
131.12
]
},
{
"text": " Really tired.",
"timestamp": [
131.12,
132.12
]
},
{
"text": " Really tired.",
"timestamp": [
132.12,
133.16
]
},
{
"text": " Do you think you were a little crankier than usual?",
"timestamp": [
133.16,
136.66
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, that's actually really interesting",
"timestamp": [
136.66,
138.56
]
},
{
"text": " because what happens is humans and everything",
"timestamp": [
138.56,
142.2
]
},
{
"text": " needs to sleep eventually.",
"timestamp": [
142.2,
143.92
]
},
{
"text": " And so you can't stay up indefinitely, right?",
"timestamp": [
143.92,
146.76
]
},
{
"text": " What do you think happens if you don't sleep?",
"timestamp": [
146.76,
149
]
},
{
"text": " It affects what you can do in your daily life.",
"timestamp": [
149,
151.94
]
},
{
"text": " Excellent.",
"timestamp": [
151.94,
152.78
]
},
{
"text": " So now I wanna tell you about another animal",
"timestamp": [
152.78,
154.64
]
},
{
"text": " and how they sleep, okay?",
"timestamp": [
154.64,
156.12
]
},
{
"text": " So we have this one.",
"timestamp": [
156.12,
157.28
]
},
{
"text": " What's that?",
"timestamp": [
158.18,
159.14
]
},
{
"text": " A hippo?",
"timestamp": [
159.14,
159.98
]
},
{
"text": " A hippopotamus.",
"timestamp": [
159.98,
160.88
]
},
{
"text": " They have a different challenge.",
"timestamp": [
160.88,
162.72
]
},
{
"text": " They sleep underwater.",
"timestamp": [
162.72,
166.02
]
},
{
"text": " I can never do that, I'll pass out.",
"timestamp": [
166.02,
167.94
]
},
{
"text": " Right, right, so how do they do it?",
"timestamp": [
167.94,
169.74
]
},
{
"text": " In the area that they live, they need to stay cool, right?",
"timestamp": [
169.74,
172.54
]
},
{
"text": " And so they spend a lot of time in the water,",
"timestamp": [
172.54,
174.22
]
},
{
"text": " and so then as a consequence,",
"timestamp": [
174.22,
175.34
]
},
{
"text": " they need to sleep in the water.",
"timestamp": [
175.34,
176.7
]
},
{
"text": " But how do they do it?",
"timestamp": [
176.7,
177.74
]
},
{
"text": " So it's really fascinating.",
"timestamp": [
177.74,
180.22
]
},
{
"text": " What they do is while they're sleeping,",
"timestamp": [
180.22,
182.78
]
},
{
"text": " they actually float back up to the surface",
"timestamp": [
182.78,
185.16
]
},
{
"text": " and breathe without waking up.",
"timestamp": [
185.16,
187.56
]
},
{
"text": " They're able to go about their whole sleep cycles,",
"timestamp": [
187.56,
190.92
]
},
{
"text": " but still able to breathe",
"timestamp": [
190.92,
192.08
]
},
{
"text": " because their body has adapted in a way",
"timestamp": [
192.08,
194.16
]
},
{
"text": " that they can still get the oxygen that they need.",
"timestamp": [
194.16,
197.24
]
},
{
"text": " It's a really amazing thing.",
"timestamp": [
197.24,
199.8
]
},
{
"text": " What do you think?",
"timestamp": [
199.8,
200.8
]
},
{
"text": " That's cool.",
"timestamp": [
200.8,
201.64
]
},
{
"text": " Wouldn't it be cool to have that power?",
"timestamp": [
201.64,
203.32
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
203.32,
204.16
]
},
{
"text": " So now I wanna talk about our last animal.",
"timestamp": [
204.16,
206.08
]
},
{
"text": " And I think this one is probably the most amazing of all.",
"timestamp": [
206.08,
209.28
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, so what's this?",
"timestamp": [
209.28,
210.88
]
},
{
"text": " Oh, a dolphin.",
"timestamp": [
210.88,
211.84
]
},
{
"text": " A dolphin, yes.",
"timestamp": [
211.84,
213.48
]
},
{
"text": " So dolphins, kind of like hippos,",
"timestamp": [
213.48,
217.18
]
},
{
"text": " have to sleep in the water, okay?",
"timestamp": [
217.18,
220.84
]
},
{
"text": " But because they're mammals, right?",
"timestamp": [
220.84,
222.6
]
},
{
"text": " They need to breathe.",
"timestamp": [
222.6,
223.44
]
},
{
"text": " Dolphins breathe air.",
"timestamp": [
223.44,
224.76
]
},
{
"text": " They have to go up to the surface",
"timestamp": [
224.76,
225.76
]
},
{
"text": " and breathe, right?",
"timestamp": [
225.76,
226.6
]
},
{
"text": " And for an animal like that, it can get eaten.",
"timestamp": [
226.6,
228.32
]
},
{
"text": " It needs to figure out a way that it can sleep,",
"timestamp": [
228.32,
230.28
]
},
{
"text": " but also still survive, right?",
"timestamp": [
230.28,
232.4
]
},
{
"text": " You know how dolphins sleep?",
"timestamp": [
232.4,
235.16
]
},
{
"text": " One half of their brain at a time.",
"timestamp": [
235.16,
237.44
]
},
{
"text": " So half of their brain goes to sleep,",
"timestamp": [
237.44,
240.32
]
},
{
"text": " and the other half stays awake,",
"timestamp": [
240.32,
242.36
]
},
{
"text": " so that they can continue to breathe and swim.",
"timestamp": [
242.36,
244.68
]
},
{
"text": " And they do it in this four hours at a time.",
"timestamp": [
244.68,
247.04
]
},
{
"text": " So like the right part of their brain sleeps,",
"timestamp": [
247.04,
249.38
]
},
{
"text": " they're able to go up to the surface and breathe.",
"timestamp": [
249.38,
251.48
]
},
{
"text": " Then the left part of their brain sleeps for four hours",
"timestamp": [
251.48,
253.96
]
},
{
"text": " and it goes back and forth, back and forth",
"timestamp": [
253.96,
256.16
]
},
{
"text": " so that they can kind of maintain alertness,",
"timestamp": [
256.16,
258.64
]
},
{
"text": " still breathe and survive.",
"timestamp": [
258.64,
261.36
]
},
{
"text": " Is that amazing or what?",
"timestamp": [
261.36,
262.72
]
},
{
"text": " That's cool.",
"timestamp": [
262.72,
263.56
]
},
{
"text": " So what'd you learn today?",
"timestamp": [
263.56,
264.84
]
},
{
"text": " I learned how other animals sleep. What that amazing or what? That's cool. So what'd you learn today? I learned how other animals sleep.",
"timestamp": [
264.84,
266.86
]
},
{
"text": " What is important about sleeping?",
"timestamp": [
266.86,
269.02
]
},
{
"text": " Sleep rests your body,",
"timestamp": [
269.02,
272.34
]
},
{
"text": " and you have to rest your body",
"timestamp": [
272.34,
275.46
]
},
{
"text": " in order to do your daily things in life.",
"timestamp": [
275.46,
278.1
]
},
{
"text": " Hey, I'm Eric.",
"timestamp": [
280.22,
281.14
]
},
{
"text": " I'm Dwayne, nice to meet you, Eric.",
"timestamp": [
281.14,
282.34
]
},
{
"text": " And how old are you, Dwayne?",
"timestamp": [
282.34,
283.46
]
},
{
"text": " I'm 16 years old.",
"timestamp": [
283.46,
284.46
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, and where do you go to school? McClellan High School in Oakland, California'm Eric. I'm Dwayne, nice to meet you, Eric. And how old are you, Dwayne? I'm 16 years old. Okay, and where do you go to school?",
"timestamp": [
284.46,
285.92
]
},
{
"text": " McClimbins High School in Oakland, California.",
"timestamp": [
285.92,
288.08
]
},
{
"text": " Excellent, and what's your favorite subject?",
"timestamp": [
288.08,
291.1
]
},
{
"text": " AP Chemistry.",
"timestamp": [
291.1,
293.22
]
},
{
"text": " That's a serious science.",
"timestamp": [
293.22,
294.2
]
},
{
"text": " It is.",
"timestamp": [
294.2,
295.04
]
},
{
"text": " And good news, we're talking about science today.",
"timestamp": [
295.04,
296.72
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
296.72,
297.56
]
},
{
"text": " In fact, we're talking about sleep.",
"timestamp": [
297.56,
299.36
]
},
{
"text": " Oh, okay.",
"timestamp": [
299.36,
300.18
]
},
{
"text": " And sleep science.",
"timestamp": [
300.18,
301.02
]
},
{
"text": " Do you sleep?",
"timestamp": [
301.02,
301.86
]
},
{
"text": " I do, I try.",
"timestamp": [
301.86,
302.9
]
},
{
"text": " You try, we all gotta try.",
"timestamp": [
302.9,
304.36
]
},
{
"text": " You've probably heard about sleep as this kind of,",
"timestamp": [
304.36,
306.76
]
},
{
"text": " you know, it's a biological process",
"timestamp": [
306.76,
308.26
]
},
{
"text": " that happens in your brain.",
"timestamp": [
308.26,
309.68
]
},
{
"text": " It's really important for your body.",
"timestamp": [
309.68,
310.84
]
},
{
"text": " But it's a lot more complex than that.",
"timestamp": [
310.84,
312.84
]
},
{
"text": " Sleep is made up of different parts.",
"timestamp": [
312.84,
314.16
]
},
{
"text": " You know, when you think about sleep,",
"timestamp": [
314.16,
315.8
]
},
{
"text": " what do you think about?",
"timestamp": [
315.8,
317.04
]
},
{
"text": " Resting, relaxing, really shutting down your brain,",
"timestamp": [
317.04,
320.92
]
},
{
"text": " taking some time off from a busy schedule,",
"timestamp": [
320.92,
323.48
]
},
{
"text": " you know, work day.",
"timestamp": [
323.48,
324.56
]
},
{
"text": " But being off is just not being off.",
"timestamp": [
324.56,
327.36
]
},
{
"text": " There's lots of things that are happening.",
"timestamp": [
327.36,
329.24
]
},
{
"text": " We're gonna kind of talk about",
"timestamp": [
329.24,
330.92
]
},
{
"text": " those different pieces of sleep.",
"timestamp": [
330.92,
332.6
]
},
{
"text": " Okay.",
"timestamp": [
332.6,
333.44
]
},
{
"text": " So our sleep is made up of different types, okay?",
"timestamp": [
333.44,
336.12
]
},
{
"text": " The first one is called non-rapid eye movement sleep",
"timestamp": [
336.12,
340.24
]
},
{
"text": " or non-REM, okay?",
"timestamp": [
340.24,
341.88
]
},
{
"text": " Or N-R-E-M.",
"timestamp": [
341.88,
343.2
]
},
{
"text": " And then the other one, which is, you know,",
"timestamp": [
343.2,
345.48
]
},
{
"text": " might not be a surprise, is called REM,",
"timestamp": [
345.48,
347.24
]
},
{
"text": " rapid eye movement sleep.",
"timestamp": [
347.24,
348.2
]
},
{
"text": " And those are the two main types of sleep that happen.",
"timestamp": [
348.2,
351.68
]
},
{
"text": " The way that we measure that as a sleep scientist",
"timestamp": [
351.68,
353.92
]
},
{
"text": " is we actually will bring people into the lab",
"timestamp": [
353.92,
355.64
]
},
{
"text": " or they can do this at home,",
"timestamp": [
355.64,
356.96
]
},
{
"text": " where we put electrodes on their scalp",
"timestamp": [
356.96,
360.64
]
},
{
"text": " while they're sleeping,",
"timestamp": [
360.64,
361.64
]
},
{
"text": " and then allows us to measure the brain activity",
"timestamp": [
361.64,
364.72
]
},
{
"text": " that's going on during the night. Okay, are you like us to measure the brain activity that's going on",
"timestamp": [
364.72,
365.42
]
},
{
"text": " during the night.",
"timestamp": [
365.42,
366.36
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, are you able to tell how much sleep",
"timestamp": [
366.36,
368.78
]
},
{
"text": " someone's getting or what their sleep schedule is by REM?",
"timestamp": [
368.78,
372.1
]
},
{
"text": " When we measure all of that, we're able to see",
"timestamp": [
372.1,
374.06
]
},
{
"text": " how much time someone's asleep and how many times",
"timestamp": [
374.06,
376.82
]
},
{
"text": " they wake up and stuff during the night.",
"timestamp": [
376.82,
378.3
]
},
{
"text": " You know, we're also really interested in",
"timestamp": [
378.3,
380.14
]
},
{
"text": " kind of the amount of non-REM sleep that someone gets",
"timestamp": [
380.14,
382.98
]
},
{
"text": " and the amount of REM sleep that someone gets,",
"timestamp": [
382.98,
384.9
]
},
{
"text": " because each part of those types of sleep",
"timestamp": [
384.9,
387.58
]
},
{
"text": " do different things for the body.",
"timestamp": [
387.58,
389.3
]
},
{
"text": " And so it's important to get both of those.",
"timestamp": [
389.3,
391.18
]
},
{
"text": " And so within non-REM sleep,",
"timestamp": [
391.18,
392.98
]
},
{
"text": " there are three stages,",
"timestamp": [
392.98,
394.88
]
},
{
"text": " ranging from N1 to N2 to N3.",
"timestamp": [
394.88,
397.58
]
},
{
"text": " So not particularly clever in our naming,",
"timestamp": [
397.58,
399.94
]
},
{
"text": " but that's how we know what stages they are.",
"timestamp": [
399.94,
402.18
]
},
{
"text": " And what they do is it moves",
"timestamp": [
402.18,
403.98
]
},
{
"text": " from lightest to deepest sleep, okay?",
"timestamp": [
403.98,
406.32
]
},
{
"text": " And so in N1, it's more kind of light wakefulness sleep,",
"timestamp": [
406.32,
410.48
]
},
{
"text": " kind of in and out of sleeping.",
"timestamp": [
410.48,
412.44
]
},
{
"text": " Then you go into N2, which is where we spend 45",
"timestamp": [
412.44,
416.24
]
},
{
"text": " to 55% of our sleep.",
"timestamp": [
416.24,
418
]
},
{
"text": " And it's more of this kind of light sleep,",
"timestamp": [
418,
420.2
]
},
{
"text": " but then we get into kind of the really restorative sleep,",
"timestamp": [
420.2,
423.68
]
},
{
"text": " and that's N3.",
"timestamp": [
423.68,
425
]
},
{
"text": " And in N3, when we look at someone's EEG wave,",
"timestamp": [
425,
428.16
]
},
{
"text": " we see these big, slow waves,",
"timestamp": [
428.16,
430.8
]
},
{
"text": " and it's called slow-wave sleep.",
"timestamp": [
430.8,
432.92
]
},
{
"text": " And so we spend about 20% of our sleep in slow-wave sleep,",
"timestamp": [
432.92,
437.4
]
},
{
"text": " though it can vary on a day-to-day.",
"timestamp": [
437.4,
439.04
]
},
{
"text": " Oh, wow.",
"timestamp": [
439.04,
440.28
]
},
{
"text": " When do you think you experience the most REM?",
"timestamp": [
440.28,
443.7
]
},
{
"text": " Well, I've heard that you don't really go",
"timestamp": [
443.7,
446.68
]
},
{
"text": " into a deeper sleep, so I'm guessing in three,",
"timestamp": [
446.68,
449.28
]
},
{
"text": " or any of the ins at all, really,",
"timestamp": [
449.28,
451.66
]
},
{
"text": " if you are on technology right before you go to sleep.",
"timestamp": [
451.66,
454.52
]
},
{
"text": " And also, if there's too much light,",
"timestamp": [
454.52,
457.2
]
},
{
"text": " or if you are listening to music while you're asleep,",
"timestamp": [
457.2,
459.6
]
},
{
"text": " or anything like that,",
"timestamp": [
459.6,
460.44
]
},
{
"text": " you're not experiencing deep sleep, right?",
"timestamp": [
460.44,
462.12
]
},
{
"text": " You know, some of that is totally accurate,",
"timestamp": [
462.12,
464.24
]
},
{
"text": " that when your brain's more engaged",
"timestamp": [
464.24,
467.08
]
},
{
"text": " by being on your phone or, you know,",
"timestamp": [
467.08,
469.4
]
},
{
"text": " doing things that you really enjoy",
"timestamp": [
469.4,
471.08
]
},
{
"text": " or things that stress you out",
"timestamp": [
471.08,
472.2
]
},
{
"text": " or any of those types of things,",
"timestamp": [
472.2,
473.36
]
},
{
"text": " it's harder to get to sleep",
"timestamp": [
473.36,
475
]
},
{
"text": " and to kind of fall into that deeper levels of sleep.",
"timestamp": [
475,
478.28
]
},
{
"text": " Most of the REM sleep, this dreaming sleep,",
"timestamp": [
478.28,
481.84
]
},
{
"text": " happens in the second half of the night, okay?",
"timestamp": [
481.84,
484.76
]
},
{
"text": " So we wake up a lot of the night. Okay?",
"timestamp": [
484.76,
485
]
},
{
"text": " So we wake up a lot during the night and we just don't remember it.",
"timestamp": [
485,
487.68
]
},
{
"text": " And then you'll go back down into deep sleep and then, you know, up again into REM and,",
"timestamp": [
487.68,
492.04
]
},
{
"text": " you know, in kind of these cycles.",
"timestamp": [
492.04,
493.04
]
},
{
"text": " Oh, wow.",
"timestamp": [
493.04,
494.04
]
},
{
"text": " Right?",
"timestamp": [
494.04,
495.04
]
},
{
"text": " Do you ever take naps?",
"timestamp": [
495.04,
496.04
]
},
{
"text": " I do.",
"timestamp": [
496.04,
497.04
]
},
{
"text": " Okay.",
"timestamp": [
497.04,
498.04
]
},
{
"text": " How long are the naps that you take?",
"timestamp": [
498.04,
499.04
]
},
{
"text": " Anywhere between one to six hours.",
"timestamp": [
499.04,
502.08
]
},
{
"text": " One to six hours?",
"timestamp": [
502.08,
503.08
]
},
{
"text": " Yes.",
"timestamp": [
503.08,
504.08
]
},
{
"text": " That's a long nap. It is a long nap.",
"timestamp": [
504.08,
505.54
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, usually we want to keep naps like 20 to 30 minutes.",
"timestamp": [
505.54,
508.56
]
},
{
"text": " When people drop into deep sleep",
"timestamp": [
508.56,
511.28
]
},
{
"text": " and then they're woken up out of a nap,",
"timestamp": [
511.28,
512.96
]
},
{
"text": " most people report that they feel way worse",
"timestamp": [
512.96,
515.9
]
},
{
"text": " than they did before they took the nap.",
"timestamp": [
515.9,
517.76
]
},
{
"text": " And that's because you've been in deep sleep",
"timestamp": [
517.76,
520.2
]
},
{
"text": " and it's this term called sleep inertia.",
"timestamp": [
520.2,
522.36
]
},
{
"text": " So what are the stages of sleep?",
"timestamp": [
522.36,
524.3
]
},
{
"text": " So in one being like light, you know, sleep,",
"timestamp": [
524.3,
527.44
]
},
{
"text": " still a lot of brain activity going on.",
"timestamp": [
527.44,
529.76
]
},
{
"text": " I can imagine that that happens",
"timestamp": [
529.76,
531
]
},
{
"text": " right after you fall asleep.",
"timestamp": [
531,
532.88
]
},
{
"text": " Asleep.",
"timestamp": [
532.88,
534.2
]
},
{
"text": " And then in two being light,",
"timestamp": [
534.2,
537.08
]
},
{
"text": " moderate activity in your brain,",
"timestamp": [
537.08,
539.76
]
},
{
"text": " still sleep, but still kind of consciously aware.",
"timestamp": [
539.76,
544.44
]
},
{
"text": " And then three being the deepest form of sleep.",
"timestamp": [
544.44,
547.42
]
},
{
"text": " I want to know if you agree,",
"timestamp": [
547.42,
549.38
]
},
{
"text": " sleep is the coolest thing you've ever heard of.",
"timestamp": [
549.38,
551.12
]
},
{
"text": " It really is.",
"timestamp": [
551.12,
552.58
]
},
{
"text": " Right now, it definitely is the coolest thing",
"timestamp": [
552.58,
555.26
]
},
{
"text": " I've ever heard of.",
"timestamp": [
555.26,
556.22
]
},
{
"text": " So tell me, you know, where are you in school?",
"timestamp": [
557.98,
560.16
]
},
{
"text": " What do you study?",
"timestamp": [
560.16,
561
]
},
{
"text": " I'm a fourth year chemistry student at USF.",
"timestamp": [
561,
564.74
]
},
{
"text": " So pretty science-y.. So pretty science-y.",
"timestamp": [
564.74,
565.84
]
},
{
"text": " Yes, pretty science-y.",
"timestamp": [
565.84,
566.96
]
},
{
"text": " Excellent, because today, for this level,",
"timestamp": [
566.96,
569.16
]
},
{
"text": " we're talking about sleep.",
"timestamp": [
569.16,
570.96
]
},
{
"text": " Great.",
"timestamp": [
570.96,
571.8
]
},
{
"text": " How much sleep do you get, typically?",
"timestamp": [
571.8,
574.4
]
},
{
"text": " During the summer?",
"timestamp": [
574.4,
575.52
]
},
{
"text": " Like 10 hours. Sure, 10 hours.",
"timestamp": [
575.52,
577.12
]
},
{
"text": " During the school year, maybe five.",
"timestamp": [
577.12,
580.56
]
},
{
"text": " Wow. Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
580.56,
581.56
]
},
{
"text": " And so how much do you think you need?",
"timestamp": [
581.56,
582.92
]
},
{
"text": " I mean, I've read that six is ideal",
"timestamp": [
582.92,
585.48
]
},
{
"text": " for people in my age range.",
"timestamp": [
585.48,
588
]
},
{
"text": " Turns out, for people that are between the ages of 18 and 65",
"timestamp": [
588,
593
]
},
{
"text": " the agreed upon amount of sleep that people should get",
"timestamp": [
593.42,
596.38
]
},
{
"text": " is between seven and nine hours,",
"timestamp": [
596.38,
598.56
]
},
{
"text": " and it's really at least seven hours per night.",
"timestamp": [
598.56,
601.52
]
},
{
"text": " To maintain optimal health as an adult.",
"timestamp": [
601.52,
603.88
]
},
{
"text": " So at least seven hours.",
"timestamp": [
603.88,
605.24
]
},
{
"text": " When we look across all of the data that is available",
"timestamp": [
605.24,
608.68
]
},
{
"text": " on sleep and health and sleep and psychiatric illness",
"timestamp": [
608.68,
610.92
]
},
{
"text": " and those types of things, the largest risk",
"timestamp": [
610.92,
613.02
]
},
{
"text": " is when people get five hours or less.",
"timestamp": [
613.02,
615.28
]
},
{
"text": " What do you think is responsible for driving",
"timestamp": [
615.28,
618.88
]
},
{
"text": " how much sleep you need and things like that?",
"timestamp": [
618.88,
620.92
]
},
{
"text": " I mean, I know sleep is regulated by the thalamus and the suprachiasmatic nucleus",
"timestamp": [
620.92,
626.7
]
},
{
"text": " sending signals to the pineal gland,",
"timestamp": [
626.7,
629.16
]
},
{
"text": " which kind of secretes melatonin,",
"timestamp": [
629.16,
631.26
]
},
{
"text": " which tells us when it's time to go to sleep.",
"timestamp": [
631.26,
634.46
]
},
{
"text": " And...",
"timestamp": [
634.46,
635.34
]
},
{
"text": " Right, you can do part of this level,",
"timestamp": [
635.34,
637.54
]
},
{
"text": " and when you die, we'll do the other part.",
"timestamp": [
637.54,
639.5
]
},
{
"text": " Clearly, got some expertise under your belt,",
"timestamp": [
639.5,
641.62
]
},
{
"text": " and so that's awesome, because I think",
"timestamp": [
641.62,
643.54
]
},
{
"text": " that everyone should know more about sleep.",
"timestamp": [
643.54,
645
]
},
{
"text": " And so the way that we think about what drives sleep",
"timestamp": [
645,
647.66
]
},
{
"text": " are two kind of independent but kind of related processes.",
"timestamp": [
647.66,
651.92
]
},
{
"text": " And so they have kind of lame names,",
"timestamp": [
651.92,
654.32
]
},
{
"text": " process S and process C, okay?",
"timestamp": [
654.32,
656.96
]
},
{
"text": " And what you've kind of described is process C,",
"timestamp": [
656.96,
659.4
]
},
{
"text": " and that's the master clock, right?",
"timestamp": [
659.4,
661.72
]
},
{
"text": " And it helps regulate kind of the rhythms",
"timestamp": [
661.72,
663.88
]
},
{
"text": " like all of your body, all your cells",
"timestamp": [
663.88,
665.22
]
},
{
"text": " and all those kind of things.",
"timestamp": [
665.22,
666.16
]
},
{
"text": " It drives the release of melatonin from the pineal gland",
"timestamp": [
666.16,
670.5
]
},
{
"text": " and melatonin comes online under darkness.",
"timestamp": [
670.5,
673.98
]
},
{
"text": " So when the sun goes down, your brain knows,",
"timestamp": [
673.98,
676.42
]
},
{
"text": " okay, it's time to start getting ready for sleep",
"timestamp": [
676.42,
678.74
]
},
{
"text": " and so you start releasing melatonin,",
"timestamp": [
678.74,
680.54
]
},
{
"text": " which really kind of sets the table for sleeping.",
"timestamp": [
680.54,
682.86
]
},
{
"text": " Like I'm from Hawaii, so we have very long days.",
"timestamp": [
682.86,
685.74
]
},
{
"text": " We have early sunrises, late sunsets.",
"timestamp": [
685.74,
687.8
]
},
{
"text": " Does that signify like less sleep?",
"timestamp": [
687.8,
690.26
]
},
{
"text": " Because we have a shorter amount of time",
"timestamp": [
690.26,
691.64
]
},
{
"text": " for melatonin to be released?",
"timestamp": [
691.64,
693.4
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, no, that's a really great question.",
"timestamp": [
693.4,
694.8
]
},
{
"text": " And the same is true, you know,",
"timestamp": [
694.8,
696.36
]
},
{
"text": " in places where the sun never goes down during the summer",
"timestamp": [
696.36,
699.4
]
},
{
"text": " and when it's dark all the time during the winter",
"timestamp": [
699.4,
701.12
]
},
{
"text": " and it turns out that light isn't the only thing",
"timestamp": [
701.12,
703.04
]
},
{
"text": " that kind of gates your circadian rhythm.",
"timestamp": [
703.04,
705.1
]
},
{
"text": " But I think the thing that's really important is,",
"timestamp": [
705.1,
707.2
]
},
{
"text": " again, there are two processes.",
"timestamp": [
707.2,
708.68
]
},
{
"text": " But the other one is the S-process,",
"timestamp": [
708.68,
710.2
]
},
{
"text": " and that one's just kind of a really important driver",
"timestamp": [
710.2,
713.3
]
},
{
"text": " of sleep, and it's formally, we call it,",
"timestamp": [
713.3,
715.9
]
},
{
"text": " like the homeostatic sleep drive.",
"timestamp": [
715.9,
717.72
]
},
{
"text": " Kind of the longer you're awake, the sleepier you get.",
"timestamp": [
717.72,
720.52
]
},
{
"text": " You stay up, you get sleepy, time goes by,",
"timestamp": [
720.52,
723.44
]
},
{
"text": " you get sleepier, time goes by, you get sleepier.",
"timestamp": [
723.44,
725.56
]
},
{
"text": " But it's actually kind of a really fundamental principle",
"timestamp": [
725.56,
729.12
]
},
{
"text": " for how sleep is regulated.",
"timestamp": [
729.12,
730.72
]
},
{
"text": " And it's really kind of akin to like a balloon, okay?",
"timestamp": [
730.72,
733.36
]
},
{
"text": " So you know, you wake up in the morning",
"timestamp": [
733.36,
735.4
]
},
{
"text": " and your balloon is flat,",
"timestamp": [
735.4,
736.34
]
},
{
"text": " like you've kind of like drained out all the sleepiness.",
"timestamp": [
736.34,
738.44
]
},
{
"text": " But then as you kind of go throughout the day,",
"timestamp": [
738.44,
740.88
]
},
{
"text": " it kind of fills up, right?",
"timestamp": [
740.88,
742.28
]
},
{
"text": " So you can use your energy, it gets filled up.",
"timestamp": [
742.28,
744.64
]
},
{
"text": " And then it gets filled up more, like as you get towards nighttime, right?",
"timestamp": [
746.9,
748.74
]
},
{
"text": " And then when it's at like this optimal amount",
"timestamp": [
748.74,
750.84
]
},
{
"text": " is when you kind of like go to sleep",
"timestamp": [
750.84,
752.12
]
},
{
"text": " and you kind of let out all the sleepiness again.",
"timestamp": [
752.12,
754.24
]
},
{
"text": " And this is really what underlies",
"timestamp": [
754.24,
756.26
]
},
{
"text": " kind of why napping can also be bad for you.",
"timestamp": [
756.26,
758.72
]
},
{
"text": " So nappings aren't inherently bad,",
"timestamp": [
758.72,
760.4
]
},
{
"text": " but if you actually let out some of this air during the day,",
"timestamp": [
760.4,
764.24
]
},
{
"text": " it's gonna take longer for the balloon to get bigger,",
"timestamp": [
764.24,
766.86
]
},
{
"text": " right, to where you feel sleepy, right?",
"timestamp": [
766.86,
768.32
]
},
{
"text": " What did you learn about sleep today?",
"timestamp": [
768.32,
770.16
]
},
{
"text": " I learned about the two processes,",
"timestamp": [
770.16,
772.06
]
},
{
"text": " process S and process C.",
"timestamp": [
772.06,
773.8
]
},
{
"text": " I learned about their circadian rhythm",
"timestamp": [
773.8,
776.06
]
},
{
"text": " and how it doesn't only rely on melatonin,",
"timestamp": [
776.06,
779.72
]
},
{
"text": " but it also relies on your eating",
"timestamp": [
779.72,
782.1
]
},
{
"text": " and a whole bunch of other factors",
"timestamp": [
782.1,
784.5
]
},
{
"text": " that kind of affect your circadian rhythm.",
"timestamp": [
784.5,
786.56
]
},
{
"text": " Hi, I'm Eric.",
"timestamp": [
788.36,
789.6
]
},
{
"text": " Mayesh.",
"timestamp": [
789.6,
790.52
]
},
{
"text": " Thank you for joining us.",
"timestamp": [
790.52,
791.64
]
},
{
"text": " What do you do?",
"timestamp": [
791.64,
792.48
]
},
{
"text": " Where are you at in school?",
"timestamp": [
792.48,
794.36
]
},
{
"text": " So I'm at UC Berkeley.",
"timestamp": [
794.36,
796.2
]
},
{
"text": " I'm a psychology student studying cognitive neuroscience",
"timestamp": [
796.2,
800
]
},
{
"text": " and I just started my third year.",
"timestamp": [
800,
801.92
]
},
{
"text": " Congratulations.",
"timestamp": [
801.92,
803
]
},
{
"text": " Thank you.",
"timestamp": [
803,
804.32
]
},
{
"text": " So a lot of brain stuff.",
"timestamp": [
804.32,
806.56
]
},
{
"text": " A lot of brain stuff.",
"timestamp": [
806.56,
807.56
]
},
{
"text": " Great.",
"timestamp": [
807.56,
808.38
]
},
{
"text": " I'm biased because I study one of the other",
"timestamp": [
808.38,
810.36
]
},
{
"text": " subcritical parts of the brain, the cerebellum.",
"timestamp": [
810.36,
812.84
]
},
{
"text": " So that's good because that's why you're here.",
"timestamp": [
812.84,
815.26
]
},
{
"text": " And so we're talking about sleep today.",
"timestamp": [
815.26,
818.08
]
},
{
"text": " And really about kind of what is the brain machinery",
"timestamp": [
818.08,
822.64
]
},
{
"text": " through which we go from kind of consciousness to unconsciousness and that transition?",
"timestamp": [
822.64,
827.04
]
},
{
"text": " Great.",
"timestamp": [
827.04,
827.88
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, the best way to think about this transition",
"timestamp": [
827.88,
829.8
]
},
{
"text": " is really called a flip-flop switch.",
"timestamp": [
829.8,
833.16
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, and so this term comes from engineering.",
"timestamp": [
833.16,
835.36
]
},
{
"text": " And the idea is that in sleep,",
"timestamp": [
835.36,
837.08
]
},
{
"text": " you basically have this all or nothing experience.",
"timestamp": [
837.08,
841
]
},
{
"text": " Certainly people drift off to sleep,",
"timestamp": [
841,
842.96
]
},
{
"text": " but then all of a sudden you're unconscious, right?",
"timestamp": [
842.96,
844.8
]
},
{
"text": " So it seems like it's this flip flop",
"timestamp": [
844.8,
846.4
]
},
{
"text": " between kind of the arousal system",
"timestamp": [
846.4,
848.4
]
},
{
"text": " and then the sleep promoting system.",
"timestamp": [
848.4,
850.2
]
},
{
"text": " And it's certainly regulated,",
"timestamp": [
850.2,
851.8
]
},
{
"text": " and we'll get a little bit into that.",
"timestamp": [
851.8,
853.52
]
},
{
"text": " But they're certainly kind of made up",
"timestamp": [
853.52,
854.84
]
},
{
"text": " of two reciprocally inhibitory processes.",
"timestamp": [
854.84,
857.84
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, so we have the ascending reticular activating system.",
"timestamp": [
857.84,
860.76
]
},
{
"text": " It originates in the brainstem,",
"timestamp": [
860.76,
862.56
]
},
{
"text": " and there's a dorsal and a ventral arm to this.",
"timestamp": [
862.56,
865.06
]
},
{
"text": " And so the dorsal arm has neurons,",
"timestamp": [
865.06,
867.94
]
},
{
"text": " cholinergic neurons that go up to the thalamus",
"timestamp": [
867.94,
869.92
]
},
{
"text": " and then it projects into the forebrain.",
"timestamp": [
869.92,
872.28
]
},
{
"text": " And then there's the ventral arm,",
"timestamp": [
872.28,
873.94
]
},
{
"text": " and this is comprised of a whole bunch",
"timestamp": [
873.94,
875.56
]
},
{
"text": " of different types of neurons,",
"timestamp": [
875.56,
876.64
]
},
{
"text": " so they're all monominergic.",
"timestamp": [
876.64,
877.68
]
},
{
"text": " So there's kind of dopaminergic neurons",
"timestamp": [
877.68,
879.92
]
},
{
"text": " that come from the periaqueductal gray,",
"timestamp": [
879.92,
883.04
]
},
{
"text": " serotonergic ones from the dorsal raphae nuclei, histaminergic neurons that come from the periaqueductal gray, serotonergic ones from the dorsal raphae nuclei,",
"timestamp": [
883.04,
885.64
]
},
{
"text": " histaminergic neurons that come from the tuber",
"timestamp": [
885.64,
887.68
]
},
{
"text": " mammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus,",
"timestamp": [
887.68,
890.04
]
},
{
"text": " and then noradrenergic neurons from the locus surrealis.",
"timestamp": [
890.04,
895.04
]
},
{
"text": " And so all of those are kind of working in tandem",
"timestamp": [
895.44,
897.92
]
},
{
"text": " to kind of drive wake within the brain.",
"timestamp": [
897.92,
900.4
]
},
{
"text": " And so if we just think about kind of drugs",
"timestamp": [
900.4,
902.48
]
},
{
"text": " that are available for inducing wakefulness, we can certainly,",
"timestamp": [
902.48,
907.32
]
},
{
"text": " kind of the dopaminergic ones kind of jump out, right?",
"timestamp": [
907.32,
909.44
]
},
{
"text": " So we have amphetamines that certainly drive",
"timestamp": [
909.44,
913.12
]
},
{
"text": " those signaling, and then modafinil,",
"timestamp": [
913.12,
915.62
]
},
{
"text": " which is a wake-promoting drug for people",
"timestamp": [
915.62,
918.68
]
},
{
"text": " that have excessive daytime sleepiness,",
"timestamp": [
918.68,
921.08
]
},
{
"text": " that maintains alertness throughout the day.",
"timestamp": [
921.08,
923.04
]
},
{
"text": " In terms of the dopamine,",
"timestamp": [
923.04,
925.68
]
},
{
"text": " is if you're taking amphetamines,",
"timestamp": [
925.68,
927.52
]
},
{
"text": " that's usually to promote, as you said, wakefulness.",
"timestamp": [
927.52,
930.2
]
},
{
"text": " But does that actually improve the quality of your sleep?",
"timestamp": [
931.18,
934.4
]
},
{
"text": " How reliable are those kinds of interventions?",
"timestamp": [
934.4,
936.8
]
},
{
"text": " The role that they play with respect",
"timestamp": [
936.8,
938.32
]
},
{
"text": " to the sleep-wake system is really kind of",
"timestamp": [
938.32,
939.92
]
},
{
"text": " amping up the wake system, right?",
"timestamp": [
939.92,
941.6
]
},
{
"text": " And so certainly that has downstream consequences",
"timestamp": [
941.6,
943.96
]
},
{
"text": " for the sleep system, because now the flip-flop switch",
"timestamp": [
943.96,
946.6
]
},
{
"text": " is kind of pushed in a much stronger direction,",
"timestamp": [
946.6,
949.64
]
},
{
"text": " and we have to kind of rely on what regulates sleep",
"timestamp": [
949.64,
953.2
]
},
{
"text": " to kind of get it pushed back to sleep.",
"timestamp": [
953.2,
955.04
]
},
{
"text": " And do we know much about why,",
"timestamp": [
955.04,
957.48
]
},
{
"text": " like which stages of the sleep cycle are affected?",
"timestamp": [
957.48,
961.88
]
},
{
"text": " You know, if you take amphetamines,",
"timestamp": [
961.88,
963.12
]
},
{
"text": " is it then when you go to sleep,",
"timestamp": [
963.12,
964.16
]
},
{
"text": " you're not able to transition",
"timestamp": [
964.16,
965.36
]
},
{
"text": " through each of the different sleep periods,",
"timestamp": [
965.36,
967.24
]
},
{
"text": " or is that less clear?",
"timestamp": [
967.24,
968.6
]
},
{
"text": " No, I think that's less clear.",
"timestamp": [
968.6,
969.7
]
},
{
"text": " In some ways, you know, getting back to this idea",
"timestamp": [
969.7,
972.7
]
},
{
"text": " of this wake-sleep system, you know,",
"timestamp": [
972.7,
974.14
]
},
{
"text": " we have this sleep system that is kind of the counterpoint",
"timestamp": [
974.14,
977.16
]
},
{
"text": " to this wake-arousal system,",
"timestamp": [
977.16,
979.18
]
},
{
"text": " and so the primary nucleus region",
"timestamp": [
979.18,
982.16
]
},
{
"text": " is the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus, also called VLPO.",
"timestamp": [
982.16,
986.94
]
},
{
"text": " And that has particular neuron outputs",
"timestamp": [
986.94,
991.32
]
},
{
"text": " that release GABA and ganolin,",
"timestamp": [
991.32,
994.76
]
},
{
"text": " which work in an inhibitory way",
"timestamp": [
994.76,
998
]
},
{
"text": " on kind of the weight-promoting ones.",
"timestamp": [
998,
1000.62
]
},
{
"text": " And so it's this kind of delicate balance",
"timestamp": [
1000.62,
1003.24
]
},
{
"text": " of these two systems that are ongoing.",
"timestamp": [
1003.24,
1005.76
]
},
{
"text": " In your cognitive neuroscience training,",
"timestamp": [
1005.76,
1008.52
]
},
{
"text": " it sounds like it's pretty specific and focused",
"timestamp": [
1008.52,
1011.68
]
},
{
"text": " in a particular part of the brain, the cerebellum.",
"timestamp": [
1011.68,
1014.16
]
},
{
"text": " And one thing that I'm kind of interested in,",
"timestamp": [
1014.16,
1017.64
]
},
{
"text": " let's say you bring a participant into the study,",
"timestamp": [
1017.64,
1019.76
]
},
{
"text": " have you ensured that they got a good night's sleep?",
"timestamp": [
1019.76,
1022.92
]
},
{
"text": " Have you asked them about their sleep?",
"timestamp": [
1022.92,
1025.44
]
},
{
"text": " In most studies, probably it is advised for participants before they come in to get a",
"timestamp": [
1025.44,
1030.22
]
},
{
"text": " good night's sleep.",
"timestamp": [
1030.22,
1031.22
]
},
{
"text": " So those would be recommendations that you would lay out, you know, in communication",
"timestamp": [
1031.22,
1035.16
]
},
{
"text": " with the participant before they come in.",
"timestamp": [
1035.16,
1037.2
]
},
{
"text": " You know, what we do in our studies is we actually track people for, say, a week, and",
"timestamp": [
1037.2,
1043.48
]
},
{
"text": " they have to kind of get in within this range",
"timestamp": [
1043.48,
1045.5
]
},
{
"text": " of amount of sleep and then it has to be",
"timestamp": [
1045.5,
1048.1
]
},
{
"text": " both amount of sleep and then how kind of stable it is.",
"timestamp": [
1048.1,
1051.6
]
},
{
"text": " That variability can really impact it",
"timestamp": [
1051.6,
1054.7
]
},
{
"text": " and certainly might have an impact on",
"timestamp": [
1054.7,
1058.1
]
},
{
"text": " the machinery that's happening in the brain.",
"timestamp": [
1058.1,
1061.02
]
},
{
"text": " Often think that people, many people think",
"timestamp": [
1061.02,
1063.94
]
},
{
"text": " that they can get by on very little sleep",
"timestamp": [
1063.94,
1066.24
]
},
{
"text": " or less than average amount of sleep, but from what I know from the research, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1066.24,
1070.4
]
},
{
"text": " if you actually test those people on different batteries of cognitive tasks, you'll often",
"timestamp": [
1070.4,
1075.98
]
},
{
"text": " find that their performance is slightly worse than maybe they had anticipated.",
"timestamp": [
1075.98,
1081
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1081,
1082
]
},
{
"text": " So, what did you learn about sleep today? I guess I learned that it's a system that is, you know, very heavily regulated and influenced",
"timestamp": [
1082,
1090.8
]
},
{
"text": " by, you know, some of these older, more conserved subcortical systems in the brain.",
"timestamp": [
1090.8,
1096.6
]
},
{
"text": " And that there's, as you called it, like a flip-flop function between wakefulness and sleep. That's regulated by these specific,",
"timestamp": [
1096.6,
1106.04
]
},
{
"text": " like dopaminergic, neurodrogenergic,",
"timestamp": [
1106.04,
1108.76
]
},
{
"text": " like neurotransmitters that manifest",
"timestamp": [
1108.76,
1111.54
]
},
{
"text": " in different subcortical parts of the brain.",
"timestamp": [
1111.54,
1113.8
]
},
{
"text": " So now we have sleep on your brain.",
"timestamp": [
1113.8,
1116.04
]
},
{
"text": " That was all I wanted to hear.",
"timestamp": [
1116.04,
1118.04
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1118.04,
1118.88
]
},
{
"text": " Good to see you again, Yue.",
"timestamp": [
1120.8,
1121.96
]
},
{
"text": " Yes, good to see you.",
"timestamp": [
1121.96,
1123
]
},
{
"text": " Really glad that you could join us.",
"timestamp": [
1123,
1124.28
]
},
{
"text": " So we've been talking about sleep today at various levels of complexity, but now",
"timestamp": [
1124.28,
1128.82
]
},
{
"text": " with you I really want to talk about kind of what do we know about sleep and",
"timestamp": [
1128.82,
1132.48
]
},
{
"text": " the aging brain. Can you tell me a little about some of the work that you've been",
"timestamp": [
1132.48,
1135.64
]
},
{
"text": " doing in that area? So I'm an epidemiologist, so we do a lot of work on",
"timestamp": [
1135.64,
1139.36
]
},
{
"text": " the epidemiology of sleep and development of neurodegenerative",
"timestamp": [
1139.36,
1144.16
]
},
{
"text": " diseases including both Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease,",
"timestamp": [
1144.16,
1147.76
]
},
{
"text": " so AD and PD.",
"timestamp": [
1147.76,
1149.36
]
},
{
"text": " We mainly work on population studies.",
"timestamp": [
1149.36,
1151.86
]
},
{
"text": " We work on thousands and even millions of population,",
"timestamp": [
1151.86,
1155.62
]
},
{
"text": " and we use statistical modeling to find out",
"timestamp": [
1155.62,
1159.1
]
},
{
"text": " the association between different sleep disturbances",
"timestamp": [
1159.1,
1162.68
]
},
{
"text": " and also genetics related to sleep disturbances and",
"timestamp": [
1162.68,
1167.36
]
},
{
"text": " link that to their risk of developing AD and PD.",
"timestamp": [
1167.36,
1171.64
]
},
{
"text": " So how strong is the link?",
"timestamp": [
1171.64,
1173.16
]
},
{
"text": " Our study has found really strong associations looking at these populations, for example",
"timestamp": [
1173.16,
1178.72
]
},
{
"text": " with sleep apnea.",
"timestamp": [
1178.72,
1179.72
]
},
{
"text": " We've done one meta-analysis and it showed that those with sleep apnea, they have ART ratio of 1.26,",
"timestamp": [
1179.72,
1188.68
]
},
{
"text": " which means that those who have sleep apnea,",
"timestamp": [
1189.04,
1191.1
]
},
{
"text": " they have 26% elevated risk of developing Alzheimer's",
"timestamp": [
1191.1,
1195.58
]
},
{
"text": " compared to those without sleep apnea.",
"timestamp": [
1195.58,
1197.72
]
},
{
"text": " So it's interesting, so I also saw that there was",
"timestamp": [
1197.72,
1200.68
]
},
{
"text": " a recent meta-analysis around sleep disturbances",
"timestamp": [
1200.68,
1203.16
]
},
{
"text": " and dementia risk, and in that study,",
"timestamp": [
1203.16,
1204.68
]
},
{
"text": " they looked at about 250,000 people in this meta-analysis around sleep disturbances and dementia risk. And in that study, they looked at about 250,000 people",
"timestamp": [
1204.68,
1207.92
]
},
{
"text": " in this meta-analysis, and they followed them",
"timestamp": [
1207.92,
1209.32
]
},
{
"text": " for around 10 years, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1209.32,
1210.8
]
},
{
"text": " when they pulled all the samples together,",
"timestamp": [
1210.8,
1212.56
]
},
{
"text": " and they found there was a 1.2 fold risk,",
"timestamp": [
1212.56,
1215.08
]
},
{
"text": " increased risk for developing all-cause dementia.",
"timestamp": [
1215.08,
1218
]
},
{
"text": " And so it sounds like both sleep apnea",
"timestamp": [
1218,
1220.16
]
},
{
"text": " and then maybe sleep disturbances more generally",
"timestamp": [
1220.16,
1222.72
]
},
{
"text": " are associated with increased risk for dementia.",
"timestamp": [
1222.72,
1225.2
]
},
{
"text": " When I think about that,",
"timestamp": [
1225.2,
1226.16
]
},
{
"text": " I think about how sleep lives in the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1226.16,
1228.82
]
},
{
"text": " these neurodegenerative disease live in the brain.",
"timestamp": [
1229.64,
1231.92
]
},
{
"text": " And so what do we know about the causality of this?",
"timestamp": [
1231.92,
1234.04
]
},
{
"text": " Could it be that individuals who have early onset",
"timestamp": [
1234.04,
1237.92
]
},
{
"text": " of say Alzheimer's have then kind of poor sleep",
"timestamp": [
1237.92,
1241.52
]
},
{
"text": " as a consequence of that?",
"timestamp": [
1241.52,
1242.88
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, so I think what's really fascinating",
"timestamp": [
1242.88,
1244.96
]
},
{
"text": " is all these bi bidirectional relationship",
"timestamp": [
1244.96,
1247.36
]
},
{
"text": " that's being identified in animal studies especially,",
"timestamp": [
1247.36,
1250.72
]
},
{
"text": " showing that sleep changes actually occur very early on",
"timestamp": [
1250.72,
1254.2
]
},
{
"text": " in the disease process.",
"timestamp": [
1254.2,
1255.84
]
},
{
"text": " So it could be a pro-dromal stage of Parkinson's",
"timestamp": [
1255.84,
1259.28
]
},
{
"text": " and also in transgenic mouse model of AD,",
"timestamp": [
1259.28,
1262.68
]
},
{
"text": " they are already showing a lot of circadian abnormalities",
"timestamp": [
1262.68,
1266.76
]
},
{
"text": " in this mouse.",
"timestamp": [
1266.76,
1267.72
]
},
{
"text": " So within dementia risk, in particular Alzheimer's,",
"timestamp": [
1267.72,
1269.8
]
},
{
"text": " for instance, there are kind of two clear features",
"timestamp": [
1269.8,
1273.66
]
},
{
"text": " that seem to be part of the pathology, right?",
"timestamp": [
1273.66,
1275.98
]
},
{
"text": " So there's kind of beta amyloid,",
"timestamp": [
1275.98,
1278.12
]
},
{
"text": " which accumulates in the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1278.12,
1279.12
]
},
{
"text": " and then there's kind of these tangles,",
"timestamp": [
1279.12,
1280.36
]
},
{
"text": " this tauopathies, right?",
"timestamp": [
1280.36,
1281.84
]
},
{
"text": " And so it sounds like sleep seems to be related",
"timestamp": [
1281.84,
1285.96
]
},
{
"text": " to the tauopathies.",
"timestamp": [
1285.96,
1287.12
]
},
{
"text": " What about beta amyloid?",
"timestamp": [
1287.12,
1289.8
]
},
{
"text": " Yes, in the transgenic mouse models of AD,",
"timestamp": [
1289.8,
1292
]
},
{
"text": " including those expressing human mutant amyloid",
"timestamp": [
1292,
1294.96
]
},
{
"text": " precursor protein, APP, tau, or both.",
"timestamp": [
1294.96,
1298.24
]
},
{
"text": " So that's kind of showing the sleep changes",
"timestamp": [
1298.24,
1300.24
]
},
{
"text": " in both of these pathologies.",
"timestamp": [
1300.24,
1302.2
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, so there is this bidirectional piece.",
"timestamp": [
1302.2,
1304.52
]
},
{
"text": " But I think perhaps the most exciting thing",
"timestamp": [
1304.52,
1307.72
]
},
{
"text": " that happened in the sleep field, at least in my view,",
"timestamp": [
1307.72,
1310.12
]
},
{
"text": " has been understanding the role of sleep",
"timestamp": [
1310.12,
1313.76
]
},
{
"text": " and its clearance of beta-amyloid in the brain.",
"timestamp": [
1313.76,
1316.76
]
},
{
"text": " But this idea that sleep is like the dishwasher",
"timestamp": [
1316.76,
1320.36
]
},
{
"text": " of the brain, it seems like,",
"timestamp": [
1320.36,
1321.68
]
},
{
"text": " that A beta accumulates as we kind of use energy",
"timestamp": [
1321.68,
1325.98
]
},
{
"text": " and it's kind of a waste product.",
"timestamp": [
1325.98,
1330.26
]
},
{
"text": " And the idea that if you don't clear it out,",
"timestamp": [
1330.26,
1332.48
]
},
{
"text": " then it's gonna build up and accumulate.",
"timestamp": [
1332.48,
1334.16
]
},
{
"text": " So the thing I'm most excited about sleep research",
"timestamp": [
1334.16,
1337.52
]
},
{
"text": " is I think, first of all, is this complexity",
"timestamp": [
1337.52,
1340.52
]
},
{
"text": " of the daytime, nighttime sleep.",
"timestamp": [
1340.52,
1343.06
]
},
{
"text": " What sleep is really doing to our body and to our brain.",
"timestamp": [
1343.06,
1346.4
]
},
{
"text": " And then it's really from the epidemiologic",
"timestamp": [
1346.4,
1348.92
]
},
{
"text": " or public health perspective,",
"timestamp": [
1348.92,
1350.64
]
},
{
"text": " how we can best use sleep as a tool",
"timestamp": [
1350.64,
1353.92
]
},
{
"text": " for the detection and prevention",
"timestamp": [
1353.92,
1357.32
]
},
{
"text": " of neurodegeneration in the long term.",
"timestamp": [
1357.32,
1359.84
]
},
{
"text": " I'm excited about the,",
"timestamp": [
1359.84,
1362.44
]
},
{
"text": " kind of the future of sleep medicine.",
"timestamp": [
1362.44,
1364.76
]
},
{
"text": " I think there are incredible innovations",
"timestamp": [
1364.76,
1367.04
]
},
{
"text": " that are happening in the basic sciences,",
"timestamp": [
1367.04,
1369.22
]
},
{
"text": " kind of really starting to understand",
"timestamp": [
1369.22,
1372.12
]
},
{
"text": " what are the clear biological processes",
"timestamp": [
1372.12,
1375.74
]
},
{
"text": " that underlie some of these things",
"timestamp": [
1375.74,
1377.22
]
},
{
"text": " as they relate to disease risk,",
"timestamp": [
1377.22,
1378.8
]
},
{
"text": " and what is the true function of sleep,",
"timestamp": [
1378.8,
1380.92
]
},
{
"text": " kind of the why we sleep phenomenon, right?",
"timestamp": [
1380.92,
1383.2
]
},
{
"text": " So this was certainly a challenge today.",
"timestamp": [
1383.2,
1385.46
]
},
{
"text": " Everyone knew a little bit about sleep,",
"timestamp": [
1385.46,
1387.8
]
},
{
"text": " and I think that's great",
"timestamp": [
1387.8,
1389.04
]
},
{
"text": " because sleep is incredibly important.",
"timestamp": [
1389.04,
1390.62
]
},
{
"text": " But there was also a lot of misinformation",
"timestamp": [
1390.62,
1392.34
]
},
{
"text": " around kind of how sleep works",
"timestamp": [
1392.34,
1394.26
]
},
{
"text": " and people doing sleep behaviors",
"timestamp": [
1394.26,
1396.32
]
},
{
"text": " that may not be the most adaptive for them.",
"timestamp": [
1396.32,
1398.56
]
},
{
"text": " We're still uncovering new things every day",
"timestamp": [
1398.56,
1401
]
},
{
"text": " about how sleep works.",
"timestamp": [
1401,
1402.34
]
},
{
"text": " But despite that, all of us know",
"timestamp": [
1402.34,
1404.64
]
},
{
"text": " that sleep",
"timestamp": [
1404.64,
1405.32
]
},
{
"text": " is fundamental to our health.",
"timestamp": [
1405.32,
1407.36
]
},
{
"text": " And so I'm excited for sleep to kind of raise its profile",
"timestamp": [
1407.36,
1411.42
]
},
{
"text": " among other health behaviors and get the investment",
"timestamp": [
1411.42,
1414.44
]
},
{
"text": " and care that it needs.",
"timestamp": [
1414.44,
1415.82
]
}
] |
[
[
"Intro",
" My name is Eric Prather and I'm a sleep scientist at UCSF. I study the causes and consequences of insufficient sleep. I also carry out interventions to improve sleep among people with insomnia. Today I've been challenged to explain the topic of sleep at five different levels."
],
[
"Level 1 Harmony",
" Everybody knows a little bit about what is happening when they sleep, but I think they'll be surprised that there's a lot of science in there. Nice to meet you, my name's Christopher. Hey Christopher, and how old are you? I'm 10. What grade is that? I think fifth. You think fifth? What is your favorite subject? Math and science. Well that's awesome, because we're gonna be talking about science today. Cool. And you know what we're gonna be talking about? What? Sleep. Favorite part of the day. Mine too, because I get to spend all day studying it. Because you know what we're gonna be talking about? What? Sleep. Favorite part of the day. Mine too, because I get to spend all day studying it. Because you know what sleep does for you? It rests your body like an electric car. That's exactly right. It kind of is like recharging your battery, right? And sleep is so critical for so many parts of our body and our mind, right? It plays a really important way that we learn and it helps us kind of recover from the day before."
],
[
"Level 2 Harmony",
" It affects our immune system and our metabolism. All of these things that we need to kind of be healthy. Whoa. So today we're gonna talk about some animals and how they sleep. So here's the first one. What's that? A giraffe. Have you ever seen a giraffe in person? Oh yeah. They're pretty cool, right? Mm-hmm. And so what's really cool about this is that giraffes need to sleep like everybody else. And so the way that it does is it kind of slumps over and it gets down on its legs and it kind of becomes this ball. But what's crazy about the whole thing is they only sleep for like 30 minutes a day. 30 minutes, because it can't waste any more time because it can't be vulnerable for any longer. It can get eaten by lions and that kind of thing. It is kind of evolved in a way that it can still survive and still get all the restoration it needs under such a short period of time. I mean, how does it like recharge like humans? So we think it works the same way, but maybe just like more efficiently. And so we're still really learning about how this works. Sleep science itself is kind of a new field. I had a sleepover on Saturday and I didn't sleep at all. And how did you feel? Really tired. Really tired. Do you think you were a little crankier than usual? Yeah, that's actually really interesting because what happens is humans and everything needs to sleep eventually. And so you can't stay up indefinitely, right? What do you think happens if you don't sleep? It affects what you can do in your daily life. Excellent. So now I wanna tell you about another animal and how they sleep, okay? So we have this one. What's that? A hippo? A hippopotamus."
],
[
"Level 3 Harmony",
" They have a different challenge. They sleep underwater. I can never do that, I'll pass out. Right, right, so how do they do it? In the area that they live, they need to stay cool, right? And so they spend a lot of time in the water, and so then as a consequence, they need to sleep in the water. But how do they do it? So it's really fascinating. What they do is while they're sleeping, they actually float back up to the surface and breathe without waking up. They're able to go about their whole sleep cycles, but still able to breathe because their body has adapted in a way that they can still get the oxygen that they need. It's a really amazing thing. What do you think? That's cool. Wouldn't it be cool to have that power? Yeah. So now I wanna talk about our last animal. And I think this one is probably the most amazing of all. Okay, so what's this? Oh, a dolphin. A dolphin, yes. So dolphins, kind of like hippos, have to sleep in the water, okay? But because they're mammals, right? They need to breathe. Dolphins breathe air. They have to go up to the surface and breathe, right? And for an animal like that, it can get eaten. It needs to figure out a way that it can sleep, but also still survive, right? You know how dolphins sleep? One half of their brain at a time. So half of their brain goes to sleep, and the other half stays awake, so that they can continue to breathe and swim. And they do it in this four hours at a time. So like the right part of their brain sleeps, they're able to go up to the surface and breathe. Then the left part of their brain sleeps for four hours and it goes back and forth, back and forth so that they can kind of maintain alertness, still breathe and survive. Is that amazing or what? That's cool. So what'd you learn today? I learned how other animals sleep. What that amazing or what? That's cool. So what'd you learn today? I learned how other animals sleep. What is important about sleeping? Sleep rests your body, and you have to rest your body in order to do your daily things in life. Hey, I'm Eric. I'm Dwayne, nice to meet you, Eric. And how old are you, Dwayne? I'm 16 years old. Okay, and where do you go to school? McClellan High School in Oakland, California'm Eric. I'm Dwayne, nice to meet you, Eric. And how old are you, Dwayne? I'm 16 years old. Okay, and where do you go to school?"
],
[
"Level 4 Harmony",
" McClimbins High School in Oakland, California. Excellent, and what's your favorite subject? AP Chemistry. That's a serious science. It is. And good news, we're talking about science today. Yeah. In fact, we're talking about sleep. Oh, okay. And sleep science. Do you sleep? I do, I try. You try, we all gotta try. You've probably heard about sleep as this kind of, you know, it's a biological process that happens in your brain. It's really important for your body. But it's a lot more complex than that. Sleep is made up of different parts. You know, when you think about sleep, what do you think about? Resting, relaxing, really shutting down your brain, taking some time off from a busy schedule, you know, work day. But being off is just not being off. There's lots of things that are happening. We're gonna kind of talk about those different pieces of sleep. Okay. So our sleep is made up of different types, okay? The first one is called non-rapid eye movement sleep or non-REM, okay? Or N-R-E-M. And then the other one, which is, you know, might not be a surprise, is called REM, rapid eye movement sleep. And those are the two main types of sleep that happen. The way that we measure that as a sleep scientist is we actually will bring people into the lab or they can do this at home, where we put electrodes on their scalp while they're sleeping, and then allows us to measure the brain activity that's going on during the night. Okay, are you like us to measure the brain activity that's going on during the night. Okay, are you able to tell how much sleep someone's getting or what their sleep schedule is by REM? When we measure all of that, we're able to see how much time someone's asleep and how many times they wake up and stuff during the night. You know, we're also really interested in kind of the amount of non-REM sleep that someone gets and the amount of REM sleep that someone gets, because each part of those types of sleep do different things for the body. And so it's important to get both of those. And so within non-REM sleep, there are three stages, ranging from N1 to N2 to N3. So not particularly clever in our naming, but that's how we know what stages they are. And what they do is it moves from lightest to deepest sleep, okay? And so in N1, it's more kind of light wakefulness sleep, kind of in and out of sleeping. Then you go into N2, which is where we spend 45 to 55% of our sleep. And it's more of this kind of light sleep, but then we get into kind of the really restorative sleep, and that's N3. And in N3, when we look at someone's EEG wave, we see these big, slow waves, and it's called slow-wave sleep. And so we spend about 20% of our sleep in slow-wave sleep, though it can vary on a day-to-day. Oh, wow. When do you think you experience the most REM? Well, I've heard that you don't really go into a deeper sleep, so I'm guessing in three, or any of the ins at all, really, if you are on technology right before you go to sleep. And also, if there's too much light, or if you are listening to music while you're asleep, or anything like that, you're not experiencing deep sleep, right? You know, some of that is totally accurate, that when your brain's more engaged by being on your phone or, you know, doing things that you really enjoy or things that stress you out or any of those types of things, it's harder to get to sleep and to kind of fall into that deeper levels of sleep. Most of the REM sleep, this dreaming sleep, happens in the second half of the night, okay? So we wake up a lot of the night. Okay? So we wake up a lot during the night and we just don't remember it. And then you'll go back down into deep sleep and then, you know, up again into REM and, you know, in kind of these cycles. Oh, wow. Right? Do you ever take naps? I do. Okay. How long are the naps that you take? Anywhere between one to six hours. One to six hours? Yes. That's a long nap. It is a long nap. Okay, usually we want to keep naps like 20 to 30 minutes."
],
[
"Level 5 Courage",
" When people drop into deep sleep and then they're woken up out of a nap, most people report that they feel way worse than they did before they took the nap. And that's because you've been in deep sleep and it's this term called sleep inertia. So what are the stages of sleep? So in one being like light, you know, sleep, still a lot of brain activity going on. I can imagine that that happens right after you fall asleep. Asleep. And then in two being light, moderate activity in your brain, still sleep, but still kind of consciously aware. And then three being the deepest form of sleep. I want to know if you agree, sleep is the coolest thing you've ever heard of. It really is. Right now, it definitely is the coolest thing I've ever heard of. So tell me, you know, where are you in school? What do you study? I'm a fourth year chemistry student at USF. So pretty science-y.. So pretty science-y. Yes, pretty science-y. Excellent, because today, for this level, we're talking about sleep. Great. How much sleep do you get, typically? During the summer? Like 10 hours. Sure, 10 hours. During the school year, maybe five. Wow. Yeah. And so how much do you think you need? I mean, I've read that six is ideal for people in my age range. Turns out, for people that are between the ages of 18 and 65 the agreed upon amount of sleep that people should get is between seven and nine hours, and it's really at least seven hours per night. To maintain optimal health as an adult. So at least seven hours. When we look across all of the data that is available on sleep and health and sleep and psychiatric illness and those types of things, the largest risk is when people get five hours or less. What do you think is responsible for driving how much sleep you need and things like that? I mean, I know sleep is regulated by the thalamus and the suprachiasmatic nucleus sending signals to the pineal gland, which kind of secretes melatonin, which tells us when it's time to go to sleep. And... Right, you can do part of this level, and when you die, we'll do the other part. Clearly, got some expertise under your belt, and so that's awesome, because I think that everyone should know more about sleep. And so the way that we think about what drives sleep are two kind of independent but kind of related processes. And so they have kind of lame names, process S and process C, okay? And what you've kind of described is process C, and that's the master clock, right? And it helps regulate kind of the rhythms like all of your body, all your cells and all those kind of things. It drives the release of melatonin from the pineal gland and melatonin comes online under darkness. So when the sun goes down, your brain knows, okay, it's time to start getting ready for sleep and so you start releasing melatonin, which really kind of sets the table for sleeping. Like I'm from Hawaii, so we have very long days. We have early sunrises, late sunsets. Does that signify like less sleep? Because we have a shorter amount of time for melatonin to be released? Yeah, no, that's a really great question. And the same is true, you know, in places where the sun never goes down during the summer and when it's dark all the time during the winter and it turns out that light isn't the only thing that kind of gates your circadian rhythm. But I think the thing that's really important is, again, there are two processes. But the other one is the S-process, and that one's just kind of a really important driver of sleep, and it's formally, we call it, like the homeostatic sleep drive. Kind of the longer you're awake, the sleepier you get. You stay up, you get sleepy, time goes by, you get sleepier, time goes by, you get sleepier. But it's actually kind of a really fundamental principle for how sleep is regulated. And it's really kind of akin to like a balloon, okay? So you know, you wake up in the morning and your balloon is flat, like you've kind of like drained out all the sleepiness. But then as you kind of go throughout the day, it kind of fills up, right? So you can use your energy, it gets filled up. And then it gets filled up more, like as you get towards nighttime, right? And then when it's at like this optimal amount is when you kind of like go to sleep and you kind of let out all the sleepiness again. And this is really what underlies kind of why napping can also be bad for you. So nappings aren't inherently bad, but if you actually let out some of this air during the day, it's gonna take longer for the balloon to get bigger, right, to where you feel sleepy, right? What did you learn about sleep today? I learned about the two processes, process S and process C. I learned about their circadian rhythm and how it doesn't only rely on melatonin, but it also relies on your eating and a whole bunch of other factors that kind of affect your circadian rhythm. Hi, I'm Eric. Mayesh. Thank you for joining us. What do you do? Where are you at in school? So I'm at UC Berkeley. I'm a psychology student studying cognitive neuroscience and I just started my third year. Congratulations. Thank you. So a lot of brain stuff. A lot of brain stuff. Great. I'm biased because I study one of the other subcritical parts of the brain, the cerebellum. So that's good because that's why you're here. And so we're talking about sleep today. And really about kind of what is the brain machinery through which we go from kind of consciousness to unconsciousness and that transition? Great. Okay, the best way to think about this transition is really called a flip-flop switch. Okay, and so this term comes from engineering. And the idea is that in sleep, you basically have this all or nothing experience. Certainly people drift off to sleep, but then all of a sudden you're unconscious, right? So it seems like it's this flip flop between kind of the arousal system and then the sleep promoting system. And it's certainly regulated, and we'll get a little bit into that. But they're certainly kind of made up of two reciprocally inhibitory processes. Okay, so we have the ascending reticular activating system. It originates in the brainstem, and there's a dorsal and a ventral arm to this. And so the dorsal arm has neurons, cholinergic neurons that go up to the thalamus and then it projects into the forebrain. And then there's the ventral arm, and this is comprised of a whole bunch of different types of neurons, so they're all monominergic. So there's kind of dopaminergic neurons that come from the periaqueductal gray, serotonergic ones from the dorsal raphae nuclei, histaminergic neurons that come from the periaqueductal gray, serotonergic ones from the dorsal raphae nuclei, histaminergic neurons that come from the tuber mammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus, and then noradrenergic neurons from the locus surrealis. And so all of those are kind of working in tandem to kind of drive wake within the brain. And so if we just think about kind of drugs that are available for inducing wakefulness, we can certainly, kind of the dopaminergic ones kind of jump out, right? So we have amphetamines that certainly drive those signaling, and then modafinil, which is a wake-promoting drug for people that have excessive daytime sleepiness, that maintains alertness throughout the day. In terms of the dopamine, is if you're taking amphetamines, that's usually to promote, as you said, wakefulness. But does that actually improve the quality of your sleep? How reliable are those kinds of interventions? The role that they play with respect to the sleep-wake system is really kind of amping up the wake system, right?"
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Quantum Computing Expert Explains One Concept in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
OWJCfOvochA
| 1,167
|
[
{
"end_time": 138,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "Intro"
},
{
"end_time": 377,
"start_time": 138,
"title": "TEEN"
},
{
"end_time": 637,
"start_time": 377,
"title": "UNDERGRAD"
},
{
"end_time": 859,
"start_time": 637,
"title": "GRAD STUDENT"
},
{
"end_time": 1167,
"start_time": 859,
"title": "PROFESSIONAL"
}
] |
[
{
"text": " Hi, my name's Talia Gershon, and I'm a scientist at IBM Research.",
"timestamp": [
0,
3.68
]
},
{
"text": " Today I've been challenged to explain a topic with five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
3.68,
8
]
},
{
"text": " It's a completely different kind of computing called quantum computing.",
"timestamp": [
8,
10.96
]
},
{
"text": " Quantum computers approach solving problems in a fundamentally new way,",
"timestamp": [
10.96,
14.08
]
},
{
"text": " and we hope that by taking this new approach to computation,",
"timestamp": [
14.08,
16.8
]
},
{
"text": " we'll be able to start exploring some problems that we could never solve any other way.",
"timestamp": [
16.8,
20.56
]
},
{
"text": " Hopefully by the end of today, everyone can leave this discussion",
"timestamp": [
20.56,
22.96
]
},
{
"text": " understanding quantum computing at some level.",
"timestamp": [
22.96,
24.64
]
},
{
"text": " What's this? What do you think that is?",
"timestamp": [
26.56,
29.88
]
},
{
"text": " Fancy chandelier. I think so too. We jokingly call it the chandelier. That's",
"timestamp": [
29.88,
35.84
]
},
{
"text": " real gold you know. This is a quantum computer. It's a quantum? Yeah. It's a really",
"timestamp": [
35.84,
43.48
]
},
{
"text": " special kind of computer.",
"timestamp": [
43.48,
45
]
},
{
"text": " What does it do?",
"timestamp": [
45,
47
]
},
{
"text": " It calculates things, but in a totally different way to how your computer calculates things.",
"timestamp": [
47,
52
]
},
{
"text": " What do you think this is?",
"timestamp": [
52,
55
]
},
{
"text": " An A?",
"timestamp": [
55,
56
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
56,
57
]
},
{
"text": " Do you know what your computer thinks that is?",
"timestamp": [
57,
60
]
},
{
"text": " Zero and one.",
"timestamp": [
60,
62
]
},
{
"text": " This really specific combination of zeros and ones.",
"timestamp": [
62,
65.5
]
},
{
"text": " Everything that your computer does,",
"timestamp": [
65.5,
67.94
]
},
{
"text": " showing you Pink Panther videos on YouTube,",
"timestamp": [
67.94,
71.08
]
},
{
"text": " calculating things, searching the internet,",
"timestamp": [
71.08,
72.9
]
},
{
"text": " it does all of that with a really specific combination",
"timestamp": [
72.9,
75.8
]
},
{
"text": " of zeros and ones, which is crazy, right?",
"timestamp": [
75.8,
77.9
]
},
{
"text": " That would be like saying,",
"timestamp": [
77.9,
79.38
]
},
{
"text": " your computer only understands these quarters.",
"timestamp": [
79.38,
82.04
]
},
{
"text": " For each quarter, you need to tell it",
"timestamp": [
82.04,
84.04
]
},
{
"text": " that you're gonna use heads, tails,",
"timestamp": [
84.04,
87
]
},
{
"text": " and you assign it heads or tails.",
"timestamp": [
87,
89
]
},
{
"text": " So I can switch between heads and tails,",
"timestamp": [
89,
91
]
},
{
"text": " and I can switch the 0s and 1s in my computer",
"timestamp": [
91,
94
]
},
{
"text": " so that it represents what I want it to represent, like an A.",
"timestamp": [
94,
97
]
},
{
"text": " With quantum computers, we have new rules we get to use too.",
"timestamp": [
97,
101
]
},
{
"text": " We can actually spin one of our quarters,",
"timestamp": [
101,
103
]
},
{
"text": " so it doesn't have to choose just one or the other.",
"timestamp": [
103,
106
]
},
{
"text": " Can computers help you with your homework, your really hard homework?",
"timestamp": [
106,
111
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, they can, especially if doing your homework involves calculating something or finding information.",
"timestamp": [
111,
118
]
},
{
"text": " But what if your homework was to discover something totally new?",
"timestamp": [
118,
121
]
},
{
"text": " A lot of those discovery questions are much harder to solve using the computers we have today.",
"timestamp": [
121,
126.8
]
},
{
"text": " So the reason we're building these kinds of computers is because we think that maybe one",
"timestamp": [
126.8,
130.84
]
},
{
"text": " day they're going to do a lot of really important things like help us understand nature better,",
"timestamp": [
130.84,
134.64
]
},
{
"text": " maybe help us create new medicines to help people.",
"timestamp": [
134.64,
137
]
},
{
"text": " What's your favorite kind of computer?",
"timestamp": [
140.8,
142.2
]
},
{
"text": " Smartphone, tablet, regular, laptop, PC?",
"timestamp": [
142.2,
145.04
]
},
{
"text": " I've gotta go with my iPhone.",
"timestamp": [
145.04,
146.42
]
},
{
"text": " So what do you do with your iPhone?",
"timestamp": [
146.42,
147.68
]
},
{
"text": " Social media, use it for studying.",
"timestamp": [
147.68,
151.56
]
},
{
"text": " Have you ever run out of space on your iPhone?",
"timestamp": [
151.56,
153.36
]
},
{
"text": " All the time.",
"timestamp": [
153.36,
154.2
]
},
{
"text": " Me too.",
"timestamp": [
154.2,
155.04
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, always when I'm trying to take a photo.",
"timestamp": [
155.04,
157.2
]
},
{
"text": " So did you know that there's certain kinds of problems",
"timestamp": [
157.2,
160.52
]
},
{
"text": " that computers sort of run out of space almost?",
"timestamp": [
160.52,
163.44
]
},
{
"text": " Like you're trying to solve the problem",
"timestamp": [
163.44,
164.66
]
},
{
"text": " and just like how you run out of space on your iPhone when you're trying to take a picture. Like you're trying to solve the problem and just like how you run out of space on your iPhone",
"timestamp": [
164.66,
166.68
]
},
{
"text": " when you're trying to take a picture,",
"timestamp": [
166.68,
167.96
]
},
{
"text": " if you're trying to solve the problem,",
"timestamp": [
167.96,
169
]
},
{
"text": " you just run out of space.",
"timestamp": [
169,
170.56
]
},
{
"text": " And even if you have the world's biggest super computer,",
"timestamp": [
170.56,
173.12
]
},
{
"text": " did you know that can still happen?",
"timestamp": [
173.12,
174.8
]
},
{
"text": " Wow.",
"timestamp": [
174.8,
175.64
]
},
{
"text": " So my team is working on building",
"timestamp": [
175.64,
177.96
]
},
{
"text": " new kinds of computers all together.",
"timestamp": [
177.96,
179.64
]
},
{
"text": " Ones that operate by a totally different set of rules.",
"timestamp": [
179.64,
181.82
]
},
{
"text": " So do you know what that is?",
"timestamp": [
181.82,
183.22
]
},
{
"text": " I have no clue.",
"timestamp": [
184.08,
185.8
]
},
{
"text": " It's a quantum computer.",
"timestamp": [
185.8,
187.96
]
},
{
"text": " A what?",
"timestamp": [
187.96,
189.6
]
},
{
"text": " Have you ever heard of a quantum computer?",
"timestamp": [
189.6,
191.3
]
},
{
"text": " I haven't.",
"timestamp": [
191.3,
192.08
]
},
{
"text": " Have you ever heard of the word quantum?",
"timestamp": [
192.08,
193.64
]
},
{
"text": " No.",
"timestamp": [
193.64,
194.32
]
},
{
"text": " OK.",
"timestamp": [
194.32,
194.8
]
},
{
"text": " So quantum mechanics is a branch of science,",
"timestamp": [
194.8,
197.76
]
},
{
"text": " just like any other branch of science.",
"timestamp": [
197.76,
199.32
]
},
{
"text": " It's a branch of physics.",
"timestamp": [
199.32,
200.36
]
},
{
"text": " It's the study of things that are either really, really",
"timestamp": [
200.36,
203.2
]
},
{
"text": " small, really, really well isolated, or really, really cold.",
"timestamp": [
203.2,
206.5
]
},
{
"text": " And this particular branch of science is something we're using",
"timestamp": [
206.5,
209.5
]
},
{
"text": " to totally reimagine how computing works.",
"timestamp": [
209.5,
212
]
},
{
"text": " So we're building totally new kinds of computers",
"timestamp": [
212,
214
]
},
{
"text": " based on the laws of quantum mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
214,
215.5
]
},
{
"text": " That's what a quantum computer is.",
"timestamp": [
215.5,
217
]
},
{
"text": " I'm going to start by telling you about something called superposition.",
"timestamp": [
217,
220
]
},
{
"text": " So I'm going to explain it using this giant penny.",
"timestamp": [
220,
223.5
]
},
{
"text": " Wow. Is that, like like worth a hundred pennies?",
"timestamp": [
223.5,
226
]
},
{
"text": " I don't know what it's worth, but I can put it face up, right?",
"timestamp": [
226,
230
]
},
{
"text": " And that's heads, I can put it face down, right?",
"timestamp": [
230,
232
]
},
{
"text": " So at any given time, point in time, if I ask you,",
"timestamp": [
232,
235
]
},
{
"text": " is my penny heads or tails, probably you could answer it, right?",
"timestamp": [
235,
238
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
238,
239
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, but what if I spin the penny?",
"timestamp": [
239,
241
]
},
{
"text": " Hmm.",
"timestamp": [
241,
242
]
},
{
"text": " So let's do it.",
"timestamp": [
242,
244
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, so while it's spinning, is it heads or tails?",
"timestamp": [
244,
248
]
},
{
"text": " Heads.",
"timestamp": [
248,
249.48
]
},
{
"text": " While it's spinning?",
"timestamp": [
249.48,
251.18
]
},
{
"text": " Oh, I would know.",
"timestamp": [
251.18,
253.56
]
},
{
"text": " It's sort of a combination of heads and tails, right?",
"timestamp": [
253.56,
256.56
]
},
{
"text": " Would you say?",
"timestamp": [
256.56,
257.68
]
},
{
"text": " So superposition is this idea that my penny",
"timestamp": [
257.68,
260.68
]
},
{
"text": " is not just either heads or tails.",
"timestamp": [
260.68,
262.62
]
},
{
"text": " It's in this state, which is a combination",
"timestamp": [
262.62,
264.32
]
},
{
"text": " of heads and tails. And this in this state, which is a combination of heads and tails.",
"timestamp": [
264.32,
265.1
]
},
{
"text": " This quantum property is something that we can have",
"timestamp": [
265.1,
267.9
]
},
{
"text": " in real, real physical objects in the world.",
"timestamp": [
267.9,
270.8
]
},
{
"text": " So that's superposition.",
"timestamp": [
270.8,
271.9
]
},
{
"text": " And the second thing that we'll talk about",
"timestamp": [
271.9,
274
]
},
{
"text": " is called entanglement.",
"timestamp": [
274,
275.1
]
},
{
"text": " So now I'm going to give you a penny.",
"timestamp": [
275.1,
276.9
]
},
{
"text": " Wow!",
"timestamp": [
276.9,
279.6
]
},
{
"text": " When we use the word entangled in everyday language,",
"timestamp": [
279.6,
282.8
]
},
{
"text": " what do we mean?",
"timestamp": [
282.8,
283.6
]
},
{
"text": " That something's intertwined. Exactly. That there's two things that areangled in everyday language, what do we mean? That something's intertwined or...",
"timestamp": [
283.6,
285.76
]
},
{
"text": " Exactly. That there's two things that are connected in some way and usually we can separate",
"timestamp": [
285.76,
289.6
]
},
{
"text": " them again.",
"timestamp": [
289.6,
290.6
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
290.6,
291.6
]
},
{
"text": " If your hair is tangled or whatever, you can unentangle it, right?",
"timestamp": [
291.6,
293.8
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
293.8,
294.8
]
},
{
"text": " But in the quantum world, when we entangle things, they're really now connected. It's",
"timestamp": [
294.8,
298.28
]
},
{
"text": " much, much harder to separate them again. So using the same analogy, we spin our pennies",
"timestamp": [
298.28,
302.72
]
},
{
"text": " and eventually...",
"timestamp": [
302.72,
303.72
]
},
{
"text": " Okay.",
"timestamp": [
303.72,
304.72
]
},
{
"text": " Eventually they both stop.",
"timestamp": [
304.72,
307.06
]
},
{
"text": " And when they stop, it's either heads or tails, right?",
"timestamp": [
307.06,
310.18
]
},
{
"text": " So in my case, I got tails and you got heads.",
"timestamp": [
310.18,
312.24
]
},
{
"text": " You see how they're totally disconnected from each other, right?",
"timestamp": [
312.24,
314.4
]
},
{
"text": " Our pennies in the real world.",
"timestamp": [
314.4,
315.8
]
},
{
"text": " Now, if our pennies were entangled and we both spun them together, right?",
"timestamp": [
315.8,
322.04
]
},
{
"text": " When we stop them, if you measured your penny to be a head,",
"timestamp": [
322.04,
325.08
]
},
{
"text": " I would measure my penny to be a head.",
"timestamp": [
325.08,
326.78
]
},
{
"text": " And if you measured your penny to be a tail,",
"timestamp": [
326.78,
328.72
]
},
{
"text": " I would measure my penny to be a tail.",
"timestamp": [
328.72,
330.28
]
},
{
"text": " If we measured it at exactly the same time,",
"timestamp": [
330.28,
332.44
]
},
{
"text": " we would still find that they were both exactly correlated.",
"timestamp": [
332.44,
335.8
]
},
{
"text": " That's crazy.",
"timestamp": [
335.8,
336.64
]
},
{
"text": " That's so cool, right?",
"timestamp": [
336.64,
337.92
]
},
{
"text": " Oh my god.",
"timestamp": [
337.92,
338.76
]
},
{
"text": " The way that we are able to actually see",
"timestamp": [
338.76,
340.68
]
},
{
"text": " these quantum properties is by making",
"timestamp": [
340.68,
342.72
]
},
{
"text": " our quantum chips really, really cold.",
"timestamp": [
342.72,
344.36
]
},
{
"text": " So that's what this is all about, actually.",
"timestamp": [
344.36,
345.92
]
},
{
"text": " This is called a dilution refrigerator,",
"timestamp": [
345.92,
347.76
]
},
{
"text": " and it's a refrigerator.",
"timestamp": [
347.76,
348.88
]
},
{
"text": " It doesn't look like a normal refrigerator, right?",
"timestamp": [
348.88,
350.74
]
},
{
"text": " But it's something that we use,",
"timestamp": [
350.74,
352.32
]
},
{
"text": " actually there's usually a case around it,",
"timestamp": [
352.32,
354.16
]
},
{
"text": " to cool our quantum chips down cold enough",
"timestamp": [
354.16,
357.08
]
},
{
"text": " that we can create superpositions",
"timestamp": [
357.08,
359.16
]
},
{
"text": " and we can entangle qubits,",
"timestamp": [
359.16,
360.4
]
},
{
"text": " and the information isn't lost to the environment.",
"timestamp": [
360.4,
362.24
]
},
{
"text": " Like what could those chips be used to do?",
"timestamp": [
362.24,
364.2
]
},
{
"text": " So one of the things that we're trying",
"timestamp": [
364.2,
365.64
]
},
{
"text": " to use quantum computers to do",
"timestamp": [
365.64,
366.96
]
},
{
"text": " is simulating chemical bonding.",
"timestamp": [
366.96,
369.32
]
},
{
"text": " Use a quantum system to model a quantum system.",
"timestamp": [
369.32,
371.92
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, I mean I'm definitely gonna impress all my friends",
"timestamp": [
371.92,
374
]
},
{
"text": " when I tell them about this.",
"timestamp": [
374,
374.92
]
},
{
"text": " They're gonna be like, quantum what?",
"timestamp": [
374.92,
376.72
]
},
{
"text": " So what do you think that thing is?",
"timestamp": [
376.72,
381.16
]
},
{
"text": " Is it some sort of conductor circuit?",
"timestamp": [
381.16,
384.48
]
},
{
"text": " That is a really good",
"timestamp": [
384.48,
385.34
]
},
{
"text": " guess. There's parts of that that are",
"timestamp": [
385.34,
386.96
]
},
{
"text": " definitely about conducting. This is the",
"timestamp": [
386.96,
389.22
]
},
{
"text": " inside of a quantum computer. Oh wow.",
"timestamp": [
389.22,
392.64
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, this whole infrastructure is all",
"timestamp": [
392.64,
395.38
]
},
{
"text": " about creating levels that get",
"timestamp": [
395.38,
397.4
]
},
{
"text": " progressively colder as you go from top",
"timestamp": [
397.4,
399.26
]
},
{
"text": " to bottom down to the quantum chip, which",
"timestamp": [
399.26,
401.56
]
},
{
"text": " is how we actually control the state of",
"timestamp": [
401.56,
403.64
]
},
{
"text": " the qubit. Oh, wow.",
"timestamp": [
403.64,
405.4
]
},
{
"text": " So when you say colder, you mean like physically colder?",
"timestamp": [
405.4,
408.24
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, like physically colder.",
"timestamp": [
408.24,
409.56
]
},
{
"text": " So room temperature is 300 Kelvin.",
"timestamp": [
409.56,
412.32
]
},
{
"text": " As you get down all the way to the bottom of the fridge,",
"timestamp": [
412.32,
414.52
]
},
{
"text": " it's at 10 milli Kelvin.",
"timestamp": [
414.52,
416.72
]
},
{
"text": " Oh, wow.",
"timestamp": [
416.72,
417.52
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
417.52,
418.2
]
},
{
"text": " Amanda, what do you study?",
"timestamp": [
418.2,
419.28
]
},
{
"text": " So I'm studying computer science, currently a sophomore.",
"timestamp": [
419.28,
422.32
]
},
{
"text": " And the track that I'm in is the intelligent systems track.",
"timestamp": [
422.32,
426.4
]
},
{
"text": " Machine learning, artificial intelligence.",
"timestamp": [
426.4,
429
]
},
{
"text": " You ever heard of quantum computing?",
"timestamp": [
429,
430.16
]
},
{
"text": " From my understanding, with a quantum computer,",
"timestamp": [
430.16,
433
]
},
{
"text": " rather than using transistors, is using spins.",
"timestamp": [
433,
436.76
]
},
{
"text": " You can have superposition of spins, so different states.",
"timestamp": [
436.76,
441.24
]
},
{
"text": " More combinations means more memory.",
"timestamp": [
441.24,
443.84
]
},
{
"text": " So that's pretty good. So you mentioned superposition,",
"timestamp": [
443.84,
446
]
},
{
"text": " but you can also use other quantum properties,",
"timestamp": [
446,
449
]
},
{
"text": " like entanglement.",
"timestamp": [
449,
450
]
},
{
"text": " Have you heard of entanglement?",
"timestamp": [
450,
451
]
},
{
"text": " I have not.",
"timestamp": [
451,
452
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, so it's this idea that you have two objects,",
"timestamp": [
452,
454
]
},
{
"text": " and when you entangle them together,",
"timestamp": [
454,
455
]
},
{
"text": " they become connected,",
"timestamp": [
455,
457
]
},
{
"text": " and then they're sort of permanently connected to each other,",
"timestamp": [
457,
459
]
},
{
"text": " and they behave in ways that are sort of a system now.",
"timestamp": [
459,
461
]
},
{
"text": " So superposition is one quantum property that we use,",
"timestamp": [
461,
464
]
},
{
"text": " entanglement is another quantum property,",
"timestamp": [
464,
465.96
]
},
{
"text": " and a third is interference.",
"timestamp": [
465.96,
467.4
]
},
{
"text": " How much do you know about interference?",
"timestamp": [
467.4,
469.46
]
},
{
"text": " Not much.",
"timestamp": [
469.46,
470.3
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, so how do noise-canceling headphones work?",
"timestamp": [
470.3,
473.26
]
},
{
"text": " They read like ambient wavelengths",
"timestamp": [
473.26,
476.3
]
},
{
"text": " and then produce like the opposite one to cancel out.",
"timestamp": [
476.3,
479.06
]
},
{
"text": " They create interference.",
"timestamp": [
479.06,
480.2
]
},
{
"text": " So you can have constructive interference",
"timestamp": [
480.2,
482.26
]
},
{
"text": " and you can have destructive interference.",
"timestamp": [
482.26,
483.94
]
},
{
"text": " If you have constructive interference, you have have destructive interference. If you have constructive interference,",
"timestamp": [
483.94,
485.4
]
},
{
"text": " you have amplitudes, wave amplitudes that add",
"timestamp": [
485.4,
487.72
]
},
{
"text": " so the signal gets larger.",
"timestamp": [
487.72,
489.96
]
},
{
"text": " And if you have destructive interference,",
"timestamp": [
489.96,
491.6
]
},
{
"text": " the amplitudes cancel.",
"timestamp": [
491.6,
492.8
]
},
{
"text": " By using a property like interference,",
"timestamp": [
492.8,
495.66
]
},
{
"text": " we can control quantum states and amplify",
"timestamp": [
495.66,
498.2
]
},
{
"text": " the kinds of signals that are towards the right answer",
"timestamp": [
498.2,
500.92
]
},
{
"text": " and then cancel the types of signals",
"timestamp": [
500.92,
503
]
},
{
"text": " that are leading to the wrong answer.",
"timestamp": [
503,
504.54
]
},
{
"text": " So given that you know that we're trying to use",
"timestamp": [
504.54,
506.8
]
},
{
"text": " superposition entanglement and interference",
"timestamp": [
506.8,
509.08
]
},
{
"text": " for computation, how do you think we build these computers?",
"timestamp": [
509.08,
512.14
]
},
{
"text": " I have no idea.",
"timestamp": [
512.14,
513.38
]
},
{
"text": " So step one is you need to be able to have an object",
"timestamp": [
513.38,
516.64
]
},
{
"text": " or physical device, we call it a qubit or quantum bit,",
"timestamp": [
516.64,
519.56
]
},
{
"text": " that can actually handle those things,",
"timestamp": [
519.56,
521.56
]
},
{
"text": " can actually be put into superpositions of states.",
"timestamp": [
521.56,
524.06
]
},
{
"text": " You know, two qubit states",
"timestamp": [
524.06,
525.12
]
},
{
"text": " that you can physically entangle with each other.",
"timestamp": [
525.12,
527.28
]
},
{
"text": " That's not really trivial, right?",
"timestamp": [
527.28,
528.68
]
},
{
"text": " Things in our classical world,",
"timestamp": [
528.68,
529.82
]
},
{
"text": " you can't really entangle things",
"timestamp": [
529.82,
530.88
]
},
{
"text": " in our classical world so easily.",
"timestamp": [
530.88,
532.44
]
},
{
"text": " We need to use devices where they can support a quantum state",
"timestamp": [
532.44,
537.12
]
},
{
"text": " and we can manipulate that quantum state.",
"timestamp": [
537.12,
538.84
]
},
{
"text": " Atoms, ions, and in our case, superconducting qubits.",
"timestamp": [
538.84,
543
]
},
{
"text": " We make qubits out of superconducting materials.",
"timestamp": [
543,
545
]
},
{
"text": " But as like a programmer, how would quantum computing affect a different way of writing a program?",
"timestamp": [
545,
551
]
},
{
"text": " It's a perfect question. I mean it's very early for quantum computing,",
"timestamp": [
551,
554
]
},
{
"text": " but we're building assembly languages.",
"timestamp": [
554,
557
]
},
{
"text": " We're building layers of abstraction that are going to get you to a point as a programmer",
"timestamp": [
557,
560
]
},
{
"text": " where you can interchangeably be programming something the way that you already do",
"timestamp": [
560,
564
]
},
{
"text": " and then make calls to a quantum computer",
"timestamp": [
564,
566.64
]
},
{
"text": " so that you can bring it in when it makes sense.",
"timestamp": [
566.64,
568.64
]
},
{
"text": " We're not envisioning quantum computers",
"timestamp": [
568.64,
570.18
]
},
{
"text": " completely replacing classical computers any time soon.",
"timestamp": [
570.18,
572.58
]
},
{
"text": " We think that quantum computing is gonna be used",
"timestamp": [
572.58,
574.6
]
},
{
"text": " to accelerate the kinds of things",
"timestamp": [
574.6,
575.94
]
},
{
"text": " that are really hard for classical machines.",
"timestamp": [
575.94,
578.52
]
},
{
"text": " So what exactly are some of those problems?",
"timestamp": [
578.52,
581.16
]
},
{
"text": " Simulating nature is something that's really hard,",
"timestamp": [
581.16,
583.44
]
},
{
"text": " because if you take something like, you know,",
"timestamp": [
583.44,
585.12
]
},
{
"text": " modeling atomic bonding and electronic orbital overlap,",
"timestamp": [
585.12,
588.08
]
},
{
"text": " instead of now writing out a giant simulation",
"timestamp": [
588.08,
590.42
]
},
{
"text": " over many terms, you try and actually mimic",
"timestamp": [
590.42,
592.78
]
},
{
"text": " the system you're trying to simulate directly",
"timestamp": [
592.78,
595.22
]
},
{
"text": " on a quantum computer, which we can do for chemistry.",
"timestamp": [
595.22,
597.84
]
},
{
"text": " And we're looking at ways of doing that",
"timestamp": [
597.84,
599.82
]
},
{
"text": " for other types of things.",
"timestamp": [
599.82,
600.8
]
},
{
"text": " There's a lot of exciting research right now",
"timestamp": [
600.8,
602.36
]
},
{
"text": " on machine learning, trying to use quantum systems",
"timestamp": [
602.36,
604.44
]
},
{
"text": " to accelerate machine learning problems.",
"timestamp": [
604.44,
606.44
]
},
{
"text": " So would it be like in five years or 10 years",
"timestamp": [
606.44,
610.2
]
},
{
"text": " that I would be able to have one of these",
"timestamp": [
610.2,
612.72
]
},
{
"text": " sitting in my laptop just in my dorm?",
"timestamp": [
612.72,
615.52
]
},
{
"text": " I don't think you're gonna have one",
"timestamp": [
615.52,
616.6
]
},
{
"text": " in your dorm room anytime soon,",
"timestamp": [
616.6,
618.2
]
},
{
"text": " but you'll have access to one.",
"timestamp": [
618.2,
619.64
]
},
{
"text": " There's three free quantum computers",
"timestamp": [
619.64,
621.24
]
},
{
"text": " that are all sitting in this lab here",
"timestamp": [
621.24,
623.08
]
},
{
"text": " that anyone in the world can access through the cloud.",
"timestamp": [
623.08,
624.92
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, so quantum computing creates new possibilities free quantum computers that are all sitting in this lab here that anyone in the world can access through the cloud.",
"timestamp": [
624.92,
625.02
]
},
{
"text": " Okay, so quantum computing creates new possibilities and new ways to approach problems that classical",
"timestamp": [
625.02,
632.34
]
},
{
"text": " computers have difficulty doing.",
"timestamp": [
632.34,
635.18
]
},
{
"text": " Couldn't have said it better myself.",
"timestamp": [
635.18,
638.28
]
},
{
"text": " So I'm a first year master's student and I'm studying machine learning.",
"timestamp": [
638.28,
641.58
]
},
{
"text": " So it's in the computer science department, but it mixes computer science with math",
"timestamp": [
641.58,
645.7
]
},
{
"text": " and probability and statistics.",
"timestamp": [
645.7,
647.1
]
},
{
"text": " So have you come up upon sort of any limits",
"timestamp": [
647.1,
649.5
]
},
{
"text": " to machine learning?",
"timestamp": [
649.5,
650.38
]
},
{
"text": " Certainly, depending on the complexity of your model,",
"timestamp": [
650.38,
653.42
]
},
{
"text": " then computational speed is one thing.",
"timestamp": [
653.42,
655.66
]
},
{
"text": " I have colleagues here that tell me",
"timestamp": [
655.66,
656.94
]
},
{
"text": " it can take up to weeks to train certain neural networks.",
"timestamp": [
656.94,
659.38
]
},
{
"text": " Right? Sure, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
659.38,
660.4
]
},
{
"text": " And actually, machine learning is one research direction",
"timestamp": [
660.4,
663.24
]
},
{
"text": " where we're really hoping that we're going to find",
"timestamp": [
663.24,
665.88
]
},
{
"text": " key parts of the machine learning computation",
"timestamp": [
665.88,
667.72
]
},
{
"text": " that can be sped up using quantum computing.",
"timestamp": [
667.72,
669.9
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, it's exciting.",
"timestamp": [
669.9,
671.1
]
},
{
"text": " So in a classical computer, you have all sorts",
"timestamp": [
671.1,
673.8
]
},
{
"text": " of logical gates that perform operations",
"timestamp": [
673.8,
675.94
]
},
{
"text": " and they change an input to some sort of output,",
"timestamp": [
675.94,
679.44
]
},
{
"text": " but I guess it's not immediately obvious",
"timestamp": [
679.44,
682.04
]
},
{
"text": " how you do that with quantum computers.",
"timestamp": [
682.04,
683.98
]
},
{
"text": " If you think about even just classical information",
"timestamp": [
683.98,
686.24
]
},
{
"text": " like bits, right?",
"timestamp": [
686.24,
687.2
]
},
{
"text": " At the end of the day, when you store a bit",
"timestamp": [
687.2,
689.52
]
},
{
"text": " in your hard drive, there's a magnetic domain",
"timestamp": [
689.52,
693
]
},
{
"text": " and you have a magnetic polarization, right?",
"timestamp": [
693,
695.16
]
},
{
"text": " Sure.",
"timestamp": [
695.16,
696
]
},
{
"text": " You can change the magnetization",
"timestamp": [
696,
697.28
]
},
{
"text": " to be pointing up or pointing down, right?",
"timestamp": [
697.28,
699.44
]
},
{
"text": " Quantum systems, we're still manipulating a device",
"timestamp": [
699.44,
703.76
]
},
{
"text": " and changing the quantum state of that device.",
"timestamp": [
703.76,
706.3
]
},
{
"text": " You can imagine if it's a spin,",
"timestamp": [
706.3,
708.18
]
},
{
"text": " that you could have spin up and spin down,",
"timestamp": [
708.18,
710.14
]
},
{
"text": " but you can also, if you isolate it enough,",
"timestamp": [
710.14,
712.74
]
},
{
"text": " you can have a superposition of up and down.",
"timestamp": [
712.74,
716.1
]
},
{
"text": " So what we do when we try to solve problems",
"timestamp": [
716.1,
718.66
]
},
{
"text": " with a quantum computer is we encode parts",
"timestamp": [
718.66,
721.5
]
},
{
"text": " of the problem we're trying to solve",
"timestamp": [
721.5,
722.5
]
},
{
"text": " into a complex quantum state.",
"timestamp": [
722.5,
724.1
]
},
{
"text": " And then we manipulate that state",
"timestamp": [
724.1,
725.84
]
},
{
"text": " to drive it towards what will eventually",
"timestamp": [
725.84,
727.72
]
},
{
"text": " represent the solution.",
"timestamp": [
727.72,
728.84
]
},
{
"text": " So how do we actually encode it to start with?",
"timestamp": [
728.84,
731.76
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, that's a really good question.",
"timestamp": [
731.76,
733.52
]
},
{
"text": " This actually is a model of the inside",
"timestamp": [
733.52,
736.36
]
},
{
"text": " of one of our quantum computers.",
"timestamp": [
736.36,
737.96
]
},
{
"text": " So you need a chip with qubits.",
"timestamp": [
737.96,
740.8
]
},
{
"text": " Each qubit is a carrier of quantum information.",
"timestamp": [
740.8,
743.56
]
},
{
"text": " And the way we control the state of that qubit",
"timestamp": [
743.56,
746.6
]
},
{
"text": " is using microwave pulses.",
"timestamp": [
746.6,
748.24
]
},
{
"text": " And you send them all the way down these cables",
"timestamp": [
748.24,
750.04
]
},
{
"text": " and we've calibrated these microwave pulses",
"timestamp": [
750.04,
752
]
},
{
"text": " so that we know exactly this kind of pulse",
"timestamp": [
752,
754.76
]
},
{
"text": " with this frequency and this duration",
"timestamp": [
754.76,
756.88
]
},
{
"text": " will put the qubit into superposition.",
"timestamp": [
756.88,
759.06
]
},
{
"text": " Or will flip the state of the qubit from zero to one.",
"timestamp": [
759.06,
762.48
]
},
{
"text": " Or if we apply a microwave pulse between two qubits,",
"timestamp": [
762.48,
766.28
]
},
{
"text": " we can entangle them.",
"timestamp": [
766.28,
767.24
]
},
{
"text": " How do we measure it?",
"timestamp": [
767.24,
768.08
]
},
{
"text": " Yes, exactly, also through microwave signals.",
"timestamp": [
768.08,
769.92
]
},
{
"text": " Okay.",
"timestamp": [
769.92,
770.76
]
},
{
"text": " The key is to come up with algorithms",
"timestamp": [
770.76,
772.48
]
},
{
"text": " where the result is deterministic.",
"timestamp": [
772.48,
775.12
]
},
{
"text": " Interesting, so what do those algorithms look like?",
"timestamp": [
775.12,
777.28
]
},
{
"text": " There's sort of two main classes of quantum algorithms.",
"timestamp": [
777.28,
779.88
]
},
{
"text": " There's algorithms which were developed for decades,",
"timestamp": [
779.88,
783.24
]
},
{
"text": " right, things like Shor's algorithm,",
"timestamp": [
783.24,
784.88
]
},
{
"text": " which is for factoring, Grover's algorithm",
"timestamp": [
784.88,
786.88
]
},
{
"text": " for unstructured search, and these algorithms",
"timestamp": [
786.88,
788.96
]
},
{
"text": " were designed assuming that you had",
"timestamp": [
788.96,
790.54
]
},
{
"text": " a perfect fault-tolerant quantum computer,",
"timestamp": [
790.54,
792.76
]
},
{
"text": " which is many decades away.",
"timestamp": [
792.76,
794.08
]
},
{
"text": " So we're currently in a phase where we're exploring",
"timestamp": [
794.08,
797.12
]
},
{
"text": " what can we do with these near-term quantum computers,",
"timestamp": [
797.12,
799.92
]
},
{
"text": " and the answer is gonna be, well,",
"timestamp": [
799.92,
801.5
]
},
{
"text": " we need different kinds of algorithms",
"timestamp": [
801.5,
802.92
]
},
{
"text": " to really even explore that question.",
"timestamp": [
802.92,
804.44
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, certainly having a search algorithm is very useful.",
"timestamp": [
804.44,
807.42
]
},
{
"text": " Factoring, those are definitely useful things",
"timestamp": [
807.42,
809.26
]
},
{
"text": " that I would imagine could be done a lot faster",
"timestamp": [
809.26,
811.58
]
},
{
"text": " on a quantum computer.",
"timestamp": [
811.58,
812.66
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
812.66,
813.46
]
},
{
"text": " They also, unfortunately, require fault tolerance.",
"timestamp": [
813.46,
816.1
]
},
{
"text": " Right now, the algorithms that we know of today",
"timestamp": [
816.1,
818.26
]
},
{
"text": " to do those things on a quantum computer",
"timestamp": [
818.26,
821.06
]
},
{
"text": " require you to have millions of error-corrected qubits.",
"timestamp": [
821.06,
824.58
]
},
{
"text": " Today, we're at, like, 50.ed qubits. Today we're at like 50.",
"timestamp": [
824.58,
826.64
]
},
{
"text": " It's actually amazing that we're at 50.",
"timestamp": [
826.64,
829.04
]
},
{
"text": " There's things that we know or we have strong reason to believe are going to be faster to",
"timestamp": [
829.04,
832.92
]
},
{
"text": " do on a quantum computer.",
"timestamp": [
832.92,
834.36
]
},
{
"text": " And then there's things that we'll discover just by virtue of having one.",
"timestamp": [
834.36,
837.32
]
},
{
"text": " Sure.",
"timestamp": [
837.32,
838.32
]
},
{
"text": " How could someone like me who's a grad student get involved in this or what kinds of challenges",
"timestamp": [
838.32,
841.76
]
},
{
"text": " are you facing that someone like me could help out with?",
"timestamp": [
841.76,
844
]
},
{
"text": " I'm glad you're interested.",
"timestamp": [
844,
845.58
]
},
{
"text": " I think the place where lots of people can get involved",
"timestamp": [
845.58,
848.14
]
},
{
"text": " right now is by going and trying it out",
"timestamp": [
848.14,
850.9
]
},
{
"text": " and thinking about what they could do with it.",
"timestamp": [
850.9,
852.74
]
},
{
"text": " There's a lot of opportunity to find",
"timestamp": [
852.74,
854.8
]
},
{
"text": " these near-term applications that are only gonna be found",
"timestamp": [
854.8,
857.36
]
},
{
"text": " by trying things out.",
"timestamp": [
857.36,
858.62
]
},
{
"text": " I'm a theoretical physicist.",
"timestamp": [
861.56,
863.58
]
},
{
"text": " I started out in condensed matter theory, the theory that studies superconductors and",
"timestamp": [
863.58,
870.48
]
},
{
"text": " magnets and I had to learn a new field of quantum optics and apply those ideas.",
"timestamp": [
870.48,
877.24
]
},
{
"text": " One of the nice things about being a theorist is you get to keep learning new things.",
"timestamp": [
877.24,
881.08
]
},
{
"text": " So Steve, tell me about your research and the work you've been doing in quantum computing. My main focus right now is quantum error correction",
"timestamp": [
881.08,
888.36
]
},
{
"text": " and trying to understand this concept of fault tolerance,",
"timestamp": [
888.36,
892.48
]
},
{
"text": " which everybody thinks they know it when they see it,",
"timestamp": [
892.48,
895.92
]
},
{
"text": " but nobody in the quantum case can precisely define it.",
"timestamp": [
895.92,
900.92
]
},
{
"text": " It's something that we've already figured out",
"timestamp": [
901.06,
902.32
]
},
{
"text": " for classical computing.",
"timestamp": [
902.32,
903.24
]
},
{
"text": " Like something that amazes me is all the parallels between what we're going through now for quantum computing and've already figured out for classical computing. Like something that amazes me is all the parallels",
"timestamp": [
903.24,
905.12
]
},
{
"text": " between what we're going through now for quantum computing",
"timestamp": [
905.12,
907.02
]
},
{
"text": " and what we went through for classical computing.",
"timestamp": [
907.02,
908.6
]
},
{
"text": " I was asking a computer scientist recently",
"timestamp": [
908.6,
911.64
]
},
{
"text": " where to read about fault tolerance in classical computing.",
"timestamp": [
911.64,
916.24
]
},
{
"text": " He said, oh, they don't teach that",
"timestamp": [
916.24,
917.88
]
},
{
"text": " in computer science classes anymore",
"timestamp": [
917.88,
919.88
]
},
{
"text": " because the hardware has become so reliable.",
"timestamp": [
919.88,
923.12
]
},
{
"text": " In a quantum system, when you look at it",
"timestamp": [
923.12,
925.58
]
},
{
"text": " or make measurements, it can change",
"timestamp": [
925.58,
928.12
]
},
{
"text": " in a way that's beyond your control.",
"timestamp": [
928.12,
930.06
]
},
{
"text": " We have the following task.",
"timestamp": [
930.06,
931.68
]
},
{
"text": " Build a nearly perfect computer",
"timestamp": [
931.68,
934.4
]
},
{
"text": " out of a whole bunch of imperfect parts.",
"timestamp": [
934.4,
937.24
]
},
{
"text": " Common myth.",
"timestamp": [
937.24,
938.84
]
},
{
"text": " How many qubits do you have?",
"timestamp": [
938.84,
939.84
]
},
{
"text": " That's the only thing that matters.",
"timestamp": [
939.84,
940.8
]
},
{
"text": " Or just add more qubits, what's the big deal?",
"timestamp": [
940.8,
942.48
]
},
{
"text": " Pattern them on your chip.",
"timestamp": [
942.48,
943.62
]
},
{
"text": " The great power of a quantum computer",
"timestamp": [
943.62,
946
]
},
{
"text": " is also its Achilles heel, that it's very, very sensitive",
"timestamp": [
946,
949.96
]
},
{
"text": " to perturbations and noise and environmental effects.",
"timestamp": [
949.96,
954.8
]
},
{
"text": " You're just multiplying your problems",
"timestamp": [
954.8,
957.38
]
},
{
"text": " if all you're doing is adding qubits.",
"timestamp": [
957.38,
959.32
]
},
{
"text": " Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
959.32,
960.16
]
},
{
"text": " So I think something that frustrates a lot of people",
"timestamp": [
960.16,
961.8
]
},
{
"text": " about quantum computing is the concept of decoherence.",
"timestamp": [
961.8,
964.32
]
},
{
"text": " You can only keep your information quantum for so long.",
"timestamp": [
964.32,
967.24
]
},
{
"text": " And that limits how many operations you can do in a row",
"timestamp": [
967.24,
969.92
]
},
{
"text": " before you lose your information.",
"timestamp": [
969.92,
971.32
]
},
{
"text": " That's the challenge, I would say.",
"timestamp": [
971.32,
974.88
]
},
{
"text": " As much progress as we've made,",
"timestamp": [
974.88,
976.64
]
},
{
"text": " it's a frustration to still be facing it.",
"timestamp": [
976.64,
979.04
]
},
{
"text": " Let's talk about some of the things we think need to happen",
"timestamp": [
979.04,
981.12
]
},
{
"text": " between now and fully fault-tolerant quantum computers",
"timestamp": [
981.12,
983.6
]
},
{
"text": " to get us to that reality.",
"timestamp": [
983.6,
984.6
]
},
{
"text": " I mean, there's so many things that need to happen. In my mind, one of the things we need to happen between now and fully fault-tolerant quantum computers to get us to that reality. I mean, there's so many things that need to happen.",
"timestamp": [
984.6,
986.22
]
},
{
"text": " In my mind, one of the things we need to do",
"timestamp": [
986.22,
988.34
]
},
{
"text": " is build all these different layers of abstraction",
"timestamp": [
988.34,
990.5
]
},
{
"text": " that make it easier for programmers to come in",
"timestamp": [
990.5,
992.58
]
},
{
"text": " and just enter at the ground level, you know?",
"timestamp": [
992.58,
994.46
]
},
{
"text": " Yeah, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
994.46,
995.34
]
},
{
"text": " So I think there's gonna be a kind of co-evolution",
"timestamp": [
995.34,
999.46
]
},
{
"text": " of the hardware and the software up here",
"timestamp": [
999.46,
1004.06
]
},
{
"text": " and the sort of middleware and the whole stack.",
"timestamp": [
1004.06,
1007
]
},
{
"text": " Another common myth, in the next five years quantum computing will solve climate change",
"timestamp": [
1007,
1011.8
]
},
{
"text": " cancer, right?",
"timestamp": [
1011.8,
1013.72
]
},
{
"text": " Right.",
"timestamp": [
1013.72,
1014.96
]
},
{
"text": " In the next five years there'll be tremendous progress in the field, but people really have",
"timestamp": [
1014.96,
1021.2
]
},
{
"text": " to understand that we're either at the vacuum tube or transistor stage.",
"timestamp": [
1021.2,
1027
]
},
{
"text": " We're trying to invent the integrated circuit and scale up.",
"timestamp": [
1027,
1030
]
},
{
"text": " It's still very, very, very early in the development of the field.",
"timestamp": [
1030,
1035
]
},
{
"text": " One last myth I think we should bust, Steve.",
"timestamp": [
1035,
1037
]
},
{
"text": " Quantum computers are on the verge of breaking into your bank account and breaking encryption and cryptography.",
"timestamp": [
1037,
1043
]
},
{
"text": " There does exist an algorithm, Shor's algorithm,",
"timestamp": [
1043,
1045.8
]
},
{
"text": " which has been proven mathematically",
"timestamp": [
1045.8,
1049.38
]
},
{
"text": " that if you had a large enough quantum computer,",
"timestamp": [
1049.38,
1053.46
]
},
{
"text": " you could find the prime factors of large numbers.",
"timestamp": [
1053.46,
1058
]
},
{
"text": " The basis of the RSA encryption,",
"timestamp": [
1058,
1061.08
]
},
{
"text": " it's the most commonly used thing on the internet.",
"timestamp": [
1061.08,
1064.44
]
},
{
"text": " First, we're far away from being able to have a quantum computer big enough to execute",
"timestamp": [
1064.44,
1072.84
]
},
{
"text": " Shor's algorithm on that scale.",
"timestamp": [
1072.84,
1075.08
]
},
{
"text": " Second, there are plenty of other encryption schemes that don't use factoring.",
"timestamp": [
1075.08,
1081.2
]
},
{
"text": " I don't think anybody has to be concerned at the moment.",
"timestamp": [
1081.2,
1084.36
]
},
{
"text": " And in the end, quantum mechanics goes to the side",
"timestamp": [
1084.36,
1087.4
]
},
{
"text": " of privacy enhancement.",
"timestamp": [
1087.4,
1089.52
]
},
{
"text": " If you have a quantum communication channel,",
"timestamp": [
1089.52,
1092.32
]
},
{
"text": " you can encode information and send it through there",
"timestamp": [
1092.32,
1096.32
]
},
{
"text": " and it's provably secure based on the laws of physics.",
"timestamp": [
1096.32,
1101.32
]
},
{
"text": " You know, now that everybody around the world",
"timestamp": [
1102.4,
1103.84
]
},
{
"text": " can access a quantum computer through the cloud,",
"timestamp": [
1103.84,
1105.64
]
},
{
"text": " people are doing all kinds of cool things.",
"timestamp": [
1105.64,
1107.04
]
},
{
"text": " They're building games.",
"timestamp": [
1107.04,
1108.3
]
},
{
"text": " We've seen the emergence of quantum games, right?",
"timestamp": [
1108.3,
1110.52
]
},
{
"text": " What do you think people want to do with them?",
"timestamp": [
1110.52,
1112.2
]
},
{
"text": " I have no idea what people are going to end up",
"timestamp": [
1112.2,
1116.3
]
},
{
"text": " using them for.",
"timestamp": [
1116.3,
1117.22
]
},
{
"text": " I mean, if you had gone back 30 years",
"timestamp": [
1117.22,
1120.48
]
},
{
"text": " and handed somebody an iPhone,",
"timestamp": [
1120.48,
1122.24
]
},
{
"text": " they would have called you a wizard.",
"timestamp": [
1122.24,
1123.52
]
},
{
"text": " So things are gonna happen that we just can't foresee.",
"timestamp": [
1123.52,
1127.76
]
},
{
"text": " [\"The Future of Quantum Computing\"]",
"timestamp": [
1127.76,
1131.76
]
},
{
"text": " So I hope you enjoyed that foray",
"timestamp": [
1134.48,
1136.08
]
},
{
"text": " into the field of quantum computing.",
"timestamp": [
1136.08,
1137.44
]
},
{
"text": " I know I've personally enjoyed getting to see",
"timestamp": [
1137.44,
1139.28
]
},
{
"text": " quantum computing through other people's eyes,",
"timestamp": [
1139.28,
1141.32
]
},
{
"text": " coming at it from all these different levels.",
"timestamp": [
1141.32,
1143.04
]
},
{
"text": " This is such an exciting time",
"timestamp": [
1143.04,
1144.18
]
},
{
"text": " in the history of quantum computing.",
"timestamp": [
1144.18,
1146.1
]
},
{
"text": " Only in the last couple years have real quantum computers become available to everyone around",
"timestamp": [
1146.1,
1150.1
]
},
{
"text": " the world.",
"timestamp": [
1150.1,
1151.1
]
},
{
"text": " This is the beginning of a many decade adventure where we'll discover so many things about",
"timestamp": [
1151.1,
1154.38
]
},
{
"text": " quantum computing and what it will do.",
"timestamp": [
1154.38,
1155.88
]
},
{
"text": " We don't even know all the amazing things it's going to do, and to me that's the most",
"timestamp": [
1155.88,
1158.82
]
},
{
"text": " exciting part.",
"timestamp": [
1158.82,
1159.5
]
}
] |
[
[
"Intro",
" Hi, my name's Talia Gershon, and I'm a scientist at IBM Research. Today I've been challenged to explain a topic with five levels of increasing complexity. It's a completely different kind of computing called quantum computing. Quantum computers approach solving problems in a fundamentally new way, and we hope that by taking this new approach to computation, we'll be able to start exploring some problems that we could never solve any other way. Hopefully by the end of today, everyone can leave this discussion understanding quantum computing at some level. What's this? What do you think that is? Fancy chandelier. I think so too. We jokingly call it the chandelier. That's real gold you know. This is a quantum computer. It's a quantum? Yeah. It's a really special kind of computer. What does it do? It calculates things, but in a totally different way to how your computer calculates things. What do you think this is? An A? Yeah. Do you know what your computer thinks that is? Zero and one. This really specific combination of zeros and ones. Everything that your computer does, showing you Pink Panther videos on YouTube, calculating things, searching the internet, it does all of that with a really specific combination of zeros and ones, which is crazy, right? That would be like saying, your computer only understands these quarters. For each quarter, you need to tell it that you're gonna use heads, tails, and you assign it heads or tails. So I can switch between heads and tails, and I can switch the 0s and 1s in my computer so that it represents what I want it to represent, like an A. With quantum computers, we have new rules we get to use too. We can actually spin one of our quarters, so it doesn't have to choose just one or the other. Can computers help you with your homework, your really hard homework? Yeah, they can, especially if doing your homework involves calculating something or finding information. But what if your homework was to discover something totally new? A lot of those discovery questions are much harder to solve using the computers we have today. So the reason we're building these kinds of computers is because we think that maybe one day they're going to do a lot of really important things like help us understand nature better, maybe help us create new medicines to help people."
],
[
"TEEN",
" What's your favorite kind of computer? Smartphone, tablet, regular, laptop, PC? I've gotta go with my iPhone. So what do you do with your iPhone? Social media, use it for studying. Have you ever run out of space on your iPhone? All the time. Me too. Yeah, always when I'm trying to take a photo. So did you know that there's certain kinds of problems that computers sort of run out of space almost? Like you're trying to solve the problem and just like how you run out of space on your iPhone when you're trying to take a picture. Like you're trying to solve the problem and just like how you run out of space on your iPhone when you're trying to take a picture, if you're trying to solve the problem, you just run out of space. And even if you have the world's biggest super computer, did you know that can still happen? Wow. So my team is working on building new kinds of computers all together. Ones that operate by a totally different set of rules. So do you know what that is? I have no clue. It's a quantum computer. A what? Have you ever heard of a quantum computer? I haven't. Have you ever heard of the word quantum? No. OK. So quantum mechanics is a branch of science, just like any other branch of science. It's a branch of physics. It's the study of things that are either really, really small, really, really well isolated, or really, really cold. And this particular branch of science is something we're using to totally reimagine how computing works. So we're building totally new kinds of computers based on the laws of quantum mechanics. That's what a quantum computer is. I'm going to start by telling you about something called superposition. So I'm going to explain it using this giant penny. Wow. Is that, like like worth a hundred pennies? I don't know what it's worth, but I can put it face up, right? And that's heads, I can put it face down, right? So at any given time, point in time, if I ask you, is my penny heads or tails, probably you could answer it, right? Yeah. Okay, but what if I spin the penny? Hmm. So let's do it. Okay, so while it's spinning, is it heads or tails? Heads. While it's spinning? Oh, I would know. It's sort of a combination of heads and tails, right? Would you say? So superposition is this idea that my penny is not just either heads or tails. It's in this state, which is a combination of heads and tails. And this in this state, which is a combination of heads and tails. This quantum property is something that we can have in real, real physical objects in the world. So that's superposition. And the second thing that we'll talk about is called entanglement. So now I'm going to give you a penny. Wow! When we use the word entangled in everyday language, what do we mean? That something's intertwined. Exactly. That there's two things that areangled in everyday language, what do we mean? That something's intertwined or... Exactly. That there's two things that are connected in some way and usually we can separate them again. Yeah. If your hair is tangled or whatever, you can unentangle it, right? Yeah. But in the quantum world, when we entangle things, they're really now connected. It's much, much harder to separate them again. So using the same analogy, we spin our pennies and eventually... Okay. Eventually they both stop. And when they stop, it's either heads or tails, right? So in my case, I got tails and you got heads. You see how they're totally disconnected from each other, right? Our pennies in the real world. Now, if our pennies were entangled and we both spun them together, right? When we stop them, if you measured your penny to be a head, I would measure my penny to be a head. And if you measured your penny to be a tail, I would measure my penny to be a tail. If we measured it at exactly the same time, we would still find that they were both exactly correlated. That's crazy. That's so cool, right? Oh my god. The way that we are able to actually see these quantum properties is by making our quantum chips really, really cold. So that's what this is all about, actually. This is called a dilution refrigerator, and it's a refrigerator. It doesn't look like a normal refrigerator, right? But it's something that we use, actually there's usually a case around it, to cool our quantum chips down cold enough that we can create superpositions and we can entangle qubits, and the information isn't lost to the environment. Like what could those chips be used to do? So one of the things that we're trying to use quantum computers to do is simulating chemical bonding. Use a quantum system to model a quantum system. Yeah, I mean I'm definitely gonna impress all my friends when I tell them about this. They're gonna be like, quantum what? So what do you think that thing is?"
],
[
"UNDERGRAD",
" Is it some sort of conductor circuit? That is a really good guess. There's parts of that that are definitely about conducting. This is the inside of a quantum computer. Oh wow. Yeah, this whole infrastructure is all about creating levels that get progressively colder as you go from top to bottom down to the quantum chip, which is how we actually control the state of the qubit. Oh, wow. So when you say colder, you mean like physically colder? Yeah, like physically colder. So room temperature is 300 Kelvin. As you get down all the way to the bottom of the fridge, it's at 10 milli Kelvin. Oh, wow. Yeah. Amanda, what do you study? So I'm studying computer science, currently a sophomore. And the track that I'm in is the intelligent systems track. Machine learning, artificial intelligence. You ever heard of quantum computing? From my understanding, with a quantum computer, rather than using transistors, is using spins. You can have superposition of spins, so different states. More combinations means more memory. So that's pretty good. So you mentioned superposition, but you can also use other quantum properties, like entanglement. Have you heard of entanglement? I have not. Okay, so it's this idea that you have two objects, and when you entangle them together, they become connected, and then they're sort of permanently connected to each other, and they behave in ways that are sort of a system now. So superposition is one quantum property that we use, entanglement is another quantum property, and a third is interference. How much do you know about interference? Not much. Okay, so how do noise-canceling headphones work? They read like ambient wavelengths and then produce like the opposite one to cancel out. They create interference. So you can have constructive interference and you can have destructive interference. If you have constructive interference, you have have destructive interference. If you have constructive interference, you have amplitudes, wave amplitudes that add so the signal gets larger. And if you have destructive interference, the amplitudes cancel. By using a property like interference, we can control quantum states and amplify the kinds of signals that are towards the right answer and then cancel the types of signals that are leading to the wrong answer. So given that you know that we're trying to use superposition entanglement and interference for computation, how do you think we build these computers? I have no idea. So step one is you need to be able to have an object or physical device, we call it a qubit or quantum bit, that can actually handle those things, can actually be put into superpositions of states. You know, two qubit states that you can physically entangle with each other. That's not really trivial, right? Things in our classical world, you can't really entangle things in our classical world so easily. We need to use devices where they can support a quantum state and we can manipulate that quantum state. Atoms, ions, and in our case, superconducting qubits. We make qubits out of superconducting materials. But as like a programmer, how would quantum computing affect a different way of writing a program? It's a perfect question. I mean it's very early for quantum computing, but we're building assembly languages. We're building layers of abstraction that are going to get you to a point as a programmer where you can interchangeably be programming something the way that you already do and then make calls to a quantum computer so that you can bring it in when it makes sense. We're not envisioning quantum computers completely replacing classical computers any time soon. We think that quantum computing is gonna be used to accelerate the kinds of things that are really hard for classical machines. So what exactly are some of those problems? Simulating nature is something that's really hard, because if you take something like, you know, modeling atomic bonding and electronic orbital overlap, instead of now writing out a giant simulation over many terms, you try and actually mimic the system you're trying to simulate directly on a quantum computer, which we can do for chemistry. And we're looking at ways of doing that for other types of things. There's a lot of exciting research right now on machine learning, trying to use quantum systems to accelerate machine learning problems. So would it be like in five years or 10 years that I would be able to have one of these sitting in my laptop just in my dorm? I don't think you're gonna have one in your dorm room anytime soon, but you'll have access to one. There's three free quantum computers that are all sitting in this lab here that anyone in the world can access through the cloud. Okay, so quantum computing creates new possibilities free quantum computers that are all sitting in this lab here that anyone in the world can access through the cloud. Okay, so quantum computing creates new possibilities and new ways to approach problems that classical computers have difficulty doing. Couldn't have said it better myself."
],
[
"GRAD STUDENT",
" So I'm a first year master's student and I'm studying machine learning. So it's in the computer science department, but it mixes computer science with math and probability and statistics. So have you come up upon sort of any limits to machine learning? Certainly, depending on the complexity of your model, then computational speed is one thing. I have colleagues here that tell me it can take up to weeks to train certain neural networks. Right? Sure, yeah. And actually, machine learning is one research direction where we're really hoping that we're going to find key parts of the machine learning computation that can be sped up using quantum computing. Yeah, it's exciting. So in a classical computer, you have all sorts of logical gates that perform operations and they change an input to some sort of output, but I guess it's not immediately obvious how you do that with quantum computers. If you think about even just classical information like bits, right? At the end of the day, when you store a bit in your hard drive, there's a magnetic domain and you have a magnetic polarization, right? Sure. You can change the magnetization to be pointing up or pointing down, right? Quantum systems, we're still manipulating a device and changing the quantum state of that device. You can imagine if it's a spin, that you could have spin up and spin down, but you can also, if you isolate it enough, you can have a superposition of up and down. So what we do when we try to solve problems with a quantum computer is we encode parts of the problem we're trying to solve into a complex quantum state. And then we manipulate that state to drive it towards what will eventually represent the solution. So how do we actually encode it to start with? Yeah, that's a really good question. This actually is a model of the inside of one of our quantum computers. So you need a chip with qubits. Each qubit is a carrier of quantum information. And the way we control the state of that qubit is using microwave pulses. And you send them all the way down these cables and we've calibrated these microwave pulses so that we know exactly this kind of pulse with this frequency and this duration will put the qubit into superposition. Or will flip the state of the qubit from zero to one. Or if we apply a microwave pulse between two qubits, we can entangle them. How do we measure it? Yes, exactly, also through microwave signals. Okay. The key is to come up with algorithms where the result is deterministic. Interesting, so what do those algorithms look like? There's sort of two main classes of quantum algorithms. There's algorithms which were developed for decades, right, things like Shor's algorithm, which is for factoring, Grover's algorithm for unstructured search, and these algorithms were designed assuming that you had a perfect fault-tolerant quantum computer, which is many decades away. So we're currently in a phase where we're exploring what can we do with these near-term quantum computers, and the answer is gonna be, well, we need different kinds of algorithms to really even explore that question. Yeah, certainly having a search algorithm is very useful. Factoring, those are definitely useful things that I would imagine could be done a lot faster on a quantum computer. Yeah. They also, unfortunately, require fault tolerance. Right now, the algorithms that we know of today to do those things on a quantum computer require you to have millions of error-corrected qubits. Today, we're at, like, 50.ed qubits. Today we're at like 50. It's actually amazing that we're at 50. There's things that we know or we have strong reason to believe are going to be faster to do on a quantum computer. And then there's things that we'll discover just by virtue of having one. Sure. How could someone like me who's a grad student get involved in this or what kinds of challenges are you facing that someone like me could help out with? I'm glad you're interested. I think the place where lots of people can get involved right now is by going and trying it out and thinking about what they could do with it. There's a lot of opportunity to find these near-term applications that are only gonna be found by trying things out."
],
[
"PROFESSIONAL",
" I'm a theoretical physicist. I started out in condensed matter theory, the theory that studies superconductors and magnets and I had to learn a new field of quantum optics and apply those ideas. One of the nice things about being a theorist is you get to keep learning new things. So Steve, tell me about your research and the work you've been doing in quantum computing. My main focus right now is quantum error correction and trying to understand this concept of fault tolerance, which everybody thinks they know it when they see it, but nobody in the quantum case can precisely define it. It's something that we've already figured out for classical computing. Like something that amazes me is all the parallels between what we're going through now for quantum computing and've already figured out for classical computing. Like something that amazes me is all the parallels between what we're going through now for quantum computing and what we went through for classical computing. I was asking a computer scientist recently where to read about fault tolerance in classical computing. He said, oh, they don't teach that in computer science classes anymore because the hardware has become so reliable. In a quantum system, when you look at it or make measurements, it can change in a way that's beyond your control. We have the following task. Build a nearly perfect computer out of a whole bunch of imperfect parts. Common myth. How many qubits do you have? That's the only thing that matters. Or just add more qubits, what's the big deal? Pattern them on your chip. The great power of a quantum computer is also its Achilles heel, that it's very, very sensitive to perturbations and noise and environmental effects. You're just multiplying your problems if all you're doing is adding qubits. Exactly. So I think something that frustrates a lot of people about quantum computing is the concept of decoherence. You can only keep your information quantum for so long. And that limits how many operations you can do in a row before you lose your information. That's the challenge, I would say. As much progress as we've made, it's a frustration to still be facing it. Let's talk about some of the things we think need to happen between now and fully fault-tolerant quantum computers to get us to that reality. I mean, there's so many things that need to happen. In my mind, one of the things we need to happen between now and fully fault-tolerant quantum computers to get us to that reality. I mean, there's so many things that need to happen. In my mind, one of the things we need to do is build all these different layers of abstraction that make it easier for programmers to come in and just enter at the ground level, you know? Yeah, exactly. So I think there's gonna be a kind of co-evolution of the hardware and the software up here and the sort of middleware and the whole stack. Another common myth, in the next five years quantum computing will solve climate change cancer, right? Right. In the next five years there'll be tremendous progress in the field, but people really have to understand that we're either at the vacuum tube or transistor stage. We're trying to invent the integrated circuit and scale up. It's still very, very, very early in the development of the field. One last myth I think we should bust, Steve. Quantum computers are on the verge of breaking into your bank account and breaking encryption and cryptography. There does exist an algorithm, Shor's algorithm, which has been proven mathematically that if you had a large enough quantum computer, you could find the prime factors of large numbers. The basis of the RSA encryption, it's the most commonly used thing on the internet. First, we're far away from being able to have a quantum computer big enough to execute Shor's algorithm on that scale. Second, there are plenty of other encryption schemes that don't use factoring. I don't think anybody has to be concerned at the moment. And in the end, quantum mechanics goes to the side of privacy enhancement. If you have a quantum communication channel, you can encode information and send it through there and it's provably secure based on the laws of physics. You know, now that everybody around the world can access a quantum computer through the cloud, people are doing all kinds of cool things. They're building games. We've seen the emergence of quantum games, right? What do you think people want to do with them? I have no idea what people are going to end up using them for. I mean, if you had gone back 30 years and handed somebody an iPhone, they would have called you a wizard. So things are gonna happen that we just can't foresee. [\"The Future of Quantum Computing\"] So I hope you enjoyed that foray into the field of quantum computing. I know I've personally enjoyed getting to see quantum computing through other people's eyes, coming at it from all these different levels. This is such an exciting time in the history of quantum computing. Only in the last couple years have real quantum computers become available to everyone around the world. This is the beginning of a many decade adventure where we'll discover so many things about quantum computing and what it will do. We don't even know all the amazing things it's going to do, and to me that's the most exciting part."
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Physicist Explains Dimensions in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
3KC32Vymo0Q
| 1,704
|
[
{
"end_time": 36,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "Intro"
},
{
"end_time": 512,
"start_time": 36,
"title": "Dimensions"
},
{
"end_time": 902,
"start_time": 512,
"title": "What is it"
},
{
"end_time": 1234,
"start_time": 902,
"title": "Extra dimensions"
},
{
"end_time": 1704,
"start_time": 1234,
"title": "String theory"
}
] |
[
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Sean Carroll.",
"timestamp": [
0.14,
1.32
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Sean Carroll.",
"timestamp": [
0.14,
1.32
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a theoretical physicist",
"timestamp": [
1.32,
2.57
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a theoretical physicist",
"timestamp": [
1.32,
2.57
]
},
{
"text": "here at the California\nInstitute of Technology.",
"timestamp": [
2.57,
5.15
]
},
{
"text": "here at the California\nInstitute of Technology.",
"timestamp": [
2.57,
5.15
]
},
{
"text": "I've been challenged to explain dimensions",
"timestamp": [
5.15,
7.41
]
},
{
"text": "I've been challenged to explain dimensions",
"timestamp": [
5.15,
7.41
]
},
{
"text": "to five different levels.",
"timestamp": [
7.41,
8.773
]
},
{
"text": "to five different levels.",
"timestamp": [
7.41,
8.773
]
},
{
"text": "The idea of a dimension,\nsometimes in pop culture",
"timestamp": [
9.68,
13.06
]
},
{
"text": "The idea of a dimension,\nsometimes in pop culture",
"timestamp": [
9.68,
13.06
]
},
{
"text": "is misunderstood, like\nthere's an extra place",
"timestamp": [
13.06,
15.63
]
},
{
"text": "is misunderstood, like\nthere's an extra place",
"timestamp": [
13.06,
15.63
]
},
{
"text": "you can go, a mystical dimension\nor something like that.",
"timestamp": [
15.63,
18.57
]
},
{
"text": "you can go, a mystical dimension\nor something like that.",
"timestamp": [
15.63,
18.57
]
},
{
"text": "To a physicist or a mathematician,",
"timestamp": [
18.57,
20.8
]
},
{
"text": "To a physicist or a mathematician,",
"timestamp": [
18.57,
20.8
]
},
{
"text": "a dimension is just the\ndirection you can go in.",
"timestamp": [
20.8,
23.47
]
},
{
"text": "a dimension is just the\ndirection you can go in.",
"timestamp": [
20.8,
23.47
]
},
{
"text": "Up down, left right, forward backward.",
"timestamp": [
23.47,
25.7
]
},
{
"text": "Up down, left right, forward backward.",
"timestamp": [
23.47,
25.7
]
},
{
"text": "To you and me, we think there's\nthree dimensions around us,",
"timestamp": [
25.7,
28.19
]
},
{
"text": "To you and me, we think there's\nthree dimensions around us,",
"timestamp": [
25.7,
28.19
]
},
{
"text": "but then physicists start\ntalking about extra dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
28.19,
31.07
]
},
{
"text": "but then physicists start\ntalking about extra dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
28.19,
31.07
]
},
{
"text": "How can you hide them?",
"timestamp": [
31.07,
32.61
]
},
{
"text": "How can you hide them?",
"timestamp": [
31.07,
32.61
]
},
{
"text": "Where might they be?",
"timestamp": [
32.61,
33.79
]
},
{
"text": "Where might they be?",
"timestamp": [
32.61,
33.79
]
},
{
"text": "I'm hopeful that we're learn\nsomething at each level.",
"timestamp": [
33.79,
36.764
]
},
{
"text": "I'm hopeful that we're learn\nsomething at each level.",
"timestamp": [
33.79,
36.764
]
},
{
"text": "[down-tempo music]",
"timestamp": [
36.764,
39.41
]
},
{
"text": "[down-tempo music]",
"timestamp": [
36.764,
39.41
]
},
{
"text": "We're gonna talk about some science.",
"timestamp": [
39.41,
41.14
]
},
{
"text": "We're gonna talk about some science.",
"timestamp": [
39.41,
41.14
]
},
{
"text": "Do you like science?",
"timestamp": [
41.14,
42.393
]
},
{
"text": "Do you like science?",
"timestamp": [
41.14,
42.393
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, a lot.",
"timestamp": [
42.393,
43.32
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, a lot.",
"timestamp": [
42.393,
43.32
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, very good.",
"timestamp": [
43.32,
44.153
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, very good.",
"timestamp": [
43.32,
44.153
]
},
{
"text": "You've come to the right place.",
"timestamp": [
44.153,
44.986
]
},
{
"text": "You've come to the right place.",
"timestamp": [
44.153,
44.986
]
},
{
"text": "So we're gonna think about physics.",
"timestamp": [
44.986,
46.77
]
},
{
"text": "So we're gonna think about physics.",
"timestamp": [
44.986,
46.77
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard the word physics before?",
"timestamp": [
46.77,
48.56
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard the word physics before?",
"timestamp": [
46.77,
48.56
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know what that is?",
"timestamp": [
48.56,
49.8
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know what that is?",
"timestamp": [
48.56,
49.8
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, kind of.",
"timestamp": [
49.8,
50.84
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, kind of.",
"timestamp": [
49.8,
50.84
]
},
{
"text": "- What's your idea what physics is?",
"timestamp": [
50.84,
52.92
]
},
{
"text": "- What's your idea what physics is?",
"timestamp": [
50.84,
52.92
]
},
{
"text": "- Um, I'm not so sure.",
"timestamp": [
52.92,
55.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Um, I'm not so sure.",
"timestamp": [
52.92,
55.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
55.29,
56.123
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
55.29,
56.123
]
},
{
"text": "I just think of physics as\nthe study of everything.",
"timestamp": [
56.123,
58.68
]
},
{
"text": "I just think of physics as\nthe study of everything.",
"timestamp": [
56.123,
58.68
]
},
{
"text": "What stuff is, what stuff does.",
"timestamp": [
58.68,
60.62
]
},
{
"text": "What stuff is, what stuff does.",
"timestamp": [
58.68,
60.62
]
},
{
"text": "So today we're gonna talk about space,",
"timestamp": [
60.62,
63.45
]
},
{
"text": "So today we're gonna talk about space,",
"timestamp": [
60.62,
63.45
]
},
{
"text": "and in particular the idea of dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
63.45,
66.216
]
},
{
"text": "and in particular the idea of dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
63.45,
66.216
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard about dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
66.216,
67.81
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard about dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
66.216,
67.81
]
},
{
"text": "- At the camp",
"timestamp": [
67.81,
69.32
]
},
{
"text": "- At the camp",
"timestamp": [
67.81,
69.32
]
},
{
"text": "I made a 3D printing one.",
"timestamp": [
69.32,
72.64
]
},
{
"text": "I made a 3D printing one.",
"timestamp": [
69.32,
72.64
]
},
{
"text": "- 3D printing, good.",
"timestamp": [
72.64,
73.96
]
},
{
"text": "- 3D printing, good.",
"timestamp": [
72.64,
73.96
]
},
{
"text": "- So I don't choose the size,",
"timestamp": [
73.96,
76.51
]
},
{
"text": "- So I don't choose the size,",
"timestamp": [
73.96,
76.51
]
},
{
"text": "all I had to do was the shape.",
"timestamp": [
76.51,
78.801
]
},
{
"text": "all I had to do was the shape.",
"timestamp": [
76.51,
78.801
]
},
{
"text": "- But do you know what 3D means?",
"timestamp": [
78.801,
80.483
]
},
{
"text": "- But do you know what 3D means?",
"timestamp": [
78.801,
80.483
]
},
{
"text": "- It's three dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
80.483,
82
]
},
{
"text": "- It's three dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
80.483,
82
]
},
{
"text": "- Three dimensional, as opposed to,",
"timestamp": [
82,
83.54
]
},
{
"text": "- Three dimensional, as opposed to,",
"timestamp": [
82,
83.54
]
},
{
"text": "what is ordinary printing?",
"timestamp": [
83.54,
84.726
]
},
{
"text": "what is ordinary printing?",
"timestamp": [
83.54,
84.726
]
},
{
"text": "- So, ordinary printing would be 2D.",
"timestamp": [
84.726,
87.11
]
},
{
"text": "- So, ordinary printing would be 2D.",
"timestamp": [
84.726,
87.11
]
},
{
"text": "- What do you say when\nsomething is one dimensional?",
"timestamp": [
87.11,
89.1
]
},
{
"text": "- What do you say when\nsomething is one dimensional?",
"timestamp": [
87.11,
89.1
]
},
{
"text": "What's an example of something\nthat's one dimensional?",
"timestamp": [
89.1,
91.53
]
},
{
"text": "What's an example of something\nthat's one dimensional?",
"timestamp": [
89.1,
91.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Hmm, I think one dimensional\nmight be a circle, I guess,",
"timestamp": [
91.53,
95.28
]
},
{
"text": "- Hmm, I think one dimensional\nmight be a circle, I guess,",
"timestamp": [
91.53,
95.28
]
},
{
"text": "or maybe a line.",
"timestamp": [
95.28,
97.21
]
},
{
"text": "or maybe a line.",
"timestamp": [
95.28,
97.21
]
},
{
"text": "- A line is the perfect example",
"timestamp": [
97.21,
98.187
]
},
{
"text": "- A line is the perfect example",
"timestamp": [
97.21,
98.187
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, a line.",
"timestamp": [
98.187,
99.02
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, a line.",
"timestamp": [
98.187,
99.02
]
},
{
"text": "- Because it's one thing\nthat's straight, right?",
"timestamp": [
99.02,
100.619
]
},
{
"text": "- Because it's one thing\nthat's straight, right?",
"timestamp": [
99.02,
100.619
]
},
{
"text": "- [Hank] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
100.619,
101.452
]
},
{
"text": "- [Hank] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
100.619,
101.452
]
},
{
"text": "- So here's some toys.",
"timestamp": [
101.452,
102.285
]
},
{
"text": "- So here's some toys.",
"timestamp": [
101.452,
102.285
]
},
{
"text": "We're gonna build some dimensions, right?",
"timestamp": [
102.285,
103.91
]
},
{
"text": "We're gonna build some dimensions, right?",
"timestamp": [
102.285,
103.91
]
},
{
"text": "So what would you say about this?",
"timestamp": [
103.91,
105.33
]
},
{
"text": "So what would you say about this?",
"timestamp": [
103.91,
105.33
]
},
{
"text": "- That's one dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
105.33,
107.02
]
},
{
"text": "- That's one dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
105.33,
107.02
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
107.02,
107.853
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
107.02,
107.853
]
},
{
"text": "It's not really one dimensional, right?",
"timestamp": [
107.853,
109.38
]
},
{
"text": "It's not really one dimensional, right?",
"timestamp": [
107.853,
109.38
]
},
{
"text": "- So everything has to\nbe one or two dimensional",
"timestamp": [
109.38,
112.09
]
},
{
"text": "- So everything has to\nbe one or two dimensional",
"timestamp": [
109.38,
112.09
]
},
{
"text": "before it's three dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
112.09,
113.72
]
},
{
"text": "before it's three dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
112.09,
113.72
]
},
{
"text": "- And how would you find yourself,",
"timestamp": [
113.72,
115.07
]
},
{
"text": "- And how would you find yourself,",
"timestamp": [
113.72,
115.07
]
},
{
"text": "like if someone said where are you,",
"timestamp": [
115.07,
116.84
]
},
{
"text": "like if someone said where are you,",
"timestamp": [
115.07,
116.84
]
},
{
"text": "could you use some words or ideas",
"timestamp": [
116.84,
120.01
]
},
{
"text": "could you use some words or ideas",
"timestamp": [
116.84,
120.01
]
},
{
"text": "to say where you are on that line?",
"timestamp": [
120.01,
122.05
]
},
{
"text": "to say where you are on that line?",
"timestamp": [
120.01,
122.05
]
},
{
"text": "- I think I would be maybe there,",
"timestamp": [
122.05,
125.62
]
},
{
"text": "- I think I would be maybe there,",
"timestamp": [
122.05,
125.62
]
},
{
"text": "since I'm facing it.",
"timestamp": [
125.62,
126.99
]
},
{
"text": "since I'm facing it.",
"timestamp": [
125.62,
126.99
]
},
{
"text": "- But here's what I\nwant you to think about.",
"timestamp": [
126.99,
128.37
]
},
{
"text": "- But here's what I\nwant you to think about.",
"timestamp": [
126.99,
128.37
]
},
{
"text": "If I say I'm at this point on the line,",
"timestamp": [
128.37,
130.66
]
},
{
"text": "If I say I'm at this point on the line,",
"timestamp": [
128.37,
130.66
]
},
{
"text": "I could translate that into saying",
"timestamp": [
130.66,
132.33
]
},
{
"text": "I could translate that into saying",
"timestamp": [
130.66,
132.33
]
},
{
"text": "I'm at the three centimeter point,",
"timestamp": [
132.33,
134.84
]
},
{
"text": "I'm at the three centimeter point,",
"timestamp": [
132.33,
134.84
]
},
{
"text": "if I were here I'd be at\nthe four centimeter point,",
"timestamp": [
134.84,
136.88
]
},
{
"text": "if I were here I'd be at\nthe four centimeter point,",
"timestamp": [
134.84,
136.88
]
},
{
"text": "the five centimeter point, right?",
"timestamp": [
136.88,
138.514
]
},
{
"text": "the five centimeter point, right?",
"timestamp": [
136.88,
138.514
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
138.514,
139.347
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
138.514,
139.347
]
},
{
"text": "- So every point, every\nlocation on our little line--",
"timestamp": [
139.347,
142.636
]
},
{
"text": "- So every point, every\nlocation on our little line--",
"timestamp": [
139.347,
142.636
]
},
{
"text": "- Has its own unit.",
"timestamp": [
142.636,
144.048
]
},
{
"text": "- Has its own unit.",
"timestamp": [
142.636,
144.048
]
},
{
"text": "- Has its own unit, has one number.",
"timestamp": [
144.048,
145.705
]
},
{
"text": "- Has its own unit, has one number.",
"timestamp": [
144.048,
145.705
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
145.705,
146.538
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
145.705,
146.538
]
},
{
"text": "- We need one number to\ntell you where we are.",
"timestamp": [
146.538,
147.98
]
},
{
"text": "- We need one number to\ntell you where we are.",
"timestamp": [
146.538,
147.98
]
},
{
"text": "That's one dimension.",
"timestamp": [
147.98,
148.87
]
},
{
"text": "That's one dimension.",
"timestamp": [
147.98,
148.87
]
},
{
"text": "That's what it means\nto be one dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
148.87,
151.26
]
},
{
"text": "That's what it means\nto be one dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
148.87,
151.26
]
},
{
"text": "I only need to tell you one number",
"timestamp": [
151.26,
153.71
]
},
{
"text": "I only need to tell you one number",
"timestamp": [
151.26,
153.71
]
},
{
"text": "to figure out where we are.",
"timestamp": [
153.71,
154.81
]
},
{
"text": "to figure out where we are.",
"timestamp": [
153.71,
154.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Unlike three dimensional,\nyou have to tell a lot",
"timestamp": [
154.81,
157.77
]
},
{
"text": "- Unlike three dimensional,\nyou have to tell a lot",
"timestamp": [
154.81,
157.77
]
},
{
"text": "'cause if it's like a\nsphere, you kind of have",
"timestamp": [
157.77,
160.18
]
},
{
"text": "'cause if it's like a\nsphere, you kind of have",
"timestamp": [
157.77,
160.18
]
},
{
"text": "to start using points.",
"timestamp": [
160.18,
161.56
]
},
{
"text": "to start using points.",
"timestamp": [
160.18,
161.56
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go. Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
161.56,
162.75
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go. Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
161.56,
162.75
]
},
{
"text": "We're gonna build a little\ntwo dimensional space.",
"timestamp": [
162.75,
165.9
]
},
{
"text": "We're gonna build a little\ntwo dimensional space.",
"timestamp": [
162.75,
165.9
]
},
{
"text": "You wanna do it?",
"timestamp": [
165.9,
166.827
]
},
{
"text": "You wanna do it?",
"timestamp": [
165.9,
166.827
]
},
{
"text": "You wanna do the honors here?",
"timestamp": [
166.827,
167.81
]
},
{
"text": "You wanna do the honors here?",
"timestamp": [
166.827,
167.81
]
},
{
"text": "Why don't you put those\ntwo lines together?",
"timestamp": [
167.81,
170.8
]
},
{
"text": "Why don't you put those\ntwo lines together?",
"timestamp": [
167.81,
170.8
]
},
{
"text": "- If you make it",
"timestamp": [
170.8,
171.83
]
},
{
"text": "- If you make it",
"timestamp": [
170.8,
171.83
]
},
{
"text": "two dimensional is this, a corner.",
"timestamp": [
171.83,
175.94
]
},
{
"text": "two dimensional is this, a corner.",
"timestamp": [
171.83,
175.94
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly, there you go.",
"timestamp": [
175.94,
176.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly, there you go.",
"timestamp": [
175.94,
176.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Another way is if you\nhave space in between",
"timestamp": [
176.82,
180.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Another way is if you\nhave space in between",
"timestamp": [
176.82,
180.9
]
},
{
"text": "is an angle.",
"timestamp": [
180.9,
182.43
]
},
{
"text": "is an angle.",
"timestamp": [
180.9,
182.43
]
},
{
"text": "- I think you should be in this chair",
"timestamp": [
182.43,
183.75
]
},
{
"text": "- I think you should be in this chair",
"timestamp": [
182.43,
183.75
]
},
{
"text": "and you should be explaining this to me.",
"timestamp": [
183.75,
185.05
]
},
{
"text": "and you should be explaining this to me.",
"timestamp": [
183.75,
185.05
]
},
{
"text": "You're much better at this than I am.",
"timestamp": [
185.05,
186.55
]
},
{
"text": "You're much better at this than I am.",
"timestamp": [
185.05,
186.55
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
186.55,
187.383
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
186.55,
187.383
]
},
{
"text": "- So those are the dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
187.383,
189.69
]
},
{
"text": "- So those are the dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
187.383,
189.69
]
},
{
"text": "That's how we think about dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
189.69,
191.22
]
},
{
"text": "That's how we think about dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
189.69,
191.22
]
},
{
"text": "Remember, we just needed one number",
"timestamp": [
191.22,
193.88
]
},
{
"text": "Remember, we just needed one number",
"timestamp": [
191.22,
193.88
]
},
{
"text": "to find ourselves on the\nline, we need two numbers",
"timestamp": [
193.88,
196.7
]
},
{
"text": "to find ourselves on the\nline, we need two numbers",
"timestamp": [
193.88,
196.7
]
},
{
"text": "to find ourselves on the plane.",
"timestamp": [
196.7,
198.64
]
},
{
"text": "to find ourselves on the plane.",
"timestamp": [
196.7,
198.64
]
},
{
"text": "- I think that would be\nan X or a Y axis, so--",
"timestamp": [
198.64,
201.67
]
},
{
"text": "- I think that would be\nan X or a Y axis, so--",
"timestamp": [
198.64,
201.67
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go.",
"timestamp": [
201.67,
202.55
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go.",
"timestamp": [
201.67,
202.55
]
},
{
"text": "So, do you think we could have\nmore than three dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
202.55,
207.02
]
},
{
"text": "So, do you think we could have\nmore than three dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
202.55,
207.02
]
},
{
"text": "- 3D is the maximum of\ndimensions for shapes.",
"timestamp": [
207.02,
212.02
]
},
{
"text": "- 3D is the maximum of\ndimensions for shapes.",
"timestamp": [
207.02,
212.02
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, as far as we know.",
"timestamp": [
212.29,
215.086
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, as far as we know.",
"timestamp": [
212.29,
215.086
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
215.086,
215.919
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
215.086,
215.919
]
},
{
"text": "- This is why physicists\nthink about things",
"timestamp": [
215.919,
216.83
]
},
{
"text": "- This is why physicists\nthink about things",
"timestamp": [
215.919,
216.83
]
},
{
"text": "we don't know about.",
"timestamp": [
216.83,
217.89
]
},
{
"text": "we don't know about.",
"timestamp": [
216.83,
217.89
]
},
{
"text": "We're wondering whether there\ncould be extra dimensions",
"timestamp": [
217.89,
220.13
]
},
{
"text": "We're wondering whether there\ncould be extra dimensions",
"timestamp": [
217.89,
220.13
]
},
{
"text": "you've never seen.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
220.13,
221.05
]
},
{
"text": "you've never seen.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
220.13,
221.05
]
},
{
"text": "- That are tinier than atoms.",
"timestamp": [
221.05,
222.71
]
},
{
"text": "- That are tinier than atoms.",
"timestamp": [
221.05,
222.71
]
},
{
"text": "So, okay.",
"timestamp": [
222.71,
223.543
]
},
{
"text": "So, okay.",
"timestamp": [
222.71,
223.543
]
},
{
"text": "So what have you learned?",
"timestamp": [
223.543,
225.29
]
},
{
"text": "So what have you learned?",
"timestamp": [
223.543,
225.29
]
},
{
"text": "What do you know about dimensions now?",
"timestamp": [
225.29,
226.82
]
},
{
"text": "What do you know about dimensions now?",
"timestamp": [
225.29,
226.82
]
},
{
"text": "How do you think about dimensions",
"timestamp": [
226.82,
228.12
]
},
{
"text": "How do you think about dimensions",
"timestamp": [
226.82,
228.12
]
},
{
"text": "in a slightly different\nway than you did before?",
"timestamp": [
228.12,
230.23
]
},
{
"text": "in a slightly different\nway than you did before?",
"timestamp": [
228.12,
230.23
]
},
{
"text": "- So at least everything\nhas a certain dimension.",
"timestamp": [
230.23,
233.78
]
},
{
"text": "- So at least everything\nhas a certain dimension.",
"timestamp": [
230.23,
233.78
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, do you think you'd be excited",
"timestamp": [
233.78,
235.33
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, do you think you'd be excited",
"timestamp": [
233.78,
235.33
]
},
{
"text": "if physicists said that they found",
"timestamp": [
235.33,
236.71
]
},
{
"text": "if physicists said that they found",
"timestamp": [
235.33,
236.71
]
},
{
"text": "extra dimensions of space?",
"timestamp": [
236.71,
239.02
]
},
{
"text": "extra dimensions of space?",
"timestamp": [
236.71,
239.02
]
},
{
"text": "- That would be an amazing discovery.",
"timestamp": [
239.02,
242.25
]
},
{
"text": "- That would be an amazing discovery.",
"timestamp": [
239.02,
242.25
]
},
{
"text": "The news would be spreaded\naround the world rapidly.",
"timestamp": [
242.25,
247.25
]
},
{
"text": "The news would be spreaded\naround the world rapidly.",
"timestamp": [
242.25,
247.25
]
},
{
"text": "- I think so.",
"timestamp": [
247.25,
248.083
]
},
{
"text": "- I think so.",
"timestamp": [
247.25,
248.083
]
},
{
"text": "I think you're right.",
"timestamp": [
248.083,
248.916
]
},
{
"text": "I think you're right.",
"timestamp": [
248.083,
248.916
]
},
{
"text": "All right Hank, we want\nyou to keep up studying,",
"timestamp": [
248.916,
251.5
]
},
{
"text": "All right Hank, we want\nyou to keep up studying,",
"timestamp": [
248.916,
251.5
]
},
{
"text": "learn a lot of math and physics",
"timestamp": [
251.5,
252.74
]
},
{
"text": "learn a lot of math and physics",
"timestamp": [
251.5,
252.74
]
},
{
"text": "and help us discover\nnew dimensions some day.",
"timestamp": [
252.74,
254.5
]
},
{
"text": "and help us discover\nnew dimensions some day.",
"timestamp": [
252.74,
254.5
]
},
{
"text": "Does that sound like a fun idea?",
"timestamp": [
254.5,
255.84
]
},
{
"text": "Does that sound like a fun idea?",
"timestamp": [
254.5,
255.84
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
255.84,
256.76
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
255.84,
256.76
]
},
{
"text": "[playful music]",
"timestamp": [
256.76,
259.27
]
},
{
"text": "[playful music]",
"timestamp": [
256.76,
259.27
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you like science?",
"timestamp": [
259.27,
260.326
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you like science?",
"timestamp": [
259.27,
260.326
]
},
{
"text": "Is that something you think about?",
"timestamp": [
260.326,
261.159
]
},
{
"text": "Is that something you think about?",
"timestamp": [
260.326,
261.159
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I do.",
"timestamp": [
261.159,
261.992
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I do.",
"timestamp": [
261.159,
261.992
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] What kind of science?",
"timestamp": [
261.992,
262.825
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] What kind of science?",
"timestamp": [
261.992,
262.825
]
},
{
"text": "- I like biology and computer science.",
"timestamp": [
262.825,
264.58
]
},
{
"text": "- I like biology and computer science.",
"timestamp": [
262.825,
264.58
]
},
{
"text": "- All right, you're in the wrong place.",
"timestamp": [
264.58,
266.148
]
},
{
"text": "- All right, you're in the wrong place.",
"timestamp": [
264.58,
266.148
]
},
{
"text": "[laughs]\nWe're not gonna be talking",
"timestamp": [
266.148,
267.32
]
},
{
"text": "[laughs]\nWe're not gonna be talking",
"timestamp": [
266.148,
267.32
]
},
{
"text": "about biology or computer science.",
"timestamp": [
267.32,
268.64
]
},
{
"text": "about biology or computer science.",
"timestamp": [
267.32,
268.64
]
},
{
"text": "So we wanna talk about\nthe idea of dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
268.64,
271.561
]
},
{
"text": "So we wanna talk about\nthe idea of dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
268.64,
271.561
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know what dimension is?",
"timestamp": [
271.561,
272.44
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know what dimension is?",
"timestamp": [
271.561,
272.44
]
},
{
"text": "How we would define dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
272.44,
274.7
]
},
{
"text": "How we would define dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
272.44,
274.7
]
},
{
"text": "- I guess, I don't know\nhow to exactly define it,",
"timestamp": [
274.7,
277.87
]
},
{
"text": "- I guess, I don't know\nhow to exactly define it,",
"timestamp": [
274.7,
277.87
]
},
{
"text": "but I know, like the first four.",
"timestamp": [
277.87,
280.78
]
},
{
"text": "but I know, like the first four.",
"timestamp": [
277.87,
280.78
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, you know the difference\nbetween like one dimension",
"timestamp": [
280.78,
283.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, you know the difference\nbetween like one dimension",
"timestamp": [
280.78,
283.09
]
},
{
"text": "two dimensions, three\ndimensions, et cetera.",
"timestamp": [
283.09,
284.46
]
},
{
"text": "two dimensions, three\ndimensions, et cetera.",
"timestamp": [
283.09,
284.46
]
},
{
"text": "So let's do a little experiment here.",
"timestamp": [
284.46,
285.88
]
},
{
"text": "So let's do a little experiment here.",
"timestamp": [
284.46,
285.88
]
},
{
"text": "So there's one dimension.",
"timestamp": [
285.88,
286.72
]
},
{
"text": "So there's one dimension.",
"timestamp": [
285.88,
286.72
]
},
{
"text": "I'll give that to you.",
"timestamp": [
286.72,
287.64
]
},
{
"text": "I'll give that to you.",
"timestamp": [
286.72,
287.64
]
},
{
"text": "Now, here's your task.",
"timestamp": [
287.64,
289.2
]
},
{
"text": "Now, here's your task.",
"timestamp": [
287.64,
289.2
]
},
{
"text": "I'm going to give you another dimension,",
"timestamp": [
289.2,
291.22
]
},
{
"text": "I'm going to give you another dimension,",
"timestamp": [
289.2,
291.22
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm gonna ask hold those two things",
"timestamp": [
291.22,
295
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm gonna ask hold those two things",
"timestamp": [
291.22,
295
]
},
{
"text": "at right angles to each other.",
"timestamp": [
295,
297.42
]
},
{
"text": "at right angles to each other.",
"timestamp": [
295,
297.42
]
},
{
"text": "It's easy to do.",
"timestamp": [
297.42,
298.253
]
},
{
"text": "It's easy to do.",
"timestamp": [
297.42,
298.253
]
},
{
"text": "Yeah, so there's no trick here.",
"timestamp": [
298.253,
299.281
]
},
{
"text": "Yeah, so there's no trick here.",
"timestamp": [
298.253,
299.281
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
299.281,
300.114
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
299.281,
300.114
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm not trying to fool you here. Okay.",
"timestamp": [
300.114,
300.947
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm not trying to fool you here. Okay.",
"timestamp": [
300.114,
300.947
]
},
{
"text": "Now this is going to be slightly trickier.",
"timestamp": [
300.947,
301.94
]
},
{
"text": "Now this is going to be slightly trickier.",
"timestamp": [
300.947,
301.94
]
},
{
"text": "I'm going to give you this.",
"timestamp": [
301.94,
303.01
]
},
{
"text": "I'm going to give you this.",
"timestamp": [
301.94,
303.01
]
},
{
"text": "I want you to hold all three of them",
"timestamp": [
303.01,
305.74
]
},
{
"text": "I want you to hold all three of them",
"timestamp": [
303.01,
305.74
]
},
{
"text": "at right angles to all the others",
"timestamp": [
305.74,
307.68
]
},
{
"text": "at right angles to all the others",
"timestamp": [
305.74,
307.68
]
},
{
"text": "at the same time.",
"timestamp": [
307.68,
308.653
]
},
{
"text": "at the same time.",
"timestamp": [
307.68,
308.653
]
},
{
"text": "- Um ...",
"timestamp": [
309.66,
310.493
]
},
{
"text": "- Um ...",
"timestamp": [
309.66,
310.493
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go.",
"timestamp": [
312.23,
313.063
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go.",
"timestamp": [
312.23,
313.063
]
},
{
"text": "So what that's doing is\nwhen you had just two",
"timestamp": [
313.063,
315.86
]
},
{
"text": "So what that's doing is\nwhen you had just two",
"timestamp": [
313.063,
315.86
]
},
{
"text": "that was describing a two\ndimensional plane, right?",
"timestamp": [
315.86,
318.46
]
},
{
"text": "that was describing a two\ndimensional plane, right?",
"timestamp": [
315.86,
318.46
]
},
{
"text": "Like the two things pick out a plane,",
"timestamp": [
318.46,
320.38
]
},
{
"text": "Like the two things pick out a plane,",
"timestamp": [
318.46,
320.38
]
},
{
"text": "the three things pick out\nall three dimensional space.",
"timestamp": [
320.38,
323.007
]
},
{
"text": "the three things pick out\nall three dimensional space.",
"timestamp": [
320.38,
323.007
]
},
{
"text": "I'm gonna give you one more,",
"timestamp": [
323.007,
324.74
]
},
{
"text": "I'm gonna give you one more,",
"timestamp": [
323.007,
324.74
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm gonna ask you\nto hold that fourth one",
"timestamp": [
324.74,
327.69
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm gonna ask you\nto hold that fourth one",
"timestamp": [
324.74,
327.69
]
},
{
"text": "so that it's at a right\nangle to all the other three",
"timestamp": [
327.69,
330.67
]
},
{
"text": "so that it's at a right\nangle to all the other three",
"timestamp": [
327.69,
330.67
]
},
{
"text": "at the same time.",
"timestamp": [
330.67,
331.663
]
},
{
"text": "at the same time.",
"timestamp": [
330.67,
331.663
]
},
{
"text": "- Um ...",
"timestamp": [
335.29,
336.123
]
},
{
"text": "- Um ...",
"timestamp": [
335.29,
336.123
]
},
{
"text": "- All right, now I am tricking you.",
"timestamp": [
336.123,
337.02
]
},
{
"text": "- All right, now I am tricking you.",
"timestamp": [
336.123,
337.02
]
},
{
"text": "It can't be done.",
"timestamp": [
337.02,
337.853
]
},
{
"text": "It can't be done.",
"timestamp": [
337.02,
337.853
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- Right?",
"timestamp": [
337.853,
339.051
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- Right?",
"timestamp": [
337.853,
339.051
]
},
{
"text": "You can't do it.",
"timestamp": [
339.051,
339.884
]
},
{
"text": "You can't do it.",
"timestamp": [
339.051,
339.884
]
},
{
"text": "So we just experimentally proved",
"timestamp": [
339.884,
341.96
]
},
{
"text": "So we just experimentally proved",
"timestamp": [
339.884,
341.96
]
},
{
"text": "that space is three dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
341.96,
343.5
]
},
{
"text": "that space is three dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
341.96,
343.5
]
},
{
"text": "That's sort of what it means\nto be three dimensional,",
"timestamp": [
343.5,
346.58
]
},
{
"text": "That's sort of what it means\nto be three dimensional,",
"timestamp": [
343.5,
346.58
]
},
{
"text": "that there are three different\ndirections you can move in",
"timestamp": [
346.58,
349.9
]
},
{
"text": "that there are three different\ndirections you can move in",
"timestamp": [
346.58,
349.9
]
},
{
"text": "and there's not four or\nfive or six directions",
"timestamp": [
349.9,
352.12
]
},
{
"text": "and there's not four or\nfive or six directions",
"timestamp": [
349.9,
352.12
]
},
{
"text": "you can move in.",
"timestamp": [
352.12,
353.084
]
},
{
"text": "you can move in.",
"timestamp": [
352.12,
353.084
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
353.084,
354.03
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
353.084,
354.03
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go.",
"timestamp": [
354.03,
354.863
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go.",
"timestamp": [
354.03,
354.863
]
},
{
"text": "Three dimensional space, right?",
"timestamp": [
354.863,
356.089
]
},
{
"text": "Three dimensional space, right?",
"timestamp": [
354.863,
356.089
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
356.089,
356.922
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
356.089,
356.922
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] So, have you thought\nabout using coordinates",
"timestamp": [
356.922,
359.51
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] So, have you thought\nabout using coordinates",
"timestamp": [
356.922,
359.51
]
},
{
"text": "in three dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
359.51,
361.04
]
},
{
"text": "in three dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
359.51,
361.04
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I was actually doing SAT prep.",
"timestamp": [
361.04,
363.91
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I was actually doing SAT prep.",
"timestamp": [
361.04,
363.91
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go.",
"timestamp": [
363.91,
365.069
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go.",
"timestamp": [
363.91,
365.069
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
365.069,
366.37
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
365.069,
366.37
]
},
{
"text": "- It showed like the X\nY and Z axis as well.",
"timestamp": [
366.37,
369.49
]
},
{
"text": "- It showed like the X\nY and Z axis as well.",
"timestamp": [
366.37,
369.49
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
369.49,
370.323
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
369.49,
370.323
]
},
{
"text": "So that's exactly what these would be.",
"timestamp": [
370.323,
371.68
]
},
{
"text": "So that's exactly what these would be.",
"timestamp": [
370.323,
371.68
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard that there\nare other coordinate systems",
"timestamp": [
371.68,
373.89
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard that there\nare other coordinate systems",
"timestamp": [
371.68,
373.89
]
},
{
"text": "other than XYX?",
"timestamp": [
373.89,
375.15
]
},
{
"text": "other than XYX?",
"timestamp": [
373.89,
375.15
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
375.15,
376.53
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
375.15,
376.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, we could also say how far we are",
"timestamp": [
376.53,
379.18
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, we could also say how far we are",
"timestamp": [
376.53,
379.18
]
},
{
"text": "away from the center, just the distance.",
"timestamp": [
379.18,
381.87
]
},
{
"text": "away from the center, just the distance.",
"timestamp": [
379.18,
381.87
]
},
{
"text": "And then the angle that\nour little line makes",
"timestamp": [
381.87,
384.93
]
},
{
"text": "And then the angle that\nour little line makes",
"timestamp": [
381.87,
384.93
]
},
{
"text": "with let's say the X axis.",
"timestamp": [
384.93,
386.289
]
},
{
"text": "with let's say the X axis.",
"timestamp": [
384.93,
386.289
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
386.289,
387.122
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
386.289,
387.122
]
},
{
"text": "- So that's a different way\nof giving you two numbers",
"timestamp": [
387.122,
388.55
]
},
{
"text": "- So that's a different way\nof giving you two numbers",
"timestamp": [
387.122,
388.55
]
},
{
"text": "and locating yourself, and we\ncall those polar coordinates.",
"timestamp": [
388.55,
391.3
]
},
{
"text": "and locating yourself, and we\ncall those polar coordinates.",
"timestamp": [
388.55,
391.3
]
},
{
"text": "It's a different coordinate system.",
"timestamp": [
391.3,
392.6
]
},
{
"text": "It's a different coordinate system.",
"timestamp": [
391.3,
392.6
]
},
{
"text": "What we want to do as physicists is look",
"timestamp": [
392.6,
394.64
]
},
{
"text": "What we want to do as physicists is look",
"timestamp": [
392.6,
394.64
]
},
{
"text": "for extra dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
394.64,
396.03
]
},
{
"text": "for extra dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
394.64,
396.03
]
},
{
"text": "Can you imagine, can you think of any way",
"timestamp": [
396.03,
397.49
]
},
{
"text": "Can you imagine, can you think of any way",
"timestamp": [
396.03,
397.49
]
},
{
"text": "that there could be extra dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
397.49,
399.32
]
},
{
"text": "that there could be extra dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
397.49,
399.32
]
},
{
"text": "- Time?",
"timestamp": [
399.32,
400.16
]
},
{
"text": "- Time?",
"timestamp": [
399.32,
400.16
]
},
{
"text": "- Time.",
"timestamp": [
400.16,
400.993
]
},
{
"text": "- Time.",
"timestamp": [
400.16,
400.993
]
},
{
"text": "Yes, Einstein said that\nwe can think of time",
"timestamp": [
400.993,
403.5
]
},
{
"text": "Yes, Einstein said that\nwe can think of time",
"timestamp": [
400.993,
403.5
]
},
{
"text": "as a fourth dimension, and\nthat's a very fascinating thing",
"timestamp": [
403.5,
405.83
]
},
{
"text": "as a fourth dimension, and\nthat's a very fascinating thing",
"timestamp": [
403.5,
405.83
]
},
{
"text": "that we could talk about all by itself.",
"timestamp": [
405.83,
407.41
]
},
{
"text": "that we could talk about all by itself.",
"timestamp": [
405.83,
407.41
]
},
{
"text": "But what about space?",
"timestamp": [
407.41,
408.726
]
},
{
"text": "But what about space?",
"timestamp": [
407.41,
408.726
]
},
{
"text": "What about the solar system?",
"timestamp": [
408.726,
409.8
]
},
{
"text": "What about the solar system?",
"timestamp": [
408.726,
409.8
]
},
{
"text": "Like, if you wanted to tell\nme where a certain star was",
"timestamp": [
409.8,
413.17
]
},
{
"text": "Like, if you wanted to tell\nme where a certain star was",
"timestamp": [
409.8,
413.17
]
},
{
"text": "in the sky, do you know how we do that?",
"timestamp": [
413.17,
416.55
]
},
{
"text": "in the sky, do you know how we do that?",
"timestamp": [
413.17,
416.55
]
},
{
"text": "- I have no idea.",
"timestamp": [
416.55,
417.84
]
},
{
"text": "- I have no idea.",
"timestamp": [
416.55,
417.84
]
},
{
"text": "- It's exactly the same thing\nas latitude and longitude",
"timestamp": [
417.84,
421.14
]
},
{
"text": "- It's exactly the same thing\nas latitude and longitude",
"timestamp": [
417.84,
421.14
]
},
{
"text": "but we put coordinates on the sky.",
"timestamp": [
421.14,
424.366
]
},
{
"text": "but we put coordinates on the sky.",
"timestamp": [
421.14,
424.366
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh.",
"timestamp": [
424.366,
425.199
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh.",
"timestamp": [
424.366,
425.199
]
},
{
"text": "- So astronomers call them\nright ascension and declination,",
"timestamp": [
425.199,
427.85
]
},
{
"text": "- So astronomers call them\nright ascension and declination,",
"timestamp": [
425.199,
427.85
]
},
{
"text": "which are two terrible words,",
"timestamp": [
427.85,
429.62
]
},
{
"text": "which are two terrible words,",
"timestamp": [
427.85,
429.62
]
},
{
"text": "but basically you've seen on the globe",
"timestamp": [
429.62,
432.31
]
},
{
"text": "but basically you've seen on the globe",
"timestamp": [
429.62,
432.31
]
},
{
"text": "where you draw latitude and longitude,",
"timestamp": [
432.31,
434.07
]
},
{
"text": "where you draw latitude and longitude,",
"timestamp": [
432.31,
434.07
]
},
{
"text": "what it looks like.",
"timestamp": [
434.07,
435.027
]
},
{
"text": "what it looks like.",
"timestamp": [
434.07,
435.027
]
},
{
"text": "- [Juliana] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
435.027,
435.86
]
},
{
"text": "- [Juliana] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
435.027,
435.86
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] And sort of\nthe peels of an orange",
"timestamp": [
435.86,
436.693
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] And sort of\nthe peels of an orange",
"timestamp": [
435.86,
436.693
]
},
{
"text": "kind of thing, right?",
"timestamp": [
436.693,
437.526
]
},
{
"text": "kind of thing, right?",
"timestamp": [
436.693,
437.526
]
},
{
"text": "- [Juliana] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
437.526,
438.359
]
},
{
"text": "- [Juliana] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
437.526,
438.359
]
},
{
"text": "- So you can define\nsomething as, well you know,",
"timestamp": [
438.359,
439.26
]
},
{
"text": "- So you can define\nsomething as, well you know,",
"timestamp": [
438.359,
439.26
]
},
{
"text": "how high above a certain\nlocation on earth it is,",
"timestamp": [
439.26,
442.66
]
},
{
"text": "how high above a certain\nlocation on earth it is,",
"timestamp": [
439.26,
442.66
]
},
{
"text": "but the earth is rotating\nand revolving around the sun",
"timestamp": [
442.66,
444.93
]
},
{
"text": "but the earth is rotating\nand revolving around the sun",
"timestamp": [
442.66,
444.93
]
},
{
"text": "so we have to define separate\ncelestial coordinates.",
"timestamp": [
444.93,
447.47
]
},
{
"text": "so we have to define separate\ncelestial coordinates.",
"timestamp": [
444.93,
447.47
]
},
{
"text": "- So, there's like how many\ndimension would there be?",
"timestamp": [
447.47,
452.47
]
},
{
"text": "- So, there's like how many\ndimension would there be?",
"timestamp": [
447.47,
452.47
]
},
{
"text": "- We don't know.",
"timestamp": [
452.96,
453.93
]
},
{
"text": "- We don't know.",
"timestamp": [
452.96,
453.93
]
},
{
"text": "You know, the optimistic\nview is that there are six,",
"timestamp": [
453.93,
456.28
]
},
{
"text": "You know, the optimistic\nview is that there are six,",
"timestamp": [
453.93,
456.28
]
},
{
"text": "but the thing is, some of them might be",
"timestamp": [
456.28,
458.51
]
},
{
"text": "but the thing is, some of them might be",
"timestamp": [
456.28,
458.51
]
},
{
"text": "really, really, really,\nreally, really small,",
"timestamp": [
458.51,
460.9
]
},
{
"text": "really, really, really,\nreally, really small,",
"timestamp": [
458.51,
460.9
]
},
{
"text": "like way too small for us to ever see.",
"timestamp": [
460.9,
463.31
]
},
{
"text": "like way too small for us to ever see.",
"timestamp": [
460.9,
463.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
463.31,
464.143
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
463.31,
464.143
]
},
{
"text": "- And some of them might be medium sized",
"timestamp": [
464.143,
465.36
]
},
{
"text": "- And some of them might be medium sized",
"timestamp": [
464.143,
465.36
]
},
{
"text": "that hopefully we can see.",
"timestamp": [
465.36,
466.47
]
},
{
"text": "that hopefully we can see.",
"timestamp": [
465.36,
466.47
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, okay.",
"timestamp": [
466.47,
467.54
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, okay.",
"timestamp": [
466.47,
467.54
]
},
{
"text": "So since it's all theoretical,",
"timestamp": [
467.54,
469.25
]
},
{
"text": "So since it's all theoretical,",
"timestamp": [
467.54,
469.25
]
},
{
"text": "like this could not be three dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
469.25,
472.01
]
},
{
"text": "like this could not be three dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
469.25,
472.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely right.",
"timestamp": [
472.01,
472.843
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely right.",
"timestamp": [
472.01,
472.843
]
},
{
"text": "And this is sort of the\nstate of uncertainty",
"timestamp": [
472.843,
474.73
]
},
{
"text": "And this is sort of the\nstate of uncertainty",
"timestamp": [
472.843,
474.73
]
},
{
"text": "that physicists are stuck living in.",
"timestamp": [
474.73,
476.215
]
},
{
"text": "that physicists are stuck living in.",
"timestamp": [
474.73,
476.215
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh. [laughs]",
"timestamp": [
476.215,
477.13
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh. [laughs]",
"timestamp": [
476.215,
477.13
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, honestly\nout there, if you go out",
"timestamp": [
477.13,
478.46
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, honestly\nout there, if you go out",
"timestamp": [
477.13,
478.46
]
},
{
"text": "onto campus and talk to the physicists,",
"timestamp": [
478.46,
480.48
]
},
{
"text": "onto campus and talk to the physicists,",
"timestamp": [
478.46,
480.48
]
},
{
"text": "half of them will say probably\nextra dimensions exist,",
"timestamp": [
480.48,
482.97
]
},
{
"text": "half of them will say probably\nextra dimensions exist,",
"timestamp": [
480.48,
482.97
]
},
{
"text": "and half of them say no,\nthat's just nonsense.",
"timestamp": [
482.97,
484.601
]
},
{
"text": "and half of them say no,\nthat's just nonsense.",
"timestamp": [
482.97,
484.601
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh. [laughs]",
"timestamp": [
484.601,
485.47
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh. [laughs]",
"timestamp": [
484.601,
485.47
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] We really don't know.",
"timestamp": [
485.47,
486.303
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] We really don't know.",
"timestamp": [
485.47,
486.303
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
486.303,
487.136
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
486.303,
487.136
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, after all this.",
"timestamp": [
487.136,
488.58
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, after all this.",
"timestamp": [
487.136,
488.58
]
},
{
"text": "- [Juliana] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
488.58,
489.413
]
},
{
"text": "- [Juliana] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
488.58,
489.413
]
},
{
"text": "- Someone comes up to you\non the street and says",
"timestamp": [
489.413,
490.54
]
},
{
"text": "- Someone comes up to you\non the street and says",
"timestamp": [
489.413,
490.54
]
},
{
"text": "what's a dimension?",
"timestamp": [
490.54,
491.543
]
},
{
"text": "what's a dimension?",
"timestamp": [
490.54,
491.543
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, man.",
"timestamp": [
492.54,
493.58
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, man.",
"timestamp": [
492.54,
493.58
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, I guess what I've learned today",
"timestamp": [
493.58,
496.21
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, I guess what I've learned today",
"timestamp": [
493.58,
496.21
]
},
{
"text": "is just that there are\nnot just three dimensions",
"timestamp": [
496.21,
499.85
]
},
{
"text": "is just that there are\nnot just three dimensions",
"timestamp": [
496.21,
499.85
]
},
{
"text": "or at least we think, I mean\neverything's theoretical.",
"timestamp": [
499.85,
503.03
]
},
{
"text": "or at least we think, I mean\neverything's theoretical.",
"timestamp": [
499.85,
503.03
]
},
{
"text": "It's all just really kind of confusing.",
"timestamp": [
503.03,
505.48
]
},
{
"text": "It's all just really kind of confusing.",
"timestamp": [
503.03,
505.48
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right, and you know,\nif they're still bugging you",
"timestamp": [
505.48,
507.417
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right, and you know,\nif they're still bugging you",
"timestamp": [
505.48,
507.417
]
},
{
"text": "you can just like give them some sticks",
"timestamp": [
507.417,
508.99
]
},
{
"text": "you can just like give them some sticks",
"timestamp": [
507.417,
508.99
]
},
{
"text": "and ask them to put them together.",
"timestamp": [
508.99,
510.127
]
},
{
"text": "and ask them to put them together.",
"timestamp": [
508.99,
510.127
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh yeah.",
"timestamp": [
510.127,
510.96
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh yeah.",
"timestamp": [
510.127,
510.96
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] And that would shut them up.",
"timestamp": [
510.96,
511.793
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] And that would shut them up.",
"timestamp": [
510.96,
511.793
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
511.793,
512.626
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
511.793,
512.626
]
},
{
"text": "[down-tempo electronic music]",
"timestamp": [
512.626,
515.63
]
},
{
"text": "[down-tempo electronic music]",
"timestamp": [
512.626,
515.63
]
},
{
"text": "- Where do you go to school\nand what do you study?",
"timestamp": [
515.63,
517.32
]
},
{
"text": "- Where do you go to school\nand what do you study?",
"timestamp": [
515.63,
517.32
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm gonna be a sophomore\nat Pomona College,",
"timestamp": [
517.32,
519.9
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm gonna be a sophomore\nat Pomona College,",
"timestamp": [
517.32,
519.9
]
},
{
"text": "and I study math and physics.",
"timestamp": [
519.9,
521.44
]
},
{
"text": "and I study math and physics.",
"timestamp": [
519.9,
521.44
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, math and physics, okay.",
"timestamp": [
521.44,
522.42
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, math and physics, okay.",
"timestamp": [
521.44,
522.42
]
},
{
"text": "What kind of physicist do you want to be?",
"timestamp": [
522.42,
523.307
]
},
{
"text": "What kind of physicist do you want to be?",
"timestamp": [
522.42,
523.307
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know?",
"timestamp": [
523.307,
524.42
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know?",
"timestamp": [
523.307,
524.42
]
},
{
"text": "- I really don't know.",
"timestamp": [
524.42,
525.62
]
},
{
"text": "- I really don't know.",
"timestamp": [
524.42,
525.62
]
},
{
"text": "I like theory and experimental\nso it's kind of tough",
"timestamp": [
525.62,
528.1
]
},
{
"text": "I like theory and experimental\nso it's kind of tough",
"timestamp": [
525.62,
528.1
]
},
{
"text": "for me to say.",
"timestamp": [
528.1,
528.933
]
},
{
"text": "for me to say.",
"timestamp": [
528.1,
528.933
]
},
{
"text": "- Usually if it's math and physics,",
"timestamp": [
528.933,
530.34
]
},
{
"text": "- Usually if it's math and physics,",
"timestamp": [
528.933,
530.34
]
},
{
"text": "you end up as a theoretical\nphysicist, right?",
"timestamp": [
530.34,
532.01
]
},
{
"text": "you end up as a theoretical\nphysicist, right?",
"timestamp": [
530.34,
532.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
532.01,
532.843
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
532.01,
532.843
]
},
{
"text": "- Not an experimental one.",
"timestamp": [
532.843,
533.676
]
},
{
"text": "- Not an experimental one.",
"timestamp": [
532.843,
533.676
]
},
{
"text": "So, our theme here today is dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
533.676,
536.22
]
},
{
"text": "So, our theme here today is dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
533.676,
536.22
]
},
{
"text": "So this is great that you\nhave some math background",
"timestamp": [
536.22,
538.4
]
},
{
"text": "So this is great that you\nhave some math background",
"timestamp": [
536.22,
538.4
]
},
{
"text": "because mathematicians\nthink about dimensions",
"timestamp": [
538.4,
540.1
]
},
{
"text": "because mathematicians\nthink about dimensions",
"timestamp": [
538.4,
540.1
]
},
{
"text": "in a different way.",
"timestamp": [
540.1,
540.933
]
},
{
"text": "in a different way.",
"timestamp": [
540.1,
540.933
]
},
{
"text": "- Hopefully, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
540.933,
541.766
]
},
{
"text": "- Hopefully, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
540.933,
541.766
]
},
{
"text": "- So how would you explain to your friends",
"timestamp": [
541.766,
544.89
]
},
{
"text": "- So how would you explain to your friends",
"timestamp": [
541.766,
544.89
]
},
{
"text": "who are not math and physics majors,",
"timestamp": [
544.89,
546.56
]
},
{
"text": "who are not math and physics majors,",
"timestamp": [
544.89,
546.56
]
},
{
"text": "like what is a dimension, yourself?",
"timestamp": [
546.56,
548.32
]
},
{
"text": "like what is a dimension, yourself?",
"timestamp": [
546.56,
548.32
]
},
{
"text": "- My first intuitive thought\nis what are the coordinates.",
"timestamp": [
548.32,
551.51
]
},
{
"text": "- My first intuitive thought\nis what are the coordinates.",
"timestamp": [
548.32,
551.51
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
551.51,
552.343
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
551.51,
552.343
]
},
{
"text": "- So if we are looking at things,",
"timestamp": [
552.343,
553.72
]
},
{
"text": "- So if we are looking at things,",
"timestamp": [
552.343,
553.72
]
},
{
"text": "if we're looking at like a dot,",
"timestamp": [
553.72,
554.967
]
},
{
"text": "if we're looking at like a dot,",
"timestamp": [
553.72,
554.967
]
},
{
"text": "or a line rather, that's one dimensional",
"timestamp": [
554.967,
557.05
]
},
{
"text": "or a line rather, that's one dimensional",
"timestamp": [
554.967,
557.05
]
},
{
"text": "because we can only measure it one way,",
"timestamp": [
557.05,
558.73
]
},
{
"text": "because we can only measure it one way,",
"timestamp": [
557.05,
558.73
]
},
{
"text": "but then if we look at like a square",
"timestamp": [
558.73,
560.4
]
},
{
"text": "but then if we look at like a square",
"timestamp": [
558.73,
560.4
]
},
{
"text": "then we're increasing like that,",
"timestamp": [
560.4,
561.49
]
},
{
"text": "then we're increasing like that,",
"timestamp": [
560.4,
561.49
]
},
{
"text": "so it's basically what\ncoordinates we can use",
"timestamp": [
561.49,
564.32
]
},
{
"text": "so it's basically what\ncoordinates we can use",
"timestamp": [
561.49,
564.32
]
},
{
"text": "to measure something.",
"timestamp": [
564.32,
566.14
]
},
{
"text": "to measure something.",
"timestamp": [
564.32,
566.14
]
},
{
"text": "- That's exactly right,\nand so you've heard",
"timestamp": [
566.14,
568.39
]
},
{
"text": "- That's exactly right,\nand so you've heard",
"timestamp": [
566.14,
568.39
]
},
{
"text": "of spacetime--\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
568.39,
569.82
]
},
{
"text": "of spacetime--\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
568.39,
569.82
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] Being four dimensional, right?",
"timestamp": [
569.82,
570.978
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] Being four dimensional, right?",
"timestamp": [
569.82,
570.978
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
570.978,
571.811
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
570.978,
571.811
]
},
{
"text": "- Now, in some sense that's\nkind of trivial to you and me,",
"timestamp": [
571.811,
574.59
]
},
{
"text": "- Now, in some sense that's\nkind of trivial to you and me,",
"timestamp": [
571.811,
574.59
]
},
{
"text": "because of course you have space,",
"timestamp": [
574.59,
576.7
]
},
{
"text": "because of course you have space,",
"timestamp": [
574.59,
576.7
]
},
{
"text": "which is three dimensional, you have time",
"timestamp": [
576.7,
578.55
]
},
{
"text": "which is three dimensional, you have time",
"timestamp": [
576.7,
578.55
]
},
{
"text": "which is one dimensional, so\nspacetime is four dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
578.55,
582.05
]
},
{
"text": "which is one dimensional, so\nspacetime is four dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
578.55,
582.05
]
},
{
"text": "But it didn't turn out,\nit didn't occur to anyone",
"timestamp": [
582.05,
584.79
]
},
{
"text": "But it didn't turn out,\nit didn't occur to anyone",
"timestamp": [
582.05,
584.79
]
},
{
"text": "that that was a sensible way to talk",
"timestamp": [
584.79,
587.01
]
},
{
"text": "that that was a sensible way to talk",
"timestamp": [
584.79,
587.01
]
},
{
"text": "until really relativity.",
"timestamp": [
587.01,
588.6
]
},
{
"text": "until really relativity.",
"timestamp": [
587.01,
588.6
]
},
{
"text": "This is the crucial thing, right?",
"timestamp": [
588.6,
589.91
]
},
{
"text": "This is the crucial thing, right?",
"timestamp": [
588.6,
589.91
]
},
{
"text": "Is that what Einstein realized is that",
"timestamp": [
589.91,
593.72
]
},
{
"text": "Is that what Einstein realized is that",
"timestamp": [
589.91,
593.72
]
},
{
"text": "sure there's both time and\nspace, but how we divide",
"timestamp": [
593.72,
597.67
]
},
{
"text": "sure there's both time and\nspace, but how we divide",
"timestamp": [
593.72,
597.67
]
},
{
"text": "spacetime into time and\nspace can be different",
"timestamp": [
597.67,
601.22
]
},
{
"text": "spacetime into time and\nspace can be different",
"timestamp": [
597.67,
601.22
]
},
{
"text": "for different people, and\nreally there's a real sense",
"timestamp": [
601.22,
603.93
]
},
{
"text": "for different people, and\nreally there's a real sense",
"timestamp": [
601.22,
603.93
]
},
{
"text": "in which four dimensional spacetime",
"timestamp": [
603.93,
606.33
]
},
{
"text": "in which four dimensional spacetime",
"timestamp": [
603.93,
606.33
]
},
{
"text": "is kind of a generalization\nof three dimensional space.",
"timestamp": [
606.33,
610.18
]
},
{
"text": "is kind of a generalization\nof three dimensional space.",
"timestamp": [
606.33,
610.18
]
},
{
"text": "And I think to really explain this",
"timestamp": [
610.18,
611.58
]
},
{
"text": "And I think to really explain this",
"timestamp": [
610.18,
611.58
]
},
{
"text": "we're gonna need a blackboard.",
"timestamp": [
611.58,
612.59
]
},
{
"text": "we're gonna need a blackboard.",
"timestamp": [
611.58,
612.59
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
612.59,
613.423
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
612.59,
613.423
]
},
{
"text": "- Let's bring one in.",
"timestamp": [
613.423,
614.434
]
},
{
"text": "- Let's bring one in.",
"timestamp": [
613.423,
614.434
]
},
{
"text": "[playful music]",
"timestamp": [
614.434,
616.53
]
},
{
"text": "[playful music]",
"timestamp": [
614.434,
616.53
]
},
{
"text": "All right.",
"timestamp": [
616.53,
617.452
]
},
{
"text": "All right.",
"timestamp": [
616.53,
617.452
]
},
{
"text": "The thing about relativity",
"timestamp": [
617.452,
618.78
]
},
{
"text": "The thing about relativity",
"timestamp": [
617.452,
618.78
]
},
{
"text": "is that they really want you to think",
"timestamp": [
618.78,
620.24
]
},
{
"text": "is that they really want you to think",
"timestamp": [
618.78,
620.24
]
},
{
"text": "of spacetime as one four\ndimensional thing, right?",
"timestamp": [
620.24,
623.49
]
},
{
"text": "of spacetime as one four\ndimensional thing, right?",
"timestamp": [
620.24,
623.49
]
},
{
"text": "It's kind of like space.",
"timestamp": [
623.49,
625.17
]
},
{
"text": "It's kind of like space.",
"timestamp": [
623.49,
625.17
]
},
{
"text": "It's not just three dimensions of space",
"timestamp": [
625.17,
626.917
]
},
{
"text": "It's not just three dimensions of space",
"timestamp": [
625.17,
626.917
]
},
{
"text": "and one dimension of time.",
"timestamp": [
626.917,
628.2
]
},
{
"text": "and one dimension of time.",
"timestamp": [
626.917,
628.2
]
},
{
"text": "- Why though?",
"timestamp": [
628.2,
629.12
]
},
{
"text": "- Why though?",
"timestamp": [
628.2,
629.12
]
},
{
"text": "- Why?",
"timestamp": [
629.12,
629.953
]
},
{
"text": "- Why?",
"timestamp": [
629.12,
629.953
]
},
{
"text": "This is a very good question.",
"timestamp": [
629.953,
630.786
]
},
{
"text": "This is a very good question.",
"timestamp": [
629.953,
630.786
]
},
{
"text": "So, let's just start with space, right?",
"timestamp": [
630.786,
632.857
]
},
{
"text": "So, let's just start with space, right?",
"timestamp": [
630.786,
632.857
]
},
{
"text": "We know a little bit about space.",
"timestamp": [
632.857,
633.78
]
},
{
"text": "We know a little bit about space.",
"timestamp": [
632.857,
633.78
]
},
{
"text": "So here's my simple minded\nway of drawing space",
"timestamp": [
633.78,
636.81
]
},
{
"text": "So here's my simple minded\nway of drawing space",
"timestamp": [
633.78,
636.81
]
},
{
"text": "two dimensions, because that's how many",
"timestamp": [
636.81,
638.16
]
},
{
"text": "two dimensions, because that's how many",
"timestamp": [
636.81,
638.16
]
},
{
"text": "I can draw on the blackboard.",
"timestamp": [
638.16,
639.32
]
},
{
"text": "I can draw on the blackboard.",
"timestamp": [
638.16,
639.32
]
},
{
"text": "Let's say X and Y.",
"timestamp": [
639.32,
640.46
]
},
{
"text": "Let's say X and Y.",
"timestamp": [
639.32,
640.46
]
},
{
"text": "And what is special about\nspace, there's many things,",
"timestamp": [
640.46,
642.95
]
},
{
"text": "And what is special about\nspace, there's many things,",
"timestamp": [
640.46,
642.95
]
},
{
"text": "but one is that if I\nhave a curve or a path",
"timestamp": [
642.95,
646.57
]
},
{
"text": "but one is that if I\nhave a curve or a path",
"timestamp": [
642.95,
646.57
]
},
{
"text": "between two points, there's a distance",
"timestamp": [
646.57,
648.403
]
},
{
"text": "between two points, there's a distance",
"timestamp": [
646.57,
648.403
]
},
{
"text": "that you can calculate, right?",
"timestamp": [
648.403,
650.65
]
},
{
"text": "that you can calculate, right?",
"timestamp": [
648.403,
650.65
]
},
{
"text": "And the distance between those two points",
"timestamp": [
650.65,
653.06
]
},
{
"text": "And the distance between those two points",
"timestamp": [
650.65,
653.06
]
},
{
"text": "doesn't depend on your coordinates.",
"timestamp": [
653.06,
655.1
]
},
{
"text": "doesn't depend on your coordinates.",
"timestamp": [
653.06,
655.1
]
},
{
"text": "It doesn't depend on whether\nyou're in radial coordinates",
"timestamp": [
655.1,
657.15
]
},
{
"text": "It doesn't depend on whether\nyou're in radial coordinates",
"timestamp": [
655.1,
657.15
]
},
{
"text": "or Cartesian coordinates, or whatever.",
"timestamp": [
657.15,
658.89
]
},
{
"text": "or Cartesian coordinates, or whatever.",
"timestamp": [
657.15,
658.89
]
},
{
"text": "I'm allowed to imagine a curve\nthat does something like this",
"timestamp": [
658.89,
662.58
]
},
{
"text": "I'm allowed to imagine a curve\nthat does something like this",
"timestamp": [
658.89,
662.58
]
},
{
"text": "between those two points,\nand if I were a person",
"timestamp": [
662.58,
665.16
]
},
{
"text": "between those two points,\nand if I were a person",
"timestamp": [
662.58,
665.16
]
},
{
"text": "walking on that curve,\nI would have an odometer",
"timestamp": [
665.16,
668.15
]
},
{
"text": "walking on that curve,\nI would have an odometer",
"timestamp": [
665.16,
668.15
]
},
{
"text": "with me maybe, and I would\nknow, you would know,",
"timestamp": [
668.15,
670.99
]
},
{
"text": "with me maybe, and I would\nknow, you would know,",
"timestamp": [
668.15,
670.99
]
},
{
"text": "even without having done that,",
"timestamp": [
670.99,
672.56
]
},
{
"text": "even without having done that,",
"timestamp": [
670.99,
672.56
]
},
{
"text": "this path is always gonna\nbe longer than that path.",
"timestamp": [
672.56,
675.35
]
},
{
"text": "this path is always gonna\nbe longer than that path.",
"timestamp": [
672.56,
675.35
]
},
{
"text": "There's a formula, Pythagoras' Theorem",
"timestamp": [
675.35,
677.52
]
},
{
"text": "There's a formula, Pythagoras' Theorem",
"timestamp": [
675.35,
677.52
]
},
{
"text": "that tells you what the\nshortest distance path is.",
"timestamp": [
677.52,
679.29
]
},
{
"text": "that tells you what the\nshortest distance path is.",
"timestamp": [
677.52,
679.29
]
},
{
"text": "That's the point.",
"timestamp": [
679.29,
680.123
]
},
{
"text": "That's the point.",
"timestamp": [
679.29,
680.123
]
},
{
"text": "The physical-ness of what is real",
"timestamp": [
680.123,
681.84
]
},
{
"text": "The physical-ness of what is real",
"timestamp": [
680.123,
681.84
]
},
{
"text": "is the distance along a certain curve.",
"timestamp": [
681.84,
683.44
]
},
{
"text": "is the distance along a certain curve.",
"timestamp": [
681.84,
683.44
]
},
{
"text": "So spacetime is like that.",
"timestamp": [
683.44,
685.33
]
},
{
"text": "So spacetime is like that.",
"timestamp": [
683.44,
685.33
]
},
{
"text": "That's why it is useful\nto think about spacetime.",
"timestamp": [
685.33,
687.86
]
},
{
"text": "That's why it is useful\nto think about spacetime.",
"timestamp": [
685.33,
687.86
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
687.86,
688.693
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
687.86,
688.693
]
},
{
"text": "- So let me draw spacetime.",
"timestamp": [
688.693,
690.324
]
},
{
"text": "- So let me draw spacetime.",
"timestamp": [
688.693,
690.324
]
},
{
"text": "Here's how we usually draw it.",
"timestamp": [
690.324,
691.31
]
},
{
"text": "Here's how we usually draw it.",
"timestamp": [
690.324,
691.31
]
},
{
"text": "I'll just say X, but all\nof space is condensed",
"timestamp": [
691.31,
694.52
]
},
{
"text": "I'll just say X, but all\nof space is condensed",
"timestamp": [
691.31,
694.52
]
},
{
"text": "in this one direction,\nand this is time, okay?",
"timestamp": [
694.52,
698.28
]
},
{
"text": "in this one direction,\nand this is time, okay?",
"timestamp": [
694.52,
698.28
]
},
{
"text": "So if you're a little person",
"timestamp": [
698.28,
699.71
]
},
{
"text": "So if you're a little person",
"timestamp": [
698.28,
699.71
]
},
{
"text": "and you started some event, so you start,",
"timestamp": [
700.85,
702.84
]
},
{
"text": "and you started some event, so you start,",
"timestamp": [
700.85,
702.84
]
},
{
"text": "you're located somewhere in space,",
"timestamp": [
702.84,
705.07
]
},
{
"text": "you're located somewhere in space,",
"timestamp": [
702.84,
705.07
]
},
{
"text": "somewhere in the three\ncoordinates of space,",
"timestamp": [
705.07,
707.2
]
},
{
"text": "somewhere in the three\ncoordinates of space,",
"timestamp": [
705.07,
707.2
]
},
{
"text": "and whether you like it\nor not, you're moving",
"timestamp": [
707.2,
709.74
]
},
{
"text": "and whether you like it\nor not, you're moving",
"timestamp": [
707.2,
709.74
]
},
{
"text": "through spacetime just by getting older.",
"timestamp": [
709.74,
712.13
]
},
{
"text": "through spacetime just by getting older.",
"timestamp": [
709.74,
712.13
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
712.13,
713.047
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
712.13,
713.047
]
},
{
"text": "- When people ask me can\nyou travel through time?",
"timestamp": [
713.047,
715.02
]
},
{
"text": "- When people ask me can\nyou travel through time?",
"timestamp": [
713.047,
715.02
]
},
{
"text": "I say yes, yesterday I traveled\n24 hours into the future",
"timestamp": [
715.02,
718.12
]
},
{
"text": "I say yes, yesterday I traveled\n24 hours into the future",
"timestamp": [
715.02,
718.12
]
},
{
"text": "and here I am, a day later.",
"timestamp": [
718.12,
719.59
]
},
{
"text": "and here I am, a day later.",
"timestamp": [
718.12,
719.59
]
},
{
"text": "So that's just this.",
"timestamp": [
719.59,
722.21
]
},
{
"text": "So that's just this.",
"timestamp": [
719.59,
722.21
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, you're moving through\ntime, like it or not.",
"timestamp": [
722.21,
725.22
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, you're moving through\ntime, like it or not.",
"timestamp": [
722.21,
725.22
]
},
{
"text": "So what Einstein says\nis look, I can travel",
"timestamp": [
725.22,
728.68
]
},
{
"text": "So what Einstein says\nis look, I can travel",
"timestamp": [
725.22,
728.68
]
},
{
"text": "through spacetime in different ways,",
"timestamp": [
728.68,
730.9
]
},
{
"text": "through spacetime in different ways,",
"timestamp": [
728.68,
730.9
]
},
{
"text": "like I could hop in a rocket ship",
"timestamp": [
730.9,
733.14
]
},
{
"text": "like I could hop in a rocket ship",
"timestamp": [
730.9,
733.14
]
},
{
"text": "and fly out and then fly back,",
"timestamp": [
733.14,
735.8
]
},
{
"text": "and fly out and then fly back,",
"timestamp": [
733.14,
735.8
]
},
{
"text": "and then I could meet you there.",
"timestamp": [
735.8,
736.633
]
},
{
"text": "and then I could meet you there.",
"timestamp": [
735.8,
736.633
]
},
{
"text": "So this is a different trajectory\nthrough spacetime, right?",
"timestamp": [
736.633,
739.87
]
},
{
"text": "So this is a different trajectory\nthrough spacetime, right?",
"timestamp": [
736.633,
739.87
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
739.87,
740.703
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
739.87,
740.703
]
},
{
"text": "- And it's almost exactly\nlike the space story.",
"timestamp": [
740.703,
744.39
]
},
{
"text": "- And it's almost exactly\nlike the space story.",
"timestamp": [
740.703,
744.39
]
},
{
"text": "The space story says there's a distance,",
"timestamp": [
744.39,
747.43
]
},
{
"text": "The space story says there's a distance,",
"timestamp": [
744.39,
747.43
]
},
{
"text": "distance is different\nalong different curves.",
"timestamp": [
747.43,
749.9
]
},
{
"text": "distance is different\nalong different curves.",
"timestamp": [
747.43,
749.9
]
},
{
"text": "Einstein says there's\nsomething that measures",
"timestamp": [
749.9,
753.93
]
},
{
"text": "Einstein says there's\nsomething that measures",
"timestamp": [
749.9,
753.93
]
},
{
"text": "the length of these curves,",
"timestamp": [
753.93,
755.92
]
},
{
"text": "the length of these curves,",
"timestamp": [
753.93,
755.92
]
},
{
"text": "and we call it the proper time.",
"timestamp": [
755.92,
757.94
]
},
{
"text": "and we call it the proper time.",
"timestamp": [
755.92,
757.94
]
},
{
"text": "It is literally the\ntime that you would read",
"timestamp": [
757.94,
759.88
]
},
{
"text": "It is literally the\ntime that you would read",
"timestamp": [
757.94,
759.88
]
},
{
"text": "on your wristwatch.",
"timestamp": [
759.88,
760.76
]
},
{
"text": "on your wristwatch.",
"timestamp": [
759.88,
760.76
]
},
{
"text": "- So it's kind of like\nour fundamental time?",
"timestamp": [
760.76,
762.91
]
},
{
"text": "- So it's kind of like\nour fundamental time?",
"timestamp": [
760.76,
762.91
]
},
{
"text": "Or our base time?",
"timestamp": [
762.91,
763.89
]
},
{
"text": "Or our base time?",
"timestamp": [
762.91,
763.89
]
},
{
"text": "- Well kind of.",
"timestamp": [
763.89,
764.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Well kind of.",
"timestamp": [
763.89,
764.9
]
},
{
"text": "What Einstein wants to get\nacross is there's no such thing",
"timestamp": [
764.9,
767.13
]
},
{
"text": "What Einstein wants to get\nacross is there's no such thing",
"timestamp": [
764.9,
767.13
]
},
{
"text": "as fundamental, like\nthere's the universe's time,",
"timestamp": [
767.13,
770.37
]
},
{
"text": "as fundamental, like\nthere's the universe's time,",
"timestamp": [
767.13,
770.37
]
},
{
"text": "this big letter T that\nmight tell you how old",
"timestamp": [
770.37,
773.14
]
},
{
"text": "this big letter T that\nmight tell you how old",
"timestamp": [
770.37,
773.14
]
},
{
"text": "the universe is, but then every individual",
"timestamp": [
773.14,
775.67
]
},
{
"text": "the universe is, but then every individual",
"timestamp": [
773.14,
775.67
]
},
{
"text": "has a clock with them, and\nthey measure their own time",
"timestamp": [
775.67,
778.2
]
},
{
"text": "has a clock with them, and\nthey measure their own time",
"timestamp": [
775.67,
778.2
]
},
{
"text": "depending on how they're\nmoving through the universe.",
"timestamp": [
778.2,
779.777
]
},
{
"text": "depending on how they're\nmoving through the universe.",
"timestamp": [
778.2,
779.777
]
},
{
"text": "- I see.",
"timestamp": [
779.777,
780.61
]
},
{
"text": "- I see.",
"timestamp": [
779.777,
780.61
]
},
{
"text": "- And the crucial difference is",
"timestamp": [
780.61,
781.943
]
},
{
"text": "- And the crucial difference is",
"timestamp": [
780.61,
781.943
]
},
{
"text": "that time is not the same for\nthis person who stayed behind",
"timestamp": [
781.943,
785.87
]
},
{
"text": "that time is not the same for\nthis person who stayed behind",
"timestamp": [
781.943,
785.87
]
},
{
"text": "and sat in their chair,",
"timestamp": [
785.87,
786.82
]
},
{
"text": "and sat in their chair,",
"timestamp": [
785.87,
786.82
]
},
{
"text": "and this person who zoomed out there.",
"timestamp": [
786.82,
788.7
]
},
{
"text": "and this person who zoomed out there.",
"timestamp": [
786.82,
788.7
]
},
{
"text": "- Why is that, that\nthis one's shorter then?",
"timestamp": [
788.7,
790.21
]
},
{
"text": "- Why is that, that\nthis one's shorter then?",
"timestamp": [
788.7,
790.21
]
},
{
"text": "- There is what we call\na metric on spacetime,",
"timestamp": [
790.21,
793.29
]
},
{
"text": "- There is what we call\na metric on spacetime,",
"timestamp": [
790.21,
793.29
]
},
{
"text": "and when we talk about Euclidean space",
"timestamp": [
793.29,
795.34
]
},
{
"text": "and when we talk about Euclidean space",
"timestamp": [
793.29,
795.34
]
},
{
"text": "versus a curved space,\nversus a sphere or something,",
"timestamp": [
795.34,
798.21
]
},
{
"text": "versus a curved space,\nversus a sphere or something,",
"timestamp": [
795.34,
798.21
]
},
{
"text": "that's a different metric.",
"timestamp": [
798.21,
799.65
]
},
{
"text": "that's a different metric.",
"timestamp": [
798.21,
799.65
]
},
{
"text": "And spacetime has its own metric",
"timestamp": [
799.65,
801.42
]
},
{
"text": "And spacetime has its own metric",
"timestamp": [
799.65,
801.42
]
},
{
"text": "which says the following thing,",
"timestamp": [
801.42,
802.89
]
},
{
"text": "which says the following thing,",
"timestamp": [
801.42,
802.89
]
},
{
"text": "that the path between\ntwo events in spacetime",
"timestamp": [
802.89,
806.6
]
},
{
"text": "that the path between\ntwo events in spacetime",
"timestamp": [
802.89,
806.6
]
},
{
"text": "that is a straight line, will\nalways be the longest time.",
"timestamp": [
806.6,
810.073
]
},
{
"text": "that is a straight line, will\nalways be the longest time.",
"timestamp": [
806.6,
810.073
]
},
{
"text": "- I see.",
"timestamp": [
810.073,
810.906
]
},
{
"text": "- I see.",
"timestamp": [
810.073,
810.906
]
},
{
"text": "Oh, okay.",
"timestamp": [
810.906,
811.739
]
},
{
"text": "Oh, okay.",
"timestamp": [
810.906,
811.739
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] That's the difference.",
"timestamp": [
811.739,
812.79
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] That's the difference.",
"timestamp": [
811.739,
812.79
]
},
{
"text": "- All right.",
"timestamp": [
812.79,
814.24
]
},
{
"text": "- All right.",
"timestamp": [
812.79,
814.24
]
},
{
"text": "- So when Einstein had this idea,",
"timestamp": [
814.24,
816.45
]
},
{
"text": "- So when Einstein had this idea,",
"timestamp": [
814.24,
816.45
]
},
{
"text": "oh gravity could be\nrelated to the curvature",
"timestamp": [
816.45,
819.24
]
},
{
"text": "oh gravity could be\nrelated to the curvature",
"timestamp": [
816.45,
819.24
]
},
{
"text": "of spacetime, he did some equations,",
"timestamp": [
819.24,
821.41
]
},
{
"text": "of spacetime, he did some equations,",
"timestamp": [
819.24,
821.41
]
},
{
"text": "so he got it, that's a long story,",
"timestamp": [
821.41,
823.03
]
},
{
"text": "so he got it, that's a long story,",
"timestamp": [
821.41,
823.03
]
},
{
"text": "we'll put that aside.",
"timestamp": [
823.03,
823.98
]
},
{
"text": "we'll put that aside.",
"timestamp": [
823.03,
823.98
]
},
{
"text": "What he figured out was\nthat rather than gravity",
"timestamp": [
823.98,
826.24
]
},
{
"text": "What he figured out was\nthat rather than gravity",
"timestamp": [
823.98,
826.24
]
},
{
"text": "living on top of spacetime,\nit's a manifestation",
"timestamp": [
826.24,
829.35
]
},
{
"text": "living on top of spacetime,\nit's a manifestation",
"timestamp": [
826.24,
829.35
]
},
{
"text": "of the curvature of spacetime",
"timestamp": [
829.35,
831.1
]
},
{
"text": "of the curvature of spacetime",
"timestamp": [
829.35,
831.1
]
},
{
"text": "so when you have like the\nearth, the sun, the moon,",
"timestamp": [
831.1,
834.26
]
},
{
"text": "so when you have like the\nearth, the sun, the moon,",
"timestamp": [
831.1,
834.26
]
},
{
"text": "they cause a gravitational field,",
"timestamp": [
834.26,
836.36
]
},
{
"text": "they cause a gravitational field,",
"timestamp": [
834.26,
836.36
]
},
{
"text": "they're actually warping\nthe spacetime around them.",
"timestamp": [
836.36,
838.68
]
},
{
"text": "they're actually warping\nthe spacetime around them.",
"timestamp": [
836.36,
838.68
]
},
{
"text": "They're giving it a different geometry.",
"timestamp": [
838.68,
840.35
]
},
{
"text": "They're giving it a different geometry.",
"timestamp": [
838.68,
840.35
]
},
{
"text": "- Would it be if I had like a spring",
"timestamp": [
840.35,
842.18
]
},
{
"text": "- Would it be if I had like a spring",
"timestamp": [
840.35,
842.18
]
},
{
"text": "or not a spring, but like a sheet,",
"timestamp": [
842.18,
844.43
]
},
{
"text": "or not a spring, but like a sheet,",
"timestamp": [
842.18,
844.43
]
},
{
"text": "and I dropped a book in\nthe sheet, curves down?",
"timestamp": [
844.43,
847.07
]
},
{
"text": "and I dropped a book in\nthe sheet, curves down?",
"timestamp": [
844.43,
847.07
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
847.07,
848.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
847.07,
848.01
]
},
{
"text": "If you had a sheet that\nwas originally flat,",
"timestamp": [
848.01,
849.88
]
},
{
"text": "If you had a sheet that\nwas originally flat,",
"timestamp": [
848.01,
849.88
]
},
{
"text": "and you set a marble on it,",
"timestamp": [
849.88,
851.57
]
},
{
"text": "and you set a marble on it,",
"timestamp": [
849.88,
851.57
]
},
{
"text": "it would go in a straight line,",
"timestamp": [
851.57,
852.8
]
},
{
"text": "it would go in a straight line,",
"timestamp": [
851.57,
852.8
]
},
{
"text": "but then if you put something on it",
"timestamp": [
852.8,
854.08
]
},
{
"text": "but then if you put something on it",
"timestamp": [
852.8,
854.08
]
},
{
"text": "so it warps it, that marble\nis now gonna be deflected.",
"timestamp": [
854.08,
857.06
]
},
{
"text": "so it warps it, that marble\nis now gonna be deflected.",
"timestamp": [
854.08,
857.06
]
},
{
"text": "- I see.",
"timestamp": [
857.06,
857.893
]
},
{
"text": "- I see.",
"timestamp": [
857.06,
857.893
]
},
{
"text": "- Einstein says that\ngravity is just like that.",
"timestamp": [
857.893,
859.19
]
},
{
"text": "- Einstein says that\ngravity is just like that.",
"timestamp": [
857.893,
859.19
]
},
{
"text": "- I see.",
"timestamp": [
859.19,
860.023
]
},
{
"text": "- I see.",
"timestamp": [
859.19,
860.023
]
},
{
"text": "- But there are no straight lines,",
"timestamp": [
860.023,
860.92
]
},
{
"text": "- But there are no straight lines,",
"timestamp": [
860.023,
860.92
]
},
{
"text": "because spacetime itself is curved.",
"timestamp": [
860.92,
862.76
]
},
{
"text": "because spacetime itself is curved.",
"timestamp": [
860.92,
862.76
]
},
{
"text": "So do you think if you\nhad to explain relativity",
"timestamp": [
862.76,
864.86
]
},
{
"text": "So do you think if you\nhad to explain relativity",
"timestamp": [
862.76,
864.86
]
},
{
"text": "what would you say?",
"timestamp": [
864.86,
865.98
]
},
{
"text": "what would you say?",
"timestamp": [
864.86,
865.98
]
},
{
"text": "- I think I'd go with\nkind of the train paradox.",
"timestamp": [
865.98,
869.11
]
},
{
"text": "- I think I'd go with\nkind of the train paradox.",
"timestamp": [
865.98,
869.11
]
},
{
"text": "Let's say I'm stationary,\nand someone's moving past me",
"timestamp": [
869.11,
871.37
]
},
{
"text": "Let's say I'm stationary,\nand someone's moving past me",
"timestamp": [
869.11,
871.37
]
},
{
"text": "on the train, they think\nthey're stationary on the train.",
"timestamp": [
871.37,
873.62
]
},
{
"text": "on the train, they think\nthey're stationary on the train.",
"timestamp": [
871.37,
873.62
]
},
{
"text": "Like they think that\nthey're not accelerating,",
"timestamp": [
873.62,
875.51
]
},
{
"text": "Like they think that\nthey're not accelerating,",
"timestamp": [
873.62,
875.51
]
},
{
"text": "but if they start walking\nthrough the train cars,",
"timestamp": [
875.51,
877.6
]
},
{
"text": "but if they start walking\nthrough the train cars,",
"timestamp": [
875.51,
877.6
]
},
{
"text": "then they are accelerating in their frame,",
"timestamp": [
877.6,
880.03
]
},
{
"text": "then they are accelerating in their frame,",
"timestamp": [
877.6,
880.03
]
},
{
"text": "but then from my outside frame",
"timestamp": [
880.03,
881.45
]
},
{
"text": "but then from my outside frame",
"timestamp": [
880.03,
881.45
]
},
{
"text": "where I'm completely removed,\nI see they are accelerating.",
"timestamp": [
881.45,
885.1
]
},
{
"text": "where I'm completely removed,\nI see they are accelerating.",
"timestamp": [
881.45,
885.1
]
},
{
"text": "So I guess that relativity\nis all about perspective,",
"timestamp": [
885.1,
887.81
]
},
{
"text": "So I guess that relativity\nis all about perspective,",
"timestamp": [
885.1,
887.81
]
},
{
"text": "I guess in a way.",
"timestamp": [
887.81,
888.83
]
},
{
"text": "I guess in a way.",
"timestamp": [
887.81,
888.83
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, that's right.",
"timestamp": [
888.83,
889.663
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, that's right.",
"timestamp": [
888.83,
889.663
]
},
{
"text": "And it goes exactly back to\nwhat we drew on the board",
"timestamp": [
889.663,
891.89
]
},
{
"text": "And it goes exactly back to\nwhat we drew on the board",
"timestamp": [
889.663,
891.89
]
},
{
"text": "where how those two people in\nthe train and on the ground",
"timestamp": [
891.89,
895.58
]
},
{
"text": "where how those two people in\nthe train and on the ground",
"timestamp": [
891.89,
895.58
]
},
{
"text": "would divide spacetime up differently",
"timestamp": [
895.58,
898.27
]
},
{
"text": "would divide spacetime up differently",
"timestamp": [
895.58,
898.27
]
},
{
"text": "to space and time.\n- That was pretty good.",
"timestamp": [
898.27,
900.081
]
},
{
"text": "to space and time.\n- That was pretty good.",
"timestamp": [
898.27,
900.081
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
900.081,
900.914
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
900.081,
900.914
]
},
{
"text": "- I learned a lot.",
"timestamp": [
900.914,
901.747
]
},
{
"text": "- I learned a lot.",
"timestamp": [
900.914,
901.747
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] It's a lot of\nfun stuff to talk about.",
"timestamp": [
901.747,
902.594
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] It's a lot of\nfun stuff to talk about.",
"timestamp": [
901.747,
902.594
]
},
{
"text": "[down-tempo electronic music]",
"timestamp": [
902.594,
905.82
]
},
{
"text": "[down-tempo electronic music]",
"timestamp": [
902.594,
905.82
]
},
{
"text": "So observational cosmology,\nso like what do you look at?",
"timestamp": [
905.82,
909.23
]
},
{
"text": "So observational cosmology,\nso like what do you look at?",
"timestamp": [
905.82,
909.23
]
},
{
"text": "- So, I work on two ground-based\nsurveys in the optical,",
"timestamp": [
909.23,
912.65
]
},
{
"text": "- So, I work on two ground-based\nsurveys in the optical,",
"timestamp": [
909.23,
912.65
]
},
{
"text": "and we're basically\ntrying to make huge maps",
"timestamp": [
912.65,
914.89
]
},
{
"text": "and we're basically\ntrying to make huge maps",
"timestamp": [
912.65,
914.89
]
},
{
"text": "of the universe so that\nwe can study dark energy.",
"timestamp": [
914.89,
917.09
]
},
{
"text": "of the universe so that\nwe can study dark energy.",
"timestamp": [
914.89,
917.09
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm sure you've heard\nabout extra dimensions",
"timestamp": [
917.09,
918.62
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm sure you've heard\nabout extra dimensions",
"timestamp": [
917.09,
918.62
]
},
{
"text": "a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
918.62,
920.22
]
},
{
"text": "a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
918.62,
920.22
]
},
{
"text": "- I've heard it, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
920.22,
921.053
]
},
{
"text": "- I've heard it, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
920.22,
921.053
]
},
{
"text": "- Well I'm thinking about the idea",
"timestamp": [
921.053,
922.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Well I'm thinking about the idea",
"timestamp": [
921.053,
922.53
]
},
{
"text": "that there might be more than\nthree dimensions of space.",
"timestamp": [
922.53,
925.38
]
},
{
"text": "that there might be more than\nthree dimensions of space.",
"timestamp": [
922.53,
925.38
]
},
{
"text": "What is your impression\nof theoretical physicists",
"timestamp": [
925.38,
928.34
]
},
{
"text": "What is your impression\nof theoretical physicists",
"timestamp": [
925.38,
928.34
]
},
{
"text": "who think about things like\nextra dimensions of space",
"timestamp": [
928.34,
930.77
]
},
{
"text": "who think about things like\nextra dimensions of space",
"timestamp": [
928.34,
930.77
]
},
{
"text": "that they haven't ever seen?",
"timestamp": [
930.77,
932.63
]
},
{
"text": "that they haven't ever seen?",
"timestamp": [
930.77,
932.63
]
},
{
"text": "- I get a little scared,",
"timestamp": [
932.63,
933.886
]
},
{
"text": "- I get a little scared,",
"timestamp": [
932.63,
933.886
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
933.886,
934.719
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
933.886,
934.719
]
},
{
"text": "because I think how can\nyou prove these theories?",
"timestamp": [
934.719,
936.98
]
},
{
"text": "because I think how can\nyou prove these theories?",
"timestamp": [
934.719,
936.98
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
936.98,
937.813
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
936.98,
937.813
]
},
{
"text": "- One theory I've heard of,\nI don't know if this fits in",
"timestamp": [
937.813,
940.05
]
},
{
"text": "- One theory I've heard of,\nI don't know if this fits in",
"timestamp": [
937.813,
940.05
]
},
{
"text": "with that, is bubble universes.",
"timestamp": [
940.05,
941.889
]
},
{
"text": "with that, is bubble universes.",
"timestamp": [
940.05,
941.889
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
941.889,
942.722
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
941.889,
942.722
]
},
{
"text": "- Is that an extra dimension?",
"timestamp": [
942.722,
944.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Is that an extra dimension?",
"timestamp": [
942.722,
944.29
]
},
{
"text": "Does that fit into that,\nor is that something?",
"timestamp": [
944.29,
946.21
]
},
{
"text": "Does that fit into that,\nor is that something?",
"timestamp": [
944.29,
946.21
]
},
{
"text": "- It does.",
"timestamp": [
946.21,
947.043
]
},
{
"text": "- It does.",
"timestamp": [
946.21,
947.043
]
},
{
"text": "In fact, one way that different universes",
"timestamp": [
947.043,
949.97
]
},
{
"text": "In fact, one way that different universes",
"timestamp": [
947.043,
949.97
]
},
{
"text": "might be created and be\ndifferent from each other",
"timestamp": [
949.97,
952.55
]
},
{
"text": "might be created and be\ndifferent from each other",
"timestamp": [
949.97,
952.55
]
},
{
"text": "is that different universes could have",
"timestamp": [
952.55,
955.07
]
},
{
"text": "is that different universes could have",
"timestamp": [
952.55,
955.07
]
},
{
"text": "effectively different\nnumbers of dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
955.07,
957.31
]
},
{
"text": "effectively different\nnumbers of dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
955.07,
957.31
]
},
{
"text": "Like we have three dimensions around us,",
"timestamp": [
957.31,
959
]
},
{
"text": "Like we have three dimensions around us,",
"timestamp": [
957.31,
959
]
},
{
"text": "but there's people out\nthere, aliens, who could live",
"timestamp": [
959,
960.95
]
},
{
"text": "but there's people out\nthere, aliens, who could live",
"timestamp": [
959,
960.95
]
},
{
"text": "in five dimensional universes.",
"timestamp": [
960.95,
962.48
]
},
{
"text": "in five dimensional universes.",
"timestamp": [
960.95,
962.48
]
},
{
"text": "- And are each of those dimensions,",
"timestamp": [
962.48,
964.51
]
},
{
"text": "- And are each of those dimensions,",
"timestamp": [
962.48,
964.51
]
},
{
"text": "are they governed by the\nsame laws of physics,",
"timestamp": [
964.51,
966.65
]
},
{
"text": "are they governed by the\nsame laws of physics,",
"timestamp": [
964.51,
966.65
]
},
{
"text": "or is there like a separate\nLagrangian for each universe--",
"timestamp": [
966.65,
970.03
]
},
{
"text": "or is there like a separate\nLagrangian for each universe--",
"timestamp": [
966.65,
970.03
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
970.03,
970.863
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
970.03,
970.863
]
},
{
"text": "- [Bela] Or how does that work?",
"timestamp": [
970.863,
971.93
]
},
{
"text": "- [Bela] Or how does that work?",
"timestamp": [
970.863,
971.93
]
},
{
"text": "- We think that it would be,",
"timestamp": [
971.93,
974.24
]
},
{
"text": "- We think that it would be,",
"timestamp": [
971.93,
974.24
]
},
{
"text": "no all of this is incredibly speculative,",
"timestamp": [
974.24,
975.67
]
},
{
"text": "no all of this is incredibly speculative,",
"timestamp": [
974.24,
975.67
]
},
{
"text": "and we don't know for sure.",
"timestamp": [
975.67,
976.57
]
},
{
"text": "and we don't know for sure.",
"timestamp": [
975.67,
976.57
]
},
{
"text": "But the idea is that\nthere is some deep down",
"timestamp": [
976.57,
979.02
]
},
{
"text": "But the idea is that\nthere is some deep down",
"timestamp": [
976.57,
979.02
]
},
{
"text": "underlying laws that are\nuniversal and the same,",
"timestamp": [
979.02,
981.56
]
},
{
"text": "underlying laws that are\nuniversal and the same,",
"timestamp": [
979.02,
981.56
]
},
{
"text": "but they show up differently,",
"timestamp": [
981.56,
983.02
]
},
{
"text": "but they show up differently,",
"timestamp": [
981.56,
983.02
]
},
{
"text": "so they appear different.",
"timestamp": [
983.02,
984.3
]
},
{
"text": "so they appear different.",
"timestamp": [
983.02,
984.3
]
},
{
"text": "So the specific particles\nand forces and masses",
"timestamp": [
984.3,
988.41
]
},
{
"text": "So the specific particles\nand forces and masses",
"timestamp": [
984.3,
988.41
]
},
{
"text": "would be completely\ndifferent in different parts",
"timestamp": [
988.41,
990.3
]
},
{
"text": "would be completely\ndifferent in different parts",
"timestamp": [
988.41,
990.3
]
},
{
"text": "of the multiverse.",
"timestamp": [
990.3,
991.7
]
},
{
"text": "of the multiverse.",
"timestamp": [
990.3,
991.7
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
991.7,
992.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
991.7,
992.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Why in the world would\nyou think that there",
"timestamp": [
992.81,
994.37
]
},
{
"text": "- Why in the world would\nyou think that there",
"timestamp": [
992.81,
994.37
]
},
{
"text": "are extra dimensions, right?",
"timestamp": [
994.37,
995.7
]
},
{
"text": "are extra dimensions, right?",
"timestamp": [
994.37,
995.7
]
},
{
"text": "So you've heard of string theory?",
"timestamp": [
995.7,
997.51
]
},
{
"text": "So you've heard of string theory?",
"timestamp": [
995.7,
997.51
]
},
{
"text": "- I have.",
"timestamp": [
997.51,
998.343
]
},
{
"text": "- I have.",
"timestamp": [
997.51,
998.343
]
},
{
"text": "So string theory is basically a theory",
"timestamp": [
998.343,
1000.94
]
},
{
"text": "So string theory is basically a theory",
"timestamp": [
998.343,
1000.94
]
},
{
"text": "of quantum gravity.",
"timestamp": [
1000.94,
1002.32
]
},
{
"text": "of quantum gravity.",
"timestamp": [
1000.94,
1002.32
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
1002.32,
1003.153
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
1002.32,
1003.153
]
},
{
"text": "So we have quantum mechanics, right?",
"timestamp": [
1003.153,
1004.23
]
},
{
"text": "So we have quantum mechanics, right?",
"timestamp": [
1003.153,
1004.23
]
},
{
"text": "The theory of atoms and so\nforth and how those work,",
"timestamp": [
1004.23,
1006.65
]
},
{
"text": "The theory of atoms and so\nforth and how those work,",
"timestamp": [
1004.23,
1006.65
]
},
{
"text": "and then we have gravity,\nand gravity doesn't",
"timestamp": [
1006.65,
1010.29
]
},
{
"text": "and then we have gravity,\nand gravity doesn't",
"timestamp": [
1006.65,
1010.29
]
},
{
"text": "seem to fit in.",
"timestamp": [
1010.29,
1011.24
]
},
{
"text": "seem to fit in.",
"timestamp": [
1010.29,
1011.24
]
},
{
"text": "It's the one force of\nnature that we can't really",
"timestamp": [
1011.24,
1013.5
]
},
{
"text": "It's the one force of\nnature that we can't really",
"timestamp": [
1011.24,
1013.5
]
},
{
"text": "easily fit into this quantum\nmechanical framework,",
"timestamp": [
1013.5,
1015.61
]
},
{
"text": "easily fit into this quantum\nmechanical framework,",
"timestamp": [
1013.5,
1015.61
]
},
{
"text": "so string theory is one of the best ideas.",
"timestamp": [
1015.61,
1018.601
]
},
{
"text": "so string theory is one of the best ideas.",
"timestamp": [
1015.61,
1018.601
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1018.601,
1019.44
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1018.601,
1019.44
]
},
{
"text": "- That's the good news.",
"timestamp": [
1019.44,
1020.273
]
},
{
"text": "- That's the good news.",
"timestamp": [
1019.44,
1020.273
]
},
{
"text": "The bad news is that it only seems to work",
"timestamp": [
1020.273,
1022.05
]
},
{
"text": "The bad news is that it only seems to work",
"timestamp": [
1020.273,
1022.05
]
},
{
"text": "if spacetime is ten dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
1022.05,
1023.701
]
},
{
"text": "if spacetime is ten dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
1022.05,
1023.701
]
},
{
"text": "[chuckles]",
"timestamp": [
1023.701,
1024.534
]
},
{
"text": "[chuckles]",
"timestamp": [
1023.701,
1024.534
]
},
{
"text": "So you would say well then it's wrong.",
"timestamp": [
1024.534,
1026.02
]
},
{
"text": "So you would say well then it's wrong.",
"timestamp": [
1024.534,
1026.02
]
},
{
"text": "It can't be right.",
"timestamp": [
1026.02,
1026.853
]
},
{
"text": "It can't be right.",
"timestamp": [
1026.02,
1026.853
]
},
{
"text": "Spacetime is not ten-dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
1026.853,
1028.28
]
},
{
"text": "Spacetime is not ten-dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
1026.853,
1028.28
]
},
{
"text": "Spacetime is four dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
1028.28,
1029.34
]
},
{
"text": "Spacetime is four dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
1028.28,
1029.34
]
},
{
"text": "We've observed that.",
"timestamp": [
1029.34,
1030.41
]
},
{
"text": "We've observed that.",
"timestamp": [
1029.34,
1030.41
]
},
{
"text": "But instead, we say if\nspacetime looks four dimensional",
"timestamp": [
1030.41,
1034.14
]
},
{
"text": "But instead, we say if\nspacetime looks four dimensional",
"timestamp": [
1030.41,
1034.14
]
},
{
"text": "to us, but string theory,\nwhich might be the best theory",
"timestamp": [
1034.14,
1037
]
},
{
"text": "to us, but string theory,\nwhich might be the best theory",
"timestamp": [
1034.14,
1037
]
},
{
"text": "we have of quantum gravity says\nit must be ten dimensional,",
"timestamp": [
1037,
1039.85
]
},
{
"text": "we have of quantum gravity says\nit must be ten dimensional,",
"timestamp": [
1037,
1039.85
]
},
{
"text": "maybe we can hide those\nextra six dimensions somehow.",
"timestamp": [
1039.85,
1042.91
]
},
{
"text": "maybe we can hide those\nextra six dimensions somehow.",
"timestamp": [
1039.85,
1042.91
]
},
{
"text": "So here's how we could get lucky.",
"timestamp": [
1042.91,
1045.1
]
},
{
"text": "So here's how we could get lucky.",
"timestamp": [
1042.91,
1045.1
]
},
{
"text": "We could imagine that there\nare extra dimensions of space",
"timestamp": [
1045.1,
1047.45
]
},
{
"text": "We could imagine that there\nare extra dimensions of space",
"timestamp": [
1045.1,
1047.45
]
},
{
"text": "that are curled up somehow",
"timestamp": [
1047.45,
1049.33
]
},
{
"text": "that are curled up somehow",
"timestamp": [
1047.45,
1049.33
]
},
{
"text": "that are so small that we can't see them.",
"timestamp": [
1049.33,
1050.88
]
},
{
"text": "that are so small that we can't see them.",
"timestamp": [
1049.33,
1050.88
]
},
{
"text": "This is actually an old idea.",
"timestamp": [
1050.88,
1052.24
]
},
{
"text": "This is actually an old idea.",
"timestamp": [
1050.88,
1052.24
]
},
{
"text": "It goes back to Kaluza and Klein",
"timestamp": [
1052.24,
1054.12
]
},
{
"text": "It goes back to Kaluza and Klein",
"timestamp": [
1052.24,
1054.12
]
},
{
"text": "right after general relativity\nwas invented in 1915.",
"timestamp": [
1054.12,
1057.48
]
},
{
"text": "right after general relativity\nwas invented in 1915.",
"timestamp": [
1054.12,
1057.48
]
},
{
"text": "But there's a more recent idea that says",
"timestamp": [
1057.48,
1059.9
]
},
{
"text": "But there's a more recent idea that says",
"timestamp": [
1057.48,
1059.9
]
},
{
"text": "there could actually be\nrelatively large extra dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1059.9,
1063.02
]
},
{
"text": "there could actually be\nrelatively large extra dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1059.9,
1063.02
]
},
{
"text": "There could be extra\ndimensions that are actually",
"timestamp": [
1063.02,
1064.39
]
},
{
"text": "There could be extra\ndimensions that are actually",
"timestamp": [
1063.02,
1064.39
]
},
{
"text": "that big, like a millimeter across",
"timestamp": [
1064.39,
1067.07
]
},
{
"text": "that big, like a millimeter across",
"timestamp": [
1064.39,
1067.07
]
},
{
"text": "that you would not have noticed.",
"timestamp": [
1067.07,
1068.31
]
},
{
"text": "that you would not have noticed.",
"timestamp": [
1067.07,
1068.31
]
},
{
"text": "But here's the new, exciting idea.",
"timestamp": [
1068.31,
1070.53
]
},
{
"text": "But here's the new, exciting idea.",
"timestamp": [
1068.31,
1070.53
]
},
{
"text": "So let's imagine, okay.",
"timestamp": [
1070.53,
1072.97
]
},
{
"text": "So let's imagine, okay.",
"timestamp": [
1070.53,
1072.97
]
},
{
"text": "This is a piece of paper.",
"timestamp": [
1072.97,
1074.14
]
},
{
"text": "This is a piece of paper.",
"timestamp": [
1072.97,
1074.14
]
},
{
"text": "But let's imagine this\nis our entire world.",
"timestamp": [
1074.14,
1077.5
]
},
{
"text": "But let's imagine this\nis our entire world.",
"timestamp": [
1074.14,
1077.5
]
},
{
"text": "So, in other words, our real\nworld is three dimensional,",
"timestamp": [
1077.5,
1080.4
]
},
{
"text": "So, in other words, our real\nworld is three dimensional,",
"timestamp": [
1077.5,
1080.4
]
},
{
"text": "but let's imagine that we're\njust idealizing it down",
"timestamp": [
1080.4,
1082.35
]
},
{
"text": "but let's imagine that we're\njust idealizing it down",
"timestamp": [
1080.4,
1082.35
]
},
{
"text": "to two dimensions, so we all live here.",
"timestamp": [
1082.35,
1083.98
]
},
{
"text": "to two dimensions, so we all live here.",
"timestamp": [
1082.35,
1083.98
]
},
{
"text": "You and I live here.",
"timestamp": [
1083.98,
1085.02
]
},
{
"text": "You and I live here.",
"timestamp": [
1083.98,
1085.02
]
},
{
"text": "But let's imagine that we're\nembedded in this bigger space.",
"timestamp": [
1085.02,
1087.89
]
},
{
"text": "But let's imagine that we're\nembedded in this bigger space.",
"timestamp": [
1085.02,
1087.89
]
},
{
"text": "So there are extra dimensions\nthat are actually big, okay?",
"timestamp": [
1087.89,
1090.427
]
},
{
"text": "So there are extra dimensions\nthat are actually big, okay?",
"timestamp": [
1087.89,
1090.427
]
},
{
"text": "And let's imagine that.",
"timestamp": [
1090.427,
1091.82
]
},
{
"text": "And let's imagine that.",
"timestamp": [
1090.427,
1091.82
]
},
{
"text": "When I say we live on this\nthree dimensional world",
"timestamp": [
1091.82,
1093.75
]
},
{
"text": "When I say we live on this\nthree dimensional world",
"timestamp": [
1091.82,
1093.75
]
},
{
"text": "what I mean is imagine that the particles",
"timestamp": [
1093.75,
1096.13
]
},
{
"text": "what I mean is imagine that the particles",
"timestamp": [
1093.75,
1096.13
]
},
{
"text": "that you and I are made of,\nright, the quarks, the leptons,",
"timestamp": [
1096.13,
1098.84
]
},
{
"text": "that you and I are made of,\nright, the quarks, the leptons,",
"timestamp": [
1096.13,
1098.84
]
},
{
"text": "the electrons and everything,\nall the forces we know about,",
"timestamp": [
1098.84,
1102.62
]
},
{
"text": "the electrons and everything,\nall the forces we know about,",
"timestamp": [
1098.84,
1102.62
]
},
{
"text": "electromagnetism, the weak nuclear force,",
"timestamp": [
1102.62,
1104.61
]
},
{
"text": "electromagnetism, the weak nuclear force,",
"timestamp": [
1102.62,
1104.61
]
},
{
"text": "the strong nuclear force,",
"timestamp": [
1104.61,
1105.51
]
},
{
"text": "the strong nuclear force,",
"timestamp": [
1104.61,
1105.51
]
},
{
"text": "imagine they can't leave this surface.",
"timestamp": [
1105.51,
1108.7
]
},
{
"text": "imagine they can't leave this surface.",
"timestamp": [
1105.51,
1108.7
]
},
{
"text": "This is what we call a brane.",
"timestamp": [
1108.7,
1110.67
]
},
{
"text": "This is what we call a brane.",
"timestamp": [
1108.7,
1110.67
]
},
{
"text": "B-R-A-N-E.",
"timestamp": [
1110.67,
1112.05
]
},
{
"text": "B-R-A-N-E.",
"timestamp": [
1110.67,
1112.05
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard this word before?",
"timestamp": [
1112.05,
1112.91
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard this word before?",
"timestamp": [
1112.05,
1112.91
]
},
{
"text": "- I've heard it, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1112.91,
1113.8
]
},
{
"text": "- I've heard it, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1112.91,
1113.8
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] Do you know where it comes from?",
"timestamp": [
1113.8,
1114.926
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] Do you know where it comes from?",
"timestamp": [
1113.8,
1114.926
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
1114.926,
1115.759
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
1114.926,
1115.759
]
},
{
"text": "- From membranes, you know.",
"timestamp": [
1115.759,
1116.63
]
},
{
"text": "- From membranes, you know.",
"timestamp": [
1115.759,
1116.63
]
},
{
"text": "We have lines, one dimension.",
"timestamp": [
1116.63,
1118.55
]
},
{
"text": "We have lines, one dimension.",
"timestamp": [
1116.63,
1118.55
]
},
{
"text": "We have two dimensional surfaces.",
"timestamp": [
1118.55,
1120.59
]
},
{
"text": "We have two dimensional surfaces.",
"timestamp": [
1118.55,
1120.59
]
},
{
"text": "So if you have a line that is\na vibrating physical thing,",
"timestamp": [
1120.59,
1123.29
]
},
{
"text": "So if you have a line that is\na vibrating physical thing,",
"timestamp": [
1120.59,
1123.29
]
},
{
"text": "you call it a string, right?",
"timestamp": [
1123.29,
1124.33
]
},
{
"text": "you call it a string, right?",
"timestamp": [
1123.29,
1124.33
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1124.33,
1125.163
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1124.33,
1125.163
]
},
{
"text": "- If you have a two dimensional\nsurface that vibrates",
"timestamp": [
1125.163,
1127.52
]
},
{
"text": "- If you have a two dimensional\nsurface that vibrates",
"timestamp": [
1125.163,
1127.52
]
},
{
"text": "and is a physical thing,\nwe call that a membrane.",
"timestamp": [
1127.52,
1129.35
]
},
{
"text": "and is a physical thing,\nwe call that a membrane.",
"timestamp": [
1127.52,
1129.35
]
},
{
"text": "Membrane theory goes back,\nit never was as popular",
"timestamp": [
1129.35,
1131.76
]
},
{
"text": "Membrane theory goes back,\nit never was as popular",
"timestamp": [
1129.35,
1131.76
]
},
{
"text": "as string theory, but it's\nbeen around for a while.",
"timestamp": [
1131.76,
1133.7
]
},
{
"text": "as string theory, but it's\nbeen around for a while.",
"timestamp": [
1131.76,
1133.7
]
},
{
"text": "But if you had extra dimensions of space,",
"timestamp": [
1133.7,
1135.98
]
},
{
"text": "But if you had extra dimensions of space,",
"timestamp": [
1133.7,
1135.98
]
},
{
"text": "then you can three\ndimensional vibrating things,",
"timestamp": [
1135.98,
1138.51
]
},
{
"text": "then you can three\ndimensional vibrating things,",
"timestamp": [
1135.98,
1138.51
]
},
{
"text": "and four dimensional vibrating things.",
"timestamp": [
1138.51,
1140.52
]
},
{
"text": "and four dimensional vibrating things.",
"timestamp": [
1138.51,
1140.52
]
},
{
"text": "- So how do these strings\ngive rise to things",
"timestamp": [
1140.52,
1143.88
]
},
{
"text": "- So how do these strings\ngive rise to things",
"timestamp": [
1140.52,
1143.88
]
},
{
"text": "like mass and charge,\nand basically give us",
"timestamp": [
1143.88,
1148.56
]
},
{
"text": "like mass and charge,\nand basically give us",
"timestamp": [
1143.88,
1148.56
]
},
{
"text": "the properties of the\nparticles that we see?",
"timestamp": [
1148.56,
1150.47
]
},
{
"text": "the properties of the\nparticles that we see?",
"timestamp": [
1148.56,
1150.47
]
},
{
"text": "- Well basically the strings\nare the particles that we see.",
"timestamp": [
1150.47,
1153.24
]
},
{
"text": "- Well basically the strings\nare the particles that we see.",
"timestamp": [
1150.47,
1153.24
]
},
{
"text": "It's exactly the same thing\nas we said for the straw,",
"timestamp": [
1153.24,
1155.61
]
},
{
"text": "It's exactly the same thing\nas we said for the straw,",
"timestamp": [
1153.24,
1155.61
]
},
{
"text": "if you look at it far away\nit looks one dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
1155.61,
1157.67
]
},
{
"text": "if you look at it far away\nit looks one dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
1155.61,
1157.67
]
},
{
"text": "A little loop of string,",
"timestamp": [
1157.67,
1159.33
]
},
{
"text": "A little loop of string,",
"timestamp": [
1157.67,
1159.33
]
},
{
"text": "so a little one dimensional\ncircle that is vibrating.",
"timestamp": [
1159.33,
1161.91
]
},
{
"text": "so a little one dimensional\ncircle that is vibrating.",
"timestamp": [
1159.33,
1161.91
]
},
{
"text": "If you look at it from\nvery, very far away,",
"timestamp": [
1161.91,
1163.87
]
},
{
"text": "If you look at it from\nvery, very far away,",
"timestamp": [
1161.91,
1163.87
]
},
{
"text": "it just looks like a particle.",
"timestamp": [
1163.87,
1164.84
]
},
{
"text": "it just looks like a particle.",
"timestamp": [
1163.87,
1164.84
]
},
{
"text": "So in string theory, an\nelectron is a little string.",
"timestamp": [
1164.84,
1168.05
]
},
{
"text": "So in string theory, an\nelectron is a little string.",
"timestamp": [
1164.84,
1168.05
]
},
{
"text": "A photon is a little string.",
"timestamp": [
1168.05,
1169.74
]
},
{
"text": "A photon is a little string.",
"timestamp": [
1168.05,
1169.74
]
},
{
"text": "- So, is string theory\npart of what they call",
"timestamp": [
1169.74,
1172.38
]
},
{
"text": "- So, is string theory\npart of what they call",
"timestamp": [
1169.74,
1172.38
]
},
{
"text": "the Grand Unified Theory?",
"timestamp": [
1172.38,
1173.59
]
},
{
"text": "the Grand Unified Theory?",
"timestamp": [
1172.38,
1173.59
]
},
{
"text": "Is it supposed to be the last thing",
"timestamp": [
1173.59,
1177.03
]
},
{
"text": "Is it supposed to be the last thing",
"timestamp": [
1173.59,
1177.03
]
},
{
"text": "that sort of unifies\nall the forces together?",
"timestamp": [
1177.03,
1179.12
]
},
{
"text": "that sort of unifies\nall the forces together?",
"timestamp": [
1177.03,
1179.12
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, string theory's even better.",
"timestamp": [
1179.12,
1180.64
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, string theory's even better.",
"timestamp": [
1179.12,
1180.64
]
},
{
"text": "So the phrase Grand Unified\nTheory was coined in the 1970s",
"timestamp": [
1180.64,
1185.04
]
},
{
"text": "So the phrase Grand Unified\nTheory was coined in the 1970s",
"timestamp": [
1180.64,
1185.04
]
},
{
"text": "for theories that joined\nelectricity and magnetism.",
"timestamp": [
1185.04,
1188.18
]
},
{
"text": "for theories that joined\nelectricity and magnetism.",
"timestamp": [
1185.04,
1188.18
]
},
{
"text": "So a good string theory is gravity plus",
"timestamp": [
1188.18,
1191.2
]
},
{
"text": "So a good string theory is gravity plus",
"timestamp": [
1188.18,
1191.2
]
},
{
"text": "the Grand Unified Theory.",
"timestamp": [
1191.2,
1193.119
]
},
{
"text": "the Grand Unified Theory.",
"timestamp": [
1191.2,
1193.119
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
1193.119,
1193.952
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
1193.119,
1193.952
]
},
{
"text": "- It's even better.",
"timestamp": [
1193.952,
1194.785
]
},
{
"text": "- It's even better.",
"timestamp": [
1193.952,
1194.785
]
},
{
"text": "It's the theory of everything.",
"timestamp": [
1194.785,
1195.618
]
},
{
"text": "It's the theory of everything.",
"timestamp": [
1194.785,
1195.618
]
},
{
"text": "What would you tell a friend of yours",
"timestamp": [
1195.618,
1196.74
]
},
{
"text": "What would you tell a friend of yours",
"timestamp": [
1195.618,
1196.74
]
},
{
"text": "if they asked you what dimensions are,",
"timestamp": [
1196.74,
1198.83
]
},
{
"text": "if they asked you what dimensions are,",
"timestamp": [
1196.74,
1198.83
]
},
{
"text": "what extra dimensions\nare, what a brane is?",
"timestamp": [
1198.83,
1201.44
]
},
{
"text": "what extra dimensions\nare, what a brane is?",
"timestamp": [
1198.83,
1201.44
]
},
{
"text": "- So we have three spatial dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1201.44,
1203.41
]
},
{
"text": "- So we have three spatial dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1201.44,
1203.41
]
},
{
"text": "A brane is sort of the next level.",
"timestamp": [
1203.41,
1206.88
]
},
{
"text": "A brane is sort of the next level.",
"timestamp": [
1203.41,
1206.88
]
},
{
"text": "So a brane is a higher dimensional object",
"timestamp": [
1206.88,
1208.98
]
},
{
"text": "So a brane is a higher dimensional object",
"timestamp": [
1206.88,
1208.98
]
},
{
"text": "that vibrates through space.",
"timestamp": [
1208.98,
1210.7
]
},
{
"text": "that vibrates through space.",
"timestamp": [
1208.98,
1210.7
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
1210.7,
1211.533
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
1210.7,
1211.533
]
},
{
"text": "And we could live there.",
"timestamp": [
1211.533,
1212.366
]
},
{
"text": "And we could live there.",
"timestamp": [
1211.533,
1212.366
]
},
{
"text": "The world we see around\nus, the three dimensions",
"timestamp": [
1212.366,
1213.92
]
},
{
"text": "The world we see around\nus, the three dimensions",
"timestamp": [
1212.366,
1213.92
]
},
{
"text": "of space around us could reflect the fact",
"timestamp": [
1213.92,
1216.67
]
},
{
"text": "of space around us could reflect the fact",
"timestamp": [
1213.92,
1216.67
]
},
{
"text": "that we are somehow stuck\non a three dimensional brane",
"timestamp": [
1216.67,
1219.76
]
},
{
"text": "that we are somehow stuck\non a three dimensional brane",
"timestamp": [
1216.67,
1219.76
]
},
{
"text": "trying to escape.",
"timestamp": [
1219.76,
1220.84
]
},
{
"text": "trying to escape.",
"timestamp": [
1219.76,
1220.84
]
},
{
"text": "- It was really cool to learn\nabout strings and branes",
"timestamp": [
1220.84,
1223.57
]
},
{
"text": "- It was really cool to learn\nabout strings and branes",
"timestamp": [
1220.84,
1223.57
]
},
{
"text": "and how looking at gravity on small scales",
"timestamp": [
1223.57,
1226.78
]
},
{
"text": "and how looking at gravity on small scales",
"timestamp": [
1223.57,
1226.78
]
},
{
"text": "is actually connected to what I do",
"timestamp": [
1226.78,
1228.98
]
},
{
"text": "is actually connected to what I do",
"timestamp": [
1226.78,
1228.98
]
},
{
"text": "in looking at gravity on\nthese cosmological scales,",
"timestamp": [
1228.98,
1231.61
]
},
{
"text": "in looking at gravity on\nthese cosmological scales,",
"timestamp": [
1228.98,
1231.61
]
},
{
"text": "and it's definitely something\nI'm gonna think about",
"timestamp": [
1231.61,
1233.14
]
},
{
"text": "and it's definitely something\nI'm gonna think about",
"timestamp": [
1231.61,
1233.14
]
},
{
"text": "in my research.",
"timestamp": [
1233.14,
1234.256
]
},
{
"text": "in my research.",
"timestamp": [
1233.14,
1234.256
]
},
{
"text": "[atmospheric electronic music]",
"timestamp": [
1234.256,
1237.31
]
},
{
"text": "[atmospheric electronic music]",
"timestamp": [
1234.256,
1237.31
]
},
{
"text": "- You're a string theorist,\nso tell us what kind",
"timestamp": [
1237.31,
1239.1
]
},
{
"text": "- You're a string theorist,\nso tell us what kind",
"timestamp": [
1237.31,
1239.1
]
},
{
"text": "of string theory you do, what it means",
"timestamp": [
1239.1,
1240.35
]
},
{
"text": "of string theory you do, what it means",
"timestamp": [
1239.1,
1240.35
]
},
{
"text": "to be a string theorist.",
"timestamp": [
1240.35,
1241.33
]
},
{
"text": "to be a string theorist.",
"timestamp": [
1240.35,
1241.33
]
},
{
"text": "- One of the things that's key",
"timestamp": [
1241.33,
1243.26
]
},
{
"text": "- One of the things that's key",
"timestamp": [
1241.33,
1243.26
]
},
{
"text": "in the whole story of string theory",
"timestamp": [
1243.26,
1245.04
]
},
{
"text": "in the whole story of string theory",
"timestamp": [
1243.26,
1245.04
]
},
{
"text": "is the piece of it that talks about",
"timestamp": [
1245.04,
1247.1
]
},
{
"text": "is the piece of it that talks about",
"timestamp": [
1245.04,
1247.1
]
},
{
"text": "quantum theories of gravity.",
"timestamp": [
1247.1,
1248.74
]
},
{
"text": "quantum theories of gravity.",
"timestamp": [
1247.1,
1248.74
]
},
{
"text": "So I'm very excited about\nwhat happens to spacetime,",
"timestamp": [
1248.74,
1251.41
]
},
{
"text": "So I'm very excited about\nwhat happens to spacetime,",
"timestamp": [
1248.74,
1251.41
]
},
{
"text": "what does it even mean\nat the quantum level.",
"timestamp": [
1251.41,
1253.53
]
},
{
"text": "what does it even mean\nat the quantum level.",
"timestamp": [
1251.41,
1253.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Cool, so do you think a\nlot about extra dimensions",
"timestamp": [
1253.53,
1255.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Cool, so do you think a\nlot about extra dimensions",
"timestamp": [
1253.53,
1255.53
]
},
{
"text": "in your everyday life?",
"timestamp": [
1255.53,
1256.423
]
},
{
"text": "in your everyday life?",
"timestamp": [
1255.53,
1256.423
]
},
{
"text": "- Uh, yes I do.",
"timestamp": [
1256.423,
1257.67
]
},
{
"text": "- Uh, yes I do.",
"timestamp": [
1256.423,
1257.67
]
},
{
"text": "- And so when you think\nabout extra dimensions,",
"timestamp": [
1257.67,
1259.32
]
},
{
"text": "- And so when you think\nabout extra dimensions,",
"timestamp": [
1257.67,
1259.32
]
},
{
"text": "you put them together with\nbrains and different fields",
"timestamp": [
1259.32,
1262.54
]
},
{
"text": "you put them together with\nbrains and different fields",
"timestamp": [
1259.32,
1262.54
]
},
{
"text": "wrapping around the extra\ndimensions and so forth, right?",
"timestamp": [
1262.54,
1264.558
]
},
{
"text": "wrapping around the extra\ndimensions and so forth, right?",
"timestamp": [
1262.54,
1264.558
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
1264.558,
1265.391
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
1264.558,
1265.391
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, a lot of people,\na lot of string theorists,",
"timestamp": [
1265.391,
1266.77
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, a lot of people,\na lot of string theorists,",
"timestamp": [
1265.391,
1266.77
]
},
{
"text": "they care a lot about\nall the different ways",
"timestamp": [
1266.77,
1269.17
]
},
{
"text": "they care a lot about\nall the different ways",
"timestamp": [
1266.77,
1269.17
]
},
{
"text": "in which we could hide\nthe extra dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1269.17,
1271.75
]
},
{
"text": "in which we could hide\nthe extra dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1269.17,
1271.75
]
},
{
"text": "As someone who cares about cosmology,",
"timestamp": [
1271.75,
1273.96
]
},
{
"text": "As someone who cares about cosmology,",
"timestamp": [
1271.75,
1273.96
]
},
{
"text": "I wanna start asking why\nare the extra dimensions",
"timestamp": [
1273.96,
1277.27
]
},
{
"text": "I wanna start asking why\nare the extra dimensions",
"timestamp": [
1273.96,
1277.27
]
},
{
"text": "small at all?",
"timestamp": [
1277.27,
1278.11
]
},
{
"text": "small at all?",
"timestamp": [
1277.27,
1278.11
]
},
{
"text": "How did that happen?",
"timestamp": [
1278.11,
1279.34
]
},
{
"text": "How did that happen?",
"timestamp": [
1278.11,
1279.34
]
},
{
"text": "Is this something you\nthink about yourself?",
"timestamp": [
1279.34,
1280.97
]
},
{
"text": "Is this something you\nthink about yourself?",
"timestamp": [
1279.34,
1280.97
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, well ultimately\nwe'd like to understand",
"timestamp": [
1280.97,
1284.52
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, well ultimately\nwe'd like to understand",
"timestamp": [
1280.97,
1284.52
]
},
{
"text": "the observable universe.",
"timestamp": [
1284.52,
1286.55
]
},
{
"text": "the observable universe.",
"timestamp": [
1284.52,
1286.55
]
},
{
"text": "If string theory turns out to be the thing",
"timestamp": [
1286.55,
1288.64
]
},
{
"text": "If string theory turns out to be the thing",
"timestamp": [
1286.55,
1288.64
]
},
{
"text": "that the universe cares about,",
"timestamp": [
1288.64,
1290.13
]
},
{
"text": "that the universe cares about,",
"timestamp": [
1288.64,
1290.13
]
},
{
"text": "we'd like to know, with\nall of these possibilities",
"timestamp": [
1290.13,
1292.79
]
},
{
"text": "we'd like to know, with\nall of these possibilities",
"timestamp": [
1290.13,
1292.79
]
},
{
"text": "that are in string theory,\nhow do we get the one",
"timestamp": [
1292.79,
1295.78
]
},
{
"text": "that are in string theory,\nhow do we get the one",
"timestamp": [
1292.79,
1295.78
]
},
{
"text": "that looks like the world we live in?",
"timestamp": [
1295.78,
1297.95
]
},
{
"text": "that looks like the world we live in?",
"timestamp": [
1295.78,
1297.95
]
},
{
"text": "- The thing I want to talk\nabout is this paper I wrote",
"timestamp": [
1297.95,
1300.16
]
},
{
"text": "- The thing I want to talk\nabout is this paper I wrote",
"timestamp": [
1297.95,
1300.16
]
},
{
"text": "with Matt Johnson and Lisa Randall",
"timestamp": [
1300.16,
1301.82
]
},
{
"text": "with Matt Johnson and Lisa Randall",
"timestamp": [
1300.16,
1301.82
]
},
{
"text": "where we realize there's another way",
"timestamp": [
1301.82,
1303.79
]
},
{
"text": "where we realize there's another way",
"timestamp": [
1301.82,
1303.79
]
},
{
"text": "to compactify extra dimensions\nspontaneously, dynamically.",
"timestamp": [
1303.79,
1307.86
]
},
{
"text": "to compactify extra dimensions\nspontaneously, dynamically.",
"timestamp": [
1303.79,
1307.86
]
},
{
"text": "If you imagine starting\nwith this big piece of paper",
"timestamp": [
1307.86,
1310.84
]
},
{
"text": "If you imagine starting\nwith this big piece of paper",
"timestamp": [
1307.86,
1310.84
]
},
{
"text": "you couldn't wrap up everything,",
"timestamp": [
1310.84,
1313.1
]
},
{
"text": "you couldn't wrap up everything,",
"timestamp": [
1310.84,
1313.1
]
},
{
"text": "but within some region of\nspace you could make a tube.",
"timestamp": [
1313.1,
1315.88
]
},
{
"text": "but within some region of\nspace you could make a tube.",
"timestamp": [
1313.1,
1315.88
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- Right?",
"timestamp": [
1315.88,
1316.713
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- Right?",
"timestamp": [
1315.88,
1316.713
]
},
{
"text": "And down there in the tube it looks like",
"timestamp": [
1316.713,
1318.98
]
},
{
"text": "And down there in the tube it looks like",
"timestamp": [
1316.713,
1318.98
]
},
{
"text": "your long thing that is\ncompactified in one direction",
"timestamp": [
1318.98,
1322.06
]
},
{
"text": "your long thing that is\ncompactified in one direction",
"timestamp": [
1318.98,
1322.06
]
},
{
"text": "and infinitely extending\nin the other direction,",
"timestamp": [
1322.06,
1323.91
]
},
{
"text": "and infinitely extending\nin the other direction,",
"timestamp": [
1322.06,
1323.91
]
},
{
"text": "so there's one less\nmacroscopic dimension of space.",
"timestamp": [
1323.91,
1326.66
]
},
{
"text": "so there's one less\nmacroscopic dimension of space.",
"timestamp": [
1323.91,
1326.66
]
},
{
"text": "- Hmm. Okay, that's nice.",
"timestamp": [
1326.66,
1328.257
]
},
{
"text": "- Hmm. Okay, that's nice.",
"timestamp": [
1326.66,
1328.257
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] You think that\nsounds plausible to you?",
"timestamp": [
1328.257,
1329.3
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] You think that\nsounds plausible to you?",
"timestamp": [
1328.257,
1329.3
]
},
{
"text": "- It sounds like fun.",
"timestamp": [
1329.3,
1331.18
]
},
{
"text": "- It sounds like fun.",
"timestamp": [
1329.3,
1331.18
]
},
{
"text": "What I would immediately ask is",
"timestamp": [
1331.18,
1333.66
]
},
{
"text": "What I would immediately ask is",
"timestamp": [
1331.18,
1333.66
]
},
{
"text": "where do the large dimensions\ncome from in the first place?",
"timestamp": [
1333.66,
1336.33
]
},
{
"text": "where do the large dimensions\ncome from in the first place?",
"timestamp": [
1333.66,
1336.33
]
},
{
"text": "Is that something you\naddress, or you just assume",
"timestamp": [
1336.33,
1339.52
]
},
{
"text": "Is that something you\naddress, or you just assume",
"timestamp": [
1336.33,
1339.52
]
},
{
"text": "that all the dimension are\nlarge as a starting point?",
"timestamp": [
1339.52,
1343.46
]
},
{
"text": "that all the dimension are\nlarge as a starting point?",
"timestamp": [
1339.52,
1343.46
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1343.46,
1344.293
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1343.46,
1344.293
]
},
{
"text": "So we certainly assume\nthat they're all large",
"timestamp": [
1344.293,
1345.47
]
},
{
"text": "So we certainly assume\nthat they're all large",
"timestamp": [
1344.293,
1345.47
]
},
{
"text": "as a starting point, and\nit's worse than that.",
"timestamp": [
1345.47,
1347.39
]
},
{
"text": "as a starting point, and\nit's worse than that.",
"timestamp": [
1345.47,
1347.39
]
},
{
"text": "So in our paper we imagine you start",
"timestamp": [
1347.39,
1350
]
},
{
"text": "So in our paper we imagine you start",
"timestamp": [
1347.39,
1350
]
},
{
"text": "in de Sitter space.",
"timestamp": [
1350,
1351.76
]
},
{
"text": "in de Sitter space.",
"timestamp": [
1350,
1351.76
]
},
{
"text": "You start in a universe with no matter,",
"timestamp": [
1351.76,
1354.47
]
},
{
"text": "You start in a universe with no matter,",
"timestamp": [
1351.76,
1354.47
]
},
{
"text": "no anything like that, just empty space",
"timestamp": [
1354.47,
1356.18
]
},
{
"text": "no anything like that, just empty space",
"timestamp": [
1354.47,
1356.18
]
},
{
"text": "but with an energy that is positive",
"timestamp": [
1356.18,
1357.97
]
},
{
"text": "but with an energy that is positive",
"timestamp": [
1356.18,
1357.97
]
},
{
"text": "and all the dimensions are large.",
"timestamp": [
1357.97,
1359.74
]
},
{
"text": "and all the dimensions are large.",
"timestamp": [
1357.97,
1359.74
]
},
{
"text": "- But where do they come from?",
"timestamp": [
1359.74,
1361.34
]
},
{
"text": "- But where do they come from?",
"timestamp": [
1359.74,
1361.34
]
},
{
"text": "- It was always there.",
"timestamp": [
1361.34,
1362.91
]
},
{
"text": "- It was always there.",
"timestamp": [
1361.34,
1362.91
]
},
{
"text": "- Why?",
"timestamp": [
1362.91,
1363.743
]
},
{
"text": "- Why?",
"timestamp": [
1362.91,
1363.743
]
},
{
"text": "- Why not?",
"timestamp": [
1363.743,
1364.576
]
},
{
"text": "- Why not?",
"timestamp": [
1363.743,
1364.576
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
1364.576,
1365.502
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
1364.576,
1365.502
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
1365.502,
1366.335
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
1365.502,
1366.335
]
},
{
"text": "- Well you know, I think\nthat this is again, this is--",
"timestamp": [
1366.335,
1368.39
]
},
{
"text": "- Well you know, I think\nthat this is again, this is--",
"timestamp": [
1366.335,
1368.39
]
},
{
"text": "- You're replacing one prejudice\nwith a different prejudice.",
"timestamp": [
1368.39,
1370.44
]
},
{
"text": "- You're replacing one prejudice\nwith a different prejudice.",
"timestamp": [
1368.39,
1370.44
]
},
{
"text": "- I would say that we\nshouldn't be prejudiced",
"timestamp": [
1370.44,
1372.2
]
},
{
"text": "- I would say that we\nshouldn't be prejudiced",
"timestamp": [
1370.44,
1372.2
]
},
{
"text": "one way or the other.",
"timestamp": [
1372.2,
1373.27
]
},
{
"text": "one way or the other.",
"timestamp": [
1372.2,
1373.27
]
},
{
"text": "- Just a large, ten or 11 dimensions",
"timestamp": [
1373.27,
1377.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Just a large, ten or 11 dimensions",
"timestamp": [
1373.27,
1377.38
]
},
{
"text": "with a cosmological constant",
"timestamp": [
1377.38,
1379.04
]
},
{
"text": "with a cosmological constant",
"timestamp": [
1377.38,
1379.04
]
},
{
"text": "doesn't seem like a\nfundamental starting point.",
"timestamp": [
1379.04,
1381.63
]
},
{
"text": "doesn't seem like a\nfundamental starting point.",
"timestamp": [
1379.04,
1381.63
]
},
{
"text": "It sounds like there needs to be something",
"timestamp": [
1381.63,
1384.39
]
},
{
"text": "It sounds like there needs to be something",
"timestamp": [
1381.63,
1384.39
]
},
{
"text": "to underlie that.",
"timestamp": [
1384.39,
1386.02
]
},
{
"text": "to underlie that.",
"timestamp": [
1384.39,
1386.02
]
},
{
"text": "But it's a fun scenario.",
"timestamp": [
1386.02,
1387.34
]
},
{
"text": "But it's a fun scenario.",
"timestamp": [
1386.02,
1387.34
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so let me tell\nyou a little bit more",
"timestamp": [
1387.34,
1388.33
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so let me tell\nyou a little bit more",
"timestamp": [
1387.34,
1388.33
]
},
{
"text": "about the scenario.",
"timestamp": [
1388.33,
1389.163
]
},
{
"text": "about the scenario.",
"timestamp": [
1388.33,
1389.163
]
},
{
"text": "So you know there are black holes, good?",
"timestamp": [
1389.163,
1391.61
]
},
{
"text": "So you know there are black holes, good?",
"timestamp": [
1389.163,
1391.61
]
},
{
"text": "Right?",
"timestamp": [
1391.61,
1392.443
]
},
{
"text": "Right?",
"timestamp": [
1391.61,
1392.443
]
},
{
"text": "- I've heard of them.",
"timestamp": [
1392.443,
1393.276
]
},
{
"text": "- I've heard of them.",
"timestamp": [
1392.443,
1393.276
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] There are black branes as well.",
"timestamp": [
1393.276,
1394.59
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sean] There are black branes as well.",
"timestamp": [
1393.276,
1394.59
]
},
{
"text": "- Indeed.",
"timestamp": [
1394.59,
1395.423
]
},
{
"text": "- Indeed.",
"timestamp": [
1394.59,
1395.423
]
},
{
"text": "- Why don't you explain to\nus what a black brane is?",
"timestamp": [
1395.423,
1397.2
]
},
{
"text": "- Why don't you explain to\nus what a black brane is?",
"timestamp": [
1395.423,
1397.2
]
},
{
"text": "- Well in some ways, it's\nvery much like a black hole",
"timestamp": [
1397.2,
1400.96
]
},
{
"text": "- Well in some ways, it's\nvery much like a black hole",
"timestamp": [
1397.2,
1400.96
]
},
{
"text": "in that you have far away from it",
"timestamp": [
1400.96,
1403.11
]
},
{
"text": "in that you have far away from it",
"timestamp": [
1400.96,
1403.11
]
},
{
"text": "you have these large just flat dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1403.11,
1406.97
]
},
{
"text": "you have these large just flat dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1403.11,
1406.97
]
},
{
"text": "As you move in, there's\nsomething in the interior.",
"timestamp": [
1406.97,
1410.15
]
},
{
"text": "As you move in, there's\nsomething in the interior.",
"timestamp": [
1406.97,
1410.15
]
},
{
"text": "It has, itself, higher dimensions,",
"timestamp": [
1410.15,
1411.92
]
},
{
"text": "It has, itself, higher dimensions,",
"timestamp": [
1410.15,
1411.92
]
},
{
"text": "and so because physicists love to joke",
"timestamp": [
1411.92,
1414.29
]
},
{
"text": "and so because physicists love to joke",
"timestamp": [
1411.92,
1414.29
]
},
{
"text": "they thought, well it's like a membrane",
"timestamp": [
1414.29,
1416.21
]
},
{
"text": "they thought, well it's like a membrane",
"timestamp": [
1414.29,
1416.21
]
},
{
"text": "but it can have many different dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1416.21,
1418.14
]
},
{
"text": "but it can have many different dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1416.21,
1418.14
]
},
{
"text": "Let's use P to stand in for\nthose number of dimensions,",
"timestamp": [
1418.14,
1421.45
]
},
{
"text": "Let's use P to stand in for\nthose number of dimensions,",
"timestamp": [
1418.14,
1421.45
]
},
{
"text": "and so they called them P-branes.",
"timestamp": [
1421.45,
1422.98
]
},
{
"text": "and so they called them P-branes.",
"timestamp": [
1421.45,
1422.98
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I've been trying to explain this",
"timestamp": [
1422.98,
1424.25
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I've been trying to explain this",
"timestamp": [
1422.98,
1424.25
]
},
{
"text": "to lower levels, and they\nalways look at me like,",
"timestamp": [
1424.25,
1426.63
]
},
{
"text": "to lower levels, and they\nalways look at me like,",
"timestamp": [
1424.25,
1426.63
]
},
{
"text": "are you pulling my leg here a little bit?",
"timestamp": [
1426.63,
1428.26
]
},
{
"text": "are you pulling my leg here a little bit?",
"timestamp": [
1426.63,
1428.26
]
},
{
"text": "Or is this the real thing that they use?",
"timestamp": [
1428.26,
1429.61
]
},
{
"text": "Or is this the real thing that they use?",
"timestamp": [
1428.26,
1429.61
]
},
{
"text": "Yes, it is the real thing they use.",
"timestamp": [
1429.61,
1431.09
]
},
{
"text": "Yes, it is the real thing they use.",
"timestamp": [
1429.61,
1431.09
]
},
{
"text": "We study these branes in de Sitter space,",
"timestamp": [
1431.09,
1434.99
]
},
{
"text": "We study these branes in de Sitter space,",
"timestamp": [
1431.09,
1434.99
]
},
{
"text": "and so what we found is that\nthere are black brane solutions",
"timestamp": [
1434.99,
1438.41
]
},
{
"text": "and so what we found is that\nthere are black brane solutions",
"timestamp": [
1434.99,
1438.41
]
},
{
"text": "which instead of having\na singularity inside",
"timestamp": [
1438.41,
1442.32
]
},
{
"text": "which instead of having\na singularity inside",
"timestamp": [
1438.41,
1442.32
]
},
{
"text": "are non-singular, and\nstable, and compactified.",
"timestamp": [
1442.32,
1445.839
]
},
{
"text": "are non-singular, and\nstable, and compactified.",
"timestamp": [
1442.32,
1445.839
]
},
{
"text": "Is this a familiar thing?",
"timestamp": [
1445.839,
1446.79
]
},
{
"text": "Is this a familiar thing?",
"timestamp": [
1445.839,
1446.79
]
},
{
"text": "I know things like this\nhave been discussed, right?",
"timestamp": [
1446.79,
1448.26
]
},
{
"text": "I know things like this\nhave been discussed, right?",
"timestamp": [
1446.79,
1448.26
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1448.26,
1449.093
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1448.26,
1449.093
]
},
{
"text": "So, a lot of the branes that\nare relevant for studying",
"timestamp": [
1449.093,
1451.52
]
},
{
"text": "So, a lot of the branes that\nare relevant for studying",
"timestamp": [
1449.093,
1451.52
]
},
{
"text": "things to do with\nanti-de Sitter spacetimes",
"timestamp": [
1451.52,
1453.78
]
},
{
"text": "things to do with\nanti-de Sitter spacetimes",
"timestamp": [
1451.52,
1453.78
]
},
{
"text": "in various dimensions actually start out",
"timestamp": [
1453.78,
1456.49
]
},
{
"text": "in various dimensions actually start out",
"timestamp": [
1453.78,
1456.49
]
},
{
"text": "as these non-singular type brains,",
"timestamp": [
1456.49,
1458.52
]
},
{
"text": "as these non-singular type brains,",
"timestamp": [
1456.49,
1458.52
]
},
{
"text": "and then you find in the core,",
"timestamp": [
1458.52,
1459.96
]
},
{
"text": "and then you find in the core,",
"timestamp": [
1458.52,
1459.96
]
},
{
"text": "there's actually an\nanti-de Sitter spacetime.",
"timestamp": [
1459.96,
1462.23
]
},
{
"text": "there's actually an\nanti-de Sitter spacetime.",
"timestamp": [
1459.96,
1462.23
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1462.23,
1463.063
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1462.23,
1463.063
]
},
{
"text": "Imagine that rather than\ngoing down to a point,",
"timestamp": [
1463.063,
1465.21
]
},
{
"text": "Imagine that rather than\ngoing down to a point,",
"timestamp": [
1463.063,
1465.21
]
},
{
"text": "it just asymptotes to some fixed radius",
"timestamp": [
1465.21,
1468.61
]
},
{
"text": "it just asymptotes to some fixed radius",
"timestamp": [
1465.21,
1468.61
]
},
{
"text": "that continues infinitely far down there.",
"timestamp": [
1468.61,
1470.3
]
},
{
"text": "that continues infinitely far down there.",
"timestamp": [
1468.61,
1470.3
]
},
{
"text": "But then you can ask,\nokay what about the rest",
"timestamp": [
1470.3,
1472.25
]
},
{
"text": "But then you can ask,\nokay what about the rest",
"timestamp": [
1470.3,
1472.25
]
},
{
"text": "of the universe?",
"timestamp": [
1472.25,
1473.083
]
},
{
"text": "of the universe?",
"timestamp": [
1472.25,
1473.083
]
},
{
"text": "You have some sphere, some\ntwo dimensions compactified,",
"timestamp": [
1473.083,
1476.26
]
},
{
"text": "You have some sphere, some\ntwo dimensions compactified,",
"timestamp": [
1473.083,
1476.26
]
},
{
"text": "and the balance between\nthe cosmological constant",
"timestamp": [
1476.26,
1479.66
]
},
{
"text": "and the balance between\nthe cosmological constant",
"timestamp": [
1476.26,
1479.66
]
},
{
"text": "and the electromagnetic field keeps it",
"timestamp": [
1479.66,
1481.83
]
},
{
"text": "and the electromagnetic field keeps it",
"timestamp": [
1479.66,
1481.83
]
},
{
"text": "at a fixed distance.",
"timestamp": [
1481.83,
1482.733
]
},
{
"text": "at a fixed distance.",
"timestamp": [
1481.83,
1482.733
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. Good, good.",
"timestamp": [
1482.733,
1483.566
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. Good, good.",
"timestamp": [
1482.733,
1483.566
]
},
{
"text": "- But then the other dimensions,",
"timestamp": [
1483.566,
1484.62
]
},
{
"text": "- But then the other dimensions,",
"timestamp": [
1483.566,
1484.62
]
},
{
"text": "the transverse dimensions,\ndon't need to be anti-de Sitter.",
"timestamp": [
1484.62,
1487.41
]
},
{
"text": "the transverse dimensions,\ndon't need to be anti-de Sitter.",
"timestamp": [
1484.62,
1487.41
]
},
{
"text": "They can have either positive, zero,",
"timestamp": [
1487.41,
1489.09
]
},
{
"text": "They can have either positive, zero,",
"timestamp": [
1487.41,
1489.09
]
},
{
"text": "or negative cosmological constant.",
"timestamp": [
1489.09,
1490.86
]
},
{
"text": "or negative cosmological constant.",
"timestamp": [
1489.09,
1490.86
]
},
{
"text": "So you can basically get any\nsort of cosmological solution",
"timestamp": [
1490.86,
1494.04
]
},
{
"text": "So you can basically get any\nsort of cosmological solution",
"timestamp": [
1490.86,
1494.04
]
},
{
"text": "times a compactified sphere.",
"timestamp": [
1494.04,
1495.79
]
},
{
"text": "times a compactified sphere.",
"timestamp": [
1494.04,
1495.79
]
},
{
"text": "- Is it that these have the lowest action",
"timestamp": [
1495.79,
1497.6
]
},
{
"text": "- Is it that these have the lowest action",
"timestamp": [
1495.79,
1497.6
]
},
{
"text": "of all the things that could possibly,",
"timestamp": [
1497.6,
1499.34
]
},
{
"text": "of all the things that could possibly,",
"timestamp": [
1497.6,
1499.34
]
},
{
"text": "all the possible solutions?",
"timestamp": [
1499.34,
1500.56
]
},
{
"text": "all the possible solutions?",
"timestamp": [
1499.34,
1500.56
]
},
{
"text": "- I guess.",
"timestamp": [
1500.56,
1501.393
]
},
{
"text": "- I guess.",
"timestamp": [
1500.56,
1501.393
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, maybe you'd think otherwise.",
"timestamp": [
1501.393,
1502.64
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, maybe you'd think otherwise.",
"timestamp": [
1501.393,
1502.64
]
},
{
"text": "Again or maybe you could change my mind,",
"timestamp": [
1502.64,
1504.05
]
},
{
"text": "Again or maybe you could change my mind,",
"timestamp": [
1502.64,
1504.05
]
},
{
"text": "I think that as long as it can happen",
"timestamp": [
1504.05,
1506.7
]
},
{
"text": "I think that as long as it can happen",
"timestamp": [
1504.05,
1506.7
]
},
{
"text": "it will happen some of the time, right?",
"timestamp": [
1506.7,
1508.21
]
},
{
"text": "it will happen some of the time, right?",
"timestamp": [
1506.7,
1508.21
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, that's fair.",
"timestamp": [
1508.21,
1509.127
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, that's fair.",
"timestamp": [
1508.21,
1509.127
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean it's one of the\nthings that could happen, so",
"timestamp": [
1509.127,
1510.8
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean it's one of the\nthings that could happen, so",
"timestamp": [
1509.127,
1510.8
]
},
{
"text": "I mean it obviously,",
"timestamp": [
1510.8,
1511.633
]
},
{
"text": "I mean it obviously,",
"timestamp": [
1510.8,
1511.633
]
},
{
"text": "You know, we know--\n- It's quantum, baby.",
"timestamp": [
1511.633,
1512.85
]
},
{
"text": "You know, we know--\n- It's quantum, baby.",
"timestamp": [
1511.633,
1512.85
]
},
{
"text": "- It's quantum.",
"timestamp": [
1512.85,
1513.833
]
},
{
"text": "- It's quantum.",
"timestamp": [
1512.85,
1513.833
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
1513.833,
1514.666
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
1513.833,
1514.666
]
},
{
"text": "It's a loud, it's of a loud",
"timestamp": [
1514.666,
1515.499
]
},
{
"text": "It's a loud, it's of a loud",
"timestamp": [
1514.666,
1515.499
]
},
{
"text": "it's gonna happen.",
"timestamp": [
1515.499,
1516.332
]
},
{
"text": "it's gonna happen.",
"timestamp": [
1515.499,
1516.332
]
},
{
"text": "- I still laugh from\nKeanu Reeves I'm afraid.",
"timestamp": [
1516.332,
1517.209
]
},
{
"text": "- I still laugh from\nKeanu Reeves I'm afraid.",
"timestamp": [
1516.332,
1517.209
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
1517.209,
1519.23
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
1517.209,
1519.23
]
},
{
"text": "- Someone probably wrote it for him.",
"timestamp": [
1519.23,
1521.2
]
},
{
"text": "- Someone probably wrote it for him.",
"timestamp": [
1519.23,
1521.2
]
},
{
"text": "So it's possible that if you\ndo have this starting point",
"timestamp": [
1521.2,
1524.47
]
},
{
"text": "So it's possible that if you\ndo have this starting point",
"timestamp": [
1521.2,
1524.47
]
},
{
"text": "of an empty de Sitter space",
"timestamp": [
1524.47,
1525.96
]
},
{
"text": "of an empty de Sitter space",
"timestamp": [
1524.47,
1525.96
]
},
{
"text": "with positive cosmological\nconstants and fields lying around",
"timestamp": [
1525.96,
1528.21
]
},
{
"text": "with positive cosmological\nconstants and fields lying around",
"timestamp": [
1525.96,
1528.21
]
},
{
"text": "you inevitably get a multiverse.",
"timestamp": [
1528.21,
1529.8
]
},
{
"text": "you inevitably get a multiverse.",
"timestamp": [
1528.21,
1529.8
]
},
{
"text": "It just happens, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1529.8,
1531.1
]
},
{
"text": "It just happens, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1529.8,
1531.1
]
},
{
"text": "it's just part of quantum\nnucleation to different things,",
"timestamp": [
1531.1,
1533.93
]
},
{
"text": "it's just part of quantum\nnucleation to different things,",
"timestamp": [
1531.1,
1533.93
]
},
{
"text": "and then maybe you need to explain",
"timestamp": [
1533.93,
1535.85
]
},
{
"text": "and then maybe you need to explain",
"timestamp": [
1533.93,
1535.85
]
},
{
"text": "why we live in this universe",
"timestamp": [
1535.85,
1536.89
]
},
{
"text": "why we live in this universe",
"timestamp": [
1535.85,
1536.89
]
},
{
"text": "rather than some other one",
"timestamp": [
1536.89,
1538.02
]
},
{
"text": "rather than some other one",
"timestamp": [
1536.89,
1538.02
]
},
{
"text": "via the anthropic principle\nor something like that.",
"timestamp": [
1538.02,
1539.96
]
},
{
"text": "via the anthropic principle\nor something like that.",
"timestamp": [
1538.02,
1539.96
]
},
{
"text": "So how does our kind\nof, you know, low-tech",
"timestamp": [
1539.96,
1542.47
]
},
{
"text": "So how does our kind\nof, you know, low-tech",
"timestamp": [
1539.96,
1542.47
]
},
{
"text": "old fashioned way of making\nnew universes intersect",
"timestamp": [
1542.47,
1544.96
]
},
{
"text": "old fashioned way of making\nnew universes intersect",
"timestamp": [
1542.47,
1544.96
]
},
{
"text": "with the kinds of things\nyou'd think about.",
"timestamp": [
1544.96,
1546.93
]
},
{
"text": "with the kinds of things\nyou'd think about.",
"timestamp": [
1544.96,
1546.93
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, it's interesting\nbecause there's a lot",
"timestamp": [
1546.93,
1549.55
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, it's interesting\nbecause there's a lot",
"timestamp": [
1546.93,
1549.55
]
},
{
"text": "of activity going on\ninspired by things we learned",
"timestamp": [
1549.55,
1552.98
]
},
{
"text": "of activity going on\ninspired by things we learned",
"timestamp": [
1549.55,
1552.98
]
},
{
"text": "from working in anti-de Sitter space",
"timestamp": [
1552.98,
1554.93
]
},
{
"text": "from working in anti-de Sitter space",
"timestamp": [
1552.98,
1554.93
]
},
{
"text": "where the cosmological\nconstant has the wrong sign.",
"timestamp": [
1554.93,
1557.75
]
},
{
"text": "where the cosmological\nconstant has the wrong sign.",
"timestamp": [
1554.93,
1557.75
]
},
{
"text": "So you will find that there\nare a number of papers",
"timestamp": [
1557.75,
1560.2
]
},
{
"text": "So you will find that there\nare a number of papers",
"timestamp": [
1557.75,
1560.2
]
},
{
"text": "as many of which you've probably read,",
"timestamp": [
1560.2,
1561.7
]
},
{
"text": "as many of which you've probably read,",
"timestamp": [
1560.2,
1561.7
]
},
{
"text": "probably you've read\nmore of them than I have,",
"timestamp": [
1561.7,
1563.81
]
},
{
"text": "probably you've read\nmore of them than I have,",
"timestamp": [
1561.7,
1563.81
]
},
{
"text": "which try then to take the\ndifferent kinds of brains,",
"timestamp": [
1563.81,
1568.18
]
},
{
"text": "which try then to take the\ndifferent kinds of brains,",
"timestamp": [
1563.81,
1568.18
]
},
{
"text": "these extended solutions, and\nthey're many different kinds",
"timestamp": [
1568.18,
1570.97
]
},
{
"text": "these extended solutions, and\nthey're many different kinds",
"timestamp": [
1568.18,
1570.97
]
},
{
"text": "doing different things, we\nunderstand well enough now",
"timestamp": [
1570.97,
1573.23
]
},
{
"text": "doing different things, we\nunderstand well enough now",
"timestamp": [
1570.97,
1573.23
]
},
{
"text": "that we can put them\ntogether in various ways.",
"timestamp": [
1573.23,
1575.06
]
},
{
"text": "that we can put them\ntogether in various ways.",
"timestamp": [
1573.23,
1575.06
]
},
{
"text": "They intersect, they\ndissolve inside each other,",
"timestamp": [
1575.06,
1579.21
]
},
{
"text": "They intersect, they\ndissolve inside each other,",
"timestamp": [
1575.06,
1579.21
]
},
{
"text": "they wrap each other.",
"timestamp": [
1579.21,
1580.07
]
},
{
"text": "they wrap each other.",
"timestamp": [
1579.21,
1580.07
]
},
{
"text": "- They overlap, they wrap around.",
"timestamp": [
1580.07,
1580.903
]
},
{
"text": "- They overlap, they wrap around.",
"timestamp": [
1580.07,
1580.903
]
},
{
"text": "- They overlap, and you\ndo them in all sorts",
"timestamp": [
1580.903,
1583.35
]
},
{
"text": "- They overlap, and you\ndo them in all sorts",
"timestamp": [
1580.903,
1583.35
]
},
{
"text": "of different ways and show\nthat you can construct",
"timestamp": [
1583.35,
1586.98
]
},
{
"text": "of different ways and show\nthat you can construct",
"timestamp": [
1583.35,
1586.98
]
},
{
"text": "four dimensional universes\nwith a cosmological constant",
"timestamp": [
1586.98,
1591.16
]
},
{
"text": "four dimensional universes\nwith a cosmological constant",
"timestamp": [
1586.98,
1591.16
]
},
{
"text": "of your desire, depending upon\nhow you did the construction.",
"timestamp": [
1591.16,
1595
]
},
{
"text": "of your desire, depending upon\nhow you did the construction.",
"timestamp": [
1591.16,
1595
]
},
{
"text": "- I know not everyone buys that, right?",
"timestamp": [
1595,
1596.65
]
},
{
"text": "- I know not everyone buys that, right?",
"timestamp": [
1595,
1596.65
]
},
{
"text": "- Not everyone buys it.",
"timestamp": [
1596.65,
1597.65
]
},
{
"text": "- Not everyone buys it.",
"timestamp": [
1596.65,
1597.65
]
},
{
"text": "There's a big discussion in\nthe literature right now.",
"timestamp": [
1597.65,
1600.11
]
},
{
"text": "There's a big discussion in\nthe literature right now.",
"timestamp": [
1597.65,
1600.11
]
},
{
"text": "- And if we put aside for the second",
"timestamp": [
1600.11,
1601.41
]
},
{
"text": "- And if we put aside for the second",
"timestamp": [
1600.11,
1601.41
]
},
{
"text": "the concerns of our colleagues\nin other parts of physics,",
"timestamp": [
1601.41,
1603.86
]
},
{
"text": "the concerns of our colleagues\nin other parts of physics,",
"timestamp": [
1601.41,
1603.86
]
},
{
"text": "and it's just amongst us chickens,",
"timestamp": [
1603.86,
1605.36
]
},
{
"text": "and it's just amongst us chickens,",
"timestamp": [
1603.86,
1605.36
]
},
{
"text": "what do you think about\nthe future of cosmology",
"timestamp": [
1605.36,
1607.85
]
},
{
"text": "what do you think about\nthe future of cosmology",
"timestamp": [
1605.36,
1607.85
]
},
{
"text": "and string theory, and the dynamics",
"timestamp": [
1607.85,
1609.24
]
},
{
"text": "and string theory, and the dynamics",
"timestamp": [
1607.85,
1609.24
]
},
{
"text": "of these extra dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
1609.24,
1610.323
]
},
{
"text": "of these extra dimensions?",
"timestamp": [
1609.24,
1610.323
]
},
{
"text": "- I think it's gonna\nget way more interesting",
"timestamp": [
1610.323,
1612.4
]
},
{
"text": "- I think it's gonna\nget way more interesting",
"timestamp": [
1610.323,
1612.4
]
},
{
"text": "than we're currently able\nto grapple with right now,",
"timestamp": [
1612.4,
1616.02
]
},
{
"text": "than we're currently able\nto grapple with right now,",
"timestamp": [
1612.4,
1616.02
]
},
{
"text": "and I think there are hints of it.",
"timestamp": [
1616.02,
1617.21
]
},
{
"text": "and I think there are hints of it.",
"timestamp": [
1616.02,
1617.21
]
},
{
"text": "There could be a\ndescription of the physics",
"timestamp": [
1617.21,
1620.56
]
},
{
"text": "There could be a\ndescription of the physics",
"timestamp": [
1617.21,
1620.56
]
},
{
"text": "that might be our early universe",
"timestamp": [
1620.56,
1622.31
]
},
{
"text": "that might be our early universe",
"timestamp": [
1620.56,
1622.31
]
},
{
"text": "that is like that molecular description.",
"timestamp": [
1622.31,
1624.52
]
},
{
"text": "that is like that molecular description.",
"timestamp": [
1622.31,
1624.52
]
},
{
"text": "And then from that emerges flat spacetimes",
"timestamp": [
1624.52,
1627.36
]
},
{
"text": "And then from that emerges flat spacetimes",
"timestamp": [
1624.52,
1627.36
]
},
{
"text": "maybe four, maybe some mechanism tells you",
"timestamp": [
1627.36,
1629.2
]
},
{
"text": "maybe four, maybe some mechanism tells you",
"timestamp": [
1627.36,
1629.2
]
},
{
"text": "it's four and not something else.",
"timestamp": [
1629.2,
1630.62
]
},
{
"text": "it's four and not something else.",
"timestamp": [
1629.2,
1630.62
]
},
{
"text": "I think that's where we're going.",
"timestamp": [
1630.62,
1631.91
]
},
{
"text": "I think that's where we're going.",
"timestamp": [
1630.62,
1631.91
]
},
{
"text": "- If the viewers wanted to\nknow more about how spacetime",
"timestamp": [
1631.91,
1634.25
]
},
{
"text": "- If the viewers wanted to\nknow more about how spacetime",
"timestamp": [
1631.91,
1634.25
]
},
{
"text": "can emerge from quantum mechanics,",
"timestamp": [
1634.25,
1635.58
]
},
{
"text": "can emerge from quantum mechanics,",
"timestamp": [
1634.25,
1635.58
]
},
{
"text": "they could read the graphic\nnovel you just wrote.",
"timestamp": [
1635.58,
1638.1
]
},
{
"text": "they could read the graphic\nnovel you just wrote.",
"timestamp": [
1635.58,
1638.1
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, yes.",
"timestamp": [
1638.1,
1638.933
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, yes.",
"timestamp": [
1638.1,
1638.933
]
},
{
"text": "I wrote and drew a graphic\nnovel called \"The Dialogues:",
"timestamp": [
1638.933,
1640.907
]
},
{
"text": "I wrote and drew a graphic\nnovel called \"The Dialogues:",
"timestamp": [
1638.933,
1640.907
]
},
{
"text": "\"Conversations About\nthe Nature of Universe.\"",
"timestamp": [
1640.907,
1643.05
]
},
{
"text": "\"Conversations About\nthe Nature of Universe.\"",
"timestamp": [
1640.907,
1643.05
]
},
{
"text": "- And I just wrote a book",
"timestamp": [
1643.05,
1643.883
]
},
{
"text": "- And I just wrote a book",
"timestamp": [
1643.05,
1643.883
]
},
{
"text": "called \"Something Deeply Hidden\"",
"timestamp": [
1643.883,
1644.92
]
},
{
"text": "called \"Something Deeply Hidden\"",
"timestamp": [
1643.883,
1644.92
]
},
{
"text": "about many worlds, quantum mechanics,",
"timestamp": [
1644.92,
1646.52
]
},
{
"text": "about many worlds, quantum mechanics,",
"timestamp": [
1644.92,
1646.52
]
},
{
"text": "and how spacetime can emerge from it.",
"timestamp": [
1646.52,
1648.45
]
},
{
"text": "and how spacetime can emerge from it.",
"timestamp": [
1646.52,
1648.45
]
},
{
"text": "Plenty of reading material\nfor the audience out there.",
"timestamp": [
1648.45,
1650.25
]
},
{
"text": "Plenty of reading material\nfor the audience out there.",
"timestamp": [
1648.45,
1650.25
]
},
{
"text": "- Excellent.",
"timestamp": [
1650.25,
1651.083
]
},
{
"text": "- Excellent.",
"timestamp": [
1650.25,
1651.083
]
},
{
"text": "[down-tempo electronic music]",
"timestamp": [
1651.083,
1654.32
]
},
{
"text": "[down-tempo electronic music]",
"timestamp": [
1651.083,
1654.32
]
},
{
"text": "- So that was fun.",
"timestamp": [
1654.32,
1655.153
]
},
{
"text": "- So that was fun.",
"timestamp": [
1654.32,
1655.153
]
},
{
"text": "I hope that everyone did learn something.",
"timestamp": [
1655.153,
1656.69
]
},
{
"text": "I hope that everyone did learn something.",
"timestamp": [
1655.153,
1656.69
]
},
{
"text": "I know that I did.",
"timestamp": [
1656.69,
1657.53
]
},
{
"text": "I know that I did.",
"timestamp": [
1656.69,
1657.53
]
},
{
"text": "It was very nice to see\nhow the idea of dimensions",
"timestamp": [
1657.53,
1660.63
]
},
{
"text": "It was very nice to see\nhow the idea of dimensions",
"timestamp": [
1657.53,
1660.63
]
},
{
"text": "and space resonates in different ways",
"timestamp": [
1660.63,
1663.21
]
},
{
"text": "and space resonates in different ways",
"timestamp": [
1660.63,
1663.21
]
},
{
"text": "with different people,\nall the way up to talking",
"timestamp": [
1663.21,
1664.98
]
},
{
"text": "with different people,\nall the way up to talking",
"timestamp": [
1663.21,
1664.98
]
},
{
"text": "to Clifford about the\nforefront of modern research.",
"timestamp": [
1664.98,
1667.74
]
},
{
"text": "to Clifford about the\nforefront of modern research.",
"timestamp": [
1664.98,
1667.74
]
},
{
"text": "I really do think that we're not done",
"timestamp": [
1667.74,
1670.13
]
},
{
"text": "I really do think that we're not done",
"timestamp": [
1667.74,
1670.13
]
},
{
"text": "understanding how dimensions work.",
"timestamp": [
1670.13,
1671.88
]
},
{
"text": "understanding how dimensions work.",
"timestamp": [
1670.13,
1671.88
]
},
{
"text": "There are three dimensions\nof space, why that?",
"timestamp": [
1671.88,
1674.52
]
},
{
"text": "There are three dimensions\nof space, why that?",
"timestamp": [
1671.88,
1674.52
]
},
{
"text": "Why not two?",
"timestamp": [
1674.52,
1675.353
]
},
{
"text": "Why not two?",
"timestamp": [
1674.52,
1675.353
]
},
{
"text": "Why not 27?",
"timestamp": [
1675.353,
1676.81
]
},
{
"text": "Why not 27?",
"timestamp": [
1675.353,
1676.81
]
},
{
"text": "I think that we really\ndon't yet have the data",
"timestamp": [
1676.81,
1679.04
]
},
{
"text": "I think that we really\ndon't yet have the data",
"timestamp": [
1676.81,
1679.04
]
},
{
"text": "or ideas to think about this,\nbut we're creeping up on it.",
"timestamp": [
1679.04,
1681.92
]
},
{
"text": "or ideas to think about this,\nbut we're creeping up on it.",
"timestamp": [
1679.04,
1681.92
]
},
{
"text": "I'm optimistic about\nprogress in the near future.",
"timestamp": [
1681.92,
1685.177
]
},
{
"text": "I'm optimistic about\nprogress in the near future.",
"timestamp": [
1681.92,
1685.177
]
},
{
"text": "[atmospheric electronic music]",
"timestamp": [
1685.177,
1687.77
]
},
{
"text": "[atmospheric electronic music]",
"timestamp": [
1685.177,
1687.77
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm a professor at the\nUniversity of Waterloo.",
"timestamp": [
1687.77,
1689.99
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm a professor at the\nUniversity of Waterloo.",
"timestamp": [
1687.77,
1689.99
]
},
{
"text": "- And I'm a sleep scientist at UCSF.",
"timestamp": [
1689.99,
1691.76
]
},
{
"text": "- And I'm a sleep scientist at UCSF.",
"timestamp": [
1689.99,
1691.76
]
},
{
"text": "- Today I've been challenged\nto explain lasers--",
"timestamp": [
1691.76,
1694.7
]
},
{
"text": "- Today I've been challenged\nto explain lasers--",
"timestamp": [
1691.76,
1694.7
]
},
{
"text": "- To explain the topic of sleep",
"timestamp": [
1694.7,
1696.37
]
},
{
"text": "- To explain the topic of sleep",
"timestamp": [
1694.7,
1696.37
]
},
{
"text": "at five different levels.",
"timestamp": [
1696.37,
1697.883
]
},
{
"text": "at five different levels.",
"timestamp": [
1696.37,
1697.883
]
}
] |
[
[
"Intro",
"- Hi, I'm Sean Carroll.I'm a theoretical physicisthere at the California\nInstitute of Technology.I've been challenged to explain dimensionsto five different levels.The idea of a dimension,\nsometimes in pop cultureis misunderstood, like\nthere's an extra placeyou can go, a mystical dimension\nor something like that.To a physicist or a mathematician,a dimension is just the\ndirection you can go in.Up down, left right, forward backward.To you and me, we think there's\nthree dimensions around us,but then physicists start\ntalking about extra dimensions.How can you hide them?Where might they be?I'm hopeful that we're learn\nsomething at each level."
],
[
"Dimensions",
"[down-tempo music]We're gonna talk about some science.Do you like science?- Yes, a lot.- Oh, very good.You've come to the right place.So we're gonna think about physics.Have you heard the word physics before?Do you know what that is?- Yeah, kind of.- What's your idea what physics is?- Um, I'm not so sure.- Okay.I just think of physics as\nthe study of everything.What stuff is, what stuff does.So today we're gonna talk about space,and in particular the idea of dimensions.Have you heard about dimensions?- At the campI made a 3D printing one.- 3D printing, good.- So I don't choose the size,all I had to do was the shape.- But do you know what 3D means?- It's three dimensional.- Three dimensional, as opposed to,what is ordinary printing?- So, ordinary printing would be 2D.- What do you say when\nsomething is one dimensional?What's an example of something\nthat's one dimensional?- Hmm, I think one dimensional\nmight be a circle, I guess,or maybe a line.- A line is the perfect example- Yeah, a line.- Because it's one thing\nthat's straight, right?- [Hank] Yeah.- So here's some toys.We're gonna build some dimensions, right?So what would you say about this?- That's one dimensional.- Exactly.It's not really one dimensional, right?- So everything has to\nbe one or two dimensionalbefore it's three dimensional.- And how would you find yourself,like if someone said where are you,could you use some words or ideasto say where you are on that line?- I think I would be maybe there,since I'm facing it.- But here's what I\nwant you to think about.If I say I'm at this point on the line,I could translate that into sayingI'm at the three centimeter point,if I were here I'd be at\nthe four centimeter point,the five centimeter point, right?- Yeah.- So every point, every\nlocation on our little line--- Has its own unit.- Has its own unit, has one number.- Yeah.- We need one number to\ntell you where we are.That's one dimension.That's what it means\nto be one dimensional.I only need to tell you one numberto figure out where we are.- Unlike three dimensional,\nyou have to tell a lot'cause if it's like a\nsphere, you kind of haveto start using points.- There you go. Exactly.We're gonna build a little\ntwo dimensional space.You wanna do it?You wanna do the honors here?Why don't you put those\ntwo lines together?- If you make ittwo dimensional is this, a corner.- Exactly, there you go.- Another way is if you\nhave space in betweenis an angle.- I think you should be in this chairand you should be explaining this to me.You're much better at this than I am.- Yeah.- So those are the dimensions.That's how we think about dimensions.Remember, we just needed one numberto find ourselves on the\nline, we need two numbersto find ourselves on the plane.- I think that would be\nan X or a Y axis, so--- There you go.So, do you think we could have\nmore than three dimensions?- 3D is the maximum of\ndimensions for shapes.- Well, as far as we know.- Yeah.- This is why physicists\nthink about thingswe don't know about.We're wondering whether there\ncould be extra dimensionsyou've never seen.\n- Yeah.- That are tinier than atoms.So, okay.So what have you learned?What do you know about dimensions now?How do you think about dimensionsin a slightly different\nway than you did before?- So at least everything\nhas a certain dimension.- Yeah, do you think you'd be excitedif physicists said that they foundextra dimensions of space?- That would be an amazing discovery.The news would be spreaded\naround the world rapidly.- I think so.I think you're right.All right Hank, we want\nyou to keep up studying,learn a lot of math and physicsand help us discover\nnew dimensions some day.Does that sound like a fun idea?- Yeah.[playful music]- Do you like science?Is that something you think about?- Yeah, I do.- [Sean] What kind of science?- I like biology and computer science.- All right, you're in the wrong place.[laughs]\nWe're not gonna be talkingabout biology or computer science.So we wanna talk about\nthe idea of dimensions.Do you know what dimension is?How we would define dimensions?- I guess, I don't know\nhow to exactly define it,but I know, like the first four.- Right, you know the difference\nbetween like one dimensiontwo dimensions, three\ndimensions, et cetera.So let's do a little experiment here.So there's one dimension.I'll give that to you.Now, here's your task.I'm going to give you another dimension,and I'm gonna ask hold those two thingsat right angles to each other.It's easy to do.Yeah, so there's no trick here.[laughing]\n- Yeah.- I'm not trying to fool you here. Okay.Now this is going to be slightly trickier.I'm going to give you this.I want you to hold all three of themat right angles to all the othersat the same time.- Um ...- There you go.So what that's doing is\nwhen you had just twothat was describing a two\ndimensional plane, right?Like the two things pick out a plane,the three things pick out\nall three dimensional space.I'm gonna give you one more,and I'm gonna ask you\nto hold that fourth oneso that it's at a right\nangle to all the other threeat the same time.- Um ...- All right, now I am tricking you.It can't be done.- Yeah.\n- Right?You can't do it.So we just experimentally provedthat space is three dimensional.That's sort of what it means\nto be three dimensional,that there are three different\ndirections you can move inand there's not four or\nfive or six directionsyou can move in.- Okay.- There you go.Three dimensional space, right?- Mm-hmm.- [Sean] So, have you thought\nabout using coordinatesin three dimensions?- Yeah, I was actually doing SAT prep.- There you go.[laughing]- It showed like the X\nY and Z axis as well.- That's right.So that's exactly what these would be.Have you heard that there\nare other coordinate systemsother than XYX?- No.- Well, we could also say how far we areaway from the center, just the distance.And then the angle that\nour little line makeswith let's say the X axis.- Yeah.- So that's a different way\nof giving you two numbersand locating yourself, and we\ncall those polar coordinates.It's a different coordinate system.What we want to do as physicists is lookfor extra dimensions.Can you imagine, can you think of any waythat there could be extra dimensions?- Time?- Time.Yes, Einstein said that\nwe can think of timeas a fourth dimension, and\nthat's a very fascinating thingthat we could talk about all by itself.But what about space?What about the solar system?Like, if you wanted to tell\nme where a certain star wasin the sky, do you know how we do that?- I have no idea.- It's exactly the same thing\nas latitude and longitudebut we put coordinates on the sky.- Oh.- So astronomers call them\nright ascension and declination,which are two terrible words,but basically you've seen on the globewhere you draw latitude and longitude,what it looks like.- [Juliana] Yeah.- [Sean] And sort of\nthe peels of an orangekind of thing, right?- [Juliana] Yeah.- So you can define\nsomething as, well you know,how high above a certain\nlocation on earth it is,but the earth is rotating\nand revolving around the sunso we have to define separate\ncelestial coordinates.- So, there's like how many\ndimension would there be?- We don't know.You know, the optimistic\nview is that there are six,but the thing is, some of them might bereally, really, really,\nreally, really small,like way too small for us to ever see.- Yeah.- And some of them might be medium sizedthat hopefully we can see.- Oh, okay.So since it's all theoretical,like this could not be three dimensional.- Absolutely right.And this is sort of the\nstate of uncertaintythat physicists are stuck living in.- Oh. [laughs]- You know, honestly\nout there, if you go outonto campus and talk to the physicists,half of them will say probably\nextra dimensions exist,and half of them say no,\nthat's just nonsense.- Oh. [laughs]- [Sean] We really don't know.- Yeah.- Okay, after all this.- [Juliana] Yeah.- Someone comes up to you\non the street and sayswhat's a dimension?- Oh, man.I mean, I guess what I've learned todayis just that there are\nnot just three dimensionsor at least we think, I mean\neverything's theoretical.It's all just really kind of confusing.- That's right, and you know,\nif they're still bugging youyou can just like give them some sticksand ask them to put them together.- Oh yeah.- [Sean] And that would shut them up.- Yeah."
],
[
"What is it",
"[down-tempo electronic music]- Where do you go to school\nand what do you study?- I'm gonna be a sophomore\nat Pomona College,and I study math and physics.- Oh, math and physics, okay.What kind of physicist do you want to be?Do you know?- I really don't know.I like theory and experimental\nso it's kind of toughfor me to say.- Usually if it's math and physics,you end up as a theoretical\nphysicist, right?- Yeah.- Not an experimental one.So, our theme here today is dimensions.So this is great that you\nhave some math backgroundbecause mathematicians\nthink about dimensionsin a different way.- Hopefully, yeah.- So how would you explain to your friendswho are not math and physics majors,like what is a dimension, yourself?- My first intuitive thought\nis what are the coordinates.- Mm-hmm.- So if we are looking at things,if we're looking at like a dot,or a line rather, that's one dimensionalbecause we can only measure it one way,but then if we look at like a squarethen we're increasing like that,so it's basically what\ncoordinates we can useto measure something.- That's exactly right,\nand so you've heardof spacetime--\n- Yeah.- [Sean] Being four dimensional, right?- Mm-hmm.- Now, in some sense that's\nkind of trivial to you and me,because of course you have space,which is three dimensional, you have timewhich is one dimensional, so\nspacetime is four dimensional.But it didn't turn out,\nit didn't occur to anyonethat that was a sensible way to talkuntil really relativity.This is the crucial thing, right?Is that what Einstein realized is thatsure there's both time and\nspace, but how we dividespacetime into time and\nspace can be differentfor different people, and\nreally there's a real sensein which four dimensional spacetimeis kind of a generalization\nof three dimensional space.And I think to really explain thiswe're gonna need a blackboard.- Okay.- Let's bring one in.[playful music]All right.The thing about relativityis that they really want you to thinkof spacetime as one four\ndimensional thing, right?It's kind of like space.It's not just three dimensions of spaceand one dimension of time.- Why though?- Why?This is a very good question.So, let's just start with space, right?We know a little bit about space.So here's my simple minded\nway of drawing spacetwo dimensions, because that's how manyI can draw on the blackboard.Let's say X and Y.And what is special about\nspace, there's many things,but one is that if I\nhave a curve or a pathbetween two points, there's a distancethat you can calculate, right?And the distance between those two pointsdoesn't depend on your coordinates.It doesn't depend on whether\nyou're in radial coordinatesor Cartesian coordinates, or whatever.I'm allowed to imagine a curve\nthat does something like thisbetween those two points,\nand if I were a personwalking on that curve,\nI would have an odometerwith me maybe, and I would\nknow, you would know,even without having done that,this path is always gonna\nbe longer than that path.There's a formula, Pythagoras' Theoremthat tells you what the\nshortest distance path is.That's the point.The physical-ness of what is realis the distance along a certain curve.So spacetime is like that.That's why it is useful\nto think about spacetime.- Okay.- So let me draw spacetime.Here's how we usually draw it.I'll just say X, but all\nof space is condensedin this one direction,\nand this is time, okay?So if you're a little personand you started some event, so you start,you're located somewhere in space,somewhere in the three\ncoordinates of space,and whether you like it\nor not, you're movingthrough spacetime just by getting older.- Yeah.- When people ask me can\nyou travel through time?I say yes, yesterday I traveled\n24 hours into the futureand here I am, a day later.So that's just this.Okay, you're moving through\ntime, like it or not.So what Einstein says\nis look, I can travelthrough spacetime in different ways,like I could hop in a rocket shipand fly out and then fly back,and then I could meet you there.So this is a different trajectory\nthrough spacetime, right?- Yeah.- And it's almost exactly\nlike the space story.The space story says there's a distance,distance is different\nalong different curves.Einstein says there's\nsomething that measuresthe length of these curves,and we call it the proper time.It is literally the\ntime that you would readon your wristwatch.- So it's kind of like\nour fundamental time?Or our base time?- Well kind of.What Einstein wants to get\nacross is there's no such thingas fundamental, like\nthere's the universe's time,this big letter T that\nmight tell you how oldthe universe is, but then every individualhas a clock with them, and\nthey measure their own timedepending on how they're\nmoving through the universe.- I see.- And the crucial difference isthat time is not the same for\nthis person who stayed behindand sat in their chair,and this person who zoomed out there.- Why is that, that\nthis one's shorter then?- There is what we call\na metric on spacetime,and when we talk about Euclidean spaceversus a curved space,\nversus a sphere or something,that's a different metric.And spacetime has its own metricwhich says the following thing,that the path between\ntwo events in spacetimethat is a straight line, will\nalways be the longest time.- I see.Oh, okay.- [Sean] That's the difference.- All right.- So when Einstein had this idea,oh gravity could be\nrelated to the curvatureof spacetime, he did some equations,so he got it, that's a long story,we'll put that aside.What he figured out was\nthat rather than gravityliving on top of spacetime,\nit's a manifestationof the curvature of spacetimeso when you have like the\nearth, the sun, the moon,they cause a gravitational field,they're actually warping\nthe spacetime around them.They're giving it a different geometry.- Would it be if I had like a springor not a spring, but like a sheet,and I dropped a book in\nthe sheet, curves down?- Yeah, exactly.If you had a sheet that\nwas originally flat,and you set a marble on it,it would go in a straight line,but then if you put something on itso it warps it, that marble\nis now gonna be deflected.- I see.- Einstein says that\ngravity is just like that.- I see.- But there are no straight lines,because spacetime itself is curved.So do you think if you\nhad to explain relativitywhat would you say?- I think I'd go with\nkind of the train paradox.Let's say I'm stationary,\nand someone's moving past meon the train, they think\nthey're stationary on the train.Like they think that\nthey're not accelerating,but if they start walking\nthrough the train cars,then they are accelerating in their frame,but then from my outside framewhere I'm completely removed,\nI see they are accelerating.So I guess that relativity\nis all about perspective,I guess in a way.- Yeah, that's right.And it goes exactly back to\nwhat we drew on the boardwhere how those two people in\nthe train and on the groundwould divide spacetime up differentlyto space and time.\n- That was pretty good.- [Sean] Yeah.- I learned a lot.- [Sean] It's a lot of\nfun stuff to talk about."
],
[
"Extra dimensions",
"[down-tempo electronic music]So observational cosmology,\nso like what do you look at?- So, I work on two ground-based\nsurveys in the optical,and we're basically\ntrying to make huge mapsof the universe so that\nwe can study dark energy.- I'm sure you've heard\nabout extra dimensionsa little bit.- I've heard it, yeah.- Well I'm thinking about the ideathat there might be more than\nthree dimensions of space.What is your impression\nof theoretical physicistswho think about things like\nextra dimensions of spacethat they haven't ever seen?- I get a little scared,[laughing]because I think how can\nyou prove these theories?- Right.- One theory I've heard of,\nI don't know if this fits inwith that, is bubble universes.- Mm-hmm.- Is that an extra dimension?Does that fit into that,\nor is that something?- It does.In fact, one way that different universesmight be created and be\ndifferent from each otheris that different universes could haveeffectively different\nnumbers of dimensions.Like we have three dimensions around us,but there's people out\nthere, aliens, who could livein five dimensional universes.- And are each of those dimensions,are they governed by the\nsame laws of physics,or is there like a separate\nLagrangian for each universe--- It's a, yeah.- [Bela] Or how does that work?- We think that it would be,no all of this is incredibly speculative,and we don't know for sure.But the idea is that\nthere is some deep downunderlying laws that are\nuniversal and the same,but they show up differently,so they appear different.So the specific particles\nand forces and masseswould be completely\ndifferent in different partsof the multiverse.- Okay.- Why in the world would\nyou think that thereare extra dimensions, right?So you've heard of string theory?- I have.So string theory is basically a theoryof quantum gravity.- Mm-hmm.So we have quantum mechanics, right?The theory of atoms and so\nforth and how those work,and then we have gravity,\nand gravity doesn'tseem to fit in.It's the one force of\nnature that we can't reallyeasily fit into this quantum\nmechanical framework,so string theory is one of the best ideas.- Right.- That's the good news.The bad news is that it only seems to workif spacetime is ten dimensional.[chuckles]So you would say well then it's wrong.It can't be right.Spacetime is not ten-dimensional.Spacetime is four dimensional.We've observed that.But instead, we say if\nspacetime looks four dimensionalto us, but string theory,\nwhich might be the best theorywe have of quantum gravity says\nit must be ten dimensional,maybe we can hide those\nextra six dimensions somehow.So here's how we could get lucky.We could imagine that there\nare extra dimensions of spacethat are curled up somehowthat are so small that we can't see them.This is actually an old idea.It goes back to Kaluza and Kleinright after general relativity\nwas invented in 1915.But there's a more recent idea that saysthere could actually be\nrelatively large extra dimensions.There could be extra\ndimensions that are actuallythat big, like a millimeter acrossthat you would not have noticed.But here's the new, exciting idea.So let's imagine, okay.This is a piece of paper.But let's imagine this\nis our entire world.So, in other words, our real\nworld is three dimensional,but let's imagine that we're\njust idealizing it downto two dimensions, so we all live here.You and I live here.But let's imagine that we're\nembedded in this bigger space.So there are extra dimensions\nthat are actually big, okay?And let's imagine that.When I say we live on this\nthree dimensional worldwhat I mean is imagine that the particlesthat you and I are made of,\nright, the quarks, the leptons,the electrons and everything,\nall the forces we know about,electromagnetism, the weak nuclear force,the strong nuclear force,imagine they can't leave this surface.This is what we call a brane.B-R-A-N-E.Have you heard this word before?- I've heard it, yeah.- [Sean] Do you know where it comes from?- No.- From membranes, you know.We have lines, one dimension.We have two dimensional surfaces.So if you have a line that is\na vibrating physical thing,you call it a string, right?- Right.- If you have a two dimensional\nsurface that vibratesand is a physical thing,\nwe call that a membrane.Membrane theory goes back,\nit never was as popularas string theory, but it's\nbeen around for a while.But if you had extra dimensions of space,then you can three\ndimensional vibrating things,and four dimensional vibrating things.- So how do these strings\ngive rise to thingslike mass and charge,\nand basically give usthe properties of the\nparticles that we see?- Well basically the strings\nare the particles that we see.It's exactly the same thing\nas we said for the straw,if you look at it far away\nit looks one dimensional.A little loop of string,so a little one dimensional\ncircle that is vibrating.If you look at it from\nvery, very far away,it just looks like a particle.So in string theory, an\nelectron is a little string.A photon is a little string.- So, is string theory\npart of what they callthe Grand Unified Theory?Is it supposed to be the last thingthat sort of unifies\nall the forces together?- Yes, string theory's even better.So the phrase Grand Unified\nTheory was coined in the 1970sfor theories that joined\nelectricity and magnetism.So a good string theory is gravity plusthe Grand Unified Theory.- Okay.- It's even better.It's the theory of everything.What would you tell a friend of yoursif they asked you what dimensions are,what extra dimensions\nare, what a brane is?- So we have three spatial dimensions.A brane is sort of the next level.So a brane is a higher dimensional objectthat vibrates through space.- That's right.And we could live there.The world we see around\nus, the three dimensionsof space around us could reflect the factthat we are somehow stuck\non a three dimensional branetrying to escape.- It was really cool to learn\nabout strings and branesand how looking at gravity on small scalesis actually connected to what I doin looking at gravity on\nthese cosmological scales,and it's definitely something\nI'm gonna think aboutin my research."
],
[
"String theory",
"[atmospheric electronic music]- You're a string theorist,\nso tell us what kindof string theory you do, what it meansto be a string theorist.- One of the things that's keyin the whole story of string theoryis the piece of it that talks aboutquantum theories of gravity.So I'm very excited about\nwhat happens to spacetime,what does it even mean\nat the quantum level.- Cool, so do you think a\nlot about extra dimensionsin your everyday life?- Uh, yes I do.- And so when you think\nabout extra dimensions,you put them together with\nbrains and different fieldswrapping around the extra\ndimensions and so forth, right?- Yes.- You know, a lot of people,\na lot of string theorists,they care a lot about\nall the different waysin which we could hide\nthe extra dimensions.As someone who cares about cosmology,I wanna start asking why\nare the extra dimensionssmall at all?How did that happen?Is this something you\nthink about yourself?- Yes, well ultimately\nwe'd like to understandthe observable universe.If string theory turns out to be the thingthat the universe cares about,we'd like to know, with\nall of these possibilitiesthat are in string theory,\nhow do we get the onethat looks like the world we live in?- The thing I want to talk\nabout is this paper I wrotewith Matt Johnson and Lisa Randallwhere we realize there's another wayto compactify extra dimensions\nspontaneously, dynamically.If you imagine starting\nwith this big piece of paperyou couldn't wrap up everything,but within some region of\nspace you could make a tube.- Okay.\n- Right?And down there in the tube it looks likeyour long thing that is\ncompactified in one directionand infinitely extending\nin the other direction,so there's one less\nmacroscopic dimension of space.- Hmm. Okay, that's nice.- [Sean] You think that\nsounds plausible to you?- It sounds like fun.What I would immediately ask iswhere do the large dimensions\ncome from in the first place?Is that something you\naddress, or you just assumethat all the dimension are\nlarge as a starting point?- Yeah.So we certainly assume\nthat they're all largeas a starting point, and\nit's worse than that.So in our paper we imagine you startin de Sitter space.You start in a universe with no matter,no anything like that, just empty spacebut with an energy that is positiveand all the dimensions are large.- But where do they come from?- It was always there.- Why?- Why not?- Okay.[laughing]- Well you know, I think\nthat this is again, this is--- You're replacing one prejudice\nwith a different prejudice.- I would say that we\nshouldn't be prejudicedone way or the other.- Just a large, ten or 11 dimensionswith a cosmological constantdoesn't seem like a\nfundamental starting point.It sounds like there needs to be somethingto underlie that.But it's a fun scenario.- Yeah, so let me tell\nyou a little bit moreabout the scenario.So you know there are black holes, good?Right?- I've heard of them.- [Sean] There are black branes as well.- Indeed.- Why don't you explain to\nus what a black brane is?- Well in some ways, it's\nvery much like a black holein that you have far away from ityou have these large just flat dimensions.As you move in, there's\nsomething in the interior.It has, itself, higher dimensions,and so because physicists love to jokethey thought, well it's like a membranebut it can have many different dimensions.Let's use P to stand in for\nthose number of dimensions,and so they called them P-branes.- Yeah, I've been trying to explain thisto lower levels, and they\nalways look at me like,are you pulling my leg here a little bit?Or is this the real thing that they use?Yes, it is the real thing they use.We study these branes in de Sitter space,and so what we found is that\nthere are black brane solutionswhich instead of having\na singularity insideare non-singular, and\nstable, and compactified.Is this a familiar thing?I know things like this\nhave been discussed, right?- Yeah. Yeah.So, a lot of the branes that\nare relevant for studyingthings to do with\nanti-de Sitter spacetimesin various dimensions actually start outas these non-singular type brains,and then you find in the core,there's actually an\nanti-de Sitter spacetime.- Right.Imagine that rather than\ngoing down to a point,it just asymptotes to some fixed radiusthat continues infinitely far down there.But then you can ask,\nokay what about the restof the universe?You have some sphere, some\ntwo dimensions compactified,and the balance between\nthe cosmological constantand the electromagnetic field keeps itat a fixed distance.- Right. Good, good.- But then the other dimensions,the transverse dimensions,\ndon't need to be anti-de Sitter.They can have either positive, zero,or negative cosmological constant.So you can basically get any\nsort of cosmological solutiontimes a compactified sphere.- Is it that these have the lowest actionof all the things that could possibly,all the possible solutions?- I guess.I mean, maybe you'd think otherwise.Again or maybe you could change my mind,I think that as long as it can happenit will happen some of the time, right?- Okay, that's fair.- I mean it's one of the\nthings that could happen, soI mean it obviously,You know, we know--\n- It's quantum, baby.- It's quantum.[laughing]It's a loud, it's of a loudit's gonna happen.- I still laugh from\nKeanu Reeves I'm afraid.[laughing]- Someone probably wrote it for him.So it's possible that if you\ndo have this starting pointof an empty de Sitter spacewith positive cosmological\nconstants and fields lying aroundyou inevitably get a multiverse.It just happens, you know,it's just part of quantum\nnucleation to different things,and then maybe you need to explainwhy we live in this universerather than some other onevia the anthropic principle\nor something like that.So how does our kind\nof, you know, low-techold fashioned way of making\nnew universes intersectwith the kinds of things\nyou'd think about.- Well, it's interesting\nbecause there's a lotof activity going on\ninspired by things we learnedfrom working in anti-de Sitter spacewhere the cosmological\nconstant has the wrong sign.So you will find that there\nare a number of papersas many of which you've probably read,probably you've read\nmore of them than I have,which try then to take the\ndifferent kinds of brains,these extended solutions, and\nthey're many different kindsdoing different things, we\nunderstand well enough nowthat we can put them\ntogether in various ways.They intersect, they\ndissolve inside each other,they wrap each other.- They overlap, they wrap around.- They overlap, and you\ndo them in all sortsof different ways and show\nthat you can constructfour dimensional universes\nwith a cosmological constantof your desire, depending upon\nhow you did the construction.- I know not everyone buys that, right?- Not everyone buys it.There's a big discussion in\nthe literature right now.- And if we put aside for the secondthe concerns of our colleagues\nin other parts of physics,and it's just amongst us chickens,what do you think about\nthe future of cosmologyand string theory, and the dynamicsof these extra dimensions?- I think it's gonna\nget way more interestingthan we're currently able\nto grapple with right now,and I think there are hints of it.There could be a\ndescription of the physicsthat might be our early universethat is like that molecular description.And then from that emerges flat spacetimesmaybe four, maybe some mechanism tells youit's four and not something else.I think that's where we're going.- If the viewers wanted to\nknow more about how spacetimecan emerge from quantum mechanics,they could read the graphic\nnovel you just wrote.- Right, yes.I wrote and drew a graphic\nnovel called \"The Dialogues:\"Conversations About\nthe Nature of Universe.\"- And I just wrote a bookcalled \"Something Deeply Hidden\"about many worlds, quantum mechanics,and how spacetime can emerge from it.Plenty of reading material\nfor the audience out there.- Excellent.[down-tempo electronic music]- So that was fun.I hope that everyone did learn something.I know that I did.It was very nice to see\nhow the idea of dimensionsand space resonates in different wayswith different people,\nall the way up to talkingto Clifford about the\nforefront of modern research.I really do think that we're not doneunderstanding how dimensions work.There are three dimensions\nof space, why that?Why not two?Why not 27?I think that we really\ndon't yet have the dataor ideas to think about this,\nbut we're creeping up on it.I'm optimistic about\nprogress in the near future.[atmospheric electronic music]- I'm a professor at the\nUniversity of Waterloo.- And I'm a sleep scientist at UCSF.- Today I've been challenged\nto explain lasers--- To explain the topic of sleepat five different levels."
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Physicist Explains Lasers in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
3eTogq7rknQ
| 1,477
|
[
{
"end_time": 1,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "<Untitled Chapter 1>"
},
{
"end_time": 555,
"start_time": 1,
"title": "Donna Strickland, PhD"
},
{
"end_time": 851,
"start_time": 555,
"title": "Caitlin Coulbourne College Student, Fordham University"
},
{
"end_time": 1477,
"start_time": 851,
"title": "Grad Student"
}
] |
[
{
"text": "- I'm Donna Strickland.",
"timestamp": [
0.51,
1.55
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Donna Strickland.",
"timestamp": [
0.51,
1.55
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a professor at the\nUniversity of Waterloo.",
"timestamp": [
1.55,
3.83
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a professor at the\nUniversity of Waterloo.",
"timestamp": [
1.55,
3.83
]
},
{
"text": "I study lasers and, in particular,",
"timestamp": [
3.83,
6.2
]
},
{
"text": "I study lasers and, in particular,",
"timestamp": [
3.83,
6.2
]
},
{
"text": "I like really high intensity lasers.",
"timestamp": [
6.2,
8.28
]
},
{
"text": "I like really high intensity lasers.",
"timestamp": [
6.2,
8.28
]
},
{
"text": "So a laser is a way to\nget light to actually just",
"timestamp": [
8.28,
11.61
]
},
{
"text": "So a laser is a way to\nget light to actually just",
"timestamp": [
8.28,
11.61
]
},
{
"text": "be a single color, going\nin a single direction",
"timestamp": [
11.61,
14.19
]
},
{
"text": "be a single color, going\nin a single direction",
"timestamp": [
11.61,
14.19
]
},
{
"text": "all of the waves peaking at the same time",
"timestamp": [
14.19,
16.68
]
},
{
"text": "all of the waves peaking at the same time",
"timestamp": [
14.19,
16.68
]
},
{
"text": "so that the intensity can get very high.",
"timestamp": [
16.68,
19.02
]
},
{
"text": "so that the intensity can get very high.",
"timestamp": [
16.68,
19.02
]
},
{
"text": "Today I've been challenged\nto explain lasers",
"timestamp": [
19.02,
21.96
]
},
{
"text": "Today I've been challenged\nto explain lasers",
"timestamp": [
19.02,
21.96
]
},
{
"text": "and high intensity lasers\nat five different levels.",
"timestamp": [
21.96,
24.44
]
},
{
"text": "and high intensity lasers\nat five different levels.",
"timestamp": [
21.96,
24.44
]
},
{
"text": "From a child, to a teenager,\nto a college student,",
"timestamp": [
24.44,
27.86
]
},
{
"text": "From a child, to a teenager,\nto a college student,",
"timestamp": [
24.44,
27.86
]
},
{
"text": "to a graduate student and\nfinally to a colleague of mine.",
"timestamp": [
27.86,
30.921
]
},
{
"text": "to a graduate student and\nfinally to a colleague of mine.",
"timestamp": [
27.86,
30.921
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
30.921,
33.504
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
30.921,
33.504
]
},
{
"text": "So I was told that maybe science is",
"timestamp": [
34.67,
36.76
]
},
{
"text": "So I was told that maybe science is",
"timestamp": [
34.67,
36.76
]
},
{
"text": "one of your favorite subjects at school.",
"timestamp": [
36.76,
38.68
]
},
{
"text": "one of your favorite subjects at school.",
"timestamp": [
36.76,
38.68
]
},
{
"text": "Is that right?",
"timestamp": [
38.68,
39.513
]
},
{
"text": "Is that right?",
"timestamp": [
38.68,
39.513
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
39.513,
40.346
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
39.513,
40.346
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you actually studied light yet?",
"timestamp": [
40.346,
42.63
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you actually studied light yet?",
"timestamp": [
40.346,
42.63
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
42.63,
43.463
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
42.63,
43.463
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay what have you\nlearned so far about light?",
"timestamp": [
43.463,
45.45
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay what have you\nlearned so far about light?",
"timestamp": [
43.463,
45.45
]
},
{
"text": "- So we learned how to\nactually light up a light bulb.",
"timestamp": [
45.45,
50.45
]
},
{
"text": "- So we learned how to\nactually light up a light bulb.",
"timestamp": [
45.45,
50.45
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh really?",
"timestamp": [
50.53,
51.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh really?",
"timestamp": [
50.53,
51.38
]
},
{
"text": "Oh excellent.",
"timestamp": [
51.38,
52.213
]
},
{
"text": "Oh excellent.",
"timestamp": [
51.38,
52.213
]
},
{
"text": "Well I'm somebody who studies lasers.",
"timestamp": [
52.213,
54.96
]
},
{
"text": "Well I'm somebody who studies lasers.",
"timestamp": [
52.213,
54.96
]
},
{
"text": "So what do you think about lasers?",
"timestamp": [
54.96,
57.369
]
},
{
"text": "So what do you think about lasers?",
"timestamp": [
54.96,
57.369
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't know--",
"timestamp": [
57.369,
58.44
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't know--",
"timestamp": [
57.369,
58.44
]
},
{
"text": "- You haven't got to play with lasers.",
"timestamp": [
58.44,
59.87
]
},
{
"text": "- You haven't got to play with lasers.",
"timestamp": [
58.44,
59.87
]
},
{
"text": "So I brought one.",
"timestamp": [
59.87,
60.92
]
},
{
"text": "So I brought one.",
"timestamp": [
59.87,
60.92
]
},
{
"text": "It's my friend's cat toy.",
"timestamp": [
60.92,
62.48
]
},
{
"text": "It's my friend's cat toy.",
"timestamp": [
60.92,
62.48
]
},
{
"text": "Do you ever use a laser as a cat toy?",
"timestamp": [
62.48,
64.19
]
},
{
"text": "Do you ever use a laser as a cat toy?",
"timestamp": [
62.48,
64.19
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
64.19,
65.34
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
64.19,
65.34
]
},
{
"text": "- Well one of the fun things\npeople do with lasers,",
"timestamp": [
65.34,
67.21
]
},
{
"text": "- Well one of the fun things\npeople do with lasers,",
"timestamp": [
65.34,
67.21
]
},
{
"text": "the cat will try to grab that dot.",
"timestamp": [
67.21,
69.09
]
},
{
"text": "the cat will try to grab that dot.",
"timestamp": [
67.21,
69.09
]
},
{
"text": "I'm sure what you have\nat home is a flashlight.",
"timestamp": [
69.09,
71.26
]
},
{
"text": "I'm sure what you have\nat home is a flashlight.",
"timestamp": [
69.09,
71.26
]
},
{
"text": "I brought a cute little one.",
"timestamp": [
71.26,
72.66
]
},
{
"text": "I brought a cute little one.",
"timestamp": [
71.26,
72.66
]
},
{
"text": "So the question is, do\nyou see any difference",
"timestamp": [
73.72,
75.9
]
},
{
"text": "So the question is, do\nyou see any difference",
"timestamp": [
73.72,
75.9
]
},
{
"text": "between what a flashlight\ndoes and what a laser does?",
"timestamp": [
75.9,
79.95
]
},
{
"text": "between what a flashlight\ndoes and what a laser does?",
"timestamp": [
75.9,
79.95
]
},
{
"text": "- Flashlight is a bigger shine\nand the laser is just a dot.",
"timestamp": [
79.95,
84.95
]
},
{
"text": "- Flashlight is a bigger shine\nand the laser is just a dot.",
"timestamp": [
79.95,
84.95
]
},
{
"text": "- That's true, that laser's just a dot.",
"timestamp": [
85.06,
86.81
]
},
{
"text": "- That's true, that laser's just a dot.",
"timestamp": [
85.06,
86.81
]
},
{
"text": "And so the other thing\nto notice though is that,",
"timestamp": [
86.81,
89
]
},
{
"text": "And so the other thing\nto notice though is that,",
"timestamp": [
86.81,
89
]
},
{
"text": "like if I shine it in your\neyes and I'm sorry if I do!",
"timestamp": [
89,
91.84
]
},
{
"text": "like if I shine it in your\neyes and I'm sorry if I do!",
"timestamp": [
89,
91.84
]
},
{
"text": "But it seems awfully bright doesn't it?",
"timestamp": [
91.84,
94.38
]
},
{
"text": "But it seems awfully bright doesn't it?",
"timestamp": [
91.84,
94.38
]
},
{
"text": "And yet when, you know,\nyou shine this down",
"timestamp": [
94.38,
96.48
]
},
{
"text": "And yet when, you know,\nyou shine this down",
"timestamp": [
94.38,
96.48
]
},
{
"text": "and you put the laser,\nwhich one do you see easier?",
"timestamp": [
96.48,
98.997
]
},
{
"text": "and you put the laser,\nwhich one do you see easier?",
"timestamp": [
96.48,
98.997
]
},
{
"text": "- [Harmoni] The laser.",
"timestamp": [
98.997,
100.008
]
},
{
"text": "- [Harmoni] The laser.",
"timestamp": [
98.997,
100.008
]
},
{
"text": "- The laser.",
"timestamp": [
100.008,
101.13
]
},
{
"text": "- The laser.",
"timestamp": [
100.008,
101.13
]
},
{
"text": "So which one do you think's more powerful?",
"timestamp": [
101.13,
103.64
]
},
{
"text": "So which one do you think's more powerful?",
"timestamp": [
101.13,
103.64
]
},
{
"text": "- The laser.",
"timestamp": [
103.64,
104.59
]
},
{
"text": "- The laser.",
"timestamp": [
103.64,
104.59
]
},
{
"text": "- [Donna] And yet it's not.",
"timestamp": [
104.59,
105.87
]
},
{
"text": "- [Donna] And yet it's not.",
"timestamp": [
104.59,
105.87
]
},
{
"text": "Isn't that amazing?",
"timestamp": [
105.87,
107.269
]
},
{
"text": "Isn't that amazing?",
"timestamp": [
105.87,
107.269
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
107.269,
108.102
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
107.269,
108.102
]
},
{
"text": "- One of the things that\nlasers are great for",
"timestamp": [
108.102,
110.24
]
},
{
"text": "- One of the things that\nlasers are great for",
"timestamp": [
108.102,
110.24
]
},
{
"text": "is that because it's a directed beam,",
"timestamp": [
110.24,
112.7
]
},
{
"text": "is that because it's a directed beam,",
"timestamp": [
110.24,
112.7
]
},
{
"text": "we can actually put that light\nwhere we want the light to go",
"timestamp": [
112.7,
116.17
]
},
{
"text": "we can actually put that light\nwhere we want the light to go",
"timestamp": [
112.7,
116.17
]
},
{
"text": "and sometimes you maybe just want to see",
"timestamp": [
116.17,
118.91
]
},
{
"text": "and sometimes you maybe just want to see",
"timestamp": [
116.17,
118.91
]
},
{
"text": "something around the corner\nand you can't see it.",
"timestamp": [
118.91,
121.83
]
},
{
"text": "something around the corner\nand you can't see it.",
"timestamp": [
118.91,
121.83
]
},
{
"text": "But with a laser, you can actually",
"timestamp": [
121.83,
124.14
]
},
{
"text": "But with a laser, you can actually",
"timestamp": [
121.83,
124.14
]
},
{
"text": "and this is a smoky one so\nyou can actually watch it go.",
"timestamp": [
124.14,
126.847
]
},
{
"text": "and this is a smoky one so\nyou can actually watch it go.",
"timestamp": [
124.14,
126.847
]
},
{
"text": "You see it actually bending the corner?",
"timestamp": [
126.847,
129.027
]
},
{
"text": "You see it actually bending the corner?",
"timestamp": [
126.847,
129.027
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
129.027,
129.86
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
129.027,
129.86
]
},
{
"text": "- And that's because the light\nwill go through this glass",
"timestamp": [
129.86,
131.773
]
},
{
"text": "- And that's because the light\nwill go through this glass",
"timestamp": [
129.86,
131.773
]
},
{
"text": "and, when it hits that\ncorner, it has to bend.",
"timestamp": [
131.773,
134.44
]
},
{
"text": "and, when it hits that\ncorner, it has to bend.",
"timestamp": [
131.773,
134.44
]
},
{
"text": "And we actually send laser\nbeams down glass fibers,",
"timestamp": [
134.44,
138.1
]
},
{
"text": "And we actually send laser\nbeams down glass fibers,",
"timestamp": [
134.44,
138.1
]
},
{
"text": "the size of your hair.",
"timestamp": [
138.1,
139.403
]
},
{
"text": "the size of your hair.",
"timestamp": [
138.1,
139.403
]
},
{
"text": "Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
140.28,
141.113
]
},
{
"text": "Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
140.28,
141.113
]
},
{
"text": "So this obviously is much\nbigger than our hair.",
"timestamp": [
141.113,
144.86
]
},
{
"text": "So this obviously is much\nbigger than our hair.",
"timestamp": [
141.113,
144.86
]
},
{
"text": "Right?\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
144.86,
145.76
]
},
{
"text": "Right?\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
144.86,
145.76
]
},
{
"text": "- So this is just a demonstration.",
"timestamp": [
145.76,
147.52
]
},
{
"text": "- So this is just a demonstration.",
"timestamp": [
145.76,
147.52
]
},
{
"text": "If you have a laser like this, it actually",
"timestamp": [
147.52,
149.62
]
},
{
"text": "If you have a laser like this, it actually",
"timestamp": [
147.52,
149.62
]
},
{
"text": "bends and comes out, I'm\ngonna point it to you",
"timestamp": [
149.62,
151.39
]
},
{
"text": "bends and comes out, I'm\ngonna point it to you",
"timestamp": [
149.62,
151.39
]
},
{
"text": "and you'll see it coming\nout the other end.",
"timestamp": [
151.39,
152.97
]
},
{
"text": "and you'll see it coming\nout the other end.",
"timestamp": [
151.39,
152.97
]
},
{
"text": "It hits these walls, it has to go around",
"timestamp": [
152.97,
155.77
]
},
{
"text": "It hits these walls, it has to go around",
"timestamp": [
152.97,
155.77
]
},
{
"text": "and come out the other side.",
"timestamp": [
155.77,
157.72
]
},
{
"text": "and come out the other side.",
"timestamp": [
155.77,
157.72
]
},
{
"text": "You wanna play?",
"timestamp": [
157.72,
159.21
]
},
{
"text": "You wanna play?",
"timestamp": [
157.72,
159.21
]
},
{
"text": "So is this the first\ntime you've seen a laser",
"timestamp": [
159.21,
160.5
]
},
{
"text": "So is this the first\ntime you've seen a laser",
"timestamp": [
159.21,
160.5
]
},
{
"text": "or have you gotten to play\nwith lasers somewhere else?",
"timestamp": [
160.5,
162.69
]
},
{
"text": "or have you gotten to play\nwith lasers somewhere else?",
"timestamp": [
160.5,
162.69
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't have a cat or--",
"timestamp": [
162.69,
164.767
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't have a cat or--",
"timestamp": [
162.69,
164.767
]
},
{
"text": "- You don't have a cat.",
"timestamp": [
164.767,
165.6
]
},
{
"text": "- You don't have a cat.",
"timestamp": [
164.767,
165.6
]
},
{
"text": "So you don't need a cat toy no.",
"timestamp": [
165.6,
167.29
]
},
{
"text": "So you don't need a cat toy no.",
"timestamp": [
165.6,
167.29
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever gone to a grocery store",
"timestamp": [
167.29,
169.2
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever gone to a grocery store",
"timestamp": [
167.29,
169.2
]
},
{
"text": "and just scanned your objects over?",
"timestamp": [
169.2,
171.99
]
},
{
"text": "and just scanned your objects over?",
"timestamp": [
169.2,
171.99
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
171.99,
172.823
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
171.99,
172.823
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you ever seen that maybe there's",
"timestamp": [
172.823,
173.656
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you ever seen that maybe there's",
"timestamp": [
172.823,
173.656
]
},
{
"text": "a little bit of a red\nlight when you do that?",
"timestamp": [
173.656,
175.713
]
},
{
"text": "a little bit of a red\nlight when you do that?",
"timestamp": [
173.656,
175.713
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
175.713,
176.546
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
175.713,
176.546
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a laser.",
"timestamp": [
176.546,
177.379
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a laser.",
"timestamp": [
176.546,
177.379
]
},
{
"text": "We cut steel with them now.",
"timestamp": [
177.379,
178.53
]
},
{
"text": "We cut steel with them now.",
"timestamp": [
177.379,
178.53
]
},
{
"text": "We actually do surgery with lasers.",
"timestamp": [
178.53,
180.32
]
},
{
"text": "We actually do surgery with lasers.",
"timestamp": [
178.53,
180.32
]
},
{
"text": "You know when some\npeople have either scars",
"timestamp": [
180.32,
182.38
]
},
{
"text": "You know when some\npeople have either scars",
"timestamp": [
180.32,
182.38
]
},
{
"text": "or birth marks that\nthey don't want to see?",
"timestamp": [
182.38,
184.58
]
},
{
"text": "or birth marks that\nthey don't want to see?",
"timestamp": [
182.38,
184.58
]
},
{
"text": "We can actually remove\nthose with lasers now.",
"timestamp": [
184.58,
187
]
},
{
"text": "We can actually remove\nthose with lasers now.",
"timestamp": [
184.58,
187
]
},
{
"text": "Never seen a laser light show?",
"timestamp": [
187,
188.54
]
},
{
"text": "Never seen a laser light show?",
"timestamp": [
187,
188.54
]
},
{
"text": "When they light up the sky with",
"timestamp": [
188.54,
190.03
]
},
{
"text": "When they light up the sky with",
"timestamp": [
188.54,
190.03
]
},
{
"text": "lasers, it's almost like fireworks.",
"timestamp": [
190.03,
192.151
]
},
{
"text": "lasers, it's almost like fireworks.",
"timestamp": [
190.03,
192.151
]
},
{
"text": "- Well I saw a shooting star before.",
"timestamp": [
192.151,
193.8
]
},
{
"text": "- Well I saw a shooting star before.",
"timestamp": [
192.151,
193.8
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh you got to see a shooting star?",
"timestamp": [
193.8,
195.41
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh you got to see a shooting star?",
"timestamp": [
193.8,
195.41
]
},
{
"text": "Well that's cool, that's nature\ngiving you the show there.",
"timestamp": [
195.41,
198.34
]
},
{
"text": "Well that's cool, that's nature\ngiving you the show there.",
"timestamp": [
195.41,
198.34
]
},
{
"text": "So what do you think about lasers?",
"timestamp": [
198.34,
199.82
]
},
{
"text": "So what do you think about lasers?",
"timestamp": [
198.34,
199.82
]
},
{
"text": "You think they're fun?",
"timestamp": [
199.82,
201.16
]
},
{
"text": "You think they're fun?",
"timestamp": [
199.82,
201.16
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes they're very cool.",
"timestamp": [
201.16,
202.863
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes they're very cool.",
"timestamp": [
201.16,
202.863
]
},
{
"text": "I like the one where\nyou did the green one.",
"timestamp": [
203.95,
206.1
]
},
{
"text": "I like the one where\nyou did the green one.",
"timestamp": [
203.95,
206.1
]
},
{
"text": "- The green one.",
"timestamp": [
207.674,
208.507
]
},
{
"text": "- The green one.",
"timestamp": [
207.674,
208.507
]
},
{
"text": "And the next time you go to a grocery",
"timestamp": [
208.507,
209.34
]
},
{
"text": "And the next time you go to a grocery",
"timestamp": [
208.507,
209.34
]
},
{
"text": "store, take a peek at the red.",
"timestamp": [
209.34,
211.115
]
},
{
"text": "store, take a peek at the red.",
"timestamp": [
209.34,
211.115
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
211.115,
212.616
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
211.115,
212.616
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
212.616,
215.199
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
212.616,
215.199
]
},
{
"text": "Today we're here to talk about lasers.",
"timestamp": [
216.85,
219.36
]
},
{
"text": "Today we're here to talk about lasers.",
"timestamp": [
216.85,
219.36
]
},
{
"text": "So what do you think about lasers?",
"timestamp": [
219.36,
221.56
]
},
{
"text": "So what do you think about lasers?",
"timestamp": [
219.36,
221.56
]
},
{
"text": "- I think they're pretty cool.",
"timestamp": [
221.56,
223.38
]
},
{
"text": "- I think they're pretty cool.",
"timestamp": [
221.56,
223.38
]
},
{
"text": "They show up in a lot of my\nfavorite books and movies.",
"timestamp": [
223.38,
226.7
]
},
{
"text": "They show up in a lot of my\nfavorite books and movies.",
"timestamp": [
223.38,
226.7
]
},
{
"text": "Like Star Wars or just a bunch of",
"timestamp": [
226.7,
228.42
]
},
{
"text": "Like Star Wars or just a bunch of",
"timestamp": [
226.7,
228.42
]
},
{
"text": "different sci-fi movies and books.",
"timestamp": [
228.42,
231.02
]
},
{
"text": "different sci-fi movies and books.",
"timestamp": [
228.42,
231.02
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you know anything about lasers?",
"timestamp": [
231.02,
232.92
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you know anything about lasers?",
"timestamp": [
231.02,
232.92
]
},
{
"text": "What makes a laser special kind of light.",
"timestamp": [
232.92,
235.34
]
},
{
"text": "What makes a laser special kind of light.",
"timestamp": [
232.92,
235.34
]
},
{
"text": "- All I really know is from\nsci-fi books and movies",
"timestamp": [
235.34,
238.05
]
},
{
"text": "- All I really know is from\nsci-fi books and movies",
"timestamp": [
235.34,
238.05
]
},
{
"text": "and like the factory cutting lasers",
"timestamp": [
238.05,
239.78
]
},
{
"text": "and like the factory cutting lasers",
"timestamp": [
238.05,
239.78
]
},
{
"text": "that they use to cut steel and stuff.",
"timestamp": [
239.78,
241.7
]
},
{
"text": "that they use to cut steel and stuff.",
"timestamp": [
239.78,
241.7
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you even know maybe\nhow to make a laser",
"timestamp": [
241.7,
244.94
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you even know maybe\nhow to make a laser",
"timestamp": [
241.7,
244.94
]
},
{
"text": "that it would be strong\nenough to cut steel?",
"timestamp": [
244.94,
247.87
]
},
{
"text": "that it would be strong\nenough to cut steel?",
"timestamp": [
244.94,
247.87
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
247.87,
248.703
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
247.87,
248.703
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
248.703,
250.17
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
248.703,
250.17
]
},
{
"text": "So one of the things about lasers is,",
"timestamp": [
250.17,
252.66
]
},
{
"text": "So one of the things about lasers is,",
"timestamp": [
250.17,
252.66
]
},
{
"text": "if you've ever seen a laser beam,",
"timestamp": [
252.66,
254.21
]
},
{
"text": "if you've ever seen a laser beam,",
"timestamp": [
252.66,
254.21
]
},
{
"text": "you know it's very directed.",
"timestamp": [
254.21,
255.47
]
},
{
"text": "you know it's very directed.",
"timestamp": [
254.21,
255.47
]
},
{
"text": "- Like what are they made out of?",
"timestamp": [
255.47,
256.99
]
},
{
"text": "- Like what are they made out of?",
"timestamp": [
255.47,
256.99
]
},
{
"text": "- What is a laser made out of?",
"timestamp": [
256.99,
258.64
]
},
{
"text": "- What is a laser made out of?",
"timestamp": [
256.99,
258.64
]
},
{
"text": "Well really it's sort of the\nsame thing as a light bulb.",
"timestamp": [
258.64,
261.3
]
},
{
"text": "Well really it's sort of the\nsame thing as a light bulb.",
"timestamp": [
258.64,
261.3
]
},
{
"text": "Right?",
"timestamp": [
261.3,
262.133
]
},
{
"text": "Right?",
"timestamp": [
261.3,
262.133
]
},
{
"text": "- So it's a beam?",
"timestamp": [
262.133,
263.06
]
},
{
"text": "- So it's a beam?",
"timestamp": [
262.133,
263.06
]
},
{
"text": "- So yeah it's a light bulb and\nthere's a couple of mirrors.",
"timestamp": [
263.06,
266.12
]
},
{
"text": "- So yeah it's a light bulb and\nthere's a couple of mirrors.",
"timestamp": [
263.06,
266.12
]
},
{
"text": "Now the light bulb has to\nbe a little bit special.",
"timestamp": [
266.12,
268.42
]
},
{
"text": "Now the light bulb has to\nbe a little bit special.",
"timestamp": [
266.12,
268.42
]
},
{
"text": "It has to be a type of material that can",
"timestamp": [
268.42,
270.64
]
},
{
"text": "It has to be a type of material that can",
"timestamp": [
268.42,
270.64
]
},
{
"text": "store the energy in an\nexcited state right?",
"timestamp": [
270.64,
273.86
]
},
{
"text": "store the energy in an\nexcited state right?",
"timestamp": [
270.64,
273.86
]
},
{
"text": "It has to stay up there really energetic",
"timestamp": [
273.86,
276.44
]
},
{
"text": "It has to stay up there really energetic",
"timestamp": [
273.86,
276.44
]
},
{
"text": "and sit there for a while so that",
"timestamp": [
276.44,
278.24
]
},
{
"text": "and sit there for a while so that",
"timestamp": [
276.44,
278.24
]
},
{
"text": "when the light comes along,",
"timestamp": [
278.24,
280.23
]
},
{
"text": "when the light comes along,",
"timestamp": [
278.24,
280.23
]
},
{
"text": "it takes that energy and\nbecomes stronger light",
"timestamp": [
280.23,
282.92
]
},
{
"text": "it takes that energy and\nbecomes stronger light",
"timestamp": [
280.23,
282.92
]
},
{
"text": "and then the mirror sends it back",
"timestamp": [
282.92,
284.28
]
},
{
"text": "and then the mirror sends it back",
"timestamp": [
282.92,
284.28
]
},
{
"text": "and it does it again and again and again",
"timestamp": [
284.28,
286.48
]
},
{
"text": "and it does it again and again and again",
"timestamp": [
284.28,
286.48
]
},
{
"text": "and between these two mirrors, it makes",
"timestamp": [
286.48,
288.45
]
},
{
"text": "and between these two mirrors, it makes",
"timestamp": [
286.48,
288.45
]
},
{
"text": "the light come out in a nice beam.",
"timestamp": [
288.45,
290.58
]
},
{
"text": "the light come out in a nice beam.",
"timestamp": [
288.45,
290.58
]
},
{
"text": "In a laser, it comes\nout as a single color.",
"timestamp": [
290.58,
293.89
]
},
{
"text": "In a laser, it comes\nout as a single color.",
"timestamp": [
290.58,
293.89
]
},
{
"text": "They all come out with their\nwaves at the same time.",
"timestamp": [
293.89,
296.23
]
},
{
"text": "They all come out with their\nwaves at the same time.",
"timestamp": [
293.89,
296.23
]
},
{
"text": "Every wave peaks at the same time",
"timestamp": [
296.23,
297.98
]
},
{
"text": "Every wave peaks at the same time",
"timestamp": [
296.23,
297.98
]
},
{
"text": "which then makes it a giant wave",
"timestamp": [
297.98,
299.75
]
},
{
"text": "which then makes it a giant wave",
"timestamp": [
297.98,
299.75
]
},
{
"text": "and it's this giant wave that",
"timestamp": [
299.75,
301.58
]
},
{
"text": "and it's this giant wave that",
"timestamp": [
299.75,
301.58
]
},
{
"text": "has a tremendous amount of power.",
"timestamp": [
301.58,
303.67
]
},
{
"text": "has a tremendous amount of power.",
"timestamp": [
301.58,
303.67
]
},
{
"text": "So it can do something like cutting steel.",
"timestamp": [
303.67,
306
]
},
{
"text": "So it can do something like cutting steel.",
"timestamp": [
303.67,
306
]
},
{
"text": "But when you cut steel, or if\nyou were cutting this floor,",
"timestamp": [
306,
309.27
]
},
{
"text": "But when you cut steel, or if\nyou were cutting this floor,",
"timestamp": [
306,
309.27
]
},
{
"text": "it's gray, it actually\nwill absorb the light.",
"timestamp": [
309.27,
311.6
]
},
{
"text": "it's gray, it actually\nwill absorb the light.",
"timestamp": [
309.27,
311.6
]
},
{
"text": "That's why the light, you\ndon't see it because the",
"timestamp": [
311.6,
313.67
]
},
{
"text": "That's why the light, you\ndon't see it because the",
"timestamp": [
311.6,
313.67
]
},
{
"text": "light isn't bouncing back or through it.",
"timestamp": [
313.67,
315.86
]
},
{
"text": "light isn't bouncing back or through it.",
"timestamp": [
313.67,
315.86
]
},
{
"text": "So I like to use demos to\nexplain how my laser works.",
"timestamp": [
315.86,
320.25
]
},
{
"text": "So I like to use demos to\nexplain how my laser works.",
"timestamp": [
315.86,
320.25
]
},
{
"text": "So I've brought basically\na hammer and a nail.",
"timestamp": [
320.25,
324.11
]
},
{
"text": "So I've brought basically\na hammer and a nail.",
"timestamp": [
320.25,
324.11
]
},
{
"text": "I'm sure you've probably hammered a nail",
"timestamp": [
324.11,
325.98
]
},
{
"text": "I'm sure you've probably hammered a nail",
"timestamp": [
324.11,
325.98
]
},
{
"text": "before into a piece of\nwood but the question is,",
"timestamp": [
325.98,
328.53
]
},
{
"text": "before into a piece of\nwood but the question is,",
"timestamp": [
325.98,
328.53
]
},
{
"text": "if you asked yourself why\nit is we hit the big end",
"timestamp": [
328.53,
331.72
]
},
{
"text": "if you asked yourself why\nit is we hit the big end",
"timestamp": [
328.53,
331.72
]
},
{
"text": "and it's the tiny end that\nwe put on the piece of wood.",
"timestamp": [
331.72,
334.38
]
},
{
"text": "and it's the tiny end that\nwe put on the piece of wood.",
"timestamp": [
331.72,
334.38
]
},
{
"text": "We could never pick up a\nhammer and hit the sharp end",
"timestamp": [
334.38,
337.063
]
},
{
"text": "We could never pick up a\nhammer and hit the sharp end",
"timestamp": [
334.38,
337.063
]
},
{
"text": "and hope this would go\nin to the piece of wood.",
"timestamp": [
337.93,
340.31
]
},
{
"text": "and hope this would go\nin to the piece of wood.",
"timestamp": [
337.93,
340.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Because it needs to be centered so",
"timestamp": [
340.31,
341.36
]
},
{
"text": "- Because it needs to be centered so",
"timestamp": [
340.31,
341.36
]
},
{
"text": "it can more easily just go in.",
"timestamp": [
341.36,
343.34
]
},
{
"text": "it can more easily just go in.",
"timestamp": [
341.36,
343.34
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
343.34,
344.43
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
343.34,
344.43
]
},
{
"text": "All the force that we apply\nhere, goes all the way through",
"timestamp": [
344.43,
348.01
]
},
{
"text": "All the force that we apply\nhere, goes all the way through",
"timestamp": [
344.43,
348.01
]
},
{
"text": "but then it can only basically come out",
"timestamp": [
348.01,
350.16
]
},
{
"text": "but then it can only basically come out",
"timestamp": [
348.01,
350.16
]
},
{
"text": "when it contacts the wood\nin that one tiny spot.",
"timestamp": [
350.16,
353.37
]
},
{
"text": "when it contacts the wood\nin that one tiny spot.",
"timestamp": [
350.16,
353.37
]
},
{
"text": "And so sometimes it's the force\nthat you push something with",
"timestamp": [
353.37,
356.5
]
},
{
"text": "And so sometimes it's the force\nthat you push something with",
"timestamp": [
353.37,
356.5
]
},
{
"text": "but sometimes it is that\nforce per unit area.",
"timestamp": [
356.5,
360.21
]
},
{
"text": "but sometimes it is that\nforce per unit area.",
"timestamp": [
356.5,
360.21
]
},
{
"text": "But sometimes it's not even\nthe force per unit area",
"timestamp": [
360.21,
363.47
]
},
{
"text": "But sometimes it's not even\nthe force per unit area",
"timestamp": [
360.21,
363.47
]
},
{
"text": "'cos, you know, push down\nas hard as you can on that",
"timestamp": [
363.47,
366.28
]
},
{
"text": "'cos, you know, push down\nas hard as you can on that",
"timestamp": [
363.47,
366.28
]
},
{
"text": "and see if we can get it pushed in.",
"timestamp": [
366.28,
367.64
]
},
{
"text": "and see if we can get it pushed in.",
"timestamp": [
366.28,
367.64
]
},
{
"text": "See it doesn't really work does it?",
"timestamp": [
367.64,
369.52
]
},
{
"text": "See it doesn't really work does it?",
"timestamp": [
367.64,
369.52
]
},
{
"text": "- So the laser needs\nultimately many things.",
"timestamp": [
369.52,
372.42
]
},
{
"text": "- So the laser needs\nultimately many things.",
"timestamp": [
369.52,
372.42
]
},
{
"text": "It needs to be centered,\nit needs time to actually",
"timestamp": [
372.42,
376.67
]
},
{
"text": "It needs to be centered,\nit needs time to actually",
"timestamp": [
372.42,
376.67
]
},
{
"text": "penetrate and then it needs--",
"timestamp": [
376.67,
378.85
]
},
{
"text": "penetrate and then it needs--",
"timestamp": [
376.67,
378.85
]
},
{
"text": "- Well it depends.",
"timestamp": [
378.85,
379.93
]
},
{
"text": "- Well it depends.",
"timestamp": [
378.85,
379.93
]
},
{
"text": "So if you're cutting steel,",
"timestamp": [
379.93,
381.64
]
},
{
"text": "So if you're cutting steel,",
"timestamp": [
379.93,
381.64
]
},
{
"text": "you need to have the nail.",
"timestamp": [
381.64,
383.15
]
},
{
"text": "you need to have the nail.",
"timestamp": [
381.64,
383.15
]
},
{
"text": "You need to have it\nconcentrated all of the light,",
"timestamp": [
383.15,
386.22
]
},
{
"text": "You need to have it\nconcentrated all of the light,",
"timestamp": [
383.15,
386.22
]
},
{
"text": "not going in all directions but you",
"timestamp": [
386.22,
387.61
]
},
{
"text": "not going in all directions but you",
"timestamp": [
386.22,
387.61
]
},
{
"text": "need it into as small a point as possible.",
"timestamp": [
387.61,
390.1
]
},
{
"text": "need it into as small a point as possible.",
"timestamp": [
387.61,
390.1
]
},
{
"text": "And for that we use a lens.",
"timestamp": [
390.1,
392.12
]
},
{
"text": "And for that we use a lens.",
"timestamp": [
390.1,
392.12
]
},
{
"text": "For a lens, the light's\ncoming down as a column,",
"timestamp": [
392.12,
394.68
]
},
{
"text": "For a lens, the light's\ncoming down as a column,",
"timestamp": [
392.12,
394.68
]
},
{
"text": "you put in a lens, it all\nfocuses it down in the same way",
"timestamp": [
394.68,
397.94
]
},
{
"text": "you put in a lens, it all\nfocuses it down in the same way",
"timestamp": [
394.68,
397.94
]
},
{
"text": "as the nail and then it\nstarts cutting that steel.",
"timestamp": [
397.94,
400.97
]
},
{
"text": "as the nail and then it\nstarts cutting that steel.",
"timestamp": [
397.94,
400.97
]
},
{
"text": "Okay so that force per unit area--",
"timestamp": [
400.97,
403.54
]
},
{
"text": "Okay so that force per unit area--",
"timestamp": [
400.97,
403.54
]
},
{
"text": "- So it's kind of like a magnifying glass?",
"timestamp": [
403.54,
405.39
]
},
{
"text": "- So it's kind of like a magnifying glass?",
"timestamp": [
403.54,
405.39
]
},
{
"text": "Like it magnifies the\nlight down to a point?",
"timestamp": [
405.39,
407.42
]
},
{
"text": "Like it magnifies the\nlight down to a point?",
"timestamp": [
405.39,
407.42
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
407.42,
408.253
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
407.42,
408.253
]
},
{
"text": "You know sometimes you want\nto have all of your energy",
"timestamp": [
408.253,
412.05
]
},
{
"text": "You know sometimes you want\nto have all of your energy",
"timestamp": [
408.253,
412.05
]
},
{
"text": "not just in a small area\nbut in the small volume",
"timestamp": [
412.05,
415.42
]
},
{
"text": "not just in a small area\nbut in the small volume",
"timestamp": [
412.05,
415.42
]
},
{
"text": "and so one of the other\ndimensions is time or length.",
"timestamp": [
415.42,
418.95
]
},
{
"text": "and so one of the other\ndimensions is time or length.",
"timestamp": [
415.42,
418.95
]
},
{
"text": "But with light, time and\nlength are the same thing",
"timestamp": [
418.95,
421.93
]
},
{
"text": "But with light, time and\nlength are the same thing",
"timestamp": [
418.95,
421.93
]
},
{
"text": "because light always travels\nat the speed of light.",
"timestamp": [
421.93,
424.81
]
},
{
"text": "because light always travels\nat the speed of light.",
"timestamp": [
421.93,
424.81
]
},
{
"text": "Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
424.81,
425.643
]
},
{
"text": "Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
424.81,
425.643
]
},
{
"text": "But if you send a one\nsecond long light pulse",
"timestamp": [
425.643,
428.26
]
},
{
"text": "But if you send a one\nsecond long light pulse",
"timestamp": [
425.643,
428.26
]
},
{
"text": "out into the skies there,\nthe beginning of the pulse",
"timestamp": [
428.26,
431.16
]
},
{
"text": "out into the skies there,\nthe beginning of the pulse",
"timestamp": [
428.26,
431.16
]
},
{
"text": "is actually two thirds\nof the way to the moon.",
"timestamp": [
431.16,
434.09
]
},
{
"text": "is actually two thirds\nof the way to the moon.",
"timestamp": [
431.16,
434.09
]
},
{
"text": "It's 300,000 kilometers long.",
"timestamp": [
434.09,
437.23
]
},
{
"text": "It's 300,000 kilometers long.",
"timestamp": [
434.09,
437.23
]
},
{
"text": "So now, if you talk about light being",
"timestamp": [
437.23,
439.06
]
},
{
"text": "So now, if you talk about light being",
"timestamp": [
437.23,
439.06
]
},
{
"text": "concentrated, that doesn't\nseem very concentrated.",
"timestamp": [
439.06,
442.05
]
},
{
"text": "concentrated, that doesn't\nseem very concentrated.",
"timestamp": [
439.06,
442.05
]
},
{
"text": "The type of lasers I play with in my lab",
"timestamp": [
442.05,
444.42
]
},
{
"text": "The type of lasers I play with in my lab",
"timestamp": [
442.05,
444.42
]
},
{
"text": "will be no thicker than\nthis piece of paper.",
"timestamp": [
444.42,
447.35
]
},
{
"text": "will be no thicker than\nthis piece of paper.",
"timestamp": [
444.42,
447.35
]
},
{
"text": "So we take that energy that might be",
"timestamp": [
447.35,
449.52
]
},
{
"text": "So we take that energy that might be",
"timestamp": [
447.35,
449.52
]
},
{
"text": "in three hundred thousand\nkilometers and we",
"timestamp": [
449.52,
452.02
]
},
{
"text": "in three hundred thousand\nkilometers and we",
"timestamp": [
449.52,
452.02
]
},
{
"text": "squeeze it all the way down into just this",
"timestamp": [
452.02,
456.04
]
},
{
"text": "squeeze it all the way down into just this",
"timestamp": [
452.02,
456.04
]
},
{
"text": "piece of paper and actually the beams",
"timestamp": [
456.04,
457.65
]
},
{
"text": "piece of paper and actually the beams",
"timestamp": [
456.04,
457.65
]
},
{
"text": "are more the size of this piece of paper",
"timestamp": [
457.65,
460.2
]
},
{
"text": "are more the size of this piece of paper",
"timestamp": [
457.65,
460.2
]
},
{
"text": "and so, in my lab,\npieces of paper like this",
"timestamp": [
460.2,
463.41
]
},
{
"text": "and so, in my lab,\npieces of paper like this",
"timestamp": [
460.2,
463.41
]
},
{
"text": "would be flying through the\nsky but we can't see them.",
"timestamp": [
463.41,
466.28
]
},
{
"text": "would be flying through the\nsky but we can't see them.",
"timestamp": [
463.41,
466.28
]
},
{
"text": "'Cos they don't come in\nour eyes, they fly by us",
"timestamp": [
466.28,
468.89
]
},
{
"text": "'Cos they don't come in\nour eyes, they fly by us",
"timestamp": [
466.28,
468.89
]
},
{
"text": "and they're infra red.",
"timestamp": [
468.89,
469.8
]
},
{
"text": "and they're infra red.",
"timestamp": [
468.89,
469.8
]
},
{
"text": "- There'd be like little\nconcentrated beams of light",
"timestamp": [
469.8,
472.479
]
},
{
"text": "- There'd be like little\nconcentrated beams of light",
"timestamp": [
469.8,
472.479
]
},
{
"text": "just flying everywhere?\n- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
472.479,
473.312
]
},
{
"text": "just flying everywhere?\n- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
472.479,
473.312
]
},
{
"text": "And so now, if we have light like",
"timestamp": [
473.312,
474.88
]
},
{
"text": "And so now, if we have light like",
"timestamp": [
473.312,
474.88
]
},
{
"text": "that that we wanna machine with.",
"timestamp": [
474.88,
476.36
]
},
{
"text": "that that we wanna machine with.",
"timestamp": [
474.88,
476.36
]
},
{
"text": "I bring this funnel and\nso, if we had a lens here",
"timestamp": [
476.36,
478.85
]
},
{
"text": "I bring this funnel and\nso, if we had a lens here",
"timestamp": [
476.36,
478.85
]
},
{
"text": "and the light was coming down--",
"timestamp": [
478.85,
480.25
]
},
{
"text": "and the light was coming down--",
"timestamp": [
478.85,
480.25
]
},
{
"text": "- It funnels into--",
"timestamp": [
480.25,
481.41
]
},
{
"text": "- It funnels into--",
"timestamp": [
480.25,
481.41
]
},
{
"text": "- Into a spot.",
"timestamp": [
481.41,
482.243
]
},
{
"text": "- Into a spot.",
"timestamp": [
481.41,
482.243
]
},
{
"text": "So here would be my light\ncoming from my laser",
"timestamp": [
482.243,
484.673
]
},
{
"text": "So here would be my light\ncoming from my laser",
"timestamp": [
482.243,
484.673
]
},
{
"text": "and it would just be coming\ndown, down, down, down, down.",
"timestamp": [
484.673,
486.28
]
},
{
"text": "and it would just be coming\ndown, down, down, down, down.",
"timestamp": [
484.673,
486.28
]
},
{
"text": "Hit a lens and it would\nhave to focus down.",
"timestamp": [
486.28,
489.08
]
},
{
"text": "Hit a lens and it would\nhave to focus down.",
"timestamp": [
486.28,
489.08
]
},
{
"text": "But now, all the light started\nout with this big of a spread",
"timestamp": [
489.08,
492.56
]
},
{
"text": "But now, all the light started\nout with this big of a spread",
"timestamp": [
489.08,
492.56
]
},
{
"text": "so concentrated this much.",
"timestamp": [
492.56,
494.09
]
},
{
"text": "so concentrated this much.",
"timestamp": [
492.56,
494.09
]
},
{
"text": "Eventually it would be\nhere, more concentrated.",
"timestamp": [
494.09,
497.81
]
},
{
"text": "Eventually it would be\nhere, more concentrated.",
"timestamp": [
494.09,
497.81
]
},
{
"text": "But by the end, right at the focal spot,",
"timestamp": [
497.81,
500.18
]
},
{
"text": "But by the end, right at the focal spot,",
"timestamp": [
497.81,
500.18
]
},
{
"text": "that's when I get all of my\nlight, all of the energy has",
"timestamp": [
500.18,
503.35
]
},
{
"text": "that's when I get all of my\nlight, all of the energy has",
"timestamp": [
500.18,
503.35
]
},
{
"text": "been squeezed down into fitting\ninside this piece of paper",
"timestamp": [
503.35,
507.96
]
},
{
"text": "been squeezed down into fitting\ninside this piece of paper",
"timestamp": [
503.35,
507.96
]
},
{
"text": "and that's why I say that\nI built a laser hammer.",
"timestamp": [
507.96,
510.81
]
},
{
"text": "and that's why I say that\nI built a laser hammer.",
"timestamp": [
507.96,
510.81
]
},
{
"text": "Because when this hits a piece of glass,",
"timestamp": [
510.81,
513.97
]
},
{
"text": "Because when this hits a piece of glass,",
"timestamp": [
510.81,
513.97
]
},
{
"text": "it just smacks hose\nelectrons right off the atoms",
"timestamp": [
513.97,
517.08
]
},
{
"text": "it just smacks hose\nelectrons right off the atoms",
"timestamp": [
513.97,
517.08
]
},
{
"text": "and there's nothing else for them",
"timestamp": [
517.08,
518.11
]
},
{
"text": "and there's nothing else for them",
"timestamp": [
517.08,
518.11
]
},
{
"text": "to do, they have to fly away.",
"timestamp": [
518.11,
519.86
]
},
{
"text": "to do, they have to fly away.",
"timestamp": [
518.11,
519.86
]
},
{
"text": "So can you tell me what you learned",
"timestamp": [
519.86,
521.84
]
},
{
"text": "So can you tell me what you learned",
"timestamp": [
519.86,
521.84
]
},
{
"text": "and maybe about the focusing of the light?",
"timestamp": [
521.84,
523.56
]
},
{
"text": "and maybe about the focusing of the light?",
"timestamp": [
521.84,
523.56
]
},
{
"text": "- Well what I learned, lasers\nthey aren't like particles.",
"timestamp": [
523.56,
526.7
]
},
{
"text": "- Well what I learned, lasers\nthey aren't like particles.",
"timestamp": [
523.56,
526.7
]
},
{
"text": "They're more like a super\nconcentrated beam of light",
"timestamp": [
526.7,
530.29
]
},
{
"text": "They're more like a super\nconcentrated beam of light",
"timestamp": [
526.7,
530.29
]
},
{
"text": "that can be any color.",
"timestamp": [
530.29,
531.8
]
},
{
"text": "that can be any color.",
"timestamp": [
530.29,
531.8
]
},
{
"text": "They get really concentrated\nand that's what makes them",
"timestamp": [
531.8,
535.18
]
},
{
"text": "They get really concentrated\nand that's what makes them",
"timestamp": [
531.8,
535.18
]
},
{
"text": "lasers and that's why they\ncut things and break things",
"timestamp": [
535.18,
537.6
]
},
{
"text": "lasers and that's why they\ncut things and break things",
"timestamp": [
535.18,
537.6
]
},
{
"text": "because they just move the\nelectrons out of the way.",
"timestamp": [
537.6,
539.94
]
},
{
"text": "because they just move the\nelectrons out of the way.",
"timestamp": [
537.6,
539.94
]
},
{
"text": "- So do you think that\nlasers are fun enough",
"timestamp": [
539.94,
541.57
]
},
{
"text": "- So do you think that\nlasers are fun enough",
"timestamp": [
539.94,
541.57
]
},
{
"text": "to talk with your friends about or?",
"timestamp": [
541.57,
543.15
]
},
{
"text": "to talk with your friends about or?",
"timestamp": [
541.57,
543.15
]
},
{
"text": "- Of course I'm gonna have to share",
"timestamp": [
543.15,
544.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Of course I'm gonna have to share",
"timestamp": [
543.15,
544.31
]
},
{
"text": "something about my experience.",
"timestamp": [
544.31,
546.44
]
},
{
"text": "something about my experience.",
"timestamp": [
544.31,
546.44
]
},
{
"text": "Learning about lasers\nwith an expert like you.",
"timestamp": [
546.44,
549.33
]
},
{
"text": "Learning about lasers\nwith an expert like you.",
"timestamp": [
546.44,
549.33
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
549.33,
551.913
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
549.33,
551.913
]
},
{
"text": "- [Donna] So you're a college student?",
"timestamp": [
552.82,
554.33
]
},
{
"text": "- [Donna] So you're a college student?",
"timestamp": [
552.82,
554.33
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
554.33,
555.163
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
554.33,
555.163
]
},
{
"text": "- [Donna] And what's your major?",
"timestamp": [
555.163,
556.45
]
},
{
"text": "- [Donna] And what's your major?",
"timestamp": [
555.163,
556.45
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm an engineering physics\nmajor with a minor in math.",
"timestamp": [
556.45,
559.36
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm an engineering physics\nmajor with a minor in math.",
"timestamp": [
556.45,
559.36
]
},
{
"text": "I'm in the three, two program\nfor biomedical engineering.",
"timestamp": [
559.36,
562.15
]
},
{
"text": "I'm in the three, two program\nfor biomedical engineering.",
"timestamp": [
559.36,
562.15
]
},
{
"text": "- Excellent.",
"timestamp": [
562.15,
562.983
]
},
{
"text": "- Excellent.",
"timestamp": [
562.15,
562.983
]
},
{
"text": "I got an engineering physics degree.",
"timestamp": [
562.983,
565.2
]
},
{
"text": "I got an engineering physics degree.",
"timestamp": [
562.983,
565.2
]
},
{
"text": "There you go, something in common.",
"timestamp": [
565.2,
566.82
]
},
{
"text": "There you go, something in common.",
"timestamp": [
565.2,
566.82
]
},
{
"text": "We're here today talking about lasers.",
"timestamp": [
566.82,
568.99
]
},
{
"text": "We're here today talking about lasers.",
"timestamp": [
566.82,
568.99
]
},
{
"text": "So have you have had much\nexposure to lasers yet at school?",
"timestamp": [
568.99,
571.88
]
},
{
"text": "So have you have had much\nexposure to lasers yet at school?",
"timestamp": [
568.99,
571.88
]
},
{
"text": "- Not yet.",
"timestamp": [
571.88,
573.573
]
},
{
"text": "- Not yet.",
"timestamp": [
571.88,
573.573
]
},
{
"text": "I'm really hoping that we will.",
"timestamp": [
573.573,
575.9
]
},
{
"text": "I'm really hoping that we will.",
"timestamp": [
573.573,
575.9
]
},
{
"text": "I think it's super\ninteresting just the field",
"timestamp": [
575.9,
578.3
]
},
{
"text": "I think it's super\ninteresting just the field",
"timestamp": [
575.9,
578.3
]
},
{
"text": "in general because I\nreally do enjoy examining",
"timestamp": [
578.3,
581.63
]
},
{
"text": "in general because I\nreally do enjoy examining",
"timestamp": [
578.3,
581.63
]
},
{
"text": "all the calculations and being able to do",
"timestamp": [
581.63,
584.48
]
},
{
"text": "all the calculations and being able to do",
"timestamp": [
581.63,
584.48
]
},
{
"text": "a little bit more of the\nmath side of physics.",
"timestamp": [
584.48,
586.31
]
},
{
"text": "a little bit more of the\nmath side of physics.",
"timestamp": [
584.48,
586.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
586.31,
587.2
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
586.31,
587.2
]
},
{
"text": "As opposed to the experimental\nside and seeing things?",
"timestamp": [
587.2,
589.57
]
},
{
"text": "As opposed to the experimental\nside and seeing things?",
"timestamp": [
587.2,
589.57
]
},
{
"text": "Okay so I'm much more, I like\nto see the things happening.",
"timestamp": [
589.57,
592.4
]
},
{
"text": "Okay so I'm much more, I like\nto see the things happening.",
"timestamp": [
589.57,
592.4
]
},
{
"text": "So then the question is, what's so special",
"timestamp": [
592.4,
594.95
]
},
{
"text": "So then the question is, what's so special",
"timestamp": [
592.4,
594.95
]
},
{
"text": "about making a light that's intense enough",
"timestamp": [
594.95,
597.9
]
},
{
"text": "about making a light that's intense enough",
"timestamp": [
594.95,
597.9
]
},
{
"text": "to actually possibly blow things up?",
"timestamp": [
597.9,
600.28
]
},
{
"text": "to actually possibly blow things up?",
"timestamp": [
597.9,
600.28
]
},
{
"text": "Certainly we can blow atoms\nup with the laser hammer",
"timestamp": [
600.28,
602.85
]
},
{
"text": "Certainly we can blow atoms\nup with the laser hammer",
"timestamp": [
600.28,
602.85
]
},
{
"text": "and when the laser light comes in",
"timestamp": [
602.85,
604.43
]
},
{
"text": "and when the laser light comes in",
"timestamp": [
602.85,
604.43
]
},
{
"text": "and just smacks the\nelectrons right off the atom.",
"timestamp": [
604.43,
606.61
]
},
{
"text": "and just smacks the\nelectrons right off the atom.",
"timestamp": [
604.43,
606.61
]
},
{
"text": "And so the question really\nis how do you make that?",
"timestamp": [
606.61,
608.77
]
},
{
"text": "And so the question really\nis how do you make that?",
"timestamp": [
606.61,
608.77
]
},
{
"text": "Back in the 70s and into\nthe 80s, I know that was",
"timestamp": [
608.77,
611.43
]
},
{
"text": "Back in the 70s and into\nthe 80s, I know that was",
"timestamp": [
608.77,
611.43
]
},
{
"text": "a long time ago for you,\nwe had big energy lasers",
"timestamp": [
611.43,
614.75
]
},
{
"text": "a long time ago for you,\nwe had big energy lasers",
"timestamp": [
611.43,
614.75
]
},
{
"text": "and we had short pulse lasers, we",
"timestamp": [
614.75,
617.05
]
},
{
"text": "and we had short pulse lasers, we",
"timestamp": [
614.75,
617.05
]
},
{
"text": "couldn't have big energy,\nshort pulse lasers",
"timestamp": [
617.05,
620.27
]
},
{
"text": "couldn't have big energy,\nshort pulse lasers",
"timestamp": [
617.05,
620.27
]
},
{
"text": "and actually it was my supervisor and I",
"timestamp": [
620.27,
622.36
]
},
{
"text": "and actually it was my supervisor and I",
"timestamp": [
620.27,
622.36
]
},
{
"text": "that figured the way\naround that and we got",
"timestamp": [
622.36,
626.03
]
},
{
"text": "that figured the way\naround that and we got",
"timestamp": [
622.36,
626.03
]
},
{
"text": "something called chirped\npulse amplification.",
"timestamp": [
626.03,
628.53
]
},
{
"text": "something called chirped\npulse amplification.",
"timestamp": [
626.03,
628.53
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard of chirped pulse\namplification by any chance?",
"timestamp": [
628.53,
631.24
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard of chirped pulse\namplification by any chance?",
"timestamp": [
628.53,
631.24
]
},
{
"text": "- Vaguely.",
"timestamp": [
631.24,
632.073
]
},
{
"text": "- Vaguely.",
"timestamp": [
631.24,
632.073
]
},
{
"text": "- Well I brought a little bit of a prop",
"timestamp": [
632.073,
633.45
]
},
{
"text": "- Well I brought a little bit of a prop",
"timestamp": [
632.073,
633.45
]
},
{
"text": "to explain how chirped\npulse amplification works.",
"timestamp": [
633.45,
636.6
]
},
{
"text": "to explain how chirped\npulse amplification works.",
"timestamp": [
633.45,
636.6
]
},
{
"text": "Our short pulses are\nmade of different colors.",
"timestamp": [
636.6,
639.1
]
},
{
"text": "Our short pulses are\nmade of different colors.",
"timestamp": [
636.6,
639.1
]
},
{
"text": "So I've got a colored slinky here.",
"timestamp": [
639.1,
640.98
]
},
{
"text": "So I've got a colored slinky here.",
"timestamp": [
639.1,
640.98
]
},
{
"text": "We probably could've called it\nstretched pulse amplification",
"timestamp": [
640.98,
643.58
]
},
{
"text": "We probably could've called it\nstretched pulse amplification",
"timestamp": [
640.98,
643.58
]
},
{
"text": "but that's kind of boring\nso we used the word chirped.",
"timestamp": [
643.58,
646.24
]
},
{
"text": "but that's kind of boring\nso we used the word chirped.",
"timestamp": [
643.58,
646.24
]
},
{
"text": "The word chirped comes\naround because birds chirp.",
"timestamp": [
646.24,
649.99
]
},
{
"text": "The word chirped comes\naround because birds chirp.",
"timestamp": [
646.24,
649.99
]
},
{
"text": "When the birds are singing,\nthe notes are actually",
"timestamp": [
649.99,
652.58
]
},
{
"text": "When the birds are singing,\nthe notes are actually",
"timestamp": [
649.99,
652.58
]
},
{
"text": "changing audio frequency\nwith time and that's a chirp.",
"timestamp": [
652.58,
656.45
]
},
{
"text": "changing audio frequency\nwith time and that's a chirp.",
"timestamp": [
652.58,
656.45
]
},
{
"text": "The point is is that when all the light is",
"timestamp": [
656.45,
658.56
]
},
{
"text": "The point is is that when all the light is",
"timestamp": [
656.45,
658.56
]
},
{
"text": "squeezed together like\nthis, it's a short pulse.",
"timestamp": [
658.56,
661.36
]
},
{
"text": "squeezed together like\nthis, it's a short pulse.",
"timestamp": [
658.56,
661.36
]
},
{
"text": "And that's when it's a hammer because all",
"timestamp": [
661.36,
662.91
]
},
{
"text": "And that's when it's a hammer because all",
"timestamp": [
661.36,
662.91
]
},
{
"text": "of the light is now concentrated\nand you can imagine if this",
"timestamp": [
662.91,
665.49
]
},
{
"text": "of the light is now concentrated\nand you can imagine if this",
"timestamp": [
662.91,
665.49
]
},
{
"text": "was coming along and also\nusing a lens to focus it small,",
"timestamp": [
665.49,
669.48
]
},
{
"text": "was coming along and also\nusing a lens to focus it small,",
"timestamp": [
665.49,
669.48
]
},
{
"text": "then all of that light at\nthe focal spot, concentrate.",
"timestamp": [
669.48,
672.44
]
},
{
"text": "then all of that light at\nthe focal spot, concentrate.",
"timestamp": [
669.48,
672.44
]
},
{
"text": "And so that was the laser hammer.",
"timestamp": [
672.44,
674.09
]
},
{
"text": "And so that was the laser hammer.",
"timestamp": [
672.44,
674.09
]
},
{
"text": "So we can't have that in the laser.",
"timestamp": [
674.09,
676.61
]
},
{
"text": "So we can't have that in the laser.",
"timestamp": [
674.09,
676.61
]
},
{
"text": "So the question is what could we do?",
"timestamp": [
676.61,
678.27
]
},
{
"text": "So the question is what could we do?",
"timestamp": [
676.61,
678.27
]
},
{
"text": "The fact that it's different colors",
"timestamp": [
678.27,
679.99
]
},
{
"text": "The fact that it's different colors",
"timestamp": [
678.27,
679.99
]
},
{
"text": "and different colors\nbecause of dispersion,",
"timestamp": [
679.99,
682.29
]
},
{
"text": "and different colors\nbecause of dispersion,",
"timestamp": [
679.99,
682.29
]
},
{
"text": "travel different speeds inside material.",
"timestamp": [
682.29,
685.52
]
},
{
"text": "travel different speeds inside material.",
"timestamp": [
682.29,
685.52
]
},
{
"text": "So we used a long fiber,\n1.4 kilometers of fiber",
"timestamp": [
685.52,
688.94
]
},
{
"text": "So we used a long fiber,\n1.4 kilometers of fiber",
"timestamp": [
685.52,
688.94
]
},
{
"text": "but, in fiber, the red\ncolors really haven't got",
"timestamp": [
688.94,
693
]
},
{
"text": "but, in fiber, the red\ncolors really haven't got",
"timestamp": [
688.94,
693
]
},
{
"text": "that much in common with\nthe glass atoms and so they",
"timestamp": [
693,
695.41
]
},
{
"text": "that much in common with\nthe glass atoms and so they",
"timestamp": [
693,
695.41
]
},
{
"text": "spend very little time\ninteracting and they travel fast.",
"timestamp": [
695.41,
698.87
]
},
{
"text": "spend very little time\ninteracting and they travel fast.",
"timestamp": [
695.41,
698.87
]
},
{
"text": "The red is going to start\ntraveling faster than the green,",
"timestamp": [
698.87,
702.12
]
},
{
"text": "The red is going to start\ntraveling faster than the green,",
"timestamp": [
698.87,
702.12
]
},
{
"text": "faster than the blue and, as\nyou travel down the fiber,",
"timestamp": [
702.12,
705.49
]
},
{
"text": "faster than the blue and, as\nyou travel down the fiber,",
"timestamp": [
702.12,
705.49
]
},
{
"text": "next thing you know, you have a long pulse",
"timestamp": [
705.49,
708.49
]
},
{
"text": "next thing you know, you have a long pulse",
"timestamp": [
705.49,
708.49
]
},
{
"text": "and it's chirped from red at the",
"timestamp": [
708.49,
710.18
]
},
{
"text": "and it's chirped from red at the",
"timestamp": [
708.49,
710.18
]
},
{
"text": "beginning to blue at the back.",
"timestamp": [
710.18,
711.93
]
},
{
"text": "beginning to blue at the back.",
"timestamp": [
710.18,
711.93
]
},
{
"text": "And so the frequencies go hoo!",
"timestamp": [
711.93,
713.43
]
},
{
"text": "And so the frequencies go hoo!",
"timestamp": [
711.93,
713.43
]
},
{
"text": "Like this okay?",
"timestamp": [
713.43,
714.68
]
},
{
"text": "Like this okay?",
"timestamp": [
713.43,
714.68
]
},
{
"text": "So this is a chirped pulse\nand now it's a long pulse.",
"timestamp": [
714.68,
718.68
]
},
{
"text": "So this is a chirped pulse\nand now it's a long pulse.",
"timestamp": [
714.68,
718.68
]
},
{
"text": "And so, first this is what\nwe did, we chirped it,",
"timestamp": [
718.68,
721.49
]
},
{
"text": "And so, first this is what\nwe did, we chirped it,",
"timestamp": [
718.68,
721.49
]
},
{
"text": "we stretched it, then\nwe can safely amplify it",
"timestamp": [
721.49,
724.34
]
},
{
"text": "we stretched it, then\nwe can safely amplify it",
"timestamp": [
721.49,
724.34
]
},
{
"text": "because it's not all concentrated",
"timestamp": [
724.34,
726.32
]
},
{
"text": "because it's not all concentrated",
"timestamp": [
724.34,
726.32
]
},
{
"text": "and, after we amplify it,\nthen we use something called",
"timestamp": [
726.32,
729.07
]
},
{
"text": "and, after we amplify it,\nthen we use something called",
"timestamp": [
726.32,
729.07
]
},
{
"text": "a compressor and we put all\nof the colors back together",
"timestamp": [
729.07,
731.99
]
},
{
"text": "a compressor and we put all\nof the colors back together",
"timestamp": [
729.07,
731.99
]
},
{
"text": "and it was back being a short\npulse but a high energy pulse.",
"timestamp": [
731.99,
735.31
]
},
{
"text": "and it was back being a short\npulse but a high energy pulse.",
"timestamp": [
731.99,
735.31
]
},
{
"text": "And then we really had what I\nlike to call a laser hammer.",
"timestamp": [
735.31,
739.02
]
},
{
"text": "And then we really had what I\nlike to call a laser hammer.",
"timestamp": [
735.31,
739.02
]
},
{
"text": "When this laser pulse goes inside,",
"timestamp": [
739.02,
741.31
]
},
{
"text": "When this laser pulse goes inside,",
"timestamp": [
739.02,
741.31
]
},
{
"text": "it smacks those electrons\nright off the atom.",
"timestamp": [
741.31,
743.68
]
},
{
"text": "it smacks those electrons\nright off the atom.",
"timestamp": [
741.31,
743.68
]
},
{
"text": "- So the laser hammer that\nyou were describing with",
"timestamp": [
743.68,
745.85
]
},
{
"text": "- So the laser hammer that\nyou were describing with",
"timestamp": [
743.68,
745.85
]
},
{
"text": "other types of lasers and the one in",
"timestamp": [
745.85,
748.36
]
},
{
"text": "other types of lasers and the one in",
"timestamp": [
745.85,
748.36
]
},
{
"text": "the chirped is it still the same premise?",
"timestamp": [
748.36,
750.38
]
},
{
"text": "the chirped is it still the same premise?",
"timestamp": [
748.36,
750.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Well a lot of lasers and when lasers",
"timestamp": [
750.38,
752.27
]
},
{
"text": "- Well a lot of lasers and when lasers",
"timestamp": [
750.38,
752.27
]
},
{
"text": "first came along, they\nwere only single color.",
"timestamp": [
752.27,
754.38
]
},
{
"text": "first came along, they\nwere only single color.",
"timestamp": [
752.27,
754.38
]
},
{
"text": "Your cat toy, would\nonly be a single color,",
"timestamp": [
754.38,
756.09
]
},
{
"text": "Your cat toy, would\nonly be a single color,",
"timestamp": [
754.38,
756.09
]
},
{
"text": "probably a red one and\nso that's just one color.",
"timestamp": [
756.09,
758.52
]
},
{
"text": "probably a red one and\nso that's just one color.",
"timestamp": [
756.09,
758.52
]
},
{
"text": "And one color means that it has to",
"timestamp": [
758.52,
760.63
]
},
{
"text": "And one color means that it has to",
"timestamp": [
758.52,
760.63
]
},
{
"text": "really be there for the whole time.",
"timestamp": [
760.63,
762.74
]
},
{
"text": "really be there for the whole time.",
"timestamp": [
760.63,
762.74
]
},
{
"text": "One color is one wave length of light",
"timestamp": [
762.74,
765.33
]
},
{
"text": "One color is one wave length of light",
"timestamp": [
762.74,
765.33
]
},
{
"text": "and so it's just one wave\nthat goes on and on and on.",
"timestamp": [
765.33,
768.29
]
},
{
"text": "and so it's just one wave\nthat goes on and on and on.",
"timestamp": [
765.33,
768.29
]
},
{
"text": "If you want a short pulse, you",
"timestamp": [
768.29,
770.25
]
},
{
"text": "If you want a short pulse, you",
"timestamp": [
768.29,
770.25
]
},
{
"text": "actually have to have all the colors.",
"timestamp": [
770.25,
772.3
]
},
{
"text": "actually have to have all the colors.",
"timestamp": [
770.25,
772.3
]
},
{
"text": "And if you can imagine\nthat one point in time,",
"timestamp": [
772.3,
774.41
]
},
{
"text": "And if you can imagine\nthat one point in time,",
"timestamp": [
772.3,
774.41
]
},
{
"text": "and I like to say it's like\na conductor of an orchestra.",
"timestamp": [
774.41,
777.32
]
},
{
"text": "and I like to say it's like\na conductor of an orchestra.",
"timestamp": [
774.41,
777.32
]
},
{
"text": "When you're listening to\nan orchestra warm up, they",
"timestamp": [
777.32,
779.76
]
},
{
"text": "When you're listening to\nan orchestra warm up, they",
"timestamp": [
777.32,
779.76
]
},
{
"text": "sound terrible, they're all\nplaying their own notes.",
"timestamp": [
779.76,
781.95
]
},
{
"text": "sound terrible, they're all\nplaying their own notes.",
"timestamp": [
779.76,
781.95
]
},
{
"text": "But when the conductor\nconducts them, they all play",
"timestamp": [
781.95,
784.07
]
},
{
"text": "But when the conductor\nconducts them, they all play",
"timestamp": [
781.95,
784.07
]
},
{
"text": "different notes but, together,\nit's beautiful music.",
"timestamp": [
784.07,
786.96
]
},
{
"text": "different notes but, together,\nit's beautiful music.",
"timestamp": [
784.07,
786.96
]
},
{
"text": "So we have something in the\nlaser called a mode locker",
"timestamp": [
786.96,
790.1
]
},
{
"text": "So we have something in the\nlaser called a mode locker",
"timestamp": [
786.96,
790.1
]
},
{
"text": "and it's like the conductor\nand it says go now.",
"timestamp": [
790.1,
793.03
]
},
{
"text": "and it's like the conductor\nand it says go now.",
"timestamp": [
790.1,
793.03
]
},
{
"text": "And all the colors will start together but",
"timestamp": [
793.03,
795.69
]
},
{
"text": "And all the colors will start together but",
"timestamp": [
793.03,
795.69
]
},
{
"text": "some colors are long wave\nlength and others are shorter.",
"timestamp": [
795.69,
798.95
]
},
{
"text": "some colors are long wave\nlength and others are shorter.",
"timestamp": [
795.69,
798.95
]
},
{
"text": "So next thing you know, you have peaks",
"timestamp": [
798.95,
800.5
]
},
{
"text": "So next thing you know, you have peaks",
"timestamp": [
798.95,
800.5
]
},
{
"text": "meeting valleys and\nthey cancel each other.",
"timestamp": [
800.5,
803.39
]
},
{
"text": "meeting valleys and\nthey cancel each other.",
"timestamp": [
800.5,
803.39
]
},
{
"text": "And the more colors you\ncan bring in, the faster",
"timestamp": [
803.39,
805.43
]
},
{
"text": "And the more colors you\ncan bring in, the faster",
"timestamp": [
803.39,
805.43
]
},
{
"text": "that happens and the shorter\nthe pulse you can make.",
"timestamp": [
805.43,
807.437
]
},
{
"text": "that happens and the shorter\nthe pulse you can make.",
"timestamp": [
805.43,
807.437
]
},
{
"text": "- What's the pendant?",
"timestamp": [
807.437,
808.44
]
},
{
"text": "- What's the pendant?",
"timestamp": [
807.437,
808.44
]
},
{
"text": "- The necklace is something that",
"timestamp": [
808.44,
810.38
]
},
{
"text": "- The necklace is something that",
"timestamp": [
808.44,
810.38
]
},
{
"text": "was designed for my Nobel prize.",
"timestamp": [
810.38,
813.2
]
},
{
"text": "was designed for my Nobel prize.",
"timestamp": [
810.38,
813.2
]
},
{
"text": "It's sold at the Nobel museum\nand it is a chirped pulse.",
"timestamp": [
813.2,
817.4
]
},
{
"text": "It's sold at the Nobel museum\nand it is a chirped pulse.",
"timestamp": [
813.2,
817.4
]
},
{
"text": "So we've been talking a lot\nabout lasers and applications,",
"timestamp": [
817.4,
819.88
]
},
{
"text": "So we've been talking a lot\nabout lasers and applications,",
"timestamp": [
817.4,
819.88
]
},
{
"text": "what have you learned\nabout chirped pulses?",
"timestamp": [
819.88,
822.01
]
},
{
"text": "what have you learned\nabout chirped pulses?",
"timestamp": [
819.88,
822.01
]
},
{
"text": "- I learned that it all\nstretches, which is super cool,",
"timestamp": [
822.01,
827.01
]
},
{
"text": "- I learned that it all\nstretches, which is super cool,",
"timestamp": [
822.01,
827.01
]
},
{
"text": "because red moves the fastest",
"timestamp": [
827.43,
830.02
]
},
{
"text": "because red moves the fastest",
"timestamp": [
827.43,
830.02
]
},
{
"text": "and so it kinda tugs around blue.",
"timestamp": [
830.02,
833.87
]
},
{
"text": "and so it kinda tugs around blue.",
"timestamp": [
830.02,
833.87
]
},
{
"text": "It really threw me off just how fast.",
"timestamp": [
833.87,
836.85
]
},
{
"text": "It really threw me off just how fast.",
"timestamp": [
833.87,
836.85
]
},
{
"text": "It's hard to imagine\nthings happening that fast.",
"timestamp": [
836.85,
839.31
]
},
{
"text": "It's hard to imagine\nthings happening that fast.",
"timestamp": [
836.85,
839.31
]
},
{
"text": "And I also learned how many of the things",
"timestamp": [
839.31,
840.9
]
},
{
"text": "And I also learned how many of the things",
"timestamp": [
839.31,
840.9
]
},
{
"text": "that I know are lasers.",
"timestamp": [
840.9,
842.163
]
},
{
"text": "that I know are lasers.",
"timestamp": [
840.9,
842.163
]
},
{
"text": "Like how many of the things\nthat I've been looking for,",
"timestamp": [
843.06,
846.37
]
},
{
"text": "Like how many of the things\nthat I've been looking for,",
"timestamp": [
843.06,
846.37
]
},
{
"text": "like, the answers to, it is in lasers.",
"timestamp": [
846.37,
849.673
]
},
{
"text": "like, the answers to, it is in lasers.",
"timestamp": [
846.37,
849.673
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
849.673,
852.84
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
849.673,
852.84
]
},
{
"text": "- [Donna] So I understand\nyou're in grad school.",
"timestamp": [
852.84,
854.29
]
},
{
"text": "- [Donna] So I understand\nyou're in grad school.",
"timestamp": [
852.84,
854.29
]
},
{
"text": "Where?",
"timestamp": [
854.29,
855.2
]
},
{
"text": "Where?",
"timestamp": [
854.29,
855.2
]
},
{
"text": "- At NYU.",
"timestamp": [
855.2,
856.409
]
},
{
"text": "- At NYU.",
"timestamp": [
855.2,
856.409
]
},
{
"text": "- And what are you studying?",
"timestamp": [
856.409,
857.242
]
},
{
"text": "- And what are you studying?",
"timestamp": [
856.409,
857.242
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm studying soft matter physics,",
"timestamp": [
857.242,
858.74
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm studying soft matter physics,",
"timestamp": [
857.242,
858.74
]
},
{
"text": "which involves the\nphysics of squishy stuff.",
"timestamp": [
858.74,
862.18
]
},
{
"text": "which involves the\nphysics of squishy stuff.",
"timestamp": [
858.74,
862.18
]
},
{
"text": "We make microswimmers in the laboratory",
"timestamp": [
862.18,
864.39
]
},
{
"text": "We make microswimmers in the laboratory",
"timestamp": [
862.18,
864.39
]
},
{
"text": "and we drive them with a laser.",
"timestamp": [
864.39,
866.28
]
},
{
"text": "and we drive them with a laser.",
"timestamp": [
864.39,
866.28
]
},
{
"text": "- And what kind of laser do you use?",
"timestamp": [
866.28,
868.03
]
},
{
"text": "- And what kind of laser do you use?",
"timestamp": [
866.28,
868.03
]
},
{
"text": "- We use a 10 watt laser,\nit's a fiber laser.",
"timestamp": [
868.03,
871.22
]
},
{
"text": "- We use a 10 watt laser,\nit's a fiber laser.",
"timestamp": [
868.03,
871.22
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you know a lot about lasers?",
"timestamp": [
871.22,
872.41
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you know a lot about lasers?",
"timestamp": [
871.22,
872.41
]
},
{
"text": "Or just about the laser that you use.",
"timestamp": [
872.41,
873.93
]
},
{
"text": "Or just about the laser that you use.",
"timestamp": [
872.41,
873.93
]
},
{
"text": "- Not a lot, just a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
873.93,
875.57
]
},
{
"text": "- Not a lot, just a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
873.93,
875.57
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
875.57,
876.403
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
875.57,
876.403
]
},
{
"text": "So this is about high intensity lasers.",
"timestamp": [
876.403,
878.66
]
},
{
"text": "So this is about high intensity lasers.",
"timestamp": [
876.403,
878.66
]
},
{
"text": "Not only how do you make them,",
"timestamp": [
878.66,
879.99
]
},
{
"text": "Not only how do you make them,",
"timestamp": [
878.66,
879.99
]
},
{
"text": "but what was really\nstopping them being made",
"timestamp": [
879.99,
882.58
]
},
{
"text": "but what was really\nstopping them being made",
"timestamp": [
879.99,
882.58
]
},
{
"text": "in both cases is non linear optics.",
"timestamp": [
882.58,
884.98
]
},
{
"text": "in both cases is non linear optics.",
"timestamp": [
882.58,
884.98
]
},
{
"text": "We wanna do something that requires",
"timestamp": [
884.98,
887.96
]
},
{
"text": "We wanna do something that requires",
"timestamp": [
884.98,
887.96
]
},
{
"text": "a huge photon density application,",
"timestamp": [
887.96,
890.71
]
},
{
"text": "a huge photon density application,",
"timestamp": [
887.96,
890.71
]
},
{
"text": "and so that's how come we came up with",
"timestamp": [
890.71,
892.05
]
},
{
"text": "and so that's how come we came up with",
"timestamp": [
890.71,
892.05
]
},
{
"text": "chirped pulse amplification,",
"timestamp": [
892.05,
893.47
]
},
{
"text": "chirped pulse amplification,",
"timestamp": [
892.05,
893.47
]
},
{
"text": "so that we could stretch the pulse,",
"timestamp": [
893.47,
895.54
]
},
{
"text": "so that we could stretch the pulse,",
"timestamp": [
893.47,
895.54
]
},
{
"text": "safely amplify it, then\ncompress it at the end,",
"timestamp": [
895.54,
898.85
]
},
{
"text": "safely amplify it, then\ncompress it at the end,",
"timestamp": [
895.54,
898.85
]
},
{
"text": "and then we're ready to do\nwhatever we want at the end.",
"timestamp": [
898.85,
901.89
]
},
{
"text": "and then we're ready to do\nwhatever we want at the end.",
"timestamp": [
898.85,
901.89
]
},
{
"text": "So what do you think\nthe main difference is",
"timestamp": [
901.89,
903.58
]
},
{
"text": "So what do you think\nthe main difference is",
"timestamp": [
901.89,
903.58
]
},
{
"text": "between the continuous\nwave laser that you have",
"timestamp": [
903.58,
906.28
]
},
{
"text": "between the continuous\nwave laser that you have",
"timestamp": [
903.58,
906.28
]
},
{
"text": "that runs at 10 watts and\na chirped pulse amplifier?",
"timestamp": [
906.28,
910.043
]
},
{
"text": "that runs at 10 watts and\na chirped pulse amplifier?",
"timestamp": [
906.28,
910.043
]
},
{
"text": "- I feel like the continuous laser",
"timestamp": [
910.92,
913.44
]
},
{
"text": "- I feel like the continuous laser",
"timestamp": [
910.92,
913.44
]
},
{
"text": "delivers power at a continuous rate,",
"timestamp": [
913.44,
915.53
]
},
{
"text": "delivers power at a continuous rate,",
"timestamp": [
913.44,
915.53
]
},
{
"text": "whereas you want all that\npower to be delivered",
"timestamp": [
915.53,
917.94
]
},
{
"text": "whereas you want all that\npower to be delivered",
"timestamp": [
915.53,
917.94
]
},
{
"text": "in a really, really short\ntime with your amplification.",
"timestamp": [
917.94,
921.48
]
},
{
"text": "in a really, really short\ntime with your amplification.",
"timestamp": [
917.94,
921.48
]
},
{
"text": "- And so we get the power\nwith a lot less energy",
"timestamp": [
921.48,
923.53
]
},
{
"text": "- And so we get the power\nwith a lot less energy",
"timestamp": [
921.48,
923.53
]
},
{
"text": "'cause its power is energy per unit time.",
"timestamp": [
923.53,
925.73
]
},
{
"text": "'cause its power is energy per unit time.",
"timestamp": [
923.53,
925.73
]
},
{
"text": "So we aren't depositing\nmuch energy in comparison.",
"timestamp": [
925.73,
929.04
]
},
{
"text": "So we aren't depositing\nmuch energy in comparison.",
"timestamp": [
925.73,
929.04
]
},
{
"text": "Can I just ask, 'cause you are using",
"timestamp": [
929.04,
931.88
]
},
{
"text": "Can I just ask, 'cause you are using",
"timestamp": [
929.04,
931.88
]
},
{
"text": "the thermal process of it heating up,",
"timestamp": [
931.88,
933.53
]
},
{
"text": "the thermal process of it heating up,",
"timestamp": [
931.88,
933.53
]
},
{
"text": "but have you ever had the opportunity",
"timestamp": [
933.53,
935.61
]
},
{
"text": "but have you ever had the opportunity",
"timestamp": [
933.53,
935.61
]
},
{
"text": "to use laser tweezers?",
"timestamp": [
935.61,
937.75
]
},
{
"text": "to use laser tweezers?",
"timestamp": [
935.61,
937.75
]
},
{
"text": "- I have, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
937.75,
938.79
]
},
{
"text": "- I have, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
937.75,
938.79
]
},
{
"text": "We use optical tweezers to\ntrap particles in solution.",
"timestamp": [
938.79,
942.12
]
},
{
"text": "We use optical tweezers to\ntrap particles in solution.",
"timestamp": [
938.79,
942.12
]
},
{
"text": "- And twirl the motors\nor not twirl the motors?",
"timestamp": [
942.12,
944.92
]
},
{
"text": "- And twirl the motors\nor not twirl the motors?",
"timestamp": [
942.12,
944.92
]
},
{
"text": "- No, I haven't worked with that.",
"timestamp": [
944.92,
946.128
]
},
{
"text": "- No, I haven't worked with that.",
"timestamp": [
944.92,
946.128
]
},
{
"text": "- You haven't?",
"timestamp": [
946.128,
946.961
]
},
{
"text": "- You haven't?",
"timestamp": [
946.128,
946.961
]
},
{
"text": "Okay.",
"timestamp": [
946.961,
947.794
]
},
{
"text": "Okay.",
"timestamp": [
946.961,
947.794
]
},
{
"text": "- So I was always\ncurious, how much further,",
"timestamp": [
947.794,
949.4
]
},
{
"text": "- So I was always\ncurious, how much further,",
"timestamp": [
947.794,
949.4
]
},
{
"text": "like what higher power can we go now?",
"timestamp": [
949.4,
951.18
]
},
{
"text": "like what higher power can we go now?",
"timestamp": [
949.4,
951.18
]
},
{
"text": "- So chirped pulse amplification\ntook us sort of from,",
"timestamp": [
951.18,
954.3
]
},
{
"text": "- So chirped pulse amplification\ntook us sort of from,",
"timestamp": [
951.18,
954.3
]
},
{
"text": "we were at 10 to the 12,\nbut when I was working",
"timestamp": [
954.3,
956.81
]
},
{
"text": "we were at 10 to the 12,\nbut when I was working",
"timestamp": [
954.3,
956.81
]
},
{
"text": "the 10 to the 12 sort of sat\non a football sized field.",
"timestamp": [
956.81,
959.18
]
},
{
"text": "the 10 to the 12 sort of sat\non a football sized field.",
"timestamp": [
956.81,
959.18
]
},
{
"text": "It was a kilojoule laser\nwith a nanosecond pulse.",
"timestamp": [
959.18,
962.65
]
},
{
"text": "It was a kilojoule laser\nwith a nanosecond pulse.",
"timestamp": [
959.18,
962.65
]
},
{
"text": "And we brought it down\nto something we call",
"timestamp": [
962.65,
964.21
]
},
{
"text": "And we brought it down\nto something we call",
"timestamp": [
962.65,
964.21
]
},
{
"text": "tabletop terawatt.",
"timestamp": [
964.21,
965.76
]
},
{
"text": "tabletop terawatt.",
"timestamp": [
964.21,
965.76
]
},
{
"text": "So it was the same terawatt\nbut now it was one joule",
"timestamp": [
965.76,
967.88
]
},
{
"text": "So it was the same terawatt\nbut now it was one joule",
"timestamp": [
965.76,
967.88
]
},
{
"text": "and one picosecond, so it could\nfit on a basic optical bench",
"timestamp": [
967.88,
970.72
]
},
{
"text": "and one picosecond, so it could\nfit on a basic optical bench",
"timestamp": [
967.88,
970.72
]
},
{
"text": "like you would have in your lab.",
"timestamp": [
970.72,
972.16
]
},
{
"text": "like you would have in your lab.",
"timestamp": [
970.72,
972.16
]
},
{
"text": "We were able to take that up to,",
"timestamp": [
972.16,
975.28
]
},
{
"text": "We were able to take that up to,",
"timestamp": [
972.16,
975.28
]
},
{
"text": "I think the record is right around",
"timestamp": [
975.28,
976.56
]
},
{
"text": "I think the record is right around",
"timestamp": [
975.28,
976.56
]
},
{
"text": "somewhere between 10 to the 22",
"timestamp": [
976.56,
977.397
]
},
{
"text": "somewhere between 10 to the 22",
"timestamp": [
976.56,
977.397
]
},
{
"text": "and 10 to the 23 watts\nper square centimeter.",
"timestamp": [
977.397,
981.11
]
},
{
"text": "and 10 to the 23 watts\nper square centimeter.",
"timestamp": [
977.397,
981.11
]
},
{
"text": "So then in going forward,\none of the holy grails",
"timestamp": [
981.11,
984.17
]
},
{
"text": "So then in going forward,\none of the holy grails",
"timestamp": [
981.11,
984.17
]
},
{
"text": "is can we reach 10 to the 29\nwatts per square centimeter?",
"timestamp": [
984.17,
987.83
]
},
{
"text": "is can we reach 10 to the 29\nwatts per square centimeter?",
"timestamp": [
984.17,
987.83
]
},
{
"text": "So we still have six orders.",
"timestamp": [
987.83,
989.09
]
},
{
"text": "So we still have six orders.",
"timestamp": [
987.83,
989.09
]
},
{
"text": "So we've gone from 10 to\nthe 12 to 10 to the 23.",
"timestamp": [
989.09,
992.34
]
},
{
"text": "So we've gone from 10 to\nthe 12 to 10 to the 23.",
"timestamp": [
989.09,
992.34
]
},
{
"text": "So we've done 11 orders,",
"timestamp": [
992.34,
994.96
]
},
{
"text": "So we've done 11 orders,",
"timestamp": [
992.34,
994.96
]
},
{
"text": "so you think six isn't so much harder.",
"timestamp": [
994.96,
997.1
]
},
{
"text": "so you think six isn't so much harder.",
"timestamp": [
994.96,
997.1
]
},
{
"text": "I have to tell you, over\ntime, it's rolling over.",
"timestamp": [
997.1,
999.87
]
},
{
"text": "I have to tell you, over\ntime, it's rolling over.",
"timestamp": [
997.1,
999.87
]
},
{
"text": "We need another Nobel Prize winning idea.",
"timestamp": [
999.87,
1002.46
]
},
{
"text": "We need another Nobel Prize winning idea.",
"timestamp": [
999.87,
1002.46
]
},
{
"text": "But if we get out there, that's where,",
"timestamp": [
1002.46,
1005.03
]
},
{
"text": "But if we get out there, that's where,",
"timestamp": [
1002.46,
1005.03
]
},
{
"text": "if you focus the intensity,",
"timestamp": [
1005.03,
1006.83
]
},
{
"text": "if you focus the intensity,",
"timestamp": [
1005.03,
1006.83
]
},
{
"text": "the energy in that volume is\nenough to break the vacuum.",
"timestamp": [
1006.83,
1010.58
]
},
{
"text": "the energy in that volume is\nenough to break the vacuum.",
"timestamp": [
1006.83,
1010.58
]
},
{
"text": "- We could probably use this\nto drive chemical reactions",
"timestamp": [
1010.58,
1013.28
]
},
{
"text": "- We could probably use this\nto drive chemical reactions",
"timestamp": [
1010.58,
1013.28
]
},
{
"text": "at a very, very specific spot.",
"timestamp": [
1013.28,
1015.24
]
},
{
"text": "at a very, very specific spot.",
"timestamp": [
1013.28,
1015.24
]
},
{
"text": "Like if we want to target just\na single cell in the body.",
"timestamp": [
1015.24,
1019.44
]
},
{
"text": "Like if we want to target just\na single cell in the body.",
"timestamp": [
1015.24,
1019.44
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
1019.44,
1020.502
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
1019.44,
1020.502
]
},
{
"text": "And maybe what, do pump-probe spectroscopy",
"timestamp": [
1020.502,
1023.25
]
},
{
"text": "And maybe what, do pump-probe spectroscopy",
"timestamp": [
1020.502,
1023.25
]
},
{
"text": "and watch the cell?",
"timestamp": [
1023.25,
1024.32
]
},
{
"text": "and watch the cell?",
"timestamp": [
1023.25,
1024.32
]
},
{
"text": "Or to ionize it?",
"timestamp": [
1024.32,
1025.4
]
},
{
"text": "Or to ionize it?",
"timestamp": [
1024.32,
1025.4
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean I was thinking more\non the lines of if we want to,",
"timestamp": [
1025.4,
1028.47
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean I was thinking more\non the lines of if we want to,",
"timestamp": [
1025.4,
1028.47
]
},
{
"text": "let's say destroy one cell,",
"timestamp": [
1028.47,
1029.7
]
},
{
"text": "let's say destroy one cell,",
"timestamp": [
1028.47,
1029.7
]
},
{
"text": "like a tumor cell or something like that.",
"timestamp": [
1029.7,
1031.61
]
},
{
"text": "like a tumor cell or something like that.",
"timestamp": [
1029.7,
1031.61
]
},
{
"text": "So that the neighboring\nareas are not affected",
"timestamp": [
1031.61,
1034.13
]
},
{
"text": "So that the neighboring\nareas are not affected",
"timestamp": [
1031.61,
1034.13
]
},
{
"text": "but just the cell burns.",
"timestamp": [
1034.13,
1036.4
]
},
{
"text": "but just the cell burns.",
"timestamp": [
1034.13,
1036.4
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't know if people\nare working on that",
"timestamp": [
1036.4,
1037.353
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't know if people\nare working on that",
"timestamp": [
1036.4,
1037.353
]
},
{
"text": "because I'm not so much\nin the medical field,",
"timestamp": [
1037.353,
1039.58
]
},
{
"text": "because I'm not so much\nin the medical field,",
"timestamp": [
1037.353,
1039.58
]
},
{
"text": "but I should look into that and\nsee if that's a possibility.",
"timestamp": [
1039.58,
1042.13
]
},
{
"text": "but I should look into that and\nsee if that's a possibility.",
"timestamp": [
1039.58,
1042.13
]
},
{
"text": "So after hearing about\nhigh intensity lasers,",
"timestamp": [
1042.13,
1045.19
]
},
{
"text": "So after hearing about\nhigh intensity lasers,",
"timestamp": [
1042.13,
1045.19
]
},
{
"text": "can you think about next\ntime you go back to the lab",
"timestamp": [
1045.19,
1047.59
]
},
{
"text": "can you think about next\ntime you go back to the lab",
"timestamp": [
1045.19,
1047.59
]
},
{
"text": "and you're wondering how\nto do something in the lab",
"timestamp": [
1047.59,
1049.93
]
},
{
"text": "and you're wondering how\nto do something in the lab",
"timestamp": [
1047.59,
1049.93
]
},
{
"text": "with lasers, can you see how\nshort pulses might help you?",
"timestamp": [
1049.93,
1053.3
]
},
{
"text": "with lasers, can you see how\nshort pulses might help you?",
"timestamp": [
1049.93,
1053.3
]
},
{
"text": "- I think short pulses\nmight help in my experiment",
"timestamp": [
1053.3,
1055.64
]
},
{
"text": "- I think short pulses\nmight help in my experiment",
"timestamp": [
1053.3,
1055.64
]
},
{
"text": "in the sense that if I drive my swimmers",
"timestamp": [
1055.64,
1058.06
]
},
{
"text": "in the sense that if I drive my swimmers",
"timestamp": [
1055.64,
1058.06
]
},
{
"text": "with a continuous wave as\nopposed to a pulsed wave,",
"timestamp": [
1058.06,
1061.4
]
},
{
"text": "with a continuous wave as\nopposed to a pulsed wave,",
"timestamp": [
1058.06,
1061.4
]
},
{
"text": "maybe a continuous wave would\nheat up the sample too much",
"timestamp": [
1061.4,
1065.16
]
},
{
"text": "maybe a continuous wave would\nheat up the sample too much",
"timestamp": [
1061.4,
1065.16
]
},
{
"text": "and a pulse laser would deliver power",
"timestamp": [
1065.16,
1068.77
]
},
{
"text": "and a pulse laser would deliver power",
"timestamp": [
1065.16,
1068.77
]
},
{
"text": "exactly where I need it so that I could",
"timestamp": [
1068.77,
1070.88
]
},
{
"text": "exactly where I need it so that I could",
"timestamp": [
1068.77,
1070.88
]
},
{
"text": "run my experiment longer.",
"timestamp": [
1070.88,
1072.69
]
},
{
"text": "run my experiment longer.",
"timestamp": [
1070.88,
1072.69
]
},
{
"text": "- That's true.",
"timestamp": [
1072.69,
1074.017
]
},
{
"text": "- That's true.",
"timestamp": [
1072.69,
1074.017
]
},
{
"text": "Thank you very much.",
"timestamp": [
1074.017,
1074.914
]
},
{
"text": "Thank you very much.",
"timestamp": [
1074.017,
1074.914
]
},
{
"text": "- Thank you, Donna.",
"timestamp": [
1074.914,
1076.1
]
},
{
"text": "- Thank you, Donna.",
"timestamp": [
1074.914,
1076.1
]
},
{
"text": "It was really nice to meet you.",
"timestamp": [
1076.1,
1077.233
]
},
{
"text": "It was really nice to meet you.",
"timestamp": [
1076.1,
1077.233
]
},
{
"text": "- Hello Donna, good to see you.",
"timestamp": [
1080.22,
1081.936
]
},
{
"text": "- Hello Donna, good to see you.",
"timestamp": [
1080.22,
1081.936
]
},
{
"text": "- Good to see you Mike, nice\nto have you here with me.",
"timestamp": [
1081.936,
1084.12
]
},
{
"text": "- Good to see you Mike, nice\nto have you here with me.",
"timestamp": [
1081.936,
1084.12
]
},
{
"text": "So we go way back.",
"timestamp": [
1084.12,
1085.51
]
},
{
"text": "So we go way back.",
"timestamp": [
1084.12,
1085.51
]
},
{
"text": "1991, the year I got married,",
"timestamp": [
1085.51,
1088.26
]
},
{
"text": "1991, the year I got married,",
"timestamp": [
1085.51,
1088.26
]
},
{
"text": "I moved across the country,\nleft my husband in New Jersey,",
"timestamp": [
1088.26,
1091.22
]
},
{
"text": "I moved across the country,\nleft my husband in New Jersey,",
"timestamp": [
1088.26,
1091.22
]
},
{
"text": "to work with you in Livermore.",
"timestamp": [
1091.22,
1092.7
]
},
{
"text": "to work with you in Livermore.",
"timestamp": [
1091.22,
1092.7
]
},
{
"text": "- I remember very much and how hard it was",
"timestamp": [
1092.7,
1095.25
]
},
{
"text": "- I remember very much and how hard it was",
"timestamp": [
1092.7,
1095.25
]
},
{
"text": "to convince you to\ntravel across the country",
"timestamp": [
1095.25,
1097.34
]
},
{
"text": "to convince you to\ntravel across the country",
"timestamp": [
1095.25,
1097.34
]
},
{
"text": "and work at the lab.",
"timestamp": [
1097.34,
1098.35
]
},
{
"text": "and work at the lab.",
"timestamp": [
1097.34,
1098.35
]
},
{
"text": "- And stay there.",
"timestamp": [
1098.35,
1099.183
]
},
{
"text": "- And stay there.",
"timestamp": [
1098.35,
1099.183
]
},
{
"text": "- And stay there.",
"timestamp": [
1099.183,
1100.428
]
},
{
"text": "- And stay there.",
"timestamp": [
1099.183,
1100.428
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
1100.428,
1101.375
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
1100.428,
1101.375
]
},
{
"text": "I couldn't convince you to stay.",
"timestamp": [
1101.375,
1102.208
]
},
{
"text": "I couldn't convince you to stay.",
"timestamp": [
1101.375,
1102.208
]
},
{
"text": "- You could not convince me to stay, no.",
"timestamp": [
1102.208,
1103.35
]
},
{
"text": "- You could not convince me to stay, no.",
"timestamp": [
1102.208,
1103.35
]
},
{
"text": "- But you were there long\nenough to make a big impression",
"timestamp": [
1103.35,
1105.34
]
},
{
"text": "- But you were there long\nenough to make a big impression",
"timestamp": [
1103.35,
1105.34
]
},
{
"text": "and get some good work done.",
"timestamp": [
1105.34,
1106.47
]
},
{
"text": "and get some good work done.",
"timestamp": [
1105.34,
1106.47
]
},
{
"text": "- And I've been talking sort of,",
"timestamp": [
1106.47,
1108.1
]
},
{
"text": "- And I've been talking sort of,",
"timestamp": [
1106.47,
1108.1
]
},
{
"text": "started with sort of what is a laser",
"timestamp": [
1108.1,
1109.97
]
},
{
"text": "started with sort of what is a laser",
"timestamp": [
1108.1,
1109.97
]
},
{
"text": "through linear optics, non linear optics,",
"timestamp": [
1109.97,
1112.08
]
},
{
"text": "through linear optics, non linear optics,",
"timestamp": [
1109.97,
1112.08
]
},
{
"text": "high intensity laser physics,\nand saying that you know,",
"timestamp": [
1112.08,
1114.98
]
},
{
"text": "high intensity laser physics,\nand saying that you know,",
"timestamp": [
1112.08,
1114.98
]
},
{
"text": "we're trying to get to\nthat Schwinger limit",
"timestamp": [
1114.98,
1116.63
]
},
{
"text": "we're trying to get to\nthat Schwinger limit",
"timestamp": [
1114.98,
1116.63
]
},
{
"text": "of 10 to the 29 watts\nper square centimeter.",
"timestamp": [
1116.63,
1119.77
]
},
{
"text": "of 10 to the 29 watts\nper square centimeter.",
"timestamp": [
1116.63,
1119.77
]
},
{
"text": "We're about somewhere\njust shy of 10 to the 23",
"timestamp": [
1119.77,
1122.15
]
},
{
"text": "We're about somewhere\njust shy of 10 to the 23",
"timestamp": [
1119.77,
1122.15
]
},
{
"text": "I think at this point.",
"timestamp": [
1122.15,
1123.38
]
},
{
"text": "I think at this point.",
"timestamp": [
1122.15,
1123.38
]
},
{
"text": "But even if we get to 100 petawatts",
"timestamp": [
1123.38,
1125.8
]
},
{
"text": "But even if we get to 100 petawatts",
"timestamp": [
1123.38,
1125.8
]
},
{
"text": "and focus that down to a wavelength,",
"timestamp": [
1125.8,
1127.9
]
},
{
"text": "and focus that down to a wavelength,",
"timestamp": [
1125.8,
1127.9
]
},
{
"text": "we're not at 10 to the 29.",
"timestamp": [
1127.9,
1129.64
]
},
{
"text": "we're not at 10 to the 29.",
"timestamp": [
1127.9,
1129.64
]
},
{
"text": "So you're hoping to\nbuild the biggest laser.",
"timestamp": [
1129.64,
1133.01
]
},
{
"text": "So you're hoping to\nbuild the biggest laser.",
"timestamp": [
1129.64,
1133.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
1133.01,
1133.843
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
1133.01,
1133.843
]
},
{
"text": "- At Rochester.",
"timestamp": [
1133.843,
1134.86
]
},
{
"text": "- At Rochester.",
"timestamp": [
1133.843,
1134.86
]
},
{
"text": "But we're still not gonna\nget to the Schwinger limit,",
"timestamp": [
1134.86,
1136.82
]
},
{
"text": "But we're still not gonna\nget to the Schwinger limit,",
"timestamp": [
1134.86,
1136.82
]
},
{
"text": "isn't that right?",
"timestamp": [
1136.82,
1137.653
]
},
{
"text": "isn't that right?",
"timestamp": [
1136.82,
1137.653
]
},
{
"text": "- So just a little bit\nof back history again.",
"timestamp": [
1137.653,
1139.67
]
},
{
"text": "- So just a little bit\nof back history again.",
"timestamp": [
1137.653,
1139.67
]
},
{
"text": "After you demonstrated\nCPA, I was intrigued by",
"timestamp": [
1139.67,
1144.06
]
},
{
"text": "After you demonstrated\nCPA, I was intrigued by",
"timestamp": [
1139.67,
1144.06
]
},
{
"text": "how powerful could we make lasers?",
"timestamp": [
1144.06,
1146.36
]
},
{
"text": "how powerful could we make lasers?",
"timestamp": [
1144.06,
1146.36
]
},
{
"text": "And then how lasers are wonderful",
"timestamp": [
1146.36,
1148.12
]
},
{
"text": "And then how lasers are wonderful",
"timestamp": [
1146.36,
1148.12
]
},
{
"text": "because they allow you to take energy",
"timestamp": [
1148.12,
1150.23
]
},
{
"text": "because they allow you to take energy",
"timestamp": [
1148.12,
1150.23
]
},
{
"text": "and compress it in space and time.",
"timestamp": [
1150.23,
1152.04
]
},
{
"text": "and compress it in space and time.",
"timestamp": [
1150.23,
1152.04
]
},
{
"text": "So having high P power is something,",
"timestamp": [
1152.04,
1154.24
]
},
{
"text": "So having high P power is something,",
"timestamp": [
1152.04,
1154.24
]
},
{
"text": "it's been a motivator\nfor me for a long time.",
"timestamp": [
1154.24,
1157.39
]
},
{
"text": "it's been a motivator\nfor me for a long time.",
"timestamp": [
1154.24,
1157.39
]
},
{
"text": "And so we at the university\nare making proposals",
"timestamp": [
1157.39,
1160
]
},
{
"text": "And so we at the university\nare making proposals",
"timestamp": [
1157.39,
1160
]
},
{
"text": "to build two 25 petawatt lasers,\nmaybe 30 petawatt lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1160,
1163.3
]
},
{
"text": "to build two 25 petawatt lasers,\nmaybe 30 petawatt lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1160,
1163.3
]
},
{
"text": "We'll use them to be able\nto get combined power",
"timestamp": [
1163.3,
1166.2
]
},
{
"text": "We'll use them to be able\nto get combined power",
"timestamp": [
1163.3,
1166.2
]
},
{
"text": "of over 10 to the 24\nwatts per square center.",
"timestamp": [
1166.2,
1169.17
]
},
{
"text": "of over 10 to the 24\nwatts per square center.",
"timestamp": [
1166.2,
1169.17
]
},
{
"text": "Still far from the Schwinger limit.",
"timestamp": [
1169.17,
1171.64
]
},
{
"text": "Still far from the Schwinger limit.",
"timestamp": [
1169.17,
1171.64
]
},
{
"text": "But we have a trick.",
"timestamp": [
1171.64,
1172.55
]
},
{
"text": "But we have a trick.",
"timestamp": [
1171.64,
1172.55
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to use one\nof these petawatt lasers",
"timestamp": [
1172.55,
1175.02
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to use one\nof these petawatt lasers",
"timestamp": [
1172.55,
1175.02
]
},
{
"text": "to make an electron beam.",
"timestamp": [
1175.02,
1176.56
]
},
{
"text": "to make an electron beam.",
"timestamp": [
1175.02,
1176.56
]
},
{
"text": "And this electron beam\nwill be relativistic.",
"timestamp": [
1176.56,
1178.84
]
},
{
"text": "And this electron beam\nwill be relativistic.",
"timestamp": [
1176.56,
1178.84
]
},
{
"text": "We actually think we\ncould make electron beam,",
"timestamp": [
1178.84,
1181.04
]
},
{
"text": "We actually think we\ncould make electron beam,",
"timestamp": [
1178.84,
1181.04
]
},
{
"text": "maybe even 100s of GeV up to TeV,",
"timestamp": [
1181.04,
1184.43
]
},
{
"text": "maybe even 100s of GeV up to TeV,",
"timestamp": [
1181.04,
1184.43
]
},
{
"text": "which would be another\nNobel Prize if we did that.",
"timestamp": [
1184.43,
1186.27
]
},
{
"text": "which would be another\nNobel Prize if we did that.",
"timestamp": [
1184.43,
1186.27
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right, if you\ncan do that, go for it.",
"timestamp": [
1186.27,
1188.05
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right, if you\ncan do that, go for it.",
"timestamp": [
1186.27,
1188.05
]
},
{
"text": "- And then we will shine that\nlaser onto that electron beam,",
"timestamp": [
1188.05,
1191.017
]
},
{
"text": "- And then we will shine that\nlaser onto that electron beam,",
"timestamp": [
1188.05,
1191.017
]
},
{
"text": "and the electron's rest frame,\nwe beat the Schwinger limit.",
"timestamp": [
1191.017,
1194.9
]
},
{
"text": "and the electron's rest frame,\nwe beat the Schwinger limit.",
"timestamp": [
1191.017,
1194.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, but that's kind of cheating.",
"timestamp": [
1194.9,
1196.66
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, but that's kind of cheating.",
"timestamp": [
1194.9,
1196.66
]
},
{
"text": "That's not getting to 10 to the 29.",
"timestamp": [
1196.66,
1198.886
]
},
{
"text": "That's not getting to 10 to the 29.",
"timestamp": [
1196.66,
1198.886
]
},
{
"text": "If you could do it with 100% efficiency",
"timestamp": [
1198.886,
1201.28
]
},
{
"text": "If you could do it with 100% efficiency",
"timestamp": [
1198.886,
1201.28
]
},
{
"text": "that's all we need.",
"timestamp": [
1201.28,
1202.113
]
},
{
"text": "that's all we need.",
"timestamp": [
1201.28,
1202.113
]
},
{
"text": "- That's why I wanna cheat.",
"timestamp": [
1202.113,
1203.225
]
},
{
"text": "- That's why I wanna cheat.",
"timestamp": [
1202.113,
1203.225
]
},
{
"text": "- That's the Nobel Prize\nwinning idea though",
"timestamp": [
1203.225,
1204.741
]
},
{
"text": "- That's the Nobel Prize\nwinning idea though",
"timestamp": [
1203.225,
1204.741
]
},
{
"text": "if we can come up with it.",
"timestamp": [
1204.741,
1205.574
]
},
{
"text": "if we can come up with it.",
"timestamp": [
1204.741,
1205.574
]
},
{
"text": "- Because again, if we're able to do this,",
"timestamp": [
1205.574,
1207.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Because again, if we're able to do this,",
"timestamp": [
1205.574,
1207.82
]
},
{
"text": "with ways I can see today.",
"timestamp": [
1207.82,
1209.57
]
},
{
"text": "with ways I can see today.",
"timestamp": [
1207.82,
1209.57
]
},
{
"text": "Right?",
"timestamp": [
1209.57,
1210.633
]
},
{
"text": "Right?",
"timestamp": [
1209.57,
1210.633
]
},
{
"text": "I can see us doing it today,",
"timestamp": [
1210.633,
1211.61
]
},
{
"text": "I can see us doing it today,",
"timestamp": [
1210.633,
1211.61
]
},
{
"text": "by just exploiting what we already know",
"timestamp": [
1211.61,
1213.65
]
},
{
"text": "by just exploiting what we already know",
"timestamp": [
1211.61,
1213.65
]
},
{
"text": "and taking it to a limit,",
"timestamp": [
1213.65,
1214.55
]
},
{
"text": "and taking it to a limit,",
"timestamp": [
1213.65,
1214.55
]
},
{
"text": "then that would be a\nreal motivator, I think,",
"timestamp": [
1214.55,
1216.81
]
},
{
"text": "then that would be a\nreal motivator, I think,",
"timestamp": [
1214.55,
1216.81
]
},
{
"text": "to be able to even take\nthese techniques further.",
"timestamp": [
1216.81,
1218.75
]
},
{
"text": "to be able to even take\nthese techniques further.",
"timestamp": [
1216.81,
1218.75
]
},
{
"text": "Cheating's not the right exact word",
"timestamp": [
1218.75,
1220.24
]
},
{
"text": "Cheating's not the right exact word",
"timestamp": [
1218.75,
1220.24
]
},
{
"text": "as taking advantage of relativity.",
"timestamp": [
1220.24,
1222.44
]
},
{
"text": "as taking advantage of relativity.",
"timestamp": [
1220.24,
1222.44
]
},
{
"text": "Take advantage of all physics\nnot just optical physics.",
"timestamp": [
1222.44,
1224.82
]
},
{
"text": "Take advantage of all physics\nnot just optical physics.",
"timestamp": [
1222.44,
1224.82
]
},
{
"text": "So that's why we wanna do it this way.",
"timestamp": [
1224.82,
1225.98
]
},
{
"text": "So that's why we wanna do it this way.",
"timestamp": [
1224.82,
1225.98
]
},
{
"text": "- We have to get into entertainment.",
"timestamp": [
1225.98,
1227.52
]
},
{
"text": "- We have to get into entertainment.",
"timestamp": [
1225.98,
1227.52
]
},
{
"text": "When is the high intensity laser gonna",
"timestamp": [
1227.52,
1229.24
]
},
{
"text": "When is the high intensity laser gonna",
"timestamp": [
1227.52,
1229.24
]
},
{
"text": "get into entertainment so\nthen there's real money?",
"timestamp": [
1229.24,
1231.88
]
},
{
"text": "get into entertainment so\nthen there's real money?",
"timestamp": [
1229.24,
1231.88
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, yes, well we have Star Trek,",
"timestamp": [
1231.88,
1233.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, yes, well we have Star Trek,",
"timestamp": [
1231.88,
1233.9
]
},
{
"text": "we had the photon torpedoes.",
"timestamp": [
1233.9,
1235.02
]
},
{
"text": "we had the photon torpedoes.",
"timestamp": [
1233.9,
1235.02
]
},
{
"text": "I always thought they actually\nknew what you were doing,",
"timestamp": [
1235.02,
1236.91
]
},
{
"text": "I always thought they actually\nknew what you were doing,",
"timestamp": [
1235.02,
1236.91
]
},
{
"text": "there's a photon torpedo.",
"timestamp": [
1236.91,
1238.153
]
},
{
"text": "there's a photon torpedo.",
"timestamp": [
1236.91,
1238.153
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever seen that in--",
"timestamp": [
1238.153,
1239.227
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever seen that in--",
"timestamp": [
1238.153,
1239.227
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
1239.227,
1240.06
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
1239.227,
1240.06
]
},
{
"text": "- [Michael] Oh.",
"timestamp": [
1240.06,
1240.893
]
},
{
"text": "- [Michael] Oh.",
"timestamp": [
1240.06,
1240.893
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't like science fiction.",
"timestamp": [
1240.893,
1241.81
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't like science fiction.",
"timestamp": [
1240.893,
1241.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh no, Star Trek had photon torpedoes",
"timestamp": [
1241.81,
1243.57
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh no, Star Trek had photon torpedoes",
"timestamp": [
1241.81,
1243.57
]
},
{
"text": "and they showed bursts\nof light about this long.",
"timestamp": [
1243.57,
1245.28
]
},
{
"text": "and they showed bursts\nof light about this long.",
"timestamp": [
1243.57,
1245.28
]
},
{
"text": "It was a CPA, it was a\nfew nanosecond pulse.",
"timestamp": [
1245.28,
1249.34
]
},
{
"text": "It was a CPA, it was a\nfew nanosecond pulse.",
"timestamp": [
1245.28,
1249.34
]
},
{
"text": "Didn't say how much energy it carried,",
"timestamp": [
1249.34,
1250.63
]
},
{
"text": "Didn't say how much energy it carried,",
"timestamp": [
1249.34,
1250.63
]
},
{
"text": "and you could see it.",
"timestamp": [
1250.63,
1251.766
]
},
{
"text": "and you could see it.",
"timestamp": [
1250.63,
1251.766
]
},
{
"text": "I don't know what it was gathering off of",
"timestamp": [
1251.766,
1252.63
]
},
{
"text": "I don't know what it was gathering off of",
"timestamp": [
1251.766,
1252.63
]
},
{
"text": "but you could see it,\nso it was a great thing.",
"timestamp": [
1252.63,
1254.48
]
},
{
"text": "but you could see it,\nso it was a great thing.",
"timestamp": [
1252.63,
1254.48
]
},
{
"text": "- So we can either cheat\nby doing laser accelerating",
"timestamp": [
1254.48,
1256.86
]
},
{
"text": "- So we can either cheat\nby doing laser accelerating",
"timestamp": [
1254.48,
1256.86
]
},
{
"text": "and going into that rest frame.",
"timestamp": [
1256.86,
1258.49
]
},
{
"text": "and going into that rest frame.",
"timestamp": [
1256.86,
1258.49
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
1258.49,
1259.323
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
1258.49,
1259.323
]
},
{
"text": "- And that's, like you said,\nwe're stuck a little bit,",
"timestamp": [
1259.323,
1261.08
]
},
{
"text": "- And that's, like you said,\nwe're stuck a little bit,",
"timestamp": [
1259.323,
1261.08
]
},
{
"text": "we're not up to that kind of acceleration,",
"timestamp": [
1261.08,
1263.06
]
},
{
"text": "we're not up to that kind of acceleration,",
"timestamp": [
1261.08,
1263.06
]
},
{
"text": "so that would be a Nobel\nPrize winning possible idea.",
"timestamp": [
1263.06,
1264.918
]
},
{
"text": "so that would be a Nobel\nPrize winning possible idea.",
"timestamp": [
1263.06,
1264.918
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
1264.918,
1265.751
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
1264.918,
1265.751
]
},
{
"text": "- Or we need, going around\nand giving my talks now,",
"timestamp": [
1265.751,
1268.27
]
},
{
"text": "- Or we need, going around\nand giving my talks now,",
"timestamp": [
1265.751,
1268.27
]
},
{
"text": "I show how we're plateauing.",
"timestamp": [
1268.27,
1269.54
]
},
{
"text": "I show how we're plateauing.",
"timestamp": [
1268.27,
1269.54
]
},
{
"text": "I showed how there was a\nplateau, CPA raises it up,",
"timestamp": [
1269.54,
1273.33
]
},
{
"text": "I showed how there was a\nplateau, CPA raises it up,",
"timestamp": [
1269.54,
1273.33
]
},
{
"text": "but we're sort of\nstarting to plateau again",
"timestamp": [
1273.33,
1275.3
]
},
{
"text": "but we're sort of\nstarting to plateau again",
"timestamp": [
1273.33,
1275.3
]
},
{
"text": "and we need another\nNobel Prize winning idea.",
"timestamp": [
1275.3,
1278.4
]
},
{
"text": "and we need another\nNobel Prize winning idea.",
"timestamp": [
1275.3,
1278.4
]
},
{
"text": "And so do you think it's on the horizon?",
"timestamp": [
1278.4,
1280.06
]
},
{
"text": "And so do you think it's on the horizon?",
"timestamp": [
1278.4,
1280.06
]
},
{
"text": "Do you see anything out\nthere that really says,",
"timestamp": [
1280.06,
1282.49
]
},
{
"text": "Do you see anything out\nthere that really says,",
"timestamp": [
1280.06,
1282.49
]
},
{
"text": "oh yeah that's a good way to go?",
"timestamp": [
1282.49,
1284.4
]
},
{
"text": "oh yeah that's a good way to go?",
"timestamp": [
1282.49,
1284.4
]
},
{
"text": "'Cos we're gonna have to\nget out to the x-rays right?",
"timestamp": [
1284.4,
1286.07
]
},
{
"text": "'Cos we're gonna have to\nget out to the x-rays right?",
"timestamp": [
1284.4,
1286.07
]
},
{
"text": "We can't stay in the visual.",
"timestamp": [
1286.07,
1289.39
]
},
{
"text": "We can't stay in the visual.",
"timestamp": [
1286.07,
1289.39
]
},
{
"text": "- So actually there's a potential ways",
"timestamp": [
1289.39,
1292.01
]
},
{
"text": "- So actually there's a potential ways",
"timestamp": [
1289.39,
1292.01
]
},
{
"text": "of doing it with optical\nor near optical radiation.",
"timestamp": [
1292.01,
1295.5
]
},
{
"text": "of doing it with optical\nor near optical radiation.",
"timestamp": [
1292.01,
1295.5
]
},
{
"text": "And there's been a lot of\nwork done in the defense",
"timestamp": [
1295.5,
1297.94
]
},
{
"text": "And there's been a lot of\nwork done in the defense",
"timestamp": [
1295.5,
1297.94
]
},
{
"text": "department and so on, how do I\ncombine laser beams together?",
"timestamp": [
1297.94,
1300.53
]
},
{
"text": "department and so on, how do I\ncombine laser beams together?",
"timestamp": [
1297.94,
1300.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
1300.53,
1301.363
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
1300.53,
1301.363
]
},
{
"text": "- And make them act as\none coherent source.",
"timestamp": [
1301.363,
1303.17
]
},
{
"text": "- And make them act as\none coherent source.",
"timestamp": [
1301.363,
1303.17
]
},
{
"text": "So one of the things that we'll be doing",
"timestamp": [
1303.17,
1304.57
]
},
{
"text": "So one of the things that we'll be doing",
"timestamp": [
1303.17,
1304.57
]
},
{
"text": "with our two petawatts, we're going to see",
"timestamp": [
1304.57,
1306.6
]
},
{
"text": "with our two petawatts, we're going to see",
"timestamp": [
1304.57,
1306.6
]
},
{
"text": "if we can actually combine them into a 50.",
"timestamp": [
1306.6,
1309.35
]
},
{
"text": "if we can actually combine them into a 50.",
"timestamp": [
1306.6,
1309.35
]
},
{
"text": "If you can do that, you can begin",
"timestamp": [
1309.35,
1310.89
]
},
{
"text": "If you can do that, you can begin",
"timestamp": [
1309.35,
1310.89
]
},
{
"text": "to imagine doing this with many lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1310.89,
1314.53
]
},
{
"text": "to imagine doing this with many lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1310.89,
1314.53
]
},
{
"text": "Many petawatt lasers of the\nscale we're talking about.",
"timestamp": [
1314.53,
1317.14
]
},
{
"text": "Many petawatt lasers of the\nscale we're talking about.",
"timestamp": [
1314.53,
1317.14
]
},
{
"text": "So one could possibly\nsee an exawatt from that.",
"timestamp": [
1317.14,
1320.283
]
},
{
"text": "So one could possibly\nsee an exawatt from that.",
"timestamp": [
1317.14,
1320.283
]
},
{
"text": "People have been able to\ncombine 10s of lasers together",
"timestamp": [
1321.69,
1324.56
]
},
{
"text": "People have been able to\ncombine 10s of lasers together",
"timestamp": [
1321.69,
1324.56
]
},
{
"text": "for a coherent source\nso you have to be able",
"timestamp": [
1324.56,
1326.1
]
},
{
"text": "for a coherent source\nso you have to be able",
"timestamp": [
1324.56,
1326.1
]
},
{
"text": "to phase lock them, you\nhave to be able to make",
"timestamp": [
1326.1,
1328.701
]
},
{
"text": "to phase lock them, you\nhave to be able to make",
"timestamp": [
1326.1,
1328.701
]
},
{
"text": "their phases be exactly connected",
"timestamp": [
1328.701,
1332.35
]
},
{
"text": "their phases be exactly connected",
"timestamp": [
1328.701,
1332.35
]
},
{
"text": "and related and be able, as\nthey propagate through all",
"timestamp": [
1332.35,
1334.71
]
},
{
"text": "and related and be able, as\nthey propagate through all",
"timestamp": [
1332.35,
1334.71
]
},
{
"text": "the different optical\ncomponents, whatever it may be--",
"timestamp": [
1334.71,
1336.89
]
},
{
"text": "the different optical\ncomponents, whatever it may be--",
"timestamp": [
1334.71,
1336.89
]
},
{
"text": "- And right across the beam.",
"timestamp": [
1336.89,
1338.16
]
},
{
"text": "- And right across the beam.",
"timestamp": [
1336.89,
1338.16
]
},
{
"text": "Don't you think that's\ngonna be the challenge?",
"timestamp": [
1338.16,
1340.153
]
},
{
"text": "Don't you think that's\ngonna be the challenge?",
"timestamp": [
1338.16,
1340.153
]
},
{
"text": "'Cos it's not like our beams are",
"timestamp": [
1340.153,
1342.381
]
},
{
"text": "'Cos it's not like our beams are",
"timestamp": [
1340.153,
1342.381
]
},
{
"text": "as perfect as we like to think they are.",
"timestamp": [
1342.381,
1344.53
]
},
{
"text": "as perfect as we like to think they are.",
"timestamp": [
1342.381,
1344.53
]
},
{
"text": "- So that's right so you have\nto have the aperture size,",
"timestamp": [
1344.53,
1346.76
]
},
{
"text": "- So that's right so you have\nto have the aperture size,",
"timestamp": [
1344.53,
1346.76
]
},
{
"text": "you have to have them phase",
"timestamp": [
1346.76,
1347.86
]
},
{
"text": "you have to have them phase",
"timestamp": [
1346.76,
1347.86
]
},
{
"text": "locked across the entire aperture.",
"timestamp": [
1347.86,
1349.47
]
},
{
"text": "locked across the entire aperture.",
"timestamp": [
1347.86,
1349.47
]
},
{
"text": "Which will be a great challenge",
"timestamp": [
1349.47,
1350.72
]
},
{
"text": "Which will be a great challenge",
"timestamp": [
1349.47,
1350.72
]
},
{
"text": "and people have done it,\nagain, with small lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1350.72,
1352.69
]
},
{
"text": "and people have done it,\nagain, with small lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1350.72,
1352.69
]
},
{
"text": "The lasers we'll be trying to\ndo is about a 40cm aperture.",
"timestamp": [
1352.69,
1355.14
]
},
{
"text": "The lasers we'll be trying to\ndo is about a 40cm aperture.",
"timestamp": [
1352.69,
1355.14
]
},
{
"text": "So we'll begin to start looking at this.",
"timestamp": [
1355.14,
1356.93
]
},
{
"text": "So we'll begin to start looking at this.",
"timestamp": [
1355.14,
1356.93
]
},
{
"text": "And actually wavelength\ncontrol and then be able",
"timestamp": [
1356.93,
1359.04
]
},
{
"text": "And actually wavelength\ncontrol and then be able",
"timestamp": [
1356.93,
1359.04
]
},
{
"text": "to adaptive optics other ways which",
"timestamp": [
1359.04,
1360.61
]
},
{
"text": "to adaptive optics other ways which",
"timestamp": [
1359.04,
1360.61
]
},
{
"text": "you can control the\nuniformity of the phase",
"timestamp": [
1360.61,
1362.87
]
},
{
"text": "you can control the\nuniformity of the phase",
"timestamp": [
1360.61,
1362.87
]
},
{
"text": "is something that's been\ndeveloped in lots of ways now.",
"timestamp": [
1362.87,
1364.64
]
},
{
"text": "is something that's been\ndeveloped in lots of ways now.",
"timestamp": [
1362.87,
1364.64
]
},
{
"text": "For defense applications,\nfor science applications.",
"timestamp": [
1364.64,
1367.4
]
},
{
"text": "For defense applications,\nfor science applications.",
"timestamp": [
1364.64,
1367.4
]
},
{
"text": "So we will do our best to",
"timestamp": [
1367.4,
1368.61
]
},
{
"text": "So we will do our best to",
"timestamp": [
1367.4,
1368.61
]
},
{
"text": "make use of all these technologies.",
"timestamp": [
1368.61,
1370.22
]
},
{
"text": "make use of all these technologies.",
"timestamp": [
1368.61,
1370.22
]
},
{
"text": "Lasers I think have progressed so much.",
"timestamp": [
1370.22,
1372.19
]
},
{
"text": "Lasers I think have progressed so much.",
"timestamp": [
1370.22,
1372.19
]
},
{
"text": "Just like the semi conductor\ndid, 'cos there's such a market",
"timestamp": [
1372.19,
1374.71
]
},
{
"text": "Just like the semi conductor\ndid, 'cos there's such a market",
"timestamp": [
1372.19,
1374.71
]
},
{
"text": "for it, there were so many\ndifferent applications for that.",
"timestamp": [
1374.71,
1376.28
]
},
{
"text": "for it, there were so many\ndifferent applications for that.",
"timestamp": [
1374.71,
1376.28
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay so there's a lot\nof us working around",
"timestamp": [
1376.28,
1378.3
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay so there's a lot\nof us working around",
"timestamp": [
1376.28,
1378.3
]
},
{
"text": "the world on these high\nintensity lasers and so,",
"timestamp": [
1378.3,
1380.901
]
},
{
"text": "the world on these high\nintensity lasers and so,",
"timestamp": [
1378.3,
1380.901
]
},
{
"text": "what do you think the real fun is?",
"timestamp": [
1380.901,
1381.88
]
},
{
"text": "what do you think the real fun is?",
"timestamp": [
1380.901,
1381.88
]
},
{
"text": "What do you see the real excitement being?",
"timestamp": [
1381.88,
1383.45
]
},
{
"text": "What do you see the real excitement being?",
"timestamp": [
1381.88,
1383.45
]
},
{
"text": "- I remember when",
"timestamp": [
1383.45,
1384.283
]
},
{
"text": "- I remember when",
"timestamp": [
1383.45,
1384.283
]
},
{
"text": "laser was first demonstrated 1960,",
"timestamp": [
1384.283,
1387.18
]
},
{
"text": "laser was first demonstrated 1960,",
"timestamp": [
1384.283,
1387.18
]
},
{
"text": "what could we do with this?",
"timestamp": [
1387.18,
1388.3
]
},
{
"text": "what could we do with this?",
"timestamp": [
1387.18,
1388.3
]
},
{
"text": "We already got light.",
"timestamp": [
1388.3,
1389.26
]
},
{
"text": "We already got light.",
"timestamp": [
1388.3,
1389.26
]
},
{
"text": "Now we can't live without lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1389.26,
1390.74
]
},
{
"text": "Now we can't live without lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1389.26,
1390.74
]
},
{
"text": "My cell phone, that is in my",
"timestamp": [
1390.74,
1392.06
]
},
{
"text": "My cell phone, that is in my",
"timestamp": [
1390.74,
1392.06
]
},
{
"text": "pocket, has billions of transistors.",
"timestamp": [
1392.06,
1393.72
]
},
{
"text": "pocket, has billions of transistors.",
"timestamp": [
1392.06,
1393.72
]
},
{
"text": "How is that made?",
"timestamp": [
1393.72,
1394.553
]
},
{
"text": "How is that made?",
"timestamp": [
1393.72,
1394.553
]
},
{
"text": "With lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1394.553,
1395.6
]
},
{
"text": "With lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1394.553,
1395.6
]
},
{
"text": "All of the greatest circuitry\nis done with lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1395.6,
1397.18
]
},
{
"text": "All of the greatest circuitry\nis done with lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1395.6,
1397.18
]
},
{
"text": "Actually now it's using x-rays,",
"timestamp": [
1397.18,
1399.7
]
},
{
"text": "Actually now it's using x-rays,",
"timestamp": [
1397.18,
1399.7
]
},
{
"text": "made from laser heated matter.",
"timestamp": [
1399.7,
1401.45
]
},
{
"text": "made from laser heated matter.",
"timestamp": [
1399.7,
1401.45
]
},
{
"text": "That came out of the laser fusion program.",
"timestamp": [
1401.45,
1403.27
]
},
{
"text": "That came out of the laser fusion program.",
"timestamp": [
1401.45,
1403.27
]
},
{
"text": "- So it is amazing, the parallels.",
"timestamp": [
1403.27,
1405.81
]
},
{
"text": "- So it is amazing, the parallels.",
"timestamp": [
1403.27,
1405.81
]
},
{
"text": "And optics is used everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
1405.81,
1407.15
]
},
{
"text": "And optics is used everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
1405.81,
1407.15
]
},
{
"text": "We're gonna possibly take over from CERN,",
"timestamp": [
1407.15,
1409.86
]
},
{
"text": "We're gonna possibly take over from CERN,",
"timestamp": [
1407.15,
1409.86
]
},
{
"text": "we'll just do high energy\nphysics with lasers,",
"timestamp": [
1409.86,
1411.98
]
},
{
"text": "we'll just do high energy\nphysics with lasers,",
"timestamp": [
1409.86,
1411.98
]
},
{
"text": "we're looking at gravity\nwaves with lasers,",
"timestamp": [
1411.98,
1413.73
]
},
{
"text": "we're looking at gravity\nwaves with lasers,",
"timestamp": [
1411.98,
1413.73
]
},
{
"text": "we wanna do black holes with lasers,",
"timestamp": [
1413.73,
1415.64
]
},
{
"text": "we wanna do black holes with lasers,",
"timestamp": [
1413.73,
1415.64
]
},
{
"text": "we wanna machine with lasers,",
"timestamp": [
1415.64,
1417.75
]
},
{
"text": "we wanna machine with lasers,",
"timestamp": [
1415.64,
1417.75
]
},
{
"text": "we wanna do medicine with lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1417.75,
1420.37
]
},
{
"text": "we wanna do medicine with lasers.",
"timestamp": [
1417.75,
1420.37
]
},
{
"text": "It's everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
1420.37,
1421.3
]
},
{
"text": "It's everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
1420.37,
1421.3
]
},
{
"text": "And now, with the Nobel\nprize, people are hearing",
"timestamp": [
1421.3,
1423.64
]
},
{
"text": "And now, with the Nobel\nprize, people are hearing",
"timestamp": [
1421.3,
1423.64
]
},
{
"text": "more about it so they know\nlasers are everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
1423.64,
1425.87
]
},
{
"text": "more about it so they know\nlasers are everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
1423.64,
1425.87
]
},
{
"text": "- [Michael] I couldn't agree with you more",
"timestamp": [
1425.87,
1426.97
]
},
{
"text": "- [Michael] I couldn't agree with you more",
"timestamp": [
1425.87,
1426.97
]
},
{
"text": "and you winning the Nobel prize has",
"timestamp": [
1426.97,
1428.4
]
},
{
"text": "and you winning the Nobel prize has",
"timestamp": [
1426.97,
1428.4
]
},
{
"text": "been an inspiration to lots of people.",
"timestamp": [
1428.4,
1430.05
]
},
{
"text": "been an inspiration to lots of people.",
"timestamp": [
1428.4,
1430.05
]
},
{
"text": "Only three women have won\nthe Nobel prize in physics",
"timestamp": [
1430.05,
1433.6
]
},
{
"text": "Only three women have won\nthe Nobel prize in physics",
"timestamp": [
1430.05,
1433.6
]
},
{
"text": "and only one educated\nin the United States.",
"timestamp": [
1433.6,
1436.36
]
},
{
"text": "and only one educated\nin the United States.",
"timestamp": [
1433.6,
1436.36
]
},
{
"text": "You.",
"timestamp": [
1436.36,
1437.389
]
},
{
"text": "You.",
"timestamp": [
1436.36,
1437.389
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go.",
"timestamp": [
1437.389,
1438.222
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go.",
"timestamp": [
1437.389,
1438.222
]
},
{
"text": "- And I use that every place.",
"timestamp": [
1438.222,
1439.055
]
},
{
"text": "- And I use that every place.",
"timestamp": [
1438.222,
1439.055
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
1439.055,
1439.888
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
1439.055,
1439.888
]
},
{
"text": "And only one Canadian.",
"timestamp": [
1439.888,
1440.721
]
},
{
"text": "And only one Canadian.",
"timestamp": [
1439.888,
1440.721
]
},
{
"text": "There you go!",
"timestamp": [
1440.721,
1441.945
]
},
{
"text": "There you go!",
"timestamp": [
1440.721,
1441.945
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
1441.945,
1442.877
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
1441.945,
1442.877
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
1442.877,
1444.35
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
1442.877,
1444.35
]
},
{
"text": "Today was fun, I got to explain\nthe work I do at all levels.",
"timestamp": [
1444.35,
1447.96
]
},
{
"text": "Today was fun, I got to explain\nthe work I do at all levels.",
"timestamp": [
1444.35,
1447.96
]
},
{
"text": "It's always fun for me to\ntalk to elementary school",
"timestamp": [
1447.96,
1451.2
]
},
{
"text": "It's always fun for me to\ntalk to elementary school",
"timestamp": [
1447.96,
1451.2
]
},
{
"text": "students because they\nbring such enthusiasm.",
"timestamp": [
1451.2,
1453.43
]
},
{
"text": "students because they\nbring such enthusiasm.",
"timestamp": [
1451.2,
1453.43
]
},
{
"text": "With a student who's already\nstarted to learn optics,",
"timestamp": [
1453.43,
1455.78
]
},
{
"text": "With a student who's already\nstarted to learn optics,",
"timestamp": [
1453.43,
1455.78
]
},
{
"text": "to a graduate student and\nfinally my own colleague",
"timestamp": [
1455.78,
1458.01
]
},
{
"text": "to a graduate student and\nfinally my own colleague",
"timestamp": [
1455.78,
1458.01
]
},
{
"text": "where we can really get\ninto a huge conversation",
"timestamp": [
1458.01,
1460.37
]
},
{
"text": "where we can really get\ninto a huge conversation",
"timestamp": [
1458.01,
1460.37
]
},
{
"text": "about what's the future of this field.",
"timestamp": [
1460.37,
1461.98
]
},
{
"text": "about what's the future of this field.",
"timestamp": [
1460.37,
1461.98
]
},
{
"text": "Electronics was the technology\nfor the 20th century",
"timestamp": [
1461.98,
1465.13
]
},
{
"text": "Electronics was the technology\nfor the 20th century",
"timestamp": [
1461.98,
1465.13
]
},
{
"text": "and it brought us the transistor.",
"timestamp": [
1465.13,
1466.23
]
},
{
"text": "and it brought us the transistor.",
"timestamp": [
1465.13,
1466.23
]
},
{
"text": "Electrons don't move nearly\nas fast as light and so,",
"timestamp": [
1466.23,
1469.27
]
},
{
"text": "Electrons don't move nearly\nas fast as light and so,",
"timestamp": [
1466.23,
1469.27
]
},
{
"text": "trust me photonics will take us",
"timestamp": [
1469.27,
1471.08
]
},
{
"text": "trust me photonics will take us",
"timestamp": [
1469.27,
1471.08
]
},
{
"text": "where we wanna go in this century.",
"timestamp": [
1471.08,
1472.913
]
},
{
"text": "where we wanna go in this century.",
"timestamp": [
1471.08,
1472.913
]
}
] |
[
[
"<Untitled Chapter 1>",
"- I'm Donna Strickland."
],
[
"Donna Strickland, PhD",
"I'm a professor at the\nUniversity of Waterloo.I study lasers and, in particular,I like really high intensity lasers.So a laser is a way to\nget light to actually justbe a single color, going\nin a single directionall of the waves peaking at the same timeso that the intensity can get very high.Today I've been challenged\nto explain lasersand high intensity lasers\nat five different levels.From a child, to a teenager,\nto a college student,to a graduate student and\nfinally to a colleague of mine.[upbeat music]So I was told that maybe science isone of your favorite subjects at school.Is that right?- Yes.- Have you actually studied light yet?- Yes.- Okay what have you\nlearned so far about light?- So we learned how to\nactually light up a light bulb.- Oh really?Oh excellent.Well I'm somebody who studies lasers.So what do you think about lasers?- I don't know--- You haven't got to play with lasers.So I brought one.It's my friend's cat toy.Do you ever use a laser as a cat toy?- No.- Well one of the fun things\npeople do with lasers,the cat will try to grab that dot.I'm sure what you have\nat home is a flashlight.I brought a cute little one.So the question is, do\nyou see any differencebetween what a flashlight\ndoes and what a laser does?- Flashlight is a bigger shine\nand the laser is just a dot.- That's true, that laser's just a dot.And so the other thing\nto notice though is that,like if I shine it in your\neyes and I'm sorry if I do!But it seems awfully bright doesn't it?And yet when, you know,\nyou shine this downand you put the laser,\nwhich one do you see easier?- [Harmoni] The laser.- The laser.So which one do you think's more powerful?- The laser.- [Donna] And yet it's not.Isn't that amazing?- Yes.- One of the things that\nlasers are great foris that because it's a directed beam,we can actually put that light\nwhere we want the light to goand sometimes you maybe just want to seesomething around the corner\nand you can't see it.But with a laser, you can actuallyand this is a smoky one so\nyou can actually watch it go.You see it actually bending the corner?- Yes.- And that's because the light\nwill go through this glassand, when it hits that\ncorner, it has to bend.And we actually send laser\nbeams down glass fibers,the size of your hair.Yeah.So this obviously is much\nbigger than our hair.Right?\n- Yes.- So this is just a demonstration.If you have a laser like this, it actuallybends and comes out, I'm\ngonna point it to youand you'll see it coming\nout the other end.It hits these walls, it has to go aroundand come out the other side.You wanna play?So is this the first\ntime you've seen a laseror have you gotten to play\nwith lasers somewhere else?- I don't have a cat or--- You don't have a cat.So you don't need a cat toy no.Have you ever gone to a grocery storeand just scanned your objects over?- Yes.- Have you ever seen that maybe there'sa little bit of a red\nlight when you do that?- Yes.- That's a laser.We cut steel with them now.We actually do surgery with lasers.You know when some\npeople have either scarsor birth marks that\nthey don't want to see?We can actually remove\nthose with lasers now.Never seen a laser light show?When they light up the sky withlasers, it's almost like fireworks.- Well I saw a shooting star before.- Oh you got to see a shooting star?Well that's cool, that's nature\ngiving you the show there.So what do you think about lasers?You think they're fun?- Yes they're very cool.I like the one where\nyou did the green one.- The green one.And the next time you go to a grocerystore, take a peek at the red.- Okay.\n- Okay.[upbeat music]Today we're here to talk about lasers.So what do you think about lasers?- I think they're pretty cool.They show up in a lot of my\nfavorite books and movies.Like Star Wars or just a bunch ofdifferent sci-fi movies and books.- Do you know anything about lasers?What makes a laser special kind of light.- All I really know is from\nsci-fi books and moviesand like the factory cutting lasersthat they use to cut steel and stuff.- Do you even know maybe\nhow to make a laserthat it would be strong\nenough to cut steel?- No.- Okay.\n[laughing]So one of the things about lasers is,if you've ever seen a laser beam,you know it's very directed.- Like what are they made out of?- What is a laser made out of?Well really it's sort of the\nsame thing as a light bulb.Right?- So it's a beam?- So yeah it's a light bulb and\nthere's a couple of mirrors.Now the light bulb has to\nbe a little bit special.It has to be a type of material that canstore the energy in an\nexcited state right?It has to stay up there really energeticand sit there for a while so thatwhen the light comes along,it takes that energy and\nbecomes stronger lightand then the mirror sends it backand it does it again and again and againand between these two mirrors, it makesthe light come out in a nice beam.In a laser, it comes\nout as a single color.They all come out with their\nwaves at the same time.Every wave peaks at the same timewhich then makes it a giant waveand it's this giant wave thathas a tremendous amount of power.So it can do something like cutting steel.But when you cut steel, or if\nyou were cutting this floor,it's gray, it actually\nwill absorb the light.That's why the light, you\ndon't see it because thelight isn't bouncing back or through it.So I like to use demos to\nexplain how my laser works.So I've brought basically\na hammer and a nail.I'm sure you've probably hammered a nailbefore into a piece of\nwood but the question is,if you asked yourself why\nit is we hit the big endand it's the tiny end that\nwe put on the piece of wood.We could never pick up a\nhammer and hit the sharp endand hope this would go\nin to the piece of wood.- Because it needs to be centered soit can more easily just go in.- That's right.All the force that we apply\nhere, goes all the way throughbut then it can only basically come outwhen it contacts the wood\nin that one tiny spot.And so sometimes it's the force\nthat you push something withbut sometimes it is that\nforce per unit area.But sometimes it's not even\nthe force per unit area'cos, you know, push down\nas hard as you can on thatand see if we can get it pushed in.See it doesn't really work does it?- So the laser needs\nultimately many things.It needs to be centered,\nit needs time to actuallypenetrate and then it needs--- Well it depends.So if you're cutting steel,you need to have the nail.You need to have it\nconcentrated all of the light,not going in all directions but youneed it into as small a point as possible.And for that we use a lens.For a lens, the light's\ncoming down as a column,you put in a lens, it all\nfocuses it down in the same wayas the nail and then it\nstarts cutting that steel.Okay so that force per unit area--- So it's kind of like a magnifying glass?Like it magnifies the\nlight down to a point?- Exactly.You know sometimes you want\nto have all of your energynot just in a small area\nbut in the small volumeand so one of the other\ndimensions is time or length.But with light, time and\nlength are the same thingbecause light always travels\nat the speed of light.Exactly.But if you send a one\nsecond long light pulseout into the skies there,\nthe beginning of the pulseis actually two thirds\nof the way to the moon.It's 300,000 kilometers long.So now, if you talk about light beingconcentrated, that doesn't\nseem very concentrated.The type of lasers I play with in my labwill be no thicker than\nthis piece of paper.So we take that energy that might bein three hundred thousand\nkilometers and wesqueeze it all the way down into just thispiece of paper and actually the beamsare more the size of this piece of paperand so, in my lab,\npieces of paper like thiswould be flying through the\nsky but we can't see them.'Cos they don't come in\nour eyes, they fly by usand they're infra red.- There'd be like little\nconcentrated beams of lightjust flying everywhere?\n- Exactly.And so now, if we have light likethat that we wanna machine with.I bring this funnel and\nso, if we had a lens hereand the light was coming down--- It funnels into--- Into a spot.So here would be my light\ncoming from my laserand it would just be coming\ndown, down, down, down, down.Hit a lens and it would\nhave to focus down.But now, all the light started\nout with this big of a spreadso concentrated this much.Eventually it would be\nhere, more concentrated.But by the end, right at the focal spot,that's when I get all of my\nlight, all of the energy hasbeen squeezed down into fitting\ninside this piece of paperand that's why I say that\nI built a laser hammer.Because when this hits a piece of glass,it just smacks hose\nelectrons right off the atomsand there's nothing else for themto do, they have to fly away.So can you tell me what you learnedand maybe about the focusing of the light?- Well what I learned, lasers\nthey aren't like particles.They're more like a super\nconcentrated beam of lightthat can be any color.They get really concentrated\nand that's what makes themlasers and that's why they\ncut things and break thingsbecause they just move the\nelectrons out of the way.- So do you think that\nlasers are fun enoughto talk with your friends about or?- Of course I'm gonna have to sharesomething about my experience.Learning about lasers\nwith an expert like you.[upbeat music]- [Donna] So you're a college student?- Yes."
],
[
"Caitlin Coulbourne College Student, Fordham University",
"- [Donna] And what's your major?- I'm an engineering physics\nmajor with a minor in math.I'm in the three, two program\nfor biomedical engineering.- Excellent.I got an engineering physics degree.There you go, something in common.We're here today talking about lasers.So have you have had much\nexposure to lasers yet at school?- Not yet.I'm really hoping that we will.I think it's super\ninteresting just the fieldin general because I\nreally do enjoy examiningall the calculations and being able to doa little bit more of the\nmath side of physics.- Okay.As opposed to the experimental\nside and seeing things?Okay so I'm much more, I like\nto see the things happening.So then the question is, what's so specialabout making a light that's intense enoughto actually possibly blow things up?Certainly we can blow atoms\nup with the laser hammerand when the laser light comes inand just smacks the\nelectrons right off the atom.And so the question really\nis how do you make that?Back in the 70s and into\nthe 80s, I know that wasa long time ago for you,\nwe had big energy lasersand we had short pulse lasers, wecouldn't have big energy,\nshort pulse lasersand actually it was my supervisor and Ithat figured the way\naround that and we gotsomething called chirped\npulse amplification.Have you heard of chirped pulse\namplification by any chance?- Vaguely.- Well I brought a little bit of a propto explain how chirped\npulse amplification works.Our short pulses are\nmade of different colors.So I've got a colored slinky here.We probably could've called it\nstretched pulse amplificationbut that's kind of boring\nso we used the word chirped.The word chirped comes\naround because birds chirp.When the birds are singing,\nthe notes are actuallychanging audio frequency\nwith time and that's a chirp.The point is is that when all the light issqueezed together like\nthis, it's a short pulse.And that's when it's a hammer because allof the light is now concentrated\nand you can imagine if thiswas coming along and also\nusing a lens to focus it small,then all of that light at\nthe focal spot, concentrate.And so that was the laser hammer.So we can't have that in the laser.So the question is what could we do?The fact that it's different colorsand different colors\nbecause of dispersion,travel different speeds inside material.So we used a long fiber,\n1.4 kilometers of fiberbut, in fiber, the red\ncolors really haven't gotthat much in common with\nthe glass atoms and so theyspend very little time\ninteracting and they travel fast.The red is going to start\ntraveling faster than the green,faster than the blue and, as\nyou travel down the fiber,next thing you know, you have a long pulseand it's chirped from red at thebeginning to blue at the back.And so the frequencies go hoo!Like this okay?So this is a chirped pulse\nand now it's a long pulse.And so, first this is what\nwe did, we chirped it,we stretched it, then\nwe can safely amplify itbecause it's not all concentratedand, after we amplify it,\nthen we use something calleda compressor and we put all\nof the colors back togetherand it was back being a short\npulse but a high energy pulse.And then we really had what I\nlike to call a laser hammer.When this laser pulse goes inside,it smacks those electrons\nright off the atom.- So the laser hammer that\nyou were describing withother types of lasers and the one inthe chirped is it still the same premise?- Well a lot of lasers and when lasersfirst came along, they\nwere only single color.Your cat toy, would\nonly be a single color,probably a red one and\nso that's just one color.And one color means that it has toreally be there for the whole time.One color is one wave length of lightand so it's just one wave\nthat goes on and on and on.If you want a short pulse, youactually have to have all the colors.And if you can imagine\nthat one point in time,and I like to say it's like\na conductor of an orchestra.When you're listening to\nan orchestra warm up, theysound terrible, they're all\nplaying their own notes.But when the conductor\nconducts them, they all playdifferent notes but, together,\nit's beautiful music.So we have something in the\nlaser called a mode lockerand it's like the conductor\nand it says go now.And all the colors will start together butsome colors are long wave\nlength and others are shorter.So next thing you know, you have peaksmeeting valleys and\nthey cancel each other.And the more colors you\ncan bring in, the fasterthat happens and the shorter\nthe pulse you can make.- What's the pendant?- The necklace is something thatwas designed for my Nobel prize.It's sold at the Nobel museum\nand it is a chirped pulse.So we've been talking a lot\nabout lasers and applications,what have you learned\nabout chirped pulses?- I learned that it all\nstretches, which is super cool,because red moves the fastestand so it kinda tugs around blue.It really threw me off just how fast.It's hard to imagine\nthings happening that fast.And I also learned how many of the thingsthat I know are lasers.Like how many of the things\nthat I've been looking for,like, the answers to, it is in lasers.[upbeat music]"
],
[
"Grad Student",
"- [Donna] So I understand\nyou're in grad school.Where?- At NYU.- And what are you studying?- I'm studying soft matter physics,which involves the\nphysics of squishy stuff.We make microswimmers in the laboratoryand we drive them with a laser.- And what kind of laser do you use?- We use a 10 watt laser,\nit's a fiber laser.- Do you know a lot about lasers?Or just about the laser that you use.- Not a lot, just a little bit.- Okay.So this is about high intensity lasers.Not only how do you make them,but what was really\nstopping them being madein both cases is non linear optics.We wanna do something that requiresa huge photon density application,and so that's how come we came up withchirped pulse amplification,so that we could stretch the pulse,safely amplify it, then\ncompress it at the end,and then we're ready to do\nwhatever we want at the end.So what do you think\nthe main difference isbetween the continuous\nwave laser that you havethat runs at 10 watts and\na chirped pulse amplifier?- I feel like the continuous laserdelivers power at a continuous rate,whereas you want all that\npower to be deliveredin a really, really short\ntime with your amplification.- And so we get the power\nwith a lot less energy'cause its power is energy per unit time.So we aren't depositing\nmuch energy in comparison.Can I just ask, 'cause you are usingthe thermal process of it heating up,but have you ever had the opportunityto use laser tweezers?- I have, yeah.We use optical tweezers to\ntrap particles in solution.- And twirl the motors\nor not twirl the motors?- No, I haven't worked with that.- You haven't?Okay.- So I was always\ncurious, how much further,like what higher power can we go now?- So chirped pulse amplification\ntook us sort of from,we were at 10 to the 12,\nbut when I was workingthe 10 to the 12 sort of sat\non a football sized field.It was a kilojoule laser\nwith a nanosecond pulse.And we brought it down\nto something we calltabletop terawatt.So it was the same terawatt\nbut now it was one jouleand one picosecond, so it could\nfit on a basic optical benchlike you would have in your lab.We were able to take that up to,I think the record is right aroundsomewhere between 10 to the 22and 10 to the 23 watts\nper square centimeter.So then in going forward,\none of the holy grailsis can we reach 10 to the 29\nwatts per square centimeter?So we still have six orders.So we've gone from 10 to\nthe 12 to 10 to the 23.So we've done 11 orders,so you think six isn't so much harder.I have to tell you, over\ntime, it's rolling over.We need another Nobel Prize winning idea.But if we get out there, that's where,if you focus the intensity,the energy in that volume is\nenough to break the vacuum.- We could probably use this\nto drive chemical reactionsat a very, very specific spot.Like if we want to target just\na single cell in the body.- Yes.And maybe what, do pump-probe spectroscopyand watch the cell?Or to ionize it?- I mean I was thinking more\non the lines of if we want to,let's say destroy one cell,like a tumor cell or something like that.So that the neighboring\nareas are not affectedbut just the cell burns.- I don't know if people\nare working on thatbecause I'm not so much\nin the medical field,but I should look into that and\nsee if that's a possibility.So after hearing about\nhigh intensity lasers,can you think about next\ntime you go back to the laband you're wondering how\nto do something in the labwith lasers, can you see how\nshort pulses might help you?- I think short pulses\nmight help in my experimentin the sense that if I drive my swimmerswith a continuous wave as\nopposed to a pulsed wave,maybe a continuous wave would\nheat up the sample too muchand a pulse laser would deliver powerexactly where I need it so that I couldrun my experiment longer.- That's true.Thank you very much.- Thank you, Donna.It was really nice to meet you.- Hello Donna, good to see you.- Good to see you Mike, nice\nto have you here with me.So we go way back.1991, the year I got married,I moved across the country,\nleft my husband in New Jersey,to work with you in Livermore.- I remember very much and how hard it wasto convince you to\ntravel across the countryand work at the lab.- And stay there.- And stay there.[laughing]I couldn't convince you to stay.- You could not convince me to stay, no.- But you were there long\nenough to make a big impressionand get some good work done.- And I've been talking sort of,started with sort of what is a laserthrough linear optics, non linear optics,high intensity laser physics,\nand saying that you know,we're trying to get to\nthat Schwinger limitof 10 to the 29 watts\nper square centimeter.We're about somewhere\njust shy of 10 to the 23I think at this point.But even if we get to 100 petawattsand focus that down to a wavelength,we're not at 10 to the 29.So you're hoping to\nbuild the biggest laser.- Yes.- At Rochester.But we're still not gonna\nget to the Schwinger limit,isn't that right?- So just a little bit\nof back history again.After you demonstrated\nCPA, I was intrigued byhow powerful could we make lasers?And then how lasers are wonderfulbecause they allow you to take energyand compress it in space and time.So having high P power is something,it's been a motivator\nfor me for a long time.And so we at the university\nare making proposalsto build two 25 petawatt lasers,\nmaybe 30 petawatt lasers.We'll use them to be able\nto get combined powerof over 10 to the 24\nwatts per square center.Still far from the Schwinger limit.But we have a trick.We're going to use one\nof these petawatt lasersto make an electron beam.And this electron beam\nwill be relativistic.We actually think we\ncould make electron beam,maybe even 100s of GeV up to TeV,which would be another\nNobel Prize if we did that.- That's right, if you\ncan do that, go for it.- And then we will shine that\nlaser onto that electron beam,and the electron's rest frame,\nwe beat the Schwinger limit.- Okay, but that's kind of cheating.That's not getting to 10 to the 29.If you could do it with 100% efficiencythat's all we need.- That's why I wanna cheat.- That's the Nobel Prize\nwinning idea thoughif we can come up with it.- Because again, if we're able to do this,with ways I can see today.Right?I can see us doing it today,by just exploiting what we already knowand taking it to a limit,then that would be a\nreal motivator, I think,to be able to even take\nthese techniques further.Cheating's not the right exact wordas taking advantage of relativity.Take advantage of all physics\nnot just optical physics.So that's why we wanna do it this way.- We have to get into entertainment.When is the high intensity laser gonnaget into entertainment so\nthen there's real money?- Yes, yes, well we have Star Trek,we had the photon torpedoes.I always thought they actually\nknew what you were doing,there's a photon torpedo.Have you ever seen that in--- No.- [Michael] Oh.- I don't like science fiction.- Oh no, Star Trek had photon torpedoesand they showed bursts\nof light about this long.It was a CPA, it was a\nfew nanosecond pulse.Didn't say how much energy it carried,and you could see it.I don't know what it was gathering off ofbut you could see it,\nso it was a great thing.- So we can either cheat\nby doing laser acceleratingand going into that rest frame.- Yes.- And that's, like you said,\nwe're stuck a little bit,we're not up to that kind of acceleration,so that would be a Nobel\nPrize winning possible idea.- Absolutely.- Or we need, going around\nand giving my talks now,I show how we're plateauing.I showed how there was a\nplateau, CPA raises it up,but we're sort of\nstarting to plateau againand we need another\nNobel Prize winning idea.And so do you think it's on the horizon?Do you see anything out\nthere that really says,oh yeah that's a good way to go?'Cos we're gonna have to\nget out to the x-rays right?We can't stay in the visual.- So actually there's a potential waysof doing it with optical\nor near optical radiation.And there's been a lot of\nwork done in the defensedepartment and so on, how do I\ncombine laser beams together?- Okay.- And make them act as\none coherent source.So one of the things that we'll be doingwith our two petawatts, we're going to seeif we can actually combine them into a 50.If you can do that, you can beginto imagine doing this with many lasers.Many petawatt lasers of the\nscale we're talking about.So one could possibly\nsee an exawatt from that.People have been able to\ncombine 10s of lasers togetherfor a coherent source\nso you have to be ableto phase lock them, you\nhave to be able to maketheir phases be exactly connectedand related and be able, as\nthey propagate through allthe different optical\ncomponents, whatever it may be--- And right across the beam.Don't you think that's\ngonna be the challenge?'Cos it's not like our beams areas perfect as we like to think they are.- So that's right so you have\nto have the aperture size,you have to have them phaselocked across the entire aperture.Which will be a great challengeand people have done it,\nagain, with small lasers.The lasers we'll be trying to\ndo is about a 40cm aperture.So we'll begin to start looking at this.And actually wavelength\ncontrol and then be ableto adaptive optics other ways whichyou can control the\nuniformity of the phaseis something that's been\ndeveloped in lots of ways now.For defense applications,\nfor science applications.So we will do our best tomake use of all these technologies.Lasers I think have progressed so much.Just like the semi conductor\ndid, 'cos there's such a marketfor it, there were so many\ndifferent applications for that.- Okay so there's a lot\nof us working aroundthe world on these high\nintensity lasers and so,what do you think the real fun is?What do you see the real excitement being?- I remember whenlaser was first demonstrated 1960,what could we do with this?We already got light.Now we can't live without lasers.My cell phone, that is in mypocket, has billions of transistors.How is that made?With lasers.All of the greatest circuitry\nis done with lasers.Actually now it's using x-rays,made from laser heated matter.That came out of the laser fusion program.- So it is amazing, the parallels.And optics is used everywhere.We're gonna possibly take over from CERN,we'll just do high energy\nphysics with lasers,we're looking at gravity\nwaves with lasers,we wanna do black holes with lasers,we wanna machine with lasers,we wanna do medicine with lasers.It's everywhere.And now, with the Nobel\nprize, people are hearingmore about it so they know\nlasers are everywhere.- [Michael] I couldn't agree with you moreand you winning the Nobel prize hasbeen an inspiration to lots of people.Only three women have won\nthe Nobel prize in physicsand only one educated\nin the United States.You.- There you go.- And I use that every place.- Okay.And only one Canadian.There you go![laughing][upbeat music]Today was fun, I got to explain\nthe work I do at all levels.It's always fun for me to\ntalk to elementary schoolstudents because they\nbring such enthusiasm.With a student who's already\nstarted to learn optics,to a graduate student and\nfinally my own colleaguewhere we can really get\ninto a huge conversationabout what's the future of this field.Electronics was the technology\nfor the 20th centuryand it brought us the transistor.Electrons don't move nearly\nas fast as light and so,trust me photonics will take uswhere we wanna go in this century."
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Scientist Explains Sleep in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
OB61yG8WDyU
| 1,419
|
[
{
"end_time": 24,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "Intro"
},
{
"end_time": 278,
"start_time": 24,
"title": "Giraffes"
},
{
"end_time": 556,
"start_time": 278,
"title": "Sleep Science"
},
{
"end_time": 1118,
"start_time": 556,
"title": "Sleep Science II"
},
{
"end_time": 1419,
"start_time": 1118,
"title": "Sleep and Aging Brain"
}
] |
[
{
"text": "- My name's Aric Prather and\nI'm a sleep scientist at UCSF.",
"timestamp": [
0.25,
3.47
]
},
{
"text": "- My name's Aric Prather and\nI'm a sleep scientist at UCSF.",
"timestamp": [
0.25,
3.47
]
},
{
"text": "I study the causes and\nconsequences of insufficient sleep,",
"timestamp": [
3.47,
7.68
]
},
{
"text": "I study the causes and\nconsequences of insufficient sleep,",
"timestamp": [
3.47,
7.68
]
},
{
"text": "and I also carry out\ninterventions to improve sleep",
"timestamp": [
7.68,
10.51
]
},
{
"text": "and I also carry out\ninterventions to improve sleep",
"timestamp": [
7.68,
10.51
]
},
{
"text": "among people with insomnia.",
"timestamp": [
10.51,
11.94
]
},
{
"text": "among people with insomnia.",
"timestamp": [
10.51,
11.94
]
},
{
"text": "Today, I've been challenged\nto explain the topic of sleep",
"timestamp": [
11.94,
14.82
]
},
{
"text": "Today, I've been challenged\nto explain the topic of sleep",
"timestamp": [
11.94,
14.82
]
},
{
"text": "at five different levels.",
"timestamp": [
14.82,
16.26
]
},
{
"text": "at five different levels.",
"timestamp": [
14.82,
16.26
]
},
{
"text": "Everybody knows a little bit about",
"timestamp": [
16.26,
17.836
]
},
{
"text": "Everybody knows a little bit about",
"timestamp": [
16.26,
17.836
]
},
{
"text": "what is happening when they sleep,",
"timestamp": [
17.836,
20.3
]
},
{
"text": "what is happening when they sleep,",
"timestamp": [
17.836,
20.3
]
},
{
"text": "but I think they'll be surprised",
"timestamp": [
20.3,
22.62
]
},
{
"text": "but I think they'll be surprised",
"timestamp": [
20.3,
22.62
]
},
{
"text": "that there's a lot of science in there.",
"timestamp": [
22.62,
24.57
]
},
{
"text": "that there's a lot of science in there.",
"timestamp": [
22.62,
24.57
]
},
{
"text": "- Nice to meet you, my name's Christopher.",
"timestamp": [
26.64,
28.3
]
},
{
"text": "- Nice to meet you, my name's Christopher.",
"timestamp": [
26.64,
28.3
]
},
{
"text": "- Hey Christopher.",
"timestamp": [
28.3,
29.133
]
},
{
"text": "- Hey Christopher.",
"timestamp": [
28.3,
29.133
]
},
{
"text": "And how old are you?",
"timestamp": [
29.133,
30.16
]
},
{
"text": "And how old are you?",
"timestamp": [
29.133,
30.16
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm ten.",
"timestamp": [
30.16,
30.993
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm ten.",
"timestamp": [
30.16,
30.993
]
},
{
"text": "- What grade is that?",
"timestamp": [
30.993,
32.18
]
},
{
"text": "- What grade is that?",
"timestamp": [
30.993,
32.18
]
},
{
"text": "- I think fifth.",
"timestamp": [
32.18,
33.217
]
},
{
"text": "- I think fifth.",
"timestamp": [
32.18,
33.217
]
},
{
"text": "- You think fifth?",
"timestamp": [
33.217,
34.05
]
},
{
"text": "- You think fifth?",
"timestamp": [
33.217,
34.05
]
},
{
"text": "What is your favorite subject?",
"timestamp": [
34.05,
35.446
]
},
{
"text": "What is your favorite subject?",
"timestamp": [
34.05,
35.446
]
},
{
"text": "- Math and science.",
"timestamp": [
35.446,
37
]
},
{
"text": "- Math and science.",
"timestamp": [
35.446,
37
]
},
{
"text": "- Well that's awesome,",
"timestamp": [
37,
37.833
]
},
{
"text": "- Well that's awesome,",
"timestamp": [
37,
37.833
]
},
{
"text": "because we're going to be\ntalking about science today.",
"timestamp": [
37.833,
39.35
]
},
{
"text": "because we're going to be\ntalking about science today.",
"timestamp": [
37.833,
39.35
]
},
{
"text": "- Cool.",
"timestamp": [
39.35,
40.183
]
},
{
"text": "- Cool.",
"timestamp": [
39.35,
40.183
]
},
{
"text": "- And you know what we're\ngoing to be talking about?",
"timestamp": [
40.183,
41.095
]
},
{
"text": "- And you know what we're\ngoing to be talking about?",
"timestamp": [
40.183,
41.095
]
},
{
"text": "- What?",
"timestamp": [
41.095,
41.928
]
},
{
"text": "- What?",
"timestamp": [
41.095,
41.928
]
},
{
"text": "- Sleep.",
"timestamp": [
41.928,
43.13
]
},
{
"text": "- Sleep.",
"timestamp": [
41.928,
43.13
]
},
{
"text": "- Favorite part of the day.",
"timestamp": [
43.13,
44.18
]
},
{
"text": "- Favorite part of the day.",
"timestamp": [
43.13,
44.18
]
},
{
"text": "- Mine too, because I get to\nspend all day studying it.",
"timestamp": [
44.18,
46.75
]
},
{
"text": "- Mine too, because I get to\nspend all day studying it.",
"timestamp": [
44.18,
46.75
]
},
{
"text": "Because you know what sleep does for you?",
"timestamp": [
46.75,
48.55
]
},
{
"text": "Because you know what sleep does for you?",
"timestamp": [
46.75,
48.55
]
},
{
"text": "- It rests your body,\nlike an electric car.",
"timestamp": [
48.55,
50.836
]
},
{
"text": "- It rests your body,\nlike an electric car.",
"timestamp": [
48.55,
50.836
]
},
{
"text": "- [laughs] That's exactly right.",
"timestamp": [
50.836,
51.96
]
},
{
"text": "- [laughs] That's exactly right.",
"timestamp": [
50.836,
51.96
]
},
{
"text": "It kinda is like recharging\nyour battery, right?",
"timestamp": [
51.96,
54.42
]
},
{
"text": "It kinda is like recharging\nyour battery, right?",
"timestamp": [
51.96,
54.42
]
},
{
"text": "And sleep is so critical for so many parts",
"timestamp": [
54.42,
57.04
]
},
{
"text": "And sleep is so critical for so many parts",
"timestamp": [
54.42,
57.04
]
},
{
"text": "of our body and our mind, right?",
"timestamp": [
57.04,
59.03
]
},
{
"text": "of our body and our mind, right?",
"timestamp": [
57.04,
59.03
]
},
{
"text": "It plays a really important\nway that we learn,",
"timestamp": [
59.03,
61.65
]
},
{
"text": "It plays a really important\nway that we learn,",
"timestamp": [
59.03,
61.65
]
},
{
"text": "and it helps us kind of\nrecover from the day before.",
"timestamp": [
61.65,
64.69
]
},
{
"text": "and it helps us kind of\nrecover from the day before.",
"timestamp": [
61.65,
64.69
]
},
{
"text": "It affects our immune\nsystem and our metabolism,",
"timestamp": [
64.69,
67.35
]
},
{
"text": "It affects our immune\nsystem and our metabolism,",
"timestamp": [
64.69,
67.35
]
},
{
"text": "all of these things that we\nneed to kinda be healthy.",
"timestamp": [
67.35,
69.436
]
},
{
"text": "all of these things that we\nneed to kinda be healthy.",
"timestamp": [
67.35,
69.436
]
},
{
"text": "- Whoa.",
"timestamp": [
69.436,
70.54
]
},
{
"text": "- Whoa.",
"timestamp": [
69.436,
70.54
]
},
{
"text": "- So today, we're going\nto talk about some animals",
"timestamp": [
70.54,
72.53
]
},
{
"text": "- So today, we're going\nto talk about some animals",
"timestamp": [
70.54,
72.53
]
},
{
"text": "and how they sleep.",
"timestamp": [
72.53,
73.64
]
},
{
"text": "and how they sleep.",
"timestamp": [
72.53,
73.64
]
},
{
"text": "So here's the first one.",
"timestamp": [
73.64,
75.023
]
},
{
"text": "So here's the first one.",
"timestamp": [
73.64,
75.023
]
},
{
"text": "What's that?",
"timestamp": [
75.023,
76.92
]
},
{
"text": "What's that?",
"timestamp": [
75.023,
76.92
]
},
{
"text": "- A giraffe.",
"timestamp": [
76.92,
77.753
]
},
{
"text": "- A giraffe.",
"timestamp": [
76.92,
77.753
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you ever seen a giraffe in person?",
"timestamp": [
77.753,
78.67
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you ever seen a giraffe in person?",
"timestamp": [
77.753,
78.67
]
},
{
"text": "- Uh yeah.",
"timestamp": [
78.67,
79.75
]
},
{
"text": "- Uh yeah.",
"timestamp": [
78.67,
79.75
]
},
{
"text": "- They're pretty cool, right?",
"timestamp": [
79.75,
80.644
]
},
{
"text": "- They're pretty cool, right?",
"timestamp": [
79.75,
80.644
]
},
{
"text": "- Mhm.",
"timestamp": [
80.644,
81.477
]
},
{
"text": "- Mhm.",
"timestamp": [
80.644,
81.477
]
},
{
"text": "- And so what's really\ncool about this is that",
"timestamp": [
81.477,
83.97
]
},
{
"text": "- And so what's really\ncool about this is that",
"timestamp": [
81.477,
83.97
]
},
{
"text": "giraffes need to sleep\nlike everybody else,",
"timestamp": [
83.97,
86.35
]
},
{
"text": "giraffes need to sleep\nlike everybody else,",
"timestamp": [
83.97,
86.35
]
},
{
"text": "and so the way that it does\nis it kind of slumps over",
"timestamp": [
86.35,
89.29
]
},
{
"text": "and so the way that it does\nis it kind of slumps over",
"timestamp": [
86.35,
89.29
]
},
{
"text": "and it gets down on its legs",
"timestamp": [
89.29,
91.03
]
},
{
"text": "and it gets down on its legs",
"timestamp": [
89.29,
91.03
]
},
{
"text": "and it kind of becomes this ball,",
"timestamp": [
91.03,
92.9
]
},
{
"text": "and it kind of becomes this ball,",
"timestamp": [
91.03,
92.9
]
},
{
"text": "but what's crazy about the whole thing",
"timestamp": [
92.9,
94.91
]
},
{
"text": "but what's crazy about the whole thing",
"timestamp": [
92.9,
94.91
]
},
{
"text": "is they only sleep for\nlike 30 minutes a day.",
"timestamp": [
94.91,
97.6
]
},
{
"text": "is they only sleep for\nlike 30 minutes a day.",
"timestamp": [
94.91,
97.6
]
},
{
"text": "30 minutes!",
"timestamp": [
97.6,
98.433
]
},
{
"text": "30 minutes!",
"timestamp": [
97.6,
98.433
]
},
{
"text": "Because it can't waste any more time,",
"timestamp": [
98.433,
100.67
]
},
{
"text": "Because it can't waste any more time,",
"timestamp": [
98.433,
100.67
]
},
{
"text": "because it can't be\nvulnerable for any longer.",
"timestamp": [
100.67,
102.73
]
},
{
"text": "because it can't be\nvulnerable for any longer.",
"timestamp": [
100.67,
102.73
]
},
{
"text": "It can get eaten by lions\nand that kind of thing.",
"timestamp": [
102.73,
104.77
]
},
{
"text": "It can get eaten by lions\nand that kind of thing.",
"timestamp": [
102.73,
104.77
]
},
{
"text": "It has kind of evolved in a\nway that it can still survive",
"timestamp": [
104.77,
108.53
]
},
{
"text": "It has kind of evolved in a\nway that it can still survive",
"timestamp": [
104.77,
108.53
]
},
{
"text": "and still get all the restoration it needs",
"timestamp": [
108.53,
110.57
]
},
{
"text": "and still get all the restoration it needs",
"timestamp": [
108.53,
110.57
]
},
{
"text": "under such a short period of time.",
"timestamp": [
110.57,
112.34
]
},
{
"text": "under such a short period of time.",
"timestamp": [
110.57,
112.34
]
},
{
"text": "- And how does it like\nrecharge, like humans?",
"timestamp": [
112.34,
115.46
]
},
{
"text": "- And how does it like\nrecharge, like humans?",
"timestamp": [
112.34,
115.46
]
},
{
"text": "- So we think it works the same way,",
"timestamp": [
115.46,
117.81
]
},
{
"text": "- So we think it works the same way,",
"timestamp": [
115.46,
117.81
]
},
{
"text": "but maybe just like more efficiently.",
"timestamp": [
117.81,
119.53
]
},
{
"text": "but maybe just like more efficiently.",
"timestamp": [
117.81,
119.53
]
},
{
"text": "And so we're still really\nlearning about how this works.",
"timestamp": [
119.53,
123.09
]
},
{
"text": "And so we're still really\nlearning about how this works.",
"timestamp": [
119.53,
123.09
]
},
{
"text": "Sleep science itself\nis kind of a new field.",
"timestamp": [
123.09,
125.85
]
},
{
"text": "Sleep science itself\nis kind of a new field.",
"timestamp": [
123.09,
125.85
]
},
{
"text": "- I had a sleepover on Saturday,",
"timestamp": [
125.85,
128.55
]
},
{
"text": "- I had a sleepover on Saturday,",
"timestamp": [
125.85,
128.55
]
},
{
"text": "and I didn't sleep at all.",
"timestamp": [
128.55,
129.88
]
},
{
"text": "and I didn't sleep at all.",
"timestamp": [
128.55,
129.88
]
},
{
"text": "- And how did you feel?",
"timestamp": [
129.88,
130.956
]
},
{
"text": "- And how did you feel?",
"timestamp": [
129.88,
130.956
]
},
{
"text": "- Really tired.",
"timestamp": [
130.956,
132.12
]
},
{
"text": "- Really tired.",
"timestamp": [
130.956,
132.12
]
},
{
"text": "- Really tired.",
"timestamp": [
132.12,
133.15
]
},
{
"text": "- Really tired.",
"timestamp": [
132.12,
133.15
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think you were a\nlittle crankier than usual?",
"timestamp": [
133.15,
135.745
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think you were a\nlittle crankier than usual?",
"timestamp": [
133.15,
135.745
]
},
{
"text": "Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
135.745,
137.04
]
},
{
"text": "Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
135.745,
137.04
]
},
{
"text": "That's actually really interesting,",
"timestamp": [
137.04,
138.54
]
},
{
"text": "That's actually really interesting,",
"timestamp": [
137.04,
138.54
]
},
{
"text": "because what happens is",
"timestamp": [
138.54,
140.44
]
},
{
"text": "because what happens is",
"timestamp": [
138.54,
140.44
]
},
{
"text": "humans and everything\nneeds to sleep eventually,",
"timestamp": [
140.44,
143.93
]
},
{
"text": "humans and everything\nneeds to sleep eventually,",
"timestamp": [
140.44,
143.93
]
},
{
"text": "and so you can't stay\nup indefinitely, right?",
"timestamp": [
143.93,
146.81
]
},
{
"text": "and so you can't stay\nup indefinitely, right?",
"timestamp": [
143.93,
146.81
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think happens\nif you don't sleep?",
"timestamp": [
146.81,
149.18
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think happens\nif you don't sleep?",
"timestamp": [
146.81,
149.18
]
},
{
"text": "- It affects what you can\ndo in your daily life.",
"timestamp": [
149.18,
151.98
]
},
{
"text": "- It affects what you can\ndo in your daily life.",
"timestamp": [
149.18,
151.98
]
},
{
"text": "- Excellent.",
"timestamp": [
151.98,
152.813
]
},
{
"text": "- Excellent.",
"timestamp": [
151.98,
152.813
]
},
{
"text": "So now I want to tell\nyou about another animal",
"timestamp": [
152.813,
154.67
]
},
{
"text": "So now I want to tell\nyou about another animal",
"timestamp": [
152.813,
154.67
]
},
{
"text": "and how they sleep, okay?",
"timestamp": [
154.67,
156.16
]
},
{
"text": "and how they sleep, okay?",
"timestamp": [
154.67,
156.16
]
},
{
"text": "So we have this one.",
"timestamp": [
156.16,
157.564
]
},
{
"text": "So we have this one.",
"timestamp": [
156.16,
157.564
]
},
{
"text": "What's that?",
"timestamp": [
157.564,
159.27
]
},
{
"text": "What's that?",
"timestamp": [
157.564,
159.27
]
},
{
"text": "- A hippo.",
"timestamp": [
159.27,
160.103
]
},
{
"text": "- A hippo.",
"timestamp": [
159.27,
160.103
]
},
{
"text": "- A hippopotamus.",
"timestamp": [
160.103,
160.936
]
},
{
"text": "- A hippopotamus.",
"timestamp": [
160.103,
160.936
]
},
{
"text": "They have a different challenge.",
"timestamp": [
160.936,
162.413
]
},
{
"text": "They have a different challenge.",
"timestamp": [
160.936,
162.413
]
},
{
"text": "They sleep underwater.",
"timestamp": [
162.413,
166.01
]
},
{
"text": "They sleep underwater.",
"timestamp": [
162.413,
166.01
]
},
{
"text": "- I could never do that, I would pass out.",
"timestamp": [
166.01,
167.95
]
},
{
"text": "- I could never do that, I would pass out.",
"timestamp": [
166.01,
167.95
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, right!",
"timestamp": [
167.95,
168.783
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, right!",
"timestamp": [
167.95,
168.783
]
},
{
"text": "So how do they do it?",
"timestamp": [
168.783,
169.76
]
},
{
"text": "So how do they do it?",
"timestamp": [
168.783,
169.76
]
},
{
"text": "In the area that they live in,",
"timestamp": [
169.76,
170.663
]
},
{
"text": "In the area that they live in,",
"timestamp": [
169.76,
170.663
]
},
{
"text": "they need to stay cool, right?",
"timestamp": [
170.663,
172.54
]
},
{
"text": "they need to stay cool, right?",
"timestamp": [
170.663,
172.54
]
},
{
"text": "And so they spend a lot\nof time in the water,",
"timestamp": [
172.54,
174.23
]
},
{
"text": "And so they spend a lot\nof time in the water,",
"timestamp": [
172.54,
174.23
]
},
{
"text": "and so then as a consequence,",
"timestamp": [
174.23,
175.34
]
},
{
"text": "and so then as a consequence,",
"timestamp": [
174.23,
175.34
]
},
{
"text": "they need to sleep in the water,",
"timestamp": [
175.34,
176.7
]
},
{
"text": "they need to sleep in the water,",
"timestamp": [
175.34,
176.7
]
},
{
"text": "but how do they do it?",
"timestamp": [
176.7,
177.74
]
},
{
"text": "but how do they do it?",
"timestamp": [
176.7,
177.74
]
},
{
"text": "So it's really fascinating.",
"timestamp": [
177.74,
180.26
]
},
{
"text": "So it's really fascinating.",
"timestamp": [
177.74,
180.26
]
},
{
"text": "What they do is while they're sleeping,",
"timestamp": [
180.26,
182.77
]
},
{
"text": "What they do is while they're sleeping,",
"timestamp": [
180.26,
182.77
]
},
{
"text": "they actually float back up\nto the surface and breathe",
"timestamp": [
182.77,
186.08
]
},
{
"text": "they actually float back up\nto the surface and breathe",
"timestamp": [
182.77,
186.08
]
},
{
"text": "without waking up.",
"timestamp": [
186.08,
187.53
]
},
{
"text": "without waking up.",
"timestamp": [
186.08,
187.53
]
},
{
"text": "They're able to go about\ntheir whole sleep cycles",
"timestamp": [
187.53,
190.91
]
},
{
"text": "They're able to go about\ntheir whole sleep cycles",
"timestamp": [
187.53,
190.91
]
},
{
"text": "but still able to breathe,",
"timestamp": [
190.91,
192.09
]
},
{
"text": "but still able to breathe,",
"timestamp": [
190.91,
192.09
]
},
{
"text": "because their body has adapted in a way",
"timestamp": [
192.09,
194.15
]
},
{
"text": "because their body has adapted in a way",
"timestamp": [
192.09,
194.15
]
},
{
"text": "that they can still get\nthe oxygen that they need.",
"timestamp": [
194.15,
197.23
]
},
{
"text": "that they can still get\nthe oxygen that they need.",
"timestamp": [
194.15,
197.23
]
},
{
"text": "It's a really amazing thing.",
"timestamp": [
197.23,
199.77
]
},
{
"text": "It's a really amazing thing.",
"timestamp": [
197.23,
199.77
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think?",
"timestamp": [
199.77,
200.81
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think?",
"timestamp": [
199.77,
200.81
]
},
{
"text": "- That's cool.",
"timestamp": [
200.81,
201.643
]
},
{
"text": "- That's cool.",
"timestamp": [
200.81,
201.643
]
},
{
"text": "- Would it be cool to have that power?",
"timestamp": [
201.643,
202.956
]
},
{
"text": "- Would it be cool to have that power?",
"timestamp": [
201.643,
202.956
]
},
{
"text": "- Uh yeah.",
"timestamp": [
202.956,
203.86
]
},
{
"text": "- Uh yeah.",
"timestamp": [
202.956,
203.86
]
},
{
"text": "- So now I want to talk\nabout our last animal,",
"timestamp": [
203.86,
206.09
]
},
{
"text": "- So now I want to talk\nabout our last animal,",
"timestamp": [
203.86,
206.09
]
},
{
"text": "and I think this one is probably\nthe most amazing of all.",
"timestamp": [
206.09,
209.27
]
},
{
"text": "and I think this one is probably\nthe most amazing of all.",
"timestamp": [
206.09,
209.27
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, so what's this?",
"timestamp": [
209.27,
211.18
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, so what's this?",
"timestamp": [
209.27,
211.18
]
},
{
"text": "- Aww a dolphin.",
"timestamp": [
211.18,
212.013
]
},
{
"text": "- Aww a dolphin.",
"timestamp": [
211.18,
212.013
]
},
{
"text": "- A dolphin!",
"timestamp": [
212.013,
212.846
]
},
{
"text": "- A dolphin!",
"timestamp": [
212.013,
212.846
]
},
{
"text": "Yes.",
"timestamp": [
212.846,
213.679
]
},
{
"text": "Yes.",
"timestamp": [
212.846,
213.679
]
},
{
"text": "So dolphins, kind of like hippos,",
"timestamp": [
213.679,
217.19
]
},
{
"text": "So dolphins, kind of like hippos,",
"timestamp": [
213.679,
217.19
]
},
{
"text": "have to sleep in the water, okay?",
"timestamp": [
217.19,
220.425
]
},
{
"text": "have to sleep in the water, okay?",
"timestamp": [
217.19,
220.425
]
},
{
"text": "But because they're mammals,\nright, they need to breathe.",
"timestamp": [
220.425,
223.46
]
},
{
"text": "But because they're mammals,\nright, they need to breathe.",
"timestamp": [
220.425,
223.46
]
},
{
"text": "Dolphins breathe air.",
"timestamp": [
223.46,
224.76
]
},
{
"text": "Dolphins breathe air.",
"timestamp": [
223.46,
224.76
]
},
{
"text": "They have to go up to the\nsurface and breathe, right?",
"timestamp": [
224.76,
226.42
]
},
{
"text": "They have to go up to the\nsurface and breathe, right?",
"timestamp": [
224.76,
226.42
]
},
{
"text": "And for an animal like that,",
"timestamp": [
226.42,
227.59
]
},
{
"text": "And for an animal like that,",
"timestamp": [
226.42,
227.59
]
},
{
"text": "it needs to figure out\na way that it can sleep",
"timestamp": [
227.59,
230.28
]
},
{
"text": "it needs to figure out\na way that it can sleep",
"timestamp": [
227.59,
230.28
]
},
{
"text": "but also still survive, right?",
"timestamp": [
230.28,
232.18
]
},
{
"text": "but also still survive, right?",
"timestamp": [
230.28,
232.18
]
},
{
"text": "You know how dolphins sleep?",
"timestamp": [
232.18,
234.933
]
},
{
"text": "You know how dolphins sleep?",
"timestamp": [
232.18,
234.933
]
},
{
"text": "- How?",
"timestamp": [
234.933,
235.766
]
},
{
"text": "- How?",
"timestamp": [
234.933,
235.766
]
},
{
"text": "- One half of their brain at a time.",
"timestamp": [
235.766,
237.44
]
},
{
"text": "- One half of their brain at a time.",
"timestamp": [
235.766,
237.44
]
},
{
"text": "So half of their brain goes to sleep,",
"timestamp": [
237.44,
240.3
]
},
{
"text": "So half of their brain goes to sleep,",
"timestamp": [
237.44,
240.3
]
},
{
"text": "and the other half stays awake,",
"timestamp": [
240.3,
242.36
]
},
{
"text": "and the other half stays awake,",
"timestamp": [
240.3,
242.36
]
},
{
"text": "so that they can continue\nto breathe and swim,",
"timestamp": [
242.36,
244.7
]
},
{
"text": "so that they can continue\nto breathe and swim,",
"timestamp": [
242.36,
244.7
]
},
{
"text": "and they do it in this four hours a time,",
"timestamp": [
244.7,
247.03
]
},
{
"text": "and they do it in this four hours a time,",
"timestamp": [
244.7,
247.03
]
},
{
"text": "so like their right part\nof their brain sleeps,",
"timestamp": [
247.03,
249.39
]
},
{
"text": "so like their right part\nof their brain sleeps,",
"timestamp": [
247.03,
249.39
]
},
{
"text": "they're able to go up to\nthe surface and breathe.",
"timestamp": [
249.39,
251.47
]
},
{
"text": "they're able to go up to\nthe surface and breathe.",
"timestamp": [
249.39,
251.47
]
},
{
"text": "Then their left part of their\nbrain sleeps for four hours,",
"timestamp": [
251.47,
253.94
]
},
{
"text": "Then their left part of their\nbrain sleeps for four hours,",
"timestamp": [
251.47,
253.94
]
},
{
"text": "and it goes back and\nforth, back and forth,",
"timestamp": [
253.94,
256.16
]
},
{
"text": "and it goes back and\nforth, back and forth,",
"timestamp": [
253.94,
256.16
]
},
{
"text": "so they can kind of maintain alertness,",
"timestamp": [
256.16,
258.63
]
},
{
"text": "so they can kind of maintain alertness,",
"timestamp": [
256.16,
258.63
]
},
{
"text": "still breathe, and survive.",
"timestamp": [
258.63,
261.37
]
},
{
"text": "still breathe, and survive.",
"timestamp": [
258.63,
261.37
]
},
{
"text": "Is that amazing or what?",
"timestamp": [
261.37,
262.277
]
},
{
"text": "Is that amazing or what?",
"timestamp": [
261.37,
262.277
]
},
{
"text": "- That's cool.",
"timestamp": [
262.277,
263.44
]
},
{
"text": "- That's cool.",
"timestamp": [
262.277,
263.44
]
},
{
"text": "- So what'd you learn today?",
"timestamp": [
263.44,
264.87
]
},
{
"text": "- So what'd you learn today?",
"timestamp": [
263.44,
264.87
]
},
{
"text": "- I learned how other animals sleep.",
"timestamp": [
264.87,
266.93
]
},
{
"text": "- I learned how other animals sleep.",
"timestamp": [
264.87,
266.93
]
},
{
"text": "- What is important about sleeping?",
"timestamp": [
266.93,
269.07
]
},
{
"text": "- What is important about sleeping?",
"timestamp": [
266.93,
269.07
]
},
{
"text": "- Sleep rests your body,",
"timestamp": [
269.07,
272.41
]
},
{
"text": "- Sleep rests your body,",
"timestamp": [
269.07,
272.41
]
},
{
"text": "and you have to rest your body",
"timestamp": [
272.41,
275.53
]
},
{
"text": "and you have to rest your body",
"timestamp": [
272.41,
275.53
]
},
{
"text": "in order to do your daily things in life.",
"timestamp": [
275.53,
278.133
]
},
{
"text": "in order to do your daily things in life.",
"timestamp": [
275.53,
278.133
]
},
{
"text": "- Hey, I'm Aric.",
"timestamp": [
280.28,
281.21
]
},
{
"text": "- Hey, I'm Aric.",
"timestamp": [
280.28,
281.21
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Dwayne.",
"timestamp": [
281.21,
282.043
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Dwayne.",
"timestamp": [
281.21,
282.043
]
},
{
"text": "Nice to meet you, Aric.",
"timestamp": [
282.043,
282.876
]
},
{
"text": "Nice to meet you, Aric.",
"timestamp": [
282.043,
282.876
]
},
{
"text": "- And how old are you, Dwayne?",
"timestamp": [
282.876,
283.709
]
},
{
"text": "- And how old are you, Dwayne?",
"timestamp": [
282.876,
283.709
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm 16 years old.",
"timestamp": [
283.709,
284.566
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm 16 years old.",
"timestamp": [
283.709,
284.566
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, and where do you go to school?",
"timestamp": [
284.566,
285.97
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, and where do you go to school?",
"timestamp": [
284.566,
285.97
]
},
{
"text": "- McClymonds High School\nin Oakland, California.",
"timestamp": [
285.97,
288.14
]
},
{
"text": "- McClymonds High School\nin Oakland, California.",
"timestamp": [
285.97,
288.14
]
},
{
"text": "- Excellent, and what's\nyour favorite subject?",
"timestamp": [
288.14,
291.006
]
},
{
"text": "- Excellent, and what's\nyour favorite subject?",
"timestamp": [
288.14,
291.006
]
},
{
"text": "- AP Chemistry.",
"timestamp": [
291.006,
293.26
]
},
{
"text": "- AP Chemistry.",
"timestamp": [
291.006,
293.26
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a serious science.",
"timestamp": [
293.26,
294.189
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a serious science.",
"timestamp": [
293.26,
294.189
]
},
{
"text": "- It is.",
"timestamp": [
294.189,
295.022
]
},
{
"text": "- It is.",
"timestamp": [
294.189,
295.022
]
},
{
"text": "- And good news, we're\ntalking about science today.",
"timestamp": [
295.022,
296.8
]
},
{
"text": "- And good news, we're\ntalking about science today.",
"timestamp": [
295.022,
296.8
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
296.8,
297.633
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
296.8,
297.633
]
},
{
"text": "- In fact, we're talking about sleep.",
"timestamp": [
297.633,
299.38
]
},
{
"text": "- In fact, we're talking about sleep.",
"timestamp": [
297.633,
299.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh okay.\n- And sleep science.",
"timestamp": [
299.38,
301
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh okay.\n- And sleep science.",
"timestamp": [
299.38,
301
]
},
{
"text": "Do you sleep?",
"timestamp": [
301,
301.833
]
},
{
"text": "Do you sleep?",
"timestamp": [
301,
301.833
]
},
{
"text": "- I do, I try. [laughs]",
"timestamp": [
301.833,
302.95
]
},
{
"text": "- I do, I try. [laughs]",
"timestamp": [
301.833,
302.95
]
},
{
"text": "- You try, we all gotta try.",
"timestamp": [
302.95,
304.41
]
},
{
"text": "- You try, we all gotta try.",
"timestamp": [
302.95,
304.41
]
},
{
"text": "You've probably heard about\nsleep as this kind of,",
"timestamp": [
304.41,
306.78
]
},
{
"text": "You've probably heard about\nsleep as this kind of,",
"timestamp": [
304.41,
306.78
]
},
{
"text": "you know, it's a biological process",
"timestamp": [
306.78,
308.29
]
},
{
"text": "you know, it's a biological process",
"timestamp": [
306.78,
308.29
]
},
{
"text": "that happens in your brain.",
"timestamp": [
308.29,
309.71
]
},
{
"text": "that happens in your brain.",
"timestamp": [
308.29,
309.71
]
},
{
"text": "It's really important for your body,",
"timestamp": [
309.71,
310.87
]
},
{
"text": "It's really important for your body,",
"timestamp": [
309.71,
310.87
]
},
{
"text": "but it's a lot more complex than that.",
"timestamp": [
310.87,
312.86
]
},
{
"text": "but it's a lot more complex than that.",
"timestamp": [
310.87,
312.86
]
},
{
"text": "Sleep is made up of different parts.",
"timestamp": [
312.86,
314.156
]
},
{
"text": "Sleep is made up of different parts.",
"timestamp": [
312.86,
314.156
]
},
{
"text": "You know, when you think about sleep,",
"timestamp": [
314.156,
315.83
]
},
{
"text": "You know, when you think about sleep,",
"timestamp": [
314.156,
315.83
]
},
{
"text": "what do you think about?",
"timestamp": [
315.83,
317.09
]
},
{
"text": "what do you think about?",
"timestamp": [
315.83,
317.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Resting, relaxing, really\nshutting down your brain,",
"timestamp": [
317.09,
320.95
]
},
{
"text": "- Resting, relaxing, really\nshutting down your brain,",
"timestamp": [
317.09,
320.95
]
},
{
"text": "taking some time off of a\nbusy schedule and work day.",
"timestamp": [
320.95,
324.62
]
},
{
"text": "taking some time off of a\nbusy schedule and work day.",
"timestamp": [
320.95,
324.62
]
},
{
"text": "- But being off is not just being off.",
"timestamp": [
324.62,
327.37
]
},
{
"text": "- But being off is not just being off.",
"timestamp": [
324.62,
327.37
]
},
{
"text": "There's lots of things that are happening.",
"timestamp": [
327.37,
329.21
]
},
{
"text": "There's lots of things that are happening.",
"timestamp": [
327.37,
329.21
]
},
{
"text": "We're gonna kind of talk",
"timestamp": [
329.21,
330.39
]
},
{
"text": "We're gonna kind of talk",
"timestamp": [
329.21,
330.39
]
},
{
"text": "about those different pieces of sleep.",
"timestamp": [
330.39,
332.6
]
},
{
"text": "about those different pieces of sleep.",
"timestamp": [
330.39,
332.6
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
332.6,
333.433
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
332.6,
333.433
]
},
{
"text": "- So our sleep is made up\nof different types, okay?",
"timestamp": [
333.433,
336.15
]
},
{
"text": "- So our sleep is made up\nof different types, okay?",
"timestamp": [
333.433,
336.15
]
},
{
"text": "The first one is called\nnon-rapid eye movement sleep,",
"timestamp": [
336.15,
340.25
]
},
{
"text": "The first one is called\nnon-rapid eye movement sleep,",
"timestamp": [
336.15,
340.25
]
},
{
"text": "or non-REM, okay?",
"timestamp": [
340.25,
341.87
]
},
{
"text": "or non-REM, okay?",
"timestamp": [
340.25,
341.87
]
},
{
"text": "Or NREM.",
"timestamp": [
341.87,
343.22
]
},
{
"text": "Or NREM.",
"timestamp": [
341.87,
343.22
]
},
{
"text": "And then the other one, which\nmight not be a surprise,",
"timestamp": [
343.22,
346.64
]
},
{
"text": "And then the other one, which\nmight not be a surprise,",
"timestamp": [
343.22,
346.64
]
},
{
"text": "is called REM.",
"timestamp": [
346.64,
347.473
]
},
{
"text": "is called REM.",
"timestamp": [
346.64,
347.473
]
},
{
"text": "Rapid eye movement sleep.",
"timestamp": [
347.473,
348.306
]
},
{
"text": "Rapid eye movement sleep.",
"timestamp": [
347.473,
348.306
]
},
{
"text": "And those are the two main\ntypes of sleep that happen.",
"timestamp": [
348.306,
351.68
]
},
{
"text": "And those are the two main\ntypes of sleep that happen.",
"timestamp": [
348.306,
351.68
]
},
{
"text": "The way that we measure\nthat as a sleep scientist",
"timestamp": [
351.68,
353.94
]
},
{
"text": "The way that we measure\nthat as a sleep scientist",
"timestamp": [
351.68,
353.94
]
},
{
"text": "is that we'll actually\nbring people into the lab",
"timestamp": [
353.94,
355.66
]
},
{
"text": "is that we'll actually\nbring people into the lab",
"timestamp": [
353.94,
355.66
]
},
{
"text": "where they can do this at home,",
"timestamp": [
355.66,
356.98
]
},
{
"text": "where they can do this at home,",
"timestamp": [
355.66,
356.98
]
},
{
"text": "where we put electrodes on their scalp",
"timestamp": [
356.98,
360.66
]
},
{
"text": "where we put electrodes on their scalp",
"timestamp": [
356.98,
360.66
]
},
{
"text": "while they're sleeping,",
"timestamp": [
360.66,
361.6
]
},
{
"text": "while they're sleeping,",
"timestamp": [
360.66,
361.6
]
},
{
"text": "and that allows us to\nmeasure the brain activity",
"timestamp": [
361.6,
364.73
]
},
{
"text": "and that allows us to\nmeasure the brain activity",
"timestamp": [
361.6,
364.73
]
},
{
"text": "that's going on during the night.",
"timestamp": [
364.73,
366.4
]
},
{
"text": "that's going on during the night.",
"timestamp": [
364.73,
366.4
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
366.4,
367.233
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
366.4,
367.233
]
},
{
"text": "Are you like able to tell how\nmuch sleep someone's getting",
"timestamp": [
367.233,
369.75
]
},
{
"text": "Are you like able to tell how\nmuch sleep someone's getting",
"timestamp": [
367.233,
369.75
]
},
{
"text": "or what their sleep schedule is by REM?",
"timestamp": [
369.75,
371.545
]
},
{
"text": "or what their sleep schedule is by REM?",
"timestamp": [
369.75,
371.545
]
},
{
"text": "- When we measure all of\nthat, we're able to see",
"timestamp": [
371.545,
374.07
]
},
{
"text": "- When we measure all of\nthat, we're able to see",
"timestamp": [
371.545,
374.07
]
},
{
"text": "how much time someone's asleep,",
"timestamp": [
374.07,
376.03
]
},
{
"text": "how much time someone's asleep,",
"timestamp": [
374.07,
376.03
]
},
{
"text": "and how many times they wake\nup and stuff during the night.",
"timestamp": [
376.03,
378.33
]
},
{
"text": "and how many times they wake\nup and stuff during the night.",
"timestamp": [
376.03,
378.33
]
},
{
"text": "You know, we're also really interested",
"timestamp": [
378.33,
379.77
]
},
{
"text": "You know, we're also really interested",
"timestamp": [
378.33,
379.77
]
},
{
"text": "in kind of, the amount of\nnon-REM sleep someone gets",
"timestamp": [
379.77,
383.01
]
},
{
"text": "in kind of, the amount of\nnon-REM sleep someone gets",
"timestamp": [
379.77,
383.01
]
},
{
"text": "and the amount of REM\nsleep that someone gets,",
"timestamp": [
383.01,
384.9
]
},
{
"text": "and the amount of REM\nsleep that someone gets,",
"timestamp": [
383.01,
384.9
]
},
{
"text": "because each part of those types of sleep",
"timestamp": [
384.9,
387.63
]
},
{
"text": "because each part of those types of sleep",
"timestamp": [
384.9,
387.63
]
},
{
"text": "do different things for the body.",
"timestamp": [
387.63,
389.33
]
},
{
"text": "do different things for the body.",
"timestamp": [
387.63,
389.33
]
},
{
"text": "And so it's important\nto get both of those.",
"timestamp": [
389.33,
391.22
]
},
{
"text": "And so it's important\nto get both of those.",
"timestamp": [
389.33,
391.22
]
},
{
"text": "And so within non-REM sleep,",
"timestamp": [
391.22,
393.03
]
},
{
"text": "And so within non-REM sleep,",
"timestamp": [
391.22,
393.03
]
},
{
"text": "there are three stages ranging\nfrom N-1 to N-2 to N-3.",
"timestamp": [
393.03,
397.65
]
},
{
"text": "there are three stages ranging\nfrom N-1 to N-2 to N-3.",
"timestamp": [
393.03,
397.65
]
},
{
"text": "So not particularly clever in our naming,",
"timestamp": [
397.65,
399.99
]
},
{
"text": "So not particularly clever in our naming,",
"timestamp": [
397.65,
399.99
]
},
{
"text": "but that's how we know\nwhat stages they are.",
"timestamp": [
399.99,
402.13
]
},
{
"text": "but that's how we know\nwhat stages they are.",
"timestamp": [
399.99,
402.13
]
},
{
"text": "And what they do is it moves",
"timestamp": [
402.13,
404.01
]
},
{
"text": "And what they do is it moves",
"timestamp": [
402.13,
404.01
]
},
{
"text": "from lightest to deepest sleep, okay?",
"timestamp": [
404.01,
406.414
]
},
{
"text": "from lightest to deepest sleep, okay?",
"timestamp": [
404.01,
406.414
]
},
{
"text": "N-1, it's more kind of\nlight, wakefulness sleep,",
"timestamp": [
406.414,
410.52
]
},
{
"text": "N-1, it's more kind of\nlight, wakefulness sleep,",
"timestamp": [
406.414,
410.52
]
},
{
"text": "kind of in and out of sleeping.",
"timestamp": [
410.52,
412.47
]
},
{
"text": "kind of in and out of sleeping.",
"timestamp": [
410.52,
412.47
]
},
{
"text": "Then you go into N-2,",
"timestamp": [
412.47,
414.15
]
},
{
"text": "Then you go into N-2,",
"timestamp": [
412.47,
414.15
]
},
{
"text": "which is where we spend 45\nto 55 percent of our sleep.",
"timestamp": [
414.15,
418.03
]
},
{
"text": "which is where we spend 45\nto 55 percent of our sleep.",
"timestamp": [
414.15,
418.03
]
},
{
"text": "And it's more this kind of light sleep,",
"timestamp": [
418.03,
420.21
]
},
{
"text": "And it's more this kind of light sleep,",
"timestamp": [
418.03,
420.21
]
},
{
"text": "but then we get into kind of\nthe really restorative sleep,",
"timestamp": [
420.21,
423.417
]
},
{
"text": "but then we get into kind of\nthe really restorative sleep,",
"timestamp": [
420.21,
423.417
]
},
{
"text": "and that's N-3.",
"timestamp": [
423.417,
425
]
},
{
"text": "and that's N-3.",
"timestamp": [
423.417,
425
]
},
{
"text": "And in N-3, when we look\nat someone's EEG wave,",
"timestamp": [
425,
428.19
]
},
{
"text": "And in N-3, when we look\nat someone's EEG wave,",
"timestamp": [
425,
428.19
]
},
{
"text": "we see these big slow waves,",
"timestamp": [
428.19,
430.83
]
},
{
"text": "we see these big slow waves,",
"timestamp": [
428.19,
430.83
]
},
{
"text": "and it's called slow wave sleep.",
"timestamp": [
430.83,
432.97
]
},
{
"text": "and it's called slow wave sleep.",
"timestamp": [
430.83,
432.97
]
},
{
"text": "And so we spend about 20% of\nour sleep in slow wave sleep,",
"timestamp": [
432.97,
437.45
]
},
{
"text": "And so we spend about 20% of\nour sleep in slow wave sleep,",
"timestamp": [
432.97,
437.45
]
},
{
"text": "though it can vary on a day to day.",
"timestamp": [
437.45,
439.1
]
},
{
"text": "though it can vary on a day to day.",
"timestamp": [
437.45,
439.1
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh wow.",
"timestamp": [
439.1,
439.933
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh wow.",
"timestamp": [
439.1,
439.933
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay?",
"timestamp": [
439.933,
440.766
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay?",
"timestamp": [
439.933,
440.766
]
},
{
"text": "When do you think you\nexperience the most REM?",
"timestamp": [
440.766,
443.75
]
},
{
"text": "When do you think you\nexperience the most REM?",
"timestamp": [
440.766,
443.75
]
},
{
"text": "- Well I've heard that you don't really go",
"timestamp": [
443.75,
446.7
]
},
{
"text": "- Well I've heard that you don't really go",
"timestamp": [
443.75,
446.7
]
},
{
"text": "into like a deeper sleep,",
"timestamp": [
446.7,
447.69
]
},
{
"text": "into like a deeper sleep,",
"timestamp": [
446.7,
447.69
]
},
{
"text": "so I'm guessing like N-3,",
"timestamp": [
447.69,
449.28
]
},
{
"text": "so I'm guessing like N-3,",
"timestamp": [
447.69,
449.28
]
},
{
"text": "or really any of the N's at all, really,",
"timestamp": [
449.28,
451.67
]
},
{
"text": "or really any of the N's at all, really,",
"timestamp": [
449.28,
451.67
]
},
{
"text": "if you are on technology\nright before you sleep.",
"timestamp": [
451.67,
454.59
]
},
{
"text": "if you are on technology\nright before you sleep.",
"timestamp": [
451.67,
454.59
]
},
{
"text": "And also if there's too much light,",
"timestamp": [
454.59,
457.17
]
},
{
"text": "And also if there's too much light,",
"timestamp": [
454.59,
457.17
]
},
{
"text": "or if you're listening to\nmusic while you're asleep",
"timestamp": [
457.17,
459.63
]
},
{
"text": "or if you're listening to\nmusic while you're asleep",
"timestamp": [
457.17,
459.63
]
},
{
"text": "or anything like that,",
"timestamp": [
459.63,
460.463
]
},
{
"text": "or anything like that,",
"timestamp": [
459.63,
460.463
]
},
{
"text": "you're not experiencing deep sleep, right?",
"timestamp": [
460.463,
462.14
]
},
{
"text": "you're not experiencing deep sleep, right?",
"timestamp": [
460.463,
462.14
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, some of that\nis totally accurate,",
"timestamp": [
462.14,
464.24
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, some of that\nis totally accurate,",
"timestamp": [
462.14,
464.24
]
},
{
"text": "that like when your brain's more engaged",
"timestamp": [
464.24,
467.07
]
},
{
"text": "that like when your brain's more engaged",
"timestamp": [
464.24,
467.07
]
},
{
"text": "by being on your phone or doing\nthings that you really enjoy",
"timestamp": [
467.07,
471.09
]
},
{
"text": "by being on your phone or doing\nthings that you really enjoy",
"timestamp": [
467.07,
471.09
]
},
{
"text": "or things that stress you out",
"timestamp": [
471.09,
472.2
]
},
{
"text": "or things that stress you out",
"timestamp": [
471.09,
472.2
]
},
{
"text": "or any of those types of things,",
"timestamp": [
472.2,
473.36
]
},
{
"text": "or any of those types of things,",
"timestamp": [
472.2,
473.36
]
},
{
"text": "it's harder to get to sleep",
"timestamp": [
473.36,
474.99
]
},
{
"text": "it's harder to get to sleep",
"timestamp": [
473.36,
474.99
]
},
{
"text": "and to kind of fall into\nthat deeper levels of sleep.",
"timestamp": [
474.99,
478.28
]
},
{
"text": "and to kind of fall into\nthat deeper levels of sleep.",
"timestamp": [
474.99,
478.28
]
},
{
"text": "Most of the REM sleep,\nthis dreaming sleep,",
"timestamp": [
478.28,
481.86
]
},
{
"text": "Most of the REM sleep,\nthis dreaming sleep,",
"timestamp": [
478.28,
481.86
]
},
{
"text": "happens in the second half of the night.",
"timestamp": [
481.86,
483.869
]
},
{
"text": "happens in the second half of the night.",
"timestamp": [
481.86,
483.869
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh.",
"timestamp": [
483.869,
484.702
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh.",
"timestamp": [
483.869,
484.702
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay?",
"timestamp": [
484.702,
485.535
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay?",
"timestamp": [
484.702,
485.535
]
},
{
"text": "So we wake up a lot during the night,",
"timestamp": [
485.535,
486.368
]
},
{
"text": "So we wake up a lot during the night,",
"timestamp": [
485.535,
486.368
]
},
{
"text": "and we just don't remember it.",
"timestamp": [
486.368,
487.82
]
},
{
"text": "and we just don't remember it.",
"timestamp": [
486.368,
487.82
]
},
{
"text": "And you'll go back down into deep sleep,",
"timestamp": [
487.82,
489.72
]
},
{
"text": "And you'll go back down into deep sleep,",
"timestamp": [
487.82,
489.72
]
},
{
"text": "and then up again into REM,",
"timestamp": [
489.72,
491.93
]
},
{
"text": "and then up again into REM,",
"timestamp": [
489.72,
491.93
]
},
{
"text": "you know, in kinda these cycles.",
"timestamp": [
491.93,
494.04
]
},
{
"text": "you know, in kinda these cycles.",
"timestamp": [
491.93,
494.04
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh wow.",
"timestamp": [
494.04,
494.873
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh wow.",
"timestamp": [
494.04,
494.873
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you ever take naps?",
"timestamp": [
494.873,
495.706
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you ever take naps?",
"timestamp": [
494.873,
495.706
]
},
{
"text": "- I do.",
"timestamp": [
495.706,
496.539
]
},
{
"text": "- I do.",
"timestamp": [
495.706,
496.539
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
496.539,
497.372
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
496.539,
497.372
]
},
{
"text": "How long are the naps that you take?",
"timestamp": [
497.372,
498.73
]
},
{
"text": "How long are the naps that you take?",
"timestamp": [
497.372,
498.73
]
},
{
"text": "- Anywhere from between one to six hours.",
"timestamp": [
498.73,
501.92
]
},
{
"text": "- Anywhere from between one to six hours.",
"timestamp": [
498.73,
501.92
]
},
{
"text": "- One to six hours?",
"timestamp": [
501.92,
503.4
]
},
{
"text": "- One to six hours?",
"timestamp": [
501.92,
503.4
]
},
{
"text": "That's a long nap.",
"timestamp": [
503.4,
504.233
]
},
{
"text": "That's a long nap.",
"timestamp": [
503.4,
504.233
]
},
{
"text": "- It is a long nap.",
"timestamp": [
504.233,
505.066
]
},
{
"text": "- It is a long nap.",
"timestamp": [
504.233,
505.066
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
505.066,
505.899
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
505.066,
505.899
]
},
{
"text": "Usually we want to keep\nnaps, like 20 to 30 minutes.",
"timestamp": [
505.899,
508.56
]
},
{
"text": "Usually we want to keep\nnaps, like 20 to 30 minutes.",
"timestamp": [
505.899,
508.56
]
},
{
"text": "When people drop into deep sleep,",
"timestamp": [
508.56,
511.28
]
},
{
"text": "When people drop into deep sleep,",
"timestamp": [
508.56,
511.28
]
},
{
"text": "and then they're woken up out of a nap,",
"timestamp": [
511.28,
512.97
]
},
{
"text": "and then they're woken up out of a nap,",
"timestamp": [
511.28,
512.97
]
},
{
"text": "most people report that\nthey feel way worse",
"timestamp": [
512.97,
515.9
]
},
{
"text": "most people report that\nthey feel way worse",
"timestamp": [
512.97,
515.9
]
},
{
"text": "than they did before they took the nap,",
"timestamp": [
515.9,
517.75
]
},
{
"text": "than they did before they took the nap,",
"timestamp": [
515.9,
517.75
]
},
{
"text": "and that's because you've\nbeen in deep sleep,",
"timestamp": [
517.75,
520.22
]
},
{
"text": "and that's because you've\nbeen in deep sleep,",
"timestamp": [
517.75,
520.22
]
},
{
"text": "and it's this term called sleep inertia.",
"timestamp": [
520.22,
522.37
]
},
{
"text": "and it's this term called sleep inertia.",
"timestamp": [
520.22,
522.37
]
},
{
"text": "So what are the stages of sleep?",
"timestamp": [
522.37,
524.3
]
},
{
"text": "So what are the stages of sleep?",
"timestamp": [
522.37,
524.3
]
},
{
"text": "- So N-1 being like light sleep,",
"timestamp": [
524.3,
526.629
]
},
{
"text": "- So N-1 being like light sleep,",
"timestamp": [
524.3,
526.629
]
},
{
"text": "still a lot of brain activity going on.",
"timestamp": [
526.629,
529.77
]
},
{
"text": "still a lot of brain activity going on.",
"timestamp": [
526.629,
529.77
]
},
{
"text": "I can imagine that happens\nright after you fall asleep.",
"timestamp": [
529.77,
532.347
]
},
{
"text": "I can imagine that happens\nright after you fall asleep.",
"timestamp": [
529.77,
532.347
]
},
{
"text": "\"Asleep.\"",
"timestamp": [
532.347,
533.886
]
},
{
"text": "\"Asleep.\"",
"timestamp": [
532.347,
533.886
]
},
{
"text": "And then N-2 being light,\nmoderate activity in your brain,",
"timestamp": [
533.886,
538.886
]
},
{
"text": "And then N-2 being light,\nmoderate activity in your brain,",
"timestamp": [
533.886,
538.886
]
},
{
"text": "still sleep, but still\nkind of consciously aware,",
"timestamp": [
539.76,
544.46
]
},
{
"text": "still sleep, but still\nkind of consciously aware,",
"timestamp": [
539.76,
544.46
]
},
{
"text": "and N-3 being the deepest form of sleep.",
"timestamp": [
544.46,
547.36
]
},
{
"text": "and N-3 being the deepest form of sleep.",
"timestamp": [
544.46,
547.36
]
},
{
"text": "- I want to know if you agree,",
"timestamp": [
547.36,
549.36
]
},
{
"text": "- I want to know if you agree,",
"timestamp": [
547.36,
549.36
]
},
{
"text": "sleep is the coolest thing\nyou've ever heard of.",
"timestamp": [
549.36,
550.669
]
},
{
"text": "sleep is the coolest thing\nyou've ever heard of.",
"timestamp": [
549.36,
550.669
]
},
{
"text": "- It really is.",
"timestamp": [
550.669,
552.048
]
},
{
"text": "- It really is.",
"timestamp": [
550.669,
552.048
]
},
{
"text": "[laughs]",
"timestamp": [
552.048,
552.881
]
},
{
"text": "[laughs]",
"timestamp": [
552.048,
552.881
]
},
{
"text": "Right now, it definitely is",
"timestamp": [
552.881,
554.79
]
},
{
"text": "Right now, it definitely is",
"timestamp": [
552.881,
554.79
]
},
{
"text": "the coolest thing I've ever heard of.",
"timestamp": [
554.79,
556.583
]
},
{
"text": "the coolest thing I've ever heard of.",
"timestamp": [
554.79,
556.583
]
},
{
"text": "- So tell me, where are you in school?",
"timestamp": [
557.92,
560.13
]
},
{
"text": "- So tell me, where are you in school?",
"timestamp": [
557.92,
560.13
]
},
{
"text": "What do you study?",
"timestamp": [
560.13,
560.963
]
},
{
"text": "What do you study?",
"timestamp": [
560.13,
560.963
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm a fourth year\nChemistry student at USF.",
"timestamp": [
560.963,
564.69
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm a fourth year\nChemistry student at USF.",
"timestamp": [
560.963,
564.69
]
},
{
"text": "- So pretty science-y.",
"timestamp": [
564.69,
565.673
]
},
{
"text": "- So pretty science-y.",
"timestamp": [
564.69,
565.673
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, pretty science-y.",
"timestamp": [
565.673,
566.99
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, pretty science-y.",
"timestamp": [
565.673,
566.99
]
},
{
"text": "- Excellent, because today for this level,",
"timestamp": [
566.99,
569.21
]
},
{
"text": "- Excellent, because today for this level,",
"timestamp": [
566.99,
569.21
]
},
{
"text": "we're talking about sleep.",
"timestamp": [
569.21,
570.398
]
},
{
"text": "we're talking about sleep.",
"timestamp": [
569.21,
570.398
]
},
{
"text": "- Great.",
"timestamp": [
570.398,
571.85
]
},
{
"text": "- Great.",
"timestamp": [
570.398,
571.85
]
},
{
"text": "- How much sleep do you get, typically?",
"timestamp": [
571.85,
574.46
]
},
{
"text": "- How much sleep do you get, typically?",
"timestamp": [
571.85,
574.46
]
},
{
"text": "- During the summer?",
"timestamp": [
574.46,
575.57
]
},
{
"text": "- During the summer?",
"timestamp": [
574.46,
575.57
]
},
{
"text": "Like 10 hours.\n- 10 hours?",
"timestamp": [
575.57,
577.08
]
},
{
"text": "Like 10 hours.\n- 10 hours?",
"timestamp": [
575.57,
577.08
]
},
{
"text": "- And during the school year, maybe five?",
"timestamp": [
577.08,
580.62
]
},
{
"text": "- And during the school year, maybe five?",
"timestamp": [
577.08,
580.62
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
580.62,
581.453
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
580.62,
581.453
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
581.453,
582.286
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
581.453,
582.286
]
},
{
"text": "- And so, how much do you think you need?",
"timestamp": [
582.286,
583.119
]
},
{
"text": "- And so, how much do you think you need?",
"timestamp": [
582.286,
583.119
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean, I've read that six is ideal",
"timestamp": [
583.119,
585.52
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean, I've read that six is ideal",
"timestamp": [
583.119,
585.52
]
},
{
"text": "for people in my age range.",
"timestamp": [
585.52,
588.01
]
},
{
"text": "for people in my age range.",
"timestamp": [
585.52,
588.01
]
},
{
"text": "- It turns out, for people that are",
"timestamp": [
588.01,
590.3
]
},
{
"text": "- It turns out, for people that are",
"timestamp": [
588.01,
590.3
]
},
{
"text": "between the ages of 18 and 65,",
"timestamp": [
590.3,
593.46
]
},
{
"text": "between the ages of 18 and 65,",
"timestamp": [
590.3,
593.46
]
},
{
"text": "the agreed upon amount of sleep",
"timestamp": [
593.46,
595.33
]
},
{
"text": "the agreed upon amount of sleep",
"timestamp": [
593.46,
595.33
]
},
{
"text": "that people should get is\nbetween seven and nine hours,",
"timestamp": [
595.33,
598.59
]
},
{
"text": "that people should get is\nbetween seven and nine hours,",
"timestamp": [
595.33,
598.59
]
},
{
"text": "and it's really at least\nseven hours per night,",
"timestamp": [
598.59,
601.54
]
},
{
"text": "and it's really at least\nseven hours per night,",
"timestamp": [
598.59,
601.54
]
},
{
"text": "to maintain optimal health as an adult.",
"timestamp": [
601.54,
603.93
]
},
{
"text": "to maintain optimal health as an adult.",
"timestamp": [
601.54,
603.93
]
},
{
"text": "So at least seven hours.",
"timestamp": [
603.93,
605.27
]
},
{
"text": "So at least seven hours.",
"timestamp": [
603.93,
605.27
]
},
{
"text": "When we look at across all\nof the data that is available",
"timestamp": [
605.27,
608.68
]
},
{
"text": "When we look at across all\nof the data that is available",
"timestamp": [
605.27,
608.68
]
},
{
"text": "on like sleep and health,",
"timestamp": [
608.68,
609.74
]
},
{
"text": "on like sleep and health,",
"timestamp": [
608.68,
609.74
]
},
{
"text": "and sleep and psychiatric illness\nand those types of things,",
"timestamp": [
609.74,
612.1
]
},
{
"text": "and sleep and psychiatric illness\nand those types of things,",
"timestamp": [
609.74,
612.1
]
},
{
"text": "the largest risk is when\npeople get five hours or less.",
"timestamp": [
612.1,
615.29
]
},
{
"text": "the largest risk is when\npeople get five hours or less.",
"timestamp": [
612.1,
615.29
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think is\nresponsible for driving",
"timestamp": [
615.29,
618.9
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think is\nresponsible for driving",
"timestamp": [
615.29,
618.9
]
},
{
"text": "how much sleep you need,\nand things like that?",
"timestamp": [
618.9,
620.95
]
},
{
"text": "how much sleep you need,\nand things like that?",
"timestamp": [
618.9,
620.95
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean, I know sleep\nis kind of regulated",
"timestamp": [
620.95,
623.92
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean, I know sleep\nis kind of regulated",
"timestamp": [
620.95,
623.92
]
},
{
"text": "by the thalamus and the\nsuprachiasmatic nucleus",
"timestamp": [
623.92,
626.71
]
},
{
"text": "by the thalamus and the\nsuprachiasmatic nucleus",
"timestamp": [
623.92,
626.71
]
},
{
"text": "sending signals to the pineal gland",
"timestamp": [
626.71,
629.1
]
},
{
"text": "sending signals to the pineal gland",
"timestamp": [
626.71,
629.1
]
},
{
"text": "to which kind of secretes melatonin,",
"timestamp": [
629.1,
631.29
]
},
{
"text": "to which kind of secretes melatonin,",
"timestamp": [
629.1,
631.29
]
},
{
"text": "which tells us when it's\ntime to go to sleep.",
"timestamp": [
631.29,
634.219
]
},
{
"text": "which tells us when it's\ntime to go to sleep.",
"timestamp": [
631.29,
634.219
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
634.219,
635.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
634.219,
635.81
]
},
{
"text": "- You can do part of this level,",
"timestamp": [
635.81,
638.17
]
},
{
"text": "- You can do part of this level,",
"timestamp": [
635.81,
638.17
]
},
{
"text": "and you can do the other part, clearly.",
"timestamp": [
638.17,
640
]
},
{
"text": "and you can do the other part, clearly.",
"timestamp": [
638.17,
640
]
},
{
"text": "Got some expertise under your\nbelt, and that's awesome,",
"timestamp": [
640,
642.49
]
},
{
"text": "Got some expertise under your\nbelt, and that's awesome,",
"timestamp": [
640,
642.49
]
},
{
"text": "because I think that everyone\nshould know more about sleep.",
"timestamp": [
642.49,
645.03
]
},
{
"text": "because I think that everyone\nshould know more about sleep.",
"timestamp": [
642.49,
645.03
]
},
{
"text": "And so the way that we think\nabout what drives sleep",
"timestamp": [
645.03,
647.7
]
},
{
"text": "And so the way that we think\nabout what drives sleep",
"timestamp": [
645.03,
647.7
]
},
{
"text": "are two independent but related processes",
"timestamp": [
647.7,
651.96
]
},
{
"text": "are two independent but related processes",
"timestamp": [
647.7,
651.96
]
},
{
"text": "and so they have kind of lame names.",
"timestamp": [
651.96,
654.33
]
},
{
"text": "and so they have kind of lame names.",
"timestamp": [
651.96,
654.33
]
},
{
"text": "Process S and process C,",
"timestamp": [
654.33,
656.78
]
},
{
"text": "Process S and process C,",
"timestamp": [
654.33,
656.78
]
},
{
"text": "and what you've kind of\ndescribed is process C,",
"timestamp": [
656.78,
659.45
]
},
{
"text": "and what you've kind of\ndescribed is process C,",
"timestamp": [
656.78,
659.45
]
},
{
"text": "and that's the master clock, right?",
"timestamp": [
659.45,
661.75
]
},
{
"text": "and that's the master clock, right?",
"timestamp": [
659.45,
661.75
]
},
{
"text": "And it helps regulate kind of the rhythms",
"timestamp": [
661.75,
663.92
]
},
{
"text": "And it helps regulate kind of the rhythms",
"timestamp": [
661.75,
663.92
]
},
{
"text": "like all over your body, all your cells,",
"timestamp": [
663.92,
665.25
]
},
{
"text": "like all over your body, all your cells,",
"timestamp": [
663.92,
665.25
]
},
{
"text": "and all those kind of things.",
"timestamp": [
665.25,
666.21
]
},
{
"text": "and all those kind of things.",
"timestamp": [
665.25,
666.21
]
},
{
"text": "It drives the release of\nmelatonin from the pineal gland,",
"timestamp": [
666.21,
670.54
]
},
{
"text": "It drives the release of\nmelatonin from the pineal gland,",
"timestamp": [
666.21,
670.54
]
},
{
"text": "and melatonin comes online under darkness,",
"timestamp": [
670.54,
674.02
]
},
{
"text": "and melatonin comes online under darkness,",
"timestamp": [
670.54,
674.02
]
},
{
"text": "so when the sun goes\ndown, your brain knows",
"timestamp": [
674.02,
676.46
]
},
{
"text": "so when the sun goes\ndown, your brain knows",
"timestamp": [
674.02,
676.46
]
},
{
"text": "okay it's time to start\ngetting ready for sleep,",
"timestamp": [
676.46,
678.77
]
},
{
"text": "okay it's time to start\ngetting ready for sleep,",
"timestamp": [
676.46,
678.77
]
},
{
"text": "and so you start releasing melatonin,",
"timestamp": [
678.77,
680.6
]
},
{
"text": "and so you start releasing melatonin,",
"timestamp": [
678.77,
680.6
]
},
{
"text": "which really kind of sets\nthe table for sleeping.",
"timestamp": [
680.6,
683.08
]
},
{
"text": "which really kind of sets\nthe table for sleeping.",
"timestamp": [
680.6,
683.08
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm from Hoi, so we have very long days.",
"timestamp": [
683.08,
685.78
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm from Hoi, so we have very long days.",
"timestamp": [
683.08,
685.78
]
},
{
"text": "We have early sunrises, late sunsets.",
"timestamp": [
685.78,
687.85
]
},
{
"text": "We have early sunrises, late sunsets.",
"timestamp": [
685.78,
687.85
]
},
{
"text": "Does that signify less sleep,",
"timestamp": [
687.85,
690.31
]
},
{
"text": "Does that signify less sleep,",
"timestamp": [
687.85,
690.31
]
},
{
"text": "because we have a shorter amount of time",
"timestamp": [
690.31,
691.67
]
},
{
"text": "because we have a shorter amount of time",
"timestamp": [
690.31,
691.67
]
},
{
"text": "for melatonin to be released?",
"timestamp": [
691.67,
693.43
]
},
{
"text": "for melatonin to be released?",
"timestamp": [
691.67,
693.43
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, no, that's a\nreally great question,",
"timestamp": [
693.43,
694.93
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, no, that's a\nreally great question,",
"timestamp": [
693.43,
694.93
]
},
{
"text": "and the same is true in places where",
"timestamp": [
694.93,
697.83
]
},
{
"text": "and the same is true in places where",
"timestamp": [
694.93,
697.83
]
},
{
"text": "the sun never goes down during the summer,",
"timestamp": [
697.83,
699.45
]
},
{
"text": "the sun never goes down during the summer,",
"timestamp": [
697.83,
699.45
]
},
{
"text": "and when it's dark all the\ntime during the winter,",
"timestamp": [
699.45,
701.16
]
},
{
"text": "and when it's dark all the\ntime during the winter,",
"timestamp": [
699.45,
701.16
]
},
{
"text": "and it turns out light\nisn't the only thing",
"timestamp": [
701.16,
703.09
]
},
{
"text": "and it turns out light\nisn't the only thing",
"timestamp": [
701.16,
703.09
]
},
{
"text": "that kind of gates your circadian rhythm.",
"timestamp": [
703.09,
705.15
]
},
{
"text": "that kind of gates your circadian rhythm.",
"timestamp": [
703.09,
705.15
]
},
{
"text": "But I think the thing\nthat's really important,",
"timestamp": [
705.15,
706.693
]
},
{
"text": "But I think the thing\nthat's really important,",
"timestamp": [
705.15,
706.693
]
},
{
"text": "again there are two processes,",
"timestamp": [
706.693,
708.76
]
},
{
"text": "again there are two processes,",
"timestamp": [
706.693,
708.76
]
},
{
"text": "that the other one is the S process,",
"timestamp": [
708.76,
710.007
]
},
{
"text": "that the other one is the S process,",
"timestamp": [
708.76,
710.007
]
},
{
"text": "and that one's just kind of",
"timestamp": [
710.007,
711.41
]
},
{
"text": "and that one's just kind of",
"timestamp": [
710.007,
711.41
]
},
{
"text": "a really important driver of sleep.",
"timestamp": [
711.41,
714.763
]
},
{
"text": "a really important driver of sleep.",
"timestamp": [
711.41,
714.763
]
},
{
"text": "One name we call it is the\nhomeostatic sleep drive.",
"timestamp": [
714.763,
717.75
]
},
{
"text": "One name we call it is the\nhomeostatic sleep drive.",
"timestamp": [
714.763,
717.75
]
},
{
"text": "Kind of the longer you're awake,",
"timestamp": [
717.75,
719.24
]
},
{
"text": "Kind of the longer you're awake,",
"timestamp": [
717.75,
719.24
]
},
{
"text": "the sleepier you get.",
"timestamp": [
719.24,
720.57
]
},
{
"text": "the sleepier you get.",
"timestamp": [
719.24,
720.57
]
},
{
"text": "You stay up, you get sleepy.",
"timestamp": [
720.57,
722.74
]
},
{
"text": "You stay up, you get sleepy.",
"timestamp": [
720.57,
722.74
]
},
{
"text": "Time goes by, you get sleepier.",
"timestamp": [
722.74,
724.17
]
},
{
"text": "Time goes by, you get sleepier.",
"timestamp": [
722.74,
724.17
]
},
{
"text": "Time goes by, you get sleepier.",
"timestamp": [
724.17,
725.61
]
},
{
"text": "Time goes by, you get sleepier.",
"timestamp": [
724.17,
725.61
]
},
{
"text": "But it's actually kind of\na fundamental principle",
"timestamp": [
725.61,
729.15
]
},
{
"text": "But it's actually kind of\na fundamental principle",
"timestamp": [
725.61,
729.15
]
},
{
"text": "for how sleep is regulated,",
"timestamp": [
729.15,
730.76
]
},
{
"text": "for how sleep is regulated,",
"timestamp": [
729.15,
730.76
]
},
{
"text": "and it's really kind of akin\nto like a balloon, okay?",
"timestamp": [
730.76,
733.38
]
},
{
"text": "and it's really kind of akin\nto like a balloon, okay?",
"timestamp": [
730.76,
733.38
]
},
{
"text": "So you wake up in the morning\nand your balloon is flat.",
"timestamp": [
733.38,
736.52
]
},
{
"text": "So you wake up in the morning\nand your balloon is flat.",
"timestamp": [
733.38,
736.52
]
},
{
"text": "You've kind of like drained\nout all of the sleepiness.",
"timestamp": [
736.52,
738.48
]
},
{
"text": "You've kind of like drained\nout all of the sleepiness.",
"timestamp": [
736.52,
738.48
]
},
{
"text": "But then as you kind of\ngo throughout the day,",
"timestamp": [
738.48,
740.13
]
},
{
"text": "But then as you kind of\ngo throughout the day,",
"timestamp": [
738.48,
740.13
]
},
{
"text": "it kind of fills up,\nso you use your energy,",
"timestamp": [
740.13,
743.82
]
},
{
"text": "it kind of fills up,\nso you use your energy,",
"timestamp": [
740.13,
743.82
]
},
{
"text": "it gets filled up.",
"timestamp": [
743.82,
745.55
]
},
{
"text": "it gets filled up.",
"timestamp": [
743.82,
745.55
]
},
{
"text": "And then it gets filled up more",
"timestamp": [
745.55,
747.1
]
},
{
"text": "And then it gets filled up more",
"timestamp": [
745.55,
747.1
]
},
{
"text": "as you get towards nighttime, right?",
"timestamp": [
747.1,
748.79
]
},
{
"text": "as you get towards nighttime, right?",
"timestamp": [
747.1,
748.79
]
},
{
"text": "And then when it's at this optimal amount",
"timestamp": [
748.79,
750.89
]
},
{
"text": "And then when it's at this optimal amount",
"timestamp": [
748.79,
750.89
]
},
{
"text": "is when you kind of go to sleep",
"timestamp": [
750.89,
752.2
]
},
{
"text": "is when you kind of go to sleep",
"timestamp": [
750.89,
752.2
]
},
{
"text": "and let out all of the sleepiness again.",
"timestamp": [
752.2,
754.29
]
},
{
"text": "and let out all of the sleepiness again.",
"timestamp": [
752.2,
754.29
]
},
{
"text": "And this is really what underlies",
"timestamp": [
754.29,
756.339
]
},
{
"text": "And this is really what underlies",
"timestamp": [
754.29,
756.339
]
},
{
"text": "why napping can also be bad for you.",
"timestamp": [
756.339,
758.78
]
},
{
"text": "why napping can also be bad for you.",
"timestamp": [
756.339,
758.78
]
},
{
"text": "So napping's not inherently bad,",
"timestamp": [
758.78,
760.44
]
},
{
"text": "So napping's not inherently bad,",
"timestamp": [
758.78,
760.44
]
},
{
"text": "but if you actually let out\nsome of this air during the day,",
"timestamp": [
760.44,
764.3
]
},
{
"text": "but if you actually let out\nsome of this air during the day,",
"timestamp": [
760.44,
764.3
]
},
{
"text": "it's going to take longer for the balloon",
"timestamp": [
764.3,
765.66
]
},
{
"text": "it's going to take longer for the balloon",
"timestamp": [
764.3,
765.66
]
},
{
"text": "to get bigger, right,\n- I see",
"timestamp": [
765.66,
767.14
]
},
{
"text": "to get bigger, right,\n- I see",
"timestamp": [
765.66,
767.14
]
},
{
"text": "- to where you feel sleepy, right?",
"timestamp": [
767.14,
768.434
]
},
{
"text": "- to where you feel sleepy, right?",
"timestamp": [
767.14,
768.434
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
768.434,
769.267
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
768.434,
769.267
]
},
{
"text": "- What did you learn about sleep today?",
"timestamp": [
769.267,
770.21
]
},
{
"text": "- What did you learn about sleep today?",
"timestamp": [
769.267,
770.21
]
},
{
"text": "- I learned about the two processes,",
"timestamp": [
770.21,
772.1
]
},
{
"text": "- I learned about the two processes,",
"timestamp": [
770.21,
772.1
]
},
{
"text": "process S and process C.",
"timestamp": [
772.1,
773.85
]
},
{
"text": "process S and process C.",
"timestamp": [
772.1,
773.85
]
},
{
"text": "I learned about the circadian rhythm,",
"timestamp": [
773.85,
776.09
]
},
{
"text": "I learned about the circadian rhythm,",
"timestamp": [
773.85,
776.09
]
},
{
"text": "and it doesn't only rely on melatonin,",
"timestamp": [
776.09,
779.77
]
},
{
"text": "and it doesn't only rely on melatonin,",
"timestamp": [
776.09,
779.77
]
},
{
"text": "but it also relies on your eating",
"timestamp": [
779.77,
782.15
]
},
{
"text": "but it also relies on your eating",
"timestamp": [
779.77,
782.15
]
},
{
"text": "and a whole bunch of other factors",
"timestamp": [
782.15,
784.55
]
},
{
"text": "and a whole bunch of other factors",
"timestamp": [
782.15,
784.55
]
},
{
"text": "that affect your circadian rhythm.",
"timestamp": [
784.55,
786.283
]
},
{
"text": "that affect your circadian rhythm.",
"timestamp": [
784.55,
786.283
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Aric.",
"timestamp": [
788.36,
789.483
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Aric.",
"timestamp": [
788.36,
789.483
]
},
{
"text": "- Mave.",
"timestamp": [
789.483,
790.54
]
},
{
"text": "- Mave.",
"timestamp": [
789.483,
790.54
]
},
{
"text": "- Thank you for joining us.",
"timestamp": [
790.54,
791.64
]
},
{
"text": "- Thank you for joining us.",
"timestamp": [
790.54,
791.64
]
},
{
"text": "What do you do?",
"timestamp": [
791.64,
792.48
]
},
{
"text": "What do you do?",
"timestamp": [
791.64,
792.48
]
},
{
"text": "Where are you at in school?",
"timestamp": [
792.48,
794.34
]
},
{
"text": "Where are you at in school?",
"timestamp": [
792.48,
794.34
]
},
{
"text": "- So I'm at UC Berkeley,\nI'm a psychology student",
"timestamp": [
794.34,
798.13
]
},
{
"text": "- So I'm at UC Berkeley,\nI'm a psychology student",
"timestamp": [
794.34,
798.13
]
},
{
"text": "studying cognitive neuro-science",
"timestamp": [
798.13,
799.98
]
},
{
"text": "studying cognitive neuro-science",
"timestamp": [
798.13,
799.98
]
},
{
"text": "and I just started my third year.",
"timestamp": [
799.98,
802
]
},
{
"text": "and I just started my third year.",
"timestamp": [
799.98,
802
]
},
{
"text": "- Congratulations.",
"timestamp": [
802,
802.89
]
},
{
"text": "- Congratulations.",
"timestamp": [
802,
802.89
]
},
{
"text": "- Thank you.",
"timestamp": [
802.89,
803.723
]
},
{
"text": "- Thank you.",
"timestamp": [
802.89,
803.723
]
},
{
"text": "- So a lot of brain stuff.",
"timestamp": [
803.723,
805.821
]
},
{
"text": "- So a lot of brain stuff.",
"timestamp": [
803.723,
805.821
]
},
{
"text": "- A lot of brain stuff.",
"timestamp": [
805.821,
807.541
]
},
{
"text": "- A lot of brain stuff.",
"timestamp": [
805.821,
807.541
]
},
{
"text": "- Great.",
"timestamp": [
807.541,
808.374
]
},
{
"text": "- Great.",
"timestamp": [
807.541,
808.374
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm biased because I\nstudy one of the other",
"timestamp": [
808.374,
810.36
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm biased because I\nstudy one of the other",
"timestamp": [
808.374,
810.36
]
},
{
"text": "sub-critical parts of the\nbrain, the cerebellum.",
"timestamp": [
810.36,
812.85
]
},
{
"text": "sub-critical parts of the\nbrain, the cerebellum.",
"timestamp": [
810.36,
812.85
]
},
{
"text": "- So that's good, because\nthat's why you're here,",
"timestamp": [
812.85,
815.26
]
},
{
"text": "- So that's good, because\nthat's why you're here,",
"timestamp": [
812.85,
815.26
]
},
{
"text": "and so we're talking about sleep today,",
"timestamp": [
815.26,
818.1
]
},
{
"text": "and so we're talking about sleep today,",
"timestamp": [
815.26,
818.1
]
},
{
"text": "and really about kind of\nwhat is the brain machinery",
"timestamp": [
818.1,
822.041
]
},
{
"text": "and really about kind of\nwhat is the brain machinery",
"timestamp": [
818.1,
822.041
]
},
{
"text": "through which we go through consciousness",
"timestamp": [
822.041,
825.11
]
},
{
"text": "through which we go through consciousness",
"timestamp": [
822.041,
825.11
]
},
{
"text": "to unconsciousness and that transition.",
"timestamp": [
825.11,
827.06
]
},
{
"text": "to unconsciousness and that transition.",
"timestamp": [
825.11,
827.06
]
},
{
"text": "- Great.",
"timestamp": [
827.06,
827.893
]
},
{
"text": "- Great.",
"timestamp": [
827.06,
827.893
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
827.893,
828.726
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
827.893,
828.726
]
},
{
"text": "The best way to think\nabout this transition",
"timestamp": [
828.726,
829.81
]
},
{
"text": "The best way to think\nabout this transition",
"timestamp": [
828.726,
829.81
]
},
{
"text": "is really called, it's a\nflip flop switch, okay?",
"timestamp": [
829.81,
833.42
]
},
{
"text": "is really called, it's a\nflip flop switch, okay?",
"timestamp": [
829.81,
833.42
]
},
{
"text": "So this term comes from engineering,",
"timestamp": [
833.42,
835.41
]
},
{
"text": "So this term comes from engineering,",
"timestamp": [
833.42,
835.41
]
},
{
"text": "and the idea is that in sleep,",
"timestamp": [
835.41,
837.15
]
},
{
"text": "and the idea is that in sleep,",
"timestamp": [
835.41,
837.15
]
},
{
"text": "you basically have kind of\nthis all of nothing experience.",
"timestamp": [
837.15,
841.04
]
},
{
"text": "you basically have kind of\nthis all of nothing experience.",
"timestamp": [
837.15,
841.04
]
},
{
"text": "Certainly people kind\nof drift off to sleep,",
"timestamp": [
841.04,
843.043
]
},
{
"text": "Certainly people kind\nof drift off to sleep,",
"timestamp": [
841.04,
843.043
]
},
{
"text": "but then all of a sudden\nyou're unconscious, right?",
"timestamp": [
843.043,
844.83
]
},
{
"text": "but then all of a sudden\nyou're unconscious, right?",
"timestamp": [
843.043,
844.83
]
},
{
"text": "So it seems like it's\nthis flip flop between",
"timestamp": [
844.83,
846.832
]
},
{
"text": "So it seems like it's\nthis flip flop between",
"timestamp": [
844.83,
846.832
]
},
{
"text": "the arousal system and the\nsleep promoting system,",
"timestamp": [
846.832,
850.23
]
},
{
"text": "the arousal system and the\nsleep promoting system,",
"timestamp": [
846.832,
850.23
]
},
{
"text": "and it's certainly regulated,",
"timestamp": [
850.23,
852.13
]
},
{
"text": "and it's certainly regulated,",
"timestamp": [
850.23,
852.13
]
},
{
"text": "and we'll get a little bit into that,",
"timestamp": [
852.13,
853.58
]
},
{
"text": "and we'll get a little bit into that,",
"timestamp": [
852.13,
853.58
]
},
{
"text": "but they're certainly kind of made up",
"timestamp": [
853.58,
854.87
]
},
{
"text": "but they're certainly kind of made up",
"timestamp": [
853.58,
854.87
]
},
{
"text": "of two reciprocally inhibitory processes.",
"timestamp": [
854.87,
857.87
]
},
{
"text": "of two reciprocally inhibitory processes.",
"timestamp": [
854.87,
857.87
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, so we have the ascending\nreticular activating system.",
"timestamp": [
857.87,
860.81
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, so we have the ascending\nreticular activating system.",
"timestamp": [
857.87,
860.81
]
},
{
"text": "It originates in the brain stem,",
"timestamp": [
860.81,
862.58
]
},
{
"text": "It originates in the brain stem,",
"timestamp": [
860.81,
862.58
]
},
{
"text": "and there's a dorsal and\na ventral arm to this,",
"timestamp": [
862.58,
865.1
]
},
{
"text": "and there's a dorsal and\na ventral arm to this,",
"timestamp": [
862.58,
865.1
]
},
{
"text": "and so the dorsal arm has\nneurons, cholinergic neurons,",
"timestamp": [
865.1,
868.99
]
},
{
"text": "and so the dorsal arm has\nneurons, cholinergic neurons,",
"timestamp": [
865.1,
868.99
]
},
{
"text": "that go up to the thalamus",
"timestamp": [
868.99,
869.96
]
},
{
"text": "that go up to the thalamus",
"timestamp": [
868.99,
869.96
]
},
{
"text": "and then it projections\ninto the fore brain,",
"timestamp": [
869.96,
872.32
]
},
{
"text": "and then it projections\ninto the fore brain,",
"timestamp": [
869.96,
872.32
]
},
{
"text": "and then there's the ventral arm,",
"timestamp": [
872.32,
873.97
]
},
{
"text": "and then there's the ventral arm,",
"timestamp": [
872.32,
873.97
]
},
{
"text": "and this is comprised of a whole bunch",
"timestamp": [
873.97,
875.6
]
},
{
"text": "and this is comprised of a whole bunch",
"timestamp": [
873.97,
875.6
]
},
{
"text": "of different types of neurons,",
"timestamp": [
875.6,
876.51
]
},
{
"text": "of different types of neurons,",
"timestamp": [
875.6,
876.51
]
},
{
"text": "so there are monominergic,",
"timestamp": [
876.51,
877.72
]
},
{
"text": "so there are monominergic,",
"timestamp": [
876.51,
877.72
]
},
{
"text": "so there's kind of dopaminergic neurons",
"timestamp": [
877.72,
879.97
]
},
{
"text": "so there's kind of dopaminergic neurons",
"timestamp": [
877.72,
879.97
]
},
{
"text": "that come from the periaqueductal gray,",
"timestamp": [
879.97,
883.07
]
},
{
"text": "that come from the periaqueductal gray,",
"timestamp": [
879.97,
883.07
]
},
{
"text": "serotonergic ones from\nthe dorsal raphae nuclei,",
"timestamp": [
883.07,
885.67
]
},
{
"text": "serotonergic ones from\nthe dorsal raphae nuclei,",
"timestamp": [
883.07,
885.67
]
},
{
"text": "histaminergic neurons that come",
"timestamp": [
885.67,
887.19
]
},
{
"text": "histaminergic neurons that come",
"timestamp": [
885.67,
887.19
]
},
{
"text": "from the tuberomammillary\nnucleus of the hippothalamus,",
"timestamp": [
887.19,
890.06
]
},
{
"text": "from the tuberomammillary\nnucleus of the hippothalamus,",
"timestamp": [
887.19,
890.06
]
},
{
"text": "and then noradrenergic neurons",
"timestamp": [
890.06,
892.86
]
},
{
"text": "and then noradrenergic neurons",
"timestamp": [
890.06,
892.86
]
},
{
"text": "from the locus coeruleus,",
"timestamp": [
892.86,
895.49
]
},
{
"text": "from the locus coeruleus,",
"timestamp": [
892.86,
895.49
]
},
{
"text": "and so all of those are\nkind of working in tandem",
"timestamp": [
895.49,
897.94
]
},
{
"text": "and so all of those are\nkind of working in tandem",
"timestamp": [
895.49,
897.94
]
},
{
"text": "to kind of drive wake within the brain.",
"timestamp": [
897.94,
900.432
]
},
{
"text": "to kind of drive wake within the brain.",
"timestamp": [
897.94,
900.432
]
},
{
"text": "So if we just think about\ndrugs that are available",
"timestamp": [
900.432,
904.499
]
},
{
"text": "So if we just think about\ndrugs that are available",
"timestamp": [
900.432,
904.499
]
},
{
"text": "inducing wakefulness, we can certainly,",
"timestamp": [
904.499,
907.36
]
},
{
"text": "inducing wakefulness, we can certainly,",
"timestamp": [
904.499,
907.36
]
},
{
"text": "kind of the dopaminergic\nones jump out, right?",
"timestamp": [
907.36,
909.46
]
},
{
"text": "kind of the dopaminergic\nones jump out, right?",
"timestamp": [
907.36,
909.46
]
},
{
"text": "So we have amphetamines that\nkind of drive those signaling,",
"timestamp": [
909.46,
913.93
]
},
{
"text": "So we have amphetamines that\nkind of drive those signaling,",
"timestamp": [
909.46,
913.93
]
},
{
"text": "and then modafinil, which\nis a wake promoting drug",
"timestamp": [
913.93,
918.23
]
},
{
"text": "and then modafinil, which\nis a wake promoting drug",
"timestamp": [
913.93,
918.23
]
},
{
"text": "for people that have kind of\nexcessive day-time sleepiness",
"timestamp": [
918.23,
921.12
]
},
{
"text": "for people that have kind of\nexcessive day-time sleepiness",
"timestamp": [
918.23,
921.12
]
},
{
"text": "that maintains alertness\nthroughout the day.",
"timestamp": [
921.12,
923.06
]
},
{
"text": "that maintains alertness\nthroughout the day.",
"timestamp": [
921.12,
923.06
]
},
{
"text": "- In terms of the dopamine,",
"timestamp": [
923.06,
925.792
]
},
{
"text": "- In terms of the dopamine,",
"timestamp": [
923.06,
925.792
]
},
{
"text": "if you're taking amphetamines,",
"timestamp": [
925.792,
927.54
]
},
{
"text": "if you're taking amphetamines,",
"timestamp": [
925.792,
927.54
]
},
{
"text": "that's usually to promote,\nas you said, wakefulness,",
"timestamp": [
927.54,
930.271
]
},
{
"text": "that's usually to promote,\nas you said, wakefulness,",
"timestamp": [
927.54,
930.271
]
},
{
"text": "but does that actually improve\nthe quality of your sleep?",
"timestamp": [
930.271,
934.44
]
},
{
"text": "but does that actually improve\nthe quality of your sleep?",
"timestamp": [
930.271,
934.44
]
},
{
"text": "How reliable are those\nkinds of interventions?",
"timestamp": [
934.44,
936.55
]
},
{
"text": "How reliable are those\nkinds of interventions?",
"timestamp": [
934.44,
936.55
]
},
{
"text": "- For the role that they play",
"timestamp": [
936.55,
937.83
]
},
{
"text": "- For the role that they play",
"timestamp": [
936.55,
937.83
]
},
{
"text": "with respect to the sleep-wake system",
"timestamp": [
937.83,
939.17
]
},
{
"text": "with respect to the sleep-wake system",
"timestamp": [
937.83,
939.17
]
},
{
"text": "is really kind of amping\nup the wake system, right?",
"timestamp": [
939.17,
941.55
]
},
{
"text": "is really kind of amping\nup the wake system, right?",
"timestamp": [
939.17,
941.55
]
},
{
"text": "And so certainly that has\nlike down stream consequences",
"timestamp": [
941.55,
944.02
]
},
{
"text": "And so certainly that has\nlike down stream consequences",
"timestamp": [
941.55,
944.02
]
},
{
"text": "for the sleep system, because\nnow the flip flop switch",
"timestamp": [
944.02,
946.58
]
},
{
"text": "for the sleep system, because\nnow the flip flop switch",
"timestamp": [
944.02,
946.58
]
},
{
"text": "is kind of pushed in a\nmuch stronger direction,",
"timestamp": [
946.58,
949.65
]
},
{
"text": "is kind of pushed in a\nmuch stronger direction,",
"timestamp": [
946.58,
949.65
]
},
{
"text": "and we have to kind of rely\non what regulates sleep",
"timestamp": [
949.65,
953.24
]
},
{
"text": "and we have to kind of rely\non what regulates sleep",
"timestamp": [
949.65,
953.24
]
},
{
"text": "to get it pushed back to sleep.",
"timestamp": [
953.24,
954.707
]
},
{
"text": "to get it pushed back to sleep.",
"timestamp": [
953.24,
954.707
]
},
{
"text": "- And do we know much about why,",
"timestamp": [
954.707,
957.06
]
},
{
"text": "- And do we know much about why,",
"timestamp": [
954.707,
957.06
]
},
{
"text": "or which stages of the\nsleep cycle are affected?",
"timestamp": [
957.06,
961.192
]
},
{
"text": "or which stages of the\nsleep cycle are affected?",
"timestamp": [
957.06,
961.192
]
},
{
"text": "You know, if you take amphetamines,",
"timestamp": [
961.192,
963.14
]
},
{
"text": "You know, if you take amphetamines,",
"timestamp": [
961.192,
963.14
]
},
{
"text": "is it then when you go to sleep,",
"timestamp": [
963.14,
963.973
]
},
{
"text": "is it then when you go to sleep,",
"timestamp": [
963.14,
963.973
]
},
{
"text": "that you're not able to transition",
"timestamp": [
963.973,
965.35
]
},
{
"text": "that you're not able to transition",
"timestamp": [
963.973,
965.35
]
},
{
"text": "through each of the sleep periods,",
"timestamp": [
965.35,
967.23
]
},
{
"text": "through each of the sleep periods,",
"timestamp": [
965.35,
967.23
]
},
{
"text": "or is that less clear?\n- You know, so I think",
"timestamp": [
967.23,
968.4
]
},
{
"text": "or is that less clear?\n- You know, so I think",
"timestamp": [
967.23,
968.4
]
},
{
"text": "that's less clear.",
"timestamp": [
968.4,
969.72
]
},
{
"text": "that's less clear.",
"timestamp": [
968.4,
969.72
]
},
{
"text": "In some ways, you know,\ngetting back to this idea",
"timestamp": [
969.72,
972.71
]
},
{
"text": "In some ways, you know,\ngetting back to this idea",
"timestamp": [
969.72,
972.71
]
},
{
"text": "of this wake-sleep system,",
"timestamp": [
972.71,
974.2
]
},
{
"text": "of this wake-sleep system,",
"timestamp": [
972.71,
974.2
]
},
{
"text": "we have this sleep system that\nis kind of the counterpoint",
"timestamp": [
974.2,
977.214
]
},
{
"text": "we have this sleep system that\nis kind of the counterpoint",
"timestamp": [
974.2,
977.214
]
},
{
"text": "to this wake arousal system, and so",
"timestamp": [
977.214,
979.51
]
},
{
"text": "to this wake arousal system, and so",
"timestamp": [
977.214,
979.51
]
},
{
"text": "the primary nucleus region",
"timestamp": [
979.51,
982.16
]
},
{
"text": "the primary nucleus region",
"timestamp": [
979.51,
982.16
]
},
{
"text": "is the ventral lateral pre-optic nucleus,",
"timestamp": [
982.16,
985.23
]
},
{
"text": "is the ventral lateral pre-optic nucleus,",
"timestamp": [
982.16,
985.23
]
},
{
"text": "also called VLPO, and that\nhas particular neuron outputs",
"timestamp": [
985.23,
990.23
]
},
{
"text": "also called VLPO, and that\nhas particular neuron outputs",
"timestamp": [
985.23,
990.23
]
},
{
"text": "that release GABA and galanin,",
"timestamp": [
990.91,
994.81
]
},
{
"text": "that release GABA and galanin,",
"timestamp": [
990.91,
994.81
]
},
{
"text": "which work in an inhibitory way",
"timestamp": [
994.81,
998.01
]
},
{
"text": "which work in an inhibitory way",
"timestamp": [
994.81,
998.01
]
},
{
"text": "on kind of the wake promoting ones.",
"timestamp": [
998.01,
1000.66
]
},
{
"text": "on kind of the wake promoting ones.",
"timestamp": [
998.01,
1000.66
]
},
{
"text": "And so, it's kind of this delicate balance",
"timestamp": [
1000.66,
1003.28
]
},
{
"text": "And so, it's kind of this delicate balance",
"timestamp": [
1000.66,
1003.28
]
},
{
"text": "of these two systems that are ongoing.",
"timestamp": [
1003.28,
1005.8
]
},
{
"text": "of these two systems that are ongoing.",
"timestamp": [
1003.28,
1005.8
]
},
{
"text": "In your cognitive\nneuro-science training, right,",
"timestamp": [
1005.8,
1008.54
]
},
{
"text": "In your cognitive\nneuro-science training, right,",
"timestamp": [
1005.8,
1008.54
]
},
{
"text": "it sounds like it's pretty\nspecific and focused",
"timestamp": [
1008.54,
1011.73
]
},
{
"text": "it sounds like it's pretty\nspecific and focused",
"timestamp": [
1008.54,
1011.73
]
},
{
"text": "in a particular part of\nthe brain, the cerebellum,",
"timestamp": [
1011.73,
1014.18
]
},
{
"text": "in a particular part of\nthe brain, the cerebellum,",
"timestamp": [
1011.73,
1014.18
]
},
{
"text": "and one thing that I'm interested in",
"timestamp": [
1014.18,
1017.52
]
},
{
"text": "and one thing that I'm interested in",
"timestamp": [
1014.18,
1017.52
]
},
{
"text": "is you bring a participant into the study,",
"timestamp": [
1017.52,
1019.81
]
},
{
"text": "is you bring a participant into the study,",
"timestamp": [
1017.52,
1019.81
]
},
{
"text": "have you ensured that they\ngot a good night's sleep?",
"timestamp": [
1019.81,
1022.98
]
},
{
"text": "have you ensured that they\ngot a good night's sleep?",
"timestamp": [
1019.81,
1022.98
]
},
{
"text": "Have you asked them about their sleep?",
"timestamp": [
1022.98,
1025.2
]
},
{
"text": "Have you asked them about their sleep?",
"timestamp": [
1022.98,
1025.2
]
},
{
"text": "- Well in most studies,\nprobably it is advised",
"timestamp": [
1025.2,
1028.16
]
},
{
"text": "- Well in most studies,\nprobably it is advised",
"timestamp": [
1025.2,
1028.16
]
},
{
"text": "for your participants before they come in",
"timestamp": [
1028.16,
1030.01
]
},
{
"text": "for your participants before they come in",
"timestamp": [
1028.16,
1030.01
]
},
{
"text": "to get a good night's sleep,",
"timestamp": [
1030.01,
1031.26
]
},
{
"text": "to get a good night's sleep,",
"timestamp": [
1030.01,
1031.26
]
},
{
"text": "so those would be recommendations\nthat you would lay out,",
"timestamp": [
1031.26,
1033.843
]
},
{
"text": "so those would be recommendations\nthat you would lay out,",
"timestamp": [
1031.26,
1033.843
]
},
{
"text": "you know, in communication\nwith the participant,",
"timestamp": [
1033.843,
1036.08
]
},
{
"text": "you know, in communication\nwith the participant,",
"timestamp": [
1033.843,
1036.08
]
},
{
"text": "before they come in.",
"timestamp": [
1036.08,
1037.17
]
},
{
"text": "before they come in.",
"timestamp": [
1036.08,
1037.17
]
},
{
"text": "You know, what we do in our studies,",
"timestamp": [
1037.17,
1039.03
]
},
{
"text": "You know, what we do in our studies,",
"timestamp": [
1037.17,
1039.03
]
},
{
"text": "is we actually track\npeople, for say a week,",
"timestamp": [
1039.03,
1043.41
]
},
{
"text": "is we actually track\npeople, for say a week,",
"timestamp": [
1039.03,
1043.41
]
},
{
"text": "and they have to get in within\nthis range of amount of sleep",
"timestamp": [
1043.41,
1046.82
]
},
{
"text": "and they have to get in within\nthis range of amount of sleep",
"timestamp": [
1043.41,
1046.82
]
},
{
"text": "and then it has to be both amount of sleep",
"timestamp": [
1046.82,
1049.19
]
},
{
"text": "and then it has to be both amount of sleep",
"timestamp": [
1046.82,
1049.19
]
},
{
"text": "and how stable it is.",
"timestamp": [
1049.19,
1051.65
]
},
{
"text": "and how stable it is.",
"timestamp": [
1049.19,
1051.65
]
},
{
"text": "That variability can kind of impact it",
"timestamp": [
1051.65,
1054.293
]
},
{
"text": "That variability can kind of impact it",
"timestamp": [
1051.65,
1054.293
]
},
{
"text": "and certainly might have\nan impact on the machinery",
"timestamp": [
1054.293,
1059.16
]
},
{
"text": "and certainly might have\nan impact on the machinery",
"timestamp": [
1054.293,
1059.16
]
},
{
"text": "that's happening in the brain.",
"timestamp": [
1059.16,
1060.96
]
},
{
"text": "that's happening in the brain.",
"timestamp": [
1059.16,
1060.96
]
},
{
"text": "- I often think that\npeople, many people think",
"timestamp": [
1060.96,
1064.1
]
},
{
"text": "- I often think that\npeople, many people think",
"timestamp": [
1060.96,
1064.1
]
},
{
"text": "that they can get by on very little sleep",
"timestamp": [
1064.1,
1066.117
]
},
{
"text": "that they can get by on very little sleep",
"timestamp": [
1064.1,
1066.117
]
},
{
"text": "where the less than\naverage amount of sleep,",
"timestamp": [
1066.117,
1068.334
]
},
{
"text": "where the less than\naverage amount of sleep,",
"timestamp": [
1066.117,
1068.334
]
},
{
"text": "from what I know from the research,",
"timestamp": [
1068.334,
1070.2
]
},
{
"text": "from what I know from the research,",
"timestamp": [
1068.334,
1070.2
]
},
{
"text": "you know if you actually test those people",
"timestamp": [
1070.2,
1072.03
]
},
{
"text": "you know if you actually test those people",
"timestamp": [
1070.2,
1072.03
]
},
{
"text": "on different batteries of cognitive tasks,",
"timestamp": [
1072.03,
1075.55
]
},
{
"text": "on different batteries of cognitive tasks,",
"timestamp": [
1072.03,
1075.55
]
},
{
"text": "you often find that their\nperformance is slightly worse",
"timestamp": [
1075.55,
1079.38
]
},
{
"text": "you often find that their\nperformance is slightly worse",
"timestamp": [
1075.55,
1079.38
]
},
{
"text": "than they had anticipated.",
"timestamp": [
1079.38,
1081.04
]
},
{
"text": "than they had anticipated.",
"timestamp": [
1079.38,
1081.04
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1081.04,
1081.905
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1081.04,
1081.905
]
},
{
"text": "So what did you learn about sleep today?",
"timestamp": [
1081.905,
1084.26
]
},
{
"text": "So what did you learn about sleep today?",
"timestamp": [
1081.905,
1084.26
]
},
{
"text": "I guess I learned a system that is,",
"timestamp": [
1084.26,
1087.76
]
},
{
"text": "I guess I learned a system that is,",
"timestamp": [
1084.26,
1087.76
]
},
{
"text": "you know, very heavily\nregulated and influenced",
"timestamp": [
1087.76,
1090.87
]
},
{
"text": "you know, very heavily\nregulated and influenced",
"timestamp": [
1087.76,
1090.87
]
},
{
"text": "by some of these older conserved",
"timestamp": [
1090.87,
1094.2
]
},
{
"text": "by some of these older conserved",
"timestamp": [
1090.87,
1094.2
]
},
{
"text": "sub-cortical systems in the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1094.2,
1096.5
]
},
{
"text": "sub-cortical systems in the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1094.2,
1096.5
]
},
{
"text": "and that there's, as you called it,",
"timestamp": [
1096.5,
1098.11
]
},
{
"text": "and that there's, as you called it,",
"timestamp": [
1096.5,
1098.11
]
},
{
"text": "like a flip flop function\nbetween wakefulness and sleep",
"timestamp": [
1098.11,
1103
]
},
{
"text": "like a flip flop function\nbetween wakefulness and sleep",
"timestamp": [
1098.11,
1103
]
},
{
"text": "that's regulated by these\nspecific dopaminergic,",
"timestamp": [
1103,
1106.967
]
},
{
"text": "that's regulated by these\nspecific dopaminergic,",
"timestamp": [
1103,
1106.967
]
},
{
"text": "neurogenergic, like neurotransmitters,",
"timestamp": [
1108.04,
1110.15
]
},
{
"text": "neurogenergic, like neurotransmitters,",
"timestamp": [
1108.04,
1110.15
]
},
{
"text": "that manifest in different\nsub-cortical parts of the brain.",
"timestamp": [
1110.15,
1113.83
]
},
{
"text": "that manifest in different\nsub-cortical parts of the brain.",
"timestamp": [
1110.15,
1113.83
]
},
{
"text": "- So now we have sleep on your brain.",
"timestamp": [
1113.83,
1116.07
]
},
{
"text": "- So now we have sleep on your brain.",
"timestamp": [
1113.83,
1116.07
]
},
{
"text": "That was all I wanted to hear.",
"timestamp": [
1116.07,
1118.093
]
},
{
"text": "That was all I wanted to hear.",
"timestamp": [
1116.07,
1118.093
]
},
{
"text": "- Good to see you again, Yue.",
"timestamp": [
1120.82,
1122.03
]
},
{
"text": "- Good to see you again, Yue.",
"timestamp": [
1120.82,
1122.03
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, good to see you.",
"timestamp": [
1122.03,
1123.03
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, good to see you.",
"timestamp": [
1122.03,
1123.03
]
},
{
"text": "- Really glad that you could join us.",
"timestamp": [
1123.03,
1124.33
]
},
{
"text": "- Really glad that you could join us.",
"timestamp": [
1123.03,
1124.33
]
},
{
"text": "So we've been talking about sleep today,",
"timestamp": [
1124.33,
1126.89
]
},
{
"text": "So we've been talking about sleep today,",
"timestamp": [
1124.33,
1126.89
]
},
{
"text": "various levels of complexity.",
"timestamp": [
1126.89,
1128.52
]
},
{
"text": "various levels of complexity.",
"timestamp": [
1126.89,
1128.52
]
},
{
"text": "But now with you, I\nreally want to talk about",
"timestamp": [
1128.52,
1130.99
]
},
{
"text": "But now with you, I\nreally want to talk about",
"timestamp": [
1128.52,
1130.99
]
},
{
"text": "what do we know about\nsleep and the aging brain.",
"timestamp": [
1130.99,
1134.09
]
},
{
"text": "what do we know about\nsleep and the aging brain.",
"timestamp": [
1130.99,
1134.09
]
},
{
"text": "Can you tell me a little bit about",
"timestamp": [
1134.09,
1134.923
]
},
{
"text": "Can you tell me a little bit about",
"timestamp": [
1134.09,
1134.923
]
},
{
"text": "some of the work that you've\nbeen doing in that area?",
"timestamp": [
1134.923,
1136.62
]
},
{
"text": "some of the work that you've\nbeen doing in that area?",
"timestamp": [
1134.923,
1136.62
]
},
{
"text": "- So I'm a epidemiologist,",
"timestamp": [
1136.62,
1137.85
]
},
{
"text": "- So I'm a epidemiologist,",
"timestamp": [
1136.62,
1137.85
]
},
{
"text": "so we do a lot of work",
"timestamp": [
1137.85,
1139.28
]
},
{
"text": "so we do a lot of work",
"timestamp": [
1137.85,
1139.28
]
},
{
"text": "on the epidemiology of sleep",
"timestamp": [
1139.28,
1142.07
]
},
{
"text": "on the epidemiology of sleep",
"timestamp": [
1139.28,
1142.07
]
},
{
"text": "and development of\nneurodegenerative diseases",
"timestamp": [
1142.07,
1144.83
]
},
{
"text": "and development of\nneurodegenerative diseases",
"timestamp": [
1142.07,
1144.83
]
},
{
"text": "including both Alzheimer's\nand Parkinson's disease,",
"timestamp": [
1144.83,
1147.81
]
},
{
"text": "including both Alzheimer's\nand Parkinson's disease,",
"timestamp": [
1144.83,
1147.81
]
},
{
"text": "so ADMPD.",
"timestamp": [
1147.81,
1149.38
]
},
{
"text": "so ADMPD.",
"timestamp": [
1147.81,
1149.38
]
},
{
"text": "We mainly work on population studies.",
"timestamp": [
1149.38,
1151.88
]
},
{
"text": "We mainly work on population studies.",
"timestamp": [
1149.38,
1151.88
]
},
{
"text": "We work on thousands and\neven millions of population,",
"timestamp": [
1151.88,
1155.64
]
},
{
"text": "We work on thousands and\neven millions of population,",
"timestamp": [
1151.88,
1155.64
]
},
{
"text": "and we use statistical\nmodeling to find out",
"timestamp": [
1155.64,
1159.12
]
},
{
"text": "and we use statistical\nmodeling to find out",
"timestamp": [
1155.64,
1159.12
]
},
{
"text": "the association between\ndifferent sleep disturbances",
"timestamp": [
1159.12,
1162.7
]
},
{
"text": "the association between\ndifferent sleep disturbances",
"timestamp": [
1159.12,
1162.7
]
},
{
"text": "and also genetics related\nto sleep disturbances",
"timestamp": [
1162.7,
1167.27
]
},
{
"text": "and also genetics related\nto sleep disturbances",
"timestamp": [
1162.7,
1167.27
]
},
{
"text": "and link that to their\nrisk of developing ADMPD.",
"timestamp": [
1167.27,
1171.73
]
},
{
"text": "and link that to their\nrisk of developing ADMPD.",
"timestamp": [
1167.27,
1171.73
]
},
{
"text": "- So how strong is the link?",
"timestamp": [
1171.73,
1173.06
]
},
{
"text": "- So how strong is the link?",
"timestamp": [
1171.73,
1173.06
]
},
{
"text": "- Our study has found\nreally strong associations",
"timestamp": [
1173.06,
1176.8
]
},
{
"text": "- Our study has found\nreally strong associations",
"timestamp": [
1173.06,
1176.8
]
},
{
"text": "looking at these populations,\nfor example, with sleep apnea.",
"timestamp": [
1176.8,
1180.31
]
},
{
"text": "looking at these populations,\nfor example, with sleep apnea.",
"timestamp": [
1176.8,
1180.31
]
},
{
"text": "We've done one meta-analysis\nand it's showed that",
"timestamp": [
1180.31,
1183.69
]
},
{
"text": "We've done one meta-analysis\nand it's showed that",
"timestamp": [
1180.31,
1183.69
]
},
{
"text": "those with sleep apnea,\nthey have a ratio of 1.26,",
"timestamp": [
1183.69,
1188.69
]
},
{
"text": "those with sleep apnea,\nthey have a ratio of 1.26,",
"timestamp": [
1183.69,
1188.69
]
},
{
"text": "which means that those\nwho have sleep apnea",
"timestamp": [
1189.12,
1191.24
]
},
{
"text": "which means that those\nwho have sleep apnea",
"timestamp": [
1189.12,
1191.24
]
},
{
"text": "have 26% elevated risk\nof developing Alzheimer's",
"timestamp": [
1191.24,
1195.58
]
},
{
"text": "have 26% elevated risk\nof developing Alzheimer's",
"timestamp": [
1191.24,
1195.58
]
},
{
"text": "compared to those without sleep apnea.",
"timestamp": [
1195.58,
1197.784
]
},
{
"text": "compared to those without sleep apnea.",
"timestamp": [
1195.58,
1197.784
]
},
{
"text": "So it's interesting, so I also saw",
"timestamp": [
1197.784,
1200.29
]
},
{
"text": "So it's interesting, so I also saw",
"timestamp": [
1197.784,
1200.29
]
},
{
"text": "that there was also a recent meta-analysis",
"timestamp": [
1200.29,
1201.59
]
},
{
"text": "that there was also a recent meta-analysis",
"timestamp": [
1200.29,
1201.59
]
},
{
"text": "around sleep disturbances\nand dementia risk,",
"timestamp": [
1201.59,
1203.97
]
},
{
"text": "around sleep disturbances\nand dementia risk,",
"timestamp": [
1201.59,
1203.97
]
},
{
"text": "and in that study, they\nlooked about 250,000 people",
"timestamp": [
1203.97,
1207.97
]
},
{
"text": "and in that study, they\nlooked about 250,000 people",
"timestamp": [
1203.97,
1207.97
]
},
{
"text": "in this meta-analysis,",
"timestamp": [
1207.97,
1208.86
]
},
{
"text": "in this meta-analysis,",
"timestamp": [
1207.97,
1208.86
]
},
{
"text": "and they followed them\naround for 10 years,",
"timestamp": [
1208.86,
1210.56
]
},
{
"text": "and they followed them\naround for 10 years,",
"timestamp": [
1208.86,
1210.56
]
},
{
"text": "and you know, when they pulled\nall the samples together,",
"timestamp": [
1210.56,
1212.62
]
},
{
"text": "and you know, when they pulled\nall the samples together,",
"timestamp": [
1210.56,
1212.62
]
},
{
"text": "they found there was a\n1.2 fold increased risk",
"timestamp": [
1212.62,
1215.84
]
},
{
"text": "they found there was a\n1.2 fold increased risk",
"timestamp": [
1212.62,
1215.84
]
},
{
"text": "for developing all caused dementia,",
"timestamp": [
1215.84,
1218.19
]
},
{
"text": "for developing all caused dementia,",
"timestamp": [
1215.84,
1218.19
]
},
{
"text": "so it sounds like both sleep apnea",
"timestamp": [
1218.19,
1220.19
]
},
{
"text": "so it sounds like both sleep apnea",
"timestamp": [
1218.19,
1220.19
]
},
{
"text": "and then maybe sleep\ndisturbances more generally",
"timestamp": [
1220.19,
1222.77
]
},
{
"text": "and then maybe sleep\ndisturbances more generally",
"timestamp": [
1220.19,
1222.77
]
},
{
"text": "are associated with\nincreased risk for dementia.",
"timestamp": [
1222.77,
1225.22
]
},
{
"text": "are associated with\nincreased risk for dementia.",
"timestamp": [
1222.77,
1225.22
]
},
{
"text": "When I think about that, I think about how",
"timestamp": [
1225.22,
1227.13
]
},
{
"text": "When I think about that, I think about how",
"timestamp": [
1225.22,
1227.13
]
},
{
"text": "sleep lives in the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1227.13,
1228.823
]
},
{
"text": "sleep lives in the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1227.13,
1228.823
]
},
{
"text": "these neurodegenerative\ndiseases live in the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1229.66,
1231.9
]
},
{
"text": "these neurodegenerative\ndiseases live in the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1229.66,
1231.9
]
},
{
"text": "and so what do we know\nabout the causality of this?",
"timestamp": [
1231.9,
1234.04
]
},
{
"text": "and so what do we know\nabout the causality of this?",
"timestamp": [
1231.9,
1234.04
]
},
{
"text": "Could it be that individuals",
"timestamp": [
1234.04,
1236.01
]
},
{
"text": "Could it be that individuals",
"timestamp": [
1234.04,
1236.01
]
},
{
"text": "who have early onset of say, Alzheimer's,",
"timestamp": [
1236.01,
1239.26
]
},
{
"text": "who have early onset of say, Alzheimer's,",
"timestamp": [
1236.01,
1239.26
]
},
{
"text": "have then poor sleep kind\nof as a consequence of that?",
"timestamp": [
1239.26,
1242.88
]
},
{
"text": "have then poor sleep kind\nof as a consequence of that?",
"timestamp": [
1239.26,
1242.88
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so I think\nwhat's really fascinating",
"timestamp": [
1242.88,
1244.96
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so I think\nwhat's really fascinating",
"timestamp": [
1242.88,
1244.96
]
},
{
"text": "is all these bio-directional relationships",
"timestamp": [
1244.96,
1247.36
]
},
{
"text": "is all these bio-directional relationships",
"timestamp": [
1244.96,
1247.36
]
},
{
"text": "that's being identified in\nanimal studies especially,",
"timestamp": [
1247.36,
1250.73
]
},
{
"text": "that's being identified in\nanimal studies especially,",
"timestamp": [
1247.36,
1250.73
]
},
{
"text": "showing that sleep changes\nactually occur very early on",
"timestamp": [
1250.73,
1254.21
]
},
{
"text": "showing that sleep changes\nactually occur very early on",
"timestamp": [
1250.73,
1254.21
]
},
{
"text": "in the disease process, so\nit could be a prodromal stage",
"timestamp": [
1254.21,
1258
]
},
{
"text": "in the disease process, so\nit could be a prodromal stage",
"timestamp": [
1254.21,
1258
]
},
{
"text": "of Parkinson's, and also\nin transgenic model of AD,",
"timestamp": [
1258,
1262.824
]
},
{
"text": "of Parkinson's, and also\nin transgenic model of AD,",
"timestamp": [
1258,
1262.824
]
},
{
"text": "they're already showing a lot\nof circadian abnormalities",
"timestamp": [
1262.824,
1266.81
]
},
{
"text": "they're already showing a lot\nof circadian abnormalities",
"timestamp": [
1262.824,
1266.81
]
},
{
"text": "in this mouse.",
"timestamp": [
1266.81,
1267.77
]
},
{
"text": "in this mouse.",
"timestamp": [
1266.81,
1267.77
]
},
{
"text": "- So within dementia risk in particular,",
"timestamp": [
1267.77,
1269.32
]
},
{
"text": "- So within dementia risk in particular,",
"timestamp": [
1267.77,
1269.32
]
},
{
"text": "Alzheimer's for instance,",
"timestamp": [
1269.32,
1270.77
]
},
{
"text": "Alzheimer's for instance,",
"timestamp": [
1269.32,
1270.77
]
},
{
"text": "there are kind of two clear features",
"timestamp": [
1270.77,
1273.67
]
},
{
"text": "there are kind of two clear features",
"timestamp": [
1270.77,
1273.67
]
},
{
"text": "that seem to be part of\nthe pathology, right?",
"timestamp": [
1273.67,
1276.02
]
},
{
"text": "that seem to be part of\nthe pathology, right?",
"timestamp": [
1273.67,
1276.02
]
},
{
"text": "So there's beta-amyloid which\naccumulates in the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1276.02,
1278.89
]
},
{
"text": "So there's beta-amyloid which\naccumulates in the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1276.02,
1278.89
]
},
{
"text": "and then there's kind of these tangles,",
"timestamp": [
1278.89,
1280.4
]
},
{
"text": "and then there's kind of these tangles,",
"timestamp": [
1278.89,
1280.4
]
},
{
"text": "this tauopathies, right?",
"timestamp": [
1280.4,
1281.88
]
},
{
"text": "this tauopathies, right?",
"timestamp": [
1280.4,
1281.88
]
},
{
"text": "And so it sounds like\nsleep seems to be related",
"timestamp": [
1281.88,
1285.98
]
},
{
"text": "And so it sounds like\nsleep seems to be related",
"timestamp": [
1281.88,
1285.98
]
},
{
"text": "to the tauopathies.",
"timestamp": [
1285.98,
1287.1
]
},
{
"text": "to the tauopathies.",
"timestamp": [
1285.98,
1287.1
]
},
{
"text": "What about kind of beta-amyloid?",
"timestamp": [
1287.1,
1289.77
]
},
{
"text": "What about kind of beta-amyloid?",
"timestamp": [
1287.1,
1289.77
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, in the transgenic\nmouse models of AD,",
"timestamp": [
1289.77,
1291.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, in the transgenic\nmouse models of AD,",
"timestamp": [
1289.77,
1291.82
]
},
{
"text": "including those expressing",
"timestamp": [
1291.82,
1293.38
]
},
{
"text": "including those expressing",
"timestamp": [
1291.82,
1293.38
]
},
{
"text": "human mutant amyloid precursor protein,",
"timestamp": [
1293.38,
1296.39
]
},
{
"text": "human mutant amyloid precursor protein,",
"timestamp": [
1293.38,
1296.39
]
},
{
"text": "APP type or both,",
"timestamp": [
1296.39,
1298.25
]
},
{
"text": "APP type or both,",
"timestamp": [
1296.39,
1298.25
]
},
{
"text": "so that's kind of\nshowing the sleep changes",
"timestamp": [
1298.25,
1300.23
]
},
{
"text": "so that's kind of\nshowing the sleep changes",
"timestamp": [
1298.25,
1300.23
]
},
{
"text": "in both of these pathologies.",
"timestamp": [
1300.23,
1302.2
]
},
{
"text": "in both of these pathologies.",
"timestamp": [
1300.23,
1302.2
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, so there is this\nbio-directional piece,",
"timestamp": [
1302.2,
1304.51
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, so there is this\nbio-directional piece,",
"timestamp": [
1302.2,
1304.51
]
},
{
"text": "but I think perhaps\nthe most exciting thing",
"timestamp": [
1304.51,
1307.79
]
},
{
"text": "but I think perhaps\nthe most exciting thing",
"timestamp": [
1304.51,
1307.79
]
},
{
"text": "that happened in the sleep field,",
"timestamp": [
1307.79,
1309.32
]
},
{
"text": "that happened in the sleep field,",
"timestamp": [
1307.79,
1309.32
]
},
{
"text": "at least in my view,",
"timestamp": [
1309.32,
1310.18
]
},
{
"text": "at least in my view,",
"timestamp": [
1309.32,
1310.18
]
},
{
"text": "has been understanding the role of sleep",
"timestamp": [
1310.18,
1313.8
]
},
{
"text": "has been understanding the role of sleep",
"timestamp": [
1310.18,
1313.8
]
},
{
"text": "and its clearance of\nbeta-amyloid in the brain.",
"timestamp": [
1313.8,
1316.99
]
},
{
"text": "and its clearance of\nbeta-amyloid in the brain.",
"timestamp": [
1313.8,
1316.99
]
},
{
"text": "This idea that sleep is kind\nof the dishwasher of the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1316.99,
1321.01
]
},
{
"text": "This idea that sleep is kind\nof the dishwasher of the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1316.99,
1321.01
]
},
{
"text": "it seems like, that you\nknow A betta accumulates",
"timestamp": [
1321.01,
1324.09
]
},
{
"text": "it seems like, that you\nknow A betta accumulates",
"timestamp": [
1321.01,
1324.09
]
},
{
"text": "as we kind of use energy,",
"timestamp": [
1324.09,
1326.01
]
},
{
"text": "as we kind of use energy,",
"timestamp": [
1324.09,
1326.01
]
},
{
"text": "and you know it's kind of a waste product,",
"timestamp": [
1326.01,
1329.793
]
},
{
"text": "and you know it's kind of a waste product,",
"timestamp": [
1326.01,
1329.793
]
},
{
"text": "and the idea that if\nyou don't clear it out,",
"timestamp": [
1329.793,
1332.52
]
},
{
"text": "and the idea that if\nyou don't clear it out,",
"timestamp": [
1329.793,
1332.52
]
},
{
"text": "that it's going to\nbuild up and accumulate.",
"timestamp": [
1332.52,
1334.21
]
},
{
"text": "that it's going to\nbuild up and accumulate.",
"timestamp": [
1332.52,
1334.21
]
},
{
"text": "- So the thing I'm most\nexcited about sleep research",
"timestamp": [
1334.21,
1336.791
]
},
{
"text": "- So the thing I'm most\nexcited about sleep research",
"timestamp": [
1334.21,
1336.791
]
},
{
"text": "is, I think, first of all,",
"timestamp": [
1336.791,
1339.55
]
},
{
"text": "is, I think, first of all,",
"timestamp": [
1336.791,
1339.55
]
},
{
"text": "this complexity of the\ndaytime/nighttime sleep,",
"timestamp": [
1339.55,
1342.68
]
},
{
"text": "this complexity of the\ndaytime/nighttime sleep,",
"timestamp": [
1339.55,
1342.68
]
},
{
"text": "what sleep is really doing\nto our body and to our brain,",
"timestamp": [
1342.68,
1346.41
]
},
{
"text": "what sleep is really doing\nto our body and to our brain,",
"timestamp": [
1342.68,
1346.41
]
},
{
"text": "and then is really from the epidemiologic",
"timestamp": [
1346.41,
1348.95
]
},
{
"text": "and then is really from the epidemiologic",
"timestamp": [
1346.41,
1348.95
]
},
{
"text": "or public health perspective,",
"timestamp": [
1348.95,
1350.68
]
},
{
"text": "or public health perspective,",
"timestamp": [
1348.95,
1350.68
]
},
{
"text": "how we can best use sleep\nas a tool for the detection",
"timestamp": [
1350.68,
1355.68
]
},
{
"text": "how we can best use sleep\nas a tool for the detection",
"timestamp": [
1350.68,
1355.68
]
},
{
"text": "and prevention of\nneurodegeneration in the long-term.",
"timestamp": [
1355.71,
1359.91
]
},
{
"text": "and prevention of\nneurodegeneration in the long-term.",
"timestamp": [
1355.71,
1359.91
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm excited about the\nfuture of sleep medicine.",
"timestamp": [
1359.91,
1364.79
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm excited about the\nfuture of sleep medicine.",
"timestamp": [
1359.91,
1364.79
]
},
{
"text": "I think there are incredible\ninnovations that are happening",
"timestamp": [
1364.79,
1367.83
]
},
{
"text": "I think there are incredible\ninnovations that are happening",
"timestamp": [
1364.79,
1367.83
]
},
{
"text": "in the basic sciences, kind of\nreally starting to understand",
"timestamp": [
1367.83,
1372.14
]
},
{
"text": "in the basic sciences, kind of\nreally starting to understand",
"timestamp": [
1367.83,
1372.14
]
},
{
"text": "what are the clear biological processes",
"timestamp": [
1372.14,
1375.78
]
},
{
"text": "what are the clear biological processes",
"timestamp": [
1372.14,
1375.78
]
},
{
"text": "that underly some of these things",
"timestamp": [
1375.78,
1377.25
]
},
{
"text": "that underly some of these things",
"timestamp": [
1375.78,
1377.25
]
},
{
"text": "as they relate to disease risk,",
"timestamp": [
1377.25,
1378.83
]
},
{
"text": "as they relate to disease risk,",
"timestamp": [
1377.25,
1378.83
]
},
{
"text": "and what is the true function of sleep,",
"timestamp": [
1378.83,
1380.94
]
},
{
"text": "and what is the true function of sleep,",
"timestamp": [
1378.83,
1380.94
]
},
{
"text": "kind of the why we\nsleep phenomenon, right?",
"timestamp": [
1380.94,
1383.22
]
},
{
"text": "kind of the why we\nsleep phenomenon, right?",
"timestamp": [
1380.94,
1383.22
]
},
{
"text": "So this was certainly a challenge today.",
"timestamp": [
1383.22,
1385.48
]
},
{
"text": "So this was certainly a challenge today.",
"timestamp": [
1383.22,
1385.48
]
},
{
"text": "Everyone knew a little bit about sleep,",
"timestamp": [
1385.48,
1387.83
]
},
{
"text": "Everyone knew a little bit about sleep,",
"timestamp": [
1385.48,
1387.83
]
},
{
"text": "and I think that's great,",
"timestamp": [
1387.83,
1389.06
]
},
{
"text": "and I think that's great,",
"timestamp": [
1387.83,
1389.06
]
},
{
"text": "because sleep is incredibly important,",
"timestamp": [
1389.06,
1390.65
]
},
{
"text": "because sleep is incredibly important,",
"timestamp": [
1389.06,
1390.65
]
},
{
"text": "but there was also a lot of misinformation",
"timestamp": [
1390.65,
1392.38
]
},
{
"text": "but there was also a lot of misinformation",
"timestamp": [
1390.65,
1392.38
]
},
{
"text": "around kind of how sleep works,",
"timestamp": [
1392.38,
1394.29
]
},
{
"text": "around kind of how sleep works,",
"timestamp": [
1392.38,
1394.29
]
},
{
"text": "and people doing sleep behaviors",
"timestamp": [
1394.29,
1396.35
]
},
{
"text": "and people doing sleep behaviors",
"timestamp": [
1394.29,
1396.35
]
},
{
"text": "that may not be the\nmost adaptive for them.",
"timestamp": [
1396.35,
1398.6
]
},
{
"text": "that may not be the\nmost adaptive for them.",
"timestamp": [
1396.35,
1398.6
]
},
{
"text": "We're still uncovering\nnew things every day",
"timestamp": [
1398.6,
1401.05
]
},
{
"text": "We're still uncovering\nnew things every day",
"timestamp": [
1398.6,
1401.05
]
},
{
"text": "about how sleep works, but despite that,",
"timestamp": [
1401.05,
1403.55
]
},
{
"text": "about how sleep works, but despite that,",
"timestamp": [
1401.05,
1403.55
]
},
{
"text": "all of us know that sleep is\nfundamental to our health,",
"timestamp": [
1403.55,
1407.32
]
},
{
"text": "all of us know that sleep is\nfundamental to our health,",
"timestamp": [
1403.55,
1407.32
]
},
{
"text": "and so I'm excited for sleep\nto kind of raise its profile",
"timestamp": [
1407.32,
1411.4
]
},
{
"text": "and so I'm excited for sleep\nto kind of raise its profile",
"timestamp": [
1407.32,
1411.4
]
},
{
"text": "among other health behaviors",
"timestamp": [
1411.4,
1413.13
]
},
{
"text": "among other health behaviors",
"timestamp": [
1411.4,
1413.13
]
},
{
"text": "and get the investment\nand care that it needs.",
"timestamp": [
1413.13,
1415.803
]
},
{
"text": "and get the investment\nand care that it needs.",
"timestamp": [
1413.13,
1415.803
]
}
] |
[
[
"Intro",
"- My name's Aric Prather and\nI'm a sleep scientist at UCSF.I study the causes and\nconsequences of insufficient sleep,and I also carry out\ninterventions to improve sleepamong people with insomnia.Today, I've been challenged\nto explain the topic of sleepat five different levels.Everybody knows a little bit aboutwhat is happening when they sleep,but I think they'll be surprisedthat there's a lot of science in there."
],
[
"Giraffes",
"- Nice to meet you, my name's Christopher.- Hey Christopher.And how old are you?- I'm ten.- What grade is that?- I think fifth.- You think fifth?What is your favorite subject?- Math and science.- Well that's awesome,because we're going to be\ntalking about science today.- Cool.- And you know what we're\ngoing to be talking about?- What?- Sleep.- Favorite part of the day.- Mine too, because I get to\nspend all day studying it.Because you know what sleep does for you?- It rests your body,\nlike an electric car.- [laughs] That's exactly right.It kinda is like recharging\nyour battery, right?And sleep is so critical for so many partsof our body and our mind, right?It plays a really important\nway that we learn,and it helps us kind of\nrecover from the day before.It affects our immune\nsystem and our metabolism,all of these things that we\nneed to kinda be healthy.- Whoa.- So today, we're going\nto talk about some animalsand how they sleep.So here's the first one.What's that?- A giraffe.- Have you ever seen a giraffe in person?- Uh yeah.- They're pretty cool, right?- Mhm.- And so what's really\ncool about this is thatgiraffes need to sleep\nlike everybody else,and so the way that it does\nis it kind of slumps overand it gets down on its legsand it kind of becomes this ball,but what's crazy about the whole thingis they only sleep for\nlike 30 minutes a day.30 minutes!Because it can't waste any more time,because it can't be\nvulnerable for any longer.It can get eaten by lions\nand that kind of thing.It has kind of evolved in a\nway that it can still surviveand still get all the restoration it needsunder such a short period of time.- And how does it like\nrecharge, like humans?- So we think it works the same way,but maybe just like more efficiently.And so we're still really\nlearning about how this works.Sleep science itself\nis kind of a new field.- I had a sleepover on Saturday,and I didn't sleep at all.- And how did you feel?- Really tired.- Really tired.Do you think you were a\nlittle crankier than usual?Yeah.That's actually really interesting,because what happens ishumans and everything\nneeds to sleep eventually,and so you can't stay\nup indefinitely, right?What do you think happens\nif you don't sleep?- It affects what you can\ndo in your daily life.- Excellent.So now I want to tell\nyou about another animaland how they sleep, okay?So we have this one.What's that?- A hippo.- A hippopotamus.They have a different challenge.They sleep underwater.- I could never do that, I would pass out.- Right, right!So how do they do it?In the area that they live in,they need to stay cool, right?And so they spend a lot\nof time in the water,and so then as a consequence,they need to sleep in the water,but how do they do it?So it's really fascinating.What they do is while they're sleeping,they actually float back up\nto the surface and breathewithout waking up.They're able to go about\ntheir whole sleep cyclesbut still able to breathe,because their body has adapted in a waythat they can still get\nthe oxygen that they need.It's a really amazing thing.What do you think?- That's cool.- Would it be cool to have that power?- Uh yeah.- So now I want to talk\nabout our last animal,and I think this one is probably\nthe most amazing of all.Okay, so what's this?- Aww a dolphin.- A dolphin!Yes.So dolphins, kind of like hippos,have to sleep in the water, okay?But because they're mammals,\nright, they need to breathe.Dolphins breathe air.They have to go up to the\nsurface and breathe, right?And for an animal like that,it needs to figure out\na way that it can sleepbut also still survive, right?You know how dolphins sleep?- How?- One half of their brain at a time.So half of their brain goes to sleep,and the other half stays awake,so that they can continue\nto breathe and swim,and they do it in this four hours a time,so like their right part\nof their brain sleeps,they're able to go up to\nthe surface and breathe.Then their left part of their\nbrain sleeps for four hours,and it goes back and\nforth, back and forth,so they can kind of maintain alertness,still breathe, and survive.Is that amazing or what?- That's cool.- So what'd you learn today?- I learned how other animals sleep.- What is important about sleeping?- Sleep rests your body,and you have to rest your bodyin order to do your daily things in life."
],
[
"Sleep Science",
"- Hey, I'm Aric.- I'm Dwayne.Nice to meet you, Aric.- And how old are you, Dwayne?- I'm 16 years old.- Okay, and where do you go to school?- McClymonds High School\nin Oakland, California.- Excellent, and what's\nyour favorite subject?- AP Chemistry.- That's a serious science.- It is.- And good news, we're\ntalking about science today.- Yeah.- In fact, we're talking about sleep.- Oh okay.\n- And sleep science.Do you sleep?- I do, I try. [laughs]- You try, we all gotta try.You've probably heard about\nsleep as this kind of,you know, it's a biological processthat happens in your brain.It's really important for your body,but it's a lot more complex than that.Sleep is made up of different parts.You know, when you think about sleep,what do you think about?- Resting, relaxing, really\nshutting down your brain,taking some time off of a\nbusy schedule and work day.- But being off is not just being off.There's lots of things that are happening.We're gonna kind of talkabout those different pieces of sleep.- Okay.- So our sleep is made up\nof different types, okay?The first one is called\nnon-rapid eye movement sleep,or non-REM, okay?Or NREM.And then the other one, which\nmight not be a surprise,is called REM.Rapid eye movement sleep.And those are the two main\ntypes of sleep that happen.The way that we measure\nthat as a sleep scientistis that we'll actually\nbring people into the labwhere they can do this at home,where we put electrodes on their scalpwhile they're sleeping,and that allows us to\nmeasure the brain activitythat's going on during the night.- Okay.Are you like able to tell how\nmuch sleep someone's gettingor what their sleep schedule is by REM?- When we measure all of\nthat, we're able to seehow much time someone's asleep,and how many times they wake\nup and stuff during the night.You know, we're also really interestedin kind of, the amount of\nnon-REM sleep someone getsand the amount of REM\nsleep that someone gets,because each part of those types of sleepdo different things for the body.And so it's important\nto get both of those.And so within non-REM sleep,there are three stages ranging\nfrom N-1 to N-2 to N-3.So not particularly clever in our naming,but that's how we know\nwhat stages they are.And what they do is it movesfrom lightest to deepest sleep, okay?N-1, it's more kind of\nlight, wakefulness sleep,kind of in and out of sleeping.Then you go into N-2,which is where we spend 45\nto 55 percent of our sleep.And it's more this kind of light sleep,but then we get into kind of\nthe really restorative sleep,and that's N-3.And in N-3, when we look\nat someone's EEG wave,we see these big slow waves,and it's called slow wave sleep.And so we spend about 20% of\nour sleep in slow wave sleep,though it can vary on a day to day.- Oh wow.- Okay?When do you think you\nexperience the most REM?- Well I've heard that you don't really gointo like a deeper sleep,so I'm guessing like N-3,or really any of the N's at all, really,if you are on technology\nright before you sleep.And also if there's too much light,or if you're listening to\nmusic while you're asleepor anything like that,you're not experiencing deep sleep, right?- You know, some of that\nis totally accurate,that like when your brain's more engagedby being on your phone or doing\nthings that you really enjoyor things that stress you outor any of those types of things,it's harder to get to sleepand to kind of fall into\nthat deeper levels of sleep.Most of the REM sleep,\nthis dreaming sleep,happens in the second half of the night.- Oh.- Okay?So we wake up a lot during the night,and we just don't remember it.And you'll go back down into deep sleep,and then up again into REM,you know, in kinda these cycles.- Oh wow.- Do you ever take naps?- I do.- Okay.How long are the naps that you take?- Anywhere from between one to six hours.- One to six hours?That's a long nap.- It is a long nap.- Okay.Usually we want to keep\nnaps, like 20 to 30 minutes.When people drop into deep sleep,and then they're woken up out of a nap,most people report that\nthey feel way worsethan they did before they took the nap,and that's because you've\nbeen in deep sleep,and it's this term called sleep inertia.So what are the stages of sleep?- So N-1 being like light sleep,still a lot of brain activity going on.I can imagine that happens\nright after you fall asleep.\"Asleep.\"And then N-2 being light,\nmoderate activity in your brain,still sleep, but still\nkind of consciously aware,and N-3 being the deepest form of sleep.- I want to know if you agree,sleep is the coolest thing\nyou've ever heard of.- It really is.[laughs]Right now, it definitely isthe coolest thing I've ever heard of."
],
[
"Sleep Science II",
"- So tell me, where are you in school?What do you study?- I'm a fourth year\nChemistry student at USF.- So pretty science-y.- Yes, pretty science-y.- Excellent, because today for this level,we're talking about sleep.- Great.- How much sleep do you get, typically?- During the summer?Like 10 hours.\n- 10 hours?- And during the school year, maybe five?- Wow.- Yeah.- And so, how much do you think you need?- I mean, I've read that six is idealfor people in my age range.- It turns out, for people that arebetween the ages of 18 and 65,the agreed upon amount of sleepthat people should get is\nbetween seven and nine hours,and it's really at least\nseven hours per night,to maintain optimal health as an adult.So at least seven hours.When we look at across all\nof the data that is availableon like sleep and health,and sleep and psychiatric illness\nand those types of things,the largest risk is when\npeople get five hours or less.What do you think is\nresponsible for drivinghow much sleep you need,\nand things like that?- I mean, I know sleep\nis kind of regulatedby the thalamus and the\nsuprachiasmatic nucleussending signals to the pineal glandto which kind of secretes melatonin,which tells us when it's\ntime to go to sleep.- Right.- You can do part of this level,and you can do the other part, clearly.Got some expertise under your\nbelt, and that's awesome,because I think that everyone\nshould know more about sleep.And so the way that we think\nabout what drives sleepare two independent but related processesand so they have kind of lame names.Process S and process C,and what you've kind of\ndescribed is process C,and that's the master clock, right?And it helps regulate kind of the rhythmslike all over your body, all your cells,and all those kind of things.It drives the release of\nmelatonin from the pineal gland,and melatonin comes online under darkness,so when the sun goes\ndown, your brain knowsokay it's time to start\ngetting ready for sleep,and so you start releasing melatonin,which really kind of sets\nthe table for sleeping.- I'm from Hoi, so we have very long days.We have early sunrises, late sunsets.Does that signify less sleep,because we have a shorter amount of timefor melatonin to be released?- Yeah, no, that's a\nreally great question,and the same is true in places wherethe sun never goes down during the summer,and when it's dark all the\ntime during the winter,and it turns out light\nisn't the only thingthat kind of gates your circadian rhythm.But I think the thing\nthat's really important,again there are two processes,that the other one is the S process,and that one's just kind ofa really important driver of sleep.One name we call it is the\nhomeostatic sleep drive.Kind of the longer you're awake,the sleepier you get.You stay up, you get sleepy.Time goes by, you get sleepier.Time goes by, you get sleepier.But it's actually kind of\na fundamental principlefor how sleep is regulated,and it's really kind of akin\nto like a balloon, okay?So you wake up in the morning\nand your balloon is flat.You've kind of like drained\nout all of the sleepiness.But then as you kind of\ngo throughout the day,it kind of fills up,\nso you use your energy,it gets filled up.And then it gets filled up moreas you get towards nighttime, right?And then when it's at this optimal amountis when you kind of go to sleepand let out all of the sleepiness again.And this is really what underlieswhy napping can also be bad for you.So napping's not inherently bad,but if you actually let out\nsome of this air during the day,it's going to take longer for the balloonto get bigger, right,\n- I see- to where you feel sleepy, right?- Right.- What did you learn about sleep today?- I learned about the two processes,process S and process C.I learned about the circadian rhythm,and it doesn't only rely on melatonin,but it also relies on your eatingand a whole bunch of other factorsthat affect your circadian rhythm.- Hi, I'm Aric.- Mave.- Thank you for joining us.What do you do?Where are you at in school?- So I'm at UC Berkeley,\nI'm a psychology studentstudying cognitive neuro-scienceand I just started my third year.- Congratulations.- Thank you.- So a lot of brain stuff.- A lot of brain stuff.- Great.- I'm biased because I\nstudy one of the othersub-critical parts of the\nbrain, the cerebellum.- So that's good, because\nthat's why you're here,and so we're talking about sleep today,and really about kind of\nwhat is the brain machinerythrough which we go through consciousnessto unconsciousness and that transition.- Great.- Okay.The best way to think\nabout this transitionis really called, it's a\nflip flop switch, okay?So this term comes from engineering,and the idea is that in sleep,you basically have kind of\nthis all of nothing experience.Certainly people kind\nof drift off to sleep,but then all of a sudden\nyou're unconscious, right?So it seems like it's\nthis flip flop betweenthe arousal system and the\nsleep promoting system,and it's certainly regulated,and we'll get a little bit into that,but they're certainly kind of made upof two reciprocally inhibitory processes.Okay, so we have the ascending\nreticular activating system.It originates in the brain stem,and there's a dorsal and\na ventral arm to this,and so the dorsal arm has\nneurons, cholinergic neurons,that go up to the thalamusand then it projections\ninto the fore brain,and then there's the ventral arm,and this is comprised of a whole bunchof different types of neurons,so there are monominergic,so there's kind of dopaminergic neuronsthat come from the periaqueductal gray,serotonergic ones from\nthe dorsal raphae nuclei,histaminergic neurons that comefrom the tuberomammillary\nnucleus of the hippothalamus,and then noradrenergic neuronsfrom the locus coeruleus,and so all of those are\nkind of working in tandemto kind of drive wake within the brain.So if we just think about\ndrugs that are availableinducing wakefulness, we can certainly,kind of the dopaminergic\nones jump out, right?So we have amphetamines that\nkind of drive those signaling,and then modafinil, which\nis a wake promoting drugfor people that have kind of\nexcessive day-time sleepinessthat maintains alertness\nthroughout the day.- In terms of the dopamine,if you're taking amphetamines,that's usually to promote,\nas you said, wakefulness,but does that actually improve\nthe quality of your sleep?How reliable are those\nkinds of interventions?- For the role that they playwith respect to the sleep-wake systemis really kind of amping\nup the wake system, right?And so certainly that has\nlike down stream consequencesfor the sleep system, because\nnow the flip flop switchis kind of pushed in a\nmuch stronger direction,and we have to kind of rely\non what regulates sleepto get it pushed back to sleep.- And do we know much about why,or which stages of the\nsleep cycle are affected?You know, if you take amphetamines,is it then when you go to sleep,that you're not able to transitionthrough each of the sleep periods,or is that less clear?\n- You know, so I thinkthat's less clear.In some ways, you know,\ngetting back to this ideaof this wake-sleep system,we have this sleep system that\nis kind of the counterpointto this wake arousal system, and sothe primary nucleus regionis the ventral lateral pre-optic nucleus,also called VLPO, and that\nhas particular neuron outputsthat release GABA and galanin,which work in an inhibitory wayon kind of the wake promoting ones.And so, it's kind of this delicate balanceof these two systems that are ongoing.In your cognitive\nneuro-science training, right,it sounds like it's pretty\nspecific and focusedin a particular part of\nthe brain, the cerebellum,and one thing that I'm interested inis you bring a participant into the study,have you ensured that they\ngot a good night's sleep?Have you asked them about their sleep?- Well in most studies,\nprobably it is advisedfor your participants before they come into get a good night's sleep,so those would be recommendations\nthat you would lay out,you know, in communication\nwith the participant,before they come in.You know, what we do in our studies,is we actually track\npeople, for say a week,and they have to get in within\nthis range of amount of sleepand then it has to be both amount of sleepand how stable it is.That variability can kind of impact itand certainly might have\nan impact on the machinerythat's happening in the brain.- I often think that\npeople, many people thinkthat they can get by on very little sleepwhere the less than\naverage amount of sleep,from what I know from the research,you know if you actually test those peopleon different batteries of cognitive tasks,you often find that their\nperformance is slightly worsethan they had anticipated.- Yeah.So what did you learn about sleep today?I guess I learned a system that is,you know, very heavily\nregulated and influencedby some of these older conservedsub-cortical systems in the brain,and that there's, as you called it,like a flip flop function\nbetween wakefulness and sleepthat's regulated by these\nspecific dopaminergic,neurogenergic, like neurotransmitters,that manifest in different\nsub-cortical parts of the brain.- So now we have sleep on your brain.That was all I wanted to hear."
],
[
"Sleep and Aging Brain",
"- Good to see you again, Yue.- Yes, good to see you.- Really glad that you could join us.So we've been talking about sleep today,various levels of complexity.But now with you, I\nreally want to talk aboutwhat do we know about\nsleep and the aging brain.Can you tell me a little bit aboutsome of the work that you've\nbeen doing in that area?- So I'm a epidemiologist,so we do a lot of workon the epidemiology of sleepand development of\nneurodegenerative diseasesincluding both Alzheimer's\nand Parkinson's disease,so ADMPD.We mainly work on population studies.We work on thousands and\neven millions of population,and we use statistical\nmodeling to find outthe association between\ndifferent sleep disturbancesand also genetics related\nto sleep disturbancesand link that to their\nrisk of developing ADMPD.- So how strong is the link?- Our study has found\nreally strong associationslooking at these populations,\nfor example, with sleep apnea.We've done one meta-analysis\nand it's showed thatthose with sleep apnea,\nthey have a ratio of 1.26,which means that those\nwho have sleep apneahave 26% elevated risk\nof developing Alzheimer'scompared to those without sleep apnea.So it's interesting, so I also sawthat there was also a recent meta-analysisaround sleep disturbances\nand dementia risk,and in that study, they\nlooked about 250,000 peoplein this meta-analysis,and they followed them\naround for 10 years,and you know, when they pulled\nall the samples together,they found there was a\n1.2 fold increased riskfor developing all caused dementia,so it sounds like both sleep apneaand then maybe sleep\ndisturbances more generallyare associated with\nincreased risk for dementia.When I think about that, I think about howsleep lives in the brain,these neurodegenerative\ndiseases live in the brain,and so what do we know\nabout the causality of this?Could it be that individualswho have early onset of say, Alzheimer's,have then poor sleep kind\nof as a consequence of that?- Yeah, so I think\nwhat's really fascinatingis all these bio-directional relationshipsthat's being identified in\nanimal studies especially,showing that sleep changes\nactually occur very early onin the disease process, so\nit could be a prodromal stageof Parkinson's, and also\nin transgenic model of AD,they're already showing a lot\nof circadian abnormalitiesin this mouse.- So within dementia risk in particular,Alzheimer's for instance,there are kind of two clear featuresthat seem to be part of\nthe pathology, right?So there's beta-amyloid which\naccumulates in the brain,and then there's kind of these tangles,this tauopathies, right?And so it sounds like\nsleep seems to be relatedto the tauopathies.What about kind of beta-amyloid?- Yes, in the transgenic\nmouse models of AD,including those expressinghuman mutant amyloid precursor protein,APP type or both,so that's kind of\nshowing the sleep changesin both of these pathologies.- Okay, so there is this\nbio-directional piece,but I think perhaps\nthe most exciting thingthat happened in the sleep field,at least in my view,has been understanding the role of sleepand its clearance of\nbeta-amyloid in the brain.This idea that sleep is kind\nof the dishwasher of the brain,it seems like, that you\nknow A betta accumulatesas we kind of use energy,and you know it's kind of a waste product,and the idea that if\nyou don't clear it out,that it's going to\nbuild up and accumulate.- So the thing I'm most\nexcited about sleep researchis, I think, first of all,this complexity of the\ndaytime/nighttime sleep,what sleep is really doing\nto our body and to our brain,and then is really from the epidemiologicor public health perspective,how we can best use sleep\nas a tool for the detectionand prevention of\nneurodegeneration in the long-term.- I'm excited about the\nfuture of sleep medicine.I think there are incredible\ninnovations that are happeningin the basic sciences, kind of\nreally starting to understandwhat are the clear biological processesthat underly some of these thingsas they relate to disease risk,and what is the true function of sleep,kind of the why we\nsleep phenomenon, right?So this was certainly a challenge today.Everyone knew a little bit about sleep,and I think that's great,because sleep is incredibly important,but there was also a lot of misinformationaround kind of how sleep works,and people doing sleep behaviorsthat may not be the\nmost adaptive for them.We're still uncovering\nnew things every dayabout how sleep works, but despite that,all of us know that sleep is\nfundamental to our health,and so I'm excited for sleep\nto kind of raise its profileamong other health behaviorsand get the investment\nand care that it needs."
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Astrophysicist Explains Gravity in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
QcUey-DVYjk
| 2,191
|
[
{
"end_time": 1,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "<Untitled Chapter 1>"
},
{
"end_time": 324,
"start_time": 1,
"title": "Janna Levin, PhD"
},
{
"end_time": 1156,
"start_time": 324,
"title": "Maria Teresa Furtado 16-year-old"
},
{
"end_time": 1491,
"start_time": 1156,
"title": "Grad Student"
},
{
"end_time": 1496,
"start_time": 1491,
"title": "Expert"
},
{
"end_time": 2191,
"start_time": 1496,
"title": "Matthew Kleban, PhD"
}
] |
[
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Janna Levin,\nI'm an astrophysicist,",
"timestamp": [
0.2,
3.32
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Janna Levin,\nI'm an astrophysicist,",
"timestamp": [
0.2,
3.32
]
},
{
"text": "and I've been asked to explain gravity",
"timestamp": [
3.32,
5.35
]
},
{
"text": "and I've been asked to explain gravity",
"timestamp": [
3.32,
5.35
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
5.35,
8.23
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
5.35,
8.23
]
},
{
"text": "Gravity seems so familiar and so everyday,",
"timestamp": [
8.23,
12.12
]
},
{
"text": "Gravity seems so familiar and so everyday,",
"timestamp": [
8.23,
12.12
]
},
{
"text": "and yet it's this incredibly\nesoteric abstract subject",
"timestamp": [
12.12,
17.12
]
},
{
"text": "and yet it's this incredibly\nesoteric abstract subject",
"timestamp": [
12.12,
17.12
]
},
{
"text": "that has shaped the way\nwe view the universe",
"timestamp": [
17.19,
19.64
]
},
{
"text": "that has shaped the way\nwe view the universe",
"timestamp": [
17.19,
19.64
]
},
{
"text": "on the larger scales,",
"timestamp": [
19.64,
20.97
]
},
{
"text": "on the larger scales,",
"timestamp": [
19.64,
20.97
]
},
{
"text": "has given us the strangest\nphenomena in the universe",
"timestamp": [
20.97,
24.3
]
},
{
"text": "has given us the strangest\nphenomena in the universe",
"timestamp": [
20.97,
24.3
]
},
{
"text": "like black holes",
"timestamp": [
24.3,
25.44
]
},
{
"text": "like black holes",
"timestamp": [
24.3,
25.44
]
},
{
"text": "that has changed the way we\nlook at the entirety of physics.",
"timestamp": [
25.44,
28.57
]
},
{
"text": "that has changed the way we\nlook at the entirety of physics.",
"timestamp": [
25.44,
28.57
]
},
{
"text": "It's really been a revolution\nbecause of gravity.",
"timestamp": [
28.57,
31.929
]
},
{
"text": "It's really been a revolution\nbecause of gravity.",
"timestamp": [
28.57,
31.929
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
31.929,
34.512
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
31.929,
34.512
]
},
{
"text": "Are you interested in science?\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
36.39,
37.89
]
},
{
"text": "Are you interested in science?\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
36.39,
37.89
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, you are?\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
37.89,
39.3
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, you are?\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
37.89,
39.3
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you know what gravity is?",
"timestamp": [
39.3,
40.92
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you know what gravity is?",
"timestamp": [
39.3,
40.92
]
},
{
"text": "- It's something that, so, right now,",
"timestamp": [
40.92,
43.4
]
},
{
"text": "- It's something that, so, right now,",
"timestamp": [
40.92,
43.4
]
},
{
"text": "we would be floating if\nthere was no gravity,",
"timestamp": [
43.4,
45.92
]
},
{
"text": "we would be floating if\nthere was no gravity,",
"timestamp": [
43.4,
45.92
]
},
{
"text": "but since there's gravity",
"timestamp": [
45.92,
46.93
]
},
{
"text": "but since there's gravity",
"timestamp": [
45.92,
46.93
]
},
{
"text": "we're sitting right down on these chairs.",
"timestamp": [
46.93,
49.2
]
},
{
"text": "we're sitting right down on these chairs.",
"timestamp": [
46.93,
49.2
]
},
{
"text": "- That's pretty good.",
"timestamp": [
49.2,
50.36
]
},
{
"text": "- That's pretty good.",
"timestamp": [
49.2,
50.36
]
},
{
"text": "So gravity wants to\nattract us to the Earth,",
"timestamp": [
50.36,
55.36
]
},
{
"text": "So gravity wants to\nattract us to the Earth,",
"timestamp": [
50.36,
55.36
]
},
{
"text": "and the Earth to us.",
"timestamp": [
55.51,
57.77
]
},
{
"text": "and the Earth to us.",
"timestamp": [
55.51,
57.77
]
},
{
"text": "But the Earth is so much bigger",
"timestamp": [
57.77,
59.75
]
},
{
"text": "But the Earth is so much bigger",
"timestamp": [
57.77,
59.75
]
},
{
"text": "that even though we're\nactually pulling the Earth",
"timestamp": [
59.75,
62.07
]
},
{
"text": "that even though we're\nactually pulling the Earth",
"timestamp": [
59.75,
62.07
]
},
{
"text": "a little bit to us, you\ndon't notice it so much.",
"timestamp": [
62.07,
64.68
]
},
{
"text": "a little bit to us, you\ndon't notice it so much.",
"timestamp": [
62.07,
64.68
]
},
{
"text": "You know, the Moon pulls\non the Earth a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
64.68,
67.44
]
},
{
"text": "You know, the Moon pulls\non the Earth a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
64.68,
67.44
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm, just like the ocean tides.",
"timestamp": [
67.44,
70.34
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm, just like the ocean tides.",
"timestamp": [
67.44,
70.34
]
},
{
"text": "- [Janna] Exactly, the\nMoon is such a big body",
"timestamp": [
70.34,
73.01
]
},
{
"text": "- [Janna] Exactly, the\nMoon is such a big body",
"timestamp": [
70.34,
73.01
]
},
{
"text": "compared to anything else very nearby",
"timestamp": [
73.01,
75.68
]
},
{
"text": "compared to anything else very nearby",
"timestamp": [
73.01,
75.68
]
},
{
"text": "that it has the larger effect,",
"timestamp": [
75.68,
77.16
]
},
{
"text": "that it has the larger effect,",
"timestamp": [
75.68,
77.16
]
},
{
"text": "pulling the water of the Earth.",
"timestamp": [
77.16,
78.61
]
},
{
"text": "pulling the water of the Earth.",
"timestamp": [
77.16,
78.61
]
},
{
"text": "But more than the Moon,\nthink about the Sun",
"timestamp": [
78.61,
80.75
]
},
{
"text": "But more than the Moon,\nthink about the Sun",
"timestamp": [
78.61,
80.75
]
},
{
"text": "pulling on the Earth.",
"timestamp": [
80.75,
81.87
]
},
{
"text": "pulling on the Earth.",
"timestamp": [
80.75,
81.87
]
},
{
"text": "We orbit the whole Sun,",
"timestamp": [
81.87,
82.99
]
},
{
"text": "We orbit the whole Sun,",
"timestamp": [
81.87,
82.99
]
},
{
"text": "just the way the Earth pulls on the Moon",
"timestamp": [
82.99,
85.39
]
},
{
"text": "just the way the Earth pulls on the Moon",
"timestamp": [
82.99,
85.39
]
},
{
"text": "and causes the Moon to orbit us.",
"timestamp": [
85.39,
87.34
]
},
{
"text": "and causes the Moon to orbit us.",
"timestamp": [
85.39,
87.34
]
},
{
"text": "All of those things are acting\non you and me right now.",
"timestamp": [
87.34,
90.09
]
},
{
"text": "All of those things are acting\non you and me right now.",
"timestamp": [
87.34,
90.09
]
},
{
"text": "- If gravity was too strong,\nwould we be able to get up?",
"timestamp": [
90.09,
93.98
]
},
{
"text": "- If gravity was too strong,\nwould we be able to get up?",
"timestamp": [
90.09,
93.98
]
},
{
"text": "- That's such a good question.",
"timestamp": [
93.98,
95.76
]
},
{
"text": "- That's such a good question.",
"timestamp": [
93.98,
95.76
]
},
{
"text": "No, we actually couldn't.",
"timestamp": [
95.76,
97.65
]
},
{
"text": "No, we actually couldn't.",
"timestamp": [
95.76,
97.65
]
},
{
"text": "In the Moon, gravity is weaker,",
"timestamp": [
97.65,
99.56
]
},
{
"text": "In the Moon, gravity is weaker,",
"timestamp": [
97.65,
99.56
]
},
{
"text": "you can almost float between footsteps",
"timestamp": [
99.56,
101.93
]
},
{
"text": "you can almost float between footsteps",
"timestamp": [
99.56,
101.93
]
},
{
"text": "if you look at the astronauts on the Moon.",
"timestamp": [
101.93,
104.41
]
},
{
"text": "if you look at the astronauts on the Moon.",
"timestamp": [
101.93,
104.41
]
},
{
"text": "On the Earth, it's harder,\n'cause it's bigger.",
"timestamp": [
104.41,
106.38
]
},
{
"text": "On the Earth, it's harder,\n'cause it's bigger.",
"timestamp": [
104.41,
106.38
]
},
{
"text": "If you go to a bigger, heavier planet,",
"timestamp": [
106.38,
109.12
]
},
{
"text": "If you go to a bigger, heavier planet,",
"timestamp": [
106.38,
109.12
]
},
{
"text": "it gets harder and harder.",
"timestamp": [
109.12,
110.26
]
},
{
"text": "it gets harder and harder.",
"timestamp": [
109.12,
110.26
]
},
{
"text": "But there are stars that have died",
"timestamp": [
110.26,
112.75
]
},
{
"text": "But there are stars that have died",
"timestamp": [
110.26,
112.75
]
},
{
"text": "that are so dense that there's no way",
"timestamp": [
112.75,
115.65
]
},
{
"text": "that are so dense that there's no way",
"timestamp": [
112.75,
115.65
]
},
{
"text": "we could lift our arms,",
"timestamp": [
115.65,
117.36
]
},
{
"text": "we could lift our arms,",
"timestamp": [
115.65,
117.36
]
},
{
"text": "no way we could step or walk.",
"timestamp": [
117.36,
119.84
]
},
{
"text": "no way we could step or walk.",
"timestamp": [
117.36,
119.84
]
},
{
"text": "The gravity is just way too strong.",
"timestamp": [
119.84,
122.37
]
},
{
"text": "The gravity is just way too strong.",
"timestamp": [
119.84,
122.37
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know how tall you are?",
"timestamp": [
122.37,
123.367
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know how tall you are?",
"timestamp": [
122.37,
123.367
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm in the fours.\n- In the fours?",
"timestamp": [
123.367,
126
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm in the fours.\n- In the fours?",
"timestamp": [
123.367,
126
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe four three.",
"timestamp": [
126,
126.833
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe four three.",
"timestamp": [
126,
126.833
]
},
{
"text": "- People think that while you're sleeping,",
"timestamp": [
126.833,
129.22
]
},
{
"text": "- People think that while you're sleeping,",
"timestamp": [
126.833,
129.22
]
},
{
"text": "your body has a chance to stretch out",
"timestamp": [
129.22,
131.97
]
},
{
"text": "your body has a chance to stretch out",
"timestamp": [
129.22,
131.97
]
},
{
"text": "and gravity isn't crunching you together,",
"timestamp": [
131.97,
135.03
]
},
{
"text": "and gravity isn't crunching you together,",
"timestamp": [
131.97,
135.03
]
},
{
"text": "but when you're standing\nor walking or sitting,",
"timestamp": [
135.03,
137.57
]
},
{
"text": "but when you're standing\nor walking or sitting,",
"timestamp": [
135.03,
137.57
]
},
{
"text": "the gravity contracts your\nspine ever so slightly,",
"timestamp": [
137.57,
141.95
]
},
{
"text": "the gravity contracts your\nspine ever so slightly,",
"timestamp": [
137.57,
141.95
]
},
{
"text": "so that in the morning you\nmight be a little bit taller",
"timestamp": [
141.95,
146.01
]
},
{
"text": "so that in the morning you\nmight be a little bit taller",
"timestamp": [
141.95,
146.01
]
},
{
"text": "than in the evening.",
"timestamp": [
146.01,
147.37
]
},
{
"text": "than in the evening.",
"timestamp": [
146.01,
147.37
]
},
{
"text": "See if it works for you.",
"timestamp": [
147.37,
148.57
]
},
{
"text": "See if it works for you.",
"timestamp": [
147.37,
148.57
]
},
{
"text": "- [Woman] Wow.",
"timestamp": [
151.107,
152.394
]
},
{
"text": "- [Woman] Wow.",
"timestamp": [
151.107,
152.394
]
},
{
"text": "- So that was last night?\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
152.394,
153.227
]
},
{
"text": "- So that was last night?\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
152.394,
153.227
]
},
{
"text": "[Bonet screams]",
"timestamp": [
155.138,
157.805
]
},
{
"text": "[Bonet screams]",
"timestamp": [
155.138,
157.805
]
},
{
"text": "- Ooh.",
"timestamp": [
159.74,
160.573
]
},
{
"text": "- Ooh.",
"timestamp": [
159.74,
160.573
]
},
{
"text": "- They say that astronauts in space,",
"timestamp": [
160.573,
162.3
]
},
{
"text": "- They say that astronauts in space,",
"timestamp": [
160.573,
162.3
]
},
{
"text": "definitely their spine elongates.",
"timestamp": [
162.3,
164.23
]
},
{
"text": "definitely their spine elongates.",
"timestamp": [
162.3,
164.23
]
},
{
"text": "There were two twin astronauts,",
"timestamp": [
164.23,
166.81
]
},
{
"text": "There were two twin astronauts,",
"timestamp": [
164.23,
166.81
]
},
{
"text": "one who stayed here on Earth",
"timestamp": [
166.81,
168.647
]
},
{
"text": "one who stayed here on Earth",
"timestamp": [
166.81,
168.647
]
},
{
"text": "and the other who went to the\nInternational Space Station.",
"timestamp": [
168.647,
171.75
]
},
{
"text": "and the other who went to the\nInternational Space Station.",
"timestamp": [
168.647,
171.75
]
},
{
"text": "He was there for a long\ntime, and when he came back,",
"timestamp": [
171.75,
175.04
]
},
{
"text": "He was there for a long\ntime, and when he came back,",
"timestamp": [
171.75,
175.04
]
},
{
"text": "he was actually taller\nthan his twin brother.",
"timestamp": [
175.04,
177.719
]
},
{
"text": "he was actually taller\nthan his twin brother.",
"timestamp": [
175.04,
177.719
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
177.719,
178.65
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
177.719,
178.65
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, and that was because gravity",
"timestamp": [
178.65,
180.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, and that was because gravity",
"timestamp": [
178.65,
180.01
]
},
{
"text": "wasn't compressing him all the time",
"timestamp": [
180.01,
181.9
]
},
{
"text": "wasn't compressing him all the time",
"timestamp": [
180.01,
181.9
]
},
{
"text": "and he was floating freely",
"timestamp": [
181.9,
184
]
},
{
"text": "and he was floating freely",
"timestamp": [
181.9,
184
]
},
{
"text": "in the International Space Station",
"timestamp": [
184,
185.5
]
},
{
"text": "in the International Space Station",
"timestamp": [
184,
185.5
]
},
{
"text": "and his spine just kind of elongated.",
"timestamp": [
185.5,
188.57
]
},
{
"text": "and his spine just kind of elongated.",
"timestamp": [
185.5,
188.57
]
},
{
"text": "After a while here on Earth\nthough he'll readjust,",
"timestamp": [
188.57,
190.73
]
},
{
"text": "After a while here on Earth\nthough he'll readjust,",
"timestamp": [
188.57,
190.73
]
},
{
"text": "he'll go back to the same size.",
"timestamp": [
190.73,
191.95
]
},
{
"text": "he'll go back to the same size.",
"timestamp": [
190.73,
191.95
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever heard of how\ngravity was discovered?",
"timestamp": [
191.95,
195.74
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever heard of how\ngravity was discovered?",
"timestamp": [
191.95,
195.74
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
195.74,
196.92
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
195.74,
196.92
]
},
{
"text": "- Isaac Newton would ponder,",
"timestamp": [
196.92,
198.98
]
},
{
"text": "- Isaac Newton would ponder,",
"timestamp": [
196.92,
198.98
]
},
{
"text": "how does the Earth cause things to fall?",
"timestamp": [
198.98,
201.93
]
},
{
"text": "how does the Earth cause things to fall?",
"timestamp": [
198.98,
201.93
]
},
{
"text": "There's a famous story that Isaac Newton",
"timestamp": [
201.93,
203.91
]
},
{
"text": "There's a famous story that Isaac Newton",
"timestamp": [
201.93,
203.91
]
},
{
"text": "was sitting under a tree",
"timestamp": [
203.91,
205.34
]
},
{
"text": "was sitting under a tree",
"timestamp": [
203.91,
205.34
]
},
{
"text": "and the apple fell from the\ntree and hit him on the head",
"timestamp": [
205.34,
208.66
]
},
{
"text": "and the apple fell from the\ntree and hit him on the head",
"timestamp": [
205.34,
208.66
]
},
{
"text": "and he had an epiphany\nand understood this law,",
"timestamp": [
208.66,
212.45
]
},
{
"text": "and he had an epiphany\nand understood this law,",
"timestamp": [
208.66,
212.45
]
},
{
"text": "this mathematical law for how that works.",
"timestamp": [
212.45,
215.1
]
},
{
"text": "this mathematical law for how that works.",
"timestamp": [
212.45,
215.1
]
},
{
"text": "I don't actually think\nthat's a true story, though.",
"timestamp": [
215.1,
217.38
]
},
{
"text": "I don't actually think\nthat's a true story, though.",
"timestamp": [
215.1,
217.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- But it's a good story.",
"timestamp": [
217.38,
219.04
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- But it's a good story.",
"timestamp": [
217.38,
219.04
]
},
{
"text": "So Isaac Newton realized\nthat even if you're heavier,",
"timestamp": [
219.04,
222.26
]
},
{
"text": "So Isaac Newton realized\nthat even if you're heavier,",
"timestamp": [
219.04,
222.26
]
},
{
"text": "you will fall at the same rate\nas something much lighter,",
"timestamp": [
222.26,
225.49
]
},
{
"text": "you will fall at the same rate\nas something much lighter,",
"timestamp": [
222.26,
225.49
]
},
{
"text": "that that's the same.",
"timestamp": [
225.49,
226.69
]
},
{
"text": "that that's the same.",
"timestamp": [
225.49,
226.69
]
},
{
"text": "Once you hit the ground,\nif you're heavier,",
"timestamp": [
226.69,
229.26
]
},
{
"text": "Once you hit the ground,\nif you're heavier,",
"timestamp": [
226.69,
229.26
]
},
{
"text": "you'll hit the ground\nwith much greater force,",
"timestamp": [
229.26,
231.38
]
},
{
"text": "you'll hit the ground\nwith much greater force,",
"timestamp": [
229.26,
231.38
]
},
{
"text": "but you will hit the\nground at the same time.",
"timestamp": [
231.38,
233.01
]
},
{
"text": "but you will hit the\nground at the same time.",
"timestamp": [
231.38,
233.01
]
},
{
"text": "- So, if we both dropped\ndown from a plane,",
"timestamp": [
233.01,
236.23
]
},
{
"text": "- So, if we both dropped\ndown from a plane,",
"timestamp": [
233.01,
236.23
]
},
{
"text": "we would both land at the same time,",
"timestamp": [
236.23,
238.92
]
},
{
"text": "we would both land at the same time,",
"timestamp": [
236.23,
238.92
]
},
{
"text": "but you would land heavier?",
"timestamp": [
238.92,
240.51
]
},
{
"text": "but you would land heavier?",
"timestamp": [
238.92,
240.51
]
},
{
"text": "- Yep, so like a penny from\nthe Empire State Building",
"timestamp": [
240.51,
244.02
]
},
{
"text": "- Yep, so like a penny from\nthe Empire State Building",
"timestamp": [
240.51,
244.02
]
},
{
"text": "will fall at the same\nrate as a bowling ball.",
"timestamp": [
244.02,
246.743
]
},
{
"text": "will fall at the same\nrate as a bowling ball.",
"timestamp": [
244.02,
246.743
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh my God.\n- Yeah, amazing.",
"timestamp": [
246.743,
248.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh my God.\n- Yeah, amazing.",
"timestamp": [
246.743,
248.82
]
},
{
"text": "Wanna try it?\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
248.82,
250.14
]
},
{
"text": "Wanna try it?\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
248.82,
250.14
]
},
{
"text": "- A light object, see how light that is.",
"timestamp": [
250.14,
253.1
]
},
{
"text": "- A light object, see how light that is.",
"timestamp": [
250.14,
253.1
]
},
{
"text": "- That's...\n- Very light?",
"timestamp": [
253.1,
255.19
]
},
{
"text": "- That's...\n- Very light?",
"timestamp": [
253.1,
255.19
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
255.19,
256.023
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
255.19,
256.023
]
},
{
"text": "And a heavy object.",
"timestamp": [
256.023,
257.073
]
},
{
"text": "And a heavy object.",
"timestamp": [
256.023,
257.073
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh my God.\n[Janna laughs]",
"timestamp": [
257.96,
259.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh my God.\n[Janna laughs]",
"timestamp": [
257.96,
259.38
]
},
{
"text": "- They look the same, but\nthis is much heavier, right?",
"timestamp": [
259.38,
262.66
]
},
{
"text": "- They look the same, but\nthis is much heavier, right?",
"timestamp": [
259.38,
262.66
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, so try it, just try\nholding your arms up front,",
"timestamp": [
262.66,
265.67
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, so try it, just try\nholding your arms up front,",
"timestamp": [
262.66,
265.67
]
},
{
"text": "a little higher maybe,\ngive them a chance to drop,",
"timestamp": [
265.67,
267.6
]
},
{
"text": "a little higher maybe,\ngive them a chance to drop,",
"timestamp": [
265.67,
267.6
]
},
{
"text": "and then drop them.",
"timestamp": [
267.6,
268.722
]
},
{
"text": "and then drop them.",
"timestamp": [
267.6,
268.722
]
},
{
"text": "[balls thud]\n[Janna laughs]",
"timestamp": [
268.722,
270.15
]
},
{
"text": "[balls thud]\n[Janna laughs]",
"timestamp": [
268.722,
270.15
]
},
{
"text": "Did they fall at the same time?",
"timestamp": [
270.15,
271.31
]
},
{
"text": "Did they fall at the same time?",
"timestamp": [
270.15,
271.31
]
},
{
"text": "Did they hit at the same time?",
"timestamp": [
271.31,
272.65
]
},
{
"text": "Did they hit at the same time?",
"timestamp": [
271.31,
272.65
]
},
{
"text": "- So, Isaac Newton, he was\nalso the one who realized",
"timestamp": [
272.65,
276.82
]
},
{
"text": "- So, Isaac Newton, he was\nalso the one who realized",
"timestamp": [
272.65,
276.82
]
},
{
"text": "that that's the same\nforce that keeps the Moon",
"timestamp": [
276.82,
279.06
]
},
{
"text": "that that's the same\nforce that keeps the Moon",
"timestamp": [
276.82,
279.06
]
},
{
"text": "in orbit around the Earth",
"timestamp": [
279.06,
280.607
]
},
{
"text": "in orbit around the Earth",
"timestamp": [
279.06,
280.607
]
},
{
"text": "and the Earth in orbit around the Sun,",
"timestamp": [
280.607,
282.36
]
},
{
"text": "and the Earth in orbit around the Sun,",
"timestamp": [
280.607,
282.36
]
},
{
"text": "and that's a huge leap.",
"timestamp": [
282.36,
283.53
]
},
{
"text": "and that's a huge leap.",
"timestamp": [
282.36,
283.53
]
},
{
"text": "Here he is, looking at\njust things around him,",
"timestamp": [
283.53,
286.64
]
},
{
"text": "Here he is, looking at\njust things around him,",
"timestamp": [
283.53,
286.64
]
},
{
"text": "and then looks at the stars",
"timestamp": [
286.64,
288.32
]
},
{
"text": "and then looks at the stars",
"timestamp": [
286.64,
288.32
]
},
{
"text": "and has this really big realization,",
"timestamp": [
288.32,
291.22
]
},
{
"text": "and has this really big realization,",
"timestamp": [
288.32,
291.22
]
},
{
"text": "that that's actually the same force.",
"timestamp": [
291.22,
293.15
]
},
{
"text": "that that's actually the same force.",
"timestamp": [
291.22,
293.15
]
},
{
"text": "So, what have you learned\ntoday talking about gravity?",
"timestamp": [
293.15,
296.66
]
},
{
"text": "So, what have you learned\ntoday talking about gravity?",
"timestamp": [
293.15,
296.66
]
},
{
"text": "- I've learned that the person\nthat learned about the apple.",
"timestamp": [
296.66,
300.42
]
},
{
"text": "- I've learned that the person\nthat learned about the apple.",
"timestamp": [
296.66,
300.42
]
},
{
"text": "- Newton.",
"timestamp": [
300.42,
301.253
]
},
{
"text": "- Newton.",
"timestamp": [
300.42,
301.253
]
},
{
"text": "- He was learning about gravity",
"timestamp": [
301.253,
302.5
]
},
{
"text": "- He was learning about gravity",
"timestamp": [
301.253,
302.5
]
},
{
"text": "just about what he saw on this planet.",
"timestamp": [
302.5,
305.31
]
},
{
"text": "just about what he saw on this planet.",
"timestamp": [
302.5,
305.31
]
},
{
"text": "I also learned that if\nyou drop one light thing",
"timestamp": [
305.31,
308.107
]
},
{
"text": "I also learned that if\nyou drop one light thing",
"timestamp": [
305.31,
308.107
]
},
{
"text": "and one heavy thing at the\nsame height at the same time,",
"timestamp": [
308.107,
311.69
]
},
{
"text": "and one heavy thing at the\nsame height at the same time,",
"timestamp": [
308.107,
311.69
]
},
{
"text": "they're both gonna drop at the same time",
"timestamp": [
311.69,
313.61
]
},
{
"text": "they're both gonna drop at the same time",
"timestamp": [
311.69,
313.61
]
},
{
"text": "but one's gonna drop a little\nheavier than the other.",
"timestamp": [
313.61,
316.16
]
},
{
"text": "but one's gonna drop a little\nheavier than the other.",
"timestamp": [
313.61,
316.16
]
},
{
"text": "- That's beautiful, I'm impressed.",
"timestamp": [
316.16,
318.222
]
},
{
"text": "- That's beautiful, I'm impressed.",
"timestamp": [
316.16,
318.222
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
318.222,
320.805
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
318.222,
320.805
]
},
{
"text": "So, Maria, you're in high school?",
"timestamp": [
322.63,
324.14
]
},
{
"text": "So, Maria, you're in high school?",
"timestamp": [
322.63,
324.14
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I'm a junior.",
"timestamp": [
324.14,
325.11
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I'm a junior.",
"timestamp": [
324.14,
325.11
]
},
{
"text": "- [Janna] And are you studying\nany sciences in high school?",
"timestamp": [
325.11,
327.41
]
},
{
"text": "- [Janna] And are you studying\nany sciences in high school?",
"timestamp": [
325.11,
327.41
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm taking physics right now.",
"timestamp": [
327.41,
328.94
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm taking physics right now.",
"timestamp": [
327.41,
328.94
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you think of yourself\nas curious about science?",
"timestamp": [
328.94,
331.54
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you think of yourself\nas curious about science?",
"timestamp": [
328.94,
331.54
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, there are some\nthings that interest me",
"timestamp": [
331.54,
333.85
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, there are some\nthings that interest me",
"timestamp": [
331.54,
333.85
]
},
{
"text": "and others that bore me, so it depends.",
"timestamp": [
333.85,
337.06
]
},
{
"text": "and others that bore me, so it depends.",
"timestamp": [
333.85,
337.06
]
},
{
"text": "- What interests you?",
"timestamp": [
337.06,
338.12
]
},
{
"text": "- What interests you?",
"timestamp": [
337.06,
338.12
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I'm a gymnast, so\nin physics they talk about",
"timestamp": [
338.12,
341.66
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I'm a gymnast, so\nin physics they talk about",
"timestamp": [
338.12,
341.66
]
},
{
"text": "force and stuff and then I\nthink of how I use physics",
"timestamp": [
341.66,
344.57
]
},
{
"text": "force and stuff and then I\nthink of how I use physics",
"timestamp": [
341.66,
344.57
]
},
{
"text": "in my own life.",
"timestamp": [
344.57,
345.55
]
},
{
"text": "in my own life.",
"timestamp": [
344.57,
345.55
]
},
{
"text": "- What's your impression\nof what gravity is?",
"timestamp": [
345.55,
347.93
]
},
{
"text": "- What's your impression\nof what gravity is?",
"timestamp": [
345.55,
347.93
]
},
{
"text": "- I think that if there's no gravity,",
"timestamp": [
347.93,
349.98
]
},
{
"text": "- I think that if there's no gravity,",
"timestamp": [
347.93,
349.98
]
},
{
"text": "everyone would float everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
349.98,
351.68
]
},
{
"text": "everyone would float everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
349.98,
351.68
]
},
{
"text": "It pulls things down,",
"timestamp": [
351.68,
353.53
]
},
{
"text": "It pulls things down,",
"timestamp": [
351.68,
353.53
]
},
{
"text": "and without it, everything would be chaos.",
"timestamp": [
353.53,
356.74
]
},
{
"text": "and without it, everything would be chaos.",
"timestamp": [
353.53,
356.74
]
},
{
"text": "- So you're saying\ngravity pulls things down,",
"timestamp": [
356.74,
359.11
]
},
{
"text": "- So you're saying\ngravity pulls things down,",
"timestamp": [
356.74,
359.11
]
},
{
"text": "yet we've launched things into space.",
"timestamp": [
359.11,
361.61
]
},
{
"text": "yet we've launched things into space.",
"timestamp": [
359.11,
361.61
]
},
{
"text": "Do you ever wonder how we do that?",
"timestamp": [
361.61,
363.28
]
},
{
"text": "Do you ever wonder how we do that?",
"timestamp": [
361.61,
363.28
]
},
{
"text": "- Isn't it like a slingshot,",
"timestamp": [
363.28,
364.8
]
},
{
"text": "- Isn't it like a slingshot,",
"timestamp": [
363.28,
364.8
]
},
{
"text": "like if you pull something back enough",
"timestamp": [
364.8,
366.47
]
},
{
"text": "like if you pull something back enough",
"timestamp": [
364.8,
366.47
]
},
{
"text": "it'll go in the opposite direction?",
"timestamp": [
366.47,
368.35
]
},
{
"text": "it'll go in the opposite direction?",
"timestamp": [
366.47,
368.35
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, that's true, we do\nuse slingshot technology",
"timestamp": [
368.35,
370.83
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, that's true, we do\nuse slingshot technology",
"timestamp": [
368.35,
370.83
]
},
{
"text": "once things are out in the solar system.",
"timestamp": [
370.83,
372.4
]
},
{
"text": "once things are out in the solar system.",
"timestamp": [
370.83,
372.4
]
},
{
"text": "So, for instance, we use\nJupiter and other planets",
"timestamp": [
372.4,
375.05
]
},
{
"text": "So, for instance, we use\nJupiter and other planets",
"timestamp": [
372.4,
375.05
]
},
{
"text": "so that when some of the\nspacecraft gets close,",
"timestamp": [
375.05,
379.01
]
},
{
"text": "so that when some of the\nspacecraft gets close,",
"timestamp": [
375.05,
379.01
]
},
{
"text": "it'll slingshot around and\nit'll cause it to speed up.",
"timestamp": [
379.01,
382.42
]
},
{
"text": "it'll slingshot around and\nit'll cause it to speed up.",
"timestamp": [
379.01,
382.42
]
},
{
"text": "But mostly, around the Earth,\ngravity pulls things down,",
"timestamp": [
382.42,
385.58
]
},
{
"text": "But mostly, around the Earth,\ngravity pulls things down,",
"timestamp": [
382.42,
385.58
]
},
{
"text": "so when we want to send\na rocket into space,",
"timestamp": [
385.58,
389.32
]
},
{
"text": "so when we want to send\na rocket into space,",
"timestamp": [
385.58,
389.32
]
},
{
"text": "when we wanna go to the Moon,",
"timestamp": [
389.32,
390.36
]
},
{
"text": "when we wanna go to the Moon,",
"timestamp": [
389.32,
390.36
]
},
{
"text": "when we wanna send supplies",
"timestamp": [
390.36,
392.21
]
},
{
"text": "when we wanna send supplies",
"timestamp": [
390.36,
392.21
]
},
{
"text": "to the International Space Station,",
"timestamp": [
392.21,
394.23
]
},
{
"text": "to the International Space Station,",
"timestamp": [
392.21,
394.23
]
},
{
"text": "the trick is to get\nsomething moving fast enough",
"timestamp": [
394.23,
397.4
]
},
{
"text": "the trick is to get\nsomething moving fast enough",
"timestamp": [
394.23,
397.4
]
},
{
"text": "that it escapes the\ngravitational pull of the Earth.",
"timestamp": [
397.4,
400.5
]
},
{
"text": "that it escapes the\ngravitational pull of the Earth.",
"timestamp": [
397.4,
400.5
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard the expression\nwhat goes up must come down?",
"timestamp": [
400.5,
403.74
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard the expression\nwhat goes up must come down?",
"timestamp": [
400.5,
403.74
]
},
{
"text": "It's actually not true.",
"timestamp": [
403.74,
405.37
]
},
{
"text": "It's actually not true.",
"timestamp": [
403.74,
405.37
]
},
{
"text": "If you throw it fast enough,",
"timestamp": [
405.37,
407
]
},
{
"text": "If you throw it fast enough,",
"timestamp": [
405.37,
407
]
},
{
"text": "you can actually get something",
"timestamp": [
407,
408.39
]
},
{
"text": "you can actually get something",
"timestamp": [
407,
408.39
]
},
{
"text": "that doesn't come back down again,",
"timestamp": [
408.39,
410.33
]
},
{
"text": "that doesn't come back down again,",
"timestamp": [
408.39,
410.33
]
},
{
"text": "and that's basically how\nrocket launches work.",
"timestamp": [
410.33,
413.38
]
},
{
"text": "and that's basically how\nrocket launches work.",
"timestamp": [
410.33,
413.38
]
},
{
"text": "You have to get the rocket for the Earth",
"timestamp": [
413.38,
415.41
]
},
{
"text": "You have to get the rocket for the Earth",
"timestamp": [
413.38,
415.41
]
},
{
"text": "to go more than 11 kilometers a second.",
"timestamp": [
415.41,
418.77
]
},
{
"text": "to go more than 11 kilometers a second.",
"timestamp": [
415.41,
418.77
]
},
{
"text": "Think of how fast it is.",
"timestamp": [
418.77,
419.62
]
},
{
"text": "Think of how fast it is.",
"timestamp": [
418.77,
419.62
]
},
{
"text": "Just one breath and\nit's gone 11 kilometers.",
"timestamp": [
419.62,
422.08
]
},
{
"text": "Just one breath and\nit's gone 11 kilometers.",
"timestamp": [
419.62,
422.08
]
},
{
"text": "If you get it to go that fast,",
"timestamp": [
422.08,
423.69
]
},
{
"text": "If you get it to go that fast,",
"timestamp": [
422.08,
423.69
]
},
{
"text": "it's not gonna come back down again.",
"timestamp": [
423.69,
425.18
]
},
{
"text": "it's not gonna come back down again.",
"timestamp": [
423.69,
425.18
]
},
{
"text": "So you know the\nInternational Space Station",
"timestamp": [
425.18,
426.97
]
},
{
"text": "So you know the\nInternational Space Station",
"timestamp": [
425.18,
426.97
]
},
{
"text": "which is orbiting the Earth?",
"timestamp": [
426.97,
428.59
]
},
{
"text": "which is orbiting the Earth?",
"timestamp": [
426.97,
428.59
]
},
{
"text": "That's going around the Earth\nat 17,000 miles an hour.",
"timestamp": [
428.59,
433.24
]
},
{
"text": "That's going around the Earth\nat 17,000 miles an hour.",
"timestamp": [
428.59,
433.24
]
},
{
"text": "It has no engines anymore,\nthe engines are turned off.",
"timestamp": [
433.24,
435.85
]
},
{
"text": "It has no engines anymore,\nthe engines are turned off.",
"timestamp": [
433.24,
435.85
]
},
{
"text": "So it's just there falling forever.",
"timestamp": [
435.85,
437.89
]
},
{
"text": "So it's just there falling forever.",
"timestamp": [
435.85,
437.89
]
},
{
"text": "So once it's out there,\nit's not coming back down",
"timestamp": [
437.89,
440.36
]
},
{
"text": "So once it's out there,\nit's not coming back down",
"timestamp": [
437.89,
440.36
]
},
{
"text": "as long as it's cruising like that.",
"timestamp": [
440.36,
441.93
]
},
{
"text": "as long as it's cruising like that.",
"timestamp": [
440.36,
441.93
]
},
{
"text": "- And does the gravity pull\nit or is it just floating?",
"timestamp": [
441.93,
444.69
]
},
{
"text": "- And does the gravity pull\nit or is it just floating?",
"timestamp": [
441.93,
444.69
]
},
{
"text": "- In a weird way, that\nis gravity pulling it.",
"timestamp": [
444.69,
446.59
]
},
{
"text": "- In a weird way, that\nis gravity pulling it.",
"timestamp": [
444.69,
446.59
]
},
{
"text": "So have you ever had a yo-yo",
"timestamp": [
446.59,
448.51
]
},
{
"text": "So have you ever had a yo-yo",
"timestamp": [
446.59,
448.51
]
},
{
"text": "where you swing it around like this?",
"timestamp": [
448.51,
450.2
]
},
{
"text": "where you swing it around like this?",
"timestamp": [
448.51,
450.2
]
},
{
"text": "The string is pulling it in at all times,",
"timestamp": [
450.2,
453.59
]
},
{
"text": "The string is pulling it in at all times,",
"timestamp": [
450.2,
453.59
]
},
{
"text": "but you've also given it\nthis angular momentum.",
"timestamp": [
453.59,
456.75
]
},
{
"text": "but you've also given it\nthis angular momentum.",
"timestamp": [
453.59,
456.75
]
},
{
"text": "And as long as you give\nit the angular momentum,",
"timestamp": [
456.75,
459.07
]
},
{
"text": "And as long as you give\nit the angular momentum,",
"timestamp": [
456.75,
459.07
]
},
{
"text": "pulling it in actually keeps it in orbit.",
"timestamp": [
459.07,
461.25
]
},
{
"text": "pulling it in actually keeps it in orbit.",
"timestamp": [
459.07,
461.25
]
},
{
"text": "And so the Earth is\npulling it in at all times,",
"timestamp": [
461.25,
464.75
]
},
{
"text": "And so the Earth is\npulling it in at all times,",
"timestamp": [
461.25,
464.75
]
},
{
"text": "so that's why it doesn't just\ntravel off in a straight line.",
"timestamp": [
464.75,
467.22
]
},
{
"text": "so that's why it doesn't just\ntravel off in a straight line.",
"timestamp": [
464.75,
467.22
]
},
{
"text": "It keeps coming back around.",
"timestamp": [
467.22,
469.35
]
},
{
"text": "It keeps coming back around.",
"timestamp": [
467.22,
469.35
]
},
{
"text": "So it's funny, people think",
"timestamp": [
469.35,
470.73
]
},
{
"text": "So it's funny, people think",
"timestamp": [
469.35,
470.73
]
},
{
"text": "that the International Space Station",
"timestamp": [
470.73,
472.35
]
},
{
"text": "that the International Space Station",
"timestamp": [
470.73,
472.35
]
},
{
"text": "is so far away that they're\nnot feeling gravity,",
"timestamp": [
472.35,
474.83
]
},
{
"text": "is so far away that they're\nnot feeling gravity,",
"timestamp": [
472.35,
474.83
]
},
{
"text": "and that's not the case at all.",
"timestamp": [
474.83,
475.96
]
},
{
"text": "and that's not the case at all.",
"timestamp": [
474.83,
475.96
]
},
{
"text": "They're absolutely feeling gravity.",
"timestamp": [
475.96,
478.1
]
},
{
"text": "They're absolutely feeling gravity.",
"timestamp": [
475.96,
478.1
]
},
{
"text": "They're just cruising so fast that,",
"timestamp": [
478.1,
480.93
]
},
{
"text": "They're just cruising so fast that,",
"timestamp": [
478.1,
480.93
]
},
{
"text": "even though they're being pulled in,",
"timestamp": [
480.93,
482.38
]
},
{
"text": "even though they're being pulled in,",
"timestamp": [
480.93,
482.38
]
},
{
"text": "they never get pulled to the surface.",
"timestamp": [
482.38,
484.18
]
},
{
"text": "they never get pulled to the surface.",
"timestamp": [
482.38,
484.18
]
},
{
"text": "- It's like that ride\nat the rollercoasters",
"timestamp": [
484.18,
486.96
]
},
{
"text": "- It's like that ride\nat the rollercoasters",
"timestamp": [
484.18,
486.96
]
},
{
"text": "where you go in and it's spins super fast",
"timestamp": [
486.96,
489.277
]
},
{
"text": "where you go in and it's spins super fast",
"timestamp": [
486.96,
489.277
]
},
{
"text": "and you can't feel it spinning fast but--",
"timestamp": [
489.277,
491.1
]
},
{
"text": "and you can't feel it spinning fast but--",
"timestamp": [
489.277,
491.1
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, you feel pinned to that.",
"timestamp": [
491.1,
493.12
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, you feel pinned to that.",
"timestamp": [
491.1,
493.12
]
},
{
"text": "It's exactly like that.",
"timestamp": [
493.12,
494.76
]
},
{
"text": "It's exactly like that.",
"timestamp": [
493.12,
494.76
]
},
{
"text": "There's something called\nthe equivalence principle",
"timestamp": [
494.76,
497.05
]
},
{
"text": "There's something called\nthe equivalence principle",
"timestamp": [
494.76,
497.05
]
},
{
"text": "where people realized,\nespecially Einstein,",
"timestamp": [
497.05,
499.84
]
},
{
"text": "where people realized,\nespecially Einstein,",
"timestamp": [
497.05,
499.84
]
},
{
"text": "that if you were in outer\nspace in a rocket ship",
"timestamp": [
499.84,
502.37
]
},
{
"text": "that if you were in outer\nspace in a rocket ship",
"timestamp": [
499.84,
502.37
]
},
{
"text": "and it was dark and painted\nand it was accelerating",
"timestamp": [
502.37,
505.24
]
},
{
"text": "and it was dark and painted\nand it was accelerating",
"timestamp": [
502.37,
505.24
]
},
{
"text": "at exactly the right rate,",
"timestamp": [
505.24,
506.89
]
},
{
"text": "at exactly the right rate,",
"timestamp": [
505.24,
506.89
]
},
{
"text": "you actually wouldn't\nknow if you were sitting",
"timestamp": [
506.89,
508.79
]
},
{
"text": "you actually wouldn't\nknow if you were sitting",
"timestamp": [
506.89,
508.79
]
},
{
"text": "on the floor of a\nbuilding around the Earth",
"timestamp": [
508.79,
510.68
]
},
{
"text": "on the floor of a\nbuilding around the Earth",
"timestamp": [
508.79,
510.68
]
},
{
"text": "or if you were on a rocket\nship that was accelerating.",
"timestamp": [
510.68,
512.68
]
},
{
"text": "or if you were on a rocket\nship that was accelerating.",
"timestamp": [
510.68,
512.68
]
},
{
"text": "- That's crazy.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
512.68,
514.22
]
},
{
"text": "- That's crazy.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
512.68,
514.22
]
},
{
"text": "You ever had that experience\nwhere you're sitting in a train",
"timestamp": [
514.22,
515.97
]
},
{
"text": "You ever had that experience\nwhere you're sitting in a train",
"timestamp": [
514.22,
515.97
]
},
{
"text": "and the other one moves and for a second",
"timestamp": [
515.97,
518.13
]
},
{
"text": "and the other one moves and for a second",
"timestamp": [
515.97,
518.13
]
},
{
"text": "you're not sure if you're the one moving?",
"timestamp": [
518.13,
519.91
]
},
{
"text": "you're not sure if you're the one moving?",
"timestamp": [
518.13,
519.91
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, 'cause I go on the train every day",
"timestamp": [
519.91,
521.93
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, 'cause I go on the train every day",
"timestamp": [
519.91,
521.93
]
},
{
"text": "to go to school,",
"timestamp": [
521.93,
522.77
]
},
{
"text": "to go to school,",
"timestamp": [
521.93,
522.77
]
},
{
"text": "but I never feel like I'm\nmoving when I'm in the train,",
"timestamp": [
522.77,
525.29
]
},
{
"text": "but I never feel like I'm\nmoving when I'm in the train,",
"timestamp": [
522.77,
525.29
]
},
{
"text": "and then I'm like, wait, what?",
"timestamp": [
525.29,
526.93
]
},
{
"text": "and then I'm like, wait, what?",
"timestamp": [
525.29,
526.93
]
},
{
"text": "- That's because in some\nsense, you're really not.",
"timestamp": [
526.93,
528.94
]
},
{
"text": "- That's because in some\nsense, you're really not.",
"timestamp": [
526.93,
528.94
]
},
{
"text": "Imagine you're in this train",
"timestamp": [
528.94,
530.24
]
},
{
"text": "Imagine you're in this train",
"timestamp": [
528.94,
530.24
]
},
{
"text": "and it's going near the speed of light",
"timestamp": [
530.24,
531.97
]
},
{
"text": "and it's going near the speed of light",
"timestamp": [
530.24,
531.97
]
},
{
"text": "relative to the platform,",
"timestamp": [
531.97,
533.71
]
},
{
"text": "relative to the platform,",
"timestamp": [
531.97,
533.71
]
},
{
"text": "but it's so smooth,",
"timestamp": [
533.71,
535.46
]
},
{
"text": "but it's so smooth,",
"timestamp": [
533.71,
535.46
]
},
{
"text": "then you should be in a situation",
"timestamp": [
535.46,
537.14
]
},
{
"text": "then you should be in a situation",
"timestamp": [
535.46,
537.14
]
},
{
"text": "in which there's no meaning\nto your absolute motion,",
"timestamp": [
537.14,
539.87
]
},
{
"text": "in which there's no meaning\nto your absolute motion,",
"timestamp": [
537.14,
539.87
]
},
{
"text": "there's no absolute motion.",
"timestamp": [
539.87,
541.19
]
},
{
"text": "there's no absolute motion.",
"timestamp": [
539.87,
541.19
]
},
{
"text": "So that if you throw a ball up,",
"timestamp": [
541.19,
542.57
]
},
{
"text": "So that if you throw a ball up,",
"timestamp": [
541.19,
542.57
]
},
{
"text": "you might think from the\noutside of the platform,",
"timestamp": [
542.57,
545.4
]
},
{
"text": "you might think from the\noutside of the platform,",
"timestamp": [
542.57,
545.4
]
},
{
"text": "be confused that when\ngravity pulls that back down,",
"timestamp": [
545.4,
548.18
]
},
{
"text": "be confused that when\ngravity pulls that back down,",
"timestamp": [
545.4,
548.18
]
},
{
"text": "it's gonna hit you or something,",
"timestamp": [
548.18,
549.78
]
},
{
"text": "it's gonna hit you or something,",
"timestamp": [
548.18,
549.78
]
},
{
"text": "but it'll land in your palm",
"timestamp": [
549.78,
551.34
]
},
{
"text": "but it'll land in your palm",
"timestamp": [
549.78,
551.34
]
},
{
"text": "as surely as if you were\nin your living room.",
"timestamp": [
551.34,
554.27
]
},
{
"text": "as surely as if you were\nin your living room.",
"timestamp": [
551.34,
554.27
]
},
{
"text": "Isn't that kinda crazy?\n- Amazing.",
"timestamp": [
554.27,
555.37
]
},
{
"text": "Isn't that kinda crazy?\n- Amazing.",
"timestamp": [
554.27,
555.37
]
},
{
"text": "- So imagine you were an astronaut",
"timestamp": [
555.37,
556.81
]
},
{
"text": "- So imagine you were an astronaut",
"timestamp": [
555.37,
556.81
]
},
{
"text": "and you were floating in empty space.",
"timestamp": [
556.81,
558.75
]
},
{
"text": "and you were floating in empty space.",
"timestamp": [
556.81,
558.75
]
},
{
"text": "You can't see anything.",
"timestamp": [
558.75,
559.76
]
},
{
"text": "You can't see anything.",
"timestamp": [
558.75,
559.76
]
},
{
"text": "There's no stars, there's no Earth.",
"timestamp": [
559.76,
561.89
]
},
{
"text": "There's no stars, there's no Earth.",
"timestamp": [
559.76,
561.89
]
},
{
"text": "You can ask yourself, am I moving?",
"timestamp": [
561.89,
564.42
]
},
{
"text": "You can ask yourself, am I moving?",
"timestamp": [
561.89,
564.42
]
},
{
"text": "There's really no way for you to tell.",
"timestamp": [
564.42,
565.73
]
},
{
"text": "There's really no way for you to tell.",
"timestamp": [
564.42,
565.73
]
},
{
"text": "So you would probably\nconclude, well, I'm not moving.",
"timestamp": [
565.73,
567.84
]
},
{
"text": "So you would probably\nconclude, well, I'm not moving.",
"timestamp": [
565.73,
567.84
]
},
{
"text": "So then your friend Marina\ncomes cruising past you,",
"timestamp": [
567.84,
570.81
]
},
{
"text": "So then your friend Marina\ncomes cruising past you,",
"timestamp": [
567.84,
570.81
]
},
{
"text": "and maybe she's going thousands\nof kilometers a second,",
"timestamp": [
570.81,
573.35
]
},
{
"text": "and maybe she's going thousands\nof kilometers a second,",
"timestamp": [
570.81,
573.35
]
},
{
"text": "and you say, \"Marina, you're cruising",
"timestamp": [
573.35,
575.037
]
},
{
"text": "and you say, \"Marina, you're cruising",
"timestamp": [
573.35,
575.037
]
},
{
"text": "\"at thousands of kilometers a second,",
"timestamp": [
575.037,
576.227
]
},
{
"text": "\"at thousands of kilometers a second,",
"timestamp": [
575.037,
576.227
]
},
{
"text": "\"you're going so fast.\"",
"timestamp": [
576.227,
577.53
]
},
{
"text": "\"you're going so fast.\"",
"timestamp": [
576.227,
577.53
]
},
{
"text": "But she had just done the same experiment.",
"timestamp": [
577.53,
579.33
]
},
{
"text": "But she had just done the same experiment.",
"timestamp": [
577.53,
579.33
]
},
{
"text": "She was just floating in space thinking,",
"timestamp": [
579.33,
582.427
]
},
{
"text": "She was just floating in space thinking,",
"timestamp": [
579.33,
582.427
]
},
{
"text": "\"Am I moving?\"",
"timestamp": [
582.427,
583.51
]
},
{
"text": "\"Am I moving?\"",
"timestamp": [
582.427,
583.51
]
},
{
"text": "There's no way to know\nwhich one of you is moving",
"timestamp": [
583.51,
586.3
]
},
{
"text": "There's no way to know\nwhich one of you is moving",
"timestamp": [
583.51,
586.3
]
},
{
"text": "and there's no meaning\nto the absolute motion.",
"timestamp": [
586.3,
589.29
]
},
{
"text": "and there's no meaning\nto the absolute motion.",
"timestamp": [
586.3,
589.29
]
},
{
"text": "The only thing that's true",
"timestamp": [
589.29,
590.77
]
},
{
"text": "The only thing that's true",
"timestamp": [
589.29,
590.77
]
},
{
"text": "is that you're in relative\nmotion, that's true.",
"timestamp": [
590.77,
593.52
]
},
{
"text": "is that you're in relative\nmotion, that's true.",
"timestamp": [
590.77,
593.52
]
},
{
"text": "You both agree you're in relative motion,",
"timestamp": [
593.52,
596.1
]
},
{
"text": "You both agree you're in relative motion,",
"timestamp": [
593.52,
596.1
]
},
{
"text": "and that's clear.",
"timestamp": [
596.1,
597.14
]
},
{
"text": "and that's clear.",
"timestamp": [
596.1,
597.14
]
},
{
"text": "But neither of you can say\nit's actually you who's moving",
"timestamp": [
597.14,
600.84
]
},
{
"text": "But neither of you can say\nit's actually you who's moving",
"timestamp": [
597.14,
600.84
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm stationary.",
"timestamp": [
600.84,
602.45
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm stationary.",
"timestamp": [
600.84,
602.45
]
},
{
"text": "- [laughs] I don't even\nknow what to say to that.",
"timestamp": [
602.45,
606.2
]
},
{
"text": "- [laughs] I don't even\nknow what to say to that.",
"timestamp": [
602.45,
606.2
]
},
{
"text": "- So let me tell you where\nit gets really crazy.",
"timestamp": [
606.2,
609.349
]
},
{
"text": "- So let me tell you where\nit gets really crazy.",
"timestamp": [
606.2,
609.349
]
},
{
"text": "[Maria laughs]",
"timestamp": [
609.349,
610.44
]
},
{
"text": "[Maria laughs]",
"timestamp": [
609.349,
610.44
]
},
{
"text": "So, let's say you and\nMarina are floating in space",
"timestamp": [
610.44,
614.59
]
},
{
"text": "So, let's say you and\nMarina are floating in space",
"timestamp": [
610.44,
614.59
]
},
{
"text": "and you can't tell who's moving.",
"timestamp": [
614.59,
616.61
]
},
{
"text": "and you can't tell who's moving.",
"timestamp": [
614.59,
616.61
]
},
{
"text": "Let's say you both see a flash of light.",
"timestamp": [
616.61,
619.944
]
},
{
"text": "Let's say you both see a flash of light.",
"timestamp": [
616.61,
619.944
]
},
{
"text": "A flash of light comes from somewhere,",
"timestamp": [
619.944,
621.01
]
},
{
"text": "A flash of light comes from somewhere,",
"timestamp": [
619.944,
621.01
]
},
{
"text": "you don't know where.",
"timestamp": [
621.01,
621.843
]
},
{
"text": "you don't know where.",
"timestamp": [
621.01,
621.843
]
},
{
"text": "So you measure the speed of light",
"timestamp": [
621.843,
623.28
]
},
{
"text": "So you measure the speed of light",
"timestamp": [
621.843,
623.28
]
},
{
"text": "to be 300,000 kilometers per second.",
"timestamp": [
623.28,
625.62
]
},
{
"text": "to be 300,000 kilometers per second.",
"timestamp": [
623.28,
625.62
]
},
{
"text": "But here comes Marina and she's\nracing at the light pulse,",
"timestamp": [
625.62,
628.74
]
},
{
"text": "But here comes Marina and she's\nracing at the light pulse,",
"timestamp": [
625.62,
628.74
]
},
{
"text": "as far as you can tell.",
"timestamp": [
628.74,
629.77
]
},
{
"text": "as far as you can tell.",
"timestamp": [
628.74,
629.77
]
},
{
"text": "Two cars driving towards each other",
"timestamp": [
629.77,
632.24
]
},
{
"text": "Two cars driving towards each other",
"timestamp": [
629.77,
632.24
]
},
{
"text": "seem like they're going\nfaster towards each other",
"timestamp": [
632.24,
634.35
]
},
{
"text": "seem like they're going\nfaster towards each other",
"timestamp": [
632.24,
634.35
]
},
{
"text": "than somebody who's standing still",
"timestamp": [
634.35,
635.67
]
},
{
"text": "than somebody who's standing still",
"timestamp": [
634.35,
635.67
]
},
{
"text": "relative to one of the cars,",
"timestamp": [
635.67,
636.82
]
},
{
"text": "relative to one of the cars,",
"timestamp": [
635.67,
636.82
]
},
{
"text": "right?\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
636.82,
637.653
]
},
{
"text": "right?\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
636.82,
637.653
]
},
{
"text": "- So you would say, oh\nMarina is gonna measure",
"timestamp": [
637.653,
639.42
]
},
{
"text": "- So you would say, oh\nMarina is gonna measure",
"timestamp": [
637.653,
639.42
]
},
{
"text": "a different speed of light.",
"timestamp": [
639.42,
640.32
]
},
{
"text": "a different speed of light.",
"timestamp": [
639.42,
640.32
]
},
{
"text": "But she comes back and she says, \"No.",
"timestamp": [
640.32,
641.953
]
},
{
"text": "But she comes back and she says, \"No.",
"timestamp": [
640.32,
641.953
]
},
{
"text": "\"300,000 kilometers per second.\"",
"timestamp": [
641.953,
644.34
]
},
{
"text": "\"300,000 kilometers per second.\"",
"timestamp": [
641.953,
644.34
]
},
{
"text": "Because from her perspective,\nshe's standing still,",
"timestamp": [
644.34,
646.91
]
},
{
"text": "Because from her perspective,\nshe's standing still,",
"timestamp": [
644.34,
646.91
]
},
{
"text": "and the laws of physics have\nbetter be the same for her.",
"timestamp": [
646.91,
649.02
]
},
{
"text": "and the laws of physics have\nbetter be the same for her.",
"timestamp": [
646.91,
649.02
]
},
{
"text": "The speed of light is a fact of nature",
"timestamp": [
649.02,
651.497
]
},
{
"text": "The speed of light is a fact of nature",
"timestamp": [
649.02,
651.497
]
},
{
"text": "that's as true as the strength of gravity.",
"timestamp": [
651.497,
654.97
]
},
{
"text": "that's as true as the strength of gravity.",
"timestamp": [
651.497,
654.97
]
},
{
"text": "And the two of you are in this quandary",
"timestamp": [
654.97,
656.35
]
},
{
"text": "And the two of you are in this quandary",
"timestamp": [
654.97,
656.35
]
},
{
"text": "because if one of you\nis the preferred person",
"timestamp": [
656.35,
659.27
]
},
{
"text": "because if one of you\nis the preferred person",
"timestamp": [
656.35,
659.27
]
},
{
"text": "who correctly measures the speed of light,",
"timestamp": [
659.27,
662.15
]
},
{
"text": "who correctly measures the speed of light,",
"timestamp": [
659.27,
662.15
]
},
{
"text": "that ruins everything about the idea",
"timestamp": [
662.15,
664.23
]
},
{
"text": "that ruins everything about the idea",
"timestamp": [
662.15,
664.23
]
},
{
"text": "of the relativity of motion.",
"timestamp": [
664.23,
665.68
]
},
{
"text": "of the relativity of motion.",
"timestamp": [
664.23,
665.68
]
},
{
"text": "Which one of you should it be?",
"timestamp": [
665.68,
667.09
]
},
{
"text": "Which one of you should it be?",
"timestamp": [
665.68,
667.09
]
},
{
"text": "So Einstein decides they must both measure",
"timestamp": [
667.09,
670.2
]
},
{
"text": "So Einstein decides they must both measure",
"timestamp": [
667.09,
670.2
]
},
{
"text": "the same speed of life.",
"timestamp": [
670.2,
671.48
]
},
{
"text": "the same speed of life.",
"timestamp": [
670.2,
671.48
]
},
{
"text": "How could that possibly,\npossibly be the case?",
"timestamp": [
671.48,
674.65
]
},
{
"text": "How could that possibly,\npossibly be the case?",
"timestamp": [
671.48,
674.65
]
},
{
"text": "And he thinks, well, if\nspeed is how far you travel,",
"timestamp": [
674.65,
679.24
]
},
{
"text": "And he thinks, well, if\nspeed is how far you travel,",
"timestamp": [
674.65,
679.24
]
},
{
"text": "your spatial distance, in\na certain amount of time,",
"timestamp": [
679.24,
683.36
]
},
{
"text": "your spatial distance, in\na certain amount of time,",
"timestamp": [
679.24,
683.36
]
},
{
"text": "then there must be something\nwrong with space and time.",
"timestamp": [
683.36,
686.69
]
},
{
"text": "then there must be something\nwrong with space and time.",
"timestamp": [
683.36,
686.69
]
},
{
"text": "And he goes from the constancy\nof the speed of light",
"timestamp": [
686.69,
689.48
]
},
{
"text": "And he goes from the constancy\nof the speed of light",
"timestamp": [
686.69,
689.48
]
},
{
"text": "and a respect for this idea of relativity",
"timestamp": [
689.48,
691.93
]
},
{
"text": "and a respect for this idea of relativity",
"timestamp": [
689.48,
691.93
]
},
{
"text": "to the idea that space and\ntime must not be the same",
"timestamp": [
691.93,
696.12
]
},
{
"text": "to the idea that space and\ntime must not be the same",
"timestamp": [
691.93,
696.12
]
},
{
"text": "for you and for Marina.",
"timestamp": [
696.12,
698.16
]
},
{
"text": "for you and for Marina.",
"timestamp": [
696.12,
698.16
]
},
{
"text": "And that's how he gets the idea",
"timestamp": [
698.16,
699.78
]
},
{
"text": "And that's how he gets the idea",
"timestamp": [
698.16,
699.78
]
},
{
"text": "of the relativity of space and time.",
"timestamp": [
699.78,
701.951
]
},
{
"text": "of the relativity of space and time.",
"timestamp": [
699.78,
701.951
]
},
{
"text": "[laughs] You have the best\nexpression on your face. [laughs]",
"timestamp": [
701.951,
706.06
]
},
{
"text": "[laughs] You have the best\nexpression on your face. [laughs]",
"timestamp": [
701.951,
706.06
]
},
{
"text": "It's pretty wild, but that is\na starting point, actually,",
"timestamp": [
706.06,
709.7
]
},
{
"text": "It's pretty wild, but that is\na starting point, actually,",
"timestamp": [
706.06,
709.7
]
},
{
"text": "of the whole theory of relativity.",
"timestamp": [
709.7,
711.08
]
},
{
"text": "of the whole theory of relativity.",
"timestamp": [
709.7,
711.08
]
},
{
"text": "That starting point leads to",
"timestamp": [
711.08,
712.85
]
},
{
"text": "That starting point leads to",
"timestamp": [
711.08,
712.85
]
},
{
"text": "this complete revolution in physics",
"timestamp": [
712.85,
714.79
]
},
{
"text": "this complete revolution in physics",
"timestamp": [
712.85,
714.79
]
},
{
"text": "where we suddenly have a Big Bang",
"timestamp": [
714.79,
716.27
]
},
{
"text": "where we suddenly have a Big Bang",
"timestamp": [
714.79,
716.27
]
},
{
"text": "and black holes and space-time.",
"timestamp": [
716.27,
717.91
]
},
{
"text": "and black holes and space-time.",
"timestamp": [
716.27,
717.91
]
},
{
"text": "Just from that one simple starting point.",
"timestamp": [
717.91,
719.9
]
},
{
"text": "Just from that one simple starting point.",
"timestamp": [
717.91,
719.9
]
},
{
"text": "So, is your impression\nof gravity different",
"timestamp": [
719.9,
721.93
]
},
{
"text": "So, is your impression\nof gravity different",
"timestamp": [
719.9,
721.93
]
},
{
"text": "than when we started the conversation?",
"timestamp": [
721.93,
723.59
]
},
{
"text": "than when we started the conversation?",
"timestamp": [
721.93,
723.59
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, 'cause I knew that\nwhen I was on the train",
"timestamp": [
723.59,
726.67
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, 'cause I knew that\nwhen I was on the train",
"timestamp": [
723.59,
726.67
]
},
{
"text": "it didn't feel like I was moving,",
"timestamp": [
726.67,
727.88
]
},
{
"text": "it didn't feel like I was moving,",
"timestamp": [
726.67,
727.88
]
},
{
"text": "but I didn't know why\nor that it was a thing",
"timestamp": [
727.88,
730.73
]
},
{
"text": "but I didn't know why\nor that it was a thing",
"timestamp": [
727.88,
730.73
]
},
{
"text": "and I wasn't crazy.",
"timestamp": [
730.73,
731.813
]
},
{
"text": "and I wasn't crazy.",
"timestamp": [
730.73,
731.813
]
},
{
"text": "[Janna and Maria laugh]",
"timestamp": [
731.813,
732.93
]
},
{
"text": "[Janna and Maria laugh]",
"timestamp": [
731.813,
732.93
]
},
{
"text": "- And it's a really deep principle.",
"timestamp": [
732.93,
735.02
]
},
{
"text": "- And it's a really deep principle.",
"timestamp": [
732.93,
735.02
]
},
{
"text": "And what about the theory of gravity?",
"timestamp": [
735.02,
737.02
]
},
{
"text": "And what about the theory of gravity?",
"timestamp": [
735.02,
737.02
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't know, usually\nwhen I just heard gravity",
"timestamp": [
737.02,
739.55
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't know, usually\nwhen I just heard gravity",
"timestamp": [
737.02,
739.55
]
},
{
"text": "it's from my coaches,",
"timestamp": [
739.55,
740.92
]
},
{
"text": "it's from my coaches,",
"timestamp": [
739.55,
740.92
]
},
{
"text": "but I didn't know it was all these things.",
"timestamp": [
740.92,
744.29
]
},
{
"text": "but I didn't know it was all these things.",
"timestamp": [
740.92,
744.29
]
},
{
"text": "- It's like a big paradigm.",
"timestamp": [
744.29,
746.116
]
},
{
"text": "- It's like a big paradigm.",
"timestamp": [
744.29,
746.116
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
746.116,
748.699
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
746.116,
748.699
]
},
{
"text": "So, you're in college?\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
749.69,
751.281
]
},
{
"text": "So, you're in college?\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
749.69,
751.281
]
},
{
"text": "- [Janna] And what are\nyou studying in college?",
"timestamp": [
751.281,
752.627
]
},
{
"text": "- [Janna] And what are\nyou studying in college?",
"timestamp": [
751.281,
752.627
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm a physics major.",
"timestamp": [
752.627,
753.87
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm a physics major.",
"timestamp": [
752.627,
753.87
]
},
{
"text": "- So, from your perspective,",
"timestamp": [
753.87,
755.74
]
},
{
"text": "- So, from your perspective,",
"timestamp": [
753.87,
755.74
]
},
{
"text": "how would you describe gravity?",
"timestamp": [
755.74,
757.09
]
},
{
"text": "how would you describe gravity?",
"timestamp": [
755.74,
757.09
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm taught that it's a force.",
"timestamp": [
757.09,
759.03
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm taught that it's a force.",
"timestamp": [
757.09,
759.03
]
},
{
"text": "It's described by inverse law.",
"timestamp": [
759.03,
760.96
]
},
{
"text": "It's described by inverse law.",
"timestamp": [
759.03,
760.96
]
},
{
"text": "But I also know that it's a field.",
"timestamp": [
760.96,
762.94
]
},
{
"text": "But I also know that it's a field.",
"timestamp": [
760.96,
762.94
]
},
{
"text": "And there's a recent discovery\nwith gravitational waves,",
"timestamp": [
762.94,
765.9
]
},
{
"text": "And there's a recent discovery\nwith gravitational waves,",
"timestamp": [
762.94,
765.9
]
},
{
"text": "although I don't know the\nspecific details about that.",
"timestamp": [
765.9,
769.21
]
},
{
"text": "although I don't know the\nspecific details about that.",
"timestamp": [
765.9,
769.21
]
},
{
"text": "- So, when you say it's\nan inverse-square law,",
"timestamp": [
769.21,
771.57
]
},
{
"text": "- So, when you say it's\nan inverse-square law,",
"timestamp": [
769.21,
771.57
]
},
{
"text": "that means that the closer you are,",
"timestamp": [
771.57,
774.13
]
},
{
"text": "that means that the closer you are,",
"timestamp": [
771.57,
774.13
]
},
{
"text": "the more strongly you feel\nthe gravitational pull.",
"timestamp": [
774.13,
776.49
]
},
{
"text": "the more strongly you feel\nthe gravitational pull.",
"timestamp": [
774.13,
776.49
]
},
{
"text": "And that makes sense.",
"timestamp": [
776.49,
777.98
]
},
{
"text": "And that makes sense.",
"timestamp": [
776.49,
777.98
]
},
{
"text": "There's very few things that are stronger",
"timestamp": [
777.98,
779.61
]
},
{
"text": "There's very few things that are stronger",
"timestamp": [
777.98,
779.61
]
},
{
"text": "when you're further apart.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
779.61,
780.86
]
},
{
"text": "when you're further apart.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
779.61,
780.86
]
},
{
"text": "- So you can also think\nof a gravitational field,",
"timestamp": [
780.86,
784.4
]
},
{
"text": "- So you can also think\nof a gravitational field,",
"timestamp": [
780.86,
784.4
]
},
{
"text": "something that permeates all of space.",
"timestamp": [
784.4,
786.87
]
},
{
"text": "something that permeates all of space.",
"timestamp": [
784.4,
786.87
]
},
{
"text": "Even though the earth is\nthree stories below us,",
"timestamp": [
786.87,
790.1
]
},
{
"text": "Even though the earth is\nthree stories below us,",
"timestamp": [
786.87,
790.1
]
},
{
"text": "it's not as though it's\npulling at us from a distance.",
"timestamp": [
790.1,
793.83
]
},
{
"text": "it's not as though it's\npulling at us from a distance.",
"timestamp": [
790.1,
793.83
]
},
{
"text": "We're actually interacting\nwith the field at this point",
"timestamp": [
793.83,
796.61
]
},
{
"text": "We're actually interacting\nwith the field at this point",
"timestamp": [
793.83,
796.61
]
},
{
"text": "and there's a real interaction\nright here at this point.",
"timestamp": [
796.61,
799.63
]
},
{
"text": "and there's a real interaction\nright here at this point.",
"timestamp": [
796.61,
799.63
]
},
{
"text": "And that's nice, because\npeople were worried",
"timestamp": [
799.63,
801.81
]
},
{
"text": "And that's nice, because\npeople were worried",
"timestamp": [
799.63,
801.81
]
},
{
"text": "that if things acted at a distance,",
"timestamp": [
801.81,
804.04
]
},
{
"text": "that if things acted at a distance,",
"timestamp": [
801.81,
804.04
]
},
{
"text": "that the way that old-fashioned",
"timestamp": [
804.04,
805.6
]
},
{
"text": "that the way that old-fashioned",
"timestamp": [
804.04,
805.6
]
},
{
"text": "inverse-square force law describes it,",
"timestamp": [
805.6,
807.75
]
},
{
"text": "inverse-square force law describes it,",
"timestamp": [
805.6,
807.75
]
},
{
"text": "that it was as spooky\nas mind-bending a spoon,",
"timestamp": [
807.75,
810.55
]
},
{
"text": "that it was as spooky\nas mind-bending a spoon,",
"timestamp": [
807.75,
810.55
]
},
{
"text": "that it was like telekinesis.",
"timestamp": [
810.55,
812.11
]
},
{
"text": "that it was like telekinesis.",
"timestamp": [
810.55,
812.11
]
},
{
"text": "If you don't touch something,\nhow do you affect it?",
"timestamp": [
812.11,
815.17
]
},
{
"text": "If you don't touch something,\nhow do you affect it?",
"timestamp": [
812.11,
815.17
]
},
{
"text": "And so the first step was\nto start to think of gravity",
"timestamp": [
815.17,
817.77
]
},
{
"text": "And so the first step was\nto start to think of gravity",
"timestamp": [
815.17,
817.77
]
},
{
"text": "as a field that permeates all of a space.",
"timestamp": [
817.77,
819.91
]
},
{
"text": "as a field that permeates all of a space.",
"timestamp": [
817.77,
819.91
]
},
{
"text": "And it's weaker very far from the Earth",
"timestamp": [
819.91,
821.98
]
},
{
"text": "And it's weaker very far from the Earth",
"timestamp": [
819.91,
821.98
]
},
{
"text": "and it's closer very close to the Earth.",
"timestamp": [
821.98,
823.64
]
},
{
"text": "and it's closer very close to the Earth.",
"timestamp": [
821.98,
823.64
]
},
{
"text": "So one way to think of this field",
"timestamp": [
823.64,
825.15
]
},
{
"text": "So one way to think of this field",
"timestamp": [
823.64,
825.15
]
},
{
"text": "as a field that's really describing",
"timestamp": [
825.15,
827.49
]
},
{
"text": "as a field that's really describing",
"timestamp": [
825.15,
827.49
]
},
{
"text": "a curved space-time that is everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
827.49,
829.99
]
},
{
"text": "a curved space-time that is everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
827.49,
829.99
]
},
{
"text": "Forget the difficulty of the math,",
"timestamp": [
829.99,
831.76
]
},
{
"text": "Forget the difficulty of the math,",
"timestamp": [
829.99,
831.76
]
},
{
"text": "just the intuition comes from",
"timestamp": [
831.76,
833.38
]
},
{
"text": "just the intuition comes from",
"timestamp": [
831.76,
833.38
]
},
{
"text": "two kind of simple observations.",
"timestamp": [
833.38,
836.11
]
},
{
"text": "two kind of simple observations.",
"timestamp": [
833.38,
836.11
]
},
{
"text": "One was what Einstein described",
"timestamp": [
836.11,
838.79
]
},
{
"text": "One was what Einstein described",
"timestamp": [
836.11,
838.79
]
},
{
"text": "as the happiest thought of his life.",
"timestamp": [
838.79,
840.52
]
},
{
"text": "as the happiest thought of his life.",
"timestamp": [
838.79,
840.52
]
},
{
"text": "So, right now, you might\nfeel heavy in your chair,",
"timestamp": [
840.52,
844.15
]
},
{
"text": "So, right now, you might\nfeel heavy in your chair,",
"timestamp": [
840.52,
844.15
]
},
{
"text": "and we might feel heavy\non the floor and our feet,",
"timestamp": [
844.15,
847.32
]
},
{
"text": "and we might feel heavy\non the floor and our feet,",
"timestamp": [
844.15,
847.32
]
},
{
"text": "or standing in an elevator cab.",
"timestamp": [
847.32,
848.92
]
},
{
"text": "or standing in an elevator cab.",
"timestamp": [
847.32,
848.92
]
},
{
"text": "And Einstein said, what does\nthe chair have to do with it,",
"timestamp": [
848.92,
852.63
]
},
{
"text": "And Einstein said, what does\nthe chair have to do with it,",
"timestamp": [
848.92,
852.63
]
},
{
"text": "or the floor, or the elevator?",
"timestamp": [
852.63,
854.18
]
},
{
"text": "or the floor, or the elevator?",
"timestamp": [
852.63,
854.18
]
},
{
"text": "Those aren't gravitational objects.",
"timestamp": [
854.18,
856.92
]
},
{
"text": "Those aren't gravitational objects.",
"timestamp": [
854.18,
856.92
]
},
{
"text": "So he wanted to eliminate them,",
"timestamp": [
856.92,
858.6
]
},
{
"text": "So he wanted to eliminate them,",
"timestamp": [
856.92,
858.6
]
},
{
"text": "and one way to do the thought experiment",
"timestamp": [
858.6,
860.42
]
},
{
"text": "and one way to do the thought experiment",
"timestamp": [
858.6,
860.42
]
},
{
"text": "is to imagine standing in an elevator",
"timestamp": [
860.42,
862.7
]
},
{
"text": "is to imagine standing in an elevator",
"timestamp": [
860.42,
862.7
]
},
{
"text": "that you can see out of, a black box.",
"timestamp": [
862.7,
864.66
]
},
{
"text": "that you can see out of, a black box.",
"timestamp": [
862.7,
864.66
]
},
{
"text": "And imagine the cable is cut",
"timestamp": [
864.66,
866.66
]
},
{
"text": "And imagine the cable is cut",
"timestamp": [
864.66,
866.66
]
},
{
"text": "and you and the elevator begin to fall.",
"timestamp": [
866.66,
868.8
]
},
{
"text": "and you and the elevator begin to fall.",
"timestamp": [
866.66,
868.8
]
},
{
"text": "- So, in free fall?",
"timestamp": [
868.8,
870.04
]
},
{
"text": "- So, in free fall?",
"timestamp": [
868.8,
870.04
]
},
{
"text": "- You're in total free fall.",
"timestamp": [
870.04,
871.66
]
},
{
"text": "- You're in total free fall.",
"timestamp": [
870.04,
871.66
]
},
{
"text": "Now, because things fall at the same rate,",
"timestamp": [
871.66,
873.99
]
},
{
"text": "Now, because things fall at the same rate,",
"timestamp": [
871.66,
873.99
]
},
{
"text": "including the elevator and you,",
"timestamp": [
873.99,
876.13
]
},
{
"text": "including the elevator and you,",
"timestamp": [
873.99,
876.13
]
},
{
"text": "you can actually float in the elevator.",
"timestamp": [
876.13,
878.25
]
},
{
"text": "you can actually float in the elevator.",
"timestamp": [
876.13,
878.25
]
},
{
"text": "If you just floated in the elevator,",
"timestamp": [
878.25,
879.94
]
},
{
"text": "If you just floated in the elevator,",
"timestamp": [
878.25,
879.94
]
},
{
"text": "the two of you would drop,",
"timestamp": [
879.94,
881.22
]
},
{
"text": "the two of you would drop,",
"timestamp": [
879.94,
881.22
]
},
{
"text": "and you might not even\nknow you're falling.",
"timestamp": [
881.22,
883.23
]
},
{
"text": "and you might not even\nknow you're falling.",
"timestamp": [
881.22,
883.23
]
},
{
"text": "You could take an apple and\ndrop it in front of you,",
"timestamp": [
883.23,
886.07
]
},
{
"text": "You could take an apple and\ndrop it in front of you,",
"timestamp": [
883.23,
886.07
]
},
{
"text": "and it would float in front of you.",
"timestamp": [
886.07,
887.73
]
},
{
"text": "and it would float in front of you.",
"timestamp": [
886.07,
887.73
]
},
{
"text": "You would actually\nexperience weightlessness.",
"timestamp": [
887.73,
890.81
]
},
{
"text": "You would actually\nexperience weightlessness.",
"timestamp": [
887.73,
890.81
]
},
{
"text": "It's called the equivalence principle.",
"timestamp": [
890.81,
892.5
]
},
{
"text": "It's called the equivalence principle.",
"timestamp": [
890.81,
892.5
]
},
{
"text": "It was Einstein's happiest thought",
"timestamp": [
892.5,
894.32
]
},
{
"text": "It was Einstein's happiest thought",
"timestamp": [
892.5,
894.32
]
},
{
"text": "that what you're really doing",
"timestamp": [
894.32,
896.17
]
},
{
"text": "that what you're really doing",
"timestamp": [
894.32,
896.17
]
},
{
"text": "when you're experiencing gravity",
"timestamp": [
896.17,
898.03
]
},
{
"text": "when you're experiencing gravity",
"timestamp": [
896.17,
898.03
]
},
{
"text": "isn't being heavy in your chair,",
"timestamp": [
898.03,
899.7
]
},
{
"text": "isn't being heavy in your chair,",
"timestamp": [
898.03,
899.7
]
},
{
"text": "it's falling weightlessly\nin the gravitational field.",
"timestamp": [
899.7,
904.04
]
},
{
"text": "it's falling weightlessly\nin the gravitational field.",
"timestamp": [
899.7,
904.04
]
},
{
"text": "And that was the first step,",
"timestamp": [
904.04,
905.24
]
},
{
"text": "And that was the first step,",
"timestamp": [
904.04,
905.24
]
},
{
"text": "to think of gravity as\nweightlessness and falling.",
"timestamp": [
905.24,
907.85
]
},
{
"text": "to think of gravity as\nweightlessness and falling.",
"timestamp": [
905.24,
907.85
]
},
{
"text": "- I know zero-gravity experiences",
"timestamp": [
907.85,
909.94
]
},
{
"text": "- I know zero-gravity experiences",
"timestamp": [
907.85,
909.94
]
},
{
"text": "that are done with planes, I believe?",
"timestamp": [
909.94,
913.15
]
},
{
"text": "that are done with planes, I believe?",
"timestamp": [
909.94,
913.15
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, exactly.\n- Yeah, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
913.15,
914.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, exactly.\n- Yeah, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
913.15,
914.29
]
},
{
"text": "- You can make somebody look like",
"timestamp": [
914.29,
915.74
]
},
{
"text": "- You can make somebody look like",
"timestamp": [
914.29,
915.74
]
},
{
"text": "they're in the International Space Station",
"timestamp": [
915.74,
917.75
]
},
{
"text": "they're in the International Space Station",
"timestamp": [
915.74,
917.75
]
},
{
"text": "by flying up in a plane\nand then just free-falling,",
"timestamp": [
917.75,
921.24
]
},
{
"text": "by flying up in a plane\nand then just free-falling,",
"timestamp": [
917.75,
921.24
]
},
{
"text": "the plane just drops out of the air.",
"timestamp": [
921.24,
923.29
]
},
{
"text": "the plane just drops out of the air.",
"timestamp": [
921.24,
923.29
]
},
{
"text": "And while it's falling, they\nwill float weightlessly,",
"timestamp": [
923.29,
926.57
]
},
{
"text": "And while it's falling, they\nwill float weightlessly,",
"timestamp": [
923.29,
926.57
]
},
{
"text": "and there's been a lot\nof experiments about it,",
"timestamp": [
926.57,
928.13
]
},
{
"text": "and there's been a lot\nof experiments about it,",
"timestamp": [
926.57,
928.13
]
},
{
"text": "but you don't want it to end unhappily,",
"timestamp": [
928.13,
930.13
]
},
{
"text": "but you don't want it to end unhappily,",
"timestamp": [
928.13,
930.13
]
},
{
"text": "so the plane has to scoop back up,",
"timestamp": [
930.13,
932.28
]
},
{
"text": "so the plane has to scoop back up,",
"timestamp": [
930.13,
932.28
]
},
{
"text": "and then you see them",
"timestamp": [
932.28,
933.39
]
},
{
"text": "and then you see them",
"timestamp": [
932.28,
933.39
]
},
{
"text": "become pinned to the floor of the plane,",
"timestamp": [
933.39,
935.73
]
},
{
"text": "become pinned to the floor of the plane,",
"timestamp": [
933.39,
935.73
]
},
{
"text": "because then the plane is\ninterrupting their fall.",
"timestamp": [
935.73,
938.7
]
},
{
"text": "because then the plane is\ninterrupting their fall.",
"timestamp": [
935.73,
938.7
]
},
{
"text": "So that's the first thought,",
"timestamp": [
938.7,
939.93
]
},
{
"text": "So that's the first thought,",
"timestamp": [
938.7,
939.93
]
},
{
"text": "and then the next is, what\nis the shape that's chased?",
"timestamp": [
939.93,
943.34
]
},
{
"text": "and then the next is, what\nis the shape that's chased?",
"timestamp": [
939.93,
943.34
]
},
{
"text": "So if you were floating in empty space,",
"timestamp": [
943.34,
945.15
]
},
{
"text": "So if you were floating in empty space,",
"timestamp": [
943.34,
945.15
]
},
{
"text": "really empty space, and you had an apple,",
"timestamp": [
945.15,
948.28
]
},
{
"text": "really empty space, and you had an apple,",
"timestamp": [
945.15,
948.28
]
},
{
"text": "and you threw the apple,",
"timestamp": [
948.28,
949.63
]
},
{
"text": "and you threw the apple,",
"timestamp": [
948.28,
949.63
]
},
{
"text": "what shape do you think\nit would chase, the path?",
"timestamp": [
949.63,
952.53
]
},
{
"text": "what shape do you think\nit would chase, the path?",
"timestamp": [
949.63,
952.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, if I threw it straight,",
"timestamp": [
952.53,
954.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, if I threw it straight,",
"timestamp": [
952.53,
954.01
]
},
{
"text": "I would think it would go straight.",
"timestamp": [
954.01,
955.72
]
},
{
"text": "I would think it would go straight.",
"timestamp": [
954.01,
955.72
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it would just go straight.",
"timestamp": [
955.72,
957.04
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it would just go straight.",
"timestamp": [
955.72,
957.04
]
},
{
"text": "But if you did that on the\nEarth, what would happen?",
"timestamp": [
957.04,
959.53
]
},
{
"text": "But if you did that on the\nEarth, what would happen?",
"timestamp": [
957.04,
959.53
]
},
{
"text": "- It would just go down.",
"timestamp": [
959.53,
960.64
]
},
{
"text": "- It would just go down.",
"timestamp": [
959.53,
960.64
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it would chase a\ncurve, it would chase an arc.",
"timestamp": [
960.64,
964.92
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it would chase a\ncurve, it would chase an arc.",
"timestamp": [
960.64,
964.92
]
},
{
"text": "And the faster you throw it,\nthe kind of longer the arc.",
"timestamp": [
964.92,
968.7
]
},
{
"text": "And the faster you throw it,\nthe kind of longer the arc.",
"timestamp": [
964.92,
968.7
]
},
{
"text": "So the second step to think\nabout curved space-time",
"timestamp": [
968.7,
971.87
]
},
{
"text": "So the second step to think\nabout curved space-time",
"timestamp": [
968.7,
971.87
]
},
{
"text": "is to say that when things fall freely",
"timestamp": [
971.87,
974.81
]
},
{
"text": "is to say that when things fall freely",
"timestamp": [
971.87,
974.81
]
},
{
"text": "around a body like the Earth,\nthey trace curved paths,",
"timestamp": [
974.81,
979.78
]
},
{
"text": "around a body like the Earth,\nthey trace curved paths,",
"timestamp": [
974.81,
979.78
]
},
{
"text": "as though space-time itself,\nspace itself was curved.",
"timestamp": [
979.78,
984.443
]
},
{
"text": "as though space-time itself,\nspace itself was curved.",
"timestamp": [
979.78,
984.443
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh.",
"timestamp": [
984.443,
985.314
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh.",
"timestamp": [
984.443,
985.314
]
},
{
"text": "- You had that moment,",
"timestamp": [
985.314,
986.403
]
},
{
"text": "- You had that moment,",
"timestamp": [
985.314,
986.403
]
},
{
"text": "I saw that it your face!\n- Yeah, yeah, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
986.403,
987.498
]
},
{
"text": "I saw that it your face!\n- Yeah, yeah, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
986.403,
987.498
]
},
{
"text": "- You went, \"Oh.\"",
"timestamp": [
987.498,
988.761
]
},
{
"text": "- You went, \"Oh.\"",
"timestamp": [
987.498,
988.761
]
},
{
"text": "[Janna and Lisa laugh]",
"timestamp": [
988.761,
989.67
]
},
{
"text": "[Janna and Lisa laugh]",
"timestamp": [
988.761,
989.67
]
},
{
"text": "So, that's the intuition,",
"timestamp": [
989.67,
991.6
]
},
{
"text": "So, that's the intuition,",
"timestamp": [
989.67,
991.6
]
},
{
"text": "that's how Einstein gets from thinking",
"timestamp": [
991.6,
994.42
]
},
{
"text": "that's how Einstein gets from thinking",
"timestamp": [
991.6,
994.42
]
},
{
"text": "that space-time is curved\nfrom the idea that, well,",
"timestamp": [
994.42,
997.57
]
},
{
"text": "that space-time is curved\nfrom the idea that, well,",
"timestamp": [
994.42,
997.57
]
},
{
"text": "there's this field that\npermeates all of space,",
"timestamp": [
997.57,
999.29
]
},
{
"text": "there's this field that\npermeates all of space,",
"timestamp": [
997.57,
999.29
]
},
{
"text": "and what is really\ndescribing is the curves",
"timestamp": [
999.29,
1001.24
]
},
{
"text": "and what is really\ndescribing is the curves",
"timestamp": [
999.29,
1001.24
]
},
{
"text": "that things fall along.",
"timestamp": [
1001.24,
1002.66
]
},
{
"text": "that things fall along.",
"timestamp": [
1001.24,
1002.66
]
},
{
"text": "And from there, it's a very long path",
"timestamp": [
1002.66,
1005.68
]
},
{
"text": "And from there, it's a very long path",
"timestamp": [
1002.66,
1005.68
]
},
{
"text": "to finding the mathematics\nand the right description,",
"timestamp": [
1005.68,
1008.8
]
},
{
"text": "to finding the mathematics\nand the right description,",
"timestamp": [
1005.68,
1008.8
]
},
{
"text": "that's really hard.",
"timestamp": [
1008.8,
1009.75
]
},
{
"text": "that's really hard.",
"timestamp": [
1008.8,
1009.75
]
},
{
"text": "But that intuition is so\nelegant and so beautiful",
"timestamp": [
1009.75,
1012.07
]
},
{
"text": "But that intuition is so\nelegant and so beautiful",
"timestamp": [
1009.75,
1012.07
]
},
{
"text": "and just comes from these two\nsimple thought experiments.",
"timestamp": [
1012.07,
1014.86
]
},
{
"text": "and just comes from these two\nsimple thought experiments.",
"timestamp": [
1012.07,
1014.86
]
},
{
"text": "- That's amazing.",
"timestamp": [
1014.86,
1015.693
]
},
{
"text": "- That's amazing.",
"timestamp": [
1014.86,
1015.693
]
},
{
"text": "- Isn't it kind of amazing?\n- Yeah. [laughs]",
"timestamp": [
1015.693,
1017.58
]
},
{
"text": "- Isn't it kind of amazing?\n- Yeah. [laughs]",
"timestamp": [
1015.693,
1017.58
]
},
{
"text": "- So you described learning\nin a class about light",
"timestamp": [
1017.58,
1021.33
]
},
{
"text": "- So you described learning\nin a class about light",
"timestamp": [
1017.58,
1021.33
]
},
{
"text": "the theory of special relativity",
"timestamp": [
1021.33,
1023.01
]
},
{
"text": "the theory of special relativity",
"timestamp": [
1021.33,
1023.01
]
},
{
"text": "where Einstein is really adhering",
"timestamp": [
1023.01,
1025.33
]
},
{
"text": "where Einstein is really adhering",
"timestamp": [
1023.01,
1025.33
]
},
{
"text": "to the constancy of the speed of light",
"timestamp": [
1025.33,
1027.27
]
},
{
"text": "to the constancy of the speed of light",
"timestamp": [
1025.33,
1027.27
]
},
{
"text": "and questioning the absolute\nnature of space and time.",
"timestamp": [
1027.27,
1030.64
]
},
{
"text": "and questioning the absolute\nnature of space and time.",
"timestamp": [
1027.27,
1030.64
]
},
{
"text": "And it seems like that has\nnothing to do with gravity,",
"timestamp": [
1030.64,
1033.16
]
},
{
"text": "And it seems like that has\nnothing to do with gravity,",
"timestamp": [
1030.64,
1033.16
]
},
{
"text": "but he later begins to think about",
"timestamp": [
1033.16,
1035.16
]
},
{
"text": "but he later begins to think about",
"timestamp": [
1033.16,
1035.16
]
},
{
"text": "the incompatibility of gravity",
"timestamp": [
1035.16,
1037.72
]
},
{
"text": "the incompatibility of gravity",
"timestamp": [
1035.16,
1037.72
]
},
{
"text": "with his theory of relativity.",
"timestamp": [
1037.72,
1039.15
]
},
{
"text": "with his theory of relativity.",
"timestamp": [
1037.72,
1039.15
]
},
{
"text": "So suppose the Sun were\nto disappear tomorrow.",
"timestamp": [
1039.15,
1042.27
]
},
{
"text": "So suppose the Sun were\nto disappear tomorrow.",
"timestamp": [
1039.15,
1042.27
]
},
{
"text": "Some evil genius comes\nand just figures out a way",
"timestamp": [
1042.27,
1045.84
]
},
{
"text": "Some evil genius comes\nand just figures out a way",
"timestamp": [
1042.27,
1045.84
]
},
{
"text": "to evaporate the Sun.",
"timestamp": [
1045.84,
1047.18
]
},
{
"text": "to evaporate the Sun.",
"timestamp": [
1045.84,
1047.18
]
},
{
"text": "In Newton's understanding of gravity,",
"timestamp": [
1047.18,
1049.27
]
},
{
"text": "In Newton's understanding of gravity,",
"timestamp": [
1047.18,
1049.27
]
},
{
"text": "we would instantaneously know about it",
"timestamp": [
1049.27,
1051.64
]
},
{
"text": "we would instantaneously know about it",
"timestamp": [
1049.27,
1051.64
]
},
{
"text": "all the way over here at the Earth.",
"timestamp": [
1051.64,
1053.49
]
},
{
"text": "all the way over here at the Earth.",
"timestamp": [
1051.64,
1053.49
]
},
{
"text": "And that's incompatible with the concept",
"timestamp": [
1053.49,
1055.94
]
},
{
"text": "And that's incompatible with the concept",
"timestamp": [
1053.49,
1055.94
]
},
{
"text": "that nothing can travel faster\nthan the speed of light.",
"timestamp": [
1055.94,
1059.07
]
},
{
"text": "that nothing can travel faster\nthan the speed of light.",
"timestamp": [
1055.94,
1059.07
]
},
{
"text": "No information, not even\ninformation about the Sun,",
"timestamp": [
1059.07,
1061.75
]
},
{
"text": "No information, not even\ninformation about the Sun,",
"timestamp": [
1059.07,
1061.75
]
},
{
"text": "could possibly travel faster\nthan the speed of light.",
"timestamp": [
1061.75,
1064.25
]
},
{
"text": "could possibly travel faster\nthan the speed of light.",
"timestamp": [
1061.75,
1064.25
]
},
{
"text": "So we shouldn't know about\nwhat happened to the Sun",
"timestamp": [
1064.25,
1066.77
]
},
{
"text": "So we shouldn't know about\nwhat happened to the Sun",
"timestamp": [
1064.25,
1066.77
]
},
{
"text": "for a full eight minutes,",
"timestamp": [
1066.77,
1068.44
]
},
{
"text": "for a full eight minutes,",
"timestamp": [
1066.77,
1068.44
]
},
{
"text": "which is the time it would\ntake light to travel to us.",
"timestamp": [
1068.44,
1070.75
]
},
{
"text": "which is the time it would\ntake light to travel to us.",
"timestamp": [
1068.44,
1070.75
]
},
{
"text": "And so he begins to question",
"timestamp": [
1070.75,
1072.96
]
},
{
"text": "And so he begins to question",
"timestamp": [
1070.75,
1072.96
]
},
{
"text": "why gravity is so\nincompatible with relativity,",
"timestamp": [
1072.96,
1076.22
]
},
{
"text": "why gravity is so\nincompatible with relativity,",
"timestamp": [
1072.96,
1076.22
]
},
{
"text": "but he already knows he's thinking about",
"timestamp": [
1076.22,
1077.82
]
},
{
"text": "but he already knows he's thinking about",
"timestamp": [
1076.22,
1077.82
]
},
{
"text": "space and time in relativity.",
"timestamp": [
1077.82,
1079.73
]
},
{
"text": "space and time in relativity.",
"timestamp": [
1077.82,
1079.73
]
},
{
"text": "So then he gets to his\ngeneral theory of relativity",
"timestamp": [
1079.73,
1082.77
]
},
{
"text": "So then he gets to his\ngeneral theory of relativity",
"timestamp": [
1079.73,
1082.77
]
},
{
"text": "where he realizes if\nI eliminate everything",
"timestamp": [
1082.77,
1086.83
]
},
{
"text": "where he realizes if\nI eliminate everything",
"timestamp": [
1082.77,
1086.83
]
},
{
"text": "but just the gravitational\nfield of let's say the Earth",
"timestamp": [
1086.83,
1090.24
]
},
{
"text": "but just the gravitational\nfield of let's say the Earth",
"timestamp": [
1086.83,
1090.24
]
},
{
"text": "and I look at how things fall",
"timestamp": [
1090.24,
1092.2
]
},
{
"text": "and I look at how things fall",
"timestamp": [
1090.24,
1092.2
]
},
{
"text": "and I see that they follow curves,",
"timestamp": [
1092.2,
1094.45
]
},
{
"text": "and I see that they follow curves,",
"timestamp": [
1092.2,
1094.45
]
},
{
"text": "well, then he realizes that space and time",
"timestamp": [
1094.45,
1096.6
]
},
{
"text": "well, then he realizes that space and time",
"timestamp": [
1094.45,
1096.6
]
},
{
"text": "don't just contract or dilate,",
"timestamp": [
1096.6,
1098.49
]
},
{
"text": "don't just contract or dilate,",
"timestamp": [
1096.6,
1098.49
]
},
{
"text": "that they can really warp,",
"timestamp": [
1098.49,
1100.22
]
},
{
"text": "that they can really warp,",
"timestamp": [
1098.49,
1100.22
]
},
{
"text": "that they can bend and\nthat they can curve.",
"timestamp": [
1100.22,
1102.14
]
},
{
"text": "that they can bend and\nthat they can curve.",
"timestamp": [
1100.22,
1102.14
]
},
{
"text": "And then he finds a way",
"timestamp": [
1102.14,
1103.82
]
},
{
"text": "And then he finds a way",
"timestamp": [
1102.14,
1103.82
]
},
{
"text": "to make gravity compatible with relativity",
"timestamp": [
1103.82,
1107.01
]
},
{
"text": "to make gravity compatible with relativity",
"timestamp": [
1103.82,
1107.01
]
},
{
"text": "by saying if the Sun were\nto disappear tomorrow,",
"timestamp": [
1107.01,
1109.86
]
},
{
"text": "by saying if the Sun were\nto disappear tomorrow,",
"timestamp": [
1107.01,
1109.86
]
},
{
"text": "the curves that the Sun\nimprinted in space-time",
"timestamp": [
1109.86,
1113.44
]
},
{
"text": "the curves that the Sun\nimprinted in space-time",
"timestamp": [
1109.86,
1113.44
]
},
{
"text": "would actually begin to ripple,",
"timestamp": [
1113.44,
1115.58
]
},
{
"text": "would actually begin to ripple,",
"timestamp": [
1113.44,
1115.58
]
},
{
"text": "and those are the gravitational waves,",
"timestamp": [
1115.58,
1117.14
]
},
{
"text": "and those are the gravitational waves,",
"timestamp": [
1115.58,
1117.14
]
},
{
"text": "and they would change and\nthey would flatten out,",
"timestamp": [
1117.14,
1120.3
]
},
{
"text": "and they would change and\nthey would flatten out,",
"timestamp": [
1117.14,
1120.3
]
},
{
"text": "'cause the Sun was no longer there.",
"timestamp": [
1120.3,
1121.727
]
},
{
"text": "'cause the Sun was no longer there.",
"timestamp": [
1120.3,
1121.727
]
},
{
"text": "And that would take the\nlight-travel time to get to us",
"timestamp": [
1121.727,
1125.28
]
},
{
"text": "And that would take the\nlight-travel time to get to us",
"timestamp": [
1121.727,
1125.28
]
},
{
"text": "to tell us that the Sun was gone,",
"timestamp": [
1125.28,
1127.19
]
},
{
"text": "to tell us that the Sun was gone,",
"timestamp": [
1125.28,
1127.19
]
},
{
"text": "and then we would stop orbiting",
"timestamp": [
1127.19,
1128.73
]
},
{
"text": "and then we would stop orbiting",
"timestamp": [
1127.19,
1128.73
]
},
{
"text": "and just travel along a straight line.",
"timestamp": [
1128.73,
1130.86
]
},
{
"text": "and just travel along a straight line.",
"timestamp": [
1128.73,
1130.86
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow.\n- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
1130.86,
1131.856
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow.\n- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
1130.86,
1131.856
]
},
{
"text": "[Janna and Lisa laughs]",
"timestamp": [
1131.856,
1132.98
]
},
{
"text": "[Janna and Lisa laughs]",
"timestamp": [
1131.856,
1132.98
]
},
{
"text": "Well, let's hope it doesn't happen.",
"timestamp": [
1132.98,
1134.14
]
},
{
"text": "Well, let's hope it doesn't happen.",
"timestamp": [
1132.98,
1134.14
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n[Janna laughs]",
"timestamp": [
1134.14,
1135.47
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n[Janna laughs]",
"timestamp": [
1134.14,
1135.47
]
},
{
"text": "- So what do you think you walk away with?",
"timestamp": [
1135.47,
1137.31
]
},
{
"text": "- So what do you think you walk away with?",
"timestamp": [
1135.47,
1137.31
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think you learned?",
"timestamp": [
1137.31,
1138.5
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think you learned?",
"timestamp": [
1137.31,
1138.5
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I learned more\nabout the intuitions",
"timestamp": [
1138.5,
1140.66
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I learned more\nabout the intuitions",
"timestamp": [
1138.5,
1140.66
]
},
{
"text": "behind the concept.",
"timestamp": [
1140.66,
1142.97
]
},
{
"text": "behind the concept.",
"timestamp": [
1140.66,
1142.97
]
},
{
"text": "'Cause we already just do the problems",
"timestamp": [
1142.97,
1145.2
]
},
{
"text": "'Cause we already just do the problems",
"timestamp": [
1142.97,
1145.2
]
},
{
"text": "but sometimes you get lost in the math,",
"timestamp": [
1145.2,
1147.36
]
},
{
"text": "but sometimes you get lost in the math,",
"timestamp": [
1145.2,
1147.36
]
},
{
"text": "but speaking like this it\nreally helps build my intuition.",
"timestamp": [
1147.36,
1151.38
]
},
{
"text": "but speaking like this it\nreally helps build my intuition.",
"timestamp": [
1147.36,
1151.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it does for me\ntoo, so thank you. [laughs]",
"timestamp": [
1151.38,
1155.351
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it does for me\ntoo, so thank you. [laughs]",
"timestamp": [
1151.38,
1155.351
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
1155.351,
1157.934
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
1155.351,
1157.934
]
},
{
"text": "So you're getting your PhD in physics?",
"timestamp": [
1160.06,
1162.29
]
},
{
"text": "So you're getting your PhD in physics?",
"timestamp": [
1160.06,
1162.29
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
1162.29,
1163.123
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
1162.29,
1163.123
]
},
{
"text": "Theoretical high energy physics.",
"timestamp": [
1163.123,
1164.62
]
},
{
"text": "Theoretical high energy physics.",
"timestamp": [
1163.123,
1164.62
]
},
{
"text": "Basically the physics of",
"timestamp": [
1164.62,
1165.92
]
},
{
"text": "Basically the physics of",
"timestamp": [
1164.62,
1165.92
]
},
{
"text": "really, really small fundamental things.",
"timestamp": [
1165.92,
1168.23
]
},
{
"text": "really, really small fundamental things.",
"timestamp": [
1165.92,
1168.23
]
},
{
"text": "- So what would that have to do",
"timestamp": [
1168.23,
1169.44
]
},
{
"text": "- So what would that have to do",
"timestamp": [
1168.23,
1169.44
]
},
{
"text": "with gravity or astrophysics?",
"timestamp": [
1169.44,
1171.32
]
},
{
"text": "with gravity or astrophysics?",
"timestamp": [
1169.44,
1171.32
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, what I'm looking\nat is states of matter",
"timestamp": [
1171.32,
1173.76
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, what I'm looking\nat is states of matter",
"timestamp": [
1171.32,
1173.76
]
},
{
"text": "that might exist inside neutron stars.",
"timestamp": [
1173.76,
1176.05
]
},
{
"text": "that might exist inside neutron stars.",
"timestamp": [
1173.76,
1176.05
]
},
{
"text": "So, when a star dies, if\nthe star is massive enough,",
"timestamp": [
1176.05,
1179.24
]
},
{
"text": "So, when a star dies, if\nthe star is massive enough,",
"timestamp": [
1176.05,
1179.24
]
},
{
"text": "there's a huge explosion,\ncalled a supernova,",
"timestamp": [
1179.24,
1181.8
]
},
{
"text": "there's a huge explosion,\ncalled a supernova,",
"timestamp": [
1179.24,
1181.8
]
},
{
"text": "and the stuff that's left behind",
"timestamp": [
1181.8,
1183.81
]
},
{
"text": "and the stuff that's left behind",
"timestamp": [
1181.8,
1183.81
]
},
{
"text": "that doesn't get blown away",
"timestamp": [
1183.81,
1185.03
]
},
{
"text": "that doesn't get blown away",
"timestamp": [
1183.81,
1185.03
]
},
{
"text": "collapses into a tiny compact blob",
"timestamp": [
1185.03,
1187.48
]
},
{
"text": "collapses into a tiny compact blob",
"timestamp": [
1185.03,
1187.48
]
},
{
"text": "called a neutron star.",
"timestamp": [
1187.48,
1188.78
]
},
{
"text": "called a neutron star.",
"timestamp": [
1187.48,
1188.78
]
},
{
"text": "- So what I love about\nneutron stars personally",
"timestamp": [
1188.78,
1190.9
]
},
{
"text": "- So what I love about\nneutron stars personally",
"timestamp": [
1188.78,
1190.9
]
},
{
"text": "is that they're kind of city-sized,",
"timestamp": [
1190.9,
1193.12
]
},
{
"text": "is that they're kind of city-sized,",
"timestamp": [
1190.9,
1193.12
]
},
{
"text": "right?\n- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
1193.12,
1193.989
]
},
{
"text": "right?\n- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
1193.12,
1193.989
]
},
{
"text": "- [Janna] They're about\nthe size of a city.",
"timestamp": [
1193.989,
1194.89
]
},
{
"text": "- [Janna] They're about\nthe size of a city.",
"timestamp": [
1193.989,
1194.89
]
},
{
"text": "So you're imagining something",
"timestamp": [
1194.89,
1196.2
]
},
{
"text": "So you're imagining something",
"timestamp": [
1194.89,
1196.2
]
},
{
"text": "more than the mass of the Sun.",
"timestamp": [
1196.2,
1197.71
]
},
{
"text": "more than the mass of the Sun.",
"timestamp": [
1196.2,
1197.71
]
},
{
"text": "- [Will] Yeah, or about\nthe mass of the Sun,",
"timestamp": [
1197.71,
1199.51
]
},
{
"text": "- [Will] Yeah, or about\nthe mass of the Sun,",
"timestamp": [
1197.71,
1199.51
]
},
{
"text": "condensed to the size of a city.",
"timestamp": [
1199.51,
1201.07
]
},
{
"text": "condensed to the size of a city.",
"timestamp": [
1199.51,
1201.07
]
},
{
"text": "It's dense enough that one teaspoon-full",
"timestamp": [
1201.07,
1203.26
]
},
{
"text": "It's dense enough that one teaspoon-full",
"timestamp": [
1201.07,
1203.26
]
},
{
"text": "would weigh about a\nbillion tons here on Earth.",
"timestamp": [
1203.26,
1205.57
]
},
{
"text": "would weigh about a\nbillion tons here on Earth.",
"timestamp": [
1203.26,
1205.57
]
},
{
"text": "- Now, that makes the gravitational\nfield incredibly strong",
"timestamp": [
1205.57,
1210.57
]
},
{
"text": "- Now, that makes the gravitational\nfield incredibly strong",
"timestamp": [
1205.57,
1210.57
]
},
{
"text": "around the neutron star.",
"timestamp": [
1211.56,
1212.56
]
},
{
"text": "around the neutron star.",
"timestamp": [
1211.56,
1212.56
]
},
{
"text": "So what would happen if\nwe were on a neutron star,",
"timestamp": [
1212.56,
1215.22
]
},
{
"text": "So what would happen if\nwe were on a neutron star,",
"timestamp": [
1212.56,
1215.22
]
},
{
"text": "because of the gravity?",
"timestamp": [
1215.22,
1216.18
]
},
{
"text": "because of the gravity?",
"timestamp": [
1215.22,
1216.18
]
},
{
"text": "- We would immediately be\ncrushed into the ground,",
"timestamp": [
1216.18,
1218.71
]
},
{
"text": "- We would immediately be\ncrushed into the ground,",
"timestamp": [
1216.18,
1218.71
]
},
{
"text": "I think our bodies would be shred",
"timestamp": [
1218.71,
1220.15
]
},
{
"text": "I think our bodies would be shred",
"timestamp": [
1218.71,
1220.15
]
},
{
"text": "into their subatomic particles.",
"timestamp": [
1220.15,
1222.08
]
},
{
"text": "into their subatomic particles.",
"timestamp": [
1220.15,
1222.08
]
},
{
"text": "- So what's the connection",
"timestamp": [
1222.08,
1222.913
]
},
{
"text": "- So what's the connection",
"timestamp": [
1222.08,
1222.913
]
},
{
"text": "between neutron stars and black holes?",
"timestamp": [
1222.913,
1224.86
]
},
{
"text": "between neutron stars and black holes?",
"timestamp": [
1222.913,
1224.86
]
},
{
"text": "- So, as I understand it,",
"timestamp": [
1224.86,
1225.99
]
},
{
"text": "- So, as I understand it,",
"timestamp": [
1224.86,
1225.99
]
},
{
"text": "a black hole is sort of like\na neutron star's big brother.",
"timestamp": [
1225.99,
1229.02
]
},
{
"text": "a black hole is sort of like\na neutron star's big brother.",
"timestamp": [
1225.99,
1229.02
]
},
{
"text": "It's more intense, though.",
"timestamp": [
1229.02,
1230.45
]
},
{
"text": "It's more intense, though.",
"timestamp": [
1229.02,
1230.45
]
},
{
"text": "If you have so much matter\nwhen a star is collapsing",
"timestamp": [
1230.45,
1233.7
]
},
{
"text": "If you have so much matter\nwhen a star is collapsing",
"timestamp": [
1230.45,
1233.7
]
},
{
"text": "that it can't hold itself up,\nit collapses to a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1233.7,
1237.28
]
},
{
"text": "that it can't hold itself up,\nit collapses to a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1233.7,
1237.28
]
},
{
"text": "and those are so dense\nthat space-time breaks down",
"timestamp": [
1237.28,
1241
]
},
{
"text": "and those are so dense\nthat space-time breaks down",
"timestamp": [
1237.28,
1241
]
},
{
"text": "in some way or another.",
"timestamp": [
1241,
1241.99
]
},
{
"text": "in some way or another.",
"timestamp": [
1241,
1241.99
]
},
{
"text": "- Black holes are so amazing",
"timestamp": [
1241.99,
1243.5
]
},
{
"text": "- Black holes are so amazing",
"timestamp": [
1241.99,
1243.5
]
},
{
"text": "that when the neutron star stops",
"timestamp": [
1243.5,
1245.29
]
},
{
"text": "that when the neutron star stops",
"timestamp": [
1243.5,
1245.29
]
},
{
"text": "and there's something actually there.",
"timestamp": [
1245.29,
1247.2
]
},
{
"text": "and there's something actually there.",
"timestamp": [
1245.29,
1247.2
]
},
{
"text": "There's material there.",
"timestamp": [
1247.2,
1248.41
]
},
{
"text": "There's material there.",
"timestamp": [
1247.2,
1248.41
]
},
{
"text": "If it's so heavy it becomes a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1248.41,
1250.21
]
},
{
"text": "If it's so heavy it becomes a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1248.41,
1250.21
]
},
{
"text": "so it keeps falling,",
"timestamp": [
1250.21,
1251.5
]
},
{
"text": "so it keeps falling,",
"timestamp": [
1250.21,
1251.5
]
},
{
"text": "once the event horizon\nof the black hole forms,",
"timestamp": [
1251.5,
1254.96
]
},
{
"text": "once the event horizon\nof the black hole forms,",
"timestamp": [
1251.5,
1254.96
]
},
{
"text": "which is the shadow,",
"timestamp": [
1254.96,
1256.26
]
},
{
"text": "which is the shadow,",
"timestamp": [
1254.96,
1256.26
]
},
{
"text": "the curve that's so strong\nthat not even light can escape,",
"timestamp": [
1256.26,
1259.04
]
},
{
"text": "the curve that's so strong\nthat not even light can escape,",
"timestamp": [
1256.26,
1259.04
]
},
{
"text": "the material keeps falling.",
"timestamp": [
1259.04,
1260.3
]
},
{
"text": "the material keeps falling.",
"timestamp": [
1259.04,
1260.3
]
},
{
"text": "And like you said, maybe\nspace-time breaks down",
"timestamp": [
1260.3,
1263.08
]
},
{
"text": "And like you said, maybe\nspace-time breaks down",
"timestamp": [
1260.3,
1263.08
]
},
{
"text": "right at the center there,\nbut whatever happens,",
"timestamp": [
1263.08,
1265.42
]
},
{
"text": "right at the center there,\nbut whatever happens,",
"timestamp": [
1263.08,
1265.42
]
},
{
"text": "the star's gone, that black hole is empty.",
"timestamp": [
1265.42,
1268.01
]
},
{
"text": "the star's gone, that black hole is empty.",
"timestamp": [
1265.42,
1268.01
]
},
{
"text": "So in a weird way black holes\nare a place and not a thing.",
"timestamp": [
1268.01,
1271.1
]
},
{
"text": "So in a weird way black holes\nare a place and not a thing.",
"timestamp": [
1268.01,
1271.1
]
},
{
"text": "- So is there a sensible way to talk",
"timestamp": [
1271.1,
1272.92
]
},
{
"text": "- So is there a sensible way to talk",
"timestamp": [
1271.1,
1272.92
]
},
{
"text": "about what's inside a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1272.92,
1274.53
]
},
{
"text": "about what's inside a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1272.92,
1274.53
]
},
{
"text": "or is that, should you think of it",
"timestamp": [
1274.53,
1275.95
]
},
{
"text": "or is that, should you think of it",
"timestamp": [
1274.53,
1275.95
]
},
{
"text": "as there is no space-time inside?",
"timestamp": [
1275.95,
1279.04
]
},
{
"text": "as there is no space-time inside?",
"timestamp": [
1275.95,
1279.04
]
},
{
"text": "- There isn't a sensible\nway to talk about it yet,",
"timestamp": [
1279.04,
1281.27
]
},
{
"text": "- There isn't a sensible\nway to talk about it yet,",
"timestamp": [
1279.04,
1281.27
]
},
{
"text": "and that probably means\nthat's where Einstein's",
"timestamp": [
1281.27,
1284.02
]
},
{
"text": "and that probably means\nthat's where Einstein's",
"timestamp": [
1281.27,
1284.02
]
},
{
"text": "theory of gravity as a curved space-time",
"timestamp": [
1284.02,
1286.42
]
},
{
"text": "theory of gravity as a curved space-time",
"timestamp": [
1284.02,
1286.42
]
},
{
"text": "is beginning to break down,",
"timestamp": [
1286.42,
1287.85
]
},
{
"text": "is beginning to break down,",
"timestamp": [
1286.42,
1287.85
]
},
{
"text": "and we need to take the extra step",
"timestamp": [
1287.85,
1289.66
]
},
{
"text": "and we need to take the extra step",
"timestamp": [
1287.85,
1289.66
]
},
{
"text": "of going to some kind of\nquantum theory of gravity.",
"timestamp": [
1289.66,
1292.49
]
},
{
"text": "of going to some kind of\nquantum theory of gravity.",
"timestamp": [
1289.66,
1292.49
]
},
{
"text": "And we don't have that yet.",
"timestamp": [
1292.49,
1294.2
]
},
{
"text": "And we don't have that yet.",
"timestamp": [
1292.49,
1294.2
]
},
{
"text": "So even though the black hole\nisn't completely understood,",
"timestamp": [
1294.2,
1297.1
]
},
{
"text": "So even though the black hole\nisn't completely understood,",
"timestamp": [
1294.2,
1297.1
]
},
{
"text": "we do know that they form astronomically,",
"timestamp": [
1297.1,
1299.74
]
},
{
"text": "we do know that they form astronomically,",
"timestamp": [
1297.1,
1299.74
]
},
{
"text": "that in the universe things\nlike neutron stars form",
"timestamp": [
1299.74,
1303.22
]
},
{
"text": "that in the universe things\nlike neutron stars form",
"timestamp": [
1299.74,
1303.22
]
},
{
"text": "and things like black holes form.",
"timestamp": [
1303.22,
1305.09
]
},
{
"text": "and things like black holes form.",
"timestamp": [
1303.22,
1305.09
]
},
{
"text": "The consequences are very much speaking",
"timestamp": [
1305.09,
1308.89
]
},
{
"text": "The consequences are very much speaking",
"timestamp": [
1305.09,
1308.89
]
},
{
"text": "to this curved space-time.",
"timestamp": [
1308.89,
1310.25
]
},
{
"text": "to this curved space-time.",
"timestamp": [
1308.89,
1310.25
]
},
{
"text": "So, for instance, if two\nblack holes orbit each other,",
"timestamp": [
1310.25,
1313.2
]
},
{
"text": "So, for instance, if two\nblack holes orbit each other,",
"timestamp": [
1310.25,
1313.2
]
},
{
"text": "they're like mallets on a drum,",
"timestamp": [
1313.2,
1315.33
]
},
{
"text": "they're like mallets on a drum,",
"timestamp": [
1313.2,
1315.33
]
},
{
"text": "and they actually cause\nspace-time to ring,",
"timestamp": [
1315.33,
1318.05
]
},
{
"text": "and they actually cause\nspace-time to ring,",
"timestamp": [
1315.33,
1318.05
]
},
{
"text": "and it's very much part of gravitation.",
"timestamp": [
1318.05,
1319.68
]
},
{
"text": "and it's very much part of gravitation.",
"timestamp": [
1318.05,
1319.68
]
},
{
"text": "The ringing of space-time itself,",
"timestamp": [
1319.68,
1321.66
]
},
{
"text": "The ringing of space-time itself,",
"timestamp": [
1319.68,
1321.66
]
},
{
"text": "we call gravitational waves.",
"timestamp": [
1321.66,
1323.35
]
},
{
"text": "we call gravitational waves.",
"timestamp": [
1321.66,
1323.35
]
},
{
"text": "And this was something\nEinstein thought about",
"timestamp": [
1323.35,
1325.67
]
},
{
"text": "And this was something\nEinstein thought about",
"timestamp": [
1323.35,
1325.67
]
},
{
"text": "right away in 1950-1960,\nhe was thinking about that.",
"timestamp": [
1325.67,
1329.35
]
},
{
"text": "right away in 1950-1960,\nhe was thinking about that.",
"timestamp": [
1325.67,
1329.35
]
},
{
"text": "- Those waves are very exciting for me too",
"timestamp": [
1329.35,
1331.253
]
},
{
"text": "- Those waves are very exciting for me too",
"timestamp": [
1329.35,
1331.253
]
},
{
"text": "because neutron stars orbiting each other",
"timestamp": [
1331.253,
1333.52
]
},
{
"text": "because neutron stars orbiting each other",
"timestamp": [
1331.253,
1333.52
]
},
{
"text": "also give off gravitational waves",
"timestamp": [
1333.52,
1335.52
]
},
{
"text": "also give off gravitational waves",
"timestamp": [
1333.52,
1335.52
]
},
{
"text": "and we might be able to get some data",
"timestamp": [
1335.52,
1337.68
]
},
{
"text": "and we might be able to get some data",
"timestamp": [
1335.52,
1337.68
]
},
{
"text": "about neutron star material\nfrom that kind of signal.",
"timestamp": [
1337.68,
1340.51
]
},
{
"text": "about neutron star material\nfrom that kind of signal.",
"timestamp": [
1337.68,
1340.51
]
},
{
"text": "- [Janna] Yes, they ring\nspace-time also like a drum,",
"timestamp": [
1340.51,
1343.13
]
},
{
"text": "- [Janna] Yes, they ring\nspace-time also like a drum,",
"timestamp": [
1340.51,
1343.13
]
},
{
"text": "and you can record the\nsound of that ringing",
"timestamp": [
1343.13,
1345.76
]
},
{
"text": "and you can record the\nsound of that ringing",
"timestamp": [
1343.13,
1345.76
]
},
{
"text": "after a billion years,",
"timestamp": [
1345.76,
1347.17
]
},
{
"text": "after a billion years,",
"timestamp": [
1345.76,
1347.17
]
},
{
"text": "when it's traveled through the universe.",
"timestamp": [
1347.17,
1349.08
]
},
{
"text": "when it's traveled through the universe.",
"timestamp": [
1347.17,
1349.08
]
},
{
"text": "But then the next thing that happens is",
"timestamp": [
1349.08,
1350.57
]
},
{
"text": "But then the next thing that happens is",
"timestamp": [
1349.08,
1350.57
]
},
{
"text": "those neutron stars collide,",
"timestamp": [
1350.57,
1352.29
]
},
{
"text": "those neutron stars collide,",
"timestamp": [
1350.57,
1352.29
]
},
{
"text": "and because of this incredibly\nhigh energy state of matter,",
"timestamp": [
1352.29,
1356.45
]
},
{
"text": "and because of this incredibly\nhigh energy state of matter,",
"timestamp": [
1352.29,
1356.45
]
},
{
"text": "which you study,",
"timestamp": [
1356.45,
1357.77
]
},
{
"text": "which you study,",
"timestamp": [
1356.45,
1357.77
]
},
{
"text": "it becomes this firework\nof different explosions.",
"timestamp": [
1357.77,
1362.77
]
},
{
"text": "it becomes this firework\nof different explosions.",
"timestamp": [
1357.77,
1362.77
]
},
{
"text": "It's really quite spectacular.",
"timestamp": [
1363.53,
1365
]
},
{
"text": "It's really quite spectacular.",
"timestamp": [
1363.53,
1365
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right, in fact,",
"timestamp": [
1365,
1365.88
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right, in fact,",
"timestamp": [
1365,
1365.88
]
},
{
"text": "when we recorded that for the first time",
"timestamp": [
1365.88,
1367.68
]
},
{
"text": "when we recorded that for the first time",
"timestamp": [
1365.88,
1367.68
]
},
{
"text": "with gravitational waves,",
"timestamp": [
1367.68,
1368.8
]
},
{
"text": "with gravitational waves,",
"timestamp": [
1367.68,
1368.8
]
},
{
"text": "we then pointed telescopes at it",
"timestamp": [
1368.8,
1370.46
]
},
{
"text": "we then pointed telescopes at it",
"timestamp": [
1368.8,
1370.46
]
},
{
"text": "and were able to see it optically as well,",
"timestamp": [
1370.46,
1372.247
]
},
{
"text": "and were able to see it optically as well,",
"timestamp": [
1370.46,
1372.247
]
},
{
"text": "and that gave scientists a lot of data.",
"timestamp": [
1372.247,
1375.13
]
},
{
"text": "and that gave scientists a lot of data.",
"timestamp": [
1372.247,
1375.13
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it was, to my knowledge,",
"timestamp": [
1375.13,
1377.5
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it was, to my knowledge,",
"timestamp": [
1375.13,
1377.5
]
},
{
"text": "the most widely studied astronomical event",
"timestamp": [
1377.5,
1380.4
]
},
{
"text": "the most widely studied astronomical event",
"timestamp": [
1377.5,
1380.4
]
},
{
"text": "in the history of humanity.",
"timestamp": [
1380.4,
1381.953
]
},
{
"text": "in the history of humanity.",
"timestamp": [
1380.4,
1381.953
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow, that's amazing.",
"timestamp": [
1381.953,
1382.979
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow, that's amazing.",
"timestamp": [
1381.953,
1382.979
]
},
{
"text": "- So when the gravitational\nwaves were recorded",
"timestamp": [
1382.979,
1384.6
]
},
{
"text": "- So when the gravitational\nwaves were recorded",
"timestamp": [
1382.979,
1384.6
]
},
{
"text": "and they realized, oh this sounds like,",
"timestamp": [
1384.6,
1386.82
]
},
{
"text": "and they realized, oh this sounds like,",
"timestamp": [
1384.6,
1386.82
]
},
{
"text": "you can reconstruct the shape and size",
"timestamp": [
1386.82,
1388.94
]
},
{
"text": "you can reconstruct the shape and size",
"timestamp": [
1386.82,
1388.94
]
},
{
"text": "of the mallets of the drum from the sound,",
"timestamp": [
1388.94,
1391.28
]
},
{
"text": "of the mallets of the drum from the sound,",
"timestamp": [
1388.94,
1391.28
]
},
{
"text": "these sounds like neutron stars\ncolliding, not black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1391.28,
1394.26
]
},
{
"text": "these sounds like neutron stars\ncolliding, not black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1391.28,
1394.26
]
},
{
"text": "And so, like you said, there was a trigger",
"timestamp": [
1394.26,
1396.16
]
},
{
"text": "And so, like you said, there was a trigger",
"timestamp": [
1394.26,
1396.16
]
},
{
"text": "for satellites and\nexperiments all over the world",
"timestamp": [
1396.16,
1399.27
]
},
{
"text": "for satellites and\nexperiments all over the world",
"timestamp": [
1396.16,
1399.27
]
},
{
"text": "to point roughly in the direction",
"timestamp": [
1399.27,
1401.38
]
},
{
"text": "to point roughly in the direction",
"timestamp": [
1399.27,
1401.38
]
},
{
"text": "that the sound was coming from.",
"timestamp": [
1401.38,
1402.8
]
},
{
"text": "that the sound was coming from.",
"timestamp": [
1401.38,
1402.8
]
},
{
"text": "So, from your point of view,",
"timestamp": [
1402.8,
1404.39
]
},
{
"text": "So, from your point of view,",
"timestamp": [
1402.8,
1404.39
]
},
{
"text": "they're like two super-conducting\ngiant magnets colliding,",
"timestamp": [
1404.39,
1407.96
]
},
{
"text": "they're like two super-conducting\ngiant magnets colliding,",
"timestamp": [
1404.39,
1407.96
]
},
{
"text": "an experiment you could never do on Earth.",
"timestamp": [
1407.96,
1409.91
]
},
{
"text": "an experiment you could never do on Earth.",
"timestamp": [
1407.96,
1409.91
]
},
{
"text": "That's just the most tremendous scales",
"timestamp": [
1409.91,
1412.86
]
},
{
"text": "That's just the most tremendous scales",
"timestamp": [
1409.91,
1412.86
]
},
{
"text": "and peculiarities of matter.",
"timestamp": [
1412.86,
1414.86
]
},
{
"text": "and peculiarities of matter.",
"timestamp": [
1412.86,
1414.86
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
1414.86,
1415.693
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
1414.86,
1415.693
]
},
{
"text": "I've heard statistics like\nmany Earth masses worth of gold",
"timestamp": [
1415.693,
1418.79
]
},
{
"text": "I've heard statistics like\nmany Earth masses worth of gold",
"timestamp": [
1415.693,
1418.79
]
},
{
"text": "were created, forged in\nthe neutron star collision",
"timestamp": [
1418.79,
1422.21
]
},
{
"text": "were created, forged in\nthe neutron star collision",
"timestamp": [
1418.79,
1422.21
]
},
{
"text": "that caused that.",
"timestamp": [
1422.21,
1423.3
]
},
{
"text": "that caused that.",
"timestamp": [
1422.21,
1423.3
]
},
{
"text": "We used to think that most\nelements in the universe",
"timestamp": [
1423.3,
1425.96
]
},
{
"text": "We used to think that most\nelements in the universe",
"timestamp": [
1423.3,
1425.96
]
},
{
"text": "were created in supernova,\nwhich is when stars explode,",
"timestamp": [
1425.96,
1429.25
]
},
{
"text": "were created in supernova,\nwhich is when stars explode,",
"timestamp": [
1425.96,
1429.25
]
},
{
"text": "because there's so much\nviolent activity at the center",
"timestamp": [
1429.25,
1432.24
]
},
{
"text": "because there's so much\nviolent activity at the center",
"timestamp": [
1429.25,
1432.24
]
},
{
"text": "that you need that kind of\nenergy to create new elements.",
"timestamp": [
1432.24,
1435.35
]
},
{
"text": "that you need that kind of\nenergy to create new elements.",
"timestamp": [
1432.24,
1435.35
]
},
{
"text": "- [Janna] The way you do in a bomb.",
"timestamp": [
1435.35,
1437.03
]
},
{
"text": "- [Janna] The way you do in a bomb.",
"timestamp": [
1435.35,
1437.03
]
},
{
"text": "It's basically nuclear fusion.",
"timestamp": [
1437.03,
1438.8
]
},
{
"text": "It's basically nuclear fusion.",
"timestamp": [
1437.03,
1438.8
]
},
{
"text": "- Sure, but we now think that\nthat kind of fusion happens",
"timestamp": [
1438.8,
1442.25
]
},
{
"text": "- Sure, but we now think that\nthat kind of fusion happens",
"timestamp": [
1438.8,
1442.25
]
},
{
"text": "when two neutron stars collide.",
"timestamp": [
1442.25,
1444.58
]
},
{
"text": "when two neutron stars collide.",
"timestamp": [
1442.25,
1444.58
]
},
{
"text": "If you think about it,",
"timestamp": [
1444.58,
1445.413
]
},
{
"text": "If you think about it,",
"timestamp": [
1444.58,
1445.413
]
},
{
"text": "you have two massive blobs of neutrons.",
"timestamp": [
1445.413,
1447.68
]
},
{
"text": "you have two massive blobs of neutrons.",
"timestamp": [
1445.413,
1447.68
]
},
{
"text": "When you smush them together,\nyou've got neutrons colliding.",
"timestamp": [
1447.68,
1451.2
]
},
{
"text": "When you smush them together,\nyou've got neutrons colliding.",
"timestamp": [
1447.68,
1451.2
]
},
{
"text": "It creates the conditions where\nnew elements can be created.",
"timestamp": [
1451.2,
1454.51
]
},
{
"text": "It creates the conditions where\nnew elements can be created.",
"timestamp": [
1451.2,
1454.51
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it's amazing.",
"timestamp": [
1454.51,
1455.343
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it's amazing.",
"timestamp": [
1454.51,
1455.343
]
},
{
"text": "It's literally populating\nthe periodic table.",
"timestamp": [
1455.343,
1457.09
]
},
{
"text": "It's literally populating\nthe periodic table.",
"timestamp": [
1455.343,
1457.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, we now think that\nmost of the heavy elements",
"timestamp": [
1457.09,
1460.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, we now think that\nmost of the heavy elements",
"timestamp": [
1457.09,
1460.09
]
},
{
"text": "after some number are created\nin neutron star collisions.",
"timestamp": [
1460.09,
1464.17
]
},
{
"text": "after some number are created\nin neutron star collisions.",
"timestamp": [
1460.09,
1464.17
]
},
{
"text": "- So you are already a PhD student,",
"timestamp": [
1464.17,
1466.11
]
},
{
"text": "- So you are already a PhD student,",
"timestamp": [
1464.17,
1466.11
]
},
{
"text": "you know a lot about gravity,",
"timestamp": [
1466.11,
1467.35
]
},
{
"text": "you know a lot about gravity,",
"timestamp": [
1466.11,
1467.35
]
},
{
"text": "but what do you think you've taken away",
"timestamp": [
1467.35,
1468.78
]
},
{
"text": "but what do you think you've taken away",
"timestamp": [
1467.35,
1468.78
]
},
{
"text": "from this conversation?",
"timestamp": [
1468.78,
1469.77
]
},
{
"text": "from this conversation?",
"timestamp": [
1468.78,
1469.77
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I've definitely taken away",
"timestamp": [
1469.77,
1471
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I've definitely taken away",
"timestamp": [
1469.77,
1471
]
},
{
"text": "that the way that we\nthink about gravity today",
"timestamp": [
1471,
1473.46
]
},
{
"text": "that the way that we\nthink about gravity today",
"timestamp": [
1471,
1473.46
]
},
{
"text": "is very different from how\nNewton thought about it,",
"timestamp": [
1473.46,
1476.759
]
},
{
"text": "is very different from how\nNewton thought about it,",
"timestamp": [
1473.46,
1476.759
]
},
{
"text": "and that even though we have\na very good understanding,",
"timestamp": [
1476.759,
1479.22
]
},
{
"text": "and that even though we have\na very good understanding,",
"timestamp": [
1476.759,
1479.22
]
},
{
"text": "there's lots of things that\nwe don't fully understand.",
"timestamp": [
1479.22,
1481.88
]
},
{
"text": "there's lots of things that\nwe don't fully understand.",
"timestamp": [
1479.22,
1481.88
]
},
{
"text": "There's still a lot of\nquestions to be answered,",
"timestamp": [
1481.88,
1483.56
]
},
{
"text": "There's still a lot of\nquestions to be answered,",
"timestamp": [
1481.88,
1483.56
]
},
{
"text": "which I think is really exciting.",
"timestamp": [
1483.56,
1485.45
]
},
{
"text": "which I think is really exciting.",
"timestamp": [
1483.56,
1485.45
]
},
{
"text": "- See, you're a scientist. [laughs]",
"timestamp": [
1485.45,
1486.87
]
},
{
"text": "- See, you're a scientist. [laughs]",
"timestamp": [
1485.45,
1486.87
]
},
{
"text": "Isn't the best part being\nable to ask the questions?",
"timestamp": [
1486.87,
1488.93
]
},
{
"text": "Isn't the best part being\nable to ask the questions?",
"timestamp": [
1486.87,
1488.93
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1488.93,
1489.888
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1488.93,
1489.888
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
1489.888,
1492.471
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
1489.888,
1492.471
]
},
{
"text": "- So we've been talking about gravity",
"timestamp": [
1494.53,
1496.16
]
},
{
"text": "- So we've been talking about gravity",
"timestamp": [
1494.53,
1496.16
]
},
{
"text": "from Newton and celestial\nbodies, the Earth, the Moon,",
"timestamp": [
1496.16,
1500.27
]
},
{
"text": "from Newton and celestial\nbodies, the Earth, the Moon,",
"timestamp": [
1496.16,
1500.27
]
},
{
"text": "pulling on each other in\nthe conventional sense",
"timestamp": [
1500.27,
1502.14
]
},
{
"text": "pulling on each other in\nthe conventional sense",
"timestamp": [
1500.27,
1502.14
]
},
{
"text": "of gravity being an attractive force,",
"timestamp": [
1502.14,
1503.92
]
},
{
"text": "of gravity being an attractive force,",
"timestamp": [
1502.14,
1503.92
]
},
{
"text": "to the Earth creating\ncurves in space-time,",
"timestamp": [
1503.92,
1507.46
]
},
{
"text": "to the Earth creating\ncurves in space-time,",
"timestamp": [
1503.92,
1507.46
]
},
{
"text": "then we moved on to just\ndiffused seas of energy",
"timestamp": [
1507.46,
1511.89
]
},
{
"text": "then we moved on to just\ndiffused seas of energy",
"timestamp": [
1507.46,
1511.89
]
},
{
"text": "and space-time as the real universe",
"timestamp": [
1511.89,
1515.35
]
},
{
"text": "and space-time as the real universe",
"timestamp": [
1511.89,
1515.35
]
},
{
"text": "and gravitation is\nreally just talking about",
"timestamp": [
1515.35,
1518.08
]
},
{
"text": "and gravitation is\nreally just talking about",
"timestamp": [
1515.35,
1518.08
]
},
{
"text": "space-time in general, and here we are,",
"timestamp": [
1518.08,
1520.66
]
},
{
"text": "space-time in general, and here we are,",
"timestamp": [
1518.08,
1520.66
]
},
{
"text": "and you're really hardcore\nin theoretical physics.",
"timestamp": [
1520.66,
1523.41
]
},
{
"text": "and you're really hardcore\nin theoretical physics.",
"timestamp": [
1520.66,
1523.41
]
},
{
"text": "Where would you take the\nexposition of gravity",
"timestamp": [
1523.41,
1526.18
]
},
{
"text": "Where would you take the\nexposition of gravity",
"timestamp": [
1523.41,
1526.18
]
},
{
"text": "from that point?",
"timestamp": [
1526.18,
1527.391
]
},
{
"text": "from that point?",
"timestamp": [
1526.18,
1527.391
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, one thing is quantum mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
1527.391,
1528.87
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, one thing is quantum mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
1527.391,
1528.87
]
},
{
"text": "Quantum mechanics is the\nmost successful theory",
"timestamp": [
1528.87,
1530.87
]
},
{
"text": "Quantum mechanics is the\nmost successful theory",
"timestamp": [
1528.87,
1530.87
]
},
{
"text": "in the history of science,",
"timestamp": [
1530.87,
1532.38
]
},
{
"text": "in the history of science,",
"timestamp": [
1530.87,
1532.38
]
},
{
"text": "it explains the most different\nphenomena the most precisely.",
"timestamp": [
1532.38,
1535.72
]
},
{
"text": "it explains the most different\nphenomena the most precisely.",
"timestamp": [
1532.38,
1535.72
]
},
{
"text": "Yet many people would still\nsay we don't understand",
"timestamp": [
1535.72,
1539.21
]
},
{
"text": "Yet many people would still\nsay we don't understand",
"timestamp": [
1535.72,
1539.21
]
},
{
"text": "even the basics of it.",
"timestamp": [
1539.21,
1540.22
]
},
{
"text": "even the basics of it.",
"timestamp": [
1539.21,
1540.22
]
},
{
"text": "- So when we think\nabout quantum mechanics,",
"timestamp": [
1540.22,
1541.71
]
},
{
"text": "- So when we think\nabout quantum mechanics,",
"timestamp": [
1540.22,
1541.71
]
},
{
"text": "we think about particles\nand their quantum charges",
"timestamp": [
1541.71,
1544.45
]
},
{
"text": "we think about particles\nand their quantum charges",
"timestamp": [
1541.71,
1544.45
]
},
{
"text": "in the Feynman way, the\nway that Feynman taught us.",
"timestamp": [
1544.45,
1547.23
]
},
{
"text": "in the Feynman way, the\nway that Feynman taught us.",
"timestamp": [
1544.45,
1547.23
]
},
{
"text": "They come in and they\nexchange a force carrier",
"timestamp": [
1547.23,
1550.23
]
},
{
"text": "They come in and they\nexchange a force carrier",
"timestamp": [
1547.23,
1550.23
]
},
{
"text": "and then they come out again,",
"timestamp": [
1550.23,
1551.24
]
},
{
"text": "and then they come out again,",
"timestamp": [
1550.23,
1551.24
]
},
{
"text": "so that's how we think of an\nelectron and light scattering,",
"timestamp": [
1551.24,
1553.72
]
},
{
"text": "so that's how we think of an\nelectron and light scattering,",
"timestamp": [
1551.24,
1553.72
]
},
{
"text": "for instance, or something like that.",
"timestamp": [
1553.72,
1554.83
]
},
{
"text": "for instance, or something like that.",
"timestamp": [
1553.72,
1554.83
]
},
{
"text": "And the language that Einstein\ngave us is so different.",
"timestamp": [
1554.83,
1557.56
]
},
{
"text": "And the language that Einstein\ngave us is so different.",
"timestamp": [
1554.83,
1557.56
]
},
{
"text": "It's completely geometric,\nit's all this space-time.",
"timestamp": [
1557.56,
1560.36
]
},
{
"text": "It's completely geometric,\nit's all this space-time.",
"timestamp": [
1557.56,
1560.36
]
},
{
"text": "And it's also unnecessary.",
"timestamp": [
1560.36,
1562.6
]
},
{
"text": "And it's also unnecessary.",
"timestamp": [
1560.36,
1562.6
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, for me, the beauty\nof the theory of gravity is",
"timestamp": [
1562.6,
1565.32
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, for me, the beauty\nof the theory of gravity is",
"timestamp": [
1562.6,
1565.32
]
},
{
"text": "the way Einstein formulated it,",
"timestamp": [
1565.32,
1566.65
]
},
{
"text": "the way Einstein formulated it,",
"timestamp": [
1565.32,
1566.65
]
},
{
"text": "as a theory of geometry,\nof curved space and time.",
"timestamp": [
1566.65,
1569.9
]
},
{
"text": "as a theory of geometry,\nof curved space and time.",
"timestamp": [
1566.65,
1569.9
]
},
{
"text": "I think, like you,\nthat's one of the things",
"timestamp": [
1569.9,
1571.5
]
},
{
"text": "I think, like you,\nthat's one of the things",
"timestamp": [
1569.9,
1571.5
]
},
{
"text": "that really pulled me into it.",
"timestamp": [
1571.5,
1572.333
]
},
{
"text": "that really pulled me into it.",
"timestamp": [
1571.5,
1572.333
]
},
{
"text": "- Is there really space-time",
"timestamp": [
1572.333,
1573.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Is there really space-time",
"timestamp": [
1572.333,
1573.9
]
},
{
"text": "or are we just using unnecessary language",
"timestamp": [
1573.9,
1577.69
]
},
{
"text": "or are we just using unnecessary language",
"timestamp": [
1573.9,
1577.69
]
},
{
"text": "because it's elegant and we\nlike it and it's beautiful?",
"timestamp": [
1577.69,
1580.38
]
},
{
"text": "because it's elegant and we\nlike it and it's beautiful?",
"timestamp": [
1577.69,
1580.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I think there's really space-time",
"timestamp": [
1580.38,
1581.96
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I think there's really space-time",
"timestamp": [
1580.38,
1581.96
]
},
{
"text": "in the sense that it's a\ndescription that works really well,",
"timestamp": [
1581.96,
1584.51
]
},
{
"text": "in the sense that it's a\ndescription that works really well,",
"timestamp": [
1581.96,
1584.51
]
},
{
"text": "so there has to be\nsomething right about it.",
"timestamp": [
1584.51,
1586.2
]
},
{
"text": "so there has to be\nsomething right about it.",
"timestamp": [
1584.51,
1586.2
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, if we're gonna talk about",
"timestamp": [
1586.2,
1587.033
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, if we're gonna talk about",
"timestamp": [
1586.2,
1587.033
]
},
{
"text": "what's really, really underlying that",
"timestamp": [
1587.033,
1589.147
]
},
{
"text": "what's really, really underlying that",
"timestamp": [
1587.033,
1589.147
]
},
{
"text": "and we're gonna put quantum\nmechanics into the mix,",
"timestamp": [
1589.147,
1591.43
]
},
{
"text": "and we're gonna put quantum\nmechanics into the mix,",
"timestamp": [
1589.147,
1591.43
]
},
{
"text": "then there should be some",
"timestamp": [
1591.43,
1592.68
]
},
{
"text": "then there should be some",
"timestamp": [
1591.43,
1592.68
]
},
{
"text": "quantum mechanical wave\nfunction for space-time.",
"timestamp": [
1592.68,
1595.81
]
},
{
"text": "quantum mechanical wave\nfunction for space-time.",
"timestamp": [
1592.68,
1595.81
]
},
{
"text": "You should be able to take\ntwo different space-times",
"timestamp": [
1595.81,
1598.5
]
},
{
"text": "You should be able to take\ntwo different space-times",
"timestamp": [
1595.81,
1598.5
]
},
{
"text": "and add them together,",
"timestamp": [
1598.5,
1599.72
]
},
{
"text": "and add them together,",
"timestamp": [
1598.5,
1599.72
]
},
{
"text": "'cause one of the crazy things\nabout quantum mechanics,",
"timestamp": [
1599.72,
1601.35
]
},
{
"text": "'cause one of the crazy things\nabout quantum mechanics,",
"timestamp": [
1599.72,
1601.35
]
},
{
"text": "as you know, it's--",
"timestamp": [
1601.35,
1602.27
]
},
{
"text": "as you know, it's--",
"timestamp": [
1601.35,
1602.27
]
},
{
"text": "- To have the waves together.",
"timestamp": [
1602.27,
1603.36
]
},
{
"text": "- To have the waves together.",
"timestamp": [
1602.27,
1603.36
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, and in two states",
"timestamp": [
1603.36,
1604.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, and in two states",
"timestamp": [
1603.36,
1604.38
]
},
{
"text": "and in two possible states of the world,",
"timestamp": [
1604.38,
1607.2
]
},
{
"text": "and in two possible states of the world,",
"timestamp": [
1604.38,
1607.2
]
},
{
"text": "you can just literally put\na plus sign between them",
"timestamp": [
1607.2,
1609.45
]
},
{
"text": "you can just literally put\na plus sign between them",
"timestamp": [
1607.2,
1609.45
]
},
{
"text": "and that's a sensible\nstate, that's a good state,",
"timestamp": [
1609.45,
1611.15
]
},
{
"text": "and that's a sensible\nstate, that's a good state,",
"timestamp": [
1609.45,
1611.15
]
},
{
"text": "it makes sense.",
"timestamp": [
1611.15,
1612.02
]
},
{
"text": "it makes sense.",
"timestamp": [
1611.15,
1612.02
]
},
{
"text": "- So do you think there's some sense",
"timestamp": [
1612.02,
1614.15
]
},
{
"text": "- So do you think there's some sense",
"timestamp": [
1612.02,
1614.15
]
},
{
"text": "in which we shouldn't be thinking",
"timestamp": [
1614.15,
1615.41
]
},
{
"text": "in which we shouldn't be thinking",
"timestamp": [
1614.15,
1615.41
]
},
{
"text": "about individual universes,\nindividual space-time,",
"timestamp": [
1615.41,
1617.71
]
},
{
"text": "about individual universes,\nindividual space-time,",
"timestamp": [
1615.41,
1617.71
]
},
{
"text": "so we should be thinking about",
"timestamp": [
1617.71,
1618.61
]
},
{
"text": "so we should be thinking about",
"timestamp": [
1617.71,
1618.61
]
},
{
"text": "superpositions of space-times?",
"timestamp": [
1618.61,
1620.11
]
},
{
"text": "superpositions of space-times?",
"timestamp": [
1618.61,
1620.11
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I think so.",
"timestamp": [
1620.11,
1621.074
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I think so.",
"timestamp": [
1620.11,
1621.074
]
},
{
"text": "I think if you were to go far enough back",
"timestamp": [
1621.074,
1622.49
]
},
{
"text": "I think if you were to go far enough back",
"timestamp": [
1621.074,
1622.49
]
},
{
"text": "in the history of the universe,",
"timestamp": [
1622.49,
1623.35
]
},
{
"text": "in the history of the universe,",
"timestamp": [
1622.49,
1623.35
]
},
{
"text": "back to when it was very,\nvery dense, very small,",
"timestamp": [
1623.35,
1625.96
]
},
{
"text": "back to when it was very,\nvery dense, very small,",
"timestamp": [
1623.35,
1625.96
]
},
{
"text": "and when quantum mechanics\nwas certainly important,",
"timestamp": [
1625.96,
1628.46
]
},
{
"text": "and when quantum mechanics\nwas certainly important,",
"timestamp": [
1625.96,
1628.46
]
},
{
"text": "then it must have been like that.",
"timestamp": [
1628.46,
1629.98
]
},
{
"text": "then it must have been like that.",
"timestamp": [
1628.46,
1629.98
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, if we believe that",
"timestamp": [
1629.98,
1630.91
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, if we believe that",
"timestamp": [
1629.98,
1630.91
]
},
{
"text": "the dominant standard model of cosmology,",
"timestamp": [
1630.91,
1633.56
]
},
{
"text": "the dominant standard model of cosmology,",
"timestamp": [
1630.91,
1633.56
]
},
{
"text": "something had to produce\nthe density perturbations,",
"timestamp": [
1633.56,
1635.89
]
},
{
"text": "something had to produce\nthe density perturbations,",
"timestamp": [
1633.56,
1635.89
]
},
{
"text": "the things that seeded\nall the galaxies and stars",
"timestamp": [
1635.89,
1637.71
]
},
{
"text": "the things that seeded\nall the galaxies and stars",
"timestamp": [
1635.89,
1637.71
]
},
{
"text": "and everything else in the world.",
"timestamp": [
1637.71,
1639.08
]
},
{
"text": "and everything else in the world.",
"timestamp": [
1637.71,
1639.08
]
},
{
"text": "So there's a galaxy over there, let's say,",
"timestamp": [
1639.08,
1640.82
]
},
{
"text": "So there's a galaxy over there, let's say,",
"timestamp": [
1639.08,
1640.82
]
},
{
"text": "and not over there, so\nhow did that happen?",
"timestamp": [
1640.82,
1642.74
]
},
{
"text": "and not over there, so\nhow did that happen?",
"timestamp": [
1640.82,
1642.74
]
},
{
"text": "Why is there a galaxy there and not there?",
"timestamp": [
1642.74,
1644.38
]
},
{
"text": "Why is there a galaxy there and not there?",
"timestamp": [
1642.74,
1644.38
]
},
{
"text": "In the standard theory, as you know,",
"timestamp": [
1644.38,
1645.54
]
},
{
"text": "In the standard theory, as you know,",
"timestamp": [
1644.38,
1645.54
]
},
{
"text": "that was a quantum event, a random event.",
"timestamp": [
1645.54,
1647.73
]
},
{
"text": "that was a quantum event, a random event.",
"timestamp": [
1645.54,
1647.73
]
},
{
"text": "And it doesn't mean that if\nhappened there and not there",
"timestamp": [
1647.73,
1649.71
]
},
{
"text": "And it doesn't mean that if\nhappened there and not there",
"timestamp": [
1647.73,
1649.71
]
},
{
"text": "'cause you flipped a coin,",
"timestamp": [
1649.71,
1650.6
]
},
{
"text": "'cause you flipped a coin,",
"timestamp": [
1649.71,
1650.6
]
},
{
"text": "it actually happened in both places.",
"timestamp": [
1650.6,
1652.03
]
},
{
"text": "it actually happened in both places.",
"timestamp": [
1650.6,
1652.03
]
},
{
"text": "There's gotta be a wave function",
"timestamp": [
1652.03,
1653.64
]
},
{
"text": "There's gotta be a wave function",
"timestamp": [
1652.03,
1653.64
]
},
{
"text": "where in one branch of the wave function",
"timestamp": [
1653.64,
1654.473
]
},
{
"text": "where in one branch of the wave function",
"timestamp": [
1653.64,
1654.473
]
},
{
"text": "there's a galaxy there and not there,",
"timestamp": [
1654.473,
1655.95
]
},
{
"text": "there's a galaxy there and not there,",
"timestamp": [
1654.473,
1655.95
]
},
{
"text": "and on the other branch it's the opposite.",
"timestamp": [
1655.95,
1657.25
]
},
{
"text": "and on the other branch it's the opposite.",
"timestamp": [
1655.95,
1657.25
]
},
{
"text": "- So when we're talking about",
"timestamp": [
1657.25,
1659.62
]
},
{
"text": "- So when we're talking about",
"timestamp": [
1657.25,
1659.62
]
},
{
"text": "the multiverse or the Big Bang,",
"timestamp": [
1659.62,
1661.12
]
},
{
"text": "the multiverse or the Big Bang,",
"timestamp": [
1659.62,
1661.12
]
},
{
"text": "we are really talking\nabout gravity ultimately,",
"timestamp": [
1661.12,
1663.38
]
},
{
"text": "we are really talking\nabout gravity ultimately,",
"timestamp": [
1661.12,
1663.38
]
},
{
"text": "and we're talking about\nhow a theory of gravitation",
"timestamp": [
1663.38,
1665.61
]
},
{
"text": "and we're talking about\nhow a theory of gravitation",
"timestamp": [
1663.38,
1665.61
]
},
{
"text": "which we know think of\nas a theory of space-time",
"timestamp": [
1665.61,
1667.99
]
},
{
"text": "which we know think of\nas a theory of space-time",
"timestamp": [
1665.61,
1667.99
]
},
{
"text": "has a quantum explanation,",
"timestamp": [
1667.99,
1670.23
]
},
{
"text": "has a quantum explanation,",
"timestamp": [
1667.99,
1670.23
]
},
{
"text": "has a quantum paradigm imposed on it",
"timestamp": [
1670.23,
1672.07
]
},
{
"text": "has a quantum paradigm imposed on it",
"timestamp": [
1670.23,
1672.07
]
},
{
"text": "that will help us understand these things,",
"timestamp": [
1672.07,
1673.58
]
},
{
"text": "that will help us understand these things,",
"timestamp": [
1672.07,
1673.58
]
},
{
"text": "and we don't have that yet.",
"timestamp": [
1673.58,
1674.61
]
},
{
"text": "and we don't have that yet.",
"timestamp": [
1673.58,
1674.61
]
},
{
"text": "One of the things that\nI think is so amazing",
"timestamp": [
1674.61,
1676.81
]
},
{
"text": "One of the things that\nI think is so amazing",
"timestamp": [
1674.61,
1676.81
]
},
{
"text": "is that the terrains in which\nwe're going to understand",
"timestamp": [
1676.81,
1679.52
]
},
{
"text": "is that the terrains in which\nwe're going to understand",
"timestamp": [
1676.81,
1679.52
]
},
{
"text": "quantum gravity are very few.",
"timestamp": [
1679.52,
1682.25
]
},
{
"text": "quantum gravity are very few.",
"timestamp": [
1679.52,
1682.25
]
},
{
"text": "It's the Big Bang, because\nthat's where we know",
"timestamp": [
1682.25,
1684.73
]
},
{
"text": "It's the Big Bang, because\nthat's where we know",
"timestamp": [
1682.25,
1684.73
]
},
{
"text": "that quantum and gravity\nboth were called into action.",
"timestamp": [
1684.73,
1689.68
]
},
{
"text": "that quantum and gravity\nboth were called into action.",
"timestamp": [
1684.73,
1689.68
]
},
{
"text": "And there's black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1689.68,
1690.87
]
},
{
"text": "And there's black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1689.68,
1690.87
]
},
{
"text": "One of the most interesting discoveries",
"timestamp": [
1690.87,
1692.37
]
},
{
"text": "One of the most interesting discoveries",
"timestamp": [
1690.87,
1692.37
]
},
{
"text": "is of course Hawking's discovery,",
"timestamp": [
1692.37,
1694.26
]
},
{
"text": "is of course Hawking's discovery,",
"timestamp": [
1692.37,
1694.26
]
},
{
"text": "kick-started a kind of crisis, right?",
"timestamp": [
1694.26,
1698.24
]
},
{
"text": "kick-started a kind of crisis, right?",
"timestamp": [
1694.26,
1698.24
]
},
{
"text": "In thinking about why\nquantum mechanics and gravity",
"timestamp": [
1698.24,
1700.61
]
},
{
"text": "In thinking about why\nquantum mechanics and gravity",
"timestamp": [
1698.24,
1700.61
]
},
{
"text": "were so knocking heads.",
"timestamp": [
1700.61,
1702.37
]
},
{
"text": "were so knocking heads.",
"timestamp": [
1700.61,
1702.37
]
},
{
"text": "It was one of the most beautiful examples.",
"timestamp": [
1702.37,
1704.9
]
},
{
"text": "It was one of the most beautiful examples.",
"timestamp": [
1702.37,
1704.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Sure, yeah, it is a\nbeautiful, beautiful idea.",
"timestamp": [
1704.9,
1707.42
]
},
{
"text": "- Sure, yeah, it is a\nbeautiful, beautiful idea.",
"timestamp": [
1704.9,
1707.42
]
},
{
"text": "So, first of all, to be\ntotally clear, though,",
"timestamp": [
1707.42,
1708.81
]
},
{
"text": "So, first of all, to be\ntotally clear, though,",
"timestamp": [
1707.42,
1708.81
]
},
{
"text": "we've never observed Hawking radiation,",
"timestamp": [
1708.81,
1710.99
]
},
{
"text": "we've never observed Hawking radiation,",
"timestamp": [
1708.81,
1710.99
]
},
{
"text": "which is what he predicted, directly.",
"timestamp": [
1710.99,
1712.58
]
},
{
"text": "which is what he predicted, directly.",
"timestamp": [
1710.99,
1712.58
]
},
{
"text": "I don't think very many\npeople doubt that it's there,",
"timestamp": [
1712.58,
1714.87
]
},
{
"text": "I don't think very many\npeople doubt that it's there,",
"timestamp": [
1712.58,
1714.87
]
},
{
"text": "but yeah, Hawking\ndiscovered mathematically",
"timestamp": [
1714.87,
1716.92
]
},
{
"text": "but yeah, Hawking\ndiscovered mathematically",
"timestamp": [
1714.87,
1716.92
]
},
{
"text": "that when you have a black\nhole, it's got an event horizon,",
"timestamp": [
1716.92,
1720.43
]
},
{
"text": "that when you have a black\nhole, it's got an event horizon,",
"timestamp": [
1716.92,
1720.43
]
},
{
"text": "it's got a surface which\nis a point of no return.",
"timestamp": [
1720.43,
1723.17
]
},
{
"text": "it's got a surface which\nis a point of no return.",
"timestamp": [
1720.43,
1723.17
]
},
{
"text": "If you fall through that\nsurface, no matter what you have,",
"timestamp": [
1723.17,
1726.19
]
},
{
"text": "If you fall through that\nsurface, no matter what you have,",
"timestamp": [
1723.17,
1726.19
]
},
{
"text": "no matter how powerful\nthe rocket you've got,",
"timestamp": [
1726.19,
1728.01
]
},
{
"text": "no matter how powerful\nthe rocket you've got,",
"timestamp": [
1726.19,
1728.01
]
},
{
"text": "even if you beam a\nflashlight back behind you",
"timestamp": [
1728.01,
1730.28
]
},
{
"text": "even if you beam a\nflashlight back behind you",
"timestamp": [
1728.01,
1730.28
]
},
{
"text": "in the direction you fall from,",
"timestamp": [
1730.28,
1731.26
]
},
{
"text": "in the direction you fall from,",
"timestamp": [
1730.28,
1731.26
]
},
{
"text": "nothing escapes, not even light.",
"timestamp": [
1731.26,
1732.43
]
},
{
"text": "nothing escapes, not even light.",
"timestamp": [
1731.26,
1732.43
]
},
{
"text": "It all gets sucked in and spaghettified",
"timestamp": [
1732.43,
1734.498
]
},
{
"text": "It all gets sucked in and spaghettified",
"timestamp": [
1732.43,
1734.498
]
},
{
"text": "and destroyed at the singularity,",
"timestamp": [
1734.498,
1735.88
]
},
{
"text": "and destroyed at the singularity,",
"timestamp": [
1734.498,
1735.88
]
},
{
"text": "or something, something\nhappens, but it doesn't get out.",
"timestamp": [
1735.88,
1738.17
]
},
{
"text": "or something, something\nhappens, but it doesn't get out.",
"timestamp": [
1735.88,
1738.17
]
},
{
"text": "But in quantum mechanics,",
"timestamp": [
1738.17,
1739.73
]
},
{
"text": "But in quantum mechanics,",
"timestamp": [
1738.17,
1739.73
]
},
{
"text": "you can't really pin down",
"timestamp": [
1739.73,
1740.84
]
},
{
"text": "you can't really pin down",
"timestamp": [
1739.73,
1740.84
]
},
{
"text": "the location of something precisely.",
"timestamp": [
1740.84,
1742.72
]
},
{
"text": "the location of something precisely.",
"timestamp": [
1740.84,
1742.72
]
},
{
"text": "If you try to pin down an electron",
"timestamp": [
1742.72,
1744.12
]
},
{
"text": "If you try to pin down an electron",
"timestamp": [
1742.72,
1744.12
]
},
{
"text": "in a tiny circuit in a microchip,",
"timestamp": [
1744.12,
1745.977
]
},
{
"text": "in a tiny circuit in a microchip,",
"timestamp": [
1744.12,
1745.977
]
},
{
"text": "sometimes you discover\nit's not actually there",
"timestamp": [
1745.977,
1747.97
]
},
{
"text": "sometimes you discover\nit's not actually there",
"timestamp": [
1745.977,
1747.97
]
},
{
"text": "and then your computer crashes.",
"timestamp": [
1747.97,
1749.25
]
},
{
"text": "and then your computer crashes.",
"timestamp": [
1747.97,
1749.25
]
},
{
"text": "- This is the Heisenberg's\nuncertainty principle in reality.",
"timestamp": [
1749.25,
1752.17
]
},
{
"text": "- This is the Heisenberg's\nuncertainty principle in reality.",
"timestamp": [
1749.25,
1752.17
]
},
{
"text": "You can't precisely say\nwhere the electron is,",
"timestamp": [
1752.17,
1755.65
]
},
{
"text": "You can't precisely say\nwhere the electron is,",
"timestamp": [
1752.17,
1755.65
]
},
{
"text": "and you can't precisely say\nhow quickly it's moving.",
"timestamp": [
1755.65,
1758.93
]
},
{
"text": "and you can't precisely say\nhow quickly it's moving.",
"timestamp": [
1755.65,
1758.93
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly, yeah, so when you\nget the blue screen of death,",
"timestamp": [
1758.93,
1760.91
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly, yeah, so when you\nget the blue screen of death,",
"timestamp": [
1758.93,
1760.91
]
},
{
"text": "that might be because\nof quantum mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
1760.91,
1762.625
]
},
{
"text": "that might be because\nof quantum mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
1760.91,
1762.625
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1762.625,
1763.458
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1762.625,
1763.458
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, you try to pin something down",
"timestamp": [
1763.458,
1764.291
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, you try to pin something down",
"timestamp": [
1763.458,
1764.291
]
},
{
"text": "near a black hole, well, it's a surface,",
"timestamp": [
1764.291,
1765.58
]
},
{
"text": "near a black hole, well, it's a surface,",
"timestamp": [
1764.291,
1765.58
]
},
{
"text": "it's got a particular radius\nfor a round black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1765.58,
1767.63
]
},
{
"text": "it's got a particular radius\nfor a round black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1765.58,
1767.63
]
},
{
"text": "and wanna say something\nis inside or outside,",
"timestamp": [
1767.63,
1769.18
]
},
{
"text": "and wanna say something\nis inside or outside,",
"timestamp": [
1767.63,
1769.18
]
},
{
"text": "well, you can't absolutely\nsay that in quantum mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
1769.18,
1771.25
]
},
{
"text": "well, you can't absolutely\nsay that in quantum mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
1769.18,
1771.25
]
},
{
"text": "And this kind of uncertainty\nproduces a radiation,",
"timestamp": [
1771.25,
1774.94
]
},
{
"text": "And this kind of uncertainty\nproduces a radiation,",
"timestamp": [
1771.25,
1774.94
]
},
{
"text": "which you can think of as\npulling some of the energy",
"timestamp": [
1774.94,
1776.97
]
},
{
"text": "which you can think of as\npulling some of the energy",
"timestamp": [
1774.94,
1776.97
]
},
{
"text": "out of the black hole.",
"timestamp": [
1776.97,
1778.26
]
},
{
"text": "out of the black hole.",
"timestamp": [
1776.97,
1778.26
]
},
{
"text": "The black hole is formed out of some mass",
"timestamp": [
1778.26,
1780.24
]
},
{
"text": "The black hole is formed out of some mass",
"timestamp": [
1778.26,
1780.24
]
},
{
"text": "and there's an energy in that.",
"timestamp": [
1780.24,
1781.187
]
},
{
"text": "and there's an energy in that.",
"timestamp": [
1780.24,
1781.187
]
},
{
"text": "If you think of pulling\nsome energy out of that",
"timestamp": [
1781.187,
1783.17
]
},
{
"text": "If you think of pulling\nsome energy out of that",
"timestamp": [
1781.187,
1783.17
]
},
{
"text": "and sending it off to infinity",
"timestamp": [
1783.17,
1784.15
]
},
{
"text": "and sending it off to infinity",
"timestamp": [
1783.17,
1784.15
]
},
{
"text": "in the form of particles being admitted.",
"timestamp": [
1784.15,
1786.26
]
},
{
"text": "in the form of particles being admitted.",
"timestamp": [
1784.15,
1786.26
]
},
{
"text": "And what Hawking found is\nthat it's a thermal spectrum,",
"timestamp": [
1786.26,
1788.48
]
},
{
"text": "And what Hawking found is\nthat it's a thermal spectrum,",
"timestamp": [
1786.26,
1788.48
]
},
{
"text": "it looks like a hot, or not\nso hot for a large black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1788.48,
1791.19
]
},
{
"text": "it looks like a hot, or not\nso hot for a large black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1788.48,
1791.19
]
},
{
"text": "but like an oven, the kind of radiation",
"timestamp": [
1791.19,
1792.64
]
},
{
"text": "but like an oven, the kind of radiation",
"timestamp": [
1791.19,
1792.64
]
},
{
"text": "that comes out of a cast iron.",
"timestamp": [
1792.64,
1794.21
]
},
{
"text": "that comes out of a cast iron.",
"timestamp": [
1792.64,
1794.21
]
},
{
"text": "- This idea that the darkest\nphenomenon in the universe",
"timestamp": [
1794.21,
1797.19
]
},
{
"text": "- This idea that the darkest\nphenomenon in the universe",
"timestamp": [
1794.21,
1797.19
]
},
{
"text": "actually is forced to\nradiate quantum particles",
"timestamp": [
1797.19,
1800.65
]
},
{
"text": "actually is forced to\nradiate quantum particles",
"timestamp": [
1797.19,
1800.65
]
},
{
"text": "is pretty wild.",
"timestamp": [
1800.65,
1801.62
]
},
{
"text": "is pretty wild.",
"timestamp": [
1800.65,
1801.62
]
},
{
"text": "I think everyone understood",
"timestamp": [
1801.62,
1802.916
]
},
{
"text": "I think everyone understood",
"timestamp": [
1801.62,
1802.916
]
},
{
"text": "that it was a correct calculation,",
"timestamp": [
1802.916,
1805.62
]
},
{
"text": "that it was a correct calculation,",
"timestamp": [
1802.916,
1805.62
]
},
{
"text": "but I don't think a lot of people",
"timestamp": [
1805.62,
1806.59
]
},
{
"text": "but I don't think a lot of people",
"timestamp": [
1805.62,
1806.59
]
},
{
"text": "understood the implications,",
"timestamp": [
1806.59,
1808.09
]
},
{
"text": "understood the implications,",
"timestamp": [
1806.59,
1808.09
]
},
{
"text": "that it meant something\nreally terrible was happening.",
"timestamp": [
1808.09,
1811.29
]
},
{
"text": "that it meant something\nreally terrible was happening.",
"timestamp": [
1808.09,
1811.29
]
},
{
"text": "Because this black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1811.29,
1812.45
]
},
{
"text": "Because this black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1811.29,
1812.45
]
},
{
"text": "which could have been\nmade of who knows what,",
"timestamp": [
1812.45,
1814.93
]
},
{
"text": "which could have been\nmade of who knows what,",
"timestamp": [
1812.45,
1814.93
]
},
{
"text": "is disappearing into\nthese quantum particles",
"timestamp": [
1814.93,
1817.66
]
},
{
"text": "is disappearing into\nthese quantum particles",
"timestamp": [
1814.93,
1817.66
]
},
{
"text": "which, in some sense, have nothing to do",
"timestamp": [
1817.66,
1819.11
]
},
{
"text": "which, in some sense, have nothing to do",
"timestamp": [
1817.66,
1819.11
]
},
{
"text": "with the material that went in.",
"timestamp": [
1819.11,
1820.14
]
},
{
"text": "with the material that went in.",
"timestamp": [
1819.11,
1820.14
]
},
{
"text": "So do you think that's a big crisis?",
"timestamp": [
1820.14,
1822.09
]
},
{
"text": "So do you think that's a big crisis?",
"timestamp": [
1820.14,
1822.09
]
},
{
"text": "The black hole evaporates,\nthe information is lost?",
"timestamp": [
1822.09,
1825.14
]
},
{
"text": "The black hole evaporates,\nthe information is lost?",
"timestamp": [
1822.09,
1825.14
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a crisis because of\nsome of the details of it,",
"timestamp": [
1825.14,
1827.92
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a crisis because of\nsome of the details of it,",
"timestamp": [
1825.14,
1827.92
]
},
{
"text": "but I would say the\nway you just described,",
"timestamp": [
1827.92,
1829.94
]
},
{
"text": "but I would say the\nway you just described,",
"timestamp": [
1827.92,
1829.94
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, if I build a big\nbonfire or an incinerator",
"timestamp": [
1829.94,
1833.61
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, if I build a big\nbonfire or an incinerator",
"timestamp": [
1829.94,
1833.61
]
},
{
"text": "and I throw an encyclopedia into it,",
"timestamp": [
1833.61,
1835.43
]
},
{
"text": "and I throw an encyclopedia into it,",
"timestamp": [
1833.61,
1835.43
]
},
{
"text": "good luck reconstructing what\nwas in that encyclopedia.",
"timestamp": [
1835.43,
1837.41
]
},
{
"text": "good luck reconstructing what\nwas in that encyclopedia.",
"timestamp": [
1835.43,
1837.41
]
},
{
"text": "The information is lost\nfor all practical purpose.",
"timestamp": [
1837.41,
1839.361
]
},
{
"text": "The information is lost\nfor all practical purpose.",
"timestamp": [
1837.41,
1839.361
]
},
{
"text": "- Practical purposes.\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
1839.361,
1840.34
]
},
{
"text": "- Practical purposes.\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
1839.361,
1840.34
]
},
{
"text": "- So this is a huge crisis",
"timestamp": [
1840.34,
1841.56
]
},
{
"text": "- So this is a huge crisis",
"timestamp": [
1840.34,
1841.56
]
},
{
"text": "'cause either quantum mechanics is wrong,",
"timestamp": [
1841.56,
1843.23
]
},
{
"text": "'cause either quantum mechanics is wrong,",
"timestamp": [
1841.56,
1843.23
]
},
{
"text": "and as you described it,",
"timestamp": [
1843.23,
1844.49
]
},
{
"text": "and as you described it,",
"timestamp": [
1843.23,
1844.49
]
},
{
"text": "it's the most accurately-tested paradigm",
"timestamp": [
1844.49,
1846.84
]
},
{
"text": "it's the most accurately-tested paradigm",
"timestamp": [
1844.49,
1846.84
]
},
{
"text": "in the history of physics,",
"timestamp": [
1846.84,
1847.97
]
},
{
"text": "in the history of physics,",
"timestamp": [
1846.84,
1847.97
]
},
{
"text": "how could it be wrong, right?",
"timestamp": [
1847.97,
1850.07
]
},
{
"text": "how could it be wrong, right?",
"timestamp": [
1847.97,
1850.07
]
},
{
"text": "Or the event horizon is\nletting information out",
"timestamp": [
1850.07,
1852.96
]
},
{
"text": "Or the event horizon is\nletting information out",
"timestamp": [
1850.07,
1852.96
]
},
{
"text": "and violating one of the most",
"timestamp": [
1852.96,
1854.61
]
},
{
"text": "and violating one of the most",
"timestamp": [
1852.96,
1854.61
]
},
{
"text": "sacred principles of relativity.",
"timestamp": [
1854.61,
1856.423
]
},
{
"text": "sacred principles of relativity.",
"timestamp": [
1854.61,
1856.423
]
},
{
"text": "- One thing about\nquantum mechanics is that",
"timestamp": [
1856.423,
1858.25
]
},
{
"text": "- One thing about\nquantum mechanics is that",
"timestamp": [
1856.423,
1858.25
]
},
{
"text": "any time you have a state of the world",
"timestamp": [
1858.25,
1860.14
]
},
{
"text": "any time you have a state of the world",
"timestamp": [
1858.25,
1860.14
]
},
{
"text": "and another state of the world,",
"timestamp": [
1860.14,
1861.27
]
},
{
"text": "and another state of the world,",
"timestamp": [
1860.14,
1861.27
]
},
{
"text": "you can literally add them together",
"timestamp": [
1861.27,
1862.54
]
},
{
"text": "you can literally add them together",
"timestamp": [
1861.27,
1862.54
]
},
{
"text": "and get a third possible state,",
"timestamp": [
1862.54,
1864
]
},
{
"text": "and get a third possible state,",
"timestamp": [
1862.54,
1864
]
},
{
"text": "as crazy as that sounds.",
"timestamp": [
1864,
1865.67
]
},
{
"text": "as crazy as that sounds.",
"timestamp": [
1864,
1865.67
]
},
{
"text": "And so if you're gonna have\na quantum theory of gravity,",
"timestamp": [
1865.67,
1868.87
]
},
{
"text": "And so if you're gonna have\na quantum theory of gravity,",
"timestamp": [
1865.67,
1868.87
]
},
{
"text": "then we can't really talk\nabout there being a black hole",
"timestamp": [
1868.87,
1871.19
]
},
{
"text": "then we can't really talk\nabout there being a black hole",
"timestamp": [
1868.87,
1871.19
]
},
{
"text": "or not a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1871.19,
1872.85
]
},
{
"text": "or not a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1871.19,
1872.85
]
},
{
"text": "or an event horizon or\nnot an event horizon,",
"timestamp": [
1872.85,
1874.61
]
},
{
"text": "or an event horizon or\nnot an event horizon,",
"timestamp": [
1872.85,
1874.61
]
},
{
"text": "because we could always a state",
"timestamp": [
1874.61,
1877.07
]
},
{
"text": "because we could always a state",
"timestamp": [
1874.61,
1877.07
]
},
{
"text": "that had an event horizon\nand a state that doesn't,",
"timestamp": [
1877.07,
1879.1
]
},
{
"text": "that had an event horizon\nand a state that doesn't,",
"timestamp": [
1877.07,
1879.1
]
},
{
"text": "or has the event horizon",
"timestamp": [
1879.1,
1879.933
]
},
{
"text": "or has the event horizon",
"timestamp": [
1879.1,
1879.933
]
},
{
"text": "in a slightly different position, maybe,",
"timestamp": [
1879.933,
1881.79
]
},
{
"text": "in a slightly different position, maybe,",
"timestamp": [
1879.933,
1881.79
]
},
{
"text": "and add them together.",
"timestamp": [
1881.79,
1882.81
]
},
{
"text": "and add them together.",
"timestamp": [
1881.79,
1882.81
]
},
{
"text": "So the existence or\nposition of an event horizon",
"timestamp": [
1882.81,
1885.12
]
},
{
"text": "So the existence or\nposition of an event horizon",
"timestamp": [
1882.81,
1885.12
]
},
{
"text": "can't possibly be determined as a fact",
"timestamp": [
1885.12,
1887.37
]
},
{
"text": "can't possibly be determined as a fact",
"timestamp": [
1885.12,
1887.37
]
},
{
"text": "any more than the position\nof an electron is determined.",
"timestamp": [
1887.37,
1889.4
]
},
{
"text": "any more than the position\nof an electron is determined.",
"timestamp": [
1887.37,
1889.4
]
},
{
"text": "So I think that's the loophole.",
"timestamp": [
1889.4,
1890.94
]
},
{
"text": "So I think that's the loophole.",
"timestamp": [
1889.4,
1890.94
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a nice way of looking at it.",
"timestamp": [
1890.94,
1892.24
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a nice way of looking at it.",
"timestamp": [
1890.94,
1892.24
]
},
{
"text": "So that you're not actually\nviolating classical relativity",
"timestamp": [
1892.24,
1896.35
]
},
{
"text": "So that you're not actually\nviolating classical relativity",
"timestamp": [
1892.24,
1896.35
]
},
{
"text": "once you're in a regime\nwhere the wave function",
"timestamp": [
1896.35,
1899.16
]
},
{
"text": "once you're in a regime\nwhere the wave function",
"timestamp": [
1896.35,
1899.16
]
},
{
"text": "has really peaked around\na very well-defined stage.",
"timestamp": [
1899.16,
1903.22
]
},
{
"text": "has really peaked around\na very well-defined stage.",
"timestamp": [
1899.16,
1903.22
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right, and one of\nthe most exciting developments",
"timestamp": [
1903.22,
1905.72
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right, and one of\nthe most exciting developments",
"timestamp": [
1903.22,
1905.72
]
},
{
"text": "in the last 10 or 20 years\nis called holography,",
"timestamp": [
1905.72,
1908.43
]
},
{
"text": "in the last 10 or 20 years\nis called holography,",
"timestamp": [
1905.72,
1908.43
]
},
{
"text": "and it's called holography because",
"timestamp": [
1908.43,
1910.44
]
},
{
"text": "and it's called holography because",
"timestamp": [
1908.43,
1910.44
]
},
{
"text": "a hologram is a two-dimensional surface",
"timestamp": [
1910.44,
1911.98
]
},
{
"text": "a hologram is a two-dimensional surface",
"timestamp": [
1910.44,
1911.98
]
},
{
"text": "that creates a three-dimensional image.",
"timestamp": [
1911.98,
1913.34
]
},
{
"text": "that creates a three-dimensional image.",
"timestamp": [
1911.98,
1913.34
]
},
{
"text": "It's got sort of 3D\ninformation built into it.",
"timestamp": [
1913.34,
1915.72
]
},
{
"text": "It's got sort of 3D\ninformation built into it.",
"timestamp": [
1913.34,
1915.72
]
},
{
"text": "And this, in a fundamental way,",
"timestamp": [
1915.72,
1917.07
]
},
{
"text": "And this, in a fundamental way,",
"timestamp": [
1915.72,
1917.07
]
},
{
"text": "really has that 3D or higher\ndimensional information",
"timestamp": [
1917.07,
1919.22
]
},
{
"text": "really has that 3D or higher\ndimensional information",
"timestamp": [
1917.07,
1919.22
]
},
{
"text": "built into it.",
"timestamp": [
1919.22,
1920.07
]
},
{
"text": "built into it.",
"timestamp": [
1919.22,
1920.07
]
},
{
"text": "It's exactly the same as\nthis theory of gravity",
"timestamp": [
1920.07,
1922.74
]
},
{
"text": "It's exactly the same as\nthis theory of gravity",
"timestamp": [
1920.07,
1922.74
]
},
{
"text": "and more dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1922.74,
1924.01
]
},
{
"text": "and more dimensions.",
"timestamp": [
1922.74,
1924.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, so one of the\nthings I like to think of",
"timestamp": [
1924.01,
1925.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, so one of the\nthings I like to think of",
"timestamp": [
1924.01,
1925.38
]
},
{
"text": "with holography is that I can pack",
"timestamp": [
1925.38,
1927.25
]
},
{
"text": "with holography is that I can pack",
"timestamp": [
1925.38,
1927.25
]
},
{
"text": "a certain amount of\ninformation in a black hole.",
"timestamp": [
1927.25,
1929.13
]
},
{
"text": "a certain amount of\ninformation in a black hole.",
"timestamp": [
1927.25,
1929.13
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, you can literally think of it",
"timestamp": [
1929.13,
1929.963
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, you can literally think of it",
"timestamp": [
1929.13,
1929.963
]
},
{
"text": "as throwing things into it.",
"timestamp": [
1929.963,
1931.01
]
},
{
"text": "as throwing things into it.",
"timestamp": [
1929.963,
1931.01
]
},
{
"text": "So let's say I have\ninformation in some volume",
"timestamp": [
1931.01,
1933.7
]
},
{
"text": "So let's say I have\ninformation in some volume",
"timestamp": [
1931.01,
1933.7
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm under the illusion",
"timestamp": [
1933.7,
1934.92
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm under the illusion",
"timestamp": [
1933.7,
1934.92
]
},
{
"text": "that I can just keep packing\ninformation in that volume,",
"timestamp": [
1934.92,
1937.27
]
},
{
"text": "that I can just keep packing\ninformation in that volume,",
"timestamp": [
1934.92,
1937.27
]
},
{
"text": "as much as the volume will contain.",
"timestamp": [
1937.27,
1939.21
]
},
{
"text": "as much as the volume will contain.",
"timestamp": [
1937.27,
1939.21
]
},
{
"text": "Eventually I'll make a black hole",
"timestamp": [
1939.21,
1941.21
]
},
{
"text": "Eventually I'll make a black hole",
"timestamp": [
1939.21,
1941.21
]
},
{
"text": "and I'll find out that the\nmaximum amount of information",
"timestamp": [
1941.21,
1943.71
]
},
{
"text": "and I'll find out that the\nmaximum amount of information",
"timestamp": [
1941.21,
1943.71
]
},
{
"text": "I can pack into anything\nin the entire universe",
"timestamp": [
1943.71,
1946
]
},
{
"text": "I can pack into anything\nin the entire universe",
"timestamp": [
1943.71,
1946
]
},
{
"text": "is what I can pack on the area.",
"timestamp": [
1946,
1947.6
]
},
{
"text": "is what I can pack on the area.",
"timestamp": [
1946,
1947.6
]
},
{
"text": "And since area is projecting\nthe illusion, maybe, of volume,",
"timestamp": [
1947.6,
1951.11
]
},
{
"text": "And since area is projecting\nthe illusion, maybe, of volume,",
"timestamp": [
1947.6,
1951.11
]
},
{
"text": "maybe the whole world is just a hologram.",
"timestamp": [
1951.11,
1952.74
]
},
{
"text": "maybe the whole world is just a hologram.",
"timestamp": [
1951.11,
1952.74
]
},
{
"text": "It's not a principle that\nonly applies to black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1952.74,
1955.41
]
},
{
"text": "It's not a principle that\nonly applies to black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1952.74,
1955.41
]
},
{
"text": "It's saying that,",
"timestamp": [
1955.41,
1957
]
},
{
"text": "It's saying that,",
"timestamp": [
1955.41,
1957
]
},
{
"text": "if this theory of quantum\ngravity is correct,",
"timestamp": [
1957,
1959.2
]
},
{
"text": "if this theory of quantum\ngravity is correct,",
"timestamp": [
1957,
1959.2
]
},
{
"text": "then this while three-dimensionality\nis an utter illusion",
"timestamp": [
1959.2,
1962.547
]
},
{
"text": "then this while three-dimensionality\nis an utter illusion",
"timestamp": [
1959.2,
1962.547
]
},
{
"text": "and really the universe\nis two-dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
1962.547,
1964.538
]
},
{
"text": "and really the universe\nis two-dimensional.",
"timestamp": [
1962.547,
1964.538
]
},
{
"text": "That's crazy.\n- That's true.",
"timestamp": [
1964.538,
1965.658
]
},
{
"text": "That's crazy.\n- That's true.",
"timestamp": [
1964.538,
1965.658
]
},
{
"text": "[Janna laughs]",
"timestamp": [
1965.658,
1966.7
]
},
{
"text": "[Janna laughs]",
"timestamp": [
1965.658,
1966.7
]
},
{
"text": "And as practically speaking,",
"timestamp": [
1966.7,
1967.61
]
},
{
"text": "And as practically speaking,",
"timestamp": [
1966.7,
1967.61
]
},
{
"text": "you mentioned before in our conversation",
"timestamp": [
1967.61,
1969.1
]
},
{
"text": "you mentioned before in our conversation",
"timestamp": [
1967.61,
1969.1
]
},
{
"text": "that it's really interesting",
"timestamp": [
1969.1,
1970.14
]
},
{
"text": "that it's really interesting",
"timestamp": [
1969.1,
1970.14
]
},
{
"text": "that the Heisenberg uncertainty principle",
"timestamp": [
1970.14,
1971.52
]
},
{
"text": "that the Heisenberg uncertainty principle",
"timestamp": [
1970.14,
1971.52
]
},
{
"text": "is a practical limit now in microchips.",
"timestamp": [
1971.52,
1974.35
]
},
{
"text": "is a practical limit now in microchips.",
"timestamp": [
1971.52,
1974.35
]
},
{
"text": "If we make microchips much\nsmaller than they already are,",
"timestamp": [
1974.35,
1976.78
]
},
{
"text": "If we make microchips much\nsmaller than they already are,",
"timestamp": [
1974.35,
1976.78
]
},
{
"text": "even as they already\nare, it causes errors,",
"timestamp": [
1976.78,
1979.58
]
},
{
"text": "even as they already\nare, it causes errors,",
"timestamp": [
1976.78,
1979.58
]
},
{
"text": "'cause you don't know\nthat the electron's in.",
"timestamp": [
1979.58,
1980.96
]
},
{
"text": "'cause you don't know\nthat the electron's in.",
"timestamp": [
1979.58,
1980.96
]
},
{
"text": "If holography, if this limit\non how much information",
"timestamp": [
1980.96,
1983.22
]
},
{
"text": "If holography, if this limit\non how much information",
"timestamp": [
1980.96,
1983.22
]
},
{
"text": "you can ever pack, if\nthat ever become a limit,",
"timestamp": [
1983.22,
1985.3
]
},
{
"text": "you can ever pack, if\nthat ever become a limit,",
"timestamp": [
1983.22,
1985.3
]
},
{
"text": "as far as we know that's\nan absolute limit.",
"timestamp": [
1985.3,
1987.21
]
},
{
"text": "as far as we know that's\nan absolute limit.",
"timestamp": [
1985.3,
1987.21
]
},
{
"text": "We started off with clay tablets,",
"timestamp": [
1987.21,
1989.55
]
},
{
"text": "We started off with clay tablets,",
"timestamp": [
1987.21,
1989.55
]
},
{
"text": "not so much information per\ncubit centimeter or whatever.",
"timestamp": [
1989.55,
1992.82
]
},
{
"text": "not so much information per\ncubit centimeter or whatever.",
"timestamp": [
1989.55,
1992.82
]
},
{
"text": "Then we had written stuff\nthat's getting better,",
"timestamp": [
1992.82,
1994.63
]
},
{
"text": "Then we had written stuff\nthat's getting better,",
"timestamp": [
1992.82,
1994.63
]
},
{
"text": "encyclopedias with thin paper\nthat's even better, CDs.",
"timestamp": [
1994.63,
1997.85
]
},
{
"text": "encyclopedias with thin paper\nthat's even better, CDs.",
"timestamp": [
1994.63,
1997.85
]
},
{
"text": "- A smaller and smaller space,",
"timestamp": [
1997.85,
1998.683
]
},
{
"text": "- A smaller and smaller space,",
"timestamp": [
1997.85,
1998.683
]
},
{
"text": "trying to pack it denser and denser,",
"timestamp": [
1998.683,
2000.15
]
},
{
"text": "trying to pack it denser and denser,",
"timestamp": [
1998.683,
2000.15
]
},
{
"text": "until eventually we make a black hole.",
"timestamp": [
2000.15,
2001.61
]
},
{
"text": "until eventually we make a black hole.",
"timestamp": [
2000.15,
2001.61
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, at some point you try to fill up",
"timestamp": [
2001.61,
2004.06
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, at some point you try to fill up",
"timestamp": [
2001.61,
2004.06
]
},
{
"text": "your encyclopedia with knowledge",
"timestamp": [
2004.06,
2005.117
]
},
{
"text": "your encyclopedia with knowledge",
"timestamp": [
2004.06,
2005.117
]
},
{
"text": "and you get swallowed up by a black hole.",
"timestamp": [
2005.117,
2006.627
]
},
{
"text": "and you get swallowed up by a black hole.",
"timestamp": [
2005.117,
2006.627
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
2006.627,
2007.977
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
2006.627,
2007.977
]
},
{
"text": "And the most knowledge you could ever have",
"timestamp": [
2007.977,
2009.47
]
},
{
"text": "And the most knowledge you could ever have",
"timestamp": [
2007.977,
2009.47
]
},
{
"text": "would only be on a\ntwo-dimensional surface.",
"timestamp": [
2009.47,
2011.69
]
},
{
"text": "would only be on a\ntwo-dimensional surface.",
"timestamp": [
2009.47,
2011.69
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, and as big as the\nuniverse, and then you're done.",
"timestamp": [
2011.69,
2014.46
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, and as big as the\nuniverse, and then you're done.",
"timestamp": [
2011.69,
2014.46
]
},
{
"text": "So, you know, not likely",
"timestamp": [
2014.46,
2016.5
]
},
{
"text": "So, you know, not likely",
"timestamp": [
2014.46,
2016.5
]
},
{
"text": "that we're ever gonna hit\nthat limit any time soon.",
"timestamp": [
2016.5,
2017.9
]
},
{
"text": "that we're ever gonna hit\nthat limit any time soon.",
"timestamp": [
2016.5,
2017.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you think it's possible",
"timestamp": [
2017.9,
2019.37
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you think it's possible",
"timestamp": [
2017.9,
2019.37
]
},
{
"text": "that gravity is really\nultimately just quantum mechanics",
"timestamp": [
2019.37,
2024.35
]
},
{
"text": "that gravity is really\nultimately just quantum mechanics",
"timestamp": [
2019.37,
2024.35
]
},
{
"text": "and doesn't exist at all\nin the fundamental ways",
"timestamp": [
2024.35,
2027.23
]
},
{
"text": "and doesn't exist at all\nin the fundamental ways",
"timestamp": [
2024.35,
2027.23
]
},
{
"text": "that we've been talking about so far,",
"timestamp": [
2027.23,
2029.03
]
},
{
"text": "that we've been talking about so far,",
"timestamp": [
2027.23,
2029.03
]
},
{
"text": "like the Newtonian way\nand the space-time way,",
"timestamp": [
2029.03,
2031.83
]
},
{
"text": "like the Newtonian way\nand the space-time way,",
"timestamp": [
2029.03,
2031.83
]
},
{
"text": "that those are just these\nkind of macroscopic illusions?",
"timestamp": [
2031.83,
2035.39
]
},
{
"text": "that those are just these\nkind of macroscopic illusions?",
"timestamp": [
2031.83,
2035.39
]
},
{
"text": "Sometimes I talk about it\nin terms of temperature.",
"timestamp": [
2035.39,
2036.95
]
},
{
"text": "Sometimes I talk about it\nin terms of temperature.",
"timestamp": [
2035.39,
2036.95
]
},
{
"text": "Temperature is not a thing.",
"timestamp": [
2036.95,
2039.15
]
},
{
"text": "Temperature is not a thing.",
"timestamp": [
2036.95,
2039.15
]
},
{
"text": "There is no single thing\ncalled temperature.",
"timestamp": [
2039.15,
2041.35
]
},
{
"text": "There is no single thing\ncalled temperature.",
"timestamp": [
2039.15,
2041.35
]
},
{
"text": "It's a macroscopic illusion",
"timestamp": [
2041.35,
2043.1
]
},
{
"text": "It's a macroscopic illusion",
"timestamp": [
2041.35,
2043.1
]
},
{
"text": "that comes from the collective behavior,",
"timestamp": [
2043.1,
2045.67
]
},
{
"text": "that comes from the collective behavior,",
"timestamp": [
2043.1,
2045.67
]
},
{
"text": "really quantum behavior of\nrandom motions of atoms.",
"timestamp": [
2045.67,
2048.49
]
},
{
"text": "really quantum behavior of\nrandom motions of atoms.",
"timestamp": [
2045.67,
2048.49
]
},
{
"text": "And is it possible that\nthe whole of gravity",
"timestamp": [
2048.49,
2050.83
]
},
{
"text": "And is it possible that\nthe whole of gravity",
"timestamp": [
2048.49,
2050.83
]
},
{
"text": "is some kind of emergent illusion",
"timestamp": [
2050.83,
2053.3
]
},
{
"text": "is some kind of emergent illusion",
"timestamp": [
2050.83,
2053.3
]
},
{
"text": "from what's really quantum\nphenomenon underlying it?",
"timestamp": [
2053.3,
2056.36
]
},
{
"text": "from what's really quantum\nphenomenon underlying it?",
"timestamp": [
2053.3,
2056.36
]
},
{
"text": "- If we buy the idea of\nholography, then absolutely,",
"timestamp": [
2056.36,
2058.83
]
},
{
"text": "- If we buy the idea of\nholography, then absolutely,",
"timestamp": [
2056.36,
2058.83
]
},
{
"text": "that's for sure, that's\nwhat it's telling us.",
"timestamp": [
2058.83,
2061.11
]
},
{
"text": "that's for sure, that's\nwhat it's telling us.",
"timestamp": [
2058.83,
2061.11
]
},
{
"text": "Although which side is the illusion",
"timestamp": [
2061.11,
2062.32
]
},
{
"text": "Although which side is the illusion",
"timestamp": [
2061.11,
2062.32
]
},
{
"text": "and which side is the reality?",
"timestamp": [
2062.32,
2063.65
]
},
{
"text": "and which side is the reality?",
"timestamp": [
2062.32,
2063.65
]
},
{
"text": "They're the same.",
"timestamp": [
2063.65,
2064.483
]
},
{
"text": "They're the same.",
"timestamp": [
2063.65,
2064.483
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean, temperature is\nstill great to talk about.",
"timestamp": [
2064.483,
2065.71
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean, temperature is\nstill great to talk about.",
"timestamp": [
2064.483,
2065.71
]
},
{
"text": "It doesn't mean we shouldn't\ntalk about temperature.",
"timestamp": [
2065.71,
2067.32
]
},
{
"text": "It doesn't mean we shouldn't\ntalk about temperature.",
"timestamp": [
2065.71,
2067.32
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, we should absolutely\nadjust our thermostats",
"timestamp": [
2067.32,
2069.42
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, we should absolutely\nadjust our thermostats",
"timestamp": [
2067.32,
2069.42
]
},
{
"text": "and talk about temperature.",
"timestamp": [
2069.42,
2070.76
]
},
{
"text": "and talk about temperature.",
"timestamp": [
2069.42,
2070.76
]
},
{
"text": "But if we look at it closer\nand closer and closer,",
"timestamp": [
2070.76,
2073.07
]
},
{
"text": "But if we look at it closer\nand closer and closer,",
"timestamp": [
2070.76,
2073.07
]
},
{
"text": "we realize there's not\na thing in the world",
"timestamp": [
2073.07,
2074.7
]
},
{
"text": "we realize there's not\na thing in the world",
"timestamp": [
2073.07,
2074.7
]
},
{
"text": "that has as a quantum value\ntemperature, isolated.",
"timestamp": [
2074.7,
2078.35
]
},
{
"text": "that has as a quantum value\ntemperature, isolated.",
"timestamp": [
2074.7,
2078.35
]
},
{
"text": "And so maybe there is\nno such thing as gravity",
"timestamp": [
2078.35,
2081.83
]
},
{
"text": "And so maybe there is\nno such thing as gravity",
"timestamp": [
2078.35,
2081.83
]
},
{
"text": "isolated from quantum mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
2081.83,
2083.92
]
},
{
"text": "isolated from quantum mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
2081.83,
2083.92
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, so I guess with\nthe holographic description",
"timestamp": [
2083.92,
2085.7
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, so I guess with\nthe holographic description",
"timestamp": [
2083.92,
2085.7
]
},
{
"text": "we've got two sides, which are\nactually secretly the same.",
"timestamp": [
2085.7,
2088.69
]
},
{
"text": "we've got two sides, which are\nactually secretly the same.",
"timestamp": [
2085.7,
2088.69
]
},
{
"text": "On one side there's definitely no gravity.",
"timestamp": [
2088.69,
2090.3
]
},
{
"text": "On one side there's definitely no gravity.",
"timestamp": [
2088.69,
2090.3
]
},
{
"text": "On the other side, well,",
"timestamp": [
2090.3,
2091.92
]
},
{
"text": "On the other side, well,",
"timestamp": [
2090.3,
2091.92
]
},
{
"text": "it's a quantum theory of\ngravity, whatever that means.",
"timestamp": [
2091.92,
2094.25
]
},
{
"text": "it's a quantum theory of\ngravity, whatever that means.",
"timestamp": [
2091.92,
2094.25
]
},
{
"text": "But the point is you can get it out,",
"timestamp": [
2094.25,
2096.09
]
},
{
"text": "But the point is you can get it out,",
"timestamp": [
2094.25,
2096.09
]
},
{
"text": "it's equivalent to this theory.",
"timestamp": [
2096.09,
2097.32
]
},
{
"text": "it's equivalent to this theory.",
"timestamp": [
2096.09,
2097.32
]
},
{
"text": "- So that's just like saying",
"timestamp": [
2097.32,
2099.167
]
},
{
"text": "- So that's just like saying",
"timestamp": [
2097.32,
2099.167
]
},
{
"text": "there's the idea of a dual description.",
"timestamp": [
2099.167,
2101.142
]
},
{
"text": "there's the idea of a dual description.",
"timestamp": [
2099.167,
2101.142
]
},
{
"text": "It's just saying there's\na perfect dictionary",
"timestamp": [
2101.142,
2102.66
]
},
{
"text": "It's just saying there's\na perfect dictionary",
"timestamp": [
2101.142,
2102.66
]
},
{
"text": "between these two descriptions,",
"timestamp": [
2102.66,
2103.72
]
},
{
"text": "between these two descriptions,",
"timestamp": [
2102.66,
2103.72
]
},
{
"text": "and so to belabor which\none's real is silly.",
"timestamp": [
2103.72,
2106.61
]
},
{
"text": "and so to belabor which\none's real is silly.",
"timestamp": [
2103.72,
2106.61
]
},
{
"text": "It's like saying, is\nFrench or is English real?",
"timestamp": [
2106.61,
2109.17
]
},
{
"text": "It's like saying, is\nFrench or is English real?",
"timestamp": [
2106.61,
2109.17
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, an example I like to give is",
"timestamp": [
2109.17,
2111.11
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, an example I like to give is",
"timestamp": [
2109.17,
2111.11
]
},
{
"text": "if you take some extra dimensions",
"timestamp": [
2111.11,
2113.21
]
},
{
"text": "if you take some extra dimensions",
"timestamp": [
2111.11,
2113.21
]
},
{
"text": "and you compactify them,\nlet's say just one,",
"timestamp": [
2113.21,
2115.3
]
},
{
"text": "and you compactify them,\nlet's say just one,",
"timestamp": [
2113.21,
2115.3
]
},
{
"text": "all that is, it's exactly prevalent",
"timestamp": [
2115.3,
2117.07
]
},
{
"text": "all that is, it's exactly prevalent",
"timestamp": [
2115.3,
2117.07
]
},
{
"text": "to whatever particles you had,",
"timestamp": [
2117.07,
2118.44
]
},
{
"text": "to whatever particles you had,",
"timestamp": [
2117.07,
2118.44
]
},
{
"text": "whatever fields you had\nin your original theory",
"timestamp": [
2118.44,
2119.86
]
},
{
"text": "whatever fields you had\nin your original theory",
"timestamp": [
2118.44,
2119.86
]
},
{
"text": "before you added it,",
"timestamp": [
2119.86,
2120.693
]
},
{
"text": "before you added it,",
"timestamp": [
2119.86,
2120.693
]
},
{
"text": "you just added an infinite\ntower of new particles",
"timestamp": [
2120.693,
2122.77
]
},
{
"text": "you just added an infinite\ntower of new particles",
"timestamp": [
2120.693,
2122.77
]
},
{
"text": "with certain properties that\nare all easy to calculate.",
"timestamp": [
2122.77,
2125.05
]
},
{
"text": "with certain properties that\nare all easy to calculate.",
"timestamp": [
2122.77,
2125.05
]
},
{
"text": "For me, it's a question\nof which description",
"timestamp": [
2125.05,
2126.69
]
},
{
"text": "For me, it's a question\nof which description",
"timestamp": [
2125.05,
2126.69
]
},
{
"text": "is most useful.",
"timestamp": [
2126.69,
2127.9
]
},
{
"text": "is most useful.",
"timestamp": [
2126.69,
2127.9
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, if you wanna say\ngravity is an illusion",
"timestamp": [
2127.9,
2129.49
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, if you wanna say\ngravity is an illusion",
"timestamp": [
2127.9,
2129.49
]
},
{
"text": "and it's all quantum, that's great,",
"timestamp": [
2129.49,
2130.5
]
},
{
"text": "and it's all quantum, that's great,",
"timestamp": [
2129.49,
2130.5
]
},
{
"text": "but then you fall down the\nstairs and bang your head.",
"timestamp": [
2130.5,
2132.37
]
},
{
"text": "but then you fall down the\nstairs and bang your head.",
"timestamp": [
2130.5,
2132.37
]
},
{
"text": "[Janna laughs]",
"timestamp": [
2132.37,
2133.52
]
},
{
"text": "[Janna laughs]",
"timestamp": [
2132.37,
2133.52
]
},
{
"text": "It's sort of like there's a description",
"timestamp": [
2133.52,
2135.226
]
},
{
"text": "It's sort of like there's a description",
"timestamp": [
2133.52,
2135.226
]
},
{
"text": "that works pretty well.",
"timestamp": [
2135.226,
2137.24
]
},
{
"text": "that works pretty well.",
"timestamp": [
2135.226,
2137.24
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, you don't go\nto the doctor and say,",
"timestamp": [
2137.24,
2138.99
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, you don't go\nto the doctor and say,",
"timestamp": [
2137.24,
2138.99
]
},
{
"text": "Heisenberg's uncertainty principle caused",
"timestamp": [
2138.99,
2141.54
]
},
{
"text": "Heisenberg's uncertainty principle caused",
"timestamp": [
2138.99,
2141.54
]
},
{
"text": "a series of fluctuations.",
"timestamp": [
2141.54,
2143.54
]
},
{
"text": "a series of fluctuations.",
"timestamp": [
2141.54,
2143.54
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, would you help me?",
"timestamp": [
2143.54,
2144.76
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, would you help me?",
"timestamp": [
2143.54,
2144.76
]
},
{
"text": "So there's so many open questions.",
"timestamp": [
2144.76,
2146.03
]
},
{
"text": "So there's so many open questions.",
"timestamp": [
2144.76,
2146.03
]
},
{
"text": "The fact that they are all\nthese fundamental issues",
"timestamp": [
2146.03,
2148.42
]
},
{
"text": "The fact that they are all\nthese fundamental issues",
"timestamp": [
2146.03,
2148.42
]
},
{
"text": "that we really don't understand.",
"timestamp": [
2148.42,
2150.22
]
},
{
"text": "that we really don't understand.",
"timestamp": [
2148.42,
2150.22
]
},
{
"text": "But, on the other hand,\nthere's all these moving parts",
"timestamp": [
2150.22,
2152.38
]
},
{
"text": "But, on the other hand,\nthere's all these moving parts",
"timestamp": [
2150.22,
2152.38
]
},
{
"text": "that fit together so neatly.",
"timestamp": [
2152.38,
2153.64
]
},
{
"text": "that fit together so neatly.",
"timestamp": [
2152.38,
2153.64
]
},
{
"text": "There's definitely something\nthat's working here.",
"timestamp": [
2153.64,
2155.91
]
},
{
"text": "There's definitely something\nthat's working here.",
"timestamp": [
2153.64,
2155.91
]
},
{
"text": "But ultimately what is\ngonna emerge from that,",
"timestamp": [
2155.91,
2157.71
]
},
{
"text": "But ultimately what is\ngonna emerge from that,",
"timestamp": [
2155.91,
2157.71
]
},
{
"text": "what structure is lying\nunder it, we just don't know.",
"timestamp": [
2157.71,
2160.13
]
},
{
"text": "what structure is lying\nunder it, we just don't know.",
"timestamp": [
2157.71,
2160.13
]
},
{
"text": "But I think the fact that there are",
"timestamp": [
2160.13,
2162.06
]
},
{
"text": "But I think the fact that there are",
"timestamp": [
2160.13,
2162.06
]
},
{
"text": "so many fundamental questions",
"timestamp": [
2162.06,
2164.05
]
},
{
"text": "so many fundamental questions",
"timestamp": [
2162.06,
2164.05
]
},
{
"text": "that we just don't know the answer to,",
"timestamp": [
2164.05,
2165.36
]
},
{
"text": "that we just don't know the answer to,",
"timestamp": [
2164.05,
2165.36
]
},
{
"text": "that is an opportunity,\nthat's exciting, it's great.",
"timestamp": [
2165.36,
2168.15
]
},
{
"text": "that is an opportunity,\nthat's exciting, it's great.",
"timestamp": [
2165.36,
2168.15
]
},
{
"text": "- Thanks so much for coming.",
"timestamp": [
2168.15,
2169.436
]
},
{
"text": "- Thanks so much for coming.",
"timestamp": [
2168.15,
2169.436
]
},
{
"text": "It's really good to have you here.",
"timestamp": [
2169.436,
2170.67
]
},
{
"text": "It's really good to have you here.",
"timestamp": [
2169.436,
2170.67
]
},
{
"text": "- Thank you very much,\nJanna, it was my pleasure.",
"timestamp": [
2170.67,
2172.407
]
},
{
"text": "- Thank you very much,\nJanna, it was my pleasure.",
"timestamp": [
2170.67,
2172.407
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
2172.407,
2174.99
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
2172.407,
2174.99
]
},
{
"text": "- I hoped you learned\nsomething about gravity",
"timestamp": [
2179.659,
2181.68
]
},
{
"text": "- I hoped you learned\nsomething about gravity",
"timestamp": [
2179.659,
2181.68
]
},
{
"text": "you hadn't thought of before,",
"timestamp": [
2181.68,
2182.78
]
},
{
"text": "you hadn't thought of before,",
"timestamp": [
2181.68,
2182.78
]
},
{
"text": "and I hope even more that\nit provoked some questions.",
"timestamp": [
2182.78,
2185.93
]
},
{
"text": "and I hope even more that\nit provoked some questions.",
"timestamp": [
2182.78,
2185.93
]
},
{
"text": "So thank you for watching.",
"timestamp": [
2185.93,
2187.23
]
},
{
"text": "So thank you for watching.",
"timestamp": [
2185.93,
2187.23
]
}
] |
[
[
"<Untitled Chapter 1>",
"- Hi, I'm Janna Levin,\nI'm an astrophysicist,"
],
[
"Janna Levin, PhD",
"and I've been asked to explain gravityin five levels of increasing complexity.Gravity seems so familiar and so everyday,and yet it's this incredibly\nesoteric abstract subjectthat has shaped the way\nwe view the universeon the larger scales,has given us the strangest\nphenomena in the universelike black holesthat has changed the way we\nlook at the entirety of physics.It's really been a revolution\nbecause of gravity.[gentle music]Are you interested in science?\n- Yes.- Yes, you are?\n- Yes.- Do you know what gravity is?- It's something that, so, right now,we would be floating if\nthere was no gravity,but since there's gravitywe're sitting right down on these chairs.- That's pretty good.So gravity wants to\nattract us to the Earth,and the Earth to us.But the Earth is so much biggerthat even though we're\nactually pulling the Eartha little bit to us, you\ndon't notice it so much.You know, the Moon pulls\non the Earth a little bit.- Mm-hmm, just like the ocean tides.- [Janna] Exactly, the\nMoon is such a big bodycompared to anything else very nearbythat it has the larger effect,pulling the water of the Earth.But more than the Moon,\nthink about the Sunpulling on the Earth.We orbit the whole Sun,just the way the Earth pulls on the Moonand causes the Moon to orbit us.All of those things are acting\non you and me right now.- If gravity was too strong,\nwould we be able to get up?- That's such a good question.No, we actually couldn't.In the Moon, gravity is weaker,you can almost float between footstepsif you look at the astronauts on the Moon.On the Earth, it's harder,\n'cause it's bigger.If you go to a bigger, heavier planet,it gets harder and harder.But there are stars that have diedthat are so dense that there's no waywe could lift our arms,no way we could step or walk.The gravity is just way too strong.Do you know how tall you are?- I'm in the fours.\n- In the fours?- Maybe four three.- People think that while you're sleeping,your body has a chance to stretch outand gravity isn't crunching you together,but when you're standing\nor walking or sitting,the gravity contracts your\nspine ever so slightly,so that in the morning you\nmight be a little bit tallerthan in the evening.See if it works for you.- [Woman] Wow.- So that was last night?\n- Yes.[Bonet screams]- Ooh.- They say that astronauts in space,definitely their spine elongates.There were two twin astronauts,one who stayed here on Earthand the other who went to the\nInternational Space Station.He was there for a long\ntime, and when he came back,he was actually taller\nthan his twin brother.- Wow.- Yeah, and that was because gravitywasn't compressing him all the timeand he was floating freelyin the International Space Stationand his spine just kind of elongated.After a while here on Earth\nthough he'll readjust,he'll go back to the same size.Have you ever heard of how\ngravity was discovered?- Mm-hmm.- Isaac Newton would ponder,how does the Earth cause things to fall?There's a famous story that Isaac Newtonwas sitting under a treeand the apple fell from the\ntree and hit him on the headand he had an epiphany\nand understood this law,this mathematical law for how that works.I don't actually think\nthat's a true story, though.- Yeah.\n- But it's a good story.So Isaac Newton realized\nthat even if you're heavier,you will fall at the same rate\nas something much lighter,that that's the same.Once you hit the ground,\nif you're heavier,you'll hit the ground\nwith much greater force,but you will hit the\nground at the same time.- So, if we both dropped\ndown from a plane,we would both land at the same time,but you would land heavier?- Yep, so like a penny from\nthe Empire State Buildingwill fall at the same\nrate as a bowling ball.- Oh my God.\n- Yeah, amazing.Wanna try it?\n- Yeah.- A light object, see how light that is.- That's...\n- Very light?- Yeah.And a heavy object.- Oh my God.\n[Janna laughs]- They look the same, but\nthis is much heavier, right?Okay, so try it, just try\nholding your arms up front,a little higher maybe,\ngive them a chance to drop,and then drop them.[balls thud]\n[Janna laughs]Did they fall at the same time?Did they hit at the same time?- So, Isaac Newton, he was\nalso the one who realizedthat that's the same\nforce that keeps the Moonin orbit around the Earthand the Earth in orbit around the Sun,and that's a huge leap.Here he is, looking at\njust things around him,and then looks at the starsand has this really big realization,that that's actually the same force.So, what have you learned\ntoday talking about gravity?- I've learned that the person\nthat learned about the apple.- Newton.- He was learning about gravityjust about what he saw on this planet.I also learned that if\nyou drop one light thingand one heavy thing at the\nsame height at the same time,they're both gonna drop at the same timebut one's gonna drop a little\nheavier than the other.- That's beautiful, I'm impressed.[gentle music]So, Maria, you're in high school?"
],
[
"Maria Teresa Furtado 16-year-old",
"- Yeah, I'm a junior.- [Janna] And are you studying\nany sciences in high school?- I'm taking physics right now.- Do you think of yourself\nas curious about science?- Well, there are some\nthings that interest meand others that bore me, so it depends.- What interests you?- Well, I'm a gymnast, so\nin physics they talk aboutforce and stuff and then I\nthink of how I use physicsin my own life.- What's your impression\nof what gravity is?- I think that if there's no gravity,everyone would float everywhere.It pulls things down,and without it, everything would be chaos.- So you're saying\ngravity pulls things down,yet we've launched things into space.Do you ever wonder how we do that?- Isn't it like a slingshot,like if you pull something back enoughit'll go in the opposite direction?- Well, that's true, we do\nuse slingshot technologyonce things are out in the solar system.So, for instance, we use\nJupiter and other planetsso that when some of the\nspacecraft gets close,it'll slingshot around and\nit'll cause it to speed up.But mostly, around the Earth,\ngravity pulls things down,so when we want to send\na rocket into space,when we wanna go to the Moon,when we wanna send suppliesto the International Space Station,the trick is to get\nsomething moving fast enoughthat it escapes the\ngravitational pull of the Earth.Have you heard the expression\nwhat goes up must come down?It's actually not true.If you throw it fast enough,you can actually get somethingthat doesn't come back down again,and that's basically how\nrocket launches work.You have to get the rocket for the Earthto go more than 11 kilometers a second.Think of how fast it is.Just one breath and\nit's gone 11 kilometers.If you get it to go that fast,it's not gonna come back down again.So you know the\nInternational Space Stationwhich is orbiting the Earth?That's going around the Earth\nat 17,000 miles an hour.It has no engines anymore,\nthe engines are turned off.So it's just there falling forever.So once it's out there,\nit's not coming back downas long as it's cruising like that.- And does the gravity pull\nit or is it just floating?- In a weird way, that\nis gravity pulling it.So have you ever had a yo-yowhere you swing it around like this?The string is pulling it in at all times,but you've also given it\nthis angular momentum.And as long as you give\nit the angular momentum,pulling it in actually keeps it in orbit.And so the Earth is\npulling it in at all times,so that's why it doesn't just\ntravel off in a straight line.It keeps coming back around.So it's funny, people thinkthat the International Space Stationis so far away that they're\nnot feeling gravity,and that's not the case at all.They're absolutely feeling gravity.They're just cruising so fast that,even though they're being pulled in,they never get pulled to the surface.- It's like that ride\nat the rollercoasterswhere you go in and it's spins super fastand you can't feel it spinning fast but--- Yeah, you feel pinned to that.It's exactly like that.There's something called\nthe equivalence principlewhere people realized,\nespecially Einstein,that if you were in outer\nspace in a rocket shipand it was dark and painted\nand it was acceleratingat exactly the right rate,you actually wouldn't\nknow if you were sittingon the floor of a\nbuilding around the Earthor if you were on a rocket\nship that was accelerating.- That's crazy.\n- Yeah.You ever had that experience\nwhere you're sitting in a trainand the other one moves and for a secondyou're not sure if you're the one moving?- Yeah, 'cause I go on the train every dayto go to school,but I never feel like I'm\nmoving when I'm in the train,and then I'm like, wait, what?- That's because in some\nsense, you're really not.Imagine you're in this trainand it's going near the speed of lightrelative to the platform,but it's so smooth,then you should be in a situationin which there's no meaning\nto your absolute motion,there's no absolute motion.So that if you throw a ball up,you might think from the\noutside of the platform,be confused that when\ngravity pulls that back down,it's gonna hit you or something,but it'll land in your palmas surely as if you were\nin your living room.Isn't that kinda crazy?\n- Amazing.- So imagine you were an astronautand you were floating in empty space.You can't see anything.There's no stars, there's no Earth.You can ask yourself, am I moving?There's really no way for you to tell.So you would probably\nconclude, well, I'm not moving.So then your friend Marina\ncomes cruising past you,and maybe she's going thousands\nof kilometers a second,and you say, \"Marina, you're cruising\"at thousands of kilometers a second,\"you're going so fast.\"But she had just done the same experiment.She was just floating in space thinking,\"Am I moving?\"There's no way to know\nwhich one of you is movingand there's no meaning\nto the absolute motion.The only thing that's trueis that you're in relative\nmotion, that's true.You both agree you're in relative motion,and that's clear.But neither of you can say\nit's actually you who's movingand I'm stationary.- [laughs] I don't even\nknow what to say to that.- So let me tell you where\nit gets really crazy.[Maria laughs]So, let's say you and\nMarina are floating in spaceand you can't tell who's moving.Let's say you both see a flash of light.A flash of light comes from somewhere,you don't know where.So you measure the speed of lightto be 300,000 kilometers per second.But here comes Marina and she's\nracing at the light pulse,as far as you can tell.Two cars driving towards each otherseem like they're going\nfaster towards each otherthan somebody who's standing stillrelative to one of the cars,right?\n- Yeah.- So you would say, oh\nMarina is gonna measurea different speed of light.But she comes back and she says, \"No.\"300,000 kilometers per second.\"Because from her perspective,\nshe's standing still,and the laws of physics have\nbetter be the same for her.The speed of light is a fact of naturethat's as true as the strength of gravity.And the two of you are in this quandarybecause if one of you\nis the preferred personwho correctly measures the speed of light,that ruins everything about the ideaof the relativity of motion.Which one of you should it be?So Einstein decides they must both measurethe same speed of life.How could that possibly,\npossibly be the case?And he thinks, well, if\nspeed is how far you travel,your spatial distance, in\na certain amount of time,then there must be something\nwrong with space and time.And he goes from the constancy\nof the speed of lightand a respect for this idea of relativityto the idea that space and\ntime must not be the samefor you and for Marina.And that's how he gets the ideaof the relativity of space and time.[laughs] You have the best\nexpression on your face. [laughs]It's pretty wild, but that is\na starting point, actually,of the whole theory of relativity.That starting point leads tothis complete revolution in physicswhere we suddenly have a Big Bangand black holes and space-time.Just from that one simple starting point.So, is your impression\nof gravity differentthan when we started the conversation?- Yeah, 'cause I knew that\nwhen I was on the trainit didn't feel like I was moving,but I didn't know why\nor that it was a thingand I wasn't crazy.[Janna and Maria laugh]- And it's a really deep principle.And what about the theory of gravity?- I don't know, usually\nwhen I just heard gravityit's from my coaches,but I didn't know it was all these things.- It's like a big paradigm.[gentle music]So, you're in college?\n- Yeah.- [Janna] And what are\nyou studying in college?- I'm a physics major.- So, from your perspective,how would you describe gravity?- I'm taught that it's a force.It's described by inverse law.But I also know that it's a field.And there's a recent discovery\nwith gravitational waves,although I don't know the\nspecific details about that.- So, when you say it's\nan inverse-square law,that means that the closer you are,the more strongly you feel\nthe gravitational pull.And that makes sense.There's very few things that are strongerwhen you're further apart.\n- Yeah.- So you can also think\nof a gravitational field,something that permeates all of space.Even though the earth is\nthree stories below us,it's not as though it's\npulling at us from a distance.We're actually interacting\nwith the field at this pointand there's a real interaction\nright here at this point.And that's nice, because\npeople were worriedthat if things acted at a distance,that the way that old-fashionedinverse-square force law describes it,that it was as spooky\nas mind-bending a spoon,that it was like telekinesis.If you don't touch something,\nhow do you affect it?And so the first step was\nto start to think of gravityas a field that permeates all of a space.And it's weaker very far from the Earthand it's closer very close to the Earth.So one way to think of this fieldas a field that's really describinga curved space-time that is everywhere.Forget the difficulty of the math,just the intuition comes fromtwo kind of simple observations.One was what Einstein describedas the happiest thought of his life.So, right now, you might\nfeel heavy in your chair,and we might feel heavy\non the floor and our feet,or standing in an elevator cab.And Einstein said, what does\nthe chair have to do with it,or the floor, or the elevator?Those aren't gravitational objects.So he wanted to eliminate them,and one way to do the thought experimentis to imagine standing in an elevatorthat you can see out of, a black box.And imagine the cable is cutand you and the elevator begin to fall.- So, in free fall?- You're in total free fall.Now, because things fall at the same rate,including the elevator and you,you can actually float in the elevator.If you just floated in the elevator,the two of you would drop,and you might not even\nknow you're falling.You could take an apple and\ndrop it in front of you,and it would float in front of you.You would actually\nexperience weightlessness.It's called the equivalence principle.It was Einstein's happiest thoughtthat what you're really doingwhen you're experiencing gravityisn't being heavy in your chair,it's falling weightlessly\nin the gravitational field.And that was the first step,to think of gravity as\nweightlessness and falling.- I know zero-gravity experiencesthat are done with planes, I believe?- Yeah, exactly.\n- Yeah, yeah.- You can make somebody look likethey're in the International Space Stationby flying up in a plane\nand then just free-falling,the plane just drops out of the air.And while it's falling, they\nwill float weightlessly,and there's been a lot\nof experiments about it,but you don't want it to end unhappily,so the plane has to scoop back up,and then you see thembecome pinned to the floor of the plane,because then the plane is\ninterrupting their fall.So that's the first thought,and then the next is, what\nis the shape that's chased?So if you were floating in empty space,really empty space, and you had an apple,and you threw the apple,what shape do you think\nit would chase, the path?- Well, if I threw it straight,I would think it would go straight.- Yeah, it would just go straight.But if you did that on the\nEarth, what would happen?- It would just go down.- Yeah, it would chase a\ncurve, it would chase an arc.And the faster you throw it,\nthe kind of longer the arc.So the second step to think\nabout curved space-timeis to say that when things fall freelyaround a body like the Earth,\nthey trace curved paths,as though space-time itself,\nspace itself was curved.- Oh.- You had that moment,I saw that it your face!\n- Yeah, yeah, yeah.- You went, \"Oh.\"[Janna and Lisa laugh]So, that's the intuition,that's how Einstein gets from thinkingthat space-time is curved\nfrom the idea that, well,there's this field that\npermeates all of space,and what is really\ndescribing is the curvesthat things fall along.And from there, it's a very long pathto finding the mathematics\nand the right description,that's really hard.But that intuition is so\nelegant and so beautifuland just comes from these two\nsimple thought experiments.- That's amazing.- Isn't it kind of amazing?\n- Yeah. [laughs]- So you described learning\nin a class about lightthe theory of special relativitywhere Einstein is really adheringto the constancy of the speed of lightand questioning the absolute\nnature of space and time.And it seems like that has\nnothing to do with gravity,but he later begins to think aboutthe incompatibility of gravitywith his theory of relativity.So suppose the Sun were\nto disappear tomorrow.Some evil genius comes\nand just figures out a wayto evaporate the Sun.In Newton's understanding of gravity,we would instantaneously know about itall the way over here at the Earth.And that's incompatible with the conceptthat nothing can travel faster\nthan the speed of light.No information, not even\ninformation about the Sun,could possibly travel faster\nthan the speed of light.So we shouldn't know about\nwhat happened to the Sunfor a full eight minutes,which is the time it would\ntake light to travel to us.And so he begins to questionwhy gravity is so\nincompatible with relativity,but he already knows he's thinking aboutspace and time in relativity.So then he gets to his\ngeneral theory of relativitywhere he realizes if\nI eliminate everythingbut just the gravitational\nfield of let's say the Earthand I look at how things falland I see that they follow curves,well, then he realizes that space and timedon't just contract or dilate,that they can really warp,that they can bend and\nthat they can curve.And then he finds a wayto make gravity compatible with relativityby saying if the Sun were\nto disappear tomorrow,the curves that the Sun\nimprinted in space-timewould actually begin to ripple,and those are the gravitational waves,and they would change and\nthey would flatten out,'cause the Sun was no longer there.And that would take the\nlight-travel time to get to usto tell us that the Sun was gone,and then we would stop orbitingand just travel along a straight line.- Wow.\n- Wow.[Janna and Lisa laughs]Well, let's hope it doesn't happen.- Yeah.\n[Janna laughs]- So what do you think you walk away with?What do you think you learned?- Well, I learned more\nabout the intuitionsbehind the concept.'Cause we already just do the problemsbut sometimes you get lost in the math,but speaking like this it\nreally helps build my intuition.- Yeah, it does for me\ntoo, so thank you. [laughs][gentle music]"
],
[
"Grad Student",
"So you're getting your PhD in physics?- That's right.Theoretical high energy physics.Basically the physics ofreally, really small fundamental things.- So what would that have to dowith gravity or astrophysics?- Well, what I'm looking\nat is states of matterthat might exist inside neutron stars.So, when a star dies, if\nthe star is massive enough,there's a huge explosion,\ncalled a supernova,and the stuff that's left behindthat doesn't get blown awaycollapses into a tiny compact blobcalled a neutron star.- So what I love about\nneutron stars personallyis that they're kind of city-sized,right?\n- That's right.- [Janna] They're about\nthe size of a city.So you're imagining somethingmore than the mass of the Sun.- [Will] Yeah, or about\nthe mass of the Sun,condensed to the size of a city.It's dense enough that one teaspoon-fullwould weigh about a\nbillion tons here on Earth.- Now, that makes the gravitational\nfield incredibly strongaround the neutron star.So what would happen if\nwe were on a neutron star,because of the gravity?- We would immediately be\ncrushed into the ground,I think our bodies would be shredinto their subatomic particles.- So what's the connectionbetween neutron stars and black holes?- So, as I understand it,a black hole is sort of like\na neutron star's big brother.It's more intense, though.If you have so much matter\nwhen a star is collapsingthat it can't hold itself up,\nit collapses to a black hole,and those are so dense\nthat space-time breaks downin some way or another.- Black holes are so amazingthat when the neutron star stopsand there's something actually there.There's material there.If it's so heavy it becomes a black hole,so it keeps falling,once the event horizon\nof the black hole forms,which is the shadow,the curve that's so strong\nthat not even light can escape,the material keeps falling.And like you said, maybe\nspace-time breaks downright at the center there,\nbut whatever happens,the star's gone, that black hole is empty.So in a weird way black holes\nare a place and not a thing.- So is there a sensible way to talkabout what's inside a black hole,or is that, should you think of itas there is no space-time inside?- There isn't a sensible\nway to talk about it yet,and that probably means\nthat's where Einstein'stheory of gravity as a curved space-timeis beginning to break down,and we need to take the extra stepof going to some kind of\nquantum theory of gravity.And we don't have that yet.So even though the black hole\nisn't completely understood,we do know that they form astronomically,that in the universe things\nlike neutron stars formand things like black holes form.The consequences are very much speakingto this curved space-time.So, for instance, if two\nblack holes orbit each other,they're like mallets on a drum,and they actually cause\nspace-time to ring,and it's very much part of gravitation.The ringing of space-time itself,we call gravitational waves.And this was something\nEinstein thought aboutright away in 1950-1960,\nhe was thinking about that.- Those waves are very exciting for me toobecause neutron stars orbiting each otheralso give off gravitational wavesand we might be able to get some dataabout neutron star material\nfrom that kind of signal.- [Janna] Yes, they ring\nspace-time also like a drum,and you can record the\nsound of that ringingafter a billion years,when it's traveled through the universe.But then the next thing that happens isthose neutron stars collide,and because of this incredibly\nhigh energy state of matter,which you study,it becomes this firework\nof different explosions.It's really quite spectacular.- That's right, in fact,when we recorded that for the first timewith gravitational waves,we then pointed telescopes at itand were able to see it optically as well,and that gave scientists a lot of data.- Yeah, it was, to my knowledge,the most widely studied astronomical eventin the history of humanity.- Wow, that's amazing.- So when the gravitational\nwaves were recordedand they realized, oh this sounds like,you can reconstruct the shape and sizeof the mallets of the drum from the sound,these sounds like neutron stars\ncolliding, not black holes.And so, like you said, there was a triggerfor satellites and\nexperiments all over the worldto point roughly in the directionthat the sound was coming from.So, from your point of view,they're like two super-conducting\ngiant magnets colliding,an experiment you could never do on Earth.That's just the most tremendous scalesand peculiarities of matter.- Absolutely.I've heard statistics like\nmany Earth masses worth of goldwere created, forged in\nthe neutron star collisionthat caused that.We used to think that most\nelements in the universewere created in supernova,\nwhich is when stars explode,because there's so much\nviolent activity at the centerthat you need that kind of\nenergy to create new elements.- [Janna] The way you do in a bomb.It's basically nuclear fusion.- Sure, but we now think that\nthat kind of fusion happenswhen two neutron stars collide.If you think about it,you have two massive blobs of neutrons.When you smush them together,\nyou've got neutrons colliding.It creates the conditions where\nnew elements can be created.- Yeah, it's amazing.It's literally populating\nthe periodic table.- Yes, we now think that\nmost of the heavy elementsafter some number are created\nin neutron star collisions.- So you are already a PhD student,you know a lot about gravity,but what do you think you've taken awayfrom this conversation?- Well, I've definitely taken awaythat the way that we\nthink about gravity todayis very different from how\nNewton thought about it,and that even though we have\na very good understanding,there's lots of things that\nwe don't fully understand.There's still a lot of\nquestions to be answered,which I think is really exciting.- See, you're a scientist. [laughs]Isn't the best part being\nable to ask the questions?- Oh yeah.[gentle music]"
],
[
"Expert",
"- So we've been talking about gravity"
],
[
"Matthew Kleban, PhD",
"from Newton and celestial\nbodies, the Earth, the Moon,pulling on each other in\nthe conventional senseof gravity being an attractive force,to the Earth creating\ncurves in space-time,then we moved on to just\ndiffused seas of energyand space-time as the real universeand gravitation is\nreally just talking aboutspace-time in general, and here we are,and you're really hardcore\nin theoretical physics.Where would you take the\nexposition of gravityfrom that point?- Well, one thing is quantum mechanics.Quantum mechanics is the\nmost successful theoryin the history of science,it explains the most different\nphenomena the most precisely.Yet many people would still\nsay we don't understandeven the basics of it.- So when we think\nabout quantum mechanics,we think about particles\nand their quantum chargesin the Feynman way, the\nway that Feynman taught us.They come in and they\nexchange a force carrierand then they come out again,so that's how we think of an\nelectron and light scattering,for instance, or something like that.And the language that Einstein\ngave us is so different.It's completely geometric,\nit's all this space-time.And it's also unnecessary.- Yeah, for me, the beauty\nof the theory of gravity isthe way Einstein formulated it,as a theory of geometry,\nof curved space and time.I think, like you,\nthat's one of the thingsthat really pulled me into it.- Is there really space-timeor are we just using unnecessary languagebecause it's elegant and we\nlike it and it's beautiful?- Well, I think there's really space-timein the sense that it's a\ndescription that works really well,so there has to be\nsomething right about it.I mean, if we're gonna talk aboutwhat's really, really underlying thatand we're gonna put quantum\nmechanics into the mix,then there should be somequantum mechanical wave\nfunction for space-time.You should be able to take\ntwo different space-timesand add them together,'cause one of the crazy things\nabout quantum mechanics,as you know, it's--- To have the waves together.- Yeah, and in two statesand in two possible states of the world,you can just literally put\na plus sign between themand that's a sensible\nstate, that's a good state,it makes sense.- So do you think there's some sensein which we shouldn't be thinkingabout individual universes,\nindividual space-time,so we should be thinking aboutsuperpositions of space-times?- Yeah, I think so.I think if you were to go far enough backin the history of the universe,back to when it was very,\nvery dense, very small,and when quantum mechanics\nwas certainly important,then it must have been like that.I mean, if we believe thatthe dominant standard model of cosmology,something had to produce\nthe density perturbations,the things that seeded\nall the galaxies and starsand everything else in the world.So there's a galaxy over there, let's say,and not over there, so\nhow did that happen?Why is there a galaxy there and not there?In the standard theory, as you know,that was a quantum event, a random event.And it doesn't mean that if\nhappened there and not there'cause you flipped a coin,it actually happened in both places.There's gotta be a wave functionwhere in one branch of the wave functionthere's a galaxy there and not there,and on the other branch it's the opposite.- So when we're talking aboutthe multiverse or the Big Bang,we are really talking\nabout gravity ultimately,and we're talking about\nhow a theory of gravitationwhich we know think of\nas a theory of space-timehas a quantum explanation,has a quantum paradigm imposed on itthat will help us understand these things,and we don't have that yet.One of the things that\nI think is so amazingis that the terrains in which\nwe're going to understandquantum gravity are very few.It's the Big Bang, because\nthat's where we knowthat quantum and gravity\nboth were called into action.And there's black holes.One of the most interesting discoveriesis of course Hawking's discovery,kick-started a kind of crisis, right?In thinking about why\nquantum mechanics and gravitywere so knocking heads.It was one of the most beautiful examples.- Sure, yeah, it is a\nbeautiful, beautiful idea.So, first of all, to be\ntotally clear, though,we've never observed Hawking radiation,which is what he predicted, directly.I don't think very many\npeople doubt that it's there,but yeah, Hawking\ndiscovered mathematicallythat when you have a black\nhole, it's got an event horizon,it's got a surface which\nis a point of no return.If you fall through that\nsurface, no matter what you have,no matter how powerful\nthe rocket you've got,even if you beam a\nflashlight back behind youin the direction you fall from,nothing escapes, not even light.It all gets sucked in and spaghettifiedand destroyed at the singularity,or something, something\nhappens, but it doesn't get out.But in quantum mechanics,you can't really pin downthe location of something precisely.If you try to pin down an electronin a tiny circuit in a microchip,sometimes you discover\nit's not actually thereand then your computer crashes.- This is the Heisenberg's\nuncertainty principle in reality.You can't precisely say\nwhere the electron is,and you can't precisely say\nhow quickly it's moving.- Exactly, yeah, so when you\nget the blue screen of death,that might be because\nof quantum mechanics.- Right.- You know, you try to pin something downnear a black hole, well, it's a surface,it's got a particular radius\nfor a round black hole,and wanna say something\nis inside or outside,well, you can't absolutely\nsay that in quantum mechanics.And this kind of uncertainty\nproduces a radiation,which you can think of as\npulling some of the energyout of the black hole.The black hole is formed out of some massand there's an energy in that.If you think of pulling\nsome energy out of thatand sending it off to infinityin the form of particles being admitted.And what Hawking found is\nthat it's a thermal spectrum,it looks like a hot, or not\nso hot for a large black hole,but like an oven, the kind of radiationthat comes out of a cast iron.- This idea that the darkest\nphenomenon in the universeactually is forced to\nradiate quantum particlesis pretty wild.I think everyone understoodthat it was a correct calculation,but I don't think a lot of peopleunderstood the implications,that it meant something\nreally terrible was happening.Because this black hole,which could have been\nmade of who knows what,is disappearing into\nthese quantum particleswhich, in some sense, have nothing to dowith the material that went in.So do you think that's a big crisis?The black hole evaporates,\nthe information is lost?- It's a crisis because of\nsome of the details of it,but I would say the\nway you just described,I mean, if I build a big\nbonfire or an incineratorand I throw an encyclopedia into it,good luck reconstructing what\nwas in that encyclopedia.The information is lost\nfor all practical purpose.- Practical purposes.\n- Yes.- So this is a huge crisis'cause either quantum mechanics is wrong,and as you described it,it's the most accurately-tested paradigmin the history of physics,how could it be wrong, right?Or the event horizon is\nletting information outand violating one of the mostsacred principles of relativity.- One thing about\nquantum mechanics is thatany time you have a state of the worldand another state of the world,you can literally add them togetherand get a third possible state,as crazy as that sounds.And so if you're gonna have\na quantum theory of gravity,then we can't really talk\nabout there being a black holeor not a black hole,or an event horizon or\nnot an event horizon,because we could always a statethat had an event horizon\nand a state that doesn't,or has the event horizonin a slightly different position, maybe,and add them together.So the existence or\nposition of an event horizoncan't possibly be determined as a factany more than the position\nof an electron is determined.So I think that's the loophole.- That's a nice way of looking at it.So that you're not actually\nviolating classical relativityonce you're in a regime\nwhere the wave functionhas really peaked around\na very well-defined stage.- That's right, and one of\nthe most exciting developmentsin the last 10 or 20 years\nis called holography,and it's called holography becausea hologram is a two-dimensional surfacethat creates a three-dimensional image.It's got sort of 3D\ninformation built into it.And this, in a fundamental way,really has that 3D or higher\ndimensional informationbuilt into it.It's exactly the same as\nthis theory of gravityand more dimensions.- Yes, so one of the\nthings I like to think ofwith holography is that I can packa certain amount of\ninformation in a black hole.I mean, you can literally think of itas throwing things into it.So let's say I have\ninformation in some volumeand I'm under the illusionthat I can just keep packing\ninformation in that volume,as much as the volume will contain.Eventually I'll make a black holeand I'll find out that the\nmaximum amount of informationI can pack into anything\nin the entire universeis what I can pack on the area.And since area is projecting\nthe illusion, maybe, of volume,maybe the whole world is just a hologram.It's not a principle that\nonly applies to black holes.It's saying that,if this theory of quantum\ngravity is correct,then this while three-dimensionality\nis an utter illusionand really the universe\nis two-dimensional.That's crazy.\n- That's true.[Janna laughs]And as practically speaking,you mentioned before in our conversationthat it's really interestingthat the Heisenberg uncertainty principleis a practical limit now in microchips.If we make microchips much\nsmaller than they already are,even as they already\nare, it causes errors,'cause you don't know\nthat the electron's in.If holography, if this limit\non how much informationyou can ever pack, if\nthat ever become a limit,as far as we know that's\nan absolute limit.We started off with clay tablets,not so much information per\ncubit centimeter or whatever.Then we had written stuff\nthat's getting better,encyclopedias with thin paper\nthat's even better, CDs.- A smaller and smaller space,trying to pack it denser and denser,until eventually we make a black hole.- Yeah, at some point you try to fill upyour encyclopedia with knowledgeand you get swallowed up by a black hole.- Right, exactly.And the most knowledge you could ever havewould only be on a\ntwo-dimensional surface.- Right, and as big as the\nuniverse, and then you're done.So, you know, not likelythat we're ever gonna hit\nthat limit any time soon.- Do you think it's possiblethat gravity is really\nultimately just quantum mechanicsand doesn't exist at all\nin the fundamental waysthat we've been talking about so far,like the Newtonian way\nand the space-time way,that those are just these\nkind of macroscopic illusions?Sometimes I talk about it\nin terms of temperature.Temperature is not a thing.There is no single thing\ncalled temperature.It's a macroscopic illusionthat comes from the collective behavior,really quantum behavior of\nrandom motions of atoms.And is it possible that\nthe whole of gravityis some kind of emergent illusionfrom what's really quantum\nphenomenon underlying it?- If we buy the idea of\nholography, then absolutely,that's for sure, that's\nwhat it's telling us.Although which side is the illusionand which side is the reality?They're the same.- I mean, temperature is\nstill great to talk about.It doesn't mean we shouldn't\ntalk about temperature.I mean, we should absolutely\nadjust our thermostatsand talk about temperature.But if we look at it closer\nand closer and closer,we realize there's not\na thing in the worldthat has as a quantum value\ntemperature, isolated.And so maybe there is\nno such thing as gravityisolated from quantum mechanics.- Right, so I guess with\nthe holographic descriptionwe've got two sides, which are\nactually secretly the same.On one side there's definitely no gravity.On the other side, well,it's a quantum theory of\ngravity, whatever that means.But the point is you can get it out,it's equivalent to this theory.- So that's just like sayingthere's the idea of a dual description.It's just saying there's\na perfect dictionarybetween these two descriptions,and so to belabor which\none's real is silly.It's like saying, is\nFrench or is English real?- Yeah, an example I like to give isif you take some extra dimensionsand you compactify them,\nlet's say just one,all that is, it's exactly prevalentto whatever particles you had,whatever fields you had\nin your original theorybefore you added it,you just added an infinite\ntower of new particleswith certain properties that\nare all easy to calculate.For me, it's a question\nof which descriptionis most useful.I mean, if you wanna say\ngravity is an illusionand it's all quantum, that's great,but then you fall down the\nstairs and bang your head.[Janna laughs]It's sort of like there's a descriptionthat works pretty well.- Yeah, you don't go\nto the doctor and say,Heisenberg's uncertainty principle causeda series of fluctuations.- Right, would you help me?So there's so many open questions.The fact that they are all\nthese fundamental issuesthat we really don't understand.But, on the other hand,\nthere's all these moving partsthat fit together so neatly.There's definitely something\nthat's working here.But ultimately what is\ngonna emerge from that,what structure is lying\nunder it, we just don't know.But I think the fact that there areso many fundamental questionsthat we just don't know the answer to,that is an opportunity,\nthat's exciting, it's great.- Thanks so much for coming.It's really good to have you here.- Thank you very much,\nJanna, it was my pleasure.[gentle music]- I hoped you learned\nsomething about gravityyou hadn't thought of before,and I hope even more that\nit provoked some questions.So thank you for watching."
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Hacker Explains One Concept in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
d9PqVcgT1kQ
| 1,523
|
[
{
"end_time": 28,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "Intro"
},
{
"end_time": 199,
"start_time": 28,
"title": "What is hacking"
},
{
"end_time": 351,
"start_time": 199,
"title": "What is computer hacking"
},
{
"end_time": 738,
"start_time": 351,
"title": "Studying cyber security"
},
{
"end_time": 1086,
"start_time": 738,
"title": "Projects"
},
{
"end_time": 1523,
"start_time": 1086,
"title": "Interview"
}
] |
[
{
"text": "- Hi, my name is Samy Kamkar.",
"timestamp": [
0.19,
2.45
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, my name is Samy Kamkar.",
"timestamp": [
0.19,
2.45
]
},
{
"text": "I am a security researcher,\ncomputer hacker,",
"timestamp": [
2.45,
4.55
]
},
{
"text": "I am a security researcher,\ncomputer hacker,",
"timestamp": [
2.45,
4.55
]
},
{
"text": "and co-founder of Openpath Security.",
"timestamp": [
4.55,
6.75
]
},
{
"text": "and co-founder of Openpath Security.",
"timestamp": [
4.55,
6.75
]
},
{
"text": "I've been challenged today\nto explain one simple concept",
"timestamp": [
6.75,
9.83
]
},
{
"text": "I've been challenged today\nto explain one simple concept",
"timestamp": [
6.75,
9.83
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
9.83,
12.57
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
9.83,
12.57
]
},
{
"text": "My topic, hacking.",
"timestamp": [
12.57,
14.49
]
},
{
"text": "My topic, hacking.",
"timestamp": [
12.57,
14.49
]
},
{
"text": "Hacking to me is using or\nmanipulating a system in a way",
"timestamp": [
14.49,
18.95
]
},
{
"text": "Hacking to me is using or\nmanipulating a system in a way",
"timestamp": [
14.49,
18.95
]
},
{
"text": "that it wasn't intended\nor really expected.",
"timestamp": [
18.95,
21.53
]
},
{
"text": "that it wasn't intended\nor really expected.",
"timestamp": [
18.95,
21.53
]
},
{
"text": "And that could be a computer\nor it could be a phone",
"timestamp": [
21.53,
24.84
]
},
{
"text": "And that could be a computer\nor it could be a phone",
"timestamp": [
21.53,
24.84
]
},
{
"text": "or a drone or a satellite.",
"timestamp": [
24.84,
26.9
]
},
{
"text": "or a drone or a satellite.",
"timestamp": [
24.84,
26.9
]
},
{
"text": "It could really be anything.",
"timestamp": [
26.9,
28.312
]
},
{
"text": "It could really be anything.",
"timestamp": [
26.9,
28.312
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
28.312,
30.02
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
28.312,
30.02
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know what computer hacking is?",
"timestamp": [
30.02,
31.95
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know what computer hacking is?",
"timestamp": [
30.02,
31.95
]
},
{
"text": "- It's bad.",
"timestamp": [
31.95,
33.04
]
},
{
"text": "- It's bad.",
"timestamp": [
31.95,
33.04
]
},
{
"text": "Like, I'm going into someone's",
"timestamp": [
33.04,
35.18
]
},
{
"text": "Like, I'm going into someone's",
"timestamp": [
33.04,
35.18
]
},
{
"text": "personal account or account,",
"timestamp": [
35.18,
36.9
]
},
{
"text": "personal account or account,",
"timestamp": [
35.18,
36.9
]
},
{
"text": "changing some stuff or just\nstealing some information",
"timestamp": [
36.9,
40.62
]
},
{
"text": "changing some stuff or just\nstealing some information",
"timestamp": [
36.9,
40.62
]
},
{
"text": "or your money.",
"timestamp": [
40.62,
41.54
]
},
{
"text": "or your money.",
"timestamp": [
40.62,
41.54
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it's crazy.",
"timestamp": [
41.54,
42.57
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it's crazy.",
"timestamp": [
41.54,
42.57
]
},
{
"text": "They're really a lot of bad\nor malicious hackers out there",
"timestamp": [
42.57,
45.64
]
},
{
"text": "They're really a lot of bad\nor malicious hackers out there",
"timestamp": [
42.57,
45.64
]
},
{
"text": "who are doing just that.",
"timestamp": [
45.64,
47.56
]
},
{
"text": "who are doing just that.",
"timestamp": [
45.64,
47.56
]
},
{
"text": "They're going into people's accounts",
"timestamp": [
47.56,
48.76
]
},
{
"text": "They're going into people's accounts",
"timestamp": [
47.56,
48.76
]
},
{
"text": "and they're stealing money,",
"timestamp": [
48.76,
49.98
]
},
{
"text": "and they're stealing money,",
"timestamp": [
48.76,
49.98
]
},
{
"text": "but there's also another side\nof computer hacking where",
"timestamp": [
49.98,
52.442
]
},
{
"text": "but there's also another side\nof computer hacking where",
"timestamp": [
49.98,
52.442
]
},
{
"text": "there are people who\nare trying to learn how",
"timestamp": [
52.442,
54.99
]
},
{
"text": "there are people who\nare trying to learn how",
"timestamp": [
52.442,
54.99
]
},
{
"text": "those bad hackers are actually breaking in",
"timestamp": [
54.99,
57.39
]
},
{
"text": "those bad hackers are actually breaking in",
"timestamp": [
54.99,
57.39
]
},
{
"text": "to the bank accounts.",
"timestamp": [
57.39,
58.63
]
},
{
"text": "to the bank accounts.",
"timestamp": [
57.39,
58.63
]
},
{
"text": "- Do they, like, return the money?",
"timestamp": [
58.63,
60.384
]
},
{
"text": "- Do they, like, return the money?",
"timestamp": [
58.63,
60.384
]
},
{
"text": "Like, give them their money\nor something like that?",
"timestamp": [
60.384,
62.693
]
},
{
"text": "Like, give them their money\nor something like that?",
"timestamp": [
60.384,
62.693
]
},
{
"text": "- What they're trying to do is",
"timestamp": [
62.693,
63.67
]
},
{
"text": "- What they're trying to do is",
"timestamp": [
62.693,
63.67
]
},
{
"text": "they're trying to even prevent",
"timestamp": [
63.67,
65.29
]
},
{
"text": "they're trying to even prevent",
"timestamp": [
63.67,
65.29
]
},
{
"text": "the bad hackers from getting\nin in the first place.",
"timestamp": [
65.29,
67.83
]
},
{
"text": "the bad hackers from getting\nin in the first place.",
"timestamp": [
65.29,
67.83
]
},
{
"text": "- So they put like a protection\naccount or something.",
"timestamp": [
67.83,
70.7
]
},
{
"text": "- So they put like a protection\naccount or something.",
"timestamp": [
67.83,
70.7
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
70.7,
71.63
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
70.7,
71.63
]
},
{
"text": "They're looking for ways that\nthey can create protection.",
"timestamp": [
71.63,
74.907
]
},
{
"text": "They're looking for ways that\nthey can create protection.",
"timestamp": [
71.63,
74.907
]
},
{
"text": "It's kind of like the\nlock on your front door.",
"timestamp": [
74.907,
76.26
]
},
{
"text": "It's kind of like the\nlock on your front door.",
"timestamp": [
74.907,
76.26
]
},
{
"text": "That lock is to essentially prevent",
"timestamp": [
76.26,
78.83
]
},
{
"text": "That lock is to essentially prevent",
"timestamp": [
76.26,
78.83
]
},
{
"text": "bad people from coming in",
"timestamp": [
78.83,
80.2
]
},
{
"text": "bad people from coming in",
"timestamp": [
78.83,
80.2
]
},
{
"text": "or people accidentally coming\nin when they shouldn't.",
"timestamp": [
80.2,
82.44
]
},
{
"text": "or people accidentally coming\nin when they shouldn't.",
"timestamp": [
80.2,
82.44
]
},
{
"text": "A hacker is essentially looking at a way,",
"timestamp": [
82.44,
84.28
]
},
{
"text": "A hacker is essentially looking at a way,",
"timestamp": [
82.44,
84.28
]
},
{
"text": "how can I get into this lock?",
"timestamp": [
84.28,
86.18
]
},
{
"text": "how can I get into this lock?",
"timestamp": [
84.28,
86.18
]
},
{
"text": "But then there are the good\nones who are trying to unlock it",
"timestamp": [
86.18,
88.97
]
},
{
"text": "But then there are the good\nones who are trying to unlock it",
"timestamp": [
86.18,
88.97
]
},
{
"text": "so that they can tell the\ncompany that made the lock, hey,",
"timestamp": [
88.97,
91.32
]
},
{
"text": "so that they can tell the\ncompany that made the lock, hey,",
"timestamp": [
88.97,
91.32
]
},
{
"text": "we can actually protect people",
"timestamp": [
91.32,
92.72
]
},
{
"text": "we can actually protect people",
"timestamp": [
91.32,
92.72
]
},
{
"text": "by making the lock a little harder.",
"timestamp": [
92.72,
94.43
]
},
{
"text": "by making the lock a little harder.",
"timestamp": [
92.72,
94.43
]
},
{
"text": "- What would they do about the\npeople and the broken lock?",
"timestamp": [
94.43,
97.11
]
},
{
"text": "- What would they do about the\npeople and the broken lock?",
"timestamp": [
94.43,
97.11
]
},
{
"text": "- In many cases, they'll\nsend them a new lock.",
"timestamp": [
97.11,
99.33
]
},
{
"text": "- In many cases, they'll\nsend them a new lock.",
"timestamp": [
97.11,
99.33
]
},
{
"text": "So it's an upgraded, better version.",
"timestamp": [
99.33,
101.44
]
},
{
"text": "So it's an upgraded, better version.",
"timestamp": [
99.33,
101.44
]
},
{
"text": "Sometimes that's new features,",
"timestamp": [
101.44,
102.57
]
},
{
"text": "Sometimes that's new features,",
"timestamp": [
101.44,
102.57
]
},
{
"text": "but sometimes that's bug fixes",
"timestamp": [
102.57,
104.03
]
},
{
"text": "but sometimes that's bug fixes",
"timestamp": [
102.57,
104.03
]
},
{
"text": "and ways to protect you as well.",
"timestamp": [
104.03,
105.67
]
},
{
"text": "and ways to protect you as well.",
"timestamp": [
104.03,
105.67
]
},
{
"text": "- But like, they may get arrested",
"timestamp": [
105.67,
108.23
]
},
{
"text": "- But like, they may get arrested",
"timestamp": [
105.67,
108.23
]
},
{
"text": "because they might get mistaken.",
"timestamp": [
108.23,
110
]
},
{
"text": "because they might get mistaken.",
"timestamp": [
108.23,
110
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a very good point.",
"timestamp": [
110,
111.33
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a very good point.",
"timestamp": [
110,
111.33
]
},
{
"text": "You should definitely make sure\nthat you're obeying the law.",
"timestamp": [
111.33,
113.78
]
},
{
"text": "You should definitely make sure\nthat you're obeying the law.",
"timestamp": [
111.33,
113.78
]
},
{
"text": "They might work with the\nlock company and say,",
"timestamp": [
113.78,
115.447
]
},
{
"text": "They might work with the\nlock company and say,",
"timestamp": [
113.78,
115.447
]
},
{
"text": "\"I'm trying to improve your product.\"",
"timestamp": [
115.447,
117.48
]
},
{
"text": "\"I'm trying to improve your product.\"",
"timestamp": [
115.447,
117.48
]
},
{
"text": "And they're trying to find\nthese holes or problems,",
"timestamp": [
117.48,
120.299
]
},
{
"text": "And they're trying to find\nthese holes or problems,",
"timestamp": [
117.48,
120.299
]
},
{
"text": "and then share that with the company.",
"timestamp": [
120.299,
122.42
]
},
{
"text": "and then share that with the company.",
"timestamp": [
120.299,
122.42
]
},
{
"text": "Even though the good hacker is\ndoing exactly the same thing",
"timestamp": [
122.42,
125.11
]
},
{
"text": "Even though the good hacker is\ndoing exactly the same thing",
"timestamp": [
122.42,
125.11
]
},
{
"text": "as the bad hacker, it's\nthe same exact skillset,",
"timestamp": [
125.11,
127.86
]
},
{
"text": "as the bad hacker, it's\nthe same exact skillset,",
"timestamp": [
125.11,
127.86
]
},
{
"text": "and you're using the same exact\ntechniques and information",
"timestamp": [
127.86,
130.92
]
},
{
"text": "and you're using the same exact\ntechniques and information",
"timestamp": [
127.86,
130.92
]
},
{
"text": "to try to break that lock,",
"timestamp": [
130.92,
132.49
]
},
{
"text": "to try to break that lock,",
"timestamp": [
130.92,
132.49
]
},
{
"text": "but your goal as a good hacker\nis really to help everyone",
"timestamp": [
132.49,
135.33
]
},
{
"text": "but your goal as a good hacker\nis really to help everyone",
"timestamp": [
132.49,
135.33
]
},
{
"text": "like you and me to make sure\nthat our stuff is protected.",
"timestamp": [
135.33,
138.21
]
},
{
"text": "like you and me to make sure\nthat our stuff is protected.",
"timestamp": [
135.33,
138.21
]
},
{
"text": "So hopefully they don't get in trouble",
"timestamp": [
138.21,
139.93
]
},
{
"text": "So hopefully they don't get in trouble",
"timestamp": [
138.21,
139.93
]
},
{
"text": "because they're the good guys.",
"timestamp": [
139.93,
141.26
]
},
{
"text": "because they're the good guys.",
"timestamp": [
139.93,
141.26
]
},
{
"text": "- When did you start doing,\nlike, the good hacking?",
"timestamp": [
141.26,
143.392
]
},
{
"text": "- When did you start doing,\nlike, the good hacking?",
"timestamp": [
141.26,
143.392
]
},
{
"text": "- I started doing the good hacking",
"timestamp": [
143.392,
145.67
]
},
{
"text": "- I started doing the good hacking",
"timestamp": [
143.392,
145.67
]
},
{
"text": "when I turned nine years old.\n- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
145.67,
147.57
]
},
{
"text": "when I turned nine years old.\n- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
145.67,
147.57
]
},
{
"text": "- I started going on the\ncomputer and playing video games,",
"timestamp": [
147.57,
150.928
]
},
{
"text": "- I started going on the\ncomputer and playing video games,",
"timestamp": [
147.57,
150.928
]
},
{
"text": "but I had some ideas of my own,",
"timestamp": [
150.928,
152.61
]
},
{
"text": "but I had some ideas of my own,",
"timestamp": [
150.928,
152.61
]
},
{
"text": "and that's where I started\nto learn how to hack.",
"timestamp": [
152.61,
154.63
]
},
{
"text": "and that's where I started\nto learn how to hack.",
"timestamp": [
152.61,
154.63
]
},
{
"text": "I wanted to play with my\nfriends on this video game",
"timestamp": [
154.63,
157.461
]
},
{
"text": "I wanted to play with my\nfriends on this video game",
"timestamp": [
154.63,
157.461
]
},
{
"text": "and just change the way that things look.",
"timestamp": [
157.461,
159.69
]
},
{
"text": "and just change the way that things look.",
"timestamp": [
157.461,
159.69
]
},
{
"text": "- But that would be kinda bad,",
"timestamp": [
159.69,
161.74
]
},
{
"text": "- But that would be kinda bad,",
"timestamp": [
159.69,
161.74
]
},
{
"text": "because maybe the creator\ndid it for a reason.",
"timestamp": [
161.74,
164.11
]
},
{
"text": "because maybe the creator\ndid it for a reason.",
"timestamp": [
161.74,
164.11
]
},
{
"text": "- That's entirely possible.",
"timestamp": [
164.11,
165.44
]
},
{
"text": "- That's entirely possible.",
"timestamp": [
164.11,
165.44
]
},
{
"text": "They may have done it for a reason,",
"timestamp": [
165.44,
166.93
]
},
{
"text": "They may have done it for a reason,",
"timestamp": [
165.44,
166.93
]
},
{
"text": "but you may have come up\nwith a really good idea that,",
"timestamp": [
166.93,
169.43
]
},
{
"text": "but you may have come up\nwith a really good idea that,",
"timestamp": [
166.93,
169.43
]
},
{
"text": "do you think there are other people",
"timestamp": [
169.43,
170.63
]
},
{
"text": "do you think there are other people",
"timestamp": [
169.43,
170.63
]
},
{
"text": "who might like the idea\nthat you came up with?",
"timestamp": [
170.63,
172.448
]
},
{
"text": "who might like the idea\nthat you came up with?",
"timestamp": [
170.63,
172.448
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
172.448,
173.281
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
172.448,
173.281
]
},
{
"text": "- When you have creative ideas like that,",
"timestamp": [
173.281,
174.49
]
},
{
"text": "- When you have creative ideas like that,",
"timestamp": [
173.281,
174.49
]
},
{
"text": "hacking can actually allow you to",
"timestamp": [
174.49,
175.9
]
},
{
"text": "hacking can actually allow you to",
"timestamp": [
174.49,
175.9
]
},
{
"text": "change the way a system works,",
"timestamp": [
175.9,
177.97
]
},
{
"text": "change the way a system works,",
"timestamp": [
175.9,
177.97
]
},
{
"text": "and that means you can change a game",
"timestamp": [
177.97,
180.32
]
},
{
"text": "and that means you can change a game",
"timestamp": [
177.97,
180.32
]
},
{
"text": "and how the game is played,",
"timestamp": [
180.32,
181.779
]
},
{
"text": "and how the game is played,",
"timestamp": [
180.32,
181.779
]
},
{
"text": "and then you can share\nthat with your friends",
"timestamp": [
181.779,
183.95
]
},
{
"text": "and then you can share\nthat with your friends",
"timestamp": [
181.779,
183.95
]
},
{
"text": "and other people who like that game.",
"timestamp": [
183.95,
185.36
]
},
{
"text": "and other people who like that game.",
"timestamp": [
183.95,
185.36
]
},
{
"text": "Once I started learning how to do it,",
"timestamp": [
185.36,
187.08
]
},
{
"text": "Once I started learning how to do it,",
"timestamp": [
185.36,
187.08
]
},
{
"text": "I found that, things\nthat were harder for me,",
"timestamp": [
187.08,
189.39
]
},
{
"text": "I found that, things\nthat were harder for me,",
"timestamp": [
187.08,
189.39
]
},
{
"text": "I could make easier.",
"timestamp": [
189.39,
190.54
]
},
{
"text": "I could make easier.",
"timestamp": [
189.39,
190.54
]
},
{
"text": "- Did your parents approve of it?",
"timestamp": [
190.54,
192.34
]
},
{
"text": "- Did your parents approve of it?",
"timestamp": [
190.54,
192.34
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't think my parents knew,",
"timestamp": [
192.34,
193.94
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't think my parents knew,",
"timestamp": [
192.34,
193.94
]
},
{
"text": "but when my parents found out\nthat I was doing it for good,",
"timestamp": [
195.098,
198.28
]
},
{
"text": "but when my parents found out\nthat I was doing it for good,",
"timestamp": [
195.098,
198.28
]
},
{
"text": "I think they were happy.",
"timestamp": [
198.28,
199.175
]
},
{
"text": "I think they were happy.",
"timestamp": [
198.28,
199.175
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
199.175,
201.41
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
199.175,
201.41
]
},
{
"text": "Do you do anything with\ncomputers or any coding?",
"timestamp": [
201.41,
203.69
]
},
{
"text": "Do you do anything with\ncomputers or any coding?",
"timestamp": [
201.41,
203.69
]
},
{
"text": "- I like to play coding games,",
"timestamp": [
203.69,
205.34
]
},
{
"text": "- I like to play coding games,",
"timestamp": [
203.69,
205.34
]
},
{
"text": "and I like to go on\ncode.org, and they have",
"timestamp": [
205.34,
208.22
]
},
{
"text": "and I like to go on\ncode.org, and they have",
"timestamp": [
205.34,
208.22
]
},
{
"text": "a variety of games for different ages.",
"timestamp": [
208.22,
210.82
]
},
{
"text": "a variety of games for different ages.",
"timestamp": [
208.22,
210.82
]
},
{
"text": "So like, I really like to do that.",
"timestamp": [
210.82,
212.83
]
},
{
"text": "So like, I really like to do that.",
"timestamp": [
210.82,
212.83
]
},
{
"text": "For example, like the game Flappy Bird,",
"timestamp": [
212.83,
214.8
]
},
{
"text": "For example, like the game Flappy Bird,",
"timestamp": [
212.83,
214.8
]
},
{
"text": "it's like puzzle pieces,\nso they would tell you",
"timestamp": [
214.8,
216.63
]
},
{
"text": "it's like puzzle pieces,\nso they would tell you",
"timestamp": [
214.8,
216.63
]
},
{
"text": "to connect something and\nthen you would play the game",
"timestamp": [
216.63,
220.28
]
},
{
"text": "to connect something and\nthen you would play the game",
"timestamp": [
216.63,
220.28
]
},
{
"text": "and then you could see what you connected.",
"timestamp": [
220.28,
222.477
]
},
{
"text": "and then you could see what you connected.",
"timestamp": [
220.28,
222.477
]
},
{
"text": "- [Samy] Interesting, so it's\nlike a graphical interface",
"timestamp": [
222.477,
224.42
]
},
{
"text": "- [Samy] Interesting, so it's\nlike a graphical interface",
"timestamp": [
222.477,
224.42
]
},
{
"text": "where you can connect\ndifferent pieces together.",
"timestamp": [
224.42,
226.33
]
},
{
"text": "where you can connect\ndifferent pieces together.",
"timestamp": [
224.42,
226.33
]
},
{
"text": "Kinda like wire them together.",
"timestamp": [
226.33,
227.71
]
},
{
"text": "Kinda like wire them together.",
"timestamp": [
226.33,
227.71
]
},
{
"text": "- [Linda] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
227.71,
228.543
]
},
{
"text": "- [Linda] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
227.71,
228.543
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, that's pretty cool.",
"timestamp": [
228.543,
229.376
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, that's pretty cool.",
"timestamp": [
228.543,
229.376
]
},
{
"text": "What do you know about computer hacking?",
"timestamp": [
229.376,
230.73
]
},
{
"text": "What do you know about computer hacking?",
"timestamp": [
229.376,
230.73
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't really know much\nabout computer hacking actually.",
"timestamp": [
230.73,
233.55
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't really know much\nabout computer hacking actually.",
"timestamp": [
230.73,
233.55
]
},
{
"text": "- So on code.org, one of\nthe things you've been doing",
"timestamp": [
233.55,
235.39
]
},
{
"text": "- So on code.org, one of\nthe things you've been doing",
"timestamp": [
233.55,
235.39
]
},
{
"text": "is actually building a game",
"timestamp": [
235.39,
236.91
]
},
{
"text": "is actually building a game",
"timestamp": [
235.39,
236.91
]
},
{
"text": "or that they have a game\nand then you can actually",
"timestamp": [
236.91,
239.06
]
},
{
"text": "or that they have a game\nand then you can actually",
"timestamp": [
236.91,
239.06
]
},
{
"text": "rewire some of the inputs\nand outputs of that.",
"timestamp": [
239.06,
241.41
]
},
{
"text": "rewire some of the inputs\nand outputs of that.",
"timestamp": [
239.06,
241.41
]
},
{
"text": "Is that right?\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
241.41,
242.75
]
},
{
"text": "Is that right?\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
241.41,
242.75
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay. With computer hacking,\nit's actually the same thing.",
"timestamp": [
242.75,
246.724
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay. With computer hacking,\nit's actually the same thing.",
"timestamp": [
242.75,
246.724
]
},
{
"text": "Really, you have some sort of system",
"timestamp": [
246.724,
248.88
]
},
{
"text": "Really, you have some sort of system",
"timestamp": [
246.724,
248.88
]
},
{
"text": "and you have a bunch of inputs",
"timestamp": [
248.88,
251
]
},
{
"text": "and you have a bunch of inputs",
"timestamp": [
248.88,
251
]
},
{
"text": "and you have some sort of output,",
"timestamp": [
251,
252.58
]
},
{
"text": "and you have some sort of output,",
"timestamp": [
251,
252.58
]
},
{
"text": "and actually you, as the designer,",
"timestamp": [
252.58,
254.564
]
},
{
"text": "and actually you, as the designer,",
"timestamp": [
252.58,
254.564
]
},
{
"text": "you're essentially designing\ngames and software.",
"timestamp": [
254.564,
257.54
]
},
{
"text": "you're essentially designing\ngames and software.",
"timestamp": [
254.564,
257.54
]
},
{
"text": "You're saying, well,",
"timestamp": [
257.54,
258.48
]
},
{
"text": "You're saying, well,",
"timestamp": [
257.54,
258.48
]
},
{
"text": "I will only allow a user to\nreally control these inputs.",
"timestamp": [
258.48,
262.08
]
},
{
"text": "I will only allow a user to\nreally control these inputs.",
"timestamp": [
258.48,
262.08
]
},
{
"text": "Can you think of any inputs\nthe computer might have?",
"timestamp": [
262.08,
264.27
]
},
{
"text": "Can you think of any inputs\nthe computer might have?",
"timestamp": [
262.08,
264.27
]
},
{
"text": "- [Linda] Space bar.",
"timestamp": [
264.27,
265.16
]
},
{
"text": "- [Linda] Space bar.",
"timestamp": [
264.27,
265.16
]
},
{
"text": "- Yep, there's also things like your mouse",
"timestamp": [
265.16,
266.85
]
},
{
"text": "- Yep, there's also things like your mouse",
"timestamp": [
265.16,
266.85
]
},
{
"text": "and there's even things\nlike the microphone itself",
"timestamp": [
266.85,
269.03
]
},
{
"text": "and there's even things\nlike the microphone itself",
"timestamp": [
266.85,
269.03
]
},
{
"text": "is actually an input device.",
"timestamp": [
269.03,
270.27
]
},
{
"text": "is actually an input device.",
"timestamp": [
269.03,
270.27
]
},
{
"text": "It's taking something from you,",
"timestamp": [
270.27,
272.1
]
},
{
"text": "It's taking something from you,",
"timestamp": [
270.27,
272.1
]
},
{
"text": "which is the sound and it's\nthen transmitting that,",
"timestamp": [
272.1,
274.67
]
},
{
"text": "which is the sound and it's\nthen transmitting that,",
"timestamp": [
272.1,
274.67
]
},
{
"text": "ad it's actually sending it to me.",
"timestamp": [
274.67,
275.98
]
},
{
"text": "ad it's actually sending it to me.",
"timestamp": [
274.67,
275.98
]
},
{
"text": "Are there any other things that\nyou can talk to a computer?",
"timestamp": [
275.98,
278.82
]
},
{
"text": "Are there any other things that\nyou can talk to a computer?",
"timestamp": [
275.98,
278.82
]
},
{
"text": "You can give it information.",
"timestamp": [
278.82,
280.47
]
},
{
"text": "You can give it information.",
"timestamp": [
278.82,
280.47
]
},
{
"text": "- Camera.",
"timestamp": [
280.47,
281.303
]
},
{
"text": "- Camera.",
"timestamp": [
280.47,
281.303
]
},
{
"text": "- That's absolutely another input",
"timestamp": [
281.303,
282.47
]
},
{
"text": "- That's absolutely another input",
"timestamp": [
281.303,
282.47
]
},
{
"text": "that exists on your computer.",
"timestamp": [
282.47,
284.05
]
},
{
"text": "that exists on your computer.",
"timestamp": [
282.47,
284.05
]
},
{
"text": "That's how I try to think of things",
"timestamp": [
284.05,
285.57
]
},
{
"text": "That's how I try to think of things",
"timestamp": [
284.05,
285.57
]
},
{
"text": "is there's just a bunch of inputs.",
"timestamp": [
285.57,
287.14
]
},
{
"text": "is there's just a bunch of inputs.",
"timestamp": [
285.57,
287.14
]
},
{
"text": "Often, if you're trying to break something",
"timestamp": [
287.14,
288.72
]
},
{
"text": "Often, if you're trying to break something",
"timestamp": [
287.14,
288.72
]
},
{
"text": "or hack something, you're\nreally saying, okay,",
"timestamp": [
288.72,
290.71
]
},
{
"text": "or hack something, you're\nreally saying, okay,",
"timestamp": [
288.72,
290.71
]
},
{
"text": "how can I control these\ninputs in a way that",
"timestamp": [
290.71,
293.27
]
},
{
"text": "how can I control these\ninputs in a way that",
"timestamp": [
290.71,
293.27
]
},
{
"text": "wasn't necessarily expected?",
"timestamp": [
293.27,
295.01
]
},
{
"text": "wasn't necessarily expected?",
"timestamp": [
293.27,
295.01
]
},
{
"text": "- What inputs would you\nnormally use to hack?",
"timestamp": [
295.01,
297.4
]
},
{
"text": "- What inputs would you\nnormally use to hack?",
"timestamp": [
295.01,
297.4
]
},
{
"text": "- Typically, it's going to be something",
"timestamp": [
297.4,
298.263
]
},
{
"text": "- Typically, it's going to be something",
"timestamp": [
297.4,
298.263
]
},
{
"text": "like the keyboard, right?",
"timestamp": [
298.263,
299.41
]
},
{
"text": "like the keyboard, right?",
"timestamp": [
298.263,
299.41
]
},
{
"text": "I'm just going to be typing keystrokes",
"timestamp": [
299.41,
301.289
]
},
{
"text": "I'm just going to be typing keystrokes",
"timestamp": [
299.41,
301.289
]
},
{
"text": "to be talking to some piece\nof software or hardware,",
"timestamp": [
301.289,
304.68
]
},
{
"text": "to be talking to some piece\nof software or hardware,",
"timestamp": [
301.289,
304.68
]
},
{
"text": "but other times it can be other things",
"timestamp": [
304.68,
306.72
]
},
{
"text": "but other times it can be other things",
"timestamp": [
304.68,
306.72
]
},
{
"text": "like even the temperature of a computer",
"timestamp": [
306.72,
308.59
]
},
{
"text": "like even the temperature of a computer",
"timestamp": [
306.72,
308.59
]
},
{
"text": "can actually affect how\nthe computer operates,",
"timestamp": [
308.59,
310.82
]
},
{
"text": "can actually affect how\nthe computer operates,",
"timestamp": [
308.59,
310.82
]
},
{
"text": "and it might be advantageous\nto me to cool down the computer",
"timestamp": [
310.82,
314.436
]
},
{
"text": "and it might be advantageous\nto me to cool down the computer",
"timestamp": [
310.82,
314.436
]
},
{
"text": "and actually slow down the\nmovement of electrons in",
"timestamp": [
314.436,
318.3
]
},
{
"text": "and actually slow down the\nmovement of electrons in",
"timestamp": [
314.436,
318.3
]
},
{
"text": "something like memory, so\nthat if a computer shuts off,",
"timestamp": [
318.3,
321.68
]
},
{
"text": "something like memory, so\nthat if a computer shuts off,",
"timestamp": [
318.3,
321.68
]
},
{
"text": "it stores something that\nwasn't memory like a password",
"timestamp": [
321.68,
324.28
]
},
{
"text": "it stores something that\nwasn't memory like a password",
"timestamp": [
321.68,
324.28
]
},
{
"text": "and stores it for a long enough time",
"timestamp": [
324.28,
326.28
]
},
{
"text": "and stores it for a long enough time",
"timestamp": [
324.28,
326.28
]
},
{
"text": "that I might be able to actually",
"timestamp": [
326.28,
327.37
]
},
{
"text": "that I might be able to actually",
"timestamp": [
326.28,
327.37
]
},
{
"text": "extract it through some other methods.",
"timestamp": [
327.37,
329.12
]
},
{
"text": "extract it through some other methods.",
"timestamp": [
327.37,
329.12
]
},
{
"text": "- How long does it take to get in?",
"timestamp": [
329.12,
330.92
]
},
{
"text": "- How long does it take to get in?",
"timestamp": [
329.12,
330.92
]
},
{
"text": "- It just depends what\nyou're trying to do.",
"timestamp": [
330.92,
332.59
]
},
{
"text": "- It just depends what\nyou're trying to do.",
"timestamp": [
330.92,
332.59
]
},
{
"text": "In some cases, it could\nliterally be seconds",
"timestamp": [
332.59,
334.9
]
},
{
"text": "In some cases, it could\nliterally be seconds",
"timestamp": [
332.59,
334.9
]
},
{
"text": "because you already know\nhow the system works,",
"timestamp": [
334.9,
336.88
]
},
{
"text": "because you already know\nhow the system works,",
"timestamp": [
334.9,
336.88
]
},
{
"text": "and other times, it could be years.",
"timestamp": [
336.88,
338.77
]
},
{
"text": "and other times, it could be years.",
"timestamp": [
336.88,
338.77
]
},
{
"text": "So what have you learned about hacking?",
"timestamp": [
338.77,
340.423
]
},
{
"text": "So what have you learned about hacking?",
"timestamp": [
338.77,
340.423
]
},
{
"text": "- I think hacking is\nactually really interesting.",
"timestamp": [
340.423,
342.92
]
},
{
"text": "- I think hacking is\nactually really interesting.",
"timestamp": [
340.423,
342.92
]
},
{
"text": "There's different languages to hack in.",
"timestamp": [
342.92,
344.68
]
},
{
"text": "There's different languages to hack in.",
"timestamp": [
342.92,
344.68
]
},
{
"text": "I've also learned that a lot\nof things could be hacked",
"timestamp": [
344.68,
348.05
]
},
{
"text": "I've also learned that a lot\nof things could be hacked",
"timestamp": [
344.68,
348.05
]
},
{
"text": "that you don't necessarily\nthink that can be hacked.",
"timestamp": [
348.05,
350.661
]
},
{
"text": "that you don't necessarily\nthink that can be hacked.",
"timestamp": [
348.05,
350.661
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
350.661,
353.19
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
350.661,
353.19
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you started studying cybersecurity?",
"timestamp": [
353.19,
354.76
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you started studying cybersecurity?",
"timestamp": [
353.19,
354.76
]
},
{
"text": "- I started this year,\nI took my first course,",
"timestamp": [
354.76,
357.49
]
},
{
"text": "- I started this year,\nI took my first course,",
"timestamp": [
354.76,
357.49
]
},
{
"text": "so haven't gone too deep into it,",
"timestamp": [
357.49,
360.13
]
},
{
"text": "so haven't gone too deep into it,",
"timestamp": [
357.49,
360.13
]
},
{
"text": "but we got a basic idea of, like,",
"timestamp": [
360.13,
362.372
]
},
{
"text": "but we got a basic idea of, like,",
"timestamp": [
360.13,
362.372
]
},
{
"text": "basics of information\nand network security.",
"timestamp": [
362.372,
365.21
]
},
{
"text": "basics of information\nand network security.",
"timestamp": [
362.372,
365.21
]
},
{
"text": "We learned about how networks are set up,",
"timestamp": [
365.21,
367.47
]
},
{
"text": "We learned about how networks are set up,",
"timestamp": [
365.21,
367.47
]
},
{
"text": "like the different types of\ntopologies, like Star and Mesh,",
"timestamp": [
367.47,
370.87
]
},
{
"text": "like the different types of\ntopologies, like Star and Mesh,",
"timestamp": [
367.47,
370.87
]
},
{
"text": "and also how networks are designed",
"timestamp": [
370.87,
373.265
]
},
{
"text": "and also how networks are designed",
"timestamp": [
370.87,
373.265
]
},
{
"text": "with different levels of security.",
"timestamp": [
373.265,
375.8
]
},
{
"text": "with different levels of security.",
"timestamp": [
373.265,
375.8
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you heard of the breach of Target",
"timestamp": [
375.8,
378.6
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you heard of the breach of Target",
"timestamp": [
375.8,
378.6
]
},
{
"text": "where they were breached many years ago",
"timestamp": [
378.6,
380.44
]
},
{
"text": "where they were breached many years ago",
"timestamp": [
378.6,
380.44
]
},
{
"text": "and their point of sale\nsystems were hacked?",
"timestamp": [
380.44,
382.53
]
},
{
"text": "and their point of sale\nsystems were hacked?",
"timestamp": [
380.44,
382.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, I heard about that.",
"timestamp": [
382.53,
384.12
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, I heard about that.",
"timestamp": [
382.53,
384.12
]
},
{
"text": "- So where people are\nswiping credit cards,",
"timestamp": [
384.12,
386.19
]
},
{
"text": "- So where people are\nswiping credit cards,",
"timestamp": [
384.12,
386.19
]
},
{
"text": "those credit card numbers were stolen.",
"timestamp": [
386.19,
387.8
]
},
{
"text": "those credit card numbers were stolen.",
"timestamp": [
386.19,
387.8
]
},
{
"text": "They hired a company to come in",
"timestamp": [
387.8,
389.67
]
},
{
"text": "They hired a company to come in",
"timestamp": [
387.8,
389.67
]
},
{
"text": "and perform a penetration test to see,",
"timestamp": [
389.67,
392.13
]
},
{
"text": "and perform a penetration test to see,",
"timestamp": [
389.67,
392.13
]
},
{
"text": "can the good guys\nessentially break in again",
"timestamp": [
392.13,
394.78
]
},
{
"text": "can the good guys\nessentially break in again",
"timestamp": [
392.13,
394.78
]
},
{
"text": "to prevent this sort\nof thing in the future?",
"timestamp": [
394.78,
396.4
]
},
{
"text": "to prevent this sort\nof thing in the future?",
"timestamp": [
394.78,
396.4
]
},
{
"text": "And when this team came in,",
"timestamp": [
396.4,
398.48
]
},
{
"text": "And when this team came in,",
"timestamp": [
396.4,
398.48
]
},
{
"text": "they found they actually were able",
"timestamp": [
398.48,
400.04
]
},
{
"text": "they found they actually were able",
"timestamp": [
398.48,
400.04
]
},
{
"text": "to get pretty much to the\nsame point of sale system,",
"timestamp": [
400.04,
402.427
]
},
{
"text": "to get pretty much to the\nsame point of sale system,",
"timestamp": [
400.04,
402.427
]
},
{
"text": "and the way they did\nthat was by exploiting",
"timestamp": [
402.427,
405.09
]
},
{
"text": "and the way they did\nthat was by exploiting",
"timestamp": [
402.427,
405.09
]
},
{
"text": "an internet-connected deli meat scale.",
"timestamp": [
405.09,
407.95
]
},
{
"text": "an internet-connected deli meat scale.",
"timestamp": [
405.09,
407.95
]
},
{
"text": "Once the company was able to essentially",
"timestamp": [
407.95,
410.98
]
},
{
"text": "Once the company was able to essentially",
"timestamp": [
407.95,
410.98
]
},
{
"text": "get into the deli scale,",
"timestamp": [
410.98,
413.481
]
},
{
"text": "get into the deli scale,",
"timestamp": [
410.98,
413.481
]
},
{
"text": "because the deli scale was\non the internal network,",
"timestamp": [
413.481,
416.92
]
},
{
"text": "because the deli scale was\non the internal network,",
"timestamp": [
413.481,
416.92
]
},
{
"text": "then they were able to really\nescalate privilege and find",
"timestamp": [
416.92,
419.88
]
},
{
"text": "then they were able to really\nescalate privilege and find",
"timestamp": [
416.92,
419.88
]
},
{
"text": "a vulnerability within another system.",
"timestamp": [
419.88,
422.28
]
},
{
"text": "a vulnerability within another system.",
"timestamp": [
419.88,
422.28
]
},
{
"text": "Essentially, that just\ngot them into the network.",
"timestamp": [
422.28,
424.46
]
},
{
"text": "Essentially, that just\ngot them into the network.",
"timestamp": [
422.28,
424.46
]
},
{
"text": "and once you're in the network,",
"timestamp": [
424.46,
425.58
]
},
{
"text": "and once you're in the network,",
"timestamp": [
424.46,
425.58
]
},
{
"text": "it's often really easy to\nthen escalate from there.",
"timestamp": [
425.58,
428.64
]
},
{
"text": "it's often really easy to\nthen escalate from there.",
"timestamp": [
425.58,
428.64
]
},
{
"text": "- I've heard about similar attacks",
"timestamp": [
428.64,
430.34
]
},
{
"text": "- I've heard about similar attacks",
"timestamp": [
428.64,
430.34
]
},
{
"text": "in hospitals using hospital equipment,",
"timestamp": [
430.34,
433.01
]
},
{
"text": "in hospitals using hospital equipment,",
"timestamp": [
430.34,
433.01
]
},
{
"text": "but I'm surprised that something\nas simple as a meat scale",
"timestamp": [
433.01,
436.356
]
},
{
"text": "but I'm surprised that something\nas simple as a meat scale",
"timestamp": [
433.01,
436.356
]
},
{
"text": "would have been used in such an attack.",
"timestamp": [
436.356,
438.55
]
},
{
"text": "would have been used in such an attack.",
"timestamp": [
436.356,
438.55
]
},
{
"text": "We discussed it in class\nas how hackers look at",
"timestamp": [
438.55,
441.41
]
},
{
"text": "We discussed it in class\nas how hackers look at",
"timestamp": [
438.55,
441.41
]
},
{
"text": "some of the weakest links\nin these large networks",
"timestamp": [
441.41,
444.17
]
},
{
"text": "some of the weakest links\nin these large networks",
"timestamp": [
441.41,
444.17
]
},
{
"text": "and use those to tap into networks.",
"timestamp": [
444.17,
447.52
]
},
{
"text": "and use those to tap into networks.",
"timestamp": [
444.17,
447.52
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, that's another\ninteresting concept.",
"timestamp": [
447.52,
449.78
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, that's another\ninteresting concept.",
"timestamp": [
447.52,
449.78
]
},
{
"text": "It's really just different layers",
"timestamp": [
449.78,
451.43
]
},
{
"text": "It's really just different layers",
"timestamp": [
449.78,
451.43
]
},
{
"text": "that we have for protection,",
"timestamp": [
451.43,
453.699
]
},
{
"text": "that we have for protection,",
"timestamp": [
451.43,
453.699
]
},
{
"text": "because often when you're talking about",
"timestamp": [
453.699,
455.46
]
},
{
"text": "because often when you're talking about",
"timestamp": [
453.699,
455.46
]
},
{
"text": "something like a corporate network,",
"timestamp": [
455.46,
457.37
]
},
{
"text": "something like a corporate network,",
"timestamp": [
455.46,
457.37
]
},
{
"text": "or even your home network,",
"timestamp": [
457.37,
458.53
]
},
{
"text": "or even your home network,",
"timestamp": [
457.37,
458.53
]
},
{
"text": "you typically have sort of\none level of defense, right?",
"timestamp": [
458.53,
461.27
]
},
{
"text": "you typically have sort of\none level of defense, right?",
"timestamp": [
458.53,
461.27
]
},
{
"text": "If someone can break that",
"timestamp": [
461.27,
462.67
]
},
{
"text": "If someone can break that",
"timestamp": [
461.27,
462.67
]
},
{
"text": "or it can get in through some other system",
"timestamp": [
462.67,
464.51
]
},
{
"text": "or it can get in through some other system",
"timestamp": [
462.67,
464.51
]
},
{
"text": "that is connected or exposes",
"timestamp": [
464.51,
466.38
]
},
{
"text": "that is connected or exposes",
"timestamp": [
464.51,
466.38
]
},
{
"text": "some other protocol,\nlike Bluetooth, right?",
"timestamp": [
466.38,
468.14
]
},
{
"text": "some other protocol,\nlike Bluetooth, right?",
"timestamp": [
466.38,
468.14
]
},
{
"text": "You can connect to a Bluetooth device",
"timestamp": [
468.14,
469.92
]
},
{
"text": "You can connect to a Bluetooth device",
"timestamp": [
468.14,
469.92
]
},
{
"text": "without being on the wireless network,",
"timestamp": [
469.92,
471.78
]
},
{
"text": "without being on the wireless network,",
"timestamp": [
469.92,
471.78
]
},
{
"text": "without being on the LAN.",
"timestamp": [
471.78,
473.36
]
},
{
"text": "without being on the LAN.",
"timestamp": [
471.78,
473.36
]
},
{
"text": "That potentially gives you another place",
"timestamp": [
473.36,
475.59
]
},
{
"text": "That potentially gives you another place",
"timestamp": [
473.36,
475.59
]
},
{
"text": "that you can pivot on and\nthen access other devices,",
"timestamp": [
475.59,
478.17
]
},
{
"text": "that you can pivot on and\nthen access other devices,",
"timestamp": [
475.59,
478.17
]
},
{
"text": "because if something has both\nBluetooth and also Wi-Fi,",
"timestamp": [
478.17,
481.17
]
},
{
"text": "because if something has both\nBluetooth and also Wi-Fi,",
"timestamp": [
478.17,
481.17
]
},
{
"text": "well, if you can get in through Bluetooth,",
"timestamp": [
481.17,
482.33
]
},
{
"text": "well, if you can get in through Bluetooth,",
"timestamp": [
481.17,
482.33
]
},
{
"text": "then you can then access the Wi-Fi",
"timestamp": [
482.33,
483.83
]
},
{
"text": "then you can then access the Wi-Fi",
"timestamp": [
482.33,
483.83
]
},
{
"text": "and get to other devices on the network.",
"timestamp": [
483.83,
485.64
]
},
{
"text": "and get to other devices on the network.",
"timestamp": [
483.83,
485.64
]
},
{
"text": "Are you familiar with buffer overflows?",
"timestamp": [
485.64,
487.01
]
},
{
"text": "Are you familiar with buffer overflows?",
"timestamp": [
485.64,
487.01
]
},
{
"text": "- No, I am not familiar with that.",
"timestamp": [
487.01,
489.07
]
},
{
"text": "- No, I am not familiar with that.",
"timestamp": [
487.01,
489.07
]
},
{
"text": "- If we were to write a program\nthat asked for your name",
"timestamp": [
489.07,
492.42
]
},
{
"text": "- If we were to write a program\nthat asked for your name",
"timestamp": [
489.07,
492.42
]
},
{
"text": "and you typed in your name,",
"timestamp": [
492.42,
494.513
]
},
{
"text": "and you typed in your name,",
"timestamp": [
492.42,
494.513
]
},
{
"text": "but before you could type in your name,",
"timestamp": [
494.513,
496.24
]
},
{
"text": "but before you could type in your name,",
"timestamp": [
494.513,
496.24
]
},
{
"text": "in a low leveling, which is like C or C++,",
"timestamp": [
496.24,
498.487
]
},
{
"text": "in a low leveling, which is like C or C++,",
"timestamp": [
496.24,
498.487
]
},
{
"text": "you'd have to allocate some memory.",
"timestamp": [
498.487,
500.04
]
},
{
"text": "you'd have to allocate some memory.",
"timestamp": [
498.487,
500.04
]
},
{
"text": "So you might allocate a\nbuffer of a hundred bytes",
"timestamp": [
500.04,
503.12
]
},
{
"text": "So you might allocate a\nbuffer of a hundred bytes",
"timestamp": [
500.04,
503.12
]
},
{
"text": "because whose name is going to be longer",
"timestamp": [
503.12,
504.68
]
},
{
"text": "because whose name is going to be longer",
"timestamp": [
503.12,
504.68
]
},
{
"text": "than a hundred bytes\nor a hundred character?",
"timestamp": [
504.68,
506.63
]
},
{
"text": "than a hundred bytes\nor a hundred character?",
"timestamp": [
504.68,
506.63
]
},
{
"text": "But what happens if you\nwere to not really check",
"timestamp": [
506.63,
510.13
]
},
{
"text": "But what happens if you\nwere to not really check",
"timestamp": [
506.63,
510.13
]
},
{
"text": "that they limited to a hundred bytes?",
"timestamp": [
510.13,
512.3
]
},
{
"text": "that they limited to a hundred bytes?",
"timestamp": [
510.13,
512.3
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know what happens\nif they essentially",
"timestamp": [
512.3,
514.18
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know what happens\nif they essentially",
"timestamp": [
512.3,
514.18
]
},
{
"text": "start typing over that hundred bytes?",
"timestamp": [
514.18,
516.15
]
},
{
"text": "start typing over that hundred bytes?",
"timestamp": [
514.18,
516.15
]
},
{
"text": "- In that case,",
"timestamp": [
516.15,
516.983
]
},
{
"text": "- In that case,",
"timestamp": [
516.15,
516.983
]
},
{
"text": "it would be an error for\naccessing invalid memory.",
"timestamp": [
516.983,
520.4
]
},
{
"text": "it would be an error for\naccessing invalid memory.",
"timestamp": [
516.983,
520.4
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely, you would essentially cause",
"timestamp": [
520.4,
522.505
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely, you would essentially cause",
"timestamp": [
520.4,
522.505
]
},
{
"text": "a segmentation fault.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
522.505,
524.388
]
},
{
"text": "a segmentation fault.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
522.505,
524.388
]
},
{
"text": "- But what's really cool about that is,",
"timestamp": [
524.388,
526.36
]
},
{
"text": "- But what's really cool about that is,",
"timestamp": [
524.388,
526.36
]
},
{
"text": "when you're going into memory,",
"timestamp": [
526.36,
527.34
]
},
{
"text": "when you're going into memory,",
"timestamp": [
526.36,
527.34
]
},
{
"text": "you're starting to cross over",
"timestamp": [
527.34,
529.08
]
},
{
"text": "you're starting to cross over",
"timestamp": [
527.34,
529.08
]
},
{
"text": "that boundary of that\nhundred byte allocation,",
"timestamp": [
529.08,
531.31
]
},
{
"text": "that boundary of that\nhundred byte allocation,",
"timestamp": [
529.08,
531.31
]
},
{
"text": "and now you're starting to\nwrite over additional memory.",
"timestamp": [
531.31,
533.73
]
},
{
"text": "and now you're starting to\nwrite over additional memory.",
"timestamp": [
531.31,
533.73
]
},
{
"text": "That other memory is\nreally important stuff.",
"timestamp": [
533.73,
536.13
]
},
{
"text": "That other memory is\nreally important stuff.",
"timestamp": [
533.73,
536.13
]
},
{
"text": "So you have your name,\nthe hundred bytes there,",
"timestamp": [
536.13,
538.43
]
},
{
"text": "So you have your name,\nthe hundred bytes there,",
"timestamp": [
536.13,
538.43
]
},
{
"text": "and then right next to your\nname is the return address,",
"timestamp": [
538.43,
540.99
]
},
{
"text": "and then right next to your\nname is the return address,",
"timestamp": [
538.43,
540.99
]
},
{
"text": "and that's the address that\nthe code is gonna execute",
"timestamp": [
540.99,
543.805
]
},
{
"text": "and that's the address that\nthe code is gonna execute",
"timestamp": [
540.99,
543.805
]
},
{
"text": "and it's going to return to\nafter that function is done,",
"timestamp": [
543.805,
545.82
]
},
{
"text": "and it's going to return to\nafter that function is done,",
"timestamp": [
543.805,
545.82
]
},
{
"text": "and it's going to jump to that address,",
"timestamp": [
545.82,
547.51
]
},
{
"text": "and it's going to jump to that address,",
"timestamp": [
545.82,
547.51
]
},
{
"text": "but after you type your hundred bytes,",
"timestamp": [
547.51,
549.66
]
},
{
"text": "but after you type your hundred bytes,",
"timestamp": [
547.51,
549.66
]
},
{
"text": "the next few bites that you type,",
"timestamp": [
549.66,
551.57
]
},
{
"text": "the next few bites that you type,",
"timestamp": [
549.66,
551.57
]
},
{
"text": "you're actually going to\noverwrite that return address.",
"timestamp": [
551.57,
553.49
]
},
{
"text": "you're actually going to\noverwrite that return address.",
"timestamp": [
551.57,
553.49
]
},
{
"text": "So that return address\ncould essentially be",
"timestamp": [
553.49,
555.6
]
},
{
"text": "So that return address\ncould essentially be",
"timestamp": [
553.49,
555.6
]
},
{
"text": "another address in memory.",
"timestamp": [
555.6,
557.38
]
},
{
"text": "another address in memory.",
"timestamp": [
555.6,
557.38
]
},
{
"text": "So what you end up\ndoing is you type a name",
"timestamp": [
557.38,
559.79
]
},
{
"text": "So what you end up\ndoing is you type a name",
"timestamp": [
557.38,
559.79
]
},
{
"text": "and it's not really a name,\nit's really just code.",
"timestamp": [
559.79,
561.97
]
},
{
"text": "and it's not really a name,\nit's really just code.",
"timestamp": [
559.79,
561.97
]
},
{
"text": "And that code, you keep typing until",
"timestamp": [
561.97,
564.6
]
},
{
"text": "And that code, you keep typing until",
"timestamp": [
561.97,
564.6
]
},
{
"text": "you get to the return address,",
"timestamp": [
564.6,
566.12
]
},
{
"text": "you get to the return address,",
"timestamp": [
564.6,
566.12
]
},
{
"text": "and you start typing an address,",
"timestamp": [
566.12,
567.72
]
},
{
"text": "and you start typing an address,",
"timestamp": [
566.12,
567.72
]
},
{
"text": "which is really the beginning of your name",
"timestamp": [
567.72,
570.16
]
},
{
"text": "which is really the beginning of your name",
"timestamp": [
567.72,
570.16
]
},
{
"text": "and your computer or your processor",
"timestamp": [
570.16,
572.69
]
},
{
"text": "and your computer or your processor",
"timestamp": [
570.16,
572.69
]
},
{
"text": "is actually going to read that address",
"timestamp": [
572.69,
574.63
]
},
{
"text": "is actually going to read that address",
"timestamp": [
572.69,
574.63
]
},
{
"text": "and it will jump back to the beginning",
"timestamp": [
574.63,
576.9
]
},
{
"text": "and it will jump back to the beginning",
"timestamp": [
574.63,
576.9
]
},
{
"text": "and then execute that payload.",
"timestamp": [
576.9,
578.71
]
},
{
"text": "and then execute that payload.",
"timestamp": [
576.9,
578.71
]
},
{
"text": "So that was sort of the very\nfirst thing that I think was",
"timestamp": [
578.71,
581.36
]
},
{
"text": "So that was sort of the very\nfirst thing that I think was",
"timestamp": [
578.71,
581.36
]
},
{
"text": "super exciting to me when I started",
"timestamp": [
581.36,
583.31
]
},
{
"text": "super exciting to me when I started",
"timestamp": [
581.36,
583.31
]
},
{
"text": "learning about really reverse engineering.",
"timestamp": [
583.31,
585.14
]
},
{
"text": "learning about really reverse engineering.",
"timestamp": [
583.31,
585.14
]
},
{
"text": "- So how does the buffer overloading",
"timestamp": [
585.14,
589.712
]
},
{
"text": "- So how does the buffer overloading",
"timestamp": [
585.14,
589.712
]
},
{
"text": "relate to what you are doing in terms of",
"timestamp": [
589.712,
592.82
]
},
{
"text": "relate to what you are doing in terms of",
"timestamp": [
589.712,
592.82
]
},
{
"text": "network security or designing software",
"timestamp": [
592.82,
595.92
]
},
{
"text": "network security or designing software",
"timestamp": [
592.82,
595.92
]
},
{
"text": "for penetration testing?",
"timestamp": [
595.92,
597.89
]
},
{
"text": "for penetration testing?",
"timestamp": [
595.92,
597.89
]
},
{
"text": "- Ever since buffer overflow\nstarted many years ago,",
"timestamp": [
597.89,
600.24
]
},
{
"text": "- Ever since buffer overflow\nstarted many years ago,",
"timestamp": [
597.89,
600.24
]
},
{
"text": "there been a lot of protection mechanisms",
"timestamp": [
600.24,
602.21
]
},
{
"text": "there been a lot of protection mechanisms",
"timestamp": [
600.24,
602.21
]
},
{
"text": "built to make it difficult to exploit.",
"timestamp": [
602.21,
605.53
]
},
{
"text": "built to make it difficult to exploit.",
"timestamp": [
602.21,
605.53
]
},
{
"text": "More and more, we're actually using",
"timestamp": [
605.53,
607.03
]
},
{
"text": "More and more, we're actually using",
"timestamp": [
605.53,
607.03
]
},
{
"text": "smaller and smaller computers",
"timestamp": [
607.03,
608.66
]
},
{
"text": "smaller and smaller computers",
"timestamp": [
607.03,
608.66
]
},
{
"text": "with smaller amounts of compute power.",
"timestamp": [
608.66,
610.56
]
},
{
"text": "with smaller amounts of compute power.",
"timestamp": [
608.66,
610.56
]
},
{
"text": "If you take a car, you have\nhundreds of microcontrollers",
"timestamp": [
610.56,
613.94
]
},
{
"text": "If you take a car, you have\nhundreds of microcontrollers",
"timestamp": [
610.56,
613.94
]
},
{
"text": "that are all running there.",
"timestamp": [
613.94,
615.62
]
},
{
"text": "that are all running there.",
"timestamp": [
613.94,
615.62
]
},
{
"text": "So they don't really have a\nsophisticated operating system",
"timestamp": [
615.62,
618
]
},
{
"text": "So they don't really have a\nsophisticated operating system",
"timestamp": [
615.62,
618
]
},
{
"text": "that can try to prevent\nattacks like buffer overflows.",
"timestamp": [
618,
621.28
]
},
{
"text": "that can try to prevent\nattacks like buffer overflows.",
"timestamp": [
618,
621.28
]
},
{
"text": "So how do we keep these low\ncost computers in here while",
"timestamp": [
621.28,
624.286
]
},
{
"text": "So how do we keep these low\ncost computers in here while",
"timestamp": [
621.28,
624.286
]
},
{
"text": "adding layers of protection\nto prevent malice",
"timestamp": [
624.286,
627.45
]
},
{
"text": "adding layers of protection\nto prevent malice",
"timestamp": [
624.286,
627.45
]
},
{
"text": "and these types of attacks?",
"timestamp": [
627.45,
628.97
]
},
{
"text": "and these types of attacks?",
"timestamp": [
627.45,
628.97
]
},
{
"text": "Sometimes it actually is,",
"timestamp": [
628.97,
630.28
]
},
{
"text": "Sometimes it actually is,",
"timestamp": [
628.97,
630.28
]
},
{
"text": "how can we write software",
"timestamp": [
630.28,
631.54
]
},
{
"text": "how can we write software",
"timestamp": [
630.28,
631.54
]
},
{
"text": "or how can we build a system",
"timestamp": [
631.54,
632.73
]
},
{
"text": "or how can we build a system",
"timestamp": [
631.54,
632.73
]
},
{
"text": "that prevents these types\nof attacks from entering?",
"timestamp": [
632.73,
635.01
]
},
{
"text": "that prevents these types\nof attacks from entering?",
"timestamp": [
632.73,
635.01
]
},
{
"text": "But oftentimes, it's really\nlooking for how can we find",
"timestamp": [
635.01,
637.85
]
},
{
"text": "But oftentimes, it's really\nlooking for how can we find",
"timestamp": [
635.01,
637.85
]
},
{
"text": "new attacks that we haven't\neven necessarily thought of?",
"timestamp": [
637.85,
640.52
]
},
{
"text": "new attacks that we haven't\neven necessarily thought of?",
"timestamp": [
637.85,
640.52
]
},
{
"text": "What got you interested\nin computer science",
"timestamp": [
640.52,
643.01
]
},
{
"text": "What got you interested\nin computer science",
"timestamp": [
640.52,
643.01
]
},
{
"text": "and information security?",
"timestamp": [
643.01,
644.01
]
},
{
"text": "and information security?",
"timestamp": [
643.01,
644.01
]
},
{
"text": "- I got interested in cybersecurity",
"timestamp": [
644.01,
645.853
]
},
{
"text": "- I got interested in cybersecurity",
"timestamp": [
644.01,
645.853
]
},
{
"text": "because I'm really into global\naffairs, global politics,",
"timestamp": [
645.853,
649.682
]
},
{
"text": "because I'm really into global\naffairs, global politics,",
"timestamp": [
645.853,
649.682
]
},
{
"text": "and you often hear in the news about",
"timestamp": [
649.682,
652.08
]
},
{
"text": "and you often hear in the news about",
"timestamp": [
649.682,
652.08
]
},
{
"text": "the rising power of China,\nthe rising power of Iran.",
"timestamp": [
652.08,
657.08
]
},
{
"text": "the rising power of China,\nthe rising power of Iran.",
"timestamp": [
652.08,
657.08
]
},
{
"text": "I enjoy how interdisciplinary\ncomputer science is.",
"timestamp": [
657.504,
661.3
]
},
{
"text": "I enjoy how interdisciplinary\ncomputer science is.",
"timestamp": [
657.504,
661.3
]
},
{
"text": "Like, nowadays there's so much going on",
"timestamp": [
661.3,
663.499
]
},
{
"text": "Like, nowadays there's so much going on",
"timestamp": [
661.3,
663.499
]
},
{
"text": "in the world of computers and\nthat's what fascinated me.",
"timestamp": [
663.499,
667.52
]
},
{
"text": "in the world of computers and\nthat's what fascinated me.",
"timestamp": [
663.499,
667.52
]
},
{
"text": "- You brought up China and Iran,",
"timestamp": [
667.52,
669.87
]
},
{
"text": "- You brought up China and Iran,",
"timestamp": [
667.52,
669.87
]
},
{
"text": "and something that's\ninteresting about those areas",
"timestamp": [
669.87,
672.35
]
},
{
"text": "and something that's\ninteresting about those areas",
"timestamp": [
669.87,
672.35
]
},
{
"text": "is really censorship, right?",
"timestamp": [
672.35,
674.81
]
},
{
"text": "is really censorship, right?",
"timestamp": [
672.35,
674.81
]
},
{
"text": "They have essentially censored internet.",
"timestamp": [
674.81,
677.02
]
},
{
"text": "They have essentially censored internet.",
"timestamp": [
674.81,
677.02
]
},
{
"text": "In the US, we have a really interesting",
"timestamp": [
677.02,
678.81
]
},
{
"text": "In the US, we have a really interesting",
"timestamp": [
677.02,
678.81
]
},
{
"text": "internal struggle here\nwhere we actually have",
"timestamp": [
678.81,
681.303
]
},
{
"text": "internal struggle here\nwhere we actually have",
"timestamp": [
678.81,
681.303
]
},
{
"text": "government agencies like\nthe state department",
"timestamp": [
681.303,
684.028
]
},
{
"text": "government agencies like\nthe state department",
"timestamp": [
681.303,
684.028
]
},
{
"text": "that are funding software\nto evade censorship,",
"timestamp": [
684.028,
687.02
]
},
{
"text": "that are funding software\nto evade censorship,",
"timestamp": [
684.028,
687.02
]
},
{
"text": "like Tor and other mechanisms.",
"timestamp": [
687.02,
689.81
]
},
{
"text": "like Tor and other mechanisms.",
"timestamp": [
687.02,
689.81
]
},
{
"text": "While then we also have an\ninternal struggle where we have",
"timestamp": [
689.81,
692.57
]
},
{
"text": "While then we also have an\ninternal struggle where we have",
"timestamp": [
689.81,
692.57
]
},
{
"text": "other organizations like the NSA",
"timestamp": [
692.57,
694.59
]
},
{
"text": "other organizations like the NSA",
"timestamp": [
692.57,
694.59
]
},
{
"text": "who are specifically looking\nto break that exact same system",
"timestamp": [
694.59,
698.8
]
},
{
"text": "who are specifically looking\nto break that exact same system",
"timestamp": [
694.59,
698.8
]
},
{
"text": "that the US government is also funding.",
"timestamp": [
698.8,
700.83
]
},
{
"text": "that the US government is also funding.",
"timestamp": [
698.8,
700.83
]
},
{
"text": "- There are a lot of ethical questions",
"timestamp": [
700.83,
702.67
]
},
{
"text": "- There are a lot of ethical questions",
"timestamp": [
700.83,
702.67
]
},
{
"text": "about whether we should be\nintervening in other countries,",
"timestamp": [
702.67,
705.79
]
},
{
"text": "about whether we should be\nintervening in other countries,",
"timestamp": [
702.67,
705.79
]
},
{
"text": "but it's pretty interesting that",
"timestamp": [
705.79,
707.84
]
},
{
"text": "but it's pretty interesting that",
"timestamp": [
705.79,
707.84
]
},
{
"text": "two different agencies of the government",
"timestamp": [
707.84,
709.42
]
},
{
"text": "two different agencies of the government",
"timestamp": [
707.84,
709.42
]
},
{
"text": "are actually working on\ncontrasting technology.",
"timestamp": [
709.42,
712.6
]
},
{
"text": "are actually working on\ncontrasting technology.",
"timestamp": [
709.42,
712.6
]
},
{
"text": "I can actually understand that because",
"timestamp": [
712.6,
714.9
]
},
{
"text": "I can actually understand that because",
"timestamp": [
712.6,
714.9
]
},
{
"text": "if we are creating a technology",
"timestamp": [
714.9,
716.58
]
},
{
"text": "if we are creating a technology",
"timestamp": [
714.9,
716.58
]
},
{
"text": "that we are going to\ndeploy somewhere else,",
"timestamp": [
716.58,
718.16
]
},
{
"text": "that we are going to\ndeploy somewhere else,",
"timestamp": [
716.58,
718.16
]
},
{
"text": "we should know its limitations.",
"timestamp": [
718.16,
720.07
]
},
{
"text": "we should know its limitations.",
"timestamp": [
718.16,
720.07
]
},
{
"text": "We should know how to control it.",
"timestamp": [
720.07,
721.61
]
},
{
"text": "We should know how to control it.",
"timestamp": [
720.07,
721.61
]
},
{
"text": "- It's good for us to understand",
"timestamp": [
721.61,
722.85
]
},
{
"text": "- It's good for us to understand",
"timestamp": [
721.61,
722.85
]
},
{
"text": "how these systems can really break down.",
"timestamp": [
722.85,
724.8
]
},
{
"text": "how these systems can really break down.",
"timestamp": [
722.85,
724.8
]
},
{
"text": "Although, I think one thing that I see",
"timestamp": [
724.8,
727.01
]
},
{
"text": "Although, I think one thing that I see",
"timestamp": [
724.8,
727.01
]
},
{
"text": "is that some of, let's say,",
"timestamp": [
727.01,
728.2
]
},
{
"text": "is that some of, let's say,",
"timestamp": [
727.01,
728.2
]
},
{
"text": "the organizations that\nare looking to break this",
"timestamp": [
728.2,
730.44
]
},
{
"text": "the organizations that\nare looking to break this",
"timestamp": [
728.2,
730.44
]
},
{
"text": "are not necessarily going to share",
"timestamp": [
730.44,
731.71
]
},
{
"text": "are not necessarily going to share",
"timestamp": [
730.44,
731.71
]
},
{
"text": "once they actually learn that information.",
"timestamp": [
731.71,
733.43
]
},
{
"text": "once they actually learn that information.",
"timestamp": [
731.71,
733.43
]
},
{
"text": "They might actually sort of\nhold that in their back pocket",
"timestamp": [
733.43,
736.37
]
},
{
"text": "They might actually sort of\nhold that in their back pocket",
"timestamp": [
733.43,
736.37
]
},
{
"text": "and use it when it's advantageous to them.",
"timestamp": [
736.37,
738.412
]
},
{
"text": "and use it when it's advantageous to them.",
"timestamp": [
736.37,
738.412
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
738.412,
740.63
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
738.412,
740.63
]
},
{
"text": "What kind of projects are you working on?",
"timestamp": [
740.63,
741.493
]
},
{
"text": "What kind of projects are you working on?",
"timestamp": [
740.63,
741.493
]
},
{
"text": "- This is the end of my first year.",
"timestamp": [
741.493,
743.24
]
},
{
"text": "- This is the end of my first year.",
"timestamp": [
741.493,
743.24
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a PhD student at NYU\nTandon School of Engineering.",
"timestamp": [
743.24,
746.32
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a PhD student at NYU\nTandon School of Engineering.",
"timestamp": [
743.24,
746.32
]
},
{
"text": "I'm studying security systems\nand operating systems.",
"timestamp": [
746.32,
749.78
]
},
{
"text": "I'm studying security systems\nand operating systems.",
"timestamp": [
746.32,
749.78
]
},
{
"text": "So, security for operating systems.",
"timestamp": [
749.78,
751.42
]
},
{
"text": "So, security for operating systems.",
"timestamp": [
749.78,
751.42
]
},
{
"text": "I've been mostly working on a project",
"timestamp": [
751.42,
753.65
]
},
{
"text": "I've been mostly working on a project",
"timestamp": [
751.42,
753.65
]
},
{
"text": "that limits executables'\nexposure to bugs in the kernel.",
"timestamp": [
753.65,
758.65
]
},
{
"text": "that limits executables'\nexposure to bugs in the kernel.",
"timestamp": [
753.65,
758.65
]
},
{
"text": "It's run by professor Justin Cappos there.",
"timestamp": [
758.84,
761.13
]
},
{
"text": "It's run by professor Justin Cappos there.",
"timestamp": [
758.84,
761.13
]
},
{
"text": "He found that the majority of bugs",
"timestamp": [
761.13,
763.63
]
},
{
"text": "He found that the majority of bugs",
"timestamp": [
761.13,
763.63
]
},
{
"text": "that occur in the Linux kernel",
"timestamp": [
763.63,
765.212
]
},
{
"text": "that occur in the Linux kernel",
"timestamp": [
763.63,
765.212
]
},
{
"text": "happen when you're doing things that",
"timestamp": [
765.212,
767.99
]
},
{
"text": "happen when you're doing things that",
"timestamp": [
765.212,
767.99
]
},
{
"text": "people don't do that often,",
"timestamp": [
767.99,
769.66
]
},
{
"text": "people don't do that often,",
"timestamp": [
767.99,
769.66
]
},
{
"text": "the programs don't do that often.",
"timestamp": [
769.66,
771.02
]
},
{
"text": "the programs don't do that often.",
"timestamp": [
769.66,
771.02
]
},
{
"text": "So designing a runtime\nenvironment that lets you",
"timestamp": [
771.02,
774.807
]
},
{
"text": "So designing a runtime\nenvironment that lets you",
"timestamp": [
771.02,
774.807
]
},
{
"text": "limit what a certain\nprogram has access to,",
"timestamp": [
774.807,
779.34
]
},
{
"text": "limit what a certain\nprogram has access to,",
"timestamp": [
774.807,
779.34
]
},
{
"text": "but also the things that\nit does have access to",
"timestamp": [
779.34,
782.03
]
},
{
"text": "but also the things that\nit does have access to",
"timestamp": [
779.34,
782.03
]
},
{
"text": "is also limited to those\npopular paths in the kernel.",
"timestamp": [
782.03,
784.72
]
},
{
"text": "is also limited to those\npopular paths in the kernel.",
"timestamp": [
782.03,
784.72
]
},
{
"text": "So it can't access areas that\naren't under more scrutiny.",
"timestamp": [
784.72,
789.72
]
},
{
"text": "So it can't access areas that\naren't under more scrutiny.",
"timestamp": [
784.72,
789.72
]
},
{
"text": "- So essentially it's a really,",
"timestamp": [
789.94,
791.668
]
},
{
"text": "- So essentially it's a really,",
"timestamp": [
789.94,
791.668
]
},
{
"text": "definitely a stripped\ndown operating system,",
"timestamp": [
791.668,
794.434
]
},
{
"text": "definitely a stripped\ndown operating system,",
"timestamp": [
791.668,
794.434
]
},
{
"text": "or I guess it's a virtual machine.",
"timestamp": [
794.434,
796.94
]
},
{
"text": "or I guess it's a virtual machine.",
"timestamp": [
794.434,
796.94
]
},
{
"text": "- Basically, we're creating a\nuser space operating system.",
"timestamp": [
796.94,
800.22
]
},
{
"text": "- Basically, we're creating a\nuser space operating system.",
"timestamp": [
796.94,
800.22
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you done any work\nin side channel analysis?",
"timestamp": [
800.22,
802.11
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you done any work\nin side channel analysis?",
"timestamp": [
800.22,
802.11
]
},
{
"text": "- Like, a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
802.11,
802.943
]
},
{
"text": "- Like, a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
802.11,
802.943
]
},
{
"text": "I read the Rowhammer paper.",
"timestamp": [
802.943,
806.03
]
},
{
"text": "I read the Rowhammer paper.",
"timestamp": [
802.943,
806.03
]
},
{
"text": "I found it really interesting,",
"timestamp": [
806.03,
806.863
]
},
{
"text": "I found it really interesting,",
"timestamp": [
806.03,
806.863
]
},
{
"text": "but it's nothing that\nI've actually worked with.",
"timestamp": [
806.863,
808.83
]
},
{
"text": "but it's nothing that\nI've actually worked with.",
"timestamp": [
806.863,
808.83
]
},
{
"text": "- So the side channel\nanalysis is really looking",
"timestamp": [
808.83,
811.84
]
},
{
"text": "- So the side channel\nanalysis is really looking",
"timestamp": [
808.83,
811.84
]
},
{
"text": "not at a vulnerability within a system,",
"timestamp": [
811.84,
813.84
]
},
{
"text": "not at a vulnerability within a system,",
"timestamp": [
811.84,
813.84
]
},
{
"text": "but really unintended consequences",
"timestamp": [
813.84,
816.16
]
},
{
"text": "but really unintended consequences",
"timestamp": [
813.84,
816.16
]
},
{
"text": "of what the system is built on.",
"timestamp": [
816.16,
818.05
]
},
{
"text": "of what the system is built on.",
"timestamp": [
816.16,
818.05
]
},
{
"text": "A very simple example of a side channel",
"timestamp": [
818.05,
820.74
]
},
{
"text": "A very simple example of a side channel",
"timestamp": [
818.05,
820.74
]
},
{
"text": "is putting your ear to\nthe ground to hear if",
"timestamp": [
820.74,
824.09
]
},
{
"text": "is putting your ear to\nthe ground to hear if",
"timestamp": [
820.74,
824.09
]
},
{
"text": "there are horses coming towards you,",
"timestamp": [
824.09,
825.26
]
},
{
"text": "there are horses coming towards you,",
"timestamp": [
824.09,
825.26
]
},
{
"text": "and the same thing applies to technology.",
"timestamp": [
825.26,
827.397
]
},
{
"text": "and the same thing applies to technology.",
"timestamp": [
825.26,
827.397
]
},
{
"text": "So you can have something like",
"timestamp": [
827.397,
829.69
]
},
{
"text": "So you can have something like",
"timestamp": [
827.397,
829.69
]
},
{
"text": "a CPU, it's executing instructions,",
"timestamp": [
829.69,
831.91
]
},
{
"text": "a CPU, it's executing instructions,",
"timestamp": [
829.69,
831.91
]
},
{
"text": "certain instructions that\nuse a little bit more power,",
"timestamp": [
831.91,
833.96
]
},
{
"text": "certain instructions that\nuse a little bit more power,",
"timestamp": [
831.91,
833.96
]
},
{
"text": "and power is reserved in these capacitors,",
"timestamp": [
833.96,
836.24
]
},
{
"text": "and power is reserved in these capacitors,",
"timestamp": [
833.96,
836.24
]
},
{
"text": "which are like tiny\nbatteries next to your CPU.",
"timestamp": [
836.24,
838.55
]
},
{
"text": "which are like tiny\nbatteries next to your CPU.",
"timestamp": [
836.24,
838.55
]
},
{
"text": "And as they're pulling power,",
"timestamp": [
838.55,
840.03
]
},
{
"text": "And as they're pulling power,",
"timestamp": [
838.55,
840.03
]
},
{
"text": "there's something in physics called",
"timestamp": [
840.03,
841.33
]
},
{
"text": "there's something in physics called",
"timestamp": [
840.03,
841.33
]
},
{
"text": "the electrostrictive effect",
"timestamp": [
841.33,
842.65
]
},
{
"text": "the electrostrictive effect",
"timestamp": [
841.33,
842.65
]
},
{
"text": "where the capacitor will move\nin a very, very tiny amount.",
"timestamp": [
842.65,
846.38
]
},
{
"text": "where the capacitor will move\nin a very, very tiny amount.",
"timestamp": [
842.65,
846.38
]
},
{
"text": "And then although we can't hear it,",
"timestamp": [
846.38,
848.15
]
},
{
"text": "And then although we can't hear it,",
"timestamp": [
846.38,
848.15
]
},
{
"text": "the microphone on a mobile device",
"timestamp": [
848.15,
849.61
]
},
{
"text": "the microphone on a mobile device",
"timestamp": [
848.15,
849.61
]
},
{
"text": "can actually listen to that.",
"timestamp": [
849.61,
851.23
]
},
{
"text": "can actually listen to that.",
"timestamp": [
849.61,
851.23
]
},
{
"text": "If you then listen to that and you say,",
"timestamp": [
851.23,
852.88
]
},
{
"text": "If you then listen to that and you say,",
"timestamp": [
851.23,
852.88
]
},
{
"text": "oh, I see a pattern here,",
"timestamp": [
852.88,
854.2
]
},
{
"text": "oh, I see a pattern here,",
"timestamp": [
852.88,
854.2
]
},
{
"text": "and you can go all the way down",
"timestamp": [
854.2,
855.41
]
},
{
"text": "and you can go all the way down",
"timestamp": [
854.2,
855.41
]
},
{
"text": "and then extract and reveal the\nfull password, the full key,",
"timestamp": [
855.41,
858.26
]
},
{
"text": "and then extract and reveal the\nfull password, the full key,",
"timestamp": [
855.41,
858.26
]
},
{
"text": "even though it could be argued that",
"timestamp": [
858.26,
859.93
]
},
{
"text": "even though it could be argued that",
"timestamp": [
858.26,
859.93
]
},
{
"text": "the algorithm itself,\nthere's no problem with it.",
"timestamp": [
859.93,
862.03
]
},
{
"text": "the algorithm itself,\nthere's no problem with it.",
"timestamp": [
859.93,
862.03
]
},
{
"text": "- So all memory devices are just,",
"timestamp": [
862.03,
863.953
]
},
{
"text": "- So all memory devices are just,",
"timestamp": [
862.03,
863.953
]
},
{
"text": "it's just a bunch of\ngates and they're in rows.",
"timestamp": [
863.953,
867.832
]
},
{
"text": "it's just a bunch of\ngates and they're in rows.",
"timestamp": [
863.953,
867.832
]
},
{
"text": "They basically all hold\ndifferent pieces of memory.",
"timestamp": [
867.832,
871.66
]
},
{
"text": "They basically all hold\ndifferent pieces of memory.",
"timestamp": [
867.832,
871.66
]
},
{
"text": "That's all the gates are.",
"timestamp": [
871.66,
873.05
]
},
{
"text": "That's all the gates are.",
"timestamp": [
871.66,
873.05
]
},
{
"text": "Either they're turned on\nor they're turned off.",
"timestamp": [
873.05,
874.89
]
},
{
"text": "Either they're turned on\nor they're turned off.",
"timestamp": [
873.05,
874.89
]
},
{
"text": "So what Rowhammer found was they tested",
"timestamp": [
874.89,
876.55
]
},
{
"text": "So what Rowhammer found was they tested",
"timestamp": [
874.89,
876.55
]
},
{
"text": "a bunch of different memory\ndevices and found that",
"timestamp": [
876.55,
879.63
]
},
{
"text": "a bunch of different memory\ndevices and found that",
"timestamp": [
876.55,
879.63
]
},
{
"text": "by doing a certain\norder of storing things,",
"timestamp": [
879.63,
882.87
]
},
{
"text": "by doing a certain\norder of storing things,",
"timestamp": [
879.63,
882.87
]
},
{
"text": "and then pulling that\ninformation back in a certain way",
"timestamp": [
882.87,
887.13
]
},
{
"text": "and then pulling that\ninformation back in a certain way",
"timestamp": [
882.87,
887.13
]
},
{
"text": "in one place would actually\nflip gates in a different place.",
"timestamp": [
887.13,
891.725
]
},
{
"text": "in one place would actually\nflip gates in a different place.",
"timestamp": [
887.13,
891.725
]
},
{
"text": "So you could actually do a bunch of things",
"timestamp": [
891.725,
894.83
]
},
{
"text": "So you could actually do a bunch of things",
"timestamp": [
891.725,
894.83
]
},
{
"text": "to a piece of memory that\nhad nothing to do with",
"timestamp": [
894.83,
897.171
]
},
{
"text": "to a piece of memory that\nhad nothing to do with",
"timestamp": [
894.83,
897.171
]
},
{
"text": "something that may be\ncritical in a different place",
"timestamp": [
897.171,
899.75
]
},
{
"text": "something that may be\ncritical in a different place",
"timestamp": [
897.171,
899.75
]
},
{
"text": "and actually change its contents,",
"timestamp": [
899.75,
901.683
]
},
{
"text": "and actually change its contents,",
"timestamp": [
899.75,
901.683
]
},
{
"text": "and that obviously exposes\nall sorts of security issues,",
"timestamp": [
901.683,
904.403
]
},
{
"text": "and that obviously exposes\nall sorts of security issues,",
"timestamp": [
901.683,
904.403
]
},
{
"text": "because that's very hard to predict.",
"timestamp": [
904.403,
907.31
]
},
{
"text": "because that's very hard to predict.",
"timestamp": [
904.403,
907.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I suppose the physical adjacency",
"timestamp": [
907.31,
909.36
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I suppose the physical adjacency",
"timestamp": [
907.31,
909.36
]
},
{
"text": "of the underlying\ntransistors and capacitors",
"timestamp": [
909.36,
911.29
]
},
{
"text": "of the underlying\ntransistors and capacitors",
"timestamp": [
909.36,
911.29
]
},
{
"text": "that are holding that storage.",
"timestamp": [
911.29,
914.11
]
},
{
"text": "that are holding that storage.",
"timestamp": [
911.29,
914.11
]
},
{
"text": "That's crazy.",
"timestamp": [
914.11,
914.943
]
},
{
"text": "That's crazy.",
"timestamp": [
914.11,
914.943
]
},
{
"text": "I think the first time I heard of",
"timestamp": [
914.943,
916.37
]
},
{
"text": "I think the first time I heard of",
"timestamp": [
914.943,
916.37
]
},
{
"text": "an interesting attack\nlike that was learning",
"timestamp": [
916.37,
918.34
]
},
{
"text": "an interesting attack\nlike that was learning",
"timestamp": [
916.37,
918.34
]
},
{
"text": "about the cold boot attack.",
"timestamp": [
918.34,
920.453
]
},
{
"text": "about the cold boot attack.",
"timestamp": [
918.34,
920.453
]
},
{
"text": "Being able to, you know,",
"timestamp": [
921.391,
923.31
]
},
{
"text": "Being able to, you know,",
"timestamp": [
921.391,
923.31
]
},
{
"text": "someone enters their\npassword on their computer",
"timestamp": [
923.31,
926.92
]
},
{
"text": "someone enters their\npassword on their computer",
"timestamp": [
923.31,
926.92
]
},
{
"text": "and that decrypts their hard\ndrive and then they walk away.",
"timestamp": [
926.92,
930.272
]
},
{
"text": "and that decrypts their hard\ndrive and then they walk away.",
"timestamp": [
926.92,
930.272
]
},
{
"text": "Being able to extract that\npassword is really difficult.",
"timestamp": [
930.272,
932.74
]
},
{
"text": "Being able to extract that\npassword is really difficult.",
"timestamp": [
930.272,
932.74
]
},
{
"text": "If I can pull that memory chip\nout and extract that memory,",
"timestamp": [
932.74,
935.026
]
},
{
"text": "If I can pull that memory chip\nout and extract that memory,",
"timestamp": [
932.74,
935.026
]
},
{
"text": "put it in my own device,",
"timestamp": [
935.026,
936.36
]
},
{
"text": "put it in my own device,",
"timestamp": [
935.026,
936.36
]
},
{
"text": "except the problem is memory is volatile,",
"timestamp": [
936.36,
937.89
]
},
{
"text": "except the problem is memory is volatile,",
"timestamp": [
936.36,
937.89
]
},
{
"text": "so it'll erase as soon as I pull it out.",
"timestamp": [
937.89,
939.98
]
},
{
"text": "so it'll erase as soon as I pull it out.",
"timestamp": [
937.89,
939.98
]
},
{
"text": "You can take something like\ncanned air, turn it upside down,",
"timestamp": [
939.98,
943.78
]
},
{
"text": "You can take something like\ncanned air, turn it upside down,",
"timestamp": [
939.98,
943.78
]
},
{
"text": "cool that computer, make\nit real nice and cool.",
"timestamp": [
943.78,
947.02
]
},
{
"text": "cool that computer, make\nit real nice and cool.",
"timestamp": [
943.78,
947.02
]
},
{
"text": "Then you have a minute or\ntwo to pull out the memory,",
"timestamp": [
947.02,
949.81
]
},
{
"text": "Then you have a minute or\ntwo to pull out the memory,",
"timestamp": [
947.02,
949.81
]
},
{
"text": "put into your own device,\nextract the memory,",
"timestamp": [
949.81,
952.397
]
},
{
"text": "put into your own device,\nextract the memory,",
"timestamp": [
949.81,
952.397
]
},
{
"text": "and then you're good.",
"timestamp": [
952.397,
953.54
]
},
{
"text": "and then you're good.",
"timestamp": [
952.397,
953.54
]
},
{
"text": "It's such a simple method to really",
"timestamp": [
953.54,
955.515
]
},
{
"text": "It's such a simple method to really",
"timestamp": [
953.54,
955.515
]
},
{
"text": "extract something kind of critical.",
"timestamp": [
955.515,
957.97
]
},
{
"text": "extract something kind of critical.",
"timestamp": [
955.515,
957.97
]
},
{
"text": "Like Rowhammer, it's such a\nlow level of vulnerability",
"timestamp": [
957.97,
960.66
]
},
{
"text": "Like Rowhammer, it's such a\nlow level of vulnerability",
"timestamp": [
957.97,
960.66
]
},
{
"text": "and you could argue that\nit's not necessarily",
"timestamp": [
960.66,
962.88
]
},
{
"text": "and you could argue that\nit's not necessarily",
"timestamp": [
960.66,
962.88
]
},
{
"text": "a vulnerability in the\narchitecture itself,",
"timestamp": [
962.88,
965.29
]
},
{
"text": "a vulnerability in the\narchitecture itself,",
"timestamp": [
962.88,
965.29
]
},
{
"text": "but rather exploitation\nof physics at that point.",
"timestamp": [
965.29,
967.561
]
},
{
"text": "but rather exploitation\nof physics at that point.",
"timestamp": [
965.29,
967.561
]
},
{
"text": "- I've spent a decent amount\nof time with this stuff,",
"timestamp": [
967.561,
970.087
]
},
{
"text": "- I've spent a decent amount\nof time with this stuff,",
"timestamp": [
967.561,
970.087
]
},
{
"text": "and in my mind, a lot\nof that is a nightmare.",
"timestamp": [
970.087,
973.13
]
},
{
"text": "and in my mind, a lot\nof that is a nightmare.",
"timestamp": [
970.087,
973.13
]
},
{
"text": "Over the last year while I\nwas doing some other stuff,",
"timestamp": [
973.13,
974.97
]
},
{
"text": "Over the last year while I\nwas doing some other stuff,",
"timestamp": [
973.13,
974.97
]
},
{
"text": "I actually designed some\nmicrocontroller boards",
"timestamp": [
974.97,
977.248
]
},
{
"text": "I actually designed some\nmicrocontroller boards",
"timestamp": [
974.97,
977.248
]
},
{
"text": "for a company that was doing stuff with,",
"timestamp": [
977.248,
979
]
},
{
"text": "for a company that was doing stuff with,",
"timestamp": [
977.248,
979
]
},
{
"text": "like, a smart watering project.",
"timestamp": [
979,
980.89
]
},
{
"text": "like, a smart watering project.",
"timestamp": [
979,
980.89
]
},
{
"text": "The problems with updating is just, like,",
"timestamp": [
980.89,
983.467
]
},
{
"text": "The problems with updating is just, like,",
"timestamp": [
980.89,
983.467
]
},
{
"text": "that scares me the most.",
"timestamp": [
983.467,
985.534
]
},
{
"text": "that scares me the most.",
"timestamp": [
983.467,
985.534
]
},
{
"text": "Like, people don't update their own stuff,",
"timestamp": [
985.534,
988.28
]
},
{
"text": "Like, people don't update their own stuff,",
"timestamp": [
985.534,
988.28
]
},
{
"text": "let alone these, like, devices.",
"timestamp": [
988.28,
990.14
]
},
{
"text": "let alone these, like, devices.",
"timestamp": [
988.28,
990.14
]
},
{
"text": "- I keep forgetting to update my fridge.",
"timestamp": [
990.14,
991.61
]
},
{
"text": "- I keep forgetting to update my fridge.",
"timestamp": [
990.14,
991.61
]
},
{
"text": "- I find myself trying to shy away",
"timestamp": [
991.61,
993.48
]
},
{
"text": "- I find myself trying to shy away",
"timestamp": [
991.61,
993.48
]
},
{
"text": "from owning like smart things.",
"timestamp": [
993.48,
996.47
]
},
{
"text": "from owning like smart things.",
"timestamp": [
993.48,
996.47
]
},
{
"text": "- That's pretty challenging",
"timestamp": [
996.47,
997.54
]
},
{
"text": "- That's pretty challenging",
"timestamp": [
996.47,
997.54
]
},
{
"text": "if you want to use wireless, right?",
"timestamp": [
997.54,
999.24
]
},
{
"text": "if you want to use wireless, right?",
"timestamp": [
997.54,
999.24
]
},
{
"text": "If you wanna use a wireless router.",
"timestamp": [
999.24,
1000.15
]
},
{
"text": "If you wanna use a wireless router.",
"timestamp": [
999.24,
1000.15
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I mean, there's\nobviously essentials,",
"timestamp": [
1000.15,
1001.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I mean, there's\nobviously essentials,",
"timestamp": [
1000.15,
1001.9
]
},
{
"text": "but yeah, no matter what,",
"timestamp": [
1001.9,
1002.75
]
},
{
"text": "but yeah, no matter what,",
"timestamp": [
1001.9,
1002.75
]
},
{
"text": "you can't really avoid any of this.",
"timestamp": [
1002.75,
1004.92
]
},
{
"text": "you can't really avoid any of this.",
"timestamp": [
1002.75,
1004.92
]
},
{
"text": "- The risk right now, just\nduring this quarantine,",
"timestamp": [
1004.92,
1007.93
]
},
{
"text": "- The risk right now, just\nduring this quarantine,",
"timestamp": [
1004.92,
1007.93
]
},
{
"text": "is actually massive now\nthat we think about it,",
"timestamp": [
1007.93,
1010.63
]
},
{
"text": "is actually massive now\nthat we think about it,",
"timestamp": [
1007.93,
1010.63
]
},
{
"text": "because you might have\nthese legacy systems.",
"timestamp": [
1010.63,
1012.3
]
},
{
"text": "because you might have\nthese legacy systems.",
"timestamp": [
1010.63,
1012.3
]
},
{
"text": "You know, they were\nbuilt 20, 30 years ago,",
"timestamp": [
1012.3,
1014.63
]
},
{
"text": "You know, they were\nbuilt 20, 30 years ago,",
"timestamp": [
1012.3,
1014.63
]
},
{
"text": "and it's too costly to upgrade,",
"timestamp": [
1014.63,
1016.97
]
},
{
"text": "and it's too costly to upgrade,",
"timestamp": [
1014.63,
1016.97
]
},
{
"text": "but now you can't actually\nhave a lot of people",
"timestamp": [
1016.97,
1019
]
},
{
"text": "but now you can't actually\nhave a lot of people",
"timestamp": [
1016.97,
1019
]
},
{
"text": "in a single location, so potentially,",
"timestamp": [
1019,
1021.84
]
},
{
"text": "in a single location, so potentially,",
"timestamp": [
1019,
1021.84
]
},
{
"text": "they actually do have\nto now add some sort of",
"timestamp": [
1021.84,
1023.97
]
},
{
"text": "they actually do have\nto now add some sort of",
"timestamp": [
1021.84,
1023.97
]
},
{
"text": "remote capabilities to these systems",
"timestamp": [
1023.97,
1025.59
]
},
{
"text": "remote capabilities to these systems",
"timestamp": [
1023.97,
1025.59
]
},
{
"text": "that were never meant\nto be on the internet.",
"timestamp": [
1025.59,
1027.04
]
},
{
"text": "that were never meant\nto be on the internet.",
"timestamp": [
1025.59,
1027.04
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever had any ethical concerns",
"timestamp": [
1027.04,
1028.84
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever had any ethical concerns",
"timestamp": [
1027.04,
1028.84
]
},
{
"text": "with the stuff you're interested\nin or the work you do?",
"timestamp": [
1028.84,
1031.81
]
},
{
"text": "with the stuff you're interested\nin or the work you do?",
"timestamp": [
1028.84,
1031.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh yeah, for sure.",
"timestamp": [
1031.81,
1032.643
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh yeah, for sure.",
"timestamp": [
1031.81,
1032.643
]
},
{
"text": "When people find vulnerabilities,",
"timestamp": [
1032.643,
1034.14
]
},
{
"text": "When people find vulnerabilities,",
"timestamp": [
1032.643,
1034.14
]
},
{
"text": "I think it's their duty to\nrelease those to the public.",
"timestamp": [
1034.14,
1036.95
]
},
{
"text": "I think it's their duty to\nrelease those to the public.",
"timestamp": [
1034.14,
1036.95
]
},
{
"text": "- Especially now that we're\nseeing more and more companies",
"timestamp": [
1036.95,
1039.86
]
},
{
"text": "- Especially now that we're\nseeing more and more companies",
"timestamp": [
1036.95,
1039.86
]
},
{
"text": "who are trying to make it illegal for you",
"timestamp": [
1039.86,
1041.7
]
},
{
"text": "who are trying to make it illegal for you",
"timestamp": [
1039.86,
1041.7
]
},
{
"text": "to inspect the vehicle that\nyou've purchased, right?",
"timestamp": [
1041.7,
1045.25
]
},
{
"text": "to inspect the vehicle that\nyou've purchased, right?",
"timestamp": [
1041.7,
1045.25
]
},
{
"text": "Something that you actually own.",
"timestamp": [
1045.25,
1046.72
]
},
{
"text": "Something that you actually own.",
"timestamp": [
1045.25,
1046.72
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I think that's nuts.",
"timestamp": [
1046.72,
1048.062
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I think that's nuts.",
"timestamp": [
1046.72,
1048.062
]
},
{
"text": "I'm firmly against that for sure.",
"timestamp": [
1048.062,
1050.467
]
},
{
"text": "I'm firmly against that for sure.",
"timestamp": [
1048.062,
1050.467
]
},
{
"text": "- What if it were illegal?",
"timestamp": [
1050.467,
1052.01
]
},
{
"text": "- What if it were illegal?",
"timestamp": [
1050.467,
1052.01
]
},
{
"text": "Would you then do it?",
"timestamp": [
1052.01,
1053.27
]
},
{
"text": "Would you then do it?",
"timestamp": [
1052.01,
1053.27
]
},
{
"text": "Fortunately it's not today, right?",
"timestamp": [
1053.27,
1054.66
]
},
{
"text": "Fortunately it's not today, right?",
"timestamp": [
1053.27,
1054.66
]
},
{
"text": "It hasn't been, you know,\ndespite their attempts,",
"timestamp": [
1054.66,
1057.6
]
},
{
"text": "It hasn't been, you know,\ndespite their attempts,",
"timestamp": [
1054.66,
1057.6
]
},
{
"text": "none of that has been passed,",
"timestamp": [
1057.6,
1059.67
]
},
{
"text": "none of that has been passed,",
"timestamp": [
1057.6,
1059.67
]
},
{
"text": "but if you had a vehicle and\nyou wanted to inspect it,",
"timestamp": [
1059.67,
1061.74
]
},
{
"text": "but if you had a vehicle and\nyou wanted to inspect it,",
"timestamp": [
1059.67,
1061.74
]
},
{
"text": "but all of a sudden, it passed, I mean.",
"timestamp": [
1061.74,
1064.22
]
},
{
"text": "but all of a sudden, it passed, I mean.",
"timestamp": [
1061.74,
1064.22
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't know, probably, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1064.22,
1066.824
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't know, probably, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1064.22,
1066.824
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
1066.824,
1068.763
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]",
"timestamp": [
1066.824,
1068.763
]
},
{
"text": "I don't think that's hurting anyone,",
"timestamp": [
1068.763,
1071.11
]
},
{
"text": "I don't think that's hurting anyone,",
"timestamp": [
1068.763,
1071.11
]
},
{
"text": "- But the laws don't always\nequate to hurting anyone.",
"timestamp": [
1071.11,
1073.58
]
},
{
"text": "- But the laws don't always\nequate to hurting anyone.",
"timestamp": [
1071.11,
1073.58
]
},
{
"text": "I ethically think similar\nto you in that, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1073.58,
1076.64
]
},
{
"text": "I ethically think similar\nto you in that, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1073.58,
1076.64
]
},
{
"text": "what is moral to me is",
"timestamp": [
1076.64,
1078.16
]
},
{
"text": "what is moral to me is",
"timestamp": [
1076.64,
1078.16
]
},
{
"text": "as long as I'm not intentionally\nhurting others, right?",
"timestamp": [
1078.16,
1080.75
]
},
{
"text": "as long as I'm not intentionally\nhurting others, right?",
"timestamp": [
1078.16,
1080.75
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1080.75,
1081.583
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1080.75,
1081.583
]
},
{
"text": "I think we see every day\nthat ethics and the laws",
"timestamp": [
1081.583,
1083.95
]
},
{
"text": "I think we see every day\nthat ethics and the laws",
"timestamp": [
1081.583,
1083.95
]
},
{
"text": "aren't necessarily the\nsame thing all the time.",
"timestamp": [
1083.95,
1086.182
]
},
{
"text": "aren't necessarily the\nsame thing all the time.",
"timestamp": [
1083.95,
1086.182
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
1086.182,
1088.35
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
1086.182,
1088.35
]
},
{
"text": "- Hey Colin, we already know each other,",
"timestamp": [
1088.35,
1090.24
]
},
{
"text": "- Hey Colin, we already know each other,",
"timestamp": [
1088.35,
1090.24
]
},
{
"text": "but why don't you introduce yourself",
"timestamp": [
1090.24,
1091.81
]
},
{
"text": "but why don't you introduce yourself",
"timestamp": [
1090.24,
1091.81
]
},
{
"text": "for the people watching?",
"timestamp": [
1091.81,
1092.71
]
},
{
"text": "for the people watching?",
"timestamp": [
1091.81,
1092.71
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Colin O'Flynn.",
"timestamp": [
1092.71,
1093.93
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Colin O'Flynn.",
"timestamp": [
1092.71,
1093.93
]
},
{
"text": "I live in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.",
"timestamp": [
1093.93,
1096.37
]
},
{
"text": "I live in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.",
"timestamp": [
1093.93,
1096.37
]
},
{
"text": "I do hardware hacking both in academia",
"timestamp": [
1096.37,
1098.676
]
},
{
"text": "I do hardware hacking both in academia",
"timestamp": [
1096.37,
1098.676
]
},
{
"text": "at Dalhousie University,",
"timestamp": [
1098.676,
1100.49
]
},
{
"text": "at Dalhousie University,",
"timestamp": [
1098.676,
1100.49
]
},
{
"text": "and in industry at my\nstartup, NewAE Technology.",
"timestamp": [
1100.49,
1103.17
]
},
{
"text": "and in industry at my\nstartup, NewAE Technology.",
"timestamp": [
1100.49,
1103.17
]
},
{
"text": "- What have you been up to?",
"timestamp": [
1103.17,
1104.01
]
},
{
"text": "- What have you been up to?",
"timestamp": [
1103.17,
1104.01
]
},
{
"text": "And yeah, what are you working on?",
"timestamp": [
1104.01,
1105.53
]
},
{
"text": "And yeah, what are you working on?",
"timestamp": [
1104.01,
1105.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Lately I've been doing, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1105.53,
1107.64
]
},
{
"text": "- Lately I've been doing, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1105.53,
1107.64
]
},
{
"text": "always a little bit of\nside channel analysis.",
"timestamp": [
1107.64,
1109.58
]
},
{
"text": "always a little bit of\nside channel analysis.",
"timestamp": [
1107.64,
1109.58
]
},
{
"text": "So what I really do, you\nknow, is all hardware layer.",
"timestamp": [
1109.58,
1111.92
]
},
{
"text": "So what I really do, you\nknow, is all hardware layer.",
"timestamp": [
1109.58,
1111.92
]
},
{
"text": "So I've been looking, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1111.92,
1113.85
]
},
{
"text": "So I've been looking, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1111.92,
1113.85
]
},
{
"text": "at some various devices lately,",
"timestamp": [
1113.85,
1115.74
]
},
{
"text": "at some various devices lately,",
"timestamp": [
1113.85,
1115.74
]
},
{
"text": "at how susceptible they\nare to fault attacks,",
"timestamp": [
1115.74,
1118.15
]
},
{
"text": "at how susceptible they\nare to fault attacks,",
"timestamp": [
1115.74,
1118.15
]
},
{
"text": "what that sort of means in real life.",
"timestamp": [
1118.15,
1120.93
]
},
{
"text": "what that sort of means in real life.",
"timestamp": [
1118.15,
1120.93
]
},
{
"text": "You know, not just\npurely the research side,",
"timestamp": [
1120.93,
1123.43
]
},
{
"text": "You know, not just\npurely the research side,",
"timestamp": [
1120.93,
1123.43
]
},
{
"text": "but also how much should\nyou care about it.",
"timestamp": [
1123.43,
1126.13
]
},
{
"text": "but also how much should\nyou care about it.",
"timestamp": [
1123.43,
1126.13
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe a mutual acquaintance of ours,",
"timestamp": [
1126.13,
1128.41
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe a mutual acquaintance of ours,",
"timestamp": [
1126.13,
1128.41
]
},
{
"text": "Jasper gave a example of fault injection,",
"timestamp": [
1128.41,
1131.2
]
},
{
"text": "Jasper gave a example of fault injection,",
"timestamp": [
1128.41,
1131.2
]
},
{
"text": "and I like to use that as,",
"timestamp": [
1131.2,
1132.89
]
},
{
"text": "and I like to use that as,",
"timestamp": [
1131.2,
1132.89
]
},
{
"text": "when I'm trying to\nexplain fault injection,",
"timestamp": [
1132.89,
1135.27
]
},
{
"text": "when I'm trying to\nexplain fault injection,",
"timestamp": [
1132.89,
1135.27
]
},
{
"text": "he shows a pinball machine\nand the pinball machine,",
"timestamp": [
1135.27,
1137.95
]
},
{
"text": "he shows a pinball machine\nand the pinball machine,",
"timestamp": [
1135.27,
1137.95
]
},
{
"text": "obviously the two inputs\nare the two plungers",
"timestamp": [
1137.95,
1140.45
]
},
{
"text": "obviously the two inputs\nare the two plungers",
"timestamp": [
1137.95,
1140.45
]
},
{
"text": "when you're playing a pinball machine,",
"timestamp": [
1140.45,
1143.052
]
},
{
"text": "when you're playing a pinball machine,",
"timestamp": [
1140.45,
1143.052
]
},
{
"text": "but fault injection,",
"timestamp": [
1143.052,
1143.885
]
},
{
"text": "but fault injection,",
"timestamp": [
1143.052,
1143.885
]
},
{
"text": "you can tilt the entire\npinball machine, right?",
"timestamp": [
1143.885,
1146.68
]
},
{
"text": "you can tilt the entire\npinball machine, right?",
"timestamp": [
1143.885,
1146.68
]
},
{
"text": "You're just introducing\nsome external variable",
"timestamp": [
1146.68,
1149.32
]
},
{
"text": "You're just introducing\nsome external variable",
"timestamp": [
1146.68,
1149.32
]
},
{
"text": "that's outside of the traditional inputs",
"timestamp": [
1149.32,
1151.14
]
},
{
"text": "that's outside of the traditional inputs",
"timestamp": [
1149.32,
1151.14
]
},
{
"text": "that you're used to",
"timestamp": [
1151.14,
1152.11
]
},
{
"text": "that you're used to",
"timestamp": [
1151.14,
1152.11
]
},
{
"text": "and you've now controlled the environment",
"timestamp": [
1152.11,
1153.86
]
},
{
"text": "and you've now controlled the environment",
"timestamp": [
1152.11,
1153.86
]
},
{
"text": "in a advantageous way to\nthe user or the player.",
"timestamp": [
1153.86,
1157.43
]
},
{
"text": "in a advantageous way to\nthe user or the player.",
"timestamp": [
1153.86,
1157.43
]
},
{
"text": "Can you give an example of\nsome type of fault injection",
"timestamp": [
1157.43,
1159.93
]
},
{
"text": "Can you give an example of\nsome type of fault injection",
"timestamp": [
1157.43,
1159.93
]
},
{
"text": "that you're doing or working on?",
"timestamp": [
1159.93,
1161.18
]
},
{
"text": "that you're doing or working on?",
"timestamp": [
1159.93,
1161.18
]
},
{
"text": "- One of them was looking at, like,",
"timestamp": [
1161.18,
1163.41
]
},
{
"text": "- One of them was looking at, like,",
"timestamp": [
1161.18,
1163.41
]
},
{
"text": "a little hardware Bitcoin wallet,",
"timestamp": [
1163.41,
1165.652
]
},
{
"text": "a little hardware Bitcoin wallet,",
"timestamp": [
1163.41,
1165.652
]
},
{
"text": "and you could use fault injection",
"timestamp": [
1165.652,
1166.88
]
},
{
"text": "and you could use fault injection",
"timestamp": [
1165.652,
1166.88
]
},
{
"text": "to actually recover secrets from it,",
"timestamp": [
1166.88,
1168.77
]
},
{
"text": "to actually recover secrets from it,",
"timestamp": [
1166.88,
1168.77
]
},
{
"text": "and a lot of devices.",
"timestamp": [
1168.77,
1170.34
]
},
{
"text": "and a lot of devices.",
"timestamp": [
1168.77,
1170.34
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, the whole idea\nis pretty cool, right?",
"timestamp": [
1170.34,
1172.964
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, the whole idea\nis pretty cool, right?",
"timestamp": [
1170.34,
1172.964
]
},
{
"text": "Because you tell the device,\n\"Hey, I want to authenticate,\"",
"timestamp": [
1172.964,
1174.923
]
},
{
"text": "Because you tell the device,\n\"Hey, I want to authenticate,\"",
"timestamp": [
1172.964,
1174.923
]
},
{
"text": "and it's supposed to run",
"timestamp": [
1174.923,
1176.66
]
},
{
"text": "and it's supposed to run",
"timestamp": [
1174.923,
1176.66
]
},
{
"text": "some really crazy math\nthat authenticates it,",
"timestamp": [
1176.66,
1179.53
]
},
{
"text": "some really crazy math\nthat authenticates it,",
"timestamp": [
1176.66,
1179.53
]
},
{
"text": "but instead of doing that crazy\nmath and attacking the math,",
"timestamp": [
1179.53,
1182.54
]
},
{
"text": "but instead of doing that crazy\nmath and attacking the math,",
"timestamp": [
1179.53,
1182.54
]
},
{
"text": "you just attack the check at the end.",
"timestamp": [
1182.54,
1184.43
]
},
{
"text": "you just attack the check at the end.",
"timestamp": [
1182.54,
1184.43
]
},
{
"text": "- We're also scratching the surface of,",
"timestamp": [
1184.43,
1186.17
]
},
{
"text": "- We're also scratching the surface of,",
"timestamp": [
1184.43,
1186.17
]
},
{
"text": "like, what is possible?",
"timestamp": [
1186.17,
1187.33
]
},
{
"text": "like, what is possible?",
"timestamp": [
1186.17,
1187.33
]
},
{
"text": "It's not necessarily\njust the system itself",
"timestamp": [
1187.33,
1189.65
]
},
{
"text": "It's not necessarily\njust the system itself",
"timestamp": [
1187.33,
1189.65
]
},
{
"text": "and not necessarily that algorithm itself.",
"timestamp": [
1189.65,
1191.586
]
},
{
"text": "and not necessarily that algorithm itself.",
"timestamp": [
1189.65,
1191.586
]
},
{
"text": "Like you said, you don't necessarily",
"timestamp": [
1191.586,
1193.29
]
},
{
"text": "Like you said, you don't necessarily",
"timestamp": [
1191.586,
1193.29
]
},
{
"text": "need to attack the math in some cases.",
"timestamp": [
1193.29,
1194.92
]
},
{
"text": "need to attack the math in some cases.",
"timestamp": [
1193.29,
1194.92
]
},
{
"text": "You can just attack that check.",
"timestamp": [
1194.92,
1196.54
]
},
{
"text": "You can just attack that check.",
"timestamp": [
1194.92,
1196.54
]
},
{
"text": "And I think something\nthat's been pretty cool",
"timestamp": [
1196.54,
1198.4
]
},
{
"text": "And I think something\nthat's been pretty cool",
"timestamp": [
1196.54,
1198.4
]
},
{
"text": "is looking at higher energy particles.",
"timestamp": [
1198.4,
1200.31
]
},
{
"text": "is looking at higher energy particles.",
"timestamp": [
1198.4,
1200.31
]
},
{
"text": "It's going to be maybe\nhard to entirely confirm,",
"timestamp": [
1200.31,
1202.85
]
},
{
"text": "It's going to be maybe\nhard to entirely confirm,",
"timestamp": [
1200.31,
1202.85
]
},
{
"text": "but I think it'd be really,\nreally cool to actually see.",
"timestamp": [
1202.85,
1206.06
]
},
{
"text": "but I think it'd be really,\nreally cool to actually see.",
"timestamp": [
1202.85,
1206.06
]
},
{
"text": "Like, I want to see one of these faults",
"timestamp": [
1206.06,
1208.29
]
},
{
"text": "Like, I want to see one of these faults",
"timestamp": [
1206.06,
1208.29
]
},
{
"text": "because I haven't seen it myself.",
"timestamp": [
1208.29,
1210.223
]
},
{
"text": "because I haven't seen it myself.",
"timestamp": [
1208.29,
1210.223
]
},
{
"text": "And also, how do you\nknow that you've seen it?",
"timestamp": [
1211.121,
1213.58
]
},
{
"text": "And also, how do you\nknow that you've seen it?",
"timestamp": [
1211.121,
1213.58
]
},
{
"text": "I've started playing with, like,\nsetting up a cloud chamber.",
"timestamp": [
1213.58,
1216.28
]
},
{
"text": "I've started playing with, like,\nsetting up a cloud chamber.",
"timestamp": [
1213.58,
1216.28
]
},
{
"text": "A cloud chamber lets you actually view",
"timestamp": [
1216.28,
1218.19
]
},
{
"text": "A cloud chamber lets you actually view",
"timestamp": [
1216.28,
1218.19
]
},
{
"text": "high energy particles going through",
"timestamp": [
1218.19,
1219.81
]
},
{
"text": "high energy particles going through",
"timestamp": [
1218.19,
1219.81
]
},
{
"text": "sort of like in a small jar\nwith some evaporated alcohol.",
"timestamp": [
1219.81,
1223.19
]
},
{
"text": "sort of like in a small jar\nwith some evaporated alcohol.",
"timestamp": [
1219.81,
1223.19
]
},
{
"text": "And I thought it'd be really cool",
"timestamp": [
1223.19,
1224.7
]
},
{
"text": "And I thought it'd be really cool",
"timestamp": [
1223.19,
1224.7
]
},
{
"text": "if we put some memory chip in there,",
"timestamp": [
1224.7,
1226.79
]
},
{
"text": "if we put some memory chip in there,",
"timestamp": [
1224.7,
1226.79
]
},
{
"text": "like a basic memory chip and\nwe just fill it with some data,",
"timestamp": [
1226.79,
1229.58
]
},
{
"text": "like a basic memory chip and\nwe just fill it with some data,",
"timestamp": [
1226.79,
1229.58
]
},
{
"text": "but then you put a camera on\nthat area and you just watch.",
"timestamp": [
1229.58,
1232.43
]
},
{
"text": "but then you put a camera on\nthat area and you just watch.",
"timestamp": [
1229.58,
1232.43
]
},
{
"text": "Assuming that there is\na high energy particle",
"timestamp": [
1232.43,
1235.54
]
},
{
"text": "Assuming that there is\na high energy particle",
"timestamp": [
1232.43,
1235.54
]
},
{
"text": "that actually hits that memory,",
"timestamp": [
1236.387,
1238.05
]
},
{
"text": "that actually hits that memory,",
"timestamp": [
1236.387,
1238.05
]
},
{
"text": "that should potentially flip\nthe energy state of that bit.",
"timestamp": [
1238.05,
1243.05
]
},
{
"text": "that should potentially flip\nthe energy state of that bit.",
"timestamp": [
1238.05,
1243.05
]
},
{
"text": "The outside microcontrollers",
"timestamp": [
1243.09,
1244.38
]
},
{
"text": "The outside microcontrollers",
"timestamp": [
1243.09,
1244.38
]
},
{
"text": "should be able to read\nthat and actually say,",
"timestamp": [
1244.38,
1246.227
]
},
{
"text": "should be able to read\nthat and actually say,",
"timestamp": [
1244.38,
1246.227
]
},
{
"text": "\"Oh wait, the data, even\nthough I'm not changing data,",
"timestamp": [
1246.227,
1248.4
]
},
{
"text": "\"Oh wait, the data, even\nthough I'm not changing data,",
"timestamp": [
1246.227,
1248.4
]
},
{
"text": "I'm only reading data,\"",
"timestamp": [
1248.4,
1249.36
]
},
{
"text": "I'm only reading data,\"",
"timestamp": [
1248.4,
1249.36
]
},
{
"text": "and we should be able to\nvisibly or optically see it.",
"timestamp": [
1249.36,
1251.76
]
},
{
"text": "and we should be able to\nvisibly or optically see it.",
"timestamp": [
1249.36,
1251.76
]
},
{
"text": "What I'm wondering is could\nthat be a next area of research?",
"timestamp": [
1251.76,
1255.78
]
},
{
"text": "What I'm wondering is could\nthat be a next area of research?",
"timestamp": [
1251.76,
1255.78
]
},
{
"text": "Because I don't think\nanyone's actually looking at",
"timestamp": [
1255.78,
1257.21
]
},
{
"text": "Because I don't think\nanyone's actually looking at",
"timestamp": [
1255.78,
1257.21
]
},
{
"text": "intentionally injecting\nhigh energy particles",
"timestamp": [
1257.21,
1260.18
]
},
{
"text": "intentionally injecting\nhigh energy particles",
"timestamp": [
1257.21,
1260.18
]
},
{
"text": "to take over a computer,\nwhen really, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1260.18,
1263.51
]
},
{
"text": "to take over a computer,\nwhen really, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1260.18,
1263.51
]
},
{
"text": "that's another technique\nfor fault injection,",
"timestamp": [
1263.51,
1265.65
]
},
{
"text": "that's another technique\nfor fault injection,",
"timestamp": [
1263.51,
1265.65
]
},
{
"text": "technically speaking.",
"timestamp": [
1265.65,
1266.483
]
},
{
"text": "technically speaking.",
"timestamp": [
1265.65,
1266.483
]
},
{
"text": "- This was actually tied\ninto something recently",
"timestamp": [
1266.483,
1268.1
]
},
{
"text": "- This was actually tied\ninto something recently",
"timestamp": [
1266.483,
1268.1
]
},
{
"text": "I was looking at, which was, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1268.1,
1270.46
]
},
{
"text": "I was looking at, which was, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1268.1,
1270.46
]
},
{
"text": "flipping flash and EPROM memory.",
"timestamp": [
1270.46,
1273.21
]
},
{
"text": "flipping flash and EPROM memory.",
"timestamp": [
1270.46,
1273.21
]
},
{
"text": "- You mean flipping bits within flash?",
"timestamp": [
1273.21,
1274.85
]
},
{
"text": "- You mean flipping bits within flash?",
"timestamp": [
1273.21,
1274.85
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, exactly, right.",
"timestamp": [
1274.85,
1275.683
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, exactly, right.",
"timestamp": [
1274.85,
1275.683
]
},
{
"text": "So flipping it in this\nsort of flash memory.",
"timestamp": [
1275.683,
1277.487
]
},
{
"text": "So flipping it in this\nsort of flash memory.",
"timestamp": [
1275.683,
1277.487
]
},
{
"text": "And so someone's done it with x-rays.",
"timestamp": [
1277.487,
1278.91
]
},
{
"text": "And so someone's done it with x-rays.",
"timestamp": [
1277.487,
1278.91
]
},
{
"text": "There's actually, I forget who now.",
"timestamp": [
1278.91,
1280.61
]
},
{
"text": "There's actually, I forget who now.",
"timestamp": [
1278.91,
1280.61
]
},
{
"text": "There's a paper, at least one,",
"timestamp": [
1280.61,
1282.21
]
},
{
"text": "There's a paper, at least one,",
"timestamp": [
1280.61,
1282.21
]
},
{
"text": "and it's just like a\nlittle plate they make",
"timestamp": [
1282.21,
1284.07
]
},
{
"text": "and it's just like a\nlittle plate they make",
"timestamp": [
1282.21,
1284.07
]
},
{
"text": "with like a hole in it to\nconcentrate the x-ray source",
"timestamp": [
1284.07,
1286.94
]
},
{
"text": "with like a hole in it to\nconcentrate the x-ray source",
"timestamp": [
1284.07,
1286.94
]
},
{
"text": "and it works, so yeah,\nit's super interesting.",
"timestamp": [
1286.94,
1291.51
]
},
{
"text": "and it works, so yeah,\nit's super interesting.",
"timestamp": [
1286.94,
1291.51
]
},
{
"text": "Like, one bit in memory means a lot,",
"timestamp": [
1291.51,
1293.3
]
},
{
"text": "Like, one bit in memory means a lot,",
"timestamp": [
1291.51,
1293.3
]
},
{
"text": "especially in the flash memory side.",
"timestamp": [
1293.3,
1295.12
]
},
{
"text": "especially in the flash memory side.",
"timestamp": [
1293.3,
1295.12
]
},
{
"text": "Yeah, visualizing it would be cool though.",
"timestamp": [
1295.12,
1296.85
]
},
{
"text": "Yeah, visualizing it would be cool though.",
"timestamp": [
1295.12,
1296.85
]
},
{
"text": "- I've never seen...",
"timestamp": [
1296.85,
1297.85
]
},
{
"text": "- I've never seen...",
"timestamp": [
1296.85,
1297.85
]
},
{
"text": "Maybe call it a verifiable\nvisualization of it, right?",
"timestamp": [
1299.37,
1302.04
]
},
{
"text": "Maybe call it a verifiable\nvisualization of it, right?",
"timestamp": [
1299.37,
1302.04
]
},
{
"text": "We know it's true, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1302.04,
1303.59
]
},
{
"text": "We know it's true, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1302.04,
1303.59
]
},
{
"text": "you can get skin cancer by going outside",
"timestamp": [
1303.59,
1305.96
]
},
{
"text": "you can get skin cancer by going outside",
"timestamp": [
1303.59,
1305.96
]
},
{
"text": "and having too many high\nenergy particles hit you,",
"timestamp": [
1305.96,
1308.973
]
},
{
"text": "and having too many high\nenergy particles hit you,",
"timestamp": [
1305.96,
1308.973
]
},
{
"text": "but we've never seen it.",
"timestamp": [
1309.99,
1311.71
]
},
{
"text": "but we've never seen it.",
"timestamp": [
1309.99,
1311.71
]
},
{
"text": "And we know it can happen\nto a computer chip,",
"timestamp": [
1311.71,
1313.36
]
},
{
"text": "And we know it can happen\nto a computer chip,",
"timestamp": [
1311.71,
1313.36
]
},
{
"text": "but I've never seen both.",
"timestamp": [
1313.36,
1315.33
]
},
{
"text": "but I've never seen both.",
"timestamp": [
1313.36,
1315.33
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so actually, so\nit's funny you mentioned,",
"timestamp": [
1315.33,
1316.74
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so actually, so\nit's funny you mentioned,",
"timestamp": [
1315.33,
1316.74
]
},
{
"text": "like, making it more obvious.",
"timestamp": [
1316.74,
1319.653
]
},
{
"text": "like, making it more obvious.",
"timestamp": [
1316.74,
1319.653
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, staying on fault\ninjection right now,",
"timestamp": [
1321.28,
1322.76
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, staying on fault\ninjection right now,",
"timestamp": [
1321.28,
1322.76
]
},
{
"text": "this is lately what I've been up to.",
"timestamp": [
1322.76,
1324.15
]
},
{
"text": "this is lately what I've been up to.",
"timestamp": [
1322.76,
1324.15
]
},
{
"text": "A lot of making a little\nkind of, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1324.15,
1327.17
]
},
{
"text": "A lot of making a little\nkind of, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1324.15,
1327.17
]
},
{
"text": "like electronics kits of old, right?",
"timestamp": [
1327.17,
1328.407
]
},
{
"text": "like electronics kits of old, right?",
"timestamp": [
1327.17,
1328.407
]
},
{
"text": "And you can assemble it all\nyourself and see how it works.",
"timestamp": [
1328.407,
1331.63
]
},
{
"text": "And you can assemble it all\nyourself and see how it works.",
"timestamp": [
1328.407,
1331.63
]
},
{
"text": "So making something like\nthat for fault injection.",
"timestamp": [
1331.63,
1333.47
]
},
{
"text": "So making something like\nthat for fault injection.",
"timestamp": [
1331.63,
1333.47
]
},
{
"text": "So all kind of older\nlogic and stuff like that.",
"timestamp": [
1333.47,
1336.23
]
},
{
"text": "So all kind of older\nlogic and stuff like that.",
"timestamp": [
1333.47,
1336.23
]
},
{
"text": "So, I mean, it's sort of based on, like,",
"timestamp": [
1336.23,
1338.52
]
},
{
"text": "So, I mean, it's sort of based on, like,",
"timestamp": [
1336.23,
1338.52
]
},
{
"text": "you're presented the little MUX chip.",
"timestamp": [
1338.52,
1340.61
]
},
{
"text": "you're presented the little MUX chip.",
"timestamp": [
1338.52,
1340.61
]
},
{
"text": "You know, voltage switcher.",
"timestamp": [
1340.61,
1342.04
]
},
{
"text": "You know, voltage switcher.",
"timestamp": [
1340.61,
1342.04
]
},
{
"text": "That sort of idea, using\njust discreet logic",
"timestamp": [
1342.04,
1345.03
]
},
{
"text": "That sort of idea, using\njust discreet logic",
"timestamp": [
1342.04,
1345.03
]
},
{
"text": "to generate the actual glitch itself.",
"timestamp": [
1345.03,
1348.73
]
},
{
"text": "to generate the actual glitch itself.",
"timestamp": [
1345.03,
1348.73
]
},
{
"text": "So, but you know, it's part\nof, I think, this stuff, right?",
"timestamp": [
1348.73,
1351.6
]
},
{
"text": "So, but you know, it's part\nof, I think, this stuff, right?",
"timestamp": [
1348.73,
1351.6
]
},
{
"text": "It's like people don't\nknow about it sometimes.",
"timestamp": [
1351.6,
1353.79
]
},
{
"text": "It's like people don't\nknow about it sometimes.",
"timestamp": [
1351.6,
1353.79
]
},
{
"text": "Like, even engineers designing systems.",
"timestamp": [
1353.79,
1356.02
]
},
{
"text": "Like, even engineers designing systems.",
"timestamp": [
1353.79,
1356.02
]
},
{
"text": "It's new to a lot of people.",
"timestamp": [
1356.02,
1357.97
]
},
{
"text": "It's new to a lot of people.",
"timestamp": [
1356.02,
1357.97
]
},
{
"text": "- The thing is, even\nif you know about that,",
"timestamp": [
1357.97,
1359.49
]
},
{
"text": "- The thing is, even\nif you know about that,",
"timestamp": [
1357.97,
1359.49
]
},
{
"text": "then there's so many others that",
"timestamp": [
1359.49,
1360.59
]
},
{
"text": "then there's so many others that",
"timestamp": [
1359.49,
1360.59
]
},
{
"text": "someone won't necessarily know about,",
"timestamp": [
1360.59,
1362.18
]
},
{
"text": "someone won't necessarily know about,",
"timestamp": [
1360.59,
1362.18
]
},
{
"text": "because there's so many, I guess,",
"timestamp": [
1362.18,
1364.082
]
},
{
"text": "because there's so many, I guess,",
"timestamp": [
1362.18,
1364.082
]
},
{
"text": "potential areas for a fault to occur.",
"timestamp": [
1364.082,
1367.48
]
},
{
"text": "potential areas for a fault to occur.",
"timestamp": [
1364.082,
1367.48
]
},
{
"text": "Where do you think security is going",
"timestamp": [
1367.48,
1369.1
]
},
{
"text": "Where do you think security is going",
"timestamp": [
1367.48,
1369.1
]
},
{
"text": "or new research is going?",
"timestamp": [
1369.1,
1370.147
]
},
{
"text": "or new research is going?",
"timestamp": [
1369.1,
1370.147
]
},
{
"text": "Are there any new areas you think",
"timestamp": [
1370.147,
1372.15
]
},
{
"text": "Are there any new areas you think",
"timestamp": [
1370.147,
1372.15
]
},
{
"text": "are coming out or are going\nto be more interesting,",
"timestamp": [
1372.15,
1375.28
]
},
{
"text": "are coming out or are going\nto be more interesting,",
"timestamp": [
1372.15,
1375.28
]
},
{
"text": "you know, pretty soon?",
"timestamp": [
1375.28,
1376.113
]
},
{
"text": "you know, pretty soon?",
"timestamp": [
1375.28,
1376.113
]
},
{
"text": "- Fault injection has\nbecome pretty interesting.",
"timestamp": [
1376.113,
1378.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Fault injection has\nbecome pretty interesting.",
"timestamp": [
1376.113,
1378.38
]
},
{
"text": "Like, there's been a lot\nof people poking at that,",
"timestamp": [
1378.38,
1380.802
]
},
{
"text": "Like, there's been a lot\nof people poking at that,",
"timestamp": [
1378.38,
1380.802
]
},
{
"text": "and I think a lot more\nproducts of interest.",
"timestamp": [
1380.802,
1384.193
]
},
{
"text": "and I think a lot more\nproducts of interest.",
"timestamp": [
1380.802,
1384.193
]
},
{
"text": "Side channel still might\nhave a bit of a comeback.",
"timestamp": [
1385.14,
1388.33
]
},
{
"text": "Side channel still might\nhave a bit of a comeback.",
"timestamp": [
1385.14,
1388.33
]
},
{
"text": "Basically, what I kind of see is",
"timestamp": [
1388.33,
1389.35
]
},
{
"text": "Basically, what I kind of see is",
"timestamp": [
1388.33,
1389.35
]
},
{
"text": "a lot of the really cool\nstuff has been in academia",
"timestamp": [
1389.35,
1392.55
]
},
{
"text": "a lot of the really cool\nstuff has been in academia",
"timestamp": [
1389.35,
1392.55
]
},
{
"text": "because product security\nhasn't kept up, right?",
"timestamp": [
1392.55,
1395.34
]
},
{
"text": "because product security\nhasn't kept up, right?",
"timestamp": [
1392.55,
1395.34
]
},
{
"text": "For the longest time, doing\nthese attacks on hardware",
"timestamp": [
1395.34,
1397.317
]
},
{
"text": "For the longest time, doing\nthese attacks on hardware",
"timestamp": [
1395.34,
1397.317
]
},
{
"text": "was pretty straightforward.",
"timestamp": [
1397.317,
1399.21
]
},
{
"text": "was pretty straightforward.",
"timestamp": [
1397.317,
1399.21
]
},
{
"text": "You didn't need these crazy attacks.",
"timestamp": [
1399.21,
1401.047
]
},
{
"text": "You didn't need these crazy attacks.",
"timestamp": [
1399.21,
1401.047
]
},
{
"text": "It looks like a lot of\ndevices are coming out now",
"timestamp": [
1401.047,
1404.25
]
},
{
"text": "It looks like a lot of\ndevices are coming out now",
"timestamp": [
1401.047,
1404.25
]
},
{
"text": "that actually have real\nclaims to security, right?",
"timestamp": [
1404.25,
1407.99
]
},
{
"text": "that actually have real\nclaims to security, right?",
"timestamp": [
1404.25,
1407.99
]
},
{
"text": "More than just a data sheet mentioned.",
"timestamp": [
1407.99,
1411.49
]
},
{
"text": "More than just a data sheet mentioned.",
"timestamp": [
1407.99,
1411.49
]
},
{
"text": "There's actually something behind it.",
"timestamp": [
1411.49,
1412.76
]
},
{
"text": "There's actually something behind it.",
"timestamp": [
1411.49,
1412.76
]
},
{
"text": "- For me, I think the\nthings that have been",
"timestamp": [
1412.76,
1414.84
]
},
{
"text": "- For me, I think the\nthings that have been",
"timestamp": [
1412.76,
1414.84
]
},
{
"text": "recent and super interesting",
"timestamp": [
1414.84,
1416.44
]
},
{
"text": "recent and super interesting",
"timestamp": [
1414.84,
1416.44
]
},
{
"text": "are typically down to\nphysics-level effects",
"timestamp": [
1416.44,
1420.1
]
},
{
"text": "are typically down to\nphysics-level effects",
"timestamp": [
1416.44,
1420.1
]
},
{
"text": "that maybe we haven't seen before.",
"timestamp": [
1420.1,
1421.586
]
},
{
"text": "that maybe we haven't seen before.",
"timestamp": [
1420.1,
1421.586
]
},
{
"text": "I think my mind was blown with the,",
"timestamp": [
1421.586,
1424.16
]
},
{
"text": "I think my mind was blown with the,",
"timestamp": [
1421.586,
1424.16
]
},
{
"text": "there was the light commands research,",
"timestamp": [
1424.16,
1425.82
]
},
{
"text": "there was the light commands research,",
"timestamp": [
1424.16,
1425.82
]
},
{
"text": "and they were able to modulate sound,",
"timestamp": [
1425.82,
1427.7
]
},
{
"text": "and they were able to modulate sound,",
"timestamp": [
1425.82,
1427.7
]
},
{
"text": "although it's purely\nover light using a laser,",
"timestamp": [
1427.7,
1430.674
]
},
{
"text": "although it's purely\nover light using a laser,",
"timestamp": [
1427.7,
1430.674
]
},
{
"text": "they would hit the MEMS microphone,",
"timestamp": [
1430.674,
1432.31
]
},
{
"text": "they would hit the MEMS microphone,",
"timestamp": [
1430.674,
1432.31
]
},
{
"text": "and it was picking that up and\nwas able to then interpret it",
"timestamp": [
1432.31,
1434.87
]
},
{
"text": "and it was picking that up and\nwas able to then interpret it",
"timestamp": [
1432.31,
1434.87
]
},
{
"text": "and essentially take control over light.",
"timestamp": [
1434.87,
1437.42
]
},
{
"text": "and essentially take control over light.",
"timestamp": [
1434.87,
1437.42
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm curious of the backstory\nto how they found that.",
"timestamp": [
1437.42,
1440.293
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm curious of the backstory\nto how they found that.",
"timestamp": [
1437.42,
1440.293
]
},
{
"text": "Because if you told me that, right?",
"timestamp": [
1441.293,
1442.33
]
},
{
"text": "Because if you told me that, right?",
"timestamp": [
1441.293,
1442.33
]
},
{
"text": "So you said like, \"Hey, Colin,\nyou should test this out.\"",
"timestamp": [
1442.33,
1444.27
]
},
{
"text": "So you said like, \"Hey, Colin,\nyou should test this out.\"",
"timestamp": [
1442.33,
1444.27
]
},
{
"text": "I probably would be like, \"It\nprobably won't even work.\"",
"timestamp": [
1444.27,
1446.85
]
},
{
"text": "I probably would be like, \"It\nprobably won't even work.\"",
"timestamp": [
1444.27,
1446.85
]
},
{
"text": "Which is like a lot of side channels.",
"timestamp": [
1446.85,
1448.59
]
},
{
"text": "Which is like a lot of side channels.",
"timestamp": [
1446.85,
1448.59
]
},
{
"text": "When I first heard about it, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1448.59,
1450.74
]
},
{
"text": "When I first heard about it, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1448.59,
1450.74
]
},
{
"text": "working, doing firmware\nstuff, it was like,",
"timestamp": [
1450.74,
1452.633
]
},
{
"text": "working, doing firmware\nstuff, it was like,",
"timestamp": [
1450.74,
1452.633
]
},
{
"text": "\"Oh, that sounds like it's not gonna work.",
"timestamp": [
1452.633,
1454.38
]
},
{
"text": "\"Oh, that sounds like it's not gonna work.",
"timestamp": [
1452.633,
1454.38
]
},
{
"text": "Like, that sounds impossible.\"",
"timestamp": [
1454.38,
1455.73
]
},
{
"text": "Like, that sounds impossible.\"",
"timestamp": [
1454.38,
1455.73
]
},
{
"text": "You know, the whole area\nof hardware hacking,",
"timestamp": [
1455.73,
1457.46
]
},
{
"text": "You know, the whole area\nof hardware hacking,",
"timestamp": [
1455.73,
1457.46
]
},
{
"text": "it feels kinda like cheating\nbecause, you know, as you said,",
"timestamp": [
1457.46,
1459.59
]
},
{
"text": "it feels kinda like cheating\nbecause, you know, as you said,",
"timestamp": [
1457.46,
1459.59
]
},
{
"text": "someone designing the\nsystem needs to know about",
"timestamp": [
1459.59,
1461.58
]
},
{
"text": "someone designing the\nsystem needs to know about",
"timestamp": [
1459.59,
1461.58
]
},
{
"text": "so many different ways, right?",
"timestamp": [
1461.58,
1462.84
]
},
{
"text": "so many different ways, right?",
"timestamp": [
1461.58,
1462.84
]
},
{
"text": "So there's so many ways\nto break the system,",
"timestamp": [
1462.84,
1465.09
]
},
{
"text": "So there's so many ways\nto break the system,",
"timestamp": [
1462.84,
1465.09
]
},
{
"text": "and if you're designing them,\nyou need to know all of them,",
"timestamp": [
1465.09,
1467.41
]
},
{
"text": "and if you're designing them,\nyou need to know all of them,",
"timestamp": [
1465.09,
1467.41
]
},
{
"text": "but when you're attacking it,",
"timestamp": [
1467.41,
1468.36
]
},
{
"text": "but when you're attacking it,",
"timestamp": [
1467.41,
1468.36
]
},
{
"text": "you really need to know one, right?",
"timestamp": [
1468.36,
1469.79
]
},
{
"text": "you really need to know one, right?",
"timestamp": [
1468.36,
1469.79
]
},
{
"text": "So I can know nothing about, like,",
"timestamp": [
1469.79,
1471.93
]
},
{
"text": "So I can know nothing about, like,",
"timestamp": [
1469.79,
1471.93
]
},
{
"text": "how does ECC actually work?",
"timestamp": [
1471.93,
1474.55
]
},
{
"text": "how does ECC actually work?",
"timestamp": [
1471.93,
1474.55
]
},
{
"text": "You know, I have some vague hand-waving",
"timestamp": [
1474.55,
1476.07
]
},
{
"text": "You know, I have some vague hand-waving",
"timestamp": [
1474.55,
1476.07
]
},
{
"text": "I can tell you about,\nbut if you gave me a pen",
"timestamp": [
1476.07,
1479.03
]
},
{
"text": "I can tell you about,\nbut if you gave me a pen",
"timestamp": [
1476.07,
1479.03
]
},
{
"text": "and told me, like, \"Okay, write it down,",
"timestamp": [
1479.03,
1480.24
]
},
{
"text": "and told me, like, \"Okay, write it down,",
"timestamp": [
1479.03,
1480.24
]
},
{
"text": "specifically the equations\nand what they mean",
"timestamp": [
1480.24,
1482.38
]
},
{
"text": "specifically the equations\nand what they mean",
"timestamp": [
1480.24,
1482.38
]
},
{
"text": "and how the point model works and stuff.\"",
"timestamp": [
1482.38,
1484.56
]
},
{
"text": "and how the point model works and stuff.\"",
"timestamp": [
1482.38,
1484.56
]
},
{
"text": "Right, no idea, but designers\nare like the other side.",
"timestamp": [
1484.56,
1487.94
]
},
{
"text": "Right, no idea, but designers\nare like the other side.",
"timestamp": [
1484.56,
1487.94
]
},
{
"text": "It's almost like, I don't\nwanna say the lazy side of it.",
"timestamp": [
1487.94,
1491.15
]
},
{
"text": "It's almost like, I don't\nwanna say the lazy side of it.",
"timestamp": [
1487.94,
1491.15
]
},
{
"text": "- It's the easier side.",
"timestamp": [
1491.15,
1492.33
]
},
{
"text": "- It's the easier side.",
"timestamp": [
1491.15,
1492.33
]
},
{
"text": "I would say my side is\nthe easier side, right?",
"timestamp": [
1492.33,
1495.48
]
},
{
"text": "I would say my side is\nthe easier side, right?",
"timestamp": [
1492.33,
1495.48
]
},
{
"text": "I'm on the offensive side.\nI want to break into things.",
"timestamp": [
1495.48,
1498.24
]
},
{
"text": "I'm on the offensive side.\nI want to break into things.",
"timestamp": [
1495.48,
1498.24
]
},
{
"text": "Someone on the defense side,",
"timestamp": [
1498.24,
1500.12
]
},
{
"text": "Someone on the defense side,",
"timestamp": [
1498.24,
1500.12
]
},
{
"text": "they might have, you know,\na system was developed",
"timestamp": [
1500.12,
1502.07
]
},
{
"text": "they might have, you know,\na system was developed",
"timestamp": [
1500.12,
1502.07
]
},
{
"text": "and they now need to\npatch a hundred holes.",
"timestamp": [
1502.07,
1504.64
]
},
{
"text": "and they now need to\npatch a hundred holes.",
"timestamp": [
1502.07,
1504.64
]
},
{
"text": "They patch 99 of them. I\nonly need to find that one.",
"timestamp": [
1504.64,
1506.968
]
},
{
"text": "They patch 99 of them. I\nonly need to find that one.",
"timestamp": [
1504.64,
1506.968
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. There's no downsides\nis what you're saying.",
"timestamp": [
1506.968,
1509.14
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. There's no downsides\nis what you're saying.",
"timestamp": [
1506.968,
1509.14
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, only when you get caught.",
"timestamp": [
1509.14,
1510.39
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, only when you get caught.",
"timestamp": [
1509.14,
1510.39
]
},
{
"text": "I hope you learned\nsomething about hacking.",
"timestamp": [
1510.39,
1512.04
]
},
{
"text": "I hope you learned\nsomething about hacking.",
"timestamp": [
1510.39,
1512.04
]
},
{
"text": "Maybe next time a system behaves in a way",
"timestamp": [
1512.04,
1514.29
]
},
{
"text": "Maybe next time a system behaves in a way",
"timestamp": [
1512.04,
1514.29
]
},
{
"text": "that you weren't expecting, you\nmight just be curious enough",
"timestamp": [
1514.29,
1516.92
]
},
{
"text": "that you weren't expecting, you\nmight just be curious enough",
"timestamp": [
1514.29,
1516.92
]
},
{
"text": "to try to understand why.",
"timestamp": [
1516.92,
1518.56
]
},
{
"text": "to try to understand why.",
"timestamp": [
1516.92,
1518.56
]
},
{
"text": "Thanks for watching.\n[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
1518.56,
1521.513
]
},
{
"text": "Thanks for watching.\n[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
1518.56,
1521.513
]
}
] |
[
[
"Intro",
"- Hi, my name is Samy Kamkar.I am a security researcher,\ncomputer hacker,and co-founder of Openpath Security.I've been challenged today\nto explain one simple conceptin five levels of increasing complexity.My topic, hacking.Hacking to me is using or\nmanipulating a system in a waythat it wasn't intended\nor really expected.And that could be a computer\nor it could be a phoneor a drone or a satellite.It could really be anything."
],
[
"What is hacking",
"[bright music]Do you know what computer hacking is?- It's bad.Like, I'm going into someone'spersonal account or account,changing some stuff or just\nstealing some informationor your money.- Yeah, it's crazy.They're really a lot of bad\nor malicious hackers out therewho are doing just that.They're going into people's accountsand they're stealing money,but there's also another side\nof computer hacking wherethere are people who\nare trying to learn howthose bad hackers are actually breaking into the bank accounts.- Do they, like, return the money?Like, give them their money\nor something like that?- What they're trying to do isthey're trying to even preventthe bad hackers from getting\nin in the first place.- So they put like a protection\naccount or something.- Yeah, exactly.They're looking for ways that\nthey can create protection.It's kind of like the\nlock on your front door.That lock is to essentially preventbad people from coming inor people accidentally coming\nin when they shouldn't.A hacker is essentially looking at a way,how can I get into this lock?But then there are the good\nones who are trying to unlock itso that they can tell the\ncompany that made the lock, hey,we can actually protect peopleby making the lock a little harder.- What would they do about the\npeople and the broken lock?- In many cases, they'll\nsend them a new lock.So it's an upgraded, better version.Sometimes that's new features,but sometimes that's bug fixesand ways to protect you as well.- But like, they may get arrestedbecause they might get mistaken.- That's a very good point.You should definitely make sure\nthat you're obeying the law.They might work with the\nlock company and say,\"I'm trying to improve your product.\"And they're trying to find\nthese holes or problems,and then share that with the company.Even though the good hacker is\ndoing exactly the same thingas the bad hacker, it's\nthe same exact skillset,and you're using the same exact\ntechniques and informationto try to break that lock,but your goal as a good hacker\nis really to help everyonelike you and me to make sure\nthat our stuff is protected.So hopefully they don't get in troublebecause they're the good guys.- When did you start doing,\nlike, the good hacking?- I started doing the good hackingwhen I turned nine years old.\n- Wow.- I started going on the\ncomputer and playing video games,but I had some ideas of my own,and that's where I started\nto learn how to hack.I wanted to play with my\nfriends on this video gameand just change the way that things look.- But that would be kinda bad,because maybe the creator\ndid it for a reason.- That's entirely possible.They may have done it for a reason,but you may have come up\nwith a really good idea that,do you think there are other peoplewho might like the idea\nthat you came up with?- Yeah.- When you have creative ideas like that,hacking can actually allow you tochange the way a system works,and that means you can change a gameand how the game is played,and then you can share\nthat with your friendsand other people who like that game.Once I started learning how to do it,I found that, things\nthat were harder for me,I could make easier.- Did your parents approve of it?- I don't think my parents knew,but when my parents found out\nthat I was doing it for good,I think they were happy."
],
[
"What is computer hacking",
"[bright music]Do you do anything with\ncomputers or any coding?- I like to play coding games,and I like to go on\ncode.org, and they havea variety of games for different ages.So like, I really like to do that.For example, like the game Flappy Bird,it's like puzzle pieces,\nso they would tell youto connect something and\nthen you would play the gameand then you could see what you connected.- [Samy] Interesting, so it's\nlike a graphical interfacewhere you can connect\ndifferent pieces together.Kinda like wire them together.- [Linda] Yeah.- Oh, that's pretty cool.What do you know about computer hacking?- I don't really know much\nabout computer hacking actually.- So on code.org, one of\nthe things you've been doingis actually building a gameor that they have a game\nand then you can actuallyrewire some of the inputs\nand outputs of that.Is that right?\n- Yeah.- Okay. With computer hacking,\nit's actually the same thing.Really, you have some sort of systemand you have a bunch of inputsand you have some sort of output,and actually you, as the designer,you're essentially designing\ngames and software.You're saying, well,I will only allow a user to\nreally control these inputs.Can you think of any inputs\nthe computer might have?- [Linda] Space bar.- Yep, there's also things like your mouseand there's even things\nlike the microphone itselfis actually an input device.It's taking something from you,which is the sound and it's\nthen transmitting that,ad it's actually sending it to me.Are there any other things that\nyou can talk to a computer?You can give it information.- Camera.- That's absolutely another inputthat exists on your computer.That's how I try to think of thingsis there's just a bunch of inputs.Often, if you're trying to break somethingor hack something, you're\nreally saying, okay,how can I control these\ninputs in a way thatwasn't necessarily expected?- What inputs would you\nnormally use to hack?- Typically, it's going to be somethinglike the keyboard, right?I'm just going to be typing keystrokesto be talking to some piece\nof software or hardware,but other times it can be other thingslike even the temperature of a computercan actually affect how\nthe computer operates,and it might be advantageous\nto me to cool down the computerand actually slow down the\nmovement of electrons insomething like memory, so\nthat if a computer shuts off,it stores something that\nwasn't memory like a passwordand stores it for a long enough timethat I might be able to actuallyextract it through some other methods.- How long does it take to get in?- It just depends what\nyou're trying to do.In some cases, it could\nliterally be secondsbecause you already know\nhow the system works,and other times, it could be years.So what have you learned about hacking?- I think hacking is\nactually really interesting.There's different languages to hack in.I've also learned that a lot\nof things could be hackedthat you don't necessarily\nthink that can be hacked.[bright music]"
],
[
"Studying cyber security",
"- Have you started studying cybersecurity?- I started this year,\nI took my first course,so haven't gone too deep into it,but we got a basic idea of, like,basics of information\nand network security.We learned about how networks are set up,like the different types of\ntopologies, like Star and Mesh,and also how networks are designedwith different levels of security.- Have you heard of the breach of Targetwhere they were breached many years agoand their point of sale\nsystems were hacked?- Yes, I heard about that.- So where people are\nswiping credit cards,those credit card numbers were stolen.They hired a company to come inand perform a penetration test to see,can the good guys\nessentially break in againto prevent this sort\nof thing in the future?And when this team came in,they found they actually were ableto get pretty much to the\nsame point of sale system,and the way they did\nthat was by exploitingan internet-connected deli meat scale.Once the company was able to essentiallyget into the deli scale,because the deli scale was\non the internal network,then they were able to really\nescalate privilege and finda vulnerability within another system.Essentially, that just\ngot them into the network.and once you're in the network,it's often really easy to\nthen escalate from there.- I've heard about similar attacksin hospitals using hospital equipment,but I'm surprised that something\nas simple as a meat scalewould have been used in such an attack.We discussed it in class\nas how hackers look atsome of the weakest links\nin these large networksand use those to tap into networks.- Yeah, that's another\ninteresting concept.It's really just different layersthat we have for protection,because often when you're talking aboutsomething like a corporate network,or even your home network,you typically have sort of\none level of defense, right?If someone can break thator it can get in through some other systemthat is connected or exposessome other protocol,\nlike Bluetooth, right?You can connect to a Bluetooth devicewithout being on the wireless network,without being on the LAN.That potentially gives you another placethat you can pivot on and\nthen access other devices,because if something has both\nBluetooth and also Wi-Fi,well, if you can get in through Bluetooth,then you can then access the Wi-Fiand get to other devices on the network.Are you familiar with buffer overflows?- No, I am not familiar with that.- If we were to write a program\nthat asked for your nameand you typed in your name,but before you could type in your name,in a low leveling, which is like C or C++,you'd have to allocate some memory.So you might allocate a\nbuffer of a hundred bytesbecause whose name is going to be longerthan a hundred bytes\nor a hundred character?But what happens if you\nwere to not really checkthat they limited to a hundred bytes?Do you know what happens\nif they essentiallystart typing over that hundred bytes?- In that case,it would be an error for\naccessing invalid memory.- Absolutely, you would essentially causea segmentation fault.\n- Yeah.- But what's really cool about that is,when you're going into memory,you're starting to cross overthat boundary of that\nhundred byte allocation,and now you're starting to\nwrite over additional memory.That other memory is\nreally important stuff.So you have your name,\nthe hundred bytes there,and then right next to your\nname is the return address,and that's the address that\nthe code is gonna executeand it's going to return to\nafter that function is done,and it's going to jump to that address,but after you type your hundred bytes,the next few bites that you type,you're actually going to\noverwrite that return address.So that return address\ncould essentially beanother address in memory.So what you end up\ndoing is you type a nameand it's not really a name,\nit's really just code.And that code, you keep typing untilyou get to the return address,and you start typing an address,which is really the beginning of your nameand your computer or your processoris actually going to read that addressand it will jump back to the beginningand then execute that payload.So that was sort of the very\nfirst thing that I think wassuper exciting to me when I startedlearning about really reverse engineering.- So how does the buffer overloadingrelate to what you are doing in terms ofnetwork security or designing softwarefor penetration testing?- Ever since buffer overflow\nstarted many years ago,there been a lot of protection mechanismsbuilt to make it difficult to exploit.More and more, we're actually usingsmaller and smaller computerswith smaller amounts of compute power.If you take a car, you have\nhundreds of microcontrollersthat are all running there.So they don't really have a\nsophisticated operating systemthat can try to prevent\nattacks like buffer overflows.So how do we keep these low\ncost computers in here whileadding layers of protection\nto prevent maliceand these types of attacks?Sometimes it actually is,how can we write softwareor how can we build a systemthat prevents these types\nof attacks from entering?But oftentimes, it's really\nlooking for how can we findnew attacks that we haven't\neven necessarily thought of?What got you interested\nin computer scienceand information security?- I got interested in cybersecuritybecause I'm really into global\naffairs, global politics,and you often hear in the news aboutthe rising power of China,\nthe rising power of Iran.I enjoy how interdisciplinary\ncomputer science is.Like, nowadays there's so much going onin the world of computers and\nthat's what fascinated me.- You brought up China and Iran,and something that's\ninteresting about those areasis really censorship, right?They have essentially censored internet.In the US, we have a really interestinginternal struggle here\nwhere we actually havegovernment agencies like\nthe state departmentthat are funding software\nto evade censorship,like Tor and other mechanisms.While then we also have an\ninternal struggle where we haveother organizations like the NSAwho are specifically looking\nto break that exact same systemthat the US government is also funding.- There are a lot of ethical questionsabout whether we should be\nintervening in other countries,but it's pretty interesting thattwo different agencies of the governmentare actually working on\ncontrasting technology.I can actually understand that becauseif we are creating a technologythat we are going to\ndeploy somewhere else,we should know its limitations.We should know how to control it.- It's good for us to understandhow these systems can really break down.Although, I think one thing that I seeis that some of, let's say,the organizations that\nare looking to break thisare not necessarily going to shareonce they actually learn that information.They might actually sort of\nhold that in their back pocketand use it when it's advantageous to them."
],
[
"Projects",
"[bright music]What kind of projects are you working on?- This is the end of my first year.I'm a PhD student at NYU\nTandon School of Engineering.I'm studying security systems\nand operating systems.So, security for operating systems.I've been mostly working on a projectthat limits executables'\nexposure to bugs in the kernel.It's run by professor Justin Cappos there.He found that the majority of bugsthat occur in the Linux kernelhappen when you're doing things thatpeople don't do that often,the programs don't do that often.So designing a runtime\nenvironment that lets youlimit what a certain\nprogram has access to,but also the things that\nit does have access tois also limited to those\npopular paths in the kernel.So it can't access areas that\naren't under more scrutiny.- So essentially it's a really,definitely a stripped\ndown operating system,or I guess it's a virtual machine.- Basically, we're creating a\nuser space operating system.- Have you done any work\nin side channel analysis?- Like, a little bit.I read the Rowhammer paper.I found it really interesting,but it's nothing that\nI've actually worked with.- So the side channel\nanalysis is really lookingnot at a vulnerability within a system,but really unintended consequencesof what the system is built on.A very simple example of a side channelis putting your ear to\nthe ground to hear ifthere are horses coming towards you,and the same thing applies to technology.So you can have something likea CPU, it's executing instructions,certain instructions that\nuse a little bit more power,and power is reserved in these capacitors,which are like tiny\nbatteries next to your CPU.And as they're pulling power,there's something in physics calledthe electrostrictive effectwhere the capacitor will move\nin a very, very tiny amount.And then although we can't hear it,the microphone on a mobile devicecan actually listen to that.If you then listen to that and you say,oh, I see a pattern here,and you can go all the way downand then extract and reveal the\nfull password, the full key,even though it could be argued thatthe algorithm itself,\nthere's no problem with it.- So all memory devices are just,it's just a bunch of\ngates and they're in rows.They basically all hold\ndifferent pieces of memory.That's all the gates are.Either they're turned on\nor they're turned off.So what Rowhammer found was they testeda bunch of different memory\ndevices and found thatby doing a certain\norder of storing things,and then pulling that\ninformation back in a certain wayin one place would actually\nflip gates in a different place.So you could actually do a bunch of thingsto a piece of memory that\nhad nothing to do withsomething that may be\ncritical in a different placeand actually change its contents,and that obviously exposes\nall sorts of security issues,because that's very hard to predict.- Yeah, I suppose the physical adjacencyof the underlying\ntransistors and capacitorsthat are holding that storage.That's crazy.I think the first time I heard ofan interesting attack\nlike that was learningabout the cold boot attack.Being able to, you know,someone enters their\npassword on their computerand that decrypts their hard\ndrive and then they walk away.Being able to extract that\npassword is really difficult.If I can pull that memory chip\nout and extract that memory,put it in my own device,except the problem is memory is volatile,so it'll erase as soon as I pull it out.You can take something like\ncanned air, turn it upside down,cool that computer, make\nit real nice and cool.Then you have a minute or\ntwo to pull out the memory,put into your own device,\nextract the memory,and then you're good.It's such a simple method to reallyextract something kind of critical.Like Rowhammer, it's such a\nlow level of vulnerabilityand you could argue that\nit's not necessarilya vulnerability in the\narchitecture itself,but rather exploitation\nof physics at that point.- I've spent a decent amount\nof time with this stuff,and in my mind, a lot\nof that is a nightmare.Over the last year while I\nwas doing some other stuff,I actually designed some\nmicrocontroller boardsfor a company that was doing stuff with,like, a smart watering project.The problems with updating is just, like,that scares me the most.Like, people don't update their own stuff,let alone these, like, devices.- I keep forgetting to update my fridge.- I find myself trying to shy awayfrom owning like smart things.- That's pretty challengingif you want to use wireless, right?If you wanna use a wireless router.- Yeah, I mean, there's\nobviously essentials,but yeah, no matter what,you can't really avoid any of this.- The risk right now, just\nduring this quarantine,is actually massive now\nthat we think about it,because you might have\nthese legacy systems.You know, they were\nbuilt 20, 30 years ago,and it's too costly to upgrade,but now you can't actually\nhave a lot of peoplein a single location, so potentially,they actually do have\nto now add some sort ofremote capabilities to these systemsthat were never meant\nto be on the internet.Have you ever had any ethical concernswith the stuff you're interested\nin or the work you do?- Oh yeah, for sure.When people find vulnerabilities,I think it's their duty to\nrelease those to the public.- Especially now that we're\nseeing more and more companieswho are trying to make it illegal for youto inspect the vehicle that\nyou've purchased, right?Something that you actually own.- Yeah, I think that's nuts.I'm firmly against that for sure.- What if it were illegal?Would you then do it?Fortunately it's not today, right?It hasn't been, you know,\ndespite their attempts,none of that has been passed,but if you had a vehicle and\nyou wanted to inspect it,but all of a sudden, it passed, I mean.- I don't know, probably, yeah.[laughing]I don't think that's hurting anyone,- But the laws don't always\nequate to hurting anyone.I ethically think similar\nto you in that, you know,what is moral to me isas long as I'm not intentionally\nhurting others, right?- Yeah.I think we see every day\nthat ethics and the lawsaren't necessarily the\nsame thing all the time."
],
[
"Interview",
"[bright music]- Hey Colin, we already know each other,but why don't you introduce yourselffor the people watching?- Hi, I'm Colin O'Flynn.I live in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.I do hardware hacking both in academiaat Dalhousie University,and in industry at my\nstartup, NewAE Technology.- What have you been up to?And yeah, what are you working on?- Lately I've been doing, you know,always a little bit of\nside channel analysis.So what I really do, you\nknow, is all hardware layer.So I've been looking, you know,at some various devices lately,at how susceptible they\nare to fault attacks,what that sort of means in real life.You know, not just\npurely the research side,but also how much should\nyou care about it.- Maybe a mutual acquaintance of ours,Jasper gave a example of fault injection,and I like to use that as,when I'm trying to\nexplain fault injection,he shows a pinball machine\nand the pinball machine,obviously the two inputs\nare the two plungerswhen you're playing a pinball machine,but fault injection,you can tilt the entire\npinball machine, right?You're just introducing\nsome external variablethat's outside of the traditional inputsthat you're used toand you've now controlled the environmentin a advantageous way to\nthe user or the player.Can you give an example of\nsome type of fault injectionthat you're doing or working on?- One of them was looking at, like,a little hardware Bitcoin wallet,and you could use fault injectionto actually recover secrets from it,and a lot of devices.I mean, the whole idea\nis pretty cool, right?Because you tell the device,\n\"Hey, I want to authenticate,\"and it's supposed to runsome really crazy math\nthat authenticates it,but instead of doing that crazy\nmath and attacking the math,you just attack the check at the end.- We're also scratching the surface of,like, what is possible?It's not necessarily\njust the system itselfand not necessarily that algorithm itself.Like you said, you don't necessarilyneed to attack the math in some cases.You can just attack that check.And I think something\nthat's been pretty coolis looking at higher energy particles.It's going to be maybe\nhard to entirely confirm,but I think it'd be really,\nreally cool to actually see.Like, I want to see one of these faultsbecause I haven't seen it myself.And also, how do you\nknow that you've seen it?I've started playing with, like,\nsetting up a cloud chamber.A cloud chamber lets you actually viewhigh energy particles going throughsort of like in a small jar\nwith some evaporated alcohol.And I thought it'd be really coolif we put some memory chip in there,like a basic memory chip and\nwe just fill it with some data,but then you put a camera on\nthat area and you just watch.Assuming that there is\na high energy particlethat actually hits that memory,that should potentially flip\nthe energy state of that bit.The outside microcontrollersshould be able to read\nthat and actually say,\"Oh wait, the data, even\nthough I'm not changing data,I'm only reading data,\"and we should be able to\nvisibly or optically see it.What I'm wondering is could\nthat be a next area of research?Because I don't think\nanyone's actually looking atintentionally injecting\nhigh energy particlesto take over a computer,\nwhen really, you know,that's another technique\nfor fault injection,technically speaking.- This was actually tied\ninto something recentlyI was looking at, which was, you know,flipping flash and EPROM memory.- You mean flipping bits within flash?- Yeah, exactly, right.So flipping it in this\nsort of flash memory.And so someone's done it with x-rays.There's actually, I forget who now.There's a paper, at least one,and it's just like a\nlittle plate they makewith like a hole in it to\nconcentrate the x-ray sourceand it works, so yeah,\nit's super interesting.Like, one bit in memory means a lot,especially in the flash memory side.Yeah, visualizing it would be cool though.- I've never seen...Maybe call it a verifiable\nvisualization of it, right?We know it's true, you know,you can get skin cancer by going outsideand having too many high\nenergy particles hit you,but we've never seen it.And we know it can happen\nto a computer chip,but I've never seen both.- Yeah, so actually, so\nit's funny you mentioned,like, making it more obvious.I mean, staying on fault\ninjection right now,this is lately what I've been up to.A lot of making a little\nkind of, you know,like electronics kits of old, right?And you can assemble it all\nyourself and see how it works.So making something like\nthat for fault injection.So all kind of older\nlogic and stuff like that.So, I mean, it's sort of based on, like,you're presented the little MUX chip.You know, voltage switcher.That sort of idea, using\njust discreet logicto generate the actual glitch itself.So, but you know, it's part\nof, I think, this stuff, right?It's like people don't\nknow about it sometimes.Like, even engineers designing systems.It's new to a lot of people.- The thing is, even\nif you know about that,then there's so many others thatsomeone won't necessarily know about,because there's so many, I guess,potential areas for a fault to occur.Where do you think security is goingor new research is going?Are there any new areas you thinkare coming out or are going\nto be more interesting,you know, pretty soon?- Fault injection has\nbecome pretty interesting.Like, there's been a lot\nof people poking at that,and I think a lot more\nproducts of interest.Side channel still might\nhave a bit of a comeback.Basically, what I kind of see isa lot of the really cool\nstuff has been in academiabecause product security\nhasn't kept up, right?For the longest time, doing\nthese attacks on hardwarewas pretty straightforward.You didn't need these crazy attacks.It looks like a lot of\ndevices are coming out nowthat actually have real\nclaims to security, right?More than just a data sheet mentioned.There's actually something behind it.- For me, I think the\nthings that have beenrecent and super interestingare typically down to\nphysics-level effectsthat maybe we haven't seen before.I think my mind was blown with the,there was the light commands research,and they were able to modulate sound,although it's purely\nover light using a laser,they would hit the MEMS microphone,and it was picking that up and\nwas able to then interpret itand essentially take control over light.- I'm curious of the backstory\nto how they found that.Because if you told me that, right?So you said like, \"Hey, Colin,\nyou should test this out.\"I probably would be like, \"It\nprobably won't even work.\"Which is like a lot of side channels.When I first heard about it, you know,working, doing firmware\nstuff, it was like,\"Oh, that sounds like it's not gonna work.Like, that sounds impossible.\"You know, the whole area\nof hardware hacking,it feels kinda like cheating\nbecause, you know, as you said,someone designing the\nsystem needs to know aboutso many different ways, right?So there's so many ways\nto break the system,and if you're designing them,\nyou need to know all of them,but when you're attacking it,you really need to know one, right?So I can know nothing about, like,how does ECC actually work?You know, I have some vague hand-wavingI can tell you about,\nbut if you gave me a penand told me, like, \"Okay, write it down,specifically the equations\nand what they meanand how the point model works and stuff.\"Right, no idea, but designers\nare like the other side.It's almost like, I don't\nwanna say the lazy side of it.- It's the easier side.I would say my side is\nthe easier side, right?I'm on the offensive side.\nI want to break into things.Someone on the defense side,they might have, you know,\na system was developedand they now need to\npatch a hundred holes.They patch 99 of them. I\nonly need to find that one.- Yeah. There's no downsides\nis what you're saying.- Yeah, only when you get caught.I hope you learned\nsomething about hacking.Maybe next time a system behaves in a waythat you weren't expecting, you\nmight just be curious enoughto try to understand why.Thanks for watching.\n[bright music]"
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Nanotechnology Expert Explains One Concept in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
WW0IIyrq8z4
| 1,440
|
[
{
"end_time": 40,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "Introduction"
},
{
"end_time": 211,
"start_time": 40,
"title": "What is nanotechnology"
},
{
"end_time": 413,
"start_time": 211,
"title": "How does nanotechnology work"
},
{
"end_time": 964,
"start_time": 413,
"title": "Quantum dots"
},
{
"end_time": 1440,
"start_time": 964,
"title": "Inspiration from nature"
}
] |
[
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm George Tulevski,\nand I'm a research scientist",
"timestamp": [
0.14,
2.93
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm George Tulevski,\nand I'm a research scientist",
"timestamp": [
0.14,
2.93
]
},
{
"text": "at IBM TJ Watson Research Center.",
"timestamp": [
2.93,
5.03
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},
{
"text": "at IBM TJ Watson Research Center.",
"timestamp": [
2.93,
5.03
]
},
{
"text": "Today I've been challenged\nto teach one concept",
"timestamp": [
5.03,
8.01
]
},
{
"text": "Today I've been challenged\nto teach one concept",
"timestamp": [
5.03,
8.01
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
8.01,
10.3
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
8.01,
10.3
]
},
{
"text": "And my topic is nanotechnology.",
"timestamp": [
10.3,
12.54
]
},
{
"text": "And my topic is nanotechnology.",
"timestamp": [
10.3,
12.54
]
},
{
"text": "Nanotechnology is a study\nof objects in the nanoscale",
"timestamp": [
12.54,
16.13
]
},
{
"text": "Nanotechnology is a study\nof objects in the nanoscale",
"timestamp": [
12.54,
16.13
]
},
{
"text": "between 1 and 100 nanometers in size.",
"timestamp": [
16.13,
18.98
]
},
{
"text": "between 1 and 100 nanometers in size.",
"timestamp": [
16.13,
18.98
]
},
{
"text": "And it turns out that\nobjects in this size scale",
"timestamp": [
18.98,
21.65
]
},
{
"text": "And it turns out that\nobjects in this size scale",
"timestamp": [
18.98,
21.65
]
},
{
"text": "have really interesting properties",
"timestamp": [
21.65,
23.36
]
},
{
"text": "have really interesting properties",
"timestamp": [
21.65,
23.36
]
},
{
"text": "that differ from objects\nat a macroscopic scale.",
"timestamp": [
23.36,
26.55
]
},
{
"text": "that differ from objects\nat a macroscopic scale.",
"timestamp": [
23.36,
26.55
]
},
{
"text": "Our task is nanotechnologists",
"timestamp": [
26.55,
28.38
]
},
{
"text": "Our task is nanotechnologists",
"timestamp": [
26.55,
28.38
]
},
{
"text": "is to understand these materials,",
"timestamp": [
28.38,
30.39
]
},
{
"text": "is to understand these materials,",
"timestamp": [
28.38,
30.39
]
},
{
"text": "understand their properties,",
"timestamp": [
30.39,
31.91
]
},
{
"text": "understand their properties,",
"timestamp": [
30.39,
31.91
]
},
{
"text": "and then try to build new technologies",
"timestamp": [
31.91,
34.08
]
},
{
"text": "and then try to build new technologies",
"timestamp": [
31.91,
34.08
]
},
{
"text": "based on these properties.",
"timestamp": [
34.08,
35.54
]
},
{
"text": "based on these properties.",
"timestamp": [
34.08,
35.54
]
},
{
"text": "At the end of the day, my hope",
"timestamp": [
35.54,
37.22
]
},
{
"text": "At the end of the day, my hope",
"timestamp": [
35.54,
37.22
]
},
{
"text": "is that you'll understand\nnanotechnology at some level.",
"timestamp": [
37.22,
39.983
]
},
{
"text": "is that you'll understand\nnanotechnology at some level.",
"timestamp": [
37.22,
39.983
]
},
{
"text": "Hi, are you Bella?\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
43.19,
45.23
]
},
{
"text": "Hi, are you Bella?\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
43.19,
45.23
]
},
{
"text": "- Bella, I'm George, nice to meet you.",
"timestamp": [
45.23,
46.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Bella, I'm George, nice to meet you.",
"timestamp": [
45.23,
46.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Nice to meet you too!\n- I'm a research scientist.",
"timestamp": [
46.81,
49.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Nice to meet you too!\n- I'm a research scientist.",
"timestamp": [
46.81,
49.31
]
},
{
"text": "Do you like science?\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
49.31,
50.92
]
},
{
"text": "Do you like science?\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
49.31,
50.92
]
},
{
"text": "- I wanted to talk to you about\na specific type of science",
"timestamp": [
50.92,
54.16
]
},
{
"text": "- I wanted to talk to you about\na specific type of science",
"timestamp": [
50.92,
54.16
]
},
{
"text": "called nanotechnology.",
"timestamp": [
54.16,
55.37
]
},
{
"text": "called nanotechnology.",
"timestamp": [
54.16,
55.37
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever heard of this word before?",
"timestamp": [
55.37,
56.993
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever heard of this word before?",
"timestamp": [
55.37,
56.993
]
},
{
"text": "- Nhn nhn.",
"timestamp": [
56.993,
57.826
]
},
{
"text": "- Nhn nhn.",
"timestamp": [
56.993,
57.826
]
},
{
"text": "- Nano is kind of a funny word, right?",
"timestamp": [
57.826,
59.34
]
},
{
"text": "- Nano is kind of a funny word, right?",
"timestamp": [
57.826,
59.34
]
},
{
"text": "It's a word that's used\nbefore another word,",
"timestamp": [
59.34,
61.56
]
},
{
"text": "It's a word that's used\nbefore another word,",
"timestamp": [
59.34,
61.56
]
},
{
"text": "and it means one billion.",
"timestamp": [
61.56,
63.23
]
},
{
"text": "and it means one billion.",
"timestamp": [
61.56,
63.23
]
},
{
"text": "What's the smallest\nobject you can think of?",
"timestamp": [
63.23,
65.747
]
},
{
"text": "What's the smallest\nobject you can think of?",
"timestamp": [
63.23,
65.747
]
},
{
"text": "- A baby ant?\n- A baby ant?",
"timestamp": [
65.747,
67.93
]
},
{
"text": "- A baby ant?\n- A baby ant?",
"timestamp": [
65.747,
67.93
]
},
{
"text": "Very good.",
"timestamp": [
67.93,
68.763
]
},
{
"text": "Very good.",
"timestamp": [
67.93,
68.763
]
},
{
"text": "So I have over here a meter\nstick, let me show it to you.",
"timestamp": [
68.763,
71.44
]
},
{
"text": "So I have over here a meter\nstick, let me show it to you.",
"timestamp": [
68.763,
71.44
]
},
{
"text": "And so that's a meter and\nif I divide it by 1000,",
"timestamp": [
71.44,
75.14
]
},
{
"text": "And so that's a meter and\nif I divide it by 1000,",
"timestamp": [
71.44,
75.14
]
},
{
"text": "I get a millimeter. So\nmilli just means 1000.",
"timestamp": [
75.14,
78.46
]
},
{
"text": "I get a millimeter. So\nmilli just means 1000.",
"timestamp": [
75.14,
78.46
]
},
{
"text": "There's all these little\nlines on the ruler.",
"timestamp": [
78.46,
80.6
]
},
{
"text": "There's all these little\nlines on the ruler.",
"timestamp": [
78.46,
80.6
]
},
{
"text": "And each of those little\nlines is one millimeter.",
"timestamp": [
80.6,
82.84
]
},
{
"text": "And each of those little\nlines is one millimeter.",
"timestamp": [
80.6,
82.84
]
},
{
"text": "So a baby ant is probably\na couple of millimeters.",
"timestamp": [
82.84,
85.43
]
},
{
"text": "So a baby ant is probably\na couple of millimeters.",
"timestamp": [
82.84,
85.43
]
},
{
"text": "So even the thing,\nthat's the smallest thing",
"timestamp": [
85.43,
87.34
]
},
{
"text": "So even the thing,\nthat's the smallest thing",
"timestamp": [
85.43,
87.34
]
},
{
"text": "you can think of, it's\na million times bigger",
"timestamp": [
87.34,
89.73
]
},
{
"text": "you can think of, it's\na million times bigger",
"timestamp": [
87.34,
89.73
]
},
{
"text": "than a nanometer.",
"timestamp": [
89.73,
90.83
]
},
{
"text": "than a nanometer.",
"timestamp": [
89.73,
90.83
]
},
{
"text": "Tiny, tiny, tiny.\n- Tiny, tiny, tiny, tiny.",
"timestamp": [
90.83,
93.983
]
},
{
"text": "Tiny, tiny, tiny.\n- Tiny, tiny, tiny, tiny.",
"timestamp": [
90.83,
93.983
]
},
{
"text": "- If I took this stick and I\nwas to draw 1 billion lines,",
"timestamp": [
95.52,
100.51
]
},
{
"text": "- If I took this stick and I\nwas to draw 1 billion lines,",
"timestamp": [
95.52,
100.51
]
},
{
"text": "the distance between those two\nlines would be one nanometer.",
"timestamp": [
100.51,
103.85
]
},
{
"text": "the distance between those two\nlines would be one nanometer.",
"timestamp": [
100.51,
103.85
]
},
{
"text": "So that's really all it is.\nIt's just a measure of size.",
"timestamp": [
103.85,
106.68
]
},
{
"text": "So that's really all it is.\nIt's just a measure of size.",
"timestamp": [
103.85,
106.68
]
},
{
"text": "But it's really, really, really tiny,",
"timestamp": [
106.68,
109.66
]
},
{
"text": "But it's really, really, really tiny,",
"timestamp": [
106.68,
109.66
]
},
{
"text": "smaller than anything that\nwe can see with our eyes.",
"timestamp": [
109.66,
113.21
]
},
{
"text": "smaller than anything that\nwe can see with our eyes.",
"timestamp": [
109.66,
113.21
]
},
{
"text": "The reason why, in\nnanotechnology, scientists,",
"timestamp": [
113.21,
116.79
]
},
{
"text": "The reason why, in\nnanotechnology, scientists,",
"timestamp": [
113.21,
116.79
]
},
{
"text": "we care about things that are that small,",
"timestamp": [
116.79,
119.06
]
},
{
"text": "we care about things that are that small,",
"timestamp": [
116.79,
119.06
]
},
{
"text": "is because there are objects called atoms.",
"timestamp": [
119.06,
121.99
]
},
{
"text": "is because there are objects called atoms.",
"timestamp": [
119.06,
121.99
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever heard of atoms before?",
"timestamp": [
121.99,
123.21
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever heard of atoms before?",
"timestamp": [
121.99,
123.21
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
123.21,
124.74
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
123.21,
124.74
]
},
{
"text": "I first heard of them",
"timestamp": [
124.74,
126.13
]
},
{
"text": "I first heard of them",
"timestamp": [
124.74,
126.13
]
},
{
"text": "on a show I watched called \"StoryBots.\"",
"timestamp": [
126.13,
129.06
]
},
{
"text": "on a show I watched called \"StoryBots.\"",
"timestamp": [
126.13,
129.06
]
},
{
"text": "They're just little things",
"timestamp": [
129.06,
130.64
]
},
{
"text": "They're just little things",
"timestamp": [
129.06,
130.64
]
},
{
"text": "that make up everything\non Earth, even earth.",
"timestamp": [
130.64,
135.234
]
},
{
"text": "that make up everything\non Earth, even earth.",
"timestamp": [
130.64,
135.234
]
},
{
"text": "- That was a perfect explanation.",
"timestamp": [
135.234,
136.71
]
},
{
"text": "- That was a perfect explanation.",
"timestamp": [
135.234,
136.71
]
},
{
"text": "But what if I told you that scientists",
"timestamp": [
136.71,
138.97
]
},
{
"text": "But what if I told you that scientists",
"timestamp": [
136.71,
138.97
]
},
{
"text": "invented a special type of microscope",
"timestamp": [
138.97,
141.72
]
},
{
"text": "invented a special type of microscope",
"timestamp": [
138.97,
141.72
]
},
{
"text": "that not only lets you see atoms,",
"timestamp": [
141.72,
144.27
]
},
{
"text": "that not only lets you see atoms,",
"timestamp": [
141.72,
144.27
]
},
{
"text": "but also lets you move them around",
"timestamp": [
144.27,
145.92
]
},
{
"text": "but also lets you move them around",
"timestamp": [
144.27,
145.92
]
},
{
"text": "and build things with them.",
"timestamp": [
145.92,
147.293
]
},
{
"text": "and build things with them.",
"timestamp": [
145.92,
147.293
]
},
{
"text": "Would you think that would be pretty cool?",
"timestamp": [
147.293,
148.126
]
},
{
"text": "Would you think that would be pretty cool?",
"timestamp": [
147.293,
148.126
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah!",
"timestamp": [
148.126,
148.959
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah!",
"timestamp": [
148.126,
148.959
]
},
{
"text": "- So it's called a scanning\ntunneling microscope.",
"timestamp": [
148.959,
151.25
]
},
{
"text": "- So it's called a scanning\ntunneling microscope.",
"timestamp": [
148.959,
151.25
]
},
{
"text": "And not only can you see the atoms,",
"timestamp": [
151.25,
152.94
]
},
{
"text": "And not only can you see the atoms,",
"timestamp": [
151.25,
152.94
]
},
{
"text": "but you can move them around.",
"timestamp": [
152.94,
154.04
]
},
{
"text": "but you can move them around.",
"timestamp": [
152.94,
154.04
]
},
{
"text": "Atoms are kind of sticky.",
"timestamp": [
154.04,
155.44
]
},
{
"text": "Atoms are kind of sticky.",
"timestamp": [
154.04,
155.44
]
},
{
"text": "You can actually build\nthings using this instrument",
"timestamp": [
155.44,
158.14
]
},
{
"text": "You can actually build\nthings using this instrument",
"timestamp": [
155.44,
158.14
]
},
{
"text": "with actual individual atoms.",
"timestamp": [
158.14,
160.28
]
},
{
"text": "with actual individual atoms.",
"timestamp": [
158.14,
160.28
]
},
{
"text": "So if I gave you that machine,",
"timestamp": [
160.28,
163.08
]
},
{
"text": "So if I gave you that machine,",
"timestamp": [
160.28,
163.08
]
},
{
"text": "would you want to make something?",
"timestamp": [
163.08,
164.27
]
},
{
"text": "would you want to make something?",
"timestamp": [
163.08,
164.27
]
},
{
"text": "Would you want to look at\nsomething very carefully?",
"timestamp": [
164.27,
166.841
]
},
{
"text": "Would you want to look at\nsomething very carefully?",
"timestamp": [
164.27,
166.841
]
},
{
"text": "- I would want to make\na unicorn out of atoms.",
"timestamp": [
166.841,
171.04
]
},
{
"text": "- I would want to make\na unicorn out of atoms.",
"timestamp": [
166.841,
171.04
]
},
{
"text": "- You are definitely a\nsecond grader! [laughing]",
"timestamp": [
171.04,
172.95
]
},
{
"text": "- You are definitely a\nsecond grader! [laughing]",
"timestamp": [
171.04,
172.95
]
},
{
"text": "My daughter would probably\nanswer the exact same way.",
"timestamp": [
172.95,
175.52
]
},
{
"text": "My daughter would probably\nanswer the exact same way.",
"timestamp": [
172.95,
175.52
]
},
{
"text": "A unicorn would be awesome.",
"timestamp": [
175.52,
177.08
]
},
{
"text": "A unicorn would be awesome.",
"timestamp": [
175.52,
177.08
]
},
{
"text": "- Why do you study stuff so small?",
"timestamp": [
177.08,
180.18
]
},
{
"text": "- Why do you study stuff so small?",
"timestamp": [
177.08,
180.18
]
},
{
"text": "- I study it because\nobjects that are that small",
"timestamp": [
180.18,
183.55
]
},
{
"text": "- I study it because\nobjects that are that small",
"timestamp": [
180.18,
183.55
]
},
{
"text": "have really interesting properties.",
"timestamp": [
183.55,
185.91
]
},
{
"text": "have really interesting properties.",
"timestamp": [
183.55,
185.91
]
},
{
"text": "They behave completely different\nthan objects that are big.",
"timestamp": [
185.91,
190.36
]
},
{
"text": "They behave completely different\nthan objects that are big.",
"timestamp": [
185.91,
190.36
]
},
{
"text": "And because of that,",
"timestamp": [
190.36,
191.28
]
},
{
"text": "And because of that,",
"timestamp": [
190.36,
191.28
]
},
{
"text": "we can build really cool things with them.",
"timestamp": [
191.28,
193.46
]
},
{
"text": "we can build really cool things with them.",
"timestamp": [
191.28,
193.46
]
},
{
"text": "Like really fast computers, for example,",
"timestamp": [
193.46,
196.21
]
},
{
"text": "Like really fast computers, for example,",
"timestamp": [
193.46,
196.21
]
},
{
"text": "or new types of batteries\nor new types of solar cells.",
"timestamp": [
196.21,
199.91
]
},
{
"text": "or new types of batteries\nor new types of solar cells.",
"timestamp": [
196.21,
199.91
]
},
{
"text": "And a lot of nanotechnology",
"timestamp": [
199.91,
201.22
]
},
{
"text": "And a lot of nanotechnology",
"timestamp": [
199.91,
201.22
]
},
{
"text": "is kind of like playing with Legos.",
"timestamp": [
201.22,
202.52
]
},
{
"text": "is kind of like playing with Legos.",
"timestamp": [
201.22,
202.52
]
},
{
"text": "You take these small objects",
"timestamp": [
202.52,
204.16
]
},
{
"text": "You take these small objects",
"timestamp": [
202.52,
204.16
]
},
{
"text": "and you put them together\nto build something new.",
"timestamp": [
204.16,
207.01
]
},
{
"text": "and you put them together\nto build something new.",
"timestamp": [
204.16,
207.01
]
},
{
"text": "Something interesting that\nno one's built before.",
"timestamp": [
207.01,
208.8
]
},
{
"text": "Something interesting that\nno one's built before.",
"timestamp": [
207.01,
208.8
]
},
{
"text": "It's like Legos for scientists.",
"timestamp": [
208.8,
210.902
]
},
{
"text": "It's like Legos for scientists.",
"timestamp": [
208.8,
210.902
]
},
{
"text": "- Cool.\n[light music]",
"timestamp": [
210.902,
214.35
]
},
{
"text": "- Cool.\n[light music]",
"timestamp": [
210.902,
214.35
]
},
{
"text": "- So how old are you?\n- I'm 16.",
"timestamp": [
214.35,
216.4
]
},
{
"text": "- So how old are you?\n- I'm 16.",
"timestamp": [
214.35,
216.4
]
},
{
"text": "- 16. So what is that,\nyou're in 10th grade?",
"timestamp": [
216.4,
218.6
]
},
{
"text": "- 16. So what is that,\nyou're in 10th grade?",
"timestamp": [
216.4,
218.6
]
},
{
"text": "- Junior year. So 11th grade.\n- Have you of nanotechnology?",
"timestamp": [
218.6,
221.5
]
},
{
"text": "- Junior year. So 11th grade.\n- Have you of nanotechnology?",
"timestamp": [
218.6,
221.5
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard of this term before?",
"timestamp": [
221.5,
222.63
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard of this term before?",
"timestamp": [
221.5,
222.63
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I've heard of it.\n- What do you think of",
"timestamp": [
222.63,
224.178
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I've heard of it.\n- What do you think of",
"timestamp": [
222.63,
224.178
]
},
{
"text": "when you think of nanotechnology?",
"timestamp": [
224.178,
225.78
]
},
{
"text": "when you think of nanotechnology?",
"timestamp": [
224.178,
225.78
]
},
{
"text": "- It kind of seems very science fiction.",
"timestamp": [
225.78,
228.57
]
},
{
"text": "- It kind of seems very science fiction.",
"timestamp": [
225.78,
228.57
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, you're right.",
"timestamp": [
228.57,
229.403
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, you're right.",
"timestamp": [
228.57,
229.403
]
},
{
"text": "When you read about some\nof these technologies,",
"timestamp": [
229.403,
230.96
]
},
{
"text": "When you read about some\nof these technologies,",
"timestamp": [
229.403,
230.96
]
},
{
"text": "it does feel like science fiction.",
"timestamp": [
230.96,
232.46
]
},
{
"text": "it does feel like science fiction.",
"timestamp": [
230.96,
232.46
]
},
{
"text": "But the part of nanotechnology",
"timestamp": [
232.46,
233.87
]
},
{
"text": "But the part of nanotechnology",
"timestamp": [
232.46,
233.87
]
},
{
"text": "I wanted to talk to you about",
"timestamp": [
233.87,
235.21
]
},
{
"text": "I wanted to talk to you about",
"timestamp": [
233.87,
235.21
]
},
{
"text": "is stuff that you probably use every day,",
"timestamp": [
235.21,
239.14
]
},
{
"text": "is stuff that you probably use every day,",
"timestamp": [
235.21,
239.14
]
},
{
"text": "most of your day, all of the time.",
"timestamp": [
239.14,
241.2
]
},
{
"text": "most of your day, all of the time.",
"timestamp": [
239.14,
241.2
]
},
{
"text": "Can you guess what\naspect of nanotechnology",
"timestamp": [
241.2,
243.57
]
},
{
"text": "Can you guess what\naspect of nanotechnology",
"timestamp": [
241.2,
243.57
]
},
{
"text": "I'm gonna talk to you about?\n- My phone?",
"timestamp": [
243.57,
245.96
]
},
{
"text": "I'm gonna talk to you about?\n- My phone?",
"timestamp": [
243.57,
245.96
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so modern computer chips",
"timestamp": [
245.96,
247.98
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so modern computer chips",
"timestamp": [
245.96,
247.98
]
},
{
"text": "rely heavily on nanotechnology.",
"timestamp": [
247.98,
250.04
]
},
{
"text": "rely heavily on nanotechnology.",
"timestamp": [
247.98,
250.04
]
},
{
"text": "Does this look familiar to you?",
"timestamp": [
250.04,
251.04
]
},
{
"text": "Does this look familiar to you?",
"timestamp": [
250.04,
251.04
]
},
{
"text": "Can you guess what this might be?",
"timestamp": [
251.04,
252.14
]
},
{
"text": "Can you guess what this might be?",
"timestamp": [
251.04,
252.14
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't know.",
"timestamp": [
252.14,
253.92
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't know.",
"timestamp": [
252.14,
253.92
]
},
{
"text": "- So this is a silicon wafer,",
"timestamp": [
253.92,
255.97
]
},
{
"text": "- So this is a silicon wafer,",
"timestamp": [
253.92,
255.97
]
},
{
"text": "and they're embedded in\nbasically almost every object",
"timestamp": [
255.97,
258.59
]
},
{
"text": "and they're embedded in\nbasically almost every object",
"timestamp": [
255.97,
258.59
]
},
{
"text": "that you use, from a\nlaptop, to a phone, to cars,",
"timestamp": [
258.59,
261.81
]
},
{
"text": "that you use, from a\nlaptop, to a phone, to cars,",
"timestamp": [
258.59,
261.81
]
},
{
"text": "television sets, appliances.",
"timestamp": [
261.81,
264.32
]
},
{
"text": "television sets, appliances.",
"timestamp": [
261.81,
264.32
]
},
{
"text": "We ended up cutting\nthese into little squares",
"timestamp": [
264.32,
266.74
]
},
{
"text": "We ended up cutting\nthese into little squares",
"timestamp": [
264.32,
266.74
]
},
{
"text": "and those repeating patterns,\neach of those is a processor.",
"timestamp": [
266.74,
269.51
]
},
{
"text": "and those repeating patterns,\neach of those is a processor.",
"timestamp": [
266.74,
269.51
]
},
{
"text": "And those chips are what goes\ninto all of these objects.",
"timestamp": [
269.51,
272.44
]
},
{
"text": "And those chips are what goes\ninto all of these objects.",
"timestamp": [
269.51,
272.44
]
},
{
"text": "What I want to talk to\nyou about is how we got",
"timestamp": [
272.44,
274.27
]
},
{
"text": "What I want to talk to\nyou about is how we got",
"timestamp": [
272.44,
274.27
]
},
{
"text": "from where we started, and\nhow we're able to actually fit",
"timestamp": [
274.27,
278.79
]
},
{
"text": "from where we started, and\nhow we're able to actually fit",
"timestamp": [
274.27,
278.79
]
},
{
"text": "18 billion of these little devices",
"timestamp": [
278.79,
282.31
]
},
{
"text": "18 billion of these little devices",
"timestamp": [
278.79,
282.31
]
},
{
"text": "in a little one inch by one inch area.",
"timestamp": [
282.31,
286.09
]
},
{
"text": "in a little one inch by one inch area.",
"timestamp": [
282.31,
286.09
]
},
{
"text": "They're called transistors. It's a switch.",
"timestamp": [
286.09,
288.11
]
},
{
"text": "They're called transistors. It's a switch.",
"timestamp": [
286.09,
288.11
]
},
{
"text": "Very simply, think of it as a light switch",
"timestamp": [
288.11,
289.69
]
},
{
"text": "Very simply, think of it as a light switch",
"timestamp": [
288.11,
289.69
]
},
{
"text": "that turns on and turns\noff using an electric field",
"timestamp": [
289.69,
292.67
]
},
{
"text": "that turns on and turns\noff using an electric field",
"timestamp": [
289.69,
292.67
]
},
{
"text": "by applying a voltage.\n- OK.",
"timestamp": [
292.67,
294.47
]
},
{
"text": "by applying a voltage.\n- OK.",
"timestamp": [
292.67,
294.47
]
},
{
"text": "- I went through my kid's Lego bins",
"timestamp": [
294.47,
296.24
]
},
{
"text": "- I went through my kid's Lego bins",
"timestamp": [
294.47,
296.24
]
},
{
"text": "to build a very simple\nmodel of a transistor.",
"timestamp": [
296.24,
298.83
]
},
{
"text": "to build a very simple\nmodel of a transistor.",
"timestamp": [
296.24,
298.83
]
},
{
"text": "And these are wired together in circuits",
"timestamp": [
298.83,
301.5
]
},
{
"text": "And these are wired together in circuits",
"timestamp": [
298.83,
301.5
]
},
{
"text": "so that you can do computation.",
"timestamp": [
301.5,
303.09
]
},
{
"text": "so that you can do computation.",
"timestamp": [
301.5,
303.09
]
},
{
"text": "You can do logic with them.",
"timestamp": [
303.09,
304.38
]
},
{
"text": "You can do logic with them.",
"timestamp": [
303.09,
304.38
]
},
{
"text": "Where nanotechnology comes into play,",
"timestamp": [
304.38,
306.32
]
},
{
"text": "Where nanotechnology comes into play,",
"timestamp": [
304.38,
306.32
]
},
{
"text": "the way you double the number\nof transistors on a chip.",
"timestamp": [
306.32,
309
]
},
{
"text": "the way you double the number\nof transistors on a chip.",
"timestamp": [
306.32,
309
]
},
{
"text": "Can you guess what you would\nhave to do to this transistor?",
"timestamp": [
309,
311
]
},
{
"text": "Can you guess what you would\nhave to do to this transistor?",
"timestamp": [
309,
311
]
},
{
"text": "- You make it smaller?",
"timestamp": [
311,
312.229
]
},
{
"text": "- You make it smaller?",
"timestamp": [
311,
312.229
]
},
{
"text": "- You have to make it smaller. Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
312.229,
313.84
]
},
{
"text": "- You have to make it smaller. Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
312.229,
313.84
]
},
{
"text": "But here's the problem.",
"timestamp": [
313.84,
314.673
]
},
{
"text": "But here's the problem.",
"timestamp": [
313.84,
314.673
]
},
{
"text": "So about 10 to 15 years ago,\nthe devices got so small",
"timestamp": [
314.673,
319.673
]
},
{
"text": "So about 10 to 15 years ago,\nthe devices got so small",
"timestamp": [
314.673,
319.673
]
},
{
"text": "that if you shrunk them this gate,",
"timestamp": [
319.88,
322.32
]
},
{
"text": "that if you shrunk them this gate,",
"timestamp": [
319.88,
322.32
]
},
{
"text": "that actually turns it on and off",
"timestamp": [
322.32,
324.14
]
},
{
"text": "that actually turns it on and off",
"timestamp": [
322.32,
324.14
]
},
{
"text": "loses its ability to control the channel.",
"timestamp": [
324.14,
326.32
]
},
{
"text": "loses its ability to control the channel.",
"timestamp": [
324.14,
326.32
]
},
{
"text": "And so what they did, was\nthey took devices like this",
"timestamp": [
326.32,
328.64
]
},
{
"text": "And so what they did, was\nthey took devices like this",
"timestamp": [
326.32,
328.64
]
},
{
"text": "into these things, we call them, FinFETs,",
"timestamp": [
328.64,
330.89
]
},
{
"text": "into these things, we call them, FinFETs,",
"timestamp": [
328.64,
330.89
]
},
{
"text": "kind of like a fin on a fish.",
"timestamp": [
330.89,
332.89
]
},
{
"text": "kind of like a fin on a fish.",
"timestamp": [
330.89,
332.89
]
},
{
"text": "So they're very thin transistors.",
"timestamp": [
332.89,
335.02
]
},
{
"text": "So they're very thin transistors.",
"timestamp": [
332.89,
335.02
]
},
{
"text": "The width of these fins is\nonly six nanometers. Okay?",
"timestamp": [
335.02,
338.2
]
},
{
"text": "The width of these fins is\nonly six nanometers. Okay?",
"timestamp": [
335.02,
338.2
]
},
{
"text": "So 6 nanometers is 25 to 30 atoms across.",
"timestamp": [
338.2,
342.66
]
},
{
"text": "So 6 nanometers is 25 to 30 atoms across.",
"timestamp": [
338.2,
342.66
]
},
{
"text": "And they repeat this",
"timestamp": [
342.66,
343.493
]
},
{
"text": "And they repeat this",
"timestamp": [
342.66,
343.493
]
},
{
"text": "over the entire wafer\njust about perfectly.",
"timestamp": [
343.493,
346.22
]
},
{
"text": "over the entire wafer\njust about perfectly.",
"timestamp": [
343.493,
346.22
]
},
{
"text": "It's just a huge feat in engineering.",
"timestamp": [
346.22,
348.25
]
},
{
"text": "It's just a huge feat in engineering.",
"timestamp": [
346.22,
348.25
]
},
{
"text": "But these types of devices are\nexactly the kind of devices",
"timestamp": [
348.25,
350.93
]
},
{
"text": "But these types of devices are\nexactly the kind of devices",
"timestamp": [
348.25,
350.93
]
},
{
"text": "that your phones and\ncomputers either have,",
"timestamp": [
350.93,
352.93
]
},
{
"text": "that your phones and\ncomputers either have,",
"timestamp": [
350.93,
352.93
]
},
{
"text": "or will have in the near future.",
"timestamp": [
352.93,
354.37
]
},
{
"text": "or will have in the near future.",
"timestamp": [
352.93,
354.37
]
},
{
"text": "And it's a way that nanotechnology",
"timestamp": [
354.37,
355.91
]
},
{
"text": "And it's a way that nanotechnology",
"timestamp": [
354.37,
355.91
]
},
{
"text": "is directly impacting you right now.",
"timestamp": [
355.91,
358.33
]
},
{
"text": "is directly impacting you right now.",
"timestamp": [
355.91,
358.33
]
},
{
"text": "- How do you make stuff that small?",
"timestamp": [
358.33,
359.99
]
},
{
"text": "- How do you make stuff that small?",
"timestamp": [
358.33,
359.99
]
},
{
"text": "Obviously it's not handmade,\nso is it factories and stuff?",
"timestamp": [
359.99,
363.48
]
},
{
"text": "Obviously it's not handmade,\nso is it factories and stuff?",
"timestamp": [
359.99,
363.48
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
363.48,
364.313
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
363.48,
364.313
]
},
{
"text": "So these are made using a\ntechnique called lithography.",
"timestamp": [
364.313,
367.08
]
},
{
"text": "So these are made using a\ntechnique called lithography.",
"timestamp": [
364.313,
367.08
]
},
{
"text": "You basically coat the\nsilicon wafer with a polymer.",
"timestamp": [
367.08,
369.94
]
},
{
"text": "You basically coat the\nsilicon wafer with a polymer.",
"timestamp": [
367.08,
369.94
]
},
{
"text": "Then you put a mask on it",
"timestamp": [
369.94,
371.27
]
},
{
"text": "Then you put a mask on it",
"timestamp": [
369.94,
371.27
]
},
{
"text": "and then you shine light through it.",
"timestamp": [
371.27,
372.6
]
},
{
"text": "and then you shine light through it.",
"timestamp": [
371.27,
372.6
]
},
{
"text": "And the features of the\nmask, the size of those holes",
"timestamp": [
372.6,
375.71
]
},
{
"text": "And the features of the\nmask, the size of those holes",
"timestamp": [
372.6,
375.71
]
},
{
"text": "determine the feature size in the chip.",
"timestamp": [
375.71,
378.25
]
},
{
"text": "determine the feature size in the chip.",
"timestamp": [
375.71,
378.25
]
},
{
"text": "It's not just the size\nof the mask that matters.",
"timestamp": [
378.25,
380.83
]
},
{
"text": "It's not just the size\nof the mask that matters.",
"timestamp": [
378.25,
380.83
]
},
{
"text": "It's the wavelength of\nthe light that's used.",
"timestamp": [
380.83,
383.47
]
},
{
"text": "It's the wavelength of\nthe light that's used.",
"timestamp": [
380.83,
383.47
]
},
{
"text": "We talked about nanotechnology\nbeing science fiction before,",
"timestamp": [
383.47,
386.07
]
},
{
"text": "We talked about nanotechnology\nbeing science fiction before,",
"timestamp": [
383.47,
386.07
]
},
{
"text": "but this is real stuff\nthat's being produced,",
"timestamp": [
386.07,
388.16
]
},
{
"text": "but this is real stuff\nthat's being produced,",
"timestamp": [
386.07,
388.16
]
},
{
"text": "that's being made, that's\nbeing used every day by people.",
"timestamp": [
388.16,
391.49
]
},
{
"text": "that's being made, that's\nbeing used every day by people.",
"timestamp": [
388.16,
391.49
]
},
{
"text": "- In middle school, I built\nall of the little switches",
"timestamp": [
391.49,
394.77
]
},
{
"text": "- In middle school, I built\nall of the little switches",
"timestamp": [
391.49,
394.77
]
},
{
"text": "where you turn the electricity on,",
"timestamp": [
394.77,
396.007
]
},
{
"text": "where you turn the electricity on,",
"timestamp": [
394.77,
396.007
]
},
{
"text": "and it goes from one thing to the other.",
"timestamp": [
396.007,
398.15
]
},
{
"text": "and it goes from one thing to the other.",
"timestamp": [
396.007,
398.15
]
},
{
"text": "But those are the really big, comical,",
"timestamp": [
398.15,
401.65
]
},
{
"text": "But those are the really big, comical,",
"timestamp": [
398.15,
401.65
]
},
{
"text": "like plugging in Legos and stuff.",
"timestamp": [
401.65,
404.08
]
},
{
"text": "like plugging in Legos and stuff.",
"timestamp": [
401.65,
404.08
]
},
{
"text": "When we saw the picture\nof all of the little ones,",
"timestamp": [
404.08,
406.71
]
},
{
"text": "When we saw the picture\nof all of the little ones,",
"timestamp": [
404.08,
406.71
]
},
{
"text": "it's like a city, it's crazy how simple",
"timestamp": [
406.71,
409.36
]
},
{
"text": "it's like a city, it's crazy how simple",
"timestamp": [
406.71,
409.36
]
},
{
"text": "and complex it is at the same time.",
"timestamp": [
409.36,
411.22
]
},
{
"text": "and complex it is at the same time.",
"timestamp": [
409.36,
411.22
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly. I couldn't put\nit any better. That's right.",
"timestamp": [
411.22,
413.773
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly. I couldn't put\nit any better. That's right.",
"timestamp": [
411.22,
413.773
]
},
{
"text": "[light music]",
"timestamp": [
413.773,
416.57
]
},
{
"text": "[light music]",
"timestamp": [
413.773,
416.57
]
},
{
"text": "So what's your major?\n- Chemical engineering.",
"timestamp": [
416.57,
418.22
]
},
{
"text": "So what's your major?\n- Chemical engineering.",
"timestamp": [
416.57,
418.22
]
},
{
"text": "- What made you choose that?\n- Like any freshman,",
"timestamp": [
418.22,
420.34
]
},
{
"text": "- What made you choose that?\n- Like any freshman,",
"timestamp": [
418.22,
420.34
]
},
{
"text": "going into chemical engineering,",
"timestamp": [
420.34,
421.37
]
},
{
"text": "going into chemical engineering,",
"timestamp": [
420.34,
421.37
]
},
{
"text": "I was like, I like chemistry!",
"timestamp": [
421.37,
423.24
]
},
{
"text": "I was like, I like chemistry!",
"timestamp": [
421.37,
423.24
]
},
{
"text": "So I'm gonna go into chemical engineering.",
"timestamp": [
423.24,
424.91
]
},
{
"text": "So I'm gonna go into chemical engineering.",
"timestamp": [
423.24,
424.91
]
},
{
"text": "But luckily I also like",
"timestamp": [
424.91,
427.06
]
},
{
"text": "But luckily I also like",
"timestamp": [
424.91,
427.06
]
},
{
"text": "all the math and all the science too.",
"timestamp": [
427.06,
428.59
]
},
{
"text": "all the math and all the science too.",
"timestamp": [
427.06,
428.59
]
},
{
"text": "- So have you taken a\nquantum mechanics course?",
"timestamp": [
428.59,
430.75
]
},
{
"text": "- So have you taken a\nquantum mechanics course?",
"timestamp": [
428.59,
430.75
]
},
{
"text": "- I have. I took that last year.",
"timestamp": [
430.75,
431.613
]
},
{
"text": "- I have. I took that last year.",
"timestamp": [
430.75,
431.613
]
},
{
"text": "- I think to really get\ndeep into nanomaterials",
"timestamp": [
431.613,
434.67
]
},
{
"text": "- I think to really get\ndeep into nanomaterials",
"timestamp": [
431.613,
434.67
]
},
{
"text": "and nanoscale devices, you\nreally have to understand",
"timestamp": [
434.67,
437.24
]
},
{
"text": "and nanoscale devices, you\nreally have to understand",
"timestamp": [
434.67,
437.24
]
},
{
"text": "to some level, quantum mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
437.24,
438.83
]
},
{
"text": "to some level, quantum mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
437.24,
438.83
]
},
{
"text": "What it teaches us",
"timestamp": [
438.83,
439.8
]
},
{
"text": "What it teaches us",
"timestamp": [
438.83,
439.8
]
},
{
"text": "as we make these devices\nsmaller and smaller,",
"timestamp": [
439.8,
442.29
]
},
{
"text": "as we make these devices\nsmaller and smaller,",
"timestamp": [
439.8,
442.29
]
},
{
"text": "their properties begin to now depend",
"timestamp": [
442.29,
444.49
]
},
{
"text": "their properties begin to now depend",
"timestamp": [
442.29,
444.49
]
},
{
"text": "on the size and the\norientation of these devices.",
"timestamp": [
444.49,
447.62
]
},
{
"text": "on the size and the\norientation of these devices.",
"timestamp": [
444.49,
447.62
]
},
{
"text": "There are materials, and you're\ntaking a 2D materials class,",
"timestamp": [
447.62,
450.25
]
},
{
"text": "There are materials, and you're\ntaking a 2D materials class,",
"timestamp": [
447.62,
450.25
]
},
{
"text": "you know about this, that\nare intrinsically thin.",
"timestamp": [
450.25,
452.71
]
},
{
"text": "you know about this, that\nare intrinsically thin.",
"timestamp": [
450.25,
452.71
]
},
{
"text": "As they're grown, as they're fabricated,",
"timestamp": [
452.71,
454.72
]
},
{
"text": "As they're grown, as they're fabricated,",
"timestamp": [
452.71,
454.72
]
},
{
"text": "they're already at the\nnanoscale and they possess",
"timestamp": [
454.72,
457.12
]
},
{
"text": "they're already at the\nnanoscale and they possess",
"timestamp": [
454.72,
457.12
]
},
{
"text": "these quantum confinement properties",
"timestamp": [
457.12,
459.42
]
},
{
"text": "these quantum confinement properties",
"timestamp": [
457.12,
459.42
]
},
{
"text": "that as a nanotechnologist,\nyou try to exploit.",
"timestamp": [
459.42,
462.08
]
},
{
"text": "that as a nanotechnologist,\nyou try to exploit.",
"timestamp": [
459.42,
462.08
]
},
{
"text": "And so the first ones I\nwanted to talk to you about",
"timestamp": [
462.08,
464.01
]
},
{
"text": "And so the first ones I\nwanted to talk to you about",
"timestamp": [
462.08,
464.01
]
},
{
"text": "are quantum dots, have you\nheard of quantum dots before?",
"timestamp": [
464.01,
466.84
]
},
{
"text": "are quantum dots, have you\nheard of quantum dots before?",
"timestamp": [
464.01,
466.84
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.\n- So these are",
"timestamp": [
466.84,
468.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.\n- So these are",
"timestamp": [
466.84,
468.09
]
},
{
"text": "typically semiconductors.",
"timestamp": [
468.09,
469.79
]
},
{
"text": "typically semiconductors.",
"timestamp": [
468.09,
469.79
]
},
{
"text": "They can be cadmium selenide\ncadmium sulfide, zinc selenide",
"timestamp": [
469.79,
473.077
]
},
{
"text": "They can be cadmium selenide\ncadmium sulfide, zinc selenide",
"timestamp": [
469.79,
473.077
]
},
{
"text": "and they're small clusters of atoms.",
"timestamp": [
473.077,
475.56
]
},
{
"text": "and they're small clusters of atoms.",
"timestamp": [
473.077,
475.56
]
},
{
"text": "They can be from 2 to 10 nanometers.",
"timestamp": [
475.56,
478.44
]
},
{
"text": "They can be from 2 to 10 nanometers.",
"timestamp": [
475.56,
478.44
]
},
{
"text": "What's interesting about these materials?",
"timestamp": [
478.44,
480.31
]
},
{
"text": "What's interesting about these materials?",
"timestamp": [
478.44,
480.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, the other day\nwe were talking about",
"timestamp": [
480.31,
482.59
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, the other day\nwe were talking about",
"timestamp": [
480.31,
482.59
]
},
{
"text": "the different dimensions you\ncan have of nanotechnology.",
"timestamp": [
482.59,
485.47
]
},
{
"text": "the different dimensions you\ncan have of nanotechnology.",
"timestamp": [
482.59,
485.47
]
},
{
"text": "So all the way from like 0D to 3D.",
"timestamp": [
485.47,
487.47
]
},
{
"text": "So all the way from like 0D to 3D.",
"timestamp": [
485.47,
487.47
]
},
{
"text": "If I remember correctly, my\nprofessor labeled it as 0D?",
"timestamp": [
487.47,
490.4
]
},
{
"text": "If I remember correctly, my\nprofessor labeled it as 0D?",
"timestamp": [
487.47,
490.4
]
},
{
"text": "- That's correct. Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
490.4,
491.31
]
},
{
"text": "- That's correct. Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
490.4,
491.31
]
},
{
"text": "Because of quantum confinement,",
"timestamp": [
491.31,
493.28
]
},
{
"text": "Because of quantum confinement,",
"timestamp": [
491.31,
493.28
]
},
{
"text": "once you get below this\n15 nanometer range,",
"timestamp": [
493.28,
496.34
]
},
{
"text": "once you get below this\n15 nanometer range,",
"timestamp": [
493.28,
496.34
]
},
{
"text": "the band gap of the material",
"timestamp": [
496.34,
498.36
]
},
{
"text": "the band gap of the material",
"timestamp": [
496.34,
498.36
]
},
{
"text": "depends completely on\nthe size of the material.",
"timestamp": [
498.36,
500.9
]
},
{
"text": "depends completely on\nthe size of the material.",
"timestamp": [
498.36,
500.9
]
},
{
"text": "So in bulk materials, if you\nwant to change the band gap,",
"timestamp": [
500.9,
503.07
]
},
{
"text": "So in bulk materials, if you\nwant to change the band gap,",
"timestamp": [
500.9,
503.07
]
},
{
"text": "you have to change the material, right?",
"timestamp": [
503.07,
504.81
]
},
{
"text": "you have to change the material, right?",
"timestamp": [
503.07,
504.81
]
},
{
"text": "But in these quantum dots specifically,",
"timestamp": [
504.81,
506.97
]
},
{
"text": "But in these quantum dots specifically,",
"timestamp": [
504.81,
506.97
]
},
{
"text": "just by changing the size,\nyou can change their band gap.",
"timestamp": [
506.97,
509.89
]
},
{
"text": "just by changing the size,\nyou can change their band gap.",
"timestamp": [
506.97,
509.89
]
},
{
"text": "And because their band gap is changing,",
"timestamp": [
509.89,
511.81
]
},
{
"text": "And because their band gap is changing,",
"timestamp": [
509.89,
511.81
]
},
{
"text": "their optical properties are different.",
"timestamp": [
511.81,
513.43
]
},
{
"text": "their optical properties are different.",
"timestamp": [
511.81,
513.43
]
},
{
"text": "And you can precisely tune\nthe wavelength of light",
"timestamp": [
513.43,
516.59
]
},
{
"text": "And you can precisely tune\nthe wavelength of light",
"timestamp": [
513.43,
516.59
]
},
{
"text": "that they emit just by\nchanging their size.",
"timestamp": [
516.59,
518.94
]
},
{
"text": "that they emit just by\nchanging their size.",
"timestamp": [
516.59,
518.94
]
},
{
"text": "- What are the applications\nof these quantum dots?",
"timestamp": [
518.94,
521.74
]
},
{
"text": "- What are the applications\nof these quantum dots?",
"timestamp": [
518.94,
521.74
]
},
{
"text": "- There are people that are exploring",
"timestamp": [
521.74,
522.87
]
},
{
"text": "- There are people that are exploring",
"timestamp": [
521.74,
522.87
]
},
{
"text": "using these materials for diode lasers.",
"timestamp": [
522.87,
525
]
},
{
"text": "using these materials for diode lasers.",
"timestamp": [
522.87,
525
]
},
{
"text": "There are companies that\nare building displays",
"timestamp": [
525,
527.04
]
},
{
"text": "There are companies that\nare building displays",
"timestamp": [
525,
527.04
]
},
{
"text": "from these materials.",
"timestamp": [
527.04,
528.12
]
},
{
"text": "from these materials.",
"timestamp": [
527.04,
528.12
]
},
{
"text": "And there're even people thinking about",
"timestamp": [
528.12,
529.52
]
},
{
"text": "And there're even people thinking about",
"timestamp": [
528.12,
529.52
]
},
{
"text": "if I take these quantum dots,",
"timestamp": [
529.52,
531.11
]
},
{
"text": "if I take these quantum dots,",
"timestamp": [
529.52,
531.11
]
},
{
"text": "and I change the chemistry on the outside",
"timestamp": [
531.11,
533.3
]
},
{
"text": "and I change the chemistry on the outside",
"timestamp": [
531.11,
533.3
]
},
{
"text": "so they stick to specific\ntypes of cells or tissue,",
"timestamp": [
533.3,
537.24
]
},
{
"text": "so they stick to specific\ntypes of cells or tissue,",
"timestamp": [
533.3,
537.24
]
},
{
"text": "that I could really do\nsome interesting imaging",
"timestamp": [
537.24,
539.08
]
},
{
"text": "that I could really do\nsome interesting imaging",
"timestamp": [
537.24,
539.08
]
},
{
"text": "and therapeutic work to track disease,",
"timestamp": [
539.08,
541.07
]
},
{
"text": "and therapeutic work to track disease,",
"timestamp": [
539.08,
541.07
]
},
{
"text": "even maybe to treat disease,",
"timestamp": [
541.07,
542.33
]
},
{
"text": "even maybe to treat disease,",
"timestamp": [
541.07,
542.33
]
},
{
"text": "if you can very precisely\ncontrol the chemistry.",
"timestamp": [
542.33,
544.52
]
},
{
"text": "if you can very precisely\ncontrol the chemistry.",
"timestamp": [
542.33,
544.52
]
},
{
"text": "- How far away is this",
"timestamp": [
544.52,
545.353
]
},
{
"text": "- How far away is this",
"timestamp": [
544.52,
545.353
]
},
{
"text": "from being actually used\non an industrial level?",
"timestamp": [
545.353,
548.42
]
},
{
"text": "from being actually used\non an industrial level?",
"timestamp": [
545.353,
548.42
]
},
{
"text": "- The optical applications\nare in development.",
"timestamp": [
548.42,
550.96
]
},
{
"text": "- The optical applications\nare in development.",
"timestamp": [
548.42,
550.96
]
},
{
"text": "The science has really been worked out.",
"timestamp": [
550.96,
552.7
]
},
{
"text": "The science has really been worked out.",
"timestamp": [
550.96,
552.7
]
},
{
"text": "The health stuff, because\nof all of the things",
"timestamp": [
552.7,
555.23
]
},
{
"text": "The health stuff, because\nof all of the things",
"timestamp": [
552.7,
555.23
]
},
{
"text": "you have to consider when\nyou're putting something",
"timestamp": [
555.23,
556.97
]
},
{
"text": "you have to consider when\nyou're putting something",
"timestamp": [
555.23,
556.97
]
},
{
"text": "in someone's body is\ndefinitely further out there.",
"timestamp": [
556.97,
559.71
]
},
{
"text": "in someone's body is\ndefinitely further out there.",
"timestamp": [
556.97,
559.71
]
},
{
"text": "For example, some of them\nare made from cadmium.",
"timestamp": [
559.71,
561.54
]
},
{
"text": "For example, some of them\nare made from cadmium.",
"timestamp": [
559.71,
561.54
]
},
{
"text": "Cadmium's toxic.",
"timestamp": [
561.54,
562.42
]
},
{
"text": "Cadmium's toxic.",
"timestamp": [
561.54,
562.42
]
},
{
"text": "You would never put\nthat in someone's body.",
"timestamp": [
562.42,
564.2
]
},
{
"text": "You would never put\nthat in someone's body.",
"timestamp": [
562.42,
564.2
]
},
{
"text": "But there are other materials\nlike gold and silver",
"timestamp": [
564.2,
566.9
]
},
{
"text": "But there are other materials\nlike gold and silver",
"timestamp": [
564.2,
566.9
]
},
{
"text": "and titanium dioxide, which are less toxic",
"timestamp": [
566.9,
569.19
]
},
{
"text": "and titanium dioxide, which are less toxic",
"timestamp": [
566.9,
569.19
]
},
{
"text": "and people are exploring using those.",
"timestamp": [
569.19,
571.35
]
},
{
"text": "and people are exploring using those.",
"timestamp": [
569.19,
571.35
]
},
{
"text": "So have you learned about graphene?",
"timestamp": [
571.35,
572.77
]
},
{
"text": "So have you learned about graphene?",
"timestamp": [
571.35,
572.77
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- Do you know what this is?",
"timestamp": [
572.77,
573.603
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- Do you know what this is?",
"timestamp": [
572.77,
573.603
]
},
{
"text": "- Carbon nanotube?\n- Carbon nanotube, right.",
"timestamp": [
573.603,
575.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Carbon nanotube?\n- Carbon nanotube, right.",
"timestamp": [
573.603,
575.9
]
},
{
"text": "So if you roll up graphene,\ndepending on how you roll it",
"timestamp": [
575.9,
579.27
]
},
{
"text": "So if you roll up graphene,\ndepending on how you roll it",
"timestamp": [
575.9,
579.27
]
},
{
"text": "and the angle, you roll it with,",
"timestamp": [
579.27,
580.79
]
},
{
"text": "and the angle, you roll it with,",
"timestamp": [
579.27,
580.79
]
},
{
"text": "it has different properties.",
"timestamp": [
580.79,
582.75
]
},
{
"text": "it has different properties.",
"timestamp": [
580.79,
582.75
]
},
{
"text": "So if I roll it one way,\nit'll act like a metal.",
"timestamp": [
582.75,
585.56
]
},
{
"text": "So if I roll it one way,\nit'll act like a metal.",
"timestamp": [
582.75,
585.56
]
},
{
"text": "If I roll it a different way,",
"timestamp": [
585.56,
586.98
]
},
{
"text": "If I roll it a different way,",
"timestamp": [
585.56,
586.98
]
},
{
"text": "it'll act like a semiconductor.",
"timestamp": [
586.98,
588.6
]
},
{
"text": "it'll act like a semiconductor.",
"timestamp": [
586.98,
588.6
]
},
{
"text": "The one that gets everyone most excited",
"timestamp": [
588.6,
590.83
]
},
{
"text": "The one that gets everyone most excited",
"timestamp": [
588.6,
590.83
]
},
{
"text": "is that the electrons and holes",
"timestamp": [
590.83,
592.84
]
},
{
"text": "is that the electrons and holes",
"timestamp": [
590.83,
592.84
]
},
{
"text": "move very fast through graphene.",
"timestamp": [
592.84,
595.43
]
},
{
"text": "move very fast through graphene.",
"timestamp": [
592.84,
595.43
]
},
{
"text": "And so there's a lot of\ninterest in using these",
"timestamp": [
595.43,
597.51
]
},
{
"text": "And so there's a lot of\ninterest in using these",
"timestamp": [
595.43,
597.51
]
},
{
"text": "for certain types of\nhigh-speed electronics.",
"timestamp": [
597.51,
599.73
]
},
{
"text": "for certain types of\nhigh-speed electronics.",
"timestamp": [
597.51,
599.73
]
},
{
"text": "The other interesting application",
"timestamp": [
599.73,
600.69
]
},
{
"text": "The other interesting application",
"timestamp": [
599.73,
600.69
]
},
{
"text": "is because it's one atom thin,",
"timestamp": [
600.69,
603.42
]
},
{
"text": "is because it's one atom thin,",
"timestamp": [
600.69,
603.42
]
},
{
"text": "it's very sensitive to\nchanges in the environment.",
"timestamp": [
603.42,
605.72
]
},
{
"text": "it's very sensitive to\nchanges in the environment.",
"timestamp": [
603.42,
605.72
]
},
{
"text": "And so there's a lot of interest",
"timestamp": [
605.72,
606.84
]
},
{
"text": "And so there's a lot of interest",
"timestamp": [
605.72,
606.84
]
},
{
"text": "in using them as diagnostics.",
"timestamp": [
606.84,
608.36
]
},
{
"text": "in using them as diagnostics.",
"timestamp": [
606.84,
608.36
]
},
{
"text": "It's on us researchers to find ways",
"timestamp": [
608.36,
611.35
]
},
{
"text": "It's on us researchers to find ways",
"timestamp": [
608.36,
611.35
]
},
{
"text": "to A, control that process\nand then B, to actually build",
"timestamp": [
611.35,
615.86
]
},
{
"text": "to A, control that process\nand then B, to actually build",
"timestamp": [
611.35,
615.86
]
},
{
"text": "some sort of interesting\ntechnology from them.",
"timestamp": [
615.86,
618.12
]
},
{
"text": "some sort of interesting\ntechnology from them.",
"timestamp": [
615.86,
618.12
]
},
{
"text": "- So you've been talking about",
"timestamp": [
618.12,
620.37
]
},
{
"text": "- So you've been talking about",
"timestamp": [
618.12,
620.37
]
},
{
"text": "the different ways you can\nsay, roll these nanotubes.",
"timestamp": [
620.37,
622.77
]
},
{
"text": "the different ways you can\nsay, roll these nanotubes.",
"timestamp": [
620.37,
622.77
]
},
{
"text": "So how do you go about building",
"timestamp": [
622.77,
624.37
]
},
{
"text": "So how do you go about building",
"timestamp": [
622.77,
624.37
]
},
{
"text": "and controlling these nanotubes\nin terms of their diameter?",
"timestamp": [
624.37,
627.785
]
},
{
"text": "and controlling these nanotubes\nin terms of their diameter?",
"timestamp": [
624.37,
627.785
]
},
{
"text": "- You're speaking my language.",
"timestamp": [
627.785,
629.03
]
},
{
"text": "- You're speaking my language.",
"timestamp": [
627.785,
629.03
]
},
{
"text": "This is what I spent many\nyears of my life working on.",
"timestamp": [
629.03,
632.09
]
},
{
"text": "This is what I spent many\nyears of my life working on.",
"timestamp": [
629.03,
632.09
]
},
{
"text": "You don't physically roll up graphene.",
"timestamp": [
632.09,
634.13
]
},
{
"text": "You don't physically roll up graphene.",
"timestamp": [
632.09,
634.13
]
},
{
"text": "You grow nanotubes by\nbasically taking nanocrystals",
"timestamp": [
634.13,
638.23
]
},
{
"text": "You grow nanotubes by\nbasically taking nanocrystals",
"timestamp": [
634.13,
638.23
]
},
{
"text": "and you deposit them on a surface.",
"timestamp": [
638.23,
640.2
]
},
{
"text": "and you deposit them on a surface.",
"timestamp": [
638.23,
640.2
]
},
{
"text": "And then you do a CVD process,\nchemical vapor deposition.",
"timestamp": [
640.2,
642.87
]
},
{
"text": "And then you do a CVD process,\nchemical vapor deposition.",
"timestamp": [
640.2,
642.87
]
},
{
"text": "So you basically flow in a carbon source,",
"timestamp": [
642.87,
645.9
]
},
{
"text": "So you basically flow in a carbon source,",
"timestamp": [
642.87,
645.9
]
},
{
"text": "the carbon dissolves in a nanocrystal",
"timestamp": [
645.9,
648.11
]
},
{
"text": "the carbon dissolves in a nanocrystal",
"timestamp": [
645.9,
648.11
]
},
{
"text": "and then once nanocrystal is saturated,",
"timestamp": [
648.11,
650.24
]
},
{
"text": "and then once nanocrystal is saturated,",
"timestamp": [
648.11,
650.24
]
},
{
"text": "the nanotubes precipitate\nout of them in tubes.",
"timestamp": [
650.24,
653.51
]
},
{
"text": "the nanotubes precipitate\nout of them in tubes.",
"timestamp": [
650.24,
653.51
]
},
{
"text": "Then you have to develop ways",
"timestamp": [
653.51,
654.95
]
},
{
"text": "Then you have to develop ways",
"timestamp": [
653.51,
654.95
]
},
{
"text": "to go into this pile of nanotubes",
"timestamp": [
654.95,
657.89
]
},
{
"text": "to go into this pile of nanotubes",
"timestamp": [
654.95,
657.89
]
},
{
"text": "and pull out exactly\nthe ones that you want.",
"timestamp": [
657.89,
660.19
]
},
{
"text": "and pull out exactly\nthe ones that you want.",
"timestamp": [
657.89,
660.19
]
},
{
"text": "So I have to find ways to program them",
"timestamp": [
660.19,
662.87
]
},
{
"text": "So I have to find ways to program them",
"timestamp": [
660.19,
662.87
]
},
{
"text": "to go exactly in the places that I want.",
"timestamp": [
662.87,
665.7
]
},
{
"text": "to go exactly in the places that I want.",
"timestamp": [
662.87,
665.7
]
},
{
"text": "I modify the surface of the\nnanotube with specific molecules",
"timestamp": [
665.7,
670.31
]
},
{
"text": "I modify the surface of the\nnanotube with specific molecules",
"timestamp": [
665.7,
670.31
]
},
{
"text": "that recognize one type\nof surface over another.",
"timestamp": [
670.31,
673.37
]
},
{
"text": "that recognize one type\nof surface over another.",
"timestamp": [
670.31,
673.37
]
},
{
"text": "And then I just pattern the\nsurface and the tubes just land",
"timestamp": [
673.37,
676.15
]
},
{
"text": "And then I just pattern the\nsurface and the tubes just land",
"timestamp": [
673.37,
676.15
]
},
{
"text": "exactly where we want them to.",
"timestamp": [
676.15,
677.87
]
},
{
"text": "exactly where we want them to.",
"timestamp": [
676.15,
677.87
]
},
{
"text": "And it's still very much\nin the research stage.",
"timestamp": [
677.87,
679.89
]
},
{
"text": "And it's still very much\nin the research stage.",
"timestamp": [
677.87,
679.89
]
},
{
"text": "The ultimate goal is to build functional",
"timestamp": [
679.89,
682.51
]
},
{
"text": "The ultimate goal is to build functional",
"timestamp": [
679.89,
682.51
]
},
{
"text": "high-speed electronics\nusing these new materials.",
"timestamp": [
682.51,
685.3
]
},
{
"text": "high-speed electronics\nusing these new materials.",
"timestamp": [
682.51,
685.3
]
},
{
"text": "- In my nanomaterials class,",
"timestamp": [
685.3,
686.89
]
},
{
"text": "- In my nanomaterials class,",
"timestamp": [
685.3,
686.89
]
},
{
"text": "actually just a couple of days ago,",
"timestamp": [
686.89,
688.59
]
},
{
"text": "actually just a couple of days ago,",
"timestamp": [
686.89,
688.59
]
},
{
"text": "we were talking about\ndifferent applications",
"timestamp": [
688.59,
691
]
},
{
"text": "we were talking about\ndifferent applications",
"timestamp": [
688.59,
691
]
},
{
"text": "of nanotechnology and things we know.",
"timestamp": [
691,
693.57
]
},
{
"text": "of nanotechnology and things we know.",
"timestamp": [
691,
693.57
]
},
{
"text": "And we touched on the\ntopic that right now,",
"timestamp": [
693.57,
696.08
]
},
{
"text": "And we touched on the\ntopic that right now,",
"timestamp": [
693.57,
696.08
]
},
{
"text": "silicon is down to the\nsmallest level that it can get.",
"timestamp": [
696.08,
698.87
]
},
{
"text": "silicon is down to the\nsmallest level that it can get.",
"timestamp": [
696.08,
698.87
]
},
{
"text": "And so we have scientists out there",
"timestamp": [
698.87,
700.64
]
},
{
"text": "And so we have scientists out there",
"timestamp": [
698.87,
700.64
]
},
{
"text": "researching other materials,\nto replace silicon.",
"timestamp": [
700.64,
703.31
]
},
{
"text": "researching other materials,\nto replace silicon.",
"timestamp": [
700.64,
703.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. 100%. That's right.",
"timestamp": [
703.31,
704.44
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. 100%. That's right.",
"timestamp": [
703.31,
704.44
]
},
{
"text": "And that's the motivation",
"timestamp": [
704.44,
705.51
]
},
{
"text": "And that's the motivation",
"timestamp": [
704.44,
705.51
]
},
{
"text": "for looking at these emerging materials.",
"timestamp": [
705.51,
707.61
]
},
{
"text": "for looking at these emerging materials.",
"timestamp": [
705.51,
707.61
]
},
{
"text": "But I would never bet\nagainst the innovation",
"timestamp": [
707.61,
710.85
]
},
{
"text": "But I would never bet\nagainst the innovation",
"timestamp": [
707.61,
710.85
]
},
{
"text": "and the creativity in this\nnano electronic space.",
"timestamp": [
710.85,
714.12
]
},
{
"text": "and the creativity in this\nnano electronic space.",
"timestamp": [
710.85,
714.12
]
},
{
"text": "Tens of thousands of scientists,",
"timestamp": [
714.12,
715.85
]
},
{
"text": "Tens of thousands of scientists,",
"timestamp": [
714.12,
715.85
]
},
{
"text": "every time they hit a barrier,\nat least historically,",
"timestamp": [
715.85,
720.16
]
},
{
"text": "every time they hit a barrier,\nat least historically,",
"timestamp": [
715.85,
720.16
]
},
{
"text": "as a guide, they have\nfound a way to overcome it.",
"timestamp": [
720.16,
722.79
]
},
{
"text": "as a guide, they have\nfound a way to overcome it.",
"timestamp": [
720.16,
722.79
]
},
{
"text": "It's a real marvel in ingenuity.",
"timestamp": [
722.79,
725.91
]
},
{
"text": "It's a real marvel in ingenuity.",
"timestamp": [
722.79,
725.91
]
},
{
"text": "- I gotta ask.",
"timestamp": [
725.91,
726.743
]
},
{
"text": "- I gotta ask.",
"timestamp": [
725.91,
726.743
]
},
{
"text": "The lights that are behind\nyou, is that related",
"timestamp": [
726.743,
728.67
]
},
{
"text": "The lights that are behind\nyou, is that related",
"timestamp": [
726.743,
728.67
]
},
{
"text": "to the quantum dots that\nyou work with at all?",
"timestamp": [
728.67,
730.41
]
},
{
"text": "to the quantum dots that\nyou work with at all?",
"timestamp": [
728.67,
730.41
]
},
{
"text": "- It's just pretty lights. [laughing]",
"timestamp": [
730.41,
733.38
]
},
{
"text": "- It's just pretty lights. [laughing]",
"timestamp": [
730.41,
733.38
]
},
{
"text": "But now that you suggested\nit, these were inspired",
"timestamp": [
733.38,
736.44
]
},
{
"text": "But now that you suggested\nit, these were inspired",
"timestamp": [
733.38,
736.44
]
},
{
"text": "by the array of quantum\ndots that we showed earlier.",
"timestamp": [
736.44,
739.7
]
},
{
"text": "by the array of quantum\ndots that we showed earlier.",
"timestamp": [
736.44,
739.7
]
},
{
"text": "So that's the story I'm\ngoing to stick with.",
"timestamp": [
739.7,
741.174
]
},
{
"text": "So that's the story I'm\ngoing to stick with.",
"timestamp": [
739.7,
741.174
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]\nI like it.",
"timestamp": [
741.174,
743.22
]
},
{
"text": "[laughing]\nI like it.",
"timestamp": [
741.174,
743.22
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, thank you so much. This\nwas all so very interesting.",
"timestamp": [
743.22,
746.51
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, thank you so much. This\nwas all so very interesting.",
"timestamp": [
743.22,
746.51
]
},
{
"text": "[light music]",
"timestamp": [
746.51,
749.02
]
},
{
"text": "[light music]",
"timestamp": [
746.51,
749.02
]
},
{
"text": "- So you're a graduate student.",
"timestamp": [
749.02,
750.27
]
},
{
"text": "- So you're a graduate student.",
"timestamp": [
749.02,
750.27
]
},
{
"text": "And so tell me a bit about your work.",
"timestamp": [
750.27,
752.26
]
},
{
"text": "And so tell me a bit about your work.",
"timestamp": [
750.27,
752.26
]
},
{
"text": "- I've been working on\nenergy storage materials.",
"timestamp": [
752.26,
754.407
]
},
{
"text": "- I've been working on\nenergy storage materials.",
"timestamp": [
752.26,
754.407
]
},
{
"text": "And the most popular are\nbatteries that we work on.",
"timestamp": [
754.407,
757.63
]
},
{
"text": "And the most popular are\nbatteries that we work on.",
"timestamp": [
754.407,
757.63
]
},
{
"text": "A lot of the revolution\nthat's come in electronics",
"timestamp": [
757.63,
759.8
]
},
{
"text": "A lot of the revolution\nthat's come in electronics",
"timestamp": [
757.63,
759.8
]
},
{
"text": "is kind of our model",
"timestamp": [
759.8,
760.72
]
},
{
"text": "is kind of our model",
"timestamp": [
759.8,
760.72
]
},
{
"text": "to try and use some nanoscale advances",
"timestamp": [
760.72,
763.12
]
},
{
"text": "to try and use some nanoscale advances",
"timestamp": [
760.72,
763.12
]
},
{
"text": "and put them into batteries.",
"timestamp": [
763.12,
765.26
]
},
{
"text": "and put them into batteries.",
"timestamp": [
763.12,
765.26
]
},
{
"text": "- What is it about\nnanomaterials, that scale",
"timestamp": [
765.26,
768.09
]
},
{
"text": "- What is it about\nnanomaterials, that scale",
"timestamp": [
765.26,
768.09
]
},
{
"text": "and the properties of these materials",
"timestamp": [
768.09,
769.63
]
},
{
"text": "and the properties of these materials",
"timestamp": [
768.09,
769.63
]
},
{
"text": "that make them uniquely promising",
"timestamp": [
769.63,
771.58
]
},
{
"text": "that make them uniquely promising",
"timestamp": [
769.63,
771.58
]
},
{
"text": "to incorporate into battery technology?",
"timestamp": [
771.58,
773.98
]
},
{
"text": "to incorporate into battery technology?",
"timestamp": [
771.58,
773.98
]
},
{
"text": "- So for batteries, one\nof the main constraints",
"timestamp": [
773.98,
776.45
]
},
{
"text": "- So for batteries, one\nof the main constraints",
"timestamp": [
773.98,
776.45
]
},
{
"text": "when we're designing batteries\nis trying to maintain",
"timestamp": [
776.45,
779.85
]
},
{
"text": "when we're designing batteries\nis trying to maintain",
"timestamp": [
776.45,
779.85
]
},
{
"text": "or reduce the volume and\nmass of the components.",
"timestamp": [
779.85,
783.27
]
},
{
"text": "or reduce the volume and\nmass of the components.",
"timestamp": [
779.85,
783.27
]
},
{
"text": "And nanomaterials are\nparticularly well suited",
"timestamp": [
783.27,
786.89
]
},
{
"text": "And nanomaterials are\nparticularly well suited",
"timestamp": [
783.27,
786.89
]
},
{
"text": "to adding functionality",
"timestamp": [
786.89,
788.45
]
},
{
"text": "to adding functionality",
"timestamp": [
786.89,
788.45
]
},
{
"text": "while having this negligible\nincrease in volume.",
"timestamp": [
788.45,
791.01
]
},
{
"text": "while having this negligible\nincrease in volume.",
"timestamp": [
788.45,
791.01
]
},
{
"text": "So we get a huge benefit\nfrom using nano materials",
"timestamp": [
791.01,
793.68
]
},
{
"text": "So we get a huge benefit\nfrom using nano materials",
"timestamp": [
791.01,
793.68
]
},
{
"text": "without sacrificing the\nvolume of the battery.",
"timestamp": [
793.68,
796.518
]
},
{
"text": "without sacrificing the\nvolume of the battery.",
"timestamp": [
793.68,
796.518
]
},
{
"text": "- What is it exactly that\nyou're trying to tease",
"timestamp": [
796.518,
798.47
]
},
{
"text": "- What is it exactly that\nyou're trying to tease",
"timestamp": [
796.518,
798.47
]
},
{
"text": "out of these materials to improve\nthe battery's performance?",
"timestamp": [
798.47,
801.61
]
},
{
"text": "out of these materials to improve\nthe battery's performance?",
"timestamp": [
798.47,
801.61
]
},
{
"text": "- At first, one of the\nmain things that we did",
"timestamp": [
801.61,
803.49
]
},
{
"text": "- At first, one of the\nmain things that we did",
"timestamp": [
801.61,
803.49
]
},
{
"text": "was use nanomaterials to add conductivity.",
"timestamp": [
803.49,
805.47
]
},
{
"text": "was use nanomaterials to add conductivity.",
"timestamp": [
803.49,
805.47
]
},
{
"text": "And so carbon anodes and\ngraphene are really good",
"timestamp": [
805.47,
808.7
]
},
{
"text": "And so carbon anodes and\ngraphene are really good",
"timestamp": [
805.47,
808.7
]
},
{
"text": "at adding conductivity to batteries.",
"timestamp": [
808.7,
810.62
]
},
{
"text": "at adding conductivity to batteries.",
"timestamp": [
808.7,
810.62
]
},
{
"text": "And then in the subsequent years,",
"timestamp": [
810.62,
812.46
]
},
{
"text": "And then in the subsequent years,",
"timestamp": [
810.62,
812.46
]
},
{
"text": "nanomaterials have been really interesting",
"timestamp": [
812.46,
814.38
]
},
{
"text": "nanomaterials have been really interesting",
"timestamp": [
812.46,
814.38
]
},
{
"text": "from things like incorporating\nsensors into batteries,",
"timestamp": [
814.38,
817.54
]
},
{
"text": "from things like incorporating\nsensors into batteries,",
"timestamp": [
814.38,
817.54
]
},
{
"text": "to increasing the\nfunctionality of batteries,",
"timestamp": [
817.54,
819.53
]
},
{
"text": "to increasing the\nfunctionality of batteries,",
"timestamp": [
817.54,
819.53
]
},
{
"text": "having some responsive materials",
"timestamp": [
819.53,
822.07
]
},
{
"text": "having some responsive materials",
"timestamp": [
819.53,
822.07
]
},
{
"text": "that use things like graphene sheets",
"timestamp": [
822.07,
824.6
]
},
{
"text": "that use things like graphene sheets",
"timestamp": [
822.07,
824.6
]
},
{
"text": "that are incorporated into a matrix,",
"timestamp": [
824.6,
826.41
]
},
{
"text": "that are incorporated into a matrix,",
"timestamp": [
824.6,
826.41
]
},
{
"text": "and then you add a safety\nfunctionality to a battery.",
"timestamp": [
826.41,
828.55
]
},
{
"text": "and then you add a safety\nfunctionality to a battery.",
"timestamp": [
826.41,
828.55
]
},
{
"text": "We're trying to squeeze out",
"timestamp": [
828.55,
829.92
]
},
{
"text": "We're trying to squeeze out",
"timestamp": [
828.55,
829.92
]
},
{
"text": "almost all the functionality that we can.",
"timestamp": [
829.92,
832.34
]
},
{
"text": "almost all the functionality that we can.",
"timestamp": [
829.92,
832.34
]
},
{
"text": "And as new nano materials\nare being discovered",
"timestamp": [
832.34,
834.5
]
},
{
"text": "And as new nano materials\nare being discovered",
"timestamp": [
832.34,
834.5
]
},
{
"text": "and there're new properties\nbeing discovered,",
"timestamp": [
834.5,
836.9
]
},
{
"text": "and there're new properties\nbeing discovered,",
"timestamp": [
834.5,
836.9
]
},
{
"text": "a lot of the time that someone\ntries to think of a way",
"timestamp": [
836.9,
839.29
]
},
{
"text": "a lot of the time that someone\ntries to think of a way",
"timestamp": [
836.9,
839.29
]
},
{
"text": "to translate that into a battery.",
"timestamp": [
839.29,
840.64
]
},
{
"text": "to translate that into a battery.",
"timestamp": [
839.29,
840.64
]
},
{
"text": "- Because the materials are so small,",
"timestamp": [
840.64,
842.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Because the materials are so small,",
"timestamp": [
840.64,
842.31
]
},
{
"text": "they're at the nanoscale,",
"timestamp": [
842.31,
843.91
]
},
{
"text": "they're at the nanoscale,",
"timestamp": [
842.31,
843.91
]
},
{
"text": "their properties are dominated\nby quantum mechanics,",
"timestamp": [
843.91,
846.22
]
},
{
"text": "their properties are dominated\nby quantum mechanics,",
"timestamp": [
843.91,
846.22
]
},
{
"text": "which means that even slight\nchanges in their size,",
"timestamp": [
846.22,
849.39
]
},
{
"text": "which means that even slight\nchanges in their size,",
"timestamp": [
846.22,
849.39
]
},
{
"text": "in their orientation",
"timestamp": [
849.39,
850.56
]
},
{
"text": "in their orientation",
"timestamp": [
849.39,
850.56
]
},
{
"text": "give profound changes in their properties.",
"timestamp": [
850.56,
852.93
]
},
{
"text": "give profound changes in their properties.",
"timestamp": [
850.56,
852.93
]
},
{
"text": "And while that's very\nscientifically interesting,",
"timestamp": [
852.93,
856.15
]
},
{
"text": "And while that's very\nscientifically interesting,",
"timestamp": [
852.93,
856.15
]
},
{
"text": "and it allows you to tune their properties",
"timestamp": [
856.15,
857.76
]
},
{
"text": "and it allows you to tune their properties",
"timestamp": [
856.15,
857.76
]
},
{
"text": "by making subtle changes, from\na technology point of view,",
"timestamp": [
857.76,
860.97
]
},
{
"text": "by making subtle changes, from\na technology point of view,",
"timestamp": [
857.76,
860.97
]
},
{
"text": "it's a bit of a headache in the sense",
"timestamp": [
860.97,
862.57
]
},
{
"text": "it's a bit of a headache in the sense",
"timestamp": [
860.97,
862.57
]
},
{
"text": "that in technology want\nto optimize for a property",
"timestamp": [
862.57,
865.11
]
},
{
"text": "that in technology want\nto optimize for a property",
"timestamp": [
862.57,
865.11
]
},
{
"text": "and then repeat that over and over again.",
"timestamp": [
865.11,
867.12
]
},
{
"text": "and then repeat that over and over again.",
"timestamp": [
865.11,
867.12
]
},
{
"text": "So what are some of the challenges\nthat you face in the lab",
"timestamp": [
867.12,
871.07
]
},
{
"text": "So what are some of the challenges\nthat you face in the lab",
"timestamp": [
867.12,
871.07
]
},
{
"text": "related to working with these materials",
"timestamp": [
871.07,
873.078
]
},
{
"text": "related to working with these materials",
"timestamp": [
871.07,
873.078
]
},
{
"text": "and then trying to incorporate\nthem into the batteries?",
"timestamp": [
873.078,
875.89
]
},
{
"text": "and then trying to incorporate\nthem into the batteries?",
"timestamp": [
873.078,
875.89
]
},
{
"text": "- I think every step of\na process in a battery",
"timestamp": [
875.89,
877.94
]
},
{
"text": "- I think every step of\na process in a battery",
"timestamp": [
875.89,
877.94
]
},
{
"text": "is something where you have to think about",
"timestamp": [
877.94,
879.58
]
},
{
"text": "is something where you have to think about",
"timestamp": [
877.94,
879.58
]
},
{
"text": "how would this translate\nto making a battery",
"timestamp": [
879.58,
882.09
]
},
{
"text": "how would this translate\nto making a battery",
"timestamp": [
879.58,
882.09
]
},
{
"text": "in terms of the production?",
"timestamp": [
882.09,
883.63
]
},
{
"text": "in terms of the production?",
"timestamp": [
882.09,
883.63
]
},
{
"text": "One thing that I think is very interesting",
"timestamp": [
883.63,
884.99
]
},
{
"text": "One thing that I think is very interesting",
"timestamp": [
883.63,
884.99
]
},
{
"text": "about the field of nanoscale\nmaterials in general,",
"timestamp": [
884.99,
887.44
]
},
{
"text": "about the field of nanoscale\nmaterials in general,",
"timestamp": [
884.99,
887.44
]
},
{
"text": "is that how you make the material",
"timestamp": [
887.44,
888.77
]
},
{
"text": "is that how you make the material",
"timestamp": [
887.44,
888.77
]
},
{
"text": "changes the properties a lot.",
"timestamp": [
888.77,
890.54
]
},
{
"text": "changes the properties a lot.",
"timestamp": [
888.77,
890.54
]
},
{
"text": "And so we claim that this 2D\nmaterial has this property,",
"timestamp": [
890.54,
894.27
]
},
{
"text": "And so we claim that this 2D\nmaterial has this property,",
"timestamp": [
890.54,
894.27
]
},
{
"text": "then tying that to the battery performance",
"timestamp": [
894.27,
896.29
]
},
{
"text": "then tying that to the battery performance",
"timestamp": [
894.27,
896.29
]
},
{
"text": "is something that's\npretty difficult to do.",
"timestamp": [
896.29,
898.43
]
},
{
"text": "is something that's\npretty difficult to do.",
"timestamp": [
896.29,
898.43
]
},
{
"text": "It takes a few steps in between.",
"timestamp": [
898.43,
899.86
]
},
{
"text": "It takes a few steps in between.",
"timestamp": [
898.43,
899.86
]
},
{
"text": "So we have to think kind of creatively",
"timestamp": [
899.86,
901.21
]
},
{
"text": "So we have to think kind of creatively",
"timestamp": [
899.86,
901.21
]
},
{
"text": "with how we can do that.",
"timestamp": [
901.21,
902.7
]
},
{
"text": "with how we can do that.",
"timestamp": [
901.21,
902.7
]
},
{
"text": "- That's actually, I think\na very common problem.",
"timestamp": [
902.7,
904.7
]
},
{
"text": "- That's actually, I think\na very common problem.",
"timestamp": [
902.7,
904.7
]
},
{
"text": "We can build a device in the lab",
"timestamp": [
904.7,
906.31
]
},
{
"text": "We can build a device in the lab",
"timestamp": [
904.7,
906.31
]
},
{
"text": "it could be a transistor,\ncan be a battery.",
"timestamp": [
906.31,
908.02
]
},
{
"text": "it could be a transistor,\ncan be a battery.",
"timestamp": [
906.31,
908.02
]
},
{
"text": "And then you ask the question,",
"timestamp": [
908.02,
908.87
]
},
{
"text": "And then you ask the question,",
"timestamp": [
908.02,
908.87
]
},
{
"text": "okay, so what's the next step?",
"timestamp": [
908.87,
909.84
]
},
{
"text": "okay, so what's the next step?",
"timestamp": [
908.87,
909.84
]
},
{
"text": "How do we take it from\nthat lab demonstration",
"timestamp": [
909.84,
912.34
]
},
{
"text": "How do we take it from\nthat lab demonstration",
"timestamp": [
909.84,
912.34
]
},
{
"text": "into a technology?",
"timestamp": [
912.34,
913.52
]
},
{
"text": "into a technology?",
"timestamp": [
912.34,
913.52
]
},
{
"text": "The kind of work that\nI'm very interested in",
"timestamp": [
913.52,
915.49
]
},
{
"text": "The kind of work that\nI'm very interested in",
"timestamp": [
913.52,
915.49
]
},
{
"text": "is developing tools",
"timestamp": [
915.49,
916.89
]
},
{
"text": "is developing tools",
"timestamp": [
915.49,
916.89
]
},
{
"text": "to make the exact type of\nmaterials that you want.",
"timestamp": [
916.89,
921
]
},
{
"text": "to make the exact type of\nmaterials that you want.",
"timestamp": [
916.89,
921
]
},
{
"text": "The tools that we've used in the past",
"timestamp": [
921,
922.67
]
},
{
"text": "The tools that we've used in the past",
"timestamp": [
921,
922.67
]
},
{
"text": "for conventional fabrication",
"timestamp": [
922.67,
924.46
]
},
{
"text": "for conventional fabrication",
"timestamp": [
922.67,
924.46
]
},
{
"text": "just don't work with these materials",
"timestamp": [
924.46,
926.23
]
},
{
"text": "just don't work with these materials",
"timestamp": [
924.46,
926.23
]
},
{
"text": "because they're all\ngrown from the bottom up.",
"timestamp": [
926.23,
928.73
]
},
{
"text": "because they're all\ngrown from the bottom up.",
"timestamp": [
926.23,
928.73
]
},
{
"text": "They're intrinsically small,\nand you have to find ways",
"timestamp": [
928.73,
931.78
]
},
{
"text": "They're intrinsically small,\nand you have to find ways",
"timestamp": [
928.73,
931.78
]
},
{
"text": "to either use chemistry\nor some other means",
"timestamp": [
931.78,
933.56
]
},
{
"text": "to either use chemistry\nor some other means",
"timestamp": [
931.78,
933.56
]
},
{
"text": "to get them to assemble into\nthe structures that you want",
"timestamp": [
933.56,
937.61
]
},
{
"text": "to get them to assemble into\nthe structures that you want",
"timestamp": [
933.56,
937.61
]
},
{
"text": "to actually either grow\nspecifically what you want",
"timestamp": [
937.61,
939.84
]
},
{
"text": "to actually either grow\nspecifically what you want",
"timestamp": [
937.61,
939.84
]
},
{
"text": "or after you grow them, to pull\nout the ones that you want.",
"timestamp": [
939.84,
941.81
]
},
{
"text": "or after you grow them, to pull\nout the ones that you want.",
"timestamp": [
939.84,
941.81
]
},
{
"text": "You need to be able to\nbuild that same thing",
"timestamp": [
941.81,
944.47
]
},
{
"text": "You need to be able to\nbuild that same thing",
"timestamp": [
941.81,
944.47
]
},
{
"text": "over and over again, with\nthe exact same properties.",
"timestamp": [
944.47,
946.89
]
},
{
"text": "over and over again, with\nthe exact same properties.",
"timestamp": [
944.47,
946.89
]
},
{
"text": "No one institution, no one\nresearch lab, no one national lab",
"timestamp": [
946.89,
951.89
]
},
{
"text": "No one institution, no one\nresearch lab, no one national lab",
"timestamp": [
946.89,
951.89
]
},
{
"text": "is gonna solve all of\nthese problems on their own",
"timestamp": [
952.53,
954.84
]
},
{
"text": "is gonna solve all of\nthese problems on their own",
"timestamp": [
952.53,
954.84
]
},
{
"text": "because they are difficult problems.",
"timestamp": [
954.84,
956.57
]
},
{
"text": "because they are difficult problems.",
"timestamp": [
954.84,
956.57
]
},
{
"text": "And there is a real\nimportant payoff at the end.",
"timestamp": [
956.57,
959.74
]
},
{
"text": "And there is a real\nimportant payoff at the end.",
"timestamp": [
956.57,
959.74
]
},
{
"text": "And it's gonna take all of\nus, making our contributions",
"timestamp": [
959.74,
962.525
]
},
{
"text": "And it's gonna take all of\nus, making our contributions",
"timestamp": [
959.74,
962.525
]
},
{
"text": "to push this field forward.\n[light music]",
"timestamp": [
962.525,
967.525
]
},
{
"text": "to push this field forward.\n[light music]",
"timestamp": [
962.525,
967.525
]
},
{
"text": "I remember reading your\npapers when I was a student",
"timestamp": [
967.64,
969.99
]
},
{
"text": "I remember reading your\npapers when I was a student",
"timestamp": [
967.64,
969.99
]
},
{
"text": "and we're all trying to\ncreate these materials",
"timestamp": [
969.99,
972.9
]
},
{
"text": "and we're all trying to\ncreate these materials",
"timestamp": [
969.99,
972.9
]
},
{
"text": "and finding ways to\nexploit their properties.",
"timestamp": [
972.9,
976.04
]
},
{
"text": "and finding ways to\nexploit their properties.",
"timestamp": [
972.9,
976.04
]
},
{
"text": "What I love, and I'm\ndelighted that you're here",
"timestamp": [
976.04,
977.49
]
},
{
"text": "What I love, and I'm\ndelighted that you're here",
"timestamp": [
976.04,
977.49
]
},
{
"text": "to talk to us about is how you\ntook inspiration from nature",
"timestamp": [
977.49,
979.98
]
},
{
"text": "to talk to us about is how you\ntook inspiration from nature",
"timestamp": [
977.49,
979.98
]
},
{
"text": "and sort of recognize that\nnature's figured out a way",
"timestamp": [
979.98,
982.05
]
},
{
"text": "and sort of recognize that\nnature's figured out a way",
"timestamp": [
979.98,
982.05
]
},
{
"text": "to both synthesize incredibly\ncomplex nanostructures",
"timestamp": [
982.05,
986.12
]
},
{
"text": "to both synthesize incredibly\ncomplex nanostructures",
"timestamp": [
982.05,
986.12
]
},
{
"text": "with high functionality and\nhow you sort of were inspired",
"timestamp": [
986.12,
989.62
]
},
{
"text": "with high functionality and\nhow you sort of were inspired",
"timestamp": [
986.12,
989.62
]
},
{
"text": "by that to do the research\nthat you're doing now.",
"timestamp": [
989.62,
992.06
]
},
{
"text": "by that to do the research\nthat you're doing now.",
"timestamp": [
989.62,
992.06
]
},
{
"text": "- Life gave us this toolkit",
"timestamp": [
992.06,
993.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Life gave us this toolkit",
"timestamp": [
992.06,
993.53
]
},
{
"text": "that is already on the nanoscale.",
"timestamp": [
993.53,
995.26
]
},
{
"text": "that is already on the nanoscale.",
"timestamp": [
993.53,
995.26
]
},
{
"text": "So we think that that's a great place",
"timestamp": [
995.26,
997.22
]
},
{
"text": "So we think that that's a great place",
"timestamp": [
995.26,
997.22
]
},
{
"text": "to think about making\nmaterials on the nano scale",
"timestamp": [
997.22,
1000.34
]
},
{
"text": "to think about making\nmaterials on the nano scale",
"timestamp": [
997.22,
1000.34
]
},
{
"text": "and manipulating materials\non the nano scale,",
"timestamp": [
1000.34,
1002.629
]
},
{
"text": "and manipulating materials\non the nano scale,",
"timestamp": [
1000.34,
1002.629
]
},
{
"text": "and wiring them together as well.",
"timestamp": [
1002.629,
1004.6
]
},
{
"text": "and wiring them together as well.",
"timestamp": [
1002.629,
1004.6
]
},
{
"text": "This abalone shell, you can see",
"timestamp": [
1004.6,
1006.05
]
},
{
"text": "This abalone shell, you can see",
"timestamp": [
1004.6,
1006.05
]
},
{
"text": "the exquisite beautiful\ncolors and structures of it.",
"timestamp": [
1006.05,
1009.09
]
},
{
"text": "the exquisite beautiful\ncolors and structures of it.",
"timestamp": [
1006.05,
1009.09
]
},
{
"text": "This is a nano composite material.",
"timestamp": [
1009.09,
1011.69
]
},
{
"text": "This is a nano composite material.",
"timestamp": [
1009.09,
1011.69
]
},
{
"text": "If you take this and fracture\nit, and you look at it",
"timestamp": [
1011.69,
1013.98
]
},
{
"text": "If you take this and fracture\nit, and you look at it",
"timestamp": [
1011.69,
1013.98
]
},
{
"text": "in a scanning electron\nmicroscope, what you'll see",
"timestamp": [
1013.98,
1016.2
]
},
{
"text": "in a scanning electron\nmicroscope, what you'll see",
"timestamp": [
1013.98,
1016.2
]
},
{
"text": "is that it's made out of\nthese beautiful tablets.",
"timestamp": [
1016.2,
1018.28
]
},
{
"text": "is that it's made out of\nthese beautiful tablets.",
"timestamp": [
1016.2,
1018.28
]
},
{
"text": "And I studied that as a graduate student.",
"timestamp": [
1018.28,
1019.93
]
},
{
"text": "And I studied that as a graduate student.",
"timestamp": [
1018.28,
1019.93
]
},
{
"text": "I looked at that and I said,\nthat is completely amazing.",
"timestamp": [
1019.93,
1022.59
]
},
{
"text": "I looked at that and I said,\nthat is completely amazing.",
"timestamp": [
1019.93,
1022.59
]
},
{
"text": "You have an organism in the ocean,",
"timestamp": [
1022.59,
1024.21
]
},
{
"text": "You have an organism in the ocean,",
"timestamp": [
1022.59,
1024.21
]
},
{
"text": "that takes what's in its environment,",
"timestamp": [
1024.21,
1026.04
]
},
{
"text": "that takes what's in its environment,",
"timestamp": [
1024.21,
1026.04
]
},
{
"text": "which is calcium and carbonate.",
"timestamp": [
1026.04,
1028.04
]
},
{
"text": "which is calcium and carbonate.",
"timestamp": [
1026.04,
1028.04
]
},
{
"text": "That's dissolved in the\nwater and templates it",
"timestamp": [
1028.04,
1030.19
]
},
{
"text": "That's dissolved in the\nwater and templates it",
"timestamp": [
1028.04,
1030.19
]
},
{
"text": "into this really exquisite structure.",
"timestamp": [
1030.19,
1031.68
]
},
{
"text": "into this really exquisite structure.",
"timestamp": [
1030.19,
1031.68
]
},
{
"text": "And so you think that's great.",
"timestamp": [
1031.68,
1032.76
]
},
{
"text": "And so you think that's great.",
"timestamp": [
1031.68,
1032.76
]
},
{
"text": "Calcium carbonate is great,",
"timestamp": [
1032.76,
1034.02
]
},
{
"text": "Calcium carbonate is great,",
"timestamp": [
1032.76,
1034.02
]
},
{
"text": "but what if we wanted to make a solar cell",
"timestamp": [
1034.02,
1036.03
]
},
{
"text": "but what if we wanted to make a solar cell",
"timestamp": [
1034.02,
1036.03
]
},
{
"text": "or a another electronic\ndevice or a battery,",
"timestamp": [
1036.03,
1040.68
]
},
{
"text": "or a another electronic\ndevice or a battery,",
"timestamp": [
1036.03,
1040.68
]
},
{
"text": "how would you get an organism to do that?",
"timestamp": [
1040.68,
1042.55
]
},
{
"text": "how would you get an organism to do that?",
"timestamp": [
1040.68,
1042.55
]
},
{
"text": "And you say, okay, that's\na really crazy idea.",
"timestamp": [
1042.55,
1044.88
]
},
{
"text": "And you say, okay, that's\na really crazy idea.",
"timestamp": [
1042.55,
1044.88
]
},
{
"text": "But is it really that\ncrazy if this abalone,",
"timestamp": [
1044.88,
1048.38
]
},
{
"text": "But is it really that\ncrazy if this abalone,",
"timestamp": [
1044.88,
1048.38
]
},
{
"text": "already figured out how to\ndo it, 500 million years ago?",
"timestamp": [
1048.38,
1051.43
]
},
{
"text": "already figured out how to\ndo it, 500 million years ago?",
"timestamp": [
1048.38,
1051.43
]
},
{
"text": "So we're saying, okay,\nabalones build shells.",
"timestamp": [
1051.43,
1054.44
]
},
{
"text": "So we're saying, okay,\nabalones build shells.",
"timestamp": [
1051.43,
1054.44
]
},
{
"text": "Can viruses build solar cells,\ncan viruses build catalysts?",
"timestamp": [
1054.44,
1058.91
]
},
{
"text": "Can viruses build solar cells,\ncan viruses build catalysts?",
"timestamp": [
1054.44,
1058.91
]
},
{
"text": "Can they build batteries\nusing the same kind of idea?",
"timestamp": [
1058.91,
1063.12
]
},
{
"text": "Can they build batteries\nusing the same kind of idea?",
"timestamp": [
1058.91,
1063.12
]
},
{
"text": "- It's really fascinating work,",
"timestamp": [
1063.12,
1064.58
]
},
{
"text": "- It's really fascinating work,",
"timestamp": [
1063.12,
1064.58
]
},
{
"text": "especially now we're all familiar",
"timestamp": [
1064.58,
1065.83
]
},
{
"text": "especially now we're all familiar",
"timestamp": [
1064.58,
1065.83
]
},
{
"text": "with the viruses and how they act.",
"timestamp": [
1065.83,
1067.4
]
},
{
"text": "with the viruses and how they act.",
"timestamp": [
1065.83,
1067.4
]
},
{
"text": "And I'm not aware of any viruses\nthat build nanostructures.",
"timestamp": [
1067.4,
1069.86
]
},
{
"text": "And I'm not aware of any viruses\nthat build nanostructures.",
"timestamp": [
1067.4,
1069.86
]
},
{
"text": "So how did you come to that?",
"timestamp": [
1069.86,
1070.83
]
},
{
"text": "So how did you come to that?",
"timestamp": [
1069.86,
1070.83
]
},
{
"text": "And then how do you\nactually program a virus",
"timestamp": [
1070.83,
1074.21
]
},
{
"text": "And then how do you\nactually program a virus",
"timestamp": [
1070.83,
1074.21
]
},
{
"text": "to do your bidding?\n- We work on something",
"timestamp": [
1074.21,
1076.11
]
},
{
"text": "to do your bidding?\n- We work on something",
"timestamp": [
1074.21,
1076.11
]
},
{
"text": "called bacteriophages,\nit's a virus with DNA.",
"timestamp": [
1076.11,
1078.95
]
},
{
"text": "called bacteriophages,\nit's a virus with DNA.",
"timestamp": [
1076.11,
1078.95
]
},
{
"text": "This particular bacteriophage\ncalled M13 bacteriophage",
"timestamp": [
1078.95,
1082.62
]
},
{
"text": "This particular bacteriophage\ncalled M13 bacteriophage",
"timestamp": [
1078.95,
1082.62
]
},
{
"text": "is made up of single\nstranded DNA and proteins.",
"timestamp": [
1082.62,
1085.4
]
},
{
"text": "is made up of single\nstranded DNA and proteins.",
"timestamp": [
1082.62,
1085.4
]
},
{
"text": "It's long and thin.",
"timestamp": [
1085.4,
1086.83
]
},
{
"text": "It's long and thin.",
"timestamp": [
1085.4,
1086.83
]
},
{
"text": "So it's 880 nanometers in length,",
"timestamp": [
1086.83,
1089.44
]
},
{
"text": "So it's 880 nanometers in length,",
"timestamp": [
1086.83,
1089.44
]
},
{
"text": "and it's about 9 nanometers in diameter.",
"timestamp": [
1089.44,
1093
]
},
{
"text": "and it's about 9 nanometers in diameter.",
"timestamp": [
1089.44,
1093
]
},
{
"text": "And so one of the reasons I love it",
"timestamp": [
1093,
1094.38
]
},
{
"text": "And so one of the reasons I love it",
"timestamp": [
1093,
1094.38
]
},
{
"text": "is it spans the nanoscale",
"timestamp": [
1094.38,
1095.89
]
},
{
"text": "is it spans the nanoscale",
"timestamp": [
1094.38,
1095.89
]
},
{
"text": "and almost the micron\nscale at the same time.",
"timestamp": [
1095.89,
1097.89
]
},
{
"text": "and almost the micron\nscale at the same time.",
"timestamp": [
1095.89,
1097.89
]
},
{
"text": "Take the single strand\nDNAs, obviously a model,",
"timestamp": [
1097.89,
1100.66
]
},
{
"text": "Take the single strand\nDNAs, obviously a model,",
"timestamp": [
1097.89,
1100.66
]
},
{
"text": "and you can cut it with\nmolecular scissors.",
"timestamp": [
1100.66,
1103.15
]
},
{
"text": "and you can cut it with\nmolecular scissors.",
"timestamp": [
1100.66,
1103.15
]
},
{
"text": "And you can put a new\npiece of DNA in between.",
"timestamp": [
1103.15,
1105.69
]
},
{
"text": "And you can put a new\npiece of DNA in between.",
"timestamp": [
1103.15,
1105.69
]
},
{
"text": "And so you put a small\npiece of DNA in there",
"timestamp": [
1105.69,
1107.74
]
},
{
"text": "And so you put a small\npiece of DNA in there",
"timestamp": [
1105.69,
1107.74
]
},
{
"text": "that doesn't belong there.",
"timestamp": [
1107.74,
1109.44
]
},
{
"text": "that doesn't belong there.",
"timestamp": [
1107.74,
1109.44
]
},
{
"text": "And that piece of DNA",
"timestamp": [
1109.44,
1111.62
]
},
{
"text": "And that piece of DNA",
"timestamp": [
1109.44,
1111.62
]
},
{
"text": "is going to randomly code for a protein.",
"timestamp": [
1111.62,
1115.53
]
},
{
"text": "is going to randomly code for a protein.",
"timestamp": [
1111.62,
1115.53
]
},
{
"text": "Now, the next time that\nthat virus is replicated",
"timestamp": [
1115.53,
1119.42
]
},
{
"text": "Now, the next time that\nthat virus is replicated",
"timestamp": [
1115.53,
1119.42
]
},
{
"text": "within a bacterial host,",
"timestamp": [
1119.42,
1121.29
]
},
{
"text": "within a bacterial host,",
"timestamp": [
1119.42,
1121.29
]
},
{
"text": "it'll be able to put a new\nprotein sequence on the coat,",
"timestamp": [
1121.29,
1124.39
]
},
{
"text": "it'll be able to put a new\nprotein sequence on the coat,",
"timestamp": [
1121.29,
1124.39
]
},
{
"text": "just a short protein sequence on the coat,",
"timestamp": [
1124.39,
1126.4
]
},
{
"text": "just a short protein sequence on the coat,",
"timestamp": [
1124.39,
1126.4
]
},
{
"text": "maybe like 8 or 12 amino acids in length.",
"timestamp": [
1126.4,
1129.15
]
},
{
"text": "maybe like 8 or 12 amino acids in length.",
"timestamp": [
1126.4,
1129.15
]
},
{
"text": "And just like that abalone\nis going to grab calcium",
"timestamp": [
1129.15,
1131.39
]
},
{
"text": "And just like that abalone\nis going to grab calcium",
"timestamp": [
1129.15,
1131.39
]
},
{
"text": "and build calcium carbonate.",
"timestamp": [
1131.39,
1132.7
]
},
{
"text": "and build calcium carbonate.",
"timestamp": [
1131.39,
1132.7
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to have our\nviruses build iron phosphate",
"timestamp": [
1132.7,
1135.71
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to have our\nviruses build iron phosphate",
"timestamp": [
1132.7,
1135.71
]
},
{
"text": "for a battery electrode material",
"timestamp": [
1135.71,
1137.63
]
},
{
"text": "for a battery electrode material",
"timestamp": [
1135.71,
1137.63
]
},
{
"text": "or Gallium arsenide or cad sulfide",
"timestamp": [
1137.63,
1140.49
]
},
{
"text": "or Gallium arsenide or cad sulfide",
"timestamp": [
1137.63,
1140.49
]
},
{
"text": "for a semiconductor material.",
"timestamp": [
1140.49,
1142.06
]
},
{
"text": "for a semiconductor material.",
"timestamp": [
1140.49,
1142.06
]
},
{
"text": "- So you've evolved, and I\nsuppose, trained these viruses",
"timestamp": [
1142.06,
1145.8
]
},
{
"text": "- So you've evolved, and I\nsuppose, trained these viruses",
"timestamp": [
1142.06,
1145.8
]
},
{
"text": "to build the materials\nthat you want them to build",
"timestamp": [
1145.8,
1147.83
]
},
{
"text": "to build the materials\nthat you want them to build",
"timestamp": [
1145.8,
1147.83
]
},
{
"text": "by exposing them to the raw materials",
"timestamp": [
1147.83,
1150.43
]
},
{
"text": "by exposing them to the raw materials",
"timestamp": [
1147.83,
1150.43
]
},
{
"text": "and then evolving their function.",
"timestamp": [
1150.43,
1153.23
]
},
{
"text": "and then evolving their function.",
"timestamp": [
1150.43,
1153.23
]
},
{
"text": "We're talking about the\nelectronics from nanomaterials.",
"timestamp": [
1153.23,
1155.17
]
},
{
"text": "We're talking about the\nelectronics from nanomaterials.",
"timestamp": [
1153.23,
1155.17
]
},
{
"text": "That critical issue that we're facing",
"timestamp": [
1155.17,
1156.78
]
},
{
"text": "That critical issue that we're facing",
"timestamp": [
1155.17,
1156.78
]
},
{
"text": "is how do you go from\nthose single experiments",
"timestamp": [
1156.78,
1158.85
]
},
{
"text": "is how do you go from\nthose single experiments",
"timestamp": [
1156.78,
1158.85
]
},
{
"text": "with a single material,\nunderstanding its properties,",
"timestamp": [
1158.85,
1161.24
]
},
{
"text": "with a single material,\nunderstanding its properties,",
"timestamp": [
1158.85,
1161.24
]
},
{
"text": "how do you scale that to\nthe billions of devices",
"timestamp": [
1161.24,
1163.76
]
},
{
"text": "how do you scale that to\nthe billions of devices",
"timestamp": [
1161.24,
1163.76
]
},
{
"text": "that you need in a technology?",
"timestamp": [
1163.76,
1165.25
]
},
{
"text": "that you need in a technology?",
"timestamp": [
1163.76,
1165.25
]
},
{
"text": "It is a chemistry driven approach.",
"timestamp": [
1165.25,
1167.64
]
},
{
"text": "It is a chemistry driven approach.",
"timestamp": [
1165.25,
1167.64
]
},
{
"text": "We're not going to grow them\nexactly where we want them,",
"timestamp": [
1167.64,
1169.84
]
},
{
"text": "We're not going to grow them\nexactly where we want them,",
"timestamp": [
1167.64,
1169.84
]
},
{
"text": "but to take that one step,",
"timestamp": [
1169.84,
1171.822
]
},
{
"text": "but to take that one step,",
"timestamp": [
1169.84,
1171.822
]
},
{
"text": "and to tie into what you're doing,",
"timestamp": [
1171.822,
1173.26
]
},
{
"text": "and to tie into what you're doing,",
"timestamp": [
1171.822,
1173.26
]
},
{
"text": "tt sounds like there could\nbe an area of collaboration",
"timestamp": [
1173.26,
1175.53
]
},
{
"text": "tt sounds like there could\nbe an area of collaboration",
"timestamp": [
1173.26,
1175.53
]
},
{
"text": "where instead of using\nconventional chemistry,",
"timestamp": [
1175.53,
1178.19
]
},
{
"text": "where instead of using\nconventional chemistry,",
"timestamp": [
1175.53,
1178.19
]
},
{
"text": "that we can train some of\nthese biological elements",
"timestamp": [
1178.19,
1180.941
]
},
{
"text": "that we can train some of\nthese biological elements",
"timestamp": [
1178.19,
1180.941
]
},
{
"text": "to do that work work for us.",
"timestamp": [
1180.941,
1183.72
]
},
{
"text": "to do that work work for us.",
"timestamp": [
1180.941,
1183.72
]
},
{
"text": "- Biology is chemistry.",
"timestamp": [
1183.72,
1185.65
]
},
{
"text": "- Biology is chemistry.",
"timestamp": [
1183.72,
1185.65
]
},
{
"text": "Molecules, proteins,",
"timestamp": [
1185.65,
1187.11
]
},
{
"text": "Molecules, proteins,",
"timestamp": [
1185.65,
1187.11
]
},
{
"text": "and DNA work with all\nthe same kinds of bonding",
"timestamp": [
1187.11,
1190.28
]
},
{
"text": "and DNA work with all\nthe same kinds of bonding",
"timestamp": [
1187.11,
1190.28
]
},
{
"text": "and things that the chemicals",
"timestamp": [
1190.28,
1191.93
]
},
{
"text": "and things that the chemicals",
"timestamp": [
1190.28,
1191.93
]
},
{
"text": "that you're gonna be looking\nfor in these processes.",
"timestamp": [
1191.93,
1194.82
]
},
{
"text": "that you're gonna be looking\nfor in these processes.",
"timestamp": [
1191.93,
1194.82
]
},
{
"text": "It's put together in a way",
"timestamp": [
1194.82,
1197.39
]
},
{
"text": "It's put together in a way",
"timestamp": [
1194.82,
1197.39
]
},
{
"text": "that when a protein or enzyme folds,",
"timestamp": [
1197.39,
1200.8
]
},
{
"text": "that when a protein or enzyme folds,",
"timestamp": [
1197.39,
1200.8
]
},
{
"text": "it almost always folds correctly.",
"timestamp": [
1200.8,
1202.88
]
},
{
"text": "it almost always folds correctly.",
"timestamp": [
1200.8,
1202.88
]
},
{
"text": "That's kind of the beauty of it,",
"timestamp": [
1202.88,
1204.28
]
},
{
"text": "That's kind of the beauty of it,",
"timestamp": [
1202.88,
1204.28
]
},
{
"text": "the predictable aspect\nof it encoded in its DNA.",
"timestamp": [
1204.28,
1207.55
]
},
{
"text": "the predictable aspect\nof it encoded in its DNA.",
"timestamp": [
1204.28,
1207.55
]
},
{
"text": "If we need to make it the\nsame over and over again,",
"timestamp": [
1207.55,
1210.63
]
},
{
"text": "If we need to make it the\nsame over and over again,",
"timestamp": [
1207.55,
1210.63
]
},
{
"text": "then as long as you have\nthe right DNA sequence,",
"timestamp": [
1210.63,
1212.66
]
},
{
"text": "then as long as you have\nthe right DNA sequence,",
"timestamp": [
1210.63,
1212.66
]
},
{
"text": "DNA is a beautiful\nstructure on the nanoscale.",
"timestamp": [
1212.66,
1215.89
]
},
{
"text": "DNA is a beautiful\nstructure on the nanoscale.",
"timestamp": [
1212.66,
1215.89
]
},
{
"text": "And there's really, really\ncool, incredible work",
"timestamp": [
1215.89,
1218.36
]
},
{
"text": "And there's really, really\ncool, incredible work",
"timestamp": [
1215.89,
1218.36
]
},
{
"text": "on DNA origami, when DNA can fold",
"timestamp": [
1218.36,
1220.45
]
},
{
"text": "on DNA origami, when DNA can fold",
"timestamp": [
1218.36,
1220.45
]
},
{
"text": "into just the right structure.",
"timestamp": [
1220.45,
1222.2
]
},
{
"text": "into just the right structure.",
"timestamp": [
1220.45,
1222.2
]
},
{
"text": "And so I can see that as an interface,",
"timestamp": [
1222.2,
1224.877
]
},
{
"text": "And so I can see that as an interface,",
"timestamp": [
1222.2,
1224.877
]
},
{
"text": "that would be really cool\nand interesting in your work.",
"timestamp": [
1224.877,
1227.89
]
},
{
"text": "that would be really cool\nand interesting in your work.",
"timestamp": [
1224.877,
1227.89
]
},
{
"text": "And you can have the virus make\nthe DNA for the DNA origami,",
"timestamp": [
1227.89,
1231.52
]
},
{
"text": "And you can have the virus make\nthe DNA for the DNA origami,",
"timestamp": [
1227.89,
1231.52
]
},
{
"text": "and then you use DNA to assemble\nyour beautiful structures.",
"timestamp": [
1231.52,
1236.04
]
},
{
"text": "and then you use DNA to assemble\nyour beautiful structures.",
"timestamp": [
1231.52,
1236.04
]
},
{
"text": "- It's really fascinating.",
"timestamp": [
1236.04,
1237.19
]
},
{
"text": "- It's really fascinating.",
"timestamp": [
1236.04,
1237.19
]
},
{
"text": "You have all these little worker viruses",
"timestamp": [
1237.19,
1238.69
]
},
{
"text": "You have all these little worker viruses",
"timestamp": [
1237.19,
1238.69
]
},
{
"text": "building the materials for you.",
"timestamp": [
1238.69,
1240.11
]
},
{
"text": "building the materials for you.",
"timestamp": [
1238.69,
1240.11
]
},
{
"text": "How are you then applying these materials",
"timestamp": [
1240.11,
1241.97
]
},
{
"text": "How are you then applying these materials",
"timestamp": [
1240.11,
1241.97
]
},
{
"text": "that you're building?",
"timestamp": [
1241.97,
1243.19
]
},
{
"text": "that you're building?",
"timestamp": [
1241.97,
1243.19
]
},
{
"text": "- We started thinking about",
"timestamp": [
1243.19,
1244.39
]
},
{
"text": "- We started thinking about",
"timestamp": [
1243.19,
1244.39
]
},
{
"text": "how can we make an impact in cancer?",
"timestamp": [
1244.39,
1246.98
]
},
{
"text": "how can we make an impact in cancer?",
"timestamp": [
1244.39,
1246.98
]
},
{
"text": "We do it mostly in imaging technology",
"timestamp": [
1246.98,
1249.67
]
},
{
"text": "We do it mostly in imaging technology",
"timestamp": [
1246.98,
1249.67
]
},
{
"text": "to look deep inside the body\nnoninvasively with light.",
"timestamp": [
1249.67,
1253.49
]
},
{
"text": "to look deep inside the body\nnoninvasively with light.",
"timestamp": [
1249.67,
1253.49
]
},
{
"text": "And the way that we came about that",
"timestamp": [
1253.49,
1255.09
]
},
{
"text": "And the way that we came about that",
"timestamp": [
1253.49,
1255.09
]
},
{
"text": "was through solar cells and batteries.",
"timestamp": [
1255.09,
1257.04
]
},
{
"text": "was through solar cells and batteries.",
"timestamp": [
1255.09,
1257.04
]
},
{
"text": "We trained our viruses to\npick up carbon nanotubes",
"timestamp": [
1257.04,
1260.04
]
},
{
"text": "We trained our viruses to\npick up carbon nanotubes",
"timestamp": [
1257.04,
1260.04
]
},
{
"text": "and hold onto them very, very tightly.",
"timestamp": [
1260.04,
1262.05
]
},
{
"text": "and hold onto them very, very tightly.",
"timestamp": [
1260.04,
1262.05
]
},
{
"text": "And then we'll give a virus a second gene,",
"timestamp": [
1262.05,
1264.57
]
},
{
"text": "And then we'll give a virus a second gene,",
"timestamp": [
1262.05,
1264.57
]
},
{
"text": "decode for a protein, to\ngrow, in a case of a battery,",
"timestamp": [
1264.57,
1268.05
]
},
{
"text": "decode for a protein, to\ngrow, in a case of a battery,",
"timestamp": [
1264.57,
1268.05
]
},
{
"text": "a battery electrode material.",
"timestamp": [
1268.05,
1270.03
]
},
{
"text": "a battery electrode material.",
"timestamp": [
1268.05,
1270.03
]
},
{
"text": "It allows it to weave together\na good electrical conductor",
"timestamp": [
1270.03,
1274.23
]
},
{
"text": "It allows it to weave together\na good electrical conductor",
"timestamp": [
1270.03,
1274.23
]
},
{
"text": "and a good ionic conductor\nat the same time,",
"timestamp": [
1274.23,
1276.81
]
},
{
"text": "and a good ionic conductor\nat the same time,",
"timestamp": [
1274.23,
1276.81
]
},
{
"text": "all within this really,\nreally small space.",
"timestamp": [
1276.81,
1279.74
]
},
{
"text": "all within this really,\nreally small space.",
"timestamp": [
1276.81,
1279.74
]
},
{
"text": "And the optical properties\nof these carbon nanotubes",
"timestamp": [
1279.74,
1282.46
]
},
{
"text": "And the optical properties\nof these carbon nanotubes",
"timestamp": [
1279.74,
1282.46
]
},
{
"text": "are in the wavelength.",
"timestamp": [
1282.46,
1283.6
]
},
{
"text": "are in the wavelength.",
"timestamp": [
1282.46,
1283.6
]
},
{
"text": "That is interesting for\nimaging deep inside the body.",
"timestamp": [
1283.6,
1287.05
]
},
{
"text": "That is interesting for\nimaging deep inside the body.",
"timestamp": [
1283.6,
1287.05
]
},
{
"text": "We started building a\nbunch of imaging tools",
"timestamp": [
1287.05,
1289.68
]
},
{
"text": "We started building a\nbunch of imaging tools",
"timestamp": [
1287.05,
1289.68
]
},
{
"text": "that could image above a thousand\nnanometers, a wave length.",
"timestamp": [
1289.68,
1294.01
]
},
{
"text": "that could image above a thousand\nnanometers, a wave length.",
"timestamp": [
1289.68,
1294.01
]
},
{
"text": "And so this is in [audio distorting]",
"timestamp": [
1294.01,
1296.19
]
},
{
"text": "And so this is in [audio distorting]",
"timestamp": [
1294.01,
1296.19
]
},
{
"text": "and that's a really special window",
"timestamp": [
1296.19,
1298.71
]
},
{
"text": "and that's a really special window",
"timestamp": [
1296.19,
1298.71
]
},
{
"text": "where you have some optical transparency",
"timestamp": [
1298.71,
1301.47
]
},
{
"text": "where you have some optical transparency",
"timestamp": [
1298.71,
1301.47
]
},
{
"text": "of tissue in the body.",
"timestamp": [
1301.47,
1302.93
]
},
{
"text": "of tissue in the body.",
"timestamp": [
1301.47,
1302.93
]
},
{
"text": "The other gene, we engineered\nto find ovarian cancer.",
"timestamp": [
1302.93,
1305.71
]
},
{
"text": "The other gene, we engineered\nto find ovarian cancer.",
"timestamp": [
1302.93,
1305.71
]
},
{
"text": "We developed imaging tools\nwith Harvard Medical School",
"timestamp": [
1305.71,
1308.95
]
},
{
"text": "We developed imaging tools\nwith Harvard Medical School",
"timestamp": [
1305.71,
1308.95
]
},
{
"text": "and MIT Lincoln Labs to\nfind tiny ovarian tumors.",
"timestamp": [
1308.95,
1312.14
]
},
{
"text": "and MIT Lincoln Labs to\nfind tiny ovarian tumors.",
"timestamp": [
1308.95,
1312.14
]
},
{
"text": "It's hard to see things less\nthan a centimeter in size",
"timestamp": [
1312.14,
1315.09
]
},
{
"text": "It's hard to see things less\nthan a centimeter in size",
"timestamp": [
1312.14,
1315.09
]
},
{
"text": "with ovarian cancer, just based\non the location in the body.",
"timestamp": [
1315.09,
1318.32
]
},
{
"text": "with ovarian cancer, just based\non the location in the body.",
"timestamp": [
1315.09,
1318.32
]
},
{
"text": "But with our imaging\nsystem, we could find tumors",
"timestamp": [
1318.32,
1321.31
]
},
{
"text": "But with our imaging\nsystem, we could find tumors",
"timestamp": [
1318.32,
1321.31
]
},
{
"text": "that were below a millimeter\nin size, actually.",
"timestamp": [
1321.31,
1323.58
]
},
{
"text": "that were below a millimeter\nin size, actually.",
"timestamp": [
1321.31,
1323.58
]
},
{
"text": "- Looking ahead, 5 years, 10 years,",
"timestamp": [
1323.58,
1326.8
]
},
{
"text": "- Looking ahead, 5 years, 10 years,",
"timestamp": [
1323.58,
1326.8
]
},
{
"text": "where do you see your own work,",
"timestamp": [
1326.8,
1328.93
]
},
{
"text": "where do you see your own work,",
"timestamp": [
1326.8,
1328.93
]
},
{
"text": "and maybe the field more broadly?",
"timestamp": [
1328.93,
1330.71
]
},
{
"text": "and maybe the field more broadly?",
"timestamp": [
1328.93,
1330.71
]
},
{
"text": "- The future I'd like to see",
"timestamp": [
1330.71,
1331.77
]
},
{
"text": "- The future I'd like to see",
"timestamp": [
1330.71,
1331.77
]
},
{
"text": "is environmentally friendly chemistry",
"timestamp": [
1331.77,
1333.87
]
},
{
"text": "is environmentally friendly chemistry",
"timestamp": [
1331.77,
1333.87
]
},
{
"text": "and materials synthesis.",
"timestamp": [
1333.87,
1335.46
]
},
{
"text": "and materials synthesis.",
"timestamp": [
1333.87,
1335.46
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that we're\nreally going that way.",
"timestamp": [
1335.46,
1337.59
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that we're\nreally going that way.",
"timestamp": [
1335.46,
1337.59
]
},
{
"text": "If we think about batteries of the future,",
"timestamp": [
1337.59,
1339.73
]
},
{
"text": "If we think about batteries of the future,",
"timestamp": [
1337.59,
1339.73
]
},
{
"text": "solar cells of the future,",
"timestamp": [
1339.73,
1341.25
]
},
{
"text": "solar cells of the future,",
"timestamp": [
1339.73,
1341.25
]
},
{
"text": "thinking about earth abundant\nmaterials and processes",
"timestamp": [
1341.25,
1344.6
]
},
{
"text": "thinking about earth abundant\nmaterials and processes",
"timestamp": [
1341.25,
1344.6
]
},
{
"text": "that are compatible with\nthe earth and environment.",
"timestamp": [
1344.6,
1347.61
]
},
{
"text": "that are compatible with\nthe earth and environment.",
"timestamp": [
1344.6,
1347.61
]
},
{
"text": "- One of the things I love\nabout about nanoscience",
"timestamp": [
1347.61,
1349.47
]
},
{
"text": "- One of the things I love\nabout about nanoscience",
"timestamp": [
1347.61,
1349.47
]
},
{
"text": "is it tends to break up the silos",
"timestamp": [
1349.47,
1351.65
]
},
{
"text": "is it tends to break up the silos",
"timestamp": [
1349.47,
1351.65
]
},
{
"text": "between those traditional\nscientific disciplines.",
"timestamp": [
1351.65,
1354.13
]
},
{
"text": "between those traditional\nscientific disciplines.",
"timestamp": [
1351.65,
1354.13
]
},
{
"text": "My training was in chemistry,",
"timestamp": [
1354.13,
1355.45
]
},
{
"text": "My training was in chemistry,",
"timestamp": [
1354.13,
1355.45
]
},
{
"text": "but I had to very quickly\nmerged chemistry and physics.",
"timestamp": [
1355.45,
1358.35
]
},
{
"text": "but I had to very quickly\nmerged chemistry and physics.",
"timestamp": [
1355.45,
1358.35
]
},
{
"text": "And now I see an area\nwhere chemistry, physics,",
"timestamp": [
1358.35,
1360.34
]
},
{
"text": "And now I see an area\nwhere chemistry, physics,",
"timestamp": [
1358.35,
1360.34
]
},
{
"text": "and biology are coming together\nto produce new materials",
"timestamp": [
1360.34,
1363.94
]
},
{
"text": "and biology are coming together\nto produce new materials",
"timestamp": [
1360.34,
1363.94
]
},
{
"text": "and new technology, and to\nadvance the field forward.",
"timestamp": [
1363.94,
1366.38
]
},
{
"text": "and new technology, and to\nadvance the field forward.",
"timestamp": [
1363.94,
1366.38
]
},
{
"text": "And so being in this field,",
"timestamp": [
1366.38,
1367.93
]
},
{
"text": "And so being in this field,",
"timestamp": [
1366.38,
1367.93
]
},
{
"text": "you kind of have to cross pollinate",
"timestamp": [
1367.93,
1370.38
]
},
{
"text": "you kind of have to cross pollinate",
"timestamp": [
1367.93,
1370.38
]
},
{
"text": "between these different disciplines",
"timestamp": [
1370.38,
1371.62
]
},
{
"text": "between these different disciplines",
"timestamp": [
1370.38,
1371.62
]
},
{
"text": "and kind of advance the field together.",
"timestamp": [
1371.62,
1373.46
]
},
{
"text": "and kind of advance the field together.",
"timestamp": [
1371.62,
1373.46
]
},
{
"text": "- I agree completely. We\nlike to solve problems.",
"timestamp": [
1373.46,
1376.1
]
},
{
"text": "- I agree completely. We\nlike to solve problems.",
"timestamp": [
1373.46,
1376.1
]
},
{
"text": "Nano bio is the toolkit\nthat we bring a lot.",
"timestamp": [
1376.1,
1379.85
]
},
{
"text": "Nano bio is the toolkit\nthat we bring a lot.",
"timestamp": [
1376.1,
1379.85
]
},
{
"text": "It happens to be a very\nstrong and evolving toolkit.",
"timestamp": [
1379.85,
1382.76
]
},
{
"text": "It happens to be a very\nstrong and evolving toolkit.",
"timestamp": [
1379.85,
1382.76
]
},
{
"text": "That's another thing\nthat I love about biology",
"timestamp": [
1382.76,
1385.46
]
},
{
"text": "That's another thing\nthat I love about biology",
"timestamp": [
1382.76,
1385.46
]
},
{
"text": "is if you can come up with a solution",
"timestamp": [
1385.46,
1388.3
]
},
{
"text": "is if you can come up with a solution",
"timestamp": [
1385.46,
1388.3
]
},
{
"text": "that's not perfect at all to begin with",
"timestamp": [
1388.3,
1390.33
]
},
{
"text": "that's not perfect at all to begin with",
"timestamp": [
1388.3,
1390.33
]
},
{
"text": "when you're making a\nbattery electrode material",
"timestamp": [
1390.33,
1392.32
]
},
{
"text": "when you're making a\nbattery electrode material",
"timestamp": [
1390.33,
1392.32
]
},
{
"text": "or any kind of material you're making,",
"timestamp": [
1392.32,
1394.94
]
},
{
"text": "or any kind of material you're making,",
"timestamp": [
1392.32,
1394.94
]
},
{
"text": "you have evolution on your side",
"timestamp": [
1394.94,
1397.61
]
},
{
"text": "you have evolution on your side",
"timestamp": [
1394.94,
1397.61
]
},
{
"text": "to try to make it better and\nbetter as a function of time.",
"timestamp": [
1397.61,
1401.61
]
},
{
"text": "to try to make it better and\nbetter as a function of time.",
"timestamp": [
1397.61,
1401.61
]
},
{
"text": "That can be quite rapid.\n- So Angela,",
"timestamp": [
1401.61,
1403.49
]
},
{
"text": "That can be quite rapid.\n- So Angela,",
"timestamp": [
1401.61,
1403.49
]
},
{
"text": "thank you so much for joining us.",
"timestamp": [
1403.49,
1404.95
]
},
{
"text": "thank you so much for joining us.",
"timestamp": [
1403.49,
1404.95
]
},
{
"text": "And I look forward to seeing more work",
"timestamp": [
1404.95,
1406.86
]
},
{
"text": "And I look forward to seeing more work",
"timestamp": [
1404.95,
1406.86
]
},
{
"text": "coming out of your lab in the future.",
"timestamp": [
1406.86,
1408.62
]
},
{
"text": "coming out of your lab in the future.",
"timestamp": [
1406.86,
1408.62
]
},
{
"text": "- Thanks for having me, George,",
"timestamp": [
1408.62,
1409.97
]
},
{
"text": "- Thanks for having me, George,",
"timestamp": [
1408.62,
1409.97
]
},
{
"text": "it was really fun to\ninteract, and I'm very excited",
"timestamp": [
1409.97,
1412.07
]
},
{
"text": "it was really fun to\ninteract, and I'm very excited",
"timestamp": [
1409.97,
1412.07
]
},
{
"text": "about our future collaborations.",
"timestamp": [
1412.07,
1413.48
]
},
{
"text": "about our future collaborations.",
"timestamp": [
1412.07,
1413.48
]
},
{
"text": "- Me too. Absolutely.\n[light music]",
"timestamp": [
1413.48,
1417.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Me too. Absolutely.\n[light music]",
"timestamp": [
1413.48,
1417.09
]
},
{
"text": "I really enjoy talking to\nthese five different people",
"timestamp": [
1417.09,
1419.47
]
},
{
"text": "I really enjoy talking to\nthese five different people",
"timestamp": [
1417.09,
1419.47
]
},
{
"text": "about nanotechnology.",
"timestamp": [
1419.47,
1420.77
]
},
{
"text": "about nanotechnology.",
"timestamp": [
1419.47,
1420.77
]
},
{
"text": "Nanotechnology is a field that\naffects all of us every day",
"timestamp": [
1420.77,
1424.85
]
},
{
"text": "Nanotechnology is a field that\naffects all of us every day",
"timestamp": [
1420.77,
1424.85
]
},
{
"text": "as finds its way into a\nvariety of applications.",
"timestamp": [
1424.85,
1427.78
]
},
{
"text": "as finds its way into a\nvariety of applications.",
"timestamp": [
1424.85,
1427.78
]
},
{
"text": "And I hope you enjoyed it\nas well and see the impact",
"timestamp": [
1427.78,
1430.39
]
},
{
"text": "And I hope you enjoyed it\nas well and see the impact",
"timestamp": [
1427.78,
1430.39
]
},
{
"text": "that nanotechnology\nhas on your life today,",
"timestamp": [
1430.39,
1432.5
]
},
{
"text": "that nanotechnology\nhas on your life today,",
"timestamp": [
1430.39,
1432.5
]
},
{
"text": "and how much more of an impact it'll have",
"timestamp": [
1432.5,
1434.17
]
},
{
"text": "and how much more of an impact it'll have",
"timestamp": [
1432.5,
1434.17
]
},
{
"text": "on all of our lives in the future.",
"timestamp": [
1434.17,
1435.87
]
},
{
"text": "on all of our lives in the future.",
"timestamp": [
1434.17,
1435.87
]
}
] |
[
[
"Introduction",
"- Hi, I'm George Tulevski,\nand I'm a research scientistat IBM TJ Watson Research Center.Today I've been challenged\nto teach one conceptin five levels of increasing complexity.And my topic is nanotechnology.Nanotechnology is a study\nof objects in the nanoscalebetween 1 and 100 nanometers in size.And it turns out that\nobjects in this size scalehave really interesting propertiesthat differ from objects\nat a macroscopic scale.Our task is nanotechnologistsis to understand these materials,understand their properties,and then try to build new technologiesbased on these properties.At the end of the day, my hopeis that you'll understand\nnanotechnology at some level."
],
[
"What is nanotechnology",
"Hi, are you Bella?\n- Yes.- Bella, I'm George, nice to meet you.- Nice to meet you too!\n- I'm a research scientist.Do you like science?\n- Yeah.- I wanted to talk to you about\na specific type of sciencecalled nanotechnology.Have you ever heard of this word before?- Nhn nhn.- Nano is kind of a funny word, right?It's a word that's used\nbefore another word,and it means one billion.What's the smallest\nobject you can think of?- A baby ant?\n- A baby ant?Very good.So I have over here a meter\nstick, let me show it to you.And so that's a meter and\nif I divide it by 1000,I get a millimeter. So\nmilli just means 1000.There's all these little\nlines on the ruler.And each of those little\nlines is one millimeter.So a baby ant is probably\na couple of millimeters.So even the thing,\nthat's the smallest thingyou can think of, it's\na million times biggerthan a nanometer.Tiny, tiny, tiny.\n- Tiny, tiny, tiny, tiny.- If I took this stick and I\nwas to draw 1 billion lines,the distance between those two\nlines would be one nanometer.So that's really all it is.\nIt's just a measure of size.But it's really, really, really tiny,smaller than anything that\nwe can see with our eyes.The reason why, in\nnanotechnology, scientists,we care about things that are that small,is because there are objects called atoms.Have you ever heard of atoms before?- Yes.I first heard of themon a show I watched called \"StoryBots.\"They're just little thingsthat make up everything\non Earth, even earth.- That was a perfect explanation.But what if I told you that scientistsinvented a special type of microscopethat not only lets you see atoms,but also lets you move them aroundand build things with them.Would you think that would be pretty cool?- Yeah!- So it's called a scanning\ntunneling microscope.And not only can you see the atoms,but you can move them around.Atoms are kind of sticky.You can actually build\nthings using this instrumentwith actual individual atoms.So if I gave you that machine,would you want to make something?Would you want to look at\nsomething very carefully?- I would want to make\na unicorn out of atoms.- You are definitely a\nsecond grader! [laughing]My daughter would probably\nanswer the exact same way.A unicorn would be awesome.- Why do you study stuff so small?- I study it because\nobjects that are that smallhave really interesting properties.They behave completely different\nthan objects that are big.And because of that,we can build really cool things with them.Like really fast computers, for example,or new types of batteries\nor new types of solar cells.And a lot of nanotechnologyis kind of like playing with Legos.You take these small objectsand you put them together\nto build something new.Something interesting that\nno one's built before.It's like Legos for scientists.- Cool.\n[light music]"
],
[
"How does nanotechnology work",
"- So how old are you?\n- I'm 16.- 16. So what is that,\nyou're in 10th grade?- Junior year. So 11th grade.\n- Have you of nanotechnology?Have you heard of this term before?- Yeah, I've heard of it.\n- What do you think ofwhen you think of nanotechnology?- It kind of seems very science fiction.- You know, you're right.When you read about some\nof these technologies,it does feel like science fiction.But the part of nanotechnologyI wanted to talk to you aboutis stuff that you probably use every day,most of your day, all of the time.Can you guess what\naspect of nanotechnologyI'm gonna talk to you about?\n- My phone?- Yeah, so modern computer chipsrely heavily on nanotechnology.Does this look familiar to you?Can you guess what this might be?- I don't know.- So this is a silicon wafer,and they're embedded in\nbasically almost every objectthat you use, from a\nlaptop, to a phone, to cars,television sets, appliances.We ended up cutting\nthese into little squaresand those repeating patterns,\neach of those is a processor.And those chips are what goes\ninto all of these objects.What I want to talk to\nyou about is how we gotfrom where we started, and\nhow we're able to actually fit18 billion of these little devicesin a little one inch by one inch area.They're called transistors. It's a switch.Very simply, think of it as a light switchthat turns on and turns\noff using an electric fieldby applying a voltage.\n- OK.- I went through my kid's Lego binsto build a very simple\nmodel of a transistor.And these are wired together in circuitsso that you can do computation.You can do logic with them.Where nanotechnology comes into play,the way you double the number\nof transistors on a chip.Can you guess what you would\nhave to do to this transistor?- You make it smaller?- You have to make it smaller. Exactly.But here's the problem.So about 10 to 15 years ago,\nthe devices got so smallthat if you shrunk them this gate,that actually turns it on and offloses its ability to control the channel.And so what they did, was\nthey took devices like thisinto these things, we call them, FinFETs,kind of like a fin on a fish.So they're very thin transistors.The width of these fins is\nonly six nanometers. Okay?So 6 nanometers is 25 to 30 atoms across.And they repeat thisover the entire wafer\njust about perfectly.It's just a huge feat in engineering.But these types of devices are\nexactly the kind of devicesthat your phones and\ncomputers either have,or will have in the near future.And it's a way that nanotechnologyis directly impacting you right now.- How do you make stuff that small?Obviously it's not handmade,\nso is it factories and stuff?- Exactly.So these are made using a\ntechnique called lithography.You basically coat the\nsilicon wafer with a polymer.Then you put a mask on itand then you shine light through it.And the features of the\nmask, the size of those holesdetermine the feature size in the chip.It's not just the size\nof the mask that matters.It's the wavelength of\nthe light that's used.We talked about nanotechnology\nbeing science fiction before,but this is real stuff\nthat's being produced,that's being made, that's\nbeing used every day by people.- In middle school, I built\nall of the little switcheswhere you turn the electricity on,and it goes from one thing to the other.But those are the really big, comical,like plugging in Legos and stuff.When we saw the picture\nof all of the little ones,it's like a city, it's crazy how simpleand complex it is at the same time.- Exactly. I couldn't put\nit any better. That's right."
],
[
"Quantum dots",
"[light music]So what's your major?\n- Chemical engineering.- What made you choose that?\n- Like any freshman,going into chemical engineering,I was like, I like chemistry!So I'm gonna go into chemical engineering.But luckily I also likeall the math and all the science too.- So have you taken a\nquantum mechanics course?- I have. I took that last year.- I think to really get\ndeep into nanomaterialsand nanoscale devices, you\nreally have to understandto some level, quantum mechanics.What it teaches usas we make these devices\nsmaller and smaller,their properties begin to now dependon the size and the\norientation of these devices.There are materials, and you're\ntaking a 2D materials class,you know about this, that\nare intrinsically thin.As they're grown, as they're fabricated,they're already at the\nnanoscale and they possessthese quantum confinement propertiesthat as a nanotechnologist,\nyou try to exploit.And so the first ones I\nwanted to talk to you aboutare quantum dots, have you\nheard of quantum dots before?- Yes.\n- So these aretypically semiconductors.They can be cadmium selenide\ncadmium sulfide, zinc selenideand they're small clusters of atoms.They can be from 2 to 10 nanometers.What's interesting about these materials?- Well, the other day\nwe were talking aboutthe different dimensions you\ncan have of nanotechnology.So all the way from like 0D to 3D.If I remember correctly, my\nprofessor labeled it as 0D?- That's correct. Yeah.Because of quantum confinement,once you get below this\n15 nanometer range,the band gap of the materialdepends completely on\nthe size of the material.So in bulk materials, if you\nwant to change the band gap,you have to change the material, right?But in these quantum dots specifically,just by changing the size,\nyou can change their band gap.And because their band gap is changing,their optical properties are different.And you can precisely tune\nthe wavelength of lightthat they emit just by\nchanging their size.- What are the applications\nof these quantum dots?- There are people that are exploringusing these materials for diode lasers.There are companies that\nare building displaysfrom these materials.And there're even people thinking aboutif I take these quantum dots,and I change the chemistry on the outsideso they stick to specific\ntypes of cells or tissue,that I could really do\nsome interesting imagingand therapeutic work to track disease,even maybe to treat disease,if you can very precisely\ncontrol the chemistry.- How far away is thisfrom being actually used\non an industrial level?- The optical applications\nare in development.The science has really been worked out.The health stuff, because\nof all of the thingsyou have to consider when\nyou're putting somethingin someone's body is\ndefinitely further out there.For example, some of them\nare made from cadmium.Cadmium's toxic.You would never put\nthat in someone's body.But there are other materials\nlike gold and silverand titanium dioxide, which are less toxicand people are exploring using those.So have you learned about graphene?- Yeah.\n- Do you know what this is?- Carbon nanotube?\n- Carbon nanotube, right.So if you roll up graphene,\ndepending on how you roll itand the angle, you roll it with,it has different properties.So if I roll it one way,\nit'll act like a metal.If I roll it a different way,it'll act like a semiconductor.The one that gets everyone most excitedis that the electrons and holesmove very fast through graphene.And so there's a lot of\ninterest in using thesefor certain types of\nhigh-speed electronics.The other interesting applicationis because it's one atom thin,it's very sensitive to\nchanges in the environment.And so there's a lot of interestin using them as diagnostics.It's on us researchers to find waysto A, control that process\nand then B, to actually buildsome sort of interesting\ntechnology from them.- So you've been talking aboutthe different ways you can\nsay, roll these nanotubes.So how do you go about buildingand controlling these nanotubes\nin terms of their diameter?- You're speaking my language.This is what I spent many\nyears of my life working on.You don't physically roll up graphene.You grow nanotubes by\nbasically taking nanocrystalsand you deposit them on a surface.And then you do a CVD process,\nchemical vapor deposition.So you basically flow in a carbon source,the carbon dissolves in a nanocrystaland then once nanocrystal is saturated,the nanotubes precipitate\nout of them in tubes.Then you have to develop waysto go into this pile of nanotubesand pull out exactly\nthe ones that you want.So I have to find ways to program themto go exactly in the places that I want.I modify the surface of the\nnanotube with specific moleculesthat recognize one type\nof surface over another.And then I just pattern the\nsurface and the tubes just landexactly where we want them to.And it's still very much\nin the research stage.The ultimate goal is to build functionalhigh-speed electronics\nusing these new materials.- In my nanomaterials class,actually just a couple of days ago,we were talking about\ndifferent applicationsof nanotechnology and things we know.And we touched on the\ntopic that right now,silicon is down to the\nsmallest level that it can get.And so we have scientists out thereresearching other materials,\nto replace silicon.- Yeah. 100%. That's right.And that's the motivationfor looking at these emerging materials.But I would never bet\nagainst the innovationand the creativity in this\nnano electronic space.Tens of thousands of scientists,every time they hit a barrier,\nat least historically,as a guide, they have\nfound a way to overcome it.It's a real marvel in ingenuity.- I gotta ask.The lights that are behind\nyou, is that relatedto the quantum dots that\nyou work with at all?- It's just pretty lights. [laughing]But now that you suggested\nit, these were inspiredby the array of quantum\ndots that we showed earlier.So that's the story I'm\ngoing to stick with.[laughing]\nI like it.- Well, thank you so much. This\nwas all so very interesting.[light music]- So you're a graduate student.And so tell me a bit about your work.- I've been working on\nenergy storage materials.And the most popular are\nbatteries that we work on.A lot of the revolution\nthat's come in electronicsis kind of our modelto try and use some nanoscale advancesand put them into batteries.- What is it about\nnanomaterials, that scaleand the properties of these materialsthat make them uniquely promisingto incorporate into battery technology?- So for batteries, one\nof the main constraintswhen we're designing batteries\nis trying to maintainor reduce the volume and\nmass of the components.And nanomaterials are\nparticularly well suitedto adding functionalitywhile having this negligible\nincrease in volume.So we get a huge benefit\nfrom using nano materialswithout sacrificing the\nvolume of the battery.- What is it exactly that\nyou're trying to teaseout of these materials to improve\nthe battery's performance?- At first, one of the\nmain things that we didwas use nanomaterials to add conductivity.And so carbon anodes and\ngraphene are really goodat adding conductivity to batteries.And then in the subsequent years,nanomaterials have been really interestingfrom things like incorporating\nsensors into batteries,to increasing the\nfunctionality of batteries,having some responsive materialsthat use things like graphene sheetsthat are incorporated into a matrix,and then you add a safety\nfunctionality to a battery.We're trying to squeeze outalmost all the functionality that we can.And as new nano materials\nare being discoveredand there're new properties\nbeing discovered,a lot of the time that someone\ntries to think of a wayto translate that into a battery.- Because the materials are so small,they're at the nanoscale,their properties are dominated\nby quantum mechanics,which means that even slight\nchanges in their size,in their orientationgive profound changes in their properties.And while that's very\nscientifically interesting,and it allows you to tune their propertiesby making subtle changes, from\na technology point of view,it's a bit of a headache in the sensethat in technology want\nto optimize for a propertyand then repeat that over and over again.So what are some of the challenges\nthat you face in the labrelated to working with these materialsand then trying to incorporate\nthem into the batteries?- I think every step of\na process in a batteryis something where you have to think abouthow would this translate\nto making a batteryin terms of the production?One thing that I think is very interestingabout the field of nanoscale\nmaterials in general,is that how you make the materialchanges the properties a lot.And so we claim that this 2D\nmaterial has this property,then tying that to the battery performanceis something that's\npretty difficult to do.It takes a few steps in between.So we have to think kind of creativelywith how we can do that.- That's actually, I think\na very common problem.We can build a device in the labit could be a transistor,\ncan be a battery.And then you ask the question,okay, so what's the next step?How do we take it from\nthat lab demonstrationinto a technology?The kind of work that\nI'm very interested inis developing toolsto make the exact type of\nmaterials that you want.The tools that we've used in the pastfor conventional fabricationjust don't work with these materialsbecause they're all\ngrown from the bottom up.They're intrinsically small,\nand you have to find waysto either use chemistry\nor some other meansto get them to assemble into\nthe structures that you wantto actually either grow\nspecifically what you wantor after you grow them, to pull\nout the ones that you want.You need to be able to\nbuild that same thingover and over again, with\nthe exact same properties.No one institution, no one\nresearch lab, no one national labis gonna solve all of\nthese problems on their ownbecause they are difficult problems.And there is a real\nimportant payoff at the end.And it's gonna take all of\nus, making our contributionsto push this field forward.\n[light music]"
],
[
"Inspiration from nature",
"I remember reading your\npapers when I was a studentand we're all trying to\ncreate these materialsand finding ways to\nexploit their properties.What I love, and I'm\ndelighted that you're hereto talk to us about is how you\ntook inspiration from natureand sort of recognize that\nnature's figured out a wayto both synthesize incredibly\ncomplex nanostructureswith high functionality and\nhow you sort of were inspiredby that to do the research\nthat you're doing now.- Life gave us this toolkitthat is already on the nanoscale.So we think that that's a great placeto think about making\nmaterials on the nano scaleand manipulating materials\non the nano scale,and wiring them together as well.This abalone shell, you can seethe exquisite beautiful\ncolors and structures of it.This is a nano composite material.If you take this and fracture\nit, and you look at itin a scanning electron\nmicroscope, what you'll seeis that it's made out of\nthese beautiful tablets.And I studied that as a graduate student.I looked at that and I said,\nthat is completely amazing.You have an organism in the ocean,that takes what's in its environment,which is calcium and carbonate.That's dissolved in the\nwater and templates itinto this really exquisite structure.And so you think that's great.Calcium carbonate is great,but what if we wanted to make a solar cellor a another electronic\ndevice or a battery,how would you get an organism to do that?And you say, okay, that's\na really crazy idea.But is it really that\ncrazy if this abalone,already figured out how to\ndo it, 500 million years ago?So we're saying, okay,\nabalones build shells.Can viruses build solar cells,\ncan viruses build catalysts?Can they build batteries\nusing the same kind of idea?- It's really fascinating work,especially now we're all familiarwith the viruses and how they act.And I'm not aware of any viruses\nthat build nanostructures.So how did you come to that?And then how do you\nactually program a virusto do your bidding?\n- We work on somethingcalled bacteriophages,\nit's a virus with DNA.This particular bacteriophage\ncalled M13 bacteriophageis made up of single\nstranded DNA and proteins.It's long and thin.So it's 880 nanometers in length,and it's about 9 nanometers in diameter.And so one of the reasons I love itis it spans the nanoscaleand almost the micron\nscale at the same time.Take the single strand\nDNAs, obviously a model,and you can cut it with\nmolecular scissors.And you can put a new\npiece of DNA in between.And so you put a small\npiece of DNA in therethat doesn't belong there.And that piece of DNAis going to randomly code for a protein.Now, the next time that\nthat virus is replicatedwithin a bacterial host,it'll be able to put a new\nprotein sequence on the coat,just a short protein sequence on the coat,maybe like 8 or 12 amino acids in length.And just like that abalone\nis going to grab calciumand build calcium carbonate.We're going to have our\nviruses build iron phosphatefor a battery electrode materialor Gallium arsenide or cad sulfidefor a semiconductor material.- So you've evolved, and I\nsuppose, trained these virusesto build the materials\nthat you want them to buildby exposing them to the raw materialsand then evolving their function.We're talking about the\nelectronics from nanomaterials.That critical issue that we're facingis how do you go from\nthose single experimentswith a single material,\nunderstanding its properties,how do you scale that to\nthe billions of devicesthat you need in a technology?It is a chemistry driven approach.We're not going to grow them\nexactly where we want them,but to take that one step,and to tie into what you're doing,tt sounds like there could\nbe an area of collaborationwhere instead of using\nconventional chemistry,that we can train some of\nthese biological elementsto do that work work for us.- Biology is chemistry.Molecules, proteins,and DNA work with all\nthe same kinds of bondingand things that the chemicalsthat you're gonna be looking\nfor in these processes.It's put together in a waythat when a protein or enzyme folds,it almost always folds correctly.That's kind of the beauty of it,the predictable aspect\nof it encoded in its DNA.If we need to make it the\nsame over and over again,then as long as you have\nthe right DNA sequence,DNA is a beautiful\nstructure on the nanoscale.And there's really, really\ncool, incredible workon DNA origami, when DNA can foldinto just the right structure.And so I can see that as an interface,that would be really cool\nand interesting in your work.And you can have the virus make\nthe DNA for the DNA origami,and then you use DNA to assemble\nyour beautiful structures.- It's really fascinating.You have all these little worker virusesbuilding the materials for you.How are you then applying these materialsthat you're building?- We started thinking abouthow can we make an impact in cancer?We do it mostly in imaging technologyto look deep inside the body\nnoninvasively with light.And the way that we came about thatwas through solar cells and batteries.We trained our viruses to\npick up carbon nanotubesand hold onto them very, very tightly.And then we'll give a virus a second gene,decode for a protein, to\ngrow, in a case of a battery,a battery electrode material.It allows it to weave together\na good electrical conductorand a good ionic conductor\nat the same time,all within this really,\nreally small space.And the optical properties\nof these carbon nanotubesare in the wavelength.That is interesting for\nimaging deep inside the body.We started building a\nbunch of imaging toolsthat could image above a thousand\nnanometers, a wave length.And so this is in [audio distorting]and that's a really special windowwhere you have some optical transparencyof tissue in the body.The other gene, we engineered\nto find ovarian cancer.We developed imaging tools\nwith Harvard Medical Schooland MIT Lincoln Labs to\nfind tiny ovarian tumors.It's hard to see things less\nthan a centimeter in sizewith ovarian cancer, just based\non the location in the body.But with our imaging\nsystem, we could find tumorsthat were below a millimeter\nin size, actually.- Looking ahead, 5 years, 10 years,where do you see your own work,and maybe the field more broadly?- The future I'd like to seeis environmentally friendly chemistryand materials synthesis.And I think that we're\nreally going that way.If we think about batteries of the future,solar cells of the future,thinking about earth abundant\nmaterials and processesthat are compatible with\nthe earth and environment.- One of the things I love\nabout about nanoscienceis it tends to break up the silosbetween those traditional\nscientific disciplines.My training was in chemistry,but I had to very quickly\nmerged chemistry and physics.And now I see an area\nwhere chemistry, physics,and biology are coming together\nto produce new materialsand new technology, and to\nadvance the field forward.And so being in this field,you kind of have to cross pollinatebetween these different disciplinesand kind of advance the field together.- I agree completely. We\nlike to solve problems.Nano bio is the toolkit\nthat we bring a lot.It happens to be a very\nstrong and evolving toolkit.That's another thing\nthat I love about biologyis if you can come up with a solutionthat's not perfect at all to begin withwhen you're making a\nbattery electrode materialor any kind of material you're making,you have evolution on your sideto try to make it better and\nbetter as a function of time.That can be quite rapid.\n- So Angela,thank you so much for joining us.And I look forward to seeing more workcoming out of your lab in the future.- Thanks for having me, George,it was really fun to\ninteract, and I'm very excitedabout our future collaborations.- Me too. Absolutely.\n[light music]I really enjoy talking to\nthese five different peopleabout nanotechnology.Nanotechnology is a field that\naffects all of us every dayas finds its way into a\nvariety of applications.And I hope you enjoyed it\nas well and see the impactthat nanotechnology\nhas on your life today,and how much more of an impact it'll haveon all of our lives in the future."
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Physicist Teaches Origami in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
boaqgdcMjmA
| 1,191
|
[
{
"end_time": 27,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "Intro"
},
{
"end_time": 231,
"start_time": 27,
"title": "Level 1 - Child"
},
{
"end_time": 419,
"start_time": 231,
"title": "Level 2 - Teen"
},
{
"end_time": 648,
"start_time": 419,
"title": "Level 3 - College Student"
},
{
"end_time": 919,
"start_time": 648,
"title": "Level 4 - Grad Student"
},
{
"end_time": 1191,
"start_time": 919,
"title": "Level 5 - Expert"
}
] |
[
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Robert J. Lang.",
"timestamp": [
0.093,
1.67
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Robert J. Lang.",
"timestamp": [
0.093,
1.67
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a physicist and origami artist",
"timestamp": [
1.67,
3.82
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a physicist and origami artist",
"timestamp": [
1.67,
3.82
]
},
{
"text": "and today I've been\nchallenged to explain origami",
"timestamp": [
3.82,
6.63
]
},
{
"text": "and today I've been\nchallenged to explain origami",
"timestamp": [
3.82,
6.63
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels.",
"timestamp": [
6.63,
7.68
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels.",
"timestamp": [
6.63,
7.68
]
},
{
"text": "If you know a little origami",
"timestamp": [
7.68,
8.9
]
},
{
"text": "If you know a little origami",
"timestamp": [
7.68,
8.9
]
},
{
"text": "you might think it's nothing\nmore than simple toys,",
"timestamp": [
8.9,
11.74
]
},
{
"text": "you might think it's nothing\nmore than simple toys,",
"timestamp": [
8.9,
11.74
]
},
{
"text": "like cranes or cootie catchers,",
"timestamp": [
11.74,
13.57
]
},
{
"text": "like cranes or cootie catchers,",
"timestamp": [
11.74,
13.57
]
},
{
"text": "but origami is much more than that.",
"timestamp": [
13.57,
15.92
]
},
{
"text": "but origami is much more than that.",
"timestamp": [
13.57,
15.92
]
},
{
"text": "Out of the vast cloud\nof origami possibilities",
"timestamp": [
15.92,
19.563
]
},
{
"text": "Out of the vast cloud\nof origami possibilities",
"timestamp": [
15.92,
19.563
]
},
{
"text": "I've chosen five different levels",
"timestamp": [
19.563,
21.546
]
},
{
"text": "I've chosen five different levels",
"timestamp": [
19.563,
21.546
]
},
{
"text": "that illustrate the diversity of this art.",
"timestamp": [
21.546,
23.895
]
},
{
"text": "that illustrate the diversity of this art.",
"timestamp": [
21.546,
23.895
]
},
{
"text": "[thoughtful music]",
"timestamp": [
23.895,
26.812
]
},
{
"text": "[thoughtful music]",
"timestamp": [
23.895,
26.812
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know what origami is?",
"timestamp": [
28.28,
30.41
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know what origami is?",
"timestamp": [
28.28,
30.41
]
},
{
"text": "- Is that where you fold paper",
"timestamp": [
30.41,
32.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Is that where you fold paper",
"timestamp": [
30.41,
32.82
]
},
{
"text": "to make different animals, like those?",
"timestamp": [
32.82,
36
]
},
{
"text": "to make different animals, like those?",
"timestamp": [
32.82,
36
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, in fact it is.",
"timestamp": [
36,
37.69
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, in fact it is.",
"timestamp": [
36,
37.69
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever done any origami before?",
"timestamp": [
37.69,
40.2
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever done any origami before?",
"timestamp": [
37.69,
40.2
]
},
{
"text": "- Nope.",
"timestamp": [
40.2,
41.22
]
},
{
"text": "- Nope.",
"timestamp": [
40.2,
41.22
]
},
{
"text": "- [Robert] Would you\nlike to give it a try?",
"timestamp": [
41.22,
42.43
]
},
{
"text": "- [Robert] Would you\nlike to give it a try?",
"timestamp": [
41.22,
42.43
]
},
{
"text": "- Sure.\n- Okay, so we'll do some,",
"timestamp": [
42.43,
44.54
]
},
{
"text": "- Sure.\n- Okay, so we'll do some,",
"timestamp": [
42.43,
44.54
]
},
{
"text": "but I want to tell you a\nlittle bit about origami.",
"timestamp": [
44.54,
46.64
]
},
{
"text": "but I want to tell you a\nlittle bit about origami.",
"timestamp": [
44.54,
46.64
]
},
{
"text": "Most origami follows two,\nI'll call them customs,",
"timestamp": [
46.64,
50.33
]
},
{
"text": "Most origami follows two,\nI'll call them customs,",
"timestamp": [
46.64,
50.33
]
},
{
"text": "almost like rules.",
"timestamp": [
50.33,
51.65
]
},
{
"text": "almost like rules.",
"timestamp": [
50.33,
51.65
]
},
{
"text": "It's usually from a square",
"timestamp": [
51.65,
53.689
]
},
{
"text": "It's usually from a square",
"timestamp": [
51.65,
53.689
]
},
{
"text": "and the other is it's\nusually folded with no cuts.",
"timestamp": [
53.689,
57.83
]
},
{
"text": "and the other is it's\nusually folded with no cuts.",
"timestamp": [
53.689,
57.83
]
},
{
"text": "So these guys are folded\nfrom an uncut square.",
"timestamp": [
57.83,
61.3
]
},
{
"text": "So these guys are folded\nfrom an uncut square.",
"timestamp": [
57.83,
61.3
]
},
{
"text": "- That's awesome.",
"timestamp": [
61.3,
62.133
]
},
{
"text": "- That's awesome.",
"timestamp": [
61.3,
62.133
]
},
{
"text": "- So you ready?",
"timestamp": [
62.133,
63.09
]
},
{
"text": "- So you ready?",
"timestamp": [
62.133,
63.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Yep.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
63.09,
64.16
]
},
{
"text": "- Yep.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
63.09,
64.16
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to start with a model",
"timestamp": [
64.16,
66.04
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to start with a model",
"timestamp": [
64.16,
66.04
]
},
{
"text": "that every Japanese person\nlearns in kindergarten,",
"timestamp": [
66.04,
68.621
]
},
{
"text": "that every Japanese person\nlearns in kindergarten,",
"timestamp": [
66.04,
68.621
]
},
{
"text": "it's called a crane,\ntraditional origami design,",
"timestamp": [
68.621,
71.48
]
},
{
"text": "it's called a crane,\ntraditional origami design,",
"timestamp": [
68.621,
71.48
]
},
{
"text": "it's over 400 years old.",
"timestamp": [
71.48,
73.09
]
},
{
"text": "it's over 400 years old.",
"timestamp": [
71.48,
73.09
]
},
{
"text": "So, people have been doing\nwhat we're about to do",
"timestamp": [
73.09,
74.81
]
},
{
"text": "So, people have been doing\nwhat we're about to do",
"timestamp": [
73.09,
74.81
]
},
{
"text": "for 400 years.\n- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
74.81,
76.83
]
},
{
"text": "for 400 years.\n- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
74.81,
76.83
]
},
{
"text": "- Let's fold it in half from\ncorner to corner, unfold it",
"timestamp": [
76.83,
80.83
]
},
{
"text": "- Let's fold it in half from\ncorner to corner, unfold it",
"timestamp": [
76.83,
80.83
]
},
{
"text": "and then we'll fold it in\nhalf the other direction,",
"timestamp": [
81.81,
84.21
]
},
{
"text": "and then we'll fold it in\nhalf the other direction,",
"timestamp": [
81.81,
84.21
]
},
{
"text": "also corner to corner but\nwe're going to lift it up",
"timestamp": [
84.21,
87.2
]
},
{
"text": "also corner to corner but\nwe're going to lift it up",
"timestamp": [
84.21,
87.2
]
},
{
"text": "and we're going to hold\nthe fold with both hands.",
"timestamp": [
87.2,
89.982
]
},
{
"text": "and we're going to hold\nthe fold with both hands.",
"timestamp": [
87.2,
89.982
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to bring\nthese corners together,",
"timestamp": [
89.982,
92.02
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to bring\nthese corners together,",
"timestamp": [
89.982,
92.02
]
},
{
"text": "making a little pocket and then,",
"timestamp": [
92.02,
93.92
]
},
{
"text": "making a little pocket and then,",
"timestamp": [
92.02,
93.92
]
},
{
"text": "this is the trickiest\npart of this whole design,",
"timestamp": [
93.92,
96.26
]
},
{
"text": "this is the trickiest\npart of this whole design,",
"timestamp": [
93.92,
96.26
]
},
{
"text": "so you're going to put your\nfinger underneath the top layer",
"timestamp": [
96.26,
99.21
]
},
{
"text": "so you're going to put your\nfinger underneath the top layer",
"timestamp": [
96.26,
99.21
]
},
{
"text": "and we're going to try to make that layer",
"timestamp": [
99.21,
100.98
]
},
{
"text": "and we're going to try to make that layer",
"timestamp": [
99.21,
100.98
]
},
{
"text": "fold right along the edge.",
"timestamp": [
100.98,
103.14
]
},
{
"text": "fold right along the edge.",
"timestamp": [
100.98,
103.14
]
},
{
"text": "Now you see how the sides\nkind of want to come in",
"timestamp": [
103.14,
105.1
]
},
{
"text": "Now you see how the sides\nkind of want to come in",
"timestamp": [
103.14,
105.1
]
},
{
"text": "as you're doing that?\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
105.1,
107
]
},
{
"text": "as you're doing that?\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
105.1,
107
]
},
{
"text": "- It's called a petal fold,",
"timestamp": [
107,
108.55
]
},
{
"text": "- It's called a petal fold,",
"timestamp": [
107,
108.55
]
},
{
"text": "it's a part of a lot of origami designs",
"timestamp": [
108.55,
110.407
]
},
{
"text": "it's a part of a lot of origami designs",
"timestamp": [
108.55,
110.407
]
},
{
"text": "and it's key to the crane.",
"timestamp": [
110.407,
112.38
]
},
{
"text": "and it's key to the crane.",
"timestamp": [
110.407,
112.38
]
},
{
"text": "Now we're ready for the magic.",
"timestamp": [
112.38,
114.79
]
},
{
"text": "Now we're ready for the magic.",
"timestamp": [
112.38,
114.79
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to hold it in\nbetween thumb and forefinger,",
"timestamp": [
114.79,
117
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to hold it in\nbetween thumb and forefinger,",
"timestamp": [
114.79,
117
]
},
{
"text": "reach inside,",
"timestamp": [
117,
118.32
]
},
{
"text": "reach inside,",
"timestamp": [
117,
118.32
]
},
{
"text": "grab the skinny point that's\nbetween the two layers,",
"timestamp": [
118.32,
120.63
]
},
{
"text": "grab the skinny point that's\nbetween the two layers,",
"timestamp": [
118.32,
120.63
]
},
{
"text": "which are the wings,",
"timestamp": [
120.63,
121.65
]
},
{
"text": "which are the wings,",
"timestamp": [
120.63,
121.65
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm going to slide it out\nso it pokes out at an angle.",
"timestamp": [
121.65,
125.62
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm going to slide it out\nso it pokes out at an angle.",
"timestamp": [
121.65,
125.62
]
},
{
"text": "We'll take the two wings, we\nspread them out to the side",
"timestamp": [
125.62,
128.48
]
},
{
"text": "We'll take the two wings, we\nspread them out to the side",
"timestamp": [
125.62,
128.48
]
},
{
"text": "and you have made your\nfirst origami crane.",
"timestamp": [
128.48,
131.31
]
},
{
"text": "and you have made your\nfirst origami crane.",
"timestamp": [
128.48,
131.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
131.31,
132.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
131.31,
132.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Now, this is a\ntraditional Japanese design",
"timestamp": [
132.38,
135.02
]
},
{
"text": "- Now, this is a\ntraditional Japanese design",
"timestamp": [
132.38,
135.02
]
},
{
"text": "but there are origami designs\nthat have been around so long",
"timestamp": [
135.02,
140.02
]
},
{
"text": "but there are origami designs\nthat have been around so long",
"timestamp": [
135.02,
140.02
]
},
{
"text": "we're not entirely sure\nwhere they originated.",
"timestamp": [
140.314,
143.18
]
},
{
"text": "we're not entirely sure\nwhere they originated.",
"timestamp": [
140.314,
143.18
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to learn how\nto fold a cootie catcher.",
"timestamp": [
143.18,
145.199
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to learn how\nto fold a cootie catcher.",
"timestamp": [
143.18,
145.199
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, good.",
"timestamp": [
145.199,
146.032
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, good.",
"timestamp": [
145.199,
146.032
]
},
{
"text": "- So we'll start with the white side up",
"timestamp": [
146.032,
146.88
]
},
{
"text": "- So we'll start with the white side up",
"timestamp": [
146.032,
146.88
]
},
{
"text": "and we're going to fold it in\nhalf from corner to corner,",
"timestamp": [
146.88,
150.134
]
},
{
"text": "and we're going to fold it in\nhalf from corner to corner,",
"timestamp": [
146.88,
150.134
]
},
{
"text": "in one fold and now we're\ngoing to fold all four corners",
"timestamp": [
150.134,
153.91
]
},
{
"text": "in one fold and now we're\ngoing to fold all four corners",
"timestamp": [
150.134,
153.91
]
},
{
"text": "to the crossing point in the center.",
"timestamp": [
153.91,
155.763
]
},
{
"text": "to the crossing point in the center.",
"timestamp": [
153.91,
155.763
]
},
{
"text": "We'll fold it in half like a book.",
"timestamp": [
156.63,
159.44
]
},
{
"text": "We'll fold it in half like a book.",
"timestamp": [
156.63,
159.44
]
},
{
"text": "On the folded side we'll take\none of the folded corners",
"timestamp": [
159.44,
161.803
]
},
{
"text": "On the folded side we'll take\none of the folded corners",
"timestamp": [
159.44,
161.803
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm going to fold it\nup through all layers.",
"timestamp": [
161.803,
164.47
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm going to fold it\nup through all layers.",
"timestamp": [
161.803,
164.47
]
},
{
"text": "There's a pocket in the middle.",
"timestamp": [
164.47,
165.8
]
},
{
"text": "There's a pocket in the middle.",
"timestamp": [
164.47,
165.8
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to spread the pocket",
"timestamp": [
165.8,
167.11
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to spread the pocket",
"timestamp": [
165.8,
167.11
]
},
{
"text": "and bring all four corners together.",
"timestamp": [
167.11,
169.26
]
},
{
"text": "and bring all four corners together.",
"timestamp": [
167.11,
169.26
]
},
{
"text": "Where you have original\ncorners of the square,",
"timestamp": [
169.26,
171.44
]
},
{
"text": "Where you have original\ncorners of the square,",
"timestamp": [
169.26,
171.44
]
},
{
"text": "we're gonna just pop those out.",
"timestamp": [
171.44,
173.52
]
},
{
"text": "we're gonna just pop those out.",
"timestamp": [
171.44,
173.52
]
},
{
"text": "This is one of the most\nsatisfying moments,",
"timestamp": [
173.52,
175.59
]
},
{
"text": "This is one of the most\nsatisfying moments,",
"timestamp": [
173.52,
175.59
]
},
{
"text": "I think-\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
175.59,
176.93
]
},
{
"text": "I think-\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
175.59,
176.93
]
},
{
"text": "- because it suddenly changes shape.",
"timestamp": [
176.93,
178.63
]
},
{
"text": "- because it suddenly changes shape.",
"timestamp": [
176.93,
178.63
]
},
{
"text": "- I have seen these before,\nmy friends use these.",
"timestamp": [
178.63,
181.505
]
},
{
"text": "- I have seen these before,\nmy friends use these.",
"timestamp": [
178.63,
181.505
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah,",
"timestamp": [
181.505,
182.338
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah,",
"timestamp": [
181.505,
182.338
]
},
{
"text": "but there's something else\nwe can do with this model.",
"timestamp": [
182.338,
184.5
]
},
{
"text": "but there's something else\nwe can do with this model.",
"timestamp": [
182.338,
184.5
]
},
{
"text": "If we set it down and push on the middle",
"timestamp": [
184.5,
186.68
]
},
{
"text": "If we set it down and push on the middle",
"timestamp": [
184.5,
186.68
]
},
{
"text": "then pop it inside out",
"timestamp": [
187.7,
189.11
]
},
{
"text": "then pop it inside out",
"timestamp": [
187.7,
189.11
]
},
{
"text": "so that three flaps come\nup and one stays down",
"timestamp": [
190.06,
193.57
]
},
{
"text": "so that three flaps come\nup and one stays down",
"timestamp": [
190.06,
193.57
]
},
{
"text": "and then it's called talking crow",
"timestamp": [
193.57,
195.63
]
},
{
"text": "and then it's called talking crow",
"timestamp": [
193.57,
195.63
]
},
{
"text": "because here's a little\ncrow's beak and mouth.",
"timestamp": [
195.63,
197.69
]
},
{
"text": "because here's a little\ncrow's beak and mouth.",
"timestamp": [
195.63,
197.69
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
197.69,
198.523
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
197.69,
198.523
]
},
{
"text": "- There's thousands of\nother origami designs",
"timestamp": [
198.523,
201.26
]
},
{
"text": "- There's thousands of\nother origami designs",
"timestamp": [
198.523,
201.26
]
},
{
"text": "but these are some of\nthe first people learn",
"timestamp": [
201.26,
203.91
]
},
{
"text": "but these are some of\nthe first people learn",
"timestamp": [
201.26,
203.91
]
},
{
"text": "and this was, in fact,",
"timestamp": [
203.91,
205.16
]
},
{
"text": "and this was, in fact,",
"timestamp": [
203.91,
205.16
]
},
{
"text": "one of the first origami designs I learned",
"timestamp": [
205.16,
207.777
]
},
{
"text": "one of the first origami designs I learned",
"timestamp": [
205.16,
207.777
]
},
{
"text": "some 50 years ago.\n- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
207.777,
210.698
]
},
{
"text": "some 50 years ago.\n- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
207.777,
210.698
]
},
{
"text": "- So, what do you think of that?",
"timestamp": [
210.698,
212.133
]
},
{
"text": "- So, what do you think of that?",
"timestamp": [
210.698,
212.133
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think of origami?",
"timestamp": [
212.133,
214.14
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think of origami?",
"timestamp": [
212.133,
214.14
]
},
{
"text": "- I think that the people\nthat make them are talented.",
"timestamp": [
214.14,
217.58
]
},
{
"text": "- I think that the people\nthat make them are talented.",
"timestamp": [
214.14,
217.58
]
},
{
"text": "It's hard.",
"timestamp": [
217.58,
218.62
]
},
{
"text": "It's hard.",
"timestamp": [
217.58,
218.62
]
},
{
"text": "Seeing the stuff that we've made here,",
"timestamp": [
218.62,
220.73
]
},
{
"text": "Seeing the stuff that we've made here,",
"timestamp": [
218.62,
220.73
]
},
{
"text": "I'd bet that they could do rocket ships.",
"timestamp": [
220.73,
224.24
]
},
{
"text": "I'd bet that they could do rocket ships.",
"timestamp": [
220.73,
224.24
]
},
{
"text": "Just so much that you can do with them.",
"timestamp": [
224.24,
226.53
]
},
{
"text": "Just so much that you can do with them.",
"timestamp": [
224.24,
226.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Thanks for coming.",
"timestamp": [
226.53,
227.363
]
},
{
"text": "- Thanks for coming.",
"timestamp": [
226.53,
227.363
]
},
{
"text": "- Thanks for having me.",
"timestamp": [
227.363,
228.88
]
},
{
"text": "- Thanks for having me.",
"timestamp": [
227.363,
228.88
]
},
{
"text": "[thoughtful music]",
"timestamp": [
228.88,
231.797
]
},
{
"text": "[thoughtful music]",
"timestamp": [
228.88,
231.797
]
},
{
"text": "- A lot of origami is\nanimals, birds and things.",
"timestamp": [
233.6,
237.49
]
},
{
"text": "- A lot of origami is\nanimals, birds and things.",
"timestamp": [
233.6,
237.49
]
},
{
"text": "There's also a branch of origami that is,",
"timestamp": [
237.49,
240.897
]
},
{
"text": "There's also a branch of origami that is,",
"timestamp": [
237.49,
240.897
]
},
{
"text": "it's more abstract or\ngeometric, called tessellations.",
"timestamp": [
240.897,
245.72
]
},
{
"text": "it's more abstract or\ngeometric, called tessellations.",
"timestamp": [
240.897,
245.72
]
},
{
"text": "Tessellations, like most origami,",
"timestamp": [
245.72,
248.46
]
},
{
"text": "Tessellations, like most origami,",
"timestamp": [
245.72,
248.46
]
},
{
"text": "are folded from a single sheet of paper",
"timestamp": [
248.46,
250.71
]
},
{
"text": "are folded from a single sheet of paper",
"timestamp": [
248.46,
250.71
]
},
{
"text": "but they make patterns,",
"timestamp": [
250.71,
252.23
]
},
{
"text": "but they make patterns,",
"timestamp": [
250.71,
252.23
]
},
{
"text": "whether it's woven patterns like that,",
"timestamp": [
252.23,
254.79
]
},
{
"text": "whether it's woven patterns like that,",
"timestamp": [
252.23,
254.79
]
},
{
"text": "or woven patterns like this.",
"timestamp": [
254.79,
256.63
]
},
{
"text": "or woven patterns like this.",
"timestamp": [
254.79,
256.63
]
},
{
"text": "If you hold them up to the light",
"timestamp": [
256.63,
258.33
]
},
{
"text": "If you hold them up to the light",
"timestamp": [
256.63,
258.33
]
},
{
"text": "you can see patterns.\n- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
258.33,
260.14
]
},
{
"text": "you can see patterns.\n- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
258.33,
260.14
]
},
{
"text": "- The thing that makes them cool",
"timestamp": [
260.14,
261.75
]
},
{
"text": "- The thing that makes them cool",
"timestamp": [
260.14,
261.75
]
},
{
"text": "is they're sort of like tilings,",
"timestamp": [
261.75,
263
]
},
{
"text": "is they're sort of like tilings,",
"timestamp": [
261.75,
263
]
},
{
"text": "it looks like you could put this together",
"timestamp": [
263,
264.75
]
},
{
"text": "it looks like you could put this together",
"timestamp": [
263,
264.75
]
},
{
"text": "by cutting little pieces of\npaper and sliding them together,",
"timestamp": [
264.75,
267.96
]
},
{
"text": "by cutting little pieces of\npaper and sliding them together,",
"timestamp": [
264.75,
267.96
]
},
{
"text": "but they're still one sheet.",
"timestamp": [
267.96,
269.44
]
},
{
"text": "but they're still one sheet.",
"timestamp": [
267.96,
269.44
]
},
{
"text": "- They weren't cut?",
"timestamp": [
269.44,
270.51
]
},
{
"text": "- They weren't cut?",
"timestamp": [
269.44,
270.51
]
},
{
"text": "- There's no cuts in these just folding.",
"timestamp": [
270.51,
272.84
]
},
{
"text": "- There's no cuts in these just folding.",
"timestamp": [
270.51,
272.84
]
},
{
"text": "We can build these up from\nsmaller building blocks of folds,",
"timestamp": [
272.84,
277.24
]
},
{
"text": "We can build these up from\nsmaller building blocks of folds,",
"timestamp": [
272.84,
277.24
]
},
{
"text": "learn how to fold little\npieces and put them together",
"timestamp": [
277.24,
279.88
]
},
{
"text": "learn how to fold little\npieces and put them together",
"timestamp": [
277.24,
279.88
]
},
{
"text": "in the same way that a tiling like this",
"timestamp": [
279.88,
282.606
]
},
{
"text": "in the same way that a tiling like this",
"timestamp": [
279.88,
282.606
]
},
{
"text": "looks like it's built up of little pieces.",
"timestamp": [
282.606,
285.42
]
},
{
"text": "looks like it's built up of little pieces.",
"timestamp": [
282.606,
285.42
]
},
{
"text": "Can you make a fold that starts at the dot",
"timestamp": [
285.42,
288.03
]
},
{
"text": "Can you make a fold that starts at the dot",
"timestamp": [
285.42,
288.03
]
},
{
"text": "that doesn't run all the\nway across the paper?",
"timestamp": [
288.03,
290.11
]
},
{
"text": "that doesn't run all the\nway across the paper?",
"timestamp": [
288.03,
290.11
]
},
{
"text": "- How about like that?\n- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
290.11,
294.58
]
},
{
"text": "- How about like that?\n- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
290.11,
294.58
]
},
{
"text": "Each of these folds is\npeaked like a mountain",
"timestamp": [
294.58,
298.447
]
},
{
"text": "Each of these folds is\npeaked like a mountain",
"timestamp": [
294.58,
298.447
]
},
{
"text": "and we call these mountain folds",
"timestamp": [
298.447,
300.519
]
},
{
"text": "and we call these mountain folds",
"timestamp": [
298.447,
300.519
]
},
{
"text": "but if I made it the other\nway, then it's shaped this way",
"timestamp": [
300.519,
303.456
]
},
{
"text": "but if I made it the other\nway, then it's shaped this way",
"timestamp": [
300.519,
303.456
]
},
{
"text": "and we call it a valley fold.",
"timestamp": [
303.456,
305.48
]
},
{
"text": "and we call it a valley fold.",
"timestamp": [
303.456,
305.48
]
},
{
"text": "In all of origami there's\njust mountains and valleys.",
"timestamp": [
305.48,
308.53
]
},
{
"text": "In all of origami there's\njust mountains and valleys.",
"timestamp": [
305.48,
308.53
]
},
{
"text": "- So all the folds are reversible?",
"timestamp": [
308.53,
310.47
]
},
{
"text": "- So all the folds are reversible?",
"timestamp": [
308.53,
310.47
]
},
{
"text": "- So they're all\nreversible and it turns out",
"timestamp": [
310.47,
312.568
]
},
{
"text": "- So they're all\nreversible and it turns out",
"timestamp": [
310.47,
312.568
]
},
{
"text": "that in every origami\nshape that folds flat,",
"timestamp": [
312.568,
317.31
]
},
{
"text": "that in every origami\nshape that folds flat,",
"timestamp": [
312.568,
317.31
]
},
{
"text": "it's going to be either\nthree mountains and a valley",
"timestamp": [
317.31,
319.98
]
},
{
"text": "it's going to be either\nthree mountains and a valley",
"timestamp": [
317.31,
319.98
]
},
{
"text": "or, if we're looking at the backside,",
"timestamp": [
319.98,
322.45
]
},
{
"text": "or, if we're looking at the backside,",
"timestamp": [
319.98,
322.45
]
},
{
"text": "three valleys and a mountain,",
"timestamp": [
322.45,
324.43
]
},
{
"text": "three valleys and a mountain,",
"timestamp": [
322.45,
324.43
]
},
{
"text": "they always differ by two.\n- Oh.",
"timestamp": [
324.43,
325.92
]
},
{
"text": "they always differ by two.\n- Oh.",
"timestamp": [
324.43,
325.92
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a rule of all flat origami",
"timestamp": [
325.92,
328.45
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a rule of all flat origami",
"timestamp": [
325.92,
328.45
]
},
{
"text": "no matter how many folds\ncome together at a point",
"timestamp": [
328.45,
330.68
]
},
{
"text": "no matter how many folds\ncome together at a point",
"timestamp": [
328.45,
330.68
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm going to show you a\nbuilding block of tessellations,",
"timestamp": [
330.68,
334.12
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm going to show you a\nbuilding block of tessellations,",
"timestamp": [
330.68,
334.12
]
},
{
"text": "it's called a twist",
"timestamp": [
334.12,
335.302
]
},
{
"text": "it's called a twist",
"timestamp": [
334.12,
335.302
]
},
{
"text": "because that center\nsquare, as I unfold it,",
"timestamp": [
335.302,
339.462
]
},
{
"text": "because that center\nsquare, as I unfold it,",
"timestamp": [
335.302,
339.462
]
},
{
"text": "it twists, it rotates.\n- Twists?",
"timestamp": [
339.462,
341.96
]
},
{
"text": "it twists, it rotates.\n- Twists?",
"timestamp": [
339.462,
341.96
]
},
{
"text": "- If I had another twist\nin the same sheet of paper",
"timestamp": [
341.96,
346.35
]
},
{
"text": "- If I had another twist\nin the same sheet of paper",
"timestamp": [
341.96,
346.35
]
},
{
"text": "I could make these\nfolds connect with that,",
"timestamp": [
346.35,
348.017
]
},
{
"text": "I could make these\nfolds connect with that,",
"timestamp": [
346.35,
348.017
]
},
{
"text": "and these folds connect with that.",
"timestamp": [
348.017,
349.44
]
},
{
"text": "and these folds connect with that.",
"timestamp": [
348.017,
349.44
]
},
{
"text": "And if I had another one up\nhere, I could make all three.",
"timestamp": [
349.44,
352.01
]
},
{
"text": "And if I had another one up\nhere, I could make all three.",
"timestamp": [
349.44,
352.01
]
},
{
"text": "And if I had a square array\nand all the folds lined up",
"timestamp": [
352.01,
354.53
]
},
{
"text": "And if I had a square array\nand all the folds lined up",
"timestamp": [
352.01,
354.53
]
},
{
"text": "I could make bigger and\nbigger arrays, like these,",
"timestamp": [
354.53,
357.167
]
},
{
"text": "I could make bigger and\nbigger arrays, like these,",
"timestamp": [
354.53,
357.167
]
},
{
"text": "because these are just very large twists.",
"timestamp": [
357.167,
360.31
]
},
{
"text": "because these are just very large twists.",
"timestamp": [
357.167,
360.31
]
},
{
"text": "In this case it's an octagon\nrather than a square,",
"timestamp": [
360.31,
363.27
]
},
{
"text": "In this case it's an octagon\nrather than a square,",
"timestamp": [
360.31,
363.27
]
},
{
"text": "but they're arranged in rows and columns.",
"timestamp": [
363.27,
365.45
]
},
{
"text": "but they're arranged in rows and columns.",
"timestamp": [
363.27,
365.45
]
},
{
"text": "And let's just try going along.",
"timestamp": [
365.45,
367.113
]
},
{
"text": "And let's just try going along.",
"timestamp": [
365.45,
367.113
]
},
{
"text": "All right, there is our tessellation",
"timestamp": [
371.46,
374.24
]
},
{
"text": "All right, there is our tessellation",
"timestamp": [
371.46,
374.24
]
},
{
"text": "with squares and hexagons.",
"timestamp": [
374.24,
376.57
]
},
{
"text": "with squares and hexagons.",
"timestamp": [
374.24,
376.57
]
},
{
"text": "So you have now designed and folded",
"timestamp": [
376.57,
379
]
},
{
"text": "So you have now designed and folded",
"timestamp": [
376.57,
379
]
},
{
"text": "your first origami tessellation",
"timestamp": [
379,
380.99
]
},
{
"text": "your first origami tessellation",
"timestamp": [
379,
380.99
]
},
{
"text": "and perhaps you can see\nhow just using this idea",
"timestamp": [
380.99,
384.6
]
},
{
"text": "and perhaps you can see\nhow just using this idea",
"timestamp": [
380.99,
384.6
]
},
{
"text": "of building up tiles and\nsmall building blocks",
"timestamp": [
384.6,
387.82
]
},
{
"text": "of building up tiles and\nsmall building blocks",
"timestamp": [
384.6,
387.82
]
},
{
"text": "you could make tessellations\nas big and complex as you want.",
"timestamp": [
387.82,
392.153
]
},
{
"text": "you could make tessellations\nas big and complex as you want.",
"timestamp": [
387.82,
392.153
]
},
{
"text": "- That was cool.\n- Yeah,",
"timestamp": [
392.153,
393.65
]
},
{
"text": "- That was cool.\n- Yeah,",
"timestamp": [
392.153,
393.65
]
},
{
"text": "so what do you think now of\norigami and tessellations?",
"timestamp": [
393.65,
397.309
]
},
{
"text": "so what do you think now of\norigami and tessellations?",
"timestamp": [
393.65,
397.309
]
},
{
"text": "- Origami, I think,",
"timestamp": [
397.309,
399.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Origami, I think,",
"timestamp": [
397.309,
399.31
]
},
{
"text": "is the folding of paper to\nmake anything in general,",
"timestamp": [
399.31,
403.83
]
},
{
"text": "is the folding of paper to\nmake anything in general,",
"timestamp": [
399.31,
403.83
]
},
{
"text": "from 3D things to flat things",
"timestamp": [
403.83,
408.28
]
},
{
"text": "from 3D things to flat things",
"timestamp": [
403.83,
408.28
]
},
{
"text": "and I think origami is\nabout turning simple things",
"timestamp": [
408.28,
412.02
]
},
{
"text": "and I think origami is\nabout turning simple things",
"timestamp": [
408.28,
412.02
]
},
{
"text": "into complex things and\nit's all about patterns.",
"timestamp": [
412.02,
415.47
]
},
{
"text": "into complex things and\nit's all about patterns.",
"timestamp": [
412.02,
415.47
]
},
{
"text": "- That is a great definition.",
"timestamp": [
415.47,
417.057
]
},
{
"text": "- That is a great definition.",
"timestamp": [
415.47,
417.057
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
417.057,
419.64
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
417.057,
419.64
]
},
{
"text": "- So here's a dragon fly and\nhe's got six legs, four wings.",
"timestamp": [
420.56,
424.59
]
},
{
"text": "- So here's a dragon fly and\nhe's got six legs, four wings.",
"timestamp": [
420.56,
424.59
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow.\n- Here's a spider",
"timestamp": [
424.59,
425.59
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow.\n- Here's a spider",
"timestamp": [
424.59,
425.59
]
},
{
"text": "with eight legs, ants with legs",
"timestamp": [
425.59,
427.59
]
},
{
"text": "with eight legs, ants with legs",
"timestamp": [
425.59,
427.59
]
},
{
"text": "and these, just like the crane,",
"timestamp": [
427.59,
429.64
]
},
{
"text": "and these, just like the crane,",
"timestamp": [
427.59,
429.64
]
},
{
"text": "are folded from a single uncut square.",
"timestamp": [
429.64,
431.62
]
},
{
"text": "are folded from a single uncut square.",
"timestamp": [
429.64,
431.62
]
},
{
"text": "- What?",
"timestamp": [
431.62,
432.47
]
},
{
"text": "- What?",
"timestamp": [
431.62,
432.47
]
},
{
"text": "- To figure out how to do that",
"timestamp": [
432.47,
433.46
]
},
{
"text": "- To figure out how to do that",
"timestamp": [
432.47,
433.46
]
},
{
"text": "we need to learn a little\nbit about what makes a point.",
"timestamp": [
433.46,
437.81
]
},
{
"text": "we need to learn a little\nbit about what makes a point.",
"timestamp": [
433.46,
437.81
]
},
{
"text": "So, let's come back to the crane.",
"timestamp": [
437.81,
439.22
]
},
{
"text": "So, let's come back to the crane.",
"timestamp": [
437.81,
439.22
]
},
{
"text": "You can probably tell",
"timestamp": [
439.22,
440.053
]
},
{
"text": "You can probably tell",
"timestamp": [
439.22,
440.053
]
},
{
"text": "that the corners of the\nsquare ended up as points,",
"timestamp": [
440.053,
442.92
]
},
{
"text": "that the corners of the\nsquare ended up as points,",
"timestamp": [
440.053,
442.92
]
},
{
"text": "right?\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
442.92,
443.753
]
},
{
"text": "right?\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
442.92,
443.753
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a corner, four corners\nof the square, four points.",
"timestamp": [
443.753,
445.95
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a corner, four corners\nof the square, four points.",
"timestamp": [
443.753,
445.95
]
},
{
"text": "How would you make one point\nout of this sheet of paper?",
"timestamp": [
445.95,
449.99
]
},
{
"text": "How would you make one point\nout of this sheet of paper?",
"timestamp": [
445.95,
449.99
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm thinking of, like, a paper airplane.",
"timestamp": [
449.99,
451.67
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm thinking of, like, a paper airplane.",
"timestamp": [
449.99,
451.67
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
451.67,
453.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
451.67,
453.38
]
},
{
"text": "Actually you've discovered\nsomething pretty neat",
"timestamp": [
453.38,
455.7
]
},
{
"text": "Actually you've discovered\nsomething pretty neat",
"timestamp": [
453.38,
455.7
]
},
{
"text": "because you made your\npoint not from a corner",
"timestamp": [
455.7,
459.56
]
},
{
"text": "because you made your\npoint not from a corner",
"timestamp": [
455.7,
459.56
]
},
{
"text": "so you've already discovered\none of the key insights.",
"timestamp": [
459.56,
462.35
]
},
{
"text": "so you've already discovered\none of the key insights.",
"timestamp": [
459.56,
462.35
]
},
{
"text": "Any flap, any point, leg of the ant,",
"timestamp": [
462.35,
465.37
]
},
{
"text": "Any flap, any point, leg of the ant,",
"timestamp": [
462.35,
465.37
]
},
{
"text": "takes up a circular region of paper.",
"timestamp": [
465.37,
468.52
]
},
{
"text": "takes up a circular region of paper.",
"timestamp": [
465.37,
468.52
]
},
{
"text": "Here's our boundary.",
"timestamp": [
468.52,
470.28
]
},
{
"text": "Here's our boundary.",
"timestamp": [
468.52,
470.28
]
},
{
"text": "To make your point from an\nedge you use that much paper",
"timestamp": [
470.28,
474.35
]
},
{
"text": "To make your point from an\nedge you use that much paper",
"timestamp": [
470.28,
474.35
]
},
{
"text": "and the shape, it's almost a circle.",
"timestamp": [
474.35,
477.808
]
},
{
"text": "and the shape, it's almost a circle.",
"timestamp": [
474.35,
477.808
]
},
{
"text": "If we take the crane",
"timestamp": [
477.808,
479.26
]
},
{
"text": "If we take the crane",
"timestamp": [
477.808,
479.26
]
},
{
"text": "we'll see if the circles are\nvisible in the crane pattern.",
"timestamp": [
479.26,
484.113
]
},
{
"text": "we'll see if the circles are\nvisible in the crane pattern.",
"timestamp": [
479.26,
484.113
]
},
{
"text": "Here's the crane pattern, and\nhere's a boundary of the wing,",
"timestamp": [
485,
489.438
]
},
{
"text": "Here's the crane pattern, and\nhere's a boundary of the wing,",
"timestamp": [
485,
489.438
]
},
{
"text": "and here's the other wing.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
489.438,
491.54
]
},
{
"text": "and here's the other wing.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
489.438,
491.54
]
},
{
"text": "- The crane has four circles",
"timestamp": [
491.54,
493.626
]
},
{
"text": "- The crane has four circles",
"timestamp": [
491.54,
493.626
]
},
{
"text": "but, actually, there's a\nlittle bit of a surprise",
"timestamp": [
493.626,
496.36
]
},
{
"text": "but, actually, there's a\nlittle bit of a surprise",
"timestamp": [
493.626,
496.36
]
},
{
"text": "because what about this?",
"timestamp": [
496.36,
498.53
]
},
{
"text": "because what about this?",
"timestamp": [
496.36,
498.53
]
},
{
"text": "There's a fifth circle,\nwhich is like that,",
"timestamp": [
498.53,
502.13
]
},
{
"text": "There's a fifth circle,\nwhich is like that,",
"timestamp": [
498.53,
502.13
]
},
{
"text": "but does the crane have\na fifth flap in it?",
"timestamp": [
502.13,
505.67
]
},
{
"text": "but does the crane have\na fifth flap in it?",
"timestamp": [
502.13,
505.67
]
},
{
"text": "Let's refold it and put the wings up.",
"timestamp": [
505.67,
510.67
]
},
{
"text": "Let's refold it and put the wings up.",
"timestamp": [
505.67,
510.67
]
},
{
"text": "Well, yes, there is, there's another point",
"timestamp": [
511.13,
513.54
]
},
{
"text": "Well, yes, there is, there's another point",
"timestamp": [
511.13,
513.54
]
},
{
"text": "and that point is the\nfifth circle of our crane.",
"timestamp": [
513.54,
515.68
]
},
{
"text": "and that point is the\nfifth circle of our crane.",
"timestamp": [
513.54,
515.68
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- And to do that",
"timestamp": [
515.68,
517.75
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- And to do that",
"timestamp": [
515.68,
517.75
]
},
{
"text": "we use a new technique\ncalled circle packing",
"timestamp": [
517.75,
520.77
]
},
{
"text": "we use a new technique\ncalled circle packing",
"timestamp": [
517.75,
520.77
]
},
{
"text": "in which all of the long\nfeatures of the design",
"timestamp": [
520.77,
523.74
]
},
{
"text": "in which all of the long\nfeatures of the design",
"timestamp": [
520.77,
523.74
]
},
{
"text": "are represented by circles.",
"timestamp": [
523.74,
525.54
]
},
{
"text": "are represented by circles.",
"timestamp": [
523.74,
525.54
]
},
{
"text": "So, each leg becomes a circle,\neach wing becomes a circle",
"timestamp": [
525.54,
528.734
]
},
{
"text": "So, each leg becomes a circle,\neach wing becomes a circle",
"timestamp": [
525.54,
528.734
]
},
{
"text": "and things that can be big and thick,",
"timestamp": [
528.734,
530.92
]
},
{
"text": "and things that can be big and thick,",
"timestamp": [
528.734,
530.92
]
},
{
"text": "like the head or the abdomen,\ncan be points in the middle.",
"timestamp": [
530.92,
534.29
]
},
{
"text": "like the head or the abdomen,\ncan be points in the middle.",
"timestamp": [
530.92,
534.29
]
},
{
"text": "Now we have the basic idea\nof how to design the pattern,",
"timestamp": [
534.29,
538.09
]
},
{
"text": "Now we have the basic idea\nof how to design the pattern,",
"timestamp": [
534.29,
538.09
]
},
{
"text": "we just count the number of legs we want.",
"timestamp": [
538.09,
539.74
]
},
{
"text": "we just count the number of legs we want.",
"timestamp": [
538.09,
539.74
]
},
{
"text": "We want a spider, if it's\ngot let's say eight legs,",
"timestamp": [
539.74,
542.9
]
},
{
"text": "We want a spider, if it's\ngot let's say eight legs,",
"timestamp": [
539.74,
542.9
]
},
{
"text": "it's also got an abdomen,\nthat's another point,",
"timestamp": [
542.9,
545.097
]
},
{
"text": "it's also got an abdomen,\nthat's another point,",
"timestamp": [
542.9,
545.097
]
},
{
"text": "and it's got a head, so\nmaybe that's 10 points.",
"timestamp": [
545.097,
547.814
]
},
{
"text": "and it's got a head, so\nmaybe that's 10 points.",
"timestamp": [
545.097,
547.814
]
},
{
"text": "If we find an arrangement of 10 circles",
"timestamp": [
547.814,
550.31
]
},
{
"text": "If we find an arrangement of 10 circles",
"timestamp": [
547.814,
550.31
]
},
{
"text": "we should be able to fold\nthat into the spider.",
"timestamp": [
550.31,
553.66
]
},
{
"text": "we should be able to fold\nthat into the spider.",
"timestamp": [
550.31,
553.66
]
},
{
"text": "So in this book, Origami\nInsects II, it's one of my books",
"timestamp": [
553.66,
557.15
]
},
{
"text": "So in this book, Origami\nInsects II, it's one of my books",
"timestamp": [
553.66,
557.15
]
},
{
"text": "and has some patterns,\nand this is one of them",
"timestamp": [
557.15,
560.672
]
},
{
"text": "and has some patterns,\nand this is one of them",
"timestamp": [
557.15,
560.672
]
},
{
"text": "for a flying ladybug and, in fact,",
"timestamp": [
560.672,
563.96
]
},
{
"text": "for a flying ladybug and, in fact,",
"timestamp": [
560.672,
563.96
]
},
{
"text": "it is exactly this flying ladybug.",
"timestamp": [
563.96,
567.52
]
},
{
"text": "it is exactly this flying ladybug.",
"timestamp": [
563.96,
567.52
]
},
{
"text": "We've got the crease\npattern here in the circles",
"timestamp": [
567.52,
569.45
]
},
{
"text": "We've got the crease\npattern here in the circles",
"timestamp": [
567.52,
569.45
]
},
{
"text": "and you might now be able to see",
"timestamp": [
569.45,
572.01
]
},
{
"text": "and you might now be able to see",
"timestamp": [
569.45,
572.01
]
},
{
"text": "which circles end up as which parts,",
"timestamp": [
572.01,
575.47
]
},
{
"text": "which circles end up as which parts,",
"timestamp": [
572.01,
575.47
]
},
{
"text": "knowing that the largest\nfeatures like the wings",
"timestamp": [
575.47,
578.41
]
},
{
"text": "knowing that the largest\nfeatures like the wings",
"timestamp": [
575.47,
578.41
]
},
{
"text": "are going to be the largest circles,",
"timestamp": [
578.41,
580.02
]
},
{
"text": "are going to be the largest circles,",
"timestamp": [
578.41,
580.02
]
},
{
"text": "smaller points will be smaller circles.",
"timestamp": [
580.02,
581.97
]
},
{
"text": "smaller points will be smaller circles.",
"timestamp": [
580.02,
581.97
]
},
{
"text": "So any thoughts which might be?",
"timestamp": [
581.97,
584.49
]
},
{
"text": "So any thoughts which might be?",
"timestamp": [
581.97,
584.49
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, the legs and the antenna",
"timestamp": [
584.49,
586.42
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, the legs and the antenna",
"timestamp": [
584.49,
586.42
]
},
{
"text": "would probably have to\nbe these smaller ones,",
"timestamp": [
586.42,
588.99
]
},
{
"text": "would probably have to\nbe these smaller ones,",
"timestamp": [
586.42,
588.99
]
},
{
"text": "in the middle.\n- Yeah, that's right.",
"timestamp": [
588.99,
591.25
]
},
{
"text": "in the middle.\n- Yeah, that's right.",
"timestamp": [
588.99,
591.25
]
},
{
"text": "- [College Student] Oh,\nthis looks like the back",
"timestamp": [
591.25,
593.09
]
},
{
"text": "- [College Student] Oh,\nthis looks like the back",
"timestamp": [
591.25,
593.09
]
},
{
"text": "'cause there's a bunch of\ncircles all the way down,",
"timestamp": [
593.09,
595.26
]
},
{
"text": "'cause there's a bunch of\ncircles all the way down,",
"timestamp": [
593.09,
595.26
]
},
{
"text": "like here.\n- Mm-hmm, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
595.26,
597.21
]
},
{
"text": "like here.\n- Mm-hmm, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
595.26,
597.21
]
},
{
"text": "And then the wings?",
"timestamp": [
597.21,
599.22
]
},
{
"text": "And then the wings?",
"timestamp": [
597.21,
599.22
]
},
{
"text": "- You've got four big wings",
"timestamp": [
599.22,
601.55
]
},
{
"text": "- You've got four big wings",
"timestamp": [
599.22,
601.55
]
},
{
"text": "which you could see on the ends there",
"timestamp": [
601.55,
603.26
]
},
{
"text": "which you could see on the ends there",
"timestamp": [
601.55,
603.26
]
},
{
"text": "and then, I guess, the head.",
"timestamp": [
603.26,
604.2
]
},
{
"text": "and then, I guess, the head.",
"timestamp": [
603.26,
604.2
]
},
{
"text": "- You've got it, so you are\nready to design origami.",
"timestamp": [
604.2,
607.94
]
},
{
"text": "- You've got it, so you are\nready to design origami.",
"timestamp": [
604.2,
607.94
]
},
{
"text": "- Awesome.",
"timestamp": [
607.94,
608.773
]
},
{
"text": "- Awesome.",
"timestamp": [
607.94,
608.773
]
},
{
"text": "- Origami artists all around the world",
"timestamp": [
610.09,
611.997
]
},
{
"text": "- Origami artists all around the world",
"timestamp": [
610.09,
611.997
]
},
{
"text": "now use ideas like this to\ndesign, not just insects,",
"timestamp": [
611.997,
616.66
]
},
{
"text": "now use ideas like this to\ndesign, not just insects,",
"timestamp": [
611.997,
616.66
]
},
{
"text": "but animals, and birds,\nand all sorts of things",
"timestamp": [
616.66,
620.155
]
},
{
"text": "but animals, and birds,\nand all sorts of things",
"timestamp": [
616.66,
620.155
]
},
{
"text": "that are, I think, unbelievably\ncomplex and realistic",
"timestamp": [
620.155,
625.155
]
},
{
"text": "that are, I think, unbelievably\ncomplex and realistic",
"timestamp": [
620.155,
625.155
]
},
{
"text": "but most importantly, beautiful.",
"timestamp": [
625.32,
627.74
]
},
{
"text": "but most importantly, beautiful.",
"timestamp": [
625.32,
627.74
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow, that's so impressive.",
"timestamp": [
627.74,
629.131
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow, that's so impressive.",
"timestamp": [
627.74,
629.131
]
},
{
"text": "I think I learned how to make\none of these paper cranes",
"timestamp": [
629.131,
630.593
]
},
{
"text": "I think I learned how to make\none of these paper cranes",
"timestamp": [
629.131,
630.593
]
},
{
"text": "when I was in third grade but\nI guess I never unfolded it",
"timestamp": [
630.593,
633.59
]
},
{
"text": "when I was in third grade but\nI guess I never unfolded it",
"timestamp": [
630.593,
633.59
]
},
{
"text": "to actually see where it was coming from.",
"timestamp": [
633.59,
635.36
]
},
{
"text": "to actually see where it was coming from.",
"timestamp": [
633.59,
635.36
]
},
{
"text": "And so now that it's all\nbroken up into circles",
"timestamp": [
635.36,
637.57
]
},
{
"text": "And so now that it's all\nbroken up into circles",
"timestamp": [
635.36,
637.57
]
},
{
"text": "it makes these super\ncomplicated insects and animals",
"timestamp": [
637.57,
640.82
]
},
{
"text": "it makes these super\ncomplicated insects and animals",
"timestamp": [
637.57,
640.82
]
},
{
"text": "and everything seem so much\nsimpler, so that's so cool.",
"timestamp": [
640.82,
643.16
]
},
{
"text": "and everything seem so much\nsimpler, so that's so cool.",
"timestamp": [
640.82,
643.16
]
},
{
"text": "I'm pretty excited about it.\n- That's so cool.",
"timestamp": [
643.16,
644.43
]
},
{
"text": "I'm pretty excited about it.\n- That's so cool.",
"timestamp": [
643.16,
644.43
]
},
{
"text": "- Thank you so much for\ntelling me about this.",
"timestamp": [
644.43,
646.185
]
},
{
"text": "- Thank you so much for\ntelling me about this.",
"timestamp": [
644.43,
646.185
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
646.185,
649.09
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
646.185,
649.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Whenever there's a part of a spacecraft",
"timestamp": [
649.09,
651.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Whenever there's a part of a spacecraft",
"timestamp": [
649.09,
651.09
]
},
{
"text": "that is shaped somewhat like paper,",
"timestamp": [
651.09,
653.65
]
},
{
"text": "that is shaped somewhat like paper,",
"timestamp": [
651.09,
653.65
]
},
{
"text": "meaning it's big and flat,",
"timestamp": [
653.65,
655.06
]
},
{
"text": "meaning it's big and flat,",
"timestamp": [
653.65,
655.06
]
},
{
"text": "we can use folding mechanisms from origami",
"timestamp": [
655.06,
658.1
]
},
{
"text": "we can use folding mechanisms from origami",
"timestamp": [
655.06,
658.1
]
},
{
"text": "to make it smaller.",
"timestamp": [
658.1,
659.12
]
},
{
"text": "to make it smaller.",
"timestamp": [
658.1,
659.12
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.\n- Telescopes, solar arrays,",
"timestamp": [
659.12,
661.4
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.\n- Telescopes, solar arrays,",
"timestamp": [
659.12,
661.4
]
},
{
"text": "they need to be packed\ninto a rocket, go up,",
"timestamp": [
661.4,
663.89
]
},
{
"text": "they need to be packed\ninto a rocket, go up,",
"timestamp": [
661.4,
663.89
]
},
{
"text": "but then expand in a very\ncontrolled, deterministic way",
"timestamp": [
663.89,
667.035
]
},
{
"text": "but then expand in a very\ncontrolled, deterministic way",
"timestamp": [
663.89,
667.035
]
},
{
"text": "when they get up into space.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
667.035,
668.69
]
},
{
"text": "when they get up into space.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
667.035,
668.69
]
},
{
"text": "- These are the building blocks",
"timestamp": [
668.69,
671.059
]
},
{
"text": "- These are the building blocks",
"timestamp": [
668.69,
671.059
]
},
{
"text": "of many, many origami deployable shapes,",
"timestamp": [
671.059,
674.66
]
},
{
"text": "of many, many origami deployable shapes,",
"timestamp": [
671.059,
674.66
]
},
{
"text": "it's called a degree-4 vertex.",
"timestamp": [
674.66,
676.55
]
},
{
"text": "it's called a degree-4 vertex.",
"timestamp": [
674.66,
676.55
]
},
{
"text": "It's the number of lines.",
"timestamp": [
676.55,
677.8
]
},
{
"text": "It's the number of lines.",
"timestamp": [
676.55,
677.8
]
},
{
"text": "So in this case, we use\nsolid lines for mountain,",
"timestamp": [
677.8,
681.18
]
},
{
"text": "So in this case, we use\nsolid lines for mountain,",
"timestamp": [
677.8,
681.18
]
},
{
"text": "we use dash lines for valley.",
"timestamp": [
681.18,
683.17
]
},
{
"text": "we use dash lines for valley.",
"timestamp": [
681.18,
683.17
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to fold it and\nuse these two to illustrate",
"timestamp": [
683.17,
685.87
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to fold it and\nuse these two to illustrate",
"timestamp": [
683.17,
685.87
]
},
{
"text": "some important properties\nof origami mechanisms.",
"timestamp": [
685.87,
689.27
]
},
{
"text": "some important properties\nof origami mechanisms.",
"timestamp": [
685.87,
689.27
]
},
{
"text": "It's important in the study of mechanisms",
"timestamp": [
689.27,
691.84
]
},
{
"text": "It's important in the study of mechanisms",
"timestamp": [
689.27,
691.84
]
},
{
"text": "to take into account the rigidity.",
"timestamp": [
691.84,
693.69
]
},
{
"text": "to take into account the rigidity.",
"timestamp": [
691.84,
693.69
]
},
{
"text": "So what we're going to do\nto help simulate rigidity",
"timestamp": [
693.69,
696.924
]
},
{
"text": "So what we're going to do\nto help simulate rigidity",
"timestamp": [
693.69,
696.924
]
},
{
"text": "is to take these rectangles",
"timestamp": [
696.924,
699.29
]
},
{
"text": "is to take these rectangles",
"timestamp": [
696.924,
699.29
]
},
{
"text": "and we're going to fold them over and over",
"timestamp": [
699.29,
702.92
]
},
{
"text": "and we're going to fold them over and over",
"timestamp": [
699.29,
702.92
]
},
{
"text": "so that they just become stiff and rigid.",
"timestamp": [
702.92,
705.63
]
},
{
"text": "so that they just become stiff and rigid.",
"timestamp": [
702.92,
705.63
]
},
{
"text": "- [Grad Student] Okay.",
"timestamp": [
705.63,
706.463
]
},
{
"text": "- [Grad Student] Okay.",
"timestamp": [
705.63,
706.463
]
},
{
"text": "- So this is what's called",
"timestamp": [
706.463,
707.76
]
},
{
"text": "- So this is what's called",
"timestamp": [
706.463,
707.76
]
},
{
"text": "a single degree of freedom mechanism.",
"timestamp": [
707.76,
710.23
]
},
{
"text": "a single degree of freedom mechanism.",
"timestamp": [
707.76,
710.23
]
},
{
"text": "You have one degree of freedom,\nI can choose this fold,",
"timestamp": [
710.23,
713.017
]
},
{
"text": "You have one degree of freedom,\nI can choose this fold,",
"timestamp": [
710.23,
713.017
]
},
{
"text": "and then if these are perfectly rigid",
"timestamp": [
713.017,
715.246
]
},
{
"text": "and then if these are perfectly rigid",
"timestamp": [
713.017,
715.246
]
},
{
"text": "every other fold angle\nis fully determined.",
"timestamp": [
715.246,
718.22
]
},
{
"text": "every other fold angle\nis fully determined.",
"timestamp": [
715.246,
718.22
]
},
{
"text": "One of the key behaviors here",
"timestamp": [
718.22,
719.81
]
},
{
"text": "One of the key behaviors here",
"timestamp": [
718.22,
719.81
]
},
{
"text": "is that with the smaller angles up here,",
"timestamp": [
719.81,
722.36
]
},
{
"text": "is that with the smaller angles up here,",
"timestamp": [
719.81,
722.36
]
},
{
"text": "the two folds that are the same parity",
"timestamp": [
722.36,
724.59
]
},
{
"text": "the two folds that are the same parity",
"timestamp": [
722.36,
724.59
]
},
{
"text": "and the folds that are of opposite parity",
"timestamp": [
724.59,
726.71
]
},
{
"text": "and the folds that are of opposite parity",
"timestamp": [
724.59,
726.71
]
},
{
"text": "move at about the same rate",
"timestamp": [
726.71,
729.12
]
},
{
"text": "move at about the same rate",
"timestamp": [
726.71,
729.12
]
},
{
"text": "but with this, as we're\ngetting closer to 90 degrees,",
"timestamp": [
729.12,
732.71
]
},
{
"text": "but with this, as we're\ngetting closer to 90 degrees,",
"timestamp": [
729.12,
732.71
]
},
{
"text": "we find they move at very different rates",
"timestamp": [
732.71,
735.76
]
},
{
"text": "we find they move at very different rates",
"timestamp": [
732.71,
735.76
]
},
{
"text": "and then at the end of the\nmotion, the opposite happens.",
"timestamp": [
735.76,
738.9
]
},
{
"text": "and then at the end of the\nmotion, the opposite happens.",
"timestamp": [
735.76,
738.9
]
},
{
"text": "This one is almost folded",
"timestamp": [
738.9,
740.41
]
},
{
"text": "This one is almost folded",
"timestamp": [
738.9,
740.41
]
},
{
"text": "but this one goes through\na much larger motion so",
"timestamp": [
740.41,
742.873
]
},
{
"text": "but this one goes through\na much larger motion so",
"timestamp": [
740.41,
742.873
]
},
{
"text": "the relative speeds differ.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
742.873,
744.97
]
},
{
"text": "the relative speeds differ.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
742.873,
744.97
]
},
{
"text": "- So when we start sticking\ntogether vertices like this,",
"timestamp": [
744.97,
747.88
]
},
{
"text": "- So when we start sticking\ntogether vertices like this,",
"timestamp": [
744.97,
747.88
]
},
{
"text": "if they're individually\nsingle degree of freedom",
"timestamp": [
747.88,
750.046
]
},
{
"text": "if they're individually\nsingle degree of freedom",
"timestamp": [
747.88,
750.046
]
},
{
"text": "then we can make very large\nmechanisms that open and close",
"timestamp": [
750.046,
754.143
]
},
{
"text": "then we can make very large\nmechanisms that open and close",
"timestamp": [
750.046,
754.143
]
},
{
"text": "but with just one degree of freedom.",
"timestamp": [
754.143,
756.31
]
},
{
"text": "but with just one degree of freedom.",
"timestamp": [
754.143,
756.31
]
},
{
"text": "So, these are examples of a\npattern called the Miura-Ori.",
"timestamp": [
756.31,
759.34
]
},
{
"text": "So, these are examples of a\npattern called the Miura-Ori.",
"timestamp": [
756.31,
759.34
]
},
{
"text": "When you stretch them out",
"timestamp": [
759.34,
760.78
]
},
{
"text": "When you stretch them out",
"timestamp": [
759.34,
760.78
]
},
{
"text": "they're pretty big.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
760.78,
762.47
]
},
{
"text": "they're pretty big.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
760.78,
762.47
]
},
{
"text": "- And they fold flat and a\npattern almost exactly like this",
"timestamp": [
762.47,
766.94
]
},
{
"text": "- And they fold flat and a\npattern almost exactly like this",
"timestamp": [
762.47,
766.94
]
},
{
"text": "was used for a solar array\nfor a Japanese mission",
"timestamp": [
766.94,
769.71
]
},
{
"text": "was used for a solar array\nfor a Japanese mission",
"timestamp": [
766.94,
769.71
]
},
{
"text": "that flew in 1995.",
"timestamp": [
769.71,
771.21
]
},
{
"text": "that flew in 1995.",
"timestamp": [
769.71,
771.21
]
},
{
"text": "- So then you like fly it up compactly",
"timestamp": [
771.21,
774.22
]
},
{
"text": "- So then you like fly it up compactly",
"timestamp": [
771.21,
774.22
]
},
{
"text": "and then once you get up there,",
"timestamp": [
774.22,
775.34
]
},
{
"text": "and then once you get up there,",
"timestamp": [
774.22,
775.34
]
},
{
"text": "there's like some sort of\nlike motorized mechanism,",
"timestamp": [
775.34,
777.56
]
},
{
"text": "there's like some sort of\nlike motorized mechanism,",
"timestamp": [
775.34,
777.56
]
},
{
"text": "but you only need it on one fold.",
"timestamp": [
777.56,
779.11
]
},
{
"text": "but you only need it on one fold.",
"timestamp": [
777.56,
779.11
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so typically the mechanism",
"timestamp": [
779.11,
781.55
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so typically the mechanism",
"timestamp": [
779.11,
781.55
]
},
{
"text": "will run from corner to corner,",
"timestamp": [
781.55,
783.54
]
},
{
"text": "will run from corner to corner,",
"timestamp": [
781.55,
783.54
]
},
{
"text": "to diagonally to opposite corners",
"timestamp": [
783.54,
785.424
]
},
{
"text": "to diagonally to opposite corners",
"timestamp": [
783.54,
785.424
]
},
{
"text": "because then you can\nstretch it out that way.",
"timestamp": [
785.424,
789.78
]
},
{
"text": "because then you can\nstretch it out that way.",
"timestamp": [
785.424,
789.78
]
},
{
"text": "Notice some differences\nbetween the one you have",
"timestamp": [
789.78,
791.697
]
},
{
"text": "Notice some differences\nbetween the one you have",
"timestamp": [
789.78,
791.697
]
},
{
"text": "and the one I have",
"timestamp": [
791.697,
792.884
]
},
{
"text": "and the one I have",
"timestamp": [
791.697,
792.884
]
},
{
"text": "in how this one sort of\nopens out almost evenly",
"timestamp": [
792.884,
797.194
]
},
{
"text": "in how this one sort of\nopens out almost evenly",
"timestamp": [
792.884,
797.194
]
},
{
"text": "but this one opens out more\none way and then the other.",
"timestamp": [
797.194,
800.79
]
},
{
"text": "but this one opens out more\none way and then the other.",
"timestamp": [
797.194,
800.79
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
800.79,
801.623
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
800.79,
801.623
]
},
{
"text": "What sort of angle would you want",
"timestamp": [
801.623,
803.21
]
},
{
"text": "What sort of angle would you want",
"timestamp": [
801.623,
803.21
]
},
{
"text": "so that they open up the same rate?",
"timestamp": [
803.21,
805.1
]
},
{
"text": "so that they open up the same rate?",
"timestamp": [
803.21,
805.1
]
},
{
"text": "- Infinitesimally small.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
805.1,
806.97
]
},
{
"text": "- Infinitesimally small.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
805.1,
806.97
]
},
{
"text": "- So, sadly,",
"timestamp": [
806.97,
807.94
]
},
{
"text": "- So, sadly,",
"timestamp": [
806.97,
807.94
]
},
{
"text": "the only way to get them\nat exactly the same rate",
"timestamp": [
807.94,
810.32
]
},
{
"text": "the only way to get them\nat exactly the same rate",
"timestamp": [
807.94,
810.32
]
},
{
"text": "is when these are microscopic slivers",
"timestamp": [
810.32,
812.524
]
},
{
"text": "is when these are microscopic slivers",
"timestamp": [
810.32,
812.524
]
},
{
"text": "and then that's not useful.\n- For sure, right, right.",
"timestamp": [
812.524,
814.44
]
},
{
"text": "and then that's not useful.\n- For sure, right, right.",
"timestamp": [
812.524,
814.44
]
},
{
"text": "- And it's exactly the difference",
"timestamp": [
814.44,
816.293
]
},
{
"text": "- And it's exactly the difference",
"timestamp": [
814.44,
816.293
]
},
{
"text": "between the motions of these two vertices.",
"timestamp": [
816.293,
819.26
]
},
{
"text": "between the motions of these two vertices.",
"timestamp": [
816.293,
819.26
]
},
{
"text": "So these angles are closer to right angles",
"timestamp": [
819.26,
822.3
]
},
{
"text": "So these angles are closer to right angles",
"timestamp": [
819.26,
822.3
]
},
{
"text": "and the closer you get to a right angle",
"timestamp": [
822.3,
824.53
]
},
{
"text": "and the closer you get to a right angle",
"timestamp": [
822.3,
824.53
]
},
{
"text": "the more asymmetry there is",
"timestamp": [
824.53,
826.49
]
},
{
"text": "the more asymmetry there is",
"timestamp": [
824.53,
826.49
]
},
{
"text": "between the two directions of motion.",
"timestamp": [
826.49,
828.45
]
},
{
"text": "between the two directions of motion.",
"timestamp": [
826.49,
828.45
]
},
{
"text": "And then the other difference\nis how efficiently they pack,",
"timestamp": [
828.45,
831.33
]
},
{
"text": "And then the other difference\nis how efficiently they pack,",
"timestamp": [
828.45,
831.33
]
},
{
"text": "so these started at about the same size",
"timestamp": [
831.33,
833.896
]
},
{
"text": "so these started at about the same size",
"timestamp": [
831.33,
833.896
]
},
{
"text": "but when they're flat",
"timestamp": [
833.896,
835.253
]
},
{
"text": "but when they're flat",
"timestamp": [
833.896,
835.253
]
},
{
"text": "notice that yours is much more compact.",
"timestamp": [
835.253,
838.66
]
},
{
"text": "notice that yours is much more compact.",
"timestamp": [
835.253,
838.66
]
},
{
"text": "So if I were you making a solar array,",
"timestamp": [
838.66,
840.47
]
},
{
"text": "So if I were you making a solar array,",
"timestamp": [
838.66,
840.47
]
},
{
"text": "I'd say, oh, I want that one.",
"timestamp": [
840.47,
842.09
]
},
{
"text": "I'd say, oh, I want that one.",
"timestamp": [
840.47,
842.09
]
},
{
"text": "But if I say, well, I want\nthem to open at the same rate,",
"timestamp": [
842.09,
845.69
]
},
{
"text": "But if I say, well, I want\nthem to open at the same rate,",
"timestamp": [
842.09,
845.69
]
},
{
"text": "then I want this one.",
"timestamp": [
845.69,
847.38
]
},
{
"text": "then I want this one.",
"timestamp": [
845.69,
847.38
]
},
{
"text": "- So, it's kind of a trade-off?",
"timestamp": [
847.38,
848.59
]
},
{
"text": "- So, it's kind of a trade-off?",
"timestamp": [
847.38,
848.59
]
},
{
"text": "- There's an engineering trade-off\nto get them both to work.",
"timestamp": [
848.59,
851.3
]
},
{
"text": "- There's an engineering trade-off\nto get them both to work.",
"timestamp": [
848.59,
851.3
]
},
{
"text": "And there's another place",
"timestamp": [
851.3,
852.24
]
},
{
"text": "And there's another place",
"timestamp": [
851.3,
852.24
]
},
{
"text": "that shows up in deployable structures",
"timestamp": [
852.24,
854.115
]
},
{
"text": "that shows up in deployable structures",
"timestamp": [
852.24,
854.115
]
},
{
"text": "in a very cool structure.",
"timestamp": [
854.115,
856
]
},
{
"text": "in a very cool structure.",
"timestamp": [
854.115,
856
]
},
{
"text": "This is a folded tube, it\nsort of pops out like this",
"timestamp": [
856,
859.61
]
},
{
"text": "This is a folded tube, it\nsort of pops out like this",
"timestamp": [
856,
859.61
]
},
{
"text": "but it has this neat property\nthat if you twist it quickly,",
"timestamp": [
859.61,
862.443
]
},
{
"text": "but it has this neat property\nthat if you twist it quickly,",
"timestamp": [
859.61,
862.443
]
},
{
"text": "it changes color.",
"timestamp": [
862.443,
864.52
]
},
{
"text": "it changes color.",
"timestamp": [
862.443,
864.52
]
},
{
"text": "There's a Mars Rover application",
"timestamp": [
864.52,
866.912
]
},
{
"text": "There's a Mars Rover application",
"timestamp": [
864.52,
866.912
]
},
{
"text": "where they need a sleeve\nthat protects a drill",
"timestamp": [
866.912,
870.41
]
},
{
"text": "where they need a sleeve\nthat protects a drill",
"timestamp": [
866.912,
870.41
]
},
{
"text": "and as the drill goes down,\nthe sleeve is going to collapse",
"timestamp": [
870.41,
873.74
]
},
{
"text": "and as the drill goes down,\nthe sleeve is going to collapse",
"timestamp": [
870.41,
873.74
]
},
{
"text": "and they're using a pattern\nvery much like this.",
"timestamp": [
873.74,
876.384
]
},
{
"text": "and they're using a pattern\nvery much like this.",
"timestamp": [
873.74,
876.384
]
},
{
"text": "- Interesting.",
"timestamp": [
876.384,
877.66
]
},
{
"text": "- Interesting.",
"timestamp": [
876.384,
877.66
]
},
{
"text": "- There are many open\nmathematical questions",
"timestamp": [
877.66,
880.96
]
},
{
"text": "- There are many open\nmathematical questions",
"timestamp": [
877.66,
880.96
]
},
{
"text": "and so room for\nmathematicians, like yourself,",
"timestamp": [
880.96,
884.42
]
},
{
"text": "and so room for\nmathematicians, like yourself,",
"timestamp": [
880.96,
884.42
]
},
{
"text": "to have a big impact on the\nworld of origami and mechanisms.",
"timestamp": [
884.42,
888.71
]
},
{
"text": "to have a big impact on the\nworld of origami and mechanisms.",
"timestamp": [
884.42,
888.71
]
},
{
"text": "And even though those studies",
"timestamp": [
888.71,
890.84
]
},
{
"text": "And even though those studies",
"timestamp": [
888.71,
890.84
]
},
{
"text": "are mathematically interesting,",
"timestamp": [
890.84,
892.67
]
},
{
"text": "are mathematically interesting,",
"timestamp": [
890.84,
892.67
]
},
{
"text": "they're going to also have\nreal-world applications in space,",
"timestamp": [
892.67,
897.03
]
},
{
"text": "they're going to also have\nreal-world applications in space,",
"timestamp": [
892.67,
897.03
]
},
{
"text": "solar arrays, drills,\ntelescopes, and more.",
"timestamp": [
897.03,
900.33
]
},
{
"text": "solar arrays, drills,\ntelescopes, and more.",
"timestamp": [
897.03,
900.33
]
},
{
"text": "Any questions or thoughts about this?",
"timestamp": [
900.33,
902.52
]
},
{
"text": "Any questions or thoughts about this?",
"timestamp": [
900.33,
902.52
]
},
{
"text": "- If you want to send something to space",
"timestamp": [
902.52,
904.48
]
},
{
"text": "- If you want to send something to space",
"timestamp": [
902.52,
904.48
]
},
{
"text": "it probably makes sense\nto do it compactly,",
"timestamp": [
904.48,
906.75
]
},
{
"text": "it probably makes sense\nto do it compactly,",
"timestamp": [
904.48,
906.75
]
},
{
"text": "so if you have something\nthat you can fold up",
"timestamp": [
906.75,
908.82
]
},
{
"text": "so if you have something\nthat you can fold up",
"timestamp": [
906.75,
908.82
]
},
{
"text": "and then unfold, just one of the folds,",
"timestamp": [
908.82,
912.04
]
},
{
"text": "and then unfold, just one of the folds,",
"timestamp": [
908.82,
912.04
]
},
{
"text": "that's going to be\nprobably the easiest way",
"timestamp": [
912.04,
914.1
]
},
{
"text": "that's going to be\nprobably the easiest way",
"timestamp": [
912.04,
914.1
]
},
{
"text": "to get something up there",
"timestamp": [
914.1,
915.69
]
},
{
"text": "to get something up there",
"timestamp": [
914.1,
915.69
]
},
{
"text": "and expand it to what it needs to be.",
"timestamp": [
915.69,
917.478
]
},
{
"text": "and expand it to what it needs to be.",
"timestamp": [
915.69,
917.478
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
917.478,
920.061
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
917.478,
920.061
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Tom Hull, I'm a math\nprofessor, a mathematician.",
"timestamp": [
923.4,
926.21
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Tom Hull, I'm a math\nprofessor, a mathematician.",
"timestamp": [
923.4,
926.21
]
},
{
"text": "I've been doing origami\nsince I was eight years old",
"timestamp": [
926.21,
928.94
]
},
{
"text": "I've been doing origami\nsince I was eight years old",
"timestamp": [
926.21,
928.94
]
},
{
"text": "and studying the mathematics of origami",
"timestamp": [
928.94,
930.87
]
},
{
"text": "and studying the mathematics of origami",
"timestamp": [
928.94,
930.87
]
},
{
"text": "ever since grad school, at least.",
"timestamp": [
930.87,
932.23
]
},
{
"text": "ever since grad school, at least.",
"timestamp": [
930.87,
932.23
]
},
{
"text": "- The first thing I want to show you",
"timestamp": [
932.23,
933.57
]
},
{
"text": "- The first thing I want to show you",
"timestamp": [
932.23,
933.57
]
},
{
"text": "is origami in the real world.",
"timestamp": [
933.57,
935.77
]
},
{
"text": "is origami in the real world.",
"timestamp": [
933.57,
935.77
]
},
{
"text": "This is the origami lamp.",
"timestamp": [
935.77,
937.28
]
},
{
"text": "This is the origami lamp.",
"timestamp": [
935.77,
937.28
]
},
{
"text": "It comes shipped flat but it\nfolds, clip holds it together.",
"timestamp": [
937.28,
942.28
]
},
{
"text": "It comes shipped flat but it\nfolds, clip holds it together.",
"timestamp": [
937.28,
942.28
]
},
{
"text": "The lamp has LEDs on the inside",
"timestamp": [
943.21,
945.86
]
},
{
"text": "The lamp has LEDs on the inside",
"timestamp": [
943.21,
945.86
]
},
{
"text": "so when we power it up we get\nlight, we have a lampshade",
"timestamp": [
945.86,
948.58
]
},
{
"text": "so when we power it up we get\nlight, we have a lampshade",
"timestamp": [
945.86,
948.58
]
},
{
"text": "and we get the base.",
"timestamp": [
948.58,
949.79
]
},
{
"text": "and we get the base.",
"timestamp": [
948.58,
949.79
]
},
{
"text": "- Why does origami lend itself",
"timestamp": [
949.79,
951.3
]
},
{
"text": "- Why does origami lend itself",
"timestamp": [
949.79,
951.3
]
},
{
"text": "to, say, this type of application?",
"timestamp": [
951.3,
953.37
]
},
{
"text": "to, say, this type of application?",
"timestamp": [
951.3,
953.37
]
},
{
"text": "- Origami applications have in common,",
"timestamp": [
953.37,
955.96
]
},
{
"text": "- Origami applications have in common,",
"timestamp": [
953.37,
955.96
]
},
{
"text": "is that at some stage the thing is flat",
"timestamp": [
955.96,
959.03
]
},
{
"text": "is that at some stage the thing is flat",
"timestamp": [
955.96,
959.03
]
},
{
"text": "and so whenever you need to\neither start from a flat state",
"timestamp": [
959.03,
963.141
]
},
{
"text": "and so whenever you need to\neither start from a flat state",
"timestamp": [
959.03,
963.141
]
},
{
"text": "and then take it to a 3D state,",
"timestamp": [
963.141,
965.935
]
},
{
"text": "and then take it to a 3D state,",
"timestamp": [
963.141,
965.935
]
},
{
"text": "or conversely, for deployables like space,",
"timestamp": [
965.935,
969.84
]
},
{
"text": "or conversely, for deployables like space,",
"timestamp": [
965.935,
969.84
]
},
{
"text": "you want to have it in a\nfully folded flat state",
"timestamp": [
969.84,
973.34
]
},
{
"text": "you want to have it in a\nfully folded flat state",
"timestamp": [
969.84,
973.34
]
},
{
"text": "but then take it to a 3D state,",
"timestamp": [
973.34,
975.39
]
},
{
"text": "but then take it to a 3D state,",
"timestamp": [
973.34,
975.39
]
},
{
"text": "or possibly an unfolded flat state.",
"timestamp": [
975.39,
977.67
]
},
{
"text": "or possibly an unfolded flat state.",
"timestamp": [
975.39,
977.67
]
},
{
"text": "Whenever a flat state is involved,",
"timestamp": [
977.67,
979.73
]
},
{
"text": "Whenever a flat state is involved,",
"timestamp": [
977.67,
979.73
]
},
{
"text": "origami is a really effective way",
"timestamp": [
979.73,
982.75
]
},
{
"text": "origami is a really effective way",
"timestamp": [
979.73,
982.75
]
},
{
"text": "of making the transition\nbetween those states.",
"timestamp": [
982.75,
985.03
]
},
{
"text": "of making the transition\nbetween those states.",
"timestamp": [
982.75,
985.03
]
},
{
"text": "- Another aspect of origami\nand origami mechanisms",
"timestamp": [
985.03,
988.54
]
},
{
"text": "- Another aspect of origami\nand origami mechanisms",
"timestamp": [
985.03,
988.54
]
},
{
"text": "that has leant itself\nto many different uses",
"timestamp": [
988.54,
991.87
]
},
{
"text": "that has leant itself\nto many different uses",
"timestamp": [
988.54,
991.87
]
},
{
"text": "is the fact that it's scalable.",
"timestamp": [
991.87,
993.57
]
},
{
"text": "is the fact that it's scalable.",
"timestamp": [
991.87,
993.57
]
},
{
"text": "When you have an origami crease pattern",
"timestamp": [
993.57,
996.04
]
},
{
"text": "When you have an origami crease pattern",
"timestamp": [
993.57,
996.04
]
},
{
"text": "like the Miura-Ori used\nin solar panel deployment,",
"timestamp": [
996.04,
999.74
]
},
{
"text": "like the Miura-Ori used\nin solar panel deployment,",
"timestamp": [
996.04,
999.74
]
},
{
"text": "the type of motion that\nyou see happening here",
"timestamp": [
999.74,
1001.4
]
},
{
"text": "the type of motion that\nyou see happening here",
"timestamp": [
999.74,
1001.4
]
},
{
"text": "will happen whether this\nis on a piece of paper",
"timestamp": [
1001.4,
1003.19
]
},
{
"text": "will happen whether this\nis on a piece of paper",
"timestamp": [
1001.4,
1003.19
]
},
{
"text": "that's small like this,\nor on a larger scale,",
"timestamp": [
1003.19,
1006.23
]
},
{
"text": "that's small like this,\nor on a larger scale,",
"timestamp": [
1003.19,
1006.23
]
},
{
"text": "or even on a smaller, smaller,\nsmaller, smaller scale.",
"timestamp": [
1006.23,
1008.58
]
},
{
"text": "or even on a smaller, smaller,\nsmaller, smaller scale.",
"timestamp": [
1006.23,
1008.58
]
},
{
"text": "Engineers, in particular\nrobotics engineers,",
"timestamp": [
1008.58,
1010.93
]
},
{
"text": "Engineers, in particular\nrobotics engineers,",
"timestamp": [
1008.58,
1010.93
]
},
{
"text": "are turning to origami",
"timestamp": [
1010.93,
1012.02
]
},
{
"text": "are turning to origami",
"timestamp": [
1010.93,
1012.02
]
},
{
"text": "toward designing mechanisms\nthat will either be really big",
"timestamp": [
1012.02,
1015.86
]
},
{
"text": "toward designing mechanisms\nthat will either be really big",
"timestamp": [
1012.02,
1015.86
]
},
{
"text": "or really, really small.",
"timestamp": [
1015.86,
1017.13
]
},
{
"text": "or really, really small.",
"timestamp": [
1015.86,
1017.13
]
},
{
"text": "This looks like the most promising way",
"timestamp": [
1017.13,
1019.04
]
},
{
"text": "This looks like the most promising way",
"timestamp": [
1017.13,
1019.04
]
},
{
"text": "of getting nano robotics to work.",
"timestamp": [
1019.04,
1020.63
]
},
{
"text": "of getting nano robotics to work.",
"timestamp": [
1019.04,
1020.63
]
},
{
"text": "- This is another real-world application",
"timestamp": [
1020.63,
1023.14
]
},
{
"text": "- This is another real-world application",
"timestamp": [
1020.63,
1023.14
]
},
{
"text": "but this particular implementation",
"timestamp": [
1023.14,
1025.07
]
},
{
"text": "but this particular implementation",
"timestamp": [
1023.14,
1025.07
]
},
{
"text": "is used to make a wheel for a Rover.",
"timestamp": [
1025.07,
1027.29
]
},
{
"text": "is used to make a wheel for a Rover.",
"timestamp": [
1025.07,
1027.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Cool, so this is something",
"timestamp": [
1027.29,
1028.98
]
},
{
"text": "- Cool, so this is something",
"timestamp": [
1027.29,
1028.98
]
},
{
"text": "that can actually get really, really tiny",
"timestamp": [
1028.98,
1031.59
]
},
{
"text": "that can actually get really, really tiny",
"timestamp": [
1028.98,
1031.59
]
},
{
"text": "but then get big and fat and roll.",
"timestamp": [
1031.59,
1034.41
]
},
{
"text": "but then get big and fat and roll.",
"timestamp": [
1031.59,
1034.41
]
},
{
"text": "- New problems arise",
"timestamp": [
1034.41,
1035.794
]
},
{
"text": "- New problems arise",
"timestamp": [
1034.41,
1035.794
]
},
{
"text": "when we try to make origami\nout of things other than paper,",
"timestamp": [
1035.794,
1039.99
]
},
{
"text": "when we try to make origami\nout of things other than paper,",
"timestamp": [
1035.794,
1039.99
]
},
{
"text": "but also new opportunities.",
"timestamp": [
1039.99,
1042.46
]
},
{
"text": "but also new opportunities.",
"timestamp": [
1039.99,
1042.46
]
},
{
"text": "An example here",
"timestamp": [
1042.46,
1043.86
]
},
{
"text": "An example here",
"timestamp": [
1042.46,
1043.86
]
},
{
"text": "which is a kind of a\nvariant of the Miura-Ori.",
"timestamp": [
1043.86,
1046.98
]
},
{
"text": "which is a kind of a\nvariant of the Miura-Ori.",
"timestamp": [
1043.86,
1046.98
]
},
{
"text": "It's got a three-dimensional structure.",
"timestamp": [
1046.98,
1048.73
]
},
{
"text": "It's got a three-dimensional structure.",
"timestamp": [
1046.98,
1048.73
]
},
{
"text": "If I stretch it one way,\nit expands the other",
"timestamp": [
1048.73,
1051.05
]
},
{
"text": "If I stretch it one way,\nit expands the other",
"timestamp": [
1048.73,
1051.05
]
},
{
"text": "but because it has these\nS-bends in the pattern,",
"timestamp": [
1051.05,
1054.774
]
},
{
"text": "but because it has these\nS-bends in the pattern,",
"timestamp": [
1051.05,
1054.774
]
},
{
"text": "if you squeeze it, it\ndoesn't go all the way flat.",
"timestamp": [
1054.774,
1058.49
]
},
{
"text": "if you squeeze it, it\ndoesn't go all the way flat.",
"timestamp": [
1054.774,
1058.49
]
},
{
"text": "This is a epoxy impregnated aramid fiber",
"timestamp": [
1058.49,
1062.61
]
},
{
"text": "This is a epoxy impregnated aramid fiber",
"timestamp": [
1058.49,
1062.61
]
},
{
"text": "and so if I put this fold pattern into it",
"timestamp": [
1062.61,
1065.103
]
},
{
"text": "and so if I put this fold pattern into it",
"timestamp": [
1062.61,
1065.103
]
},
{
"text": "and then compress it",
"timestamp": [
1065.103,
1066.907
]
},
{
"text": "and then compress it",
"timestamp": [
1065.103,
1066.907
]
},
{
"text": "and then put a skin on the top and bottom,",
"timestamp": [
1066.907,
1070.263
]
},
{
"text": "and then put a skin on the top and bottom,",
"timestamp": [
1066.907,
1070.263
]
},
{
"text": "this becomes incredibly\nlightweight but incredibly strong.",
"timestamp": [
1070.263,
1074.81
]
},
{
"text": "this becomes incredibly\nlightweight but incredibly strong.",
"timestamp": [
1070.263,
1074.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah!",
"timestamp": [
1074.81,
1075.643
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah!",
"timestamp": [
1074.81,
1075.643
]
},
{
"text": "- Another origami challenge",
"timestamp": [
1075.643,
1076.66
]
},
{
"text": "- Another origami challenge",
"timestamp": [
1075.643,
1076.66
]
},
{
"text": "that comes up with these patterns",
"timestamp": [
1076.66,
1079.112
]
},
{
"text": "that comes up with these patterns",
"timestamp": [
1076.66,
1079.112
]
},
{
"text": "is if we're going to make an\naircraft out of this thing",
"timestamp": [
1079.112,
1082.25
]
},
{
"text": "is if we're going to make an\naircraft out of this thing",
"timestamp": [
1079.112,
1082.25
]
},
{
"text": "we're going to need hundreds\nof yards of folded origami.",
"timestamp": [
1082.25,
1086.34
]
},
{
"text": "we're going to need hundreds\nof yards of folded origami.",
"timestamp": [
1082.25,
1086.34
]
},
{
"text": "We're not going to do it by hand",
"timestamp": [
1086.34,
1087.65
]
},
{
"text": "We're not going to do it by hand",
"timestamp": [
1086.34,
1087.65
]
},
{
"text": "and this might be the new\nfrontier in origami engineering,",
"timestamp": [
1087.65,
1092.054
]
},
{
"text": "and this might be the new\nfrontier in origami engineering,",
"timestamp": [
1087.65,
1092.054
]
},
{
"text": "which is the design of machines",
"timestamp": [
1092.054,
1094.718
]
},
{
"text": "which is the design of machines",
"timestamp": [
1092.054,
1094.718
]
},
{
"text": "that can fold patterns\nthat have applications.",
"timestamp": [
1094.718,
1098.38
]
},
{
"text": "that can fold patterns\nthat have applications.",
"timestamp": [
1094.718,
1098.38
]
},
{
"text": "- So you're talking about a machine",
"timestamp": [
1098.38,
1099.52
]
},
{
"text": "- So you're talking about a machine",
"timestamp": [
1098.38,
1099.52
]
},
{
"text": "that is actually folding it into this,",
"timestamp": [
1099.52,
1102.36
]
},
{
"text": "that is actually folding it into this,",
"timestamp": [
1099.52,
1102.36
]
},
{
"text": "not just making the creases\nbut actually folding it.",
"timestamp": [
1102.36,
1104.706
]
},
{
"text": "not just making the creases\nbut actually folding it.",
"timestamp": [
1102.36,
1104.706
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so what goes in as sheet",
"timestamp": [
1104.706,
1106.45
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so what goes in as sheet",
"timestamp": [
1104.706,
1106.45
]
},
{
"text": "and what comes out is this,\nor something this wide.",
"timestamp": [
1106.45,
1109.277
]
},
{
"text": "and what comes out is this,\nor something this wide.",
"timestamp": [
1106.45,
1109.277
]
},
{
"text": "- That's cool, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1109.277,
1110.81
]
},
{
"text": "- That's cool, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1109.277,
1110.81
]
},
{
"text": "What do you see as kind of\nlike the next big breakthrough?",
"timestamp": [
1110.81,
1114.46
]
},
{
"text": "What do you see as kind of\nlike the next big breakthrough?",
"timestamp": [
1110.81,
1114.46
]
},
{
"text": "Is there anything out there on the horizon",
"timestamp": [
1114.46,
1115.8
]
},
{
"text": "Is there anything out there on the horizon",
"timestamp": [
1114.46,
1115.8
]
},
{
"text": "that you're just like, oh\nwow, this is really exciting?",
"timestamp": [
1115.8,
1117.65
]
},
{
"text": "that you're just like, oh\nwow, this is really exciting?",
"timestamp": [
1115.8,
1117.65
]
},
{
"text": "- It's something we've\ntalked about a little bit",
"timestamp": [
1117.65,
1120.2
]
},
{
"text": "- It's something we've\ntalked about a little bit",
"timestamp": [
1117.65,
1120.2
]
},
{
"text": "that with all the richness of behavior",
"timestamp": [
1120.2,
1122.888
]
},
{
"text": "that with all the richness of behavior",
"timestamp": [
1120.2,
1122.888
]
},
{
"text": "of origami from a flat sheet,",
"timestamp": [
1122.888,
1127.08
]
},
{
"text": "of origami from a flat sheet,",
"timestamp": [
1122.888,
1127.08
]
},
{
"text": "it seems like there ought\nto be an equally rich world",
"timestamp": [
1127.08,
1130.49
]
},
{
"text": "it seems like there ought\nto be an equally rich world",
"timestamp": [
1127.08,
1130.49
]
},
{
"text": "of things that don't start flat",
"timestamp": [
1130.49,
1133.01
]
},
{
"text": "of things that don't start flat",
"timestamp": [
1130.49,
1133.01
]
},
{
"text": "but are still made from\nflat sheets of paper.",
"timestamp": [
1133.01,
1134.97
]
},
{
"text": "but are still made from\nflat sheets of paper.",
"timestamp": [
1133.01,
1134.97
]
},
{
"text": "- So like a cone?\n- Bi-stable properties",
"timestamp": [
1134.97,
1137.99
]
},
{
"text": "- So like a cone?\n- Bi-stable properties",
"timestamp": [
1134.97,
1137.99
]
},
{
"text": "and you can combine them together\nwith copies of themselves",
"timestamp": [
1137.99,
1142.27
]
},
{
"text": "and you can combine them together\nwith copies of themselves",
"timestamp": [
1137.99,
1142.27
]
},
{
"text": "to make cellular structures.",
"timestamp": [
1142.27,
1143.91
]
},
{
"text": "to make cellular structures.",
"timestamp": [
1142.27,
1143.91
]
},
{
"text": "They're astonishingly stiff and\nrigid, useful for mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
1143.91,
1147.29
]
},
{
"text": "They're astonishingly stiff and\nrigid, useful for mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
1143.91,
1147.29
]
},
{
"text": "- The thing that I think\nI'm the most excited about",
"timestamp": [
1147.29,
1149.12
]
},
{
"text": "- The thing that I think\nI'm the most excited about",
"timestamp": [
1147.29,
1149.12
]
},
{
"text": "comes from math mainly.",
"timestamp": [
1149.12,
1151.1
]
},
{
"text": "comes from math mainly.",
"timestamp": [
1149.12,
1151.1
]
},
{
"text": "When I look at origami,",
"timestamp": [
1151.1,
1152.31
]
},
{
"text": "When I look at origami,",
"timestamp": [
1151.1,
1152.31
]
},
{
"text": "when I look at all these applications",
"timestamp": [
1152.31,
1153.63
]
},
{
"text": "when I look at all these applications",
"timestamp": [
1152.31,
1153.63
]
},
{
"text": "or just all these different\norigami folds, I see structure.",
"timestamp": [
1153.63,
1157.15
]
},
{
"text": "or just all these different\norigami folds, I see structure.",
"timestamp": [
1153.63,
1157.15
]
},
{
"text": "Math is really about patterns.",
"timestamp": [
1157.15,
1159.05
]
},
{
"text": "Math is really about patterns.",
"timestamp": [
1157.15,
1159.05
]
},
{
"text": "The patterns that we see in origami",
"timestamp": [
1159.05,
1161.31
]
},
{
"text": "The patterns that we see in origami",
"timestamp": [
1159.05,
1161.31
]
},
{
"text": "are reflecting some kind\nof mathematical structure",
"timestamp": [
1161.31,
1164.66
]
},
{
"text": "are reflecting some kind\nof mathematical structure",
"timestamp": [
1161.31,
1164.66
]
},
{
"text": "and we don't quite know yet\nwhat all of that structure is",
"timestamp": [
1164.66,
1168.07
]
},
{
"text": "and we don't quite know yet\nwhat all of that structure is",
"timestamp": [
1164.66,
1168.07
]
},
{
"text": "and if we can tie a mathematical structure",
"timestamp": [
1168.07,
1170.26
]
},
{
"text": "and if we can tie a mathematical structure",
"timestamp": [
1168.07,
1170.26
]
},
{
"text": "that's already well-studied",
"timestamp": [
1170.26,
1171.62
]
},
{
"text": "that's already well-studied",
"timestamp": [
1170.26,
1171.62
]
},
{
"text": "to something we see happening in origami,",
"timestamp": [
1171.62,
1173.63
]
},
{
"text": "to something we see happening in origami,",
"timestamp": [
1171.62,
1173.63
]
},
{
"text": "then we can use the math tools right away",
"timestamp": [
1173.63,
1176.07
]
},
{
"text": "then we can use the math tools right away",
"timestamp": [
1173.63,
1176.07
]
},
{
"text": "to help solve the engineering problems",
"timestamp": [
1176.07,
1177.48
]
},
{
"text": "to help solve the engineering problems",
"timestamp": [
1176.07,
1177.48
]
},
{
"text": "and the origami problems.",
"timestamp": [
1177.48,
1178.63
]
},
{
"text": "and the origami problems.",
"timestamp": [
1177.48,
1178.63
]
},
{
"text": "And the fact that there's\nso many applications to this",
"timestamp": [
1178.63,
1180.91
]
},
{
"text": "And the fact that there's\nso many applications to this",
"timestamp": [
1178.63,
1180.91
]
},
{
"text": "is really making people excited\nwho are working in the area.",
"timestamp": [
1180.91,
1183.54
]
},
{
"text": "is really making people excited\nwho are working in the area.",
"timestamp": [
1180.91,
1183.54
]
},
{
"text": "I'm really excited to see\nwhat happens with that",
"timestamp": [
1183.54,
1185.12
]
},
{
"text": "I'm really excited to see\nwhat happens with that",
"timestamp": [
1183.54,
1185.12
]
},
{
"text": "in the next five years or so.",
"timestamp": [
1185.12,
1186.703
]
},
{
"text": "in the next five years or so.",
"timestamp": [
1185.12,
1186.703
]
},
{
"text": "[encouraging music]",
"timestamp": [
1186.703,
1189.703
]
},
{
"text": "[encouraging music]",
"timestamp": [
1186.703,
1189.703
]
}
] |
[
[
"Intro",
"- Hi, I'm Robert J. Lang.I'm a physicist and origami artistand today I've been\nchallenged to explain origamiin five levels.If you know a little origamiyou might think it's nothing\nmore than simple toys,like cranes or cootie catchers,but origami is much more than that.Out of the vast cloud\nof origami possibilitiesI've chosen five different levelsthat illustrate the diversity of this art.[thoughtful music]"
],
[
"Level 1 - Child",
"Do you know what origami is?- Is that where you fold paperto make different animals, like those?- Yes, in fact it is.Have you ever done any origami before?- Nope.- [Robert] Would you\nlike to give it a try?- Sure.\n- Okay, so we'll do some,but I want to tell you a\nlittle bit about origami.Most origami follows two,\nI'll call them customs,almost like rules.It's usually from a squareand the other is it's\nusually folded with no cuts.So these guys are folded\nfrom an uncut square.- That's awesome.- So you ready?- Yep.\n- Okay.We're going to start with a modelthat every Japanese person\nlearns in kindergarten,it's called a crane,\ntraditional origami design,it's over 400 years old.So, people have been doing\nwhat we're about to dofor 400 years.\n- Wow.- Let's fold it in half from\ncorner to corner, unfold itand then we'll fold it in\nhalf the other direction,also corner to corner but\nwe're going to lift it upand we're going to hold\nthe fold with both hands.We're going to bring\nthese corners together,making a little pocket and then,this is the trickiest\npart of this whole design,so you're going to put your\nfinger underneath the top layerand we're going to try to make that layerfold right along the edge.Now you see how the sides\nkind of want to come inas you're doing that?\n- Yeah.- It's called a petal fold,it's a part of a lot of origami designsand it's key to the crane.Now we're ready for the magic.We're going to hold it in\nbetween thumb and forefinger,reach inside,grab the skinny point that's\nbetween the two layers,which are the wings,and I'm going to slide it out\nso it pokes out at an angle.We'll take the two wings, we\nspread them out to the sideand you have made your\nfirst origami crane.- Wow.- Now, this is a\ntraditional Japanese designbut there are origami designs\nthat have been around so longwe're not entirely sure\nwhere they originated.We're going to learn how\nto fold a cootie catcher.- Okay, good.- So we'll start with the white side upand we're going to fold it in\nhalf from corner to corner,in one fold and now we're\ngoing to fold all four cornersto the crossing point in the center.We'll fold it in half like a book.On the folded side we'll take\none of the folded cornersand I'm going to fold it\nup through all layers.There's a pocket in the middle.We're going to spread the pocketand bring all four corners together.Where you have original\ncorners of the square,we're gonna just pop those out.This is one of the most\nsatisfying moments,I think-\n- Yeah.- because it suddenly changes shape.- I have seen these before,\nmy friends use these.- Yeah,but there's something else\nwe can do with this model.If we set it down and push on the middlethen pop it inside outso that three flaps come\nup and one stays downand then it's called talking crowbecause here's a little\ncrow's beak and mouth.- Wow.- There's thousands of\nother origami designsbut these are some of\nthe first people learnand this was, in fact,one of the first origami designs I learnedsome 50 years ago.\n- Wow.- So, what do you think of that?What do you think of origami?- I think that the people\nthat make them are talented.It's hard.Seeing the stuff that we've made here,I'd bet that they could do rocket ships.Just so much that you can do with them.- Thanks for coming.- Thanks for having me.[thoughtful music]"
],
[
"Level 2 - Teen",
"- A lot of origami is\nanimals, birds and things.There's also a branch of origami that is,it's more abstract or\ngeometric, called tessellations.Tessellations, like most origami,are folded from a single sheet of paperbut they make patterns,whether it's woven patterns like that,or woven patterns like this.If you hold them up to the lightyou can see patterns.\n- Wow.- The thing that makes them coolis they're sort of like tilings,it looks like you could put this togetherby cutting little pieces of\npaper and sliding them together,but they're still one sheet.- They weren't cut?- There's no cuts in these just folding.We can build these up from\nsmaller building blocks of folds,learn how to fold little\npieces and put them togetherin the same way that a tiling like thislooks like it's built up of little pieces.Can you make a fold that starts at the dotthat doesn't run all the\nway across the paper?- How about like that?\n- Mm-hmm.Each of these folds is\npeaked like a mountainand we call these mountain foldsbut if I made it the other\nway, then it's shaped this wayand we call it a valley fold.In all of origami there's\njust mountains and valleys.- So all the folds are reversible?- So they're all\nreversible and it turns outthat in every origami\nshape that folds flat,it's going to be either\nthree mountains and a valleyor, if we're looking at the backside,three valleys and a mountain,they always differ by two.\n- Oh.- That's a rule of all flat origamino matter how many folds\ncome together at a pointand I'm going to show you a\nbuilding block of tessellations,it's called a twistbecause that center\nsquare, as I unfold it,it twists, it rotates.\n- Twists?- If I had another twist\nin the same sheet of paperI could make these\nfolds connect with that,and these folds connect with that.And if I had another one up\nhere, I could make all three.And if I had a square array\nand all the folds lined upI could make bigger and\nbigger arrays, like these,because these are just very large twists.In this case it's an octagon\nrather than a square,but they're arranged in rows and columns.And let's just try going along.All right, there is our tessellationwith squares and hexagons.So you have now designed and foldedyour first origami tessellationand perhaps you can see\nhow just using this ideaof building up tiles and\nsmall building blocksyou could make tessellations\nas big and complex as you want.- That was cool.\n- Yeah,so what do you think now of\norigami and tessellations?- Origami, I think,is the folding of paper to\nmake anything in general,from 3D things to flat thingsand I think origami is\nabout turning simple thingsinto complex things and\nit's all about patterns.- That is a great definition.[upbeat music]"
],
[
"Level 3 - College Student",
"- So here's a dragon fly and\nhe's got six legs, four wings.- Wow.\n- Here's a spiderwith eight legs, ants with legsand these, just like the crane,are folded from a single uncut square.- What?- To figure out how to do thatwe need to learn a little\nbit about what makes a point.So, let's come back to the crane.You can probably tellthat the corners of the\nsquare ended up as points,right?\n- Yes.- That's a corner, four corners\nof the square, four points.How would you make one point\nout of this sheet of paper?- I'm thinking of, like, a paper airplane.- Yeah, exactly.Actually you've discovered\nsomething pretty neatbecause you made your\npoint not from a cornerso you've already discovered\none of the key insights.Any flap, any point, leg of the ant,takes up a circular region of paper.Here's our boundary.To make your point from an\nedge you use that much paperand the shape, it's almost a circle.If we take the cranewe'll see if the circles are\nvisible in the crane pattern.Here's the crane pattern, and\nhere's a boundary of the wing,and here's the other wing.\n- Okay.- The crane has four circlesbut, actually, there's a\nlittle bit of a surprisebecause what about this?There's a fifth circle,\nwhich is like that,but does the crane have\na fifth flap in it?Let's refold it and put the wings up.Well, yes, there is, there's another pointand that point is the\nfifth circle of our crane.- Okay.\n- And to do thatwe use a new technique\ncalled circle packingin which all of the long\nfeatures of the designare represented by circles.So, each leg becomes a circle,\neach wing becomes a circleand things that can be big and thick,like the head or the abdomen,\ncan be points in the middle.Now we have the basic idea\nof how to design the pattern,we just count the number of legs we want.We want a spider, if it's\ngot let's say eight legs,it's also got an abdomen,\nthat's another point,and it's got a head, so\nmaybe that's 10 points.If we find an arrangement of 10 circleswe should be able to fold\nthat into the spider.So in this book, Origami\nInsects II, it's one of my booksand has some patterns,\nand this is one of themfor a flying ladybug and, in fact,it is exactly this flying ladybug.We've got the crease\npattern here in the circlesand you might now be able to seewhich circles end up as which parts,knowing that the largest\nfeatures like the wingsare going to be the largest circles,smaller points will be smaller circles.So any thoughts which might be?- Well, the legs and the antennawould probably have to\nbe these smaller ones,in the middle.\n- Yeah, that's right.- [College Student] Oh,\nthis looks like the back'cause there's a bunch of\ncircles all the way down,like here.\n- Mm-hmm, exactly.And then the wings?- You've got four big wingswhich you could see on the ends thereand then, I guess, the head.- You've got it, so you are\nready to design origami.- Awesome.- Origami artists all around the worldnow use ideas like this to\ndesign, not just insects,but animals, and birds,\nand all sorts of thingsthat are, I think, unbelievably\ncomplex and realisticbut most importantly, beautiful.- Wow, that's so impressive.I think I learned how to make\none of these paper craneswhen I was in third grade but\nI guess I never unfolded itto actually see where it was coming from.And so now that it's all\nbroken up into circlesit makes these super\ncomplicated insects and animalsand everything seem so much\nsimpler, so that's so cool.I'm pretty excited about it.\n- That's so cool.- Thank you so much for\ntelling me about this.[upbeat music]"
],
[
"Level 4 - Grad Student",
"- Whenever there's a part of a spacecraftthat is shaped somewhat like paper,meaning it's big and flat,we can use folding mechanisms from origamito make it smaller.- Right.\n- Telescopes, solar arrays,they need to be packed\ninto a rocket, go up,but then expand in a very\ncontrolled, deterministic waywhen they get up into space.\n- Okay.- These are the building blocksof many, many origami deployable shapes,it's called a degree-4 vertex.It's the number of lines.So in this case, we use\nsolid lines for mountain,we use dash lines for valley.We're going to fold it and\nuse these two to illustratesome important properties\nof origami mechanisms.It's important in the study of mechanismsto take into account the rigidity.So what we're going to do\nto help simulate rigidityis to take these rectanglesand we're going to fold them over and overso that they just become stiff and rigid.- [Grad Student] Okay.- So this is what's calleda single degree of freedom mechanism.You have one degree of freedom,\nI can choose this fold,and then if these are perfectly rigidevery other fold angle\nis fully determined.One of the key behaviors hereis that with the smaller angles up here,the two folds that are the same parityand the folds that are of opposite paritymove at about the same ratebut with this, as we're\ngetting closer to 90 degrees,we find they move at very different ratesand then at the end of the\nmotion, the opposite happens.This one is almost foldedbut this one goes through\na much larger motion sothe relative speeds differ.\n- Right.- So when we start sticking\ntogether vertices like this,if they're individually\nsingle degree of freedomthen we can make very large\nmechanisms that open and closebut with just one degree of freedom.So, these are examples of a\npattern called the Miura-Ori.When you stretch them outthey're pretty big.\n- Okay.- And they fold flat and a\npattern almost exactly like thiswas used for a solar array\nfor a Japanese missionthat flew in 1995.- So then you like fly it up compactlyand then once you get up there,there's like some sort of\nlike motorized mechanism,but you only need it on one fold.- Yeah, so typically the mechanismwill run from corner to corner,to diagonally to opposite cornersbecause then you can\nstretch it out that way.Notice some differences\nbetween the one you haveand the one I havein how this one sort of\nopens out almost evenlybut this one opens out more\none way and then the other.- Yeah.What sort of angle would you wantso that they open up the same rate?- Infinitesimally small.\n- Okay.- So, sadly,the only way to get them\nat exactly the same rateis when these are microscopic sliversand then that's not useful.\n- For sure, right, right.- And it's exactly the differencebetween the motions of these two vertices.So these angles are closer to right anglesand the closer you get to a right anglethe more asymmetry there isbetween the two directions of motion.And then the other difference\nis how efficiently they pack,so these started at about the same sizebut when they're flatnotice that yours is much more compact.So if I were you making a solar array,I'd say, oh, I want that one.But if I say, well, I want\nthem to open at the same rate,then I want this one.- So, it's kind of a trade-off?- There's an engineering trade-off\nto get them both to work.And there's another placethat shows up in deployable structuresin a very cool structure.This is a folded tube, it\nsort of pops out like thisbut it has this neat property\nthat if you twist it quickly,it changes color.There's a Mars Rover applicationwhere they need a sleeve\nthat protects a drilland as the drill goes down,\nthe sleeve is going to collapseand they're using a pattern\nvery much like this.- Interesting.- There are many open\nmathematical questionsand so room for\nmathematicians, like yourself,to have a big impact on the\nworld of origami and mechanisms.And even though those studiesare mathematically interesting,they're going to also have\nreal-world applications in space,solar arrays, drills,\ntelescopes, and more.Any questions or thoughts about this?- If you want to send something to spaceit probably makes sense\nto do it compactly,so if you have something\nthat you can fold upand then unfold, just one of the folds,that's going to be\nprobably the easiest wayto get something up thereand expand it to what it needs to be.[upbeat music]"
],
[
"Level 5 - Expert",
"- I'm Tom Hull, I'm a math\nprofessor, a mathematician.I've been doing origami\nsince I was eight years oldand studying the mathematics of origamiever since grad school, at least.- The first thing I want to show youis origami in the real world.This is the origami lamp.It comes shipped flat but it\nfolds, clip holds it together.The lamp has LEDs on the insideso when we power it up we get\nlight, we have a lampshadeand we get the base.- Why does origami lend itselfto, say, this type of application?- Origami applications have in common,is that at some stage the thing is flatand so whenever you need to\neither start from a flat stateand then take it to a 3D state,or conversely, for deployables like space,you want to have it in a\nfully folded flat statebut then take it to a 3D state,or possibly an unfolded flat state.Whenever a flat state is involved,origami is a really effective wayof making the transition\nbetween those states.- Another aspect of origami\nand origami mechanismsthat has leant itself\nto many different usesis the fact that it's scalable.When you have an origami crease patternlike the Miura-Ori used\nin solar panel deployment,the type of motion that\nyou see happening herewill happen whether this\nis on a piece of paperthat's small like this,\nor on a larger scale,or even on a smaller, smaller,\nsmaller, smaller scale.Engineers, in particular\nrobotics engineers,are turning to origamitoward designing mechanisms\nthat will either be really bigor really, really small.This looks like the most promising wayof getting nano robotics to work.- This is another real-world applicationbut this particular implementationis used to make a wheel for a Rover.- Cool, so this is somethingthat can actually get really, really tinybut then get big and fat and roll.- New problems arisewhen we try to make origami\nout of things other than paper,but also new opportunities.An example herewhich is a kind of a\nvariant of the Miura-Ori.It's got a three-dimensional structure.If I stretch it one way,\nit expands the otherbut because it has these\nS-bends in the pattern,if you squeeze it, it\ndoesn't go all the way flat.This is a epoxy impregnated aramid fiberand so if I put this fold pattern into itand then compress itand then put a skin on the top and bottom,this becomes incredibly\nlightweight but incredibly strong.- Yeah!- Another origami challengethat comes up with these patternsis if we're going to make an\naircraft out of this thingwe're going to need hundreds\nof yards of folded origami.We're not going to do it by handand this might be the new\nfrontier in origami engineering,which is the design of machinesthat can fold patterns\nthat have applications.- So you're talking about a machinethat is actually folding it into this,not just making the creases\nbut actually folding it.- Yeah, so what goes in as sheetand what comes out is this,\nor something this wide.- That's cool, yeah.What do you see as kind of\nlike the next big breakthrough?Is there anything out there on the horizonthat you're just like, oh\nwow, this is really exciting?- It's something we've\ntalked about a little bitthat with all the richness of behaviorof origami from a flat sheet,it seems like there ought\nto be an equally rich worldof things that don't start flatbut are still made from\nflat sheets of paper.- So like a cone?\n- Bi-stable propertiesand you can combine them together\nwith copies of themselvesto make cellular structures.They're astonishingly stiff and\nrigid, useful for mechanics.- The thing that I think\nI'm the most excited aboutcomes from math mainly.When I look at origami,when I look at all these applicationsor just all these different\norigami folds, I see structure.Math is really about patterns.The patterns that we see in origamiare reflecting some kind\nof mathematical structureand we don't quite know yet\nwhat all of that structure isand if we can tie a mathematical structurethat's already well-studiedto something we see happening in origami,then we can use the math tools right awayto help solve the engineering problemsand the origami problems.And the fact that there's\nso many applications to thisis really making people excited\nwho are working in the area.I'm really excited to see\nwhat happens with thatin the next five years or so.[encouraging music]"
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Computer Scientist Explains Machine Learning in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
5q87K1WaoFI
| 1,568
|
[
{
"end_time": 30,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "Intro"
},
{
"end_time": 247,
"start_time": 30,
"title": "What is Machine Learning"
},
{
"end_time": 523,
"start_time": 247,
"title": "Level 1 Machine Learning"
},
{
"end_time": 891,
"start_time": 523,
"title": "Level 2 Machine Learning"
},
{
"end_time": 1104,
"start_time": 891,
"title": "Level 3 Machine Learning"
},
{
"end_time": 1568,
"start_time": 1104,
"title": "Level 4 Machine Learning"
}
] |
[
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Hilary Mason.\nI'm a computer scientist.",
"timestamp": [
0.24,
3.34
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Hilary Mason.\nI'm a computer scientist.",
"timestamp": [
0.24,
3.34
]
},
{
"text": "And today, I've been asked\nto explain machine learning",
"timestamp": [
3.34,
5.66
]
},
{
"text": "And today, I've been asked\nto explain machine learning",
"timestamp": [
3.34,
5.66
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
5.66,
8.63
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
5.66,
8.63
]
},
{
"text": "Machine learning gives us\nthe ability to learn things",
"timestamp": [
8.63,
11.69
]
},
{
"text": "Machine learning gives us\nthe ability to learn things",
"timestamp": [
8.63,
11.69
]
},
{
"text": "about the world from large amounts of data",
"timestamp": [
11.69,
14.55
]
},
{
"text": "about the world from large amounts of data",
"timestamp": [
11.69,
14.55
]
},
{
"text": "that we as human beings can't\npossibly study or appreciate.",
"timestamp": [
14.55,
18.42
]
},
{
"text": "that we as human beings can't\npossibly study or appreciate.",
"timestamp": [
14.55,
18.42
]
},
{
"text": "So machine learning is\nwhen we teach computers",
"timestamp": [
18.42,
21.07
]
},
{
"text": "So machine learning is\nwhen we teach computers",
"timestamp": [
18.42,
21.07
]
},
{
"text": "to learn patterns from\nlooking at examples in data,",
"timestamp": [
21.07,
24.32
]
},
{
"text": "to learn patterns from\nlooking at examples in data,",
"timestamp": [
21.07,
24.32
]
},
{
"text": "such that they can\nrecognize those patterns",
"timestamp": [
24.32,
26.74
]
},
{
"text": "such that they can\nrecognize those patterns",
"timestamp": [
24.32,
26.74
]
},
{
"text": "and apply them to new things\nthat they haven't seen before.",
"timestamp": [
26.74,
30.003
]
},
{
"text": "and apply them to new things\nthat they haven't seen before.",
"timestamp": [
26.74,
30.003
]
},
{
"text": "[playful music]",
"timestamp": [
30.003,
32.67
]
},
{
"text": "[playful music]",
"timestamp": [
30.003,
32.67
]
},
{
"text": "Hi.",
"timestamp": [
33.8,
34.633
]
},
{
"text": "Hi.",
"timestamp": [
33.8,
34.633
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi.",
"timestamp": [
34.633,
35.466
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi.",
"timestamp": [
34.633,
35.466
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Hilary, what's your name?",
"timestamp": [
35.466,
37.123
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Hilary, what's your name?",
"timestamp": [
35.466,
37.123
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Brynn.",
"timestamp": [
37.123,
37.956
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Brynn.",
"timestamp": [
37.123,
37.956
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you know what machine learning means?",
"timestamp": [
37.956,
40.42
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you know what machine learning means?",
"timestamp": [
37.956,
40.42
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard that before?",
"timestamp": [
40.42,
41.936
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard that before?",
"timestamp": [
40.42,
41.936
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
41.936,
42.769
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
41.936,
42.769
]
},
{
"text": "- So machine learning is a\nway that we teach computers",
"timestamp": [
42.769,
45.79
]
},
{
"text": "- So machine learning is a\nway that we teach computers",
"timestamp": [
42.769,
45.79
]
},
{
"text": "to learn things about the\nworld by looking at patterns",
"timestamp": [
45.79,
49.67
]
},
{
"text": "to learn things about the\nworld by looking at patterns",
"timestamp": [
45.79,
49.67
]
},
{
"text": "and looking at examples of things.",
"timestamp": [
49.67,
51.77
]
},
{
"text": "and looking at examples of things.",
"timestamp": [
49.67,
51.77
]
},
{
"text": "So can I show you an example",
"timestamp": [
51.77,
54.4
]
},
{
"text": "So can I show you an example",
"timestamp": [
51.77,
54.4
]
},
{
"text": "of how a machine might learn something?",
"timestamp": [
54.4,
56.82
]
},
{
"text": "of how a machine might learn something?",
"timestamp": [
54.4,
56.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Sure.",
"timestamp": [
56.82,
57.653
]
},
{
"text": "- Sure.",
"timestamp": [
56.82,
57.653
]
},
{
"text": "- [Hilary] So is this a dog or a cat?",
"timestamp": [
57.653,
59.15
]
},
{
"text": "- [Hilary] So is this a dog or a cat?",
"timestamp": [
57.653,
59.15
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a dog.",
"timestamp": [
59.15,
60.58
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a dog.",
"timestamp": [
59.15,
60.58
]
},
{
"text": "- And this one?",
"timestamp": [
60.58,
62.52
]
},
{
"text": "- And this one?",
"timestamp": [
60.58,
62.52
]
},
{
"text": "- A cat.",
"timestamp": [
62.52,
63.353
]
},
{
"text": "- A cat.",
"timestamp": [
62.52,
63.353
]
},
{
"text": "- And what makes a dog,\na dog and a cat, a cat?",
"timestamp": [
63.353,
67.103
]
},
{
"text": "- And what makes a dog,\na dog and a cat, a cat?",
"timestamp": [
63.353,
67.103
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, dogs are very playful,\nI think, more than cats.",
"timestamp": [
67.103,
72.103
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, dogs are very playful,\nI think, more than cats.",
"timestamp": [
67.103,
72.103
]
},
{
"text": "Cats lick themselves\nmore than dogs, I think.",
"timestamp": [
72.11,
75.028
]
},
{
"text": "Cats lick themselves\nmore than dogs, I think.",
"timestamp": [
72.11,
75.028
]
},
{
"text": "- That's true.",
"timestamp": [
75.028,
75.861
]
},
{
"text": "- That's true.",
"timestamp": [
75.028,
75.861
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think, if we\nlook at these pictures,",
"timestamp": [
75.861,
78.66
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think, if we\nlook at these pictures,",
"timestamp": [
75.861,
78.66
]
},
{
"text": "do you think maybe we could say,",
"timestamp": [
78.66,
80.457
]
},
{
"text": "do you think maybe we could say,",
"timestamp": [
78.66,
80.457
]
},
{
"text": "\"Well, they both have pointy ears,",
"timestamp": [
80.457,
82.61
]
},
{
"text": "\"Well, they both have pointy ears,",
"timestamp": [
80.457,
82.61
]
},
{
"text": "but the dogs have a different kind of body",
"timestamp": [
82.61,
85.22
]
},
{
"text": "but the dogs have a different kind of body",
"timestamp": [
82.61,
85.22
]
},
{
"text": "and the cats like to stand\nup a little different.\"?",
"timestamp": [
85.22,
87.93
]
},
{
"text": "and the cats like to stand\nup a little different.\"?",
"timestamp": [
85.22,
87.93
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think that makes sense?",
"timestamp": [
87.93,
89.46
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think that makes sense?",
"timestamp": [
87.93,
89.46
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
89.46,
90.293
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
89.46,
90.293
]
},
{
"text": "What about this one?",
"timestamp": [
90.293,
91.31
]
},
{
"text": "What about this one?",
"timestamp": [
90.293,
91.31
]
},
{
"text": "- A dog.",
"timestamp": [
91.31,
92.143
]
},
{
"text": "- A dog.",
"timestamp": [
91.31,
92.143
]
},
{
"text": "A cat.",
"timestamp": [
93.774,
94.607
]
},
{
"text": "A cat.",
"timestamp": [
93.774,
94.607
]
},
{
"text": "I think, a cat?",
"timestamp": [
95.671,
97.64
]
},
{
"text": "I think, a cat?",
"timestamp": [
95.671,
97.64
]
},
{
"text": "Because it's more skinny.",
"timestamp": [
97.64,
100.33
]
},
{
"text": "Because it's more skinny.",
"timestamp": [
97.64,
100.33
]
},
{
"text": "And also, its legs are like really tall",
"timestamp": [
100.33,
104.13
]
},
{
"text": "And also, its legs are like really tall",
"timestamp": [
100.33,
104.13
]
},
{
"text": "and its ears are a little pointy.",
"timestamp": [
104.13,
106.22
]
},
{
"text": "and its ears are a little pointy.",
"timestamp": [
104.13,
106.22
]
},
{
"text": "- This one's a jackal. And\nit's actually a kind of dog.",
"timestamp": [
106.22,
109.85
]
},
{
"text": "- This one's a jackal. And\nit's actually a kind of dog.",
"timestamp": [
106.22,
109.85
]
},
{
"text": "But you made a good guess.",
"timestamp": [
109.85,
111.47
]
},
{
"text": "But you made a good guess.",
"timestamp": [
109.85,
111.47
]
},
{
"text": "That's what machines do\ntoo. They make guesses.",
"timestamp": [
111.47,
114.15
]
},
{
"text": "That's what machines do\ntoo. They make guesses.",
"timestamp": [
111.47,
114.15
]
},
{
"text": "Is this a cat or a dog?",
"timestamp": [
114.15,
116.103
]
},
{
"text": "Is this a cat or a dog?",
"timestamp": [
114.15,
116.103
]
},
{
"text": "- [Brynn] None.",
"timestamp": [
116.103,
116.936
]
},
{
"text": "- [Brynn] None.",
"timestamp": [
116.103,
116.936
]
},
{
"text": "- [Hilary] None. What is it?",
"timestamp": [
116.936,
117.87
]
},
{
"text": "- [Hilary] None. What is it?",
"timestamp": [
116.936,
117.87
]
},
{
"text": "- It's humans.",
"timestamp": [
117.87,
118.98
]
},
{
"text": "- It's humans.",
"timestamp": [
117.87,
118.98
]
},
{
"text": "- And how did you know that\nit's not a cat or a dog?",
"timestamp": [
118.98,
121.54
]
},
{
"text": "- And how did you know that\nit's not a cat or a dog?",
"timestamp": [
118.98,
121.54
]
},
{
"text": "- Because cats and dogs...",
"timestamp": [
121.54,
123.563
]
},
{
"text": "- Because cats and dogs...",
"timestamp": [
121.54,
123.563
]
},
{
"text": "Because they walk on their paws",
"timestamp": [
123.563,
125.79
]
},
{
"text": "Because they walk on their paws",
"timestamp": [
123.563,
125.79
]
},
{
"text": "and their ears are like\nright here, not right here,",
"timestamp": [
125.79,
128.97
]
},
{
"text": "and their ears are like\nright here, not right here,",
"timestamp": [
125.79,
128.97
]
},
{
"text": "and they don't wear watches.",
"timestamp": [
128.97,
130.453
]
},
{
"text": "and they don't wear watches.",
"timestamp": [
128.97,
130.453
]
},
{
"text": "- And so, you did something\npretty amazing there.",
"timestamp": [
130.453,
133.27
]
},
{
"text": "- And so, you did something\npretty amazing there.",
"timestamp": [
130.453,
133.27
]
},
{
"text": "Because we asked the question,\n\"Is it a cat or a dog?\"",
"timestamp": [
133.27,
136.41
]
},
{
"text": "Because we asked the question,\n\"Is it a cat or a dog?\"",
"timestamp": [
133.27,
136.41
]
},
{
"text": "And you said, \"I disagree with\nyour question. It's a human.\"",
"timestamp": [
136.41,
139.78
]
},
{
"text": "And you said, \"I disagree with\nyour question. It's a human.\"",
"timestamp": [
136.41,
139.78
]
},
{
"text": "So machine learning is\nwhen we teach machines",
"timestamp": [
139.78,
142.72
]
},
{
"text": "So machine learning is\nwhen we teach machines",
"timestamp": [
139.78,
142.72
]
},
{
"text": "to make guesses about what things are",
"timestamp": [
142.72,
145.08
]
},
{
"text": "to make guesses about what things are",
"timestamp": [
142.72,
145.08
]
},
{
"text": "based on looking at a lot\nof different examples.",
"timestamp": [
145.08,
147.78
]
},
{
"text": "based on looking at a lot\nof different examples.",
"timestamp": [
145.08,
147.78
]
},
{
"text": "And I build products\nthat use machine learning",
"timestamp": [
147.78,
150.06
]
},
{
"text": "And I build products\nthat use machine learning",
"timestamp": [
147.78,
150.06
]
},
{
"text": "to learn about the world and make guesses",
"timestamp": [
150.06,
152.16
]
},
{
"text": "to learn about the world and make guesses",
"timestamp": [
150.06,
152.16
]
},
{
"text": "about things in the world.",
"timestamp": [
152.16,
153.68
]
},
{
"text": "about things in the world.",
"timestamp": [
152.16,
153.68
]
},
{
"text": "When we try to teach\nmachines to recognize things",
"timestamp": [
153.68,
156.58
]
},
{
"text": "When we try to teach\nmachines to recognize things",
"timestamp": [
153.68,
156.58
]
},
{
"text": "like cats and dogs, it\ntakes a lot of examples.",
"timestamp": [
156.58,
160.26
]
},
{
"text": "like cats and dogs, it\ntakes a lot of examples.",
"timestamp": [
156.58,
160.26
]
},
{
"text": "We have to show them tens of thousands",
"timestamp": [
160.26,
163.43
]
},
{
"text": "We have to show them tens of thousands",
"timestamp": [
160.26,
163.43
]
},
{
"text": "or even millions of examples",
"timestamp": [
163.43,
165.63
]
},
{
"text": "or even millions of examples",
"timestamp": [
163.43,
165.63
]
},
{
"text": "before they can get even close\nto as good at it as you are.",
"timestamp": [
165.63,
169.95
]
},
{
"text": "before they can get even close\nto as good at it as you are.",
"timestamp": [
165.63,
169.95
]
},
{
"text": "Do you have tests in school?",
"timestamp": [
169.95,
171.44
]
},
{
"text": "Do you have tests in school?",
"timestamp": [
169.95,
171.44
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I have.",
"timestamp": [
171.44,
172.89
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I have.",
"timestamp": [
171.44,
172.89
]
},
{
"text": "After every unit, we have a\nreview and then we have a test.",
"timestamp": [
172.89,
176.82
]
},
{
"text": "After every unit, we have a\nreview and then we have a test.",
"timestamp": [
172.89,
176.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Are those like the practice problems",
"timestamp": [
176.82,
178.364
]
},
{
"text": "- Are those like the practice problems",
"timestamp": [
176.82,
178.364
]
},
{
"text": "you do before the test?",
"timestamp": [
178.364,
179.89
]
},
{
"text": "you do before the test?",
"timestamp": [
178.364,
179.89
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, just like everything\nthat's gonna be on the test",
"timestamp": [
179.89,
182.67
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, just like everything\nthat's gonna be on the test",
"timestamp": [
179.89,
182.67
]
},
{
"text": "is on the review.",
"timestamp": [
182.67,
183.83
]
},
{
"text": "is on the review.",
"timestamp": [
182.67,
183.83
]
},
{
"text": "- Which means that in the test,",
"timestamp": [
183.83,
185.32
]
},
{
"text": "- Which means that in the test,",
"timestamp": [
183.83,
185.32
]
},
{
"text": "you're not seeing any problems",
"timestamp": [
185.32,
186.69
]
},
{
"text": "you're not seeing any problems",
"timestamp": [
185.32,
186.69
]
},
{
"text": "that you don't know how to solve.",
"timestamp": [
186.69,
188.44
]
},
{
"text": "that you don't know how to solve.",
"timestamp": [
186.69,
188.44
]
},
{
"text": "As long as you did all\nyour practice, right?",
"timestamp": [
188.44,
190.753
]
},
{
"text": "As long as you did all\nyour practice, right?",
"timestamp": [
188.44,
190.753
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
190.753,
191.586
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
190.753,
191.586
]
},
{
"text": "- So machines work the same way.",
"timestamp": [
191.586,
192.98
]
},
{
"text": "- So machines work the same way.",
"timestamp": [
191.586,
192.98
]
},
{
"text": "If you show them a lot of\nexamples and give them practice,",
"timestamp": [
192.98,
195.82
]
},
{
"text": "If you show them a lot of\nexamples and give them practice,",
"timestamp": [
192.98,
195.82
]
},
{
"text": "they'll learn how to guess.",
"timestamp": [
195.82,
197.93
]
},
{
"text": "they'll learn how to guess.",
"timestamp": [
195.82,
197.93
]
},
{
"text": "And then when you give them the test,",
"timestamp": [
197.93,
199.89
]
},
{
"text": "And then when you give them the test,",
"timestamp": [
197.93,
199.89
]
},
{
"text": "they should be able to do that.",
"timestamp": [
199.89,
201.86
]
},
{
"text": "they should be able to do that.",
"timestamp": [
199.89,
201.86
]
},
{
"text": "So we looked at eight pictures",
"timestamp": [
201.86,
204.28
]
},
{
"text": "So we looked at eight pictures",
"timestamp": [
201.86,
204.28
]
},
{
"text": "and you were able to\nanswer really quickly.",
"timestamp": [
204.28,
206.54
]
},
{
"text": "and you were able to\nanswer really quickly.",
"timestamp": [
204.28,
206.54
]
},
{
"text": "But what would you do if I\ngave you 10 million examples?",
"timestamp": [
206.54,
210.58
]
},
{
"text": "But what would you do if I\ngave you 10 million examples?",
"timestamp": [
206.54,
210.58
]
},
{
"text": "Would you be able to do that so quickly?",
"timestamp": [
210.58,
212.623
]
},
{
"text": "Would you be able to do that so quickly?",
"timestamp": [
210.58,
212.623
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
212.623,
213.456
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
212.623,
213.456
]
},
{
"text": "- So one of the differences\nbetween people and machines",
"timestamp": [
213.456,
216.54
]
},
{
"text": "- So one of the differences\nbetween people and machines",
"timestamp": [
213.456,
216.54
]
},
{
"text": "is that people might be\na little better at this,",
"timestamp": [
216.54,
220.12
]
},
{
"text": "is that people might be\na little better at this,",
"timestamp": [
216.54,
220.12
]
},
{
"text": "but can't look at 10\nmillion different things.",
"timestamp": [
220.12,
222.63
]
},
{
"text": "but can't look at 10\nmillion different things.",
"timestamp": [
220.12,
222.63
]
},
{
"text": "So now that we've been talking\nabout machine learning,",
"timestamp": [
222.63,
225.09
]
},
{
"text": "So now that we've been talking\nabout machine learning,",
"timestamp": [
222.63,
225.09
]
},
{
"text": "is this something you\nwant to learn how to do?",
"timestamp": [
225.09,
227.94
]
},
{
"text": "is this something you\nwant to learn how to do?",
"timestamp": [
225.09,
227.94
]
},
{
"text": "- Kind of.",
"timestamp": [
227.94,
228.86
]
},
{
"text": "- Kind of.",
"timestamp": [
227.94,
228.86
]
},
{
"text": "Because I kind of want to become a spy.",
"timestamp": [
228.86,
232.97
]
},
{
"text": "Because I kind of want to become a spy.",
"timestamp": [
228.86,
232.97
]
},
{
"text": "And we used to do coding,",
"timestamp": [
232.97,
236.99
]
},
{
"text": "And we used to do coding,",
"timestamp": [
232.97,
236.99
]
},
{
"text": "so I may be kind of good at it.",
"timestamp": [
236.99,
238.95
]
},
{
"text": "so I may be kind of good at it.",
"timestamp": [
236.99,
238.95
]
},
{
"text": "- And machine learning\nis a great way to use",
"timestamp": [
238.95,
241.54
]
},
{
"text": "- And machine learning\nis a great way to use",
"timestamp": [
238.95,
241.54
]
},
{
"text": "all those math skills,\nall those coding skills,",
"timestamp": [
241.54,
244.33
]
},
{
"text": "all those math skills,\nall those coding skills,",
"timestamp": [
241.54,
244.33
]
},
{
"text": "and would be a super cool tool for a spy.",
"timestamp": [
244.33,
247.625
]
},
{
"text": "and would be a super cool tool for a spy.",
"timestamp": [
244.33,
247.625
]
},
{
"text": "[quirky music]",
"timestamp": [
247.625,
250.86
]
},
{
"text": "[quirky music]",
"timestamp": [
247.625,
250.86
]
},
{
"text": "- Hello.",
"timestamp": [
250.86,
251.693
]
},
{
"text": "- Hello.",
"timestamp": [
250.86,
251.693
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi. Are you a student, Lucy?",
"timestamp": [
252.71,
254.33
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi. Are you a student, Lucy?",
"timestamp": [
252.71,
254.33
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, I just finished ninth grade.",
"timestamp": [
254.33,
256.71
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, I just finished ninth grade.",
"timestamp": [
254.33,
256.71
]
},
{
"text": "- Congratulations.",
"timestamp": [
256.71,
258.08
]
},
{
"text": "- Congratulations.",
"timestamp": [
256.71,
258.08
]
},
{
"text": "- Thank you. It's very exciting.",
"timestamp": [
258.08,
259.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Thank you. It's very exciting.",
"timestamp": [
258.08,
259.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you ever heard of\nmachine learning before?",
"timestamp": [
259.81,
262.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you ever heard of\nmachine learning before?",
"timestamp": [
259.81,
262.09
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm going to assume that\nit means humans being able",
"timestamp": [
262.09,
265.87
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm going to assume that\nit means humans being able",
"timestamp": [
262.09,
265.87
]
},
{
"text": "to teach machines or robots\nhow to learn themselves?",
"timestamp": [
265.87,
270.87
]
},
{
"text": "to teach machines or robots\nhow to learn themselves?",
"timestamp": [
265.87,
270.87
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
270.92,
271.753
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
270.92,
271.753
]
},
{
"text": "When we teach machines to learn from data,",
"timestamp": [
271.753,
276.2
]
},
{
"text": "When we teach machines to learn from data,",
"timestamp": [
271.753,
276.2
]
},
{
"text": "to build a model from that data\nor a representation of that,",
"timestamp": [
276.2,
280.04
]
},
{
"text": "to build a model from that data\nor a representation of that,",
"timestamp": [
276.2,
280.04
]
},
{
"text": "and then to make a prediction.",
"timestamp": [
280.04,
281.71
]
},
{
"text": "and then to make a prediction.",
"timestamp": [
280.04,
281.71
]
},
{
"text": "One of the places we often\nfind machine learning",
"timestamp": [
281.71,
284.28
]
},
{
"text": "One of the places we often\nfind machine learning",
"timestamp": [
281.71,
284.28
]
},
{
"text": "in the real world is in things\nlike recommendation systems.",
"timestamp": [
284.28,
288.12
]
},
{
"text": "in the real world is in things\nlike recommendation systems.",
"timestamp": [
284.28,
288.12
]
},
{
"text": "So do you have an artist\nthat you really like?",
"timestamp": [
288.12,
290.19
]
},
{
"text": "So do you have an artist\nthat you really like?",
"timestamp": [
288.12,
290.19
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, Melanie Martinez.",
"timestamp": [
290.19,
291.85
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, Melanie Martinez.",
"timestamp": [
290.19,
291.85
]
},
{
"text": "- So I'm gonna look up Melanie Martinez.",
"timestamp": [
291.85,
294.16
]
},
{
"text": "- So I'm gonna look up Melanie Martinez.",
"timestamp": [
291.85,
294.16
]
},
{
"text": "And it says here, \"If you\nlike Melanie Martinez,",
"timestamp": [
294.16,
297.61
]
},
{
"text": "And it says here, \"If you\nlike Melanie Martinez,",
"timestamp": [
294.16,
297.61
]
},
{
"text": "one of the other songs you\nmight like is by Au/Ra.\"",
"timestamp": [
297.61,
300.56
]
},
{
"text": "one of the other songs you\nmight like is by Au/Ra.\"",
"timestamp": [
297.61,
300.56
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know who that is?",
"timestamp": [
300.56,
301.64
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know who that is?",
"timestamp": [
300.56,
301.64
]
},
{
"text": "- I do not.",
"timestamp": [
301.64,
302.65
]
},
{
"text": "- I do not.",
"timestamp": [
301.64,
302.65
]
},
{
"text": "So let's listen to a hint of this song.",
"timestamp": [
302.65,
305.14
]
},
{
"text": "So let's listen to a hint of this song.",
"timestamp": [
302.65,
305.14
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
305.14,
305.973
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
305.14,
305.973
]
},
{
"text": "[alternative pop music]",
"timestamp": [
311.224,
314.557
]
},
{
"text": "[alternative pop music]",
"timestamp": [
311.224,
314.557
]
},
{
"text": "- All right.",
"timestamp": [
316.03,
316.92
]
},
{
"text": "- All right.",
"timestamp": [
316.03,
316.92
]
},
{
"text": "So why do you think Spotify\nmight've recommended that song?",
"timestamp": [
316.92,
320.05
]
},
{
"text": "So why do you think Spotify\nmight've recommended that song?",
"timestamp": [
316.92,
320.05
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I know that in\nMelanie Martinez's music,",
"timestamp": [
320.05,
322.47
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I know that in\nMelanie Martinez's music,",
"timestamp": [
320.05,
322.47
]
},
{
"text": "she used a lot of the filtered voice",
"timestamp": [
322.47,
324.56
]
},
{
"text": "she used a lot of the filtered voice",
"timestamp": [
322.47,
324.56
]
},
{
"text": "to make it sound very deep and low",
"timestamp": [
324.56,
327
]
},
{
"text": "to make it sound very deep and low",
"timestamp": [
324.56,
327
]
},
{
"text": "and that song had that.",
"timestamp": [
327,
328.53
]
},
{
"text": "and that song had that.",
"timestamp": [
327,
328.53
]
},
{
"text": "- And that's actually a\nreally interesting thing",
"timestamp": [
328.53,
330.48
]
},
{
"text": "- And that's actually a\nreally interesting thing",
"timestamp": [
328.53,
330.48
]
},
{
"text": "to think about because that creepy vibe",
"timestamp": [
330.48,
333.33
]
},
{
"text": "to think about because that creepy vibe",
"timestamp": [
330.48,
333.33
]
},
{
"text": "is something that you can\nperceive and I can perceive,",
"timestamp": [
333.33,
336.91
]
},
{
"text": "is something that you can\nperceive and I can perceive,",
"timestamp": [
333.33,
336.91
]
},
{
"text": "but it's actually really hard\nto describe to a machine.",
"timestamp": [
336.91,
339.68
]
},
{
"text": "but it's actually really hard\nto describe to a machine.",
"timestamp": [
336.91,
339.68
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think might go into that?",
"timestamp": [
339.68,
341.63
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think might go into that?",
"timestamp": [
339.68,
341.63
]
},
{
"text": "- Pitch of the music.",
"timestamp": [
341.63,
342.62
]
},
{
"text": "- Pitch of the music.",
"timestamp": [
341.63,
342.62
]
},
{
"text": "If it's really low or if it's super high,",
"timestamp": [
342.62,
345.673
]
},
{
"text": "If it's really low or if it's super high,",
"timestamp": [
342.62,
345.673
]
},
{
"text": "it could know that.",
"timestamp": [
345.673,
346.903
]
},
{
"text": "it could know that.",
"timestamp": [
345.673,
346.903
]
},
{
"text": "What can the machine understand?",
"timestamp": [
346.903,
349.36
]
},
{
"text": "What can the machine understand?",
"timestamp": [
346.903,
349.36
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a great question.",
"timestamp": [
349.36,
350.3
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a great question.",
"timestamp": [
349.36,
350.3
]
},
{
"text": "The machine can understand",
"timestamp": [
350.3,
351.87
]
},
{
"text": "The machine can understand",
"timestamp": [
350.3,
351.87
]
},
{
"text": "whatever we tell it to understand.",
"timestamp": [
351.87,
354.04
]
},
{
"text": "whatever we tell it to understand.",
"timestamp": [
351.87,
354.04
]
},
{
"text": "So there might be a person\nthinking about things,",
"timestamp": [
354.04,
356.85
]
},
{
"text": "So there might be a person\nthinking about things,",
"timestamp": [
354.04,
356.85
]
},
{
"text": "like the pitch or the pacing or the tone,",
"timestamp": [
356.85,
359.93
]
},
{
"text": "like the pitch or the pacing or the tone,",
"timestamp": [
356.85,
359.93
]
},
{
"text": "or sometimes machines can figure out",
"timestamp": [
359.93,
362.16
]
},
{
"text": "or sometimes machines can figure out",
"timestamp": [
359.93,
362.16
]
},
{
"text": "things about music or images or videos",
"timestamp": [
362.16,
366.01
]
},
{
"text": "things about music or images or videos",
"timestamp": [
362.16,
366.01
]
},
{
"text": "that we don't tell it to discover,",
"timestamp": [
366.01,
369.15
]
},
{
"text": "that we don't tell it to discover,",
"timestamp": [
366.01,
369.15
]
},
{
"text": "but that it can learn",
"timestamp": [
369.15,
370.61
]
},
{
"text": "but that it can learn",
"timestamp": [
369.15,
370.61
]
},
{
"text": "from looking at a lot\nof different examples.",
"timestamp": [
370.61,
373.28
]
},
{
"text": "from looking at a lot\nof different examples.",
"timestamp": [
370.61,
373.28
]
},
{
"text": "Why do you think companies\nmight use machine learning?",
"timestamp": [
373.28,
375.97
]
},
{
"text": "Why do you think companies\nmight use machine learning?",
"timestamp": [
373.28,
375.97
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I think things\nlike Facebook or Instagram,",
"timestamp": [
375.97,
379.49
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I think things\nlike Facebook or Instagram,",
"timestamp": [
375.97,
379.49
]
},
{
"text": "they probably use it to target ads.",
"timestamp": [
379.49,
382.12
]
},
{
"text": "they probably use it to target ads.",
"timestamp": [
379.49,
382.12
]
},
{
"text": "- Sometimes, the ads you\nsee are really uncanny.",
"timestamp": [
382.12,
385.16
]
},
{
"text": "- Sometimes, the ads you\nsee are really uncanny.",
"timestamp": [
382.12,
385.16
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that's because\nthey're based on so much data.",
"timestamp": [
385.16,
389.23
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that's because\nthey're based on so much data.",
"timestamp": [
385.16,
389.23
]
},
{
"text": "They know where you live. They\nknow where your device is.",
"timestamp": [
389.23,
392.83
]
},
{
"text": "They know where you live. They\nknow where your device is.",
"timestamp": [
389.23,
392.83
]
},
{
"text": "It's also important to realize\nthat people in aggregate",
"timestamp": [
392.83,
396.13
]
},
{
"text": "It's also important to realize\nthat people in aggregate",
"timestamp": [
392.83,
396.13
]
},
{
"text": "are actually pretty predictable.",
"timestamp": [
396.13,
397.99
]
},
{
"text": "are actually pretty predictable.",
"timestamp": [
396.13,
397.99
]
},
{
"text": "Like when we talk to each other,",
"timestamp": [
397.99,
399.29
]
},
{
"text": "Like when we talk to each other,",
"timestamp": [
397.99,
399.29
]
},
{
"text": "we like to talk about the novel things,",
"timestamp": [
399.29,
401.61
]
},
{
"text": "we like to talk about the novel things,",
"timestamp": [
399.29,
401.61
]
},
{
"text": "like here, we're having this conversation.",
"timestamp": [
401.61,
403.33
]
},
{
"text": "like here, we're having this conversation.",
"timestamp": [
401.61,
403.33
]
},
{
"text": "We don't do this every day.",
"timestamp": [
403.33,
404.74
]
},
{
"text": "We don't do this every day.",
"timestamp": [
403.33,
404.74
]
},
{
"text": "But we probably still eat breakfast.",
"timestamp": [
404.74,
406.89
]
},
{
"text": "But we probably still eat breakfast.",
"timestamp": [
404.74,
406.89
]
},
{
"text": "We're gonna eat lunch.\nWe're gonna eat dinner.",
"timestamp": [
406.89,
408.54
]
},
{
"text": "We're gonna eat lunch.\nWe're gonna eat dinner.",
"timestamp": [
406.89,
408.54
]
},
{
"text": "You probably are going to the same home",
"timestamp": [
408.54,
410.42
]
},
{
"text": "You probably are going to the same home",
"timestamp": [
408.54,
410.42
]
},
{
"text": "you go to most of the time.",
"timestamp": [
410.42,
412.11
]
},
{
"text": "you go to most of the time.",
"timestamp": [
410.42,
412.11
]
},
{
"text": "And so, they're able to take that data",
"timestamp": [
412.11,
414.56
]
},
{
"text": "And so, they're able to take that data",
"timestamp": [
412.11,
414.56
]
},
{
"text": "that we already give them and\nmake predictions based on that",
"timestamp": [
414.56,
417.93
]
},
{
"text": "that we already give them and\nmake predictions based on that",
"timestamp": [
414.56,
417.93
]
},
{
"text": "as to what ads they should show us.",
"timestamp": [
417.93,
420.54
]
},
{
"text": "as to what ads they should show us.",
"timestamp": [
417.93,
420.54
]
},
{
"text": "- So, you're saying I give\nthem enough data as it is",
"timestamp": [
420.54,
424.92
]
},
{
"text": "- So, you're saying I give\nthem enough data as it is",
"timestamp": [
420.54,
424.92
]
},
{
"text": "about what I might be talking\nabout or thinking about",
"timestamp": [
424.92,
427.76
]
},
{
"text": "about what I might be talking\nabout or thinking about",
"timestamp": [
424.92,
427.76
]
},
{
"text": "that they can read my mind,",
"timestamp": [
427.76,
430.474
]
},
{
"text": "that they can read my mind,",
"timestamp": [
427.76,
430.474
]
},
{
"text": "[Hilary laughs]",
"timestamp": [
430.474,
431.307
]
},
{
"text": "[Hilary laughs]",
"timestamp": [
430.474,
431.307
]
},
{
"text": "but just use the data that\nI've already given them.",
"timestamp": [
431.307,
433.58
]
},
{
"text": "but just use the data that\nI've already given them.",
"timestamp": [
431.307,
433.58
]
},
{
"text": "And it almost seems like",
"timestamp": [
433.58,
436.013
]
},
{
"text": "And it almost seems like",
"timestamp": [
433.58,
436.013
]
},
{
"text": "they're watching us.\n- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
436.013,
437.34
]
},
{
"text": "they're watching us.\n- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
436.013,
437.34
]
},
{
"text": "To do machine learning, we use\nsomething called algorithms.",
"timestamp": [
437.34,
440.29
]
},
{
"text": "To do machine learning, we use\nsomething called algorithms.",
"timestamp": [
437.34,
440.29
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard of algorithms before?",
"timestamp": [
440.29,
442.26
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard of algorithms before?",
"timestamp": [
440.29,
442.26
]
},
{
"text": "- A set of steps or a process",
"timestamp": [
442.26,
445.6
]
},
{
"text": "- A set of steps or a process",
"timestamp": [
442.26,
445.6
]
},
{
"text": "carried out to complete something?",
"timestamp": [
445.6,
447.453
]
},
{
"text": "carried out to complete something?",
"timestamp": [
445.6,
447.453
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
447.453,
448.286
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
447.453,
448.286
]
},
{
"text": "- So do you think that we've been able",
"timestamp": [
448.286,
450.07
]
},
{
"text": "- So do you think that we've been able",
"timestamp": [
448.286,
450.07
]
},
{
"text": "to teach machines enough",
"timestamp": [
450.07,
451.3
]
},
{
"text": "to teach machines enough",
"timestamp": [
450.07,
451.3
]
},
{
"text": "so that they can do things\nthat even we can't do?",
"timestamp": [
451.3,
454.66
]
},
{
"text": "so that they can do things\nthat even we can't do?",
"timestamp": [
451.3,
454.66
]
},
{
"text": "And on the opposite side of that,",
"timestamp": [
454.66,
456.407
]
},
{
"text": "And on the opposite side of that,",
"timestamp": [
454.66,
456.407
]
},
{
"text": "do you think there are\nthings that we can do",
"timestamp": [
456.407,
458.367
]
},
{
"text": "do you think there are\nthings that we can do",
"timestamp": [
456.407,
458.367
]
},
{
"text": "that a machine might never be able to do?",
"timestamp": [
458.367,
461.36
]
},
{
"text": "that a machine might never be able to do?",
"timestamp": [
458.367,
461.36
]
},
{
"text": "- So there are things that\nmachines are really great at",
"timestamp": [
461.36,
464.35
]
},
{
"text": "- So there are things that\nmachines are really great at",
"timestamp": [
461.36,
464.35
]
},
{
"text": "that humans are actually not great at.",
"timestamp": [
464.35,
466.41
]
},
{
"text": "that humans are actually not great at.",
"timestamp": [
464.35,
466.41
]
},
{
"text": "And imagine watching every video\nposted to TikTok every day.",
"timestamp": [
466.41,
470.58
]
},
{
"text": "And imagine watching every video\nposted to TikTok every day.",
"timestamp": [
466.41,
470.58
]
},
{
"text": "So we just don't have\nenough time to do that",
"timestamp": [
470.58,
473.57
]
},
{
"text": "So we just don't have\nenough time to do that",
"timestamp": [
470.58,
473.57
]
},
{
"text": "at the rate at which we can\nactually watch those videos.",
"timestamp": [
473.57,
477.08
]
},
{
"text": "at the rate at which we can\nactually watch those videos.",
"timestamp": [
473.57,
477.08
]
},
{
"text": "But a machine can analyze all of them",
"timestamp": [
477.08,
479.43
]
},
{
"text": "But a machine can analyze all of them",
"timestamp": [
477.08,
479.43
]
},
{
"text": "and then make recommendations to us.",
"timestamp": [
479.43,
481.63
]
},
{
"text": "and then make recommendations to us.",
"timestamp": [
479.43,
481.63
]
},
{
"text": "And then thinking about things\nthat machines are bad at",
"timestamp": [
481.63,
485.48
]
},
{
"text": "And then thinking about things\nthat machines are bad at",
"timestamp": [
481.63,
485.48
]
},
{
"text": "and people are good at,\npeople are really great",
"timestamp": [
485.48,
488.2
]
},
{
"text": "and people are good at,\npeople are really great",
"timestamp": [
485.48,
488.2
]
},
{
"text": "with only one or two examples\nof learning something new",
"timestamp": [
488.2,
491.94
]
},
{
"text": "with only one or two examples\nof learning something new",
"timestamp": [
488.2,
491.94
]
},
{
"text": "and incorporating that\ninto our model of the world",
"timestamp": [
491.94,
494.55
]
},
{
"text": "and incorporating that\ninto our model of the world",
"timestamp": [
491.94,
494.55
]
},
{
"text": "to make good decisions.",
"timestamp": [
494.55,
496.13
]
},
{
"text": "to make good decisions.",
"timestamp": [
494.55,
496.13
]
},
{
"text": "Whereas machines often need\ntens of thousands of examples,",
"timestamp": [
496.13,
499.49
]
},
{
"text": "Whereas machines often need\ntens of thousands of examples,",
"timestamp": [
496.13,
499.49
]
},
{
"text": "and that's not even getting\ninto things like good judgment",
"timestamp": [
499.49,
503.28
]
},
{
"text": "and that's not even getting\ninto things like good judgment",
"timestamp": [
499.49,
503.28
]
},
{
"text": "because we care about people,",
"timestamp": [
503.28,
505.01
]
},
{
"text": "because we care about people,",
"timestamp": [
503.28,
505.01
]
},
{
"text": "because we can imagine a\nfuture that we want to live in",
"timestamp": [
505.01,
509.21
]
},
{
"text": "because we can imagine a\nfuture that we want to live in",
"timestamp": [
505.01,
509.21
]
},
{
"text": "that doesn't exist today.",
"timestamp": [
509.21,
511.08
]
},
{
"text": "that doesn't exist today.",
"timestamp": [
509.21,
511.08
]
},
{
"text": "And that's something that\nis still uniquely human.",
"timestamp": [
511.08,
513.46
]
},
{
"text": "And that's something that\nis still uniquely human.",
"timestamp": [
511.08,
513.46
]
},
{
"text": "Machines are great at predicting",
"timestamp": [
513.46,
515
]
},
{
"text": "Machines are great at predicting",
"timestamp": [
513.46,
515
]
},
{
"text": "based on what they've seen in the past,",
"timestamp": [
515,
516.98
]
},
{
"text": "based on what they've seen in the past,",
"timestamp": [
515,
516.98
]
},
{
"text": "but they're not creative.",
"timestamp": [
516.98,
518.08
]
},
{
"text": "but they're not creative.",
"timestamp": [
516.98,
518.08
]
},
{
"text": "They're not going to invent.",
"timestamp": [
518.08,
519.5
]
},
{
"text": "They're not going to invent.",
"timestamp": [
518.08,
519.5
]
},
{
"text": "They're not gonna, you know,",
"timestamp": [
519.5,
520.79
]
},
{
"text": "They're not gonna, you know,",
"timestamp": [
519.5,
520.79
]
},
{
"text": "really change where we're gonna go.",
"timestamp": [
520.79,
522.53
]
},
{
"text": "really change where we're gonna go.",
"timestamp": [
520.79,
522.53
]
},
{
"text": "That's up to us.",
"timestamp": [
522.53,
523.842
]
},
{
"text": "That's up to us.",
"timestamp": [
522.53,
523.842
]
},
{
"text": "[serene music]",
"timestamp": [
523.842,
526.425
]
},
{
"text": "[serene music]",
"timestamp": [
523.842,
526.425
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Sunny.",
"timestamp": [
529.88,
531.05
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Sunny.",
"timestamp": [
529.88,
531.05
]
},
{
"text": "- [Hilary] And what are you majoring in?",
"timestamp": [
531.05,
532.6
]
},
{
"text": "- [Hilary] And what are you majoring in?",
"timestamp": [
531.05,
532.6
]
},
{
"text": "- I study Math and Computer Science.",
"timestamp": [
532.6,
534.51
]
},
{
"text": "- I study Math and Computer Science.",
"timestamp": [
532.6,
534.51
]
},
{
"text": "- So in your studies,",
"timestamp": [
534.51,
535.98
]
},
{
"text": "- So in your studies,",
"timestamp": [
534.51,
535.98
]
},
{
"text": "have you learned about machine learning?",
"timestamp": [
535.98,
538.83
]
},
{
"text": "have you learned about machine learning?",
"timestamp": [
535.98,
538.83
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I have.",
"timestamp": [
538.83,
539.778
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I have.",
"timestamp": [
538.83,
539.778
]
},
{
"text": "So to me, machine learning is essentially",
"timestamp": [
539.778,
544.778
]
},
{
"text": "So to me, machine learning is essentially",
"timestamp": [
539.778,
544.778
]
},
{
"text": "exactly what it sounds like.",
"timestamp": [
544.85,
546.19
]
},
{
"text": "exactly what it sounds like.",
"timestamp": [
544.85,
546.19
]
},
{
"text": "It's trying to teach a machine\nspecifics about something",
"timestamp": [
546.19,
551.19
]
},
{
"text": "It's trying to teach a machine\nspecifics about something",
"timestamp": [
546.19,
551.19
]
},
{
"text": "by inputting a lot of data points",
"timestamp": [
551.6,
554.15
]
},
{
"text": "by inputting a lot of data points",
"timestamp": [
551.6,
554.15
]
},
{
"text": "and slowly, the machine\nwill build up knowledge",
"timestamp": [
554.15,
558.93
]
},
{
"text": "and slowly, the machine\nwill build up knowledge",
"timestamp": [
554.15,
558.93
]
},
{
"text": "about it over time.",
"timestamp": [
558.93,
560.09
]
},
{
"text": "about it over time.",
"timestamp": [
558.93,
560.09
]
},
{
"text": "For example, my Gmail program,",
"timestamp": [
560.09,
562.2
]
},
{
"text": "For example, my Gmail program,",
"timestamp": [
560.09,
562.2
]
},
{
"text": "I assume that there\nwould be a lot of, like,",
"timestamp": [
562.2,
563.89
]
},
{
"text": "I assume that there\nwould be a lot of, like,",
"timestamp": [
562.2,
563.89
]
},
{
"text": "machine learning models\nhappening at once, right?",
"timestamp": [
563.89,
566.75
]
},
{
"text": "machine learning models\nhappening at once, right?",
"timestamp": [
563.89,
566.75
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
566.75,
567.6
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
566.75,
567.6
]
},
{
"text": "And that's a great example\nbecause you have models",
"timestamp": [
567.6,
570.06
]
},
{
"text": "And that's a great example\nbecause you have models",
"timestamp": [
567.6,
570.06
]
},
{
"text": "that are operating to do\nthings like figure out",
"timestamp": [
570.06,
572.56
]
},
{
"text": "that are operating to do\nthings like figure out",
"timestamp": [
570.06,
572.56
]
},
{
"text": "if a new email is spam or not.",
"timestamp": [
572.56,
574.37
]
},
{
"text": "if a new email is spam or not.",
"timestamp": [
572.56,
574.37
]
},
{
"text": "So what would you think",
"timestamp": [
574.37,
575.87
]
},
{
"text": "So what would you think",
"timestamp": [
574.37,
575.87
]
},
{
"text": "about if you were looking at an email",
"timestamp": [
575.87,
578.11
]
},
{
"text": "about if you were looking at an email",
"timestamp": [
575.87,
578.11
]
},
{
"text": "and trying to decide if it went\nin one category or another?",
"timestamp": [
578.11,
581.68
]
},
{
"text": "and trying to decide if it went\nin one category or another?",
"timestamp": [
578.11,
581.68
]
},
{
"text": "- I'd probably look at certain keywords.",
"timestamp": [
581.68,
583.81
]
},
{
"text": "- I'd probably look at certain keywords.",
"timestamp": [
581.68,
583.81
]
},
{
"text": "Maybe if the recipient and the sender",
"timestamp": [
583.81,
586.55
]
},
{
"text": "Maybe if the recipient and the sender",
"timestamp": [
583.81,
586.55
]
},
{
"text": "had exchanged emails before",
"timestamp": [
586.55,
588.49
]
},
{
"text": "had exchanged emails before",
"timestamp": [
586.55,
588.49
]
},
{
"text": "and generally, those\nfell into in the past.",
"timestamp": [
588.49,
592.32
]
},
{
"text": "and generally, those\nfell into in the past.",
"timestamp": [
588.49,
592.32
]
},
{
"text": "- So these are things\nwe would call features.",
"timestamp": [
592.32,
594.37
]
},
{
"text": "- So these are things\nwe would call features.",
"timestamp": [
592.32,
594.37
]
},
{
"text": "And we go through a process\nwhere we do feature engineering,",
"timestamp": [
594.37,
597.7
]
},
{
"text": "And we go through a process\nwhere we do feature engineering,",
"timestamp": [
594.37,
597.7
]
},
{
"text": "where somebody looks at\nthe example and says,",
"timestamp": [
597.7,
599.957
]
},
{
"text": "where somebody looks at\nthe example and says,",
"timestamp": [
597.7,
599.957
]
},
{
"text": "\"Okay, these are the things\nthat I think might allow us",
"timestamp": [
599.957,
602.95
]
},
{
"text": "\"Okay, these are the things\nthat I think might allow us",
"timestamp": [
599.957,
602.95
]
},
{
"text": "to statistically tell the difference",
"timestamp": [
602.95,
605.22
]
},
{
"text": "to statistically tell the difference",
"timestamp": [
602.95,
605.22
]
},
{
"text": "from something in one\ncategory versus another.",
"timestamp": [
605.22,
607.83
]
},
{
"text": "from something in one\ncategory versus another.",
"timestamp": [
605.22,
607.83
]
},
{
"text": "So for example, perhaps\nyou don't speak Russian,",
"timestamp": [
607.83,
610.38
]
},
{
"text": "So for example, perhaps\nyou don't speak Russian,",
"timestamp": [
607.83,
610.38
]
},
{
"text": "you start getting a lot\nof email in Russian.",
"timestamp": [
610.38,
612.52
]
},
{
"text": "you start getting a lot\nof email in Russian.",
"timestamp": [
610.38,
612.52
]
},
{
"text": "- Obviously, like the features\nthat you just described",
"timestamp": [
612.52,
614.76
]
},
{
"text": "- Obviously, like the features\nthat you just described",
"timestamp": [
612.52,
614.76
]
},
{
"text": "are features which a person\nwould have had to think about.",
"timestamp": [
614.76,
618.21
]
},
{
"text": "are features which a person\nwould have had to think about.",
"timestamp": [
614.76,
618.21
]
},
{
"text": "Are there features",
"timestamp": [
618.21,
619.043
]
},
{
"text": "Are there features",
"timestamp": [
618.21,
619.043
]
},
{
"text": "which, like, the machine\nitself could learn?",
"timestamp": [
619.043,
621.83
]
},
{
"text": "which, like, the machine\nitself could learn?",
"timestamp": [
619.043,
621.83
]
},
{
"text": "- This is a great question",
"timestamp": [
621.83,
623.57
]
},
{
"text": "- This is a great question",
"timestamp": [
621.83,
623.57
]
},
{
"text": "because it really gets to the difference",
"timestamp": [
623.57,
626.21
]
},
{
"text": "because it really gets to the difference",
"timestamp": [
623.57,
626.21
]
},
{
"text": "between some of our different tools",
"timestamp": [
626.21,
628.84
]
},
{
"text": "between some of our different tools",
"timestamp": [
626.21,
628.84
]
},
{
"text": "in our machine learning tool belt",
"timestamp": [
628.84,
630.42
]
},
{
"text": "in our machine learning tool belt",
"timestamp": [
628.84,
630.42
]
},
{
"text": "in addressing problems like this.",
"timestamp": [
630.42,
632.52
]
},
{
"text": "in addressing problems like this.",
"timestamp": [
630.42,
632.52
]
},
{
"text": "So if we were to use a\nsupervised learning classic",
"timestamp": [
632.52,
637.17
]
},
{
"text": "So if we were to use a\nsupervised learning classic",
"timestamp": [
632.52,
637.17
]
},
{
"text": "classification approach,",
"timestamp": [
637.17,
638.8
]
},
{
"text": "classification approach,",
"timestamp": [
637.17,
638.8
]
},
{
"text": "a person would need to\nthink about those features",
"timestamp": [
638.8,
641.65
]
},
{
"text": "a person would need to\nthink about those features",
"timestamp": [
638.8,
641.65
]
},
{
"text": "and creatively come up with them",
"timestamp": [
641.65,
643.93
]
},
{
"text": "and creatively come up with them",
"timestamp": [
641.65,
643.93
]
},
{
"text": "in approach we call the\nkitchen sink approach,",
"timestamp": [
643.93,
646.03
]
},
{
"text": "in approach we call the\nkitchen sink approach,",
"timestamp": [
643.93,
646.03
]
},
{
"text": "which is just try everything\nyou can possibly think of",
"timestamp": [
646.03,
648.45
]
},
{
"text": "which is just try everything\nyou can possibly think of",
"timestamp": [
646.03,
648.45
]
},
{
"text": "and see what works.",
"timestamp": [
648.45,
649.56
]
},
{
"text": "and see what works.",
"timestamp": [
648.45,
649.56
]
},
{
"text": "Unsupervised learning, where\nwe don't have labeled data",
"timestamp": [
649.56,
653.04
]
},
{
"text": "Unsupervised learning, where\nwe don't have labeled data",
"timestamp": [
649.56,
653.04
]
},
{
"text": "and we're trying to infer\nsome structure out of the data",
"timestamp": [
653.04,
657.29
]
},
{
"text": "and we're trying to infer\nsome structure out of the data",
"timestamp": [
653.04,
657.29
]
},
{
"text": "is you're projecting\nthat data into a space",
"timestamp": [
657.29,
659.84
]
},
{
"text": "is you're projecting\nthat data into a space",
"timestamp": [
657.29,
659.84
]
},
{
"text": "and looking for things like clusters.",
"timestamp": [
659.84,
662.12
]
},
{
"text": "and looking for things like clusters.",
"timestamp": [
659.84,
662.12
]
},
{
"text": "And there's a bunch of really fun math",
"timestamp": [
662.12,
663.8
]
},
{
"text": "And there's a bunch of really fun math",
"timestamp": [
662.12,
663.8
]
},
{
"text": "about how you do that, how\nyou think about distance",
"timestamp": [
663.8,
667.06
]
},
{
"text": "about how you do that, how\nyou think about distance",
"timestamp": [
663.8,
667.06
]
},
{
"text": "and by distance, I mean that\nif we have two data points",
"timestamp": [
667.06,
671.29
]
},
{
"text": "and by distance, I mean that\nif we have two data points",
"timestamp": [
667.06,
671.29
]
},
{
"text": "in space, how do we decide\nif they're similar or not?",
"timestamp": [
671.29,
674.67
]
},
{
"text": "in space, how do we decide\nif they're similar or not?",
"timestamp": [
671.29,
674.67
]
},
{
"text": "- And how do the algorithms\nthemselves usually differ",
"timestamp": [
674.67,
679.32
]
},
{
"text": "- And how do the algorithms\nthemselves usually differ",
"timestamp": [
674.67,
679.32
]
},
{
"text": "between unsupervised\nand supervised learning.",
"timestamp": [
679.32,
682.05
]
},
{
"text": "between unsupervised\nand supervised learning.",
"timestamp": [
679.32,
682.05
]
},
{
"text": "- Supervised learning, we have our labels",
"timestamp": [
682.05,
684.5
]
},
{
"text": "- Supervised learning, we have our labels",
"timestamp": [
682.05,
684.5
]
},
{
"text": "and we're trying to figure out\nwhat statistically indicates",
"timestamp": [
684.5,
688.01
]
},
{
"text": "and we're trying to figure out\nwhat statistically indicates",
"timestamp": [
684.5,
688.01
]
},
{
"text": "if something matches one\nlabel or another label.",
"timestamp": [
688.01,
691.79
]
},
{
"text": "if something matches one\nlabel or another label.",
"timestamp": [
688.01,
691.79
]
},
{
"text": "Unsupervised learning,",
"timestamp": [
691.79,
692.96
]
},
{
"text": "Unsupervised learning,",
"timestamp": [
691.79,
692.96
]
},
{
"text": "we don't necessarily have those labels.",
"timestamp": [
692.96,
695.33
]
},
{
"text": "we don't necessarily have those labels.",
"timestamp": [
692.96,
695.33
]
},
{
"text": "That's the thing we're trying to discover.",
"timestamp": [
695.33,
697.25
]
},
{
"text": "That's the thing we're trying to discover.",
"timestamp": [
695.33,
697.25
]
},
{
"text": "So reinforcement learning\nis another technique",
"timestamp": [
697.25,
699.73
]
},
{
"text": "So reinforcement learning\nis another technique",
"timestamp": [
697.25,
699.73
]
},
{
"text": "that we use sometimes.",
"timestamp": [
699.73,
701.17
]
},
{
"text": "that we use sometimes.",
"timestamp": [
699.73,
701.17
]
},
{
"text": "You can think about it\nlike a turn in a game",
"timestamp": [
701.17,
703.29
]
},
{
"text": "You can think about it\nlike a turn in a game",
"timestamp": [
701.17,
703.29
]
},
{
"text": "and you can play, you know,\nmillions and millions of trials",
"timestamp": [
703.29,
707.3
]
},
{
"text": "and you can play, you know,\nmillions and millions of trials",
"timestamp": [
703.29,
707.3
]
},
{
"text": "so that you're able to develop a system",
"timestamp": [
707.3,
709.52
]
},
{
"text": "so that you're able to develop a system",
"timestamp": [
707.3,
709.52
]
},
{
"text": "that by experimenting with\nreinforcement learning",
"timestamp": [
709.52,
712.31
]
},
{
"text": "that by experimenting with\nreinforcement learning",
"timestamp": [
709.52,
712.31
]
},
{
"text": "can eventually learn to play these games",
"timestamp": [
712.31,
714.44
]
},
{
"text": "can eventually learn to play these games",
"timestamp": [
712.31,
714.44
]
},
{
"text": "pretty successfully.",
"timestamp": [
714.44,
715.97
]
},
{
"text": "pretty successfully.",
"timestamp": [
714.44,
715.97
]
},
{
"text": "Deep learning, which is\nessentially using neural networks",
"timestamp": [
715.97,
719.81
]
},
{
"text": "Deep learning, which is\nessentially using neural networks",
"timestamp": [
715.97,
719.81
]
},
{
"text": "and very large amounts of\ndata to eventually iterate",
"timestamp": [
719.81,
723.63
]
},
{
"text": "and very large amounts of\ndata to eventually iterate",
"timestamp": [
719.81,
723.63
]
},
{
"text": "on a network structure\nthat can make predictions.",
"timestamp": [
723.63,
726.4
]
},
{
"text": "on a network structure\nthat can make predictions.",
"timestamp": [
723.63,
726.4
]
},
{
"text": "- With reinforcement learning\nversus deep learning,",
"timestamp": [
726.4,
729.603
]
},
{
"text": "- With reinforcement learning\nversus deep learning,",
"timestamp": [
726.4,
729.603
]
},
{
"text": "it seems to me that\nreinforcement learning,",
"timestamp": [
730.44,
733.73
]
},
{
"text": "it seems to me that\nreinforcement learning,",
"timestamp": [
730.44,
733.73
]
},
{
"text": "is it sort of like the\nkitchen sink approach",
"timestamp": [
733.73,
735.6
]
},
{
"text": "is it sort of like the\nkitchen sink approach",
"timestamp": [
733.73,
735.6
]
},
{
"text": "that you were talking about earlier,",
"timestamp": [
735.6,
737.1
]
},
{
"text": "that you were talking about earlier,",
"timestamp": [
735.6,
737.1
]
},
{
"text": "where you're just kind\nof trying everything?",
"timestamp": [
737.1,
739.69
]
},
{
"text": "where you're just kind\nof trying everything?",
"timestamp": [
737.1,
739.69
]
},
{
"text": "- It is, but it also\nthrives in environments",
"timestamp": [
739.69,
743.07
]
},
{
"text": "- It is, but it also\nthrives in environments",
"timestamp": [
739.69,
743.07
]
},
{
"text": "where you have a decision point,",
"timestamp": [
743.07,
745.87
]
},
{
"text": "where you have a decision point,",
"timestamp": [
743.07,
745.87
]
},
{
"text": "a pallet of actions to choose from.",
"timestamp": [
745.87,
748.22
]
},
{
"text": "a pallet of actions to choose from.",
"timestamp": [
745.87,
748.22
]
},
{
"text": "And it actually comes historically",
"timestamp": [
748.22,
750.67
]
},
{
"text": "And it actually comes historically",
"timestamp": [
748.22,
750.67
]
},
{
"text": "from trying to train a\nrobot to navigate a room.",
"timestamp": [
750.67,
753.68
]
},
{
"text": "from trying to train a\nrobot to navigate a room.",
"timestamp": [
750.67,
753.68
]
},
{
"text": "If it bonks into this chair,\nit can't go forward anymore.",
"timestamp": [
753.68,
756.72
]
},
{
"text": "If it bonks into this chair,\nit can't go forward anymore.",
"timestamp": [
753.68,
756.72
]
},
{
"text": "And if it falls into that pit,",
"timestamp": [
756.72,
758.41
]
},
{
"text": "And if it falls into that pit,",
"timestamp": [
756.72,
758.41
]
},
{
"text": "you know, it's not going to succeed.",
"timestamp": [
758.41,
760.64
]
},
{
"text": "you know, it's not going to succeed.",
"timestamp": [
758.41,
760.64
]
},
{
"text": "But if it keeps exploring, it'll\neventually get to the goal.",
"timestamp": [
760.64,
764.46
]
},
{
"text": "But if it keeps exploring, it'll\neventually get to the goal.",
"timestamp": [
760.64,
764.46
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, like roombas?",
"timestamp": [
764.46,
765.48
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, like roombas?",
"timestamp": [
764.46,
765.48
]
},
{
"text": "- [Hilary] Yes.",
"timestamp": [
765.48,
766.398
]
},
{
"text": "- [Hilary] Yes.",
"timestamp": [
765.48,
766.398
]
},
{
"text": "[both laugh]",
"timestamp": [
766.398,
767.324
]
},
{
"text": "[both laugh]",
"timestamp": [
766.398,
767.324
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, I didn't realize\nit was that deep, almost.",
"timestamp": [
767.324,
769.75
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, I didn't realize\nit was that deep, almost.",
"timestamp": [
767.324,
769.75
]
},
{
"text": "Is there a situation\nwhich you'd want to use",
"timestamp": [
769.75,
771.83
]
},
{
"text": "Is there a situation\nwhich you'd want to use",
"timestamp": [
769.75,
771.83
]
},
{
"text": "a deep learning algorithm",
"timestamp": [
771.83,
772.97
]
},
{
"text": "a deep learning algorithm",
"timestamp": [
771.83,
772.97
]
},
{
"text": "over a reinforcement learning algorithm?",
"timestamp": [
772.97,
775.5
]
},
{
"text": "over a reinforcement learning algorithm?",
"timestamp": [
772.97,
775.5
]
},
{
"text": "- So typically, you would\nchoose deep learning",
"timestamp": [
775.5,
777.8
]
},
{
"text": "- So typically, you would\nchoose deep learning",
"timestamp": [
775.5,
777.8
]
},
{
"text": "if you have sufficient high quality data,",
"timestamp": [
777.8,
780.99
]
},
{
"text": "if you have sufficient high quality data,",
"timestamp": [
777.8,
780.99
]
},
{
"text": "hopefully labeled in a useful way.",
"timestamp": [
780.99,
783.74
]
},
{
"text": "hopefully labeled in a useful way.",
"timestamp": [
780.99,
783.74
]
},
{
"text": "If you really are happy not\nto necessarily understand",
"timestamp": [
783.74,
788.74
]
},
{
"text": "If you really are happy not\nto necessarily understand",
"timestamp": [
783.74,
788.74
]
},
{
"text": "or be able to interpret\nwhat your system is doing",
"timestamp": [
789.21,
791.94
]
},
{
"text": "or be able to interpret\nwhat your system is doing",
"timestamp": [
789.21,
791.94
]
},
{
"text": "or you're willing to invest",
"timestamp": [
791.94,
793.38
]
},
{
"text": "or you're willing to invest",
"timestamp": [
791.94,
793.38
]
},
{
"text": "in another set of work\nafterwards to understand",
"timestamp": [
793.38,
796.92
]
},
{
"text": "in another set of work\nafterwards to understand",
"timestamp": [
793.38,
796.92
]
},
{
"text": "what the system is doing once\nyou've already trained it.",
"timestamp": [
796.92,
799.45
]
},
{
"text": "what the system is doing once\nyou've already trained it.",
"timestamp": [
796.92,
799.45
]
},
{
"text": "And this also comes down to\nthe fact that some things",
"timestamp": [
799.45,
802.32
]
},
{
"text": "And this also comes down to\nthe fact that some things",
"timestamp": [
799.45,
802.32
]
},
{
"text": "are actually really easy to\nsolve with linear regression",
"timestamp": [
802.32,
805.65
]
},
{
"text": "are actually really easy to\nsolve with linear regression",
"timestamp": [
802.32,
805.65
]
},
{
"text": "or simple statistical approaches.",
"timestamp": [
805.65,
807.89
]
},
{
"text": "or simple statistical approaches.",
"timestamp": [
805.65,
807.89
]
},
{
"text": "And some things are impossible.",
"timestamp": [
807.89,
809.396
]
},
{
"text": "And some things are impossible.",
"timestamp": [
807.89,
809.396
]
},
{
"text": "- What would be the outcome\nif you were to choose",
"timestamp": [
809.396,
811.76
]
},
{
"text": "- What would be the outcome\nif you were to choose",
"timestamp": [
809.396,
811.76
]
},
{
"text": "the, quote-unquote, \"wrong\" approach?",
"timestamp": [
811.76,
813.76
]
},
{
"text": "the, quote-unquote, \"wrong\" approach?",
"timestamp": [
811.76,
813.76
]
},
{
"text": "- You build a system that\ncould actually be useless.",
"timestamp": [
813.76,
816.73
]
},
{
"text": "- You build a system that\ncould actually be useless.",
"timestamp": [
813.76,
816.73
]
},
{
"text": "So years ago, I had a client\nthat was a big telecom company",
"timestamp": [
816.73,
820.47
]
},
{
"text": "So years ago, I had a client\nthat was a big telecom company",
"timestamp": [
816.73,
820.47
]
},
{
"text": "and they had a data scientist",
"timestamp": [
820.47,
822.47
]
},
{
"text": "and they had a data scientist",
"timestamp": [
820.47,
822.47
]
},
{
"text": "who built a deep learning system\nto predict customer churn.",
"timestamp": [
822.47,
825.59
]
},
{
"text": "who built a deep learning system\nto predict customer churn.",
"timestamp": [
822.47,
825.59
]
},
{
"text": "It actually was very\naccurate, but it wasn't useful",
"timestamp": [
825.59,
828.6
]
},
{
"text": "It actually was very\naccurate, but it wasn't useful",
"timestamp": [
825.59,
828.6
]
},
{
"text": "because nobody knew why the\nprediction was what it was.",
"timestamp": [
828.6,
832.21
]
},
{
"text": "because nobody knew why the\nprediction was what it was.",
"timestamp": [
828.6,
832.21
]
},
{
"text": "So they could say, you know,",
"timestamp": [
832.21,
833.707
]
},
{
"text": "So they could say, you know,",
"timestamp": [
832.21,
833.707
]
},
{
"text": "\"Sunny, you're likely to quit next month.\"",
"timestamp": [
833.707,
835.82
]
},
{
"text": "\"Sunny, you're likely to quit next month.\"",
"timestamp": [
833.707,
835.82
]
},
{
"text": "But they had no idea what to do about it.",
"timestamp": [
835.82,
838.42
]
},
{
"text": "But they had no idea what to do about it.",
"timestamp": [
835.82,
838.42
]
},
{
"text": "And so, I think there are\na bunch of failure modes.",
"timestamp": [
838.42,
841.04
]
},
{
"text": "And so, I think there are\na bunch of failure modes.",
"timestamp": [
838.42,
841.04
]
},
{
"text": "- Would that be an example\nof, like, linear regression",
"timestamp": [
841.04,
843.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Would that be an example\nof, like, linear regression",
"timestamp": [
841.04,
843.31
]
},
{
"text": "where the regression is accurate, but,",
"timestamp": [
843.31,
845.78
]
},
{
"text": "where the regression is accurate, but,",
"timestamp": [
843.31,
845.78
]
},
{
"text": "you know, for marketing\npurposes, it's like,",
"timestamp": [
845.78,
848.04
]
},
{
"text": "you know, for marketing\npurposes, it's like,",
"timestamp": [
845.78,
848.04
]
},
{
"text": "if you don't know why\nI'm quitting the service,",
"timestamp": [
848.04,
849.78
]
},
{
"text": "if you don't know why\nI'm quitting the service,",
"timestamp": [
848.04,
849.78
]
},
{
"text": "then how can we fix this?",
"timestamp": [
849.78,
851.66
]
},
{
"text": "then how can we fix this?",
"timestamp": [
849.78,
851.66
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
851.66,
852.493
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
851.66,
852.493
]
},
{
"text": "This is actually a good\nexample of a very real world",
"timestamp": [
852.493,
855.68
]
},
{
"text": "This is actually a good\nexample of a very real world",
"timestamp": [
852.493,
855.68
]
},
{
"text": "kind of machine learning problem\nwhere the solution to this",
"timestamp": [
855.68,
859.84
]
},
{
"text": "kind of machine learning problem\nwhere the solution to this",
"timestamp": [
855.68,
859.84
]
},
{
"text": "was to build an interpretable system",
"timestamp": [
859.84,
861.92
]
},
{
"text": "was to build an interpretable system",
"timestamp": [
859.84,
861.92
]
},
{
"text": "on top of the accurate\npredictions not to throw it away,",
"timestamp": [
861.92,
864.96
]
},
{
"text": "on top of the accurate\npredictions not to throw it away,",
"timestamp": [
861.92,
864.96
]
},
{
"text": "but to do a bunch more\nwork to figure out the why.",
"timestamp": [
864.96,
867.41
]
},
{
"text": "but to do a bunch more\nwork to figure out the why.",
"timestamp": [
864.96,
867.41
]
},
{
"text": "- How can we improve\nmachine learning algorithms?",
"timestamp": [
867.41,
870.77
]
},
{
"text": "- How can we improve\nmachine learning algorithms?",
"timestamp": [
867.41,
870.77
]
},
{
"text": "- It's actually fairly new",
"timestamp": [
870.77,
873.76
]
},
{
"text": "- It's actually fairly new",
"timestamp": [
870.77,
873.76
]
},
{
"text": "that we're able to solve\nall of these problems",
"timestamp": [
873.76,
876.3
]
},
{
"text": "that we're able to solve\nall of these problems",
"timestamp": [
873.76,
876.3
]
},
{
"text": "and start to build these products\nand apply it in businesses",
"timestamp": [
876.3,
879.41
]
},
{
"text": "and start to build these products\nand apply it in businesses",
"timestamp": [
876.3,
879.41
]
},
{
"text": "and apply it, you know, everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
879.41,
881.87
]
},
{
"text": "and apply it, you know, everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
879.41,
881.87
]
},
{
"text": "And so, we're still\ndeveloping good practices",
"timestamp": [
881.87,
884.97
]
},
{
"text": "And so, we're still\ndeveloping good practices",
"timestamp": [
881.87,
884.97
]
},
{
"text": "and what it means to be a\nprofessional in machine learning.",
"timestamp": [
884.97,
888.79
]
},
{
"text": "and what it means to be a\nprofessional in machine learning.",
"timestamp": [
884.97,
888.79
]
},
{
"text": "We're really developing a\nnotion of what good looks like.",
"timestamp": [
888.79,
891.782
]
},
{
"text": "We're really developing a\nnotion of what good looks like.",
"timestamp": [
888.79,
891.782
]
},
{
"text": "[quirky music]",
"timestamp": [
891.782,
895.11
]
},
{
"text": "[quirky music]",
"timestamp": [
891.782,
895.11
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm in my first year of\na PhD in Computer Science",
"timestamp": [
895.11,
899.49
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm in my first year of\na PhD in Computer Science",
"timestamp": [
895.11,
899.49
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm studying natural\nlanguage processing",
"timestamp": [
899.49,
902.17
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm studying natural\nlanguage processing",
"timestamp": [
899.49,
902.17
]
},
{
"text": "and machine learning.",
"timestamp": [
902.17,
903.1
]
},
{
"text": "and machine learning.",
"timestamp": [
902.17,
903.1
]
},
{
"text": "- So would you mind telling me a bit about",
"timestamp": [
903.1,
904.7
]
},
{
"text": "- So would you mind telling me a bit about",
"timestamp": [
903.1,
904.7
]
},
{
"text": "what you've been working\non or interested in lately?",
"timestamp": [
904.7,
907.09
]
},
{
"text": "what you've been working\non or interested in lately?",
"timestamp": [
904.7,
907.09
]
},
{
"text": "- I've been looking at\nunderstanding persuasion",
"timestamp": [
907.09,
910
]
},
{
"text": "- I've been looking at\nunderstanding persuasion",
"timestamp": [
907.09,
910
]
},
{
"text": "in online text and the ways\nthat we might be able to",
"timestamp": [
910,
915
]
},
{
"text": "in online text and the ways\nthat we might be able to",
"timestamp": [
910,
915
]
},
{
"text": "automatically detect the\nintent behind that persuasion",
"timestamp": [
915.03,
918.5
]
},
{
"text": "automatically detect the\nintent behind that persuasion",
"timestamp": [
915.03,
918.5
]
},
{
"text": "or who it's targeted at",
"timestamp": [
918.5,
920.04
]
},
{
"text": "or who it's targeted at",
"timestamp": [
918.5,
920.04
]
},
{
"text": "and what makes effective\npersuasive techniques.",
"timestamp": [
920.04,
922.67
]
},
{
"text": "and what makes effective\npersuasive techniques.",
"timestamp": [
920.04,
922.67
]
},
{
"text": "- So what are some of the\ntechniques you're applying",
"timestamp": [
922.67,
925.06
]
},
{
"text": "- So what are some of the\ntechniques you're applying",
"timestamp": [
922.67,
925.06
]
},
{
"text": "to look at that debate data?",
"timestamp": [
925.06,
926.85
]
},
{
"text": "to look at that debate data?",
"timestamp": [
925.06,
926.85
]
},
{
"text": "- Something I'm interested in exploring",
"timestamp": [
926.85,
928.74
]
},
{
"text": "- Something I'm interested in exploring",
"timestamp": [
926.85,
928.74
]
},
{
"text": "is how well it works to use deep learning",
"timestamp": [
928.74,
932.92
]
},
{
"text": "is how well it works to use deep learning",
"timestamp": [
928.74,
932.92
]
},
{
"text": "and sort of automatically\nextracted features from this text",
"timestamp": [
932.92,
936.15
]
},
{
"text": "and sort of automatically\nextracted features from this text",
"timestamp": [
932.92,
936.15
]
},
{
"text": "versus using some of the\nmore traditional techniques",
"timestamp": [
936.15,
938.8
]
},
{
"text": "versus using some of the\nmore traditional techniques",
"timestamp": [
936.15,
938.8
]
},
{
"text": "that we have, things like lexicons",
"timestamp": [
938.8,
941.3
]
},
{
"text": "that we have, things like lexicons",
"timestamp": [
938.8,
941.3
]
},
{
"text": "or some sort of template\nmatching techniques",
"timestamp": [
941.3,
943.58
]
},
{
"text": "or some sort of template\nmatching techniques",
"timestamp": [
941.3,
943.58
]
},
{
"text": "for extracting features from texts.",
"timestamp": [
943.58,
946.47
]
},
{
"text": "for extracting features from texts.",
"timestamp": [
943.58,
946.47
]
},
{
"text": "That's a question I'm just\ninterested in, in general.",
"timestamp": [
946.47,
948.65
]
},
{
"text": "That's a question I'm just\ninterested in, in general.",
"timestamp": [
946.47,
948.65
]
},
{
"text": "When do we really need deep learning",
"timestamp": [
948.65,
950.14
]
},
{
"text": "When do we really need deep learning",
"timestamp": [
948.65,
950.14
]
},
{
"text": "versus when can we use something",
"timestamp": [
950.14,
952.1
]
},
{
"text": "versus when can we use something",
"timestamp": [
950.14,
952.1
]
},
{
"text": "that's a little bit more interpretable,",
"timestamp": [
952.1,
953.62
]
},
{
"text": "that's a little bit more interpretable,",
"timestamp": [
952.1,
953.62
]
},
{
"text": "something that's been around for a while?",
"timestamp": [
953.62,
955.15
]
},
{
"text": "something that's been around for a while?",
"timestamp": [
953.62,
955.15
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you think there are\ngoing to be general principles",
"timestamp": [
955.15,
958
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you think there are\ngoing to be general principles",
"timestamp": [
955.15,
958
]
},
{
"text": "that guide those decisions?",
"timestamp": [
958,
959.5
]
},
{
"text": "that guide those decisions?",
"timestamp": [
958,
959.5
]
},
{
"text": "Because right now, it's generally",
"timestamp": [
959.5,
961.44
]
},
{
"text": "Because right now, it's generally",
"timestamp": [
959.5,
961.44
]
},
{
"text": "up to the machine learning\nengineer to decide",
"timestamp": [
961.44,
964.28
]
},
{
"text": "up to the machine learning\nengineer to decide",
"timestamp": [
961.44,
964.28
]
},
{
"text": "what tools they want to apply.",
"timestamp": [
964.28,
965.98
]
},
{
"text": "what tools they want to apply.",
"timestamp": [
964.28,
965.98
]
},
{
"text": "- I definitely think there is,",
"timestamp": [
965.98,
968.27
]
},
{
"text": "- I definitely think there is,",
"timestamp": [
965.98,
968.27
]
},
{
"text": "but I also, sort of, see it varying a lot",
"timestamp": [
968.27,
971.57
]
},
{
"text": "but I also, sort of, see it varying a lot",
"timestamp": [
968.27,
971.57
]
},
{
"text": "based on the use case,",
"timestamp": [
971.57,
972.78
]
},
{
"text": "based on the use case,",
"timestamp": [
971.57,
972.78
]
},
{
"text": "something that, kind\nof, works out of the box",
"timestamp": [
972.78,
975.52
]
},
{
"text": "something that, kind\nof, works out of the box",
"timestamp": [
972.78,
975.52
]
},
{
"text": "and maybe works a little\nbit more automatically",
"timestamp": [
975.52,
977.77
]
},
{
"text": "and maybe works a little\nbit more automatically",
"timestamp": [
975.52,
977.77
]
},
{
"text": "might be better.",
"timestamp": [
977.77,
978.603
]
},
{
"text": "might be better.",
"timestamp": [
977.77,
978.603
]
},
{
"text": "And in other cases, you\ndo, sort of, kind of,",
"timestamp": [
978.603,
981.02
]
},
{
"text": "And in other cases, you\ndo, sort of, kind of,",
"timestamp": [
978.603,
981.02
]
},
{
"text": "you want a lot of fine grain control.",
"timestamp": [
981.02,
982.86
]
},
{
"text": "you want a lot of fine grain control.",
"timestamp": [
981.02,
982.86
]
},
{
"text": "- So is that where some\nof that frustration",
"timestamp": [
982.86,
985
]
},
{
"text": "- So is that where some\nof that frustration",
"timestamp": [
982.86,
985
]
},
{
"text": "around the lack of controllability",
"timestamp": [
985,
987.23
]
},
{
"text": "around the lack of controllability",
"timestamp": [
985,
987.23
]
},
{
"text": "and interpretability comes from?",
"timestamp": [
987.23,
988.94
]
},
{
"text": "and interpretability comes from?",
"timestamp": [
987.23,
988.94
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, if you're building a model",
"timestamp": [
988.94,
990.1
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, if you're building a model",
"timestamp": [
988.94,
990.1
]
},
{
"text": "that just predicts the next thing",
"timestamp": [
990.1,
991.97
]
},
{
"text": "that just predicts the next thing",
"timestamp": [
990.1,
991.97
]
},
{
"text": "based off of everything\nit's seen from texts online,",
"timestamp": [
991.97,
994.79
]
},
{
"text": "based off of everything\nit's seen from texts online,",
"timestamp": [
991.97,
994.79
]
},
{
"text": "then yeah, you're really\ngonna be replicating",
"timestamp": [
994.79,
997.35
]
},
{
"text": "then yeah, you're really\ngonna be replicating",
"timestamp": [
994.79,
997.35
]
},
{
"text": "whatever that distribution online is.",
"timestamp": [
997.35,
999.55
]
},
{
"text": "whatever that distribution online is.",
"timestamp": [
997.35,
999.55
]
},
{
"text": "- If you train a model off\nof language off the internet,",
"timestamp": [
999.55,
1002.76
]
},
{
"text": "- If you train a model off\nof language off the internet,",
"timestamp": [
999.55,
1002.76
]
},
{
"text": "it sometimes says uncomfortable things",
"timestamp": [
1002.76,
1005.13
]
},
{
"text": "it sometimes says uncomfortable things",
"timestamp": [
1002.76,
1005.13
]
},
{
"text": "or inappropriate things and\nsometimes really biased things.",
"timestamp": [
1005.13,
1008.96
]
},
{
"text": "or inappropriate things and\nsometimes really biased things.",
"timestamp": [
1005.13,
1008.96
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever run into this yourself?",
"timestamp": [
1008.96,
1010.79
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever run into this yourself?",
"timestamp": [
1008.96,
1010.79
]
},
{
"text": "And then how do you\nthink about that problem",
"timestamp": [
1010.79,
1012.94
]
},
{
"text": "And then how do you\nthink about that problem",
"timestamp": [
1010.79,
1012.94
]
},
{
"text": "of potentially even measuring the bias",
"timestamp": [
1012.94,
1016.56
]
},
{
"text": "of potentially even measuring the bias",
"timestamp": [
1012.94,
1016.56
]
},
{
"text": "in a model that we've trained?",
"timestamp": [
1016.56,
1018.49
]
},
{
"text": "in a model that we've trained?",
"timestamp": [
1016.56,
1018.49
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it's a really tricky question.",
"timestamp": [
1018.49,
1021.16
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it's a really tricky question.",
"timestamp": [
1018.49,
1021.16
]
},
{
"text": "As you said, these models are\ntrained to, sort of, predict",
"timestamp": [
1021.16,
1023.72
]
},
{
"text": "As you said, these models are\ntrained to, sort of, predict",
"timestamp": [
1021.16,
1023.72
]
},
{
"text": "the next sequence of words,",
"timestamp": [
1023.72,
1025.34
]
},
{
"text": "the next sequence of words,",
"timestamp": [
1023.72,
1025.34
]
},
{
"text": "given a certain sequence of words.",
"timestamp": [
1025.34,
1026.91
]
},
{
"text": "given a certain sequence of words.",
"timestamp": [
1025.34,
1026.91
]
},
{
"text": "So we could start with\njust, sort of, prompts",
"timestamp": [
1026.91,
1029.16
]
},
{
"text": "So we could start with\njust, sort of, prompts",
"timestamp": [
1026.91,
1029.16
]
},
{
"text": "like \"the woman was\" versus \"the man was\",",
"timestamp": [
1029.16,
1031.86
]
},
{
"text": "like \"the woman was\" versus \"the man was\",",
"timestamp": [
1029.16,
1031.86
]
},
{
"text": "and, kind of, pull out common words",
"timestamp": [
1031.86,
1033.99
]
},
{
"text": "and, kind of, pull out common words",
"timestamp": [
1031.86,
1033.99
]
},
{
"text": "that are, sort of, more used",
"timestamp": [
1033.99,
1035.39
]
},
{
"text": "that are, sort of, more used",
"timestamp": [
1033.99,
1035.39
]
},
{
"text": "with one phrase versus the other.",
"timestamp": [
1035.39,
1037.71
]
},
{
"text": "with one phrase versus the other.",
"timestamp": [
1035.39,
1037.71
]
},
{
"text": "So that's, sort of, a\nqualitative way of looking at it.",
"timestamp": [
1037.71,
1040.88
]
},
{
"text": "So that's, sort of, a\nqualitative way of looking at it.",
"timestamp": [
1037.71,
1040.88
]
},
{
"text": "It's not ever kind of a\nguarantee of how the model",
"timestamp": [
1040.88,
1044.15
]
},
{
"text": "It's not ever kind of a\nguarantee of how the model",
"timestamp": [
1040.88,
1044.15
]
},
{
"text": "is gonna behave in one\nparticular instance.",
"timestamp": [
1044.15,
1046.27
]
},
{
"text": "is gonna behave in one\nparticular instance.",
"timestamp": [
1044.15,
1046.27
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that's what's really tricky",
"timestamp": [
1046.27,
1048.57
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that's what's really tricky",
"timestamp": [
1046.27,
1048.57
]
},
{
"text": "and that's why I, sort\nof, think it's really good",
"timestamp": [
1048.57,
1050.61
]
},
{
"text": "and that's why I, sort\nof, think it's really good",
"timestamp": [
1048.57,
1050.61
]
},
{
"text": "for creators of systems to just be honest",
"timestamp": [
1050.61,
1053.72
]
},
{
"text": "for creators of systems to just be honest",
"timestamp": [
1050.61,
1053.72
]
},
{
"text": "about, \"This is, sort\nof, what we have seen.\"",
"timestamp": [
1053.72,
1056.27
]
},
{
"text": "about, \"This is, sort\nof, what we have seen.\"",
"timestamp": [
1053.72,
1056.27
]
},
{
"text": "And so then, someone can make\ntheir own judgment about,",
"timestamp": [
1056.27,
1058.677
]
},
{
"text": "And so then, someone can make\ntheir own judgment about,",
"timestamp": [
1056.27,
1058.677
]
},
{
"text": "\"Is this gonna be too high risk",
"timestamp": [
1058.677,
1060.31
]
},
{
"text": "\"Is this gonna be too high risk",
"timestamp": [
1058.677,
1060.31
]
},
{
"text": "for, sort of, my particular use case?\"",
"timestamp": [
1060.31,
1062.74
]
},
{
"text": "for, sort of, my particular use case?\"",
"timestamp": [
1060.31,
1062.74
]
},
{
"text": "- I imagine in the last few years,",
"timestamp": [
1062.74,
1064.34
]
},
{
"text": "- I imagine in the last few years,",
"timestamp": [
1062.74,
1064.34
]
},
{
"text": "we've seen a lot of\nchanges and improvements",
"timestamp": [
1064.34,
1067.07
]
},
{
"text": "we've seen a lot of\nchanges and improvements",
"timestamp": [
1064.34,
1067.07
]
},
{
"text": "in the capabilities of NLP systems.",
"timestamp": [
1067.07,
1069.96
]
},
{
"text": "in the capabilities of NLP systems.",
"timestamp": [
1067.07,
1069.96
]
},
{
"text": "So is there anything in that",
"timestamp": [
1069.96,
1071.57
]
},
{
"text": "So is there anything in that",
"timestamp": [
1069.96,
1071.57
]
},
{
"text": "that you're particularly\nexcited about exploring further?",
"timestamp": [
1071.57,
1074.51
]
},
{
"text": "that you're particularly\nexcited about exploring further?",
"timestamp": [
1071.57,
1074.51
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm really interested in,\nsort of, the creative potential",
"timestamp": [
1074.51,
1079.51
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm really interested in,\nsort of, the creative potential",
"timestamp": [
1074.51,
1079.51
]
},
{
"text": "that we've started to see from NLP systems",
"timestamp": [
1080.28,
1082.98
]
},
{
"text": "that we've started to see from NLP systems",
"timestamp": [
1080.28,
1082.98
]
},
{
"text": "with things like GPT-3",
"timestamp": [
1082.98,
1084.49
]
},
{
"text": "with things like GPT-3",
"timestamp": [
1082.98,
1084.49
]
},
{
"text": "and other really powerful language models.",
"timestamp": [
1084.49,
1086.21
]
},
{
"text": "and other really powerful language models.",
"timestamp": [
1084.49,
1086.21
]
},
{
"text": "It's really easy to write\nlong grammatical passages",
"timestamp": [
1086.21,
1090.99
]
},
{
"text": "It's really easy to write\nlong grammatical passages",
"timestamp": [
1086.21,
1090.99
]
},
{
"text": "thinking about the way that\nwe can then harness, like,",
"timestamp": [
1090.99,
1093.58
]
},
{
"text": "thinking about the way that\nwe can then harness, like,",
"timestamp": [
1090.99,
1093.58
]
},
{
"text": "the human ability to actually\ngive meaning to those words",
"timestamp": [
1093.58,
1096.32
]
},
{
"text": "the human ability to actually\ngive meaning to those words",
"timestamp": [
1093.58,
1096.32
]
},
{
"text": "and, sort of, provide structure",
"timestamp": [
1096.32,
1097.95
]
},
{
"text": "and, sort of, provide structure",
"timestamp": [
1096.32,
1097.95
]
},
{
"text": "and how we can combine those\nthings with the, kind of like,",
"timestamp": [
1097.95,
1100.64
]
},
{
"text": "and how we can combine those\nthings with the, kind of like,",
"timestamp": [
1097.95,
1100.64
]
},
{
"text": "generative capabilities\nof these models now",
"timestamp": [
1100.64,
1102.93
]
},
{
"text": "generative capabilities\nof these models now",
"timestamp": [
1100.64,
1102.93
]
},
{
"text": "is really interesting.",
"timestamp": [
1102.93,
1103.86
]
},
{
"text": "is really interesting.",
"timestamp": [
1102.93,
1103.86
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I agree.",
"timestamp": [
1103.86,
1104.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I agree.",
"timestamp": [
1103.86,
1104.9
]
},
{
"text": "[quirky music]",
"timestamp": [
1104.9,
1107.72
]
},
{
"text": "[quirky music]",
"timestamp": [
1104.9,
1107.72
]
},
{
"text": "So, hi Claudia. It's so great to see you.",
"timestamp": [
1107.72,
1109.437
]
},
{
"text": "So, hi Claudia. It's so great to see you.",
"timestamp": [
1107.72,
1109.437
]
},
{
"text": "- It has been far too long.",
"timestamp": [
1109.437,
1110.93
]
},
{
"text": "- It has been far too long.",
"timestamp": [
1109.437,
1110.93
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, we first met 10, 11 years ago",
"timestamp": [
1110.93,
1113.5
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, we first met 10, 11 years ago",
"timestamp": [
1110.93,
1113.5
]
},
{
"text": "and machine learning has\nchanged a lot since then.",
"timestamp": [
1113.5,
1116.81
]
},
{
"text": "and machine learning has\nchanged a lot since then.",
"timestamp": [
1113.5,
1116.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Tooling that we now have, the capacity,",
"timestamp": [
1116.81,
1119.85
]
},
{
"text": "- Tooling that we now have, the capacity,",
"timestamp": [
1116.81,
1119.85
]
},
{
"text": "and also, an elevation of the problem sets",
"timestamp": [
1119.85,
1123.52
]
},
{
"text": "and also, an elevation of the problem sets",
"timestamp": [
1119.85,
1123.52
]
},
{
"text": "that we're dealing with and\nhow to frame the problem.",
"timestamp": [
1123.52,
1127.15
]
},
{
"text": "that we're dealing with and\nhow to frame the problem.",
"timestamp": [
1123.52,
1127.15
]
},
{
"text": "And I'm almost struggling to figure out",
"timestamp": [
1127.15,
1130.73
]
},
{
"text": "And I'm almost struggling to figure out",
"timestamp": [
1127.15,
1130.73
]
},
{
"text": "whether it's a blessing or\ncurse that it has become",
"timestamp": [
1130.73,
1134.67
]
},
{
"text": "whether it's a blessing or\ncurse that it has become",
"timestamp": [
1130.73,
1134.67
]
},
{
"text": "as accessible and as democratized\nand as easy to execute",
"timestamp": [
1134.67,
1139.67
]
},
{
"text": "as accessible and as democratized\nand as easy to execute",
"timestamp": [
1134.67,
1139.67
]
},
{
"text": "and you just build another\nnew company from scratch.",
"timestamp": [
1139.83,
1143
]
},
{
"text": "and you just build another\nnew company from scratch.",
"timestamp": [
1139.83,
1143
]
},
{
"text": "And so, what's been, kind\nof, your reflection on that?",
"timestamp": [
1143,
1145.45
]
},
{
"text": "And so, what's been, kind\nof, your reflection on that?",
"timestamp": [
1143,
1145.45
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, you're absolutely\nright that the attention",
"timestamp": [
1145.45,
1147.89
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, you're absolutely\nright that the attention",
"timestamp": [
1145.45,
1147.89
]
},
{
"text": "machine learning gets\nhas grown dramatically.",
"timestamp": [
1147.89,
1150.97
]
},
{
"text": "machine learning gets\nhas grown dramatically.",
"timestamp": [
1147.89,
1150.97
]
},
{
"text": "20 years ago, going to gatherings",
"timestamp": [
1150.97,
1152.73
]
},
{
"text": "20 years ago, going to gatherings",
"timestamp": [
1150.97,
1152.73
]
},
{
"text": "and telling people what I was working on",
"timestamp": [
1152.73,
1154.42
]
},
{
"text": "and telling people what I was working on",
"timestamp": [
1152.73,
1154.42
]
},
{
"text": "and seeing the blank face or the like,",
"timestamp": [
1154.42,
1156.04
]
},
{
"text": "and seeing the blank face or the like,",
"timestamp": [
1154.42,
1156.04
]
},
{
"text": "\"Where's the turn?\" and walk away.",
"timestamp": [
1156.04,
1158.03
]
},
{
"text": "\"Where's the turn?\" and walk away.",
"timestamp": [
1156.04,
1158.03
]
},
{
"text": "Like, \"Oh, no.\"",
"timestamp": [
1158.03,
1159.57
]
},
{
"text": "Like, \"Oh, no.\"",
"timestamp": [
1158.03,
1159.57
]
},
{
"text": "The accessibility of the tooling,",
"timestamp": [
1159.57,
1161.13
]
},
{
"text": "The accessibility of the tooling,",
"timestamp": [
1159.57,
1161.13
]
},
{
"text": "like, we can now do in,\nlike, five lines of code",
"timestamp": [
1161.13,
1164.67
]
},
{
"text": "like, we can now do in,\nlike, five lines of code",
"timestamp": [
1161.13,
1164.67
]
},
{
"text": "something that would have taken 500 lines",
"timestamp": [
1164.67,
1167.51
]
},
{
"text": "something that would have taken 500 lines",
"timestamp": [
1164.67,
1167.51
]
},
{
"text": "of very mathematical, messy, gnarly code",
"timestamp": [
1167.51,
1170.18
]
},
{
"text": "of very mathematical, messy, gnarly code",
"timestamp": [
1167.51,
1170.18
]
},
{
"text": "even, you know, five years ago.",
"timestamp": [
1170.18,
1172.15
]
},
{
"text": "even, you know, five years ago.",
"timestamp": [
1170.18,
1172.15
]
},
{
"text": "And that's not an exaggeration.",
"timestamp": [
1172.15,
1173.75
]
},
{
"text": "And that's not an exaggeration.",
"timestamp": [
1172.15,
1173.75
]
},
{
"text": "And there are tools that\nmean that pretty much anyone",
"timestamp": [
1173.75,
1176.43
]
},
{
"text": "And there are tools that\nmean that pretty much anyone",
"timestamp": [
1173.75,
1176.43
]
},
{
"text": "can pick this up and start playing with it",
"timestamp": [
1176.43,
1178.69
]
},
{
"text": "can pick this up and start playing with it",
"timestamp": [
1176.43,
1178.69
]
},
{
"text": "and start to build with it.",
"timestamp": [
1178.69,
1180.17
]
},
{
"text": "and start to build with it.",
"timestamp": [
1178.69,
1180.17
]
},
{
"text": "And that is also really exciting.",
"timestamp": [
1180.17,
1182.53
]
},
{
"text": "And that is also really exciting.",
"timestamp": [
1180.17,
1182.53
]
},
{
"text": "- In contrast, what I'm struggling with,",
"timestamp": [
1182.53,
1184.85
]
},
{
"text": "- In contrast, what I'm struggling with,",
"timestamp": [
1182.53,
1184.85
]
},
{
"text": "the friend of mine who asked me",
"timestamp": [
1184.85,
1186.4
]
},
{
"text": "the friend of mine who asked me",
"timestamp": [
1184.85,
1186.4
]
},
{
"text": "to look at some health care data for him.",
"timestamp": [
1186.4,
1189.08
]
},
{
"text": "to look at some health care data for him.",
"timestamp": [
1186.4,
1189.08
]
},
{
"text": "And despite the capabilities\nthat we're having",
"timestamp": [
1189.08,
1192.02
]
},
{
"text": "And despite the capabilities\nthat we're having",
"timestamp": [
1189.08,
1192.02
]
},
{
"text": "in all of the, kind of,\nbigger societal problems",
"timestamp": [
1192.02,
1195.18
]
},
{
"text": "in all of the, kind of,\nbigger societal problems",
"timestamp": [
1192.02,
1195.18
]
},
{
"text": "alongside with data\ncollection engineering,",
"timestamp": [
1195.18,
1198.48
]
},
{
"text": "alongside with data\ncollection engineering,",
"timestamp": [
1195.18,
1198.48
]
},
{
"text": "all the gnarly stuff,",
"timestamp": [
1198.48,
1199.96
]
},
{
"text": "all the gnarly stuff,",
"timestamp": [
1198.48,
1199.96
]
},
{
"text": "that is actually not the\nmachine learning itself,",
"timestamp": [
1199.96,
1202.96
]
},
{
"text": "that is actually not the\nmachine learning itself,",
"timestamp": [
1199.96,
1202.96
]
},
{
"text": "it's the rest of it where\ncertain data isn't available.",
"timestamp": [
1202.96,
1207.02
]
},
{
"text": "it's the rest of it where\ncertain data isn't available.",
"timestamp": [
1202.96,
1207.02
]
},
{
"text": "And to me, it's staggering\nhow difficult it is",
"timestamp": [
1207.02,
1210.14
]
},
{
"text": "And to me, it's staggering\nhow difficult it is",
"timestamp": [
1207.02,
1210.14
]
},
{
"text": "to get it off the ground and actually use.",
"timestamp": [
1210.14,
1212.692
]
},
{
"text": "to get it off the ground and actually use.",
"timestamp": [
1210.14,
1212.692
]
},
{
"text": "- And part of the challenge of it",
"timestamp": [
1212.692,
1215.48
]
},
{
"text": "- And part of the challenge of it",
"timestamp": [
1212.692,
1215.48
]
},
{
"text": "is not the mathematics of building models,",
"timestamp": [
1215.48,
1218.06
]
},
{
"text": "is not the mathematics of building models,",
"timestamp": [
1215.48,
1218.06
]
},
{
"text": "but the challenge is\nmaking sure that the data",
"timestamp": [
1218.06,
1220.21
]
},
{
"text": "but the challenge is\nmaking sure that the data",
"timestamp": [
1218.06,
1220.21
]
},
{
"text": "is sufficiently representative,\npotentially high quality.",
"timestamp": [
1220.21,
1223.66
]
},
{
"text": "is sufficiently representative,\npotentially high quality.",
"timestamp": [
1220.21,
1223.66
]
},
{
"text": "- And how transparent\ndo I need to build it",
"timestamp": [
1223.66,
1225.88
]
},
{
"text": "- And how transparent\ndo I need to build it",
"timestamp": [
1223.66,
1225.88
]
},
{
"text": "for it to be adopted at some point?",
"timestamp": [
1225.88,
1228.42
]
},
{
"text": "for it to be adopted at some point?",
"timestamp": [
1225.88,
1228.42
]
},
{
"text": "What types of biases\nin the data collection,",
"timestamp": [
1228.42,
1232.9
]
},
{
"text": "What types of biases\nin the data collection,",
"timestamp": [
1228.42,
1232.9
]
},
{
"text": "and then also in the usage?",
"timestamp": [
1232.9,
1234.93
]
},
{
"text": "and then also in the usage?",
"timestamp": [
1232.9,
1234.93
]
},
{
"text": "We now call it the bias,\nbut we're still struggling",
"timestamp": [
1234.93,
1237.52
]
},
{
"text": "We now call it the bias,\nbut we're still struggling",
"timestamp": [
1234.93,
1237.52
]
},
{
"text": "with the society not really\nliving up to its expectations",
"timestamp": [
1237.52,
1241.88
]
},
{
"text": "with the society not really\nliving up to its expectations",
"timestamp": [
1237.52,
1241.88
]
},
{
"text": "and then machine learning,\nbringing it to the forefront.",
"timestamp": [
1241.88,
1244.49
]
},
{
"text": "and then machine learning,\nbringing it to the forefront.",
"timestamp": [
1241.88,
1244.49
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1244.49,
1245.323
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1244.49,
1245.323
]
},
{
"text": "And so, to say that another way,",
"timestamp": [
1245.323,
1246.46
]
},
{
"text": "And so, to say that another way,",
"timestamp": [
1245.323,
1246.46
]
},
{
"text": "when you're collecting\ndata from the real world",
"timestamp": [
1246.46,
1248.92
]
},
{
"text": "when you're collecting\ndata from the real world",
"timestamp": [
1246.46,
1248.92
]
},
{
"text": "and then building machine learning systems",
"timestamp": [
1248.92,
1250.67
]
},
{
"text": "and then building machine learning systems",
"timestamp": [
1248.92,
1250.67
]
},
{
"text": "that automate decisions\nbased on that data,",
"timestamp": [
1250.67,
1252.77
]
},
{
"text": "that automate decisions\nbased on that data,",
"timestamp": [
1250.67,
1252.77
]
},
{
"text": "all of the biases and problems",
"timestamp": [
1252.77,
1255.11
]
},
{
"text": "all of the biases and problems",
"timestamp": [
1252.77,
1255.11
]
},
{
"text": "that are already in the real\nworld then can be magnified",
"timestamp": [
1255.11,
1258.44
]
},
{
"text": "that are already in the real\nworld then can be magnified",
"timestamp": [
1255.11,
1258.44
]
},
{
"text": "through that machine learning system.",
"timestamp": [
1258.44,
1260.29
]
},
{
"text": "through that machine learning system.",
"timestamp": [
1258.44,
1260.29
]
},
{
"text": "And so, it can make many of\nthese problems much worse.",
"timestamp": [
1260.29,
1262.77
]
},
{
"text": "And so, it can make many of\nthese problems much worse.",
"timestamp": [
1260.29,
1262.77
]
},
{
"text": "- Feeling increasingly challenged",
"timestamp": [
1262.77,
1265.22
]
},
{
"text": "- Feeling increasingly challenged",
"timestamp": [
1262.77,
1265.22
]
},
{
"text": "that my skillset of being\nvery good at programming",
"timestamp": [
1265.22,
1269.15
]
},
{
"text": "that my skillset of being\nvery good at programming",
"timestamp": [
1265.22,
1269.15
]
},
{
"text": "has become somewhat secondary.",
"timestamp": [
1269.15,
1270.95
]
},
{
"text": "has become somewhat secondary.",
"timestamp": [
1269.15,
1270.95
]
},
{
"text": "And it's feeling...",
"timestamp": [
1270.95,
1271.936
]
},
{
"text": "And it's feeling...",
"timestamp": [
1270.95,
1271.936
]
},
{
"text": "[both laugh]",
"timestamp": [
1271.936,
1272.793
]
},
{
"text": "[both laugh]",
"timestamp": [
1271.936,
1272.793
]
},
{
"text": "It's really the bigger\npicture understanding",
"timestamp": [
1272.793,
1275.79
]
},
{
"text": "It's really the bigger\npicture understanding",
"timestamp": [
1272.793,
1275.79
]
},
{
"text": "of \"Who would be using that?",
"timestamp": [
1275.79,
1277.57
]
},
{
"text": "of \"Who would be using that?",
"timestamp": [
1275.79,
1277.57
]
},
{
"text": "How transparent do I need to build it",
"timestamp": [
1277.57,
1279.65
]
},
{
"text": "How transparent do I need to build it",
"timestamp": [
1277.57,
1279.65
]
},
{
"text": "for it to be adopted at some point?",
"timestamp": [
1279.65,
1281.97
]
},
{
"text": "for it to be adopted at some point?",
"timestamp": [
1279.65,
1281.97
]
},
{
"text": "What types of biases\nin the data collection",
"timestamp": [
1281.97,
1286.42
]
},
{
"text": "What types of biases\nin the data collection",
"timestamp": [
1281.97,
1286.42
]
},
{
"text": "and then also in the usage?\"",
"timestamp": [
1286.42,
1288.05
]
},
{
"text": "and then also in the usage?\"",
"timestamp": [
1286.42,
1288.05
]
},
{
"text": "I think, in certain areas,\nwe have societal expectations",
"timestamp": [
1288.05,
1292.09
]
},
{
"text": "I think, in certain areas,\nwe have societal expectations",
"timestamp": [
1288.05,
1292.09
]
},
{
"text": "as to what is fair and what isn't.",
"timestamp": [
1292.09,
1295.04
]
},
{
"text": "as to what is fair and what isn't.",
"timestamp": [
1292.09,
1295.04
]
},
{
"text": "- And so, it's not just the\nprovenance of that data,",
"timestamp": [
1295.04,
1299.56
]
},
{
"text": "- And so, it's not just the\nprovenance of that data,",
"timestamp": [
1295.04,
1299.56
]
},
{
"text": "but it's, sort of, deeply understanding,",
"timestamp": [
1299.56,
1301.307
]
},
{
"text": "but it's, sort of, deeply understanding,",
"timestamp": [
1299.56,
1301.307
]
},
{
"text": "\"Why does it look the way it looks?",
"timestamp": [
1301.307,
1303.16
]
},
{
"text": "\"Why does it look the way it looks?",
"timestamp": [
1301.307,
1303.16
]
},
{
"text": "Why was it collected this way?",
"timestamp": [
1303.16,
1304.44
]
},
{
"text": "Why was it collected this way?",
"timestamp": [
1303.16,
1304.44
]
},
{
"text": "What are the limitations of it?\"",
"timestamp": [
1304.44,
1306.11
]
},
{
"text": "What are the limitations of it?\"",
"timestamp": [
1304.44,
1306.11
]
},
{
"text": "We need to think about that",
"timestamp": [
1306.11,
1307.2
]
},
{
"text": "We need to think about that",
"timestamp": [
1306.11,
1307.2
]
},
{
"text": "in entire process, how\nwe document that process.",
"timestamp": [
1307.2,
1311.46
]
},
{
"text": "in entire process, how\nwe document that process.",
"timestamp": [
1307.2,
1311.46
]
},
{
"text": "This is an issue in companies",
"timestamp": [
1311.46,
1313.01
]
},
{
"text": "This is an issue in companies",
"timestamp": [
1311.46,
1313.01
]
},
{
"text": "where somebody might create something",
"timestamp": [
1313.01,
1315.15
]
},
{
"text": "where somebody might create something",
"timestamp": [
1313.01,
1315.15
]
},
{
"text": "that even their peers can't recreate.",
"timestamp": [
1315.15,
1317.47
]
},
{
"text": "that even their peers can't recreate.",
"timestamp": [
1315.15,
1317.47
]
},
{
"text": "- What have you seen in\nterms of which industries,",
"timestamp": [
1317.47,
1320.8
]
},
{
"text": "- What have you seen in\nterms of which industries,",
"timestamp": [
1317.47,
1320.8
]
},
{
"text": "where they stand, like\nwho is adopting now?",
"timestamp": [
1320.8,
1323.61
]
},
{
"text": "where they stand, like\nwho is adopting now?",
"timestamp": [
1320.8,
1323.61
]
},
{
"text": "Who is ready to utilize it?",
"timestamp": [
1323.61,
1326.55
]
},
{
"text": "Who is ready to utilize it?",
"timestamp": [
1323.61,
1326.55
]
},
{
"text": "Where would you maybe\nwish that didn't even try?",
"timestamp": [
1326.55,
1329.158
]
},
{
"text": "Where would you maybe\nwish that didn't even try?",
"timestamp": [
1326.55,
1329.158
]
},
{
"text": "[Hilary laughs]",
"timestamp": [
1329.158,
1330.33
]
},
{
"text": "[Hilary laughs]",
"timestamp": [
1329.158,
1330.33
]
},
{
"text": "- These are great questions.",
"timestamp": [
1330.33,
1331.55
]
},
{
"text": "- These are great questions.",
"timestamp": [
1330.33,
1331.55
]
},
{
"text": "So things like actuarial\nscience, operations research,",
"timestamp": [
1331.55,
1334.96
]
},
{
"text": "So things like actuarial\nscience, operations research,",
"timestamp": [
1331.55,
1334.96
]
},
{
"text": "where they actually are\nnot using machine learning",
"timestamp": [
1334.96,
1337.24
]
},
{
"text": "where they actually are\nnot using machine learning",
"timestamp": [
1334.96,
1337.24
]
},
{
"text": "as much as you might think.",
"timestamp": [
1337.24,
1338.56
]
},
{
"text": "as much as you might think.",
"timestamp": [
1337.24,
1338.56
]
},
{
"text": "And then you have other sorts of companies",
"timestamp": [
1338.56,
1341.46
]
},
{
"text": "And then you have other sorts of companies",
"timestamp": [
1338.56,
1341.46
]
},
{
"text": "or on the FinTech side, or\neven the ad tech side of things",
"timestamp": [
1341.46,
1344.93
]
},
{
"text": "or on the FinTech side, or\neven the ad tech side of things",
"timestamp": [
1341.46,
1344.93
]
},
{
"text": "where they perhaps are\nusing machine learning",
"timestamp": [
1344.93,
1347.81
]
},
{
"text": "where they perhaps are\nusing machine learning",
"timestamp": [
1344.93,
1347.81
]
},
{
"text": "to the point of even absurdity.",
"timestamp": [
1347.81,
1350.03
]
},
{
"text": "to the point of even absurdity.",
"timestamp": [
1347.81,
1350.03
]
},
{
"text": "- So I spent about eight\nyears working in ad tech.",
"timestamp": [
1350.03,
1353.93
]
},
{
"text": "- So I spent about eight\nyears working in ad tech.",
"timestamp": [
1350.03,
1353.93
]
},
{
"text": "And the motivation was really",
"timestamp": [
1353.93,
1357.28
]
},
{
"text": "And the motivation was really",
"timestamp": [
1353.93,
1357.28
]
},
{
"text": "because it was such an\namazingly exciting playground",
"timestamp": [
1357.28,
1361.33
]
},
{
"text": "because it was such an\namazingly exciting playground",
"timestamp": [
1357.28,
1361.33
]
},
{
"text": "to push that technology",
"timestamp": [
1361.33,
1363.72
]
},
{
"text": "to push that technology",
"timestamp": [
1361.33,
1363.72
]
},
{
"text": "that used to largely\nlive in academia, really,",
"timestamp": [
1363.72,
1367.053
]
},
{
"text": "that used to largely\nlive in academia, really,",
"timestamp": [
1363.72,
1367.053
]
},
{
"text": "out in the world and see,\nkind of, what it can achieve.",
"timestamp": [
1367.92,
1370.82
]
},
{
"text": "out in the world and see,\nkind of, what it can achieve.",
"timestamp": [
1367.92,
1370.82
]
},
{
"text": "It has created such a hunger for data",
"timestamp": [
1370.82,
1373.87
]
},
{
"text": "It has created such a hunger for data",
"timestamp": [
1370.82,
1373.87
]
},
{
"text": "that now everything is being collected.",
"timestamp": [
1373.87,
1376.89
]
},
{
"text": "that now everything is being collected.",
"timestamp": [
1373.87,
1376.89
]
},
{
"text": "I'm curious, when are we going to",
"timestamp": [
1376.89,
1379.66
]
},
{
"text": "I'm curious, when are we going to",
"timestamp": [
1376.89,
1379.66
]
},
{
"text": "make a foray into things like agriculture",
"timestamp": [
1381.08,
1383.82
]
},
{
"text": "make a foray into things like agriculture",
"timestamp": [
1381.08,
1383.82
]
},
{
"text": "about smart production\nof the things we eat?",
"timestamp": [
1383.82,
1388.42
]
},
{
"text": "about smart production\nof the things we eat?",
"timestamp": [
1383.82,
1388.42
]
},
{
"text": "You see and hear these\ninteresting stories,",
"timestamp": [
1388.42,
1390.44
]
},
{
"text": "You see and hear these\ninteresting stories,",
"timestamp": [
1388.42,
1390.44
]
},
{
"text": "but I feel like we're not ready yet",
"timestamp": [
1390.44,
1393.03
]
},
{
"text": "but I feel like we're not ready yet",
"timestamp": [
1390.44,
1393.03
]
},
{
"text": "to put that into a\neconomically viable situation.",
"timestamp": [
1393.03,
1397.68
]
},
{
"text": "to put that into a\neconomically viable situation.",
"timestamp": [
1393.03,
1397.68
]
},
{
"text": "- So when we think about\nthe next five to 10 years,",
"timestamp": [
1397.68,
1400.9
]
},
{
"text": "- So when we think about\nthe next five to 10 years,",
"timestamp": [
1397.68,
1400.9
]
},
{
"text": "the things that are really\nstill holding us back",
"timestamp": [
1400.9,
1404.03
]
},
{
"text": "the things that are really\nstill holding us back",
"timestamp": [
1400.9,
1404.03
]
},
{
"text": "are these uneven applications\nof resources to problems",
"timestamp": [
1404.03,
1409.03
]
},
{
"text": "are these uneven applications\nof resources to problems",
"timestamp": [
1404.03,
1409.03
]
},
{
"text": "because the problems that get attention",
"timestamp": [
1410.04,
1411.85
]
},
{
"text": "because the problems that get attention",
"timestamp": [
1410.04,
1411.85
]
},
{
"text": "are the high value ones",
"timestamp": [
1411.85,
1413.28
]
},
{
"text": "are the high value ones",
"timestamp": [
1411.85,
1413.28
]
},
{
"text": "in terms of how much money you can make",
"timestamp": [
1413.28,
1415.43
]
},
{
"text": "in terms of how much money you can make",
"timestamp": [
1413.28,
1415.43
]
},
{
"text": "or the things that are fashionable enough",
"timestamp": [
1415.43,
1417.04
]
},
{
"text": "or the things that are fashionable enough",
"timestamp": [
1415.43,
1417.04
]
},
{
"text": "that you can publish a paper on it.",
"timestamp": [
1417.04,
1418.76
]
},
{
"text": "that you can publish a paper on it.",
"timestamp": [
1417.04,
1418.76
]
},
{
"text": "So what do you think is holding us back?",
"timestamp": [
1418.76,
1420.89
]
},
{
"text": "So what do you think is holding us back?",
"timestamp": [
1418.76,
1420.89
]
},
{
"text": "- I fully agree on the\nsteps you pointed out",
"timestamp": [
1420.89,
1424.37
]
},
{
"text": "- I fully agree on the\nsteps you pointed out",
"timestamp": [
1420.89,
1424.37
]
},
{
"text": "and the processes.",
"timestamp": [
1424.37,
1425.91
]
},
{
"text": "and the processes.",
"timestamp": [
1424.37,
1425.91
]
},
{
"text": "I think there is a\nchicken and egg problem,",
"timestamp": [
1425.91,
1428.13
]
},
{
"text": "I think there is a\nchicken and egg problem,",
"timestamp": [
1425.91,
1428.13
]
},
{
"text": "like your former example,",
"timestamp": [
1428.13,
1429.43
]
},
{
"text": "like your former example,",
"timestamp": [
1428.13,
1429.43
]
},
{
"text": "that these areas that\nneed to wait for data,",
"timestamp": [
1429.43,
1434.43
]
},
{
"text": "that these areas that\nneed to wait for data,",
"timestamp": [
1429.43,
1434.43
]
},
{
"text": "the value of the data collection",
"timestamp": [
1434.74,
1436.53
]
},
{
"text": "the value of the data collection",
"timestamp": [
1434.74,
1436.53
]
},
{
"text": "is then also slightly less apparent.",
"timestamp": [
1436.53,
1439.47
]
},
{
"text": "is then also slightly less apparent.",
"timestamp": [
1436.53,
1439.47
]
},
{
"text": "And so, it gets delayed further",
"timestamp": [
1439.47,
1441.04
]
},
{
"text": "And so, it gets delayed further",
"timestamp": [
1439.47,
1441.04
]
},
{
"text": "and you'll see that happening.",
"timestamp": [
1441.04,
1442.89
]
},
{
"text": "and you'll see that happening.",
"timestamp": [
1441.04,
1442.89
]
},
{
"text": "But what my experience has been,",
"timestamp": [
1442.89,
1445.5
]
},
{
"text": "But what my experience has been,",
"timestamp": [
1442.89,
1445.5
]
},
{
"text": "there's unfortunately,\nI feel a drifting apart",
"timestamp": [
1445.5,
1449.11
]
},
{
"text": "there's unfortunately,\nI feel a drifting apart",
"timestamp": [
1445.5,
1449.11
]
},
{
"text": "between academia",
"timestamp": [
1449.11,
1450.82
]
},
{
"text": "between academia",
"timestamp": [
1449.11,
1450.82
]
},
{
"text": "and the uses of AI,",
"timestamp": [
1450.82,
1454.12
]
},
{
"text": "and the uses of AI,",
"timestamp": [
1450.82,
1454.12
]
},
{
"text": "but I am somewhat frustrated\nwith a generation of students",
"timestamp": [
1454.12,
1459.12
]
},
{
"text": "but I am somewhat frustrated\nwith a generation of students",
"timestamp": [
1454.12,
1459.12
]
},
{
"text": "who have standard data sets\nthat they never think about",
"timestamp": [
1459.29,
1462.86
]
},
{
"text": "who have standard data sets\nthat they never think about",
"timestamp": [
1459.29,
1462.86
]
},
{
"text": "what the model needs to be used for,",
"timestamp": [
1462.86,
1465.19
]
},
{
"text": "what the model needs to be used for,",
"timestamp": [
1462.86,
1465.19
]
},
{
"text": "that they never have to think about",
"timestamp": [
1465.19,
1466.74
]
},
{
"text": "that they never have to think about",
"timestamp": [
1465.19,
1466.74
]
},
{
"text": "how the data was collected.",
"timestamp": [
1466.74,
1468.36
]
},
{
"text": "how the data was collected.",
"timestamp": [
1466.74,
1468.36
]
},
{
"text": "So with all of these\nchallenges ahead of us,",
"timestamp": [
1468.36,
1471.18
]
},
{
"text": "So with all of these\nchallenges ahead of us,",
"timestamp": [
1468.36,
1471.18
]
},
{
"text": "how optimistic are you about this world",
"timestamp": [
1471.18,
1474.33
]
},
{
"text": "how optimistic are you about this world",
"timestamp": [
1471.18,
1474.33
]
},
{
"text": "that I deeply believe we can create",
"timestamp": [
1474.33,
1478.11
]
},
{
"text": "that I deeply believe we can create",
"timestamp": [
1474.33,
1478.11
]
},
{
"text": "and the steps towards it?",
"timestamp": [
1478.11,
1480.5
]
},
{
"text": "and the steps towards it?",
"timestamp": [
1478.11,
1480.5
]
},
{
"text": "- I am incredibly optimistic and not...",
"timestamp": [
1480.5,
1483.44
]
},
{
"text": "- I am incredibly optimistic and not...",
"timestamp": [
1480.5,
1483.44
]
},
{
"text": "Perhaps it's a personality\nflaw, but I can't help but look",
"timestamp": [
1483.44,
1486.98
]
},
{
"text": "Perhaps it's a personality\nflaw, but I can't help but look",
"timestamp": [
1483.44,
1486.98
]
},
{
"text": "at the potential of the\ntechnology to reduce harm,",
"timestamp": [
1486.98,
1491.98
]
},
{
"text": "at the potential of the\ntechnology to reduce harm,",
"timestamp": [
1486.98,
1491.98
]
},
{
"text": "to give us information that\nhelp us make better decisions.",
"timestamp": [
1492.25,
1495.46
]
},
{
"text": "to give us information that\nhelp us make better decisions.",
"timestamp": [
1492.25,
1495.46
]
},
{
"text": "And to think that we would choose",
"timestamp": [
1495.46,
1497.77
]
},
{
"text": "And to think that we would choose",
"timestamp": [
1495.46,
1497.77
]
},
{
"text": "to address the big problems ahead of us.",
"timestamp": [
1497.77,
1501.1
]
},
{
"text": "to address the big problems ahead of us.",
"timestamp": [
1497.77,
1501.1
]
},
{
"text": "I don't think we have a\nhope of addressing them",
"timestamp": [
1501.1,
1503.35
]
},
{
"text": "I don't think we have a\nhope of addressing them",
"timestamp": [
1501.1,
1503.35
]
},
{
"text": "without figuring out the role",
"timestamp": [
1503.35,
1505.01
]
},
{
"text": "without figuring out the role",
"timestamp": [
1503.35,
1505.01
]
},
{
"text": "that machine learning will play.",
"timestamp": [
1505.01,
1506.6
]
},
{
"text": "that machine learning will play.",
"timestamp": [
1505.01,
1506.6
]
},
{
"text": "And to think that we would\nthen choose not to do that",
"timestamp": [
1506.6,
1509.32
]
},
{
"text": "And to think that we would\nthen choose not to do that",
"timestamp": [
1506.6,
1509.32
]
},
{
"text": "is just unthinkable.",
"timestamp": [
1509.32,
1510.7
]
},
{
"text": "is just unthinkable.",
"timestamp": [
1509.32,
1510.7
]
},
{
"text": "- Despite that the\nrightfully raised concerns",
"timestamp": [
1510.7,
1514.95
]
},
{
"text": "- Despite that the\nrightfully raised concerns",
"timestamp": [
1510.7,
1514.95
]
},
{
"text": "about the challenges ahead,",
"timestamp": [
1514.95,
1516.21
]
},
{
"text": "about the challenges ahead,",
"timestamp": [
1514.95,
1516.21
]
},
{
"text": "but I think they also make\nus as a society better.",
"timestamp": [
1516.21,
1520.3
]
},
{
"text": "but I think they also make\nus as a society better.",
"timestamp": [
1516.21,
1520.3
]
},
{
"text": "They challenge us to be a lot clearer",
"timestamp": [
1520.3,
1523.26
]
},
{
"text": "They challenge us to be a lot clearer",
"timestamp": [
1520.3,
1523.26
]
},
{
"text": "of what fairness means to all of us.",
"timestamp": [
1523.26,
1526.94
]
},
{
"text": "of what fairness means to all of us.",
"timestamp": [
1523.26,
1526.94
]
},
{
"text": "So with all of the setbacks,",
"timestamp": [
1526.94,
1530.44
]
},
{
"text": "So with all of the setbacks,",
"timestamp": [
1526.94,
1530.44
]
},
{
"text": "I think we have exciting years to come.",
"timestamp": [
1530.44,
1533.84
]
},
{
"text": "I think we have exciting years to come.",
"timestamp": [
1530.44,
1533.84
]
},
{
"text": "And I am looking forward to a\nworld where a lot more of that",
"timestamp": [
1533.84,
1537.81
]
},
{
"text": "And I am looking forward to a\nworld where a lot more of that",
"timestamp": [
1533.84,
1537.81
]
},
{
"text": "is used for the right purposes.",
"timestamp": [
1537.81,
1540.288
]
},
{
"text": "is used for the right purposes.",
"timestamp": [
1537.81,
1540.288
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
1540.288,
1543.455
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
1540.288,
1543.455
]
},
{
"text": "- I hope you learned something\nabout machine learning.",
"timestamp": [
1545.45,
1548.41
]
},
{
"text": "- I hope you learned something\nabout machine learning.",
"timestamp": [
1545.45,
1548.41
]
},
{
"text": "There has never been a better\ntime to study machine learning",
"timestamp": [
1548.41,
1551.57
]
},
{
"text": "There has never been a better\ntime to study machine learning",
"timestamp": [
1548.41,
1551.57
]
},
{
"text": "because you're now able to build products",
"timestamp": [
1551.57,
1554.16
]
},
{
"text": "because you're now able to build products",
"timestamp": [
1551.57,
1554.16
]
},
{
"text": "that have tremendous potential and impact",
"timestamp": [
1554.16,
1557.21
]
},
{
"text": "that have tremendous potential and impact",
"timestamp": [
1554.16,
1557.21
]
},
{
"text": "across any industry or area\nthat you might be excited about.",
"timestamp": [
1557.21,
1561.323
]
},
{
"text": "across any industry or area\nthat you might be excited about.",
"timestamp": [
1557.21,
1561.323
]
}
] |
[
[
"Intro",
"- Hi, I'm Hilary Mason.\nI'm a computer scientist.And today, I've been asked\nto explain machine learningin five levels of increasing complexity.Machine learning gives us\nthe ability to learn thingsabout the world from large amounts of datathat we as human beings can't\npossibly study or appreciate.So machine learning is\nwhen we teach computersto learn patterns from\nlooking at examples in data,such that they can\nrecognize those patternsand apply them to new things\nthat they haven't seen before."
],
[
"What is Machine Learning",
"[playful music]Hi.- Hi.- I'm Hilary, what's your name?- I'm Brynn.- Do you know what machine learning means?Have you heard that before?- No.- So machine learning is a\nway that we teach computersto learn things about the\nworld by looking at patternsand looking at examples of things.So can I show you an exampleof how a machine might learn something?- Sure.- [Hilary] So is this a dog or a cat?- It's a dog.- And this one?- A cat.- And what makes a dog,\na dog and a cat, a cat?- Well, dogs are very playful,\nI think, more than cats.Cats lick themselves\nmore than dogs, I think.- That's true.Do you think, if we\nlook at these pictures,do you think maybe we could say,\"Well, they both have pointy ears,but the dogs have a different kind of bodyand the cats like to stand\nup a little different.\"?Do you think that makes sense?- Yeah.\n- Yeah.What about this one?- A dog.A cat.I think, a cat?Because it's more skinny.And also, its legs are like really talland its ears are a little pointy.- This one's a jackal. And\nit's actually a kind of dog.But you made a good guess.That's what machines do\ntoo. They make guesses.Is this a cat or a dog?- [Brynn] None.- [Hilary] None. What is it?- It's humans.- And how did you know that\nit's not a cat or a dog?- Because cats and dogs...Because they walk on their pawsand their ears are like\nright here, not right here,and they don't wear watches.- And so, you did something\npretty amazing there.Because we asked the question,\n\"Is it a cat or a dog?\"And you said, \"I disagree with\nyour question. It's a human.\"So machine learning is\nwhen we teach machinesto make guesses about what things arebased on looking at a lot\nof different examples.And I build products\nthat use machine learningto learn about the world and make guessesabout things in the world.When we try to teach\nmachines to recognize thingslike cats and dogs, it\ntakes a lot of examples.We have to show them tens of thousandsor even millions of examplesbefore they can get even close\nto as good at it as you are.Do you have tests in school?- Yeah, I have.After every unit, we have a\nreview and then we have a test.- Are those like the practice problemsyou do before the test?- Well, just like everything\nthat's gonna be on the testis on the review.- Which means that in the test,you're not seeing any problemsthat you don't know how to solve.As long as you did all\nyour practice, right?- Yeah.- So machines work the same way.If you show them a lot of\nexamples and give them practice,they'll learn how to guess.And then when you give them the test,they should be able to do that.So we looked at eight picturesand you were able to\nanswer really quickly.But what would you do if I\ngave you 10 million examples?Would you be able to do that so quickly?- No.- So one of the differences\nbetween people and machinesis that people might be\na little better at this,but can't look at 10\nmillion different things.So now that we've been talking\nabout machine learning,is this something you\nwant to learn how to do?- Kind of.Because I kind of want to become a spy.And we used to do coding,so I may be kind of good at it.- And machine learning\nis a great way to useall those math skills,\nall those coding skills,and would be a super cool tool for a spy."
],
[
"Level 1 Machine Learning",
"[quirky music]- Hello.- Hi. Are you a student, Lucy?- Yes, I just finished ninth grade.- Congratulations.- Thank you. It's very exciting.- Have you ever heard of\nmachine learning before?- I'm going to assume that\nit means humans being ableto teach machines or robots\nhow to learn themselves?- That's right.When we teach machines to learn from data,to build a model from that data\nor a representation of that,and then to make a prediction.One of the places we often\nfind machine learningin the real world is in things\nlike recommendation systems.So do you have an artist\nthat you really like?- Yeah, Melanie Martinez.- So I'm gonna look up Melanie Martinez.And it says here, \"If you\nlike Melanie Martinez,one of the other songs you\nmight like is by Au/Ra.\"Do you know who that is?- I do not.So let's listen to a hint of this song.- Okay.[alternative pop music]- All right.So why do you think Spotify\nmight've recommended that song?- Well, I know that in\nMelanie Martinez's music,she used a lot of the filtered voiceto make it sound very deep and lowand that song had that.- And that's actually a\nreally interesting thingto think about because that creepy vibeis something that you can\nperceive and I can perceive,but it's actually really hard\nto describe to a machine.What do you think might go into that?- Pitch of the music.If it's really low or if it's super high,it could know that.What can the machine understand?- It's a great question.The machine can understandwhatever we tell it to understand.So there might be a person\nthinking about things,like the pitch or the pacing or the tone,or sometimes machines can figure outthings about music or images or videosthat we don't tell it to discover,but that it can learnfrom looking at a lot\nof different examples.Why do you think companies\nmight use machine learning?- Well, I think things\nlike Facebook or Instagram,they probably use it to target ads.- Sometimes, the ads you\nsee are really uncanny.And I think that's because\nthey're based on so much data.They know where you live. They\nknow where your device is.It's also important to realize\nthat people in aggregateare actually pretty predictable.Like when we talk to each other,we like to talk about the novel things,like here, we're having this conversation.We don't do this every day.But we probably still eat breakfast.We're gonna eat lunch.\nWe're gonna eat dinner.You probably are going to the same homeyou go to most of the time.And so, they're able to take that datathat we already give them and\nmake predictions based on thatas to what ads they should show us.- So, you're saying I give\nthem enough data as it isabout what I might be talking\nabout or thinking aboutthat they can read my mind,[Hilary laughs]but just use the data that\nI've already given them.And it almost seems likethey're watching us.\n- That's right.To do machine learning, we use\nsomething called algorithms.Have you heard of algorithms before?- A set of steps or a processcarried out to complete something?- That's right.- So do you think that we've been ableto teach machines enoughso that they can do things\nthat even we can't do?And on the opposite side of that,do you think there are\nthings that we can dothat a machine might never be able to do?- So there are things that\nmachines are really great atthat humans are actually not great at.And imagine watching every video\nposted to TikTok every day.So we just don't have\nenough time to do thatat the rate at which we can\nactually watch those videos.But a machine can analyze all of themand then make recommendations to us.And then thinking about things\nthat machines are bad atand people are good at,\npeople are really greatwith only one or two examples\nof learning something newand incorporating that\ninto our model of the worldto make good decisions.Whereas machines often need\ntens of thousands of examples,and that's not even getting\ninto things like good judgmentbecause we care about people,because we can imagine a\nfuture that we want to live inthat doesn't exist today.And that's something that\nis still uniquely human.Machines are great at predictingbased on what they've seen in the past,but they're not creative.They're not going to invent.They're not gonna, you know,really change where we're gonna go.That's up to us."
],
[
"Level 2 Machine Learning",
"[serene music]- I'm Sunny.- [Hilary] And what are you majoring in?- I study Math and Computer Science.- So in your studies,have you learned about machine learning?- Yeah, I have.So to me, machine learning is essentiallyexactly what it sounds like.It's trying to teach a machine\nspecifics about somethingby inputting a lot of data pointsand slowly, the machine\nwill build up knowledgeabout it over time.For example, my Gmail program,I assume that there\nwould be a lot of, like,machine learning models\nhappening at once, right?- Absolutely.And that's a great example\nbecause you have modelsthat are operating to do\nthings like figure outif a new email is spam or not.So what would you thinkabout if you were looking at an emailand trying to decide if it went\nin one category or another?- I'd probably look at certain keywords.Maybe if the recipient and the senderhad exchanged emails beforeand generally, those\nfell into in the past.- So these are things\nwe would call features.And we go through a process\nwhere we do feature engineering,where somebody looks at\nthe example and says,\"Okay, these are the things\nthat I think might allow usto statistically tell the differencefrom something in one\ncategory versus another.So for example, perhaps\nyou don't speak Russian,you start getting a lot\nof email in Russian.- Obviously, like the features\nthat you just describedare features which a person\nwould have had to think about.Are there featureswhich, like, the machine\nitself could learn?- This is a great questionbecause it really gets to the differencebetween some of our different toolsin our machine learning tool beltin addressing problems like this.So if we were to use a\nsupervised learning classicclassification approach,a person would need to\nthink about those featuresand creatively come up with themin approach we call the\nkitchen sink approach,which is just try everything\nyou can possibly think ofand see what works.Unsupervised learning, where\nwe don't have labeled dataand we're trying to infer\nsome structure out of the datais you're projecting\nthat data into a spaceand looking for things like clusters.And there's a bunch of really fun mathabout how you do that, how\nyou think about distanceand by distance, I mean that\nif we have two data pointsin space, how do we decide\nif they're similar or not?- And how do the algorithms\nthemselves usually differbetween unsupervised\nand supervised learning.- Supervised learning, we have our labelsand we're trying to figure out\nwhat statistically indicatesif something matches one\nlabel or another label.Unsupervised learning,we don't necessarily have those labels.That's the thing we're trying to discover.So reinforcement learning\nis another techniquethat we use sometimes.You can think about it\nlike a turn in a gameand you can play, you know,\nmillions and millions of trialsso that you're able to develop a systemthat by experimenting with\nreinforcement learningcan eventually learn to play these gamespretty successfully.Deep learning, which is\nessentially using neural networksand very large amounts of\ndata to eventually iterateon a network structure\nthat can make predictions.- With reinforcement learning\nversus deep learning,it seems to me that\nreinforcement learning,is it sort of like the\nkitchen sink approachthat you were talking about earlier,where you're just kind\nof trying everything?- It is, but it also\nthrives in environmentswhere you have a decision point,a pallet of actions to choose from.And it actually comes historicallyfrom trying to train a\nrobot to navigate a room.If it bonks into this chair,\nit can't go forward anymore.And if it falls into that pit,you know, it's not going to succeed.But if it keeps exploring, it'll\neventually get to the goal.- Oh, like roombas?- [Hilary] Yes.[both laugh]- Oh, I didn't realize\nit was that deep, almost.Is there a situation\nwhich you'd want to usea deep learning algorithmover a reinforcement learning algorithm?- So typically, you would\nchoose deep learningif you have sufficient high quality data,hopefully labeled in a useful way.If you really are happy not\nto necessarily understandor be able to interpret\nwhat your system is doingor you're willing to investin another set of work\nafterwards to understandwhat the system is doing once\nyou've already trained it.And this also comes down to\nthe fact that some thingsare actually really easy to\nsolve with linear regressionor simple statistical approaches.And some things are impossible.- What would be the outcome\nif you were to choosethe, quote-unquote, \"wrong\" approach?- You build a system that\ncould actually be useless.So years ago, I had a client\nthat was a big telecom companyand they had a data scientistwho built a deep learning system\nto predict customer churn.It actually was very\naccurate, but it wasn't usefulbecause nobody knew why the\nprediction was what it was.So they could say, you know,\"Sunny, you're likely to quit next month.\"But they had no idea what to do about it.And so, I think there are\na bunch of failure modes.- Would that be an example\nof, like, linear regressionwhere the regression is accurate, but,you know, for marketing\npurposes, it's like,if you don't know why\nI'm quitting the service,then how can we fix this?- Yeah.This is actually a good\nexample of a very real worldkind of machine learning problem\nwhere the solution to thiswas to build an interpretable systemon top of the accurate\npredictions not to throw it away,but to do a bunch more\nwork to figure out the why.- How can we improve\nmachine learning algorithms?- It's actually fairly newthat we're able to solve\nall of these problemsand start to build these products\nand apply it in businessesand apply it, you know, everywhere.And so, we're still\ndeveloping good practicesand what it means to be a\nprofessional in machine learning.We're really developing a\nnotion of what good looks like."
],
[
"Level 3 Machine Learning",
"[quirky music]- I'm in my first year of\na PhD in Computer Scienceand I'm studying natural\nlanguage processingand machine learning.- So would you mind telling me a bit aboutwhat you've been working\non or interested in lately?- I've been looking at\nunderstanding persuasionin online text and the ways\nthat we might be able toautomatically detect the\nintent behind that persuasionor who it's targeted atand what makes effective\npersuasive techniques.- So what are some of the\ntechniques you're applyingto look at that debate data?- Something I'm interested in exploringis how well it works to use deep learningand sort of automatically\nextracted features from this textversus using some of the\nmore traditional techniquesthat we have, things like lexiconsor some sort of template\nmatching techniquesfor extracting features from texts.That's a question I'm just\ninterested in, in general.When do we really need deep learningversus when can we use somethingthat's a little bit more interpretable,something that's been around for a while?- Do you think there are\ngoing to be general principlesthat guide those decisions?Because right now, it's generallyup to the machine learning\nengineer to decidewhat tools they want to apply.- I definitely think there is,but I also, sort of, see it varying a lotbased on the use case,something that, kind\nof, works out of the boxand maybe works a little\nbit more automaticallymight be better.And in other cases, you\ndo, sort of, kind of,you want a lot of fine grain control.- So is that where some\nof that frustrationaround the lack of controllabilityand interpretability comes from?- Yeah, if you're building a modelthat just predicts the next thingbased off of everything\nit's seen from texts online,then yeah, you're really\ngonna be replicatingwhatever that distribution online is.- If you train a model off\nof language off the internet,it sometimes says uncomfortable thingsor inappropriate things and\nsometimes really biased things.Have you ever run into this yourself?And then how do you\nthink about that problemof potentially even measuring the biasin a model that we've trained?- Yeah, it's a really tricky question.As you said, these models are\ntrained to, sort of, predictthe next sequence of words,given a certain sequence of words.So we could start with\njust, sort of, promptslike \"the woman was\" versus \"the man was\",and, kind of, pull out common wordsthat are, sort of, more usedwith one phrase versus the other.So that's, sort of, a\nqualitative way of looking at it.It's not ever kind of a\nguarantee of how the modelis gonna behave in one\nparticular instance.And I think that's what's really trickyand that's why I, sort\nof, think it's really goodfor creators of systems to just be honestabout, \"This is, sort\nof, what we have seen.\"And so then, someone can make\ntheir own judgment about,\"Is this gonna be too high riskfor, sort of, my particular use case?\"- I imagine in the last few years,we've seen a lot of\nchanges and improvementsin the capabilities of NLP systems.So is there anything in thatthat you're particularly\nexcited about exploring further?- I'm really interested in,\nsort of, the creative potentialthat we've started to see from NLP systemswith things like GPT-3and other really powerful language models.It's really easy to write\nlong grammatical passagesthinking about the way that\nwe can then harness, like,the human ability to actually\ngive meaning to those wordsand, sort of, provide structureand how we can combine those\nthings with the, kind of like,generative capabilities\nof these models nowis really interesting.- Yeah, I agree."
],
[
"Level 4 Machine Learning",
"[quirky music]So, hi Claudia. It's so great to see you.- It has been far too long.- You know, we first met 10, 11 years agoand machine learning has\nchanged a lot since then.- Tooling that we now have, the capacity,and also, an elevation of the problem setsthat we're dealing with and\nhow to frame the problem.And I'm almost struggling to figure outwhether it's a blessing or\ncurse that it has becomeas accessible and as democratized\nand as easy to executeand you just build another\nnew company from scratch.And so, what's been, kind\nof, your reflection on that?- Well, you're absolutely\nright that the attentionmachine learning gets\nhas grown dramatically.20 years ago, going to gatheringsand telling people what I was working onand seeing the blank face or the like,\"Where's the turn?\" and walk away.Like, \"Oh, no.\"The accessibility of the tooling,like, we can now do in,\nlike, five lines of codesomething that would have taken 500 linesof very mathematical, messy, gnarly codeeven, you know, five years ago.And that's not an exaggeration.And there are tools that\nmean that pretty much anyonecan pick this up and start playing with itand start to build with it.And that is also really exciting.- In contrast, what I'm struggling with,the friend of mine who asked meto look at some health care data for him.And despite the capabilities\nthat we're havingin all of the, kind of,\nbigger societal problemsalongside with data\ncollection engineering,all the gnarly stuff,that is actually not the\nmachine learning itself,it's the rest of it where\ncertain data isn't available.And to me, it's staggering\nhow difficult it isto get it off the ground and actually use.- And part of the challenge of itis not the mathematics of building models,but the challenge is\nmaking sure that the datais sufficiently representative,\npotentially high quality.- And how transparent\ndo I need to build itfor it to be adopted at some point?What types of biases\nin the data collection,and then also in the usage?We now call it the bias,\nbut we're still strugglingwith the society not really\nliving up to its expectationsand then machine learning,\nbringing it to the forefront.- Right.And so, to say that another way,when you're collecting\ndata from the real worldand then building machine learning systemsthat automate decisions\nbased on that data,all of the biases and problemsthat are already in the real\nworld then can be magnifiedthrough that machine learning system.And so, it can make many of\nthese problems much worse.- Feeling increasingly challengedthat my skillset of being\nvery good at programminghas become somewhat secondary.And it's feeling...[both laugh]It's really the bigger\npicture understandingof \"Who would be using that?How transparent do I need to build itfor it to be adopted at some point?What types of biases\nin the data collectionand then also in the usage?\"I think, in certain areas,\nwe have societal expectationsas to what is fair and what isn't.- And so, it's not just the\nprovenance of that data,but it's, sort of, deeply understanding,\"Why does it look the way it looks?Why was it collected this way?What are the limitations of it?\"We need to think about thatin entire process, how\nwe document that process.This is an issue in companieswhere somebody might create somethingthat even their peers can't recreate.- What have you seen in\nterms of which industries,where they stand, like\nwho is adopting now?Who is ready to utilize it?Where would you maybe\nwish that didn't even try?[Hilary laughs]- These are great questions.So things like actuarial\nscience, operations research,where they actually are\nnot using machine learningas much as you might think.And then you have other sorts of companiesor on the FinTech side, or\neven the ad tech side of thingswhere they perhaps are\nusing machine learningto the point of even absurdity.- So I spent about eight\nyears working in ad tech.And the motivation was reallybecause it was such an\namazingly exciting playgroundto push that technologythat used to largely\nlive in academia, really,out in the world and see,\nkind of, what it can achieve.It has created such a hunger for datathat now everything is being collected.I'm curious, when are we going tomake a foray into things like agricultureabout smart production\nof the things we eat?You see and hear these\ninteresting stories,but I feel like we're not ready yetto put that into a\neconomically viable situation.- So when we think about\nthe next five to 10 years,the things that are really\nstill holding us backare these uneven applications\nof resources to problemsbecause the problems that get attentionare the high value onesin terms of how much money you can makeor the things that are fashionable enoughthat you can publish a paper on it.So what do you think is holding us back?- I fully agree on the\nsteps you pointed outand the processes.I think there is a\nchicken and egg problem,like your former example,that these areas that\nneed to wait for data,the value of the data collectionis then also slightly less apparent.And so, it gets delayed furtherand you'll see that happening.But what my experience has been,there's unfortunately,\nI feel a drifting apartbetween academiaand the uses of AI,but I am somewhat frustrated\nwith a generation of studentswho have standard data sets\nthat they never think aboutwhat the model needs to be used for,that they never have to think abouthow the data was collected.So with all of these\nchallenges ahead of us,how optimistic are you about this worldthat I deeply believe we can createand the steps towards it?- I am incredibly optimistic and not...Perhaps it's a personality\nflaw, but I can't help but lookat the potential of the\ntechnology to reduce harm,to give us information that\nhelp us make better decisions.And to think that we would chooseto address the big problems ahead of us.I don't think we have a\nhope of addressing themwithout figuring out the rolethat machine learning will play.And to think that we would\nthen choose not to do thatis just unthinkable.- Despite that the\nrightfully raised concernsabout the challenges ahead,but I think they also make\nus as a society better.They challenge us to be a lot clearerof what fairness means to all of us.So with all of the setbacks,I think we have exciting years to come.And I am looking forward to a\nworld where a lot more of thatis used for the right purposes.[gentle upbeat music]- I hope you learned something\nabout machine learning.There has never been a better\ntime to study machine learningbecause you're now able to build productsthat have tremendous potential and impactacross any industry or area\nthat you might be excited about."
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Neuroscientist Explains One Concept in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
VTvJOb2hJ6k
| 1,777
|
[
{
"end_time": 19,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "Intro"
},
{
"end_time": 236,
"start_time": 19,
"title": "What is memory"
},
{
"end_time": 443,
"start_time": 236,
"title": "What does memory do"
},
{
"end_time": 881,
"start_time": 443,
"title": "The importance of memory"
},
{
"end_time": 1190,
"start_time": 881,
"title": "What are you studying"
},
{
"end_time": 1512,
"start_time": 1190,
"title": "What is network science"
},
{
"end_time": 1777,
"start_time": 1512,
"title": "The role of memory"
}
] |
[
{
"text": "- Hi, my name is Daphna Shohamy.",
"timestamp": [
0.12,
2.15
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, my name is Daphna Shohamy.",
"timestamp": [
0.12,
2.15
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a neuroscientist\nat Columbia University.",
"timestamp": [
2.15,
4.63
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a neuroscientist\nat Columbia University.",
"timestamp": [
2.15,
4.63
]
},
{
"text": "And today I've been\nasked to explain memory",
"timestamp": [
4.63,
7.28
]
},
{
"text": "And today I've been\nasked to explain memory",
"timestamp": [
4.63,
7.28
]
},
{
"text": "at five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
7.28,
9.83
]
},
{
"text": "at five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
7.28,
9.83
]
},
{
"text": "My research aims to understand\nhow memories are created",
"timestamp": [
9.83,
14.058
]
},
{
"text": "My research aims to understand\nhow memories are created",
"timestamp": [
9.83,
14.058
]
},
{
"text": "and how they shape who we are,",
"timestamp": [
14.058,
16.38
]
},
{
"text": "and how they shape who we are,",
"timestamp": [
14.058,
16.38
]
},
{
"text": "what we do, and the decisions we make.",
"timestamp": [
16.38,
18.499
]
},
{
"text": "what we do, and the decisions we make.",
"timestamp": [
16.38,
18.499
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
18.499,
21.166
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
18.499,
21.166
]
},
{
"text": "We're here today to talk about memory.",
"timestamp": [
23.85,
26.123
]
},
{
"text": "We're here today to talk about memory.",
"timestamp": [
23.85,
26.123
]
},
{
"text": "When I say the word memory\nwhat comes to your mind?",
"timestamp": [
26.123,
28.28
]
},
{
"text": "When I say the word memory\nwhat comes to your mind?",
"timestamp": [
26.123,
28.28
]
},
{
"text": "- Like I once went on vacation\nto Dominican Republic.",
"timestamp": [
28.28,
33.28
]
},
{
"text": "- Like I once went on vacation\nto Dominican Republic.",
"timestamp": [
28.28,
33.28
]
},
{
"text": "I think I was like six or five years old.",
"timestamp": [
34.48,
39.48
]
},
{
"text": "I think I was like six or five years old.",
"timestamp": [
34.48,
39.48
]
},
{
"text": "- So on your trip what\nwas the funnest day ever?",
"timestamp": [
39.87,
43.8
]
},
{
"text": "- So on your trip what\nwas the funnest day ever?",
"timestamp": [
39.87,
43.8
]
},
{
"text": "- There was this pool, I love pools.",
"timestamp": [
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46.786
]
},
{
"text": "- There was this pool, I love pools.",
"timestamp": [
43.8,
46.786
]
},
{
"text": "And then there's a slide you go down",
"timestamp": [
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49.52
]
},
{
"text": "And then there's a slide you go down",
"timestamp": [
46.786,
49.52
]
},
{
"text": "and there's pool noodles in there too.",
"timestamp": [
49.52,
51.81
]
},
{
"text": "and there's pool noodles in there too.",
"timestamp": [
49.52,
51.81
]
},
{
"text": "And then there's a little tiny sandbox.",
"timestamp": [
51.81,
54.2
]
},
{
"text": "And then there's a little tiny sandbox.",
"timestamp": [
51.81,
54.2
]
},
{
"text": "- It's pretty amazing, right?",
"timestamp": [
54.2,
55.27
]
},
{
"text": "- It's pretty amazing, right?",
"timestamp": [
54.2,
55.27
]
},
{
"text": "Because it happened\nlike a year or two ago.",
"timestamp": [
55.27,
58.05
]
},
{
"text": "Because it happened\nlike a year or two ago.",
"timestamp": [
55.27,
58.05
]
},
{
"text": "Our memory is basically\na record in our brain",
"timestamp": [
58.05,
61.37
]
},
{
"text": "Our memory is basically\na record in our brain",
"timestamp": [
58.05,
61.37
]
},
{
"text": "of something that happened in the past,",
"timestamp": [
61.37,
63.1
]
},
{
"text": "of something that happened in the past,",
"timestamp": [
61.37,
63.1
]
},
{
"text": "but that record it created isn't perfect.",
"timestamp": [
63.1,
65.87
]
},
{
"text": "but that record it created isn't perfect.",
"timestamp": [
63.1,
65.87
]
},
{
"text": "So that day, do you remember\nwas the pool at your hotel?",
"timestamp": [
65.87,
68.93
]
},
{
"text": "So that day, do you remember\nwas the pool at your hotel?",
"timestamp": [
65.87,
68.93
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't really remember.",
"timestamp": [
68.93,
71.52
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't really remember.",
"timestamp": [
68.93,
71.52
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you remember from that\nday what color towel you used",
"timestamp": [
71.52,
75.77
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you remember from that\nday what color towel you used",
"timestamp": [
71.52,
75.77
]
},
{
"text": "when you got out of the pool?",
"timestamp": [
75.77,
76.86
]
},
{
"text": "when you got out of the pool?",
"timestamp": [
75.77,
76.86
]
},
{
"text": "- I think the one I used was a\ndark blue or a light blue or,",
"timestamp": [
76.86,
81.67
]
},
{
"text": "- I think the one I used was a\ndark blue or a light blue or,",
"timestamp": [
76.86,
81.67
]
},
{
"text": "or like sort of a teal.",
"timestamp": [
81.67,
83.52
]
},
{
"text": "or like sort of a teal.",
"timestamp": [
81.67,
83.52
]
},
{
"text": "- When you were telling\nme about the sandbox,",
"timestamp": [
83.52,
85.93
]
},
{
"text": "- When you were telling\nme about the sandbox,",
"timestamp": [
83.52,
85.93
]
},
{
"text": "it felt like you didn't\nhave to make that guess,",
"timestamp": [
85.93,
88.74
]
},
{
"text": "it felt like you didn't\nhave to make that guess,",
"timestamp": [
85.93,
88.74
]
},
{
"text": "that you could just see\nthe sandbox in your eyes.",
"timestamp": [
88.74,
92.61
]
},
{
"text": "that you could just see\nthe sandbox in your eyes.",
"timestamp": [
88.74,
92.61
]
},
{
"text": "I asked you about the towel.",
"timestamp": [
92.61,
94.3
]
},
{
"text": "I asked you about the towel.",
"timestamp": [
92.61,
94.3
]
},
{
"text": "It doesn't come to mind immediately,",
"timestamp": [
94.3,
95.92
]
},
{
"text": "It doesn't come to mind immediately,",
"timestamp": [
94.3,
95.92
]
},
{
"text": "but you can stop and think about it",
"timestamp": [
95.92,
97.53
]
},
{
"text": "but you can stop and think about it",
"timestamp": [
95.92,
97.53
]
},
{
"text": "and kind of make a good guess\nbecause there are things",
"timestamp": [
97.53,
100.13
]
},
{
"text": "and kind of make a good guess\nbecause there are things",
"timestamp": [
97.53,
100.13
]
},
{
"text": "you know about the world.",
"timestamp": [
100.13,
101.87
]
},
{
"text": "you know about the world.",
"timestamp": [
100.13,
101.87
]
},
{
"text": "And for those of us who study memory",
"timestamp": [
101.87,
103.76
]
},
{
"text": "And for those of us who study memory",
"timestamp": [
101.87,
103.76
]
},
{
"text": "that's a really strong hint\nas to how memory works.",
"timestamp": [
103.76,
107.64
]
},
{
"text": "that's a really strong hint\nas to how memory works.",
"timestamp": [
103.76,
107.64
]
},
{
"text": "And so for you your memory\nkept all the fun stuff",
"timestamp": [
107.64,
110.602
]
},
{
"text": "And so for you your memory\nkept all the fun stuff",
"timestamp": [
107.64,
110.602
]
},
{
"text": "and all the stuff that\nwas important to you,",
"timestamp": [
110.602,
112.6
]
},
{
"text": "and all the stuff that\nwas important to you,",
"timestamp": [
110.602,
112.6
]
},
{
"text": "but the details like did\nyou have to have a ticket",
"timestamp": [
112.6,
115.25
]
},
{
"text": "but the details like did\nyou have to have a ticket",
"timestamp": [
112.6,
115.25
]
},
{
"text": "to get in or how you got there,",
"timestamp": [
115.25,
117.21
]
},
{
"text": "to get in or how you got there,",
"timestamp": [
115.25,
117.21
]
},
{
"text": "all these other less interesting,\nless exciting aspects,",
"timestamp": [
117.21,
121.09
]
},
{
"text": "all these other less interesting,\nless exciting aspects,",
"timestamp": [
117.21,
121.09
]
},
{
"text": "your brain kind of decided letting go",
"timestamp": [
121.09,
123.74
]
},
{
"text": "your brain kind of decided letting go",
"timestamp": [
121.09,
123.74
]
},
{
"text": "of all that information.",
"timestamp": [
123.74,
125.11
]
},
{
"text": "of all that information.",
"timestamp": [
123.74,
125.11
]
},
{
"text": "- I think as you get older you\nstart forgetting things more",
"timestamp": [
125.11,
128.2
]
},
{
"text": "- I think as you get older you\nstart forgetting things more",
"timestamp": [
125.11,
128.2
]
},
{
"text": "because you have to make\nspace for new things,",
"timestamp": [
128.2,
130.73
]
},
{
"text": "because you have to make\nspace for new things,",
"timestamp": [
128.2,
130.73
]
},
{
"text": "which is why you forget stuff.",
"timestamp": [
130.73,
132.21
]
},
{
"text": "which is why you forget stuff.",
"timestamp": [
130.73,
132.21
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, that's a great insight.",
"timestamp": [
132.21,
133.64
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, that's a great insight.",
"timestamp": [
132.21,
133.64
]
},
{
"text": "Basically we can't remember everything.",
"timestamp": [
133.64,
135.67
]
},
{
"text": "Basically we can't remember everything.",
"timestamp": [
133.64,
135.67
]
},
{
"text": "So when you tell us this\nmemory of that vacation",
"timestamp": [
135.67,
139.12
]
},
{
"text": "So when you tell us this\nmemory of that vacation",
"timestamp": [
135.67,
139.12
]
},
{
"text": "and your brain is able to\nkind of play almost this movie",
"timestamp": [
139.12,
142.3
]
},
{
"text": "and your brain is able to\nkind of play almost this movie",
"timestamp": [
139.12,
142.3
]
},
{
"text": "of a memory, a moment, a day\nthat you had in your life",
"timestamp": [
142.3,
145.377
]
},
{
"text": "of a memory, a moment, a day\nthat you had in your life",
"timestamp": [
142.3,
145.377
]
},
{
"text": "a while ago, where do\nthose memories come from?",
"timestamp": [
145.377,
148.71
]
},
{
"text": "a while ago, where do\nthose memories come from?",
"timestamp": [
145.377,
148.71
]
},
{
"text": "- I do know that there's\ndifferent parts of the brain.",
"timestamp": [
148.71,
151.87
]
},
{
"text": "- I do know that there's\ndifferent parts of the brain.",
"timestamp": [
148.71,
151.87
]
},
{
"text": "So there's probably a part of your brain",
"timestamp": [
151.87,
153.53
]
},
{
"text": "So there's probably a part of your brain",
"timestamp": [
151.87,
153.53
]
},
{
"text": "that remembers a bunch of stuff.",
"timestamp": [
153.53,
156.26
]
},
{
"text": "that remembers a bunch of stuff.",
"timestamp": [
153.53,
156.26
]
},
{
"text": "- The hippocampus is a part\nof your brain that if you",
"timestamp": [
156.26,
159.24
]
},
{
"text": "- The hippocampus is a part\nof your brain that if you",
"timestamp": [
156.26,
159.24
]
},
{
"text": "kind of took it out and looked at it,",
"timestamp": [
159.24,
160.74
]
},
{
"text": "kind of took it out and looked at it,",
"timestamp": [
159.24,
160.74
]
},
{
"text": "it looks a lot like a seahorse",
"timestamp": [
160.74,
162.35
]
},
{
"text": "it looks a lot like a seahorse",
"timestamp": [
160.74,
162.35
]
},
{
"text": "and it plays a really important\nrole in creating those kinds",
"timestamp": [
162.35,
165.78
]
},
{
"text": "and it plays a really important\nrole in creating those kinds",
"timestamp": [
162.35,
165.78
]
},
{
"text": "of memories that help you\ntwo years after your vacation",
"timestamp": [
165.78,
169.81
]
},
{
"text": "of memories that help you\ntwo years after your vacation",
"timestamp": [
165.78,
169.81
]
},
{
"text": "share with me what happened that day,",
"timestamp": [
169.81,
172.94
]
},
{
"text": "share with me what happened that day,",
"timestamp": [
169.81,
172.94
]
},
{
"text": "all these details of that day.",
"timestamp": [
172.94,
175.924
]
},
{
"text": "all these details of that day.",
"timestamp": [
172.94,
175.924
]
},
{
"text": "There's another part of the brain.",
"timestamp": [
175.924,
176.9
]
},
{
"text": "There's another part of the brain.",
"timestamp": [
175.924,
176.9
]
},
{
"text": "It's actually also important for memory",
"timestamp": [
176.9,
179.37
]
},
{
"text": "It's actually also important for memory",
"timestamp": [
176.9,
179.37
]
},
{
"text": "and it's called the amygdala\nand it is important for keeping",
"timestamp": [
179.37,
184.08
]
},
{
"text": "and it's called the amygdala\nand it is important for keeping",
"timestamp": [
179.37,
184.08
]
},
{
"text": "all the kind of emotional\nprocessing going for memory.",
"timestamp": [
184.08,
187.54
]
},
{
"text": "all the kind of emotional\nprocessing going for memory.",
"timestamp": [
184.08,
187.54
]
},
{
"text": "So memory for things\nthat are really scary,",
"timestamp": [
187.54,
190.2
]
},
{
"text": "So memory for things\nthat are really scary,",
"timestamp": [
187.54,
190.2
]
},
{
"text": "it's gonna talk to the hippocampus now",
"timestamp": [
190.2,
191.95
]
},
{
"text": "it's gonna talk to the hippocampus now",
"timestamp": [
190.2,
191.95
]
},
{
"text": "and get that memory to be really strong.",
"timestamp": [
191.95,
193.93
]
},
{
"text": "and get that memory to be really strong.",
"timestamp": [
191.95,
193.93
]
},
{
"text": "Why do you think it might be important",
"timestamp": [
193.93,
195.16
]
},
{
"text": "Why do you think it might be important",
"timestamp": [
193.93,
195.16
]
},
{
"text": "to remember scary things?",
"timestamp": [
195.16,
196.59
]
},
{
"text": "to remember scary things?",
"timestamp": [
195.16,
196.59
]
},
{
"text": "- Let's say you, you\naccidentally cut yourself.",
"timestamp": [
196.59,
200.5
]
},
{
"text": "- Let's say you, you\naccidentally cut yourself.",
"timestamp": [
196.59,
200.5
]
},
{
"text": "Then your brain makes a note",
"timestamp": [
200.5,
202.37
]
},
{
"text": "Then your brain makes a note",
"timestamp": [
200.5,
202.37
]
},
{
"text": "and says don't get too\nclose to sharp things,",
"timestamp": [
202.37,
205.35
]
},
{
"text": "and says don't get too\nclose to sharp things,",
"timestamp": [
202.37,
205.35
]
},
{
"text": "or you're going to cut yourself again.",
"timestamp": [
205.35,
207.57
]
},
{
"text": "or you're going to cut yourself again.",
"timestamp": [
205.35,
207.57
]
},
{
"text": "- You got it.",
"timestamp": [
207.57,
208.403
]
},
{
"text": "- You got it.",
"timestamp": [
207.57,
208.403
]
},
{
"text": "And so we don't just remember everything",
"timestamp": [
208.403,
210.25
]
},
{
"text": "And so we don't just remember everything",
"timestamp": [
208.403,
210.25
]
},
{
"text": "and we don't remember random things.",
"timestamp": [
210.25,
211.86
]
},
{
"text": "and we don't remember random things.",
"timestamp": [
210.25,
211.86
]
},
{
"text": "We remember the things\nthat matter to us the most.",
"timestamp": [
211.86,
214.22
]
},
{
"text": "We remember the things\nthat matter to us the most.",
"timestamp": [
211.86,
214.22
]
},
{
"text": "So Abigail based on\nour conversation today,",
"timestamp": [
214.22,
216.38
]
},
{
"text": "So Abigail based on\nour conversation today,",
"timestamp": [
214.22,
216.38
]
},
{
"text": "can you tell me what is a memory?",
"timestamp": [
216.38,
218.9
]
},
{
"text": "can you tell me what is a memory?",
"timestamp": [
216.38,
218.9
]
},
{
"text": "- A memory is something\nstored in your hippocampus",
"timestamp": [
218.9,
223.9
]
},
{
"text": "- A memory is something\nstored in your hippocampus",
"timestamp": [
218.9,
223.9
]
},
{
"text": "and your hippocampus is\na part of your brain.",
"timestamp": [
224.36,
227.03
]
},
{
"text": "and your hippocampus is\na part of your brain.",
"timestamp": [
224.36,
227.03
]
},
{
"text": "It's just a big record.",
"timestamp": [
227.03,
228.74
]
},
{
"text": "It's just a big record.",
"timestamp": [
227.03,
228.74
]
},
{
"text": "And sometimes you can\nforget parts of the record",
"timestamp": [
228.74,
232.8
]
},
{
"text": "And sometimes you can\nforget parts of the record",
"timestamp": [
228.74,
232.8
]
},
{
"text": "that's not that important to you.",
"timestamp": [
232.8,
234.339
]
},
{
"text": "that's not that important to you.",
"timestamp": [
232.8,
234.339
]
},
{
"text": "- You got it.",
"timestamp": [
234.339,
235.576
]
},
{
"text": "- You got it.",
"timestamp": [
234.339,
235.576
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
235.576,
238.243
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
235.576,
238.243
]
},
{
"text": "What do you know about memory?",
"timestamp": [
242.939,
244.1
]
},
{
"text": "What do you know about memory?",
"timestamp": [
242.939,
244.1
]
},
{
"text": "- I know when you see\nsomething you could like",
"timestamp": [
244.1,
246.49
]
},
{
"text": "- I know when you see\nsomething you could like",
"timestamp": [
244.1,
246.49
]
},
{
"text": "kind of like picture it,",
"timestamp": [
246.49,
247.55
]
},
{
"text": "kind of like picture it,",
"timestamp": [
246.49,
247.55
]
},
{
"text": "like in your head you can imagine it.",
"timestamp": [
247.55,
249.32
]
},
{
"text": "like in your head you can imagine it.",
"timestamp": [
247.55,
249.32
]
},
{
"text": "I remember yesterday I\ngot like orange juice,",
"timestamp": [
249.32,
252.71
]
},
{
"text": "I remember yesterday I\ngot like orange juice,",
"timestamp": [
249.32,
252.71
]
},
{
"text": "but let's say like a year or\ntwo, you might think like, oh,",
"timestamp": [
252.71,
257.077
]
},
{
"text": "but let's say like a year or\ntwo, you might think like, oh,",
"timestamp": [
252.71,
257.077
]
},
{
"text": "that day I got water.",
"timestamp": [
257.077,
259.45
]
},
{
"text": "that day I got water.",
"timestamp": [
257.077,
259.45
]
},
{
"text": "- And on one hand memory is\nlike a record of something",
"timestamp": [
259.45,
262.35
]
},
{
"text": "- And on one hand memory is\nlike a record of something",
"timestamp": [
259.45,
262.35
]
},
{
"text": "that happened in the past\nthat we can carry with us",
"timestamp": [
262.35,
264.98
]
},
{
"text": "that happened in the past\nthat we can carry with us",
"timestamp": [
262.35,
264.98
]
},
{
"text": "and we can like bring it back to mind.",
"timestamp": [
264.98,
266.76
]
},
{
"text": "and we can like bring it back to mind.",
"timestamp": [
264.98,
266.76
]
},
{
"text": "And on the other hand we need\nto be a little bit suspicious",
"timestamp": [
266.76,
270.63
]
},
{
"text": "And on the other hand we need\nto be a little bit suspicious",
"timestamp": [
266.76,
270.63
]
},
{
"text": "sometimes because we might get it wrong.",
"timestamp": [
270.63,
273.25
]
},
{
"text": "sometimes because we might get it wrong.",
"timestamp": [
270.63,
273.25
]
},
{
"text": "In what world would that\nmemory of the orange juice",
"timestamp": [
273.25,
275.67
]
},
{
"text": "In what world would that\nmemory of the orange juice",
"timestamp": [
273.25,
275.67
]
},
{
"text": "maybe be useful?",
"timestamp": [
275.67,
276.81
]
},
{
"text": "maybe be useful?",
"timestamp": [
275.67,
276.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Let's say you grew up in a\nplace that the orange juice",
"timestamp": [
276.81,
280.597
]
},
{
"text": "- Let's say you grew up in a\nplace that the orange juice",
"timestamp": [
276.81,
280.597
]
},
{
"text": "is just meh, and then you go\non vacation going somewhere",
"timestamp": [
280.597,
282.494
]
},
{
"text": "is just meh, and then you go\non vacation going somewhere",
"timestamp": [
280.597,
282.494
]
},
{
"text": "and then it might change how\nyou feel about orange juice.",
"timestamp": [
282.494,
285.91
]
},
{
"text": "and then it might change how\nyou feel about orange juice.",
"timestamp": [
282.494,
285.91
]
},
{
"text": "- Sometimes, you know,\nmemory is doing something",
"timestamp": [
285.91,
289.62
]
},
{
"text": "- Sometimes, you know,\nmemory is doing something",
"timestamp": [
285.91,
289.62
]
},
{
"text": "much simpler but no less important for us,",
"timestamp": [
289.62,
292.22
]
},
{
"text": "much simpler but no less important for us,",
"timestamp": [
289.62,
292.22
]
},
{
"text": "which is it's helping us\nfigure out what's good",
"timestamp": [
292.22,
294.29
]
},
{
"text": "which is it's helping us\nfigure out what's good",
"timestamp": [
292.22,
294.29
]
},
{
"text": "and what's bad.",
"timestamp": [
294.29,
295.58
]
},
{
"text": "and what's bad.",
"timestamp": [
294.29,
295.58
]
},
{
"text": "And if we can remember what's good",
"timestamp": [
295.58,
297.43
]
},
{
"text": "And if we can remember what's good",
"timestamp": [
295.58,
297.43
]
},
{
"text": "and what's bad from\nwhat we did in the past,",
"timestamp": [
297.43,
299.48
]
},
{
"text": "and what's bad from\nwhat we did in the past,",
"timestamp": [
297.43,
299.48
]
},
{
"text": "that can help us make decisions\nabout what to do next time.",
"timestamp": [
299.48,
303.32
]
},
{
"text": "that can help us make decisions\nabout what to do next time.",
"timestamp": [
299.48,
303.32
]
},
{
"text": "So Dylan, you may be\nsurprised to learn this,",
"timestamp": [
303.32,
306.8
]
},
{
"text": "So Dylan, you may be\nsurprised to learn this,",
"timestamp": [
303.32,
306.8
]
},
{
"text": "but we asked your mom what some of your",
"timestamp": [
306.8,
308.75
]
},
{
"text": "but we asked your mom what some of your",
"timestamp": [
306.8,
308.75
]
},
{
"text": "favorite candies are.",
"timestamp": [
308.75,
310.32
]
},
{
"text": "favorite candies are.",
"timestamp": [
308.75,
310.32
]
},
{
"text": "So you have to make a decision\nbetween these two candies",
"timestamp": [
310.32,
313.03
]
},
{
"text": "So you have to make a decision\nbetween these two candies",
"timestamp": [
310.32,
313.03
]
},
{
"text": "and whichever one you pick,",
"timestamp": [
313.03,
314.49
]
},
{
"text": "and whichever one you pick,",
"timestamp": [
313.03,
314.49
]
},
{
"text": "you actually get to take with you.",
"timestamp": [
314.49,
316.46
]
},
{
"text": "you actually get to take with you.",
"timestamp": [
314.49,
316.46
]
},
{
"text": "- I wish I could say both,",
"timestamp": [
316.46,
317.57
]
},
{
"text": "- I wish I could say both,",
"timestamp": [
316.46,
317.57
]
},
{
"text": "but I guess I'll go with pixie sticks.",
"timestamp": [
317.57,
322.239
]
},
{
"text": "but I guess I'll go with pixie sticks.",
"timestamp": [
317.57,
322.239
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go, there is your decision.",
"timestamp": [
322.239,
324.16
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go, there is your decision.",
"timestamp": [
322.239,
324.16
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, you can take those.",
"timestamp": [
324.16,
325.473
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, you can take those.",
"timestamp": [
324.16,
325.473
]
},
{
"text": "It took you some time there.",
"timestamp": [
326.35,
327.38
]
},
{
"text": "It took you some time there.",
"timestamp": [
326.35,
327.38
]
},
{
"text": "You looked like you\nwere really working hard",
"timestamp": [
327.38,
328.8
]
},
{
"text": "You looked like you\nwere really working hard",
"timestamp": [
327.38,
328.8
]
},
{
"text": "at that problem.",
"timestamp": [
328.8,
330.2
]
},
{
"text": "at that problem.",
"timestamp": [
328.8,
330.2
]
},
{
"text": "And that's interesting because\nactually we know that from",
"timestamp": [
330.2,
332.49
]
},
{
"text": "And that's interesting because\nactually we know that from",
"timestamp": [
330.2,
332.49
]
},
{
"text": "research that when people have\nto make a decision between",
"timestamp": [
332.49,
335.56
]
},
{
"text": "research that when people have\nto make a decision between",
"timestamp": [
332.49,
335.56
]
},
{
"text": "two things they like equally,",
"timestamp": [
335.56,
337.09
]
},
{
"text": "two things they like equally,",
"timestamp": [
335.56,
337.09
]
},
{
"text": "some people like economists\nthink oh those are the easiest",
"timestamp": [
337.09,
339.52
]
},
{
"text": "some people like economists\nthink oh those are the easiest",
"timestamp": [
337.09,
339.52
]
},
{
"text": "decisions because they're\nboth good options.",
"timestamp": [
339.52,
341.21
]
},
{
"text": "decisions because they're\nboth good options.",
"timestamp": [
339.52,
341.21
]
},
{
"text": "But as psychologists and\nneuroscientists we know",
"timestamp": [
341.21,
343.12
]
},
{
"text": "But as psychologists and\nneuroscientists we know",
"timestamp": [
341.21,
343.12
]
},
{
"text": "it's the opposite.",
"timestamp": [
343.12,
343.953
]
},
{
"text": "it's the opposite.",
"timestamp": [
343.12,
343.953
]
},
{
"text": "One of the reasons is because\nthere's no simple answer of",
"timestamp": [
343.953,
347.52
]
},
{
"text": "One of the reasons is because\nthere's no simple answer of",
"timestamp": [
343.953,
347.52
]
},
{
"text": "like I know that one's better\nI'm just gonna go with it.",
"timestamp": [
347.52,
349.477
]
},
{
"text": "like I know that one's better\nI'm just gonna go with it.",
"timestamp": [
347.52,
349.477
]
},
{
"text": "And so we think that that's\nthe kind of decision where",
"timestamp": [
349.477,
352.79
]
},
{
"text": "And so we think that that's\nthe kind of decision where",
"timestamp": [
349.477,
352.79
]
},
{
"text": "memory is especially important\nbecause you have to kind of",
"timestamp": [
352.79,
355.58
]
},
{
"text": "memory is especially important\nbecause you have to kind of",
"timestamp": [
352.79,
355.58
]
},
{
"text": "come up with more information.",
"timestamp": [
355.58,
357.05
]
},
{
"text": "come up with more information.",
"timestamp": [
355.58,
357.05
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly, and then also\nlike after it was like,",
"timestamp": [
357.05,
359.136
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly, and then also\nlike after it was like,",
"timestamp": [
357.05,
359.136
]
},
{
"text": "maybe like I would've,\nenjoyed this more than that",
"timestamp": [
359.136,
362.507
]
},
{
"text": "maybe like I would've,\nenjoyed this more than that",
"timestamp": [
359.136,
362.507
]
},
{
"text": "and like maybe I should've\nchose the other one.",
"timestamp": [
362.507,
364.32
]
},
{
"text": "and like maybe I should've\nchose the other one.",
"timestamp": [
362.507,
364.32
]
},
{
"text": "And you don't know.",
"timestamp": [
364.32,
365.48
]
},
{
"text": "And you don't know.",
"timestamp": [
364.32,
365.48
]
},
{
"text": "- Everything you just said is exactly",
"timestamp": [
365.48,
367.72
]
},
{
"text": "- Everything you just said is exactly",
"timestamp": [
365.48,
367.72
]
},
{
"text": "what we know from research.",
"timestamp": [
367.72,
368.82
]
},
{
"text": "what we know from research.",
"timestamp": [
367.72,
368.82
]
},
{
"text": "All the thoughts running\nthrough your mind,",
"timestamp": [
368.82,
371.52
]
},
{
"text": "All the thoughts running\nthrough your mind,",
"timestamp": [
368.82,
371.52
]
},
{
"text": "were really at kind of about a prediction",
"timestamp": [
371.52,
374.07
]
},
{
"text": "were really at kind of about a prediction",
"timestamp": [
371.52,
374.07
]
},
{
"text": "into the future, right?",
"timestamp": [
374.07,
375.82
]
},
{
"text": "into the future, right?",
"timestamp": [
374.07,
375.82
]
},
{
"text": "You're like, how, how will this taste if,",
"timestamp": [
375.82,
378.09
]
},
{
"text": "You're like, how, how will this taste if,",
"timestamp": [
375.82,
378.09
]
},
{
"text": "when it's in my mouth or how\nwill I feel about my decision",
"timestamp": [
378.09,
380.86
]
},
{
"text": "when it's in my mouth or how\nwill I feel about my decision",
"timestamp": [
378.09,
380.86
]
},
{
"text": "down the road?",
"timestamp": [
380.86,
381.9
]
},
{
"text": "down the road?",
"timestamp": [
380.86,
381.9
]
},
{
"text": "You know we think of memory\nas something in the past,",
"timestamp": [
381.9,
384.47
]
},
{
"text": "You know we think of memory\nas something in the past,",
"timestamp": [
381.9,
384.47
]
},
{
"text": "but it's an example of how\nyou use your memories of these",
"timestamp": [
384.47,
387.02
]
},
{
"text": "but it's an example of how\nyou use your memories of these",
"timestamp": [
384.47,
387.02
]
},
{
"text": "two candies to predict what's\ngonna happen in the future",
"timestamp": [
387.02,
390.691
]
},
{
"text": "two candies to predict what's\ngonna happen in the future",
"timestamp": [
387.02,
390.691
]
},
{
"text": "so that you can make a\ndecision in the present.",
"timestamp": [
390.691,
393.28
]
},
{
"text": "so that you can make a\ndecision in the present.",
"timestamp": [
390.691,
393.28
]
},
{
"text": "But you did it, you made your\nway through that torture.",
"timestamp": [
393.28,
396.35
]
},
{
"text": "But you did it, you made your\nway through that torture.",
"timestamp": [
393.28,
396.35
]
},
{
"text": "And now you've got to keep the candy.",
"timestamp": [
396.35,
398.016
]
},
{
"text": "And now you've got to keep the candy.",
"timestamp": [
396.35,
398.016
]
},
{
"text": "- Am I always gonna\nlike choose pixie sticks",
"timestamp": [
398.016,
401.035
]
},
{
"text": "- Am I always gonna\nlike choose pixie sticks",
"timestamp": [
398.016,
401.035
]
},
{
"text": "or sour patch kids?",
"timestamp": [
401.035,
403.61
]
},
{
"text": "or sour patch kids?",
"timestamp": [
401.035,
403.61
]
},
{
"text": "What's gonna like change that?",
"timestamp": [
403.61,
405.71
]
},
{
"text": "What's gonna like change that?",
"timestamp": [
403.61,
405.71
]
},
{
"text": "We fluctuate a lot because we\nuse different kinds of memory",
"timestamp": [
405.71,
409.68
]
},
{
"text": "We fluctuate a lot because we\nuse different kinds of memory",
"timestamp": [
405.71,
409.68
]
},
{
"text": "to kind of resolve the\nuncertainty basically every time.",
"timestamp": [
409.68,
414.15
]
},
{
"text": "to kind of resolve the\nuncertainty basically every time.",
"timestamp": [
409.68,
414.15
]
},
{
"text": "But also the way we make\ndecisions will change",
"timestamp": [
414.15,
417.26
]
},
{
"text": "But also the way we make\ndecisions will change",
"timestamp": [
414.15,
417.26
]
},
{
"text": "because our memories change.",
"timestamp": [
417.26,
419.66
]
},
{
"text": "because our memories change.",
"timestamp": [
417.26,
419.66
]
},
{
"text": "What's interesting about your\nbrain as a teenager is that we",
"timestamp": [
419.66,
423.4
]
},
{
"text": "What's interesting about your\nbrain as a teenager is that we",
"timestamp": [
419.66,
423.4
]
},
{
"text": "know it's actually a phase\nof life where the brain is",
"timestamp": [
423.4,
425.33
]
},
{
"text": "know it's actually a phase\nof life where the brain is",
"timestamp": [
423.4,
425.33
]
},
{
"text": "especially sensitive to rewards,",
"timestamp": [
425.33,
427.98
]
},
{
"text": "especially sensitive to rewards,",
"timestamp": [
425.33,
427.98
]
},
{
"text": "to things that are exciting and positive.",
"timestamp": [
427.98,
430.78
]
},
{
"text": "to things that are exciting and positive.",
"timestamp": [
427.98,
430.78
]
},
{
"text": "It's a phase of life where those rewards,",
"timestamp": [
430.78,
432.82
]
},
{
"text": "It's a phase of life where those rewards,",
"timestamp": [
430.78,
432.82
]
},
{
"text": "whether it's candy or your\nfriends or whatever it is",
"timestamp": [
432.82,
436.52
]
},
{
"text": "whether it's candy or your\nfriends or whatever it is",
"timestamp": [
432.82,
436.52
]
},
{
"text": "that's exciting can have an\nespecially powerful control",
"timestamp": [
436.52,
440.24
]
},
{
"text": "that's exciting can have an\nespecially powerful control",
"timestamp": [
436.52,
440.24
]
},
{
"text": "over the decisions you make\nand the memories you create.",
"timestamp": [
440.24,
442.293
]
},
{
"text": "over the decisions you make\nand the memories you create.",
"timestamp": [
440.24,
442.293
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
442.293,
444.96
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
442.293,
444.96
]
},
{
"text": "Is there any particular memory\nfor you that you feel has",
"timestamp": [
448.754,
450.653
]
},
{
"text": "Is there any particular memory\nfor you that you feel has",
"timestamp": [
448.754,
450.653
]
},
{
"text": "been either kind of influential in your,",
"timestamp": [
450.653,
453.32
]
},
{
"text": "been either kind of influential in your,",
"timestamp": [
450.653,
453.32
]
},
{
"text": "in deciding which areas to\npursue or that you feel is sort",
"timestamp": [
453.32,
458.17
]
},
{
"text": "in deciding which areas to\npursue or that you feel is sort",
"timestamp": [
453.32,
458.17
]
},
{
"text": "of emblematic of what\nit is to have a memory?",
"timestamp": [
458.17,
460.44
]
},
{
"text": "of emblematic of what\nit is to have a memory?",
"timestamp": [
458.17,
460.44
]
},
{
"text": "- I was probably six years old",
"timestamp": [
460.44,
461.88
]
},
{
"text": "- I was probably six years old",
"timestamp": [
460.44,
461.88
]
},
{
"text": "and my aunt who had stage\nfour ovarian cancer,",
"timestamp": [
461.88,
465.69
]
},
{
"text": "and my aunt who had stage\nfour ovarian cancer,",
"timestamp": [
461.88,
465.69
]
},
{
"text": "she battled it for 20 years.",
"timestamp": [
465.69,
467.17
]
},
{
"text": "she battled it for 20 years.",
"timestamp": [
465.69,
467.17
]
},
{
"text": "She got me my first science\nkit and she asked me to cure",
"timestamp": [
467.17,
469.54
]
},
{
"text": "She got me my first science\nkit and she asked me to cure",
"timestamp": [
467.17,
469.54
]
},
{
"text": "cancer and I will never forget\nrunning into my aunt's room",
"timestamp": [
469.54,
474.29
]
},
{
"text": "cancer and I will never forget\nrunning into my aunt's room",
"timestamp": [
469.54,
474.29
]
},
{
"text": "and just opening up the box\nand seeing that microscope,",
"timestamp": [
474.29,
477.23
]
},
{
"text": "and just opening up the box\nand seeing that microscope,",
"timestamp": [
474.29,
477.23
]
},
{
"text": "it was a tiny little blue one",
"timestamp": [
477.23,
478.63
]
},
{
"text": "it was a tiny little blue one",
"timestamp": [
477.23,
478.63
]
},
{
"text": "and the little microscope\nslides and the little pipettes.",
"timestamp": [
478.63,
482.16
]
},
{
"text": "and the little microscope\nslides and the little pipettes.",
"timestamp": [
478.63,
482.16
]
},
{
"text": "So they just, that memory\nwill never be forgotten",
"timestamp": [
482.16,
485.896
]
},
{
"text": "So they just, that memory\nwill never be forgotten",
"timestamp": [
482.16,
485.896
]
},
{
"text": "my whole life.",
"timestamp": [
485.896,
486.914
]
},
{
"text": "my whole life.",
"timestamp": [
485.896,
486.914
]
},
{
"text": "- I've got one too.",
"timestamp": [
486.914,
487.917
]
},
{
"text": "- I've got one too.",
"timestamp": [
486.914,
487.917
]
},
{
"text": "I was nine and we were at the\nscience expo in San Francisco.",
"timestamp": [
487.917,
491.25
]
},
{
"text": "I was nine and we were at the\nscience expo in San Francisco.",
"timestamp": [
487.917,
491.25
]
},
{
"text": "Two scientists were dissecting\nan eye, a cow's eye.",
"timestamp": [
491.25,
495.34
]
},
{
"text": "Two scientists were dissecting\nan eye, a cow's eye.",
"timestamp": [
491.25,
495.34
]
},
{
"text": "And I was like that is the\ncoolest thing I've ever seen.",
"timestamp": [
495.34,
498.65
]
},
{
"text": "And I was like that is the\ncoolest thing I've ever seen.",
"timestamp": [
495.34,
498.65
]
},
{
"text": "And something about that\nthat carried me forward.",
"timestamp": [
498.65,
501.2
]
},
{
"text": "And something about that\nthat carried me forward.",
"timestamp": [
498.65,
501.2
]
},
{
"text": "Something happened so long ago,",
"timestamp": [
501.2,
502.74
]
},
{
"text": "Something happened so long ago,",
"timestamp": [
501.2,
502.74
]
},
{
"text": "it left some long lasting\ntrace through neural circuits",
"timestamp": [
502.74,
507.01
]
},
{
"text": "it left some long lasting\ntrace through neural circuits",
"timestamp": [
502.74,
507.01
]
},
{
"text": "and it continues to shape\nthe decisions we make",
"timestamp": [
507.01,
509.517
]
},
{
"text": "and it continues to shape\nthe decisions we make",
"timestamp": [
507.01,
509.517
]
},
{
"text": "about what to study and what to do.",
"timestamp": [
509.517,
511.79
]
},
{
"text": "about what to study and what to do.",
"timestamp": [
509.517,
511.79
]
},
{
"text": "- Just being able to apply\nthose memories in the future",
"timestamp": [
511.79,
513.79
]
},
{
"text": "- Just being able to apply\nthose memories in the future",
"timestamp": [
511.79,
513.79
]
},
{
"text": "is just so crucial in\neveryday life of the humans",
"timestamp": [
513.79,
516.8
]
},
{
"text": "is just so crucial in\neveryday life of the humans",
"timestamp": [
513.79,
516.8
]
},
{
"text": "and the fact that we're\nlearning how that works.",
"timestamp": [
516.8,
519.99
]
},
{
"text": "and the fact that we're\nlearning how that works.",
"timestamp": [
516.8,
519.99
]
},
{
"text": "And I would love to hear more\nabout your side of memory",
"timestamp": [
519.99,
522.611
]
},
{
"text": "And I would love to hear more\nabout your side of memory",
"timestamp": [
519.99,
522.611
]
},
{
"text": "and the mechanisms that you're studying.",
"timestamp": [
522.611,
525.1
]
},
{
"text": "and the mechanisms that you're studying.",
"timestamp": [
522.611,
525.1
]
},
{
"text": "- So we're interested in the\nidea that memory is kind of",
"timestamp": [
525.1,
527.663
]
},
{
"text": "- So we're interested in the\nidea that memory is kind of",
"timestamp": [
525.1,
527.663
]
},
{
"text": "a pervasive force that\nshapes all our behaviors.",
"timestamp": [
527.663,
532.077
]
},
{
"text": "a pervasive force that\nshapes all our behaviors.",
"timestamp": [
527.663,
532.077
]
},
{
"text": "And we're trying to understand\nhow different kinds of memory",
"timestamp": [
532.077,
535.32
]
},
{
"text": "And we're trying to understand\nhow different kinds of memory",
"timestamp": [
532.077,
535.32
]
},
{
"text": "are organized in different\nstructures of the brain.",
"timestamp": [
535.32,
538.013
]
},
{
"text": "are organized in different\nstructures of the brain.",
"timestamp": [
535.32,
538.013
]
},
{
"text": "And then to understand how\nthose different structures work",
"timestamp": [
538.013,
541.11
]
},
{
"text": "And then to understand how\nthose different structures work",
"timestamp": [
538.013,
541.11
]
},
{
"text": "together to orchestrate\ncomplex cognitive behaviors",
"timestamp": [
541.11,
544.61
]
},
{
"text": "together to orchestrate\ncomplex cognitive behaviors",
"timestamp": [
541.11,
544.61
]
},
{
"text": "like decision-making or\nreasoning and thinking.",
"timestamp": [
544.61,
547.69
]
},
{
"text": "like decision-making or\nreasoning and thinking.",
"timestamp": [
544.61,
547.69
]
},
{
"text": "- So in your research or\nyou focus more on implicit",
"timestamp": [
547.69,
549.87
]
},
{
"text": "- So in your research or\nyou focus more on implicit",
"timestamp": [
547.69,
549.87
]
},
{
"text": "or explicit memory?",
"timestamp": [
549.87,
551.02
]
},
{
"text": "or explicit memory?",
"timestamp": [
549.87,
551.02
]
},
{
"text": "- My work has actually\nkind of pushed against",
"timestamp": [
551.02,
552.76
]
},
{
"text": "- My work has actually\nkind of pushed against",
"timestamp": [
551.02,
552.76
]
},
{
"text": "that distinction between\nmemories that kind of are",
"timestamp": [
552.76,
555.78
]
},
{
"text": "that distinction between\nmemories that kind of are",
"timestamp": [
552.76,
555.78
]
},
{
"text": "consciously accessible versus unconscious.",
"timestamp": [
555.78,
558.17
]
},
{
"text": "consciously accessible versus unconscious.",
"timestamp": [
555.78,
558.17
]
},
{
"text": "- When you say that you don't\nnecessarily look at implicit",
"timestamp": [
558.17,
561.76
]
},
{
"text": "- When you say that you don't\nnecessarily look at implicit",
"timestamp": [
558.17,
561.76
]
},
{
"text": "and explicit memory as anything different,",
"timestamp": [
561.76,
564.04
]
},
{
"text": "and explicit memory as anything different,",
"timestamp": [
561.76,
564.04
]
},
{
"text": "if you were to take a step back,",
"timestamp": [
564.04,
566.26
]
},
{
"text": "if you were to take a step back,",
"timestamp": [
564.04,
566.26
]
},
{
"text": "what would you define as\nimplicit and explicit memory?",
"timestamp": [
566.26,
568.432
]
},
{
"text": "what would you define as\nimplicit and explicit memory?",
"timestamp": [
566.26,
568.432
]
},
{
"text": "- The best way to kind of\nthink about that distinction",
"timestamp": [
568.432,
572.37
]
},
{
"text": "- The best way to kind of\nthink about that distinction",
"timestamp": [
568.432,
572.37
]
},
{
"text": "really goes back historically\nto one of the most important",
"timestamp": [
572.37,
576.29
]
},
{
"text": "really goes back historically\nto one of the most important",
"timestamp": [
572.37,
576.29
]
},
{
"text": "discoveries in memory research.",
"timestamp": [
576.29,
578.13
]
},
{
"text": "discoveries in memory research.",
"timestamp": [
576.29,
578.13
]
},
{
"text": "The patient was referred\nto famously as patient HM.",
"timestamp": [
578.13,
581.77
]
},
{
"text": "The patient was referred\nto famously as patient HM.",
"timestamp": [
578.13,
581.77
]
},
{
"text": "The neurosurgeon went in\nand removed the tissue that",
"timestamp": [
581.77,
584.18
]
},
{
"text": "The neurosurgeon went in\nand removed the tissue that",
"timestamp": [
581.77,
584.18
]
},
{
"text": "happened to be right\naround the hippocampus",
"timestamp": [
584.18,
586.79
]
},
{
"text": "happened to be right\naround the hippocampus",
"timestamp": [
584.18,
586.79
]
},
{
"text": "on both the left side and\nthe right side of HM's brain.",
"timestamp": [
586.79,
590.45
]
},
{
"text": "on both the left side and\nthe right side of HM's brain.",
"timestamp": [
586.79,
590.45
]
},
{
"text": "But then they started\nnoticing something odd",
"timestamp": [
590.45,
593.13
]
},
{
"text": "But then they started\nnoticing something odd",
"timestamp": [
590.45,
593.13
]
},
{
"text": "in his behavior.",
"timestamp": [
593.13,
594.96
]
},
{
"text": "in his behavior.",
"timestamp": [
593.13,
594.96
]
},
{
"text": "He was not able to create new\nmemories of the experiences",
"timestamp": [
594.96,
598.55
]
},
{
"text": "He was not able to create new\nmemories of the experiences",
"timestamp": [
594.96,
598.55
]
},
{
"text": "he had after the surgery.",
"timestamp": [
598.55,
601.02
]
},
{
"text": "he had after the surgery.",
"timestamp": [
598.55,
601.02
]
},
{
"text": "And that led Brenda Milner and\nher colleagues to report that",
"timestamp": [
601.02,
605.453
]
},
{
"text": "And that led Brenda Milner and\nher colleagues to report that",
"timestamp": [
601.02,
605.453
]
},
{
"text": "the hippocampus was very\nimportant for memory,",
"timestamp": [
605.453,
608.76
]
},
{
"text": "the hippocampus was very\nimportant for memory,",
"timestamp": [
605.453,
608.76
]
},
{
"text": "but a one particular kind,\nthese sort of explicit,",
"timestamp": [
608.76,
612.24
]
},
{
"text": "but a one particular kind,\nthese sort of explicit,",
"timestamp": [
608.76,
612.24
]
},
{
"text": "or as now referred to\nthem episodic memories.",
"timestamp": [
612.24,
615.51
]
},
{
"text": "or as now referred to\nthem episodic memories.",
"timestamp": [
612.24,
615.51
]
},
{
"text": "But the hippocampus was not\nnecessary for learning skills",
"timestamp": [
615.51,
618.92
]
},
{
"text": "But the hippocampus was not\nnecessary for learning skills",
"timestamp": [
615.51,
618.92
]
},
{
"text": "like mirror tracing,",
"timestamp": [
618.92,
620.25
]
},
{
"text": "like mirror tracing,",
"timestamp": [
618.92,
620.25
]
},
{
"text": "things that you can't\nnecessarily articulate",
"timestamp": [
620.25,
622.74
]
},
{
"text": "things that you can't\nnecessarily articulate",
"timestamp": [
620.25,
622.74
]
},
{
"text": "but you just get better at over time.",
"timestamp": [
622.74,
625.24
]
},
{
"text": "but you just get better at over time.",
"timestamp": [
622.74,
625.24
]
},
{
"text": "And it really led to a couple\nof decades or more even",
"timestamp": [
625.24,
629.1
]
},
{
"text": "And it really led to a couple\nof decades or more even",
"timestamp": [
625.24,
629.1
]
},
{
"text": "of an enormous amount of\nvery important work that kind",
"timestamp": [
629.1,
632.12
]
},
{
"text": "of an enormous amount of\nvery important work that kind",
"timestamp": [
629.1,
632.12
]
},
{
"text": "of kept on breaking memory down further",
"timestamp": [
632.12,
634.13
]
},
{
"text": "of kept on breaking memory down further",
"timestamp": [
632.12,
634.13
]
},
{
"text": "and further into different types.",
"timestamp": [
634.13,
635.71
]
},
{
"text": "and further into different types.",
"timestamp": [
634.13,
635.71
]
},
{
"text": "Episodic and semantic as\nboth forms of explicit memory",
"timestamp": [
635.71,
639.05
]
},
{
"text": "Episodic and semantic as\nboth forms of explicit memory",
"timestamp": [
635.71,
639.05
]
},
{
"text": "where episodic refers to memory\nfor an event that happened",
"timestamp": [
639.05,
642.56
]
},
{
"text": "where episodic refers to memory\nfor an event that happened",
"timestamp": [
639.05,
642.56
]
},
{
"text": "like what you did yesterday morning",
"timestamp": [
642.56,
644.38
]
},
{
"text": "like what you did yesterday morning",
"timestamp": [
642.56,
644.38
]
},
{
"text": "and semantic refers to general\nknowledge about the world.",
"timestamp": [
644.38,
647.49
]
},
{
"text": "and semantic refers to general\nknowledge about the world.",
"timestamp": [
644.38,
647.49
]
},
{
"text": "Implicit memory is being\nbroken down into a bunch of",
"timestamp": [
647.49,
649.81
]
},
{
"text": "Implicit memory is being\nbroken down into a bunch of",
"timestamp": [
647.49,
649.81
]
},
{
"text": "different kinds like skills\nor habits or conditioning.",
"timestamp": [
649.81,
653.357
]
},
{
"text": "different kinds like skills\nor habits or conditioning.",
"timestamp": [
649.81,
653.357
]
},
{
"text": "And when I started graduate school,",
"timestamp": [
653.357,
655.39
]
},
{
"text": "And when I started graduate school,",
"timestamp": [
653.357,
655.39
]
},
{
"text": "many of us felt kind of the\nnext question was really to",
"timestamp": [
655.39,
660.08
]
},
{
"text": "many of us felt kind of the\nnext question was really to",
"timestamp": [
655.39,
660.08
]
},
{
"text": "understand how do we now\nunderstand how they work together.",
"timestamp": [
660.08,
662.856
]
},
{
"text": "understand how do we now\nunderstand how they work together.",
"timestamp": [
660.08,
662.856
]
},
{
"text": "This was right around when\nfunctional magnetic resonance",
"timestamp": [
662.856,
666.84
]
},
{
"text": "This was right around when\nfunctional magnetic resonance",
"timestamp": [
662.856,
666.84
]
},
{
"text": "imaging started becoming a popular tool",
"timestamp": [
666.84,
670.793
]
},
{
"text": "imaging started becoming a popular tool",
"timestamp": [
666.84,
670.793
]
},
{
"text": "for measuring brain activity.",
"timestamp": [
670.793,
673.29
]
},
{
"text": "for measuring brain activity.",
"timestamp": [
670.793,
673.29
]
},
{
"text": "We could scan the entire brain\nand we could ask questions",
"timestamp": [
673.29,
676.63
]
},
{
"text": "We could scan the entire brain\nand we could ask questions",
"timestamp": [
673.29,
676.63
]
},
{
"text": "about multiple brain regions at once.",
"timestamp": [
676.63,
679.99
]
},
{
"text": "about multiple brain regions at once.",
"timestamp": [
676.63,
679.99
]
},
{
"text": "And we discovered that\nwhat we might expect",
"timestamp": [
679.99,
684.64
]
},
{
"text": "And we discovered that\nwhat we might expect",
"timestamp": [
679.99,
684.64
]
},
{
"text": "during a skill learning\ntask that only the striatum",
"timestamp": [
684.64,
688.46
]
},
{
"text": "during a skill learning\ntask that only the striatum",
"timestamp": [
684.64,
688.46
]
},
{
"text": "might show activity,",
"timestamp": [
688.46,
689.91
]
},
{
"text": "might show activity,",
"timestamp": [
688.46,
689.91
]
},
{
"text": "that we also saw the\nactivity in the hippocampus.",
"timestamp": [
689.91,
692.493
]
},
{
"text": "that we also saw the\nactivity in the hippocampus.",
"timestamp": [
689.91,
692.493
]
},
{
"text": "Or when we asked someone\nto form an episodic memory",
"timestamp": [
693.997,
695.6
]
},
{
"text": "Or when we asked someone\nto form an episodic memory",
"timestamp": [
693.997,
695.6
]
},
{
"text": "that we thought might depend\nonly on the hippocampus",
"timestamp": [
695.6,
698.135
]
},
{
"text": "that we thought might depend\nonly on the hippocampus",
"timestamp": [
695.6,
698.135
]
},
{
"text": "we suddenly also saw activity\nin the prefrontal cortex.",
"timestamp": [
698.135,
702.11
]
},
{
"text": "we suddenly also saw activity\nin the prefrontal cortex.",
"timestamp": [
698.135,
702.11
]
},
{
"text": "And so the confluence of these\nnew ideas and questions about",
"timestamp": [
702.11,
705.57
]
},
{
"text": "And so the confluence of these\nnew ideas and questions about",
"timestamp": [
702.11,
705.57
]
},
{
"text": "how different forms of memory interact",
"timestamp": [
705.57,
707.79
]
},
{
"text": "how different forms of memory interact",
"timestamp": [
705.57,
707.79
]
},
{
"text": "together with the development\nof new tools for studying",
"timestamp": [
707.79,
710.73
]
},
{
"text": "together with the development\nof new tools for studying",
"timestamp": [
707.79,
710.73
]
},
{
"text": "the human mind and brain\nallowed us to kind of adjust",
"timestamp": [
710.73,
715.49
]
},
{
"text": "the human mind and brain\nallowed us to kind of adjust",
"timestamp": [
710.73,
715.49
]
},
{
"text": "our view of memory systems,",
"timestamp": [
715.49,
717.28
]
},
{
"text": "our view of memory systems,",
"timestamp": [
715.49,
717.28
]
},
{
"text": "to think of them less as\nmultiple completely separate",
"timestamp": [
717.28,
721.33
]
},
{
"text": "to think of them less as\nmultiple completely separate",
"timestamp": [
717.28,
721.33
]
},
{
"text": "independent systems and instead\nto try to understand how",
"timestamp": [
721.33,
725.41
]
},
{
"text": "independent systems and instead\nto try to understand how",
"timestamp": [
721.33,
725.41
]
},
{
"text": "they really work in\nconcert with each other",
"timestamp": [
725.41,
728.29
]
},
{
"text": "they really work in\nconcert with each other",
"timestamp": [
725.41,
728.29
]
},
{
"text": "and give rise to all kinds of\nbehaviors that might not fit",
"timestamp": [
728.29,
731.75
]
},
{
"text": "and give rise to all kinds of\nbehaviors that might not fit",
"timestamp": [
728.29,
731.75
]
},
{
"text": "neatly into one category or another.",
"timestamp": [
731.75,
733.933
]
},
{
"text": "neatly into one category or another.",
"timestamp": [
731.75,
733.933
]
},
{
"text": "- Are the connectivities that\nyou're seeing using the FMRI",
"timestamp": [
733.933,
737.55
]
},
{
"text": "- Are the connectivities that\nyou're seeing using the FMRI",
"timestamp": [
733.933,
737.55
]
},
{
"text": "in your studies, are they\ndifferent when you look at",
"timestamp": [
737.55,
740.04
]
},
{
"text": "in your studies, are they\ndifferent when you look at",
"timestamp": [
737.55,
740.04
]
},
{
"text": "the implicit and explicit memories?",
"timestamp": [
740.04,
741.76
]
},
{
"text": "the implicit and explicit memories?",
"timestamp": [
740.04,
741.76
]
},
{
"text": "Are you seeing more activity\nin the striatum in comparison",
"timestamp": [
741.76,
744.149
]
},
{
"text": "Are you seeing more activity\nin the striatum in comparison",
"timestamp": [
741.76,
744.149
]
},
{
"text": "to the hippocampus or\nthe prefrontal cortex?",
"timestamp": [
744.149,
746.454
]
},
{
"text": "to the hippocampus or\nthe prefrontal cortex?",
"timestamp": [
744.149,
746.454
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, you know things\nare kind of breaking down",
"timestamp": [
746.454,
749.62
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, you know things\nare kind of breaking down",
"timestamp": [
746.454,
749.62
]
},
{
"text": "in unexpected ways I'd say.",
"timestamp": [
749.62,
751.46
]
},
{
"text": "in unexpected ways I'd say.",
"timestamp": [
749.62,
751.46
]
},
{
"text": "I think there's been a lot\nof really great work out of",
"timestamp": [
751.46,
754.47
]
},
{
"text": "I think there's been a lot\nof really great work out of",
"timestamp": [
751.46,
754.47
]
},
{
"text": "multiple labs showing\nhippocampal activity related to",
"timestamp": [
754.47,
758.3
]
},
{
"text": "multiple labs showing\nhippocampal activity related to",
"timestamp": [
754.47,
758.3
]
},
{
"text": "behaviors that don't look\nanything like episodic memories,",
"timestamp": [
758.3,
762.85
]
},
{
"text": "behaviors that don't look\nanything like episodic memories,",
"timestamp": [
758.3,
762.85
]
},
{
"text": "but which might depend on\nepisodic memories right?",
"timestamp": [
762.85,
766.51
]
},
{
"text": "but which might depend on\nepisodic memories right?",
"timestamp": [
762.85,
766.51
]
},
{
"text": "So for example also when you're\nmaking a decision about how",
"timestamp": [
766.51,
768.994
]
},
{
"text": "So for example also when you're\nmaking a decision about how",
"timestamp": [
766.51,
768.994
]
},
{
"text": "to choose between two good options",
"timestamp": [
768.994,
772.69
]
},
{
"text": "to choose between two good options",
"timestamp": [
768.994,
772.69
]
},
{
"text": "that suddenly you might see\nactivity in the hippocampus",
"timestamp": [
772.69,
775.56
]
},
{
"text": "that suddenly you might see\nactivity in the hippocampus",
"timestamp": [
772.69,
775.56
]
},
{
"text": "related to the choice itself,",
"timestamp": [
775.56,
777.663
]
},
{
"text": "related to the choice itself,",
"timestamp": [
775.56,
777.663
]
},
{
"text": "others have found that you find\nactivity in the hippocampus",
"timestamp": [
778.594,
780.49
]
},
{
"text": "others have found that you find\nactivity in the hippocampus",
"timestamp": [
778.594,
780.49
]
},
{
"text": "not only when people are forming memories,",
"timestamp": [
780.49,
783.15
]
},
{
"text": "not only when people are forming memories,",
"timestamp": [
780.49,
783.15
]
},
{
"text": "but also when they're\nimagining events that are",
"timestamp": [
783.15,
785.08
]
},
{
"text": "but also when they're\nimagining events that are",
"timestamp": [
783.15,
785.08
]
},
{
"text": "gonna happen in the future.",
"timestamp": [
785.08,
786.55
]
},
{
"text": "gonna happen in the future.",
"timestamp": [
785.08,
786.55
]
},
{
"text": "So it kind of forced us to\nrethink the way we define what",
"timestamp": [
786.55,
789.153
]
},
{
"text": "So it kind of forced us to\nrethink the way we define what",
"timestamp": [
786.55,
789.153
]
},
{
"text": "the hippocampus might be doing\nin a way that can account for",
"timestamp": [
789.153,
793.094
]
},
{
"text": "the hippocampus might be doing\nin a way that can account for",
"timestamp": [
789.153,
793.094
]
},
{
"text": "creating memories,\nthinking about the future,",
"timestamp": [
793.094,
796.5
]
},
{
"text": "creating memories,\nthinking about the future,",
"timestamp": [
793.094,
796.5
]
},
{
"text": "making decisions and other\nkinds of behaviors that involve",
"timestamp": [
796.5,
801.254
]
},
{
"text": "making decisions and other\nkinds of behaviors that involve",
"timestamp": [
796.5,
801.254
]
},
{
"text": "what we would refer to you in the field",
"timestamp": [
801.254,
804.11
]
},
{
"text": "what we would refer to you in the field",
"timestamp": [
801.254,
804.11
]
},
{
"text": "as relational processing.",
"timestamp": [
804.11,
807.03
]
},
{
"text": "as relational processing.",
"timestamp": [
804.11,
807.03
]
},
{
"text": "And that raises all kinds\nof new questions about",
"timestamp": [
807.03,
809.75
]
},
{
"text": "And that raises all kinds\nof new questions about",
"timestamp": [
807.03,
809.75
]
},
{
"text": "what memory really is.",
"timestamp": [
810.593,
811.426
]
},
{
"text": "what memory really is.",
"timestamp": [
810.593,
811.426
]
},
{
"text": "Reminiscing about our early\ninfluences that made us",
"timestamp": [
811.426,
813.9
]
},
{
"text": "Reminiscing about our early\ninfluences that made us",
"timestamp": [
811.426,
813.9
]
},
{
"text": "want to be scientists is that, you know,",
"timestamp": [
813.9,
815.5
]
},
{
"text": "want to be scientists is that, you know,",
"timestamp": [
813.9,
815.5
]
},
{
"text": "of course we know, we know\nbetter than to think that those",
"timestamp": [
815.5,
818.23
]
},
{
"text": "of course we know, we know\nbetter than to think that those",
"timestamp": [
815.5,
818.23
]
},
{
"text": "are necessarily accurate memories.",
"timestamp": [
818.23,
820.36
]
},
{
"text": "are necessarily accurate memories.",
"timestamp": [
818.23,
820.36
]
},
{
"text": "You know this reminds me of sort of the",
"timestamp": [
820.36,
821.97
]
},
{
"text": "You know this reminds me of sort of the",
"timestamp": [
820.36,
821.97
]
},
{
"text": "classic example from literature\nwhen people talk about",
"timestamp": [
823.055,
825.25
]
},
{
"text": "classic example from literature\nwhen people talk about",
"timestamp": [
823.055,
825.25
]
},
{
"text": "memory of course is Marcel Proust's",
"timestamp": [
825.25,
827.116
]
},
{
"text": "memory of course is Marcel Proust's",
"timestamp": [
825.25,
827.116
]
},
{
"text": "Madeleine in Remembrance of Things Past.",
"timestamp": [
827.116,
829.974
]
},
{
"text": "Madeleine in Remembrance of Things Past.",
"timestamp": [
827.116,
829.974
]
},
{
"text": "Where in the book it's this taste for the,",
"timestamp": [
829.974,
834.5
]
},
{
"text": "Where in the book it's this taste for the,",
"timestamp": [
829.974,
834.5
]
},
{
"text": "for the protagonist this\ntaste of the crumbs of",
"timestamp": [
834.5,
837.28
]
},
{
"text": "for the protagonist this\ntaste of the crumbs of",
"timestamp": [
834.5,
837.28
]
},
{
"text": "the Madeleine cookie and\nthe tea that bring him back",
"timestamp": [
837.28,
841
]
},
{
"text": "the Madeleine cookie and\nthe tea that bring him back",
"timestamp": [
837.28,
841
]
},
{
"text": "to his childhood.",
"timestamp": [
841,
842.01
]
},
{
"text": "to his childhood.",
"timestamp": [
841,
842.01
]
},
{
"text": "You know, seven volumes\nthen emerge of memories of,",
"timestamp": [
842.01,
845.13
]
},
{
"text": "You know, seven volumes\nthen emerge of memories of,",
"timestamp": [
842.01,
845.13
]
},
{
"text": "of that childhood.",
"timestamp": [
845.13,
846.67
]
},
{
"text": "of that childhood.",
"timestamp": [
845.13,
846.67
]
},
{
"text": "Digging further into earlier\ndrafts of Proust's novel",
"timestamp": [
846.67,
850.933
]
},
{
"text": "Digging further into earlier\ndrafts of Proust's novel",
"timestamp": [
846.67,
850.933
]
},
{
"text": "that initially it didn't\ndescribe a Madeleine at all.",
"timestamp": [
850.933,
854.2
]
},
{
"text": "that initially it didn't\ndescribe a Madeleine at all.",
"timestamp": [
850.933,
854.2
]
},
{
"text": "- It's very interesting\nto see the imperfections",
"timestamp": [
854.2,
856.54
]
},
{
"text": "- It's very interesting\nto see the imperfections",
"timestamp": [
854.2,
856.54
]
},
{
"text": "of the human brain and being\nable to rewrite something",
"timestamp": [
856.54,
859.4
]
},
{
"text": "of the human brain and being\nable to rewrite something",
"timestamp": [
856.54,
859.4
]
},
{
"text": "that happened to you and\nfully believe it yourself.",
"timestamp": [
859.4,
863.01
]
},
{
"text": "that happened to you and\nfully believe it yourself.",
"timestamp": [
859.4,
863.01
]
},
{
"text": "I think that that's one\nof the coolest errors",
"timestamp": [
863.01,
865.17
]
},
{
"text": "I think that that's one\nof the coolest errors",
"timestamp": [
863.01,
865.17
]
},
{
"text": "and faults in the human\nbrain that could exist.",
"timestamp": [
865.17,
868.74
]
},
{
"text": "and faults in the human\nbrain that could exist.",
"timestamp": [
865.17,
868.74
]
},
{
"text": "- You know I think these imperfections,",
"timestamp": [
868.74,
869.99
]
},
{
"text": "- You know I think these imperfections,",
"timestamp": [
868.74,
869.99
]
},
{
"text": "I interpret them as an indication\nthat the role of memory",
"timestamp": [
869.99,
873.26
]
},
{
"text": "I interpret them as an indication\nthat the role of memory",
"timestamp": [
869.99,
873.26
]
},
{
"text": "is much less about being accurate\nrepresentation of the past",
"timestamp": [
873.26,
876.51
]
},
{
"text": "is much less about being accurate\nrepresentation of the past",
"timestamp": [
873.26,
876.51
]
},
{
"text": "and much more about being\nkind of a flexible compass",
"timestamp": [
876.51,
880.03
]
},
{
"text": "and much more about being\nkind of a flexible compass",
"timestamp": [
876.51,
880.03
]
},
{
"text": "into the future.",
"timestamp": [
880.03,
881.016
]
},
{
"text": "into the future.",
"timestamp": [
880.03,
881.016
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
881.016,
883.683
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
881.016,
883.683
]
},
{
"text": "So what are you studying these days?",
"timestamp": [
886.13,
888.22
]
},
{
"text": "So what are you studying these days?",
"timestamp": [
886.13,
888.22
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I'm preparing my dissertation.",
"timestamp": [
888.22,
891.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I'm preparing my dissertation.",
"timestamp": [
888.22,
891.09
]
},
{
"text": "The general topic is going\nto be how we perceive",
"timestamp": [
891.09,
896.09
]
},
{
"text": "The general topic is going\nto be how we perceive",
"timestamp": [
891.09,
896.09
]
},
{
"text": "different types of social stimuli,",
"timestamp": [
896.13,
898.243
]
},
{
"text": "different types of social stimuli,",
"timestamp": [
896.13,
898.243
]
},
{
"text": "like different people's faces\nand make judgements about them",
"timestamp": [
898.243,
900.96
]
},
{
"text": "like different people's faces\nand make judgements about them",
"timestamp": [
898.243,
900.96
]
},
{
"text": "and how the way that we report\non what we are experiencing",
"timestamp": [
900.96,
905.96
]
},
{
"text": "and how the way that we report\non what we are experiencing",
"timestamp": [
900.96,
905.96
]
},
{
"text": "tells us about what's actually\ngoing on inside our heads.",
"timestamp": [
907.139,
910.65
]
},
{
"text": "tells us about what's actually\ngoing on inside our heads.",
"timestamp": [
907.139,
910.65
]
},
{
"text": "- What I love about what\nyou were describing is like",
"timestamp": [
910.65,
913.21
]
},
{
"text": "- What I love about what\nyou were describing is like",
"timestamp": [
910.65,
913.21
]
},
{
"text": "you didn't use the word memory,",
"timestamp": [
913.21,
914.718
]
},
{
"text": "you didn't use the word memory,",
"timestamp": [
913.21,
914.718
]
},
{
"text": "were how you were talking\nabout kind of perceptions",
"timestamp": [
914.718,
917.17
]
},
{
"text": "were how you were talking\nabout kind of perceptions",
"timestamp": [
914.718,
917.17
]
},
{
"text": "and social judgments but I\nthink probably we'd both agree",
"timestamp": [
917.17,
920.79
]
},
{
"text": "and social judgments but I\nthink probably we'd both agree",
"timestamp": [
917.17,
920.79
]
},
{
"text": "that memory is a big part of that.",
"timestamp": [
920.79,
922.898
]
},
{
"text": "that memory is a big part of that.",
"timestamp": [
920.79,
922.898
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh of course.",
"timestamp": [
922.898,
923.918
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh of course.",
"timestamp": [
922.898,
923.918
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, like it reminds\nme so much of, you know,",
"timestamp": [
923.918,
925.17
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, like it reminds\nme so much of, you know,",
"timestamp": [
923.918,
925.17
]
},
{
"text": "what we in the field would refer\nto as statistical learning.",
"timestamp": [
925.17,
927.73
]
},
{
"text": "what we in the field would refer\nto as statistical learning.",
"timestamp": [
925.17,
927.73
]
},
{
"text": "On one hand we might have\nlike a one-shot memory,",
"timestamp": [
927.73,
929.86
]
},
{
"text": "On one hand we might have\nlike a one-shot memory,",
"timestamp": [
927.73,
929.86
]
},
{
"text": "a memory of something\nthat we saw yesterday,",
"timestamp": [
929.86,
931.9
]
},
{
"text": "a memory of something\nthat we saw yesterday,",
"timestamp": [
929.86,
931.9
]
},
{
"text": "like what we did or what\nwe ate or where we were.",
"timestamp": [
931.9,
934.114
]
},
{
"text": "like what we did or what\nwe ate or where we were.",
"timestamp": [
931.9,
934.114
]
},
{
"text": "But a lot of our memories\nand our knowledge",
"timestamp": [
934.114,
937.678
]
},
{
"text": "But a lot of our memories\nand our knowledge",
"timestamp": [
934.114,
937.678
]
},
{
"text": "instead are based on many,\nmany, many experiences.",
"timestamp": [
937.678,
941.9
]
},
{
"text": "instead are based on many,\nmany, many experiences.",
"timestamp": [
937.678,
941.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
941.9,
943.74
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
941.9,
943.74
]
},
{
"text": "I think this sort of reminds\nme of another project",
"timestamp": [
943.74,
946.74
]
},
{
"text": "I think this sort of reminds\nme of another project",
"timestamp": [
943.74,
946.74
]
},
{
"text": "that I'm doing.",
"timestamp": [
946.74,
947.683
]
},
{
"text": "that I'm doing.",
"timestamp": [
946.74,
947.683
]
},
{
"text": "It's fairly easy to get different\nparticipants to experience",
"timestamp": [
948.715,
952.13
]
},
{
"text": "It's fairly easy to get different\nparticipants to experience",
"timestamp": [
948.715,
952.13
]
},
{
"text": "consistent negative emotions\nto the same stimuli,",
"timestamp": [
952.13,
954.878
]
},
{
"text": "consistent negative emotions\nto the same stimuli,",
"timestamp": [
952.13,
954.878
]
},
{
"text": "but with positive emotions\nit's so much harder to study.",
"timestamp": [
954.878,
958.72
]
},
{
"text": "but with positive emotions\nit's so much harder to study.",
"timestamp": [
954.878,
958.72
]
},
{
"text": "I might not react the same to\nlike this like cute cat video",
"timestamp": [
958.72,
963.198
]
},
{
"text": "I might not react the same to\nlike this like cute cat video",
"timestamp": [
958.72,
963.198
]
},
{
"text": "than someone else.",
"timestamp": [
963.198,
964.675
]
},
{
"text": "than someone else.",
"timestamp": [
963.198,
964.675
]
},
{
"text": "And I definitely believe\nthat people's memory",
"timestamp": [
964.675,
969.675
]
},
{
"text": "And I definitely believe\nthat people's memory",
"timestamp": [
964.675,
969.675
]
},
{
"text": "that they're bringing up unconsciously",
"timestamp": [
970.558,
973.02
]
},
{
"text": "that they're bringing up unconsciously",
"timestamp": [
970.558,
973.02
]
},
{
"text": "when they're experiencing\nsomething to make",
"timestamp": [
973.02,
974.76
]
},
{
"text": "when they're experiencing\nsomething to make",
"timestamp": [
973.02,
974.76
]
},
{
"text": "an emotional judgment informs\nespecially our experience",
"timestamp": [
974.76,
978.16
]
},
{
"text": "an emotional judgment informs\nespecially our experience",
"timestamp": [
974.76,
978.16
]
},
{
"text": "with positive emotion possibly\nmore than negative emotion.",
"timestamp": [
978.16,
982.89
]
},
{
"text": "with positive emotion possibly\nmore than negative emotion.",
"timestamp": [
978.16,
982.89
]
},
{
"text": "- Some of those examples really\nremind me also some of the",
"timestamp": [
982.89,
985.299
]
},
{
"text": "- Some of those examples really\nremind me also some of the",
"timestamp": [
982.89,
985.299
]
},
{
"text": "questions about kind of abnormalities in,",
"timestamp": [
985.299,
988.71
]
},
{
"text": "questions about kind of abnormalities in,",
"timestamp": [
985.299,
988.71
]
},
{
"text": "in memory or trauma or\ndisruptions in memory",
"timestamp": [
988.71,
993
]
},
{
"text": "in memory or trauma or\ndisruptions in memory",
"timestamp": [
988.71,
993
]
},
{
"text": "and how they also play\nout in terms of not just",
"timestamp": [
993,
997.36
]
},
{
"text": "and how they also play\nout in terms of not just",
"timestamp": [
993,
997.36
]
},
{
"text": "what people remember but what they do with",
"timestamp": [
997.36,
999.07
]
},
{
"text": "what people remember but what they do with",
"timestamp": [
997.36,
999.07
]
},
{
"text": "those memories right?",
"timestamp": [
999.07,
1000.23
]
},
{
"text": "those memories right?",
"timestamp": [
999.07,
1000.23
]
},
{
"text": "- As far as the way that\nmy research plays into it",
"timestamp": [
1000.23,
1002.42
]
},
{
"text": "- As far as the way that\nmy research plays into it",
"timestamp": [
1000.23,
1002.42
]
},
{
"text": "is like the first step\nin making a judgment",
"timestamp": [
1002.42,
1006.27
]
},
{
"text": "is like the first step\nin making a judgment",
"timestamp": [
1002.42,
1006.27
]
},
{
"text": "about what to do based on an\nexperience we're calling from",
"timestamp": [
1006.27,
1009.13
]
},
{
"text": "about what to do based on an\nexperience we're calling from",
"timestamp": [
1006.27,
1009.13
]
},
{
"text": "memory is deciding what\nyour emotional response was.",
"timestamp": [
1009.13,
1013.92
]
},
{
"text": "memory is deciding what\nyour emotional response was.",
"timestamp": [
1009.13,
1013.92
]
},
{
"text": "- I think what we're still\nkind of trying to understand",
"timestamp": [
1013.92,
1016.29
]
},
{
"text": "- I think what we're still\nkind of trying to understand",
"timestamp": [
1013.92,
1016.29
]
},
{
"text": "as a field is the more kind of detailed",
"timestamp": [
1016.29,
1019.74
]
},
{
"text": "as a field is the more kind of detailed",
"timestamp": [
1016.29,
1019.74
]
},
{
"text": "and bigger picture of\nwhere does this model live?",
"timestamp": [
1019.74,
1023.52
]
},
{
"text": "and bigger picture of\nwhere does this model live?",
"timestamp": [
1019.74,
1023.52
]
},
{
"text": "How does it get updated\nbased on experiences?",
"timestamp": [
1023.52,
1026.673
]
},
{
"text": "How does it get updated\nbased on experiences?",
"timestamp": [
1023.52,
1026.673
]
},
{
"text": "Why does that sometimes\nhappen and sometimes not?",
"timestamp": [
1026.673,
1030.25
]
},
{
"text": "Why does that sometimes\nhappen and sometimes not?",
"timestamp": [
1026.673,
1030.25
]
},
{
"text": "There are actually people who are born",
"timestamp": [
1030.25,
1032.35
]
},
{
"text": "There are actually people who are born",
"timestamp": [
1030.25,
1032.35
]
},
{
"text": "without a hippocampus.",
"timestamp": [
1032.35,
1033.77
]
},
{
"text": "without a hippocampus.",
"timestamp": [
1032.35,
1033.77
]
},
{
"text": "They have disruptions\nto episodic memories.",
"timestamp": [
1033.77,
1036.33
]
},
{
"text": "They have disruptions\nto episodic memories.",
"timestamp": [
1033.77,
1036.33
]
},
{
"text": "They have trouble after this\nconversation remembering",
"timestamp": [
1036.33,
1039.55
]
},
{
"text": "They have trouble after this\nconversation remembering",
"timestamp": [
1036.33,
1039.55
]
},
{
"text": "what the conversation was about,",
"timestamp": [
1039.55,
1041.25
]
},
{
"text": "what the conversation was about,",
"timestamp": [
1039.55,
1041.25
]
},
{
"text": "but they do have pretty\ngood semantic information.",
"timestamp": [
1041.25,
1043.9
]
},
{
"text": "but they do have pretty\ngood semantic information.",
"timestamp": [
1041.25,
1043.9
]
},
{
"text": "They have a good sense of\nknowledge about the world.",
"timestamp": [
1043.9,
1046.327
]
},
{
"text": "They have a good sense of\nknowledge about the world.",
"timestamp": [
1043.9,
1046.327
]
},
{
"text": "And that's interesting for two reasons.",
"timestamp": [
1046.327,
1047.88
]
},
{
"text": "And that's interesting for two reasons.",
"timestamp": [
1046.327,
1047.88
]
},
{
"text": "One, it shows this association\nbetween the role of the",
"timestamp": [
1047.88,
1050.97
]
},
{
"text": "One, it shows this association\nbetween the role of the",
"timestamp": [
1047.88,
1050.97
]
},
{
"text": "hippocampus and these two forms of memory,",
"timestamp": [
1050.97,
1052.97
]
},
{
"text": "hippocampus and these two forms of memory,",
"timestamp": [
1050.97,
1052.97
]
},
{
"text": "episodic memories and semantic memory.",
"timestamp": [
1052.97,
1055.6
]
},
{
"text": "episodic memories and semantic memory.",
"timestamp": [
1052.97,
1055.6
]
},
{
"text": "The other reason it's\ninteresting is that people often",
"timestamp": [
1055.6,
1057.9
]
},
{
"text": "The other reason it's\ninteresting is that people often",
"timestamp": [
1055.6,
1057.9
]
},
{
"text": "assume that we get to semantic memory",
"timestamp": [
1057.9,
1060.599
]
},
{
"text": "assume that we get to semantic memory",
"timestamp": [
1057.9,
1060.599
]
},
{
"text": "through episodic memory,",
"timestamp": [
1060.599,
1062.45
]
},
{
"text": "through episodic memory,",
"timestamp": [
1060.599,
1062.45
]
},
{
"text": "that we encounter one\ndog and then another dog,",
"timestamp": [
1062.45,
1065.21
]
},
{
"text": "that we encounter one\ndog and then another dog,",
"timestamp": [
1062.45,
1065.21
]
},
{
"text": "and then another dog and\nthen we learned the concept,",
"timestamp": [
1065.21,
1067.81
]
},
{
"text": "and then another dog and\nthen we learned the concept,",
"timestamp": [
1065.21,
1067.81
]
},
{
"text": "the semantic notion of a dog.",
"timestamp": [
1067.81,
1070.05
]
},
{
"text": "the semantic notion of a dog.",
"timestamp": [
1067.81,
1070.05
]
},
{
"text": "And these people, their\nprofile suggests that you can",
"timestamp": [
1070.05,
1073.64
]
},
{
"text": "And these people, their\nprofile suggests that you can",
"timestamp": [
1070.05,
1073.64
]
},
{
"text": "learn semantic information.",
"timestamp": [
1073.64,
1075.28
]
},
{
"text": "learn semantic information.",
"timestamp": [
1073.64,
1075.28
]
},
{
"text": "You can learn general\nknowledge about the world,",
"timestamp": [
1075.28,
1077.74
]
},
{
"text": "You can learn general\nknowledge about the world,",
"timestamp": [
1075.28,
1077.74
]
},
{
"text": "even without ever having the capacity",
"timestamp": [
1077.74,
1079.64
]
},
{
"text": "even without ever having the capacity",
"timestamp": [
1077.74,
1079.64
]
},
{
"text": "to build those individual memories.",
"timestamp": [
1079.64,
1081.73
]
},
{
"text": "to build those individual memories.",
"timestamp": [
1079.64,
1081.73
]
},
{
"text": "- In people with intact brains,",
"timestamp": [
1081.73,
1084.38
]
},
{
"text": "- In people with intact brains,",
"timestamp": [
1081.73,
1084.38
]
},
{
"text": "you might use a particular process,",
"timestamp": [
1084.38,
1086.91
]
},
{
"text": "you might use a particular process,",
"timestamp": [
1084.38,
1086.91
]
},
{
"text": "but if that brain region\nthat subserves that process",
"timestamp": [
1086.91,
1090.51
]
},
{
"text": "but if that brain region\nthat subserves that process",
"timestamp": [
1086.91,
1090.51
]
},
{
"text": "is damaged, that it's not\nthat you can't do it anymore",
"timestamp": [
1090.51,
1092.92
]
},
{
"text": "is damaged, that it's not\nthat you can't do it anymore",
"timestamp": [
1090.51,
1092.92
]
},
{
"text": "you just now do it a different way.",
"timestamp": [
1092.92,
1095.602
]
},
{
"text": "you just now do it a different way.",
"timestamp": [
1092.92,
1095.602
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1095.602,
1096.435
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1095.602,
1096.435
]
},
{
"text": "- It's really hard to tell people like,",
"timestamp": [
1096.435,
1097.41
]
},
{
"text": "- It's really hard to tell people like,",
"timestamp": [
1096.435,
1097.41
]
},
{
"text": "just don't use your memory to do this.",
"timestamp": [
1097.41,
1099.89
]
},
{
"text": "just don't use your memory to do this.",
"timestamp": [
1097.41,
1099.89
]
},
{
"text": "And we just sort of have to infer",
"timestamp": [
1099.89,
1101.7
]
},
{
"text": "And we just sort of have to infer",
"timestamp": [
1099.89,
1101.7
]
},
{
"text": "and guess at what strategies\nthat they're doing.",
"timestamp": [
1101.7,
1103.672
]
},
{
"text": "and guess at what strategies\nthat they're doing.",
"timestamp": [
1101.7,
1103.672
]
},
{
"text": "Is there's a particular research\nquestion that the answer",
"timestamp": [
1103.672,
1108.008
]
},
{
"text": "Is there's a particular research\nquestion that the answer",
"timestamp": [
1103.672,
1108.008
]
},
{
"text": "you think is gonna inform\nthe research in your lab",
"timestamp": [
1108.008,
1110.99
]
},
{
"text": "you think is gonna inform\nthe research in your lab",
"timestamp": [
1108.008,
1110.99
]
},
{
"text": "and perhaps in the rest of your field?",
"timestamp": [
1110.99,
1112.49
]
},
{
"text": "and perhaps in the rest of your field?",
"timestamp": [
1110.99,
1112.49
]
},
{
"text": "- You know when I look back at,",
"timestamp": [
1112.49,
1114.27
]
},
{
"text": "- You know when I look back at,",
"timestamp": [
1112.49,
1114.27
]
},
{
"text": "some of the work for my own lab\nand in the field in general,",
"timestamp": [
1114.27,
1116.76
]
},
{
"text": "some of the work for my own lab\nand in the field in general,",
"timestamp": [
1114.27,
1116.76
]
},
{
"text": "I really feel like some of\nthe most exciting discoveries",
"timestamp": [
1116.76,
1119.43
]
},
{
"text": "I really feel like some of\nthe most exciting discoveries",
"timestamp": [
1116.76,
1119.43
]
},
{
"text": "were not an answer to a\nquestion that was around before,",
"timestamp": [
1119.43,
1123.13
]
},
{
"text": "were not an answer to a\nquestion that was around before,",
"timestamp": [
1119.43,
1123.13
]
},
{
"text": "but they were discoveries\nthat made us realize",
"timestamp": [
1123.13,
1125.15
]
},
{
"text": "but they were discoveries\nthat made us realize",
"timestamp": [
1123.13,
1125.15
]
},
{
"text": "we weren't asking the right question.",
"timestamp": [
1125.15,
1127.01
]
},
{
"text": "we weren't asking the right question.",
"timestamp": [
1125.15,
1127.01
]
},
{
"text": "I think one example of that\neven has to do with the",
"timestamp": [
1127.01,
1129.65
]
},
{
"text": "I think one example of that\neven has to do with the",
"timestamp": [
1127.01,
1129.65
]
},
{
"text": "connection between memory\nand decision-making.",
"timestamp": [
1129.65,
1131.66
]
},
{
"text": "connection between memory\nand decision-making.",
"timestamp": [
1129.65,
1131.66
]
},
{
"text": "There was a discovery about\nhow the striatum responds to",
"timestamp": [
1131.66,
1135.97
]
},
{
"text": "There was a discovery about\nhow the striatum responds to",
"timestamp": [
1131.66,
1135.97
]
},
{
"text": "rewards and to learning that\njust all of a sudden flipped",
"timestamp": [
1135.97,
1140.911
]
},
{
"text": "rewards and to learning that\njust all of a sudden flipped",
"timestamp": [
1135.97,
1140.911
]
},
{
"text": "the way we thought\nabout the role of reward",
"timestamp": [
1140.911,
1143.88
]
},
{
"text": "the way we thought\nabout the role of reward",
"timestamp": [
1140.911,
1143.88
]
},
{
"text": "and learning and memory,",
"timestamp": [
1143.88,
1145.16
]
},
{
"text": "and learning and memory,",
"timestamp": [
1143.88,
1145.16
]
},
{
"text": "and may force us to\nrealize there was something",
"timestamp": [
1145.16,
1147.51
]
},
{
"text": "and may force us to\nrealize there was something",
"timestamp": [
1145.16,
1147.51
]
},
{
"text": "fundamentally connected\nbetween these processes.",
"timestamp": [
1148.361,
1150.63
]
},
{
"text": "fundamentally connected\nbetween these processes.",
"timestamp": [
1148.361,
1150.63
]
},
{
"text": "And that discovery just raised\na whole new set of questions",
"timestamp": [
1150.63,
1154.18
]
},
{
"text": "And that discovery just raised\na whole new set of questions",
"timestamp": [
1150.63,
1154.18
]
},
{
"text": "that didn't exist before.",
"timestamp": [
1154.18,
1155.55
]
},
{
"text": "that didn't exist before.",
"timestamp": [
1154.18,
1155.55
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I guess then the trick\nis we need to be designing",
"timestamp": [
1155.55,
1159.14
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I guess then the trick\nis we need to be designing",
"timestamp": [
1155.55,
1159.14
]
},
{
"text": "studies that will make us most\nlikely to find those sort of",
"timestamp": [
1159.14,
1163.3
]
},
{
"text": "studies that will make us most\nlikely to find those sort of",
"timestamp": [
1159.14,
1163.3
]
},
{
"text": "unexpected things, which is kind of funny.",
"timestamp": [
1163.3,
1164.83
]
},
{
"text": "unexpected things, which is kind of funny.",
"timestamp": [
1163.3,
1164.83
]
},
{
"text": "It's like how do you look for\nsomething that you don't know",
"timestamp": [
1164.83,
1168.57
]
},
{
"text": "It's like how do you look for\nsomething that you don't know",
"timestamp": [
1164.83,
1168.57
]
},
{
"text": "what it is?",
"timestamp": [
1168.57,
1169.403
]
},
{
"text": "what it is?",
"timestamp": [
1168.57,
1169.403
]
},
{
"text": "- Each project should be\nvery focused and rigorous",
"timestamp": [
1169.403,
1172.15
]
},
{
"text": "- Each project should be\nvery focused and rigorous",
"timestamp": [
1169.403,
1172.15
]
},
{
"text": "and know what a study is designed for.",
"timestamp": [
1172.15,
1174.83
]
},
{
"text": "and know what a study is designed for.",
"timestamp": [
1172.15,
1174.83
]
},
{
"text": "But at the same time we\nhave to keep our minds open,",
"timestamp": [
1174.83,
1178.54
]
},
{
"text": "But at the same time we\nhave to keep our minds open,",
"timestamp": [
1174.83,
1178.54
]
},
{
"text": "our eyes open for what else is happening.",
"timestamp": [
1178.54,
1181.53
]
},
{
"text": "our eyes open for what else is happening.",
"timestamp": [
1178.54,
1181.53
]
},
{
"text": "Some of the most interesting discoveries",
"timestamp": [
1181.53,
1183.69
]
},
{
"text": "Some of the most interesting discoveries",
"timestamp": [
1181.53,
1183.69
]
},
{
"text": "didn't make sense at first.",
"timestamp": [
1183.69,
1185.32
]
},
{
"text": "didn't make sense at first.",
"timestamp": [
1183.69,
1185.32
]
},
{
"text": "- As someone who is\nstudying social phenomena",
"timestamp": [
1185.32,
1187.69
]
},
{
"text": "- As someone who is\nstudying social phenomena",
"timestamp": [
1185.32,
1187.69
]
},
{
"text": "I like to hear that.",
"timestamp": [
1187.69,
1189.04
]
},
{
"text": "I like to hear that.",
"timestamp": [
1187.69,
1189.04
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
1189.04,
1190.5
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
1189.04,
1190.5
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
1190.5,
1193.167
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
1190.5,
1193.167
]
},
{
"text": "Thanks so much for coming,\nit's great to see you.",
"timestamp": [
1195.72,
1198.46
]
},
{
"text": "Thanks so much for coming,\nit's great to see you.",
"timestamp": [
1195.72,
1198.46
]
},
{
"text": "It's been a while.",
"timestamp": [
1198.46,
1199.33
]
},
{
"text": "It's been a while.",
"timestamp": [
1198.46,
1199.33
]
},
{
"text": "- It has been awhile, I'm\nreally excited to be here.",
"timestamp": [
1199.33,
1201.31
]
},
{
"text": "- It has been awhile, I'm\nreally excited to be here.",
"timestamp": [
1199.33,
1201.31
]
},
{
"text": "- It'd be great to just start\nby talking about your work",
"timestamp": [
1201.31,
1205.81
]
},
{
"text": "- It'd be great to just start\nby talking about your work",
"timestamp": [
1201.31,
1205.81
]
},
{
"text": "at the broadest level.",
"timestamp": [
1205.81,
1207.4
]
},
{
"text": "at the broadest level.",
"timestamp": [
1205.81,
1207.4
]
},
{
"text": "To my mind your work has\nreally revolutionized the field",
"timestamp": [
1207.4,
1210.39
]
},
{
"text": "To my mind your work has\nreally revolutionized the field",
"timestamp": [
1207.4,
1210.39
]
},
{
"text": "of cognitive neuroscience more broadly.",
"timestamp": [
1210.39,
1212.47
]
},
{
"text": "of cognitive neuroscience more broadly.",
"timestamp": [
1210.39,
1212.47
]
},
{
"text": "- I've been really interested\nin how past understandings",
"timestamp": [
1212.47,
1216.64
]
},
{
"text": "- I've been really interested\nin how past understandings",
"timestamp": [
1212.47,
1216.64
]
},
{
"text": "of the brain have really focused on,",
"timestamp": [
1216.64,
1218.02
]
},
{
"text": "of the brain have really focused on,",
"timestamp": [
1216.64,
1218.02
]
},
{
"text": "on pinpointing exactly what\neach piece of the brain does.",
"timestamp": [
1218.02,
1221.45
]
},
{
"text": "on pinpointing exactly what\neach piece of the brain does.",
"timestamp": [
1218.02,
1221.45
]
},
{
"text": "But I think that there's\nalso a broader conversation",
"timestamp": [
1221.45,
1224.77
]
},
{
"text": "But I think that there's\nalso a broader conversation",
"timestamp": [
1221.45,
1224.77
]
},
{
"text": "happening in the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1224.77,
1225.903
]
},
{
"text": "happening in the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1224.77,
1225.903
]
},
{
"text": "which is between one region and another.",
"timestamp": [
1225.903,
1228.8
]
},
{
"text": "which is between one region and another.",
"timestamp": [
1225.903,
1228.8
]
},
{
"text": "So it's actually the pattern\nof connections between these",
"timestamp": [
1228.8,
1231.78
]
},
{
"text": "So it's actually the pattern\nof connections between these",
"timestamp": [
1228.8,
1231.78
]
},
{
"text": "regions that would allow\nfor the flow of information.",
"timestamp": [
1231.78,
1234.83
]
},
{
"text": "regions that would allow\nfor the flow of information.",
"timestamp": [
1231.78,
1234.83
]
},
{
"text": "But I think the tools that have\nbecome widely available now",
"timestamp": [
1234.83,
1238.83
]
},
{
"text": "But I think the tools that have\nbecome widely available now",
"timestamp": [
1234.83,
1238.83
]
},
{
"text": "from the physics community and mathematics",
"timestamp": [
1238.83,
1241.75
]
},
{
"text": "from the physics community and mathematics",
"timestamp": [
1238.83,
1241.75
]
},
{
"text": "and computer science are\nunder the umbrella of,",
"timestamp": [
1241.75,
1244.85
]
},
{
"text": "and computer science are\nunder the umbrella of,",
"timestamp": [
1241.75,
1244.85
]
},
{
"text": "of network science.",
"timestamp": [
1244.85,
1246.12
]
},
{
"text": "of network science.",
"timestamp": [
1244.85,
1246.12
]
},
{
"text": "So that is a science of networks,",
"timestamp": [
1246.12,
1248.41
]
},
{
"text": "So that is a science of networks,",
"timestamp": [
1246.12,
1248.41
]
},
{
"text": "a science of understanding\nhow bits of a system are",
"timestamp": [
1248.41,
1252.7
]
},
{
"text": "a science of understanding\nhow bits of a system are",
"timestamp": [
1248.41,
1252.7
]
},
{
"text": "interconnected with one another.",
"timestamp": [
1252.7,
1254.21
]
},
{
"text": "interconnected with one another.",
"timestamp": [
1252.7,
1254.21
]
},
{
"text": "Not just comparing two groups of people",
"timestamp": [
1254.21,
1257.02
]
},
{
"text": "Not just comparing two groups of people",
"timestamp": [
1254.21,
1257.02
]
},
{
"text": "or two kinds of two species,",
"timestamp": [
1257.02,
1259.63
]
},
{
"text": "or two kinds of two species,",
"timestamp": [
1257.02,
1259.63
]
},
{
"text": "but we can ask even\nwithin a single person,",
"timestamp": [
1259.63,
1262.1
]
},
{
"text": "but we can ask even\nwithin a single person,",
"timestamp": [
1259.63,
1262.1
]
},
{
"text": "how does the pattern of\nconnectivity in my brain change",
"timestamp": [
1262.1,
1266.16
]
},
{
"text": "how does the pattern of\nconnectivity in my brain change",
"timestamp": [
1262.1,
1266.16
]
},
{
"text": "as we talk with one another?",
"timestamp": [
1266.16,
1267.79
]
},
{
"text": "as we talk with one another?",
"timestamp": [
1266.16,
1267.79
]
},
{
"text": "How does the information flow change?",
"timestamp": [
1267.79,
1270.33
]
},
{
"text": "How does the information flow change?",
"timestamp": [
1267.79,
1270.33
]
},
{
"text": "I think a lot about\ntraffic on roadway networks",
"timestamp": [
1270.33,
1273.41
]
},
{
"text": "I think a lot about\ntraffic on roadway networks",
"timestamp": [
1270.33,
1273.41
]
},
{
"text": "as a good example of this.",
"timestamp": [
1273.41,
1275.15
]
},
{
"text": "as a good example of this.",
"timestamp": [
1273.41,
1275.15
]
},
{
"text": "Which is, you know, we can\nunderstand where the roads are",
"timestamp": [
1275.15,
1278.56
]
},
{
"text": "Which is, you know, we can\nunderstand where the roads are",
"timestamp": [
1275.15,
1278.56
]
},
{
"text": "and perhaps the roads\nare relatively fixed.",
"timestamp": [
1278.56,
1280.88
]
},
{
"text": "and perhaps the roads\nare relatively fixed.",
"timestamp": [
1278.56,
1280.88
]
},
{
"text": "They change over long timescales",
"timestamp": [
1280.88,
1283.51
]
},
{
"text": "They change over long timescales",
"timestamp": [
1280.88,
1283.51
]
},
{
"text": "and it's similar to the brain.",
"timestamp": [
1283.51,
1284.53
]
},
{
"text": "and it's similar to the brain.",
"timestamp": [
1283.51,
1284.53
]
},
{
"text": "We really only create\nlarge scale connections",
"timestamp": [
1284.53,
1288.12
]
},
{
"text": "We really only create\nlarge scale connections",
"timestamp": [
1284.53,
1288.12
]
},
{
"text": "over long timescales.",
"timestamp": [
1288.12,
1289.6
]
},
{
"text": "over long timescales.",
"timestamp": [
1288.12,
1289.6
]
},
{
"text": "But we can alter the traffic\non the roadways really easily.",
"timestamp": [
1289.6,
1294.41
]
},
{
"text": "But we can alter the traffic\non the roadways really easily.",
"timestamp": [
1289.6,
1294.41
]
},
{
"text": "And that's similar to\nwhat we do in the brain",
"timestamp": [
1294.41,
1296.66
]
},
{
"text": "And that's similar to\nwhat we do in the brain",
"timestamp": [
1294.41,
1296.66
]
},
{
"text": "is that we change the way\nthat information is flowing",
"timestamp": [
1296.66,
1299.45
]
},
{
"text": "is that we change the way\nthat information is flowing",
"timestamp": [
1296.66,
1299.45
]
},
{
"text": "to allow us to respond to our environment.",
"timestamp": [
1299.45,
1302.13
]
},
{
"text": "to allow us to respond to our environment.",
"timestamp": [
1299.45,
1302.13
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a great analogy.",
"timestamp": [
1302.13,
1303.48
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a great analogy.",
"timestamp": [
1302.13,
1303.48
]
},
{
"text": "You know I remember when I\nfirst learned of your work,",
"timestamp": [
1303.48,
1305.6
]
},
{
"text": "You know I remember when I\nfirst learned of your work,",
"timestamp": [
1303.48,
1305.6
]
},
{
"text": "for me as somebody who\nstudies learning and memory,",
"timestamp": [
1305.6,
1308.17
]
},
{
"text": "for me as somebody who\nstudies learning and memory,",
"timestamp": [
1305.6,
1308.17
]
},
{
"text": "which are processes that\nare all about rapid updating",
"timestamp": [
1308.17,
1312.06
]
},
{
"text": "which are processes that\nare all about rapid updating",
"timestamp": [
1308.17,
1312.06
]
},
{
"text": "that to me was really mind\nblowing that we can now",
"timestamp": [
1312.06,
1315.57
]
},
{
"text": "that to me was really mind\nblowing that we can now",
"timestamp": [
1312.06,
1315.57
]
},
{
"text": "start asking questions\nabout dynamics of circuits",
"timestamp": [
1315.57,
1319.23
]
},
{
"text": "start asking questions\nabout dynamics of circuits",
"timestamp": [
1315.57,
1319.23
]
},
{
"text": "on a timescale that's much\ncloser to the timescale",
"timestamp": [
1319.23,
1323.83
]
},
{
"text": "on a timescale that's much\ncloser to the timescale",
"timestamp": [
1319.23,
1323.83
]
},
{
"text": "of human thought than\nanything we had before.",
"timestamp": [
1323.83,
1326.93
]
},
{
"text": "of human thought than\nanything we had before.",
"timestamp": [
1323.83,
1326.93
]
},
{
"text": "- The field is definitely\nopening up in the kinds of",
"timestamp": [
1326.93,
1329.48
]
},
{
"text": "- The field is definitely\nopening up in the kinds of",
"timestamp": [
1326.93,
1329.48
]
},
{
"text": "questions that can be asked\nnow with these approaches.",
"timestamp": [
1329.48,
1332.763
]
},
{
"text": "questions that can be asked\nnow with these approaches.",
"timestamp": [
1329.48,
1332.763
]
},
{
"text": "And I think what you're pointing\nout is that conceptually",
"timestamp": [
1332.763,
1335.685
]
},
{
"text": "And I think what you're pointing\nout is that conceptually",
"timestamp": [
1332.763,
1335.685
]
},
{
"text": "it's where we wanted to go anyway.",
"timestamp": [
1335.685,
1337.83
]
},
{
"text": "it's where we wanted to go anyway.",
"timestamp": [
1335.685,
1337.83
]
},
{
"text": "So if there's so much\norchestration that happens",
"timestamp": [
1337.83,
1341.525
]
},
{
"text": "So if there's so much\norchestration that happens",
"timestamp": [
1337.83,
1341.525
]
},
{
"text": "and a symphony is not a single piece,",
"timestamp": [
1341.525,
1344.021
]
},
{
"text": "and a symphony is not a single piece,",
"timestamp": [
1341.525,
1344.021
]
},
{
"text": "it's not a single pattern of,",
"timestamp": [
1344.021,
1346.803
]
},
{
"text": "it's not a single pattern of,",
"timestamp": [
1344.021,
1346.803
]
},
{
"text": "of harmony between instruments and,",
"timestamp": [
1346.803,
1347.76
]
},
{
"text": "of harmony between instruments and,",
"timestamp": [
1346.803,
1347.76
]
},
{
"text": "and similar to the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1347.76,
1349.53
]
},
{
"text": "and similar to the brain,",
"timestamp": [
1347.76,
1349.53
]
},
{
"text": "symphony of your brain\nis not a single pattern.",
"timestamp": [
1349.53,
1351.92
]
},
{
"text": "symphony of your brain\nis not a single pattern.",
"timestamp": [
1349.53,
1351.92
]
},
{
"text": "It's a very dynamically changing pattern.",
"timestamp": [
1351.92,
1354.43
]
},
{
"text": "It's a very dynamically changing pattern.",
"timestamp": [
1351.92,
1354.43
]
},
{
"text": "- In the field we often talk\nof have having a mental model",
"timestamp": [
1354.43,
1359.43
]
},
{
"text": "- In the field we often talk\nof have having a mental model",
"timestamp": [
1354.43,
1359.43
]
},
{
"text": "that we use to make predictions\nabout what's about to happen",
"timestamp": [
1359.778,
1362.565
]
},
{
"text": "that we use to make predictions\nabout what's about to happen",
"timestamp": [
1359.778,
1362.565
]
},
{
"text": "and really use that to mean\nkind of a general understanding",
"timestamp": [
1362.565,
1366.84
]
},
{
"text": "and really use that to mean\nkind of a general understanding",
"timestamp": [
1362.565,
1366.84
]
},
{
"text": "of what's going on.",
"timestamp": [
1366.84,
1368.96
]
},
{
"text": "of what's going on.",
"timestamp": [
1366.84,
1368.96
]
},
{
"text": "What does that look like in\nterms that come from your world",
"timestamp": [
1368.96,
1372.61
]
},
{
"text": "What does that look like in\nterms that come from your world",
"timestamp": [
1368.96,
1372.61
]
},
{
"text": "of like the configuration\nof, of a circuit?",
"timestamp": [
1372.61,
1375.07
]
},
{
"text": "of like the configuration\nof, of a circuit?",
"timestamp": [
1372.61,
1375.07
]
},
{
"text": "- I think this is the most\nexciting area of memory research",
"timestamp": [
1375.07,
1378.49
]
},
{
"text": "- I think this is the most\nexciting area of memory research",
"timestamp": [
1375.07,
1378.49
]
},
{
"text": "right now I think, which is\nhow people build and remember,",
"timestamp": [
1378.49,
1383.49
]
},
{
"text": "right now I think, which is\nhow people build and remember,",
"timestamp": [
1378.49,
1383.49
]
},
{
"text": "you know, and keep with\nthem models of the world",
"timestamp": [
1384.283,
1385.57
]
},
{
"text": "you know, and keep with\nthem models of the world",
"timestamp": [
1384.283,
1385.57
]
},
{
"text": "over long periods of time.",
"timestamp": [
1385.57,
1386.74
]
},
{
"text": "over long periods of time.",
"timestamp": [
1385.57,
1386.74
]
},
{
"text": "When I think about a mental model,",
"timestamp": [
1386.74,
1388.64
]
},
{
"text": "When I think about a mental model,",
"timestamp": [
1386.74,
1388.64
]
},
{
"text": "I think about ideas, potential\noutcomes, potential events,",
"timestamp": [
1388.64,
1393.64
]
},
{
"text": "I think about ideas, potential\noutcomes, potential events,",
"timestamp": [
1388.64,
1393.64
]
},
{
"text": "potential actions, and how\nthey all depend on one another.",
"timestamp": [
1394.523,
1398.75
]
},
{
"text": "potential actions, and how\nthey all depend on one another.",
"timestamp": [
1394.523,
1398.75
]
},
{
"text": "So when we predict what will\nhappen next it would be,",
"timestamp": [
1398.75,
1400.9
]
},
{
"text": "So when we predict what will\nhappen next it would be,",
"timestamp": [
1398.75,
1400.9
]
},
{
"text": "I am currently sitting at\nthis piece of the network",
"timestamp": [
1400.9,
1403.04
]
},
{
"text": "I am currently sitting at\nthis piece of the network",
"timestamp": [
1400.9,
1403.04
]
},
{
"text": "and I know that there are,",
"timestamp": [
1403.04,
1403.873
]
},
{
"text": "and I know that there are,",
"timestamp": [
1403.04,
1403.873
]
},
{
"text": "there are these possible outcomes.",
"timestamp": [
1403.873,
1405.56
]
},
{
"text": "there are these possible outcomes.",
"timestamp": [
1403.873,
1405.56
]
},
{
"text": "And so I have to get\nready for those, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1405.56,
1407.9
]
},
{
"text": "And so I have to get\nready for those, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1405.56,
1407.9
]
},
{
"text": "four possible outcomes.",
"timestamp": [
1407.9,
1409.05
]
},
{
"text": "four possible outcomes.",
"timestamp": [
1407.9,
1409.05
]
},
{
"text": "But that brings this interesting\nquestion to the fore,",
"timestamp": [
1409.05,
1412.9
]
},
{
"text": "But that brings this interesting\nquestion to the fore,",
"timestamp": [
1409.05,
1412.9
]
},
{
"text": "I think which is how does a\nnetwork system in our mind",
"timestamp": [
1412.9,
1416.44
]
},
{
"text": "I think which is how does a\nnetwork system in our mind",
"timestamp": [
1412.9,
1416.44
]
},
{
"text": "and our brain create a network\nmodel of the world outside?",
"timestamp": [
1416.44,
1420.67
]
},
{
"text": "and our brain create a network\nmodel of the world outside?",
"timestamp": [
1416.44,
1420.67
]
},
{
"text": "It's almost like there's a\nreflection in the structure of",
"timestamp": [
1420.67,
1423.45
]
},
{
"text": "It's almost like there's a\nreflection in the structure of",
"timestamp": [
1420.67,
1423.45
]
},
{
"text": "what's inside in the hardware\nand what we're building",
"timestamp": [
1423.45,
1425.562
]
},
{
"text": "what's inside in the hardware\nand what we're building",
"timestamp": [
1423.45,
1425.562
]
},
{
"text": "in a very abstract way.",
"timestamp": [
1425.562,
1427.957
]
},
{
"text": "in a very abstract way.",
"timestamp": [
1425.562,
1427.957
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that relates to\nsome interesting work that's",
"timestamp": [
1427.957,
1430.27
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that relates to\nsome interesting work that's",
"timestamp": [
1427.957,
1430.27
]
},
{
"text": "coming out about the hippocampus too.",
"timestamp": [
1430.27,
1432.76
]
},
{
"text": "coming out about the hippocampus too.",
"timestamp": [
1430.27,
1432.76
]
},
{
"text": "- We now think of the hippocampus\nso much in terms of memory",
"timestamp": [
1432.76,
1436.207
]
},
{
"text": "- We now think of the hippocampus\nso much in terms of memory",
"timestamp": [
1432.76,
1436.207
]
},
{
"text": "but really some of the\nearliest work in neuroscience",
"timestamp": [
1436.207,
1439.025
]
},
{
"text": "but really some of the\nearliest work in neuroscience",
"timestamp": [
1436.207,
1439.025
]
},
{
"text": "on the hippocampus talked about\nthe role of the hippocampus",
"timestamp": [
1439.025,
1443.53
]
},
{
"text": "on the hippocampus talked about\nthe role of the hippocampus",
"timestamp": [
1439.025,
1443.53
]
},
{
"text": "in spatial navigation.",
"timestamp": [
1443.53,
1445.35
]
},
{
"text": "in spatial navigation.",
"timestamp": [
1443.53,
1445.35
]
},
{
"text": "And it really exposed I think\none of the deepest questions",
"timestamp": [
1445.35,
1447.97
]
},
{
"text": "And it really exposed I think\none of the deepest questions",
"timestamp": [
1445.35,
1447.97
]
},
{
"text": "in memory research,",
"timestamp": [
1447.97,
1449.33
]
},
{
"text": "in memory research,",
"timestamp": [
1447.97,
1449.33
]
},
{
"text": "or at least from the\nneuroscience perspective is like,",
"timestamp": [
1449.33,
1451.51
]
},
{
"text": "or at least from the\nneuroscience perspective is like,",
"timestamp": [
1449.33,
1451.51
]
},
{
"text": "well what is the connection?",
"timestamp": [
1451.51,
1452.74
]
},
{
"text": "well what is the connection?",
"timestamp": [
1451.51,
1452.74
]
},
{
"text": "What is the connection between",
"timestamp": [
1452.74,
1454
]
},
{
"text": "What is the connection between",
"timestamp": [
1452.74,
1454
]
},
{
"text": "spatial processing and memory?",
"timestamp": [
1454,
1456.433
]
},
{
"text": "spatial processing and memory?",
"timestamp": [
1454,
1456.433
]
},
{
"text": "And why is it that\nneurons in the hippocampus",
"timestamp": [
1457.544,
1461.366
]
},
{
"text": "And why is it that\nneurons in the hippocampus",
"timestamp": [
1457.544,
1461.366
]
},
{
"text": "when an animal is navigating a maze,",
"timestamp": [
1461.366,
1464.45
]
},
{
"text": "when an animal is navigating a maze,",
"timestamp": [
1461.366,
1464.45
]
},
{
"text": "why is it that there's\nspatial specialization there?",
"timestamp": [
1464.45,
1467.8
]
},
{
"text": "why is it that there's\nspatial specialization there?",
"timestamp": [
1464.45,
1467.8
]
},
{
"text": "I really do think that this\nnotion of a mental model,",
"timestamp": [
1467.8,
1471.766
]
},
{
"text": "I really do think that this\nnotion of a mental model,",
"timestamp": [
1467.8,
1471.766
]
},
{
"text": "a generative model is where those,",
"timestamp": [
1471.766,
1476.28
]
},
{
"text": "a generative model is where those,",
"timestamp": [
1471.766,
1476.28
]
},
{
"text": "where memory and space meet.",
"timestamp": [
1476.28,
1478.42
]
},
{
"text": "where memory and space meet.",
"timestamp": [
1476.28,
1478.42
]
},
{
"text": "- That makes a lot of sense.",
"timestamp": [
1478.42,
1480.02
]
},
{
"text": "- That makes a lot of sense.",
"timestamp": [
1478.42,
1480.02
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that it makes\nme wonder how we think about",
"timestamp": [
1480.02,
1484.944
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that it makes\nme wonder how we think about",
"timestamp": [
1480.02,
1484.944
]
},
{
"text": "places in the abstract, what\nis a cognitive place, right?",
"timestamp": [
1484.944,
1489.944
]
},
{
"text": "places in the abstract, what\nis a cognitive place, right?",
"timestamp": [
1484.944,
1489.944
]
},
{
"text": "And what is, how do we map out\nthe cognitive spaces that we,",
"timestamp": [
1490.35,
1495.34
]
},
{
"text": "And what is, how do we map out\nthe cognitive spaces that we,",
"timestamp": [
1490.35,
1495.34
]
},
{
"text": "that our mind moves within in the same way",
"timestamp": [
1495.34,
1498.75
]
},
{
"text": "that our mind moves within in the same way",
"timestamp": [
1495.34,
1498.75
]
},
{
"text": "or in a similar way to the spaces",
"timestamp": [
1498.75,
1502.1
]
},
{
"text": "or in a similar way to the spaces",
"timestamp": [
1498.75,
1502.1
]
},
{
"text": "that we physically walk in.",
"timestamp": [
1502.1,
1503.157
]
},
{
"text": "that we physically walk in.",
"timestamp": [
1502.1,
1503.157
]
},
{
"text": "But I think it opens a lot up,",
"timestamp": [
1503.157,
1504.97
]
},
{
"text": "But I think it opens a lot up,",
"timestamp": [
1503.157,
1504.97
]
},
{
"text": "a lot of questions about how individuals",
"timestamp": [
1504.97,
1507.94
]
},
{
"text": "a lot of questions about how individuals",
"timestamp": [
1504.97,
1507.94
]
},
{
"text": "make their own maps, right?",
"timestamp": [
1507.94,
1509.67
]
},
{
"text": "make their own maps, right?",
"timestamp": [
1507.94,
1509.67
]
},
{
"text": "And then how the way that\nthey choose to make that map",
"timestamp": [
1509.67,
1513.1
]
},
{
"text": "And then how the way that\nthey choose to make that map",
"timestamp": [
1509.67,
1513.1
]
},
{
"text": "will then affect the way that\nthey may respond in the future",
"timestamp": [
1513.1,
1516.99
]
},
{
"text": "will then affect the way that\nthey may respond in the future",
"timestamp": [
1513.1,
1516.99
]
},
{
"text": "to a new context or environment.",
"timestamp": [
1516.99,
1519.88
]
},
{
"text": "to a new context or environment.",
"timestamp": [
1516.99,
1519.88
]
},
{
"text": "- It's really interesting.",
"timestamp": [
1519.88,
1520.86
]
},
{
"text": "- It's really interesting.",
"timestamp": [
1519.88,
1520.86
]
},
{
"text": "And I think it also really\nspeaks to the kind of pervasive",
"timestamp": [
1520.86,
1523.87
]
},
{
"text": "And I think it also really\nspeaks to the kind of pervasive",
"timestamp": [
1520.86,
1523.87
]
},
{
"text": "and circular role of memory, right?",
"timestamp": [
1523.87,
1525.89
]
},
{
"text": "and circular role of memory, right?",
"timestamp": [
1523.87,
1525.89
]
},
{
"text": "Because the maps are\ndependent on memories,",
"timestamp": [
1525.89,
1529.64
]
},
{
"text": "Because the maps are\ndependent on memories,",
"timestamp": [
1525.89,
1529.64
]
},
{
"text": "they're built from\nmemories and experiences.",
"timestamp": [
1529.64,
1531.97
]
},
{
"text": "they're built from\nmemories and experiences.",
"timestamp": [
1529.64,
1531.97
]
},
{
"text": "So there's this kind of dialogue\nwith memory creating maps,",
"timestamp": [
1531.97,
1536.97
]
},
{
"text": "So there's this kind of dialogue\nwith memory creating maps,",
"timestamp": [
1531.97,
1536.97
]
},
{
"text": "maps creating experiences,\nexperiences creating memories,",
"timestamp": [
1538.12,
1540.19
]
},
{
"text": "maps creating experiences,\nexperiences creating memories,",
"timestamp": [
1538.12,
1540.19
]
},
{
"text": "affecting the maps,",
"timestamp": [
1540.19,
1541.17
]
},
{
"text": "affecting the maps,",
"timestamp": [
1540.19,
1541.17
]
},
{
"text": "and really makes me\nthink even of a question",
"timestamp": [
1541.17,
1544.4
]
},
{
"text": "and really makes me\nthink even of a question",
"timestamp": [
1541.17,
1544.4
]
},
{
"text": "a friend asked me recently\nabout moods and mental health",
"timestamp": [
1544.4,
1547.64
]
},
{
"text": "a friend asked me recently\nabout moods and mental health",
"timestamp": [
1544.4,
1547.64
]
},
{
"text": "and this feeling of like how\ndo some people get kind of",
"timestamp": [
1547.64,
1550.35
]
},
{
"text": "and this feeling of like how\ndo some people get kind of",
"timestamp": [
1547.64,
1550.35
]
},
{
"text": "trapped in a state of mind\nwhere all they can see",
"timestamp": [
1550.35,
1554.23
]
},
{
"text": "trapped in a state of mind\nwhere all they can see",
"timestamp": [
1550.35,
1554.23
]
},
{
"text": "is a particular way forward.",
"timestamp": [
1554.23,
1556.204
]
},
{
"text": "is a particular way forward.",
"timestamp": [
1554.23,
1556.204
]
},
{
"text": "But then something happens\nin the world that shifts them",
"timestamp": [
1556.204,
1559.69
]
},
{
"text": "But then something happens\nin the world that shifts them",
"timestamp": [
1556.204,
1559.69
]
},
{
"text": "to another model.",
"timestamp": [
1559.69,
1560.78
]
},
{
"text": "to another model.",
"timestamp": [
1559.69,
1560.78
]
},
{
"text": "- Which is actually really\ninteresting because you can make",
"timestamp": [
1560.78,
1562.64
]
},
{
"text": "- Which is actually really\ninteresting because you can make",
"timestamp": [
1560.78,
1562.64
]
},
{
"text": "different maps in different\nphysical spaces too, right?",
"timestamp": [
1562.64,
1564.84
]
},
{
"text": "different maps in different\nphysical spaces too, right?",
"timestamp": [
1562.64,
1564.84
]
},
{
"text": "As you walk into a new room",
"timestamp": [
1564.84,
1566.16
]
},
{
"text": "As you walk into a new room",
"timestamp": [
1564.84,
1566.16
]
},
{
"text": "you make a new map of that room.",
"timestamp": [
1566.16,
1567.5
]
},
{
"text": "you make a new map of that room.",
"timestamp": [
1566.16,
1567.5
]
},
{
"text": "So what are the doorways\nbasically for mental models?",
"timestamp": [
1567.5,
1572
]
},
{
"text": "So what are the doorways\nbasically for mental models?",
"timestamp": [
1567.5,
1572
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that often we sort\nof fall into this pattern of,",
"timestamp": [
1572,
1575.78
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that often we sort\nof fall into this pattern of,",
"timestamp": [
1572,
1575.78
]
},
{
"text": "of thinking about memory\nas, as always additive,",
"timestamp": [
1575.78,
1579.2
]
},
{
"text": "of thinking about memory\nas, as always additive,",
"timestamp": [
1575.78,
1579.2
]
},
{
"text": "that we always just keep\ngathering more information",
"timestamp": [
1579.2,
1581.1
]
},
{
"text": "that we always just keep\ngathering more information",
"timestamp": [
1579.2,
1581.1
]
},
{
"text": "and update what we currently have.",
"timestamp": [
1581.1,
1582.47
]
},
{
"text": "and update what we currently have.",
"timestamp": [
1581.1,
1582.47
]
},
{
"text": "We don't as often speak about deleting",
"timestamp": [
1582.47,
1585.046
]
},
{
"text": "We don't as often speak about deleting",
"timestamp": [
1582.47,
1585.046
]
},
{
"text": "pieces of information or,",
"timestamp": [
1585.046,
1587.16
]
},
{
"text": "pieces of information or,",
"timestamp": [
1585.046,
1587.16
]
},
{
"text": "or perceptions or something\nthat we thought was a,",
"timestamp": [
1587.16,
1589.94
]
},
{
"text": "or perceptions or something\nthat we thought was a,",
"timestamp": [
1587.16,
1589.94
]
},
{
"text": "was a useful fact but\nactually it's not a fact.",
"timestamp": [
1589.94,
1592.22
]
},
{
"text": "was a useful fact but\nactually it's not a fact.",
"timestamp": [
1589.94,
1592.22
]
},
{
"text": "- Memories as models or models first",
"timestamp": [
1592.22,
1596.71
]
},
{
"text": "- Memories as models or models first",
"timestamp": [
1592.22,
1596.71
]
},
{
"text": "and memory as part of\nwhat helps build the model",
"timestamp": [
1596.71,
1599.54
]
},
{
"text": "and memory as part of\nwhat helps build the model",
"timestamp": [
1596.71,
1599.54
]
},
{
"text": "starts generating new predictions.",
"timestamp": [
1599.54,
1601.363
]
},
{
"text": "starts generating new predictions.",
"timestamp": [
1599.54,
1601.363
]
},
{
"text": "Exactly the kind you just brought up",
"timestamp": [
1602.354,
1604.034
]
},
{
"text": "Exactly the kind you just brought up",
"timestamp": [
1602.354,
1604.034
]
},
{
"text": "or other ways of thinking about\nthings because an efficient",
"timestamp": [
1604.034,
1605.74
]
},
{
"text": "or other ways of thinking about\nthings because an efficient",
"timestamp": [
1604.034,
1605.74
]
},
{
"text": "model needs to let go\nof information, right?",
"timestamp": [
1605.74,
1608.873
]
},
{
"text": "model needs to let go\nof information, right?",
"timestamp": [
1605.74,
1608.873
]
},
{
"text": "I just heard a colleague of\nmine joking about the fact that",
"timestamp": [
1608.873,
1612.33
]
},
{
"text": "I just heard a colleague of\nmine joking about the fact that",
"timestamp": [
1608.873,
1612.33
]
},
{
"text": "the principles of neuroscience textbook",
"timestamp": [
1612.33,
1614.64
]
},
{
"text": "the principles of neuroscience textbook",
"timestamp": [
1612.33,
1614.64
]
},
{
"text": "keeps growing and growing.",
"timestamp": [
1614.64,
1615.91
]
},
{
"text": "keeps growing and growing.",
"timestamp": [
1614.64,
1615.91
]
},
{
"text": "And that if we had enough strength",
"timestamp": [
1615.91,
1618.44
]
},
{
"text": "And that if we had enough strength",
"timestamp": [
1615.91,
1618.44
]
},
{
"text": "in theoretical neuroscience,",
"timestamp": [
1618.44,
1619.81
]
},
{
"text": "in theoretical neuroscience,",
"timestamp": [
1618.44,
1619.81
]
},
{
"text": "if our models of neuroscience\nwere good enough,",
"timestamp": [
1619.81,
1622.44
]
},
{
"text": "if our models of neuroscience\nwere good enough,",
"timestamp": [
1619.81,
1622.44
]
},
{
"text": "that book should shrink back.",
"timestamp": [
1622.44,
1623.89
]
},
{
"text": "that book should shrink back.",
"timestamp": [
1622.44,
1623.89
]
},
{
"text": "We know that memory retrieval\nis essentially construction.",
"timestamp": [
1623.89,
1626.76
]
},
{
"text": "We know that memory retrieval\nis essentially construction.",
"timestamp": [
1623.89,
1626.76
]
},
{
"text": "And so you don't need to store\nall those separate memories.",
"timestamp": [
1626.76,
1629.78
]
},
{
"text": "And so you don't need to store\nall those separate memories.",
"timestamp": [
1626.76,
1629.78
]
},
{
"text": "You need to construct them.",
"timestamp": [
1629.78,
1630.76
]
},
{
"text": "You need to construct them.",
"timestamp": [
1629.78,
1630.76
]
},
{
"text": "But if you have a good model,",
"timestamp": [
1630.76,
1632.55
]
},
{
"text": "But if you have a good model,",
"timestamp": [
1630.76,
1632.55
]
},
{
"text": "let go of all those details\nand just construct them",
"timestamp": [
1632.55,
1635.61
]
},
{
"text": "let go of all those details\nand just construct them",
"timestamp": [
1632.55,
1635.61
]
},
{
"text": "to feel as if it's a memory.",
"timestamp": [
1635.61,
1638.05
]
},
{
"text": "to feel as if it's a memory.",
"timestamp": [
1635.61,
1638.05
]
},
{
"text": "But really all you're\ndoing is using the model",
"timestamp": [
1638.05,
1639.76
]
},
{
"text": "But really all you're\ndoing is using the model",
"timestamp": [
1638.05,
1639.76
]
},
{
"text": "to fill the details.",
"timestamp": [
1639.76,
1640.593
]
},
{
"text": "to fill the details.",
"timestamp": [
1639.76,
1640.593
]
},
{
"text": "It's kind of like the matrix, you know.",
"timestamp": [
1640.593,
1642.409
]
},
{
"text": "It's kind of like the matrix, you know.",
"timestamp": [
1640.593,
1642.409
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1642.409,
1643.43
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1642.409,
1643.43
]
},
{
"text": "- Getting way out there, but,",
"timestamp": [
1643.43,
1645.08
]
},
{
"text": "- Getting way out there, but,",
"timestamp": [
1643.43,
1645.08
]
},
{
"text": "but it is a way in which if\nyou have the right model,",
"timestamp": [
1645.08,
1648.451
]
},
{
"text": "but it is a way in which if\nyou have the right model,",
"timestamp": [
1645.08,
1648.451
]
},
{
"text": "it should be an efficient one.",
"timestamp": [
1648.451,
1650.94
]
},
{
"text": "it should be an efficient one.",
"timestamp": [
1648.451,
1650.94
]
},
{
"text": "I'm wondering what you, what\nyou think about what all this",
"timestamp": [
1650.94,
1655.36
]
},
{
"text": "I'm wondering what you, what\nyou think about what all this",
"timestamp": [
1650.94,
1655.36
]
},
{
"text": "means for kind of a\nredefinition of what memory is,",
"timestamp": [
1655.36,
1658.39
]
},
{
"text": "means for kind of a\nredefinition of what memory is,",
"timestamp": [
1655.36,
1658.39
]
},
{
"text": "in many ways a revision or\nexpansion of that notion.",
"timestamp": [
1658.39,
1663.38
]
},
{
"text": "in many ways a revision or\nexpansion of that notion.",
"timestamp": [
1658.39,
1663.38
]
},
{
"text": "Would you be willing to\ntry to help me think about",
"timestamp": [
1663.38,
1666.791
]
},
{
"text": "Would you be willing to\ntry to help me think about",
"timestamp": [
1663.38,
1666.791
]
},
{
"text": "how to define it?",
"timestamp": [
1666.791,
1667.98
]
},
{
"text": "how to define it?",
"timestamp": [
1666.791,
1667.98
]
},
{
"text": "- I think it's information certainly that,",
"timestamp": [
1667.98,
1672.2
]
},
{
"text": "- I think it's information certainly that,",
"timestamp": [
1667.98,
1672.2
]
},
{
"text": "that is stored in the brain",
"timestamp": [
1672.2,
1674.17
]
},
{
"text": "that is stored in the brain",
"timestamp": [
1672.2,
1674.17
]
},
{
"text": "and that can then affect our behavior.",
"timestamp": [
1674.17,
1676.5
]
},
{
"text": "and that can then affect our behavior.",
"timestamp": [
1674.17,
1676.5
]
},
{
"text": "I think getting your\nbehavior in there somewhere",
"timestamp": [
1676.5,
1678.11
]
},
{
"text": "I think getting your\nbehavior in there somewhere",
"timestamp": [
1676.5,
1678.11
]
},
{
"text": "seems, seems important.",
"timestamp": [
1678.11,
1679.78
]
},
{
"text": "seems, seems important.",
"timestamp": [
1678.11,
1679.78
]
},
{
"text": "But also is it just a record\nof the past or is it, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1679.78,
1683.41
]
},
{
"text": "But also is it just a record\nof the past or is it, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1679.78,
1683.41
]
},
{
"text": "our perceptions of, of\nwhat happened in the past,",
"timestamp": [
1683.41,
1686.98
]
},
{
"text": "our perceptions of, of\nwhat happened in the past,",
"timestamp": [
1683.41,
1686.98
]
},
{
"text": "or how we've changed how we\nthink about that past event",
"timestamp": [
1686.98,
1690.62
]
},
{
"text": "or how we've changed how we\nthink about that past event",
"timestamp": [
1686.98,
1690.62
]
},
{
"text": "or have we deleted that event completely",
"timestamp": [
1690.62,
1692.47
]
},
{
"text": "or have we deleted that event completely",
"timestamp": [
1690.62,
1692.47
]
},
{
"text": "and then gathered this\nhigher level structure",
"timestamp": [
1692.47,
1695.025
]
},
{
"text": "and then gathered this\nhigher level structure",
"timestamp": [
1692.47,
1695.025
]
},
{
"text": "or mental model that then\nallows us to behave differently",
"timestamp": [
1695.025,
1698.087
]
},
{
"text": "or mental model that then\nallows us to behave differently",
"timestamp": [
1695.025,
1698.087
]
},
{
"text": "in the future?",
"timestamp": [
1698.087,
1699.1
]
},
{
"text": "in the future?",
"timestamp": [
1698.087,
1699.1
]
},
{
"text": "So it's more alive, it's more changing.",
"timestamp": [
1699.1,
1701.7
]
},
{
"text": "So it's more alive, it's more changing.",
"timestamp": [
1699.1,
1701.7
]
},
{
"text": "It's more, I think it's\nbubbling out and gathering,",
"timestamp": [
1701.7,
1706.06
]
},
{
"text": "It's more, I think it's\nbubbling out and gathering,",
"timestamp": [
1701.7,
1706.06
]
},
{
"text": "gathering and growing and\nbecoming more flexible,",
"timestamp": [
1706.06,
1708.17
]
},
{
"text": "gathering and growing and\nbecoming more flexible,",
"timestamp": [
1706.06,
1708.17
]
},
{
"text": "but it's also sort of bubbling in,",
"timestamp": [
1708.17,
1709.87
]
},
{
"text": "but it's also sort of bubbling in,",
"timestamp": [
1708.17,
1709.87
]
},
{
"text": "in the sense of deleting\nand removing and forgetting.",
"timestamp": [
1709.87,
1713.268
]
},
{
"text": "in the sense of deleting\nand removing and forgetting.",
"timestamp": [
1709.87,
1713.268
]
},
{
"text": "So yes, I think that what\nwe need to add perhaps",
"timestamp": [
1713.268,
1717.6
]
},
{
"text": "So yes, I think that what\nwe need to add perhaps",
"timestamp": [
1713.268,
1717.6
]
},
{
"text": "is that changeability and\nperhaps the behavioral relevance",
"timestamp": [
1717.6,
1721.92
]
},
{
"text": "is that changeability and\nperhaps the behavioral relevance",
"timestamp": [
1717.6,
1721.92
]
},
{
"text": "of that changeability. I\ndon't know, what do you think?",
"timestamp": [
1721.92,
1724.162
]
},
{
"text": "of that changeability. I\ndon't know, what do you think?",
"timestamp": [
1721.92,
1724.162
]
},
{
"text": "- I agree.",
"timestamp": [
1724.162,
1724.995
]
},
{
"text": "- I agree.",
"timestamp": [
1724.162,
1724.995
]
},
{
"text": "I think, you know, as you\nwere speaking I was thinking",
"timestamp": [
1724.995,
1727.569
]
},
{
"text": "I think, you know, as you\nwere speaking I was thinking",
"timestamp": [
1724.995,
1727.569
]
},
{
"text": "maybe the most important word",
"timestamp": [
1727.569,
1729.71
]
},
{
"text": "maybe the most important word",
"timestamp": [
1727.569,
1729.71
]
},
{
"text": "to replace there is record.",
"timestamp": [
1729.71,
1731.45
]
},
{
"text": "to replace there is record.",
"timestamp": [
1729.71,
1731.45
]
},
{
"text": "Record implies an etching\nof something as it was.",
"timestamp": [
1731.45,
1734.54
]
},
{
"text": "Record implies an etching\nof something as it was.",
"timestamp": [
1731.45,
1734.54
]
},
{
"text": "And maybe what we need\ninstead is that it's a model,",
"timestamp": [
1734.54,
1737.965
]
},
{
"text": "And maybe what we need\ninstead is that it's a model,",
"timestamp": [
1734.54,
1737.965
]
},
{
"text": "it's an approximation,",
"timestamp": [
1737.965,
1740.17
]
},
{
"text": "it's an approximation,",
"timestamp": [
1737.965,
1740.17
]
},
{
"text": "it's an abstraction that can\nhelp us create the illusion of",
"timestamp": [
1740.17,
1745.17
]
},
{
"text": "it's an abstraction that can\nhelp us create the illusion of",
"timestamp": [
1740.17,
1745.17
]
},
{
"text": "constructing your record.",
"timestamp": [
1745.292,
1747.36
]
},
{
"text": "constructing your record.",
"timestamp": [
1745.292,
1747.36
]
},
{
"text": "But that it's the model\nthat's the important thing",
"timestamp": [
1747.36,
1749.68
]
},
{
"text": "But that it's the model\nthat's the important thing",
"timestamp": [
1747.36,
1749.68
]
},
{
"text": "that drives the whole thing.",
"timestamp": [
1749.68,
1750.9
]
},
{
"text": "that drives the whole thing.",
"timestamp": [
1749.68,
1750.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, yeah I agree.",
"timestamp": [
1750.9,
1752.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, yeah I agree.",
"timestamp": [
1750.9,
1752.29
]
},
{
"text": "I think that's perfect.\n- Yep.",
"timestamp": [
1752.29,
1753.67
]
},
{
"text": "I think that's perfect.\n- Yep.",
"timestamp": [
1752.29,
1753.67
]
},
{
"text": "I hope you learned something about memory.",
"timestamp": [
1753.67,
1755.95
]
},
{
"text": "I hope you learned something about memory.",
"timestamp": [
1753.67,
1755.95
]
},
{
"text": "It plays a role in shaping\nthe changing preferences",
"timestamp": [
1755.95,
1758.82
]
},
{
"text": "It plays a role in shaping\nthe changing preferences",
"timestamp": [
1755.95,
1758.82
]
},
{
"text": "of things we encounter in our lives.",
"timestamp": [
1758.82,
1761.15
]
},
{
"text": "of things we encounter in our lives.",
"timestamp": [
1758.82,
1761.15
]
},
{
"text": "Memory is fundamental to\neverything we do, to who we are,",
"timestamp": [
1761.15,
1765.83
]
},
{
"text": "Memory is fundamental to\neverything we do, to who we are,",
"timestamp": [
1761.15,
1765.83
]
},
{
"text": "to what we order for breakfast,",
"timestamp": [
1765.83,
1768.33
]
},
{
"text": "to what we order for breakfast,",
"timestamp": [
1765.83,
1768.33
]
},
{
"text": "to how we think about our past,\nto how we plan our future.",
"timestamp": [
1768.33,
1772.163
]
},
{
"text": "to how we think about our past,\nto how we plan our future.",
"timestamp": [
1768.33,
1772.163
]
}
] |
[
[
"Intro",
"- Hi, my name is Daphna Shohamy.I'm a neuroscientist\nat Columbia University.And today I've been\nasked to explain memoryat five levels of increasing complexity.My research aims to understand\nhow memories are createdand how they shape who we are,what we do, and the decisions we make.[gentle music]"
],
[
"What is memory",
"We're here today to talk about memory.When I say the word memory\nwhat comes to your mind?- Like I once went on vacation\nto Dominican Republic.I think I was like six or five years old.- So on your trip what\nwas the funnest day ever?- There was this pool, I love pools.And then there's a slide you go downand there's pool noodles in there too.And then there's a little tiny sandbox.- It's pretty amazing, right?Because it happened\nlike a year or two ago.Our memory is basically\na record in our brainof something that happened in the past,but that record it created isn't perfect.So that day, do you remember\nwas the pool at your hotel?- I don't really remember.- Do you remember from that\nday what color towel you usedwhen you got out of the pool?- I think the one I used was a\ndark blue or a light blue or,or like sort of a teal.- When you were telling\nme about the sandbox,it felt like you didn't\nhave to make that guess,that you could just see\nthe sandbox in your eyes.I asked you about the towel.It doesn't come to mind immediately,but you can stop and think about itand kind of make a good guess\nbecause there are thingsyou know about the world.And for those of us who study memorythat's a really strong hint\nas to how memory works.And so for you your memory\nkept all the fun stuffand all the stuff that\nwas important to you,but the details like did\nyou have to have a ticketto get in or how you got there,all these other less interesting,\nless exciting aspects,your brain kind of decided letting goof all that information.- I think as you get older you\nstart forgetting things morebecause you have to make\nspace for new things,which is why you forget stuff.- Yeah, that's a great insight.Basically we can't remember everything.So when you tell us this\nmemory of that vacationand your brain is able to\nkind of play almost this movieof a memory, a moment, a day\nthat you had in your lifea while ago, where do\nthose memories come from?- I do know that there's\ndifferent parts of the brain.So there's probably a part of your brainthat remembers a bunch of stuff.- The hippocampus is a part\nof your brain that if youkind of took it out and looked at it,it looks a lot like a seahorseand it plays a really important\nrole in creating those kindsof memories that help you\ntwo years after your vacationshare with me what happened that day,all these details of that day.There's another part of the brain.It's actually also important for memoryand it's called the amygdala\nand it is important for keepingall the kind of emotional\nprocessing going for memory.So memory for things\nthat are really scary,it's gonna talk to the hippocampus nowand get that memory to be really strong.Why do you think it might be importantto remember scary things?- Let's say you, you\naccidentally cut yourself.Then your brain makes a noteand says don't get too\nclose to sharp things,or you're going to cut yourself again.- You got it.And so we don't just remember everythingand we don't remember random things.We remember the things\nthat matter to us the most.So Abigail based on\nour conversation today,can you tell me what is a memory?- A memory is something\nstored in your hippocampusand your hippocampus is\na part of your brain.It's just a big record.And sometimes you can\nforget parts of the recordthat's not that important to you.- You got it.[gentle music]"
],
[
"What does memory do",
"What do you know about memory?- I know when you see\nsomething you could likekind of like picture it,like in your head you can imagine it.I remember yesterday I\ngot like orange juice,but let's say like a year or\ntwo, you might think like, oh,that day I got water.- And on one hand memory is\nlike a record of somethingthat happened in the past\nthat we can carry with usand we can like bring it back to mind.And on the other hand we need\nto be a little bit suspicioussometimes because we might get it wrong.In what world would that\nmemory of the orange juicemaybe be useful?- Let's say you grew up in a\nplace that the orange juiceis just meh, and then you go\non vacation going somewhereand then it might change how\nyou feel about orange juice.- Sometimes, you know,\nmemory is doing somethingmuch simpler but no less important for us,which is it's helping us\nfigure out what's goodand what's bad.And if we can remember what's goodand what's bad from\nwhat we did in the past,that can help us make decisions\nabout what to do next time.So Dylan, you may be\nsurprised to learn this,but we asked your mom what some of yourfavorite candies are.So you have to make a decision\nbetween these two candiesand whichever one you pick,you actually get to take with you.- I wish I could say both,but I guess I'll go with pixie sticks.- There you go, there is your decision.Okay, you can take those.It took you some time there.You looked like you\nwere really working hardat that problem.And that's interesting because\nactually we know that fromresearch that when people have\nto make a decision betweentwo things they like equally,some people like economists\nthink oh those are the easiestdecisions because they're\nboth good options.But as psychologists and\nneuroscientists we knowit's the opposite.One of the reasons is because\nthere's no simple answer oflike I know that one's better\nI'm just gonna go with it.And so we think that that's\nthe kind of decision wherememory is especially important\nbecause you have to kind ofcome up with more information.- Exactly, and then also\nlike after it was like,maybe like I would've,\nenjoyed this more than thatand like maybe I should've\nchose the other one.And you don't know.- Everything you just said is exactlywhat we know from research.All the thoughts running\nthrough your mind,were really at kind of about a predictioninto the future, right?You're like, how, how will this taste if,when it's in my mouth or how\nwill I feel about my decisiondown the road?You know we think of memory\nas something in the past,but it's an example of how\nyou use your memories of thesetwo candies to predict what's\ngonna happen in the futureso that you can make a\ndecision in the present.But you did it, you made your\nway through that torture.And now you've got to keep the candy.- Am I always gonna\nlike choose pixie sticksor sour patch kids?What's gonna like change that?We fluctuate a lot because we\nuse different kinds of memoryto kind of resolve the\nuncertainty basically every time.But also the way we make\ndecisions will changebecause our memories change.What's interesting about your\nbrain as a teenager is that weknow it's actually a phase\nof life where the brain isespecially sensitive to rewards,to things that are exciting and positive.It's a phase of life where those rewards,whether it's candy or your\nfriends or whatever it isthat's exciting can have an\nespecially powerful controlover the decisions you make\nand the memories you create.[gentle music]"
],
[
"The importance of memory",
"Is there any particular memory\nfor you that you feel hasbeen either kind of influential in your,in deciding which areas to\npursue or that you feel is sortof emblematic of what\nit is to have a memory?- I was probably six years oldand my aunt who had stage\nfour ovarian cancer,she battled it for 20 years.She got me my first science\nkit and she asked me to curecancer and I will never forget\nrunning into my aunt's roomand just opening up the box\nand seeing that microscope,it was a tiny little blue oneand the little microscope\nslides and the little pipettes.So they just, that memory\nwill never be forgottenmy whole life.- I've got one too.I was nine and we were at the\nscience expo in San Francisco.Two scientists were dissecting\nan eye, a cow's eye.And I was like that is the\ncoolest thing I've ever seen.And something about that\nthat carried me forward.Something happened so long ago,it left some long lasting\ntrace through neural circuitsand it continues to shape\nthe decisions we makeabout what to study and what to do.- Just being able to apply\nthose memories in the futureis just so crucial in\neveryday life of the humansand the fact that we're\nlearning how that works.And I would love to hear more\nabout your side of memoryand the mechanisms that you're studying.- So we're interested in the\nidea that memory is kind ofa pervasive force that\nshapes all our behaviors.And we're trying to understand\nhow different kinds of memoryare organized in different\nstructures of the brain.And then to understand how\nthose different structures worktogether to orchestrate\ncomplex cognitive behaviorslike decision-making or\nreasoning and thinking.- So in your research or\nyou focus more on implicitor explicit memory?- My work has actually\nkind of pushed againstthat distinction between\nmemories that kind of areconsciously accessible versus unconscious.- When you say that you don't\nnecessarily look at implicitand explicit memory as anything different,if you were to take a step back,what would you define as\nimplicit and explicit memory?- The best way to kind of\nthink about that distinctionreally goes back historically\nto one of the most importantdiscoveries in memory research.The patient was referred\nto famously as patient HM.The neurosurgeon went in\nand removed the tissue thathappened to be right\naround the hippocampuson both the left side and\nthe right side of HM's brain.But then they started\nnoticing something oddin his behavior.He was not able to create new\nmemories of the experienceshe had after the surgery.And that led Brenda Milner and\nher colleagues to report thatthe hippocampus was very\nimportant for memory,but a one particular kind,\nthese sort of explicit,or as now referred to\nthem episodic memories.But the hippocampus was not\nnecessary for learning skillslike mirror tracing,things that you can't\nnecessarily articulatebut you just get better at over time.And it really led to a couple\nof decades or more evenof an enormous amount of\nvery important work that kindof kept on breaking memory down furtherand further into different types.Episodic and semantic as\nboth forms of explicit memorywhere episodic refers to memory\nfor an event that happenedlike what you did yesterday morningand semantic refers to general\nknowledge about the world.Implicit memory is being\nbroken down into a bunch ofdifferent kinds like skills\nor habits or conditioning.And when I started graduate school,many of us felt kind of the\nnext question was really tounderstand how do we now\nunderstand how they work together.This was right around when\nfunctional magnetic resonanceimaging started becoming a popular toolfor measuring brain activity.We could scan the entire brain\nand we could ask questionsabout multiple brain regions at once.And we discovered that\nwhat we might expectduring a skill learning\ntask that only the striatummight show activity,that we also saw the\nactivity in the hippocampus.Or when we asked someone\nto form an episodic memorythat we thought might depend\nonly on the hippocampuswe suddenly also saw activity\nin the prefrontal cortex.And so the confluence of these\nnew ideas and questions abouthow different forms of memory interacttogether with the development\nof new tools for studyingthe human mind and brain\nallowed us to kind of adjustour view of memory systems,to think of them less as\nmultiple completely separateindependent systems and instead\nto try to understand howthey really work in\nconcert with each otherand give rise to all kinds of\nbehaviors that might not fitneatly into one category or another.- Are the connectivities that\nyou're seeing using the FMRIin your studies, are they\ndifferent when you look atthe implicit and explicit memories?Are you seeing more activity\nin the striatum in comparisonto the hippocampus or\nthe prefrontal cortex?- Yeah, you know things\nare kind of breaking downin unexpected ways I'd say.I think there's been a lot\nof really great work out ofmultiple labs showing\nhippocampal activity related tobehaviors that don't look\nanything like episodic memories,but which might depend on\nepisodic memories right?So for example also when you're\nmaking a decision about howto choose between two good optionsthat suddenly you might see\nactivity in the hippocampusrelated to the choice itself,others have found that you find\nactivity in the hippocampusnot only when people are forming memories,but also when they're\nimagining events that aregonna happen in the future.So it kind of forced us to\nrethink the way we define whatthe hippocampus might be doing\nin a way that can account forcreating memories,\nthinking about the future,making decisions and other\nkinds of behaviors that involvewhat we would refer to you in the fieldas relational processing.And that raises all kinds\nof new questions aboutwhat memory really is.Reminiscing about our early\ninfluences that made uswant to be scientists is that, you know,of course we know, we know\nbetter than to think that thoseare necessarily accurate memories.You know this reminds me of sort of theclassic example from literature\nwhen people talk aboutmemory of course is Marcel Proust'sMadeleine in Remembrance of Things Past.Where in the book it's this taste for the,for the protagonist this\ntaste of the crumbs ofthe Madeleine cookie and\nthe tea that bring him backto his childhood.You know, seven volumes\nthen emerge of memories of,of that childhood.Digging further into earlier\ndrafts of Proust's novelthat initially it didn't\ndescribe a Madeleine at all.- It's very interesting\nto see the imperfectionsof the human brain and being\nable to rewrite somethingthat happened to you and\nfully believe it yourself.I think that that's one\nof the coolest errorsand faults in the human\nbrain that could exist.- You know I think these imperfections,I interpret them as an indication\nthat the role of memoryis much less about being accurate\nrepresentation of the pastand much more about being\nkind of a flexible compassinto the future."
],
[
"What are you studying",
"[gentle music]So what are you studying these days?- Well, I'm preparing my dissertation.The general topic is going\nto be how we perceivedifferent types of social stimuli,like different people's faces\nand make judgements about themand how the way that we report\non what we are experiencingtells us about what's actually\ngoing on inside our heads.- What I love about what\nyou were describing is likeyou didn't use the word memory,were how you were talking\nabout kind of perceptionsand social judgments but I\nthink probably we'd both agreethat memory is a big part of that.- Oh of course.- Right, like it reminds\nme so much of, you know,what we in the field would refer\nto as statistical learning.On one hand we might have\nlike a one-shot memory,a memory of something\nthat we saw yesterday,like what we did or what\nwe ate or where we were.But a lot of our memories\nand our knowledgeinstead are based on many,\nmany, many experiences.- Oh, absolutely.I think this sort of reminds\nme of another projectthat I'm doing.It's fairly easy to get different\nparticipants to experienceconsistent negative emotions\nto the same stimuli,but with positive emotions\nit's so much harder to study.I might not react the same to\nlike this like cute cat videothan someone else.And I definitely believe\nthat people's memorythat they're bringing up unconsciouslywhen they're experiencing\nsomething to makean emotional judgment informs\nespecially our experiencewith positive emotion possibly\nmore than negative emotion.- Some of those examples really\nremind me also some of thequestions about kind of abnormalities in,in memory or trauma or\ndisruptions in memoryand how they also play\nout in terms of not justwhat people remember but what they do withthose memories right?- As far as the way that\nmy research plays into itis like the first step\nin making a judgmentabout what to do based on an\nexperience we're calling frommemory is deciding what\nyour emotional response was.- I think what we're still\nkind of trying to understandas a field is the more kind of detailedand bigger picture of\nwhere does this model live?How does it get updated\nbased on experiences?Why does that sometimes\nhappen and sometimes not?There are actually people who are bornwithout a hippocampus.They have disruptions\nto episodic memories.They have trouble after this\nconversation rememberingwhat the conversation was about,but they do have pretty\ngood semantic information.They have a good sense of\nknowledge about the world.And that's interesting for two reasons.One, it shows this association\nbetween the role of thehippocampus and these two forms of memory,episodic memories and semantic memory.The other reason it's\ninteresting is that people oftenassume that we get to semantic memorythrough episodic memory,that we encounter one\ndog and then another dog,and then another dog and\nthen we learned the concept,the semantic notion of a dog.And these people, their\nprofile suggests that you canlearn semantic information.You can learn general\nknowledge about the world,even without ever having the capacityto build those individual memories.- In people with intact brains,you might use a particular process,but if that brain region\nthat subserves that processis damaged, that it's not\nthat you can't do it anymoreyou just now do it a different way.- Right.- It's really hard to tell people like,just don't use your memory to do this.And we just sort of have to inferand guess at what strategies\nthat they're doing.Is there's a particular research\nquestion that the answeryou think is gonna inform\nthe research in your laband perhaps in the rest of your field?- You know when I look back at,some of the work for my own lab\nand in the field in general,I really feel like some of\nthe most exciting discoverieswere not an answer to a\nquestion that was around before,but they were discoveries\nthat made us realizewe weren't asking the right question.I think one example of that\neven has to do with theconnection between memory\nand decision-making.There was a discovery about\nhow the striatum responds torewards and to learning that\njust all of a sudden flippedthe way we thought\nabout the role of rewardand learning and memory,and may force us to\nrealize there was somethingfundamentally connected\nbetween these processes.And that discovery just raised\na whole new set of questionsthat didn't exist before.- Yeah, I guess then the trick\nis we need to be designingstudies that will make us most\nlikely to find those sort ofunexpected things, which is kind of funny.It's like how do you look for\nsomething that you don't knowwhat it is?- Each project should be\nvery focused and rigorousand know what a study is designed for.But at the same time we\nhave to keep our minds open,our eyes open for what else is happening.Some of the most interesting discoveriesdidn't make sense at first.- As someone who is\nstudying social phenomenaI like to hear that.- There you go, exactly."
],
[
"What is network science",
"[gentle music]Thanks so much for coming,\nit's great to see you.It's been a while.- It has been awhile, I'm\nreally excited to be here.- It'd be great to just start\nby talking about your workat the broadest level.To my mind your work has\nreally revolutionized the fieldof cognitive neuroscience more broadly.- I've been really interested\nin how past understandingsof the brain have really focused on,on pinpointing exactly what\neach piece of the brain does.But I think that there's\nalso a broader conversationhappening in the brain,which is between one region and another.So it's actually the pattern\nof connections between theseregions that would allow\nfor the flow of information.But I think the tools that have\nbecome widely available nowfrom the physics community and mathematicsand computer science are\nunder the umbrella of,of network science.So that is a science of networks,a science of understanding\nhow bits of a system areinterconnected with one another.Not just comparing two groups of peopleor two kinds of two species,but we can ask even\nwithin a single person,how does the pattern of\nconnectivity in my brain changeas we talk with one another?How does the information flow change?I think a lot about\ntraffic on roadway networksas a good example of this.Which is, you know, we can\nunderstand where the roads areand perhaps the roads\nare relatively fixed.They change over long timescalesand it's similar to the brain.We really only create\nlarge scale connectionsover long timescales.But we can alter the traffic\non the roadways really easily.And that's similar to\nwhat we do in the brainis that we change the way\nthat information is flowingto allow us to respond to our environment.- It's a great analogy.You know I remember when I\nfirst learned of your work,for me as somebody who\nstudies learning and memory,which are processes that\nare all about rapid updatingthat to me was really mind\nblowing that we can nowstart asking questions\nabout dynamics of circuitson a timescale that's much\ncloser to the timescaleof human thought than\nanything we had before.- The field is definitely\nopening up in the kinds ofquestions that can be asked\nnow with these approaches.And I think what you're pointing\nout is that conceptuallyit's where we wanted to go anyway.So if there's so much\norchestration that happensand a symphony is not a single piece,it's not a single pattern of,of harmony between instruments and,and similar to the brain,symphony of your brain\nis not a single pattern.It's a very dynamically changing pattern.- In the field we often talk\nof have having a mental modelthat we use to make predictions\nabout what's about to happenand really use that to mean\nkind of a general understandingof what's going on.What does that look like in\nterms that come from your worldof like the configuration\nof, of a circuit?- I think this is the most\nexciting area of memory researchright now I think, which is\nhow people build and remember,you know, and keep with\nthem models of the worldover long periods of time.When I think about a mental model,I think about ideas, potential\noutcomes, potential events,potential actions, and how\nthey all depend on one another.So when we predict what will\nhappen next it would be,I am currently sitting at\nthis piece of the networkand I know that there are,there are these possible outcomes.And so I have to get\nready for those, you know,four possible outcomes.But that brings this interesting\nquestion to the fore,I think which is how does a\nnetwork system in our mindand our brain create a network\nmodel of the world outside?It's almost like there's a\nreflection in the structure ofwhat's inside in the hardware\nand what we're buildingin a very abstract way.And I think that relates to\nsome interesting work that'scoming out about the hippocampus too.- We now think of the hippocampus\nso much in terms of memorybut really some of the\nearliest work in neuroscienceon the hippocampus talked about\nthe role of the hippocampusin spatial navigation.And it really exposed I think\none of the deepest questionsin memory research,or at least from the\nneuroscience perspective is like,well what is the connection?What is the connection betweenspatial processing and memory?And why is it that\nneurons in the hippocampuswhen an animal is navigating a maze,why is it that there's\nspatial specialization there?I really do think that this\nnotion of a mental model,a generative model is where those,where memory and space meet.- That makes a lot of sense.And I think that it makes\nme wonder how we think aboutplaces in the abstract, what\nis a cognitive place, right?And what is, how do we map out\nthe cognitive spaces that we,that our mind moves within in the same wayor in a similar way to the spacesthat we physically walk in.But I think it opens a lot up,a lot of questions about how individualsmake their own maps, right?And then how the way that\nthey choose to make that map"
],
[
"The role of memory",
"will then affect the way that\nthey may respond in the futureto a new context or environment.- It's really interesting.And I think it also really\nspeaks to the kind of pervasiveand circular role of memory, right?Because the maps are\ndependent on memories,they're built from\nmemories and experiences.So there's this kind of dialogue\nwith memory creating maps,maps creating experiences,\nexperiences creating memories,affecting the maps,and really makes me\nthink even of a questiona friend asked me recently\nabout moods and mental healthand this feeling of like how\ndo some people get kind oftrapped in a state of mind\nwhere all they can seeis a particular way forward.But then something happens\nin the world that shifts themto another model.- Which is actually really\ninteresting because you can makedifferent maps in different\nphysical spaces too, right?As you walk into a new roomyou make a new map of that room.So what are the doorways\nbasically for mental models?And I think that often we sort\nof fall into this pattern of,of thinking about memory\nas, as always additive,that we always just keep\ngathering more informationand update what we currently have.We don't as often speak about deletingpieces of information or,or perceptions or something\nthat we thought was a,was a useful fact but\nactually it's not a fact.- Memories as models or models firstand memory as part of\nwhat helps build the modelstarts generating new predictions.Exactly the kind you just brought upor other ways of thinking about\nthings because an efficientmodel needs to let go\nof information, right?I just heard a colleague of\nmine joking about the fact thatthe principles of neuroscience textbookkeeps growing and growing.And that if we had enough strengthin theoretical neuroscience,if our models of neuroscience\nwere good enough,that book should shrink back.We know that memory retrieval\nis essentially construction.And so you don't need to store\nall those separate memories.You need to construct them.But if you have a good model,let go of all those details\nand just construct themto feel as if it's a memory.But really all you're\ndoing is using the modelto fill the details.It's kind of like the matrix, you know.- Right.- Getting way out there, but,but it is a way in which if\nyou have the right model,it should be an efficient one.I'm wondering what you, what\nyou think about what all thismeans for kind of a\nredefinition of what memory is,in many ways a revision or\nexpansion of that notion.Would you be willing to\ntry to help me think abouthow to define it?- I think it's information certainly that,that is stored in the brainand that can then affect our behavior.I think getting your\nbehavior in there somewhereseems, seems important.But also is it just a record\nof the past or is it, you know,our perceptions of, of\nwhat happened in the past,or how we've changed how we\nthink about that past eventor have we deleted that event completelyand then gathered this\nhigher level structureor mental model that then\nallows us to behave differentlyin the future?So it's more alive, it's more changing.It's more, I think it's\nbubbling out and gathering,gathering and growing and\nbecoming more flexible,but it's also sort of bubbling in,in the sense of deleting\nand removing and forgetting.So yes, I think that what\nwe need to add perhapsis that changeability and\nperhaps the behavioral relevanceof that changeability. I\ndon't know, what do you think?- I agree.I think, you know, as you\nwere speaking I was thinkingmaybe the most important wordto replace there is record.Record implies an etching\nof something as it was.And maybe what we need\ninstead is that it's a model,it's an approximation,it's an abstraction that can\nhelp us create the illusion ofconstructing your record.But that it's the model\nthat's the important thingthat drives the whole thing.- Yeah, yeah I agree.I think that's perfect.\n- Yep.I hope you learned something about memory.It plays a role in shaping\nthe changing preferencesof things we encounter in our lives.Memory is fundamental to\neverything we do, to who we are,to what we order for breakfast,to how we think about our past,\nto how we plan our future."
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Computer Scientist Explains One Concept in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
fOGdb1CTu5c
| 1,356
|
[
{
"end_time": 1,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "<Untitled Chapter 1>"
},
{
"end_time": 370,
"start_time": 1,
"title": "Amit Sahai, PhD Professor of computer science, UCLA Samuel School of Engineering"
},
{
"end_time": 716,
"start_time": 370,
"title": "College Student"
},
{
"end_time": 1026,
"start_time": 716,
"title": "LEVEL Grad Student"
},
{
"end_time": 1356,
"start_time": 1026,
"title": "Expert"
}
] |
[
{
"text": "- Hi, my name is Amit Sahai,",
"timestamp": [
0.12,
1.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, my name is Amit Sahai,",
"timestamp": [
0.12,
1.82
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm a Professor of computer science",
"timestamp": [
1.82,
3.38
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm a Professor of computer science",
"timestamp": [
1.82,
3.38
]
},
{
"text": "at the UCLA Samueli School of Engineering.",
"timestamp": [
3.38,
6.05
]
},
{
"text": "at the UCLA Samueli School of Engineering.",
"timestamp": [
3.38,
6.05
]
},
{
"text": "Today, I've been asked to explain zero-knowledge proofs",
"timestamp": [
6.05,
8.54
]
},
{
"text": "Today, I've been asked to explain zero-knowledge proofs",
"timestamp": [
6.05,
8.54
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
8.54,
10.8
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
8.54,
10.8
]
},
{
"text": "A zero-knowledge proof is a way for a prover to",
"timestamp": [
10.8,
13.88
]
},
{
"text": "A zero-knowledge proof is a way for a prover to",
"timestamp": [
10.8,
13.88
]
},
{
"text": "convince a verifier that some statement is true,",
"timestamp": [
13.88,
17.08
]
},
{
"text": "convince a verifier that some statement is true,",
"timestamp": [
13.88,
17.08
]
},
{
"text": "and yet reveal no additional information",
"timestamp": [
17.08,
20.08
]
},
{
"text": "and yet reveal no additional information",
"timestamp": [
17.08,
20.08
]
},
{
"text": "beyond the fact that the statement is true.",
"timestamp": [
20.08,
22
]
},
{
"text": "beyond the fact that the statement is true.",
"timestamp": [
20.08,
22
]
},
{
"text": "Zero-knowledge proofs are being used in",
"timestamp": [
22,
24.06
]
},
{
"text": "Zero-knowledge proofs are being used in",
"timestamp": [
22,
24.06
]
},
{
"text": "blockchains and cryptocurrencies.",
"timestamp": [
24.06,
26.11
]
},
{
"text": "blockchains and cryptocurrencies.",
"timestamp": [
24.06,
26.11
]
},
{
"text": "So cryptographers are excited about zero-knowledge",
"timestamp": [
26.11,
28.95
]
},
{
"text": "So cryptographers are excited about zero-knowledge",
"timestamp": [
26.11,
28.95
]
},
{
"text": "because of its amazing mathematical properties.",
"timestamp": [
28.95,
32.17
]
},
{
"text": "because of its amazing mathematical properties.",
"timestamp": [
28.95,
32.17
]
},
{
"text": "But also because of its incredible applicability",
"timestamp": [
32.17,
34.54
]
},
{
"text": "But also because of its incredible applicability",
"timestamp": [
32.17,
34.54
]
},
{
"text": "to so many different scenarios.",
"timestamp": [
34.54,
36.394
]
},
{
"text": "to so many different scenarios.",
"timestamp": [
34.54,
36.394
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat playful music]",
"timestamp": [
36.394,
39.644
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat playful music]",
"timestamp": [
36.394,
39.644
]
},
{
"text": "What's your favorite subject?",
"timestamp": [
41.29,
42.67
]
},
{
"text": "What's your favorite subject?",
"timestamp": [
41.29,
42.67
]
},
{
"text": "- I'd say math.",
"timestamp": [
42.67,
43.503
]
},
{
"text": "- I'd say math.",
"timestamp": [
42.67,
43.503
]
},
{
"text": "Some of the small problems",
"timestamp": [
43.503,
45.4
]
},
{
"text": "Some of the small problems",
"timestamp": [
43.503,
45.4
]
},
{
"text": "can actually be really big and complicated.",
"timestamp": [
45.4,
48.38
]
},
{
"text": "can actually be really big and complicated.",
"timestamp": [
45.4,
48.38
]
},
{
"text": "It's like a puzzle.",
"timestamp": [
48.38,
50.21
]
},
{
"text": "It's like a puzzle.",
"timestamp": [
48.38,
50.21
]
},
{
"text": "- I love math for the same reason.",
"timestamp": [
50.21,
51.66
]
},
{
"text": "- I love math for the same reason.",
"timestamp": [
50.21,
51.66
]
},
{
"text": "Today, I'm gonna tell you about a thing called",
"timestamp": [
51.66,
53.7
]
},
{
"text": "Today, I'm gonna tell you about a thing called",
"timestamp": [
51.66,
53.7
]
},
{
"text": "zero-knowledge proof.",
"timestamp": [
53.7,
55.03
]
},
{
"text": "zero-knowledge proof.",
"timestamp": [
53.7,
55.03
]
},
{
"text": "So in a zero-knowledge proof, there are two people.",
"timestamp": [
55.03,
57.92
]
},
{
"text": "So in a zero-knowledge proof, there are two people.",
"timestamp": [
55.03,
57.92
]
},
{
"text": "There's a prover and a verifier.",
"timestamp": [
57.92,
61.57
]
},
{
"text": "There's a prover and a verifier.",
"timestamp": [
57.92,
61.57
]
},
{
"text": "And I wanna prove that something is true to you.",
"timestamp": [
61.57,
64.7
]
},
{
"text": "And I wanna prove that something is true to you.",
"timestamp": [
61.57,
64.7
]
},
{
"text": "But the weird thing is, I wanna prove to you that it's true",
"timestamp": [
64.7,
69.04
]
},
{
"text": "But the weird thing is, I wanna prove to you that it's true",
"timestamp": [
64.7,
69.04
]
},
{
"text": "without telling you any reasons why.",
"timestamp": [
69.04,
71.32
]
},
{
"text": "without telling you any reasons why.",
"timestamp": [
69.04,
71.32
]
},
{
"text": "I remember when I first heard about it,",
"timestamp": [
71.32,
73.34
]
},
{
"text": "I remember when I first heard about it,",
"timestamp": [
71.32,
73.34
]
},
{
"text": "I was like, wait, what?",
"timestamp": [
73.34,
74.47
]
},
{
"text": "I was like, wait, what?",
"timestamp": [
73.34,
74.47
]
},
{
"text": "How can that possibly be?",
"timestamp": [
74.47,
75.84
]
},
{
"text": "How can that possibly be?",
"timestamp": [
74.47,
75.84
]
},
{
"text": "Right? - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
75.84,
76.98
]
},
{
"text": "Right? - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
75.84,
76.98
]
},
{
"text": "- So what do you see in this photo?",
"timestamp": [
76.98,
78.75
]
},
{
"text": "- So what do you see in this photo?",
"timestamp": [
76.98,
78.75
]
},
{
"text": "- [Chelsea] A lot of penguins.",
"timestamp": [
78.75,
79.95
]
},
{
"text": "- [Chelsea] A lot of penguins.",
"timestamp": [
78.75,
79.95
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. Hidden along all these penguins is a puffin.",
"timestamp": [
79.95,
83.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. Hidden along all these penguins is a puffin.",
"timestamp": [
79.95,
83.09
]
},
{
"text": "Do you wanna try to look for it? Do you see where it is?",
"timestamp": [
83.09,
85.89
]
},
{
"text": "Do you wanna try to look for it? Do you see where it is?",
"timestamp": [
83.09,
85.89
]
},
{
"text": "- Hmm.",
"timestamp": [
87.928,
88.761
]
},
{
"text": "- Hmm.",
"timestamp": [
87.928,
88.761
]
},
{
"text": "- I know where it is, but I don't wanna tell you.",
"timestamp": [
88.761,
91.1
]
},
{
"text": "- I know where it is, but I don't wanna tell you.",
"timestamp": [
88.761,
91.1
]
},
{
"text": "Do you believe me?",
"timestamp": [
91.1,
92.66
]
},
{
"text": "Do you believe me?",
"timestamp": [
91.1,
92.66
]
},
{
"text": "You're not sure to believe me. Right?",
"timestamp": [
92.66,
94.33
]
},
{
"text": "You're not sure to believe me. Right?",
"timestamp": [
92.66,
94.33
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
94.33,
95.59
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
94.33,
95.59
]
},
{
"text": "- But what if I could prove to you",
"timestamp": [
95.59,
97.82
]
},
{
"text": "- But what if I could prove to you",
"timestamp": [
95.59,
97.82
]
},
{
"text": "that I know where the puffin is",
"timestamp": [
97.82,
99.42
]
},
{
"text": "that I know where the puffin is",
"timestamp": [
97.82,
99.42
]
},
{
"text": "without revealing to you where it is?",
"timestamp": [
99.42,
101.64
]
},
{
"text": "without revealing to you where it is?",
"timestamp": [
99.42,
101.64
]
},
{
"text": "Let me show you.",
"timestamp": [
101.64,
102.473
]
},
{
"text": "Let me show you.",
"timestamp": [
101.64,
102.473
]
},
{
"text": "I took that photo that we showed you.",
"timestamp": [
105.73,
107.89
]
},
{
"text": "I took that photo that we showed you.",
"timestamp": [
105.73,
107.89
]
},
{
"text": "And I put it behind this poster here.",
"timestamp": [
107.89,
110.69
]
},
{
"text": "And I put it behind this poster here.",
"timestamp": [
107.89,
110.69
]
},
{
"text": "Why don't you go take a look through that hole?",
"timestamp": [
110.69,
112.873
]
},
{
"text": "Why don't you go take a look through that hole?",
"timestamp": [
110.69,
112.873
]
},
{
"text": "- I see the puffin.",
"timestamp": [
116.02,
117.11
]
},
{
"text": "- I see the puffin.",
"timestamp": [
116.02,
117.11
]
},
{
"text": "So when you look at this board,",
"timestamp": [
117.11,
118.64
]
},
{
"text": "So when you look at this board,",
"timestamp": [
117.11,
118.64
]
},
{
"text": "we don't know where the photo was, right?",
"timestamp": [
118.64,
120.93
]
},
{
"text": "we don't know where the photo was, right?",
"timestamp": [
118.64,
120.93
]
},
{
"text": "Was the photo like with the corner here?",
"timestamp": [
120.93,
123.56
]
},
{
"text": "Was the photo like with the corner here?",
"timestamp": [
120.93,
123.56
]
},
{
"text": "In which case the puffin would be all the way at this side.",
"timestamp": [
123.56,
126.21
]
},
{
"text": "In which case the puffin would be all the way at this side.",
"timestamp": [
123.56,
126.21
]
},
{
"text": "Or was the photo with the corner here?",
"timestamp": [
126.21,
128.464
]
},
{
"text": "Or was the photo with the corner here?",
"timestamp": [
126.21,
128.464
]
},
{
"text": "In which case the puffin would be on the other side.",
"timestamp": [
128.464,
130.07
]
},
{
"text": "In which case the puffin would be on the other side.",
"timestamp": [
128.464,
130.07
]
},
{
"text": "So this is a really simple example",
"timestamp": [
130.07,
133.08
]
},
{
"text": "So this is a really simple example",
"timestamp": [
130.07,
133.08
]
},
{
"text": "of a zero-knowledge proof.",
"timestamp": [
133.08,
135.08
]
},
{
"text": "of a zero-knowledge proof.",
"timestamp": [
133.08,
135.08
]
},
{
"text": "I convinced you that I knew where the puffin was,",
"timestamp": [
135.08,
137.57
]
},
{
"text": "I convinced you that I knew where the puffin was,",
"timestamp": [
135.08,
137.57
]
},
{
"text": "but you didn't learn anything else.",
"timestamp": [
137.57,
139.889
]
},
{
"text": "but you didn't learn anything else.",
"timestamp": [
137.57,
139.889
]
},
{
"text": "- Why do you study zero-knowledge proof?",
"timestamp": [
139.889,
141.477
]
},
{
"text": "- Why do you study zero-knowledge proof?",
"timestamp": [
139.889,
141.477
]
},
{
"text": "- When I first learned about them,",
"timestamp": [
141.477,
142.96
]
},
{
"text": "- When I first learned about them,",
"timestamp": [
141.477,
142.96
]
},
{
"text": "I just thought they were so cool.",
"timestamp": [
142.96,
144.51
]
},
{
"text": "I just thought they were so cool.",
"timestamp": [
142.96,
144.51
]
},
{
"text": "But it turns out they're also really useful,",
"timestamp": [
144.51,
146.55
]
},
{
"text": "But it turns out they're also really useful,",
"timestamp": [
144.51,
146.55
]
},
{
"text": "not just for finding like, puffins.",
"timestamp": [
146.55,
148.53
]
},
{
"text": "not just for finding like, puffins.",
"timestamp": [
146.55,
148.53
]
},
{
"text": "If you just type in your password",
"timestamp": [
148.53,
150.23
]
},
{
"text": "If you just type in your password",
"timestamp": [
148.53,
150.23
]
},
{
"text": "and the hacker hacks into the computer,",
"timestamp": [
150.23,
152.47
]
},
{
"text": "and the hacker hacks into the computer,",
"timestamp": [
150.23,
152.47
]
},
{
"text": "they can just get your password.",
"timestamp": [
152.47,
153.71
]
},
{
"text": "they can just get your password.",
"timestamp": [
152.47,
153.71
]
},
{
"text": "Right? - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
153.71,
154.92
]
},
{
"text": "Right? - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
153.71,
154.92
]
},
{
"text": "- What if instead, we could somehow use",
"timestamp": [
154.92,
158.41
]
},
{
"text": "- What if instead, we could somehow use",
"timestamp": [
154.92,
158.41
]
},
{
"text": "a zero-knowledge proof to log in.",
"timestamp": [
158.41,
160.87
]
},
{
"text": "a zero-knowledge proof to log in.",
"timestamp": [
158.41,
160.87
]
},
{
"text": "You would just be able to prove that,",
"timestamp": [
160.87,
163.27
]
},
{
"text": "You would just be able to prove that,",
"timestamp": [
160.87,
163.27
]
},
{
"text": "hey, I'm Chelsea, without revealing anything to them.",
"timestamp": [
163.27,
166.51
]
},
{
"text": "hey, I'm Chelsea, without revealing anything to them.",
"timestamp": [
163.27,
166.51
]
},
{
"text": "If you could do that, then it would be amazing, right?",
"timestamp": [
166.51,
169.71
]
},
{
"text": "If you could do that, then it would be amazing, right?",
"timestamp": [
166.51,
169.71
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
169.71,
170.543
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
169.71,
170.543
]
},
{
"text": "- Because then even if the hacker hacked into the computer,",
"timestamp": [
170.543,
173.44
]
},
{
"text": "- Because then even if the hacker hacked into the computer,",
"timestamp": [
170.543,
173.44
]
},
{
"text": "he wouldn't learn anything.",
"timestamp": [
173.44,
174.49
]
},
{
"text": "he wouldn't learn anything.",
"timestamp": [
173.44,
174.49
]
},
{
"text": "Because even the computer doesn't learn anything.",
"timestamp": [
174.49,
176.74
]
},
{
"text": "Because even the computer doesn't learn anything.",
"timestamp": [
174.49,
176.74
]
},
{
"text": "So Chelsea, in your own words,",
"timestamp": [
176.74,
178.97
]
},
{
"text": "So Chelsea, in your own words,",
"timestamp": [
176.74,
178.97
]
},
{
"text": "what is a zero-knowledge proof?",
"timestamp": [
178.97,
180.87
]
},
{
"text": "what is a zero-knowledge proof?",
"timestamp": [
178.97,
180.87
]
},
{
"text": "- Zero-knowledge proof is proof to a statement.",
"timestamp": [
180.87,
185.42
]
},
{
"text": "- Zero-knowledge proof is proof to a statement.",
"timestamp": [
180.87,
185.42
]
},
{
"text": "You don't show them why or what.",
"timestamp": [
185.42,
188.06
]
},
{
"text": "You don't show them why or what.",
"timestamp": [
185.42,
188.06
]
},
{
"text": "You just show them a tiny segment.",
"timestamp": [
188.06,
190.29
]
},
{
"text": "You just show them a tiny segment.",
"timestamp": [
188.06,
190.29
]
},
{
"text": "Or just do some sort of,",
"timestamp": [
190.29,
192.959
]
},
{
"text": "Or just do some sort of,",
"timestamp": [
190.29,
192.959
]
},
{
"text": "weird magic trick [chuckles]",
"timestamp": [
192.959,
195.6
]
},
{
"text": "weird magic trick [chuckles]",
"timestamp": [
192.959,
195.6
]
},
{
"text": "that's not really a magic trick,",
"timestamp": [
195.6,
198.64
]
},
{
"text": "that's not really a magic trick,",
"timestamp": [
195.6,
198.64
]
},
{
"text": "and they will be convinced.",
"timestamp": [
198.64,
200.28
]
},
{
"text": "and they will be convinced.",
"timestamp": [
198.64,
200.28
]
},
{
"text": "And you didn't show them why, or anything like that.",
"timestamp": [
200.28,
204.413
]
},
{
"text": "And you didn't show them why, or anything like that.",
"timestamp": [
200.28,
204.413
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat playful music]",
"timestamp": [
204.413,
207.663
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat playful music]",
"timestamp": [
204.413,
207.663
]
},
{
"text": "- So have you ever heard the term",
"timestamp": [
211.28,
212.6
]
},
{
"text": "- So have you ever heard the term",
"timestamp": [
211.28,
212.6
]
},
{
"text": "zero-knowledge proof before?",
"timestamp": [
212.6,
214.28
]
},
{
"text": "zero-knowledge proof before?",
"timestamp": [
212.6,
214.28
]
},
{
"text": "- I have not. No. - You have not. Right.",
"timestamp": [
214.28,
216.76
]
},
{
"text": "- I have not. No. - You have not. Right.",
"timestamp": [
214.28,
216.76
]
},
{
"text": "It's a way for a prover to convince a verifier",
"timestamp": [
216.76,
221.76
]
},
{
"text": "It's a way for a prover to convince a verifier",
"timestamp": [
216.76,
221.76
]
},
{
"text": "that something is true without revealing",
"timestamp": [
221.76,
224.48
]
},
{
"text": "that something is true without revealing",
"timestamp": [
221.76,
224.48
]
},
{
"text": "anything about why it's true, which sounds totally bizarre.",
"timestamp": [
224.48,
227.52
]
},
{
"text": "anything about why it's true, which sounds totally bizarre.",
"timestamp": [
224.48,
227.52
]
},
{
"text": "Right? - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
227.52,
228.777
]
},
{
"text": "Right? - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
227.52,
228.777
]
},
{
"text": "- Like how can that possibly be?",
"timestamp": [
228.777,
229.61
]
},
{
"text": "- Like how can that possibly be?",
"timestamp": [
228.777,
229.61
]
},
{
"text": "What I wanna do is prove to you that I know this combination",
"timestamp": [
229.61,
234.35
]
},
{
"text": "What I wanna do is prove to you that I know this combination",
"timestamp": [
229.61,
234.35
]
},
{
"text": "without revealing the combination to you.",
"timestamp": [
234.35,
236.5
]
},
{
"text": "without revealing the combination to you.",
"timestamp": [
234.35,
236.5
]
},
{
"text": "And what you could do is you could write a little note,",
"timestamp": [
236.5,
238.31
]
},
{
"text": "And what you could do is you could write a little note,",
"timestamp": [
236.5,
238.31
]
},
{
"text": "a secret that I definitely wouldn't know.",
"timestamp": [
238.31,
240.29
]
},
{
"text": "a secret that I definitely wouldn't know.",
"timestamp": [
238.31,
240.29
]
},
{
"text": "Fold it up, stick it in here.",
"timestamp": [
240.29,
241.91
]
},
{
"text": "Fold it up, stick it in here.",
"timestamp": [
240.29,
241.91
]
},
{
"text": "And then, if I know the combination,",
"timestamp": [
241.91,
243.53
]
},
{
"text": "And then, if I know the combination,",
"timestamp": [
241.91,
243.53
]
},
{
"text": "I should be able to open it and tell you what you wrote.",
"timestamp": [
243.53,
246.33
]
},
{
"text": "I should be able to open it and tell you what you wrote.",
"timestamp": [
243.53,
246.33
]
},
{
"text": "[paper rasps] All right.",
"timestamp": [
247.427,
248.863
]
},
{
"text": "[paper rasps] All right.",
"timestamp": [
247.427,
248.863
]
},
{
"text": "[dial clicking]",
"timestamp": [
250.187,
252.508
]
},
{
"text": "[dial clicking]",
"timestamp": [
250.187,
252.508
]
},
{
"text": "[lock clicks]",
"timestamp": [
252.508,
254.13
]
},
{
"text": "[lock clicks]",
"timestamp": [
252.508,
254.13
]
},
{
"text": "There we go. [latch clacks]",
"timestamp": [
254.13,
256.29
]
},
{
"text": "There we go. [latch clacks]",
"timestamp": [
254.13,
256.29
]
},
{
"text": "All right.",
"timestamp": [
256.29,
257.68
]
},
{
"text": "All right.",
"timestamp": [
256.29,
257.68
]
},
{
"text": "So,",
"timestamp": [
257.68,
258.633
]
},
{
"text": "So,",
"timestamp": [
257.68,
258.633
]
},
{
"text": "\"My dog is named Doug.\"",
"timestamp": [
259.757,
261.64
]
},
{
"text": "\"My dog is named Doug.\"",
"timestamp": [
259.757,
261.64
]
},
{
"text": "Did you figure out what the combination was?",
"timestamp": [
261.64,
263.445
]
},
{
"text": "Did you figure out what the combination was?",
"timestamp": [
261.64,
263.445
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
263.445,
264.278
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
263.445,
264.278
]
},
{
"text": "- So nowhere in this interaction,",
"timestamp": [
264.278,
265.9
]
},
{
"text": "- So nowhere in this interaction,",
"timestamp": [
264.278,
265.9
]
},
{
"text": "did you see any information that you didn't already know.",
"timestamp": [
265.9,
269.58
]
},
{
"text": "did you see any information that you didn't already know.",
"timestamp": [
265.9,
269.58
]
},
{
"text": "And yet I convinced you that I know the combination.",
"timestamp": [
269.58,
273.23
]
},
{
"text": "And yet I convinced you that I know the combination.",
"timestamp": [
269.58,
273.23
]
},
{
"text": "Right? - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
273.23,
274.28
]
},
{
"text": "Right? - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
273.23,
274.28
]
},
{
"text": "- So what's the exact purpose of a zero-knowledge proof?",
"timestamp": [
274.28,
278.1
]
},
{
"text": "- So what's the exact purpose of a zero-knowledge proof?",
"timestamp": [
274.28,
278.1
]
},
{
"text": "Is it like proving something",
"timestamp": [
278.1,
280.33
]
},
{
"text": "Is it like proving something",
"timestamp": [
278.1,
280.33
]
},
{
"text": "but without giving enough information that could",
"timestamp": [
280.33,
284.21
]
},
{
"text": "but without giving enough information that could",
"timestamp": [
280.33,
284.21
]
},
{
"text": "endanger whatever it is that you're proving?",
"timestamp": [
284.21,
286.29
]
},
{
"text": "endanger whatever it is that you're proving?",
"timestamp": [
284.21,
286.29
]
},
{
"text": "- So you're asking like,",
"timestamp": [
286.29,
287.14
]
},
{
"text": "- So you're asking like,",
"timestamp": [
286.29,
287.14
]
},
{
"text": "why shouldn't I just share my secrets with somebody?",
"timestamp": [
287.14,
289.67
]
},
{
"text": "why shouldn't I just share my secrets with somebody?",
"timestamp": [
287.14,
289.67
]
},
{
"text": "People don't trust each other.",
"timestamp": [
289.67,
291.32
]
},
{
"text": "People don't trust each other.",
"timestamp": [
289.67,
291.32
]
},
{
"text": "And if I was able to prove that I've",
"timestamp": [
291.32,
293.27
]
},
{
"text": "And if I was able to prove that I've",
"timestamp": [
291.32,
293.27
]
},
{
"text": "done something correctly to someone",
"timestamp": [
293.27,
296.08
]
},
{
"text": "done something correctly to someone",
"timestamp": [
293.27,
296.08
]
},
{
"text": "without having to reveal my secrets,",
"timestamp": [
296.08,
298.06
]
},
{
"text": "without having to reveal my secrets,",
"timestamp": [
296.08,
298.06
]
},
{
"text": "then that person would trust me more.",
"timestamp": [
298.06,
299.64
]
},
{
"text": "then that person would trust me more.",
"timestamp": [
298.06,
299.64
]
},
{
"text": "- How does this relate to computer technology?",
"timestamp": [
299.64,
302.53
]
},
{
"text": "- How does this relate to computer technology?",
"timestamp": [
299.64,
302.53
]
},
{
"text": "Like, do you type it into a computer",
"timestamp": [
302.53,
304.22
]
},
{
"text": "Like, do you type it into a computer",
"timestamp": [
302.53,
304.22
]
},
{
"text": "and somebody else receives it?",
"timestamp": [
304.22,
305.07
]
},
{
"text": "and somebody else receives it?",
"timestamp": [
304.22,
305.07
]
},
{
"text": "Or is it an in-person interaction?",
"timestamp": [
305.07,
307.33
]
},
{
"text": "Or is it an in-person interaction?",
"timestamp": [
305.07,
307.33
]
},
{
"text": "- Suppose you wanted to exchange messages",
"timestamp": [
307.33,
309.51
]
},
{
"text": "- Suppose you wanted to exchange messages",
"timestamp": [
307.33,
309.51
]
},
{
"text": "with someone that you knew.",
"timestamp": [
309.51,
310.929
]
},
{
"text": "with someone that you knew.",
"timestamp": [
309.51,
310.929
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm. - What would you guys do?",
"timestamp": [
310.929,
311.762
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm. - What would you guys do?",
"timestamp": [
310.929,
311.762
]
},
{
"text": "You'd probably first get together and like,",
"timestamp": [
311.762,
313.56
]
},
{
"text": "You'd probably first get together and like,",
"timestamp": [
311.762,
313.56
]
},
{
"text": "figure out some secret code, right?",
"timestamp": [
313.56,
315.26
]
},
{
"text": "figure out some secret code, right?",
"timestamp": [
313.56,
315.26
]
},
{
"text": "And then like, write messages to each other in that code.",
"timestamp": [
315.26,
317.52
]
},
{
"text": "And then like, write messages to each other in that code.",
"timestamp": [
315.26,
317.52
]
},
{
"text": "But what if you've never met the person before?",
"timestamp": [
317.52,
319.89
]
},
{
"text": "But what if you've never met the person before?",
"timestamp": [
317.52,
319.89
]
},
{
"text": "What if you wanna exchange secret messages with me",
"timestamp": [
319.89,
321.85
]
},
{
"text": "What if you wanna exchange secret messages with me",
"timestamp": [
319.89,
321.85
]
},
{
"text": "and we've never met each other before?",
"timestamp": [
321.85,
323.6
]
},
{
"text": "and we've never met each other before?",
"timestamp": [
321.85,
323.6
]
},
{
"text": "How could we possibly do that?",
"timestamp": [
323.6,
325.47
]
},
{
"text": "How could we possibly do that?",
"timestamp": [
323.6,
325.47
]
},
{
"text": "- I have no idea.",
"timestamp": [
325.47,
326.63
]
},
{
"text": "- I have no idea.",
"timestamp": [
325.47,
326.63
]
},
{
"text": "- It sounds impossible.",
"timestamp": [
326.63,
327.88
]
},
{
"text": "- It sounds impossible.",
"timestamp": [
326.63,
327.88
]
},
{
"text": "Right? - It does.",
"timestamp": [
327.88,
329.23
]
},
{
"text": "Right? - It does.",
"timestamp": [
327.88,
329.23
]
},
{
"text": "- But it's not.",
"timestamp": [
329.23,
330.09
]
},
{
"text": "- But it's not.",
"timestamp": [
329.23,
330.09
]
},
{
"text": "You wouldn't use like, a physical lock, or a physical box.",
"timestamp": [
330.09,
333.6
]
},
{
"text": "You wouldn't use like, a physical lock, or a physical box.",
"timestamp": [
330.09,
333.6
]
},
{
"text": "We would instead use mathematics",
"timestamp": [
333.6,
335.23
]
},
{
"text": "We would instead use mathematics",
"timestamp": [
333.6,
335.23
]
},
{
"text": "to do these kinds of things.",
"timestamp": [
335.23,
337
]
},
{
"text": "to do these kinds of things.",
"timestamp": [
335.23,
337
]
},
{
"text": "You could take a message and encrypt it using mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
337,
340.94
]
},
{
"text": "You could take a message and encrypt it using mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
337,
340.94
]
},
{
"text": "And then, I could prove to you that I know the key,",
"timestamp": [
340.94,
343.22
]
},
{
"text": "And then, I could prove to you that I know the key,",
"timestamp": [
340.94,
343.22
]
},
{
"text": "I could open it up, and send it back to you.",
"timestamp": [
343.22,
345.37
]
},
{
"text": "I could open it up, and send it back to you.",
"timestamp": [
343.22,
345.37
]
},
{
"text": "That way I would be proving to you that I know",
"timestamp": [
345.37,
346.92
]
},
{
"text": "That way I would be proving to you that I know",
"timestamp": [
345.37,
346.92
]
},
{
"text": "the mathematical key to the mathematical lockbox.",
"timestamp": [
346.92,
350.96
]
},
{
"text": "the mathematical key to the mathematical lockbox.",
"timestamp": [
346.92,
350.96
]
},
{
"text": "So based on what we've discussed today,",
"timestamp": [
350.96,
353.08
]
},
{
"text": "So based on what we've discussed today,",
"timestamp": [
350.96,
353.08
]
},
{
"text": "in your own words, what is a zero-knowledge proof.",
"timestamp": [
353.08,
355.49
]
},
{
"text": "in your own words, what is a zero-knowledge proof.",
"timestamp": [
353.08,
355.49
]
},
{
"text": "- It's like, if you have this really important secret",
"timestamp": [
355.49,
358.68
]
},
{
"text": "- It's like, if you have this really important secret",
"timestamp": [
355.49,
358.68
]
},
{
"text": "that you want somebody to know about,",
"timestamp": [
358.68,
360.65
]
},
{
"text": "that you want somebody to know about,",
"timestamp": [
358.68,
360.65
]
},
{
"text": "but you don't want to tell them everything.",
"timestamp": [
360.65,
362.79
]
},
{
"text": "but you don't want to tell them everything.",
"timestamp": [
360.65,
362.79
]
},
{
"text": "You can use a zero-knowledge proof to",
"timestamp": [
362.79,
366.17
]
},
{
"text": "You can use a zero-knowledge proof to",
"timestamp": [
362.79,
366.17
]
},
{
"text": "prove to them that secret, but not give away all of it.",
"timestamp": [
366.17,
369.384
]
},
{
"text": "prove to them that secret, but not give away all of it.",
"timestamp": [
366.17,
369.384
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat playful music]",
"timestamp": [
369.384,
372.634
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat playful music]",
"timestamp": [
369.384,
372.634
]
},
{
"text": "- What are you studying?",
"timestamp": [
373.93,
374.763
]
},
{
"text": "- What are you studying?",
"timestamp": [
373.93,
374.763
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm a first-year computer science student at USC Viterbi.",
"timestamp": [
374.763,
378.61
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm a first-year computer science student at USC Viterbi.",
"timestamp": [
374.763,
378.61
]
},
{
"text": "I'm interested in all things like,",
"timestamp": [
378.61,
379.7
]
},
{
"text": "I'm interested in all things like,",
"timestamp": [
378.61,
379.7
]
},
{
"text": "data and internet and blockchain and cryptocurrency.",
"timestamp": [
379.7,
382.8
]
},
{
"text": "data and internet and blockchain and cryptocurrency.",
"timestamp": [
379.7,
382.8
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you ever heard of zero-knowledge proofs?",
"timestamp": [
382.8,
384.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you ever heard of zero-knowledge proofs?",
"timestamp": [
382.8,
384.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Only in passing.",
"timestamp": [
384.81,
385.78
]
},
{
"text": "- Only in passing.",
"timestamp": [
384.81,
385.78
]
},
{
"text": "- So actually, in the blockchain space is",
"timestamp": [
385.78,
387.73
]
},
{
"text": "- So actually, in the blockchain space is",
"timestamp": [
385.78,
387.73
]
},
{
"text": "one of the spaces where we are seeing",
"timestamp": [
387.73,
389.6
]
},
{
"text": "one of the spaces where we are seeing",
"timestamp": [
387.73,
389.6
]
},
{
"text": "zero-knowledge proofs being implemented.",
"timestamp": [
389.6,
391.02
]
},
{
"text": "zero-knowledge proofs being implemented.",
"timestamp": [
389.6,
391.02
]
},
{
"text": "And I think it's just the beginning.",
"timestamp": [
391.02,
393.27
]
},
{
"text": "And I think it's just the beginning.",
"timestamp": [
391.02,
393.27
]
},
{
"text": "Let's talk about zero-knowledge proofs.",
"timestamp": [
393.27,
395.13
]
},
{
"text": "Let's talk about zero-knowledge proofs.",
"timestamp": [
393.27,
395.13
]
},
{
"text": "At its core, a zero-knowledge proof",
"timestamp": [
395.13,
397.27
]
},
{
"text": "At its core, a zero-knowledge proof",
"timestamp": [
395.13,
397.27
]
},
{
"text": "is an interaction between two people.",
"timestamp": [
397.27,
399.51
]
},
{
"text": "is an interaction between two people.",
"timestamp": [
397.27,
399.51
]
},
{
"text": "Then I should be able to convince you",
"timestamp": [
399.51,
401.87
]
},
{
"text": "Then I should be able to convince you",
"timestamp": [
399.51,
401.87
]
},
{
"text": "that some statement is true,",
"timestamp": [
401.87,
403.5
]
},
{
"text": "that some statement is true,",
"timestamp": [
401.87,
403.5
]
},
{
"text": "but you won't have any idea why it's true.",
"timestamp": [
403.5,
406.26
]
},
{
"text": "but you won't have any idea why it's true.",
"timestamp": [
403.5,
406.26
]
},
{
"text": "- Will I, like, understand that it's true because like,",
"timestamp": [
406.26,
408.95
]
},
{
"text": "- Will I, like, understand that it's true because like,",
"timestamp": [
406.26,
408.95
]
},
{
"text": "you know, the operations performed in the proof are like,",
"timestamp": [
408.95,
411.69
]
},
{
"text": "you know, the operations performed in the proof are like,",
"timestamp": [
408.95,
411.69
]
},
{
"text": "of a certain, like, you know,",
"timestamp": [
411.69,
413.12
]
},
{
"text": "of a certain, like, you know,",
"timestamp": [
411.69,
413.12
]
},
{
"text": "they have like, certain attributes",
"timestamp": [
413.12,
414.5
]
},
{
"text": "they have like, certain attributes",
"timestamp": [
413.12,
414.5
]
},
{
"text": "that would make them true?",
"timestamp": [
414.5,
415.333
]
},
{
"text": "that would make them true?",
"timestamp": [
414.5,
415.333
]
},
{
"text": "- What you're basically asking is, wait, what?",
"timestamp": [
415.333,
417.752
]
},
{
"text": "- What you're basically asking is, wait, what?",
"timestamp": [
415.333,
417.752
]
},
{
"text": "[both laughing] Right? Right.",
"timestamp": [
417.752,
419.51
]
},
{
"text": "[both laughing] Right? Right.",
"timestamp": [
417.752,
419.51
]
},
{
"text": "So this is what makes zero-knowledge proof so fascinating,",
"timestamp": [
419.51,
422.39
]
},
{
"text": "So this is what makes zero-knowledge proof so fascinating,",
"timestamp": [
419.51,
422.39
]
},
{
"text": "and so counter-intuitive.",
"timestamp": [
422.39,
424.11
]
},
{
"text": "and so counter-intuitive.",
"timestamp": [
422.39,
424.11
]
},
{
"text": "And I think the best way I can explain it to you",
"timestamp": [
424.11,
427.74
]
},
{
"text": "And I think the best way I can explain it to you",
"timestamp": [
424.11,
427.74
]
},
{
"text": "is by means of an example.",
"timestamp": [
427.74,
429.28
]
},
{
"text": "is by means of an example.",
"timestamp": [
427.74,
429.28
]
},
{
"text": "But before we do that, I have to decide",
"timestamp": [
429.28,
431.88
]
},
{
"text": "But before we do that, I have to decide",
"timestamp": [
429.28,
431.88
]
},
{
"text": "what I'm gonna prove to you in a,",
"timestamp": [
431.88,
434.011
]
},
{
"text": "what I'm gonna prove to you in a,",
"timestamp": [
431.88,
434.011
]
},
{
"text": "with a zero-knowledge proof. - Sounds good.",
"timestamp": [
434.011,
435.42
]
},
{
"text": "with a zero-knowledge proof. - Sounds good.",
"timestamp": [
434.011,
435.42
]
},
{
"text": "- And the way we're gonna approach this",
"timestamp": [
435.42,
437.15
]
},
{
"text": "- And the way we're gonna approach this",
"timestamp": [
435.42,
437.15
]
},
{
"text": "is through something called NP-completeness.",
"timestamp": [
437.15,
439.92
]
},
{
"text": "is through something called NP-completeness.",
"timestamp": [
437.15,
439.92
]
},
{
"text": "What an NP-complete problem is,",
"timestamp": [
439.92,
441.95
]
},
{
"text": "What an NP-complete problem is,",
"timestamp": [
439.92,
441.95
]
},
{
"text": "it's a problem that's really hard to solve.",
"timestamp": [
441.95,
444.68
]
},
{
"text": "it's a problem that's really hard to solve.",
"timestamp": [
441.95,
444.68
]
},
{
"text": "But if you can solve it,",
"timestamp": [
444.68,
446.25
]
},
{
"text": "But if you can solve it,",
"timestamp": [
444.68,
446.25
]
},
{
"text": "you can solve any problem",
"timestamp": [
446.25,
448.83
]
},
{
"text": "you can solve any problem",
"timestamp": [
446.25,
448.83
]
},
{
"text": "that's in the class NP.",
"timestamp": [
448.83,
450.443
]
},
{
"text": "that's in the class NP.",
"timestamp": [
448.83,
450.443
]
},
{
"text": "And that includes a vast number of problems.",
"timestamp": [
451.34,
454.33
]
},
{
"text": "And that includes a vast number of problems.",
"timestamp": [
451.34,
454.33
]
},
{
"text": "And what we're gonna do is we're gonna",
"timestamp": [
454.33,
456
]
},
{
"text": "And what we're gonna do is we're gonna",
"timestamp": [
454.33,
456
]
},
{
"text": "use an NP-complete problem to actually prove",
"timestamp": [
456,
460.507
]
},
{
"text": "use an NP-complete problem to actually prove",
"timestamp": [
456,
460.507
]
},
{
"text": "an incredible variety of statements",
"timestamp": [
460.507,
462.8
]
},
{
"text": "an incredible variety of statements",
"timestamp": [
460.507,
462.8
]
},
{
"text": "through a zero-knowledge proof.",
"timestamp": [
462.8,
464.68
]
},
{
"text": "through a zero-knowledge proof.",
"timestamp": [
462.8,
464.68
]
},
{
"text": "And the specific Np-complete problem",
"timestamp": [
464.68,
466.94
]
},
{
"text": "And the specific Np-complete problem",
"timestamp": [
464.68,
466.94
]
},
{
"text": "that we're gonna be looking at",
"timestamp": [
466.94,
468.06
]
},
{
"text": "that we're gonna be looking at",
"timestamp": [
466.94,
468.06
]
},
{
"text": "is called map three-coloring.",
"timestamp": [
468.06,
470.72
]
},
{
"text": "is called map three-coloring.",
"timestamp": [
468.06,
470.72
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, so here we have a map. Okay.",
"timestamp": [
470.72,
474.13
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, so here we have a map. Okay.",
"timestamp": [
470.72,
474.13
]
},
{
"text": "And these are a bunch of countries.",
"timestamp": [
474.13,
475.74
]
},
{
"text": "And these are a bunch of countries.",
"timestamp": [
474.13,
475.74
]
},
{
"text": "And we've arranged them so that",
"timestamp": [
475.74,
478.24
]
},
{
"text": "And we've arranged them so that",
"timestamp": [
475.74,
478.24
]
},
{
"text": "no countries that have the same color share a border.",
"timestamp": [
478.24,
482.54
]
},
{
"text": "no countries that have the same color share a border.",
"timestamp": [
478.24,
482.54
]
},
{
"text": "That's what makes a map like this validly colored.",
"timestamp": [
482.54,
487.15
]
},
{
"text": "That's what makes a map like this validly colored.",
"timestamp": [
482.54,
487.15
]
},
{
"text": "And now you might think, well, why should we care?",
"timestamp": [
487.15,
489.7
]
},
{
"text": "And now you might think, well, why should we care?",
"timestamp": [
487.15,
489.7
]
},
{
"text": "It turns out that whether or not a map can be",
"timestamp": [
489.7,
493.97
]
},
{
"text": "It turns out that whether or not a map can be",
"timestamp": [
489.7,
493.97
]
},
{
"text": "three-colored in this way",
"timestamp": [
493.97,
496.02
]
},
{
"text": "three-colored in this way",
"timestamp": [
493.97,
496.02
]
},
{
"text": "is an example of an NP-complete problem.",
"timestamp": [
496.02,
498.7
]
},
{
"text": "is an example of an NP-complete problem.",
"timestamp": [
496.02,
498.7
]
},
{
"text": "And it turns out that, you know,",
"timestamp": [
498.7,
500
]
},
{
"text": "And it turns out that, you know,",
"timestamp": [
498.7,
500
]
},
{
"text": "maybe what you really wanna do,",
"timestamp": [
500,
502.01
]
},
{
"text": "maybe what you really wanna do,",
"timestamp": [
500,
502.01
]
},
{
"text": "is you wanna give a zero-knowledge proof",
"timestamp": [
502.01,
504.3
]
},
{
"text": "is you wanna give a zero-knowledge proof",
"timestamp": [
502.01,
504.3
]
},
{
"text": "that you have at least 0.3 Bitcoins, right?",
"timestamp": [
504.3,
507.97
]
},
{
"text": "that you have at least 0.3 Bitcoins, right?",
"timestamp": [
504.3,
507.97
]
},
{
"text": "That would be cool. - [chuckles] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
507.97,
509.16
]
},
{
"text": "That would be cool. - [chuckles] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
507.97,
509.16
]
},
{
"text": "- Without revealing what the address is of your account.",
"timestamp": [
509.16,
512.16
]
},
{
"text": "- Without revealing what the address is of your account.",
"timestamp": [
509.16,
512.16
]
},
{
"text": "It turns out I can take that statement",
"timestamp": [
512.16,
514.2
]
},
{
"text": "It turns out I can take that statement",
"timestamp": [
512.16,
514.2
]
},
{
"text": "that I have at least 0.2 Bitcoins,",
"timestamp": [
514.2,
515.9
]
},
{
"text": "that I have at least 0.2 Bitcoins,",
"timestamp": [
514.2,
515.9
]
},
{
"text": "and convert it into a map of countries.",
"timestamp": [
517.41,
520.82
]
},
{
"text": "and convert it into a map of countries.",
"timestamp": [
517.41,
520.82
]
},
{
"text": "And that map of countries will be three-colorable like this",
"timestamp": [
520.82,
525.82
]
},
{
"text": "And that map of countries will be three-colorable like this",
"timestamp": [
520.82,
525.82
]
},
{
"text": "only if you have at least 0.2 Bitcoins.",
"timestamp": [
526.17,
529.4
]
},
{
"text": "only if you have at least 0.2 Bitcoins.",
"timestamp": [
526.17,
529.4
]
},
{
"text": "- How would we turn something like this",
"timestamp": [
529.4,
530.7
]
},
{
"text": "- How would we turn something like this",
"timestamp": [
529.4,
530.7
]
},
{
"text": "into a zero-knowledge proof?",
"timestamp": [
530.7,
532.27
]
},
{
"text": "into a zero-knowledge proof?",
"timestamp": [
530.7,
532.27
]
},
{
"text": "- Of course, the first step is",
"timestamp": [
532.27,
533.48
]
},
{
"text": "- Of course, the first step is",
"timestamp": [
532.27,
533.48
]
},
{
"text": "we have to erase all the colors.",
"timestamp": [
533.48,
534.7
]
},
{
"text": "we have to erase all the colors.",
"timestamp": [
533.48,
534.7
]
},
{
"text": "What I've done is I've put a color",
"timestamp": [
534.7,
537.03
]
},
{
"text": "What I've done is I've put a color",
"timestamp": [
534.7,
537.03
]
},
{
"text": "inside each of these envelopes.",
"timestamp": [
537.03,
539.16
]
},
{
"text": "inside each of these envelopes.",
"timestamp": [
537.03,
539.16
]
},
{
"text": "Now, how do you know that it's a valid coloring?",
"timestamp": [
539.16,
541.77
]
},
{
"text": "Now, how do you know that it's a valid coloring?",
"timestamp": [
539.16,
541.77
]
},
{
"text": "You don't. Right?",
"timestamp": [
541.77,
542.91
]
},
{
"text": "You don't. Right?",
"timestamp": [
541.77,
542.91
]
},
{
"text": "You have to pick any two neighboring countries.",
"timestamp": [
542.91,
546.819
]
},
{
"text": "You have to pick any two neighboring countries.",
"timestamp": [
542.91,
546.819
]
},
{
"text": "You can pick them however you like. At random.",
"timestamp": [
546.819,
548.6
]
},
{
"text": "You can pick them however you like. At random.",
"timestamp": [
546.819,
548.6
]
},
{
"text": "- Can I get these two?",
"timestamp": [
548.6,
549.58
]
},
{
"text": "- Can I get these two?",
"timestamp": [
548.6,
549.58
]
},
{
"text": "- These two? - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
549.58,
550.903
]
},
{
"text": "- These two? - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
549.58,
550.903
]
},
{
"text": "- All right. Sounds good. Right?",
"timestamp": [
550.903,
551.736
]
},
{
"text": "- All right. Sounds good. Right?",
"timestamp": [
550.903,
551.736
]
},
{
"text": "Here we have green, right?",
"timestamp": [
551.736,
555.51
]
},
{
"text": "Here we have green, right?",
"timestamp": [
551.736,
555.51
]
},
{
"text": "And over here, we have blue. Okay.",
"timestamp": [
555.51,
559.63
]
},
{
"text": "And over here, we have blue. Okay.",
"timestamp": [
555.51,
559.63
]
},
{
"text": "And as you can see, they're two different colors.",
"timestamp": [
559.63,
561.733
]
},
{
"text": "And as you can see, they're two different colors.",
"timestamp": [
559.63,
561.733
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm. - Right?",
"timestamp": [
561.733,
563.11
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm. - Right?",
"timestamp": [
561.733,
563.11
]
},
{
"text": "So you have a little bit of confidence, right,",
"timestamp": [
563.11,
565.56
]
},
{
"text": "So you have a little bit of confidence, right,",
"timestamp": [
563.11,
565.56
]
},
{
"text": "that I have managed to color this correctly.",
"timestamp": [
565.56,
568.1
]
},
{
"text": "that I have managed to color this correctly.",
"timestamp": [
565.56,
568.1
]
},
{
"text": "but not that much confidence.",
"timestamp": [
568.1,
569.35
]
},
{
"text": "but not that much confidence.",
"timestamp": [
568.1,
569.35
]
},
{
"text": "'Cause I've only shown you two of the countries.",
"timestamp": [
569.35,
571.28
]
},
{
"text": "'Cause I've only shown you two of the countries.",
"timestamp": [
569.35,
571.28
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. - Right?",
"timestamp": [
571.28,
572.69
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. - Right?",
"timestamp": [
571.28,
572.69
]
},
{
"text": "So now, of course, one way to get more confidence",
"timestamp": [
572.69,
575.7
]
},
{
"text": "So now, of course, one way to get more confidence",
"timestamp": [
572.69,
575.7
]
},
{
"text": "is to open up more of them for you,",
"timestamp": [
575.7,
577.05
]
},
{
"text": "is to open up more of them for you,",
"timestamp": [
575.7,
577.05
]
},
{
"text": "but that would be revealing information to you.",
"timestamp": [
577.05,
579.1
]
},
{
"text": "but that would be revealing information to you.",
"timestamp": [
577.05,
579.1
]
},
{
"text": "I don't wanna do that.",
"timestamp": [
579.1,
580.4
]
},
{
"text": "I don't wanna do that.",
"timestamp": [
579.1,
580.4
]
},
{
"text": "So instead, I'm gonna ask you to please turn around.",
"timestamp": [
580.4,
583.02
]
},
{
"text": "So instead, I'm gonna ask you to please turn around.",
"timestamp": [
580.4,
583.02
]
},
{
"text": "And now, let's change up these colors.",
"timestamp": [
583.02,
585.46
]
},
{
"text": "And now, let's change up these colors.",
"timestamp": [
583.02,
585.46
]
},
{
"text": "Can you pick two countries at random",
"timestamp": [
585.46,
587.17
]
},
{
"text": "Can you pick two countries at random",
"timestamp": [
585.46,
587.17
]
},
{
"text": "and we'll reveal two of the colors again.",
"timestamp": [
587.17,
589.48
]
},
{
"text": "and we'll reveal two of the colors again.",
"timestamp": [
587.17,
589.48
]
},
{
"text": "- I'll take this one and this one.",
"timestamp": [
589.48,
591.21
]
},
{
"text": "- I'll take this one and this one.",
"timestamp": [
589.48,
591.21
]
},
{
"text": "- Nice.",
"timestamp": [
591.21,
592.043
]
},
{
"text": "- Nice.",
"timestamp": [
591.21,
592.043
]
},
{
"text": "And that's smart of you to check with",
"timestamp": [
592.043,
593.33
]
},
{
"text": "And that's smart of you to check with",
"timestamp": [
592.043,
593.33
]
},
{
"text": "the same one of the ones you already had.",
"timestamp": [
593.33,
595.07
]
},
{
"text": "the same one of the ones you already had.",
"timestamp": [
593.33,
595.07
]
},
{
"text": "Right? - Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
595.07,
596.04
]
},
{
"text": "Right? - Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
595.07,
596.04
]
},
{
"text": "- But as you'll see, now it's not green,",
"timestamp": [
596.04,
600.06
]
},
{
"text": "- But as you'll see, now it's not green,",
"timestamp": [
596.04,
600.06
]
},
{
"text": "it's blue.",
"timestamp": [
600.06,
601.65
]
},
{
"text": "it's blue.",
"timestamp": [
600.06,
601.65
]
},
{
"text": "And this one on the other hand,",
"timestamp": [
601.65,
603.253
]
},
{
"text": "And this one on the other hand,",
"timestamp": [
601.65,
603.253
]
},
{
"text": "is green.",
"timestamp": [
605.978,
607.58
]
},
{
"text": "is green.",
"timestamp": [
605.978,
607.58
]
},
{
"text": "Okay.",
"timestamp": [
607.58,
608.413
]
},
{
"text": "Okay.",
"timestamp": [
607.58,
608.413
]
},
{
"text": "The colors I showed you last time,",
"timestamp": [
608.413,
609.82
]
},
{
"text": "The colors I showed you last time,",
"timestamp": [
608.413,
609.82
]
},
{
"text": "don't work with these new colors, right?",
"timestamp": [
609.82,
611.98
]
},
{
"text": "don't work with these new colors, right?",
"timestamp": [
609.82,
611.98
]
},
{
"text": "This wouldn't have worked before.",
"timestamp": [
611.98,
613.1
]
},
{
"text": "This wouldn't have worked before.",
"timestamp": [
611.98,
613.1
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, because of this one, right?",
"timestamp": [
613.1,
614.42
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, because of this one, right?",
"timestamp": [
613.1,
614.42
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly. Right.",
"timestamp": [
614.42,
615.88
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly. Right.",
"timestamp": [
614.42,
615.88
]
},
{
"text": "But it works for this coloring",
"timestamp": [
615.88,
618.33
]
},
{
"text": "But it works for this coloring",
"timestamp": [
615.88,
618.33
]
},
{
"text": "that I'm showing you right now.",
"timestamp": [
618.33,
619.63
]
},
{
"text": "that I'm showing you right now.",
"timestamp": [
618.33,
619.63
]
},
{
"text": "So what we've done is we've made it impossible for you",
"timestamp": [
619.63,
622.29
]
},
{
"text": "So what we've done is we've made it impossible for you",
"timestamp": [
619.63,
622.29
]
},
{
"text": "to put the pieces together.",
"timestamp": [
622.29,
624.03
]
},
{
"text": "to put the pieces together.",
"timestamp": [
622.29,
624.03
]
},
{
"text": "And if you do this, let's say, a thousand times.",
"timestamp": [
624.03,
626.95
]
},
{
"text": "And if you do this, let's say, a thousand times.",
"timestamp": [
624.03,
626.95
]
},
{
"text": "And if I correctly showed you different colors,",
"timestamp": [
626.95,
629.76
]
},
{
"text": "And if I correctly showed you different colors,",
"timestamp": [
626.95,
629.76
]
},
{
"text": "each thousand times, you'd be really convinced.",
"timestamp": [
629.76,
632.76
]
},
{
"text": "each thousand times, you'd be really convinced.",
"timestamp": [
629.76,
632.76
]
},
{
"text": "And that's it. That's the entire zero-knowledge proof.",
"timestamp": [
632.76,
636.31
]
},
{
"text": "And that's it. That's the entire zero-knowledge proof.",
"timestamp": [
632.76,
636.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, okay. - Okay?",
"timestamp": [
636.31,
637.16
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, okay. - Okay?",
"timestamp": [
636.31,
637.16
]
},
{
"text": "- So is it like, there's no actual, like, explicit,",
"timestamp": [
637.16,
640.81
]
},
{
"text": "- So is it like, there's no actual, like, explicit,",
"timestamp": [
637.16,
640.81
]
},
{
"text": "like, step one, step two,",
"timestamp": [
640.81,
642.31
]
},
{
"text": "like, step one, step two,",
"timestamp": [
640.81,
642.31
]
},
{
"text": "step three. - [Amit] No.",
"timestamp": [
642.31,
643.143
]
},
{
"text": "step three. - [Amit] No.",
"timestamp": [
642.31,
643.143
]
},
{
"text": "- It's just like, a probabilistic proof all.",
"timestamp": [
643.143,
645.661
]
},
{
"text": "- It's just like, a probabilistic proof all.",
"timestamp": [
643.143,
645.661
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, in actual implementations we wouldn't use envelopes.",
"timestamp": [
645.661,
648.1
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, in actual implementations we wouldn't use envelopes.",
"timestamp": [
645.661,
648.1
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. - You would use encryption.",
"timestamp": [
648.1,
649.42
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. - You would use encryption.",
"timestamp": [
648.1,
649.42
]
},
{
"text": "Right.",
"timestamp": [
649.42,
650.253
]
},
{
"text": "Right.",
"timestamp": [
649.42,
650.253
]
},
{
"text": "But it's really, this is the protocol.",
"timestamp": [
650.253,
652.25
]
},
{
"text": "But it's really, this is the protocol.",
"timestamp": [
650.253,
652.25
]
},
{
"text": "- So what are the broader implications",
"timestamp": [
652.25,
654.24
]
},
{
"text": "- So what are the broader implications",
"timestamp": [
652.25,
654.24
]
},
{
"text": "of like, zero-knowledge proofs.",
"timestamp": [
654.24,
655.59
]
},
{
"text": "of like, zero-knowledge proofs.",
"timestamp": [
654.24,
655.59
]
},
{
"text": "Are they supposed to be like, more practical for like,",
"timestamp": [
655.59,
658.13
]
},
{
"text": "Are they supposed to be like, more practical for like,",
"timestamp": [
655.59,
658.13
]
},
{
"text": "implementation, and or, are they supposed to like,",
"timestamp": [
658.13,
660.11
]
},
{
"text": "implementation, and or, are they supposed to like,",
"timestamp": [
658.13,
660.11
]
},
{
"text": "structurally prove something?",
"timestamp": [
660.11,
661.96
]
},
{
"text": "structurally prove something?",
"timestamp": [
660.11,
661.96
]
},
{
"text": "- It's not about making something more efficient.",
"timestamp": [
661.96,
664.75
]
},
{
"text": "- It's not about making something more efficient.",
"timestamp": [
661.96,
664.75
]
},
{
"text": "It's about doing things that we just",
"timestamp": [
664.75,
666.11
]
},
{
"text": "It's about doing things that we just",
"timestamp": [
664.75,
666.11
]
},
{
"text": "didn't know how to do before.",
"timestamp": [
666.11,
667.42
]
},
{
"text": "didn't know how to do before.",
"timestamp": [
666.11,
667.42
]
},
{
"text": "I can actually prove to you without revealing to you",
"timestamp": [
667.42,
670.34
]
},
{
"text": "I can actually prove to you without revealing to you",
"timestamp": [
667.42,
670.34
]
},
{
"text": "any of my secrets that I use to behave honestly.",
"timestamp": [
670.34,
672.94
]
},
{
"text": "any of my secrets that I use to behave honestly.",
"timestamp": [
670.34,
672.94
]
},
{
"text": "Right?",
"timestamp": [
672.94,
674.057
]
},
{
"text": "Right?",
"timestamp": [
672.94,
674.057
]
},
{
"text": "I could prove to you that I",
"timestamp": [
674.057,
676.01
]
},
{
"text": "I could prove to you that I",
"timestamp": [
674.057,
676.01
]
},
{
"text": "signed some encrypted document correctly.",
"timestamp": [
676.01,
678.94
]
},
{
"text": "signed some encrypted document correctly.",
"timestamp": [
676.01,
678.94
]
},
{
"text": "Right?",
"timestamp": [
678.94,
679.773
]
},
{
"text": "Right?",
"timestamp": [
678.94,
679.773
]
},
{
"text": "Without revealing to you what that secret document was.",
"timestamp": [
679.773,
682.31
]
},
{
"text": "Without revealing to you what that secret document was.",
"timestamp": [
679.773,
682.31
]
},
{
"text": "That ability to change the game.",
"timestamp": [
682.31,
684.08
]
},
{
"text": "That ability to change the game.",
"timestamp": [
682.31,
684.08
]
},
{
"text": "Like, really just change what we can do",
"timestamp": [
684.08,
686.29
]
},
{
"text": "Like, really just change what we can do",
"timestamp": [
684.08,
686.29
]
},
{
"text": "is what zero-knowledge brings to the table.",
"timestamp": [
686.29,
688.02
]
},
{
"text": "is what zero-knowledge brings to the table.",
"timestamp": [
686.29,
688.02
]
},
{
"text": "- Where do you think we could build like, more trust",
"timestamp": [
688.02,
690.11
]
},
{
"text": "- Where do you think we could build like, more trust",
"timestamp": [
688.02,
690.11
]
},
{
"text": "using like, zero-knowledge proofs?",
"timestamp": [
690.11,
692.454
]
},
{
"text": "using like, zero-knowledge proofs?",
"timestamp": [
690.11,
692.454
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. - And it's implementations?",
"timestamp": [
692.454,
693.39
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. - And it's implementations?",
"timestamp": [
692.454,
693.39
]
},
{
"text": "- One great example is like in elections.",
"timestamp": [
693.39,
695.5
]
},
{
"text": "- One great example is like in elections.",
"timestamp": [
693.39,
695.5
]
},
{
"text": "If you could prove that an election was correctly conducted.",
"timestamp": [
695.5,
699.89
]
},
{
"text": "If you could prove that an election was correctly conducted.",
"timestamp": [
695.5,
699.89
]
},
{
"text": "That every vote was counted,",
"timestamp": [
699.89,
701.34
]
},
{
"text": "That every vote was counted,",
"timestamp": [
699.89,
701.34
]
},
{
"text": "and it all added up to one person winning",
"timestamp": [
701.34,
703.72
]
},
{
"text": "and it all added up to one person winning",
"timestamp": [
701.34,
703.72
]
},
{
"text": "with a particular total, in zero-knowledge,",
"timestamp": [
703.72,
706.73
]
},
{
"text": "with a particular total, in zero-knowledge,",
"timestamp": [
703.72,
706.73
]
},
{
"text": "then you don't have to give up",
"timestamp": [
706.73,
708.26
]
},
{
"text": "then you don't have to give up",
"timestamp": [
706.73,
708.26
]
},
{
"text": "the actual votes of any person.",
"timestamp": [
708.26,
710.18
]
},
{
"text": "the actual votes of any person.",
"timestamp": [
708.26,
710.18
]
},
{
"text": "And yet everyone could see that,",
"timestamp": [
710.18,
712.63
]
},
{
"text": "And yet everyone could see that,",
"timestamp": [
710.18,
712.63
]
},
{
"text": "hey, yeah, it was done correctly.",
"timestamp": [
712.63,
714.916
]
},
{
"text": "hey, yeah, it was done correctly.",
"timestamp": [
712.63,
714.916
]
},
{
"text": "[light airy music]",
"timestamp": [
714.916,
717.833
]
},
{
"text": "[light airy music]",
"timestamp": [
714.916,
717.833
]
},
{
"text": "It's so great to have you here and to talk with you, Eli.",
"timestamp": [
719.7,
722.96
]
},
{
"text": "It's so great to have you here and to talk with you, Eli.",
"timestamp": [
719.7,
722.96
]
},
{
"text": "Can you tell me a little bit about your research?",
"timestamp": [
722.96,
724.44
]
},
{
"text": "Can you tell me a little bit about your research?",
"timestamp": [
722.96,
724.44
]
},
{
"text": "- My research is in cryptography.",
"timestamp": [
724.44,
727.39
]
},
{
"text": "- My research is in cryptography.",
"timestamp": [
724.44,
727.39
]
},
{
"text": "Specifically, I'm working on some various",
"timestamp": [
727.39,
730.75
]
},
{
"text": "Specifically, I'm working on some various",
"timestamp": [
727.39,
730.75
]
},
{
"text": "multi-party computation protocols.",
"timestamp": [
730.75,
732.87
]
},
{
"text": "multi-party computation protocols.",
"timestamp": [
730.75,
732.87
]
},
{
"text": "The one I'm working on right now is",
"timestamp": [
732.87,
735.07
]
},
{
"text": "The one I'm working on right now is",
"timestamp": [
732.87,
735.07
]
},
{
"text": "a system for computing aggregate statistics.",
"timestamp": [
735.07,
737.89
]
},
{
"text": "a system for computing aggregate statistics.",
"timestamp": [
735.07,
737.89
]
},
{
"text": "So that service providers like, Google Chrome or Tesla,",
"timestamp": [
737.89,
742.83
]
},
{
"text": "So that service providers like, Google Chrome or Tesla,",
"timestamp": [
737.89,
742.83
]
},
{
"text": "can collect those statistics",
"timestamp": [
742.83,
744.67
]
},
{
"text": "can collect those statistics",
"timestamp": [
742.83,
744.67
]
},
{
"text": "without learning anything about individual user's data.",
"timestamp": [
744.67,
748.5
]
},
{
"text": "without learning anything about individual user's data.",
"timestamp": [
744.67,
748.5
]
},
{
"text": "- That's awesome.",
"timestamp": [
748.5,
749.36
]
},
{
"text": "- That's awesome.",
"timestamp": [
748.5,
749.36
]
},
{
"text": "- I, as a user, don't have to let Firefox know",
"timestamp": [
749.36,
752.95
]
},
{
"text": "- I, as a user, don't have to let Firefox know",
"timestamp": [
749.36,
752.95
]
},
{
"text": "that my favorite website is mylittlepony.com.",
"timestamp": [
752.95,
756.14
]
},
{
"text": "that my favorite website is mylittlepony.com.",
"timestamp": [
752.95,
756.14
]
},
{
"text": "[Amit laughs]",
"timestamp": [
756.14,
756.973
]
},
{
"text": "[Amit laughs]",
"timestamp": [
756.14,
756.973
]
},
{
"text": "But they can know how many users",
"timestamp": [
756.973,
758.96
]
},
{
"text": "But they can know how many users",
"timestamp": [
756.973,
758.96
]
},
{
"text": "go to mylittlepony.com every day.",
"timestamp": [
758.96,
761.15
]
},
{
"text": "go to mylittlepony.com every day.",
"timestamp": [
758.96,
761.15
]
},
{
"text": "- That's near and dear to my heart.",
"timestamp": [
761.15,
762.8
]
},
{
"text": "- That's near and dear to my heart.",
"timestamp": [
761.15,
762.8
]
},
{
"text": "Multi-party computations.",
"timestamp": [
762.8,
763.66
]
},
{
"text": "Multi-party computations.",
"timestamp": [
762.8,
763.66
]
},
{
"text": "- Obviously, zero-knowledge proofs are about",
"timestamp": [
763.66,
766.37
]
},
{
"text": "- Obviously, zero-knowledge proofs are about",
"timestamp": [
763.66,
766.37
]
},
{
"text": "proving things to another person",
"timestamp": [
766.37,
768.73
]
},
{
"text": "proving things to another person",
"timestamp": [
766.37,
768.73
]
},
{
"text": "without revealing the details of",
"timestamp": [
768.73,
771.04
]
},
{
"text": "without revealing the details of",
"timestamp": [
768.73,
771.04
]
},
{
"text": "what it is that you're proving.",
"timestamp": [
771.04,
772.29
]
},
{
"text": "what it is that you're proving.",
"timestamp": [
771.04,
772.29
]
},
{
"text": "But, you know, in my mind, zero-knowledge",
"timestamp": [
772.29,
774.61
]
},
{
"text": "But, you know, in my mind, zero-knowledge",
"timestamp": [
772.29,
774.61
]
},
{
"text": "actually goes even further beyond that.",
"timestamp": [
774.61,
776.62
]
},
{
"text": "actually goes even further beyond that.",
"timestamp": [
774.61,
776.62
]
},
{
"text": "It's like this overarching concept",
"timestamp": [
776.62,
778.43
]
},
{
"text": "It's like this overarching concept",
"timestamp": [
776.62,
778.43
]
},
{
"text": "that you can see a lot in multi-party computation,",
"timestamp": [
778.43,
781.36
]
},
{
"text": "that you can see a lot in multi-party computation,",
"timestamp": [
778.43,
781.36
]
},
{
"text": "where you wanna accomplish some sort of task",
"timestamp": [
781.36,
785.58
]
},
{
"text": "where you wanna accomplish some sort of task",
"timestamp": [
781.36,
785.58
]
},
{
"text": "without revealing anything more than",
"timestamp": [
785.58,
787.93
]
},
{
"text": "without revealing anything more than",
"timestamp": [
785.58,
787.93
]
},
{
"text": "exactly what you need to accomplish that task.",
"timestamp": [
787.93,
790.43
]
},
{
"text": "exactly what you need to accomplish that task.",
"timestamp": [
787.93,
790.43
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, and it allows you to prove",
"timestamp": [
790.43,
793.3
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, and it allows you to prove",
"timestamp": [
790.43,
793.3
]
},
{
"text": "that you've been behaving honestly,",
"timestamp": [
793.3,
795.41
]
},
{
"text": "that you've been behaving honestly,",
"timestamp": [
793.3,
795.41
]
},
{
"text": "without revealing any of the secrets involved that you use",
"timestamp": [
795.41,
799.27
]
},
{
"text": "without revealing any of the secrets involved that you use",
"timestamp": [
795.41,
799.27
]
},
{
"text": "to actually behave honestly.",
"timestamp": [
799.27,
800.67
]
},
{
"text": "to actually behave honestly.",
"timestamp": [
799.27,
800.67
]
},
{
"text": "So we of course know that",
"timestamp": [
800.67,
802.25
]
},
{
"text": "So we of course know that",
"timestamp": [
800.67,
802.25
]
},
{
"text": "zero-knowledge proofs for NP-complete languages",
"timestamp": [
802.25,
804.96
]
},
{
"text": "zero-knowledge proofs for NP-complete languages",
"timestamp": [
802.25,
804.96
]
},
{
"text": "plays such a huge role in cryptography.",
"timestamp": [
804.96,
807.18
]
},
{
"text": "plays such a huge role in cryptography.",
"timestamp": [
804.96,
807.18
]
},
{
"text": "I'm curious.",
"timestamp": [
807.18,
808.013
]
},
{
"text": "I'm curious.",
"timestamp": [
807.18,
808.013
]
},
{
"text": "What was your first experience with Np-completeness like?",
"timestamp": [
808.013,
809.48
]
},
{
"text": "What was your first experience with Np-completeness like?",
"timestamp": [
808.013,
809.48
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so my first encounter with NP-completeness",
"timestamp": [
809.48,
812.76
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so my first encounter with NP-completeness",
"timestamp": [
809.48,
812.76
]
},
{
"text": "was in my very first algorithms class",
"timestamp": [
812.76,
815.85
]
},
{
"text": "was in my very first algorithms class",
"timestamp": [
812.76,
815.85
]
},
{
"text": "that I took as an undergraduate.",
"timestamp": [
815.85,
817.49
]
},
{
"text": "that I took as an undergraduate.",
"timestamp": [
815.85,
817.49
]
},
{
"text": "So that was my first introduction.",
"timestamp": [
817.49,
818.84
]
},
{
"text": "So that was my first introduction.",
"timestamp": [
817.49,
818.84
]
},
{
"text": "Is that an NP-complete language is this",
"timestamp": [
818.84,
822.42
]
},
{
"text": "Is that an NP-complete language is this",
"timestamp": [
818.84,
822.42
]
},
{
"text": "amazing problem that not only tells you about itself,",
"timestamp": [
822.42,
827.34
]
},
{
"text": "amazing problem that not only tells you about itself,",
"timestamp": [
822.42,
827.34
]
},
{
"text": "but solving this problem can actually tell you about",
"timestamp": [
827.34,
829.94
]
},
{
"text": "but solving this problem can actually tell you about",
"timestamp": [
827.34,
829.94
]
},
{
"text": "an entire class of really interesting problems.",
"timestamp": [
829.94,
832.47
]
},
{
"text": "an entire class of really interesting problems.",
"timestamp": [
829.94,
832.47
]
},
{
"text": "- When you first start to think about proofs",
"timestamp": [
832.47,
833.53
]
},
{
"text": "- When you first start to think about proofs",
"timestamp": [
832.47,
833.53
]
},
{
"text": "as an interactive game where we're talking to each other,",
"timestamp": [
833.53,
836.157
]
},
{
"text": "as an interactive game where we're talking to each other,",
"timestamp": [
833.53,
836.157
]
},
{
"text": "did that make zero-knowledge possible?",
"timestamp": [
836.157,
838.21
]
},
{
"text": "did that make zero-knowledge possible?",
"timestamp": [
836.157,
838.21
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
838.21,
839.043
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
838.21,
839.043
]
},
{
"text": "- [Amit] Right. - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
839.043,
839.98
]
},
{
"text": "- [Amit] Right. - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
839.043,
839.98
]
},
{
"text": "- And the idea that randomness - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
839.98,
843.19
]
},
{
"text": "- And the idea that randomness - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
839.98,
843.19
]
},
{
"text": "- could be useful for proving something.",
"timestamp": [
843.19,
845.7
]
},
{
"text": "- could be useful for proving something.",
"timestamp": [
843.19,
845.7
]
},
{
"text": "Again, seems so counter-intuitive",
"timestamp": [
845.7,
847.6
]
},
{
"text": "Again, seems so counter-intuitive",
"timestamp": [
845.7,
847.6
]
},
{
"text": "if we think about this platonic ideal of a proof, right?",
"timestamp": [
847.6,
851.48
]
},
{
"text": "if we think about this platonic ideal of a proof, right?",
"timestamp": [
847.6,
851.48
]
},
{
"text": "There's no randomness, there's no non-determinism",
"timestamp": [
851.48,
855.43
]
},
{
"text": "There's no randomness, there's no non-determinism",
"timestamp": [
851.48,
855.43
]
},
{
"text": "that's present there. - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
855.43,
856.267
]
},
{
"text": "that's present there. - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
855.43,
856.267
]
},
{
"text": "And it has to do with, you know,",
"timestamp": [
856.267,
857.71
]
},
{
"text": "And it has to do with, you know,",
"timestamp": [
856.267,
857.71
]
},
{
"text": "this whole idea of flipping a proof on its head.",
"timestamp": [
857.71,
860.28
]
},
{
"text": "this whole idea of flipping a proof on its head.",
"timestamp": [
857.71,
860.28
]
},
{
"text": "You know, in an old classical proof,",
"timestamp": [
860.28,
862.02
]
},
{
"text": "You know, in an old classical proof,",
"timestamp": [
860.28,
862.02
]
},
{
"text": "randomness is specifically against the goal",
"timestamp": [
862.02,
865.2
]
},
{
"text": "randomness is specifically against the goal",
"timestamp": [
862.02,
865.2
]
},
{
"text": "of what you're trying to do.",
"timestamp": [
865.2,
866.37
]
},
{
"text": "of what you're trying to do.",
"timestamp": [
865.2,
866.37
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. - Because you're",
"timestamp": [
866.37,
867.203
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. - Because you're",
"timestamp": [
866.37,
867.203
]
},
{
"text": "trying to make everything obvious,",
"timestamp": [
867.203,
868.22
]
},
{
"text": "trying to make everything obvious,",
"timestamp": [
867.203,
868.22
]
},
{
"text": "and you're trying to reveal the flow of information.",
"timestamp": [
868.22,
870.88
]
},
{
"text": "and you're trying to reveal the flow of information.",
"timestamp": [
868.22,
870.88
]
},
{
"text": "- Indeed. - But once you",
"timestamp": [
870.88,
871.93
]
},
{
"text": "- Indeed. - But once you",
"timestamp": [
870.88,
871.93
]
},
{
"text": "flip that on its head and you're",
"timestamp": [
871.93,
872.98
]
},
{
"text": "flip that on its head and you're",
"timestamp": [
871.93,
872.98
]
},
{
"text": "no longer trying to do that, suddenly",
"timestamp": [
872.98,
874.5
]
},
{
"text": "no longer trying to do that, suddenly",
"timestamp": [
872.98,
874.5
]
},
{
"text": "all of the bad properties of randomness become good.",
"timestamp": [
874.5,
877.71
]
},
{
"text": "all of the bad properties of randomness become good.",
"timestamp": [
874.5,
877.71
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly. Right.",
"timestamp": [
877.71,
878.79
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly. Right.",
"timestamp": [
877.71,
878.79
]
},
{
"text": "Because random is unpredictable and that's what we want.",
"timestamp": [
878.79,
881.12
]
},
{
"text": "Because random is unpredictable and that's what we want.",
"timestamp": [
878.79,
881.12
]
},
{
"text": "Right.",
"timestamp": [
881.12,
882.178
]
},
{
"text": "Right.",
"timestamp": [
881.12,
882.178
]
},
{
"text": "We want that unpredictability around us to be utilized,",
"timestamp": [
882.178,
885.05
]
},
{
"text": "We want that unpredictability around us to be utilized,",
"timestamp": [
882.178,
885.05
]
},
{
"text": "to actually hide the information that we wanna hide.",
"timestamp": [
885.05,
887.69
]
},
{
"text": "to actually hide the information that we wanna hide.",
"timestamp": [
885.05,
887.69
]
},
{
"text": "How have you used your knowledge",
"timestamp": [
887.69,
889.98
]
},
{
"text": "How have you used your knowledge",
"timestamp": [
887.69,
889.98
]
},
{
"text": "in the projects that you've worked on?",
"timestamp": [
889.98,
891.58
]
},
{
"text": "in the projects that you've worked on?",
"timestamp": [
889.98,
891.58
]
},
{
"text": "What are the challenges that you find?",
"timestamp": [
891.58,
893
]
},
{
"text": "What are the challenges that you find?",
"timestamp": [
891.58,
893
]
},
{
"text": "- In my experience, usually the hardest part is",
"timestamp": [
893,
896.92
]
},
{
"text": "- In my experience, usually the hardest part is",
"timestamp": [
893,
896.92
]
},
{
"text": "figuring out exactly where the best place is to use it.",
"timestamp": [
896.92,
900.67
]
},
{
"text": "figuring out exactly where the best place is to use it.",
"timestamp": [
896.92,
900.67
]
},
{
"text": "I've written some papers in the past",
"timestamp": [
900.67,
902.92
]
},
{
"text": "I've written some papers in the past",
"timestamp": [
900.67,
902.92
]
},
{
"text": "that have used zero-knowledge in a more theoretical way.",
"timestamp": [
902.92,
905.54
]
},
{
"text": "that have used zero-knowledge in a more theoretical way.",
"timestamp": [
902.92,
905.54
]
},
{
"text": "But when it comes to applications,",
"timestamp": [
905.54,
908.46
]
},
{
"text": "But when it comes to applications,",
"timestamp": [
905.54,
908.46
]
},
{
"text": "some of the most exciting applications that I've seen so far",
"timestamp": [
908.46,
911.66
]
},
{
"text": "some of the most exciting applications that I've seen so far",
"timestamp": [
908.46,
911.66
]
},
{
"text": "have been in the blockchain space.",
"timestamp": [
911.66,
913.1
]
},
{
"text": "have been in the blockchain space.",
"timestamp": [
911.66,
913.1
]
},
{
"text": "- So what are some of the",
"timestamp": [
913.1,
913.933
]
},
{
"text": "- So what are some of the",
"timestamp": [
913.1,
913.933
]
},
{
"text": "efficiency bottlenecks that you find?",
"timestamp": [
913.933,
915.44
]
},
{
"text": "efficiency bottlenecks that you find?",
"timestamp": [
913.933,
915.44
]
},
{
"text": "- In terms of efficiency,",
"timestamp": [
915.44,
917.033
]
},
{
"text": "- In terms of efficiency,",
"timestamp": [
915.44,
917.033
]
},
{
"text": "one of the coolest things about zero-knowledge proofs",
"timestamp": [
917.92,
920.04
]
},
{
"text": "one of the coolest things about zero-knowledge proofs",
"timestamp": [
917.92,
920.04
]
},
{
"text": "is that there's so many kinds.",
"timestamp": [
920.04,
921.53
]
},
{
"text": "is that there's so many kinds.",
"timestamp": [
920.04,
921.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. - I like to call them flavors.",
"timestamp": [
921.53,
923.02
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. - I like to call them flavors.",
"timestamp": [
921.53,
923.02
]
},
{
"text": "I think that in general,",
"timestamp": [
923.02,
924.59
]
},
{
"text": "I think that in general,",
"timestamp": [
923.02,
924.59
]
},
{
"text": "when you're using zero-knowledge proofs in application,",
"timestamp": [
924.59,
927.48
]
},
{
"text": "when you're using zero-knowledge proofs in application,",
"timestamp": [
924.59,
927.48
]
},
{
"text": "the main bottleneck tends to lie on the prover.",
"timestamp": [
927.48,
930.5
]
},
{
"text": "the main bottleneck tends to lie on the prover.",
"timestamp": [
927.48,
930.5
]
},
{
"text": "- Can you take the prover's job",
"timestamp": [
930.5,
932.39
]
},
{
"text": "- Can you take the prover's job",
"timestamp": [
930.5,
932.39
]
},
{
"text": "and split it up into lots of parallel computations?",
"timestamp": [
932.39,
935.24
]
},
{
"text": "and split it up into lots of parallel computations?",
"timestamp": [
932.39,
935.24
]
},
{
"text": "- Ooh. That's such a fun question.",
"timestamp": [
935.24,
937.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Ooh. That's such a fun question.",
"timestamp": [
935.24,
937.29
]
},
{
"text": "- It's such a great question.",
"timestamp": [
937.29,
938.32
]
},
{
"text": "- It's such a great question.",
"timestamp": [
937.29,
938.32
]
},
{
"text": "And yeah, I think we still don't know the answer to that,",
"timestamp": [
938.32,
941.7
]
},
{
"text": "And yeah, I think we still don't know the answer to that,",
"timestamp": [
938.32,
941.7
]
},
{
"text": "as a field.",
"timestamp": [
941.7,
942.533
]
},
{
"text": "as a field.",
"timestamp": [
941.7,
942.533
]
},
{
"text": "- One of the coolest things I've seen over the past,",
"timestamp": [
942.533,
944.99
]
},
{
"text": "- One of the coolest things I've seen over the past,",
"timestamp": [
942.533,
944.99
]
},
{
"text": "you know, three or four years,",
"timestamp": [
944.99,
946.45
]
},
{
"text": "you know, three or four years,",
"timestamp": [
944.99,
946.45
]
},
{
"text": "when I've been working on this kind of stuff,",
"timestamp": [
946.45,
948.67
]
},
{
"text": "when I've been working on this kind of stuff,",
"timestamp": [
946.45,
948.67
]
},
{
"text": "is the transition from theoretical to applied.",
"timestamp": [
948.67,
952.77
]
},
{
"text": "is the transition from theoretical to applied.",
"timestamp": [
948.67,
952.77
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. - And seeing all of these",
"timestamp": [
952.77,
954.57
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. - And seeing all of these",
"timestamp": [
952.77,
954.57
]
},
{
"text": "amazing systems that people have",
"timestamp": [
954.57,
956.85
]
},
{
"text": "amazing systems that people have",
"timestamp": [
954.57,
956.85
]
},
{
"text": "thought of in the past 30 years,",
"timestamp": [
956.85,
959
]
},
{
"text": "thought of in the past 30 years,",
"timestamp": [
956.85,
959
]
},
{
"text": "start to actually get efficient enough to be actually made.",
"timestamp": [
959,
962.59
]
},
{
"text": "start to actually get efficient enough to be actually made.",
"timestamp": [
959,
962.59
]
},
{
"text": "- No doubt.",
"timestamp": [
962.59,
963.423
]
},
{
"text": "- No doubt.",
"timestamp": [
962.59,
963.423
]
},
{
"text": "And especially with cloud computing,",
"timestamp": [
963.423,
964.74
]
},
{
"text": "And especially with cloud computing,",
"timestamp": [
963.423,
964.74
]
},
{
"text": "exploiting the power of the cloud",
"timestamp": [
964.74,
966.93
]
},
{
"text": "exploiting the power of the cloud",
"timestamp": [
964.74,
966.93
]
},
{
"text": "to enable zero-knowledge proofs,",
"timestamp": [
966.93,
968.77
]
},
{
"text": "to enable zero-knowledge proofs,",
"timestamp": [
966.93,
968.77
]
},
{
"text": "and to make use of zero-knowledge proofs,",
"timestamp": [
968.77,
970.45
]
},
{
"text": "and to make use of zero-knowledge proofs,",
"timestamp": [
968.77,
970.45
]
},
{
"text": "would be amazing.",
"timestamp": [
970.45,
971.283
]
},
{
"text": "would be amazing.",
"timestamp": [
970.45,
971.283
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
971.283,
972.72
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
971.283,
972.72
]
},
{
"text": "- And also in the blockchain space, for example,",
"timestamp": [
972.72,
974.65
]
},
{
"text": "- And also in the blockchain space, for example,",
"timestamp": [
972.72,
974.65
]
},
{
"text": "if you wanna speed up the generation of proofs,",
"timestamp": [
974.65,
976.94
]
},
{
"text": "if you wanna speed up the generation of proofs,",
"timestamp": [
974.65,
976.94
]
},
{
"text": "if that could be done in a distributed way,",
"timestamp": [
976.94,
978.74
]
},
{
"text": "if that could be done in a distributed way,",
"timestamp": [
976.94,
978.74
]
},
{
"text": "then that would be great.",
"timestamp": [
978.74,
980.1
]
},
{
"text": "then that would be great.",
"timestamp": [
978.74,
980.1
]
},
{
"text": "One of the hopes that I have is that",
"timestamp": [
980.1,
982.63
]
},
{
"text": "One of the hopes that I have is that",
"timestamp": [
980.1,
982.63
]
},
{
"text": "the power of multi-party computation",
"timestamp": [
982.63,
985.31
]
},
{
"text": "the power of multi-party computation",
"timestamp": [
982.63,
985.31
]
},
{
"text": "is about bringing people together",
"timestamp": [
985.31,
987.81
]
},
{
"text": "is about bringing people together",
"timestamp": [
985.31,
987.81
]
},
{
"text": "who are mutually distrustful.",
"timestamp": [
987.81,
989.49
]
},
{
"text": "who are mutually distrustful.",
"timestamp": [
987.81,
989.49
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. - Right.",
"timestamp": [
989.49,
990.61
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. - Right.",
"timestamp": [
989.49,
990.61
]
},
{
"text": "So can we take that power that's there in the cryptography,",
"timestamp": [
990.61,
994.547
]
},
{
"text": "So can we take that power that's there in the cryptography,",
"timestamp": [
990.61,
994.547
]
},
{
"text": "and use it to somehow help with the",
"timestamp": [
994.547,
996.8
]
},
{
"text": "and use it to somehow help with the",
"timestamp": [
994.547,
996.8
]
},
{
"text": "tremendous level of mistrust - [Eli] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
996.8,
998.53
]
},
{
"text": "tremendous level of mistrust - [Eli] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
996.8,
998.53
]
},
{
"text": "- that exists in society right now,",
"timestamp": [
998.53,
1000.59
]
},
{
"text": "- that exists in society right now,",
"timestamp": [
998.53,
1000.59
]
},
{
"text": "in helping to bring groups of people together?",
"timestamp": [
1000.59,
1002.98
]
},
{
"text": "in helping to bring groups of people together?",
"timestamp": [
1000.59,
1002.98
]
},
{
"text": "- I think that's one of the reasons that I was so drawn",
"timestamp": [
1002.98,
1005.55
]
},
{
"text": "- I think that's one of the reasons that I was so drawn",
"timestamp": [
1002.98,
1005.55
]
},
{
"text": "to multi-party computation in the first place.",
"timestamp": [
1005.55,
1007.5
]
},
{
"text": "to multi-party computation in the first place.",
"timestamp": [
1005.55,
1007.5
]
},
{
"text": "In my mind, one of the most important problems in the world",
"timestamp": [
1007.5,
1011.75
]
},
{
"text": "In my mind, one of the most important problems in the world",
"timestamp": [
1007.5,
1011.75
]
},
{
"text": "is the fact that so many people don't trust each other.",
"timestamp": [
1011.75,
1014.46
]
},
{
"text": "is the fact that so many people don't trust each other.",
"timestamp": [
1011.75,
1014.46
]
},
{
"text": "And to be able to actually use math to create technology",
"timestamp": [
1014.46,
1017.77
]
},
{
"text": "And to be able to actually use math to create technology",
"timestamp": [
1014.46,
1017.77
]
},
{
"text": "that can allow people to work together",
"timestamp": [
1017.77,
1019.76
]
},
{
"text": "that can allow people to work together",
"timestamp": [
1017.77,
1019.76
]
},
{
"text": "without having to trust each other,",
"timestamp": [
1019.76,
1021.54
]
},
{
"text": "without having to trust each other,",
"timestamp": [
1019.76,
1021.54
]
},
{
"text": "is a really cool and awesome mission, I think.",
"timestamp": [
1021.54,
1025.724
]
},
{
"text": "is a really cool and awesome mission, I think.",
"timestamp": [
1021.54,
1025.724
]
},
{
"text": "[light airy music]",
"timestamp": [
1025.724,
1028.641
]
},
{
"text": "[light airy music]",
"timestamp": [
1025.724,
1028.641
]
},
{
"text": "- Shang-Hua, it's so great to see you again.",
"timestamp": [
1030.721,
1032.62
]
},
{
"text": "- Shang-Hua, it's so great to see you again.",
"timestamp": [
1030.721,
1032.62
]
},
{
"text": "I think last time we met was in 2017 or something like that.",
"timestamp": [
1032.62,
1036.653
]
},
{
"text": "I think last time we met was in 2017 or something like that.",
"timestamp": [
1032.62,
1036.653
]
},
{
"text": "- I think we Zoomed once during the pandemic,",
"timestamp": [
1036.653,
1040.46
]
},
{
"text": "- I think we Zoomed once during the pandemic,",
"timestamp": [
1036.653,
1040.46
]
},
{
"text": "but it's good to see you in person.",
"timestamp": [
1040.46,
1042.68
]
},
{
"text": "but it's good to see you in person.",
"timestamp": [
1040.46,
1042.68
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. Absolutely. [chuckles]",
"timestamp": [
1042.68,
1043.84
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. Absolutely. [chuckles]",
"timestamp": [
1042.68,
1043.84
]
},
{
"text": "- And actually, in '86 I was taking a crypto class",
"timestamp": [
1043.84,
1048.12
]
},
{
"text": "- And actually, in '86 I was taking a crypto class",
"timestamp": [
1043.84,
1048.12
]
},
{
"text": "with Professor Leonard Edelman, the A of RSA.",
"timestamp": [
1048.12,
1051.17
]
},
{
"text": "with Professor Leonard Edelman, the A of RSA.",
"timestamp": [
1048.12,
1051.17
]
},
{
"text": "And he assigned me the paper by",
"timestamp": [
1051.17,
1054.16
]
},
{
"text": "And he assigned me the paper by",
"timestamp": [
1051.17,
1054.16
]
},
{
"text": "Goldwasser, Micali, and Charlie Rackoff",
"timestamp": [
1054.16,
1056.586
]
},
{
"text": "Goldwasser, Micali, and Charlie Rackoff",
"timestamp": [
1054.16,
1056.586
]
},
{
"text": "on zero-knowledge proof.",
"timestamp": [
1056.586,
1058.17
]
},
{
"text": "on zero-knowledge proof.",
"timestamp": [
1056.586,
1058.17
]
},
{
"text": "So that's indeed my first ever presentation,",
"timestamp": [
1058.17,
1061.72
]
},
{
"text": "So that's indeed my first ever presentation,",
"timestamp": [
1058.17,
1061.72
]
},
{
"text": "ever, in this country.",
"timestamp": [
1061.72,
1063.22
]
},
{
"text": "ever, in this country.",
"timestamp": [
1061.72,
1063.22
]
},
{
"text": "- Was about zero-knowledge. That's awesome.",
"timestamp": [
1063.22,
1064.694
]
},
{
"text": "- Was about zero-knowledge. That's awesome.",
"timestamp": [
1063.22,
1064.694
]
},
{
"text": "- [Shang-Hua] Was about zero-knowledge, yes.",
"timestamp": [
1064.694,
1065.975
]
},
{
"text": "- [Shang-Hua] Was about zero-knowledge, yes.",
"timestamp": [
1064.694,
1065.975
]
},
{
"text": "- It's such a almost hypnotic concept.",
"timestamp": [
1065.975,
1067.92
]
},
{
"text": "- It's such a almost hypnotic concept.",
"timestamp": [
1065.975,
1067.92
]
},
{
"text": "- It's also an interesting way",
"timestamp": [
1067.92,
1071.81
]
},
{
"text": "- It's also an interesting way",
"timestamp": [
1067.92,
1071.81
]
},
{
"text": "how mathematically to formulate those concepts, right.",
"timestamp": [
1071.81,
1075.957
]
},
{
"text": "how mathematically to formulate those concepts, right.",
"timestamp": [
1071.81,
1075.957
]
},
{
"text": "For example, we have data.",
"timestamp": [
1075.957,
1078.15
]
},
{
"text": "For example, we have data.",
"timestamp": [
1075.957,
1078.15
]
},
{
"text": "Then eventually we started from data, like data mining,",
"timestamp": [
1078.15,
1081.1
]
},
{
"text": "Then eventually we started from data, like data mining,",
"timestamp": [
1078.15,
1081.1
]
},
{
"text": "you can get the information,",
"timestamp": [
1081.1,
1082.45
]
},
{
"text": "you can get the information,",
"timestamp": [
1081.1,
1082.45
]
},
{
"text": "and then you have this word called knowledge.",
"timestamp": [
1082.45,
1084.88
]
},
{
"text": "and then you have this word called knowledge.",
"timestamp": [
1082.45,
1084.88
]
},
{
"text": "- [Amit] Right - Right.",
"timestamp": [
1084.88,
1085.76
]
},
{
"text": "- [Amit] Right - Right.",
"timestamp": [
1084.88,
1085.76
]
},
{
"text": "So knowledge has been long debated, even in philosophy.",
"timestamp": [
1085.76,
1089.41
]
},
{
"text": "So knowledge has been long debated, even in philosophy.",
"timestamp": [
1085.76,
1089.41
]
},
{
"text": "What is knowledge? - Indeed.",
"timestamp": [
1089.41,
1090.48
]
},
{
"text": "What is knowledge? - Indeed.",
"timestamp": [
1089.41,
1090.48
]
},
{
"text": "- But here is a very fascinating way",
"timestamp": [
1090.48,
1093
]
},
{
"text": "- But here is a very fascinating way",
"timestamp": [
1090.48,
1093
]
},
{
"text": "mathematicians or computer scientists",
"timestamp": [
1093,
1095.4
]
},
{
"text": "mathematicians or computer scientists",
"timestamp": [
1093,
1095.4
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. - want to somehow",
"timestamp": [
1095.4,
1096.6
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. - want to somehow",
"timestamp": [
1095.4,
1096.6
]
},
{
"text": "capture this knowledge.",
"timestamp": [
1096.6,
1097.87
]
},
{
"text": "capture this knowledge.",
"timestamp": [
1096.6,
1097.87
]
},
{
"text": "It didn't say zero-information proof.",
"timestamp": [
1097.87,
1100.27
]
},
{
"text": "It didn't say zero-information proof.",
"timestamp": [
1097.87,
1100.27
]
},
{
"text": "- [Amit] Right. - So what's your take",
"timestamp": [
1100.27,
1101.98
]
},
{
"text": "- [Amit] Right. - So what's your take",
"timestamp": [
1100.27,
1101.98
]
},
{
"text": "on why knowledge is, rather than information,",
"timestamp": [
1101.98,
1105.26
]
},
{
"text": "on why knowledge is, rather than information,",
"timestamp": [
1101.98,
1105.26
]
},
{
"text": "or zero-data proof.",
"timestamp": [
1105.26,
1106.43
]
},
{
"text": "or zero-data proof.",
"timestamp": [
1105.26,
1106.43
]
},
{
"text": "Clearly, there's data there.",
"timestamp": [
1106.43,
1107.62
]
},
{
"text": "Clearly, there's data there.",
"timestamp": [
1106.43,
1107.62
]
},
{
"text": "So can't be zero-data.",
"timestamp": [
1107.62,
1109.29
]
},
{
"text": "So can't be zero-data.",
"timestamp": [
1107.62,
1109.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
1109.29,
1110.123
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
1109.29,
1110.123
]
},
{
"text": "I don't think we still have a",
"timestamp": [
1110.123,
1111.27
]
},
{
"text": "I don't think we still have a",
"timestamp": [
1110.123,
1111.27
]
},
{
"text": "completely satisfactory answer to that question.",
"timestamp": [
1111.27,
1113.8
]
},
{
"text": "completely satisfactory answer to that question.",
"timestamp": [
1111.27,
1113.8
]
},
{
"text": "What was so, such a beautiful insight,",
"timestamp": [
1113.8,
1116.49
]
},
{
"text": "What was so, such a beautiful insight,",
"timestamp": [
1113.8,
1116.49
]
},
{
"text": "as I'm sure you know,",
"timestamp": [
1116.49,
1118.57
]
},
{
"text": "as I'm sure you know,",
"timestamp": [
1116.49,
1118.57
]
},
{
"text": "is that the idea of zero-knowledge",
"timestamp": [
1118.57,
1121.31
]
},
{
"text": "is that the idea of zero-knowledge",
"timestamp": [
1118.57,
1121.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm. - being something",
"timestamp": [
1121.31,
1122.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm. - being something",
"timestamp": [
1121.31,
1122.9
]
},
{
"text": "that you can already predict.",
"timestamp": [
1122.9,
1125
]
},
{
"text": "that you can already predict.",
"timestamp": [
1122.9,
1125
]
},
{
"text": "Right. - Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
1125,
1126.103
]
},
{
"text": "Right. - Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
1125,
1126.103
]
},
{
"text": "- If you can already predict the answer,",
"timestamp": [
1126.103,
1128.25
]
},
{
"text": "- If you can already predict the answer,",
"timestamp": [
1126.103,
1128.25
]
},
{
"text": "then you must not be gaining any knowledge",
"timestamp": [
1128.25,
1131.25
]
},
{
"text": "then you must not be gaining any knowledge",
"timestamp": [
1128.25,
1131.25
]
},
{
"text": "by that interaction.",
"timestamp": [
1131.25,
1132.59
]
},
{
"text": "by that interaction.",
"timestamp": [
1131.25,
1132.59
]
},
{
"text": "This insight of being able to predict the future accurately,",
"timestamp": [
1132.59,
1137
]
},
{
"text": "This insight of being able to predict the future accurately,",
"timestamp": [
1132.59,
1137
]
},
{
"text": "and that being an evidence of a lack of new knowledge,",
"timestamp": [
1137,
1140.89
]
},
{
"text": "and that being an evidence of a lack of new knowledge,",
"timestamp": [
1137,
1140.89
]
},
{
"text": "- [Shang-Hua] Mm-hmm. - was such a",
"timestamp": [
1140.89,
1141.723
]
},
{
"text": "- [Shang-Hua] Mm-hmm. - was such a",
"timestamp": [
1140.89,
1141.723
]
},
{
"text": "beautiful insight, such an amazing insight.",
"timestamp": [
1141.723,
1143.56
]
},
{
"text": "beautiful insight, such an amazing insight.",
"timestamp": [
1141.723,
1143.56
]
},
{
"text": "- Well there's not zero-information here.",
"timestamp": [
1143.56,
1145.36
]
},
{
"text": "- Well there's not zero-information here.",
"timestamp": [
1143.56,
1145.36
]
},
{
"text": "Fundamentally I, clearly from",
"timestamp": [
1145.36,
1147.86
]
},
{
"text": "Fundamentally I, clearly from",
"timestamp": [
1145.36,
1147.86
]
},
{
"text": "computing perspective, security perspective,",
"timestamp": [
1147.86,
1150.36
]
},
{
"text": "computing perspective, security perspective,",
"timestamp": [
1147.86,
1150.36
]
},
{
"text": "is how much knowledge you're gaining, I guess.",
"timestamp": [
1150.36,
1152.59
]
},
{
"text": "is how much knowledge you're gaining, I guess.",
"timestamp": [
1150.36,
1152.59
]
},
{
"text": "More than how much information you've gained.",
"timestamp": [
1152.59,
1154.6
]
},
{
"text": "More than how much information you've gained.",
"timestamp": [
1152.59,
1154.6
]
},
{
"text": "- [Amit] Indeed. - And how much data you have.",
"timestamp": [
1154.6,
1156.15
]
},
{
"text": "- [Amit] Indeed. - And how much data you have.",
"timestamp": [
1154.6,
1156.15
]
},
{
"text": "Right. - [Amit] Right.",
"timestamp": [
1156.15,
1157.439
]
},
{
"text": "Right. - [Amit] Right.",
"timestamp": [
1156.15,
1157.439
]
},
{
"text": "- So that data then immediately imply, a knowledge.",
"timestamp": [
1157.439,
1160.6
]
},
{
"text": "- So that data then immediately imply, a knowledge.",
"timestamp": [
1157.439,
1160.6
]
},
{
"text": "But people can't, sometimes.",
"timestamp": [
1160.6,
1162.15
]
},
{
"text": "But people can't, sometimes.",
"timestamp": [
1160.6,
1162.15
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. Sometimes.",
"timestamp": [
1162.15,
1162.983
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. Sometimes.",
"timestamp": [
1162.15,
1162.983
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, for example, in medical research,",
"timestamp": [
1162.983,
1164.55
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, for example, in medical research,",
"timestamp": [
1162.983,
1164.55
]
},
{
"text": "how amazing would it be, right,",
"timestamp": [
1164.55,
1166.75
]
},
{
"text": "how amazing would it be, right,",
"timestamp": [
1164.55,
1166.75
]
},
{
"text": "to be able to have a drug, and be able to prove",
"timestamp": [
1166.75,
1170.69
]
},
{
"text": "to be able to have a drug, and be able to prove",
"timestamp": [
1166.75,
1170.69
]
},
{
"text": "that my drug works",
"timestamp": [
1170.69,
1171.9
]
},
{
"text": "that my drug works",
"timestamp": [
1170.69,
1171.9
]
},
{
"text": "in this model. - Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
1171.9,
1172.9
]
},
{
"text": "in this model. - Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
1171.9,
1172.9
]
},
{
"text": "- And yet, not have to actually",
"timestamp": [
1172.9,
1174.64
]
},
{
"text": "- And yet, not have to actually",
"timestamp": [
1172.9,
1174.64
]
},
{
"text": "reveal the structure of the compound.",
"timestamp": [
1174.64,
1176.91
]
},
{
"text": "reveal the structure of the compound.",
"timestamp": [
1174.64,
1176.91
]
},
{
"text": "- What, currently, you're saying",
"timestamp": [
1176.91,
1180.01
]
},
{
"text": "- What, currently, you're saying",
"timestamp": [
1176.91,
1180.01
]
},
{
"text": "it would be the next directions",
"timestamp": [
1180.01,
1183.633
]
},
{
"text": "it would be the next directions",
"timestamp": [
1180.01,
1183.633
]
},
{
"text": "in this space. - What's the next big things?",
"timestamp": [
1183.633,
1186
]
},
{
"text": "in this space. - What's the next big things?",
"timestamp": [
1183.633,
1186
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes. - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1186,
1186.833
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes. - Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1186,
1186.833
]
},
{
"text": "This concept of zero-knowledge programs",
"timestamp": [
1186.833,
1188.89
]
},
{
"text": "This concept of zero-knowledge programs",
"timestamp": [
1186.833,
1188.89
]
},
{
"text": "would allow you to carry out",
"timestamp": [
1188.89,
1190.34
]
},
{
"text": "would allow you to carry out",
"timestamp": [
1188.89,
1190.34
]
},
{
"text": "completely arbitrary computations",
"timestamp": [
1190.34,
1192.51
]
},
{
"text": "completely arbitrary computations",
"timestamp": [
1190.34,
1192.51
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm. - in a zero-knowledge way,",
"timestamp": [
1192.51,
1193.97
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm. - in a zero-knowledge way,",
"timestamp": [
1192.51,
1193.97
]
},
{
"text": "without any interaction, right.",
"timestamp": [
1193.97,
1195.74
]
},
{
"text": "without any interaction, right.",
"timestamp": [
1193.97,
1195.74
]
},
{
"text": "I can just take the program,",
"timestamp": [
1195.74,
1197.76
]
},
{
"text": "I can just take the program,",
"timestamp": [
1195.74,
1197.76
]
},
{
"text": "convert it to a zero-knowledge program,",
"timestamp": [
1197.76,
1199.3
]
},
{
"text": "convert it to a zero-knowledge program,",
"timestamp": [
1197.76,
1199.3
]
},
{
"text": "or an obfuscated program,",
"timestamp": [
1199.3,
1200.6
]
},
{
"text": "or an obfuscated program,",
"timestamp": [
1199.3,
1200.6
]
},
{
"text": "and then just send it to you. - Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
1200.6,
1202.19
]
},
{
"text": "and then just send it to you. - Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
1200.6,
1202.19
]
},
{
"text": "- And then you can run it",
"timestamp": [
1202.19,
1203.3
]
},
{
"text": "- And then you can run it",
"timestamp": [
1202.19,
1203.3
]
},
{
"text": "and gain the benefit of that computation",
"timestamp": [
1203.3,
1206.4
]
},
{
"text": "and gain the benefit of that computation",
"timestamp": [
1203.3,
1206.4
]
},
{
"text": "without having to talk to me anymore.",
"timestamp": [
1206.4,
1207.77
]
},
{
"text": "without having to talk to me anymore.",
"timestamp": [
1206.4,
1207.77
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
1207.77,
1208.603
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
1207.77,
1208.603
]
},
{
"text": "There's a non-interactive nature.",
"timestamp": [
1208.603,
1210.49
]
},
{
"text": "There's a non-interactive nature.",
"timestamp": [
1208.603,
1210.49
]
},
{
"text": "- [Amit] The non-interactive nature.",
"timestamp": [
1210.49,
1211.82
]
},
{
"text": "- [Amit] The non-interactive nature.",
"timestamp": [
1210.49,
1211.82
]
},
{
"text": "- But there's verifiability in it.",
"timestamp": [
1211.82,
1214.78
]
},
{
"text": "- But there's verifiability in it.",
"timestamp": [
1211.82,
1214.78
]
},
{
"text": "- Indeed.",
"timestamp": [
1214.78,
1215.613
]
},
{
"text": "- Indeed.",
"timestamp": [
1214.78,
1215.613
]
},
{
"text": "- Sometimes when, for example,",
"timestamp": [
1215.613,
1216.88
]
},
{
"text": "- Sometimes when, for example,",
"timestamp": [
1215.613,
1216.88
]
},
{
"text": "when you have multi-protocol exchange",
"timestamp": [
1216.88,
1220.15
]
},
{
"text": "when you have multi-protocol exchange",
"timestamp": [
1216.88,
1220.15
]
},
{
"text": "that, you know, just like a random number showed up,",
"timestamp": [
1220.15,
1222.42
]
},
{
"text": "that, you know, just like a random number showed up,",
"timestamp": [
1220.15,
1222.42
]
},
{
"text": "you have to enter the random number.",
"timestamp": [
1222.42,
1224.98
]
},
{
"text": "you have to enter the random number.",
"timestamp": [
1222.42,
1224.98
]
},
{
"text": "- As authentication, yes. - Authentication, right.",
"timestamp": [
1224.98,
1227.39
]
},
{
"text": "- As authentication, yes. - Authentication, right.",
"timestamp": [
1224.98,
1227.39
]
},
{
"text": "Now clearly I think in block chain,",
"timestamp": [
1227.39,
1229.65
]
},
{
"text": "Now clearly I think in block chain,",
"timestamp": [
1227.39,
1229.65
]
},
{
"text": "they also began to incorporate a more",
"timestamp": [
1229.65,
1231.73
]
},
{
"text": "they also began to incorporate a more",
"timestamp": [
1229.65,
1231.73
]
},
{
"text": "- Indeed. - general knowledge of proof",
"timestamp": [
1231.73,
1233.17
]
},
{
"text": "- Indeed. - general knowledge of proof",
"timestamp": [
1231.73,
1233.17
]
},
{
"text": "in the ledger.",
"timestamp": [
1233.17,
1234.003
]
},
{
"text": "in the ledger.",
"timestamp": [
1233.17,
1234.003
]
},
{
"text": "- We're definitely at this moment now,",
"timestamp": [
1234.003,
1236.43
]
},
{
"text": "- We're definitely at this moment now,",
"timestamp": [
1234.003,
1236.43
]
},
{
"text": "where zero-knowledge is gonna be used more and more.",
"timestamp": [
1236.43,
1239.35
]
},
{
"text": "where zero-knowledge is gonna be used more and more.",
"timestamp": [
1236.43,
1239.35
]
},
{
"text": "There are so many conferences and meetings",
"timestamp": [
1239.35,
1242.45
]
},
{
"text": "There are so many conferences and meetings",
"timestamp": [
1239.35,
1242.45
]
},
{
"text": "that occur in the zero-knowledge space,",
"timestamp": [
1242.45,
1244.78
]
},
{
"text": "that occur in the zero-knowledge space,",
"timestamp": [
1242.45,
1244.78
]
},
{
"text": "where you and I are not invited.",
"timestamp": [
1244.78,
1246.415
]
},
{
"text": "where you and I are not invited.",
"timestamp": [
1244.78,
1246.415
]
},
{
"text": "[Shang-Hua laughs] Because it's for",
"timestamp": [
1246.415,
1247.248
]
},
{
"text": "[Shang-Hua laughs] Because it's for",
"timestamp": [
1246.415,
1247.248
]
},
{
"text": "the people who are developing.",
"timestamp": [
1247.248,
1248.62
]
},
{
"text": "the people who are developing.",
"timestamp": [
1247.248,
1248.62
]
},
{
"text": "You know, the people who are programming,",
"timestamp": [
1248.62,
1250.34
]
},
{
"text": "You know, the people who are programming,",
"timestamp": [
1248.62,
1250.34
]
},
{
"text": "not us mathematicians.",
"timestamp": [
1250.34,
1251.44
]
},
{
"text": "not us mathematicians.",
"timestamp": [
1250.34,
1251.44
]
},
{
"text": "- [Shang-Hua] Yes, yes.",
"timestamp": [
1251.44,
1252.29
]
},
{
"text": "- [Shang-Hua] Yes, yes.",
"timestamp": [
1251.44,
1252.29
]
},
{
"text": "- And I think that's a sign.",
"timestamp": [
1252.29,
1253.55
]
},
{
"text": "- And I think that's a sign.",
"timestamp": [
1252.29,
1253.55
]
},
{
"text": "That's a sign that our baby has grown up and,",
"timestamp": [
1253.55,
1256.725
]
},
{
"text": "That's a sign that our baby has grown up and,",
"timestamp": [
1253.55,
1256.725
]
},
{
"text": "[Shang-Hua laughs] you know, it's time",
"timestamp": [
1256.725,
1257.558
]
},
{
"text": "[Shang-Hua laughs] you know, it's time",
"timestamp": [
1256.725,
1257.558
]
},
{
"text": "for it to be developed.",
"timestamp": [
1257.558,
1259.41
]
},
{
"text": "for it to be developed.",
"timestamp": [
1257.558,
1259.41
]
},
{
"text": "- I think, profoundly, the students often also ask me,",
"timestamp": [
1259.41,
1263.46
]
},
{
"text": "- I think, profoundly, the students often also ask me,",
"timestamp": [
1259.41,
1263.46
]
},
{
"text": "what are the future direction,",
"timestamp": [
1263.46,
1265.64
]
},
{
"text": "what are the future direction,",
"timestamp": [
1263.46,
1265.64
]
},
{
"text": "both in terms of crypto, zero-knowledge proof,",
"timestamp": [
1265.64,
1269.2
]
},
{
"text": "both in terms of crypto, zero-knowledge proof,",
"timestamp": [
1265.64,
1269.2
]
},
{
"text": "in the real world and how mathematical you see in computing.",
"timestamp": [
1269.2,
1274.13
]
},
{
"text": "in the real world and how mathematical you see in computing.",
"timestamp": [
1269.2,
1274.13
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a great question. I wish I could see the future.",
"timestamp": [
1274.13,
1276.85
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a great question. I wish I could see the future.",
"timestamp": [
1274.13,
1276.85
]
},
{
"text": "I can't actually, but let me try.",
"timestamp": [
1276.85,
1278.8
]
},
{
"text": "I can't actually, but let me try.",
"timestamp": [
1276.85,
1278.8
]
},
{
"text": "The part of that that I'm the most comfortable answering",
"timestamp": [
1278.8,
1281.01
]
},
{
"text": "The part of that that I'm the most comfortable answering",
"timestamp": [
1278.8,
1281.01
]
},
{
"text": "is of course the mathematical side.",
"timestamp": [
1281.01,
1282.48
]
},
{
"text": "is of course the mathematical side.",
"timestamp": [
1281.01,
1282.48
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm. - I think that there is,",
"timestamp": [
1282.48,
1284.637
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm. - I think that there is,",
"timestamp": [
1282.48,
1284.637
]
},
{
"text": "you know, we've done so much in cryptography",
"timestamp": [
1284.637,
1286.39
]
},
{
"text": "you know, we've done so much in cryptography",
"timestamp": [
1284.637,
1286.39
]
},
{
"text": "over the last few decades,",
"timestamp": [
1286.39,
1288.35
]
},
{
"text": "over the last few decades,",
"timestamp": [
1286.39,
1288.35
]
},
{
"text": "but we understand so little.",
"timestamp": [
1288.35,
1290.19
]
},
{
"text": "but we understand so little.",
"timestamp": [
1288.35,
1290.19
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm - You know,",
"timestamp": [
1290.19,
1291.324
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm - You know,",
"timestamp": [
1290.19,
1291.324
]
},
{
"text": "even today we understand so little.",
"timestamp": [
1291.324,
1292.157
]
},
{
"text": "even today we understand so little.",
"timestamp": [
1291.324,
1292.157
]
},
{
"text": "And I think the most fundamental aspect of that",
"timestamp": [
1292.157,
1296.52
]
},
{
"text": "And I think the most fundamental aspect of that",
"timestamp": [
1292.157,
1296.52
]
},
{
"text": "is understanding hardness.",
"timestamp": [
1296.52,
1298.41
]
},
{
"text": "is understanding hardness.",
"timestamp": [
1296.52,
1298.41
]
},
{
"text": "How do we get hard problems? - Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
1298.41,
1300.84
]
},
{
"text": "How do we get hard problems? - Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
1298.41,
1300.84
]
},
{
"text": "- How do we actually build mathematically hard problems",
"timestamp": [
1300.84,
1303.64
]
},
{
"text": "- How do we actually build mathematically hard problems",
"timestamp": [
1300.84,
1303.64
]
},
{
"text": "so that we can then use them to build efficient",
"timestamp": [
1303.64,
1306.81
]
},
{
"text": "so that we can then use them to build efficient",
"timestamp": [
1303.64,
1306.81
]
},
{
"text": "zero-knowledge programs. - [Shang-Hua] Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
1306.81,
1307.93
]
},
{
"text": "zero-knowledge programs. - [Shang-Hua] Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
1306.81,
1307.93
]
},
{
"text": "- And efficient zero-knowledge proofs, right?",
"timestamp": [
1307.93,
1309.52
]
},
{
"text": "- And efficient zero-knowledge proofs, right?",
"timestamp": [
1307.93,
1309.52
]
},
{
"text": "- I guess also, in quantum computing,",
"timestamp": [
1309.52,
1311.89
]
},
{
"text": "- I guess also, in quantum computing,",
"timestamp": [
1309.52,
1311.89
]
},
{
"text": "you need even harder problems.",
"timestamp": [
1311.89,
1313.12
]
},
{
"text": "you need even harder problems.",
"timestamp": [
1311.89,
1313.12
]
},
{
"text": "- Indeed. Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
1313.12,
1314.2
]
},
{
"text": "- Indeed. Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
1313.12,
1314.2
]
},
{
"text": "You know, now that we have the",
"timestamp": [
1314.2,
1315.76
]
},
{
"text": "You know, now that we have the",
"timestamp": [
1314.2,
1315.76
]
},
{
"text": "specter of quantum computing - [Shang-Hua] Yes, yes.",
"timestamp": [
1315.76,
1317.8
]
},
{
"text": "specter of quantum computing - [Shang-Hua] Yes, yes.",
"timestamp": [
1315.76,
1317.8
]
},
{
"text": "- coming at us and we all know that",
"timestamp": [
1317.8,
1319.56
]
},
{
"text": "- coming at us and we all know that",
"timestamp": [
1317.8,
1319.56
]
},
{
"text": "quantum computers can break a lot of",
"timestamp": [
1319.56,
1321.85
]
},
{
"text": "quantum computers can break a lot of",
"timestamp": [
1319.56,
1321.85
]
},
{
"text": "cryptographic systems. - Yes. A profound challenge.",
"timestamp": [
1321.85,
1323.83
]
},
{
"text": "cryptographic systems. - Yes. A profound challenge.",
"timestamp": [
1321.85,
1323.83
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a profound challenge.",
"timestamp": [
1323.83,
1324.72
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a profound challenge.",
"timestamp": [
1323.83,
1324.72
]
},
{
"text": "So can we find new sources of hardness",
"timestamp": [
1324.72,
1327.6
]
},
{
"text": "So can we find new sources of hardness",
"timestamp": [
1324.72,
1327.6
]
},
{
"text": "that are quantum-resistant? - [Shang-Hua] That's right.",
"timestamp": [
1327.6,
1329.562
]
},
{
"text": "that are quantum-resistant? - [Shang-Hua] That's right.",
"timestamp": [
1327.6,
1329.562
]
},
{
"text": "- That even quantum computers can't break.",
"timestamp": [
1329.562,
1331.12
]
},
{
"text": "- That even quantum computers can't break.",
"timestamp": [
1329.562,
1331.12
]
},
{
"text": "And that's something I've been working on",
"timestamp": [
1331.12,
1332.52
]
},
{
"text": "And that's something I've been working on",
"timestamp": [
1331.12,
1332.52
]
},
{
"text": "for the last several years.",
"timestamp": [
1332.52,
1333.63
]
},
{
"text": "for the last several years.",
"timestamp": [
1332.52,
1333.63
]
},
{
"text": "But I'd be very excited to",
"timestamp": [
1333.63,
1334.67
]
},
{
"text": "But I'd be very excited to",
"timestamp": [
1333.63,
1334.67
]
},
{
"text": "see what happens in that space.",
"timestamp": [
1334.67,
1336.22
]
},
{
"text": "see what happens in that space.",
"timestamp": [
1334.67,
1336.22
]
},
{
"text": "- But I'm sure they will motivate beautiful mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
1336.22,
1339.713
]
},
{
"text": "- But I'm sure they will motivate beautiful mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
1336.22,
1339.713
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, that's right.",
"timestamp": [
1339.713,
1340.69
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, that's right.",
"timestamp": [
1339.713,
1340.69
]
},
{
"text": "You know, one of the great things about the real world",
"timestamp": [
1340.69,
1343.9
]
},
{
"text": "You know, one of the great things about the real world",
"timestamp": [
1340.69,
1343.9
]
},
{
"text": "is that people in the real world have demands.",
"timestamp": [
1343.9,
1345.93
]
},
{
"text": "is that people in the real world have demands.",
"timestamp": [
1343.9,
1345.93
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right. - And those demands",
"timestamp": [
1345.93,
1346.763
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right. - And those demands",
"timestamp": [
1345.93,
1346.763
]
},
{
"text": "often sound impossible.",
"timestamp": [
1346.763,
1348.62
]
},
{
"text": "often sound impossible.",
"timestamp": [
1346.763,
1348.62
]
},
{
"text": "And that's where we come in.",
"timestamp": [
1348.62,
1349.64
]
},
{
"text": "And that's where we come in.",
"timestamp": [
1348.62,
1349.64
]
},
{
"text": "It's our job to make the impossible possible.",
"timestamp": [
1349.64,
1351.89
]
},
{
"text": "It's our job to make the impossible possible.",
"timestamp": [
1349.64,
1351.89
]
}
] |
[
[
"<Untitled Chapter 1>",
"- Hi, my name is Amit Sahai,"
],
[
"Amit Sahai, PhD Professor of computer science, UCLA Samuel School of Engineering",
"and I'm a Professor of computer scienceat the UCLA Samueli School of Engineering.Today, I've been asked to explain zero-knowledge proofsin five levels of increasing complexity.A zero-knowledge proof is a way for a prover toconvince a verifier that some statement is true,and yet reveal no additional informationbeyond the fact that the statement is true.Zero-knowledge proofs are being used inblockchains and cryptocurrencies.So cryptographers are excited about zero-knowledgebecause of its amazing mathematical properties.But also because of its incredible applicabilityto so many different scenarios.[upbeat playful music]What's your favorite subject?- I'd say math.Some of the small problemscan actually be really big and complicated.It's like a puzzle.- I love math for the same reason.Today, I'm gonna tell you about a thing calledzero-knowledge proof.So in a zero-knowledge proof, there are two people.There's a prover and a verifier.And I wanna prove that something is true to you.But the weird thing is, I wanna prove to you that it's truewithout telling you any reasons why.I remember when I first heard about it,I was like, wait, what?How can that possibly be?Right? - Yeah.- So what do you see in this photo?- [Chelsea] A lot of penguins.- Yeah. Hidden along all these penguins is a puffin.Do you wanna try to look for it? Do you see where it is?- Hmm.- I know where it is, but I don't wanna tell you.Do you believe me?You're not sure to believe me. Right?- Yeah.- But what if I could prove to youthat I know where the puffin iswithout revealing to you where it is?Let me show you.I took that photo that we showed you.And I put it behind this poster here.Why don't you go take a look through that hole?- I see the puffin.So when you look at this board,we don't know where the photo was, right?Was the photo like with the corner here?In which case the puffin would be all the way at this side.Or was the photo with the corner here?In which case the puffin would be on the other side.So this is a really simple exampleof a zero-knowledge proof.I convinced you that I knew where the puffin was,but you didn't learn anything else.- Why do you study zero-knowledge proof?- When I first learned about them,I just thought they were so cool.But it turns out they're also really useful,not just for finding like, puffins.If you just type in your passwordand the hacker hacks into the computer,they can just get your password.Right? - Yeah.- What if instead, we could somehow usea zero-knowledge proof to log in.You would just be able to prove that,hey, I'm Chelsea, without revealing anything to them.If you could do that, then it would be amazing, right?- Yeah.- Because then even if the hacker hacked into the computer,he wouldn't learn anything.Because even the computer doesn't learn anything.So Chelsea, in your own words,what is a zero-knowledge proof?- Zero-knowledge proof is proof to a statement.You don't show them why or what.You just show them a tiny segment.Or just do some sort of,weird magic trick [chuckles]that's not really a magic trick,and they will be convinced.And you didn't show them why, or anything like that.[upbeat playful music]- So have you ever heard the termzero-knowledge proof before?- I have not. No. - You have not. Right.It's a way for a prover to convince a verifierthat something is true without revealinganything about why it's true, which sounds totally bizarre.Right? - Yeah.- Like how can that possibly be?What I wanna do is prove to you that I know this combinationwithout revealing the combination to you.And what you could do is you could write a little note,a secret that I definitely wouldn't know.Fold it up, stick it in here.And then, if I know the combination,I should be able to open it and tell you what you wrote.[paper rasps] All right.[dial clicking][lock clicks]There we go. [latch clacks]All right.So,\"My dog is named Doug.\"Did you figure out what the combination was?- No.- So nowhere in this interaction,did you see any information that you didn't already know.And yet I convinced you that I know the combination.Right? - Yeah.- So what's the exact purpose of a zero-knowledge proof?Is it like proving somethingbut without giving enough information that couldendanger whatever it is that you're proving?- So you're asking like,why shouldn't I just share my secrets with somebody?People don't trust each other.And if I was able to prove that I'vedone something correctly to someonewithout having to reveal my secrets,then that person would trust me more.- How does this relate to computer technology?Like, do you type it into a computerand somebody else receives it?Or is it an in-person interaction?- Suppose you wanted to exchange messageswith someone that you knew.- Mm-hmm. - What would you guys do?You'd probably first get together and like,figure out some secret code, right?And then like, write messages to each other in that code.But what if you've never met the person before?What if you wanna exchange secret messages with meand we've never met each other before?How could we possibly do that?- I have no idea.- It sounds impossible.Right? - It does.- But it's not.You wouldn't use like, a physical lock, or a physical box.We would instead use mathematicsto do these kinds of things.You could take a message and encrypt it using mathematics.And then, I could prove to you that I know the key,I could open it up, and send it back to you.That way I would be proving to you that I knowthe mathematical key to the mathematical lockbox.So based on what we've discussed today,in your own words, what is a zero-knowledge proof.- It's like, if you have this really important secretthat you want somebody to know about,but you don't want to tell them everything.You can use a zero-knowledge proof toprove to them that secret, but not give away all of it.[upbeat playful music]"
],
[
"College Student",
"- What are you studying?- I'm a first-year computer science student at USC Viterbi.I'm interested in all things like,data and internet and blockchain and cryptocurrency.- Have you ever heard of zero-knowledge proofs?- Only in passing.- So actually, in the blockchain space isone of the spaces where we are seeingzero-knowledge proofs being implemented.And I think it's just the beginning.Let's talk about zero-knowledge proofs.At its core, a zero-knowledge proofis an interaction between two people.Then I should be able to convince youthat some statement is true,but you won't have any idea why it's true.- Will I, like, understand that it's true because like,you know, the operations performed in the proof are like,of a certain, like, you know,they have like, certain attributesthat would make them true?- What you're basically asking is, wait, what?[both laughing] Right? Right.So this is what makes zero-knowledge proof so fascinating,and so counter-intuitive.And I think the best way I can explain it to youis by means of an example.But before we do that, I have to decidewhat I'm gonna prove to you in a,with a zero-knowledge proof. - Sounds good.- And the way we're gonna approach thisis through something called NP-completeness.What an NP-complete problem is,it's a problem that's really hard to solve.But if you can solve it,you can solve any problemthat's in the class NP.And that includes a vast number of problems.And what we're gonna do is we're gonnause an NP-complete problem to actually provean incredible variety of statementsthrough a zero-knowledge proof.And the specific Np-complete problemthat we're gonna be looking atis called map three-coloring.Okay, so here we have a map. Okay.And these are a bunch of countries.And we've arranged them so thatno countries that have the same color share a border.That's what makes a map like this validly colored.And now you might think, well, why should we care?It turns out that whether or not a map can bethree-colored in this wayis an example of an NP-complete problem.And it turns out that, you know,maybe what you really wanna do,is you wanna give a zero-knowledge proofthat you have at least 0.3 Bitcoins, right?That would be cool. - [chuckles] Yeah.- Without revealing what the address is of your account.It turns out I can take that statementthat I have at least 0.2 Bitcoins,and convert it into a map of countries.And that map of countries will be three-colorable like thisonly if you have at least 0.2 Bitcoins.- How would we turn something like thisinto a zero-knowledge proof?- Of course, the first step iswe have to erase all the colors.What I've done is I've put a colorinside each of these envelopes.Now, how do you know that it's a valid coloring?You don't. Right?You have to pick any two neighboring countries.You can pick them however you like. At random.- Can I get these two?- These two? - Yeah.- All right. Sounds good. Right?Here we have green, right?And over here, we have blue. Okay.And as you can see, they're two different colors.- Mm-hmm. - Right?So you have a little bit of confidence, right,that I have managed to color this correctly.but not that much confidence.'Cause I've only shown you two of the countries.- Yeah. - Right?So now, of course, one way to get more confidenceis to open up more of them for you,but that would be revealing information to you.I don't wanna do that.So instead, I'm gonna ask you to please turn around.And now, let's change up these colors.Can you pick two countries at randomand we'll reveal two of the colors again.- I'll take this one and this one.- Nice.And that's smart of you to check withthe same one of the ones you already had.Right? - Mm-hmm.- But as you'll see, now it's not green,it's blue.And this one on the other hand,is green.Okay.The colors I showed you last time,don't work with these new colors, right?This wouldn't have worked before.- Yeah, because of this one, right?- Exactly. Right.But it works for this coloringthat I'm showing you right now.So what we've done is we've made it impossible for youto put the pieces together.And if you do this, let's say, a thousand times.And if I correctly showed you different colors,each thousand times, you'd be really convinced.And that's it. That's the entire zero-knowledge proof.- Oh, okay. - Okay?- So is it like, there's no actual, like, explicit,like, step one, step two,step three. - [Amit] No.- It's just like, a probabilistic proof all.- Yeah, in actual implementations we wouldn't use envelopes.- Yeah. - You would use encryption.Right.But it's really, this is the protocol.- So what are the broader implicationsof like, zero-knowledge proofs.Are they supposed to be like, more practical for like,implementation, and or, are they supposed to like,structurally prove something?- It's not about making something more efficient.It's about doing things that we justdidn't know how to do before.I can actually prove to you without revealing to youany of my secrets that I use to behave honestly.Right?I could prove to you that Isigned some encrypted document correctly.Right?Without revealing to you what that secret document was.That ability to change the game.Like, really just change what we can dois what zero-knowledge brings to the table.- Where do you think we could build like, more trustusing like, zero-knowledge proofs?- Right. - And it's implementations?- One great example is like in elections.If you could prove that an election was correctly conducted.That every vote was counted,and it all added up to one person winningwith a particular total, in zero-knowledge,then you don't have to give upthe actual votes of any person.And yet everyone could see that,hey, yeah, it was done correctly.[light airy music]"
],
[
"LEVEL Grad Student",
"It's so great to have you here and to talk with you, Eli.Can you tell me a little bit about your research?- My research is in cryptography.Specifically, I'm working on some variousmulti-party computation protocols.The one I'm working on right now isa system for computing aggregate statistics.So that service providers like, Google Chrome or Tesla,can collect those statisticswithout learning anything about individual user's data.- That's awesome.- I, as a user, don't have to let Firefox knowthat my favorite website is mylittlepony.com.[Amit laughs]But they can know how many usersgo to mylittlepony.com every day.- That's near and dear to my heart.Multi-party computations.- Obviously, zero-knowledge proofs are aboutproving things to another personwithout revealing the details ofwhat it is that you're proving.But, you know, in my mind, zero-knowledgeactually goes even further beyond that.It's like this overarching conceptthat you can see a lot in multi-party computation,where you wanna accomplish some sort of taskwithout revealing anything more thanexactly what you need to accomplish that task.- Right, and it allows you to provethat you've been behaving honestly,without revealing any of the secrets involved that you useto actually behave honestly.So we of course know thatzero-knowledge proofs for NP-complete languagesplays such a huge role in cryptography.I'm curious.What was your first experience with Np-completeness like?- Yeah, so my first encounter with NP-completenesswas in my very first algorithms classthat I took as an undergraduate.So that was my first introduction.Is that an NP-complete language is thisamazing problem that not only tells you about itself,but solving this problem can actually tell you aboutan entire class of really interesting problems.- When you first start to think about proofsas an interactive game where we're talking to each other,did that make zero-knowledge possible?- Absolutely.- [Amit] Right. - Yeah.- And the idea that randomness - Yeah.- could be useful for proving something.Again, seems so counter-intuitiveif we think about this platonic ideal of a proof, right?There's no randomness, there's no non-determinismthat's present there. - Yeah.And it has to do with, you know,this whole idea of flipping a proof on its head.You know, in an old classical proof,randomness is specifically against the goalof what you're trying to do.- Right. - Because you'retrying to make everything obvious,and you're trying to reveal the flow of information.- Indeed. - But once youflip that on its head and you'reno longer trying to do that, suddenlyall of the bad properties of randomness become good.- Exactly. Right.Because random is unpredictable and that's what we want.Right.We want that unpredictability around us to be utilized,to actually hide the information that we wanna hide.How have you used your knowledgein the projects that you've worked on?What are the challenges that you find?- In my experience, usually the hardest part isfiguring out exactly where the best place is to use it.I've written some papers in the pastthat have used zero-knowledge in a more theoretical way.But when it comes to applications,some of the most exciting applications that I've seen so farhave been in the blockchain space.- So what are some of theefficiency bottlenecks that you find?- In terms of efficiency,one of the coolest things about zero-knowledge proofsis that there's so many kinds.- Right. - I like to call them flavors.I think that in general,when you're using zero-knowledge proofs in application,the main bottleneck tends to lie on the prover.- Can you take the prover's joband split it up into lots of parallel computations?- Ooh. That's such a fun question.- It's such a great question.And yeah, I think we still don't know the answer to that,as a field.- One of the coolest things I've seen over the past,you know, three or four years,when I've been working on this kind of stuff,is the transition from theoretical to applied.- Right. - And seeing all of theseamazing systems that people havethought of in the past 30 years,start to actually get efficient enough to be actually made.- No doubt.And especially with cloud computing,exploiting the power of the cloudto enable zero-knowledge proofs,and to make use of zero-knowledge proofs,would be amazing.- Yeah. Absolutely.- And also in the blockchain space, for example,if you wanna speed up the generation of proofs,if that could be done in a distributed way,then that would be great.One of the hopes that I have is thatthe power of multi-party computationis about bringing people togetherwho are mutually distrustful.- Yeah. - Right.So can we take that power that's there in the cryptography,and use it to somehow help with thetremendous level of mistrust - [Eli] Yeah.- that exists in society right now,in helping to bring groups of people together?- I think that's one of the reasons that I was so drawnto multi-party computation in the first place.In my mind, one of the most important problems in the worldis the fact that so many people don't trust each other.And to be able to actually use math to create technologythat can allow people to work togetherwithout having to trust each other,is a really cool and awesome mission, I think.[light airy music]"
],
[
"Expert",
"- Shang-Hua, it's so great to see you again.I think last time we met was in 2017 or something like that.- I think we Zoomed once during the pandemic,but it's good to see you in person.- Right. Absolutely. [chuckles]- And actually, in '86 I was taking a crypto classwith Professor Leonard Edelman, the A of RSA.And he assigned me the paper byGoldwasser, Micali, and Charlie Rackoffon zero-knowledge proof.So that's indeed my first ever presentation,ever, in this country.- Was about zero-knowledge. That's awesome.- [Shang-Hua] Was about zero-knowledge, yes.- It's such a almost hypnotic concept.- It's also an interesting wayhow mathematically to formulate those concepts, right.For example, we have data.Then eventually we started from data, like data mining,you can get the information,and then you have this word called knowledge.- [Amit] Right - Right.So knowledge has been long debated, even in philosophy.What is knowledge? - Indeed.- But here is a very fascinating waymathematicians or computer scientists- Right. - want to somehowcapture this knowledge.It didn't say zero-information proof.- [Amit] Right. - So what's your takeon why knowledge is, rather than information,or zero-data proof.Clearly, there's data there.So can't be zero-data.- Absolutely.I don't think we still have acompletely satisfactory answer to that question.What was so, such a beautiful insight,as I'm sure you know,is that the idea of zero-knowledge- Mm-hmm. - being somethingthat you can already predict.Right. - Mm-hmm.- If you can already predict the answer,then you must not be gaining any knowledgeby that interaction.This insight of being able to predict the future accurately,and that being an evidence of a lack of new knowledge,- [Shang-Hua] Mm-hmm. - was such abeautiful insight, such an amazing insight.- Well there's not zero-information here.Fundamentally I, clearly fromcomputing perspective, security perspective,is how much knowledge you're gaining, I guess.More than how much information you've gained.- [Amit] Indeed. - And how much data you have.Right. - [Amit] Right.- So that data then immediately imply, a knowledge.But people can't, sometimes.- Right. Sometimes.I mean, for example, in medical research,how amazing would it be, right,to be able to have a drug, and be able to provethat my drug worksin this model. - Mm-hmm.- And yet, not have to actuallyreveal the structure of the compound.- What, currently, you're sayingit would be the next directionsin this space. - What's the next big things?- Yes. - Yeah.This concept of zero-knowledge programswould allow you to carry outcompletely arbitrary computations- Mm-hmm. - in a zero-knowledge way,without any interaction, right.I can just take the program,convert it to a zero-knowledge program,or an obfuscated program,and then just send it to you. - Mm-hmm.- And then you can run itand gain the benefit of that computationwithout having to talk to me anymore.- That's right.There's a non-interactive nature.- [Amit] The non-interactive nature.- But there's verifiability in it.- Indeed.- Sometimes when, for example,when you have multi-protocol exchangethat, you know, just like a random number showed up,you have to enter the random number.- As authentication, yes. - Authentication, right.Now clearly I think in block chain,they also began to incorporate a more- Indeed. - general knowledge of proofin the ledger.- We're definitely at this moment now,where zero-knowledge is gonna be used more and more.There are so many conferences and meetingsthat occur in the zero-knowledge space,where you and I are not invited.[Shang-Hua laughs] Because it's forthe people who are developing.You know, the people who are programming,not us mathematicians.- [Shang-Hua] Yes, yes.- And I think that's a sign.That's a sign that our baby has grown up and,[Shang-Hua laughs] you know, it's timefor it to be developed.- I think, profoundly, the students often also ask me,what are the future direction,both in terms of crypto, zero-knowledge proof,in the real world and how mathematical you see in computing.- It's a great question. I wish I could see the future.I can't actually, but let me try.The part of that that I'm the most comfortable answeringis of course the mathematical side.- Mm-hmm. - I think that there is,you know, we've done so much in cryptographyover the last few decades,but we understand so little.- Mm-hmm - You know,even today we understand so little.And I think the most fundamental aspect of thatis understanding hardness.How do we get hard problems? - Mm-hmm.- How do we actually build mathematically hard problemsso that we can then use them to build efficientzero-knowledge programs. - [Shang-Hua] Mm-hmm.- And efficient zero-knowledge proofs, right?- I guess also, in quantum computing,you need even harder problems.- Indeed. Absolutely.You know, now that we have thespecter of quantum computing - [Shang-Hua] Yes, yes.- coming at us and we all know thatquantum computers can break a lot ofcryptographic systems. - Yes. A profound challenge.- It's a profound challenge.So can we find new sources of hardnessthat are quantum-resistant? - [Shang-Hua] That's right.- That even quantum computers can't break.And that's something I've been working onfor the last several years.But I'd be very excited tosee what happens in that space.- But I'm sure they will motivate beautiful mathematics.- Yes, that's right.You know, one of the great things about the real worldis that people in the real world have demands.- That's right. - And those demandsoften sound impossible.And that's where we come in.It's our job to make the impossible possible."
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Astrophysicist Explains Black Holes in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
gsMIT25iPXk
| 1,615
|
[
{
"end_time": 30,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "Intro"
},
{
"end_time": 258,
"start_time": 30,
"title": "What is a black hole"
},
{
"end_time": 529,
"start_time": 258,
"title": "How black holes are made"
},
{
"end_time": 1254,
"start_time": 529,
"title": "What are black holes"
},
{
"end_time": 1615,
"start_time": 1254,
"title": "Hawking radiation"
}
] |
[
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Janna Levin.",
"timestamp": [
0.18,
1.62
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Janna Levin.",
"timestamp": [
0.18,
1.62
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a Professor of Physics and Astronomy",
"timestamp": [
1.62,
3.9
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a Professor of Physics and Astronomy",
"timestamp": [
1.62,
3.9
]
},
{
"text": "at Barnard College of Columbia University.",
"timestamp": [
3.9,
6.57
]
},
{
"text": "at Barnard College of Columbia University.",
"timestamp": [
3.9,
6.57
]
},
{
"text": "And today I've been asked\nto explain black holes",
"timestamp": [
6.57,
10.04
]
},
{
"text": "And today I've been asked\nto explain black holes",
"timestamp": [
6.57,
10.04
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
10.04,
13.2
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
10.04,
13.2
]
},
{
"text": "A black hole might be\ndifferent than you imagine.",
"timestamp": [
13.2,
16.79
]
},
{
"text": "A black hole might be\ndifferent than you imagine.",
"timestamp": [
13.2,
16.79
]
},
{
"text": "To some extent it's a\nplace and not a thing.",
"timestamp": [
16.79,
20.64
]
},
{
"text": "To some extent it's a\nplace and not a thing.",
"timestamp": [
16.79,
20.64
]
},
{
"text": "Black holes play an important role",
"timestamp": [
20.64,
22.63
]
},
{
"text": "Black holes play an important role",
"timestamp": [
20.64,
22.63
]
},
{
"text": "in the history of the universe,",
"timestamp": [
22.63,
24.42
]
},
{
"text": "in the history of the universe,",
"timestamp": [
22.63,
24.42
]
},
{
"text": "in sculpting galaxies that we live in,",
"timestamp": [
24.42,
27.06
]
},
{
"text": "in sculpting galaxies that we live in,",
"timestamp": [
24.42,
27.06
]
},
{
"text": "and possibly in the ultimate\nfate of the universe.",
"timestamp": [
27.06,
30.034
]
},
{
"text": "and possibly in the ultimate\nfate of the universe.",
"timestamp": [
27.06,
30.034
]
},
{
"text": "[tense music]",
"timestamp": [
30.034,
32.534
]
},
{
"text": "[tense music]",
"timestamp": [
30.034,
32.534
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi.",
"timestamp": [
35.12,
35.953
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi.",
"timestamp": [
35.12,
35.953
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, welcome.",
"timestamp": [
35.953,
36.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, welcome.",
"timestamp": [
35.953,
36.81
]
},
{
"text": "Tell me your name.",
"timestamp": [
36.81,
37.74
]
},
{
"text": "Tell me your name.",
"timestamp": [
36.81,
37.74
]
},
{
"text": "- Jude.",
"timestamp": [
37.74,
38.66
]
},
{
"text": "- Jude.",
"timestamp": [
37.74,
38.66
]
},
{
"text": "- I wanted to ask you",
"timestamp": [
38.66,
40.6
]
},
{
"text": "- I wanted to ask you",
"timestamp": [
38.66,
40.6
]
},
{
"text": "if you have ever heard of a black hole?",
"timestamp": [
40.6,
42.42
]
},
{
"text": "if you have ever heard of a black hole?",
"timestamp": [
40.6,
42.42
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I think that\nthey're scary and cool.",
"timestamp": [
42.42,
45.27
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I think that\nthey're scary and cool.",
"timestamp": [
42.42,
45.27
]
},
{
"text": "'Cause you can get sucked\nin and get lost forever",
"timestamp": [
45.27,
48.43
]
},
{
"text": "'Cause you can get sucked\nin and get lost forever",
"timestamp": [
45.27,
48.43
]
},
{
"text": "and get plopped out in a random place.",
"timestamp": [
48.43,
51.32
]
},
{
"text": "and get plopped out in a random place.",
"timestamp": [
48.43,
51.32
]
},
{
"text": "It's like a big, giant, black thingy.",
"timestamp": [
51.32,
54.91
]
},
{
"text": "It's like a big, giant, black thingy.",
"timestamp": [
51.32,
54.91
]
},
{
"text": "- So black holes, you\ndescribe them as huge.",
"timestamp": [
54.91,
57.97
]
},
{
"text": "- So black holes, you\ndescribe them as huge.",
"timestamp": [
54.91,
57.97
]
},
{
"text": "The interesting thing about black holes",
"timestamp": [
57.97,
59.5
]
},
{
"text": "The interesting thing about black holes",
"timestamp": [
57.97,
59.5
]
},
{
"text": "is they're hugely heavy,",
"timestamp": [
59.5,
61.54
]
},
{
"text": "is they're hugely heavy,",
"timestamp": [
59.5,
61.54
]
},
{
"text": "but they're actually\nphysically really small.",
"timestamp": [
61.54,
63.63
]
},
{
"text": "but they're actually\nphysically really small.",
"timestamp": [
61.54,
63.63
]
},
{
"text": "What really matters is the density.",
"timestamp": [
63.63,
65.85
]
},
{
"text": "What really matters is the density.",
"timestamp": [
63.63,
65.85
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know what density is?",
"timestamp": [
65.85,
67.44
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know what density is?",
"timestamp": [
65.85,
67.44
]
},
{
"text": "- It's not weight, but it's\nhow much of it is in it.",
"timestamp": [
67.44,
70.98
]
},
{
"text": "- It's not weight, but it's\nhow much of it is in it.",
"timestamp": [
67.44,
70.98
]
},
{
"text": "- Here, let me show you something.",
"timestamp": [
70.98,
72.18
]
},
{
"text": "- Here, let me show you something.",
"timestamp": [
70.98,
72.18
]
},
{
"text": "I can ask how heavy it is.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
72.18,
74.49
]
},
{
"text": "I can ask how heavy it is.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
72.18,
74.49
]
},
{
"text": "- I can also ask how big it is,",
"timestamp": [
74.49,
76.86
]
},
{
"text": "- I can also ask how big it is,",
"timestamp": [
74.49,
76.86
]
},
{
"text": "which is a question about its volume.",
"timestamp": [
76.86,
78.47
]
},
{
"text": "which is a question about its volume.",
"timestamp": [
76.86,
78.47
]
},
{
"text": "If I make it smaller,",
"timestamp": [
78.47,
81.01
]
},
{
"text": "If I make it smaller,",
"timestamp": [
78.47,
81.01
]
},
{
"text": "then what's happening is\nit's becoming more dense.",
"timestamp": [
81.01,
85
]
},
{
"text": "then what's happening is\nit's becoming more dense.",
"timestamp": [
81.01,
85
]
},
{
"text": "So imagine I crushed this\nreally, really small.",
"timestamp": [
85,
89.52
]
},
{
"text": "So imagine I crushed this\nreally, really small.",
"timestamp": [
85,
89.52
]
},
{
"text": "It would weigh the same, it\nwould have the same mass,",
"timestamp": [
89.52,
92.56
]
},
{
"text": "It would weigh the same, it\nwould have the same mass,",
"timestamp": [
89.52,
92.56
]
},
{
"text": "but it would be much more dense.",
"timestamp": [
92.56,
94.67
]
},
{
"text": "but it would be much more dense.",
"timestamp": [
92.56,
94.67
]
},
{
"text": "- How does it go that small?",
"timestamp": [
94.67,
96.8
]
},
{
"text": "- How does it go that small?",
"timestamp": [
94.67,
96.8
]
},
{
"text": "- If a star is heavy enough\nto explode into supernova",
"timestamp": [
96.8,
100.64
]
},
{
"text": "- If a star is heavy enough\nto explode into supernova",
"timestamp": [
96.8,
100.64
]
},
{
"text": "what's left begins to\ncollapse under its own weight.",
"timestamp": [
100.64,
105.19
]
},
{
"text": "what's left begins to\ncollapse under its own weight.",
"timestamp": [
100.64,
105.19
]
},
{
"text": "And if that's heavy enough,",
"timestamp": [
105.19,
107.47
]
},
{
"text": "And if that's heavy enough,",
"timestamp": [
105.19,
107.47
]
},
{
"text": "the core will not be\nable to stop collapsing,",
"timestamp": [
107.47,
110.05
]
},
{
"text": "the core will not be\nable to stop collapsing,",
"timestamp": [
107.47,
110.05
]
},
{
"text": "'cause it no longer has\nthe thermonuclear fuel,",
"timestamp": [
110.05,
113.24
]
},
{
"text": "'cause it no longer has\nthe thermonuclear fuel,",
"timestamp": [
110.05,
113.24
]
},
{
"text": "it's run outta fuel.",
"timestamp": [
113.24,
114.68
]
},
{
"text": "it's run outta fuel.",
"timestamp": [
113.24,
114.68
]
},
{
"text": "And if it's run outta fuel,",
"timestamp": [
114.68,
115.65
]
},
{
"text": "And if it's run outta fuel,",
"timestamp": [
114.68,
115.65
]
},
{
"text": "it's no longer shining\nand pushing outward.",
"timestamp": [
115.65,
117.87
]
},
{
"text": "it's no longer shining\nand pushing outward.",
"timestamp": [
115.65,
117.87
]
},
{
"text": "And without that it\nitself begins to go dark",
"timestamp": [
117.87,
120.55
]
},
{
"text": "And without that it\nitself begins to go dark",
"timestamp": [
117.87,
120.55
]
},
{
"text": "and there's nothing fighting\nthe collapse anymore.",
"timestamp": [
120.55,
123.29
]
},
{
"text": "and there's nothing fighting\nthe collapse anymore.",
"timestamp": [
120.55,
123.29
]
},
{
"text": "And that's when you form a black hole.",
"timestamp": [
123.29,
125.2
]
},
{
"text": "And that's when you form a black hole.",
"timestamp": [
123.29,
125.2
]
},
{
"text": "- So if like the sun\nall collapsed on itself,",
"timestamp": [
125.2,
130.11
]
},
{
"text": "- So if like the sun\nall collapsed on itself,",
"timestamp": [
125.2,
130.11
]
},
{
"text": "it would form a black hole?",
"timestamp": [
130.11,
131.36
]
},
{
"text": "it would form a black hole?",
"timestamp": [
130.11,
131.36
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, that's a really good question.",
"timestamp": [
131.36,
132.67
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, that's a really good question.",
"timestamp": [
131.36,
132.67
]
},
{
"text": "So interestingly, the sun\nitself isn't heavy enough.",
"timestamp": [
132.67,
136.09
]
},
{
"text": "So interestingly, the sun\nitself isn't heavy enough.",
"timestamp": [
132.67,
136.09
]
},
{
"text": "So it has to be heavy enough",
"timestamp": [
136.09,
137.91
]
},
{
"text": "So it has to be heavy enough",
"timestamp": [
136.09,
137.91
]
},
{
"text": "that when it begins to collapse,",
"timestamp": [
137.91,
140.53
]
},
{
"text": "that when it begins to collapse,",
"timestamp": [
137.91,
140.53
]
},
{
"text": "it just overcomes all\nattempts to fight it.",
"timestamp": [
140.53,
144.3
]
},
{
"text": "it just overcomes all\nattempts to fight it.",
"timestamp": [
140.53,
144.3
]
},
{
"text": "If you made something really dense,",
"timestamp": [
144.3,
146.68
]
},
{
"text": "If you made something really dense,",
"timestamp": [
144.3,
146.68
]
},
{
"text": "you would have to travel\nfaster than the speed of light",
"timestamp": [
146.68,
149.94
]
},
{
"text": "you would have to travel\nfaster than the speed of light",
"timestamp": [
146.68,
149.94
]
},
{
"text": "to actually escape.",
"timestamp": [
149.94,
151.1
]
},
{
"text": "to actually escape.",
"timestamp": [
149.94,
151.1
]
},
{
"text": "That's 300,000 kilometers per second.",
"timestamp": [
151.1,
154.76
]
},
{
"text": "That's 300,000 kilometers per second.",
"timestamp": [
151.1,
154.76
]
},
{
"text": "- So it goes so fast that\nthere's it's all dark?",
"timestamp": [
154.76,
158.46
]
},
{
"text": "- So it goes so fast that\nthere's it's all dark?",
"timestamp": [
154.76,
158.46
]
},
{
"text": "- So it goes so fast that\nit goes completely dark.",
"timestamp": [
158.46,
161.1
]
},
{
"text": "- So it goes so fast that\nit goes completely dark.",
"timestamp": [
158.46,
161.1
]
},
{
"text": "Any light that veers\ntoo close will fall in,",
"timestamp": [
161.1,
164.03
]
},
{
"text": "Any light that veers\ntoo close will fall in,",
"timestamp": [
161.1,
164.03
]
},
{
"text": "will not be able to\nmake it back out again.",
"timestamp": [
164.03,
166.02
]
},
{
"text": "will not be able to\nmake it back out again.",
"timestamp": [
164.03,
166.02
]
},
{
"text": "If a light is shining from\nthe sun near a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
166.02,
170.007
]
},
{
"text": "If a light is shining from\nthe sun near a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
166.02,
170.007
]
},
{
"text": "the black hole's not touching it.",
"timestamp": [
170.007,
172.23
]
},
{
"text": "the black hole's not touching it.",
"timestamp": [
170.007,
172.23
]
},
{
"text": "Why does the light get pulled in?",
"timestamp": [
172.23,
174.17
]
},
{
"text": "Why does the light get pulled in?",
"timestamp": [
172.23,
174.17
]
},
{
"text": "Why does that happen?",
"timestamp": [
174.17,
175.43
]
},
{
"text": "Why does that happen?",
"timestamp": [
174.17,
175.43
]
},
{
"text": "- Because the black hole\nis taking other stuff?",
"timestamp": [
175.43,
179.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Because the black hole\nis taking other stuff?",
"timestamp": [
175.43,
179.38
]
},
{
"text": "- It is taking other stuff,",
"timestamp": [
179.38,
180.74
]
},
{
"text": "- It is taking other stuff,",
"timestamp": [
179.38,
180.74
]
},
{
"text": "but the funny question was like,",
"timestamp": [
180.74,
181.99
]
},
{
"text": "but the funny question was like,",
"timestamp": [
180.74,
181.99
]
},
{
"text": "if I wanted to move your chair,",
"timestamp": [
181.99,
183.57
]
},
{
"text": "if I wanted to move your chair,",
"timestamp": [
181.99,
183.57
]
},
{
"text": "you'd think it was really strange",
"timestamp": [
183.57,
184.97
]
},
{
"text": "you'd think it was really strange",
"timestamp": [
183.57,
184.97
]
},
{
"text": "if I didn't have to come near you",
"timestamp": [
184.97,
186.42
]
},
{
"text": "if I didn't have to come near you",
"timestamp": [
184.97,
186.42
]
},
{
"text": "and actually grab the chair and move it.",
"timestamp": [
186.42,
188.14
]
},
{
"text": "and actually grab the chair and move it.",
"timestamp": [
186.42,
188.14
]
},
{
"text": "One of the things Einstein thought about",
"timestamp": [
188.14,
190.74
]
},
{
"text": "One of the things Einstein thought about",
"timestamp": [
188.14,
190.74
]
},
{
"text": "is he imagined that",
"timestamp": [
190.74,
194.3
]
},
{
"text": "is he imagined that",
"timestamp": [
190.74,
194.3
]
},
{
"text": "what the black hole is doing",
"timestamp": [
194.3,
196.58
]
},
{
"text": "what the black hole is doing",
"timestamp": [
194.3,
196.58
]
},
{
"text": "is it's changing the\nshape of space around it.",
"timestamp": [
196.58,
201.23
]
},
{
"text": "is it's changing the\nshape of space around it.",
"timestamp": [
196.58,
201.23
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think of that idea?",
"timestamp": [
201.23,
202.84
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think of that idea?",
"timestamp": [
201.23,
202.84
]
},
{
"text": "- It's crazy.",
"timestamp": [
202.84,
203.85
]
},
{
"text": "- It's crazy.",
"timestamp": [
202.84,
203.85
]
},
{
"text": "- Isn't it crazy?",
"timestamp": [
203.85,
205.756
]
},
{
"text": "- Isn't it crazy?",
"timestamp": [
203.85,
205.756
]
},
{
"text": "And then Einstein goes a step further",
"timestamp": [
205.756,
208.71
]
},
{
"text": "And then Einstein goes a step further",
"timestamp": [
205.756,
208.71
]
},
{
"text": "and thinks, well, what\nblack holes must be doing",
"timestamp": [
208.71,
211.1
]
},
{
"text": "and thinks, well, what\nblack holes must be doing",
"timestamp": [
208.71,
211.1
]
},
{
"text": "is curving the space so strongly",
"timestamp": [
211.1,
214
]
},
{
"text": "is curving the space so strongly",
"timestamp": [
211.1,
214
]
},
{
"text": "that even light gets caught.",
"timestamp": [
214,
216
]
},
{
"text": "that even light gets caught.",
"timestamp": [
214,
216
]
},
{
"text": "Sometimes you can get light\ncaught into a whole orbit,",
"timestamp": [
216,
219.18
]
},
{
"text": "Sometimes you can get light\ncaught into a whole orbit,",
"timestamp": [
216,
219.18
]
},
{
"text": "literally the light going\nround and round in an orbit.",
"timestamp": [
219.18,
222.25
]
},
{
"text": "literally the light going\nround and round in an orbit.",
"timestamp": [
219.18,
222.25
]
},
{
"text": "- So black hole, it doesn't attract light,",
"timestamp": [
222.25,
224.93
]
},
{
"text": "- So black hole, it doesn't attract light,",
"timestamp": [
222.25,
224.93
]
},
{
"text": "it moves the space so that the\ncurve is pointed towards it?",
"timestamp": [
224.93,
228.43
]
},
{
"text": "it moves the space so that the\ncurve is pointed towards it?",
"timestamp": [
224.93,
228.43
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
228.43,
229.263
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
228.43,
229.263
]
},
{
"text": "We've been talking for a\nlittle while about black holes.",
"timestamp": [
229.263,
232.11
]
},
{
"text": "We've been talking for a\nlittle while about black holes.",
"timestamp": [
229.263,
232.11
]
},
{
"text": "What are you gonna walk away with",
"timestamp": [
232.11,
233.87
]
},
{
"text": "What are you gonna walk away with",
"timestamp": [
232.11,
233.87
]
},
{
"text": "in your impression of\nwhat a black hole is?",
"timestamp": [
233.87,
236.57
]
},
{
"text": "in your impression of\nwhat a black hole is?",
"timestamp": [
233.87,
236.57
]
},
{
"text": "- It's kind of curves in space",
"timestamp": [
236.57,
238.97
]
},
{
"text": "- It's kind of curves in space",
"timestamp": [
236.57,
238.97
]
},
{
"text": "that are all coming to one point.",
"timestamp": [
238.97,
242.67
]
},
{
"text": "that are all coming to one point.",
"timestamp": [
238.97,
242.67
]
},
{
"text": "Everything that goes on those curves",
"timestamp": [
242.67,
245
]
},
{
"text": "Everything that goes on those curves",
"timestamp": [
242.67,
245
]
},
{
"text": "changes directions to come in",
"timestamp": [
245,
247.81
]
},
{
"text": "changes directions to come in",
"timestamp": [
245,
247.81
]
},
{
"text": "and even light can't\nescape it, nothing can.",
"timestamp": [
247.81,
250.93
]
},
{
"text": "and even light can't\nescape it, nothing can.",
"timestamp": [
247.81,
250.93
]
},
{
"text": "- You said that very beautifully.",
"timestamp": [
250.93,
251.97
]
},
{
"text": "- You said that very beautifully.",
"timestamp": [
250.93,
251.97
]
},
{
"text": "Does that feel like a\ndifferent idea of a black hole",
"timestamp": [
251.97,
256.32
]
},
{
"text": "Does that feel like a\ndifferent idea of a black hole",
"timestamp": [
251.97,
256.32
]
},
{
"text": "than the one you had before we spoke?",
"timestamp": [
256.32,
258.01
]
},
{
"text": "than the one you had before we spoke?",
"timestamp": [
256.32,
258.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, a lot.",
"timestamp": [
258.01,
258.988
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, a lot.",
"timestamp": [
258.01,
258.988
]
},
{
"text": "[midtempo music]",
"timestamp": [
258.988,
262.5
]
},
{
"text": "[midtempo music]",
"timestamp": [
258.988,
262.5
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you heard about black holes?",
"timestamp": [
262.5,
264.05
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you heard about black holes?",
"timestamp": [
262.5,
264.05
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, I know it has a lot\nof mass, but it's very small.",
"timestamp": [
264.05,
268.6
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, I know it has a lot\nof mass, but it's very small.",
"timestamp": [
264.05,
268.6
]
},
{
"text": "I know that there are several\ntheories about the universe",
"timestamp": [
268.6,
271.77
]
},
{
"text": "I know that there are several\ntheories about the universe",
"timestamp": [
268.6,
271.77
]
},
{
"text": "due to black holes,",
"timestamp": [
271.77,
273.3
]
},
{
"text": "due to black holes,",
"timestamp": [
271.77,
273.3
]
},
{
"text": "like, around the universe\nand how it's made.",
"timestamp": [
273.3,
275.77
]
},
{
"text": "like, around the universe\nand how it's made.",
"timestamp": [
273.3,
275.77
]
},
{
"text": "- So a lot of times\nstars are born together",
"timestamp": [
275.77,
278.67
]
},
{
"text": "- So a lot of times\nstars are born together",
"timestamp": [
275.77,
278.67
]
},
{
"text": "in two star systems",
"timestamp": [
278.67,
280.15
]
},
{
"text": "in two star systems",
"timestamp": [
278.67,
280.15
]
},
{
"text": "and when they die, if\nthey're heavy enough,",
"timestamp": [
280.15,
283.5
]
},
{
"text": "and when they die, if\nthey're heavy enough,",
"timestamp": [
280.15,
283.5
]
},
{
"text": "they will collapse under their own weight",
"timestamp": [
283.5,
285.02
]
},
{
"text": "they will collapse under their own weight",
"timestamp": [
283.5,
285.02
]
},
{
"text": "and form a black hole.",
"timestamp": [
285.02,
286.18
]
},
{
"text": "and form a black hole.",
"timestamp": [
285.02,
286.18
]
},
{
"text": "So here you have a black\nhole and a big fluffy star.",
"timestamp": [
286.18,
289.2
]
},
{
"text": "So here you have a black\nhole and a big fluffy star.",
"timestamp": [
286.18,
289.2
]
},
{
"text": "And what will happen is",
"timestamp": [
289.2,
290.87
]
},
{
"text": "And what will happen is",
"timestamp": [
289.2,
290.87
]
},
{
"text": "it'll start to tear apart\nits neighboring star.",
"timestamp": [
290.87,
293.93
]
},
{
"text": "it'll start to tear apart\nits neighboring star.",
"timestamp": [
290.87,
293.93
]
},
{
"text": "Literally parts of the star",
"timestamp": [
293.93,
295.57
]
},
{
"text": "Literally parts of the star",
"timestamp": [
293.93,
295.57
]
},
{
"text": "will begin to spill onto the black hole",
"timestamp": [
295.57,
298.17
]
},
{
"text": "will begin to spill onto the black hole",
"timestamp": [
295.57,
298.17
]
},
{
"text": "and splatter on the black hole.",
"timestamp": [
298.17,
300.71
]
},
{
"text": "and splatter on the black hole.",
"timestamp": [
298.17,
300.71
]
},
{
"text": "But let's say both those\nstars formed black holes.",
"timestamp": [
300.71,
303.56
]
},
{
"text": "But let's say both those\nstars formed black holes.",
"timestamp": [
300.71,
303.56
]
},
{
"text": "And what these black holes do",
"timestamp": [
303.56,
305.35
]
},
{
"text": "And what these black holes do",
"timestamp": [
303.56,
305.35
]
},
{
"text": "is they are like mallets on a drum.",
"timestamp": [
305.35,
308.63
]
},
{
"text": "is they are like mallets on a drum.",
"timestamp": [
305.35,
308.63
]
},
{
"text": "They create literally waves",
"timestamp": [
308.63,
310.78
]
},
{
"text": "They create literally waves",
"timestamp": [
308.63,
310.78
]
},
{
"text": "in the shape of spacetime\nas they're moving.",
"timestamp": [
310.78,
313.49
]
},
{
"text": "in the shape of spacetime\nas they're moving.",
"timestamp": [
310.78,
313.49
]
},
{
"text": "So imagine mallets on a drum,",
"timestamp": [
313.49,
315.02
]
},
{
"text": "So imagine mallets on a drum,",
"timestamp": [
313.49,
315.02
]
},
{
"text": "how the drum ripples.",
"timestamp": [
315.02,
316.53
]
},
{
"text": "how the drum ripples.",
"timestamp": [
315.02,
316.53
]
},
{
"text": "Depending on how the mallets are moving",
"timestamp": [
316.53,
318.01
]
},
{
"text": "Depending on how the mallets are moving",
"timestamp": [
316.53,
318.01
]
},
{
"text": "you hear different sounds.",
"timestamp": [
318.01,
319.61
]
},
{
"text": "you hear different sounds.",
"timestamp": [
318.01,
319.61
]
},
{
"text": "So effectively these black holes,",
"timestamp": [
319.61,
321.76
]
},
{
"text": "So effectively these black holes,",
"timestamp": [
319.61,
321.76
]
},
{
"text": "as they get very close together",
"timestamp": [
321.76,
323.34
]
},
{
"text": "as they get very close together",
"timestamp": [
321.76,
323.34
]
},
{
"text": "in the final stages of\ntheir life together,",
"timestamp": [
323.34,
325.42
]
},
{
"text": "in the final stages of\ntheir life together,",
"timestamp": [
323.34,
325.42
]
},
{
"text": "they're orbiting each other\nat hundreds of times a second.",
"timestamp": [
325.42,
328.77
]
},
{
"text": "they're orbiting each other\nat hundreds of times a second.",
"timestamp": [
325.42,
328.77
]
},
{
"text": "It's this really crazy event,",
"timestamp": [
328.77,
330.4
]
},
{
"text": "It's this really crazy event,",
"timestamp": [
328.77,
330.4
]
},
{
"text": "but it's happening in complete darkness.",
"timestamp": [
330.4,
333.02
]
},
{
"text": "but it's happening in complete darkness.",
"timestamp": [
330.4,
333.02
]
},
{
"text": "Eventually they bobble\ntogether and they merge",
"timestamp": [
333.02,
335.41
]
},
{
"text": "Eventually they bobble\ntogether and they merge",
"timestamp": [
333.02,
335.41
]
},
{
"text": "and then they wring out,",
"timestamp": [
335.41,
336.9
]
},
{
"text": "and then they wring out,",
"timestamp": [
335.41,
336.9
]
},
{
"text": "the spacetime's going crazy around them,",
"timestamp": [
336.9,
338.96
]
},
{
"text": "the spacetime's going crazy around them,",
"timestamp": [
336.9,
338.96
]
},
{
"text": "it's this storm in spacetime,",
"timestamp": [
338.96,
340.74
]
},
{
"text": "it's this storm in spacetime,",
"timestamp": [
338.96,
340.74
]
},
{
"text": "and they settle down\nto a quiet black hole.",
"timestamp": [
340.74,
343.4
]
},
{
"text": "and they settle down\nto a quiet black hole.",
"timestamp": [
340.74,
343.4
]
},
{
"text": "Then those waves that they created",
"timestamp": [
343.4,
345.66
]
},
{
"text": "Then those waves that they created",
"timestamp": [
343.4,
345.66
]
},
{
"text": "travel through the universe,\nbasically undisturbed.",
"timestamp": [
345.66,
348.26
]
},
{
"text": "travel through the universe,\nbasically undisturbed.",
"timestamp": [
345.66,
348.26
]
},
{
"text": "For a long time people thought,",
"timestamp": [
348.26,
349.55
]
},
{
"text": "For a long time people thought,",
"timestamp": [
348.26,
349.55
]
},
{
"text": "well, even if black holes are out there,",
"timestamp": [
349.55,
350.87
]
},
{
"text": "well, even if black holes are out there,",
"timestamp": [
349.55,
350.87
]
},
{
"text": "they're impossible to observe.",
"timestamp": [
350.87,
353.06
]
},
{
"text": "they're impossible to observe.",
"timestamp": [
350.87,
353.06
]
},
{
"text": "And then they got very clever.",
"timestamp": [
353.06,
355.2
]
},
{
"text": "And then they got very clever.",
"timestamp": [
353.06,
355.2
]
},
{
"text": "You might wonder how we could\npossibly hear black holes,",
"timestamp": [
355.2,
358.4
]
},
{
"text": "You might wonder how we could\npossibly hear black holes,",
"timestamp": [
355.2,
358.4
]
},
{
"text": "that sounds crazy.",
"timestamp": [
358.4,
359.48
]
},
{
"text": "that sounds crazy.",
"timestamp": [
358.4,
359.48
]
},
{
"text": "So I'm gonna show you, but\nI'm gonna need your help.",
"timestamp": [
359.48,
361.97
]
},
{
"text": "So I'm gonna show you, but\nI'm gonna need your help.",
"timestamp": [
359.48,
361.97
]
},
{
"text": "This demo involves an electric guitar.",
"timestamp": [
361.97,
364.58
]
},
{
"text": "This demo involves an electric guitar.",
"timestamp": [
361.97,
364.58
]
},
{
"text": "Do you play at all?\n- A little bit?",
"timestamp": [
364.58,
365.74
]
},
{
"text": "Do you play at all?\n- A little bit?",
"timestamp": [
364.58,
365.74
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, you wanna do the demo for me?",
"timestamp": [
365.74,
367.52
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, you wanna do the demo for me?",
"timestamp": [
365.74,
367.52
]
},
{
"text": "So the LIGO instrument\nelectronically records",
"timestamp": [
367.52,
372.17
]
},
{
"text": "So the LIGO instrument\nelectronically records",
"timestamp": [
367.52,
372.17
]
},
{
"text": "the ringing of the shape of space",
"timestamp": [
372.17,
373.54
]
},
{
"text": "the ringing of the shape of space",
"timestamp": [
372.17,
373.54
]
},
{
"text": "with its very complicated instrument.",
"timestamp": [
373.54,
375.32
]
},
{
"text": "with its very complicated instrument.",
"timestamp": [
373.54,
375.32
]
},
{
"text": "It stands for",
"timestamp": [
375.32,
376.153
]
},
{
"text": "It stands for",
"timestamp": [
375.32,
376.153
]
},
{
"text": "Laser Interferometric\nGravitational-Waves Observatory",
"timestamp": [
376.153,
379.15
]
},
{
"text": "Laser Interferometric\nGravitational-Waves Observatory",
"timestamp": [
376.153,
379.15
]
},
{
"text": "and the design was incredibly difficult",
"timestamp": [
379.15,
382.2
]
},
{
"text": "and the design was incredibly difficult",
"timestamp": [
379.15,
382.2
]
},
{
"text": "and they didn't know\nif they would succeed.",
"timestamp": [
382.2,
384.21
]
},
{
"text": "and they didn't know\nif they would succeed.",
"timestamp": [
382.2,
384.21
]
},
{
"text": "I think of the instrument",
"timestamp": [
384.21,
385.043
]
},
{
"text": "I think of the instrument",
"timestamp": [
384.21,
385.043
]
},
{
"text": "as like the body of the electric guitar.",
"timestamp": [
385.043,
387.07
]
},
{
"text": "as like the body of the electric guitar.",
"timestamp": [
385.043,
387.07
]
},
{
"text": "And then they take the readout",
"timestamp": [
387.07,
389.2
]
},
{
"text": "And then they take the readout",
"timestamp": [
387.07,
389.2
]
},
{
"text": "of the motions of the waves\nthat they're recording,",
"timestamp": [
389.2,
392.58
]
},
{
"text": "of the motions of the waves\nthat they're recording,",
"timestamp": [
389.2,
392.58
]
},
{
"text": "just like that guitar",
"timestamp": [
392.58,
394.32
]
},
{
"text": "just like that guitar",
"timestamp": [
392.58,
394.32
]
},
{
"text": "is recording the motions\nof the waves on the string.",
"timestamp": [
394.32,
396.74
]
},
{
"text": "is recording the motions\nof the waves on the string.",
"timestamp": [
394.32,
396.74
]
},
{
"text": "Now just play it like a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
396.74,
399.11
]
},
{
"text": "Now just play it like a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
396.74,
399.11
]
},
{
"text": "And you can't hear anything, right?",
"timestamp": [
399.11,
401.79
]
},
{
"text": "And you can't hear anything, right?",
"timestamp": [
399.11,
401.79
]
},
{
"text": "You're not meant to\nhear an electric guitar",
"timestamp": [
401.79,
403.87
]
},
{
"text": "You're not meant to\nhear an electric guitar",
"timestamp": [
401.79,
403.87
]
},
{
"text": "when it's not plugged in.",
"timestamp": [
403.87,
404.83
]
},
{
"text": "when it's not plugged in.",
"timestamp": [
403.87,
404.83
]
},
{
"text": "What's happening is the\nguitar strings are ringing,",
"timestamp": [
404.83,
407.71
]
},
{
"text": "What's happening is the\nguitar strings are ringing,",
"timestamp": [
404.83,
407.71
]
},
{
"text": "but so quietly that we can't\nactually hear the sound.",
"timestamp": [
407.71,
411.83
]
},
{
"text": "but so quietly that we can't\nactually hear the sound.",
"timestamp": [
407.71,
411.83
]
},
{
"text": "And this is like the gravitational waves,",
"timestamp": [
411.83,
413.66
]
},
{
"text": "And this is like the gravitational waves,",
"timestamp": [
411.83,
413.66
]
},
{
"text": "which are ringing the drum of spacetime,",
"timestamp": [
413.66,
415.43
]
},
{
"text": "which are ringing the drum of spacetime,",
"timestamp": [
413.66,
415.43
]
},
{
"text": "but so quietly that\nthey're not move the air",
"timestamp": [
415.43,
418.23
]
},
{
"text": "but so quietly that\nthey're not move the air",
"timestamp": [
415.43,
418.23
]
},
{
"text": "and we're not hearing them.",
"timestamp": [
418.23,
419.37
]
},
{
"text": "and we're not hearing them.",
"timestamp": [
418.23,
419.37
]
},
{
"text": "So now play and I'm gonna turn\nthe volume up a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
419.37,
422.646
]
},
{
"text": "So now play and I'm gonna turn\nthe volume up a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
419.37,
422.646
]
},
{
"text": "[electric guitar music]",
"timestamp": [
422.646,
425.979
]
},
{
"text": "[electric guitar music]",
"timestamp": [
422.646,
425.979
]
},
{
"text": "While I can't actually hear",
"timestamp": [
430.71,
433.27
]
},
{
"text": "While I can't actually hear",
"timestamp": [
430.71,
433.27
]
},
{
"text": "the ringing of the strings themselves,",
"timestamp": [
433.27,
436.37
]
},
{
"text": "the ringing of the strings themselves,",
"timestamp": [
433.27,
436.37
]
},
{
"text": "I can hear the data of\nthe shape of the string",
"timestamp": [
436.37,
440.48
]
},
{
"text": "I can hear the data of\nthe shape of the string",
"timestamp": [
436.37,
440.48
]
},
{
"text": "recorded and played\nthrough this amplifier.",
"timestamp": [
440.48,
443.01
]
},
{
"text": "recorded and played\nthrough this amplifier.",
"timestamp": [
440.48,
443.01
]
},
{
"text": "And that's kind of the idea\nbehind the LIGO instrument.",
"timestamp": [
443.01,
446.45
]
},
{
"text": "And that's kind of the idea\nbehind the LIGO instrument.",
"timestamp": [
443.01,
446.45
]
},
{
"text": "- How do you know that it's",
"timestamp": [
446.45,
447.283
]
},
{
"text": "- How do you know that it's",
"timestamp": [
446.45,
447.283
]
},
{
"text": "like the black hole\nthat's making this sound",
"timestamp": [
447.283,
449.014
]
},
{
"text": "like the black hole\nthat's making this sound",
"timestamp": [
447.283,
449.014
]
},
{
"text": "and nothing else?",
"timestamp": [
449.014,
449.847
]
},
{
"text": "and nothing else?",
"timestamp": [
449.014,
449.847
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a great question.",
"timestamp": [
449.847,
450.68
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a great question.",
"timestamp": [
449.847,
450.68
]
},
{
"text": "If I didn't see you playing the guitar,",
"timestamp": [
450.68,
454.67
]
},
{
"text": "If I didn't see you playing the guitar,",
"timestamp": [
450.68,
454.67
]
},
{
"text": "I would recognize the sound of a guitar.",
"timestamp": [
454.67,
458.1
]
},
{
"text": "I would recognize the sound of a guitar.",
"timestamp": [
454.67,
458.1
]
},
{
"text": "And even if I had never\nheard of a guitar before",
"timestamp": [
458.1,
460.89
]
},
{
"text": "And even if I had never\nheard of a guitar before",
"timestamp": [
458.1,
460.89
]
},
{
"text": "I could figure out the frequencies",
"timestamp": [
460.89,
462.93
]
},
{
"text": "I could figure out the frequencies",
"timestamp": [
460.89,
462.93
]
},
{
"text": "that the string was playing,",
"timestamp": [
462.93,
464.31
]
},
{
"text": "that the string was playing,",
"timestamp": [
462.93,
464.31
]
},
{
"text": "I could tell how strongly\nit had been plucked,",
"timestamp": [
464.31,
466.73
]
},
{
"text": "I could tell how strongly\nit had been plucked,",
"timestamp": [
464.31,
466.73
]
},
{
"text": "and I could tell the length of it",
"timestamp": [
466.73,
468
]
},
{
"text": "and I could tell the length of it",
"timestamp": [
466.73,
468
]
},
{
"text": "and where it was pinned down",
"timestamp": [
468,
470.27
]
},
{
"text": "and where it was pinned down",
"timestamp": [
468,
470.27
]
},
{
"text": "from the harmonics of the string.",
"timestamp": [
470.27,
471.58
]
},
{
"text": "from the harmonics of the string.",
"timestamp": [
470.27,
471.58
]
},
{
"text": "And I can tell the different\nlengths of the strings",
"timestamp": [
471.58,
475
]
},
{
"text": "And I can tell the different\nlengths of the strings",
"timestamp": [
471.58,
475
]
},
{
"text": "from the notes that they play.",
"timestamp": [
475,
476.57
]
},
{
"text": "from the notes that they play.",
"timestamp": [
475,
476.57
]
},
{
"text": "So I can actually",
"timestamp": [
476.57,
477.41
]
},
{
"text": "So I can actually",
"timestamp": [
476.57,
477.41
]
},
{
"text": "reconstruct the instrument\nthat's playing it.",
"timestamp": [
477.41,
479.75
]
},
{
"text": "reconstruct the instrument\nthat's playing it.",
"timestamp": [
477.41,
479.75
]
},
{
"text": "And it's very similar to LIGO,",
"timestamp": [
479.75,
481.52
]
},
{
"text": "And it's very similar to LIGO,",
"timestamp": [
479.75,
481.52
]
},
{
"text": "we can listen to the notes,\nthe amplitude, the harmonics,",
"timestamp": [
481.52,
485.69
]
},
{
"text": "we can listen to the notes,\nthe amplitude, the harmonics,",
"timestamp": [
481.52,
485.69
]
},
{
"text": "and we can deduce the size",
"timestamp": [
485.69,
487.09
]
},
{
"text": "and we can deduce the size",
"timestamp": [
485.69,
487.09
]
},
{
"text": "and shape of the objects doing that.",
"timestamp": [
487.09,
489.72
]
},
{
"text": "and shape of the objects doing that.",
"timestamp": [
487.09,
489.72
]
},
{
"text": "And they're very massive\nand they're very small",
"timestamp": [
489.72,
491.75
]
},
{
"text": "And they're very massive\nand they're very small",
"timestamp": [
489.72,
491.75
]
},
{
"text": "and they have all the\nmarkings of a black hole.",
"timestamp": [
491.75,
493.69
]
},
{
"text": "and they have all the\nmarkings of a black hole.",
"timestamp": [
491.75,
493.69
]
},
{
"text": "- Is there anything that like,",
"timestamp": [
493.69,
495.2
]
},
{
"text": "- Is there anything that like,",
"timestamp": [
493.69,
495.2
]
},
{
"text": "gets affected on Earth\nbecause of those waves?",
"timestamp": [
495.2,
496.977
]
},
{
"text": "gets affected on Earth\nbecause of those waves?",
"timestamp": [
495.2,
496.977
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a really good question.",
"timestamp": [
496.977,
498.96
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a really good question.",
"timestamp": [
496.977,
498.96
]
},
{
"text": "Only this instrument,",
"timestamp": [
498.96,
500.57
]
},
{
"text": "Only this instrument,",
"timestamp": [
498.96,
500.57
]
},
{
"text": "and that's why it was so hard to build.",
"timestamp": [
500.57,
502.17
]
},
{
"text": "and that's why it was so hard to build.",
"timestamp": [
500.57,
502.17
]
},
{
"text": "And by the time it gets here, it's so weak",
"timestamp": [
502.17,
505.63
]
},
{
"text": "And by the time it gets here, it's so weak",
"timestamp": [
502.17,
505.63
]
},
{
"text": "that it's only squeezing\nand stretching space",
"timestamp": [
505.63,
509.51
]
},
{
"text": "that it's only squeezing\nand stretching space",
"timestamp": [
505.63,
509.51
]
},
{
"text": "at like the fraction of a nucleus\nover very large distances.",
"timestamp": [
509.51,
514.51
]
},
{
"text": "at like the fraction of a nucleus\nover very large distances.",
"timestamp": [
509.51,
514.51
]
},
{
"text": "Has your understanding\nof black holes changed",
"timestamp": [
515.13,
517.29
]
},
{
"text": "Has your understanding\nof black holes changed",
"timestamp": [
515.13,
517.29
]
},
{
"text": "over the course of our conversation?",
"timestamp": [
517.29,
519.02
]
},
{
"text": "over the course of our conversation?",
"timestamp": [
517.29,
519.02
]
},
{
"text": "- I knew there were waves\nfor like everything,",
"timestamp": [
519.02,
521.57
]
},
{
"text": "- I knew there were waves\nfor like everything,",
"timestamp": [
519.02,
521.57
]
},
{
"text": "but I never thought specifically,",
"timestamp": [
521.57,
524.01
]
},
{
"text": "but I never thought specifically,",
"timestamp": [
521.57,
524.01
]
},
{
"text": "oh yeah, black holes have, like, waves.",
"timestamp": [
524.01,
526.7
]
},
{
"text": "oh yeah, black holes have, like, waves.",
"timestamp": [
524.01,
526.7
]
},
{
"text": "I know more and less.",
"timestamp": [
526.7,
528.77
]
},
{
"text": "I know more and less.",
"timestamp": [
526.7,
528.77
]
},
{
"text": "- I know what you mean.",
"timestamp": [
528.77,
530.108
]
},
{
"text": "- I know what you mean.",
"timestamp": [
528.77,
530.108
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
530.108,
532.691
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
530.108,
532.691
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Jayda, It's nice to meet you.",
"timestamp": [
534.6,
536.65
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Jayda, It's nice to meet you.",
"timestamp": [
534.6,
536.65
]
},
{
"text": "- Nice to meet you, and\nwhere are you studying?",
"timestamp": [
536.65,
538.23
]
},
{
"text": "- Nice to meet you, and\nwhere are you studying?",
"timestamp": [
536.65,
538.23
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm a senior at NYU.",
"timestamp": [
538.23,
539.43
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm a senior at NYU.",
"timestamp": [
538.23,
539.43
]
},
{
"text": "I'm studying physics and\nenvironmental studies.",
"timestamp": [
539.43,
542.64
]
},
{
"text": "I'm studying physics and\nenvironmental studies.",
"timestamp": [
539.43,
542.64
]
},
{
"text": "- What is your impression\nof what a black hole is?",
"timestamp": [
542.64,
544.43
]
},
{
"text": "- What is your impression\nof what a black hole is?",
"timestamp": [
542.64,
544.43
]
},
{
"text": "- So it's a star that has collapsed.",
"timestamp": [
544.43,
547.66
]
},
{
"text": "- So it's a star that has collapsed.",
"timestamp": [
544.43,
547.66
]
},
{
"text": "It has so much concentrated\nmass and gravity",
"timestamp": [
547.66,
550.2
]
},
{
"text": "It has so much concentrated\nmass and gravity",
"timestamp": [
547.66,
550.2
]
},
{
"text": "that there's a point\noutside of the black hole",
"timestamp": [
550.2,
553.13
]
},
{
"text": "that there's a point\noutside of the black hole",
"timestamp": [
550.2,
553.13
]
},
{
"text": "called the event horizon.",
"timestamp": [
553.13,
554.38
]
},
{
"text": "called the event horizon.",
"timestamp": [
553.13,
554.38
]
},
{
"text": "So once you get past the event horizon,",
"timestamp": [
554.38,
557.18
]
},
{
"text": "So once you get past the event horizon,",
"timestamp": [
554.38,
557.18
]
},
{
"text": "nothing, not even light\ncan escape from that.",
"timestamp": [
557.18,
560.01
]
},
{
"text": "nothing, not even light\ncan escape from that.",
"timestamp": [
557.18,
560.01
]
},
{
"text": "- So that's a great definition",
"timestamp": [
560.01,
561.65
]
},
{
"text": "- So that's a great definition",
"timestamp": [
560.01,
561.65
]
},
{
"text": "and I wanna pick that apart a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
561.65,
563.59
]
},
{
"text": "and I wanna pick that apart a little bit.",
"timestamp": [
561.65,
563.59
]
},
{
"text": "So what you described is just right.",
"timestamp": [
563.59,
565.25
]
},
{
"text": "So what you described is just right.",
"timestamp": [
563.59,
565.25
]
},
{
"text": "Stars, when they run out\nof thermonuclear fuel",
"timestamp": [
565.25,
567.95
]
},
{
"text": "Stars, when they run out\nof thermonuclear fuel",
"timestamp": [
565.25,
567.95
]
},
{
"text": "are gonna collapse under their own weight.",
"timestamp": [
567.95,
570.34
]
},
{
"text": "are gonna collapse under their own weight.",
"timestamp": [
567.95,
570.34
]
},
{
"text": "It'll explode in a supernova,\nit'll leave a core,",
"timestamp": [
570.34,
573.13
]
},
{
"text": "It'll explode in a supernova,\nit'll leave a core,",
"timestamp": [
570.34,
573.13
]
},
{
"text": "and if the core itself is heavy enough,",
"timestamp": [
573.13,
574.67
]
},
{
"text": "and if the core itself is heavy enough,",
"timestamp": [
573.13,
574.67
]
},
{
"text": "it will keep collapsing.",
"timestamp": [
574.67,
576.45
]
},
{
"text": "it will keep collapsing.",
"timestamp": [
574.67,
576.45
]
},
{
"text": "It does, as you say, reach this point",
"timestamp": [
576.45,
578.85
]
},
{
"text": "It does, as you say, reach this point",
"timestamp": [
576.45,
578.85
]
},
{
"text": "where not even light can escape.",
"timestamp": [
578.85,
581
]
},
{
"text": "where not even light can escape.",
"timestamp": [
578.85,
581
]
},
{
"text": "But the amazing thing\nis it leaves that point,",
"timestamp": [
581,
583.84
]
},
{
"text": "But the amazing thing\nis it leaves that point,",
"timestamp": [
581,
583.84
]
},
{
"text": "you called it rightly the event horizon,",
"timestamp": [
583.84,
585.9
]
},
{
"text": "you called it rightly the event horizon,",
"timestamp": [
583.84,
585.9
]
},
{
"text": "it leaves it behind kind of\nlike an archeological record",
"timestamp": [
585.9,
589.71
]
},
{
"text": "it leaves it behind kind of\nlike an archeological record",
"timestamp": [
585.9,
589.71
]
},
{
"text": "because the start itself",
"timestamp": [
589.71,
591.7
]
},
{
"text": "because the start itself",
"timestamp": [
589.71,
591.7
]
},
{
"text": "can no more sit at the event horizon",
"timestamp": [
591.7,
594.64
]
},
{
"text": "can no more sit at the event horizon",
"timestamp": [
591.7,
594.64
]
},
{
"text": "than it can race outward\nat the speed of light.",
"timestamp": [
594.64,
597.21
]
},
{
"text": "than it can race outward\nat the speed of light.",
"timestamp": [
594.64,
597.21
]
},
{
"text": "So the core of the star keeps collapsing",
"timestamp": [
597.21,
600.47
]
},
{
"text": "So the core of the star keeps collapsing",
"timestamp": [
597.21,
600.47
]
},
{
"text": "and where it goes nobody knows.",
"timestamp": [
600.47,
602.19
]
},
{
"text": "and where it goes nobody knows.",
"timestamp": [
600.47,
602.19
]
},
{
"text": "So in a weird way,",
"timestamp": [
602.19,
604.07
]
},
{
"text": "So in a weird way,",
"timestamp": [
602.19,
604.07
]
},
{
"text": "the black hole isn't\nanymore a crush of matter.",
"timestamp": [
604.07,
607.66
]
},
{
"text": "the black hole isn't\nanymore a crush of matter.",
"timestamp": [
604.07,
607.66
]
},
{
"text": "It left it behind in its wake,",
"timestamp": [
607.66,
610.03
]
},
{
"text": "It left it behind in its wake,",
"timestamp": [
607.66,
610.03
]
},
{
"text": "but the stuff of the star is gone.",
"timestamp": [
610.03,
612.46
]
},
{
"text": "but the stuff of the star is gone.",
"timestamp": [
610.03,
612.46
]
},
{
"text": "- I've heard of Schwarzschild black holes,",
"timestamp": [
612.46,
616.18
]
},
{
"text": "- I've heard of Schwarzschild black holes,",
"timestamp": [
612.46,
616.18
]
},
{
"text": "which is a black hole that is static,",
"timestamp": [
616.18,
619.42
]
},
{
"text": "which is a black hole that is static,",
"timestamp": [
616.18,
619.42
]
},
{
"text": "a Kerr black hole or a\nKerr-Newman black hole,",
"timestamp": [
619.42,
622.44
]
},
{
"text": "a Kerr black hole or a\nKerr-Newman black hole,",
"timestamp": [
619.42,
622.44
]
},
{
"text": "which is a black hole that rotates,",
"timestamp": [
622.44,
625.09
]
},
{
"text": "which is a black hole that rotates,",
"timestamp": [
622.44,
625.09
]
},
{
"text": "but what makes a black hole\nstatic versus rotating?",
"timestamp": [
625.09,
630.09
]
},
{
"text": "but what makes a black hole\nstatic versus rotating?",
"timestamp": [
625.09,
630.09
]
},
{
"text": "And what's more common?",
"timestamp": [
631.057,
632.29
]
},
{
"text": "And what's more common?",
"timestamp": [
631.057,
632.29
]
},
{
"text": "- It turns out that there\nare only three quantities",
"timestamp": [
632.29,
635.22
]
},
{
"text": "- It turns out that there\nare only three quantities",
"timestamp": [
632.29,
635.22
]
},
{
"text": "that define a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
635.22,
636.91
]
},
{
"text": "that define a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
635.22,
636.91
]
},
{
"text": "its electric charge,\nits mass, and its spin.",
"timestamp": [
636.91,
640.74
]
},
{
"text": "its electric charge,\nits mass, and its spin.",
"timestamp": [
636.91,
640.74
]
},
{
"text": "So the most general\nblack hole can also spin",
"timestamp": [
640.74,
644.03
]
},
{
"text": "So the most general\nblack hole can also spin",
"timestamp": [
640.74,
644.03
]
},
{
"text": "and it can also be electrically charged.",
"timestamp": [
644.03,
646.21
]
},
{
"text": "and it can also be electrically charged.",
"timestamp": [
644.03,
646.21
]
},
{
"text": "Whether or not they are has\nto do with how they formed.",
"timestamp": [
646.21,
648.53
]
},
{
"text": "Whether or not they are has\nto do with how they formed.",
"timestamp": [
646.21,
648.53
]
},
{
"text": "If a star collapses,",
"timestamp": [
648.53,
649.65
]
},
{
"text": "If a star collapses,",
"timestamp": [
648.53,
649.65
]
},
{
"text": "it will likely be\nspinning when it collapses",
"timestamp": [
649.65,
651.61
]
},
{
"text": "it will likely be\nspinning when it collapses",
"timestamp": [
649.65,
651.61
]
},
{
"text": "and the remnant black hole that forms",
"timestamp": [
651.61,
653.61
]
},
{
"text": "and the remnant black hole that forms",
"timestamp": [
651.61,
653.61
]
},
{
"text": "will likely be spinning.",
"timestamp": [
653.61,
655.46
]
},
{
"text": "will likely be spinning.",
"timestamp": [
653.61,
655.46
]
},
{
"text": "A black hole of a certain\nmass, charge, and spin",
"timestamp": [
655.46,
658.21
]
},
{
"text": "A black hole of a certain\nmass, charge, and spin",
"timestamp": [
655.46,
658.21
]
},
{
"text": "is indistinguishable\nfrom any other black hole",
"timestamp": [
658.21,
661.72
]
},
{
"text": "is indistinguishable\nfrom any other black hole",
"timestamp": [
658.21,
661.72
]
},
{
"text": "with those same properties.",
"timestamp": [
661.72,
663.42
]
},
{
"text": "with those same properties.",
"timestamp": [
661.72,
663.42
]
},
{
"text": "So in some sense, they're\nlike fundamental particles,",
"timestamp": [
663.42,
666.9
]
},
{
"text": "So in some sense, they're\nlike fundamental particles,",
"timestamp": [
663.42,
666.9
]
},
{
"text": "which makes them absolutely exceptional",
"timestamp": [
666.9,
669.78
]
},
{
"text": "which makes them absolutely exceptional",
"timestamp": [
666.9,
669.78
]
},
{
"text": "for any other astrophysical object.",
"timestamp": [
669.78,
672.2
]
},
{
"text": "for any other astrophysical object.",
"timestamp": [
669.78,
672.2
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard the\nstories about what happens",
"timestamp": [
672.2,
674.29
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard the\nstories about what happens",
"timestamp": [
672.2,
674.29
]
},
{
"text": "inside a black hole?",
"timestamp": [
674.29,
675.45
]
},
{
"text": "inside a black hole?",
"timestamp": [
674.29,
675.45
]
},
{
"text": "- I remember that once\nyou pass the event horizon",
"timestamp": [
675.45,
679.15
]
},
{
"text": "- I remember that once\nyou pass the event horizon",
"timestamp": [
675.45,
679.15
]
},
{
"text": "space becomes time and time becomes space,",
"timestamp": [
679.15,
681.9
]
},
{
"text": "space becomes time and time becomes space,",
"timestamp": [
679.15,
681.9
]
},
{
"text": "in like, a coordinate sense.",
"timestamp": [
681.9,
683.34
]
},
{
"text": "in like, a coordinate sense.",
"timestamp": [
681.9,
683.34
]
},
{
"text": "- So from the outside,\nif you're an astronaut,",
"timestamp": [
683.34,
685.39
]
},
{
"text": "- So from the outside,\nif you're an astronaut,",
"timestamp": [
683.34,
685.39
]
},
{
"text": "you're watching your friend,",
"timestamp": [
685.39,
686.7
]
},
{
"text": "you're watching your friend,",
"timestamp": [
685.39,
686.7
]
},
{
"text": "another astronaut going\ninto the black hole,",
"timestamp": [
686.7,
689.68
]
},
{
"text": "another astronaut going\ninto the black hole,",
"timestamp": [
686.7,
689.68
]
},
{
"text": "it's as though your times become rotated",
"timestamp": [
689.68,
692.27
]
},
{
"text": "it's as though your times become rotated",
"timestamp": [
689.68,
692.27
]
},
{
"text": "relative to each other.",
"timestamp": [
692.27,
693.65
]
},
{
"text": "relative to each other.",
"timestamp": [
692.27,
693.65
]
},
{
"text": "So the profound thing is as\nan astronaut on the outside,",
"timestamp": [
693.65,
696.7
]
},
{
"text": "So the profound thing is as\nan astronaut on the outside,",
"timestamp": [
693.65,
696.7
]
},
{
"text": "looking at this round event horizon,",
"timestamp": [
696.7,
699.53
]
},
{
"text": "looking at this round event horizon,",
"timestamp": [
696.7,
699.53
]
},
{
"text": "you think of the center of\nblack hole as a point in space,",
"timestamp": [
699.53,
702.67
]
},
{
"text": "you think of the center of\nblack hole as a point in space,",
"timestamp": [
699.53,
702.67
]
},
{
"text": "but to the person who's fallen in,",
"timestamp": [
702.67,
704.65
]
},
{
"text": "but to the person who's fallen in,",
"timestamp": [
702.67,
704.65
]
},
{
"text": "it's not a point in space at\nall, it's a point in time.",
"timestamp": [
704.65,
707.85
]
},
{
"text": "it's not a point in space at\nall, it's a point in time.",
"timestamp": [
704.65,
707.85
]
},
{
"text": "The singularity, or the end of it all,",
"timestamp": [
707.85,
710.58
]
},
{
"text": "The singularity, or the end of it all,",
"timestamp": [
707.85,
710.58
]
},
{
"text": "the crush in the center of a black hole",
"timestamp": [
710.58,
712.25
]
},
{
"text": "the crush in the center of a black hole",
"timestamp": [
710.58,
712.25
]
},
{
"text": "is in their future.",
"timestamp": [
712.25,
713.75
]
},
{
"text": "is in their future.",
"timestamp": [
712.25,
713.75
]
},
{
"text": "So they can no more avoid the singularity",
"timestamp": [
713.75,
716.9
]
},
{
"text": "So they can no more avoid the singularity",
"timestamp": [
713.75,
716.9
]
},
{
"text": "than you can avoid the next\ninstant of time coming.",
"timestamp": [
716.9,
719.57
]
},
{
"text": "than you can avoid the next\ninstant of time coming.",
"timestamp": [
716.9,
719.57
]
},
{
"text": "So the death in the\nsingularity is inevitable.",
"timestamp": [
719.57,
722.95
]
},
{
"text": "So the death in the\nsingularity is inevitable.",
"timestamp": [
719.57,
722.95
]
},
{
"text": "Although we don't really think",
"timestamp": [
722.95,
723.84
]
},
{
"text": "Although we don't really think",
"timestamp": [
722.95,
723.84
]
},
{
"text": "the singularity necessarily exists.",
"timestamp": [
723.84,
725.8
]
},
{
"text": "the singularity necessarily exists.",
"timestamp": [
723.84,
725.8
]
},
{
"text": "- I sort of know what a singularity is.",
"timestamp": [
725.8,
729.66
]
},
{
"text": "- I sort of know what a singularity is.",
"timestamp": [
725.8,
729.66
]
},
{
"text": "I think of it as something",
"timestamp": [
729.66,
733.9
]
},
{
"text": "I think of it as something",
"timestamp": [
729.66,
733.9
]
},
{
"text": "where everything is compacted\ninto one single point,",
"timestamp": [
733.9,
737.79
]
},
{
"text": "where everything is compacted\ninto one single point,",
"timestamp": [
733.9,
737.79
]
},
{
"text": "it's a place where the laws of physics",
"timestamp": [
737.79,
741.07
]
},
{
"text": "it's a place where the laws of physics",
"timestamp": [
737.79,
741.07
]
},
{
"text": "don't exactly work out.",
"timestamp": [
741.07,
742.76
]
},
{
"text": "don't exactly work out.",
"timestamp": [
741.07,
742.76
]
},
{
"text": "What did you mean when you said",
"timestamp": [
742.76,
744.11
]
},
{
"text": "What did you mean when you said",
"timestamp": [
742.76,
744.11
]
},
{
"text": "that you don't think the\nsingularity really exists?",
"timestamp": [
744.11,
746.99
]
},
{
"text": "that you don't think the\nsingularity really exists?",
"timestamp": [
744.11,
746.99
]
},
{
"text": "- So the singularity\nis definitely predicted",
"timestamp": [
746.99,
751.02
]
},
{
"text": "- So the singularity\nis definitely predicted",
"timestamp": [
746.99,
751.02
]
},
{
"text": "in Einstein's general theory of relativity",
"timestamp": [
751.02,
753.08
]
},
{
"text": "in Einstein's general theory of relativity",
"timestamp": [
751.02,
753.08
]
},
{
"text": "and that's purely a theory of spacetime.",
"timestamp": [
753.08,
755.52
]
},
{
"text": "and that's purely a theory of spacetime.",
"timestamp": [
753.08,
755.52
]
},
{
"text": "And in the theory of spacetime,",
"timestamp": [
755.52,
757.3
]
},
{
"text": "And in the theory of spacetime,",
"timestamp": [
755.52,
757.3
]
},
{
"text": "there is no question that\na singularity would form",
"timestamp": [
757.3,
760.76
]
},
{
"text": "there is no question that\na singularity would form",
"timestamp": [
757.3,
760.76
]
},
{
"text": "when the star collapses catastrophically",
"timestamp": [
760.76,
763.06
]
},
{
"text": "when the star collapses catastrophically",
"timestamp": [
760.76,
763.06
]
},
{
"text": "inside the black hole.",
"timestamp": [
763.06,
764.65
]
},
{
"text": "inside the black hole.",
"timestamp": [
763.06,
764.65
]
},
{
"text": "Now, even when people\ntalked about singularities",
"timestamp": [
764.65,
767.38
]
},
{
"text": "Now, even when people\ntalked about singularities",
"timestamp": [
764.65,
767.38
]
},
{
"text": "back in the '60s, they thought,\nyou know, quantum mechanics",
"timestamp": [
767.38,
771.6
]
},
{
"text": "back in the '60s, they thought,\nyou know, quantum mechanics",
"timestamp": [
767.38,
771.6
]
},
{
"text": "is part of the story of\nthe whole of physics.",
"timestamp": [
771.6,
774.61
]
},
{
"text": "is part of the story of\nthe whole of physics.",
"timestamp": [
771.6,
774.61
]
},
{
"text": "It's not just gravity.",
"timestamp": [
774.61,
776.04
]
},
{
"text": "It's not just gravity.",
"timestamp": [
774.61,
776.04
]
},
{
"text": "And if we understand quantum gravity",
"timestamp": [
776.04,
778.47
]
},
{
"text": "And if we understand quantum gravity",
"timestamp": [
776.04,
778.47
]
},
{
"text": "we'll realize that singularity",
"timestamp": [
778.47,
780.37
]
},
{
"text": "we'll realize that singularity",
"timestamp": [
778.47,
780.37
]
},
{
"text": "probably doesn't ever actually form.",
"timestamp": [
780.37,
782.49
]
},
{
"text": "probably doesn't ever actually form.",
"timestamp": [
780.37,
782.49
]
},
{
"text": "- So since we obviously have\nnever been to a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
782.49,
787.49
]
},
{
"text": "- So since we obviously have\nnever been to a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
782.49,
787.49
]
},
{
"text": "how do we know for sure,",
"timestamp": [
789.15,
791.53
]
},
{
"text": "how do we know for sure,",
"timestamp": [
789.15,
791.53
]
},
{
"text": "like, what happens after\nyou cross the event horizon",
"timestamp": [
791.53,
796.13
]
},
{
"text": "like, what happens after\nyou cross the event horizon",
"timestamp": [
791.53,
796.13
]
},
{
"text": "or what happens inside a black hole?",
"timestamp": [
796.13,
797.41
]
},
{
"text": "or what happens inside a black hole?",
"timestamp": [
796.13,
797.41
]
},
{
"text": "Is it just like, inferred from the math?",
"timestamp": [
797.41,
800.56
]
},
{
"text": "Is it just like, inferred from the math?",
"timestamp": [
797.41,
800.56
]
},
{
"text": "- I would say to some extent\nwe don't know for sure.",
"timestamp": [
800.56,
803.61
]
},
{
"text": "- I would say to some extent\nwe don't know for sure.",
"timestamp": [
800.56,
803.61
]
},
{
"text": "What we have found is that",
"timestamp": [
803.61,
805.1
]
},
{
"text": "What we have found is that",
"timestamp": [
803.61,
805.1
]
},
{
"text": "the mathematics is so\nunbelievably powerful",
"timestamp": [
805.1,
808.01
]
},
{
"text": "the mathematics is so\nunbelievably powerful",
"timestamp": [
805.1,
808.01
]
},
{
"text": "that we're able to disprove wrong ideas",
"timestamp": [
808.01,
811.63
]
},
{
"text": "that we're able to disprove wrong ideas",
"timestamp": [
808.01,
811.63
]
},
{
"text": "just in pen and paper.",
"timestamp": [
811.63,
813.37
]
},
{
"text": "just in pen and paper.",
"timestamp": [
811.63,
813.37
]
},
{
"text": "Just very recently, within\nthe past couple of years,",
"timestamp": [
813.37,
815.54
]
},
{
"text": "Just very recently, within\nthe past couple of years,",
"timestamp": [
813.37,
815.54
]
},
{
"text": "the first ever human-procured\nimage of a black hole",
"timestamp": [
815.54,
819.4
]
},
{
"text": "the first ever human-procured\nimage of a black hole",
"timestamp": [
815.54,
819.4
]
},
{
"text": "showed us what we expected\nto see of the event horizon.",
"timestamp": [
819.4,
822.25
]
},
{
"text": "showed us what we expected\nto see of the event horizon.",
"timestamp": [
819.4,
822.25
]
},
{
"text": "So Jayda, after our conversation today,",
"timestamp": [
822.25,
824.99
]
},
{
"text": "So Jayda, after our conversation today,",
"timestamp": [
822.25,
824.99
]
},
{
"text": "what would you say a black hole is?",
"timestamp": [
824.99,
827.58
]
},
{
"text": "what would you say a black hole is?",
"timestamp": [
824.99,
827.58
]
},
{
"text": "- Something that I had\nnever thought of before is",
"timestamp": [
827.58,
830.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Something that I had\nnever thought of before is",
"timestamp": [
827.58,
830.81
]
},
{
"text": "a black hole as kind of",
"timestamp": [
830.81,
832.43
]
},
{
"text": "a black hole as kind of",
"timestamp": [
830.81,
832.43
]
},
{
"text": "a type of quantum fundamental particle.",
"timestamp": [
832.43,
835
]
},
{
"text": "a type of quantum fundamental particle.",
"timestamp": [
832.43,
835
]
},
{
"text": "I've also learned how event\nhorizon of a black hole",
"timestamp": [
835,
839.27
]
},
{
"text": "I've also learned how event\nhorizon of a black hole",
"timestamp": [
835,
839.27
]
},
{
"text": "kind of hides a singularity.",
"timestamp": [
839.27,
841.59
]
},
{
"text": "kind of hides a singularity.",
"timestamp": [
839.27,
841.59
]
},
{
"text": "- The beauty of being a student",
"timestamp": [
841.59,
843.5
]
},
{
"text": "- The beauty of being a student",
"timestamp": [
841.59,
843.5
]
},
{
"text": "of something like black holes",
"timestamp": [
843.5,
844.75
]
},
{
"text": "of something like black holes",
"timestamp": [
843.5,
844.75
]
},
{
"text": "is you never stop",
"timestamp": [
844.75,
846.31
]
},
{
"text": "is you never stop",
"timestamp": [
844.75,
846.31
]
},
{
"text": "having new impressions of what\nthis enigmatic phenomena is.",
"timestamp": [
846.31,
850.68
]
},
{
"text": "having new impressions of what\nthis enigmatic phenomena is.",
"timestamp": [
846.31,
850.68
]
},
{
"text": "So in a year, I'll tell you\nwhat I learned that's new.",
"timestamp": [
850.68,
853.26
]
},
{
"text": "So in a year, I'll tell you\nwhat I learned that's new.",
"timestamp": [
850.68,
853.26
]
},
{
"text": "- Awesome!",
"timestamp": [
853.26,
854.789
]
},
{
"text": "- Awesome!",
"timestamp": [
853.26,
854.789
]
},
{
"text": "[classical music]",
"timestamp": [
854.789,
857.65
]
},
{
"text": "[classical music]",
"timestamp": [
854.789,
857.65
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Clare.",
"timestamp": [
857.65,
858.483
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Clare.",
"timestamp": [
857.65,
858.483
]
},
{
"text": "- And you're in graduate school",
"timestamp": [
858.483,
859.48
]
},
{
"text": "- And you're in graduate school",
"timestamp": [
858.483,
859.48
]
},
{
"text": "and you're getting your PhD.",
"timestamp": [
859.48,
860.81
]
},
{
"text": "and you're getting your PhD.",
"timestamp": [
859.48,
860.81
]
},
{
"text": "What year are you?",
"timestamp": [
860.81,
861.94
]
},
{
"text": "What year are you?",
"timestamp": [
860.81,
861.94
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm a second year.",
"timestamp": [
861.94,
863.01
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm a second year.",
"timestamp": [
861.94,
863.01
]
},
{
"text": "So I'm measuring star formation histories",
"timestamp": [
863.01,
865.47
]
},
{
"text": "So I'm measuring star formation histories",
"timestamp": [
863.01,
865.47
]
},
{
"text": "in the Small and Large Magellanic Clouds.",
"timestamp": [
865.47,
868.01
]
},
{
"text": "in the Small and Large Magellanic Clouds.",
"timestamp": [
865.47,
868.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Does the Large Magellanic\nCloud have a big black hole?",
"timestamp": [
868.01,
872.6
]
},
{
"text": "- Does the Large Magellanic\nCloud have a big black hole?",
"timestamp": [
868.01,
872.6
]
},
{
"text": "- So, I think the prevailing\nwisdom for a while was no,",
"timestamp": [
872.6,
876.61
]
},
{
"text": "- So, I think the prevailing\nwisdom for a while was no,",
"timestamp": [
872.6,
876.61
]
},
{
"text": "but my answer honestly is I'm not sure.",
"timestamp": [
876.61,
879.3
]
},
{
"text": "but my answer honestly is I'm not sure.",
"timestamp": [
876.61,
879.3
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, and probably\nnobody is. [women laughing]",
"timestamp": [
879.3,
881.4
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, and probably\nnobody is. [women laughing]",
"timestamp": [
879.3,
881.4
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard a lot in your studies",
"timestamp": [
881.4,
883.28
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard a lot in your studies",
"timestamp": [
881.4,
883.28
]
},
{
"text": "about these super massive black holes",
"timestamp": [
883.28,
885.57
]
},
{
"text": "about these super massive black holes",
"timestamp": [
883.28,
885.57
]
},
{
"text": "that we think lurk in the centers",
"timestamp": [
885.57,
887.57
]
},
{
"text": "that we think lurk in the centers",
"timestamp": [
885.57,
887.57
]
},
{
"text": "of very nearly every galaxy?",
"timestamp": [
887.57,
889.4
]
},
{
"text": "of very nearly every galaxy?",
"timestamp": [
887.57,
889.4
]
},
{
"text": "- So I don't study AGN a lot,",
"timestamp": [
889.4,
891.23
]
},
{
"text": "- So I don't study AGN a lot,",
"timestamp": [
889.4,
891.23
]
},
{
"text": "but I do have a long term\ninterest in black holes,",
"timestamp": [
891.23,
896.23
]
},
{
"text": "but I do have a long term\ninterest in black holes,",
"timestamp": [
891.23,
896.23
]
},
{
"text": "it's one of the reasons\nI entered the field.",
"timestamp": [
896.81,
899.62
]
},
{
"text": "it's one of the reasons\nI entered the field.",
"timestamp": [
896.81,
899.62
]
},
{
"text": "I always was curious about",
"timestamp": [
899.62,
903
]
},
{
"text": "I always was curious about",
"timestamp": [
899.62,
903
]
},
{
"text": "how a black hole of that\nsize was able to form.",
"timestamp": [
903,
907.1
]
},
{
"text": "how a black hole of that\nsize was able to form.",
"timestamp": [
903,
907.1
]
},
{
"text": "Was it the result of mergers\nbetween smaller black holes,",
"timestamp": [
907.1,
911.16
]
},
{
"text": "Was it the result of mergers\nbetween smaller black holes,",
"timestamp": [
907.1,
911.16
]
},
{
"text": "ultimately creating\ngravitational well deep enough",
"timestamp": [
911.16,
914.37
]
},
{
"text": "ultimately creating\ngravitational well deep enough",
"timestamp": [
911.16,
914.37
]
},
{
"text": "to contract a protogenic\ndisc for a whole galaxy?",
"timestamp": [
914.37,
919.37
]
},
{
"text": "to contract a protogenic\ndisc for a whole galaxy?",
"timestamp": [
914.37,
919.37
]
},
{
"text": "Or, man, what happened?",
"timestamp": [
919.383,
920.5
]
},
{
"text": "Or, man, what happened?",
"timestamp": [
919.383,
920.5
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I think it's a\nreally good question.",
"timestamp": [
920.5,
922.16
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I think it's a\nreally good question.",
"timestamp": [
920.5,
922.16
]
},
{
"text": "The only mechanism that we know for sure",
"timestamp": [
922.16,
924.93
]
},
{
"text": "The only mechanism that we know for sure",
"timestamp": [
922.16,
924.93
]
},
{
"text": "can form black holes is to\ncollapse of very massive stars.",
"timestamp": [
924.93,
927.65
]
},
{
"text": "can form black holes is to\ncollapse of very massive stars.",
"timestamp": [
924.93,
927.65
]
},
{
"text": "So it's sensible to think,",
"timestamp": [
927.65,
929.18
]
},
{
"text": "So it's sensible to think,",
"timestamp": [
927.65,
929.18
]
},
{
"text": "well maybe some very massive\nstars in a young universe",
"timestamp": [
929.18,
932.5
]
},
{
"text": "well maybe some very massive\nstars in a young universe",
"timestamp": [
929.18,
932.5
]
},
{
"text": "collapsed under their own\nweight and then they merged",
"timestamp": [
932.5,
934.86
]
},
{
"text": "collapsed under their own\nweight and then they merged",
"timestamp": [
932.5,
934.86
]
},
{
"text": "and after some time they got big enough,",
"timestamp": [
934.86,
937.07
]
},
{
"text": "and after some time they got big enough,",
"timestamp": [
934.86,
937.07
]
},
{
"text": "but the black holes from stars",
"timestamp": [
937.07,
938.71
]
},
{
"text": "but the black holes from stars",
"timestamp": [
937.07,
938.71
]
},
{
"text": "can be tens of times the mass of the sun,",
"timestamp": [
938.71,
941.36
]
},
{
"text": "can be tens of times the mass of the sun,",
"timestamp": [
938.71,
941.36
]
},
{
"text": "maybe hundreds of times\nto the mass of the sun",
"timestamp": [
941.36,
943.4
]
},
{
"text": "maybe hundreds of times\nto the mass of the sun",
"timestamp": [
941.36,
943.4
]
},
{
"text": "if they merge.",
"timestamp": [
943.4,
944.26
]
},
{
"text": "if they merge.",
"timestamp": [
943.4,
944.26
]
},
{
"text": "To get to millions and billions,",
"timestamp": [
944.26,
946.44
]
},
{
"text": "To get to millions and billions,",
"timestamp": [
944.26,
946.44
]
},
{
"text": "and if you just do the simple arithmetic",
"timestamp": [
946.44,
949.04
]
},
{
"text": "and if you just do the simple arithmetic",
"timestamp": [
946.44,
949.04
]
},
{
"text": "of how many years that would take,",
"timestamp": [
949.04,
950.95
]
},
{
"text": "of how many years that would take,",
"timestamp": [
949.04,
950.95
]
},
{
"text": "there aren't enough years",
"timestamp": [
950.95,
952.55
]
},
{
"text": "there aren't enough years",
"timestamp": [
950.95,
952.55
]
},
{
"text": "in the 14 billion years of\nthe universe's lifetime.",
"timestamp": [
952.55,
956.47
]
},
{
"text": "in the 14 billion years of\nthe universe's lifetime.",
"timestamp": [
952.55,
956.47
]
},
{
"text": "So they must have come\nfrom somewhere else.",
"timestamp": [
956.47,
958.43
]
},
{
"text": "So they must have come\nfrom somewhere else.",
"timestamp": [
956.47,
958.43
]
},
{
"text": "- I am at a loss",
"timestamp": [
958.43,
960.74
]
},
{
"text": "- I am at a loss",
"timestamp": [
958.43,
960.74
]
},
{
"text": "to think of what could\nhave possibly happened",
"timestamp": [
961.82,
965.2
]
},
{
"text": "to think of what could\nhave possibly happened",
"timestamp": [
961.82,
965.2
]
},
{
"text": "in between the start of the universe",
"timestamp": [
965.2,
966.477
]
},
{
"text": "in between the start of the universe",
"timestamp": [
965.2,
966.477
]
},
{
"text": "and the formation of our galaxy",
"timestamp": [
966.477,
968.55
]
},
{
"text": "and the formation of our galaxy",
"timestamp": [
966.477,
968.55
]
},
{
"text": "that could create such a massive object.",
"timestamp": [
968.55,
971.33
]
},
{
"text": "that could create such a massive object.",
"timestamp": [
968.55,
971.33
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I think that's right.",
"timestamp": [
971.33,
972.978
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I think that's right.",
"timestamp": [
971.33,
972.978
]
},
{
"text": "I think people are really perplexed",
"timestamp": [
972.978,
974.44
]
},
{
"text": "I think people are really perplexed",
"timestamp": [
972.978,
974.44
]
},
{
"text": "about how you make something so big",
"timestamp": [
974.44,
976.05
]
},
{
"text": "about how you make something so big",
"timestamp": [
974.44,
976.05
]
},
{
"text": "in such a short period of time.",
"timestamp": [
976.05,
977.4
]
},
{
"text": "in such a short period of time.",
"timestamp": [
976.05,
977.4
]
},
{
"text": "It's kind of funny, the\nbigger you make a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
977.4,
980.2
]
},
{
"text": "It's kind of funny, the\nbigger you make a black hole,",
"timestamp": [
977.4,
980.2
]
},
{
"text": "it seems maybe counterintuitive,",
"timestamp": [
980.2,
982.73
]
},
{
"text": "it seems maybe counterintuitive,",
"timestamp": [
980.2,
982.73
]
},
{
"text": "but the less dense the material has to be",
"timestamp": [
982.73,
985.29
]
},
{
"text": "but the less dense the material has to be",
"timestamp": [
982.73,
985.29
]
},
{
"text": "out of which you make it.",
"timestamp": [
985.29,
986.53
]
},
{
"text": "out of which you make it.",
"timestamp": [
985.29,
986.53
]
},
{
"text": "So you can, out of something\nthe density almost of air,",
"timestamp": [
986.53,
990.48
]
},
{
"text": "So you can, out of something\nthe density almost of air,",
"timestamp": [
986.53,
990.48
]
},
{
"text": "you can make a supermassive black hole.",
"timestamp": [
990.48,
992.48
]
},
{
"text": "you can make a supermassive black hole.",
"timestamp": [
990.48,
992.48
]
},
{
"text": "You can't make a star out of that,",
"timestamp": [
992.48,
994.38
]
},
{
"text": "You can't make a star out of that,",
"timestamp": [
992.48,
994.38
]
},
{
"text": "but weirdly, if you skip\nthe star phase altogether,",
"timestamp": [
994.38,
998.38
]
},
{
"text": "but weirdly, if you skip\nthe star phase altogether,",
"timestamp": [
994.38,
998.38
]
},
{
"text": "it's conceivable that\nthey directly collapse.",
"timestamp": [
998.38,
1001.15
]
},
{
"text": "it's conceivable that\nthey directly collapse.",
"timestamp": [
998.38,
1001.15
]
},
{
"text": "And so there's suddenly a\nnew way to make black holes",
"timestamp": [
1001.15,
1005.14
]
},
{
"text": "And so there's suddenly a\nnew way to make black holes",
"timestamp": [
1001.15,
1005.14
]
},
{
"text": "that nature has figured out.",
"timestamp": [
1005.14,
1006.68
]
},
{
"text": "that nature has figured out.",
"timestamp": [
1005.14,
1006.68
]
},
{
"text": "- We spend all of our time,",
"timestamp": [
1006.68,
1008.3
]
},
{
"text": "- We spend all of our time,",
"timestamp": [
1006.68,
1008.3
]
},
{
"text": "when we learn about black holes in school,",
"timestamp": [
1008.3,
1010.5
]
},
{
"text": "when we learn about black holes in school,",
"timestamp": [
1008.3,
1010.5
]
},
{
"text": "predominantly through star collapse.",
"timestamp": [
1010.5,
1012.64
]
},
{
"text": "predominantly through star collapse.",
"timestamp": [
1010.5,
1012.64
]
},
{
"text": "- [Janna] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1012.64,
1013.473
]
},
{
"text": "- [Janna] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1012.64,
1013.473
]
},
{
"text": "- I didn't even realize that there",
"timestamp": [
1013.473,
1014.54
]
},
{
"text": "- I didn't even realize that there",
"timestamp": [
1013.473,
1014.54
]
},
{
"text": "was an alternate route\nto creating a black hole.",
"timestamp": [
1014.54,
1016.82
]
},
{
"text": "was an alternate route\nto creating a black hole.",
"timestamp": [
1014.54,
1016.82
]
},
{
"text": "- There might be many alternate routes.",
"timestamp": [
1016.82,
1018.27
]
},
{
"text": "- There might be many alternate routes.",
"timestamp": [
1016.82,
1018.27
]
},
{
"text": "It might be in the very early universe",
"timestamp": [
1018.27,
1020.53
]
},
{
"text": "It might be in the very early universe",
"timestamp": [
1018.27,
1020.53
]
},
{
"text": "that bubbles in unusual phase transitions",
"timestamp": [
1020.53,
1024.89
]
},
{
"text": "that bubbles in unusual phase transitions",
"timestamp": [
1020.53,
1024.89
]
},
{
"text": "from very high energy universe\nto a low energy universe",
"timestamp": [
1024.89,
1027.82
]
},
{
"text": "from very high energy universe\nto a low energy universe",
"timestamp": [
1024.89,
1027.82
]
},
{
"text": "can make black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1027.82,
1028.653
]
},
{
"text": "can make black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1027.82,
1028.653
]
},
{
"text": "Like, we haven't really thought of",
"timestamp": [
1028.653,
1029.99
]
},
{
"text": "Like, we haven't really thought of",
"timestamp": [
1028.653,
1029.99
]
},
{
"text": "the range of possibilities.",
"timestamp": [
1029.99,
1031.29
]
},
{
"text": "the range of possibilities.",
"timestamp": [
1029.99,
1031.29
]
},
{
"text": "And so there could also\nbe primordial black holes",
"timestamp": [
1031.29,
1033.56
]
},
{
"text": "And so there could also\nbe primordial black holes",
"timestamp": [
1031.29,
1033.56
]
},
{
"text": "that are still around",
"timestamp": [
1033.56,
1035.657
]
},
{
"text": "that are still around",
"timestamp": [
1033.56,
1035.657
]
},
{
"text": "that also skipped the\nstar stage altogether",
"timestamp": [
1035.657,
1038.9
]
},
{
"text": "that also skipped the\nstar stage altogether",
"timestamp": [
1035.657,
1038.9
]
},
{
"text": "that were formed really in\nthe very earliest phases.",
"timestamp": [
1038.9,
1041.96
]
},
{
"text": "that were formed really in\nthe very earliest phases.",
"timestamp": [
1038.9,
1041.96
]
},
{
"text": "And I think the interesting thing is,",
"timestamp": [
1041.96,
1044.39
]
},
{
"text": "And I think the interesting thing is,",
"timestamp": [
1041.96,
1044.39
]
},
{
"text": "with your looking at like\nthe Large Magellanic Cloud,",
"timestamp": [
1044.39,
1046.98
]
},
{
"text": "with your looking at like\nthe Large Magellanic Cloud,",
"timestamp": [
1044.39,
1046.98
]
},
{
"text": "is to wonder if we're gonna merge.",
"timestamp": [
1046.98,
1048.96
]
},
{
"text": "is to wonder if we're gonna merge.",
"timestamp": [
1046.98,
1048.96
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
1048.96,
1049.793
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
1048.96,
1049.793
]
},
{
"text": "We thought the canonical\npicture of the Clouds",
"timestamp": [
1049.793,
1051.69
]
},
{
"text": "We thought the canonical\npicture of the Clouds",
"timestamp": [
1049.793,
1051.69
]
},
{
"text": "was essentially that they had\nformed with the Milky Way,",
"timestamp": [
1051.69,
1054.45
]
},
{
"text": "was essentially that they had\nformed with the Milky Way,",
"timestamp": [
1051.69,
1054.45
]
},
{
"text": "maybe in its halo,",
"timestamp": [
1054.45,
1056.05
]
},
{
"text": "maybe in its halo,",
"timestamp": [
1054.45,
1056.05
]
},
{
"text": "and had been in a stable\norbit for about a Hubble time,",
"timestamp": [
1056.05,
1058.73
]
},
{
"text": "and had been in a stable\norbit for about a Hubble time,",
"timestamp": [
1056.05,
1058.73
]
},
{
"text": "or about 14 billion years.",
"timestamp": [
1058.73,
1060.73
]
},
{
"text": "or about 14 billion years.",
"timestamp": [
1058.73,
1060.73
]
},
{
"text": "Young guns in the field have\nthrown a wrench in that theory",
"timestamp": [
1060.73,
1064.13
]
},
{
"text": "Young guns in the field have\nthrown a wrench in that theory",
"timestamp": [
1060.73,
1064.13
]
},
{
"text": "that they've always been orbiting",
"timestamp": [
1064.13,
1065.48
]
},
{
"text": "that they've always been orbiting",
"timestamp": [
1064.13,
1065.48
]
},
{
"text": "and that perhaps they're\non their first orbit,",
"timestamp": [
1065.48,
1067.41
]
},
{
"text": "and that perhaps they're\non their first orbit,",
"timestamp": [
1065.48,
1067.41
]
},
{
"text": "they're on an unstable orbit.",
"timestamp": [
1067.41,
1069.19
]
},
{
"text": "they're on an unstable orbit.",
"timestamp": [
1067.41,
1069.19
]
},
{
"text": "Will they join us?",
"timestamp": [
1069.19,
1070.52
]
},
{
"text": "Will they join us?",
"timestamp": [
1069.19,
1070.52
]
},
{
"text": "- Can you tell us about Andromeda?",
"timestamp": [
1070.52,
1072.19
]
},
{
"text": "- Can you tell us about Andromeda?",
"timestamp": [
1070.52,
1072.19
]
},
{
"text": "- Andromeda is part of the\nbig three in the local group.",
"timestamp": [
1072.19,
1074.71
]
},
{
"text": "- Andromeda is part of the\nbig three in the local group.",
"timestamp": [
1072.19,
1074.71
]
},
{
"text": "- The local group being\na group of galaxies",
"timestamp": [
1074.71,
1077.09
]
},
{
"text": "- The local group being\na group of galaxies",
"timestamp": [
1074.71,
1077.09
]
},
{
"text": "that are not expanding",
"timestamp": [
1077.09,
1078.18
]
},
{
"text": "that are not expanding",
"timestamp": [
1077.09,
1078.18
]
},
{
"text": "with the expansion of the\nuniverse away from each other,",
"timestamp": [
1078.18,
1079.93
]
},
{
"text": "with the expansion of the\nuniverse away from each other,",
"timestamp": [
1078.18,
1079.93
]
},
{
"text": "they're trapped.",
"timestamp": [
1079.93,
1080.763
]
},
{
"text": "they're trapped.",
"timestamp": [
1079.93,
1080.763
]
},
{
"text": "- Gravitationally, all friends.",
"timestamp": [
1080.763,
1082.22
]
},
{
"text": "- Gravitationally, all friends.",
"timestamp": [
1080.763,
1082.22
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, they're all friends.",
"timestamp": [
1082.22,
1083.19
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, they're all friends.",
"timestamp": [
1082.22,
1083.19
]
},
{
"text": "- And Andromeda is one of the few galaxies",
"timestamp": [
1083.19,
1086.14
]
},
{
"text": "- And Andromeda is one of the few galaxies",
"timestamp": [
1083.19,
1086.14
]
},
{
"text": "that is traveling towards us",
"timestamp": [
1086.14,
1088.08
]
},
{
"text": "that is traveling towards us",
"timestamp": [
1086.14,
1088.08
]
},
{
"text": "and do for a merger event at some point.",
"timestamp": [
1088.08,
1090.86
]
},
{
"text": "and do for a merger event at some point.",
"timestamp": [
1088.08,
1090.86
]
},
{
"text": "So given a sufficiently low velocity,",
"timestamp": [
1090.86,
1093.32
]
},
{
"text": "So given a sufficiently low velocity,",
"timestamp": [
1090.86,
1093.32
]
},
{
"text": "we would just have two big galaxies that,",
"timestamp": [
1093.32,
1095.47
]
},
{
"text": "we would just have two big galaxies that,",
"timestamp": [
1093.32,
1095.47
]
},
{
"text": "for the most part,",
"timestamp": [
1095.47,
1096.51
]
},
{
"text": "for the most part,",
"timestamp": [
1095.47,
1096.51
]
},
{
"text": "pass through each other,\npass by each other.",
"timestamp": [
1096.51,
1098.56
]
},
{
"text": "pass through each other,\npass by each other.",
"timestamp": [
1096.51,
1098.56
]
},
{
"text": "But given a sufficiently high velocity,",
"timestamp": [
1098.56,
1100.44
]
},
{
"text": "But given a sufficiently high velocity,",
"timestamp": [
1098.56,
1100.44
]
},
{
"text": "we will have some crazy\nblack hole interactions",
"timestamp": [
1100.44,
1102.91
]
},
{
"text": "we will have some crazy\nblack hole interactions",
"timestamp": [
1100.44,
1102.91
]
},
{
"text": "and some crazy star interactions.",
"timestamp": [
1102.91,
1104.8
]
},
{
"text": "and some crazy star interactions.",
"timestamp": [
1102.91,
1104.8
]
},
{
"text": "- But when we do merge with Andromeda,",
"timestamp": [
1104.8,
1106.62
]
},
{
"text": "- But when we do merge with Andromeda,",
"timestamp": [
1104.8,
1106.62
]
},
{
"text": "presumably our black holes will merge",
"timestamp": [
1106.62,
1108.63
]
},
{
"text": "presumably our black holes will merge",
"timestamp": [
1106.62,
1108.63
]
},
{
"text": "and Andromeda indeed has",
"timestamp": [
1108.63,
1109.463
]
},
{
"text": "and Andromeda indeed has",
"timestamp": [
1108.63,
1109.463
]
},
{
"text": "a very big black hole\nas well at its center.",
"timestamp": [
1109.463,
1111.75
]
},
{
"text": "a very big black hole\nas well at its center.",
"timestamp": [
1109.463,
1111.75
]
},
{
"text": "And then we'll have this just gigantic-",
"timestamp": [
1111.75,
1115.243
]
},
{
"text": "And then we'll have this just gigantic-",
"timestamp": [
1111.75,
1115.243
]
},
{
"text": "- Supermassive black hole.",
"timestamp": [
1115.243,
1116.95
]
},
{
"text": "- Supermassive black hole.",
"timestamp": [
1115.243,
1116.95
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, and it's very\npossible that as you said,",
"timestamp": [
1116.95,
1119.96
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, and it's very\npossible that as you said,",
"timestamp": [
1116.95,
1119.96
]
},
{
"text": "the collision won't be so severe",
"timestamp": [
1119.96,
1121.48
]
},
{
"text": "the collision won't be so severe",
"timestamp": [
1119.96,
1121.48
]
},
{
"text": "that it'll be very disruptive.",
"timestamp": [
1121.48,
1122.76
]
},
{
"text": "that it'll be very disruptive.",
"timestamp": [
1121.48,
1122.76
]
},
{
"text": "So our entire solar\nsystem could stay intact",
"timestamp": [
1122.76,
1125.66
]
},
{
"text": "So our entire solar\nsystem could stay intact",
"timestamp": [
1122.76,
1125.66
]
},
{
"text": "and here we would go with the\nsun and all the other planets",
"timestamp": [
1125.66,
1128.81
]
},
{
"text": "and here we would go with the\nsun and all the other planets",
"timestamp": [
1125.66,
1128.81
]
},
{
"text": "in orbit around a new black hole.",
"timestamp": [
1128.81,
1131.32
]
},
{
"text": "in orbit around a new black hole.",
"timestamp": [
1128.81,
1131.32
]
},
{
"text": "- They're kind of\nmisunderstood giants in a way.",
"timestamp": [
1131.32,
1134.7
]
},
{
"text": "- They're kind of\nmisunderstood giants in a way.",
"timestamp": [
1131.32,
1134.7
]
},
{
"text": "So I was curious,",
"timestamp": [
1134.7,
1135.533
]
},
{
"text": "So I was curious,",
"timestamp": [
1134.7,
1135.533
]
},
{
"text": "have you heard anything new or interesting",
"timestamp": [
1135.533,
1138.71
]
},
{
"text": "have you heard anything new or interesting",
"timestamp": [
1135.533,
1138.71
]
},
{
"text": "in the field of black holes",
"timestamp": [
1138.71,
1140.03
]
},
{
"text": "in the field of black holes",
"timestamp": [
1138.71,
1140.03
]
},
{
"text": "that will shape future discussions?",
"timestamp": [
1140.03,
1142.62
]
},
{
"text": "that will shape future discussions?",
"timestamp": [
1140.03,
1142.62
]
},
{
"text": "- We work a lot right now",
"timestamp": [
1142.62,
1144.24
]
},
{
"text": "- We work a lot right now",
"timestamp": [
1142.62,
1144.24
]
},
{
"text": "on thinking of black holes as batteries.",
"timestamp": [
1144.24,
1147.23
]
},
{
"text": "on thinking of black holes as batteries.",
"timestamp": [
1144.24,
1147.23
]
},
{
"text": "So a black hole that can\ntake, like a giant magnet,",
"timestamp": [
1147.23,
1152.17
]
},
{
"text": "So a black hole that can\ntake, like a giant magnet,",
"timestamp": [
1147.23,
1152.17
]
},
{
"text": "astronomical magnet in the\nform of another collapsed star,",
"timestamp": [
1152.17,
1155.18
]
},
{
"text": "astronomical magnet in the\nform of another collapsed star,",
"timestamp": [
1152.17,
1155.18
]
},
{
"text": "like a neutron star,",
"timestamp": [
1155.18,
1156.2
]
},
{
"text": "like a neutron star,",
"timestamp": [
1155.18,
1156.2
]
},
{
"text": "and flip it around so fast,\nnear the speed of light,",
"timestamp": [
1156.2,
1160.5
]
},
{
"text": "and flip it around so fast,\nnear the speed of light,",
"timestamp": [
1156.2,
1160.5
]
},
{
"text": "that it actually creates\nan electronic circuit",
"timestamp": [
1160.5,
1163.05
]
},
{
"text": "that it actually creates\nan electronic circuit",
"timestamp": [
1160.5,
1163.05
]
},
{
"text": "out of this moving magnet.",
"timestamp": [
1163.05,
1164.4
]
},
{
"text": "out of this moving magnet.",
"timestamp": [
1163.05,
1164.4
]
},
{
"text": "And so that the power",
"timestamp": [
1164.4,
1165.33
]
},
{
"text": "And so that the power",
"timestamp": [
1164.4,
1165.33
]
},
{
"text": "that can come out of\nthese electronic circuits",
"timestamp": [
1165.33,
1167.04
]
},
{
"text": "that can come out of\nthese electronic circuits",
"timestamp": [
1165.33,
1167.04
]
},
{
"text": "created by these batteries\ncan be tremendous.",
"timestamp": [
1167.04,
1170.16
]
},
{
"text": "created by these batteries\ncan be tremendous.",
"timestamp": [
1167.04,
1170.16
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, I know that at a certain point",
"timestamp": [
1170.16,
1172.36
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, I know that at a certain point",
"timestamp": [
1170.16,
1172.36
]
},
{
"text": "for our civilization to\nbecome sufficiently advanced,",
"timestamp": [
1172.36,
1175.79
]
},
{
"text": "for our civilization to\nbecome sufficiently advanced,",
"timestamp": [
1172.36,
1175.79
]
},
{
"text": "to travel the cosmos beyond,\nyou know, the moon or Mars,",
"timestamp": [
1175.79,
1179.28
]
},
{
"text": "to travel the cosmos beyond,\nyou know, the moon or Mars,",
"timestamp": [
1175.79,
1179.28
]
},
{
"text": "we may have to be able to\nharness the power of our sun.",
"timestamp": [
1179.28,
1182.67
]
},
{
"text": "we may have to be able to\nharness the power of our sun.",
"timestamp": [
1179.28,
1182.67
]
},
{
"text": "Would it be similarly possible to harness",
"timestamp": [
1182.67,
1185.8
]
},
{
"text": "Would it be similarly possible to harness",
"timestamp": [
1182.67,
1185.8
]
},
{
"text": "the power of a black hole\nlike you were mentioning,",
"timestamp": [
1185.8,
1187.77
]
},
{
"text": "the power of a black hole\nlike you were mentioning,",
"timestamp": [
1185.8,
1187.77
]
},
{
"text": "to travel?",
"timestamp": [
1187.77,
1189.39
]
},
{
"text": "to travel?",
"timestamp": [
1187.77,
1189.39
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a great question.",
"timestamp": [
1189.39,
1190.5
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a great question.",
"timestamp": [
1189.39,
1190.5
]
},
{
"text": "I once did a calculation of",
"timestamp": [
1190.5,
1194.34
]
},
{
"text": "I once did a calculation of",
"timestamp": [
1190.5,
1194.34
]
},
{
"text": "using a black hole made out of the moon",
"timestamp": [
1194.34,
1198.53
]
},
{
"text": "using a black hole made out of the moon",
"timestamp": [
1194.34,
1198.53
]
},
{
"text": "and the strongest magnet\nwe could find on Earth",
"timestamp": [
1199.74,
1203.38
]
},
{
"text": "and the strongest magnet\nwe could find on Earth",
"timestamp": [
1199.74,
1203.38
]
},
{
"text": "to see if I could make\nan electronic battery.",
"timestamp": [
1203.38,
1206.5
]
},
{
"text": "to see if I could make\nan electronic battery.",
"timestamp": [
1203.38,
1206.5
]
},
{
"text": "And honestly,",
"timestamp": [
1206.5,
1207.69
]
},
{
"text": "And honestly,",
"timestamp": [
1206.5,
1207.69
]
},
{
"text": "you only get about enough\nenergy to power New York City.",
"timestamp": [
1207.69,
1210.93
]
},
{
"text": "you only get about enough\nenergy to power New York City.",
"timestamp": [
1207.69,
1210.93
]
},
{
"text": "But we have to find one\nin our neighborhood first.",
"timestamp": [
1210.93,
1212.91
]
},
{
"text": "But we have to find one\nin our neighborhood first.",
"timestamp": [
1210.93,
1212.91
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, wouldn't be my favorite thing.",
"timestamp": [
1212.91,
1215.85
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, wouldn't be my favorite thing.",
"timestamp": [
1212.91,
1215.85
]
},
{
"text": "- So Claire,",
"timestamp": [
1215.85,
1216.683
]
},
{
"text": "- So Claire,",
"timestamp": [
1215.85,
1216.683
]
},
{
"text": "we've had this pretty\nfascinating conversation",
"timestamp": [
1216.683,
1219.2
]
},
{
"text": "we've had this pretty\nfascinating conversation",
"timestamp": [
1216.683,
1219.2
]
},
{
"text": "about supermassive black\nholes in particular.",
"timestamp": [
1219.2,
1222.09
]
},
{
"text": "about supermassive black\nholes in particular.",
"timestamp": [
1219.2,
1222.09
]
},
{
"text": "And after our discussion,",
"timestamp": [
1222.09,
1224.023
]
},
{
"text": "And after our discussion,",
"timestamp": [
1222.09,
1224.023
]
},
{
"text": "what is it that has changed\nfor you in your perspective",
"timestamp": [
1224.023,
1226.7
]
},
{
"text": "what is it that has changed\nfor you in your perspective",
"timestamp": [
1224.023,
1226.7
]
},
{
"text": "or what is it that excites you?",
"timestamp": [
1226.7,
1228.37
]
},
{
"text": "or what is it that excites you?",
"timestamp": [
1226.7,
1228.37
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, I think our discussion kind of",
"timestamp": [
1228.37,
1230.15
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, I think our discussion kind of",
"timestamp": [
1228.37,
1230.15
]
},
{
"text": "exposed a piece of black holes\nthat I don't think of often,",
"timestamp": [
1230.15,
1234.88
]
},
{
"text": "exposed a piece of black holes\nthat I don't think of often,",
"timestamp": [
1230.15,
1234.88
]
},
{
"text": "which is that they're\nnot just life takers,",
"timestamp": [
1234.88,
1237.79
]
},
{
"text": "which is that they're\nnot just life takers,",
"timestamp": [
1234.88,
1237.79
]
},
{
"text": "they're life givers.",
"timestamp": [
1237.79,
1239.11
]
},
{
"text": "they're life givers.",
"timestamp": [
1237.79,
1239.11
]
},
{
"text": "And they inform a lot about,",
"timestamp": [
1239.11,
1240.6
]
},
{
"text": "And they inform a lot about,",
"timestamp": [
1239.11,
1240.6
]
},
{
"text": "not just how a galaxy\nis destroyed or made,",
"timestamp": [
1240.6,
1243.82
]
},
{
"text": "not just how a galaxy\nis destroyed or made,",
"timestamp": [
1240.6,
1243.82
]
},
{
"text": "but how it's shaped and how\nit eventually, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1243.82,
1247.66
]
},
{
"text": "but how it's shaped and how\nit eventually, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1243.82,
1247.66
]
},
{
"text": "builds life like ours.",
"timestamp": [
1247.66,
1250.063
]
},
{
"text": "builds life like ours.",
"timestamp": [
1247.66,
1250.063
]
},
{
"text": "So maybe I have to give black\nholes a little bit more props.",
"timestamp": [
1250.93,
1254.697
]
},
{
"text": "So maybe I have to give black\nholes a little bit more props.",
"timestamp": [
1250.93,
1254.697
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
1254.697,
1257.28
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
1254.697,
1257.28
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, Dan, I'm so glad you could make it.",
"timestamp": [
1258.7,
1260.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, Dan, I'm so glad you could make it.",
"timestamp": [
1258.7,
1260.9
]
},
{
"text": "What have you been working\non with black holes",
"timestamp": [
1260.9,
1262.89
]
},
{
"text": "What have you been working\non with black holes",
"timestamp": [
1260.9,
1262.89
]
},
{
"text": "in the time since I've last seen you?",
"timestamp": [
1262.89,
1264.79
]
},
{
"text": "in the time since I've last seen you?",
"timestamp": [
1262.89,
1264.79
]
},
{
"text": "- There are a lot of\naspects to black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1264.79,
1267.06
]
},
{
"text": "- There are a lot of\naspects to black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1264.79,
1267.06
]
},
{
"text": "The one that's kind of\ninterested me most lately",
"timestamp": [
1267.06,
1270.464
]
},
{
"text": "The one that's kind of\ninterested me most lately",
"timestamp": [
1267.06,
1270.464
]
},
{
"text": "is trying to understand them",
"timestamp": [
1270.464,
1272.264
]
},
{
"text": "is trying to understand them",
"timestamp": [
1270.464,
1272.264
]
},
{
"text": "from the point of view of information,",
"timestamp": [
1272.264,
1273.26
]
},
{
"text": "from the point of view of information,",
"timestamp": [
1272.264,
1273.26
]
},
{
"text": "how information is stored and processed",
"timestamp": [
1273.26,
1276.56
]
},
{
"text": "how information is stored and processed",
"timestamp": [
1273.26,
1276.56
]
},
{
"text": "and recovered from black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1276.56,
1279.08
]
},
{
"text": "and recovered from black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1276.56,
1279.08
]
},
{
"text": "Which turns out to be a really\ninteresting perspective.",
"timestamp": [
1279.08,
1283.14
]
},
{
"text": "Which turns out to be a really\ninteresting perspective.",
"timestamp": [
1279.08,
1283.14
]
},
{
"text": "- Talk us through Hawking's\ninitial revolution",
"timestamp": [
1283.14,
1287.66
]
},
{
"text": "- Talk us through Hawking's\ninitial revolution",
"timestamp": [
1283.14,
1287.66
]
},
{
"text": "that led to a lot of these conversations",
"timestamp": [
1287.66,
1289.45
]
},
{
"text": "that led to a lot of these conversations",
"timestamp": [
1287.66,
1289.45
]
},
{
"text": "about the information around black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1289.45,
1291.23
]
},
{
"text": "about the information around black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1289.45,
1291.23
]
},
{
"text": "- Hawking's big insight was that",
"timestamp": [
1291.23,
1294.25
]
},
{
"text": "- Hawking's big insight was that",
"timestamp": [
1291.23,
1294.25
]
},
{
"text": "he had to apply both the\nrules of quantum mechanics",
"timestamp": [
1294.25,
1297.47
]
},
{
"text": "he had to apply both the\nrules of quantum mechanics",
"timestamp": [
1294.25,
1297.47
]
},
{
"text": "and the rules of gravity",
"timestamp": [
1297.47,
1298.85
]
},
{
"text": "and the rules of gravity",
"timestamp": [
1297.47,
1298.85
]
},
{
"text": "to really understand\nhow black holes behaved.",
"timestamp": [
1298.85,
1301.76
]
},
{
"text": "to really understand\nhow black holes behaved.",
"timestamp": [
1298.85,
1301.76
]
},
{
"text": "But Hawking took a point of view",
"timestamp": [
1301.76,
1304.32
]
},
{
"text": "But Hawking took a point of view",
"timestamp": [
1301.76,
1304.32
]
},
{
"text": "where he brought quantum\nmechanics into the game.",
"timestamp": [
1304.32,
1307.11
]
},
{
"text": "where he brought quantum\nmechanics into the game.",
"timestamp": [
1304.32,
1307.11
]
},
{
"text": "He really that if you\ntook that into account,",
"timestamp": [
1307.11,
1310.32
]
},
{
"text": "He really that if you\ntook that into account,",
"timestamp": [
1307.11,
1310.32
]
},
{
"text": "that it's actually not quite true",
"timestamp": [
1310.32,
1311.76
]
},
{
"text": "that it's actually not quite true",
"timestamp": [
1310.32,
1311.76
]
},
{
"text": "that black holes are black,",
"timestamp": [
1311.76,
1313.64
]
},
{
"text": "that black holes are black,",
"timestamp": [
1311.76,
1313.64
]
},
{
"text": "that actually things can\nescape from black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1313.64,
1316.52
]
},
{
"text": "that actually things can\nescape from black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1313.64,
1316.52
]
},
{
"text": "- So what you're describing is\nthe famous Hawking radiation",
"timestamp": [
1316.52,
1319.55
]
},
{
"text": "- So what you're describing is\nthe famous Hawking radiation",
"timestamp": [
1316.52,
1319.55
]
},
{
"text": "where a black hole cleverly\nkind of steals energy",
"timestamp": [
1319.55,
1322.77
]
},
{
"text": "where a black hole cleverly\nkind of steals energy",
"timestamp": [
1319.55,
1322.77
]
},
{
"text": "from the quantum vacuum",
"timestamp": [
1322.77,
1324.6
]
},
{
"text": "from the quantum vacuum",
"timestamp": [
1322.77,
1324.6
]
},
{
"text": "and radiates and in the\nprocess of evaporates.",
"timestamp": [
1324.6,
1327.46
]
},
{
"text": "and radiates and in the\nprocess of evaporates.",
"timestamp": [
1324.6,
1327.46
]
},
{
"text": "And of course this caused a big kerfuffle",
"timestamp": [
1327.46,
1329.97
]
},
{
"text": "And of course this caused a big kerfuffle",
"timestamp": [
1327.46,
1329.97
]
},
{
"text": "because when the black hole evaporates,",
"timestamp": [
1329.97,
1331.25
]
},
{
"text": "because when the black hole evaporates,",
"timestamp": [
1329.97,
1331.25
]
},
{
"text": "eventually that event\nhorizons is yanked up.",
"timestamp": [
1331.25,
1333.84
]
},
{
"text": "eventually that event\nhorizons is yanked up.",
"timestamp": [
1331.25,
1333.84
]
},
{
"text": "And the question is,\nwhere did everything go",
"timestamp": [
1333.84,
1335.94
]
},
{
"text": "And the question is,\nwhere did everything go",
"timestamp": [
1333.84,
1335.94
]
},
{
"text": "that had once fallen in?",
"timestamp": [
1335.94,
1337.31
]
},
{
"text": "that had once fallen in?",
"timestamp": [
1335.94,
1337.31
]
},
{
"text": "- A way to think about Hawking radiation",
"timestamp": [
1337.31,
1339.47
]
},
{
"text": "- A way to think about Hawking radiation",
"timestamp": [
1337.31,
1339.47
]
},
{
"text": "is to imagine that pairs of\nparticles and antiparticles",
"timestamp": [
1339.47,
1343.828
]
},
{
"text": "is to imagine that pairs of\nparticles and antiparticles",
"timestamp": [
1339.47,
1343.828
]
},
{
"text": "appear out of the quantum vacuum",
"timestamp": [
1343.828,
1346.94
]
},
{
"text": "appear out of the quantum vacuum",
"timestamp": [
1343.828,
1346.94
]
},
{
"text": "and the particle can\nescape the black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1346.94,
1349.53
]
},
{
"text": "and the particle can\nescape the black hole,",
"timestamp": [
1346.94,
1349.53
]
},
{
"text": "but the antiparticle falls in.",
"timestamp": [
1349.53,
1352.07
]
},
{
"text": "but the antiparticle falls in.",
"timestamp": [
1349.53,
1352.07
]
},
{
"text": "But the particle and\nantiparticle are a pair",
"timestamp": [
1352.07,
1354.89
]
},
{
"text": "But the particle and\nantiparticle are a pair",
"timestamp": [
1352.07,
1354.89
]
},
{
"text": "and if the antiparticle really\nfalls into the black hole",
"timestamp": [
1354.89,
1359.21
]
},
{
"text": "and if the antiparticle really\nfalls into the black hole",
"timestamp": [
1354.89,
1359.21
]
},
{
"text": "and is destroyed at the singularity,",
"timestamp": [
1359.21,
1361.54
]
},
{
"text": "and is destroyed at the singularity,",
"timestamp": [
1359.21,
1361.54
]
},
{
"text": "that poor particle outside the black hole",
"timestamp": [
1361.54,
1364.38
]
},
{
"text": "that poor particle outside the black hole",
"timestamp": [
1361.54,
1364.38
]
},
{
"text": "has lost his partner.",
"timestamp": [
1364.38,
1365.78
]
},
{
"text": "has lost his partner.",
"timestamp": [
1364.38,
1365.78
]
},
{
"text": "It also violates the rules\nof quantum mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
1365.78,
1368.66
]
},
{
"text": "It also violates the rules\nof quantum mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
1365.78,
1368.66
]
},
{
"text": "If you have two particles\nthat are entangled,",
"timestamp": [
1368.66,
1371.093
]
},
{
"text": "If you have two particles\nthat are entangled,",
"timestamp": [
1368.66,
1371.093
]
},
{
"text": "that has to be preserved.",
"timestamp": [
1372.18,
1374.29
]
},
{
"text": "that has to be preserved.",
"timestamp": [
1372.18,
1374.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Now, to be clear,",
"timestamp": [
1374.29,
1375.3
]
},
{
"text": "- Now, to be clear,",
"timestamp": [
1374.29,
1375.3
]
},
{
"text": "nobody disputes that black\nholes will quantum radiate,",
"timestamp": [
1375.3,
1379.53
]
},
{
"text": "nobody disputes that black\nholes will quantum radiate,",
"timestamp": [
1375.3,
1379.53
]
},
{
"text": "that Hawking radiation\nis a solid prediction.",
"timestamp": [
1379.53,
1382.79
]
},
{
"text": "that Hawking radiation\nis a solid prediction.",
"timestamp": [
1379.53,
1382.79
]
},
{
"text": "The black holes should in fact evaporate,",
"timestamp": [
1382.79,
1384.75
]
},
{
"text": "The black holes should in fact evaporate,",
"timestamp": [
1382.79,
1384.75
]
},
{
"text": "that's not disputed, right?",
"timestamp": [
1384.75,
1386.16
]
},
{
"text": "that's not disputed, right?",
"timestamp": [
1384.75,
1386.16
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
1386.16,
1386.993
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
1386.16,
1386.993
]
},
{
"text": "It would be wonderful if we could have",
"timestamp": [
1386.993,
1388.26
]
},
{
"text": "It would be wonderful if we could have",
"timestamp": [
1386.993,
1388.26
]
},
{
"text": "some experimental of evidence for this,",
"timestamp": [
1388.26,
1390.72
]
},
{
"text": "some experimental of evidence for this,",
"timestamp": [
1388.26,
1390.72
]
},
{
"text": "if we could really build\na black hole in the lab",
"timestamp": [
1390.72,
1393.71
]
},
{
"text": "if we could really build\na black hole in the lab",
"timestamp": [
1390.72,
1393.71
]
},
{
"text": "and test to see whether\nit behaves this way.",
"timestamp": [
1393.71,
1396.42
]
},
{
"text": "and test to see whether\nit behaves this way.",
"timestamp": [
1393.71,
1396.42
]
},
{
"text": "But I think there is hope",
"timestamp": [
1396.42,
1398.09
]
},
{
"text": "But I think there is hope",
"timestamp": [
1396.42,
1398.09
]
},
{
"text": "that we'll be able to\ndetect some of these effects",
"timestamp": [
1398.09,
1400.67
]
},
{
"text": "that we'll be able to\ndetect some of these effects",
"timestamp": [
1398.09,
1400.67
]
},
{
"text": "either indirectly,",
"timestamp": [
1400.67,
1402.24
]
},
{
"text": "either indirectly,",
"timestamp": [
1400.67,
1402.24
]
},
{
"text": "by looking at black holes\nout in the universe,",
"timestamp": [
1402.24,
1405.43
]
},
{
"text": "by looking at black holes\nout in the universe,",
"timestamp": [
1402.24,
1405.43
]
},
{
"text": "or also maybe indirectly in the laboratory",
"timestamp": [
1405.43,
1408.11
]
},
{
"text": "or also maybe indirectly in the laboratory",
"timestamp": [
1405.43,
1408.11
]
},
{
"text": "by looking at systems\nwhich aren't black holes,",
"timestamp": [
1408.11,
1411.36
]
},
{
"text": "by looking at systems\nwhich aren't black holes,",
"timestamp": [
1408.11,
1411.36
]
},
{
"text": "but which radiate in kind of similar ways.",
"timestamp": [
1411.36,
1414.244
]
},
{
"text": "but which radiate in kind of similar ways.",
"timestamp": [
1411.36,
1414.244
]
},
{
"text": "- There's this domain of\nblack holes in astrophysics",
"timestamp": [
1414.244,
1417.51
]
},
{
"text": "- There's this domain of\nblack holes in astrophysics",
"timestamp": [
1414.244,
1417.51
]
},
{
"text": "where we see stars collapse,",
"timestamp": [
1417.51,
1418.53
]
},
{
"text": "where we see stars collapse,",
"timestamp": [
1417.51,
1418.53
]
},
{
"text": "and we know that they exist",
"timestamp": [
1418.53,
1420.13
]
},
{
"text": "and we know that they exist",
"timestamp": [
1418.53,
1420.13
]
},
{
"text": "and there's whole observational\nastronomy around them.",
"timestamp": [
1420.13,
1422.63
]
},
{
"text": "and there's whole observational\nastronomy around them.",
"timestamp": [
1420.13,
1422.63
]
},
{
"text": "And then there's this domain\nthat we're talking about,",
"timestamp": [
1422.63,
1424.83
]
},
{
"text": "And then there's this domain\nthat we're talking about,",
"timestamp": [
1422.63,
1424.83
]
},
{
"text": "where, as you said, black\nholes are so special",
"timestamp": [
1424.83,
1426.85
]
},
{
"text": "where, as you said, black\nholes are so special",
"timestamp": [
1424.83,
1426.85
]
},
{
"text": "because they're kind of guiding\nus in the right direction",
"timestamp": [
1426.85,
1430.66
]
},
{
"text": "because they're kind of guiding\nus in the right direction",
"timestamp": [
1426.85,
1430.66
]
},
{
"text": "to understand the very nature of reality.",
"timestamp": [
1430.66,
1433.32
]
},
{
"text": "to understand the very nature of reality.",
"timestamp": [
1430.66,
1433.32
]
},
{
"text": "And that makes them\nreally unusually special.",
"timestamp": [
1433.32,
1435.81
]
},
{
"text": "And that makes them\nreally unusually special.",
"timestamp": [
1433.32,
1435.81
]
},
{
"text": "And one of the things I\nwanted to draw out is that",
"timestamp": [
1435.81,
1438.64
]
},
{
"text": "And one of the things I\nwanted to draw out is that",
"timestamp": [
1435.81,
1438.64
]
},
{
"text": "we talk about the\nfundamental forces of nature.",
"timestamp": [
1438.64,
1441.22
]
},
{
"text": "we talk about the\nfundamental forces of nature.",
"timestamp": [
1438.64,
1441.22
]
},
{
"text": "So there's the matter forces,",
"timestamp": [
1441.22,
1443.89
]
},
{
"text": "So there's the matter forces,",
"timestamp": [
1441.22,
1443.89
]
},
{
"text": "and then the outlier is gravity.",
"timestamp": [
1443.89,
1445.8
]
},
{
"text": "and then the outlier is gravity.",
"timestamp": [
1443.89,
1445.8
]
},
{
"text": "We've quantized all the matter forces",
"timestamp": [
1445.8,
1447.72
]
},
{
"text": "We've quantized all the matter forces",
"timestamp": [
1445.8,
1447.72
]
},
{
"text": "in a way that we're\nrather comfortable with.",
"timestamp": [
1447.72,
1450.54
]
},
{
"text": "in a way that we're\nrather comfortable with.",
"timestamp": [
1447.72,
1450.54
]
},
{
"text": "Gravity keeps resisting\nquantization of gravity itself.",
"timestamp": [
1450.54,
1455.26
]
},
{
"text": "Gravity keeps resisting\nquantization of gravity itself.",
"timestamp": [
1450.54,
1455.26
]
},
{
"text": "And now we're thinking in a\nway that you're describing",
"timestamp": [
1455.26,
1457.7
]
},
{
"text": "And now we're thinking in a\nway that you're describing",
"timestamp": [
1455.26,
1457.7
]
},
{
"text": "that, well, maybe it's only\nthe quantum forces altogether.",
"timestamp": [
1457.7,
1461.31
]
},
{
"text": "that, well, maybe it's only\nthe quantum forces altogether.",
"timestamp": [
1457.7,
1461.31
]
},
{
"text": "- The pursuit of quantum gravity",
"timestamp": [
1461.31,
1464.758
]
},
{
"text": "- The pursuit of quantum gravity",
"timestamp": [
1461.31,
1464.758
]
},
{
"text": "has taken us to places\nwe never expected to be.",
"timestamp": [
1464.758,
1467.48
]
},
{
"text": "has taken us to places\nwe never expected to be.",
"timestamp": [
1464.758,
1467.48
]
},
{
"text": "I think what's exciting about physics,",
"timestamp": [
1467.48,
1469.47
]
},
{
"text": "I think what's exciting about physics,",
"timestamp": [
1467.48,
1469.47
]
},
{
"text": "about theoretical physics,",
"timestamp": [
1469.47,
1471.77
]
},
{
"text": "about theoretical physics,",
"timestamp": [
1469.47,
1471.77
]
},
{
"text": "that you start following a thread,",
"timestamp": [
1471.77,
1474.01
]
},
{
"text": "that you start following a thread,",
"timestamp": [
1471.77,
1474.01
]
},
{
"text": "you start developing a chain of logic,",
"timestamp": [
1474.01,
1476.81
]
},
{
"text": "you start developing a chain of logic,",
"timestamp": [
1474.01,
1476.81
]
},
{
"text": "and you never know\nwhere it's gonna end up.",
"timestamp": [
1476.81,
1478.81
]
},
{
"text": "and you never know\nwhere it's gonna end up.",
"timestamp": [
1476.81,
1478.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you think there's ever a hope that",
"timestamp": [
1478.81,
1481.32
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you think there's ever a hope that",
"timestamp": [
1478.81,
1481.32
]
},
{
"text": "the kind of information\nthat you think about,",
"timestamp": [
1481.32,
1484.93
]
},
{
"text": "the kind of information\nthat you think about,",
"timestamp": [
1481.32,
1484.93
]
},
{
"text": "the quantum gravity\naspects of the universe",
"timestamp": [
1484.93,
1487.86
]
},
{
"text": "the quantum gravity\naspects of the universe",
"timestamp": [
1484.93,
1487.86
]
},
{
"text": "that you think about,",
"timestamp": [
1487.86,
1489.17
]
},
{
"text": "that you think about,",
"timestamp": [
1487.86,
1489.17
]
},
{
"text": "whether it will pan out or not,",
"timestamp": [
1489.17,
1491.52
]
},
{
"text": "whether it will pan out or not,",
"timestamp": [
1489.17,
1491.52
]
},
{
"text": "will ever be viably observed",
"timestamp": [
1491.52,
1494.35
]
},
{
"text": "will ever be viably observed",
"timestamp": [
1491.52,
1494.35
]
},
{
"text": "in these astronomical\npursuits of the event horizon?",
"timestamp": [
1494.35,
1497.78
]
},
{
"text": "in these astronomical\npursuits of the event horizon?",
"timestamp": [
1494.35,
1497.78
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a real challenge, but\nastronomical observations",
"timestamp": [
1497.78,
1502.16
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a real challenge, but\nastronomical observations",
"timestamp": [
1497.78,
1502.16
]
},
{
"text": "have gotten so fantastically precise.",
"timestamp": [
1502.16,
1505.16
]
},
{
"text": "have gotten so fantastically precise.",
"timestamp": [
1502.16,
1505.16
]
},
{
"text": "And there is some hope that\nif you looked at things",
"timestamp": [
1505.16,
1507.75
]
},
{
"text": "And there is some hope that\nif you looked at things",
"timestamp": [
1505.16,
1507.75
]
},
{
"text": "like two black holes merging,",
"timestamp": [
1507.75,
1510.52
]
},
{
"text": "like two black holes merging,",
"timestamp": [
1507.75,
1510.52
]
},
{
"text": "each black hole comes in\nwith its own event horizon,",
"timestamp": [
1510.52,
1513.84
]
},
{
"text": "each black hole comes in\nwith its own event horizon,",
"timestamp": [
1510.52,
1513.84
]
},
{
"text": "but then when the black holes merge,",
"timestamp": [
1513.84,
1515.49
]
},
{
"text": "but then when the black holes merge,",
"timestamp": [
1513.84,
1515.49
]
},
{
"text": "there's a very complicated process",
"timestamp": [
1515.49,
1517.31
]
},
{
"text": "there's a very complicated process",
"timestamp": [
1515.49,
1517.31
]
},
{
"text": "where these two event horizons merge",
"timestamp": [
1517.31,
1519.6
]
},
{
"text": "where these two event horizons merge",
"timestamp": [
1517.31,
1519.6
]
},
{
"text": "and oscillate and vibrate,",
"timestamp": [
1519.6,
1521.74
]
},
{
"text": "and oscillate and vibrate,",
"timestamp": [
1519.6,
1521.74
]
},
{
"text": "and then settle down into\na single event horizon",
"timestamp": [
1521.74,
1524.81
]
},
{
"text": "and then settle down into\na single event horizon",
"timestamp": [
1521.74,
1524.81
]
},
{
"text": "for the final black hole.",
"timestamp": [
1524.81,
1526.89
]
},
{
"text": "for the final black hole.",
"timestamp": [
1524.81,
1526.89
]
},
{
"text": "There is some hope that if we can make",
"timestamp": [
1526.89,
1528.83
]
},
{
"text": "There is some hope that if we can make",
"timestamp": [
1526.89,
1528.83
]
},
{
"text": "sufficiently detailed\nobservations of this process,",
"timestamp": [
1528.83,
1532.58
]
},
{
"text": "sufficiently detailed\nobservations of this process,",
"timestamp": [
1528.83,
1532.58
]
},
{
"text": "if we could really see",
"timestamp": [
1532.58,
1533.5
]
},
{
"text": "if we could really see",
"timestamp": [
1532.58,
1533.5
]
},
{
"text": "the way the event horizon is behaving",
"timestamp": [
1533.5,
1535.44
]
},
{
"text": "the way the event horizon is behaving",
"timestamp": [
1533.5,
1535.44
]
},
{
"text": "as it settles down to this final state,",
"timestamp": [
1535.44,
1537.94
]
},
{
"text": "as it settles down to this final state,",
"timestamp": [
1535.44,
1537.94
]
},
{
"text": "that maybe that could reveal",
"timestamp": [
1537.94,
1539.14
]
},
{
"text": "that maybe that could reveal",
"timestamp": [
1537.94,
1539.14
]
},
{
"text": "some of these quantum effects\nthat we've been talking about.",
"timestamp": [
1539.14,
1541.75
]
},
{
"text": "some of these quantum effects\nthat we've been talking about.",
"timestamp": [
1539.14,
1541.75
]
},
{
"text": "- It is amazing in the\nnumerical simulations",
"timestamp": [
1541.75,
1543.74
]
},
{
"text": "- It is amazing in the\nnumerical simulations",
"timestamp": [
1541.75,
1543.74
]
},
{
"text": "of two black holes merging,",
"timestamp": [
1543.74,
1545.49
]
},
{
"text": "of two black holes merging,",
"timestamp": [
1543.74,
1545.49
]
},
{
"text": "you really see the event\nhorizons bobble around.",
"timestamp": [
1545.49,
1549.35
]
},
{
"text": "you really see the event\nhorizons bobble around.",
"timestamp": [
1545.49,
1549.35
]
},
{
"text": "And we were talking earlier about how",
"timestamp": [
1549.35,
1551.21
]
},
{
"text": "And we were talking earlier about how",
"timestamp": [
1549.35,
1551.21
]
},
{
"text": "really black holes are flawless,",
"timestamp": [
1551.21,
1552.88
]
},
{
"text": "really black holes are flawless,",
"timestamp": [
1551.21,
1552.88
]
},
{
"text": "they don't tolerate those\nkinds of imperfections.",
"timestamp": [
1552.88,
1555.12
]
},
{
"text": "they don't tolerate those\nkinds of imperfections.",
"timestamp": [
1552.88,
1555.12
]
},
{
"text": "And so you can so quickly\nwatch the system wring away",
"timestamp": [
1555.12,
1560.12
]
},
{
"text": "And so you can so quickly\nwatch the system wring away",
"timestamp": [
1555.12,
1560.12
]
},
{
"text": "that misshapen merger.",
"timestamp": [
1560.45,
1563.38
]
},
{
"text": "that misshapen merger.",
"timestamp": [
1560.45,
1563.38
]
},
{
"text": "And it comes out in the\ngravitational waves,",
"timestamp": [
1563.38,
1566.15
]
},
{
"text": "And it comes out in the\ngravitational waves,",
"timestamp": [
1563.38,
1566.15
]
},
{
"text": "which is literally the ripples\nin the shape of spacetime",
"timestamp": [
1566.15,
1568.32
]
},
{
"text": "which is literally the ripples\nin the shape of spacetime",
"timestamp": [
1566.15,
1568.32
]
},
{
"text": "until it settles down,",
"timestamp": [
1568.32,
1569.57
]
},
{
"text": "until it settles down,",
"timestamp": [
1568.32,
1569.57
]
},
{
"text": "and then it's utterly flawless again.",
"timestamp": [
1569.57,
1571.5
]
},
{
"text": "and then it's utterly flawless again.",
"timestamp": [
1569.57,
1571.5
]
},
{
"text": "It really happens fast.",
"timestamp": [
1571.5,
1573.07
]
},
{
"text": "It really happens fast.",
"timestamp": [
1571.5,
1573.07
]
},
{
"text": "It's quite amazing.",
"timestamp": [
1573.07,
1573.92
]
},
{
"text": "It's quite amazing.",
"timestamp": [
1573.07,
1573.92
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it's a spectacular process.",
"timestamp": [
1573.92,
1575.893
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it's a spectacular process.",
"timestamp": [
1573.92,
1575.893
]
},
{
"text": "- In some sense, black holes\naren't anything anymore.",
"timestamp": [
1577.72,
1581.92
]
},
{
"text": "- In some sense, black holes\naren't anything anymore.",
"timestamp": [
1577.72,
1581.92
]
},
{
"text": "They're just empty, curved\nspacetimes and nothing is there.",
"timestamp": [
1581.92,
1586.92
]
},
{
"text": "They're just empty, curved\nspacetimes and nothing is there.",
"timestamp": [
1581.92,
1586.92
]
},
{
"text": "How would you possibly make one?",
"timestamp": [
1587.02,
1589.46
]
},
{
"text": "How would you possibly make one?",
"timestamp": [
1587.02,
1589.46
]
},
{
"text": "And then it becomes,",
"timestamp": [
1589.46,
1591.51
]
},
{
"text": "And then it becomes,",
"timestamp": [
1589.46,
1591.51
]
},
{
"text": "why are there so many",
"timestamp": [
1591.51,
1593.29
]
},
{
"text": "why are there so many",
"timestamp": [
1591.51,
1593.29
]
},
{
"text": "and where are they all?",
"timestamp": [
1593.29,
1594.89
]
},
{
"text": "and where are they all?",
"timestamp": [
1593.29,
1594.89
]
},
{
"text": "Being a black hole scientist means",
"timestamp": [
1594.89,
1596.3
]
},
{
"text": "Being a black hole scientist means",
"timestamp": [
1594.89,
1596.3
]
},
{
"text": "each question leads to more questions.",
"timestamp": [
1596.3,
1598.29
]
},
{
"text": "each question leads to more questions.",
"timestamp": [
1596.3,
1598.29
]
},
{
"text": "We know more and more,",
"timestamp": [
1598.29,
1599.93
]
},
{
"text": "We know more and more,",
"timestamp": [
1598.29,
1599.93
]
},
{
"text": "but we also see how much\nmore there is to understand.",
"timestamp": [
1599.93,
1603.328
]
},
{
"text": "but we also see how much\nmore there is to understand.",
"timestamp": [
1599.93,
1603.328
]
},
{
"text": "[mellow music]",
"timestamp": [
1603.328,
1605.62
]
},
{
"text": "[mellow music]",
"timestamp": [
1603.328,
1605.62
]
},
{
"text": "I hope you've learned\nsomething about black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1605.62,
1608.3
]
},
{
"text": "I hope you've learned\nsomething about black holes.",
"timestamp": [
1605.62,
1608.3
]
},
{
"text": "Thank you so much for watching.",
"timestamp": [
1608.3,
1610.233
]
},
{
"text": "Thank you so much for watching.",
"timestamp": [
1608.3,
1610.233
]
}
] |
[
[
"Intro",
"- Hi, I'm Janna Levin.I'm a Professor of Physics and Astronomyat Barnard College of Columbia University.And today I've been asked\nto explain black holesin five levels of increasing complexity.A black hole might be\ndifferent than you imagine.To some extent it's a\nplace and not a thing.Black holes play an important rolein the history of the universe,in sculpting galaxies that we live in,and possibly in the ultimate\nfate of the universe."
],
[
"What is a black hole",
"[tense music]- Hi.- Hi, welcome.Tell me your name.- Jude.- I wanted to ask youif you have ever heard of a black hole?- Yeah, I think that\nthey're scary and cool.'Cause you can get sucked\nin and get lost foreverand get plopped out in a random place.It's like a big, giant, black thingy.- So black holes, you\ndescribe them as huge.The interesting thing about black holesis they're hugely heavy,but they're actually\nphysically really small.What really matters is the density.Do you know what density is?- It's not weight, but it's\nhow much of it is in it.- Here, let me show you something.I can ask how heavy it is.\n- Yeah.- I can also ask how big it is,which is a question about its volume.If I make it smaller,then what's happening is\nit's becoming more dense.So imagine I crushed this\nreally, really small.It would weigh the same, it\nwould have the same mass,but it would be much more dense.- How does it go that small?- If a star is heavy enough\nto explode into supernovawhat's left begins to\ncollapse under its own weight.And if that's heavy enough,the core will not be\nable to stop collapsing,'cause it no longer has\nthe thermonuclear fuel,it's run outta fuel.And if it's run outta fuel,it's no longer shining\nand pushing outward.And without that it\nitself begins to go darkand there's nothing fighting\nthe collapse anymore.And that's when you form a black hole.- So if like the sun\nall collapsed on itself,it would form a black hole?- Well, that's a really good question.So interestingly, the sun\nitself isn't heavy enough.So it has to be heavy enoughthat when it begins to collapse,it just overcomes all\nattempts to fight it.If you made something really dense,you would have to travel\nfaster than the speed of lightto actually escape.That's 300,000 kilometers per second.- So it goes so fast that\nthere's it's all dark?- So it goes so fast that\nit goes completely dark.Any light that veers\ntoo close will fall in,will not be able to\nmake it back out again.If a light is shining from\nthe sun near a black hole,the black hole's not touching it.Why does the light get pulled in?Why does that happen?- Because the black hole\nis taking other stuff?- It is taking other stuff,but the funny question was like,if I wanted to move your chair,you'd think it was really strangeif I didn't have to come near youand actually grab the chair and move it.One of the things Einstein thought aboutis he imagined thatwhat the black hole is doingis it's changing the\nshape of space around it.What do you think of that idea?- It's crazy.- Isn't it crazy?And then Einstein goes a step furtherand thinks, well, what\nblack holes must be doingis curving the space so stronglythat even light gets caught.Sometimes you can get light\ncaught into a whole orbit,literally the light going\nround and round in an orbit.- So black hole, it doesn't attract light,it moves the space so that the\ncurve is pointed towards it?- That's right.We've been talking for a\nlittle while about black holes.What are you gonna walk away within your impression of\nwhat a black hole is?- It's kind of curves in spacethat are all coming to one point.Everything that goes on those curveschanges directions to come inand even light can't\nescape it, nothing can.- You said that very beautifully.Does that feel like a\ndifferent idea of a black holethan the one you had before we spoke?"
],
[
"How black holes are made",
"- Yeah, a lot.[midtempo music]- Have you heard about black holes?- Yes, I know it has a lot\nof mass, but it's very small.I know that there are several\ntheories about the universedue to black holes,like, around the universe\nand how it's made.- So a lot of times\nstars are born togetherin two star systemsand when they die, if\nthey're heavy enough,they will collapse under their own weightand form a black hole.So here you have a black\nhole and a big fluffy star.And what will happen isit'll start to tear apart\nits neighboring star.Literally parts of the starwill begin to spill onto the black holeand splatter on the black hole.But let's say both those\nstars formed black holes.And what these black holes dois they are like mallets on a drum.They create literally wavesin the shape of spacetime\nas they're moving.So imagine mallets on a drum,how the drum ripples.Depending on how the mallets are movingyou hear different sounds.So effectively these black holes,as they get very close togetherin the final stages of\ntheir life together,they're orbiting each other\nat hundreds of times a second.It's this really crazy event,but it's happening in complete darkness.Eventually they bobble\ntogether and they mergeand then they wring out,the spacetime's going crazy around them,it's this storm in spacetime,and they settle down\nto a quiet black hole.Then those waves that they createdtravel through the universe,\nbasically undisturbed.For a long time people thought,well, even if black holes are out there,they're impossible to observe.And then they got very clever.You might wonder how we could\npossibly hear black holes,that sounds crazy.So I'm gonna show you, but\nI'm gonna need your help.This demo involves an electric guitar.Do you play at all?\n- A little bit?- Okay, you wanna do the demo for me?So the LIGO instrument\nelectronically recordsthe ringing of the shape of spacewith its very complicated instrument.It stands forLaser Interferometric\nGravitational-Waves Observatoryand the design was incredibly difficultand they didn't know\nif they would succeed.I think of the instrumentas like the body of the electric guitar.And then they take the readoutof the motions of the waves\nthat they're recording,just like that guitaris recording the motions\nof the waves on the string.Now just play it like a little bit.And you can't hear anything, right?You're not meant to\nhear an electric guitarwhen it's not plugged in.What's happening is the\nguitar strings are ringing,but so quietly that we can't\nactually hear the sound.And this is like the gravitational waves,which are ringing the drum of spacetime,but so quietly that\nthey're not move the airand we're not hearing them.So now play and I'm gonna turn\nthe volume up a little bit.[electric guitar music]While I can't actually hearthe ringing of the strings themselves,I can hear the data of\nthe shape of the stringrecorded and played\nthrough this amplifier.And that's kind of the idea\nbehind the LIGO instrument.- How do you know that it'slike the black hole\nthat's making this soundand nothing else?- It's a great question.If I didn't see you playing the guitar,I would recognize the sound of a guitar.And even if I had never\nheard of a guitar beforeI could figure out the frequenciesthat the string was playing,I could tell how strongly\nit had been plucked,and I could tell the length of itand where it was pinned downfrom the harmonics of the string.And I can tell the different\nlengths of the stringsfrom the notes that they play.So I can actuallyreconstruct the instrument\nthat's playing it.And it's very similar to LIGO,we can listen to the notes,\nthe amplitude, the harmonics,and we can deduce the sizeand shape of the objects doing that.And they're very massive\nand they're very smalland they have all the\nmarkings of a black hole.- Is there anything that like,gets affected on Earth\nbecause of those waves?- It's a really good question.Only this instrument,and that's why it was so hard to build.And by the time it gets here, it's so weakthat it's only squeezing\nand stretching spaceat like the fraction of a nucleus\nover very large distances.Has your understanding\nof black holes changedover the course of our conversation?- I knew there were waves\nfor like everything,but I never thought specifically,oh yeah, black holes have, like, waves.I know more and less.- I know what you mean."
],
[
"What are black holes",
"[gentle music]- I'm Jayda, It's nice to meet you.- Nice to meet you, and\nwhere are you studying?- I'm a senior at NYU.I'm studying physics and\nenvironmental studies.- What is your impression\nof what a black hole is?- So it's a star that has collapsed.It has so much concentrated\nmass and gravitythat there's a point\noutside of the black holecalled the event horizon.So once you get past the event horizon,nothing, not even light\ncan escape from that.- So that's a great definitionand I wanna pick that apart a little bit.So what you described is just right.Stars, when they run out\nof thermonuclear fuelare gonna collapse under their own weight.It'll explode in a supernova,\nit'll leave a core,and if the core itself is heavy enough,it will keep collapsing.It does, as you say, reach this pointwhere not even light can escape.But the amazing thing\nis it leaves that point,you called it rightly the event horizon,it leaves it behind kind of\nlike an archeological recordbecause the start itselfcan no more sit at the event horizonthan it can race outward\nat the speed of light.So the core of the star keeps collapsingand where it goes nobody knows.So in a weird way,the black hole isn't\nanymore a crush of matter.It left it behind in its wake,but the stuff of the star is gone.- I've heard of Schwarzschild black holes,which is a black hole that is static,a Kerr black hole or a\nKerr-Newman black hole,which is a black hole that rotates,but what makes a black hole\nstatic versus rotating?And what's more common?- It turns out that there\nare only three quantitiesthat define a black hole,its electric charge,\nits mass, and its spin.So the most general\nblack hole can also spinand it can also be electrically charged.Whether or not they are has\nto do with how they formed.If a star collapses,it will likely be\nspinning when it collapsesand the remnant black hole that formswill likely be spinning.A black hole of a certain\nmass, charge, and spinis indistinguishable\nfrom any other black holewith those same properties.So in some sense, they're\nlike fundamental particles,which makes them absolutely exceptionalfor any other astrophysical object.Have you heard the\nstories about what happensinside a black hole?- I remember that once\nyou pass the event horizonspace becomes time and time becomes space,in like, a coordinate sense.- So from the outside,\nif you're an astronaut,you're watching your friend,another astronaut going\ninto the black hole,it's as though your times become rotatedrelative to each other.So the profound thing is as\nan astronaut on the outside,looking at this round event horizon,you think of the center of\nblack hole as a point in space,but to the person who's fallen in,it's not a point in space at\nall, it's a point in time.The singularity, or the end of it all,the crush in the center of a black holeis in their future.So they can no more avoid the singularitythan you can avoid the next\ninstant of time coming.So the death in the\nsingularity is inevitable.Although we don't really thinkthe singularity necessarily exists.- I sort of know what a singularity is.I think of it as somethingwhere everything is compacted\ninto one single point,it's a place where the laws of physicsdon't exactly work out.What did you mean when you saidthat you don't think the\nsingularity really exists?- So the singularity\nis definitely predictedin Einstein's general theory of relativityand that's purely a theory of spacetime.And in the theory of spacetime,there is no question that\na singularity would formwhen the star collapses catastrophicallyinside the black hole.Now, even when people\ntalked about singularitiesback in the '60s, they thought,\nyou know, quantum mechanicsis part of the story of\nthe whole of physics.It's not just gravity.And if we understand quantum gravitywe'll realize that singularityprobably doesn't ever actually form.- So since we obviously have\nnever been to a black hole,how do we know for sure,like, what happens after\nyou cross the event horizonor what happens inside a black hole?Is it just like, inferred from the math?- I would say to some extent\nwe don't know for sure.What we have found is thatthe mathematics is so\nunbelievably powerfulthat we're able to disprove wrong ideasjust in pen and paper.Just very recently, within\nthe past couple of years,the first ever human-procured\nimage of a black holeshowed us what we expected\nto see of the event horizon.So Jayda, after our conversation today,what would you say a black hole is?- Something that I had\nnever thought of before isa black hole as kind ofa type of quantum fundamental particle.I've also learned how event\nhorizon of a black holekind of hides a singularity.- The beauty of being a studentof something like black holesis you never stophaving new impressions of what\nthis enigmatic phenomena is.So in a year, I'll tell you\nwhat I learned that's new.- Awesome![classical music]- I'm Clare.- And you're in graduate schooland you're getting your PhD.What year are you?- I'm a second year.So I'm measuring star formation historiesin the Small and Large Magellanic Clouds.- Does the Large Magellanic\nCloud have a big black hole?- So, I think the prevailing\nwisdom for a while was no,but my answer honestly is I'm not sure.- Yeah, and probably\nnobody is. [women laughing]Have you heard a lot in your studiesabout these super massive black holesthat we think lurk in the centersof very nearly every galaxy?- So I don't study AGN a lot,but I do have a long term\ninterest in black holes,it's one of the reasons\nI entered the field.I always was curious abouthow a black hole of that\nsize was able to form.Was it the result of mergers\nbetween smaller black holes,ultimately creating\ngravitational well deep enoughto contract a protogenic\ndisc for a whole galaxy?Or, man, what happened?- Yeah, I think it's a\nreally good question.The only mechanism that we know for surecan form black holes is to\ncollapse of very massive stars.So it's sensible to think,well maybe some very massive\nstars in a young universecollapsed under their own\nweight and then they mergedand after some time they got big enough,but the black holes from starscan be tens of times the mass of the sun,maybe hundreds of times\nto the mass of the sunif they merge.To get to millions and billions,and if you just do the simple arithmeticof how many years that would take,there aren't enough yearsin the 14 billion years of\nthe universe's lifetime.So they must have come\nfrom somewhere else.- I am at a lossto think of what could\nhave possibly happenedin between the start of the universeand the formation of our galaxythat could create such a massive object.- Yeah, I think that's right.I think people are really perplexedabout how you make something so bigin such a short period of time.It's kind of funny, the\nbigger you make a black hole,it seems maybe counterintuitive,but the less dense the material has to beout of which you make it.So you can, out of something\nthe density almost of air,you can make a supermassive black hole.You can't make a star out of that,but weirdly, if you skip\nthe star phase altogether,it's conceivable that\nthey directly collapse.And so there's suddenly a\nnew way to make black holesthat nature has figured out.- We spend all of our time,when we learn about black holes in school,predominantly through star collapse.- [Janna] Yeah.- I didn't even realize that therewas an alternate route\nto creating a black hole.- There might be many alternate routes.It might be in the very early universethat bubbles in unusual phase transitionsfrom very high energy universe\nto a low energy universecan make black holes.Like, we haven't really thought ofthe range of possibilities.And so there could also\nbe primordial black holesthat are still aroundthat also skipped the\nstar stage altogetherthat were formed really in\nthe very earliest phases.And I think the interesting thing is,with your looking at like\nthe Large Magellanic Cloud,is to wonder if we're gonna merge.- Absolutely.We thought the canonical\npicture of the Cloudswas essentially that they had\nformed with the Milky Way,maybe in its halo,and had been in a stable\norbit for about a Hubble time,or about 14 billion years.Young guns in the field have\nthrown a wrench in that theorythat they've always been orbitingand that perhaps they're\non their first orbit,they're on an unstable orbit.Will they join us?- Can you tell us about Andromeda?- Andromeda is part of the\nbig three in the local group.- The local group being\na group of galaxiesthat are not expandingwith the expansion of the\nuniverse away from each other,they're trapped.- Gravitationally, all friends.- Yes, they're all friends.- And Andromeda is one of the few galaxiesthat is traveling towards usand do for a merger event at some point.So given a sufficiently low velocity,we would just have two big galaxies that,for the most part,pass through each other,\npass by each other.But given a sufficiently high velocity,we will have some crazy\nblack hole interactionsand some crazy star interactions.- But when we do merge with Andromeda,presumably our black holes will mergeand Andromeda indeed hasa very big black hole\nas well at its center.And then we'll have this just gigantic-- Supermassive black hole.- Yeah, and it's very\npossible that as you said,the collision won't be so severethat it'll be very disruptive.So our entire solar\nsystem could stay intactand here we would go with the\nsun and all the other planetsin orbit around a new black hole.- They're kind of\nmisunderstood giants in a way.So I was curious,have you heard anything new or interestingin the field of black holesthat will shape future discussions?- We work a lot right nowon thinking of black holes as batteries.So a black hole that can\ntake, like a giant magnet,astronomical magnet in the\nform of another collapsed star,like a neutron star,and flip it around so fast,\nnear the speed of light,that it actually creates\nan electronic circuitout of this moving magnet.And so that the powerthat can come out of\nthese electronic circuitscreated by these batteries\ncan be tremendous.- You know, I know that at a certain pointfor our civilization to\nbecome sufficiently advanced,to travel the cosmos beyond,\nyou know, the moon or Mars,we may have to be able to\nharness the power of our sun.Would it be similarly possible to harnessthe power of a black hole\nlike you were mentioning,to travel?- It's a great question.I once did a calculation ofusing a black hole made out of the moonand the strongest magnet\nwe could find on Earthto see if I could make\nan electronic battery.And honestly,you only get about enough\nenergy to power New York City.But we have to find one\nin our neighborhood first.- Yeah, wouldn't be my favorite thing.- So Claire,we've had this pretty\nfascinating conversationabout supermassive black\nholes in particular.And after our discussion,what is it that has changed\nfor you in your perspectiveor what is it that excites you?- Oh, I think our discussion kind ofexposed a piece of black holes\nthat I don't think of often,which is that they're\nnot just life takers,they're life givers.And they inform a lot about,not just how a galaxy\nis destroyed or made,but how it's shaped and how\nit eventually, you know,builds life like ours.So maybe I have to give black\nholes a little bit more props."
],
[
"Hawking radiation",
"[gentle music]- Hi, Dan, I'm so glad you could make it.What have you been working\non with black holesin the time since I've last seen you?- There are a lot of\naspects to black holes.The one that's kind of\ninterested me most latelyis trying to understand themfrom the point of view of information,how information is stored and processedand recovered from black holes.Which turns out to be a really\ninteresting perspective.- Talk us through Hawking's\ninitial revolutionthat led to a lot of these conversationsabout the information around black holes.- Hawking's big insight was thathe had to apply both the\nrules of quantum mechanicsand the rules of gravityto really understand\nhow black holes behaved.But Hawking took a point of viewwhere he brought quantum\nmechanics into the game.He really that if you\ntook that into account,that it's actually not quite truethat black holes are black,that actually things can\nescape from black holes.- So what you're describing is\nthe famous Hawking radiationwhere a black hole cleverly\nkind of steals energyfrom the quantum vacuumand radiates and in the\nprocess of evaporates.And of course this caused a big kerfufflebecause when the black hole evaporates,eventually that event\nhorizons is yanked up.And the question is,\nwhere did everything gothat had once fallen in?- A way to think about Hawking radiationis to imagine that pairs of\nparticles and antiparticlesappear out of the quantum vacuumand the particle can\nescape the black hole,but the antiparticle falls in.But the particle and\nantiparticle are a pairand if the antiparticle really\nfalls into the black holeand is destroyed at the singularity,that poor particle outside the black holehas lost his partner.It also violates the rules\nof quantum mechanics.If you have two particles\nthat are entangled,that has to be preserved.- Now, to be clear,nobody disputes that black\nholes will quantum radiate,that Hawking radiation\nis a solid prediction.The black holes should in fact evaporate,that's not disputed, right?- That's right.It would be wonderful if we could havesome experimental of evidence for this,if we could really build\na black hole in the laband test to see whether\nit behaves this way.But I think there is hopethat we'll be able to\ndetect some of these effectseither indirectly,by looking at black holes\nout in the universe,or also maybe indirectly in the laboratoryby looking at systems\nwhich aren't black holes,but which radiate in kind of similar ways.- There's this domain of\nblack holes in astrophysicswhere we see stars collapse,and we know that they existand there's whole observational\nastronomy around them.And then there's this domain\nthat we're talking about,where, as you said, black\nholes are so specialbecause they're kind of guiding\nus in the right directionto understand the very nature of reality.And that makes them\nreally unusually special.And one of the things I\nwanted to draw out is thatwe talk about the\nfundamental forces of nature.So there's the matter forces,and then the outlier is gravity.We've quantized all the matter forcesin a way that we're\nrather comfortable with.Gravity keeps resisting\nquantization of gravity itself.And now we're thinking in a\nway that you're describingthat, well, maybe it's only\nthe quantum forces altogether.- The pursuit of quantum gravityhas taken us to places\nwe never expected to be.I think what's exciting about physics,about theoretical physics,that you start following a thread,you start developing a chain of logic,and you never know\nwhere it's gonna end up.- Do you think there's ever a hope thatthe kind of information\nthat you think about,the quantum gravity\naspects of the universethat you think about,whether it will pan out or not,will ever be viably observedin these astronomical\npursuits of the event horizon?- It's a real challenge, but\nastronomical observationshave gotten so fantastically precise.And there is some hope that\nif you looked at thingslike two black holes merging,each black hole comes in\nwith its own event horizon,but then when the black holes merge,there's a very complicated processwhere these two event horizons mergeand oscillate and vibrate,and then settle down into\na single event horizonfor the final black hole.There is some hope that if we can makesufficiently detailed\nobservations of this process,if we could really seethe way the event horizon is behavingas it settles down to this final state,that maybe that could revealsome of these quantum effects\nthat we've been talking about.- It is amazing in the\nnumerical simulationsof two black holes merging,you really see the event\nhorizons bobble around.And we were talking earlier about howreally black holes are flawless,they don't tolerate those\nkinds of imperfections.And so you can so quickly\nwatch the system wring awaythat misshapen merger.And it comes out in the\ngravitational waves,which is literally the ripples\nin the shape of spacetimeuntil it settles down,and then it's utterly flawless again.It really happens fast.It's quite amazing.- Yeah, it's a spectacular process.- In some sense, black holes\naren't anything anymore.They're just empty, curved\nspacetimes and nothing is there.How would you possibly make one?And then it becomes,why are there so manyand where are they all?Being a black hole scientist meanseach question leads to more questions.We know more and more,but we also see how much\nmore there is to understand.[mellow music]I hope you've learned\nsomething about black holes.Thank you so much for watching."
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Geometer Explains One Concept in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
ofFLYfUEPVE
| 1,353
|
[
{
"end_time": 29,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "Intro"
},
{
"end_time": 196,
"start_time": 29,
"title": "Fractals"
},
{
"end_time": 600,
"start_time": 196,
"title": "Coastline Paradox"
},
{
"end_time": 917,
"start_time": 600,
"title": "Fractal Dimensions"
},
{
"end_time": 1353,
"start_time": 917,
"title": "Computer Graphics"
}
] |
[
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Keenan Crane.",
"timestamp": [
0.33,
1.42
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Keenan Crane.",
"timestamp": [
0.33,
1.42
]
},
{
"text": "I am a geometer and professor\nof computer science at",
"timestamp": [
1.42,
4.23
]
},
{
"text": "I am a geometer and professor\nof computer science at",
"timestamp": [
1.42,
4.23
]
},
{
"text": "Carnegie Mellon university.",
"timestamp": [
4.23,
5.5
]
},
{
"text": "Carnegie Mellon university.",
"timestamp": [
4.23,
5.5
]
},
{
"text": "And today I've been asked to\nexplain fractals at five levels",
"timestamp": [
5.5,
8.81
]
},
{
"text": "And today I've been asked to\nexplain fractals at five levels",
"timestamp": [
5.5,
8.81
]
},
{
"text": "of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
8.81,
10.52
]
},
{
"text": "of increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
8.81,
10.52
]
},
{
"text": "So fractals are a sort of\nstrange kind of shape that have",
"timestamp": [
10.52,
13.453
]
},
{
"text": "So fractals are a sort of\nstrange kind of shape that have",
"timestamp": [
10.52,
13.453
]
},
{
"text": "detail at all different levels.",
"timestamp": [
13.453,
15.96
]
},
{
"text": "detail at all different levels.",
"timestamp": [
13.453,
15.96
]
},
{
"text": "Fractals appear all over nature.",
"timestamp": [
15.96,
17.93
]
},
{
"text": "Fractals appear all over nature.",
"timestamp": [
15.96,
17.93
]
},
{
"text": "They rise naturally in computer\ngraphics because we wanna",
"timestamp": [
17.93,
20.15
]
},
{
"text": "They rise naturally in computer\ngraphics because we wanna",
"timestamp": [
17.93,
20.15
]
},
{
"text": "make beautiful images\nof the natural world.",
"timestamp": [
20.15,
22.81
]
},
{
"text": "make beautiful images\nof the natural world.",
"timestamp": [
20.15,
22.81
]
},
{
"text": "Fractals are also really\ninteresting because they show how",
"timestamp": [
22.81,
25.07
]
},
{
"text": "Fractals are also really\ninteresting because they show how",
"timestamp": [
22.81,
25.07
]
},
{
"text": "extremely simple descriptions\ncan give rise to really",
"timestamp": [
25.07,
27.844
]
},
{
"text": "extremely simple descriptions\ncan give rise to really",
"timestamp": [
25.07,
27.844
]
},
{
"text": "complex shapes.",
"timestamp": [
27.844,
29.453
]
},
{
"text": "complex shapes.",
"timestamp": [
27.844,
29.453
]
},
{
"text": "What's your name?",
"timestamp": [
32.9,
33.733
]
},
{
"text": "What's your name?",
"timestamp": [
32.9,
33.733
]
},
{
"text": "- Myra.",
"timestamp": [
33.733,
34.566
]
},
{
"text": "- Myra.",
"timestamp": [
33.733,
34.566
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you heard of fractals before?",
"timestamp": [
34.566,
37.05
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you heard of fractals before?",
"timestamp": [
34.566,
37.05
]
},
{
"text": "- No, absolutely not.",
"timestamp": [
37.05,
38.81
]
},
{
"text": "- No, absolutely not.",
"timestamp": [
37.05,
38.81
]
},
{
"text": "- So a fractal is something\nthat we see every day,",
"timestamp": [
38.81,
42.18
]
},
{
"text": "- So a fractal is something\nthat we see every day,",
"timestamp": [
38.81,
42.18
]
},
{
"text": "but it's a little bit hard to describe.",
"timestamp": [
42.18,
43.77
]
},
{
"text": "but it's a little bit hard to describe.",
"timestamp": [
42.18,
43.77
]
},
{
"text": "It's it's a shape that if you\nlook at it really far away,",
"timestamp": [
43.77,
47.06
]
},
{
"text": "It's it's a shape that if you\nlook at it really far away,",
"timestamp": [
43.77,
47.06
]
},
{
"text": "or you look at it really up close,",
"timestamp": [
47.06,
49.21
]
},
{
"text": "or you look at it really up close,",
"timestamp": [
47.06,
49.21
]
},
{
"text": "it has kind of a similar appearance.",
"timestamp": [
49.21,
51.67
]
},
{
"text": "it has kind of a similar appearance.",
"timestamp": [
49.21,
51.67
]
},
{
"text": "And actually that word fractal sounds",
"timestamp": [
51.67,
54.26
]
},
{
"text": "And actually that word fractal sounds",
"timestamp": [
51.67,
54.26
]
},
{
"text": "a little bit like fraction.",
"timestamp": [
54.26,
55.781
]
},
{
"text": "a little bit like fraction.",
"timestamp": [
54.26,
55.781
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.\n- Right?",
"timestamp": [
55.781,
56.614
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.\n- Right?",
"timestamp": [
55.781,
56.614
]
},
{
"text": "So actually fractals are\nin some way fractions,",
"timestamp": [
56.614,
60.11
]
},
{
"text": "So actually fractals are\nin some way fractions,",
"timestamp": [
56.614,
60.11
]
},
{
"text": "but for shapes.",
"timestamp": [
60.11,
61.29
]
},
{
"text": "but for shapes.",
"timestamp": [
60.11,
61.29
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever seen a movie called Moana?",
"timestamp": [
61.29,
63.238
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever seen a movie called Moana?",
"timestamp": [
61.29,
63.238
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
63.238,
64.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
63.238,
64.38
]
},
{
"text": "Moana lives on this like\nbeautiful island, right?",
"timestamp": [
64.38,
66.358
]
},
{
"text": "Moana lives on this like\nbeautiful island, right?",
"timestamp": [
64.38,
66.358
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
66.358,
67.191
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
66.358,
67.191
]
},
{
"text": "- This island has lots of trees on it.",
"timestamp": [
67.191,
69.07
]
},
{
"text": "- This island has lots of trees on it.",
"timestamp": [
67.191,
69.07
]
},
{
"text": "Some artists had to make all those trees.",
"timestamp": [
69.07,
72.15
]
},
{
"text": "Some artists had to make all those trees.",
"timestamp": [
69.07,
72.15
]
},
{
"text": "How do you think they do that?",
"timestamp": [
72.15,
73.74
]
},
{
"text": "How do you think they do that?",
"timestamp": [
72.15,
73.74
]
},
{
"text": "- They tried to find something\nsimilar to that on the Google",
"timestamp": [
73.74,
78.74
]
},
{
"text": "- They tried to find something\nsimilar to that on the Google",
"timestamp": [
73.74,
78.74
]
},
{
"text": "and they try to picture\nit in their heads saying,",
"timestamp": [
79.75,
83.387
]
},
{
"text": "and they try to picture\nit in their heads saying,",
"timestamp": [
79.75,
83.387
]
},
{
"text": "what would, what would\nit look like if they,",
"timestamp": [
83.387,
87.05
]
},
{
"text": "what would, what would\nit look like if they,",
"timestamp": [
83.387,
87.05
]
},
{
"text": "it was animated?",
"timestamp": [
87.05,
88.43
]
},
{
"text": "it was animated?",
"timestamp": [
87.05,
88.43
]
},
{
"text": "- So somehow they have to explain",
"timestamp": [
88.43,
89.57
]
},
{
"text": "- So somehow they have to explain",
"timestamp": [
88.43,
89.57
]
},
{
"text": "to the computer what a tree",
"timestamp": [
89.57,
91.5
]
},
{
"text": "to the computer what a tree",
"timestamp": [
89.57,
91.5
]
},
{
"text": "looks like so that the computer\ncan draw the tree for them.",
"timestamp": [
91.5,
94.887
]
},
{
"text": "looks like so that the computer\ncan draw the tree for them.",
"timestamp": [
91.5,
94.887
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
94.887,
95.72
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
94.887,
95.72
]
},
{
"text": "- And that's kind of what\nwe're gonna try out today.",
"timestamp": [
95.72,
97.96
]
},
{
"text": "- And that's kind of what\nwe're gonna try out today.",
"timestamp": [
95.72,
97.96
]
},
{
"text": "In fact, we're gonna\nhave you build a fractal.",
"timestamp": [
97.96,
100.29
]
},
{
"text": "In fact, we're gonna\nhave you build a fractal.",
"timestamp": [
97.96,
100.29
]
},
{
"text": "A tree is a really good\nexample of a fractal",
"timestamp": [
100.29,
102.78
]
},
{
"text": "A tree is a really good\nexample of a fractal",
"timestamp": [
100.29,
102.78
]
},
{
"text": "because if you look at the whole tree",
"timestamp": [
102.78,
105.05
]
},
{
"text": "because if you look at the whole tree",
"timestamp": [
102.78,
105.05
]
},
{
"text": "and then you break off a\nbig branch of the tree.",
"timestamp": [
105.05,
107.766
]
},
{
"text": "and then you break off a\nbig branch of the tree.",
"timestamp": [
105.05,
107.766
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
107.766,
108.599
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
107.766,
108.599
]
},
{
"text": "- It almost looks like that\nbranch that you broke off is",
"timestamp": [
108.599,
110.88
]
},
{
"text": "- It almost looks like that\nbranch that you broke off is",
"timestamp": [
108.599,
110.88
]
},
{
"text": "itself another tree.",
"timestamp": [
110.88,
112.3
]
},
{
"text": "itself another tree.",
"timestamp": [
110.88,
112.3
]
},
{
"text": "So our rule is that every branch splits",
"timestamp": [
112.3,
114.52
]
},
{
"text": "So our rule is that every branch splits",
"timestamp": [
112.3,
114.52
]
},
{
"text": "into two smaller branches.",
"timestamp": [
114.52,
116.237
]
},
{
"text": "into two smaller branches.",
"timestamp": [
114.52,
116.237
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
116.237,
117.07
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
116.237,
117.07
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
117.07,
119.82
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
117.07,
119.82
]
},
{
"text": "- So your tree is totally beautiful,",
"timestamp": [
120.67,
122.19
]
},
{
"text": "- So your tree is totally beautiful,",
"timestamp": [
120.67,
122.19
]
},
{
"text": "but it took a long time to make, right.",
"timestamp": [
122.19,
125.05
]
},
{
"text": "but it took a long time to make, right.",
"timestamp": [
122.19,
125.05
]
},
{
"text": "How would you feel if I said,",
"timestamp": [
125.05,
126.17
]
},
{
"text": "How would you feel if I said,",
"timestamp": [
125.05,
126.17
]
},
{
"text": "now you have to make a\nthousand of those trees.",
"timestamp": [
126.17,
129.12
]
},
{
"text": "now you have to make a\nthousand of those trees.",
"timestamp": [
126.17,
129.12
]
},
{
"text": "- I'd be like, oh my that's a lot of work.",
"timestamp": [
129.12,
131.94
]
},
{
"text": "- I'd be like, oh my that's a lot of work.",
"timestamp": [
129.12,
131.94
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it's a ton of work.",
"timestamp": [
131.94,
133.41
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it's a ton of work.",
"timestamp": [
131.94,
133.41
]
},
{
"text": "If you think about Moana's island,",
"timestamp": [
133.41,
136.16
]
},
{
"text": "If you think about Moana's island,",
"timestamp": [
133.41,
136.16
]
},
{
"text": "it has these tens and hundreds\nof thousands of trees on it.",
"timestamp": [
136.16,
139.6
]
},
{
"text": "it has these tens and hundreds\nof thousands of trees on it.",
"timestamp": [
136.16,
139.6
]
},
{
"text": "And that's why we need\ncomputers to help us out",
"timestamp": [
139.6,
141.88
]
},
{
"text": "And that's why we need\ncomputers to help us out",
"timestamp": [
139.6,
141.88
]
},
{
"text": "because computers are really good",
"timestamp": [
141.88,
144.27
]
},
{
"text": "because computers are really good",
"timestamp": [
141.88,
144.27
]
},
{
"text": "at taking these really simple rules,",
"timestamp": [
144.27,
146.45
]
},
{
"text": "at taking these really simple rules,",
"timestamp": [
144.27,
146.45
]
},
{
"text": "like put two branches\non every other branch",
"timestamp": [
146.45,
149.5
]
},
{
"text": "like put two branches\non every other branch",
"timestamp": [
146.45,
149.5
]
},
{
"text": "and doing it really, really fast.",
"timestamp": [
149.5,
150.81
]
},
{
"text": "and doing it really, really fast.",
"timestamp": [
149.5,
150.81
]
},
{
"text": "- I want to know how to draw a fractal.",
"timestamp": [
150.81,
153.03
]
},
{
"text": "- I want to know how to draw a fractal.",
"timestamp": [
150.81,
153.03
]
},
{
"text": "- On a computer if you wanna\nlearn to draw fractals,",
"timestamp": [
153.03,
155.8
]
},
{
"text": "- On a computer if you wanna\nlearn to draw fractals,",
"timestamp": [
153.03,
155.8
]
},
{
"text": "then you might need to learn a\nlittle bit about programming.",
"timestamp": [
155.8,
158.3
]
},
{
"text": "then you might need to learn a\nlittle bit about programming.",
"timestamp": [
155.8,
158.3
]
},
{
"text": "- Programming.\n- [Keenan] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
158.3,
159.296
]
},
{
"text": "- Programming.\n- [Keenan] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
158.3,
159.296
]
},
{
"text": "- Like coding.",
"timestamp": [
159.296,
160.129
]
},
{
"text": "- Like coding.",
"timestamp": [
159.296,
160.129
]
},
{
"text": "- Like coding, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
160.129,
161.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Like coding, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
160.129,
161.29
]
},
{
"text": "That's what actually a lot of\nthe artists for the movies are",
"timestamp": [
161.29,
164.83
]
},
{
"text": "That's what actually a lot of\nthe artists for the movies are",
"timestamp": [
161.29,
164.83
]
},
{
"text": "working with code rather\nthan with a paintbrush.",
"timestamp": [
164.83,
167.8
]
},
{
"text": "working with code rather\nthan with a paintbrush.",
"timestamp": [
164.83,
167.8
]
},
{
"text": "So in your own words,",
"timestamp": [
167.8,
169.36
]
},
{
"text": "So in your own words,",
"timestamp": [
167.8,
169.36
]
},
{
"text": "how would you describe\na fractal to somebody?",
"timestamp": [
169.36,
171.528
]
},
{
"text": "how would you describe\na fractal to somebody?",
"timestamp": [
169.36,
171.528
]
},
{
"text": "- I would describe a fractal by saying",
"timestamp": [
171.528,
174.237
]
},
{
"text": "- I would describe a fractal by saying",
"timestamp": [
171.528,
174.237
]
},
{
"text": "that when you see a, a object,",
"timestamp": [
174.237,
177.153
]
},
{
"text": "that when you see a, a object,",
"timestamp": [
174.237,
177.153
]
},
{
"text": "if you zoom in closely,",
"timestamp": [
178.21,
180.25
]
},
{
"text": "if you zoom in closely,",
"timestamp": [
178.21,
180.25
]
},
{
"text": "you'll see that it's, it's\nbroken down into pieces.",
"timestamp": [
180.25,
184.88
]
},
{
"text": "you'll see that it's, it's\nbroken down into pieces.",
"timestamp": [
180.25,
184.88
]
},
{
"text": "So as you zoom in more closely,",
"timestamp": [
184.88,
187.75
]
},
{
"text": "So as you zoom in more closely,",
"timestamp": [
184.88,
187.75
]
},
{
"text": "you'll keep seeing smaller\nand smaller pieces.",
"timestamp": [
187.75,
191.96
]
},
{
"text": "you'll keep seeing smaller\nand smaller pieces.",
"timestamp": [
187.75,
191.96
]
},
{
"text": "- Definitely that is totally\nwhat fractals are all about.",
"timestamp": [
191.96,
195.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Definitely that is totally\nwhat fractals are all about.",
"timestamp": [
191.96,
195.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
195.31,
196.178
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
195.31,
196.178
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
196.178,
198.928
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
196.178,
198.928
]
},
{
"text": "- What are you studying in\nseventh grade these days?",
"timestamp": [
200.33,
202.873
]
},
{
"text": "- What are you studying in\nseventh grade these days?",
"timestamp": [
200.33,
202.873
]
},
{
"text": "- I think we're doing geometry still.",
"timestamp": [
202.873,
205.57
]
},
{
"text": "- I think we're doing geometry still.",
"timestamp": [
202.873,
205.57
]
},
{
"text": "- What if I told you that there\nare shapes where you can't",
"timestamp": [
205.57,
210.02
]
},
{
"text": "- What if I told you that there\nare shapes where you can't",
"timestamp": [
205.57,
210.02
]
},
{
"text": "measure the length of the perimeter.",
"timestamp": [
210.02,
212.692
]
},
{
"text": "measure the length of the perimeter.",
"timestamp": [
210.02,
212.692
]
},
{
"text": "- It's big, but all of the\nsides are kind of like,",
"timestamp": [
212.692,
216.76
]
},
{
"text": "- It's big, but all of the\nsides are kind of like,",
"timestamp": [
212.692,
216.76
]
},
{
"text": "so weird",
"timestamp": [
217.653,
220.51
]
},
{
"text": "so weird",
"timestamp": [
217.653,
220.51
]
},
{
"text": "that they wouldn't be able",
"timestamp": [
220.51,
222.48
]
},
{
"text": "that they wouldn't be able",
"timestamp": [
220.51,
222.48
]
},
{
"text": "to pinpoint anything\nspecific to add together.",
"timestamp": [
222.48,
225.13
]
},
{
"text": "to pinpoint anything\nspecific to add together.",
"timestamp": [
222.48,
225.13
]
},
{
"text": "- The shape is just\nsuper, super complicated.",
"timestamp": [
225.13,
227.217
]
},
{
"text": "- The shape is just\nsuper, super complicated.",
"timestamp": [
225.13,
227.217
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
227.217,
228.05
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
227.217,
228.05
]
},
{
"text": "- And so you can't actually\nmeasure the length.",
"timestamp": [
228.05,
229.09
]
},
{
"text": "- And so you can't actually\nmeasure the length.",
"timestamp": [
228.05,
229.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- Right?",
"timestamp": [
229.09,
230.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- Right?",
"timestamp": [
229.09,
230.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
230.01,
231.154
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
230.01,
231.154
]
},
{
"text": "So that's already a really\ngood idea of what a fractal is.",
"timestamp": [
231.154,
234.56
]
},
{
"text": "So that's already a really\ngood idea of what a fractal is.",
"timestamp": [
231.154,
234.56
]
},
{
"text": "It has some really, really\ninteresting detail at all,",
"timestamp": [
234.56,
237.37
]
},
{
"text": "It has some really, really\ninteresting detail at all,",
"timestamp": [
234.56,
237.37
]
},
{
"text": "scales that makes it hard to\ntalk about standard quantities",
"timestamp": [
237.37,
240.82
]
},
{
"text": "scales that makes it hard to\ntalk about standard quantities",
"timestamp": [
237.37,
240.82
]
},
{
"text": "like lengths and areas and volumes.",
"timestamp": [
240.82,
244.118
]
},
{
"text": "like lengths and areas and volumes.",
"timestamp": [
240.82,
244.118
]
},
{
"text": "- Would a planet or an\nasteroid be a fractal?",
"timestamp": [
244.118,
248.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Would a planet or an\nasteroid be a fractal?",
"timestamp": [
244.118,
248.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so if you look at\nkind of the wrinkly surface",
"timestamp": [
248.31,
251.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so if you look at\nkind of the wrinkly surface",
"timestamp": [
248.31,
251.01
]
},
{
"text": "of an asteroid,",
"timestamp": [
251.01,
252.17
]
},
{
"text": "of an asteroid,",
"timestamp": [
251.01,
252.17
]
},
{
"text": "each one of those little wrinkles adds",
"timestamp": [
252.17,
254.21
]
},
{
"text": "each one of those little wrinkles adds",
"timestamp": [
252.17,
254.21
]
},
{
"text": "a little bit to the surface area.",
"timestamp": [
254.21,
255.64
]
},
{
"text": "a little bit to the surface area.",
"timestamp": [
254.21,
255.64
]
},
{
"text": "And so it's really hard to say,",
"timestamp": [
255.64,
256.72
]
},
{
"text": "And so it's really hard to say,",
"timestamp": [
255.64,
256.72
]
},
{
"text": "what is the area of an asteroid?",
"timestamp": [
256.72,
258.41
]
},
{
"text": "what is the area of an asteroid?",
"timestamp": [
256.72,
258.41
]
},
{
"text": "Let's take a look at a little\nexample of where fractals",
"timestamp": [
258.41,
261.26
]
},
{
"text": "Let's take a look at a little\nexample of where fractals",
"timestamp": [
258.41,
261.26
]
},
{
"text": "actually show up in nature.",
"timestamp": [
261.26,
263.07
]
},
{
"text": "actually show up in nature.",
"timestamp": [
261.26,
263.07
]
},
{
"text": "What we're gonna try to\ndo is we're gonna try",
"timestamp": [
263.07,
264.24
]
},
{
"text": "What we're gonna try to\ndo is we're gonna try",
"timestamp": [
263.07,
264.24
]
},
{
"text": "to say what the length of the\ncoastline of great Britain is.",
"timestamp": [
265.873,
269.35
]
},
{
"text": "to say what the length of the\ncoastline of great Britain is.",
"timestamp": [
265.873,
269.35
]
},
{
"text": "So we're gonna start\nout with the blue ones,",
"timestamp": [
269.35,
271.15
]
},
{
"text": "So we're gonna start\nout with the blue ones,",
"timestamp": [
269.35,
271.15
]
},
{
"text": "which are spaced further apart.",
"timestamp": [
271.15,
272.61
]
},
{
"text": "which are spaced further apart.",
"timestamp": [
271.15,
272.61
]
},
{
"text": "We're gonna ask you to\nconnect the blue pins",
"timestamp": [
272.61,
275.52
]
},
{
"text": "We're gonna ask you to\nconnect the blue pins",
"timestamp": [
272.61,
275.52
]
},
{
"text": "with a piece of string so\nwe can get a measurement",
"timestamp": [
275.52,
277.68
]
},
{
"text": "with a piece of string so\nwe can get a measurement",
"timestamp": [
275.52,
277.68
]
},
{
"text": "of the coastline.",
"timestamp": [
277.68,
279.359
]
},
{
"text": "of the coastline.",
"timestamp": [
277.68,
279.359
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
279.359,
282.44
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
279.359,
282.44
]
},
{
"text": "So we have our first measurement",
"timestamp": [
282.44,
284.04
]
},
{
"text": "So we have our first measurement",
"timestamp": [
282.44,
284.04
]
},
{
"text": "of the length of the coastline,",
"timestamp": [
284.04,
285.3
]
},
{
"text": "of the length of the coastline,",
"timestamp": [
284.04,
285.3
]
},
{
"text": "and we're gonna do it over again.",
"timestamp": [
285.3,
286.56
]
},
{
"text": "and we're gonna do it over again.",
"timestamp": [
285.3,
286.56
]
},
{
"text": "But this time we're\ngonna use the white pins,",
"timestamp": [
286.56,
288.5
]
},
{
"text": "But this time we're\ngonna use the white pins,",
"timestamp": [
286.56,
288.5
]
},
{
"text": "which are spaced closer together.",
"timestamp": [
288.5,
290.61
]
},
{
"text": "which are spaced closer together.",
"timestamp": [
288.5,
290.61
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
290.61,
293.85
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
290.61,
293.85
]
},
{
"text": "So we measured the coastline again.",
"timestamp": [
293.85,
295.56
]
},
{
"text": "So we measured the coastline again.",
"timestamp": [
293.85,
295.56
]
},
{
"text": "And what do you think happens?",
"timestamp": [
295.56,
296.87
]
},
{
"text": "And what do you think happens?",
"timestamp": [
295.56,
296.87
]
},
{
"text": "- There's more in and out.",
"timestamp": [
296.87,
297.83
]
},
{
"text": "- There's more in and out.",
"timestamp": [
296.87,
297.83
]
},
{
"text": "Therefore probably takes\nmore string for this one.",
"timestamp": [
297.83,
299.973
]
},
{
"text": "Therefore probably takes\nmore string for this one.",
"timestamp": [
297.83,
299.973
]
},
{
"text": "I think I agree with you,",
"timestamp": [
299.973,
301.13
]
},
{
"text": "I think I agree with you,",
"timestamp": [
299.973,
301.13
]
},
{
"text": "but I think to really validate\nour scientific experiment,",
"timestamp": [
301.13,
304.02
]
},
{
"text": "but I think to really validate\nour scientific experiment,",
"timestamp": [
301.13,
304.02
]
},
{
"text": "we should probably compare\nthe length of the string.",
"timestamp": [
304.02,
307.151
]
},
{
"text": "we should probably compare\nthe length of the string.",
"timestamp": [
304.02,
307.151
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
307.151,
310.71
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
307.151,
310.71
]
},
{
"text": "A lot of extra slack\nin that pig of string.",
"timestamp": [
310.71,
313.57
]
},
{
"text": "A lot of extra slack\nin that pig of string.",
"timestamp": [
310.71,
313.57
]
},
{
"text": "So what we noticed with great Britain is",
"timestamp": [
313.57,
316.42
]
},
{
"text": "So what we noticed with great Britain is",
"timestamp": [
313.57,
316.42
]
},
{
"text": "we were never able to measure it's length.",
"timestamp": [
316.42,
318.13
]
},
{
"text": "we were never able to measure it's length.",
"timestamp": [
316.42,
318.13
]
},
{
"text": "It just kept getting longer and longer.",
"timestamp": [
318.13,
319.64
]
},
{
"text": "It just kept getting longer and longer.",
"timestamp": [
318.13,
319.64
]
},
{
"text": "This is called the coastline\nparadox where there's not",
"timestamp": [
319.64,
322.659
]
},
{
"text": "This is called the coastline\nparadox where there's not",
"timestamp": [
319.64,
322.659
]
},
{
"text": "really one definite number you can assign",
"timestamp": [
322.659,
325.38
]
},
{
"text": "really one definite number you can assign",
"timestamp": [
322.659,
325.38
]
},
{
"text": "to the length of the coastline,",
"timestamp": [
325.38,
326.97
]
},
{
"text": "to the length of the coastline,",
"timestamp": [
325.38,
326.97
]
},
{
"text": "but it depends on how you measure it.",
"timestamp": [
326.97,
328.83
]
},
{
"text": "but it depends on how you measure it.",
"timestamp": [
326.97,
328.83
]
},
{
"text": "Like if we kept going to\nreally get this to be accurate,",
"timestamp": [
328.83,
332.59
]
},
{
"text": "Like if we kept going to\nreally get this to be accurate,",
"timestamp": [
328.83,
332.59
]
},
{
"text": "we might have to like\nactually go down the beach",
"timestamp": [
332.59,
334.87
]
},
{
"text": "we might have to like\nactually go down the beach",
"timestamp": [
332.59,
334.87
]
},
{
"text": "and start measuring\nthese tiny little details",
"timestamp": [
334.87,
338.17
]
},
{
"text": "and start measuring\nthese tiny little details",
"timestamp": [
334.87,
338.17
]
},
{
"text": "along the coastline.",
"timestamp": [
338.17,
339.1
]
},
{
"text": "along the coastline.",
"timestamp": [
338.17,
339.1
]
},
{
"text": "But really there's so much detail.",
"timestamp": [
339.1,
340.91
]
},
{
"text": "But really there's so much detail.",
"timestamp": [
339.1,
340.91
]
},
{
"text": "We would probably never\nget a definite answer",
"timestamp": [
340.91,
343.18
]
},
{
"text": "We would probably never\nget a definite answer",
"timestamp": [
340.91,
343.18
]
},
{
"text": "for how long the coastline is.",
"timestamp": [
343.18,
345.13
]
},
{
"text": "for how long the coastline is.",
"timestamp": [
343.18,
345.13
]
},
{
"text": "Fractals also give us\na really nice language.",
"timestamp": [
345.13,
346.43
]
},
{
"text": "Fractals also give us\na really nice language.",
"timestamp": [
345.13,
346.43
]
},
{
"text": "We're talking about how smooth",
"timestamp": [
346.43,
348.35
]
},
{
"text": "We're talking about how smooth",
"timestamp": [
346.43,
348.35
]
},
{
"text": "or rough some kind of shape is.",
"timestamp": [
348.35,
350.57
]
},
{
"text": "or rough some kind of shape is.",
"timestamp": [
348.35,
350.57
]
},
{
"text": "And actually a lot of people,",
"timestamp": [
350.57,
352.1
]
},
{
"text": "And actually a lot of people,",
"timestamp": [
350.57,
352.1
]
},
{
"text": "engineers and scientists\nuse this idea of fractals",
"timestamp": [
352.1,
355.11
]
},
{
"text": "engineers and scientists\nuse this idea of fractals",
"timestamp": [
352.1,
355.11
]
},
{
"text": "and this language of fractals",
"timestamp": [
355.11,
356.47
]
},
{
"text": "and this language of fractals",
"timestamp": [
355.11,
356.47
]
},
{
"text": "to compare different shapes,",
"timestamp": [
356.47,
357.99
]
},
{
"text": "to compare different shapes,",
"timestamp": [
356.47,
357.99
]
},
{
"text": "not in terms of their size, but\nin terms of their roughness.",
"timestamp": [
357.99,
360.55
]
},
{
"text": "not in terms of their size, but\nin terms of their roughness.",
"timestamp": [
357.99,
360.55
]
},
{
"text": "So based on everything\nwe talked about today,",
"timestamp": [
360.55,
362.72
]
},
{
"text": "So based on everything\nwe talked about today,",
"timestamp": [
360.55,
362.72
]
},
{
"text": "how would you describe a fractal",
"timestamp": [
362.72,
364.26
]
},
{
"text": "how would you describe a fractal",
"timestamp": [
362.72,
364.26
]
},
{
"text": "to somebody in your own words?",
"timestamp": [
364.26,
365.865
]
},
{
"text": "to somebody in your own words?",
"timestamp": [
364.26,
365.865
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a shape,",
"timestamp": [
365.865,
368.037
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a shape,",
"timestamp": [
365.865,
368.037
]
},
{
"text": "that you can't describe as a shape.",
"timestamp": [
368.037,
371.04
]
},
{
"text": "that you can't describe as a shape.",
"timestamp": [
368.037,
371.04
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, totally.",
"timestamp": [
371.04,
372.21
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, totally.",
"timestamp": [
371.04,
372.21
]
},
{
"text": "Like it's a shape that you can't use sort",
"timestamp": [
372.21,
374.23
]
},
{
"text": "Like it's a shape that you can't use sort",
"timestamp": [
372.21,
374.23
]
},
{
"text": "of the ordinary language that we use",
"timestamp": [
374.23,
376.13
]
},
{
"text": "of the ordinary language that we use",
"timestamp": [
374.23,
376.13
]
},
{
"text": "to talk about shapes you really need",
"timestamp": [
376.13,
377.8
]
},
{
"text": "to talk about shapes you really need",
"timestamp": [
376.13,
377.8
]
},
{
"text": "some other ideas or\nconcepts to talk about.",
"timestamp": [
377.8,
381.066
]
},
{
"text": "some other ideas or\nconcepts to talk about.",
"timestamp": [
377.8,
381.066
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
381.066,
384.573
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
381.066,
384.573
]
},
{
"text": "Do you play any video games?",
"timestamp": [
384.573,
386.213
]
},
{
"text": "Do you play any video games?",
"timestamp": [
384.573,
386.213
]
},
{
"text": "- I really like hard stone Minecraft.",
"timestamp": [
386.213,
388.84
]
},
{
"text": "- I really like hard stone Minecraft.",
"timestamp": [
386.213,
388.84
]
},
{
"text": "What happens in Minecraft\nif you get really,",
"timestamp": [
388.84,
390.6
]
},
{
"text": "What happens in Minecraft\nif you get really,",
"timestamp": [
388.84,
390.6
]
},
{
"text": "really close to a shape?",
"timestamp": [
390.6,
391.62
]
},
{
"text": "really close to a shape?",
"timestamp": [
390.6,
391.62
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, it just looks like a block.",
"timestamp": [
391.62,
393.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, it just looks like a block.",
"timestamp": [
391.62,
393.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah it looks really blocky.",
"timestamp": [
393.01,
394.15
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah it looks really blocky.",
"timestamp": [
393.01,
394.15
]
},
{
"text": "And it's the same thing not\nonly with shapes and games,",
"timestamp": [
394.15,
396.55
]
},
{
"text": "And it's the same thing not\nonly with shapes and games,",
"timestamp": [
394.15,
396.55
]
},
{
"text": "but also colors and textures.",
"timestamp": [
396.55,
398.15
]
},
{
"text": "but also colors and textures.",
"timestamp": [
396.55,
398.15
]
},
{
"text": "And this is an especially a\nbig problem in virtual reality",
"timestamp": [
398.15,
400.39
]
},
{
"text": "And this is an especially a\nbig problem in virtual reality",
"timestamp": [
398.15,
400.39
]
},
{
"text": "because you have no control\nover where people are gonna go.",
"timestamp": [
400.39,
403.8
]
},
{
"text": "because you have no control\nover where people are gonna go.",
"timestamp": [
400.39,
403.8
]
},
{
"text": "What they're gonna look at,",
"timestamp": [
403.8,
404.69
]
},
{
"text": "What they're gonna look at,",
"timestamp": [
403.8,
404.69
]
},
{
"text": "how close they're gonna\nget to various objects.",
"timestamp": [
404.69,
406.81
]
},
{
"text": "how close they're gonna\nget to various objects.",
"timestamp": [
404.69,
406.81
]
},
{
"text": "So fractals on the other hand\nare these things that have",
"timestamp": [
406.81,
410.33
]
},
{
"text": "So fractals on the other hand\nare these things that have",
"timestamp": [
406.81,
410.33
]
},
{
"text": "infinitely, you know,",
"timestamp": [
410.33,
411.86
]
},
{
"text": "infinitely, you know,",
"timestamp": [
410.33,
411.86
]
},
{
"text": "nice details you get closer\nand closer and closer.",
"timestamp": [
411.86,
414.4
]
},
{
"text": "nice details you get closer\nand closer and closer.",
"timestamp": [
411.86,
414.4
]
},
{
"text": "And so this is something that\ncan help us solve this problem",
"timestamp": [
414.4,
417.96
]
},
{
"text": "And so this is something that\ncan help us solve this problem",
"timestamp": [
414.4,
417.96
]
},
{
"text": "in computer graphics of\ngenerating more detail.",
"timestamp": [
417.96,
420.55
]
},
{
"text": "in computer graphics of\ngenerating more detail.",
"timestamp": [
417.96,
420.55
]
},
{
"text": "One of the reasons why\nfractals are really nice",
"timestamp": [
420.55,
422.43
]
},
{
"text": "One of the reasons why\nfractals are really nice",
"timestamp": [
420.55,
422.43
]
},
{
"text": "for computer graphics is",
"timestamp": [
422.43,
423.85
]
},
{
"text": "for computer graphics is",
"timestamp": [
422.43,
423.85
]
},
{
"text": "because the algorithms that we use to draw",
"timestamp": [
423.85,
426.22
]
},
{
"text": "because the algorithms that we use to draw",
"timestamp": [
423.85,
426.22
]
},
{
"text": "images also have this\nkind of recursive flavor.",
"timestamp": [
426.22,
429.71
]
},
{
"text": "images also have this\nkind of recursive flavor.",
"timestamp": [
426.22,
429.71
]
},
{
"text": "What's recursion?",
"timestamp": [
429.71,
430.86
]
},
{
"text": "What's recursion?",
"timestamp": [
429.71,
430.86
]
},
{
"text": "- Recursion is a function that uses itself",
"timestamp": [
430.86,
434.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Recursion is a function that uses itself",
"timestamp": [
430.86,
434.01
]
},
{
"text": "or calls itself in it's definition.",
"timestamp": [
434.01,
436.29
]
},
{
"text": "or calls itself in it's definition.",
"timestamp": [
434.01,
436.29
]
},
{
"text": "And basically with that,",
"timestamp": [
436.29,
437.55
]
},
{
"text": "And basically with that,",
"timestamp": [
436.29,
437.55
]
},
{
"text": "you can figure out minute\ndetails such as searching",
"timestamp": [
437.55,
441.34
]
},
{
"text": "you can figure out minute\ndetails such as searching",
"timestamp": [
437.55,
441.34
]
},
{
"text": "for a value in a binary tree.",
"timestamp": [
441.34,
443.11
]
},
{
"text": "for a value in a binary tree.",
"timestamp": [
441.34,
443.11
]
},
{
"text": "It's kind of like\niterating through itself,",
"timestamp": [
443.11,
445.33
]
},
{
"text": "It's kind of like\niterating through itself,",
"timestamp": [
443.11,
445.33
]
},
{
"text": "but it's often more sophisticated",
"timestamp": [
445.33,
447.33
]
},
{
"text": "but it's often more sophisticated",
"timestamp": [
445.33,
447.33
]
},
{
"text": "in that it's easier to write.",
"timestamp": [
447.33,
448.8
]
},
{
"text": "in that it's easier to write.",
"timestamp": [
447.33,
448.8
]
},
{
"text": "- They're easy for a\ncomputer to execute, right?",
"timestamp": [
448.8,
450.69
]
},
{
"text": "- They're easy for a\ncomputer to execute, right?",
"timestamp": [
448.8,
450.69
]
},
{
"text": "It just has to run this\nrecursive procedure over and over",
"timestamp": [
450.69,
453.27
]
},
{
"text": "It just has to run this\nrecursive procedure over and over",
"timestamp": [
450.69,
453.27
]
},
{
"text": "and over again.",
"timestamp": [
453.27,
454.103
]
},
{
"text": "and over again.",
"timestamp": [
453.27,
454.103
]
},
{
"text": "We can kind of get as much\ndetail as we want or need.",
"timestamp": [
454.103,
457
]
},
{
"text": "We can kind of get as much\ndetail as we want or need.",
"timestamp": [
454.103,
457
]
},
{
"text": "When I think about fractals\nand kind of what they've done",
"timestamp": [
457,
460
]
},
{
"text": "When I think about fractals\nand kind of what they've done",
"timestamp": [
457,
460
]
},
{
"text": "for computer graphics.",
"timestamp": [
460,
461.72
]
},
{
"text": "for computer graphics.",
"timestamp": [
460,
461.72
]
},
{
"text": "The example I think is\nsubdivision surfaces.",
"timestamp": [
461.72,
464.3
]
},
{
"text": "The example I think is\nsubdivision surfaces.",
"timestamp": [
461.72,
464.3
]
},
{
"text": "Did you, did you encounter\nsubdivision surfaces",
"timestamp": [
464.3,
466.1
]
},
{
"text": "Did you, did you encounter\nsubdivision surfaces",
"timestamp": [
464.3,
466.1
]
},
{
"text": "in your graphics class at all?",
"timestamp": [
466.1,
467.71
]
},
{
"text": "in your graphics class at all?",
"timestamp": [
466.1,
467.71
]
},
{
"text": "- The name doesn't really ring a bell?",
"timestamp": [
467.71,
469.22
]
},
{
"text": "- The name doesn't really ring a bell?",
"timestamp": [
467.71,
469.22
]
},
{
"text": "- So subdivision surface is a way",
"timestamp": [
469.22,
470.87
]
},
{
"text": "- So subdivision surface is a way",
"timestamp": [
469.22,
470.87
]
},
{
"text": "of describing a smooth shape",
"timestamp": [
470.87,
472.51
]
},
{
"text": "of describing a smooth shape",
"timestamp": [
470.87,
472.51
]
},
{
"text": "on a computer rather than some\ncomplicated fractal shape.",
"timestamp": [
472.51,
476
]
},
{
"text": "on a computer rather than some\ncomplicated fractal shape.",
"timestamp": [
472.51,
476
]
},
{
"text": "So meshes and computer graphics\nare usually made of these",
"timestamp": [
476,
479.21
]
},
{
"text": "So meshes and computer graphics\nare usually made of these",
"timestamp": [
476,
479.21
]
},
{
"text": "flat polygons with kind of sharp edges.",
"timestamp": [
479.21,
481.35
]
},
{
"text": "flat polygons with kind of sharp edges.",
"timestamp": [
479.21,
481.35
]
},
{
"text": "And so the question is how\ncan I get something nice",
"timestamp": [
481.35,
483.25
]
},
{
"text": "And so the question is how\ncan I get something nice",
"timestamp": [
481.35,
483.25
]
},
{
"text": "and round and smooth out of\nthese sharp looking polygons?",
"timestamp": [
483.25,
486.33
]
},
{
"text": "and round and smooth out of\nthese sharp looking polygons?",
"timestamp": [
483.25,
486.33
]
},
{
"text": "What I can do is I can\nstart cutting one at a time,",
"timestamp": [
486.33,
489.9
]
},
{
"text": "What I can do is I can\nstart cutting one at a time,",
"timestamp": [
486.33,
489.9
]
},
{
"text": "the corners of this paper off,\nit still looks very angular.",
"timestamp": [
489.9,
494.15
]
},
{
"text": "the corners of this paper off,\nit still looks very angular.",
"timestamp": [
489.9,
494.15
]
},
{
"text": "I still have these really sharp points.",
"timestamp": [
494.15,
495.69
]
},
{
"text": "I still have these really sharp points.",
"timestamp": [
494.15,
495.69
]
},
{
"text": "- Right why are we doing this?",
"timestamp": [
495.69,
496.97
]
},
{
"text": "- Right why are we doing this?",
"timestamp": [
495.69,
496.97
]
},
{
"text": "- Because I want to draw a\nsmooth curve on the screen,",
"timestamp": [
496.97,
499.57
]
},
{
"text": "- Because I want to draw a\nsmooth curve on the screen,",
"timestamp": [
496.97,
499.57
]
},
{
"text": "but all my computer can\ndo is draw straight lines.",
"timestamp": [
499.57,
502.12
]
},
{
"text": "but all my computer can\ndo is draw straight lines.",
"timestamp": [
499.57,
502.12
]
},
{
"text": "And that's actually too true of GPUs.",
"timestamp": [
502.12,
503.6
]
},
{
"text": "And that's actually too true of GPUs.",
"timestamp": [
502.12,
503.6
]
},
{
"text": "It's kind of interesting.",
"timestamp": [
503.6,
504.433
]
},
{
"text": "It's kind of interesting.",
"timestamp": [
503.6,
504.433
]
},
{
"text": "GPUs are basically really fast\nmachines that can only draw",
"timestamp": [
504.433,
506.97
]
},
{
"text": "GPUs are basically really fast\nmachines that can only draw",
"timestamp": [
504.433,
506.97
]
},
{
"text": "one thing and that's a flat triangle.",
"timestamp": [
506.97,
508.36
]
},
{
"text": "one thing and that's a flat triangle.",
"timestamp": [
506.97,
508.36
]
},
{
"text": "And so if we keep doing\nthis with our paper,",
"timestamp": [
508.36,
510.15
]
},
{
"text": "And so if we keep doing\nthis with our paper,",
"timestamp": [
508.36,
510.15
]
},
{
"text": "you kind of get pretty quickly the idea",
"timestamp": [
510.15,
511.58
]
},
{
"text": "you kind of get pretty quickly the idea",
"timestamp": [
510.15,
511.58
]
},
{
"text": "of what's gonna happen.",
"timestamp": [
511.58,
512.56
]
},
{
"text": "of what's gonna happen.",
"timestamp": [
511.58,
512.56
]
},
{
"text": "So when you go to see a\nPixar movie, for instance,",
"timestamp": [
512.56,
514.76
]
},
{
"text": "So when you go to see a\nPixar movie, for instance,",
"timestamp": [
512.56,
514.76
]
},
{
"text": "every surface has been subdivided down.",
"timestamp": [
514.76,
517.08
]
},
{
"text": "every surface has been subdivided down.",
"timestamp": [
514.76,
517.08
]
},
{
"text": "So you have tiny little triangles\ncalled micro polygons that",
"timestamp": [
517.08,
520.24
]
},
{
"text": "So you have tiny little triangles\ncalled micro polygons that",
"timestamp": [
517.08,
520.24
]
},
{
"text": "are even smaller than the size of a pixel.",
"timestamp": [
520.24,
522.05
]
},
{
"text": "are even smaller than the size of a pixel.",
"timestamp": [
520.24,
522.05
]
},
{
"text": "- How long does this process take?",
"timestamp": [
522.05,
523.58
]
},
{
"text": "- How long does this process take?",
"timestamp": [
522.05,
523.58
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, because people who really need",
"timestamp": [
523.58,
525.25
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, because people who really need",
"timestamp": [
523.58,
525.25
]
},
{
"text": "to use these subdivision\nservices for everything,",
"timestamp": [
525.25,
527.72
]
},
{
"text": "to use these subdivision\nservices for everything,",
"timestamp": [
525.25,
527.72
]
},
{
"text": "people who worked hard over the years",
"timestamp": [
527.72,
528.93
]
},
{
"text": "people who worked hard over the years",
"timestamp": [
527.72,
528.93
]
},
{
"text": "to make this super, super fast.",
"timestamp": [
528.93,
530.58
]
},
{
"text": "to make this super, super fast.",
"timestamp": [
528.93,
530.58
]
},
{
"text": "In fact, subdivision services",
"timestamp": [
530.58,
531.78
]
},
{
"text": "In fact, subdivision services",
"timestamp": [
530.58,
531.78
]
},
{
"text": "were invented basically at Pixar.",
"timestamp": [
531.78,
533.44
]
},
{
"text": "were invented basically at Pixar.",
"timestamp": [
531.78,
533.44
]
},
{
"text": "There's this guy, Ed Capel,",
"timestamp": [
533.44,
534.8
]
},
{
"text": "There's this guy, Ed Capel,",
"timestamp": [
533.44,
534.8
]
},
{
"text": "and he was harshly responsible for one",
"timestamp": [
534.8,
536.71
]
},
{
"text": "and he was harshly responsible for one",
"timestamp": [
534.8,
536.71
]
},
{
"text": "of the most famous kinds of\nsubdivision surfaces called",
"timestamp": [
536.71,
539.01
]
},
{
"text": "of the most famous kinds of\nsubdivision surfaces called",
"timestamp": [
536.71,
539.01
]
},
{
"text": "Capel Clark subdivision surfaces.",
"timestamp": [
539.01,
540.69
]
},
{
"text": "Capel Clark subdivision surfaces.",
"timestamp": [
539.01,
540.69
]
},
{
"text": "And in fact recently won the touring award",
"timestamp": [
540.69,
543.39
]
},
{
"text": "And in fact recently won the touring award",
"timestamp": [
540.69,
543.39
]
},
{
"text": "for these subdivision services.",
"timestamp": [
543.39,
544.44
]
},
{
"text": "for these subdivision services.",
"timestamp": [
543.39,
544.44
]
},
{
"text": "- What do you think are the\ncurrent shortcomings in,",
"timestamp": [
544.44,
546.78
]
},
{
"text": "- What do you think are the\ncurrent shortcomings in,",
"timestamp": [
544.44,
546.78
]
},
{
"text": "I guess applying fractals to\ncomputer science right now,",
"timestamp": [
546.78,
550.07
]
},
{
"text": "I guess applying fractals to\ncomputer science right now,",
"timestamp": [
546.78,
550.07
]
},
{
"text": "what are, what is the cutting edge?",
"timestamp": [
550.07,
551.51
]
},
{
"text": "what are, what is the cutting edge?",
"timestamp": [
550.07,
551.51
]
},
{
"text": "- So we've, talked a little\nbit about the positive features",
"timestamp": [
551.51,
554.13
]
},
{
"text": "- So we've, talked a little\nbit about the positive features",
"timestamp": [
551.51,
554.13
]
},
{
"text": "of fractals and procedural graphics,",
"timestamp": [
554.13,
556.08
]
},
{
"text": "of fractals and procedural graphics,",
"timestamp": [
554.13,
556.08
]
},
{
"text": "which is you can write one\nsimple recursive program",
"timestamp": [
556.08,
558.918
]
},
{
"text": "which is you can write one\nsimple recursive program",
"timestamp": [
556.08,
558.918
]
},
{
"text": "and the computer creates\na lot of detail for you.",
"timestamp": [
558.918,
561.69
]
},
{
"text": "and the computer creates\na lot of detail for you.",
"timestamp": [
558.918,
561.69
]
},
{
"text": "So that's really nice, right?",
"timestamp": [
561.69,
562.78
]
},
{
"text": "So that's really nice, right?",
"timestamp": [
561.69,
562.78
]
},
{
"text": "It's saving you a lot of work,",
"timestamp": [
562.78,
564.49
]
},
{
"text": "It's saving you a lot of work,",
"timestamp": [
562.78,
564.49
]
},
{
"text": "but the downside is you\nlose a lot of control.",
"timestamp": [
564.49,
567.79
]
},
{
"text": "but the downside is you\nlose a lot of control.",
"timestamp": [
564.49,
567.79
]
},
{
"text": "So because the only\nthing you're describing",
"timestamp": [
567.79,
569.79
]
},
{
"text": "So because the only\nthing you're describing",
"timestamp": [
567.79,
569.79
]
},
{
"text": "is this short little program,",
"timestamp": [
569.79,
570.95
]
},
{
"text": "is this short little program,",
"timestamp": [
569.79,
570.95
]
},
{
"text": "you don't have complete control",
"timestamp": [
570.95,
572.05
]
},
{
"text": "you don't have complete control",
"timestamp": [
570.95,
572.05
]
},
{
"text": "over how this is gonna end up.",
"timestamp": [
572.05,
573.69
]
},
{
"text": "over how this is gonna end up.",
"timestamp": [
572.05,
573.69
]
},
{
"text": "And so adding more controllability\nto procedural graphics is",
"timestamp": [
573.69,
576.77
]
},
{
"text": "And so adding more controllability\nto procedural graphics is",
"timestamp": [
573.69,
576.77
]
},
{
"text": "something people have been\nthinking about for many years.",
"timestamp": [
576.77,
578.84
]
},
{
"text": "something people have been\nthinking about for many years.",
"timestamp": [
576.77,
578.84
]
},
{
"text": "So how has our conversation\nchanged your understanding",
"timestamp": [
578.84,
582.03
]
},
{
"text": "So how has our conversation\nchanged your understanding",
"timestamp": [
578.84,
582.03
]
},
{
"text": "of what fractals are all about?",
"timestamp": [
582.03,
583.33
]
},
{
"text": "of what fractals are all about?",
"timestamp": [
582.03,
583.33
]
},
{
"text": "- I think it's really interesting\nto see the different ways,",
"timestamp": [
583.33,
586.1
]
},
{
"text": "- I think it's really interesting\nto see the different ways,",
"timestamp": [
583.33,
586.1
]
},
{
"text": "fractals will be not only useful,",
"timestamp": [
586.1,
588.1
]
},
{
"text": "fractals will be not only useful,",
"timestamp": [
586.1,
588.1
]
},
{
"text": "but necessary in being\nable to render these games",
"timestamp": [
588.1,
591.87
]
},
{
"text": "but necessary in being\nable to render these games",
"timestamp": [
588.1,
591.87
]
},
{
"text": "and these different programs\nthat are interesting",
"timestamp": [
591.87,
594.4
]
},
{
"text": "and these different programs\nthat are interesting",
"timestamp": [
591.87,
594.4
]
},
{
"text": "in the metaverse or different media",
"timestamp": [
594.4,
597.79
]
},
{
"text": "in the metaverse or different media",
"timestamp": [
594.4,
597.79
]
},
{
"text": "to be really beautiful.",
"timestamp": [
597.79,
599.563
]
},
{
"text": "to be really beautiful.",
"timestamp": [
597.79,
599.563
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
602.008,
605.17
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
602.008,
605.17
]
},
{
"text": "- Hey, thanks for joining us remotely.",
"timestamp": [
605.17,
606.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Hey, thanks for joining us remotely.",
"timestamp": [
605.17,
606.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, of course it's a\npleasure I'm happy to be here.",
"timestamp": [
606.82,
609.22
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, of course it's a\npleasure I'm happy to be here.",
"timestamp": [
606.82,
609.22
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you have any sense",
"timestamp": [
609.22,
610.6
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you have any sense",
"timestamp": [
609.22,
610.6
]
},
{
"text": "of how you would give a really precise",
"timestamp": [
610.6,
613.12
]
},
{
"text": "of how you would give a really precise",
"timestamp": [
610.6,
613.12
]
},
{
"text": "mathematical definition to,\nyou know, what is a fractal?",
"timestamp": [
613.12,
616.56
]
},
{
"text": "mathematical definition to,\nyou know, what is a fractal?",
"timestamp": [
613.12,
616.56
]
},
{
"text": "- It would probably have to be some kind",
"timestamp": [
616.56,
617.88
]
},
{
"text": "- It would probably have to be some kind",
"timestamp": [
616.56,
617.88
]
},
{
"text": "of recursive definition,\nlike imaginary numbers.",
"timestamp": [
617.88,
621.73
]
},
{
"text": "of recursive definition,\nlike imaginary numbers.",
"timestamp": [
617.88,
621.73
]
},
{
"text": "I know the Mandelbrot set we'll use those.",
"timestamp": [
621.73,
624.42
]
},
{
"text": "I know the Mandelbrot set we'll use those.",
"timestamp": [
621.73,
624.42
]
},
{
"text": "- The Mandelbrot set or\nthe Julia set, you know,",
"timestamp": [
624.42,
627.14
]
},
{
"text": "- The Mandelbrot set or\nthe Julia set, you know,",
"timestamp": [
624.42,
627.14
]
},
{
"text": "the idea is always, oh,",
"timestamp": [
627.14,
628.51
]
},
{
"text": "the idea is always, oh,",
"timestamp": [
627.14,
628.51
]
},
{
"text": "I'm gonna apply some\npolynomial over and over again.",
"timestamp": [
628.51,
631.19
]
},
{
"text": "I'm gonna apply some\npolynomial over and over again.",
"timestamp": [
628.51,
631.19
]
},
{
"text": "Z squared plus C or something like that.",
"timestamp": [
631.19,
633.26
]
},
{
"text": "Z squared plus C or something like that.",
"timestamp": [
631.19,
633.26
]
},
{
"text": "When I think about fractals,",
"timestamp": [
633.26,
634.55
]
},
{
"text": "When I think about fractals,",
"timestamp": [
633.26,
634.55
]
},
{
"text": "I try to get away from these\nvery specific examples and ask,",
"timestamp": [
634.55,
637.55
]
},
{
"text": "I try to get away from these\nvery specific examples and ask,",
"timestamp": [
634.55,
637.55
]
},
{
"text": "what is it fundamentally that\nmakes a fractal, a fractal.",
"timestamp": [
637.55,
640.92
]
},
{
"text": "what is it fundamentally that\nmakes a fractal, a fractal.",
"timestamp": [
637.55,
640.92
]
},
{
"text": "And one thing that I think\nyou can be precise about,",
"timestamp": [
640.92,
644.61
]
},
{
"text": "And one thing that I think\nyou can be precise about,",
"timestamp": [
640.92,
644.61
]
},
{
"text": "even if you can't really say\nexactly what a fractal is,",
"timestamp": [
644.61,
647.16
]
},
{
"text": "even if you can't really say\nexactly what a fractal is,",
"timestamp": [
644.61,
647.16
]
},
{
"text": "is you can talk about this\nidea of fractal dimension.",
"timestamp": [
647.16,
650.29
]
},
{
"text": "is you can talk about this\nidea of fractal dimension.",
"timestamp": [
647.16,
650.29
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever heard of that?\n- No, I have not actually.",
"timestamp": [
650.29,
652.66
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever heard of that?\n- No, I have not actually.",
"timestamp": [
650.29,
652.66
]
},
{
"text": "- So if you look at this,\nthis piece of paper,",
"timestamp": [
652.66,
654.52
]
},
{
"text": "- So if you look at this,\nthis piece of paper,",
"timestamp": [
652.66,
654.52
]
},
{
"text": "what would you say the dimension is?",
"timestamp": [
654.52,
656.3
]
},
{
"text": "what would you say the dimension is?",
"timestamp": [
654.52,
656.3
]
},
{
"text": "- Well on the, on the paper itself,",
"timestamp": [
656.3,
658.43
]
},
{
"text": "- Well on the, on the paper itself,",
"timestamp": [
656.3,
658.43
]
},
{
"text": "I would say it's two dimensional,",
"timestamp": [
658.43,
659.96
]
},
{
"text": "I would say it's two dimensional,",
"timestamp": [
658.43,
659.96
]
},
{
"text": "but the actual paper would be\nthree dimensions because it",
"timestamp": [
659.96,
663.227
]
},
{
"text": "but the actual paper would be\nthree dimensions because it",
"timestamp": [
659.96,
663.227
]
},
{
"text": "has a very small thickness.",
"timestamp": [
663.227,
665.22
]
},
{
"text": "has a very small thickness.",
"timestamp": [
663.227,
665.22
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, great.",
"timestamp": [
665.22,
666.28
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, great.",
"timestamp": [
665.22,
666.28
]
},
{
"text": "So, so the real physical paper\nhas some amount of thickness,",
"timestamp": [
666.28,
669.34
]
},
{
"text": "So, so the real physical paper\nhas some amount of thickness,",
"timestamp": [
666.28,
669.34
]
},
{
"text": "but when we model this mathematically,",
"timestamp": [
669.34,
671.32
]
},
{
"text": "but when we model this mathematically,",
"timestamp": [
669.34,
671.32
]
},
{
"text": "we might ignore the\nthickness and say, yeah,",
"timestamp": [
671.32,
673.11
]
},
{
"text": "we might ignore the\nthickness and say, yeah,",
"timestamp": [
671.32,
673.11
]
},
{
"text": "this is really just kind",
"timestamp": [
673.11,
673.97
]
},
{
"text": "this is really just kind",
"timestamp": [
673.11,
673.97
]
},
{
"text": "of a two dimensional sheet of paper.",
"timestamp": [
673.97,
675.94
]
},
{
"text": "of a two dimensional sheet of paper.",
"timestamp": [
673.97,
675.94
]
},
{
"text": "And then you have your apple,",
"timestamp": [
675.94,
677.81
]
},
{
"text": "And then you have your apple,",
"timestamp": [
675.94,
677.81
]
},
{
"text": "how many dimensions is the apple?",
"timestamp": [
677.81,
679.49
]
},
{
"text": "how many dimensions is the apple?",
"timestamp": [
677.81,
679.49
]
},
{
"text": "- I would also say three.",
"timestamp": [
679.49,
681.1
]
},
{
"text": "- I would also say three.",
"timestamp": [
679.49,
681.1
]
},
{
"text": "- And why three?",
"timestamp": [
681.1,
682.09
]
},
{
"text": "- And why three?",
"timestamp": [
681.1,
682.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Because it has the pipes and the width.",
"timestamp": [
682.09,
685.77
]
},
{
"text": "- Because it has the pipes and the width.",
"timestamp": [
682.09,
685.77
]
},
{
"text": "And there's a depth to it as well.",
"timestamp": [
685.77,
689.09
]
},
{
"text": "And there's a depth to it as well.",
"timestamp": [
685.77,
689.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Totally, now, as a little experiment,",
"timestamp": [
689.09,
691.15
]
},
{
"text": "- Totally, now, as a little experiment,",
"timestamp": [
689.09,
691.15
]
},
{
"text": "take your piece of paper and\njust crumple it into a ball.",
"timestamp": [
691.15,
695.64
]
},
{
"text": "take your piece of paper and\njust crumple it into a ball.",
"timestamp": [
691.15,
695.64
]
},
{
"text": "So what is it?",
"timestamp": [
695.64,
696.473
]
},
{
"text": "So what is it?",
"timestamp": [
695.64,
696.473
]
},
{
"text": "Is the paper three dimensional\nor is it two dimensional?",
"timestamp": [
696.473,
699.53
]
},
{
"text": "Is the paper three dimensional\nor is it two dimensional?",
"timestamp": [
696.473,
699.53
]
},
{
"text": "- It changed and dimensions\ndepending on how it is shaped.",
"timestamp": [
699.53,
703.56
]
},
{
"text": "- It changed and dimensions\ndepending on how it is shaped.",
"timestamp": [
699.53,
703.56
]
},
{
"text": "- So it's not quite as solid as the apple,",
"timestamp": [
703.56,
706.02
]
},
{
"text": "- So it's not quite as solid as the apple,",
"timestamp": [
703.56,
706.02
]
},
{
"text": "but it's also not quite as two dimensional",
"timestamp": [
706.02,
708.73
]
},
{
"text": "but it's also not quite as two dimensional",
"timestamp": [
706.02,
708.73
]
},
{
"text": "as the original sheet of paper.",
"timestamp": [
708.73,
710.47
]
},
{
"text": "as the original sheet of paper.",
"timestamp": [
708.73,
710.47
]
},
{
"text": "And so for this reason, people\nassociate this crumpled ball",
"timestamp": [
710.47,
714.09
]
},
{
"text": "And so for this reason, people\nassociate this crumpled ball",
"timestamp": [
710.47,
714.09
]
},
{
"text": "with a fractal dimension,",
"timestamp": [
714.09,
715.55
]
},
{
"text": "with a fractal dimension,",
"timestamp": [
714.09,
715.55
]
},
{
"text": "maybe something like 2.5\ndimensions instead of two or three,",
"timestamp": [
715.55,
719.62
]
},
{
"text": "maybe something like 2.5\ndimensions instead of two or three,",
"timestamp": [
715.55,
719.62
]
},
{
"text": "there are a lot of different definitions,",
"timestamp": [
719.62,
721.58
]
},
{
"text": "there are a lot of different definitions,",
"timestamp": [
719.62,
721.58
]
},
{
"text": "precise definitions of fractal dimension.",
"timestamp": [
721.58,
723.35
]
},
{
"text": "precise definitions of fractal dimension.",
"timestamp": [
721.58,
723.35
]
},
{
"text": "But I think the one that's\neasiest to understand is this",
"timestamp": [
723.35,
725.13
]
},
{
"text": "But I think the one that's\neasiest to understand is this",
"timestamp": [
723.35,
725.13
]
},
{
"text": "thing called box counting dimension.",
"timestamp": [
725.13,
726.92
]
},
{
"text": "thing called box counting dimension.",
"timestamp": [
725.13,
726.92
]
},
{
"text": "You have, let's say an image",
"timestamp": [
726.92,
729.13
]
},
{
"text": "You have, let's say an image",
"timestamp": [
726.92,
729.13
]
},
{
"text": "and you want to decide what's the fractal",
"timestamp": [
729.13,
731.02
]
},
{
"text": "and you want to decide what's the fractal",
"timestamp": [
729.13,
731.02
]
},
{
"text": "dimension of this image.",
"timestamp": [
731.02,
732.19
]
},
{
"text": "dimension of this image.",
"timestamp": [
731.02,
732.19
]
},
{
"text": "So what you're gonna do is\nyou're gonna count the number",
"timestamp": [
732.19,
735.86
]
},
{
"text": "So what you're gonna do is\nyou're gonna count the number",
"timestamp": [
732.19,
735.86
]
},
{
"text": "of boxes, or you can imagine big pixels",
"timestamp": [
735.86,
738.05
]
},
{
"text": "of boxes, or you can imagine big pixels",
"timestamp": [
735.86,
738.05
]
},
{
"text": "of this image that cover the",
"timestamp": [
738.05,
739.55
]
},
{
"text": "of this image that cover the",
"timestamp": [
738.05,
739.55
]
},
{
"text": "boundary of this shape.",
"timestamp": [
739.55,
741.41
]
},
{
"text": "boundary of this shape.",
"timestamp": [
739.55,
741.41
]
},
{
"text": "And you're gonna see how\ndoes that counting compare",
"timestamp": [
741.41,
744.64
]
},
{
"text": "And you're gonna see how\ndoes that counting compare",
"timestamp": [
741.41,
744.64
]
},
{
"text": "with how the counts work\nfor just an ordinary shape?",
"timestamp": [
744.64,
748.5
]
},
{
"text": "with how the counts work\nfor just an ordinary shape?",
"timestamp": [
744.64,
748.5
]
},
{
"text": "So, so if I have a straight line",
"timestamp": [
748.5,
750.44
]
},
{
"text": "So, so if I have a straight line",
"timestamp": [
748.5,
750.44
]
},
{
"text": "and I start out with one big",
"timestamp": [
750.44,
751.58
]
},
{
"text": "and I start out with one big",
"timestamp": [
750.44,
751.58
]
},
{
"text": "box that covers the whole line,",
"timestamp": [
751.58,
753.53
]
},
{
"text": "box that covers the whole line,",
"timestamp": [
751.58,
753.53
]
},
{
"text": "and now I shrink my\nboxes by a factor of two,",
"timestamp": [
753.53,
756.07
]
},
{
"text": "and now I shrink my\nboxes by a factor of two,",
"timestamp": [
753.53,
756.07
]
},
{
"text": "I just make boxes half as big.",
"timestamp": [
756.07,
757.75
]
},
{
"text": "I just make boxes half as big.",
"timestamp": [
756.07,
757.75
]
},
{
"text": "How many boxes will I need\nto cover that line two?",
"timestamp": [
757.75,
760.59
]
},
{
"text": "How many boxes will I need\nto cover that line two?",
"timestamp": [
757.75,
760.59
]
},
{
"text": "And if I cut that box in half again,",
"timestamp": [
760.59,
762.54
]
},
{
"text": "And if I cut that box in half again,",
"timestamp": [
760.59,
762.54
]
},
{
"text": "how many boxes do I\nneed to cover the line.",
"timestamp": [
762.54,
764.64
]
},
{
"text": "how many boxes do I\nneed to cover the line.",
"timestamp": [
762.54,
764.64
]
},
{
"text": "- Four.",
"timestamp": [
764.64,
765.473
]
},
{
"text": "- Four.",
"timestamp": [
764.64,
765.473
]
},
{
"text": "- But if you take a\nmore interesting shape,",
"timestamp": [
765.473,
767.33
]
},
{
"text": "- But if you take a\nmore interesting shape,",
"timestamp": [
765.473,
767.33
]
},
{
"text": "some kind of fractal shape,",
"timestamp": [
767.33,
768.36
]
},
{
"text": "some kind of fractal shape,",
"timestamp": [
767.33,
768.36
]
},
{
"text": "like let's say the\ncoastline of great Britain",
"timestamp": [
768.36,
770.58
]
},
{
"text": "like let's say the\ncoastline of great Britain",
"timestamp": [
768.36,
770.58
]
},
{
"text": "and you start doing this\nbox, counting experiment,",
"timestamp": [
770.58,
773.15
]
},
{
"text": "and you start doing this\nbox, counting experiment,",
"timestamp": [
770.58,
773.15
]
},
{
"text": "something really interesting happens",
"timestamp": [
773.15,
775.07
]
},
{
"text": "something really interesting happens",
"timestamp": [
773.15,
775.07
]
},
{
"text": "as you make these boxes smaller,",
"timestamp": [
775.07,
777.43
]
},
{
"text": "as you make these boxes smaller,",
"timestamp": [
775.07,
777.43
]
},
{
"text": "the number of boxes you need\nto cover the coastline grows",
"timestamp": [
777.43,
780.71
]
},
{
"text": "the number of boxes you need\nto cover the coastline grows",
"timestamp": [
777.43,
780.71
]
},
{
"text": "faster than it would for\njust a straight line.",
"timestamp": [
780.71,
783.69
]
},
{
"text": "faster than it would for\njust a straight line.",
"timestamp": [
780.71,
783.69
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I've, I've heard about that.",
"timestamp": [
783.69,
785.93
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I've, I've heard about that.",
"timestamp": [
783.69,
785.93
]
},
{
"text": "Where if you,",
"timestamp": [
785.93,
787.65
]
},
{
"text": "Where if you,",
"timestamp": [
785.93,
787.65
]
},
{
"text": "if you change the amount of\nmeasurement for a coastline,",
"timestamp": [
787.65,
791.505
]
},
{
"text": "if you change the amount of\nmeasurement for a coastline,",
"timestamp": [
787.65,
791.505
]
},
{
"text": "you can actually change like\nhow much of the coast that,",
"timestamp": [
791.505,
794.493
]
},
{
"text": "you can actually change like\nhow much of the coast that,",
"timestamp": [
791.505,
794.493
]
},
{
"text": "that there is like if you\nmeasure in mile lengths,",
"timestamp": [
794.493,
797.64
]
},
{
"text": "that there is like if you\nmeasure in mile lengths,",
"timestamp": [
794.493,
797.64
]
},
{
"text": "you're gonna get a much\ndifferent estimate than if you",
"timestamp": [
797.64,
800.71
]
},
{
"text": "you're gonna get a much\ndifferent estimate than if you",
"timestamp": [
797.64,
800.71
]
},
{
"text": "measure in one inch increments.",
"timestamp": [
800.71,
802.82
]
},
{
"text": "measure in one inch increments.",
"timestamp": [
800.71,
802.82
]
},
{
"text": "- And so what this box counting is getting",
"timestamp": [
802.82,
804.53
]
},
{
"text": "- And so what this box counting is getting",
"timestamp": [
802.82,
804.53
]
},
{
"text": "at is saying, well, I\nstill can never decide",
"timestamp": [
804.53,
807.6
]
},
{
"text": "at is saying, well, I\nstill can never decide",
"timestamp": [
804.53,
807.6
]
},
{
"text": "what the length of the coastline is,",
"timestamp": [
807.6,
809.67
]
},
{
"text": "what the length of the coastline is,",
"timestamp": [
807.6,
809.67
]
},
{
"text": "but what I can do is I can\nsee how quick does the number",
"timestamp": [
809.67,
812.85
]
},
{
"text": "but what I can do is I can\nsee how quick does the number",
"timestamp": [
809.67,
812.85
]
},
{
"text": "of boxes grow relative\nto how it would grow just",
"timestamp": [
812.85,
816.21
]
},
{
"text": "of boxes grow relative\nto how it would grow just",
"timestamp": [
812.85,
816.21
]
},
{
"text": "for an ordinary one dimensional curve,",
"timestamp": [
816.21,
818.41
]
},
{
"text": "for an ordinary one dimensional curve,",
"timestamp": [
816.21,
818.41
]
},
{
"text": "like a line or a circle.",
"timestamp": [
818.41,
819.61
]
},
{
"text": "like a line or a circle.",
"timestamp": [
818.41,
819.61
]
},
{
"text": "- Is there any other interesting\napplications of fractals?",
"timestamp": [
819.61,
822.7
]
},
{
"text": "- Is there any other interesting\napplications of fractals?",
"timestamp": [
819.61,
822.7
]
},
{
"text": "- So procedural computer graphics,",
"timestamp": [
822.7,
826.6
]
},
{
"text": "- So procedural computer graphics,",
"timestamp": [
822.7,
826.6
]
},
{
"text": "which kind of came out of thinking",
"timestamp": [
826.6,
828.25
]
},
{
"text": "which kind of came out of thinking",
"timestamp": [
826.6,
828.25
]
},
{
"text": "about fractals is one\nanswer to this question",
"timestamp": [
828.25,
831.41
]
},
{
"text": "about fractals is one\nanswer to this question",
"timestamp": [
828.25,
831.41
]
},
{
"text": "about how do you add more detail",
"timestamp": [
831.41,
834.12
]
},
{
"text": "about how do you add more detail",
"timestamp": [
831.41,
834.12
]
},
{
"text": "without for instance,\nconsuming tons of memory",
"timestamp": [
834.12,
836.68
]
},
{
"text": "without for instance,\nconsuming tons of memory",
"timestamp": [
834.12,
836.68
]
},
{
"text": "or requiring artists to paint ultra",
"timestamp": [
836.68,
839.72
]
},
{
"text": "or requiring artists to paint ultra",
"timestamp": [
836.68,
839.72
]
},
{
"text": "detail the textures.",
"timestamp": [
839.72,
840.74
]
},
{
"text": "detail the textures.",
"timestamp": [
839.72,
840.74
]
},
{
"text": "So if, if you can instead\ndescribe at least some aspect",
"timestamp": [
840.74,
844.2
]
},
{
"text": "So if, if you can instead\ndescribe at least some aspect",
"timestamp": [
840.74,
844.2
]
},
{
"text": "of what you're looking at in a procedural",
"timestamp": [
844.2,
845.93
]
},
{
"text": "of what you're looking at in a procedural",
"timestamp": [
844.2,
845.93
]
},
{
"text": "or recursive way, then you can add",
"timestamp": [
845.93,
847.67
]
},
{
"text": "or recursive way, then you can add",
"timestamp": [
845.93,
847.67
]
},
{
"text": "as much detail as you need",
"timestamp": [
847.67,
849.06
]
},
{
"text": "as much detail as you need",
"timestamp": [
847.67,
849.06
]
},
{
"text": "when you get close to objects.",
"timestamp": [
849.06,
850.35
]
},
{
"text": "when you get close to objects.",
"timestamp": [
849.06,
850.35
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, you mean like perlin noise?",
"timestamp": [
850.35,
852.47
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, you mean like perlin noise?",
"timestamp": [
850.35,
852.47
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah like perlin noise\nis a great example, right?",
"timestamp": [
852.47,
854.78
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah like perlin noise\nis a great example, right?",
"timestamp": [
852.47,
854.78
]
},
{
"text": "Perlin noise was one",
"timestamp": [
854.78,
856.14
]
},
{
"text": "Perlin noise was one",
"timestamp": [
854.78,
856.14
]
},
{
"text": "of the early ways of\nsynthesizing additional texture",
"timestamp": [
856.14,
859.07
]
},
{
"text": "of the early ways of\nsynthesizing additional texture",
"timestamp": [
856.14,
859.07
]
},
{
"text": "at any level of detail that you needed",
"timestamp": [
859.07,
860.79
]
},
{
"text": "at any level of detail that you needed",
"timestamp": [
859.07,
860.79
]
},
{
"text": "to make things look natural and realistic.",
"timestamp": [
860.79,
862.77
]
},
{
"text": "to make things look natural and realistic.",
"timestamp": [
860.79,
862.77
]
},
{
"text": "- I have a, a random question.",
"timestamp": [
862.77,
864.07
]
},
{
"text": "- I have a, a random question.",
"timestamp": [
862.77,
864.07
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know how the research\ninto fractals began?",
"timestamp": [
864.07,
868.67
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know how the research\ninto fractals began?",
"timestamp": [
864.07,
868.67
]
},
{
"text": "- You can look pretty far back",
"timestamp": [
868.67,
869.79
]
},
{
"text": "- You can look pretty far back",
"timestamp": [
868.67,
869.79
]
},
{
"text": "in history to see kind\nof glimmers of this idea",
"timestamp": [
869.79,
872.69
]
},
{
"text": "in history to see kind\nof glimmers of this idea",
"timestamp": [
869.79,
872.69
]
},
{
"text": "of fractals in science\nin the 19th century,",
"timestamp": [
872.69,
875.12
]
},
{
"text": "of fractals in science\nin the 19th century,",
"timestamp": [
872.69,
875.12
]
},
{
"text": "people were trying to look\nfor examples of things",
"timestamp": [
875.12,
876.77
]
},
{
"text": "people were trying to look\nfor examples of things",
"timestamp": [
875.12,
876.77
]
},
{
"text": "in mathematics that were very unnatural.",
"timestamp": [
876.77,
878.98
]
},
{
"text": "in mathematics that were very unnatural.",
"timestamp": [
876.77,
878.98
]
},
{
"text": "So there was, for instance,\nthis guy named Georg Cantor,",
"timestamp": [
878.98,
883.237
]
},
{
"text": "So there was, for instance,\nthis guy named Georg Cantor,",
"timestamp": [
878.98,
883.237
]
},
{
"text": "who was showing that you can\nhave these sets with really",
"timestamp": [
883.237,
885.55
]
},
{
"text": "who was showing that you can\nhave these sets with really",
"timestamp": [
883.237,
885.55
]
},
{
"text": "strange properties,",
"timestamp": [
885.55,
886.74
]
},
{
"text": "strange properties,",
"timestamp": [
885.55,
886.74
]
},
{
"text": "or you can have functions with\nreally strange properties.",
"timestamp": [
886.74,
888.63
]
},
{
"text": "or you can have functions with\nreally strange properties.",
"timestamp": [
886.74,
888.63
]
},
{
"text": "This thing called the\ndevil staircase and so on.",
"timestamp": [
888.63,
890.88
]
},
{
"text": "This thing called the\ndevil staircase and so on.",
"timestamp": [
888.63,
890.88
]
},
{
"text": "And it wasn't until about a\ncentury later where someone",
"timestamp": [
890.88,
895.13
]
},
{
"text": "And it wasn't until about a\ncentury later where someone",
"timestamp": [
890.88,
895.13
]
},
{
"text": "named Mendel Brock said,",
"timestamp": [
895.13,
896.647
]
},
{
"text": "named Mendel Brock said,",
"timestamp": [
895.13,
896.647
]
},
{
"text": "\"Oh, actually this strange\nmathematics that was meant",
"timestamp": [
896.647,
899.527
]
},
{
"text": "\"Oh, actually this strange\nmathematics that was meant",
"timestamp": [
896.647,
899.527
]
},
{
"text": "\"to show how unnatural things can happen",
"timestamp": [
899.527,
901.877
]
},
{
"text": "\"to show how unnatural things can happen",
"timestamp": [
899.527,
901.877
]
},
{
"text": "\"is actually a perfect description",
"timestamp": [
901.877,
903.007
]
},
{
"text": "\"is actually a perfect description",
"timestamp": [
901.877,
903.007
]
},
{
"text": "\"of things that really\ndo happen in nature.\"",
"timestamp": [
903.007,
905.4
]
},
{
"text": "\"of things that really\ndo happen in nature.\"",
"timestamp": [
903.007,
905.4
]
},
{
"text": "And from there, people\nreally ran with it and said,",
"timestamp": [
905.4,
907.757
]
},
{
"text": "And from there, people\nreally ran with it and said,",
"timestamp": [
905.4,
907.757
]
},
{
"text": "\"Oh, okay, well,",
"timestamp": [
907.757,
908.59
]
},
{
"text": "\"Oh, okay, well,",
"timestamp": [
907.757,
908.59
]
},
{
"text": "\"if these fractal descriptions\nare good for nature,",
"timestamp": [
908.59,
911.277
]
},
{
"text": "\"if these fractal descriptions\nare good for nature,",
"timestamp": [
908.59,
911.277
]
},
{
"text": "\"we can also use that for\ncreating really realistic",
"timestamp": [
911.277,
913.977
]
},
{
"text": "\"we can also use that for\ncreating really realistic",
"timestamp": [
911.277,
913.977
]
},
{
"text": "\"and believable pictures\nin computer graphics.\"",
"timestamp": [
913.977,
916.76
]
},
{
"text": "\"and believable pictures\nin computer graphics.\"",
"timestamp": [
913.977,
916.76
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
916.76,
919.51
]
},
{
"text": "[low beat music]",
"timestamp": [
916.76,
919.51
]
},
{
"text": "- I can say that when\nyou reached out to me",
"timestamp": [
920.91,
923.95
]
},
{
"text": "- I can say that when\nyou reached out to me",
"timestamp": [
920.91,
923.95
]
},
{
"text": "and I first learned about this program,",
"timestamp": [
923.95,
925.83
]
},
{
"text": "and I first learned about this program,",
"timestamp": [
923.95,
925.83
]
},
{
"text": "I immediately went to my computer",
"timestamp": [
925.83,
928.45
]
},
{
"text": "I immediately went to my computer",
"timestamp": [
925.83,
928.45
]
},
{
"text": "and I implemented yet another\nversion of like zooming",
"timestamp": [
928.45,
931.66
]
},
{
"text": "and I implemented yet another\nversion of like zooming",
"timestamp": [
928.45,
931.66
]
},
{
"text": "into the Mandelbrot set.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
931.66,
933.09
]
},
{
"text": "into the Mandelbrot set.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
931.66,
933.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Just because I was so excited, you know?",
"timestamp": [
933.09,
935.39
]
},
{
"text": "- Just because I was so excited, you know?",
"timestamp": [
933.09,
935.39
]
},
{
"text": "So that the thing is that\nit took me maybe 30 minutes.",
"timestamp": [
935.39,
939.53
]
},
{
"text": "So that the thing is that\nit took me maybe 30 minutes.",
"timestamp": [
935.39,
939.53
]
},
{
"text": "A kid at home who's like 13",
"timestamp": [
939.53,
941.24
]
},
{
"text": "A kid at home who's like 13",
"timestamp": [
939.53,
941.24
]
},
{
"text": "and 14 who just starts playing around",
"timestamp": [
941.24,
943.36
]
},
{
"text": "and 14 who just starts playing around",
"timestamp": [
941.24,
943.36
]
},
{
"text": "with a simple computer program can make",
"timestamp": [
943.36,
944.99
]
},
{
"text": "with a simple computer program can make",
"timestamp": [
943.36,
944.99
]
},
{
"text": "incredibly beautiful fractals.",
"timestamp": [
944.99,
946.53
]
},
{
"text": "incredibly beautiful fractals.",
"timestamp": [
944.99,
946.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah for sure.\n- And I think that's one",
"timestamp": [
946.53,
948.196
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah for sure.\n- And I think that's one",
"timestamp": [
946.53,
948.196
]
},
{
"text": "of the things that's exciting about it.",
"timestamp": [
948.196,
949.19
]
},
{
"text": "of the things that's exciting about it.",
"timestamp": [
948.196,
949.19
]
},
{
"text": "- Or you don't even need computers.",
"timestamp": [
949.19,
950.49
]
},
{
"text": "- Or you don't even need computers.",
"timestamp": [
949.19,
950.49
]
},
{
"text": "Like I remember when I was a kid,",
"timestamp": [
950.49,
951.79
]
},
{
"text": "Like I remember when I was a kid,",
"timestamp": [
950.49,
951.79
]
},
{
"text": "I played electric guitar and\nI had all these guitar pedals",
"timestamp": [
951.79,
954.13
]
},
{
"text": "I played electric guitar and\nI had all these guitar pedals",
"timestamp": [
951.79,
954.13
]
},
{
"text": "with different effects and oh,",
"timestamp": [
954.13,
955.3
]
},
{
"text": "with different effects and oh,",
"timestamp": [
954.13,
955.3
]
},
{
"text": "what happens if you put the\noutput back in the input",
"timestamp": [
955.3,
957.88
]
},
{
"text": "what happens if you put the\noutput back in the input",
"timestamp": [
955.3,
957.88
]
},
{
"text": "and just run it through itself,",
"timestamp": [
957.88,
959.1
]
},
{
"text": "and just run it through itself,",
"timestamp": [
957.88,
959.1
]
},
{
"text": "you're gonna start hearing this kind",
"timestamp": [
959.1,
960.2
]
},
{
"text": "you're gonna start hearing this kind",
"timestamp": [
959.1,
960.2
]
},
{
"text": "of fractal sound, right?",
"timestamp": [
960.2,
961.98
]
},
{
"text": "of fractal sound, right?",
"timestamp": [
960.2,
961.98
]
},
{
"text": "So today we've been telling people,",
"timestamp": [
961.98,
963.92
]
},
{
"text": "So today we've been telling people,",
"timestamp": [
961.98,
963.92
]
},
{
"text": "fractals are things that\nare somehow self-similar,",
"timestamp": [
963.92,
967.15
]
},
{
"text": "fractals are things that\nare somehow self-similar,",
"timestamp": [
963.92,
967.15
]
},
{
"text": "they have detail at all scales.",
"timestamp": [
967.15,
969.15
]
},
{
"text": "they have detail at all scales.",
"timestamp": [
967.15,
969.15
]
},
{
"text": "Are there other ways you\nmight introduce fractals",
"timestamp": [
969.15,
972.09
]
},
{
"text": "Are there other ways you\nmight introduce fractals",
"timestamp": [
969.15,
972.09
]
},
{
"text": "to somebody or are there\nother things you might say,",
"timestamp": [
972.09,
974.3
]
},
{
"text": "to somebody or are there\nother things you might say,",
"timestamp": [
972.09,
974.3
]
},
{
"text": "this is what a fractal is?",
"timestamp": [
974.3,
975.64
]
},
{
"text": "this is what a fractal is?",
"timestamp": [
974.3,
975.64
]
},
{
"text": "- I think you could get to the\nreasons why does a coastline",
"timestamp": [
975.64,
979.02
]
},
{
"text": "- I think you could get to the\nreasons why does a coastline",
"timestamp": [
975.64,
979.02
]
},
{
"text": "look like a coastline\nat all different scales?",
"timestamp": [
979.02,
981.83
]
},
{
"text": "look like a coastline\nat all different scales?",
"timestamp": [
979.02,
981.83
]
},
{
"text": "It's because the forces of nature tend",
"timestamp": [
981.83,
983.64
]
},
{
"text": "It's because the forces of nature tend",
"timestamp": [
981.83,
983.64
]
},
{
"text": "to work similarly at all different scales.",
"timestamp": [
983.64,
985.91
]
},
{
"text": "to work similarly at all different scales.",
"timestamp": [
983.64,
985.91
]
},
{
"text": "And it's those forces that are doing very,",
"timestamp": [
985.91,
989.66
]
},
{
"text": "And it's those forces that are doing very,",
"timestamp": [
985.91,
989.66
]
},
{
"text": "very simple things over\nand over and over again",
"timestamp": [
989.66,
992.08
]
},
{
"text": "very simple things over\nand over and over again",
"timestamp": [
989.66,
992.08
]
},
{
"text": "that are constantly creating\nthe sense of detail.",
"timestamp": [
992.08,
994.93
]
},
{
"text": "that are constantly creating\nthe sense of detail.",
"timestamp": [
992.08,
994.93
]
},
{
"text": "- I think about like the scale",
"timestamp": [
994.93,
996.05
]
},
{
"text": "- I think about like the scale",
"timestamp": [
994.93,
996.05
]
},
{
"text": "and variance of different\nphysical equations,",
"timestamp": [
996.05,
998.13
]
},
{
"text": "and variance of different\nphysical equations,",
"timestamp": [
996.05,
998.13
]
},
{
"text": "like navier-stokes is,\nyou know, kind of scale",
"timestamp": [
998.13,
1000.47
]
},
{
"text": "like navier-stokes is,\nyou know, kind of scale",
"timestamp": [
998.13,
1000.47
]
},
{
"text": "and variant, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1000.47,
1001.303
]
},
{
"text": "and variant, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1000.47,
1001.303
]
},
{
"text": "this Reynolds number that tells\nyou how viscous things are,",
"timestamp": [
1001.303,
1003.61
]
},
{
"text": "this Reynolds number that tells\nyou how viscous things are,",
"timestamp": [
1001.303,
1003.61
]
},
{
"text": "but you can have the same\nkind of fluid behavior",
"timestamp": [
1003.61,
1005.59
]
},
{
"text": "but you can have the same\nkind of fluid behavior",
"timestamp": [
1003.61,
1005.59
]
},
{
"text": "at all different scales.",
"timestamp": [
1005.59,
1006.75
]
},
{
"text": "at all different scales.",
"timestamp": [
1005.59,
1006.75
]
},
{
"text": "And that's why you get turbulence\nat all different scales.",
"timestamp": [
1006.75,
1008.7
]
},
{
"text": "And that's why you get turbulence\nat all different scales.",
"timestamp": [
1006.75,
1008.7
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah I actually actually\nremember the moment",
"timestamp": [
1008.7,
1010.76
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah I actually actually\nremember the moment",
"timestamp": [
1008.7,
1010.76
]
},
{
"text": "when I finally figured out how",
"timestamp": [
1010.76,
1012.33
]
},
{
"text": "when I finally figured out how",
"timestamp": [
1010.76,
1012.33
]
},
{
"text": "to make turbulence in computer graphics,",
"timestamp": [
1012.33,
1014.36
]
},
{
"text": "to make turbulence in computer graphics,",
"timestamp": [
1012.33,
1014.36
]
},
{
"text": "I was working for this company,",
"timestamp": [
1014.36,
1015.61
]
},
{
"text": "I was working for this company,",
"timestamp": [
1014.36,
1015.61
]
},
{
"text": "Maggi and Disney was working on a movie.",
"timestamp": [
1015.61,
1019.88
]
},
{
"text": "Maggi and Disney was working on a movie.",
"timestamp": [
1015.61,
1019.88
]
},
{
"text": "I think it was weird\nscience where they wanted",
"timestamp": [
1019.88,
1021.68
]
},
{
"text": "I think it was weird\nscience where they wanted",
"timestamp": [
1019.88,
1021.68
]
},
{
"text": "to have a marble vase.",
"timestamp": [
1021.68,
1022.95
]
},
{
"text": "to have a marble vase.",
"timestamp": [
1021.68,
1022.95
]
},
{
"text": "And then about three in the morning,",
"timestamp": [
1022.95,
1024.85
]
},
{
"text": "And then about three in the morning,",
"timestamp": [
1022.95,
1024.85
]
},
{
"text": "I was at a diner nearby\nand I was pouring the cream",
"timestamp": [
1024.85,
1029.05
]
},
{
"text": "I was at a diner nearby\nand I was pouring the cream",
"timestamp": [
1024.85,
1029.05
]
},
{
"text": "into the coffee and I was watching it",
"timestamp": [
1029.05,
1030.69
]
},
{
"text": "into the coffee and I was watching it",
"timestamp": [
1029.05,
1030.69
]
},
{
"text": "and I started watching it swirl around.",
"timestamp": [
1030.69,
1032.48
]
},
{
"text": "and I started watching it swirl around.",
"timestamp": [
1030.69,
1032.48
]
},
{
"text": "And I realized that what was\nhappening was really simple",
"timestamp": [
1032.48,
1035.2
]
},
{
"text": "And I realized that what was\nhappening was really simple",
"timestamp": [
1032.48,
1035.2
]
},
{
"text": "that you had this line of cream\nand then it hits the cup and",
"timestamp": [
1035.2,
1039.09
]
},
{
"text": "that you had this line of cream\nand then it hits the cup and",
"timestamp": [
1035.2,
1039.09
]
},
{
"text": "it folds and then the folds get caught up.",
"timestamp": [
1039.09,
1042.08
]
},
{
"text": "it folds and then the folds get caught up.",
"timestamp": [
1039.09,
1042.08
]
},
{
"text": "And then that folds again.",
"timestamp": [
1042.08,
1043.89
]
},
{
"text": "And then that folds again.",
"timestamp": [
1042.08,
1043.89
]
},
{
"text": "And it's a really simple process\nof folding within folding.",
"timestamp": [
1043.89,
1047
]
},
{
"text": "And it's a really simple process\nof folding within folding.",
"timestamp": [
1043.89,
1047
]
},
{
"text": "And I just went to the\ncomputer and did that.",
"timestamp": [
1047,
1049.65
]
},
{
"text": "And I just went to the\ncomputer and did that.",
"timestamp": [
1047,
1049.65
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1049.65,
1050.483
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1049.65,
1050.483
]
},
{
"text": "- And things look like\nmarble and looked like flame.",
"timestamp": [
1050.483,
1052.97
]
},
{
"text": "- And things look like\nmarble and looked like flame.",
"timestamp": [
1050.483,
1052.97
]
},
{
"text": "And they looked like\nclouds and they look like",
"timestamp": [
1052.97,
1054.97
]
},
{
"text": "And they looked like\nclouds and they look like",
"timestamp": [
1052.97,
1054.97
]
},
{
"text": "you just keep using\nthose simple techniques.",
"timestamp": [
1054.97,
1057.31
]
},
{
"text": "you just keep using\nthose simple techniques.",
"timestamp": [
1054.97,
1057.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah and I think it's\nreally cool that this kind",
"timestamp": [
1057.31,
1059.35
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah and I think it's\nreally cool that this kind",
"timestamp": [
1057.31,
1059.35
]
},
{
"text": "of fractal description of geometry",
"timestamp": [
1059.35,
1061.27
]
},
{
"text": "of fractal description of geometry",
"timestamp": [
1059.35,
1061.27
]
},
{
"text": "or physics is also kind of baked",
"timestamp": [
1061.27,
1063
]
},
{
"text": "or physics is also kind of baked",
"timestamp": [
1061.27,
1063
]
},
{
"text": "into the nature of computation.",
"timestamp": [
1063,
1064.18
]
},
{
"text": "into the nature of computation.",
"timestamp": [
1063,
1064.18
]
},
{
"text": "Computation is recursive\nkind of biased nature.",
"timestamp": [
1064.18,
1066.5
]
},
{
"text": "Computation is recursive\nkind of biased nature.",
"timestamp": [
1064.18,
1066.5
]
},
{
"text": "And so it's kind of a match\nmade in heaven that we happen",
"timestamp": [
1066.5,
1068.53
]
},
{
"text": "And so it's kind of a match\nmade in heaven that we happen",
"timestamp": [
1066.5,
1068.53
]
},
{
"text": "to build these machines that also-",
"timestamp": [
1068.53,
1070.17
]
},
{
"text": "to build these machines that also-",
"timestamp": [
1068.53,
1070.17
]
},
{
"text": "- [Ken] Right.",
"timestamp": [
1070.17,
1071.003
]
},
{
"text": "- [Ken] Right.",
"timestamp": [
1070.17,
1071.003
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, behave the\nway that nature does.",
"timestamp": [
1071.003,
1071.91
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, behave the\nway that nature does.",
"timestamp": [
1071.003,
1071.91
]
},
{
"text": "- You just have to understand recursion.",
"timestamp": [
1071.91,
1073.14
]
},
{
"text": "- You just have to understand recursion.",
"timestamp": [
1071.91,
1073.14
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
1073.14,
1073.973
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
1073.14,
1073.973
]
},
{
"text": "- So somebody once told me in\norder to understand recursion,",
"timestamp": [
1073.973,
1075.639
]
},
{
"text": "- So somebody once told me in\norder to understand recursion,",
"timestamp": [
1073.973,
1075.639
]
},
{
"text": "you just have to understand recursion.",
"timestamp": [
1075.639,
1077.963
]
},
{
"text": "you just have to understand recursion.",
"timestamp": [
1075.639,
1077.963
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go.",
"timestamp": [
1079.52,
1080.353
]
},
{
"text": "- There you go.",
"timestamp": [
1079.52,
1080.353
]
},
{
"text": "- And then you get it all.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1080.353,
1081.186
]
},
{
"text": "- And then you get it all.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1080.353,
1081.186
]
},
{
"text": "- But I think it's this\npoint that that point",
"timestamp": [
1081.186,
1083.01
]
},
{
"text": "- But I think it's this\npoint that that point",
"timestamp": [
1081.186,
1083.01
]
},
{
"text": "with the coffee is important",
"timestamp": [
1083.01,
1084.34
]
},
{
"text": "with the coffee is important",
"timestamp": [
1083.01,
1084.34
]
},
{
"text": "because the forces we're\noperating at one scale,",
"timestamp": [
1084.34,
1087.5
]
},
{
"text": "because the forces we're\noperating at one scale,",
"timestamp": [
1084.34,
1087.5
]
},
{
"text": "they're operating at the\nscale of the coffee cup.",
"timestamp": [
1087.5,
1089.9
]
},
{
"text": "they're operating at the\nscale of the coffee cup.",
"timestamp": [
1087.5,
1089.9
]
},
{
"text": "But over time they kept making details",
"timestamp": [
1089.9,
1090.823
]
},
{
"text": "But over time they kept making details",
"timestamp": [
1089.9,
1090.823
]
},
{
"text": "that were smaller and smaller.",
"timestamp": [
1090.823,
1094.05
]
},
{
"text": "that were smaller and smaller.",
"timestamp": [
1090.823,
1094.05
]
},
{
"text": "Process at one scale, plus\ntime you get fractals.",
"timestamp": [
1094.05,
1097.48
]
},
{
"text": "Process at one scale, plus\ntime you get fractals.",
"timestamp": [
1094.05,
1097.48
]
},
{
"text": "- I think that's also,",
"timestamp": [
1097.48,
1098.55
]
},
{
"text": "- I think that's also,",
"timestamp": [
1097.48,
1098.55
]
},
{
"text": "what's so beautiful\nabout fractals is that,",
"timestamp": [
1098.55,
1100.52
]
},
{
"text": "what's so beautiful\nabout fractals is that,",
"timestamp": [
1098.55,
1100.52
]
},
{
"text": "you know, if you think about sort",
"timestamp": [
1100.52,
1101.77
]
},
{
"text": "you know, if you think about sort",
"timestamp": [
1100.52,
1101.77
]
},
{
"text": "of the history of geometry as well,",
"timestamp": [
1101.77,
1103
]
},
{
"text": "of the history of geometry as well,",
"timestamp": [
1101.77,
1103
]
},
{
"text": "Felix Klein was looking\nat geometry by saying,",
"timestamp": [
1103,
1105.57
]
},
{
"text": "Felix Klein was looking\nat geometry by saying,",
"timestamp": [
1103,
1105.57
]
},
{
"text": "well, geometry is all about in variance.",
"timestamp": [
1105.57,
1107.12
]
},
{
"text": "well, geometry is all about in variance.",
"timestamp": [
1105.57,
1107.12
]
},
{
"text": "I have some group of transformations",
"timestamp": [
1107.12,
1109.11
]
},
{
"text": "I have some group of transformations",
"timestamp": [
1107.12,
1109.11
]
},
{
"text": "and I look at objects that are sort of",
"timestamp": [
1109.11,
1110.65
]
},
{
"text": "and I look at objects that are sort of",
"timestamp": [
1109.11,
1110.65
]
},
{
"text": "in variant with respect\nto these transformations.",
"timestamp": [
1110.65,
1112.31
]
},
{
"text": "in variant with respect\nto these transformations.",
"timestamp": [
1110.65,
1112.31
]
},
{
"text": "So if you just look at translations, okay,",
"timestamp": [
1112.31,
1114.19
]
},
{
"text": "So if you just look at translations, okay,",
"timestamp": [
1112.31,
1114.19
]
},
{
"text": "what kinds of shapes remain\nthe same under translations?",
"timestamp": [
1114.19,
1116.67
]
},
{
"text": "what kinds of shapes remain\nthe same under translations?",
"timestamp": [
1114.19,
1116.67
]
},
{
"text": "Will you get tiling?",
"timestamp": [
1116.67,
1117.503
]
},
{
"text": "Will you get tiling?",
"timestamp": [
1116.67,
1117.503
]
},
{
"text": "You get wallpaper.",
"timestamp": [
1117.503,
1118.36
]
},
{
"text": "You get wallpaper.",
"timestamp": [
1117.503,
1118.36
]
},
{
"text": "And if you start asking\nthat same question,",
"timestamp": [
1118.36,
1120.04
]
},
{
"text": "And if you start asking\nthat same question,",
"timestamp": [
1118.36,
1120.04
]
},
{
"text": "what if I allow scaling in\nmy transformations then boom,",
"timestamp": [
1120.04,
1123.03
]
},
{
"text": "what if I allow scaling in\nmy transformations then boom,",
"timestamp": [
1120.04,
1123.03
]
},
{
"text": "you have fractal.",
"timestamp": [
1123.03,
1123.863
]
},
{
"text": "you have fractal.",
"timestamp": [
1123.03,
1123.863
]
},
{
"text": "- Immediately, right.",
"timestamp": [
1123.863,
1124.696
]
},
{
"text": "- Immediately, right.",
"timestamp": [
1123.863,
1124.696
]
},
{
"text": "- [Keenan] Come out of nowhere.",
"timestamp": [
1124.696,
1125.58
]
},
{
"text": "- [Keenan] Come out of nowhere.",
"timestamp": [
1124.696,
1125.58
]
},
{
"text": "- And when everybody understands scaling.",
"timestamp": [
1125.58,
1126.771
]
},
{
"text": "- And when everybody understands scaling.",
"timestamp": [
1125.58,
1126.771
]
},
{
"text": "- [Keenan] Right?",
"timestamp": [
1126.771,
1127.604
]
},
{
"text": "- [Keenan] Right?",
"timestamp": [
1126.771,
1127.604
]
},
{
"text": "- Scaling is a simple thing yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1127.604,
1128.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Scaling is a simple thing yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1127.604,
1128.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Now you work on kind of\nthe future of virtual reality",
"timestamp": [
1128.9,
1133.25
]
},
{
"text": "- Now you work on kind of\nthe future of virtual reality",
"timestamp": [
1128.9,
1133.25
]
},
{
"text": "and augmented reality\nand extended reality.",
"timestamp": [
1133.25,
1135.53
]
},
{
"text": "and augmented reality\nand extended reality.",
"timestamp": [
1133.25,
1135.53
]
},
{
"text": "But it's kind of interesting",
"timestamp": [
1135.53,
1136.47
]
},
{
"text": "But it's kind of interesting",
"timestamp": [
1135.53,
1136.47
]
},
{
"text": "because I think if I think",
"timestamp": [
1136.47,
1137.498
]
},
{
"text": "because I think if I think",
"timestamp": [
1136.47,
1137.498
]
},
{
"text": "about exploring these\ninfinite fractal landscapes",
"timestamp": [
1137.498,
1140.32
]
},
{
"text": "about exploring these\ninfinite fractal landscapes",
"timestamp": [
1137.498,
1140.32
]
},
{
"text": "in some way,",
"timestamp": [
1140.32,
1141.25
]
},
{
"text": "in some way,",
"timestamp": [
1140.32,
1141.25
]
},
{
"text": "they still feel a little bit lonely",
"timestamp": [
1141.25,
1144.21
]
},
{
"text": "they still feel a little bit lonely",
"timestamp": [
1141.25,
1144.21
]
},
{
"text": "or they feel a little bit poor",
"timestamp": [
1144.21,
1146.56
]
},
{
"text": "or they feel a little bit poor",
"timestamp": [
1144.21,
1146.56
]
},
{
"text": "of the kind of richness that we have",
"timestamp": [
1146.56,
1148.14
]
},
{
"text": "of the kind of richness that we have",
"timestamp": [
1146.56,
1148.14
]
},
{
"text": "in the real world.",
"timestamp": [
1148.14,
1149.19
]
},
{
"text": "in the real world.",
"timestamp": [
1148.14,
1149.19
]
},
{
"text": "- This is where machine\nlearning starts coming in,",
"timestamp": [
1149.19,
1153.2
]
},
{
"text": "- This is where machine\nlearning starts coming in,",
"timestamp": [
1149.19,
1153.2
]
},
{
"text": "because you can start saying, okay,",
"timestamp": [
1153.2,
1154.043
]
},
{
"text": "because you can start saying, okay,",
"timestamp": [
1153.2,
1154.043
]
},
{
"text": "this is a very, very rich virtual world,",
"timestamp": [
1154.043,
1158.33
]
},
{
"text": "this is a very, very rich virtual world,",
"timestamp": [
1154.043,
1158.33
]
},
{
"text": "but it's informed by, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1158.33,
1160.89
]
},
{
"text": "but it's informed by, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1158.33,
1160.89
]
},
{
"text": "my favorite mountains\nthat I saw in Italy once.",
"timestamp": [
1160.89,
1164.68
]
},
{
"text": "my favorite mountains\nthat I saw in Italy once.",
"timestamp": [
1160.89,
1164.68
]
},
{
"text": "So you can start training\nthese fractal worlds",
"timestamp": [
1164.68,
1167.01
]
},
{
"text": "So you can start training\nthese fractal worlds",
"timestamp": [
1164.68,
1167.01
]
},
{
"text": "on things about the real world",
"timestamp": [
1167.01,
1168.85
]
},
{
"text": "on things about the real world",
"timestamp": [
1167.01,
1168.85
]
},
{
"text": "that have particular\nemotional resonance for us.",
"timestamp": [
1168.85,
1171.44
]
},
{
"text": "that have particular\nemotional resonance for us.",
"timestamp": [
1168.85,
1171.44
]
},
{
"text": "- People outside of computer graphics",
"timestamp": [
1171.44,
1173.25
]
},
{
"text": "- People outside of computer graphics",
"timestamp": [
1171.44,
1173.25
]
},
{
"text": "and engineering and science",
"timestamp": [
1173.25,
1174.23
]
},
{
"text": "and engineering and science",
"timestamp": [
1173.25,
1174.23
]
},
{
"text": "and so forth have also thought a lot about",
"timestamp": [
1174.23,
1176.83
]
},
{
"text": "and so forth have also thought a lot about",
"timestamp": [
1174.23,
1176.83
]
},
{
"text": "and used fractals as a language",
"timestamp": [
1176.83,
1178.51
]
},
{
"text": "and used fractals as a language",
"timestamp": [
1176.83,
1178.51
]
},
{
"text": "for talking about nature,",
"timestamp": [
1178.51,
1179.5
]
},
{
"text": "for talking about nature,",
"timestamp": [
1178.51,
1179.5
]
},
{
"text": "for characterizing shapes",
"timestamp": [
1179.5,
1180.82
]
},
{
"text": "for characterizing shapes",
"timestamp": [
1179.5,
1180.82
]
},
{
"text": "and behaviors and so forth tissue",
"timestamp": [
1180.82,
1183.26
]
},
{
"text": "and behaviors and so forth tissue",
"timestamp": [
1180.82,
1183.26
]
},
{
"text": "or friction, or all sorts of\nreally important phenomena.",
"timestamp": [
1183.26,
1186.97
]
},
{
"text": "or friction, or all sorts of\nreally important phenomena.",
"timestamp": [
1183.26,
1186.97
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think that\ncomputer graphics has kind",
"timestamp": [
1186.97,
1188.84
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think that\ncomputer graphics has kind",
"timestamp": [
1186.97,
1188.84
]
},
{
"text": "of dropped the ball in\nterms of saying, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1188.84,
1190.93
]
},
{
"text": "of dropped the ball in\nterms of saying, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1188.84,
1190.93
]
},
{
"text": "this is not something\nthat's exciting anymore",
"timestamp": [
1190.93,
1193.15
]
},
{
"text": "this is not something\nthat's exciting anymore",
"timestamp": [
1190.93,
1193.15
]
},
{
"text": "to work on procedural descriptions",
"timestamp": [
1193.15,
1196.31
]
},
{
"text": "to work on procedural descriptions",
"timestamp": [
1193.15,
1196.31
]
},
{
"text": "and we're, we're moving on from that?",
"timestamp": [
1196.31,
1197.6
]
},
{
"text": "and we're, we're moving on from that?",
"timestamp": [
1196.31,
1197.6
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I mean, if you\nlook at any Hollywood movie",
"timestamp": [
1197.6,
1201.12
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I mean, if you\nlook at any Hollywood movie",
"timestamp": [
1197.6,
1201.12
]
},
{
"text": "or you look at any of the\ngame worlds that people",
"timestamp": [
1201.12,
1204.06
]
},
{
"text": "or you look at any of the\ngame worlds that people",
"timestamp": [
1201.12,
1204.06
]
},
{
"text": "are spending all their time in",
"timestamp": [
1204.06,
1206.39
]
},
{
"text": "are spending all their time in",
"timestamp": [
1204.06,
1206.39
]
},
{
"text": "they're highly procedural,\nthey have to be,",
"timestamp": [
1206.39,
1208.6
]
},
{
"text": "they're highly procedural,\nthey have to be,",
"timestamp": [
1206.39,
1208.6
]
},
{
"text": "and they have to make\nuse of fractal techniques",
"timestamp": [
1208.6,
1211.07
]
},
{
"text": "and they have to make\nuse of fractal techniques",
"timestamp": [
1208.6,
1211.07
]
},
{
"text": "because it's basically a way\nto get enormous complexity",
"timestamp": [
1211.07,
1215.26
]
},
{
"text": "because it's basically a way\nto get enormous complexity",
"timestamp": [
1211.07,
1215.26
]
},
{
"text": "without having to explicitly\nstore the complexity.",
"timestamp": [
1215.26,
1217.97
]
},
{
"text": "without having to explicitly\nstore the complexity.",
"timestamp": [
1215.26,
1217.97
]
},
{
"text": "And because they're able",
"timestamp": [
1217.97,
1219.06
]
},
{
"text": "And because they're able",
"timestamp": [
1217.97,
1219.06
]
},
{
"text": "to use these relatively\nsimple fractal techniques",
"timestamp": [
1219.06,
1221.87
]
},
{
"text": "to use these relatively\nsimple fractal techniques",
"timestamp": [
1219.06,
1221.87
]
},
{
"text": "to make very complex\nlooking natural things.",
"timestamp": [
1221.87,
1224.274
]
},
{
"text": "to make very complex\nlooking natural things.",
"timestamp": [
1221.87,
1224.274
]
},
{
"text": "- Right?",
"timestamp": [
1224.274,
1225.107
]
},
{
"text": "- Right?",
"timestamp": [
1224.274,
1225.107
]
},
{
"text": "Lazy evaluation, we love being\nlazy in computer graphics.",
"timestamp": [
1225.107,
1227.42
]
},
{
"text": "Lazy evaluation, we love being\nlazy in computer graphics.",
"timestamp": [
1225.107,
1227.42
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, it's also, it's not\neven possible to explore,",
"timestamp": [
1227.42,
1229.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, it's also, it's not\neven possible to explore,",
"timestamp": [
1227.42,
1229.81
]
},
{
"text": "to store an entire world in your computer.",
"timestamp": [
1229.81,
1232.37
]
},
{
"text": "to store an entire world in your computer.",
"timestamp": [
1229.81,
1232.37
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
1232.37,
1233.203
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
1232.37,
1233.203
]
},
{
"text": "- You wanna be able to sort\nof generate it on the fly.",
"timestamp": [
1233.203,
1235.25
]
},
{
"text": "- You wanna be able to sort\nof generate it on the fly.",
"timestamp": [
1233.203,
1235.25
]
},
{
"text": "I'm looking forward to\nthings getting better.",
"timestamp": [
1235.25,
1237.4
]
},
{
"text": "I'm looking forward to\nthings getting better.",
"timestamp": [
1235.25,
1237.4
]
},
{
"text": "We're not there yet.",
"timestamp": [
1237.4,
1238.49
]
},
{
"text": "We're not there yet.",
"timestamp": [
1237.4,
1238.49
]
},
{
"text": "- So one of the things\nI guess that touches",
"timestamp": [
1238.49,
1240.25
]
},
{
"text": "- So one of the things\nI guess that touches",
"timestamp": [
1238.49,
1240.25
]
},
{
"text": "on is this question about controllability",
"timestamp": [
1240.25,
1242.47
]
},
{
"text": "on is this question about controllability",
"timestamp": [
1240.25,
1242.47
]
},
{
"text": "or the ease of, with which everybody",
"timestamp": [
1242.47,
1244.69
]
},
{
"text": "or the ease of, with which everybody",
"timestamp": [
1242.47,
1244.69
]
},
{
"text": "can create these worlds.",
"timestamp": [
1244.69,
1245.523
]
},
{
"text": "can create these worlds.",
"timestamp": [
1244.69,
1245.523
]
},
{
"text": "Not just people, not just\nmathematicians, not just,",
"timestamp": [
1245.523,
1247.87
]
},
{
"text": "Not just people, not just\nmathematicians, not just,",
"timestamp": [
1245.523,
1247.87
]
},
{
"text": "you know, trained computer scientists.",
"timestamp": [
1247.87,
1249.86
]
},
{
"text": "you know, trained computer scientists.",
"timestamp": [
1247.87,
1249.86
]
},
{
"text": "One thing when I think\nabout Ken Musgraves working",
"timestamp": [
1249.86,
1252.41
]
},
{
"text": "One thing when I think\nabout Ken Musgraves working",
"timestamp": [
1249.86,
1252.41
]
},
{
"text": "about this program, Bryce,",
"timestamp": [
1252.41,
1254.02
]
},
{
"text": "about this program, Bryce,",
"timestamp": [
1252.41,
1254.02
]
},
{
"text": "this one I felt like I could really use,",
"timestamp": [
1254.02,
1256.44
]
},
{
"text": "this one I felt like I could really use,",
"timestamp": [
1254.02,
1256.44
]
},
{
"text": "what do you think we still need to do",
"timestamp": [
1256.44,
1257.99
]
},
{
"text": "what do you think we still need to do",
"timestamp": [
1256.44,
1257.99
]
},
{
"text": "in terms of putting\nthese kinds of tools in,",
"timestamp": [
1257.99,
1260.08
]
},
{
"text": "in terms of putting\nthese kinds of tools in,",
"timestamp": [
1257.99,
1260.08
]
},
{
"text": "in people's hands, making it easier",
"timestamp": [
1260.08,
1261.48
]
},
{
"text": "in people's hands, making it easier",
"timestamp": [
1260.08,
1261.48
]
},
{
"text": "for people to use\nprocedural machine learning,",
"timestamp": [
1261.48,
1264.29
]
},
{
"text": "for people to use\nprocedural machine learning,",
"timestamp": [
1261.48,
1264.29
]
},
{
"text": "to build these kind of worlds?",
"timestamp": [
1264.29,
1265.65
]
},
{
"text": "to build these kind of worlds?",
"timestamp": [
1264.29,
1265.65
]
},
{
"text": "- I think in that case, it came down",
"timestamp": [
1265.65,
1268.8
]
},
{
"text": "- I think in that case, it came down",
"timestamp": [
1265.65,
1268.8
]
},
{
"text": "to the fact that Ken in\nparticular had a mission",
"timestamp": [
1268.8,
1272.7
]
},
{
"text": "to the fact that Ken in\nparticular had a mission",
"timestamp": [
1268.8,
1272.7
]
},
{
"text": "to make accessible tools for people",
"timestamp": [
1272.7,
1276.06
]
},
{
"text": "to make accessible tools for people",
"timestamp": [
1272.7,
1276.06
]
},
{
"text": "without sacrificing the power",
"timestamp": [
1276.06,
1278.28
]
},
{
"text": "without sacrificing the power",
"timestamp": [
1276.06,
1278.28
]
},
{
"text": "and the richness of\nmaking beautiful things.",
"timestamp": [
1278.28,
1280.24
]
},
{
"text": "and the richness of\nmaking beautiful things.",
"timestamp": [
1278.28,
1280.24
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, in a sense he was kind",
"timestamp": [
1280.24,
1281.56
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, in a sense he was kind",
"timestamp": [
1280.24,
1281.56
]
},
{
"text": "of the computer graphic, Bob Ross.",
"timestamp": [
1281.56,
1284.52
]
},
{
"text": "of the computer graphic, Bob Ross.",
"timestamp": [
1281.56,
1284.52
]
},
{
"text": "You know? So-\n- He made a lot",
"timestamp": [
1284.52,
1286.51
]
},
{
"text": "You know? So-\n- He made a lot",
"timestamp": [
1284.52,
1286.51
]
},
{
"text": "of happy little trees.",
"timestamp": [
1286.51,
1287.56
]
},
{
"text": "of happy little trees.",
"timestamp": [
1286.51,
1287.56
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, yeah, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1287.56,
1288.393
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, yeah, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1287.56,
1288.393
]
},
{
"text": "Which, I mean, when you,",
"timestamp": [
1288.393,
1289.41
]
},
{
"text": "Which, I mean, when you,",
"timestamp": [
1288.393,
1289.41
]
},
{
"text": "when you think about the techniques",
"timestamp": [
1289.41,
1291.25
]
},
{
"text": "when you think about the techniques",
"timestamp": [
1289.41,
1291.25
]
},
{
"text": "of somebody like a Bob\nRoss they're fractal.",
"timestamp": [
1291.25,
1294.533
]
},
{
"text": "of somebody like a Bob\nRoss they're fractal.",
"timestamp": [
1291.25,
1294.533
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. And I think this is\nwhat what's so beautiful also",
"timestamp": [
1294.533,
1296.51
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. And I think this is\nwhat what's so beautiful also",
"timestamp": [
1294.533,
1296.51
]
},
{
"text": "about Mandelbrot's work\nis him saying, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1296.51,
1298.38
]
},
{
"text": "about Mandelbrot's work\nis him saying, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1296.51,
1298.38
]
},
{
"text": "it's not really about\nthese exotic examples.",
"timestamp": [
1298.38,
1301.38
]
},
{
"text": "it's not really about\nthese exotic examples.",
"timestamp": [
1298.38,
1301.38
]
},
{
"text": "Like even the Mandelbrot set\nor Julia sets or whatever.",
"timestamp": [
1301.38,
1303.7
]
},
{
"text": "Like even the Mandelbrot set\nor Julia sets or whatever.",
"timestamp": [
1301.38,
1303.7
]
},
{
"text": "Yeah they're like really",
"timestamp": [
1303.7,
1304.65
]
},
{
"text": "Yeah they're like really",
"timestamp": [
1303.7,
1304.65
]
},
{
"text": "interesting mathematical curiosities,",
"timestamp": [
1304.65,
1306.36
]
},
{
"text": "interesting mathematical curiosities,",
"timestamp": [
1304.65,
1306.36
]
},
{
"text": "but they get at this idea\nthat fractals are kind",
"timestamp": [
1306.36,
1308.79
]
},
{
"text": "but they get at this idea\nthat fractals are kind",
"timestamp": [
1306.36,
1308.79
]
},
{
"text": "of inevitable.",
"timestamp": [
1308.79,
1309.623
]
},
{
"text": "of inevitable.",
"timestamp": [
1308.79,
1309.623
]
},
{
"text": "And Bob Ross probably\nnever, as far as I know,",
"timestamp": [
1309.623,
1312.12
]
},
{
"text": "And Bob Ross probably\nnever, as far as I know,",
"timestamp": [
1309.623,
1312.12
]
},
{
"text": "never sat down and you know,",
"timestamp": [
1312.12,
1313.63
]
},
{
"text": "never sat down and you know,",
"timestamp": [
1312.12,
1313.63
]
},
{
"text": "thought about recursive descriptions",
"timestamp": [
1313.63,
1315.432
]
},
{
"text": "thought about recursive descriptions",
"timestamp": [
1313.63,
1315.432
]
},
{
"text": "of trees or anything like that.",
"timestamp": [
1315.432,
1317.41
]
},
{
"text": "of trees or anything like that.",
"timestamp": [
1315.432,
1317.41
]
},
{
"text": "But it's just something\nthat naturally comes",
"timestamp": [
1317.41,
1318.87
]
},
{
"text": "But it's just something\nthat naturally comes",
"timestamp": [
1317.41,
1318.87
]
},
{
"text": "to you as an artist.",
"timestamp": [
1318.87,
1319.703
]
},
{
"text": "to you as an artist.",
"timestamp": [
1318.87,
1319.703
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I mean, you can go\nback to all the classic artists",
"timestamp": [
1319.703,
1322.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I mean, you can go\nback to all the classic artists",
"timestamp": [
1319.703,
1322.01
]
},
{
"text": "da Vinci's notebooks\nwere just full of like,",
"timestamp": [
1322.01,
1324.16
]
},
{
"text": "da Vinci's notebooks\nwere just full of like,",
"timestamp": [
1322.01,
1324.16
]
},
{
"text": "this thing looks like that thing",
"timestamp": [
1324.16,
1325.51
]
},
{
"text": "this thing looks like that thing",
"timestamp": [
1324.16,
1325.51
]
},
{
"text": "at completely different scales.",
"timestamp": [
1325.51,
1327.15
]
},
{
"text": "at completely different scales.",
"timestamp": [
1325.51,
1327.15
]
},
{
"text": "So he didn't have a fancy word for it,",
"timestamp": [
1327.15,
1329.22
]
},
{
"text": "So he didn't have a fancy word for it,",
"timestamp": [
1327.15,
1329.22
]
},
{
"text": "but he completely understood it.",
"timestamp": [
1329.22,
1330.856
]
},
{
"text": "but he completely understood it.",
"timestamp": [
1329.22,
1330.856
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah it's really part of human nature",
"timestamp": [
1330.856,
1333.12
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah it's really part of human nature",
"timestamp": [
1330.856,
1333.12
]
},
{
"text": "or human's connection to nature.",
"timestamp": [
1333.12,
1334.94
]
},
{
"text": "or human's connection to nature.",
"timestamp": [
1333.12,
1334.94
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1334.94,
1336.02
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1334.94,
1336.02
]
},
{
"text": "Hopefully our discussion today\nhas helped you see the world",
"timestamp": [
1336.02,
1338.97
]
},
{
"text": "Hopefully our discussion today\nhas helped you see the world",
"timestamp": [
1336.02,
1338.97
]
},
{
"text": "in a different way and\nalso see how mathematics",
"timestamp": [
1338.97,
1342.12
]
},
{
"text": "in a different way and\nalso see how mathematics",
"timestamp": [
1338.97,
1342.12
]
},
{
"text": "and art can come together\nto make beautiful images.",
"timestamp": [
1342.12,
1344.77
]
},
{
"text": "and art can come together\nto make beautiful images.",
"timestamp": [
1342.12,
1344.77
]
},
{
"text": "I hope it's inspired\nyou to look at the world",
"timestamp": [
1344.77,
1346.79
]
},
{
"text": "I hope it's inspired\nyou to look at the world",
"timestamp": [
1344.77,
1346.79
]
},
{
"text": "around you in a different way.",
"timestamp": [
1346.79,
1348.493
]
},
{
"text": "around you in a different way.",
"timestamp": [
1346.79,
1348.493
]
}
] |
[
[
"Intro",
"- Hi, I'm Keenan Crane.I am a geometer and professor\nof computer science atCarnegie Mellon university.And today I've been asked to\nexplain fractals at five levelsof increasing complexity.So fractals are a sort of\nstrange kind of shape that havedetail at all different levels.Fractals appear all over nature.They rise naturally in computer\ngraphics because we wannamake beautiful images\nof the natural world.Fractals are also really\ninteresting because they show howextremely simple descriptions\ncan give rise to reallycomplex shapes."
],
[
"Fractals",
"What's your name?- Myra.- Have you heard of fractals before?- No, absolutely not.- So a fractal is something\nthat we see every day,but it's a little bit hard to describe.It's it's a shape that if you\nlook at it really far away,or you look at it really up close,it has kind of a similar appearance.And actually that word fractal soundsa little bit like fraction.- Yes.\n- Right?So actually fractals are\nin some way fractions,but for shapes.Have you ever seen a movie called Moana?- Yes.\n- Yeah.Moana lives on this like\nbeautiful island, right?- Yes.- This island has lots of trees on it.Some artists had to make all those trees.How do you think they do that?- They tried to find something\nsimilar to that on the Googleand they try to picture\nit in their heads saying,what would, what would\nit look like if they,it was animated?- So somehow they have to explainto the computer what a treelooks like so that the computer\ncan draw the tree for them.- Yes.- And that's kind of what\nwe're gonna try out today.In fact, we're gonna\nhave you build a fractal.A tree is a really good\nexample of a fractalbecause if you look at the whole treeand then you break off a\nbig branch of the tree.- Yes.- It almost looks like that\nbranch that you broke off isitself another tree.So our rule is that every branch splitsinto two smaller branches.- Okay.[low beat music]- So your tree is totally beautiful,but it took a long time to make, right.How would you feel if I said,now you have to make a\nthousand of those trees.- I'd be like, oh my that's a lot of work.- Yeah, it's a ton of work.If you think about Moana's island,it has these tens and hundreds\nof thousands of trees on it.And that's why we need\ncomputers to help us outbecause computers are really goodat taking these really simple rules,like put two branches\non every other branchand doing it really, really fast.- I want to know how to draw a fractal.- On a computer if you wanna\nlearn to draw fractals,then you might need to learn a\nlittle bit about programming.- Programming.\n- [Keenan] Yeah.- Like coding.- Like coding, exactly.That's what actually a lot of\nthe artists for the movies areworking with code rather\nthan with a paintbrush.So in your own words,how would you describe\na fractal to somebody?- I would describe a fractal by sayingthat when you see a, a object,if you zoom in closely,you'll see that it's, it's\nbroken down into pieces.So as you zoom in more closely,you'll keep seeing smaller\nand smaller pieces.- Definitely that is totally\nwhat fractals are all about.- Yes."
],
[
"Coastline Paradox",
"[low beat music]- What are you studying in\nseventh grade these days?- I think we're doing geometry still.- What if I told you that there\nare shapes where you can'tmeasure the length of the perimeter.- It's big, but all of the\nsides are kind of like,so weirdthat they wouldn't be ableto pinpoint anything\nspecific to add together.- The shape is just\nsuper, super complicated.- Yeah.- And so you can't actually\nmeasure the length.- Yeah.\n- Right?- Yeah.So that's already a really\ngood idea of what a fractal is.It has some really, really\ninteresting detail at all,scales that makes it hard to\ntalk about standard quantitieslike lengths and areas and volumes.- Would a planet or an\nasteroid be a fractal?- Yeah, so if you look at\nkind of the wrinkly surfaceof an asteroid,each one of those little wrinkles addsa little bit to the surface area.And so it's really hard to say,what is the area of an asteroid?Let's take a look at a little\nexample of where fractalsactually show up in nature.What we're gonna try to\ndo is we're gonna tryto say what the length of the\ncoastline of great Britain is.So we're gonna start\nout with the blue ones,which are spaced further apart.We're gonna ask you to\nconnect the blue pinswith a piece of string so\nwe can get a measurementof the coastline.[low beat music]So we have our first measurementof the length of the coastline,and we're gonna do it over again.But this time we're\ngonna use the white pins,which are spaced closer together.[low beat music]So we measured the coastline again.And what do you think happens?- There's more in and out.Therefore probably takes\nmore string for this one.I think I agree with you,but I think to really validate\nour scientific experiment,we should probably compare\nthe length of the string.[low beat music]A lot of extra slack\nin that pig of string.So what we noticed with great Britain iswe were never able to measure it's length.It just kept getting longer and longer.This is called the coastline\nparadox where there's notreally one definite number you can assignto the length of the coastline,but it depends on how you measure it.Like if we kept going to\nreally get this to be accurate,we might have to like\nactually go down the beachand start measuring\nthese tiny little detailsalong the coastline.But really there's so much detail.We would probably never\nget a definite answerfor how long the coastline is.Fractals also give us\na really nice language.We're talking about how smoothor rough some kind of shape is.And actually a lot of people,engineers and scientists\nuse this idea of fractalsand this language of fractalsto compare different shapes,not in terms of their size, but\nin terms of their roughness.So based on everything\nwe talked about today,how would you describe a fractalto somebody in your own words?- It's a shape,that you can't describe as a shape.- Yeah, totally.Like it's a shape that you can't use sortof the ordinary language that we useto talk about shapes you really needsome other ideas or\nconcepts to talk about.[low beat music]Do you play any video games?- I really like hard stone Minecraft.What happens in Minecraft\nif you get really,really close to a shape?- Well, it just looks like a block.- Yeah it looks really blocky.And it's the same thing not\nonly with shapes and games,but also colors and textures.And this is an especially a\nbig problem in virtual realitybecause you have no control\nover where people are gonna go.What they're gonna look at,how close they're gonna\nget to various objects.So fractals on the other hand\nare these things that haveinfinitely, you know,nice details you get closer\nand closer and closer.And so this is something that\ncan help us solve this problemin computer graphics of\ngenerating more detail.One of the reasons why\nfractals are really nicefor computer graphics isbecause the algorithms that we use to drawimages also have this\nkind of recursive flavor.What's recursion?- Recursion is a function that uses itselfor calls itself in it's definition.And basically with that,you can figure out minute\ndetails such as searchingfor a value in a binary tree.It's kind of like\niterating through itself,but it's often more sophisticatedin that it's easier to write.- They're easy for a\ncomputer to execute, right?It just has to run this\nrecursive procedure over and overand over again.We can kind of get as much\ndetail as we want or need.When I think about fractals\nand kind of what they've donefor computer graphics.The example I think is\nsubdivision surfaces.Did you, did you encounter\nsubdivision surfacesin your graphics class at all?- The name doesn't really ring a bell?- So subdivision surface is a wayof describing a smooth shapeon a computer rather than some\ncomplicated fractal shape.So meshes and computer graphics\nare usually made of theseflat polygons with kind of sharp edges.And so the question is how\ncan I get something niceand round and smooth out of\nthese sharp looking polygons?What I can do is I can\nstart cutting one at a time,the corners of this paper off,\nit still looks very angular.I still have these really sharp points.- Right why are we doing this?- Because I want to draw a\nsmooth curve on the screen,but all my computer can\ndo is draw straight lines.And that's actually too true of GPUs.It's kind of interesting.GPUs are basically really fast\nmachines that can only drawone thing and that's a flat triangle.And so if we keep doing\nthis with our paper,you kind of get pretty quickly the ideaof what's gonna happen.So when you go to see a\nPixar movie, for instance,every surface has been subdivided down.So you have tiny little triangles\ncalled micro polygons thatare even smaller than the size of a pixel.- How long does this process take?- Well, because people who really needto use these subdivision\nservices for everything,people who worked hard over the yearsto make this super, super fast.In fact, subdivision serviceswere invented basically at Pixar.There's this guy, Ed Capel,and he was harshly responsible for oneof the most famous kinds of\nsubdivision surfaces calledCapel Clark subdivision surfaces.And in fact recently won the touring awardfor these subdivision services.- What do you think are the\ncurrent shortcomings in,I guess applying fractals to\ncomputer science right now,what are, what is the cutting edge?- So we've, talked a little\nbit about the positive featuresof fractals and procedural graphics,which is you can write one\nsimple recursive programand the computer creates\na lot of detail for you.So that's really nice, right?It's saving you a lot of work,but the downside is you\nlose a lot of control.So because the only\nthing you're describingis this short little program,you don't have complete controlover how this is gonna end up.And so adding more controllability\nto procedural graphics issomething people have been\nthinking about for many years.So how has our conversation\nchanged your understandingof what fractals are all about?- I think it's really interesting\nto see the different ways,fractals will be not only useful,but necessary in being\nable to render these gamesand these different programs\nthat are interestingin the metaverse or different mediato be really beautiful."
],
[
"Fractal Dimensions",
"[low beat music]- Hey, thanks for joining us remotely.- Yeah, of course it's a\npleasure I'm happy to be here.- Do you have any senseof how you would give a really precisemathematical definition to,\nyou know, what is a fractal?- It would probably have to be some kindof recursive definition,\nlike imaginary numbers.I know the Mandelbrot set we'll use those.- The Mandelbrot set or\nthe Julia set, you know,the idea is always, oh,I'm gonna apply some\npolynomial over and over again.Z squared plus C or something like that.When I think about fractals,I try to get away from these\nvery specific examples and ask,what is it fundamentally that\nmakes a fractal, a fractal.And one thing that I think\nyou can be precise about,even if you can't really say\nexactly what a fractal is,is you can talk about this\nidea of fractal dimension.Have you ever heard of that?\n- No, I have not actually.- So if you look at this,\nthis piece of paper,what would you say the dimension is?- Well on the, on the paper itself,I would say it's two dimensional,but the actual paper would be\nthree dimensions because ithas a very small thickness.- Yeah, great.So, so the real physical paper\nhas some amount of thickness,but when we model this mathematically,we might ignore the\nthickness and say, yeah,this is really just kindof a two dimensional sheet of paper.And then you have your apple,how many dimensions is the apple?- I would also say three.- And why three?- Because it has the pipes and the width.And there's a depth to it as well.- Totally, now, as a little experiment,take your piece of paper and\njust crumple it into a ball.So what is it?Is the paper three dimensional\nor is it two dimensional?- It changed and dimensions\ndepending on how it is shaped.- So it's not quite as solid as the apple,but it's also not quite as two dimensionalas the original sheet of paper.And so for this reason, people\nassociate this crumpled ballwith a fractal dimension,maybe something like 2.5\ndimensions instead of two or three,there are a lot of different definitions,precise definitions of fractal dimension.But I think the one that's\neasiest to understand is thisthing called box counting dimension.You have, let's say an imageand you want to decide what's the fractaldimension of this image.So what you're gonna do is\nyou're gonna count the numberof boxes, or you can imagine big pixelsof this image that cover theboundary of this shape.And you're gonna see how\ndoes that counting comparewith how the counts work\nfor just an ordinary shape?So, so if I have a straight lineand I start out with one bigbox that covers the whole line,and now I shrink my\nboxes by a factor of two,I just make boxes half as big.How many boxes will I need\nto cover that line two?And if I cut that box in half again,how many boxes do I\nneed to cover the line.- Four.- But if you take a\nmore interesting shape,some kind of fractal shape,like let's say the\ncoastline of great Britainand you start doing this\nbox, counting experiment,something really interesting happensas you make these boxes smaller,the number of boxes you need\nto cover the coastline growsfaster than it would for\njust a straight line.- Yeah, I've, I've heard about that.Where if you,if you change the amount of\nmeasurement for a coastline,you can actually change like\nhow much of the coast that,that there is like if you\nmeasure in mile lengths,you're gonna get a much\ndifferent estimate than if youmeasure in one inch increments.- And so what this box counting is gettingat is saying, well, I\nstill can never decidewhat the length of the coastline is,but what I can do is I can\nsee how quick does the numberof boxes grow relative\nto how it would grow justfor an ordinary one dimensional curve,like a line or a circle.- Is there any other interesting\napplications of fractals?- So procedural computer graphics,which kind of came out of thinkingabout fractals is one\nanswer to this questionabout how do you add more detailwithout for instance,\nconsuming tons of memoryor requiring artists to paint ultradetail the textures.So if, if you can instead\ndescribe at least some aspectof what you're looking at in a proceduralor recursive way, then you can addas much detail as you needwhen you get close to objects.- Oh, you mean like perlin noise?- Yeah like perlin noise\nis a great example, right?Perlin noise was oneof the early ways of\nsynthesizing additional textureat any level of detail that you neededto make things look natural and realistic.- I have a, a random question.Do you know how the research\ninto fractals began?- You can look pretty far backin history to see kind\nof glimmers of this ideaof fractals in science\nin the 19th century,people were trying to look\nfor examples of thingsin mathematics that were very unnatural.So there was, for instance,\nthis guy named Georg Cantor,who was showing that you can\nhave these sets with reallystrange properties,or you can have functions with\nreally strange properties.This thing called the\ndevil staircase and so on.And it wasn't until about a\ncentury later where someonenamed Mendel Brock said,\"Oh, actually this strange\nmathematics that was meant\"to show how unnatural things can happen\"is actually a perfect description\"of things that really\ndo happen in nature.\"And from there, people\nreally ran with it and said,\"Oh, okay, well,\"if these fractal descriptions\nare good for nature,\"we can also use that for\ncreating really realistic\"and believable pictures\nin computer graphics.\"[low beat music]"
],
[
"Computer Graphics",
"- I can say that when\nyou reached out to meand I first learned about this program,I immediately went to my computerand I implemented yet another\nversion of like zoominginto the Mandelbrot set.\n- Yeah.- Just because I was so excited, you know?So that the thing is that\nit took me maybe 30 minutes.A kid at home who's like 13and 14 who just starts playing aroundwith a simple computer program can makeincredibly beautiful fractals.- Yeah for sure.\n- And I think that's oneof the things that's exciting about it.- Or you don't even need computers.Like I remember when I was a kid,I played electric guitar and\nI had all these guitar pedalswith different effects and oh,what happens if you put the\noutput back in the inputand just run it through itself,you're gonna start hearing this kindof fractal sound, right?So today we've been telling people,fractals are things that\nare somehow self-similar,they have detail at all scales.Are there other ways you\nmight introduce fractalsto somebody or are there\nother things you might say,this is what a fractal is?- I think you could get to the\nreasons why does a coastlinelook like a coastline\nat all different scales?It's because the forces of nature tendto work similarly at all different scales.And it's those forces that are doing very,very simple things over\nand over and over againthat are constantly creating\nthe sense of detail.- I think about like the scaleand variance of different\nphysical equations,like navier-stokes is,\nyou know, kind of scaleand variant, you know,this Reynolds number that tells\nyou how viscous things are,but you can have the same\nkind of fluid behaviorat all different scales.And that's why you get turbulence\nat all different scales.- Yeah I actually actually\nremember the momentwhen I finally figured out howto make turbulence in computer graphics,I was working for this company,Maggi and Disney was working on a movie.I think it was weird\nscience where they wantedto have a marble vase.And then about three in the morning,I was at a diner nearby\nand I was pouring the creaminto the coffee and I was watching itand I started watching it swirl around.And I realized that what was\nhappening was really simplethat you had this line of cream\nand then it hits the cup andit folds and then the folds get caught up.And then that folds again.And it's a really simple process\nof folding within folding.And I just went to the\ncomputer and did that.- Yeah.- And things look like\nmarble and looked like flame.And they looked like\nclouds and they look likeyou just keep using\nthose simple techniques.- Yeah and I think it's\nreally cool that this kindof fractal description of geometryor physics is also kind of bakedinto the nature of computation.Computation is recursive\nkind of biased nature.And so it's kind of a match\nmade in heaven that we happento build these machines that also-- [Ken] Right.- You know, behave the\nway that nature does.- You just have to understand recursion.- Exactly.- So somebody once told me in\norder to understand recursion,you just have to understand recursion.- There you go.- And then you get it all.\n- Yeah.- But I think it's this\npoint that that pointwith the coffee is importantbecause the forces we're\noperating at one scale,they're operating at the\nscale of the coffee cup.But over time they kept making detailsthat were smaller and smaller.Process at one scale, plus\ntime you get fractals.- I think that's also,what's so beautiful\nabout fractals is that,you know, if you think about sortof the history of geometry as well,Felix Klein was looking\nat geometry by saying,well, geometry is all about in variance.I have some group of transformationsand I look at objects that are sort ofin variant with respect\nto these transformations.So if you just look at translations, okay,what kinds of shapes remain\nthe same under translations?Will you get tiling?You get wallpaper.And if you start asking\nthat same question,what if I allow scaling in\nmy transformations then boom,you have fractal.- Immediately, right.- [Keenan] Come out of nowhere.- And when everybody understands scaling.- [Keenan] Right?- Scaling is a simple thing yeah.- Now you work on kind of\nthe future of virtual realityand augmented reality\nand extended reality.But it's kind of interestingbecause I think if I thinkabout exploring these\ninfinite fractal landscapesin some way,they still feel a little bit lonelyor they feel a little bit poorof the kind of richness that we havein the real world.- This is where machine\nlearning starts coming in,because you can start saying, okay,this is a very, very rich virtual world,but it's informed by, you know,my favorite mountains\nthat I saw in Italy once.So you can start training\nthese fractal worldson things about the real worldthat have particular\nemotional resonance for us.- People outside of computer graphicsand engineering and scienceand so forth have also thought a lot aboutand used fractals as a languagefor talking about nature,for characterizing shapesand behaviors and so forth tissueor friction, or all sorts of\nreally important phenomena.Do you think that\ncomputer graphics has kindof dropped the ball in\nterms of saying, you know,this is not something\nthat's exciting anymoreto work on procedural descriptionsand we're, we're moving on from that?- Well, I mean, if you\nlook at any Hollywood movieor you look at any of the\ngame worlds that peopleare spending all their time inthey're highly procedural,\nthey have to be,and they have to make\nuse of fractal techniquesbecause it's basically a way\nto get enormous complexitywithout having to explicitly\nstore the complexity.And because they're ableto use these relatively\nsimple fractal techniquesto make very complex\nlooking natural things.- Right?Lazy evaluation, we love being\nlazy in computer graphics.- Well, it's also, it's not\neven possible to explore,to store an entire world in your computer.- Absolutely.- You wanna be able to sort\nof generate it on the fly.I'm looking forward to\nthings getting better.We're not there yet.- So one of the things\nI guess that toucheson is this question about controllabilityor the ease of, with which everybodycan create these worlds.Not just people, not just\nmathematicians, not just,you know, trained computer scientists.One thing when I think\nabout Ken Musgraves workingabout this program, Bryce,this one I felt like I could really use,what do you think we still need to doin terms of putting\nthese kinds of tools in,in people's hands, making it easierfor people to use\nprocedural machine learning,to build these kind of worlds?- I think in that case, it came downto the fact that Ken in\nparticular had a missionto make accessible tools for peoplewithout sacrificing the powerand the richness of\nmaking beautiful things.I mean, in a sense he was kindof the computer graphic, Bob Ross.You know? So-\n- He made a lotof happy little trees.- Yeah, yeah, yeah.Which, I mean, when you,when you think about the techniquesof somebody like a Bob\nRoss they're fractal.- Yeah. And I think this is\nwhat what's so beautiful alsoabout Mandelbrot's work\nis him saying, you know,it's not really about\nthese exotic examples.Like even the Mandelbrot set\nor Julia sets or whatever.Yeah they're like reallyinteresting mathematical curiosities,but they get at this idea\nthat fractals are kindof inevitable.And Bob Ross probably\nnever, as far as I know,never sat down and you know,thought about recursive descriptionsof trees or anything like that.But it's just something\nthat naturally comesto you as an artist.- Well, I mean, you can go\nback to all the classic artistsda Vinci's notebooks\nwere just full of like,this thing looks like that thingat completely different scales.So he didn't have a fancy word for it,but he completely understood it.- Yeah it's really part of human natureor human's connection to nature.- Yeah.\n- Yeah.Hopefully our discussion today\nhas helped you see the worldin a different way and\nalso see how mathematicsand art can come together\nto make beautiful images.I hope it's inspired\nyou to look at the worldaround you in a different way."
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
College Professor Explains One Concept in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
OZU1hZKrU2c
| 1,256
|
[
{
"end_time": 2,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "<Untitled Chapter 1>"
},
{
"end_time": 28,
"start_time": 2,
"title": "Chandrasekhar Ramanathan Associate Professor, Dartmouth College"
},
{
"end_time": 171,
"start_time": 28,
"title": "Child"
},
{
"end_time": 178,
"start_time": 171,
"title": "Teen"
},
{
"end_time": 407,
"start_time": 178,
"title": "Julia Weston 16 year old"
},
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"end_time": 682,
"start_time": 407,
"title": "College Student"
},
{
"end_time": 970,
"start_time": 682,
"title": "LEVEL Grad Student"
},
{
"end_time": 981,
"start_time": 970,
"title": "Expert"
},
{
"end_time": 1256,
"start_time": 981,
"title": "Lee C. Bassett Quantum Engineering Laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania"
}
] |
[
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Sekhar Ramanathan.",
"timestamp": [
0.15,
1.98
]
},
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Sekhar Ramanathan.",
"timestamp": [
0.15,
1.98
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a professor at Dartmouth College",
"timestamp": [
1.98,
4.23
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a professor at Dartmouth College",
"timestamp": [
1.98,
4.23
]
},
{
"text": "and today, I've been\nchallenged to explain a topic",
"timestamp": [
4.23,
6.81
]
},
{
"text": "and today, I've been\nchallenged to explain a topic",
"timestamp": [
4.23,
6.81
]
},
{
"text": "at five levels of difficulty.",
"timestamp": [
6.81,
9.113
]
},
{
"text": "at five levels of difficulty.",
"timestamp": [
6.81,
9.113
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat suspensive music]",
"timestamp": [
9.113,
11.31
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat suspensive music]",
"timestamp": [
9.113,
11.31
]
},
{
"text": "So, what is quantum sensing?",
"timestamp": [
11.31,
13.53
]
},
{
"text": "So, what is quantum sensing?",
"timestamp": [
11.31,
13.53
]
},
{
"text": "We're looking at the rules\nof microscopic world,",
"timestamp": [
13.53,
16.02
]
},
{
"text": "We're looking at the rules\nof microscopic world,",
"timestamp": [
13.53,
16.02
]
},
{
"text": "which is quantum mechanics\nand using those tools",
"timestamp": [
16.02,
19.14
]
},
{
"text": "which is quantum mechanics\nand using those tools",
"timestamp": [
16.02,
19.14
]
},
{
"text": "to help us build the ultimate sensors,",
"timestamp": [
19.14,
21.45
]
},
{
"text": "to help us build the ultimate sensors,",
"timestamp": [
19.14,
21.45
]
},
{
"text": "which means that they're\nas precise and as accurate",
"timestamp": [
21.45,
24.96
]
},
{
"text": "which means that they're\nas precise and as accurate",
"timestamp": [
21.45,
24.96
]
},
{
"text": "as the laws of physics allows.",
"timestamp": [
24.96,
27.123
]
},
{
"text": "as the laws of physics allows.",
"timestamp": [
24.96,
27.123
]
},
{
"text": "What's your name?",
"timestamp": [
32.67,
33.9
]
},
{
"text": "What's your name?",
"timestamp": [
32.67,
33.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Namina.",
"timestamp": [
33.9,
34.733
]
},
{
"text": "- Namina.",
"timestamp": [
33.9,
34.733
]
},
{
"text": "- Our topic today is quantum sensing.",
"timestamp": [
34.733,
37.17
]
},
{
"text": "- Our topic today is quantum sensing.",
"timestamp": [
34.733,
37.17
]
},
{
"text": "So quantum is about the study of stuff",
"timestamp": [
37.17,
39.84
]
},
{
"text": "So quantum is about the study of stuff",
"timestamp": [
37.17,
39.84
]
},
{
"text": "that's really, really, really small",
"timestamp": [
39.84,
42.15
]
},
{
"text": "that's really, really, really small",
"timestamp": [
39.84,
42.15
]
},
{
"text": "and sensing is about measuring.",
"timestamp": [
42.15,
44.07
]
},
{
"text": "and sensing is about measuring.",
"timestamp": [
42.15,
44.07
]
},
{
"text": "So the word sensing comes\nfrom kind of like our senses.",
"timestamp": [
44.07,
47.34
]
},
{
"text": "So the word sensing comes\nfrom kind of like our senses.",
"timestamp": [
44.07,
47.34
]
},
{
"text": "So do you know what your five senses are?",
"timestamp": [
47.34,
49.23
]
},
{
"text": "So do you know what your five senses are?",
"timestamp": [
47.34,
49.23
]
},
{
"text": "- Seeing, hearing, tasting and smelling.",
"timestamp": [
49.23,
54.23
]
},
{
"text": "- Seeing, hearing, tasting and smelling.",
"timestamp": [
49.23,
54.23
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
54.45,
55.324
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
54.45,
55.324
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, and touch.\n- Touch, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
55.324,
56.88
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, and touch.\n- Touch, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
55.324,
56.88
]
},
{
"text": "So it's kind of really important for us",
"timestamp": [
56.88,
58.5
]
},
{
"text": "So it's kind of really important for us",
"timestamp": [
56.88,
58.5
]
},
{
"text": "to be able to have these senses,",
"timestamp": [
58.5,
59.94
]
},
{
"text": "to be able to have these senses,",
"timestamp": [
58.5,
59.94
]
},
{
"text": "so we know what's happening\nin the world around us, right?",
"timestamp": [
59.94,
62.61
]
},
{
"text": "so we know what's happening\nin the world around us, right?",
"timestamp": [
59.94,
62.61
]
},
{
"text": "In doing quantum sensing is\nwe're trying to measure things",
"timestamp": [
62.61,
65.67
]
},
{
"text": "In doing quantum sensing is\nwe're trying to measure things",
"timestamp": [
62.61,
65.67
]
},
{
"text": "that can be hard to see.",
"timestamp": [
65.67,
67.08
]
},
{
"text": "that can be hard to see.",
"timestamp": [
65.67,
67.08
]
},
{
"text": "Let me show you.",
"timestamp": [
67.08,
68.07
]
},
{
"text": "Let me show you.",
"timestamp": [
67.08,
68.07
]
},
{
"text": "Can you see inside it with your eyes?",
"timestamp": [
68.07,
70.041
]
},
{
"text": "Can you see inside it with your eyes?",
"timestamp": [
68.07,
70.041
]
},
{
"text": "- No, I don't think so.\n- No? Okay.",
"timestamp": [
70.041,
71.7
]
},
{
"text": "- No, I don't think so.\n- No? Okay.",
"timestamp": [
70.041,
71.7
]
},
{
"text": "Can you bounce it for me?",
"timestamp": [
71.7,
72.75
]
},
{
"text": "Can you bounce it for me?",
"timestamp": [
71.7,
72.75
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
72.75,
73.583
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
72.75,
73.583
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you know what makes it bounce?",
"timestamp": [
74.877,
76.05
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you know what makes it bounce?",
"timestamp": [
74.877,
76.05
]
},
{
"text": "- I think like inside of\nit, it's foam that's fluffy,",
"timestamp": [
76.05,
80.64
]
},
{
"text": "- I think like inside of\nit, it's foam that's fluffy,",
"timestamp": [
76.05,
80.64
]
},
{
"text": "but my second answer is,\nI think it's very soft.",
"timestamp": [
80.64,
83.88
]
},
{
"text": "but my second answer is,\nI think it's very soft.",
"timestamp": [
80.64,
83.88
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a great description.",
"timestamp": [
83.88,
85.23
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a great description.",
"timestamp": [
83.88,
85.23
]
},
{
"text": "Can we cut one open and\nsee what it looks like?",
"timestamp": [
85.23,
87.72
]
},
{
"text": "Can we cut one open and\nsee what it looks like?",
"timestamp": [
85.23,
87.72
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
87.72,
88.553
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
87.72,
88.553
]
},
{
"text": "- You think that's a good idea?",
"timestamp": [
88.553,
89.46
]
},
{
"text": "- You think that's a good idea?",
"timestamp": [
88.553,
89.46
]
},
{
"text": "Here's a ball that's\nbeen cut straight in half",
"timestamp": [
89.46,
92.026
]
},
{
"text": "Here's a ball that's\nbeen cut straight in half",
"timestamp": [
89.46,
92.026
]
},
{
"text": "and you look inside.",
"timestamp": [
92.026,
92.964
]
},
{
"text": "and you look inside.",
"timestamp": [
92.026,
92.964
]
},
{
"text": "- It's hard.\n- It is.",
"timestamp": [
92.964,
94.17
]
},
{
"text": "- It's hard.\n- It is.",
"timestamp": [
92.964,
94.17
]
},
{
"text": "What gives it a certain texture?",
"timestamp": [
94.17,
95.613
]
},
{
"text": "What gives it a certain texture?",
"timestamp": [
94.17,
95.613
]
},
{
"text": "- It's like, the texture of\nlike the top of a crayon.",
"timestamp": [
95.613,
99.12
]
},
{
"text": "- It's like, the texture of\nlike the top of a crayon.",
"timestamp": [
95.613,
99.12
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, but you were right\nthat it was like foam.",
"timestamp": [
99.12,
101.64
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, but you were right\nthat it was like foam.",
"timestamp": [
99.12,
101.64
]
},
{
"text": "It would be really cool if\nwe could see inside the ball",
"timestamp": [
101.64,
104.34
]
},
{
"text": "It would be really cool if\nwe could see inside the ball",
"timestamp": [
101.64,
104.34
]
},
{
"text": "without cutting it open, right.",
"timestamp": [
104.34,
105.507
]
},
{
"text": "without cutting it open, right.",
"timestamp": [
104.34,
105.507
]
},
{
"text": "- But you could use a magnifying glass",
"timestamp": [
105.507,
107.31
]
},
{
"text": "- But you could use a magnifying glass",
"timestamp": [
105.507,
107.31
]
},
{
"text": "and then look at the ball.",
"timestamp": [
107.31,
108.57
]
},
{
"text": "and then look at the ball.",
"timestamp": [
107.31,
108.57
]
},
{
"text": "- But with the magnifying\nglass, you'd only be able to see",
"timestamp": [
108.57,
111.21
]
},
{
"text": "- But with the magnifying\nglass, you'd only be able to see",
"timestamp": [
108.57,
111.21
]
},
{
"text": "what's right near the surface, right?",
"timestamp": [
111.21,
113.241
]
},
{
"text": "what's right near the surface, right?",
"timestamp": [
111.21,
113.241
]
},
{
"text": "Just.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
113.241,
114.074
]
},
{
"text": "Just.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
113.241,
114.074
]
},
{
"text": "- You wouldn't be able\nto see into the middle.",
"timestamp": [
114.074,
115.32
]
},
{
"text": "- You wouldn't be able\nto see into the middle.",
"timestamp": [
114.074,
115.32
]
},
{
"text": "If you had the right tools,",
"timestamp": [
115.32,
116.91
]
},
{
"text": "If you had the right tools,",
"timestamp": [
115.32,
116.91
]
},
{
"text": "you could start to think about\nways to look inside the ball",
"timestamp": [
116.91,
120.03
]
},
{
"text": "you could start to think about\nways to look inside the ball",
"timestamp": [
116.91,
120.03
]
},
{
"text": "without cutting it open.",
"timestamp": [
120.03,
121.02
]
},
{
"text": "without cutting it open.",
"timestamp": [
120.03,
121.02
]
},
{
"text": "That would then, you'd\nstill have your ball.",
"timestamp": [
121.02,
122.82
]
},
{
"text": "That would then, you'd\nstill have your ball.",
"timestamp": [
121.02,
122.82
]
},
{
"text": "We could still play with it.",
"timestamp": [
122.82,
123.653
]
},
{
"text": "We could still play with it.",
"timestamp": [
122.82,
123.653
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, yeah, it would be cool if we like",
"timestamp": [
123.653,
126.45
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, yeah, it would be cool if we like",
"timestamp": [
123.653,
126.45
]
},
{
"text": "used something like an\nx-ray, we build an x-ray",
"timestamp": [
126.45,
129.03
]
},
{
"text": "used something like an\nx-ray, we build an x-ray",
"timestamp": [
126.45,
129.03
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- That was only made for balls",
"timestamp": [
129.03,
130.71
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- That was only made for balls",
"timestamp": [
129.03,
130.71
]
},
{
"text": "and you could see everything inside it,",
"timestamp": [
130.71,
132.81
]
},
{
"text": "and you could see everything inside it,",
"timestamp": [
130.71,
132.81
]
},
{
"text": "every single detail, you\ncould zoom in and out",
"timestamp": [
132.81,
135.15
]
},
{
"text": "every single detail, you\ncould zoom in and out",
"timestamp": [
132.81,
135.15
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- And you could draw it,",
"timestamp": [
135.15,
137.28
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- And you could draw it,",
"timestamp": [
135.15,
137.28
]
},
{
"text": "print it out.",
"timestamp": [
137.28,
138.113
]
},
{
"text": "print it out.",
"timestamp": [
137.28,
138.113
]
},
{
"text": "- That's exactly the type\nof thing that we're doing.",
"timestamp": [
138.113,
140.04
]
},
{
"text": "- That's exactly the type\nof thing that we're doing.",
"timestamp": [
138.113,
140.04
]
},
{
"text": "We are sensing, is we're trying\nto measure what's inside,",
"timestamp": [
140.04,
143.16
]
},
{
"text": "We are sensing, is we're trying\nto measure what's inside,",
"timestamp": [
140.04,
143.16
]
},
{
"text": "and do it without destroying the ball.",
"timestamp": [
143.16,
145.788
]
},
{
"text": "and do it without destroying the ball.",
"timestamp": [
143.16,
145.788
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
145.788,
146.621
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
145.788,
146.621
]
},
{
"text": "- For example, we want to go inside,",
"timestamp": [
146.621,
147.81
]
},
{
"text": "- For example, we want to go inside,",
"timestamp": [
146.621,
147.81
]
},
{
"text": "let's say the human body\nand see what's happening.",
"timestamp": [
147.81,
150.15
]
},
{
"text": "let's say the human body\nand see what's happening.",
"timestamp": [
147.81,
150.15
]
},
{
"text": "Sometimes we can look under\nthe surface of the Earth",
"timestamp": [
150.15,
152.64
]
},
{
"text": "Sometimes we can look under\nthe surface of the Earth",
"timestamp": [
150.15,
152.64
]
},
{
"text": "and see what's underneath it.",
"timestamp": [
152.64,
153.96
]
},
{
"text": "and see what's underneath it.",
"timestamp": [
152.64,
153.96
]
},
{
"text": "We can make really, really precise clocks",
"timestamp": [
153.96,
156.51
]
},
{
"text": "We can make really, really precise clocks",
"timestamp": [
153.96,
156.51
]
},
{
"text": "that will tell us, that can measure time",
"timestamp": [
156.51,
158.52
]
},
{
"text": "that will tell us, that can measure time",
"timestamp": [
156.51,
158.52
]
},
{
"text": "really, really accurately.",
"timestamp": [
158.52,
160.11
]
},
{
"text": "really, really accurately.",
"timestamp": [
158.52,
160.11
]
},
{
"text": "And we can make very,\nvery fine measurements",
"timestamp": [
160.11,
163.38
]
},
{
"text": "And we can make very,\nvery fine measurements",
"timestamp": [
160.11,
163.38
]
},
{
"text": "that'll tell us about the rules of science",
"timestamp": [
163.38,
165.51
]
},
{
"text": "that'll tell us about the rules of science",
"timestamp": [
163.38,
165.51
]
},
{
"text": "and how the world works around us.",
"timestamp": [
165.51,
167.22
]
},
{
"text": "and how the world works around us.",
"timestamp": [
165.51,
167.22
]
},
{
"text": "But we need to build better\ntools that allow us to do that.",
"timestamp": [
167.22,
170.023
]
},
{
"text": "But we need to build better\ntools that allow us to do that.",
"timestamp": [
167.22,
170.023
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat techno music]",
"timestamp": [
170.023,
173.19
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat techno music]",
"timestamp": [
170.023,
173.19
]
},
{
"text": "Our topic today is gonna\nbe quantum sensing.",
"timestamp": [
174.51,
176.91
]
},
{
"text": "Our topic today is gonna\nbe quantum sensing.",
"timestamp": [
174.51,
176.91
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever heard of it before?",
"timestamp": [
176.91,
178.26
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever heard of it before?",
"timestamp": [
176.91,
178.26
]
},
{
"text": "- No.\n- No.",
"timestamp": [
178.26,
179.49
]
},
{
"text": "- No.\n- No.",
"timestamp": [
178.26,
179.49
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, what do you think it might mean,",
"timestamp": [
179.49,
181.41
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, what do you think it might mean,",
"timestamp": [
179.49,
181.41
]
},
{
"text": "if you just break down the words?",
"timestamp": [
181.41,
183.18
]
},
{
"text": "if you just break down the words?",
"timestamp": [
181.41,
183.18
]
},
{
"text": "- Something on a very small scale",
"timestamp": [
183.18,
185.13
]
},
{
"text": "- Something on a very small scale",
"timestamp": [
183.18,
185.13
]
},
{
"text": "because of the word quantum.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
185.13,
185.963
]
},
{
"text": "because of the word quantum.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
185.13,
185.963
]
},
{
"text": "- The sensing part, I'm not sure.",
"timestamp": [
185.963,
187.89
]
},
{
"text": "- The sensing part, I'm not sure.",
"timestamp": [
185.963,
187.89
]
},
{
"text": "- So sensing is really\njust about measuring stuff.",
"timestamp": [
187.89,
190.17
]
},
{
"text": "- So sensing is really\njust about measuring stuff.",
"timestamp": [
187.89,
190.17
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
190.17,
191.003
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
190.17,
191.003
]
},
{
"text": "- And at some level, there's\ndifferent set of rules",
"timestamp": [
191.003,
192.84
]
},
{
"text": "- And at some level, there's\ndifferent set of rules",
"timestamp": [
191.003,
192.84
]
},
{
"text": "that seem to come into play",
"timestamp": [
192.84,
193.95
]
},
{
"text": "that seem to come into play",
"timestamp": [
192.84,
193.95
]
},
{
"text": "'cause you can have particles\nat very microscopic scales",
"timestamp": [
193.95,
197.16
]
},
{
"text": "'cause you can have particles\nat very microscopic scales",
"timestamp": [
193.95,
197.16
]
},
{
"text": "seem to do really strange things.",
"timestamp": [
197.16,
199.05
]
},
{
"text": "seem to do really strange things.",
"timestamp": [
197.16,
199.05
]
},
{
"text": "But one of the quests of quantum sensing",
"timestamp": [
199.05,
201.21
]
},
{
"text": "But one of the quests of quantum sensing",
"timestamp": [
199.05,
201.21
]
},
{
"text": "is to harvest some of\nthese unique properties",
"timestamp": [
201.21,
203.43
]
},
{
"text": "is to harvest some of\nthese unique properties",
"timestamp": [
201.21,
203.43
]
},
{
"text": "at the micro scale.",
"timestamp": [
203.43,
204.69
]
},
{
"text": "at the micro scale.",
"timestamp": [
203.43,
204.69
]
},
{
"text": "We are really interested\nin quantum sensors",
"timestamp": [
204.69,
206.91
]
},
{
"text": "We are really interested\nin quantum sensors",
"timestamp": [
204.69,
206.91
]
},
{
"text": "because we think they can give us",
"timestamp": [
206.91,
208.89
]
},
{
"text": "because we think they can give us",
"timestamp": [
206.91,
208.89
]
},
{
"text": "the ultimate limit of sensitivity.",
"timestamp": [
208.89,
210.51
]
},
{
"text": "the ultimate limit of sensitivity.",
"timestamp": [
208.89,
210.51
]
},
{
"text": "So they're really, really\nsensitive to small changes,",
"timestamp": [
210.51,
213.36
]
},
{
"text": "So they're really, really\nsensitive to small changes,",
"timestamp": [
210.51,
213.36
]
},
{
"text": "but they're also gonna be really reliable.",
"timestamp": [
213.36,
215.13
]
},
{
"text": "but they're also gonna be really reliable.",
"timestamp": [
213.36,
215.13
]
},
{
"text": "Every time I make that measurement,",
"timestamp": [
215.13,
216.42
]
},
{
"text": "Every time I make that measurement,",
"timestamp": [
215.13,
216.42
]
},
{
"text": "I'll always get the same results.",
"timestamp": [
216.42,
218.1
]
},
{
"text": "I'll always get the same results.",
"timestamp": [
216.42,
218.1
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, measurements on\nlike what kinds of things?",
"timestamp": [
218.1,
220.77
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, measurements on\nlike what kinds of things?",
"timestamp": [
218.1,
220.77
]
},
{
"text": "- Could be on almost anything you want.",
"timestamp": [
220.77,
222.3
]
},
{
"text": "- Could be on almost anything you want.",
"timestamp": [
220.77,
222.3
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever broken a bone?",
"timestamp": [
222.3,
224.04
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever broken a bone?",
"timestamp": [
222.3,
224.04
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I fractured something though.",
"timestamp": [
224.04,
225.51
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I fractured something though.",
"timestamp": [
224.04,
225.51
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, do you remember having an x-ray?",
"timestamp": [
225.51,
227.4
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, do you remember having an x-ray?",
"timestamp": [
225.51,
227.4
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, x-ray and I have\nhad a few MRIs before too.",
"timestamp": [
227.4,
230.25
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, x-ray and I have\nhad a few MRIs before too.",
"timestamp": [
227.4,
230.25
]
},
{
"text": "- You've had a few",
"timestamp": [
230.25,
231.083
]
},
{
"text": "- You've had a few",
"timestamp": [
230.25,
231.083
]
},
{
"text": "MRIs before.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
231.083,
232.17
]
},
{
"text": "MRIs before.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
231.083,
232.17
]
},
{
"text": "- And so, both of those are\nin some ways a form of sensing",
"timestamp": [
232.17,
235.05
]
},
{
"text": "- And so, both of those are\nin some ways a form of sensing",
"timestamp": [
232.17,
235.05
]
},
{
"text": "and they rely on different\ntypes of sensing.",
"timestamp": [
235.05,
237.753
]
},
{
"text": "and they rely on different\ntypes of sensing.",
"timestamp": [
235.05,
237.753
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know what this image is?",
"timestamp": [
239.49,
241.29
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know what this image is?",
"timestamp": [
239.49,
241.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe an MRI.",
"timestamp": [
241.29,
242.79
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe an MRI.",
"timestamp": [
241.29,
242.79
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
242.79,
243.623
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
242.79,
243.623
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you know what an\nMRI, how an MRI works?",
"timestamp": [
243.623,
246.06
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you know what an\nMRI, how an MRI works?",
"timestamp": [
243.623,
246.06
]
},
{
"text": "- No, I don't and I feel like I should",
"timestamp": [
246.06,
247.71
]
},
{
"text": "- No, I don't and I feel like I should",
"timestamp": [
246.06,
247.71
]
},
{
"text": "because I've gotten\nthem millions of times.",
"timestamp": [
247.71,
249.75
]
},
{
"text": "because I've gotten\nthem millions of times.",
"timestamp": [
247.71,
249.75
]
},
{
"text": "- And what the MRI scanner is doing is,",
"timestamp": [
249.75,
251.58
]
},
{
"text": "- And what the MRI scanner is doing is,",
"timestamp": [
249.75,
251.58
]
},
{
"text": "it's measuring the signal\nfrom all the water molecules",
"timestamp": [
251.58,
255.06
]
},
{
"text": "it's measuring the signal\nfrom all the water molecules",
"timestamp": [
251.58,
255.06
]
},
{
"text": "that are present and\nspecifically the hydrogen atom.",
"timestamp": [
255.06,
258.24
]
},
{
"text": "that are present and\nspecifically the hydrogen atom.",
"timestamp": [
255.06,
258.24
]
},
{
"text": "In our bodies, we have\nthese hydrogen atoms",
"timestamp": [
258.24,
260.4
]
},
{
"text": "In our bodies, we have\nthese hydrogen atoms",
"timestamp": [
258.24,
260.4
]
},
{
"text": "that are essentially spinning around",
"timestamp": [
260.4,
262.44
]
},
{
"text": "that are essentially spinning around",
"timestamp": [
260.4,
262.44
]
},
{
"text": "magnetic fields all the time\nand we just don't know them.",
"timestamp": [
262.44,
265.08
]
},
{
"text": "magnetic fields all the time\nand we just don't know them.",
"timestamp": [
262.44,
265.08
]
},
{
"text": "So in some sense, you've\nalready used a quantum sensor.",
"timestamp": [
265.08,
267.9
]
},
{
"text": "So in some sense, you've\nalready used a quantum sensor.",
"timestamp": [
265.08,
267.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so are MRIs essentially\nmore detailed x-rays?",
"timestamp": [
267.9,
272.13
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so are MRIs essentially\nmore detailed x-rays?",
"timestamp": [
267.9,
272.13
]
},
{
"text": "- They're not.",
"timestamp": [
272.13,
272.963
]
},
{
"text": "- They're not.",
"timestamp": [
272.13,
272.963
]
},
{
"text": "So they're giving us different\ntypes of information.",
"timestamp": [
272.963,
274.38
]
},
{
"text": "So they're giving us different\ntypes of information.",
"timestamp": [
272.963,
274.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- So this is an x-ray.",
"timestamp": [
274.38,
276.15
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- So this is an x-ray.",
"timestamp": [
274.38,
276.15
]
},
{
"text": "You don't see any of the soft tissue.",
"timestamp": [
276.15,
277.8
]
},
{
"text": "You don't see any of the soft tissue.",
"timestamp": [
276.15,
277.8
]
},
{
"text": "The x-ray gave us\ninformation about the bone.",
"timestamp": [
277.8,
279.93
]
},
{
"text": "The x-ray gave us\ninformation about the bone.",
"timestamp": [
277.8,
279.93
]
},
{
"text": "- [Julia] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
279.93,
280.763
]
},
{
"text": "- [Julia] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
279.93,
280.763
]
},
{
"text": "- Whereas MRIs giving us information",
"timestamp": [
280.763,
282.36
]
},
{
"text": "- Whereas MRIs giving us information",
"timestamp": [
280.763,
282.36
]
},
{
"text": "about things like the softer tissues.",
"timestamp": [
282.36,
284.64
]
},
{
"text": "about things like the softer tissues.",
"timestamp": [
282.36,
284.64
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- And in fact,",
"timestamp": [
284.64,
285.473
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- And in fact,",
"timestamp": [
284.64,
285.473
]
},
{
"text": "we don't see the bone very well",
"timestamp": [
285.473,
286.83
]
},
{
"text": "we don't see the bone very well",
"timestamp": [
285.473,
286.83
]
},
{
"text": "in the MRI.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
286.83,
287.663
]
},
{
"text": "in the MRI.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
286.83,
287.663
]
},
{
"text": "- So there are slightly different reasons",
"timestamp": [
287.663,
288.87
]
},
{
"text": "- So there are slightly different reasons",
"timestamp": [
287.663,
288.87
]
},
{
"text": "why you would choose the\ntwo different things.",
"timestamp": [
288.87,
290.49
]
},
{
"text": "why you would choose the\ntwo different things.",
"timestamp": [
288.87,
290.49
]
},
{
"text": "Suppose I could get a higher resolution.",
"timestamp": [
290.49,
292.44
]
},
{
"text": "Suppose I could get a higher resolution.",
"timestamp": [
290.49,
292.44
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
292.44,
293.273
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm.",
"timestamp": [
292.44,
293.273
]
},
{
"text": "- What do you think I\nwould be able to see?",
"timestamp": [
293.273,
294.15
]
},
{
"text": "- What do you think I\nwould be able to see?",
"timestamp": [
293.273,
294.15
]
},
{
"text": "- The different atoms and the\nstructures of the particles.",
"timestamp": [
294.15,
296.97
]
},
{
"text": "- The different atoms and the\nstructures of the particles.",
"timestamp": [
294.15,
296.97
]
},
{
"text": "Yeah.\n- Start to see",
"timestamp": [
296.97,
297.803
]
},
{
"text": "Yeah.\n- Start to see",
"timestamp": [
296.97,
297.803
]
},
{
"text": "the different cells",
"timestamp": [
297.803,
298.95
]
},
{
"text": "the different cells",
"timestamp": [
297.803,
298.95
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- And then the different",
"timestamp": [
298.95,
299.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- And then the different",
"timestamp": [
298.95,
299.82
]
},
{
"text": "chemicals in the cells.",
"timestamp": [
299.82,
300.99
]
},
{
"text": "chemicals in the cells.",
"timestamp": [
299.82,
300.99
]
},
{
"text": "If you look at the MRI images,",
"timestamp": [
300.99,
302.52
]
},
{
"text": "If you look at the MRI images,",
"timestamp": [
300.99,
302.52
]
},
{
"text": "you can see that they give\nyou the broad features",
"timestamp": [
302.52,
304.86
]
},
{
"text": "you can see that they give\nyou the broad features",
"timestamp": [
302.52,
304.86
]
},
{
"text": "of what the tissue looks like.",
"timestamp": [
304.86,
306.21
]
},
{
"text": "of what the tissue looks like.",
"timestamp": [
304.86,
306.21
]
},
{
"text": "But if you wanna zoom in a little bit more",
"timestamp": [
306.21,
308.52
]
},
{
"text": "But if you wanna zoom in a little bit more",
"timestamp": [
306.21,
308.52
]
},
{
"text": "and see what's actually\nhappening inside a tissue",
"timestamp": [
308.52,
311.31
]
},
{
"text": "and see what's actually\nhappening inside a tissue",
"timestamp": [
308.52,
311.31
]
},
{
"text": "or inside a cell and you need\na different type of sensor",
"timestamp": [
311.31,
314.34
]
},
{
"text": "or inside a cell and you need\na different type of sensor",
"timestamp": [
311.31,
314.34
]
},
{
"text": "that's gonna be more sensitive\nand for something like that,",
"timestamp": [
314.34,
316.68
]
},
{
"text": "that's gonna be more sensitive\nand for something like that,",
"timestamp": [
314.34,
316.68
]
},
{
"text": "you're gonna need a quantum sensor.",
"timestamp": [
316.68,
318.21
]
},
{
"text": "you're gonna need a quantum sensor.",
"timestamp": [
316.68,
318.21
]
},
{
"text": "- Are there different\ntypes of quantum sensors",
"timestamp": [
318.21,
320.73
]
},
{
"text": "- Are there different\ntypes of quantum sensors",
"timestamp": [
318.21,
320.73
]
},
{
"text": "for different things?",
"timestamp": [
320.73,
321.69
]
},
{
"text": "for different things?",
"timestamp": [
320.73,
321.69
]
},
{
"text": "- So one of the quantum\nsensors that's related",
"timestamp": [
321.69,
324
]
},
{
"text": "- So one of the quantum\nsensors that's related",
"timestamp": [
321.69,
324
]
},
{
"text": "to the work that I do is\nbased on these defects",
"timestamp": [
324,
326.82
]
},
{
"text": "to the work that I do is\nbased on these defects",
"timestamp": [
324,
326.82
]
},
{
"text": "that are called nitrogen-vacancy centers",
"timestamp": [
326.82,
328.583
]
},
{
"text": "that are called nitrogen-vacancy centers",
"timestamp": [
326.82,
328.583
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- In a diamond",
"timestamp": [
328.583,
329.416
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- In a diamond",
"timestamp": [
328.583,
329.416
]
},
{
"text": "and people actually now make nano diamonds",
"timestamp": [
329.416,
331.68
]
},
{
"text": "and people actually now make nano diamonds",
"timestamp": [
329.416,
331.68
]
},
{
"text": "that they can try to put\ninside the human body",
"timestamp": [
331.68,
334.23
]
},
{
"text": "that they can try to put\ninside the human body",
"timestamp": [
331.68,
334.23
]
},
{
"text": "to look at the chemistry inside the cells.",
"timestamp": [
334.23,
337.26
]
},
{
"text": "to look at the chemistry inside the cells.",
"timestamp": [
334.23,
337.26
]
},
{
"text": "- So is that used for drug trials",
"timestamp": [
337.26,
339.42
]
},
{
"text": "- So is that used for drug trials",
"timestamp": [
337.26,
339.42
]
},
{
"text": "and when testing out new treatments?",
"timestamp": [
339.42,
340.92
]
},
{
"text": "and when testing out new treatments?",
"timestamp": [
339.42,
340.92
]
},
{
"text": "- We can do it on tissues\nright now or on the surface,",
"timestamp": [
340.92,
344.19
]
},
{
"text": "- We can do it on tissues\nright now or on the surface,",
"timestamp": [
340.92,
344.19
]
},
{
"text": "but we can't actually\ndo it inside the body.",
"timestamp": [
344.19,
346.02
]
},
{
"text": "but we can't actually\ndo it inside the body.",
"timestamp": [
344.19,
346.02
]
},
{
"text": "So right now, we're\nstruggling to figure out",
"timestamp": [
346.02,
347.73
]
},
{
"text": "So right now, we're\nstruggling to figure out",
"timestamp": [
346.02,
347.73
]
},
{
"text": "which scenarios can we use\nthis to get better information",
"timestamp": [
347.73,
350.79
]
},
{
"text": "which scenarios can we use\nthis to get better information",
"timestamp": [
347.73,
350.79
]
},
{
"text": "and when can we not do it.",
"timestamp": [
350.79,
351.84
]
},
{
"text": "and when can we not do it.",
"timestamp": [
350.79,
351.84
]
},
{
"text": "- Are there any other\nquantum sensors at the moment",
"timestamp": [
351.84,
354.69
]
},
{
"text": "- Are there any other\nquantum sensors at the moment",
"timestamp": [
351.84,
354.69
]
},
{
"text": "that are in the\ndevelopmental stage anymore",
"timestamp": [
354.69,
357.06
]
},
{
"text": "that are in the\ndevelopmental stage anymore",
"timestamp": [
354.69,
357.06
]
},
{
"text": "that we are using?",
"timestamp": [
357.06,
358.26
]
},
{
"text": "that we are using?",
"timestamp": [
357.06,
358.26
]
},
{
"text": "- So there are quantum\nsensors that are sold",
"timestamp": [
358.26,
360.93
]
},
{
"text": "- So there are quantum\nsensors that are sold",
"timestamp": [
358.26,
360.93
]
},
{
"text": "for very specific applications,",
"timestamp": [
360.93,
362.4
]
},
{
"text": "for very specific applications,",
"timestamp": [
360.93,
362.4
]
},
{
"text": "one of them is a magnetometer",
"timestamp": [
362.4,
364.41
]
},
{
"text": "one of them is a magnetometer",
"timestamp": [
362.4,
364.41
]
},
{
"text": "and those can be really, really sensitive",
"timestamp": [
364.41,
366.54
]
},
{
"text": "and those can be really, really sensitive",
"timestamp": [
364.41,
366.54
]
},
{
"text": "to measure small variations\nin magnetic fields.",
"timestamp": [
366.54,
370.333
]
},
{
"text": "to measure small variations\nin magnetic fields.",
"timestamp": [
366.54,
370.333
]
},
{
"text": "They are trying to develop sensors",
"timestamp": [
370.333,
371.37
]
},
{
"text": "They are trying to develop sensors",
"timestamp": [
370.333,
371.37
]
},
{
"text": "that are gravitational sensors.",
"timestamp": [
371.37,
372.87
]
},
{
"text": "that are gravitational sensors.",
"timestamp": [
371.37,
372.87
]
},
{
"text": "Right now, we have no way of\nprobing what's under the ground",
"timestamp": [
372.87,
375.3
]
},
{
"text": "Right now, we have no way of\nprobing what's under the ground",
"timestamp": [
372.87,
375.3
]
},
{
"text": "without digging into the ground.",
"timestamp": [
375.3,
376.68
]
},
{
"text": "without digging into the ground.",
"timestamp": [
375.3,
376.68
]
},
{
"text": "- You talked about a sensor\nmeasuring magnetic fields.",
"timestamp": [
376.68,
379.47
]
},
{
"text": "- You talked about a sensor\nmeasuring magnetic fields.",
"timestamp": [
376.68,
379.47
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- What does that",
"timestamp": [
379.47,
380.303
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- What does that",
"timestamp": [
379.47,
380.303
]
},
{
"text": "help us learn?",
"timestamp": [
380.303,
381.136
]
},
{
"text": "help us learn?",
"timestamp": [
380.303,
381.136
]
},
{
"text": "What is that good for?",
"timestamp": [
381.136,
381.969
]
},
{
"text": "What is that good for?",
"timestamp": [
381.136,
381.969
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, if I wanna navigate,\nand I know what the structure",
"timestamp": [
381.969,
383.7
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, if I wanna navigate,\nand I know what the structure",
"timestamp": [
381.969,
383.7
]
},
{
"text": "of the Earth's magnetic fields are,",
"timestamp": [
383.7,
385.05
]
},
{
"text": "of the Earth's magnetic fields are,",
"timestamp": [
383.7,
385.05
]
},
{
"text": "in some ways, that's how birds navigate.",
"timestamp": [
385.05,
387.36
]
},
{
"text": "in some ways, that's how birds navigate.",
"timestamp": [
385.05,
387.36
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- The avian compass.",
"timestamp": [
387.36,
388.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- The avian compass.",
"timestamp": [
387.36,
388.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- In fact, people think",
"timestamp": [
388.29,
389.34
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- In fact, people think",
"timestamp": [
388.29,
389.34
]
},
{
"text": "of that as a quantum sensor.",
"timestamp": [
389.34,
390.55
]
},
{
"text": "of that as a quantum sensor.",
"timestamp": [
389.34,
390.55
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, so they've got",
"timestamp": [
390.55,
391.47
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, so they've got",
"timestamp": [
390.55,
391.47
]
},
{
"text": "like built-in.\n- A biological quantum sensor.",
"timestamp": [
391.47,
392.64
]
},
{
"text": "like built-in.\n- A biological quantum sensor.",
"timestamp": [
391.47,
392.64
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- They have a built-in sensor",
"timestamp": [
392.64,
394.26
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- They have a built-in sensor",
"timestamp": [
392.64,
394.26
]
},
{
"text": "and one of the ideas is that,",
"timestamp": [
394.26,
395.093
]
},
{
"text": "and one of the ideas is that,",
"timestamp": [
394.26,
395.093
]
},
{
"text": "they're using quantum phenomena",
"timestamp": [
395.093,
397.23
]
},
{
"text": "they're using quantum phenomena",
"timestamp": [
395.093,
397.23
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- To figure out",
"timestamp": [
397.23,
398.063
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- To figure out",
"timestamp": [
397.23,
398.063
]
},
{
"text": "what the direction of the Earth's",
"timestamp": [
398.063,
399.24
]
},
{
"text": "what the direction of the Earth's",
"timestamp": [
398.063,
399.24
]
},
{
"text": "magnetic field is.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
399.24,
400.11
]
},
{
"text": "magnetic field is.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
399.24,
400.11
]
},
{
"text": "- That's why they're able to be,",
"timestamp": [
400.11,
401.85
]
},
{
"text": "- That's why they're able to be,",
"timestamp": [
400.11,
401.85
]
},
{
"text": "homing pigeons are able to come back",
"timestamp": [
401.85,
403.74
]
},
{
"text": "homing pigeons are able to come back",
"timestamp": [
401.85,
403.74
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- To their original location.",
"timestamp": [
403.74,
405.073
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- To their original location.",
"timestamp": [
403.74,
405.073
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, that's cool.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
405.073,
406.315
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, that's cool.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
405.073,
406.315
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat synthwave music]",
"timestamp": [
406.315,
409.732
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat synthwave music]",
"timestamp": [
406.315,
409.732
]
},
{
"text": "What year are you in?",
"timestamp": [
411.09,
412.05
]
},
{
"text": "What year are you in?",
"timestamp": [
411.09,
412.05
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm a senior, I'm\nstudying physics right now.",
"timestamp": [
412.05,
414.51
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm a senior, I'm\nstudying physics right now.",
"timestamp": [
412.05,
414.51
]
},
{
"text": "- Cool.",
"timestamp": [
414.51,
415.41
]
},
{
"text": "- Cool.",
"timestamp": [
414.51,
415.41
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think of when you hear",
"timestamp": [
415.41,
416.407
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think of when you hear",
"timestamp": [
415.41,
416.407
]
},
{
"text": "the words quantum sensing?",
"timestamp": [
416.407,
418.53
]
},
{
"text": "the words quantum sensing?",
"timestamp": [
416.407,
418.53
]
},
{
"text": "- I think that using some\nsort of quantum computing",
"timestamp": [
418.53,
423.25
]
},
{
"text": "- I think that using some\nsort of quantum computing",
"timestamp": [
418.53,
423.25
]
},
{
"text": "to sense some quantum level molecules",
"timestamp": [
424.56,
429.56
]
},
{
"text": "to sense some quantum level molecules",
"timestamp": [
424.56,
429.56
]
},
{
"text": "or particles, like interactions and stuff,",
"timestamp": [
430.05,
433.53
]
},
{
"text": "or particles, like interactions and stuff,",
"timestamp": [
430.05,
433.53
]
},
{
"text": "maybe.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
433.53,
434.363
]
},
{
"text": "maybe.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
433.53,
434.363
]
},
{
"text": "It is exactly using quantum phenomena",
"timestamp": [
434.363,
437.43
]
},
{
"text": "It is exactly using quantum phenomena",
"timestamp": [
434.363,
437.43
]
},
{
"text": "to sense and measure things",
"timestamp": [
437.43,
438.87
]
},
{
"text": "to sense and measure things",
"timestamp": [
437.43,
438.87
]
},
{
"text": "and the idea is that, if I\ncan harness quantum phenomena",
"timestamp": [
438.87,
442.08
]
},
{
"text": "and the idea is that, if I\ncan harness quantum phenomena",
"timestamp": [
438.87,
442.08
]
},
{
"text": "and I can push the\nlimits that are possible,",
"timestamp": [
442.08,
444.39
]
},
{
"text": "and I can push the\nlimits that are possible,",
"timestamp": [
442.08,
444.39
]
},
{
"text": "I can get something that's\nultimately more precise",
"timestamp": [
444.39,
446.88
]
},
{
"text": "I can get something that's\nultimately more precise",
"timestamp": [
444.39,
446.88
]
},
{
"text": "and potentially more accurate",
"timestamp": [
446.88,
448.62
]
},
{
"text": "and potentially more accurate",
"timestamp": [
446.88,
448.62
]
},
{
"text": "over time too.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
448.62,
449.79
]
},
{
"text": "over time too.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
448.62,
449.79
]
},
{
"text": "How is it more precise?",
"timestamp": [
449.79,
451.38
]
},
{
"text": "How is it more precise?",
"timestamp": [
449.79,
451.38
]
},
{
"text": "- We believe quantum mechanics tells us",
"timestamp": [
451.38,
453.27
]
},
{
"text": "- We believe quantum mechanics tells us",
"timestamp": [
451.38,
453.27
]
},
{
"text": "what the true laws of physics are,",
"timestamp": [
453.27,
454.8
]
},
{
"text": "what the true laws of physics are,",
"timestamp": [
453.27,
454.8
]
},
{
"text": "and so a quantum sensor, in that sense,",
"timestamp": [
454.8,
456.69
]
},
{
"text": "and so a quantum sensor, in that sense,",
"timestamp": [
454.8,
456.69
]
},
{
"text": "would reach the limits\nof what's attainable.",
"timestamp": [
456.69,
459.059
]
},
{
"text": "would reach the limits\nof what's attainable.",
"timestamp": [
456.69,
459.059
]
},
{
"text": "- It would be the top tier.",
"timestamp": [
459.059,
460.195
]
},
{
"text": "- It would be the top tier.",
"timestamp": [
459.059,
460.195
]
},
{
"text": "- It would be the top tier.",
"timestamp": [
460.195,
461.832
]
},
{
"text": "- It would be the top tier.",
"timestamp": [
460.195,
461.832
]
},
{
"text": "- What are you doing?",
"timestamp": [
461.832,
462.995
]
},
{
"text": "- What are you doing?",
"timestamp": [
461.832,
462.995
]
},
{
"text": "Like, what are you studying?",
"timestamp": [
462.995,
464.79
]
},
{
"text": "Like, what are you studying?",
"timestamp": [
462.995,
464.79
]
},
{
"text": "- So I study spins.",
"timestamp": [
464.79,
466.44
]
},
{
"text": "- So I study spins.",
"timestamp": [
464.79,
466.44
]
},
{
"text": "And so, spins are one of the platforms",
"timestamp": [
466.44,
468.78
]
},
{
"text": "And so, spins are one of the platforms",
"timestamp": [
466.44,
468.78
]
},
{
"text": "that people have suggested\nis a useful platform",
"timestamp": [
468.78,
470.79
]
},
{
"text": "that people have suggested\nis a useful platform",
"timestamp": [
468.78,
470.79
]
},
{
"text": "for building quantum technologies",
"timestamp": [
470.79,
472.23
]
},
{
"text": "for building quantum technologies",
"timestamp": [
470.79,
472.23
]
},
{
"text": "and I study spins on the solid state.",
"timestamp": [
472.23,
473.97
]
},
{
"text": "and I study spins on the solid state.",
"timestamp": [
472.23,
473.97
]
},
{
"text": "And one of the platforms I work on",
"timestamp": [
473.97,
476.07
]
},
{
"text": "And one of the platforms I work on",
"timestamp": [
473.97,
476.07
]
},
{
"text": "is nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond.",
"timestamp": [
476.07,
478.29
]
},
{
"text": "is nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond.",
"timestamp": [
476.07,
478.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- Which is a really nice",
"timestamp": [
478.29,
479.67
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- Which is a really nice",
"timestamp": [
478.29,
479.67
]
},
{
"text": "platform because the spins\nshow their quantum properties,",
"timestamp": [
479.67,
482.82
]
},
{
"text": "platform because the spins\nshow their quantum properties,",
"timestamp": [
479.67,
482.82
]
},
{
"text": "even at room temperature.",
"timestamp": [
482.82,
483.87
]
},
{
"text": "even at room temperature.",
"timestamp": [
482.82,
483.87
]
},
{
"text": "- So, are you studying the\nspins of the electrons?",
"timestamp": [
483.87,
486.75
]
},
{
"text": "- So, are you studying the\nspins of the electrons?",
"timestamp": [
483.87,
486.75
]
},
{
"text": "- So in some sense, the\nphenomena we're studying",
"timestamp": [
486.75,
489.21
]
},
{
"text": "- So in some sense, the\nphenomena we're studying",
"timestamp": [
486.75,
489.21
]
},
{
"text": "essentially is nuclear magnetic resonance",
"timestamp": [
489.21,
491.16
]
},
{
"text": "essentially is nuclear magnetic resonance",
"timestamp": [
489.21,
491.16
]
},
{
"text": "or electron spin resonance",
"timestamp": [
491.16,
492.39
]
},
{
"text": "or electron spin resonance",
"timestamp": [
491.16,
492.39
]
},
{
"text": "which is a very similar phenomena,",
"timestamp": [
492.39,
494.58
]
},
{
"text": "which is a very similar phenomena,",
"timestamp": [
492.39,
494.58
]
},
{
"text": "but uses the spin of the electron",
"timestamp": [
494.58,
496.83
]
},
{
"text": "but uses the spin of the electron",
"timestamp": [
494.58,
496.83
]
},
{
"text": "rather than the spin of the nuclei.",
"timestamp": [
496.83,
498.93
]
},
{
"text": "rather than the spin of the nuclei.",
"timestamp": [
496.83,
498.93
]
},
{
"text": "- So you mentioned the\ndiamonds that are used",
"timestamp": [
498.93,
501.15
]
},
{
"text": "- So you mentioned the\ndiamonds that are used",
"timestamp": [
498.93,
501.15
]
},
{
"text": "to create the sensors.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
501.15,
502.5
]
},
{
"text": "to create the sensors.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
501.15,
502.5
]
},
{
"text": "- So how long does it\ntake to make a sensor",
"timestamp": [
502.5,
505.882
]
},
{
"text": "- So how long does it\ntake to make a sensor",
"timestamp": [
502.5,
505.882
]
},
{
"text": "and to make that diamond?",
"timestamp": [
505.882,
507.72
]
},
{
"text": "and to make that diamond?",
"timestamp": [
505.882,
507.72
]
},
{
"text": "Is that created?",
"timestamp": [
507.72,
508.74
]
},
{
"text": "Is that created?",
"timestamp": [
507.72,
508.74
]
},
{
"text": "Do you like, put energy into it or?",
"timestamp": [
508.74,
510.677
]
},
{
"text": "Do you like, put energy into it or?",
"timestamp": [
508.74,
510.677
]
},
{
"text": "- So you can implant\nnitrogen into a diamond",
"timestamp": [
510.677,
513.27
]
},
{
"text": "- So you can implant\nnitrogen into a diamond",
"timestamp": [
510.677,
513.27
]
},
{
"text": "and then you bombard it with electrons",
"timestamp": [
513.27,
515.49
]
},
{
"text": "and then you bombard it with electrons",
"timestamp": [
513.27,
515.49
]
},
{
"text": "to create the vacancies\nand then you heat it up",
"timestamp": [
515.49,
518.219
]
},
{
"text": "to create the vacancies\nand then you heat it up",
"timestamp": [
515.49,
518.219
]
},
{
"text": "and anneal it, and then you get",
"timestamp": [
518.219,
519.21
]
},
{
"text": "and anneal it, and then you get",
"timestamp": [
518.219,
519.21
]
},
{
"text": "these nitrogen-vacancy\ncenters in your system.",
"timestamp": [
519.21,
521.55
]
},
{
"text": "these nitrogen-vacancy\ncenters in your system.",
"timestamp": [
519.21,
521.55
]
},
{
"text": "So you mentioned quantum\ncomputing earlier.",
"timestamp": [
521.55,
523.56
]
},
{
"text": "So you mentioned quantum\ncomputing earlier.",
"timestamp": [
521.55,
523.56
]
},
{
"text": "So have you heard of the\nidea of superposition?",
"timestamp": [
523.56,
526.14
]
},
{
"text": "So have you heard of the\nidea of superposition?",
"timestamp": [
523.56,
526.14
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
526.14,
527.04
]
},
{
"text": "- Mm-hmm, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
526.14,
527.04
]
},
{
"text": "- So that's in some ways the\nkey to both quantum sensing,",
"timestamp": [
527.04,
530.82
]
},
{
"text": "- So that's in some ways the\nkey to both quantum sensing,",
"timestamp": [
527.04,
530.82
]
},
{
"text": "as well as quantum computing.",
"timestamp": [
530.82,
532.47
]
},
{
"text": "as well as quantum computing.",
"timestamp": [
530.82,
532.47
]
},
{
"text": "It's the idea that you can take a system",
"timestamp": [
532.47,
534.27
]
},
{
"text": "It's the idea that you can take a system",
"timestamp": [
532.47,
534.27
]
},
{
"text": "and put it in a\nsuperposition of two states.",
"timestamp": [
534.27,
536.04
]
},
{
"text": "and put it in a\nsuperposition of two states.",
"timestamp": [
534.27,
536.04
]
},
{
"text": "Normally we think of classically a bit",
"timestamp": [
536.04,
537.63
]
},
{
"text": "Normally we think of classically a bit",
"timestamp": [
536.04,
537.63
]
},
{
"text": "can be a zero or a one.",
"timestamp": [
537.63,
539.31
]
},
{
"text": "can be a zero or a one.",
"timestamp": [
537.63,
539.31
]
},
{
"text": "So switch is either on or off.",
"timestamp": [
539.31,
541.29
]
},
{
"text": "So switch is either on or off.",
"timestamp": [
539.31,
541.29
]
},
{
"text": "Whereas in a quantum system,",
"timestamp": [
541.29,
543.15
]
},
{
"text": "Whereas in a quantum system,",
"timestamp": [
541.29,
543.15
]
},
{
"text": "it can be in what's\ncalled a superposition.",
"timestamp": [
543.15,
544.86
]
},
{
"text": "it can be in what's\ncalled a superposition.",
"timestamp": [
543.15,
544.86
]
},
{
"text": "So it can be partially\non and partially off.",
"timestamp": [
544.86,
547.35
]
},
{
"text": "So it can be partially\non and partially off.",
"timestamp": [
544.86,
547.35
]
},
{
"text": "But one of the challenges\nwith quantum systems is that",
"timestamp": [
547.35,
549.582
]
},
{
"text": "But one of the challenges\nwith quantum systems is that",
"timestamp": [
547.35,
549.582
]
},
{
"text": "these superpositions are\nreally hard to maintain",
"timestamp": [
549.582,
551.52
]
},
{
"text": "these superpositions are\nreally hard to maintain",
"timestamp": [
549.582,
551.52
]
},
{
"text": "because we don't see superpositions\nin the world around us.",
"timestamp": [
551.52,
554.16
]
},
{
"text": "because we don't see superpositions\nin the world around us.",
"timestamp": [
551.52,
554.16
]
},
{
"text": "In quantum computing, you try really hard",
"timestamp": [
554.16,
556.29
]
},
{
"text": "In quantum computing, you try really hard",
"timestamp": [
554.16,
556.29
]
},
{
"text": "to isolate everything\nso that you can maintain",
"timestamp": [
556.29,
558.6
]
},
{
"text": "to isolate everything\nso that you can maintain",
"timestamp": [
556.29,
558.6
]
},
{
"text": "this quantum property",
"timestamp": [
558.6,
560.01
]
},
{
"text": "this quantum property",
"timestamp": [
558.6,
560.01
]
},
{
"text": "and the fact that it's\nactually going to lose",
"timestamp": [
560.01,
562.02
]
},
{
"text": "and the fact that it's\nactually going to lose",
"timestamp": [
560.01,
562.02
]
},
{
"text": "its quantum properties as\nit interacts with the world",
"timestamp": [
562.02,
565.05
]
},
{
"text": "its quantum properties as\nit interacts with the world",
"timestamp": [
562.02,
565.05
]
},
{
"text": "also makes it a great sensor",
"timestamp": [
565.05,
566.73
]
},
{
"text": "also makes it a great sensor",
"timestamp": [
565.05,
566.73
]
},
{
"text": "because now you're actually,",
"timestamp": [
566.73,
567.99
]
},
{
"text": "because now you're actually,",
"timestamp": [
566.73,
567.99
]
},
{
"text": "you're using that fact that\nit's interacting with the world",
"timestamp": [
567.99,
571.29
]
},
{
"text": "you're using that fact that\nit's interacting with the world",
"timestamp": [
567.99,
571.29
]
},
{
"text": "to say, wait, it's sensing something.",
"timestamp": [
571.29,
573.6
]
},
{
"text": "to say, wait, it's sensing something.",
"timestamp": [
571.29,
573.6
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, so it's like using like,",
"timestamp": [
573.6,
575.91
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, so it's like using like,",
"timestamp": [
573.6,
575.91
]
},
{
"text": "the quantum computer would be\nkind of like the base level",
"timestamp": [
575.91,
579.84
]
},
{
"text": "the quantum computer would be\nkind of like the base level",
"timestamp": [
575.91,
579.84
]
},
{
"text": "and then like you take\nit out into the world",
"timestamp": [
579.84,
581.55
]
},
{
"text": "and then like you take\nit out into the world",
"timestamp": [
579.84,
581.55
]
},
{
"text": "and see how like it differs?",
"timestamp": [
581.55,
583.26
]
},
{
"text": "and see how like it differs?",
"timestamp": [
581.55,
583.26
]
},
{
"text": "- So rather than trying to build\na lot of complex algorithms",
"timestamp": [
583.26,
586.05
]
},
{
"text": "- So rather than trying to build\na lot of complex algorithms",
"timestamp": [
583.26,
586.05
]
},
{
"text": "and gates with it,",
"timestamp": [
586.05,
587.13
]
},
{
"text": "and gates with it,",
"timestamp": [
586.05,
587.13
]
},
{
"text": "what you do is, you\ntake these quantum bits",
"timestamp": [
587.13,
589.32
]
},
{
"text": "what you do is, you\ntake these quantum bits",
"timestamp": [
587.13,
589.32
]
},
{
"text": "and you take them out\ninto the world and say,",
"timestamp": [
589.32,
591.39
]
},
{
"text": "and you take them out\ninto the world and say,",
"timestamp": [
589.32,
591.39
]
},
{
"text": "what do you see?",
"timestamp": [
591.39,
592.41
]
},
{
"text": "what do you see?",
"timestamp": [
591.39,
592.41
]
},
{
"text": "What are you sensitive to?",
"timestamp": [
592.41,
593.51
]
},
{
"text": "What are you sensitive to?",
"timestamp": [
592.41,
593.51
]
},
{
"text": "So you can use an idea called entanglement",
"timestamp": [
593.51,
596.25
]
},
{
"text": "So you can use an idea called entanglement",
"timestamp": [
593.51,
596.25
]
},
{
"text": "to make an even more\nsensitive quantum sensor,",
"timestamp": [
596.25,
598.71
]
},
{
"text": "to make an even more\nsensitive quantum sensor,",
"timestamp": [
596.25,
598.71
]
},
{
"text": "but it's even more fragile.",
"timestamp": [
598.71,
600.27
]
},
{
"text": "but it's even more fragile.",
"timestamp": [
598.71,
600.27
]
},
{
"text": "So there's always this trade-off\nbetween being super fragile",
"timestamp": [
600.27,
603.39
]
},
{
"text": "So there's always this trade-off\nbetween being super fragile",
"timestamp": [
600.27,
603.39
]
},
{
"text": "and being super sensitive",
"timestamp": [
603.39,
604.89
]
},
{
"text": "and being super sensitive",
"timestamp": [
603.39,
604.89
]
},
{
"text": "at the same time.\n- How does entanglement",
"timestamp": [
604.89,
606.42
]
},
{
"text": "at the same time.\n- How does entanglement",
"timestamp": [
604.89,
606.42
]
},
{
"text": "work into it?",
"timestamp": [
606.42,
607.41
]
},
{
"text": "work into it?",
"timestamp": [
606.42,
607.41
]
},
{
"text": "- So entanglement is the idea that",
"timestamp": [
607.41,
608.82
]
},
{
"text": "- So entanglement is the idea that",
"timestamp": [
607.41,
608.82
]
},
{
"text": "two particles are correlated.",
"timestamp": [
608.82,
610.44
]
},
{
"text": "two particles are correlated.",
"timestamp": [
608.82,
610.44
]
},
{
"text": "They're essentially in\nthe same quantum state,",
"timestamp": [
610.44,
612.18
]
},
{
"text": "They're essentially in\nthe same quantum state,",
"timestamp": [
610.44,
612.18
]
},
{
"text": "so that you can't disturb one particle",
"timestamp": [
612.18,
614.37
]
},
{
"text": "so that you can't disturb one particle",
"timestamp": [
612.18,
614.37
]
},
{
"text": "without disturbing the second particle.",
"timestamp": [
614.37,
616.11
]
},
{
"text": "without disturbing the second particle.",
"timestamp": [
614.37,
616.11
]
},
{
"text": "And so, if I have a large\nnumber of quantum sensors",
"timestamp": [
616.11,
618.39
]
},
{
"text": "And so, if I have a large\nnumber of quantum sensors",
"timestamp": [
616.11,
618.39
]
},
{
"text": "that are entangled, then\nthey're all going to interact",
"timestamp": [
618.39,
621.57
]
},
{
"text": "that are entangled, then\nthey're all going to interact",
"timestamp": [
618.39,
621.57
]
},
{
"text": "much more strongly than\nif I just had one of them",
"timestamp": [
621.57,
624.12
]
},
{
"text": "much more strongly than\nif I just had one of them",
"timestamp": [
621.57,
624.12
]
},
{
"text": "interact at a time.",
"timestamp": [
624.12,
625.29
]
},
{
"text": "interact at a time.",
"timestamp": [
624.12,
625.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
625.29,
626.123
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
625.29,
626.123
]
},
{
"text": "- And so that gives you\na boost in sensitivity",
"timestamp": [
626.123,
627.75
]
},
{
"text": "- And so that gives you\na boost in sensitivity",
"timestamp": [
626.123,
627.75
]
},
{
"text": "when you have an entangled-\n- And so, it's more precise.",
"timestamp": [
627.75,
629.457
]
},
{
"text": "when you have an entangled-\n- And so, it's more precise.",
"timestamp": [
627.75,
629.457
]
},
{
"text": "- It's more precise,\n- If you have it entangled.",
"timestamp": [
629.457,
630.808
]
},
{
"text": "- It's more precise,\n- If you have it entangled.",
"timestamp": [
629.457,
630.808
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
630.808,
631.641
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
630.808,
631.641
]
},
{
"text": "- Is an atomic clock a quantum sensor?",
"timestamp": [
631.641,
633.96
]
},
{
"text": "- Is an atomic clock a quantum sensor?",
"timestamp": [
631.641,
633.96
]
},
{
"text": "- In some ways, it is",
"timestamp": [
633.96,
635.07
]
},
{
"text": "- In some ways, it is",
"timestamp": [
633.96,
635.07
]
},
{
"text": "and you know, atomic clocks\nare remarkable devices",
"timestamp": [
635.07,
637.86
]
},
{
"text": "and you know, atomic clocks\nare remarkable devices",
"timestamp": [
635.07,
637.86
]
},
{
"text": "and being able to measure\ntime that precisely",
"timestamp": [
637.86,
640.35
]
},
{
"text": "and being able to measure\ntime that precisely",
"timestamp": [
637.86,
640.35
]
},
{
"text": "has really important consequences.",
"timestamp": [
640.35,
642.48
]
},
{
"text": "has really important consequences.",
"timestamp": [
640.35,
642.48
]
},
{
"text": "In fact, our old GPS system\nis based on the accuracy",
"timestamp": [
642.48,
645.66
]
},
{
"text": "In fact, our old GPS system\nis based on the accuracy",
"timestamp": [
642.48,
645.66
]
},
{
"text": "of atomic clocks.",
"timestamp": [
645.66,
646.734
]
},
{
"text": "of atomic clocks.",
"timestamp": [
645.66,
646.734
]
},
{
"text": "They're a set of satellites,",
"timestamp": [
646.734,
647.64
]
},
{
"text": "They're a set of satellites,",
"timestamp": [
646.734,
647.64
]
},
{
"text": "each of which has an atomic clock on board",
"timestamp": [
647.64,
649.89
]
},
{
"text": "each of which has an atomic clock on board",
"timestamp": [
647.64,
649.89
]
},
{
"text": "and they send out a timestamp",
"timestamp": [
649.89,
651.72
]
},
{
"text": "and they send out a timestamp",
"timestamp": [
649.89,
651.72
]
},
{
"text": "and so, once it gets a signal",
"timestamp": [
651.72,
652.92
]
},
{
"text": "and so, once it gets a signal",
"timestamp": [
651.72,
652.92
]
},
{
"text": "from three different satellites,",
"timestamp": [
652.92,
654.57
]
},
{
"text": "from three different satellites,",
"timestamp": [
652.92,
654.57
]
},
{
"text": "it can triangulate and figure\nout exactly where you are.",
"timestamp": [
654.57,
658.29
]
},
{
"text": "it can triangulate and figure\nout exactly where you are.",
"timestamp": [
654.57,
658.29
]
},
{
"text": "Now, if you could make those\nclocks even more precise,",
"timestamp": [
658.29,
661.14
]
},
{
"text": "Now, if you could make those\nclocks even more precise,",
"timestamp": [
658.29,
661.14
]
},
{
"text": "you could actually accurately position",
"timestamp": [
661.14,
662.7
]
},
{
"text": "you could actually accurately position",
"timestamp": [
661.14,
662.7
]
},
{
"text": "where you are even more accurately.",
"timestamp": [
662.7,
665.28
]
},
{
"text": "where you are even more accurately.",
"timestamp": [
662.7,
665.28
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, that's really cool.",
"timestamp": [
665.28,
666.69
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, that's really cool.",
"timestamp": [
665.28,
666.69
]
},
{
"text": "- So some ways, you know,",
"timestamp": [
666.69,
667.65
]
},
{
"text": "- So some ways, you know,",
"timestamp": [
666.69,
667.65
]
},
{
"text": "when atomic clocks were\ndesigned and built,",
"timestamp": [
667.65,
670.56
]
},
{
"text": "when atomic clocks were\ndesigned and built,",
"timestamp": [
667.65,
670.56
]
},
{
"text": "we didn't necessarily think of GPS,",
"timestamp": [
670.56,
672
]
},
{
"text": "we didn't necessarily think of GPS,",
"timestamp": [
670.56,
672
]
},
{
"text": "but technology often\nworks that way is that,",
"timestamp": [
672,
674.22
]
},
{
"text": "but technology often\nworks that way is that,",
"timestamp": [
672,
674.22
]
},
{
"text": "there are new discoveries and\nthen someone else comes along",
"timestamp": [
674.22,
676.32
]
},
{
"text": "there are new discoveries and\nthen someone else comes along",
"timestamp": [
674.22,
676.32
]
},
{
"text": "and says, hey, this is a great tool",
"timestamp": [
676.32,
679.65
]
},
{
"text": "and says, hey, this is a great tool",
"timestamp": [
676.32,
679.65
]
},
{
"text": "for some other application.",
"timestamp": [
679.65,
681.168
]
},
{
"text": "for some other application.",
"timestamp": [
679.65,
681.168
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
681.168,
683.751
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
681.168,
683.751
]
},
{
"text": "So what drew you into quantum computing?",
"timestamp": [
686.138,
687.9
]
},
{
"text": "So what drew you into quantum computing?",
"timestamp": [
686.138,
687.9
]
},
{
"text": "- I think what got me\ninto material science",
"timestamp": [
687.9,
689.46
]
},
{
"text": "- I think what got me\ninto material science",
"timestamp": [
687.9,
689.46
]
},
{
"text": "was actually making semiconductors",
"timestamp": [
689.46,
691.32
]
},
{
"text": "was actually making semiconductors",
"timestamp": [
689.46,
691.32
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- For solar panels.",
"timestamp": [
691.32,
692.79
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.\n- For solar panels.",
"timestamp": [
691.32,
692.79
]
},
{
"text": "Then, that drew me into\nnew types of technology",
"timestamp": [
692.79,
695.79
]
},
{
"text": "Then, that drew me into\nnew types of technology",
"timestamp": [
692.79,
695.79
]
},
{
"text": "that used semiconductors with the one",
"timestamp": [
695.79,
697.2
]
},
{
"text": "that used semiconductors with the one",
"timestamp": [
695.79,
697.2
]
},
{
"text": "that's very popular now\nis quantum computings.",
"timestamp": [
697.2,
698.88
]
},
{
"text": "that's very popular now\nis quantum computings.",
"timestamp": [
697.2,
698.88
]
},
{
"text": "And what about you?",
"timestamp": [
698.88,
699.713
]
},
{
"text": "And what about you?",
"timestamp": [
698.88,
699.713
]
},
{
"text": "What got you interested\nin quantum sensing?",
"timestamp": [
699.713,
701.55
]
},
{
"text": "What got you interested\nin quantum sensing?",
"timestamp": [
699.713,
701.55
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I started out\ndoing magnetic resonance,",
"timestamp": [
701.55,
703.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I started out\ndoing magnetic resonance,",
"timestamp": [
701.55,
703.53
]
},
{
"text": "studying things like bone and\nbiomedical magnetic resonance.",
"timestamp": [
703.53,
706.56
]
},
{
"text": "studying things like bone and\nbiomedical magnetic resonance.",
"timestamp": [
703.53,
706.56
]
},
{
"text": "Ended up playing with\nspins for a long time",
"timestamp": [
706.56,
708.66
]
},
{
"text": "Ended up playing with\nspins for a long time",
"timestamp": [
706.56,
708.66
]
},
{
"text": "and the physics of spins\njust fascinated me.",
"timestamp": [
708.66,
711.48
]
},
{
"text": "and the physics of spins\njust fascinated me.",
"timestamp": [
708.66,
711.48
]
},
{
"text": "- So what do you think is a big difference",
"timestamp": [
711.48,
713.46
]
},
{
"text": "- So what do you think is a big difference",
"timestamp": [
711.48,
713.46
]
},
{
"text": "between imaging large biological objects",
"timestamp": [
713.46,
718.14
]
},
{
"text": "between imaging large biological objects",
"timestamp": [
713.46,
718.14
]
},
{
"text": "versus sensing very small\nquantum objects, I guess?",
"timestamp": [
718.14,
722.19
]
},
{
"text": "versus sensing very small\nquantum objects, I guess?",
"timestamp": [
718.14,
722.19
]
},
{
"text": "- In a way, it's part\nof the same continuum.",
"timestamp": [
722.19,
724.02
]
},
{
"text": "- In a way, it's part\nof the same continuum.",
"timestamp": [
722.19,
724.02
]
},
{
"text": "What you're doing is changing\nthe technological platform",
"timestamp": [
724.02,
727.62
]
},
{
"text": "What you're doing is changing\nthe technological platform",
"timestamp": [
724.02,
727.62
]
},
{
"text": "and you're actually able to\nprobe it more sensitively.",
"timestamp": [
727.62,
731.4
]
},
{
"text": "and you're actually able to\nprobe it more sensitively.",
"timestamp": [
727.62,
731.4
]
},
{
"text": "The resolution you're able\nto get is much higher,",
"timestamp": [
731.4,
733.8
]
},
{
"text": "The resolution you're able\nto get is much higher,",
"timestamp": [
731.4,
733.8
]
},
{
"text": "so you can see smaller signals\nin a much smaller volume.",
"timestamp": [
733.8,
737.52
]
},
{
"text": "so you can see smaller signals\nin a much smaller volume.",
"timestamp": [
733.8,
737.52
]
},
{
"text": "- How is the resolution higher?",
"timestamp": [
737.52,
738.87
]
},
{
"text": "- How is the resolution higher?",
"timestamp": [
737.52,
738.87
]
},
{
"text": "- So it's because the\nnitrogen-vacancy center",
"timestamp": [
738.87,
741.39
]
},
{
"text": "- So it's because the\nnitrogen-vacancy center",
"timestamp": [
738.87,
741.39
]
},
{
"text": "is a single defect.",
"timestamp": [
741.39,
742.56
]
},
{
"text": "is a single defect.",
"timestamp": [
741.39,
742.56
]
},
{
"text": "So you can actually see a single electron.",
"timestamp": [
742.56,
744.18
]
},
{
"text": "So you can actually see a single electron.",
"timestamp": [
742.56,
744.18
]
},
{
"text": "In normal magnetic resonance,",
"timestamp": [
744.18,
745.44
]
},
{
"text": "In normal magnetic resonance,",
"timestamp": [
744.18,
745.44
]
},
{
"text": "you don't have the sensitivity.",
"timestamp": [
745.44,
747.75
]
},
{
"text": "you don't have the sensitivity.",
"timestamp": [
745.44,
747.75
]
},
{
"text": "- In order to be sensitive\nto like a single electron,",
"timestamp": [
747.75,
749.73
]
},
{
"text": "- In order to be sensitive\nto like a single electron,",
"timestamp": [
747.75,
749.73
]
},
{
"text": "do you have to be really close to it?",
"timestamp": [
749.73,
751.05
]
},
{
"text": "do you have to be really close to it?",
"timestamp": [
749.73,
751.05
]
},
{
"text": "- You have to be close to it.",
"timestamp": [
751.05,
752.25
]
},
{
"text": "- You have to be close to it.",
"timestamp": [
751.05,
752.25
]
},
{
"text": "You can detect it optically\nbecause if we tried to detect",
"timestamp": [
752.25,
755.79
]
},
{
"text": "You can detect it optically\nbecause if we tried to detect",
"timestamp": [
752.25,
755.79
]
},
{
"text": "the magnetic moment of the electron,",
"timestamp": [
755.79,
757.38
]
},
{
"text": "the magnetic moment of the electron,",
"timestamp": [
755.79,
757.38
]
},
{
"text": "we wouldn't be able to do that",
"timestamp": [
757.38,
758.49
]
},
{
"text": "we wouldn't be able to do that",
"timestamp": [
757.38,
758.49
]
},
{
"text": "because there, the energy is too low",
"timestamp": [
758.49,
760.47
]
},
{
"text": "because there, the energy is too low",
"timestamp": [
758.49,
760.47
]
},
{
"text": "compared to thermal energies.",
"timestamp": [
760.47,
761.94
]
},
{
"text": "compared to thermal energies.",
"timestamp": [
760.47,
761.94
]
},
{
"text": "But what the diamond system gives you",
"timestamp": [
761.94,
763.56
]
},
{
"text": "But what the diamond system gives you",
"timestamp": [
761.94,
763.56
]
},
{
"text": "is a natural up conversion in energy.",
"timestamp": [
763.56,
765.9
]
},
{
"text": "is a natural up conversion in energy.",
"timestamp": [
763.56,
765.9
]
},
{
"text": "So you can couple into an optical photon,",
"timestamp": [
765.9,
767.94
]
},
{
"text": "So you can couple into an optical photon,",
"timestamp": [
765.9,
767.94
]
},
{
"text": "which is then much easier to\ndetect a single optical photon",
"timestamp": [
767.94,
771.18
]
},
{
"text": "which is then much easier to\ndetect a single optical photon",
"timestamp": [
767.94,
771.18
]
},
{
"text": "than it is to detect a micro wave.",
"timestamp": [
771.18,
772.98
]
},
{
"text": "than it is to detect a micro wave.",
"timestamp": [
771.18,
772.98
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, I see.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
772.98,
774.36
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, I see.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
772.98,
774.36
]
},
{
"text": "And that's why you're able to do it",
"timestamp": [
774.36,
775.98
]
},
{
"text": "And that's why you're able to do it",
"timestamp": [
774.36,
775.98
]
},
{
"text": "at room temperature as well.",
"timestamp": [
775.98,
777.3
]
},
{
"text": "at room temperature as well.",
"timestamp": [
775.98,
777.3
]
},
{
"text": "- What are some of the challenges you face",
"timestamp": [
777.3,
778.77
]
},
{
"text": "- What are some of the challenges you face",
"timestamp": [
777.3,
778.77
]
},
{
"text": "when trying to do quantum\nsensing with this platform?",
"timestamp": [
778.77,
780.87
]
},
{
"text": "when trying to do quantum\nsensing with this platform?",
"timestamp": [
778.77,
780.87
]
},
{
"text": "- One of the key\nchallenges, I think for all,",
"timestamp": [
780.87,
783.57
]
},
{
"text": "- One of the key\nchallenges, I think for all,",
"timestamp": [
780.87,
783.57
]
},
{
"text": "any quantum technology\nis really understanding",
"timestamp": [
783.57,
786.03
]
},
{
"text": "any quantum technology\nis really understanding",
"timestamp": [
783.57,
786.03
]
},
{
"text": "what limits your coherence times.",
"timestamp": [
786.03,
787.68
]
},
{
"text": "what limits your coherence times.",
"timestamp": [
786.03,
787.68
]
},
{
"text": "And then the next question\nthat comes up often",
"timestamp": [
787.68,
789.33
]
},
{
"text": "And then the next question\nthat comes up often",
"timestamp": [
787.68,
789.33
]
},
{
"text": "is how do we make this better?",
"timestamp": [
789.33,
791.22
]
},
{
"text": "is how do we make this better?",
"timestamp": [
789.33,
791.22
]
},
{
"text": "So if I take a single\nqubit or a single spin,",
"timestamp": [
791.22,
793.62
]
},
{
"text": "So if I take a single\nqubit or a single spin,",
"timestamp": [
791.22,
793.62
]
},
{
"text": "there's a certain limit\nup to its sensitivity.",
"timestamp": [
793.62,
795.72
]
},
{
"text": "there's a certain limit\nup to its sensitivity.",
"timestamp": [
793.62,
795.72
]
},
{
"text": "But if I can take entangled spins,",
"timestamp": [
795.72,
797.88
]
},
{
"text": "But if I can take entangled spins,",
"timestamp": [
795.72,
797.88
]
},
{
"text": "in principle, I could make the\nsystem much more sensitive,",
"timestamp": [
797.88,
802.38
]
},
{
"text": "in principle, I could make the\nsystem much more sensitive,",
"timestamp": [
797.88,
802.38
]
},
{
"text": "but it usually comes at a cost",
"timestamp": [
802.38,
803.79
]
},
{
"text": "but it usually comes at a cost",
"timestamp": [
802.38,
803.79
]
},
{
"text": "'cause when I entangle something,",
"timestamp": [
803.79,
804.87
]
},
{
"text": "'cause when I entangle something,",
"timestamp": [
803.79,
804.87
]
},
{
"text": "it's much more sensitive\nto de-coherence as well.",
"timestamp": [
804.87,
807.63
]
},
{
"text": "it's much more sensitive\nto de-coherence as well.",
"timestamp": [
804.87,
807.63
]
},
{
"text": "- In a similar way, but maybe\neven in the opposite way",
"timestamp": [
807.63,
809.94
]
},
{
"text": "- In a similar way, but maybe\neven in the opposite way",
"timestamp": [
807.63,
809.94
]
},
{
"text": "where we want to figure\nout how to be as resilient",
"timestamp": [
809.94,
813.42
]
},
{
"text": "where we want to figure\nout how to be as resilient",
"timestamp": [
809.94,
813.42
]
},
{
"text": "from noise and all the\nkinds of noise sources.",
"timestamp": [
813.42,
815.79
]
},
{
"text": "from noise and all the\nkinds of noise sources.",
"timestamp": [
813.42,
815.79
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
815.79,
816.623
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
815.79,
816.623
]
},
{
"text": "- What are you studying?",
"timestamp": [
816.623,
817.456
]
},
{
"text": "- What are you studying?",
"timestamp": [
816.623,
817.456
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm studying superconducting qubits",
"timestamp": [
817.456,
818.82
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm studying superconducting qubits",
"timestamp": [
817.456,
818.82
]
},
{
"text": "that use hybrids, semiconductor,\nsuperconductor structures.",
"timestamp": [
818.82,
822.362
]
},
{
"text": "that use hybrids, semiconductor,\nsuperconductor structures.",
"timestamp": [
818.82,
822.362
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, semiconductors,",
"timestamp": [
822.362,
823.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, semiconductors,",
"timestamp": [
822.362,
823.53
]
},
{
"text": "are you introducing new\nnoise sources potentially",
"timestamp": [
823.53,
825.66
]
},
{
"text": "are you introducing new\nnoise sources potentially",
"timestamp": [
823.53,
825.66
]
},
{
"text": "that might affect the coherence times?",
"timestamp": [
825.66,
827.82
]
},
{
"text": "that might affect the coherence times?",
"timestamp": [
825.66,
827.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, yeah, so the\nbig one is charge noise,",
"timestamp": [
827.82,
830.687
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, yeah, so the\nbig one is charge noise,",
"timestamp": [
827.82,
830.687
]
},
{
"text": "'cause I guess a lot of\nthe superconducting qubits,",
"timestamp": [
830.687,
833.22
]
},
{
"text": "'cause I guess a lot of\nthe superconducting qubits,",
"timestamp": [
830.687,
833.22
]
},
{
"text": "they have made 'em in such a way that",
"timestamp": [
833.22,
834.69
]
},
{
"text": "they have made 'em in such a way that",
"timestamp": [
833.22,
834.69
]
},
{
"text": "they're insensitive to charge.\n- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
834.69,
836.79
]
},
{
"text": "they're insensitive to charge.\n- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
834.69,
836.79
]
},
{
"text": "So when you think of noise,",
"timestamp": [
836.79,
838.353
]
},
{
"text": "So when you think of noise,",
"timestamp": [
836.79,
838.353
]
},
{
"text": "in what way is a noise\nbad for your system?",
"timestamp": [
839.43,
842.28
]
},
{
"text": "in what way is a noise\nbad for your system?",
"timestamp": [
839.43,
842.28
]
},
{
"text": "- I usually think of it like,",
"timestamp": [
842.28,
843.72
]
},
{
"text": "- I usually think of it like,",
"timestamp": [
842.28,
843.72
]
},
{
"text": "well, we work with quantum systems.",
"timestamp": [
843.72,
845.13
]
},
{
"text": "well, we work with quantum systems.",
"timestamp": [
843.72,
845.13
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sekhar] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
845.13,
845.963
]
},
{
"text": "- [Sekhar] Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
845.13,
845.963
]
},
{
"text": "- And those are very\nsensitive to fluctuations.",
"timestamp": [
845.963,
849.96
]
},
{
"text": "- And those are very\nsensitive to fluctuations.",
"timestamp": [
845.963,
849.96
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- I guess any fluctuations",
"timestamp": [
849.96,
852.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- I guess any fluctuations",
"timestamp": [
849.96,
852.09
]
},
{
"text": "can kick your quantum system\neither out of the state",
"timestamp": [
852.09,
855.06
]
},
{
"text": "can kick your quantum system\neither out of the state",
"timestamp": [
852.09,
855.06
]
},
{
"text": "that it's in to another state.",
"timestamp": [
855.06,
856.32
]
},
{
"text": "that it's in to another state.",
"timestamp": [
855.06,
856.32
]
},
{
"text": "- I think as you said, you know,",
"timestamp": [
856.32,
857.61
]
},
{
"text": "- I think as you said, you know,",
"timestamp": [
856.32,
857.61
]
},
{
"text": "anything that interferes\nwith my signal is noise,",
"timestamp": [
857.61,
860.76
]
},
{
"text": "anything that interferes\nwith my signal is noise,",
"timestamp": [
857.61,
860.76
]
},
{
"text": "but it can come from different sources.",
"timestamp": [
860.76,
863.31
]
},
{
"text": "but it can come from different sources.",
"timestamp": [
860.76,
863.31
]
},
{
"text": "In some ways, the operation\nof the quantum system itself,",
"timestamp": [
863.31,
866.52
]
},
{
"text": "In some ways, the operation\nof the quantum system itself,",
"timestamp": [
863.31,
866.52
]
},
{
"text": "as it's sensitive to\ndifferent physical phenomena,",
"timestamp": [
866.52,
869.91
]
},
{
"text": "as it's sensitive to\ndifferent physical phenomena,",
"timestamp": [
866.52,
869.91
]
},
{
"text": "the ones that I don't like, I call noise.",
"timestamp": [
869.91,
872.28
]
},
{
"text": "the ones that I don't like, I call noise.",
"timestamp": [
869.91,
872.28
]
},
{
"text": "The ones I do like, I call signal",
"timestamp": [
872.28,
874.53
]
},
{
"text": "The ones I do like, I call signal",
"timestamp": [
872.28,
874.53
]
},
{
"text": "and that's an artificial\ndefinition that I'm making",
"timestamp": [
874.53,
877.29
]
},
{
"text": "and that's an artificial\ndefinition that I'm making",
"timestamp": [
874.53,
877.29
]
},
{
"text": "when I choose to build a sensor.",
"timestamp": [
877.29,
878.76
]
},
{
"text": "when I choose to build a sensor.",
"timestamp": [
877.29,
878.76
]
},
{
"text": "One of the challenges we have\nis, we're trying to figure out",
"timestamp": [
878.76,
881.01
]
},
{
"text": "One of the challenges we have\nis, we're trying to figure out",
"timestamp": [
878.76,
881.01
]
},
{
"text": "if I wanna control it,\nwhere is it coming from?",
"timestamp": [
881.01,
883.89
]
},
{
"text": "if I wanna control it,\nwhere is it coming from?",
"timestamp": [
881.01,
883.89
]
},
{
"text": "I remember we had experiments\nrunning in our lab one day",
"timestamp": [
883.89,
886.59
]
},
{
"text": "I remember we had experiments\nrunning in our lab one day",
"timestamp": [
883.89,
886.59
]
},
{
"text": "and we were running these\nexperiments about 100 megahertz.",
"timestamp": [
886.59,
890.85
]
},
{
"text": "and we were running these\nexperiments about 100 megahertz.",
"timestamp": [
886.59,
890.85
]
},
{
"text": "All of a sudden, we saw\nthese big spikes coming in",
"timestamp": [
890.85,
893.22
]
},
{
"text": "All of a sudden, we saw\nthese big spikes coming in",
"timestamp": [
890.85,
893.22
]
},
{
"text": "and we realized we're picking\nup the local FM stations.",
"timestamp": [
893.22,
896.37
]
},
{
"text": "and we realized we're picking\nup the local FM stations.",
"timestamp": [
893.22,
896.37
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, yeah.\n- And that was a source",
"timestamp": [
896.37,
898.59
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, yeah.\n- And that was a source",
"timestamp": [
896.37,
898.59
]
},
{
"text": "of noise, like, it's completely random,",
"timestamp": [
898.59,
900.63
]
},
{
"text": "of noise, like, it's completely random,",
"timestamp": [
898.59,
900.63
]
},
{
"text": "but it is still there.",
"timestamp": [
900.63,
901.5
]
},
{
"text": "but it is still there.",
"timestamp": [
900.63,
901.5
]
},
{
"text": "And then the other form is very much",
"timestamp": [
901.5,
903.9
]
},
{
"text": "And then the other form is very much",
"timestamp": [
901.5,
903.9
]
},
{
"text": "what is intrinsically within\nyour experiment itself",
"timestamp": [
903.9,
906.27
]
},
{
"text": "what is intrinsically within\nyour experiment itself",
"timestamp": [
903.9,
906.27
]
},
{
"text": "because some of the\nmaterials that you have",
"timestamp": [
906.27,
908.25
]
},
{
"text": "because some of the\nmaterials that you have",
"timestamp": [
906.27,
908.25
]
},
{
"text": "have defects that are\ncoupling into your sensor,",
"timestamp": [
908.25,
910.933
]
},
{
"text": "have defects that are\ncoupling into your sensor,",
"timestamp": [
908.25,
910.933
]
},
{
"text": "into your quantum system and\nare also producing noise.",
"timestamp": [
910.933,
913.47
]
},
{
"text": "into your quantum system and\nare also producing noise.",
"timestamp": [
910.933,
913.47
]
},
{
"text": "- But yeah, the interesting stuff",
"timestamp": [
913.47,
915
]
},
{
"text": "- But yeah, the interesting stuff",
"timestamp": [
913.47,
915
]
},
{
"text": "really is where you're\npicking up the quantum noise",
"timestamp": [
915,
917.64
]
},
{
"text": "really is where you're\npicking up the quantum noise",
"timestamp": [
915,
917.64
]
},
{
"text": "intrinsically from whatever.",
"timestamp": [
917.64,
919.05
]
},
{
"text": "intrinsically from whatever.",
"timestamp": [
917.64,
919.05
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, it could give you\ninformation if you read it out,",
"timestamp": [
919.05,
922.17
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, it could give you\ninformation if you read it out,",
"timestamp": [
919.05,
922.17
]
},
{
"text": "about what's happening or\nyou have to find smart ways",
"timestamp": [
922.17,
925.65
]
},
{
"text": "about what's happening or\nyou have to find smart ways",
"timestamp": [
922.17,
925.65
]
},
{
"text": "to suppress it so that you can focus on",
"timestamp": [
925.65,
927.69
]
},
{
"text": "to suppress it so that you can focus on",
"timestamp": [
925.65,
927.69
]
},
{
"text": "what you really do care about.",
"timestamp": [
927.69,
929.13
]
},
{
"text": "what you really do care about.",
"timestamp": [
927.69,
929.13
]
},
{
"text": "- So what are the kind\nof noise and fluctuations",
"timestamp": [
929.13,
932.43
]
},
{
"text": "- So what are the kind\nof noise and fluctuations",
"timestamp": [
929.13,
932.43
]
},
{
"text": "that you're worried about?",
"timestamp": [
932.43,
933.263
]
},
{
"text": "that you're worried about?",
"timestamp": [
932.43,
933.263
]
},
{
"text": "- So one of the things\nthat we're interested in",
"timestamp": [
933.263,
935.58
]
},
{
"text": "- So one of the things\nthat we're interested in",
"timestamp": [
933.263,
935.58
]
},
{
"text": "is looking at, suppose, I want to build",
"timestamp": [
935.58,
936.96
]
},
{
"text": "is looking at, suppose, I want to build",
"timestamp": [
935.58,
936.96
]
},
{
"text": "an entangled quantum sensor,",
"timestamp": [
936.96,
939.18
]
},
{
"text": "an entangled quantum sensor,",
"timestamp": [
936.96,
939.18
]
},
{
"text": "when I put a number of spins together,",
"timestamp": [
939.18,
941.43
]
},
{
"text": "when I put a number of spins together,",
"timestamp": [
939.18,
941.43
]
},
{
"text": "in addition to being sensitive\nto an external field,",
"timestamp": [
941.43,
943.86
]
},
{
"text": "in addition to being sensitive\nto an external field,",
"timestamp": [
941.43,
943.86
]
},
{
"text": "they're sensitive to each other",
"timestamp": [
943.86,
945.42
]
},
{
"text": "they're sensitive to each other",
"timestamp": [
943.86,
945.42
]
},
{
"text": "and they start talking to each other.",
"timestamp": [
945.42,
946.83
]
},
{
"text": "and they start talking to each other.",
"timestamp": [
945.42,
946.83
]
},
{
"text": "You don't just see the external spins,",
"timestamp": [
946.83,
949.38
]
},
{
"text": "You don't just see the external spins,",
"timestamp": [
946.83,
949.38
]
},
{
"text": "you see the fluctuations\nof all the other spins",
"timestamp": [
949.38,
951.6
]
},
{
"text": "you see the fluctuations\nof all the other spins",
"timestamp": [
949.38,
951.6
]
},
{
"text": "in your system.",
"timestamp": [
951.6,
952.62
]
},
{
"text": "in your system.",
"timestamp": [
951.6,
952.62
]
},
{
"text": "So what you wanna do is make sure that",
"timestamp": [
952.62,
954.06
]
},
{
"text": "So what you wanna do is make sure that",
"timestamp": [
952.62,
954.06
]
},
{
"text": "they don't interact with each other,",
"timestamp": [
954.06,
956.07
]
},
{
"text": "they don't interact with each other,",
"timestamp": [
954.06,
956.07
]
},
{
"text": "but they still stay\nsensitive to everything else.",
"timestamp": [
956.07,
959.25
]
},
{
"text": "but they still stay\nsensitive to everything else.",
"timestamp": [
956.07,
959.25
]
},
{
"text": "And there, you could think\nabout the local interactions,",
"timestamp": [
959.25,
962.1
]
},
{
"text": "And there, you could think\nabout the local interactions,",
"timestamp": [
959.25,
962.1
]
},
{
"text": "the magnetic interactions\nbetween the spins",
"timestamp": [
962.1,
963.78
]
},
{
"text": "the magnetic interactions\nbetween the spins",
"timestamp": [
962.1,
963.78
]
},
{
"text": "as a form of noise.",
"timestamp": [
963.78,
964.77
]
},
{
"text": "as a form of noise.",
"timestamp": [
963.78,
964.77
]
},
{
"text": "In some ways, it's interfering\nwith what you wanna measure,",
"timestamp": [
964.77,
966.93
]
},
{
"text": "In some ways, it's interfering\nwith what you wanna measure,",
"timestamp": [
964.77,
966.93
]
},
{
"text": "which is the magnetic\nfield outside the sample.",
"timestamp": [
966.93,
969.698
]
},
{
"text": "which is the magnetic\nfield outside the sample.",
"timestamp": [
966.93,
969.698
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
969.698,
972.281
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
969.698,
972.281
]
},
{
"text": "So our topic today is quantum sensing,",
"timestamp": [
974.46,
976.29
]
},
{
"text": "So our topic today is quantum sensing,",
"timestamp": [
974.46,
976.29
]
},
{
"text": "which you are an expert on.",
"timestamp": [
976.29,
977.58
]
},
{
"text": "which you are an expert on.",
"timestamp": [
976.29,
977.58
]
},
{
"text": "Can you recap for us in your perspective,",
"timestamp": [
977.58,
979.35
]
},
{
"text": "Can you recap for us in your perspective,",
"timestamp": [
977.58,
979.35
]
},
{
"text": "what is quantum sensing?",
"timestamp": [
979.35,
980.638
]
},
{
"text": "what is quantum sensing?",
"timestamp": [
979.35,
980.638
]
},
{
"text": "- [laughs] That's a million\ndollar or maybe a billion dollar",
"timestamp": [
980.638,
984.48
]
},
{
"text": "- [laughs] That's a million\ndollar or maybe a billion dollar",
"timestamp": [
980.638,
984.48
]
},
{
"text": "question.\n- Question, exactly yeah.",
"timestamp": [
984.48,
986.25
]
},
{
"text": "question.\n- Question, exactly yeah.",
"timestamp": [
984.48,
986.25
]
},
{
"text": "- I think a lot of people in the field",
"timestamp": [
986.25,
987.69
]
},
{
"text": "- I think a lot of people in the field",
"timestamp": [
986.25,
987.69
]
},
{
"text": "have different definitions for it.",
"timestamp": [
987.69,
988.98
]
},
{
"text": "have different definitions for it.",
"timestamp": [
987.69,
988.98
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely, what would\nyou want to be like",
"timestamp": [
988.98,
990.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely, what would\nyou want to be like",
"timestamp": [
988.98,
990.9
]
},
{
"text": "the smoking gun of a quantum sensor?",
"timestamp": [
990.9,
992.85
]
},
{
"text": "the smoking gun of a quantum sensor?",
"timestamp": [
990.9,
992.85
]
},
{
"text": "- Depends on who I'm talking to, right.",
"timestamp": [
992.85,
994.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Depends on who I'm talking to, right.",
"timestamp": [
992.85,
994.29
]
},
{
"text": "You know, trying to talk to\nstudents and get them excited",
"timestamp": [
994.29,
997.86
]
},
{
"text": "You know, trying to talk to\nstudents and get them excited",
"timestamp": [
994.29,
997.86
]
},
{
"text": "or, you know, try to\ntalk about the elements",
"timestamp": [
997.86,
999.63
]
},
{
"text": "or, you know, try to\ntalk about the elements",
"timestamp": [
997.86,
999.63
]
},
{
"text": "of quantum mechanics, I think\nmaybe we could agree that,",
"timestamp": [
999.63,
1001.82
]
},
{
"text": "of quantum mechanics, I think\nmaybe we could agree that,",
"timestamp": [
999.63,
1001.82
]
},
{
"text": "you know, things that use superposition",
"timestamp": [
1001.82,
1003.92
]
},
{
"text": "you know, things that use superposition",
"timestamp": [
1001.82,
1003.92
]
},
{
"text": "have a certain degree\nof quantum mechanics,",
"timestamp": [
1003.92,
1006.32
]
},
{
"text": "have a certain degree\nof quantum mechanics,",
"timestamp": [
1003.92,
1006.32
]
},
{
"text": "quantumness involved.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1006.32,
1007.46
]
},
{
"text": "quantumness involved.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1006.32,
1007.46
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe they should be using elements",
"timestamp": [
1007.46,
1008.72
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe they should be using elements",
"timestamp": [
1007.46,
1008.72
]
},
{
"text": "of quantum computation.",
"timestamp": [
1008.72,
1009.71
]
},
{
"text": "of quantum computation.",
"timestamp": [
1008.72,
1009.71
]
},
{
"text": "So I don't have a strong view on it,",
"timestamp": [
1009.71,
1011.39
]
},
{
"text": "So I don't have a strong view on it,",
"timestamp": [
1009.71,
1011.39
]
},
{
"text": "but I do think it's an\ninteresting question.",
"timestamp": [
1011.39,
1012.98
]
},
{
"text": "but I do think it's an\ninteresting question.",
"timestamp": [
1011.39,
1012.98
]
},
{
"text": "- I would tend to agree\nthat I think, in some sense,",
"timestamp": [
1012.98,
1015.998
]
},
{
"text": "- I would tend to agree\nthat I think, in some sense,",
"timestamp": [
1012.98,
1015.998
]
},
{
"text": "anything that uses superposition\ncould be a quantum sensor,",
"timestamp": [
1015.998,
1018.65
]
},
{
"text": "anything that uses superposition\ncould be a quantum sensor,",
"timestamp": [
1015.998,
1018.65
]
},
{
"text": "but then spectroscopy uses superpositions",
"timestamp": [
1018.65,
1021.11
]
},
{
"text": "but then spectroscopy uses superpositions",
"timestamp": [
1018.65,
1021.11
]
},
{
"text": "and has been around for 60, 70 years.",
"timestamp": [
1021.11,
1023.99
]
},
{
"text": "and has been around for 60, 70 years.",
"timestamp": [
1021.11,
1023.99
]
},
{
"text": "I think what excites me\nmost now is the idea that",
"timestamp": [
1023.99,
1028.13
]
},
{
"text": "I think what excites me\nmost now is the idea that",
"timestamp": [
1023.99,
1028.13
]
},
{
"text": "can we push the boundaries\nof how sensitive",
"timestamp": [
1028.13,
1031.16
]
},
{
"text": "can we push the boundaries\nof how sensitive",
"timestamp": [
1028.13,
1031.16
]
},
{
"text": "one can make this technique?",
"timestamp": [
1031.16,
1032.51
]
},
{
"text": "one can make this technique?",
"timestamp": [
1031.16,
1032.51
]
},
{
"text": "How improving sensitivity, specificity,",
"timestamp": [
1032.51,
1035.36
]
},
{
"text": "How improving sensitivity, specificity,",
"timestamp": [
1032.51,
1035.36
]
},
{
"text": "what other limits and we define it better,",
"timestamp": [
1035.36,
1038.27
]
},
{
"text": "what other limits and we define it better,",
"timestamp": [
1035.36,
1038.27
]
},
{
"text": "are there fundamental physical limits?",
"timestamp": [
1038.27,
1040.19
]
},
{
"text": "are there fundamental physical limits?",
"timestamp": [
1038.27,
1040.19
]
},
{
"text": "- That's where the excitement lies,",
"timestamp": [
1040.19,
1042.68
]
},
{
"text": "- That's where the excitement lies,",
"timestamp": [
1040.19,
1042.68
]
},
{
"text": "is when we really start to\nleverage having, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1042.68,
1046.01
]
},
{
"text": "is when we really start to\nleverage having, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1042.68,
1046.01
]
},
{
"text": "access to individual\nquantum degrees of freedom,",
"timestamp": [
1046.01,
1048.23
]
},
{
"text": "access to individual\nquantum degrees of freedom,",
"timestamp": [
1046.01,
1048.23
]
},
{
"text": "whether that's a single\nphoton or a single spin",
"timestamp": [
1048.23,
1050.54
]
},
{
"text": "whether that's a single\nphoton or a single spin",
"timestamp": [
1048.23,
1050.54
]
},
{
"text": "and in principle then, you\ncould also imagine entangling it",
"timestamp": [
1050.54,
1053.51
]
},
{
"text": "and in principle then, you\ncould also imagine entangling it",
"timestamp": [
1050.54,
1053.51
]
},
{
"text": "and you know, doing some\nquantum computations on it",
"timestamp": [
1053.51,
1055.58
]
},
{
"text": "and you know, doing some\nquantum computations on it",
"timestamp": [
1053.51,
1055.58
]
},
{
"text": "in order to make it an even better sensor.",
"timestamp": [
1055.58,
1057.8
]
},
{
"text": "in order to make it an even better sensor.",
"timestamp": [
1055.58,
1057.8
]
},
{
"text": "- So do you think there's\na maximum number of spins",
"timestamp": [
1057.8,
1059.78
]
},
{
"text": "- So do you think there's\na maximum number of spins",
"timestamp": [
1057.8,
1059.78
]
},
{
"text": "you can have if I think about\na single NV as a register?",
"timestamp": [
1059.78,
1062.36
]
},
{
"text": "you can have if I think about\na single NV as a register?",
"timestamp": [
1059.78,
1062.36
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, I mean, people\nhave thought about this,",
"timestamp": [
1062.36,
1064.43
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, I mean, people\nhave thought about this,",
"timestamp": [
1062.36,
1064.43
]
},
{
"text": "it's an interesting question.",
"timestamp": [
1064.43,
1065.51
]
},
{
"text": "it's an interesting question.",
"timestamp": [
1064.43,
1065.51
]
},
{
"text": "You can think about, you have the electron",
"timestamp": [
1065.51,
1067.31
]
},
{
"text": "You can think about, you have the electron",
"timestamp": [
1065.51,
1067.31
]
},
{
"text": "and it's surrounded by some nuclei",
"timestamp": [
1067.31,
1069.08
]
},
{
"text": "and it's surrounded by some nuclei",
"timestamp": [
1067.31,
1069.08
]
},
{
"text": "and you could change the\ndensity of those nuclei",
"timestamp": [
1069.08,
1071.57
]
},
{
"text": "and you could change the\ndensity of those nuclei",
"timestamp": [
1069.08,
1071.57
]
},
{
"text": "and so, if it's a lot more dense,",
"timestamp": [
1071.57,
1073.37
]
},
{
"text": "and so, if it's a lot more dense,",
"timestamp": [
1071.57,
1073.37
]
},
{
"text": "then you have a lot more\nthat are strongly coupled.",
"timestamp": [
1073.37,
1075.41
]
},
{
"text": "then you have a lot more\nthat are strongly coupled.",
"timestamp": [
1073.37,
1075.41
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- But you also have",
"timestamp": [
1075.41,
1076.243
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- But you also have",
"timestamp": [
1075.41,
1076.243
]
},
{
"text": "a lot more noise.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1076.243,
1077.076
]
},
{
"text": "a lot more noise.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1076.243,
1077.076
]
},
{
"text": "- But I don't know that\nthere's necessarily a limit.",
"timestamp": [
1077.076,
1080.33
]
},
{
"text": "- But I don't know that\nthere's necessarily a limit.",
"timestamp": [
1077.076,
1080.33
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, it keeps expanding.",
"timestamp": [
1080.33,
1082.28
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, it keeps expanding.",
"timestamp": [
1080.33,
1082.28
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, I think that there are some groups",
"timestamp": [
1082.28,
1083.87
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, I think that there are some groups",
"timestamp": [
1082.28,
1083.87
]
},
{
"text": "that are able to identify, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1083.87,
1086.567
]
},
{
"text": "that are able to identify, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1083.87,
1086.567
]
},
{
"text": "30, 40 individual nuclear\nspins around a single electron",
"timestamp": [
1086.567,
1091.567
]
},
{
"text": "30, 40 individual nuclear\nspins around a single electron",
"timestamp": [
1086.567,
1091.567
]
},
{
"text": "and control 10 or 15 of them.",
"timestamp": [
1091.73,
1093.8
]
},
{
"text": "and control 10 or 15 of them.",
"timestamp": [
1091.73,
1093.8
]
},
{
"text": "- So do you think you can\nintegrate multiple NV centers",
"timestamp": [
1093.8,
1097.46
]
},
{
"text": "- So do you think you can\nintegrate multiple NV centers",
"timestamp": [
1093.8,
1097.46
]
},
{
"text": "or multiple optical sensors?",
"timestamp": [
1097.46,
1099.44
]
},
{
"text": "or multiple optical sensors?",
"timestamp": [
1097.46,
1099.44
]
},
{
"text": "So are there ways in which\nyou can overcome this question",
"timestamp": [
1099.44,
1102.35
]
},
{
"text": "So are there ways in which\nyou can overcome this question",
"timestamp": [
1099.44,
1102.35
]
},
{
"text": "of there's a spot size and that limits",
"timestamp": [
1102.35,
1104.33
]
},
{
"text": "of there's a spot size and that limits",
"timestamp": [
1102.35,
1104.33
]
},
{
"text": "how many NVs I can pack\ninto a certain region?",
"timestamp": [
1104.33,
1107.18
]
},
{
"text": "how many NVs I can pack\ninto a certain region?",
"timestamp": [
1104.33,
1107.18
]
},
{
"text": "- That's another great question.",
"timestamp": [
1107.18,
1108.89
]
},
{
"text": "- That's another great question.",
"timestamp": [
1107.18,
1108.89
]
},
{
"text": "A couple of groups actually\nthat are working on",
"timestamp": [
1108.89,
1111.8
]
},
{
"text": "A couple of groups actually\nthat are working on",
"timestamp": [
1108.89,
1111.8
]
},
{
"text": "trying to read out the spin state",
"timestamp": [
1111.8,
1114.05
]
},
{
"text": "trying to read out the spin state",
"timestamp": [
1111.8,
1114.05
]
},
{
"text": "of NV centers electrically,\ninstead of optically.",
"timestamp": [
1114.05,
1117.41
]
},
{
"text": "of NV centers electrically,\ninstead of optically.",
"timestamp": [
1114.05,
1117.41
]
},
{
"text": "If you could do that,",
"timestamp": [
1117.41,
1118.31
]
},
{
"text": "If you could do that,",
"timestamp": [
1117.41,
1118.31
]
},
{
"text": "then you could pack a whole\nlot more into a smaller space",
"timestamp": [
1118.31,
1121.49
]
},
{
"text": "then you could pack a whole\nlot more into a smaller space",
"timestamp": [
1118.31,
1121.49
]
},
{
"text": "using tiny electrodes.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1121.49,
1123.44
]
},
{
"text": "using tiny electrodes.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1121.49,
1123.44
]
},
{
"text": "- And you could possibly have them spaced",
"timestamp": [
1123.44,
1125.45
]
},
{
"text": "- And you could possibly have them spaced",
"timestamp": [
1123.44,
1125.45
]
},
{
"text": "at nanometer scales\ninstead of at micron skills",
"timestamp": [
1125.45,
1127.91
]
},
{
"text": "at nanometer scales\ninstead of at micron skills",
"timestamp": [
1125.45,
1127.91
]
},
{
"text": "and I think the application\nthere is clearly sensing.",
"timestamp": [
1127.91,
1130.52
]
},
{
"text": "and I think the application\nthere is clearly sensing.",
"timestamp": [
1127.91,
1130.52
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1130.52,
1131.353
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1130.52,
1131.353
]
},
{
"text": "- So you think they'd\nretain their coherence times",
"timestamp": [
1131.353,
1133.13
]
},
{
"text": "- So you think they'd\nretain their coherence times",
"timestamp": [
1131.353,
1133.13
]
},
{
"text": "if you pack them in?",
"timestamp": [
1133.13,
1134.24
]
},
{
"text": "if you pack them in?",
"timestamp": [
1133.13,
1134.24
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, what's limiting the\ncoherence is really local.",
"timestamp": [
1134.24,
1136.283
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, what's limiting the\ncoherence is really local.",
"timestamp": [
1134.24,
1136.283
]
},
{
"text": "- Local, right.\n- Right, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1136.283,
1137.99
]
},
{
"text": "- Local, right.\n- Right, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1136.283,
1137.99
]
},
{
"text": "nanometer scale.",
"timestamp": [
1137.99,
1139.1
]
},
{
"text": "nanometer scale.",
"timestamp": [
1137.99,
1139.1
]
},
{
"text": "But it happens to be that most of the time",
"timestamp": [
1139.1,
1140.93
]
},
{
"text": "But it happens to be that most of the time",
"timestamp": [
1139.1,
1140.93
]
},
{
"text": "when we try to read them out with light,",
"timestamp": [
1140.93,
1143.18
]
},
{
"text": "when we try to read them out with light,",
"timestamp": [
1140.93,
1143.18
]
},
{
"text": "well then, the trouble is that\nthe defraction limit of light",
"timestamp": [
1143.18,
1146.03
]
},
{
"text": "well then, the trouble is that\nthe defraction limit of light",
"timestamp": [
1143.18,
1146.03
]
},
{
"text": "is, you know, hundreds of nanometers",
"timestamp": [
1146.03,
1147.71
]
},
{
"text": "is, you know, hundreds of nanometers",
"timestamp": [
1146.03,
1147.71
]
},
{
"text": "and so, then we need them to be apart.",
"timestamp": [
1147.71,
1149.09
]
},
{
"text": "and so, then we need them to be apart.",
"timestamp": [
1147.71,
1149.09
]
},
{
"text": "But you know, if you have two NV centers",
"timestamp": [
1149.09,
1151.61
]
},
{
"text": "But you know, if you have two NV centers",
"timestamp": [
1149.09,
1151.61
]
},
{
"text": "that are more than a\ncouple tens of nanometers",
"timestamp": [
1151.61,
1154.43
]
},
{
"text": "that are more than a\ncouple tens of nanometers",
"timestamp": [
1151.61,
1154.43
]
},
{
"text": "away from each other, they\njust don't talk to each other.",
"timestamp": [
1154.43,
1155.99
]
},
{
"text": "away from each other, they\njust don't talk to each other.",
"timestamp": [
1154.43,
1155.99
]
},
{
"text": "- Too much isolated, yeah.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1155.99,
1157.46
]
},
{
"text": "- Too much isolated, yeah.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1155.99,
1157.46
]
},
{
"text": "So from that point of view,",
"timestamp": [
1157.46,
1158.57
]
},
{
"text": "So from that point of view,",
"timestamp": [
1157.46,
1158.57
]
},
{
"text": "the technology could\nbe really dense, right?",
"timestamp": [
1158.57,
1160.64
]
},
{
"text": "the technology could\nbe really dense, right?",
"timestamp": [
1158.57,
1160.64
]
},
{
"text": "Which is why, you know,\nsome companies or groups",
"timestamp": [
1160.64,
1164
]
},
{
"text": "Which is why, you know,\nsome companies or groups",
"timestamp": [
1160.64,
1164
]
},
{
"text": "are trying to make quantum computers",
"timestamp": [
1164,
1165.86
]
},
{
"text": "are trying to make quantum computers",
"timestamp": [
1164,
1165.86
]
},
{
"text": "based on spins and semiconductors",
"timestamp": [
1165.86,
1167.69
]
},
{
"text": "based on spins and semiconductors",
"timestamp": [
1165.86,
1167.69
]
},
{
"text": "'cause they could be\nreally densely integrated",
"timestamp": [
1167.69,
1169.61
]
},
{
"text": "'cause they could be\nreally densely integrated",
"timestamp": [
1167.69,
1169.61
]
},
{
"text": "using modern technology.",
"timestamp": [
1169.61,
1171.29
]
},
{
"text": "using modern technology.",
"timestamp": [
1169.61,
1171.29
]
},
{
"text": "But the question for a\nsensor is, as you say,",
"timestamp": [
1171.29,
1173.57
]
},
{
"text": "But the question for a\nsensor is, as you say,",
"timestamp": [
1171.29,
1173.57
]
},
{
"text": "how do you address it?",
"timestamp": [
1173.57,
1174.403
]
},
{
"text": "how do you address it?",
"timestamp": [
1173.57,
1174.403
]
},
{
"text": "How do you initialize it?",
"timestamp": [
1174.403,
1175.236
]
},
{
"text": "How do you initialize it?",
"timestamp": [
1174.403,
1175.236
]
},
{
"text": "How do you read it out?",
"timestamp": [
1175.236,
1176.42
]
},
{
"text": "How do you read it out?",
"timestamp": [
1175.236,
1176.42
]
},
{
"text": "And is optics the best way to go?",
"timestamp": [
1176.42,
1177.86
]
},
{
"text": "And is optics the best way to go?",
"timestamp": [
1176.42,
1177.86
]
},
{
"text": "And it may not be.",
"timestamp": [
1177.86,
1179
]
},
{
"text": "And it may not be.",
"timestamp": [
1177.86,
1179
]
},
{
"text": "If we think about quantum\nsensing in particular,",
"timestamp": [
1179,
1182.54
]
},
{
"text": "If we think about quantum\nsensing in particular,",
"timestamp": [
1179,
1182.54
]
},
{
"text": "it really involves\nunderstanding materials,",
"timestamp": [
1182.54,
1186.77
]
},
{
"text": "it really involves\nunderstanding materials,",
"timestamp": [
1182.54,
1186.77
]
},
{
"text": "solid state materials,\nchemicals, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1186.77,
1189.53
]
},
{
"text": "solid state materials,\nchemicals, you know,",
"timestamp": [
1186.77,
1189.53
]
},
{
"text": "chemistry, biology, engineering,\nelectrical engineering,",
"timestamp": [
1189.53,
1192.56
]
},
{
"text": "chemistry, biology, engineering,\nelectrical engineering,",
"timestamp": [
1189.53,
1192.56
]
},
{
"text": "optics, photonics, I mean\nso many different areas.",
"timestamp": [
1192.56,
1195.14
]
},
{
"text": "optics, photonics, I mean\nso many different areas.",
"timestamp": [
1192.56,
1195.14
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that that's one\nof the most exciting things",
"timestamp": [
1195.14,
1196.97
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that that's one\nof the most exciting things",
"timestamp": [
1195.14,
1196.97
]
},
{
"text": "about that is the degree\nto which it's engaging",
"timestamp": [
1196.97,
1199.49
]
},
{
"text": "about that is the degree\nto which it's engaging",
"timestamp": [
1196.97,
1199.49
]
},
{
"text": "a much larger cross section of scientists.",
"timestamp": [
1199.49,
1202.49
]
},
{
"text": "a much larger cross section of scientists.",
"timestamp": [
1199.49,
1202.49
]
},
{
"text": "They're the ones that I\nthink are gonna come up",
"timestamp": [
1202.49,
1204.32
]
},
{
"text": "They're the ones that I\nthink are gonna come up",
"timestamp": [
1202.49,
1204.32
]
},
{
"text": "with the breakthroughs of saying, oh wait,",
"timestamp": [
1204.32,
1206.54
]
},
{
"text": "with the breakthroughs of saying, oh wait,",
"timestamp": [
1204.32,
1206.54
]
},
{
"text": "I could design this\nmolecule to do this thing.",
"timestamp": [
1206.54,
1208.91
]
},
{
"text": "I could design this\nmolecule to do this thing.",
"timestamp": [
1206.54,
1208.91
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1208.91,
1209.743
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1208.91,
1209.743
]
},
{
"text": "- And that I think is gonna\nmake real breakthroughs",
"timestamp": [
1209.743,
1212.03
]
},
{
"text": "- And that I think is gonna\nmake real breakthroughs",
"timestamp": [
1209.743,
1212.03
]
},
{
"text": "in the next 10 years, is the fact that",
"timestamp": [
1212.03,
1213.47
]
},
{
"text": "in the next 10 years, is the fact that",
"timestamp": [
1212.03,
1213.47
]
},
{
"text": "we're just having this much larger group",
"timestamp": [
1213.47,
1216.11
]
},
{
"text": "we're just having this much larger group",
"timestamp": [
1213.47,
1216.11
]
},
{
"text": "of scientists.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1216.11,
1217.1
]
},
{
"text": "of scientists.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1216.11,
1217.1
]
},
{
"text": "People bring in very\ndifferent perspectives",
"timestamp": [
1217.1,
1219.02
]
},
{
"text": "People bring in very\ndifferent perspectives",
"timestamp": [
1217.1,
1219.02
]
},
{
"text": "into what used to be a very niche field.",
"timestamp": [
1219.02,
1221.195
]
},
{
"text": "into what used to be a very niche field.",
"timestamp": [
1219.02,
1221.195
]
},
{
"text": "I remember in physics,",
"timestamp": [
1221.195,
1222.74
]
},
{
"text": "I remember in physics,",
"timestamp": [
1221.195,
1222.74
]
},
{
"text": "you'd only talk to people in your subfield",
"timestamp": [
1222.74,
1225.08
]
},
{
"text": "you'd only talk to people in your subfield",
"timestamp": [
1222.74,
1225.08
]
},
{
"text": "and now we're picking up the\nphone and talking to people",
"timestamp": [
1225.08,
1227.36
]
},
{
"text": "and now we're picking up the\nphone and talking to people",
"timestamp": [
1225.08,
1227.36
]
},
{
"text": "in the different departments,\ncompletely different areas",
"timestamp": [
1227.36,
1230.36
]
},
{
"text": "in the different departments,\ncompletely different areas",
"timestamp": [
1227.36,
1230.36
]
},
{
"text": "and we're forced to learn\ndifferent languages.",
"timestamp": [
1230.36,
1233.555
]
},
{
"text": "and we're forced to learn\ndifferent languages.",
"timestamp": [
1230.36,
1233.555
]
},
{
"text": "The quantum world is essentially\na world of the very small,",
"timestamp": [
1233.555,
1237.35
]
},
{
"text": "The quantum world is essentially\na world of the very small,",
"timestamp": [
1233.555,
1237.35
]
},
{
"text": "but one of the quests of\nquantum sensing is to harvest",
"timestamp": [
1237.35,
1240.47
]
},
{
"text": "but one of the quests of\nquantum sensing is to harvest",
"timestamp": [
1237.35,
1240.47
]
},
{
"text": "some of these unique\nproperties at the micro scale.",
"timestamp": [
1240.47,
1243.62
]
},
{
"text": "some of these unique\nproperties at the micro scale.",
"timestamp": [
1240.47,
1243.62
]
},
{
"text": "And with these tools,\nwe will be able to have",
"timestamp": [
1243.62,
1245.51
]
},
{
"text": "And with these tools,\nwe will be able to have",
"timestamp": [
1243.62,
1245.51
]
},
{
"text": "new technologies and new measurements",
"timestamp": [
1245.51,
1247.28
]
},
{
"text": "new technologies and new measurements",
"timestamp": [
1245.51,
1247.28
]
},
{
"text": "that we are unable to make today.",
"timestamp": [
1247.28,
1249.218
]
},
{
"text": "that we are unable to make today.",
"timestamp": [
1247.28,
1249.218
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
1249.218,
1251.801
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
1249.218,
1251.801
]
}
] |
[
[
"<Untitled Chapter 1>",
"- Hi, I'm Sekhar Ramanathan.I'm a professor at Dartmouth College"
],
[
"Chandrasekhar Ramanathan Associate Professor, Dartmouth College",
"and today, I've been\nchallenged to explain a topicat five levels of difficulty.[upbeat suspensive music]So, what is quantum sensing?We're looking at the rules\nof microscopic world,which is quantum mechanics\nand using those toolsto help us build the ultimate sensors,which means that they're\nas precise and as accurateas the laws of physics allows."
],
[
"Child",
"What's your name?- Namina.- Our topic today is quantum sensing.So quantum is about the study of stuffthat's really, really, really smalland sensing is about measuring.So the word sensing comes\nfrom kind of like our senses.So do you know what your five senses are?- Seeing, hearing, tasting and smelling.- Mm-hmm.- Yeah, and touch.\n- Touch, exactly.So it's kind of really important for usto be able to have these senses,so we know what's happening\nin the world around us, right?In doing quantum sensing is\nwe're trying to measure thingsthat can be hard to see.Let me show you.Can you see inside it with your eyes?- No, I don't think so.\n- No? Okay.Can you bounce it for me?- Mm-hmm.- Do you know what makes it bounce?- I think like inside of\nit, it's foam that's fluffy,but my second answer is,\nI think it's very soft.- That's a great description.Can we cut one open and\nsee what it looks like?- Yeah.- You think that's a good idea?Here's a ball that's\nbeen cut straight in halfand you look inside.- It's hard.\n- It is.What gives it a certain texture?- It's like, the texture of\nlike the top of a crayon.- Oh, but you were right\nthat it was like foam.It would be really cool if\nwe could see inside the ballwithout cutting it open, right.- But you could use a magnifying glassand then look at the ball.- But with the magnifying\nglass, you'd only be able to seewhat's right near the surface, right?Just.\n- Yeah.- You wouldn't be able\nto see into the middle.If you had the right tools,you could start to think about\nways to look inside the ballwithout cutting it open.That would then, you'd\nstill have your ball.We could still play with it.- Yeah, yeah, it would be cool if we likeused something like an\nx-ray, we build an x-ray- Yeah.\n- That was only made for ballsand you could see everything inside it,every single detail, you\ncould zoom in and out- Yeah.\n- And you could draw it,print it out.- That's exactly the type\nof thing that we're doing.We are sensing, is we're trying\nto measure what's inside,and do it without destroying the ball.- Yeah.- For example, we want to go inside,let's say the human body\nand see what's happening.Sometimes we can look under\nthe surface of the Earthand see what's underneath it.We can make really, really precise clocksthat will tell us, that can measure timereally, really accurately.And we can make very,\nvery fine measurementsthat'll tell us about the rules of scienceand how the world works around us.But we need to build better\ntools that allow us to do that.[upbeat techno music]"
],
[
"Teen",
"Our topic today is gonna\nbe quantum sensing.Have you ever heard of it before?"
],
[
"Julia Weston 16 year old",
"- No.\n- No.Okay, what do you think it might mean,if you just break down the words?- Something on a very small scalebecause of the word quantum.\n- Yeah.- The sensing part, I'm not sure.- So sensing is really\njust about measuring stuff.- Okay.- And at some level, there's\ndifferent set of rulesthat seem to come into play'cause you can have particles\nat very microscopic scalesseem to do really strange things.But one of the quests of quantum sensingis to harvest some of\nthese unique propertiesat the micro scale.We are really interested\nin quantum sensorsbecause we think they can give usthe ultimate limit of sensitivity.So they're really, really\nsensitive to small changes,but they're also gonna be really reliable.Every time I make that measurement,I'll always get the same results.- Okay, measurements on\nlike what kinds of things?- Could be on almost anything you want.Have you ever broken a bone?- Well, I fractured something though.- Okay, do you remember having an x-ray?- Yeah, x-ray and I have\nhad a few MRIs before too.- You've had a fewMRIs before.\n- Yeah.- And so, both of those are\nin some ways a form of sensingand they rely on different\ntypes of sensing.Do you know what this image is?- Maybe an MRI.- Exactly.\n- Yeah.- Do you know what an\nMRI, how an MRI works?- No, I don't and I feel like I shouldbecause I've gotten\nthem millions of times.- And what the MRI scanner is doing is,it's measuring the signal\nfrom all the water moleculesthat are present and\nspecifically the hydrogen atom.In our bodies, we have\nthese hydrogen atomsthat are essentially spinning aroundmagnetic fields all the time\nand we just don't know them.So in some sense, you've\nalready used a quantum sensor.- Yeah, so are MRIs essentially\nmore detailed x-rays?- They're not.So they're giving us different\ntypes of information.- Okay.\n- So this is an x-ray.You don't see any of the soft tissue.The x-ray gave us\ninformation about the bone.- [Julia] Yeah.- Whereas MRIs giving us informationabout things like the softer tissues.- Yeah.\n- And in fact,we don't see the bone very wellin the MRI.\n- Yeah.- So there are slightly different reasonswhy you would choose the\ntwo different things.Suppose I could get a higher resolution.- Mm-hmm.- What do you think I\nwould be able to see?- The different atoms and the\nstructures of the particles.Yeah.\n- Start to seethe different cells- Yeah.\n- And then the differentchemicals in the cells.If you look at the MRI images,you can see that they give\nyou the broad featuresof what the tissue looks like.But if you wanna zoom in a little bit moreand see what's actually\nhappening inside a tissueor inside a cell and you need\na different type of sensorthat's gonna be more sensitive\nand for something like that,you're gonna need a quantum sensor.- Are there different\ntypes of quantum sensorsfor different things?- So one of the quantum\nsensors that's relatedto the work that I do is\nbased on these defectsthat are called nitrogen-vacancy centers- Okay.\n- In a diamondand people actually now make nano diamondsthat they can try to put\ninside the human bodyto look at the chemistry inside the cells.- So is that used for drug trialsand when testing out new treatments?- We can do it on tissues\nright now or on the surface,but we can't actually\ndo it inside the body.So right now, we're\nstruggling to figure outwhich scenarios can we use\nthis to get better informationand when can we not do it.- Are there any other\nquantum sensors at the momentthat are in the\ndevelopmental stage anymorethat we are using?- So there are quantum\nsensors that are soldfor very specific applications,one of them is a magnetometerand those can be really, really sensitiveto measure small variations\nin magnetic fields.They are trying to develop sensorsthat are gravitational sensors.Right now, we have no way of\nprobing what's under the groundwithout digging into the ground.- You talked about a sensor\nmeasuring magnetic fields.- Yeah.\n- What does thathelp us learn?What is that good for?- Well, if I wanna navigate,\nand I know what the structureof the Earth's magnetic fields are,in some ways, that's how birds navigate.- Okay.\n- The avian compass.- Yeah.\n- In fact, people thinkof that as a quantum sensor.- Okay, so they've gotlike built-in.\n- A biological quantum sensor.- Yeah.\n- They have a built-in sensorand one of the ideas is that,they're using quantum phenomena- Yeah.\n- To figure outwhat the direction of the Earth'smagnetic field is.\n- Okay.- That's why they're able to be,homing pigeons are able to come back- Yeah.\n- To their original location.- Oh, that's cool.\n- Yeah.[upbeat synthwave music]"
],
[
"College Student",
"What year are you in?- I'm a senior, I'm\nstudying physics right now.- Cool.What do you think of when you hearthe words quantum sensing?- I think that using some\nsort of quantum computingto sense some quantum level moleculesor particles, like interactions and stuff,maybe.\n- Yeah.It is exactly using quantum phenomenato sense and measure thingsand the idea is that, if I\ncan harness quantum phenomenaand I can push the\nlimits that are possible,I can get something that's\nultimately more preciseand potentially more accurateover time too.\n- Okay.How is it more precise?- We believe quantum mechanics tells uswhat the true laws of physics are,and so a quantum sensor, in that sense,would reach the limits\nof what's attainable.- It would be the top tier.- It would be the top tier.- What are you doing?Like, what are you studying?- So I study spins.And so, spins are one of the platformsthat people have suggested\nis a useful platformfor building quantum technologiesand I study spins on the solid state.And one of the platforms I work onis nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond.- Okay.\n- Which is a really niceplatform because the spins\nshow their quantum properties,even at room temperature.- So, are you studying the\nspins of the electrons?- So in some sense, the\nphenomena we're studyingessentially is nuclear magnetic resonanceor electron spin resonancewhich is a very similar phenomena,but uses the spin of the electronrather than the spin of the nuclei.- So you mentioned the\ndiamonds that are usedto create the sensors.\n- Right.- So how long does it\ntake to make a sensorand to make that diamond?Is that created?Do you like, put energy into it or?- So you can implant\nnitrogen into a diamondand then you bombard it with electronsto create the vacancies\nand then you heat it upand anneal it, and then you getthese nitrogen-vacancy\ncenters in your system.So you mentioned quantum\ncomputing earlier.So have you heard of the\nidea of superposition?- Mm-hmm, yeah.- So that's in some ways the\nkey to both quantum sensing,as well as quantum computing.It's the idea that you can take a systemand put it in a\nsuperposition of two states.Normally we think of classically a bitcan be a zero or a one.So switch is either on or off.Whereas in a quantum system,it can be in what's\ncalled a superposition.So it can be partially\non and partially off.But one of the challenges\nwith quantum systems is thatthese superpositions are\nreally hard to maintainbecause we don't see superpositions\nin the world around us.In quantum computing, you try really hardto isolate everything\nso that you can maintainthis quantum propertyand the fact that it's\nactually going to loseits quantum properties as\nit interacts with the worldalso makes it a great sensorbecause now you're actually,you're using that fact that\nit's interacting with the worldto say, wait, it's sensing something.- Okay, so it's like using like,the quantum computer would be\nkind of like the base leveland then like you take\nit out into the worldand see how like it differs?- So rather than trying to build\na lot of complex algorithmsand gates with it,what you do is, you\ntake these quantum bitsand you take them out\ninto the world and say,what do you see?What are you sensitive to?So you can use an idea called entanglementto make an even more\nsensitive quantum sensor,but it's even more fragile.So there's always this trade-off\nbetween being super fragileand being super sensitiveat the same time.\n- How does entanglementwork into it?- So entanglement is the idea thattwo particles are correlated.They're essentially in\nthe same quantum state,so that you can't disturb one particlewithout disturbing the second particle.And so, if I have a large\nnumber of quantum sensorsthat are entangled, then\nthey're all going to interactmuch more strongly than\nif I just had one of theminteract at a time.- Okay.- And so that gives you\na boost in sensitivitywhen you have an entangled-\n- And so, it's more precise.- It's more precise,\n- If you have it entangled.- Absolutely.\n- Okay.- Is an atomic clock a quantum sensor?- In some ways, it isand you know, atomic clocks\nare remarkable devicesand being able to measure\ntime that preciselyhas really important consequences.In fact, our old GPS system\nis based on the accuracyof atomic clocks.They're a set of satellites,each of which has an atomic clock on boardand they send out a timestampand so, once it gets a signalfrom three different satellites,it can triangulate and figure\nout exactly where you are.Now, if you could make those\nclocks even more precise,you could actually accurately positionwhere you are even more accurately.- Okay, that's really cool.- So some ways, you know,when atomic clocks were\ndesigned and built,we didn't necessarily think of GPS,but technology often\nworks that way is that,there are new discoveries and\nthen someone else comes alongand says, hey, this is a great toolfor some other application.[upbeat music]"
],
[
"LEVEL Grad Student",
"So what drew you into quantum computing?- I think what got me\ninto material sciencewas actually making semiconductors- Okay.\n- For solar panels.Then, that drew me into\nnew types of technologythat used semiconductors with the onethat's very popular now\nis quantum computings.And what about you?What got you interested\nin quantum sensing?- Yeah, I started out\ndoing magnetic resonance,studying things like bone and\nbiomedical magnetic resonance.Ended up playing with\nspins for a long timeand the physics of spins\njust fascinated me.- So what do you think is a big differencebetween imaging large biological objectsversus sensing very small\nquantum objects, I guess?- In a way, it's part\nof the same continuum.What you're doing is changing\nthe technological platformand you're actually able to\nprobe it more sensitively.The resolution you're able\nto get is much higher,so you can see smaller signals\nin a much smaller volume.- How is the resolution higher?- So it's because the\nnitrogen-vacancy centeris a single defect.So you can actually see a single electron.In normal magnetic resonance,you don't have the sensitivity.- In order to be sensitive\nto like a single electron,do you have to be really close to it?- You have to be close to it.You can detect it optically\nbecause if we tried to detectthe magnetic moment of the electron,we wouldn't be able to do thatbecause there, the energy is too lowcompared to thermal energies.But what the diamond system gives youis a natural up conversion in energy.So you can couple into an optical photon,which is then much easier to\ndetect a single optical photonthan it is to detect a micro wave.- Okay, I see.\n- Yeah.And that's why you're able to do itat room temperature as well.- What are some of the challenges you facewhen trying to do quantum\nsensing with this platform?- One of the key\nchallenges, I think for all,any quantum technology\nis really understandingwhat limits your coherence times.And then the next question\nthat comes up oftenis how do we make this better?So if I take a single\nqubit or a single spin,there's a certain limit\nup to its sensitivity.But if I can take entangled spins,in principle, I could make the\nsystem much more sensitive,but it usually comes at a cost'cause when I entangle something,it's much more sensitive\nto de-coherence as well.- In a similar way, but maybe\neven in the opposite waywhere we want to figure\nout how to be as resilientfrom noise and all the\nkinds of noise sources.- Exactly.\n- Okay.- What are you studying?- I'm studying superconducting qubitsthat use hybrids, semiconductor,\nsuperconductor structures.- Yeah, semiconductors,are you introducing new\nnoise sources potentiallythat might affect the coherence times?- Yeah, yeah, so the\nbig one is charge noise,'cause I guess a lot of\nthe superconducting qubits,they have made 'em in such a way thatthey're insensitive to charge.\n- Exactly.So when you think of noise,in what way is a noise\nbad for your system?- I usually think of it like,well, we work with quantum systems.- [Sekhar] Yeah.- And those are very\nsensitive to fluctuations.- Yeah.\n- I guess any fluctuationscan kick your quantum system\neither out of the statethat it's in to another state.- I think as you said, you know,anything that interferes\nwith my signal is noise,but it can come from different sources.In some ways, the operation\nof the quantum system itself,as it's sensitive to\ndifferent physical phenomena,the ones that I don't like, I call noise.The ones I do like, I call signaland that's an artificial\ndefinition that I'm makingwhen I choose to build a sensor.One of the challenges we have\nis, we're trying to figure outif I wanna control it,\nwhere is it coming from?I remember we had experiments\nrunning in our lab one dayand we were running these\nexperiments about 100 megahertz.All of a sudden, we saw\nthese big spikes coming inand we realized we're picking\nup the local FM stations.- Oh, yeah.\n- And that was a sourceof noise, like, it's completely random,but it is still there.And then the other form is very muchwhat is intrinsically within\nyour experiment itselfbecause some of the\nmaterials that you havehave defects that are\ncoupling into your sensor,into your quantum system and\nare also producing noise.- But yeah, the interesting stuffreally is where you're\npicking up the quantum noiseintrinsically from whatever.- Right, it could give you\ninformation if you read it out,about what's happening or\nyou have to find smart waysto suppress it so that you can focus onwhat you really do care about.- So what are the kind\nof noise and fluctuationsthat you're worried about?- So one of the things\nthat we're interested inis looking at, suppose, I want to buildan entangled quantum sensor,when I put a number of spins together,in addition to being sensitive\nto an external field,they're sensitive to each otherand they start talking to each other.You don't just see the external spins,you see the fluctuations\nof all the other spinsin your system.So what you wanna do is make sure thatthey don't interact with each other,but they still stay\nsensitive to everything else.And there, you could think\nabout the local interactions,the magnetic interactions\nbetween the spinsas a form of noise.In some ways, it's interfering\nwith what you wanna measure,which is the magnetic\nfield outside the sample.[upbeat music]"
],
[
"Expert",
"So our topic today is quantum sensing,which you are an expert on.Can you recap for us in your perspective,what is quantum sensing?- [laughs] That's a million\ndollar or maybe a billion dollar"
],
[
"Lee C. Bassett Quantum Engineering Laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania",
"question.\n- Question, exactly yeah.- I think a lot of people in the fieldhave different definitions for it.- Absolutely, what would\nyou want to be likethe smoking gun of a quantum sensor?- Depends on who I'm talking to, right.You know, trying to talk to\nstudents and get them excitedor, you know, try to\ntalk about the elementsof quantum mechanics, I think\nmaybe we could agree that,you know, things that use superpositionhave a certain degree\nof quantum mechanics,quantumness involved.\n- Right.- Maybe they should be using elementsof quantum computation.So I don't have a strong view on it,but I do think it's an\ninteresting question.- I would tend to agree\nthat I think, in some sense,anything that uses superposition\ncould be a quantum sensor,but then spectroscopy uses superpositionsand has been around for 60, 70 years.I think what excites me\nmost now is the idea thatcan we push the boundaries\nof how sensitiveone can make this technique?How improving sensitivity, specificity,what other limits and we define it better,are there fundamental physical limits?- That's where the excitement lies,is when we really start to\nleverage having, you know,access to individual\nquantum degrees of freedom,whether that's a single\nphoton or a single spinand in principle then, you\ncould also imagine entangling itand you know, doing some\nquantum computations on itin order to make it an even better sensor.- So do you think there's\na maximum number of spinsyou can have if I think about\na single NV as a register?- Right, I mean, people\nhave thought about this,it's an interesting question.You can think about, you have the electronand it's surrounded by some nucleiand you could change the\ndensity of those nucleiand so, if it's a lot more dense,then you have a lot more\nthat are strongly coupled.- Yeah.\n- But you also havea lot more noise.\n- Right.- But I don't know that\nthere's necessarily a limit.I mean, it keeps expanding.I mean, I think that there are some groupsthat are able to identify, you know,30, 40 individual nuclear\nspins around a single electronand control 10 or 15 of them.- So do you think you can\nintegrate multiple NV centersor multiple optical sensors?So are there ways in which\nyou can overcome this questionof there's a spot size and that limitshow many NVs I can pack\ninto a certain region?- That's another great question.A couple of groups actually\nthat are working ontrying to read out the spin stateof NV centers electrically,\ninstead of optically.If you could do that,then you could pack a whole\nlot more into a smaller spaceusing tiny electrodes.\n- Right.- And you could possibly have them spacedat nanometer scales\ninstead of at micron skillsand I think the application\nthere is clearly sensing.- Right.\n- Right.- So you think they'd\nretain their coherence timesif you pack them in?- Yeah, what's limiting the\ncoherence is really local.- Local, right.\n- Right, you know,nanometer scale.But it happens to be that most of the timewhen we try to read them out with light,well then, the trouble is that\nthe defraction limit of lightis, you know, hundreds of nanometersand so, then we need them to be apart.But you know, if you have two NV centersthat are more than a\ncouple tens of nanometersaway from each other, they\njust don't talk to each other.- Too much isolated, yeah.\n- Yeah.So from that point of view,the technology could\nbe really dense, right?Which is why, you know,\nsome companies or groupsare trying to make quantum computersbased on spins and semiconductors'cause they could be\nreally densely integratedusing modern technology.But the question for a\nsensor is, as you say,how do you address it?How do you initialize it?How do you read it out?And is optics the best way to go?And it may not be.If we think about quantum\nsensing in particular,it really involves\nunderstanding materials,solid state materials,\nchemicals, you know,chemistry, biology, engineering,\nelectrical engineering,optics, photonics, I mean\nso many different areas.And I think that that's one\nof the most exciting thingsabout that is the degree\nto which it's engaginga much larger cross section of scientists.They're the ones that I\nthink are gonna come upwith the breakthroughs of saying, oh wait,I could design this\nmolecule to do this thing.- Yeah.- And that I think is gonna\nmake real breakthroughsin the next 10 years, is the fact thatwe're just having this much larger groupof scientists.\n- Right.People bring in very\ndifferent perspectivesinto what used to be a very niche field.I remember in physics,you'd only talk to people in your subfieldand now we're picking up the\nphone and talking to peoplein the different departments,\ncompletely different areasand we're forced to learn\ndifferent languages.The quantum world is essentially\na world of the very small,but one of the quests of\nquantum sensing is to harvestsome of these unique\nproperties at the micro scale.And with these tools,\nwe will be able to havenew technologies and new measurementsthat we are unable to make today.[upbeat music]"
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Computer Scientist Explains One Concept in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
raHM3k-uR0E
| 1,174
|
[
{
"end_time": 27,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "Intro"
},
{
"end_time": 161,
"start_time": 27,
"title": "More of X Paradox"
},
{
"end_time": 610,
"start_time": 161,
"title": "Level 1 Hard"
},
{
"end_time": 861,
"start_time": 610,
"title": "Level 3 Hard"
},
{
"end_time": 1174,
"start_time": 861,
"title": "Level 4 Hard"
}
] |
[
{
"text": "- My name is Chelsea Finn.",
"timestamp": [
0,
1.316
]
},
{
"text": "- My name is Chelsea Finn.",
"timestamp": [
0,
1.316
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a professor at Stanford.",
"timestamp": [
1.316,
2.864
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a professor at Stanford.",
"timestamp": [
1.316,
2.864
]
},
{
"text": "Today, I've been challenged\nto explain a topic",
"timestamp": [
2.864,
4.894
]
},
{
"text": "Today, I've been challenged\nto explain a topic",
"timestamp": [
2.864,
4.894
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels of difficulty.",
"timestamp": [
4.894,
6.21
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels of difficulty.",
"timestamp": [
4.894,
6.21
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
6.21,
7.636
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
6.21,
7.636
]
},
{
"text": "Today, we're talking\nabout Moravec's paradox,",
"timestamp": [
7.636,
9.725
]
},
{
"text": "Today, we're talking\nabout Moravec's paradox,",
"timestamp": [
7.636,
9.725
]
},
{
"text": "which says that the things\nthat are really, really easy",
"timestamp": [
9.725,
12.591
]
},
{
"text": "which says that the things\nthat are really, really easy",
"timestamp": [
9.725,
12.591
]
},
{
"text": "and second nature for humans,",
"timestamp": [
12.591,
14.173
]
},
{
"text": "and second nature for humans,",
"timestamp": [
12.591,
14.173
]
},
{
"text": "are actually really difficult to program",
"timestamp": [
14.173,
15.907
]
},
{
"text": "are actually really difficult to program",
"timestamp": [
14.173,
15.907
]
},
{
"text": "into AI systems and robots.",
"timestamp": [
15.907,
17.836
]
},
{
"text": "into AI systems and robots.",
"timestamp": [
15.907,
17.836
]
},
{
"text": "It's an important topic,",
"timestamp": [
17.836,
18.785
]
},
{
"text": "It's an important topic,",
"timestamp": [
17.836,
18.785
]
},
{
"text": "because it means that\nwhen we program robots,",
"timestamp": [
18.785,
21.795
]
},
{
"text": "because it means that\nwhen we program robots,",
"timestamp": [
18.785,
21.795
]
},
{
"text": "some of the really basic\nstuff that we take for granted",
"timestamp": [
21.795,
24.05
]
},
{
"text": "some of the really basic\nstuff that we take for granted",
"timestamp": [
21.795,
24.05
]
},
{
"text": "is actually quite difficult.",
"timestamp": [
24.05,
26.383
]
},
{
"text": "is actually quite difficult.",
"timestamp": [
24.05,
26.383
]
},
{
"text": "Hi, I'm Chelsea, what's your name?",
"timestamp": [
27.596,
29.205
]
},
{
"text": "Hi, I'm Chelsea, what's your name?",
"timestamp": [
27.596,
29.205
]
},
{
"text": "- Juliette.",
"timestamp": [
29.205,
30.097
]
},
{
"text": "- Juliette.",
"timestamp": [
29.205,
30.097
]
},
{
"text": "- Nice to meet you, Juliette.",
"timestamp": [
30.097,
31.355
]
},
{
"text": "- Nice to meet you, Juliette.",
"timestamp": [
30.097,
31.355
]
},
{
"text": "Today, we'll talk a\nlittle bit about a concept",
"timestamp": [
31.355,
33.049
]
},
{
"text": "Today, we'll talk a\nlittle bit about a concept",
"timestamp": [
31.355,
33.049
]
},
{
"text": "called Moravec's paradox.",
"timestamp": [
33.049,
34.307
]
},
{
"text": "called Moravec's paradox.",
"timestamp": [
33.049,
34.307
]
},
{
"text": "- What's that?",
"timestamp": [
34.307,
35.593
]
},
{
"text": "- What's that?",
"timestamp": [
34.307,
35.593
]
},
{
"text": "- Something that explains what's hard",
"timestamp": [
35.593,
37.236
]
},
{
"text": "- Something that explains what's hard",
"timestamp": [
35.593,
37.236
]
},
{
"text": "and what's easy for a robot.",
"timestamp": [
37.236,
39.046
]
},
{
"text": "and what's easy for a robot.",
"timestamp": [
37.236,
39.046
]
},
{
"text": "Something like stacking these two cups.",
"timestamp": [
39.046,
40.906
]
},
{
"text": "Something like stacking these two cups.",
"timestamp": [
39.046,
40.906
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think that's easy or hard?",
"timestamp": [
40.906,
42.179
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think that's easy or hard?",
"timestamp": [
40.906,
42.179
]
},
{
"text": "- If it's this way, then it's easy,",
"timestamp": [
42.179,
45.736
]
},
{
"text": "- If it's this way, then it's easy,",
"timestamp": [
42.179,
45.736
]
},
{
"text": "but if it's this way, you\nneed to balance it or, oh-",
"timestamp": [
45.736,
49.789
]
},
{
"text": "but if it's this way, you\nneed to balance it or, oh-",
"timestamp": [
45.736,
49.789
]
},
{
"text": "- It's still pretty easy, right?",
"timestamp": [
49.789,
51.782
]
},
{
"text": "- It's still pretty easy, right?",
"timestamp": [
49.789,
51.782
]
},
{
"text": "It turns out that stacking these two cups,",
"timestamp": [
51.782,
53.686
]
},
{
"text": "It turns out that stacking these two cups,",
"timestamp": [
51.782,
53.686
]
},
{
"text": "it's actually really hard\nfor robots to do that.",
"timestamp": [
53.686,
55.782
]
},
{
"text": "it's actually really hard\nfor robots to do that.",
"timestamp": [
53.686,
55.782
]
},
{
"text": "So, let's think about\nhow we might have a robot",
"timestamp": [
55.782,
58.383
]
},
{
"text": "So, let's think about\nhow we might have a robot",
"timestamp": [
55.782,
58.383
]
},
{
"text": "stack these two cups.",
"timestamp": [
58.383,
59.544
]
},
{
"text": "stack these two cups.",
"timestamp": [
58.383,
59.544
]
},
{
"text": "You could program the robot\nto move its hand right here",
"timestamp": [
59.544,
62.823
]
},
{
"text": "You could program the robot\nto move its hand right here",
"timestamp": [
59.544,
62.823
]
},
{
"text": "and then program the\nrobot to close its hand",
"timestamp": [
62.823,
64.966
]
},
{
"text": "and then program the\nrobot to close its hand",
"timestamp": [
62.823,
64.966
]
},
{
"text": "around the cup.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
64.966,
65.863
]
},
{
"text": "around the cup.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
64.966,
65.863
]
},
{
"text": "And then program the\nrobot to move over here",
"timestamp": [
65.863,
68.005
]
},
{
"text": "And then program the\nrobot to move over here",
"timestamp": [
65.863,
68.005
]
},
{
"text": "and open the-\n- And drop it.",
"timestamp": [
68.005,
69.423
]
},
{
"text": "and open the-\n- And drop it.",
"timestamp": [
68.005,
69.423
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly, right?",
"timestamp": [
69.423,
70.84
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly, right?",
"timestamp": [
69.423,
70.84
]
},
{
"text": "That seemed pretty simple\nfor the robot to do.",
"timestamp": [
73.656,
75.951
]
},
{
"text": "That seemed pretty simple\nfor the robot to do.",
"timestamp": [
73.656,
75.951
]
},
{
"text": "Say we even just move the cup over here.",
"timestamp": [
75.951,
77.845
]
},
{
"text": "Say we even just move the cup over here.",
"timestamp": [
75.951,
77.845
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think the robot would still be able",
"timestamp": [
77.845,
79.28
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think the robot would still be able",
"timestamp": [
77.845,
79.28
]
},
{
"text": "to stack the cups?",
"timestamp": [
79.28,
80.93
]
},
{
"text": "to stack the cups?",
"timestamp": [
79.28,
80.93
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
80.93,
81.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
80.93,
81.81
]
},
{
"text": "- We can see what happens.",
"timestamp": [
81.81,
84.316
]
},
{
"text": "- We can see what happens.",
"timestamp": [
81.81,
84.316
]
},
{
"text": "So it's gonna,",
"timestamp": [
84.316,
85.149
]
},
{
"text": "So it's gonna,",
"timestamp": [
84.316,
85.149
]
},
{
"text": "we programed the robot to move",
"timestamp": [
85.149,
86.279
]
},
{
"text": "we programed the robot to move",
"timestamp": [
85.149,
86.279
]
},
{
"text": "to the same exact position as before.",
"timestamp": [
86.279,
88.143
]
},
{
"text": "to the same exact position as before.",
"timestamp": [
86.279,
88.143
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh yeah. So it goes to the same place.",
"timestamp": [
88.143,
91.006
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh yeah. So it goes to the same place.",
"timestamp": [
88.143,
91.006
]
},
{
"text": "- When we gave it instructions,",
"timestamp": [
91.006,
92.452
]
},
{
"text": "- When we gave it instructions,",
"timestamp": [
91.006,
92.452
]
},
{
"text": "did we tell it to look\nat where the cup was?",
"timestamp": [
92.452,
95.283
]
},
{
"text": "did we tell it to look\nat where the cup was?",
"timestamp": [
92.452,
95.283
]
},
{
"text": "Or did we tell it to just move over here?",
"timestamp": [
95.283,
97.1
]
},
{
"text": "Or did we tell it to just move over here?",
"timestamp": [
95.283,
97.1
]
},
{
"text": "- We told it to just move over here.",
"timestamp": [
97.1,
99.618
]
},
{
"text": "- We told it to just move over here.",
"timestamp": [
97.1,
99.618
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
99.618,
100.451
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
99.618,
100.451
]
},
{
"text": "So, Moravec's paradox is\nsomething that means that",
"timestamp": [
100.451,
104.351
]
},
{
"text": "So, Moravec's paradox is\nsomething that means that",
"timestamp": [
100.451,
104.351
]
},
{
"text": "these really simple\nthings, like stacking cups,",
"timestamp": [
104.351,
106.588
]
},
{
"text": "these really simple\nthings, like stacking cups,",
"timestamp": [
104.351,
106.588
]
},
{
"text": "is really, really hard for robots,",
"timestamp": [
106.588,
108.537
]
},
{
"text": "is really, really hard for robots,",
"timestamp": [
106.588,
108.537
]
},
{
"text": "even though it's really easy for us.",
"timestamp": [
108.537,
110.142
]
},
{
"text": "even though it's really easy for us.",
"timestamp": [
108.537,
110.142
]
},
{
"text": "While robots are actually really good",
"timestamp": [
110.142,
111.864
]
},
{
"text": "While robots are actually really good",
"timestamp": [
110.142,
111.864
]
},
{
"text": "at really complicated and\nreally difficult things.",
"timestamp": [
111.864,
114.905
]
},
{
"text": "at really complicated and\nreally difficult things.",
"timestamp": [
111.864,
114.905
]
},
{
"text": "Think about the task of multiplying two",
"timestamp": [
114.905,
116.742
]
},
{
"text": "Think about the task of multiplying two",
"timestamp": [
114.905,
116.742
]
},
{
"text": "really big numbers together.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
116.742,
118.807
]
},
{
"text": "really big numbers together.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
116.742,
118.807
]
},
{
"text": "Does that seem like a\nhard task or an easy task?",
"timestamp": [
118.807,
121.864
]
},
{
"text": "Does that seem like a\nhard task or an easy task?",
"timestamp": [
118.807,
121.864
]
},
{
"text": "- It's easy for me.",
"timestamp": [
121.864,
123.05
]
},
{
"text": "- It's easy for me.",
"timestamp": [
121.864,
123.05
]
},
{
"text": "- You're good at multiplying",
"timestamp": [
123.05,
123.969
]
},
{
"text": "- You're good at multiplying",
"timestamp": [
123.05,
123.969
]
},
{
"text": "big numbers together?\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
123.969,
125.437
]
},
{
"text": "big numbers together?\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
123.969,
125.437
]
},
{
"text": "Could you multiply 4,100 by-\n- No, I can't do that.",
"timestamp": [
125.437,
129.791
]
},
{
"text": "Could you multiply 4,100 by-\n- No, I can't do that.",
"timestamp": [
125.437,
129.791
]
},
{
"text": "- But it's actually really\neasy for a computer to do that.",
"timestamp": [
129.791,
132.539
]
},
{
"text": "- But it's actually really\neasy for a computer to do that.",
"timestamp": [
129.791,
132.539
]
},
{
"text": "So how fast were you able\nto stack the two cups?",
"timestamp": [
132.539,
135.023
]
},
{
"text": "So how fast were you able\nto stack the two cups?",
"timestamp": [
132.539,
135.023
]
},
{
"text": "- Like two seconds.",
"timestamp": [
135.023,
136.95
]
},
{
"text": "- Like two seconds.",
"timestamp": [
135.023,
136.95
]
},
{
"text": "It took me like a couple days",
"timestamp": [
136.95,
139.233
]
},
{
"text": "It took me like a couple days",
"timestamp": [
136.95,
139.233
]
},
{
"text": "when I learned how to stack cups.",
"timestamp": [
139.233,
141.472
]
},
{
"text": "when I learned how to stack cups.",
"timestamp": [
139.233,
141.472
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
141.472,
142.305
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
141.472,
142.305
]
},
{
"text": "But so it took you a couple days",
"timestamp": [
142.305,
143.138
]
},
{
"text": "But so it took you a couple days",
"timestamp": [
142.305,
143.138
]
},
{
"text": "when you learned how to\nstack cups, but before that,",
"timestamp": [
143.138,
144.67
]
},
{
"text": "when you learned how to\nstack cups, but before that,",
"timestamp": [
143.138,
144.67
]
},
{
"text": "you already knew how to\ngrasp objects, right?",
"timestamp": [
144.67,
146.176
]
},
{
"text": "you already knew how to\ngrasp objects, right?",
"timestamp": [
144.67,
146.176
]
},
{
"text": "You already knew",
"timestamp": [
146.176,
147.009
]
},
{
"text": "You already knew",
"timestamp": [
146.176,
147.009
]
},
{
"text": "how to pick up cups.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
147.009,
147.842
]
},
{
"text": "how to pick up cups.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
147.009,
147.842
]
},
{
"text": "And so you could use that",
"timestamp": [
147.842,
148.675
]
},
{
"text": "And so you could use that",
"timestamp": [
147.842,
148.675
]
},
{
"text": "when you were learning to stack cups.",
"timestamp": [
148.675,
149.628
]
},
{
"text": "when you were learning to stack cups.",
"timestamp": [
148.675,
149.628
]
},
{
"text": "We're trying to be inspired by\nhow humans learn to do tasks,",
"timestamp": [
149.628,
153.484
]
},
{
"text": "We're trying to be inspired by\nhow humans learn to do tasks,",
"timestamp": [
149.628,
153.484
]
},
{
"text": "to allow robots to do\nthe same kind of things",
"timestamp": [
153.484,
155.876
]
},
{
"text": "to allow robots to do\nthe same kind of things",
"timestamp": [
153.484,
155.876
]
},
{
"text": "that are very simple for\npeople, like stacking cups.",
"timestamp": [
155.876,
158.45
]
},
{
"text": "that are very simple for\npeople, like stacking cups.",
"timestamp": [
155.876,
158.45
]
},
{
"text": "We want robots to be able to\ndo something like that too.",
"timestamp": [
158.45,
161.145
]
},
{
"text": "We want robots to be able to\ndo something like that too.",
"timestamp": [
158.45,
161.145
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
161.145,
163.728
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
161.145,
163.728
]
},
{
"text": "- What grade are you in?",
"timestamp": [
164.609,
165.845
]
},
{
"text": "- What grade are you in?",
"timestamp": [
164.609,
165.845
]
},
{
"text": "- I am about to be a junior.",
"timestamp": [
165.845,
167.403
]
},
{
"text": "- I am about to be a junior.",
"timestamp": [
165.845,
167.403
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you heard of something\ncalled Moravec's paradox?",
"timestamp": [
167.403,
169.643
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you heard of something\ncalled Moravec's paradox?",
"timestamp": [
167.403,
169.643
]
},
{
"text": "- Never heard of it.",
"timestamp": [
169.643,
170.476
]
},
{
"text": "- Never heard of it.",
"timestamp": [
169.643,
170.476
]
},
{
"text": "- Typically you would think that things",
"timestamp": [
170.476,
171.779
]
},
{
"text": "- Typically you would think that things",
"timestamp": [
170.476,
171.779
]
},
{
"text": "that are easy for humans,\nare also easy for robots",
"timestamp": [
171.779,
174.193
]
},
{
"text": "that are easy for humans,\nare also easy for robots",
"timestamp": [
171.779,
174.193
]
},
{
"text": "and computers to do.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
174.193,
175.685
]
},
{
"text": "and computers to do.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
174.193,
175.685
]
},
{
"text": "And things that are hard for humans",
"timestamp": [
175.685,
177.127
]
},
{
"text": "And things that are hard for humans",
"timestamp": [
175.685,
177.127
]
},
{
"text": "should also be hard for\nrobots and humans to do.",
"timestamp": [
177.127,
178.986
]
},
{
"text": "should also be hard for\nrobots and humans to do.",
"timestamp": [
177.127,
178.986
]
},
{
"text": "But it turns out that it's\nactually the opposite.",
"timestamp": [
178.986,
180.947
]
},
{
"text": "But it turns out that it's\nactually the opposite.",
"timestamp": [
178.986,
180.947
]
},
{
"text": "I wanna try a little demo.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
180.947,
182.546
]
},
{
"text": "I wanna try a little demo.\n- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
180.947,
182.546
]
},
{
"text": "So I have a penny in my hand\nand I'd like you to pick it up",
"timestamp": [
182.546,
185.826
]
},
{
"text": "So I have a penny in my hand\nand I'd like you to pick it up",
"timestamp": [
182.546,
185.826
]
},
{
"text": "with your right hand and\nput it into your left hand.",
"timestamp": [
185.826,
190.255
]
},
{
"text": "with your right hand and\nput it into your left hand.",
"timestamp": [
185.826,
190.255
]
},
{
"text": "So that was pretty easy, right?",
"timestamp": [
190.255,
191.451
]
},
{
"text": "So that was pretty easy, right?",
"timestamp": [
190.255,
191.451
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
191.451,
192.284
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
191.451,
192.284
]
},
{
"text": "- We're gonna make this\na little bit harder now.",
"timestamp": [
192.284,
194.002
]
},
{
"text": "- We're gonna make this\na little bit harder now.",
"timestamp": [
192.284,
194.002
]
},
{
"text": "So, can you put these on?",
"timestamp": [
194.002,
196.354
]
},
{
"text": "So, can you put these on?",
"timestamp": [
194.002,
196.354
]
},
{
"text": "And we'll try to do the same thing again",
"timestamp": [
196.354,
198.574
]
},
{
"text": "And we'll try to do the same thing again",
"timestamp": [
196.354,
198.574
]
},
{
"text": "with your eyes closed.",
"timestamp": [
198.574,
200.407
]
},
{
"text": "with your eyes closed.",
"timestamp": [
198.574,
200.407
]
},
{
"text": "There you go.",
"timestamp": [
203.376,
204.209
]
},
{
"text": "There you go.",
"timestamp": [
203.376,
204.209
]
},
{
"text": "Let's try that one more time,",
"timestamp": [
204.209,
205.365
]
},
{
"text": "Let's try that one more time,",
"timestamp": [
204.209,
205.365
]
},
{
"text": "and see if you can do any better.",
"timestamp": [
205.365,
206.495
]
},
{
"text": "and see if you can do any better.",
"timestamp": [
205.365,
206.495
]
},
{
"text": "So close your eyes.",
"timestamp": [
206.495,
208.078
]
},
{
"text": "So close your eyes.",
"timestamp": [
206.495,
208.078
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, there we go.",
"timestamp": [
213.294,
214.127
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, there we go.",
"timestamp": [
213.294,
214.127
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. So that you're able,\nwith a bit more practice,",
"timestamp": [
214.127,
215.811
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. So that you're able,\nwith a bit more practice,",
"timestamp": [
214.127,
215.811
]
},
{
"text": "you're able to figure it out.",
"timestamp": [
215.811,
216.823
]
},
{
"text": "you're able to figure it out.",
"timestamp": [
215.811,
216.823
]
},
{
"text": "When it fell on the\nground, how did you know",
"timestamp": [
216.823,
218.625
]
},
{
"text": "When it fell on the\nground, how did you know",
"timestamp": [
216.823,
218.625
]
},
{
"text": "to pick it up off the ground?\n- From the sound.",
"timestamp": [
218.625,
220.917
]
},
{
"text": "to pick it up off the ground?\n- From the sound.",
"timestamp": [
218.625,
220.917
]
},
{
"text": "So when a robot tries to do something,",
"timestamp": [
220.917,
222.458
]
},
{
"text": "So when a robot tries to do something,",
"timestamp": [
220.917,
222.458
]
},
{
"text": "like pick up an object,",
"timestamp": [
222.458,
223.92
]
},
{
"text": "like pick up an object,",
"timestamp": [
222.458,
223.92
]
},
{
"text": "not only do you need to program exactly",
"timestamp": [
223.92,
226.068
]
},
{
"text": "not only do you need to program exactly",
"timestamp": [
223.92,
226.068
]
},
{
"text": "like what the motors should do,",
"timestamp": [
226.068,
228.533
]
},
{
"text": "like what the motors should do,",
"timestamp": [
226.068,
228.533
]
},
{
"text": "the robot also needs to be able\nto see where the object is.",
"timestamp": [
228.533,
231.188
]
},
{
"text": "the robot also needs to be able\nto see where the object is.",
"timestamp": [
228.533,
231.188
]
},
{
"text": "Then this is what's called",
"timestamp": [
231.188,
232.475
]
},
{
"text": "Then this is what's called",
"timestamp": [
231.188,
232.475
]
},
{
"text": "a perception action loop in robotics.",
"timestamp": [
232.475,
234.667
]
},
{
"text": "a perception action loop in robotics.",
"timestamp": [
232.475,
234.667
]
},
{
"text": "So if the object moves,",
"timestamp": [
234.667,
236.209
]
},
{
"text": "So if the object moves,",
"timestamp": [
234.667,
236.209
]
},
{
"text": "the robot can then adapt\nwhat it's doing and change",
"timestamp": [
236.209,
238.349
]
},
{
"text": "the robot can then adapt\nwhat it's doing and change",
"timestamp": [
236.209,
238.349
]
},
{
"text": "what it's doing to successfully\npick up the object.",
"timestamp": [
238.349,
240.348
]
},
{
"text": "what it's doing to successfully\npick up the object.",
"timestamp": [
238.349,
240.348
]
},
{
"text": "It's really important for\nrobots to be able to leverage,",
"timestamp": [
240.348,
243.323
]
},
{
"text": "It's really important for\nrobots to be able to leverage,",
"timestamp": [
240.348,
243.323
]
},
{
"text": "not just like the past hour of experience,",
"timestamp": [
243.323,
245.656
]
},
{
"text": "not just like the past hour of experience,",
"timestamp": [
243.323,
245.656
]
},
{
"text": "but also ideally many years of experience,",
"timestamp": [
245.656,
248.287
]
},
{
"text": "but also ideally many years of experience,",
"timestamp": [
245.656,
248.287
]
},
{
"text": "in order to do the kinds\nof things that you did.",
"timestamp": [
248.287,
250.2
]
},
{
"text": "in order to do the kinds\nof things that you did.",
"timestamp": [
248.287,
250.2
]
},
{
"text": "- It's kind of hard for\nme to understand why",
"timestamp": [
250.2,
252.269
]
},
{
"text": "- It's kind of hard for\nme to understand why",
"timestamp": [
250.2,
252.269
]
},
{
"text": "like robots can do like all\nthese crazy calculations,",
"timestamp": [
252.269,
255.692
]
},
{
"text": "like robots can do like all\nthese crazy calculations,",
"timestamp": [
252.269,
255.692
]
},
{
"text": "but they can't do like\nall the simple stuff, so.",
"timestamp": [
255.692,
258.109
]
},
{
"text": "but they can't do like\nall the simple stuff, so.",
"timestamp": [
255.692,
258.109
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. It's really unintuitive.",
"timestamp": [
258.109,
259.969
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. It's really unintuitive.",
"timestamp": [
258.109,
259.969
]
},
{
"text": "In order to survive,",
"timestamp": [
259.969,
260.802
]
},
{
"text": "In order to survive,",
"timestamp": [
259.969,
260.802
]
},
{
"text": "we need to pick up objects and everything.",
"timestamp": [
260.802,
262.509
]
},
{
"text": "we need to pick up objects and everything.",
"timestamp": [
260.802,
262.509
]
},
{
"text": "Basically many, many,\nlike billions of years",
"timestamp": [
262.509,
264.708
]
},
{
"text": "Basically many, many,\nlike billions of years",
"timestamp": [
262.509,
264.708
]
},
{
"text": "of evolution actually created humans",
"timestamp": [
264.708,
267.145
]
},
{
"text": "of evolution actually created humans",
"timestamp": [
264.708,
267.145
]
},
{
"text": "and the ability to\nmanipulate objects like that.",
"timestamp": [
267.145,
269.487
]
},
{
"text": "and the ability to\nmanipulate objects like that.",
"timestamp": [
267.145,
269.487
]
},
{
"text": "So, it actually turns out that things",
"timestamp": [
269.487,
270.829
]
},
{
"text": "So, it actually turns out that things",
"timestamp": [
269.487,
270.829
]
},
{
"text": "that are really basic for us are actually",
"timestamp": [
270.829,
272.289
]
},
{
"text": "that are really basic for us are actually",
"timestamp": [
270.829,
272.289
]
},
{
"text": "just really complex tasks in general.",
"timestamp": [
272.289,
274.727
]
},
{
"text": "just really complex tasks in general.",
"timestamp": [
272.289,
274.727
]
},
{
"text": "- So do robots know, like, they messed up?",
"timestamp": [
274.727,
276.779
]
},
{
"text": "- So do robots know, like, they messed up?",
"timestamp": [
274.727,
276.779
]
},
{
"text": "They know.",
"timestamp": [
276.779,
277.612
]
},
{
"text": "They know.",
"timestamp": [
276.779,
277.612
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a great question.",
"timestamp": [
277.612,
278.62
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a great question.",
"timestamp": [
277.612,
278.62
]
},
{
"text": "So in reinforcement learning,\nthe robot tries the task,",
"timestamp": [
278.62,
280.982
]
},
{
"text": "So in reinforcement learning,\nthe robot tries the task,",
"timestamp": [
278.62,
280.982
]
},
{
"text": "and then it gets some\nsort of reinforcement,",
"timestamp": [
280.982,
283.075
]
},
{
"text": "and then it gets some\nsort of reinforcement,",
"timestamp": [
280.982,
283.075
]
},
{
"text": "some sort of feedback.",
"timestamp": [
283.075,
284.488
]
},
{
"text": "some sort of feedback.",
"timestamp": [
283.075,
284.488
]
},
{
"text": "It's similar to",
"timestamp": [
284.488,
285.321
]
},
{
"text": "It's similar to",
"timestamp": [
284.488,
285.321
]
},
{
"text": "how you might train a dog.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
285.321,
286.365
]
},
{
"text": "how you might train a dog.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
285.321,
286.365
]
},
{
"text": "So you could give it feedback like that.",
"timestamp": [
286.365,
288.059
]
},
{
"text": "So you could give it feedback like that.",
"timestamp": [
286.365,
288.059
]
},
{
"text": "So it won't necessarily know itself,",
"timestamp": [
288.059,
289.919
]
},
{
"text": "So it won't necessarily know itself,",
"timestamp": [
288.059,
289.919
]
},
{
"text": "especially on the first few tries,",
"timestamp": [
289.919,
291.312
]
},
{
"text": "especially on the first few tries,",
"timestamp": [
289.919,
291.312
]
},
{
"text": "but it's trying to figure\nout what the task is even.",
"timestamp": [
291.312,
293.682
]
},
{
"text": "but it's trying to figure\nout what the task is even.",
"timestamp": [
291.312,
293.682
]
},
{
"text": "- Does a robot see like\nhow we see or does it like,",
"timestamp": [
293.682,
296.873
]
},
{
"text": "- Does a robot see like\nhow we see or does it like,",
"timestamp": [
293.682,
296.873
]
},
{
"text": "just see like a program or something?",
"timestamp": [
296.873,
298.594
]
},
{
"text": "just see like a program or something?",
"timestamp": [
296.873,
298.594
]
},
{
"text": "- We give robots a camera\nand the camera produces",
"timestamp": [
298.594,
301.925
]
},
{
"text": "- We give robots a camera\nand the camera produces",
"timestamp": [
298.594,
301.925
]
},
{
"text": "this array of numbers.",
"timestamp": [
301.925,
303.598
]
},
{
"text": "this array of numbers.",
"timestamp": [
301.925,
303.598
]
},
{
"text": "Basically, each pixel has\nthree different numbers,",
"timestamp": [
303.598,
306.031
]
},
{
"text": "Basically, each pixel has\nthree different numbers,",
"timestamp": [
303.598,
306.031
]
},
{
"text": "one for R, for G and for B.",
"timestamp": [
306.031,
307.686
]
},
{
"text": "one for R, for G and for B.",
"timestamp": [
306.031,
307.686
]
},
{
"text": "And so the robot sees this\nreally massive set of numbers.",
"timestamp": [
307.686,
310.875
]
},
{
"text": "And so the robot sees this\nreally massive set of numbers.",
"timestamp": [
307.686,
310.875
]
},
{
"text": "And it has to be able to figure out,",
"timestamp": [
310.875,
312.396
]
},
{
"text": "And it has to be able to figure out,",
"timestamp": [
310.875,
312.396
]
},
{
"text": "from that massive set of\nnumbers, what is in the world.",
"timestamp": [
312.396,
315.376
]
},
{
"text": "from that massive set of\nnumbers, what is in the world.",
"timestamp": [
312.396,
315.376
]
},
{
"text": "There is a number of different\nways to have the robot see,",
"timestamp": [
315.376,
318.301
]
},
{
"text": "There is a number of different\nways to have the robot see,",
"timestamp": [
315.376,
318.301
]
},
{
"text": "but we use a technique\ncalled neural networks,",
"timestamp": [
318.301,
320.688
]
},
{
"text": "but we use a technique\ncalled neural networks,",
"timestamp": [
318.301,
320.688
]
},
{
"text": "that tries to take out\nin those big numbers",
"timestamp": [
320.688,
322.636
]
},
{
"text": "that tries to take out\nin those big numbers",
"timestamp": [
320.688,
322.636
]
},
{
"text": "and form representations of\nthe objects in the world,",
"timestamp": [
322.636,
325.187
]
},
{
"text": "and form representations of\nthe objects in the world,",
"timestamp": [
322.636,
325.187
]
},
{
"text": "and where those objects are.",
"timestamp": [
325.187,
326.756
]
},
{
"text": "and where those objects are.",
"timestamp": [
325.187,
326.756
]
},
{
"text": "- Can a robot ever go off the program?",
"timestamp": [
326.756,
329.755
]
},
{
"text": "- Can a robot ever go off the program?",
"timestamp": [
326.756,
329.755
]
},
{
"text": "- It depends on how you program the robot.",
"timestamp": [
329.755,
331.41
]
},
{
"text": "- It depends on how you program the robot.",
"timestamp": [
329.755,
331.41
]
},
{
"text": "If you program the robot\nto follow exact motions",
"timestamp": [
331.41,
333.408
]
},
{
"text": "If you program the robot\nto follow exact motions",
"timestamp": [
331.41,
333.408
]
},
{
"text": "and follow a very specific program,",
"timestamp": [
333.408,
335.354
]
},
{
"text": "and follow a very specific program,",
"timestamp": [
333.408,
335.354
]
},
{
"text": "then it won't go off that program.",
"timestamp": [
335.354,
336.63
]
},
{
"text": "then it won't go off that program.",
"timestamp": [
335.354,
336.63
]
},
{
"text": "It will always do those actions.",
"timestamp": [
336.63,
338.553
]
},
{
"text": "It will always do those actions.",
"timestamp": [
336.63,
338.553
]
},
{
"text": "But if something unexpected happens,",
"timestamp": [
338.553,
340.536
]
},
{
"text": "But if something unexpected happens,",
"timestamp": [
338.553,
340.536
]
},
{
"text": "that the program wasn't\ndesigned to handle,",
"timestamp": [
340.536,
342.702
]
},
{
"text": "that the program wasn't\ndesigned to handle,",
"timestamp": [
340.536,
342.702
]
},
{
"text": "then the robot might go off court.",
"timestamp": [
342.702,
344.792
]
},
{
"text": "then the robot might go off court.",
"timestamp": [
342.702,
344.792
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you think robots\nwill take over the world?",
"timestamp": [
344.792,
346.639
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you think robots\nwill take over the world?",
"timestamp": [
344.792,
346.639
]
},
{
"text": "Just being honest.",
"timestamp": [
346.639,
347.472
]
},
{
"text": "Just being honest.",
"timestamp": [
346.639,
347.472
]
},
{
"text": "- I think that robotics\nis really, really hard.",
"timestamp": [
347.472,
349.383
]
},
{
"text": "- I think that robotics\nis really, really hard.",
"timestamp": [
347.472,
349.383
]
},
{
"text": "Having robots do even really basic stuff,",
"timestamp": [
349.383,
351.578
]
},
{
"text": "Having robots do even really basic stuff,",
"timestamp": [
349.383,
351.578
]
},
{
"text": "like pick up objects,\nis really, really hard.",
"timestamp": [
351.578,
353.661
]
},
{
"text": "like pick up objects,\nis really, really hard.",
"timestamp": [
351.578,
353.661
]
},
{
"text": "So if they do take over the world,",
"timestamp": [
353.661,
354.702
]
},
{
"text": "So if they do take over the world,",
"timestamp": [
353.661,
354.702
]
},
{
"text": "I think it'll be a very, very, very,",
"timestamp": [
354.702,
356.495
]
},
{
"text": "I think it'll be a very, very, very,",
"timestamp": [
354.702,
356.495
]
},
{
"text": "very long time from now.\n- Very long time. Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
356.495,
357.991
]
},
{
"text": "very long time from now.\n- Very long time. Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
356.495,
357.991
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
357.991,
360.574
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
357.991,
360.574
]
},
{
"text": "So today we'll talk a bit about robotics",
"timestamp": [
362.762,
365.248
]
},
{
"text": "So today we'll talk a bit about robotics",
"timestamp": [
362.762,
365.248
]
},
{
"text": "and machine learning and\nartificial intelligence.",
"timestamp": [
365.248,
368.388
]
},
{
"text": "and machine learning and\nartificial intelligence.",
"timestamp": [
365.248,
368.388
]
},
{
"text": "So have you heard of Moravec's paradox?",
"timestamp": [
368.388,
371.157
]
},
{
"text": "So have you heard of Moravec's paradox?",
"timestamp": [
368.388,
371.157
]
},
{
"text": "- I haven't heard of Moravec's paradox?",
"timestamp": [
371.157,
373.58
]
},
{
"text": "- I haven't heard of Moravec's paradox?",
"timestamp": [
371.157,
373.58
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- That's what it's called.",
"timestamp": [
373.58,
374.413
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- That's what it's called.",
"timestamp": [
373.58,
374.413
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. yeah, I haven't\nheard of it before.",
"timestamp": [
374.413,
376.079
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. yeah, I haven't\nheard of it before.",
"timestamp": [
374.413,
376.079
]
},
{
"text": "- It describes something in AI,",
"timestamp": [
376.079,
378.264
]
},
{
"text": "- It describes something in AI,",
"timestamp": [
376.079,
378.264
]
},
{
"text": "which is that things\nthat are really intuitive",
"timestamp": [
378.264,
380.53
]
},
{
"text": "which is that things\nthat are really intuitive",
"timestamp": [
378.264,
380.53
]
},
{
"text": "and easy for humans,",
"timestamp": [
380.53,
382.932
]
},
{
"text": "and easy for humans,",
"timestamp": [
380.53,
382.932
]
},
{
"text": "are actually really difficult\nto build into AI systems.",
"timestamp": [
382.932,
386.842
]
},
{
"text": "are actually really difficult\nto build into AI systems.",
"timestamp": [
382.932,
386.842
]
},
{
"text": "And on the flip side,\npicking up an object,",
"timestamp": [
386.842,
389.343
]
},
{
"text": "And on the flip side,\npicking up an object,",
"timestamp": [
386.842,
389.343
]
},
{
"text": "really simple for people,",
"timestamp": [
389.343,
390.924
]
},
{
"text": "really simple for people,",
"timestamp": [
389.343,
390.924
]
},
{
"text": "but it's actually really\ndifficult to build that",
"timestamp": [
390.924,
392.592
]
},
{
"text": "but it's actually really\ndifficult to build that",
"timestamp": [
390.924,
392.592
]
},
{
"text": "into robotic systems.",
"timestamp": [
392.592,
393.738
]
},
{
"text": "into robotic systems.",
"timestamp": [
392.592,
393.738
]
},
{
"text": "- So do you have any\nexperience working with robots",
"timestamp": [
393.738,
395.958
]
},
{
"text": "- So do you have any\nexperience working with robots",
"timestamp": [
393.738,
395.958
]
},
{
"text": "or other AI systems?",
"timestamp": [
395.958,
397.515
]
},
{
"text": "or other AI systems?",
"timestamp": [
395.958,
397.515
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I did work with robots,",
"timestamp": [
397.515,
399.227
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I did work with robots,",
"timestamp": [
397.515,
399.227
]
},
{
"text": "but they weren't doing like",
"timestamp": [
399.227,
400.642
]
},
{
"text": "but they weren't doing like",
"timestamp": [
399.227,
400.642
]
},
{
"text": "artificial intelligence type of stuff.",
"timestamp": [
400.642,
402.25
]
},
{
"text": "artificial intelligence type of stuff.",
"timestamp": [
400.642,
402.25
]
},
{
"text": "We were just sending like instructions",
"timestamp": [
402.25,
403.458
]
},
{
"text": "We were just sending like instructions",
"timestamp": [
402.25,
403.458
]
},
{
"text": "and the robot would do, like,\nperform like a simple task.",
"timestamp": [
403.458,
405.901
]
},
{
"text": "and the robot would do, like,\nperform like a simple task.",
"timestamp": [
403.458,
405.901
]
},
{
"text": "I wasn't so used to the aspect of, like,",
"timestamp": [
405.901,
408.913
]
},
{
"text": "I wasn't so used to the aspect of, like,",
"timestamp": [
405.901,
408.913
]
},
{
"text": "teaching computer how to do stuff.",
"timestamp": [
408.913,
412.248
]
},
{
"text": "teaching computer how to do stuff.",
"timestamp": [
408.913,
412.248
]
},
{
"text": "So I'm always on that other end\nof like giving instructions,",
"timestamp": [
412.248,
416.06
]
},
{
"text": "So I'm always on that other end\nof like giving instructions,",
"timestamp": [
412.248,
416.06
]
},
{
"text": "more focused on the data analysis",
"timestamp": [
416.06,
418.899
]
},
{
"text": "more focused on the data analysis",
"timestamp": [
416.06,
418.899
]
},
{
"text": "and machine learning aspect of it.",
"timestamp": [
418.899,
420.519
]
},
{
"text": "and machine learning aspect of it.",
"timestamp": [
418.899,
420.519
]
},
{
"text": "- And how would you just\ndescribe machine learning,",
"timestamp": [
420.519,
422.718
]
},
{
"text": "- And how would you just\ndescribe machine learning,",
"timestamp": [
420.519,
422.718
]
},
{
"text": "like in one sentence?",
"timestamp": [
422.718,
424.468
]
},
{
"text": "like in one sentence?",
"timestamp": [
422.718,
424.468
]
},
{
"text": "- I'd say machine learning\nis giving like feeding data",
"timestamp": [
425.335,
428.843
]
},
{
"text": "- I'd say machine learning\nis giving like feeding data",
"timestamp": [
425.335,
428.843
]
},
{
"text": "to a program or to a machine\nand they start to learn",
"timestamp": [
428.843,
432.091
]
},
{
"text": "to a program or to a machine\nand they start to learn",
"timestamp": [
428.843,
432.091
]
},
{
"text": "based off of that data.",
"timestamp": [
432.091,
433.713
]
},
{
"text": "based off of that data.",
"timestamp": [
432.091,
433.713
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you have any thoughts\non like what the data",
"timestamp": [
433.713,
435.001
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you have any thoughts\non like what the data",
"timestamp": [
433.713,
435.001
]
},
{
"text": "might look like in a robotic setting,",
"timestamp": [
435.001,
437.219
]
},
{
"text": "might look like in a robotic setting,",
"timestamp": [
435.001,
437.219
]
},
{
"text": "if you were to apply\nmachine learning to robots?",
"timestamp": [
437.219,
439.111
]
},
{
"text": "if you were to apply\nmachine learning to robots?",
"timestamp": [
437.219,
439.111
]
},
{
"text": "- I think of like coordinates.",
"timestamp": [
439.111,
441.29
]
},
{
"text": "- I think of like coordinates.",
"timestamp": [
439.111,
441.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
441.29,
442.211
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
441.29,
442.211
]
},
{
"text": "One thing that my research\nhas been looking into is,",
"timestamp": [
442.211,
445.793
]
},
{
"text": "One thing that my research\nhas been looking into is,",
"timestamp": [
442.211,
445.793
]
},
{
"text": "if we can have robots learn from data,",
"timestamp": [
445.793,
447.929
]
},
{
"text": "if we can have robots learn from data,",
"timestamp": [
445.793,
447.929
]
},
{
"text": "we'll collect data from the robot sensors.",
"timestamp": [
447.929,
450.469
]
},
{
"text": "we'll collect data from the robot sensors.",
"timestamp": [
447.929,
450.469
]
},
{
"text": "And if the robot has sensors in its arm,",
"timestamp": [
450.469,
453.013
]
},
{
"text": "And if the robot has sensors in its arm,",
"timestamp": [
450.469,
453.013
]
},
{
"text": "to figure out the angle of\none of its wrist, for example,",
"timestamp": [
453.013,
455.81
]
},
{
"text": "to figure out the angle of\none of its wrist, for example,",
"timestamp": [
453.013,
455.81
]
},
{
"text": "then we'll record that angle.",
"timestamp": [
455.81,
457.275
]
},
{
"text": "then we'll record that angle.",
"timestamp": [
455.81,
457.275
]
},
{
"text": "And all of the robots experience\nwill go into a data set,",
"timestamp": [
457.275,
460.491
]
},
{
"text": "And all of the robots experience\nwill go into a data set,",
"timestamp": [
457.275,
460.491
]
},
{
"text": "that if we wanted a robot\nto solve a task, like,",
"timestamp": [
460.491,
463.744
]
},
{
"text": "that if we wanted a robot\nto solve a task, like,",
"timestamp": [
460.491,
463.744
]
},
{
"text": "I don't know, picking up a cup,",
"timestamp": [
463.744,
465.97
]
},
{
"text": "I don't know, picking up a cup,",
"timestamp": [
463.744,
465.97
]
},
{
"text": "and then maybe you want to\npick up a different cup,",
"timestamp": [
465.97,
468.012
]
},
{
"text": "and then maybe you want to\npick up a different cup,",
"timestamp": [
465.97,
468.012
]
},
{
"text": "if it only had the data of\npicking up the first cup,",
"timestamp": [
468.012,
470.471
]
},
{
"text": "if it only had the data of\npicking up the first cup,",
"timestamp": [
468.012,
470.471
]
},
{
"text": "do you think it would\nbe able to perform well",
"timestamp": [
470.471,
472.671
]
},
{
"text": "do you think it would\nbe able to perform well",
"timestamp": [
470.471,
472.671
]
},
{
"text": "on the second cup?",
"timestamp": [
472.671,
473.522
]
},
{
"text": "on the second cup?",
"timestamp": [
472.671,
473.522
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't think so. I feel\nlike that might be a problem.",
"timestamp": [
473.522,
475.804
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't think so. I feel\nlike that might be a problem.",
"timestamp": [
473.522,
475.804
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so there's this\ngeneralization gap,",
"timestamp": [
475.804,
477.673
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so there's this\ngeneralization gap,",
"timestamp": [
475.804,
477.673
]
},
{
"text": "this gap between what it was trained to do",
"timestamp": [
477.673,
480.135
]
},
{
"text": "this gap between what it was trained to do",
"timestamp": [
477.673,
480.135
]
},
{
"text": "and the new thing.",
"timestamp": [
480.135,
481.711
]
},
{
"text": "and the new thing.",
"timestamp": [
480.135,
481.711
]
},
{
"text": "- So what's like the\nmost complicated thing",
"timestamp": [
481.711,
483.733
]
},
{
"text": "- So what's like the\nmost complicated thing",
"timestamp": [
481.711,
483.733
]
},
{
"text": "for a robot to learn, is it motion?",
"timestamp": [
483.733,
486.693
]
},
{
"text": "for a robot to learn, is it motion?",
"timestamp": [
483.733,
486.693
]
},
{
"text": "- So you can think of robotics",
"timestamp": [
486.693,
488.769
]
},
{
"text": "- So you can think of robotics",
"timestamp": [
486.693,
488.769
]
},
{
"text": "as having two core components.",
"timestamp": [
488.769,
490.546
]
},
{
"text": "as having two core components.",
"timestamp": [
488.769,
490.546
]
},
{
"text": "One is perception, being able\nto see and feel and so forth,",
"timestamp": [
490.546,
493.974
]
},
{
"text": "One is perception, being able\nto see and feel and so forth,",
"timestamp": [
490.546,
493.974
]
},
{
"text": "and action, where the\nrobot actually figures out",
"timestamp": [
493.974,
496.677
]
},
{
"text": "and action, where the\nrobot actually figures out",
"timestamp": [
493.974,
496.677
]
},
{
"text": "how to move its arm.",
"timestamp": [
496.677,
498.174
]
},
{
"text": "how to move its arm.",
"timestamp": [
496.677,
498.174
]
},
{
"text": "And both components are really essential,",
"timestamp": [
498.174,
500.208
]
},
{
"text": "And both components are really essential,",
"timestamp": [
498.174,
500.208
]
},
{
"text": "and both components are quite difficult.",
"timestamp": [
500.208,
502.044
]
},
{
"text": "and both components are quite difficult.",
"timestamp": [
500.208,
502.044
]
},
{
"text": "If you train a perception\nsystem independently",
"timestamp": [
502.044,
504.86
]
},
{
"text": "If you train a perception\nsystem independently",
"timestamp": [
502.044,
504.86
]
},
{
"text": "of how to choose actions,",
"timestamp": [
504.86,
507.451
]
},
{
"text": "of how to choose actions,",
"timestamp": [
504.86,
507.451
]
},
{
"text": "then it might make errors in a way",
"timestamp": [
507.451,
509.134
]
},
{
"text": "then it might make errors in a way",
"timestamp": [
507.451,
509.134
]
},
{
"text": "that mess up the system\nthat selects actions.",
"timestamp": [
509.134,
512.651
]
},
{
"text": "that mess up the system\nthat selects actions.",
"timestamp": [
509.134,
512.651
]
},
{
"text": "And so if you instead try to train",
"timestamp": [
512.651,
514.288
]
},
{
"text": "And so if you instead try to train",
"timestamp": [
512.651,
514.288
]
},
{
"text": "these two systems together,",
"timestamp": [
514.288,
515.869
]
},
{
"text": "these two systems together,",
"timestamp": [
514.288,
515.869
]
},
{
"text": "to have it learn perception action",
"timestamp": [
515.869,
518.107
]
},
{
"text": "to have it learn perception action",
"timestamp": [
515.869,
518.107
]
},
{
"text": "for the goal of solving\nthese different tasks,",
"timestamp": [
518.107,
520.81
]
},
{
"text": "for the goal of solving\nthese different tasks,",
"timestamp": [
518.107,
520.81
]
},
{
"text": "then the robot can be more successful.",
"timestamp": [
520.81,
523.013
]
},
{
"text": "then the robot can be more successful.",
"timestamp": [
520.81,
523.013
]
},
{
"text": "One thing that's really\ndifficult about robotics is,",
"timestamp": [
523.013,
525.056
]
},
{
"text": "One thing that's really\ndifficult about robotics is,",
"timestamp": [
523.013,
525.056
]
},
{
"text": "there actually isn't that much\ndata of robots in the world.",
"timestamp": [
525.056,
529.164
]
},
{
"text": "there actually isn't that much\ndata of robots in the world.",
"timestamp": [
525.056,
529.164
]
},
{
"text": "On the internet, there's\nall sorts of text data,",
"timestamp": [
529.164,
531.213
]
},
{
"text": "On the internet, there's\nall sorts of text data,",
"timestamp": [
529.164,
531.213
]
},
{
"text": "all sorts of image data that\npeople upload and write.",
"timestamp": [
531.213,
533.948
]
},
{
"text": "all sorts of image data that\npeople upload and write.",
"timestamp": [
531.213,
533.948
]
},
{
"text": "But there isn't a lot of\ndata of doing a simple thing,",
"timestamp": [
533.948,
536.659
]
},
{
"text": "But there isn't a lot of\ndata of doing a simple thing,",
"timestamp": [
533.948,
536.659
]
},
{
"text": "like tying your shoe, for\nexample, because it's so basic.",
"timestamp": [
536.659,
539.844
]
},
{
"text": "like tying your shoe, for\nexample, because it's so basic.",
"timestamp": [
536.659,
539.844
]
},
{
"text": "One challenge is even\njust getting data sets",
"timestamp": [
539.844,
542.448
]
},
{
"text": "One challenge is even\njust getting data sets",
"timestamp": [
539.844,
542.448
]
},
{
"text": "that allow us to teach robots to do",
"timestamp": [
542.448,
544.142
]
},
{
"text": "that allow us to teach robots to do",
"timestamp": [
542.448,
544.142
]
},
{
"text": "these simple kinds of tasks.",
"timestamp": [
544.142,
545.473
]
},
{
"text": "these simple kinds of tasks.",
"timestamp": [
544.142,
545.473
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you think that we'd be able to",
"timestamp": [
545.473,
548.272
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you think that we'd be able to",
"timestamp": [
545.473,
548.272
]
},
{
"text": "kind of accelerate that\nprocess of collecting data?",
"timestamp": [
548.272,
550.955
]
},
{
"text": "kind of accelerate that\nprocess of collecting data?",
"timestamp": [
548.272,
550.955
]
},
{
"text": "Or do you think, is it the\nway that we've been collecting",
"timestamp": [
550.955,
553.63
]
},
{
"text": "Or do you think, is it the\nway that we've been collecting",
"timestamp": [
550.955,
553.63
]
},
{
"text": "those types of data sets?",
"timestamp": [
553.63,
554.786
]
},
{
"text": "those types of data sets?",
"timestamp": [
553.63,
554.786
]
},
{
"text": "Is that what's keeping us behind?",
"timestamp": [
554.786,
556.769
]
},
{
"text": "Is that what's keeping us behind?",
"timestamp": [
554.786,
556.769
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a great question.",
"timestamp": [
556.769,
557.602
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a great question.",
"timestamp": [
556.769,
557.602
]
},
{
"text": "I think we should be able to accelerate",
"timestamp": [
557.602,
558.99
]
},
{
"text": "I think we should be able to accelerate",
"timestamp": [
557.602,
558.99
]
},
{
"text": "the data collection\nprocess by having robots",
"timestamp": [
558.99,
560.991
]
},
{
"text": "the data collection\nprocess by having robots",
"timestamp": [
558.99,
560.991
]
},
{
"text": "collect more data\nautonomously on their own.",
"timestamp": [
560.991,
563.489
]
},
{
"text": "collect more data\nautonomously on their own.",
"timestamp": [
560.991,
563.489
]
},
{
"text": "And by doing that, we\nmight be able to overcome",
"timestamp": [
563.489,
565.474
]
},
{
"text": "And by doing that, we\nmight be able to overcome",
"timestamp": [
563.489,
565.474
]
},
{
"text": "some of the challenges\nof Moravec's paradox.",
"timestamp": [
565.474,
567.491
]
},
{
"text": "some of the challenges\nof Moravec's paradox.",
"timestamp": [
565.474,
567.491
]
},
{
"text": "- What are some common\nalgorithms that are used",
"timestamp": [
567.491,
569.89
]
},
{
"text": "- What are some common\nalgorithms that are used",
"timestamp": [
567.491,
569.89
]
},
{
"text": "in these types of techniques\nas the robot is learning?",
"timestamp": [
569.89,
573.69
]
},
{
"text": "in these types of techniques\nas the robot is learning?",
"timestamp": [
569.89,
573.69
]
},
{
"text": "- Deep learning is a common toolbox",
"timestamp": [
573.69,
575.114
]
},
{
"text": "- Deep learning is a common toolbox",
"timestamp": [
573.69,
575.114
]
},
{
"text": "for addressing some of these challenges,",
"timestamp": [
575.114,
577.009
]
},
{
"text": "for addressing some of these challenges,",
"timestamp": [
575.114,
577.009
]
},
{
"text": "because it allows us to\nleverage large data sets.",
"timestamp": [
577.009,
580.413
]
},
{
"text": "because it allows us to\nleverage large data sets.",
"timestamp": [
577.009,
580.413
]
},
{
"text": "And so, deep learning is basically,",
"timestamp": [
580.413,
582.635
]
},
{
"text": "And so, deep learning is basically,",
"timestamp": [
580.413,
582.635
]
},
{
"text": "corresponds to methods for training",
"timestamp": [
582.635,
584.706
]
},
{
"text": "corresponds to methods for training",
"timestamp": [
582.635,
584.706
]
},
{
"text": "these artificial neural networks.",
"timestamp": [
584.706,
585.985
]
},
{
"text": "these artificial neural networks.",
"timestamp": [
584.706,
585.985
]
},
{
"text": "Another common method that comes up",
"timestamp": [
585.985,
587.911
]
},
{
"text": "Another common method that comes up",
"timestamp": [
585.985,
587.911
]
},
{
"text": "is reinforcement learning.",
"timestamp": [
587.911,
589.197
]
},
{
"text": "is reinforcement learning.",
"timestamp": [
587.911,
589.197
]
},
{
"text": "A third kind of algorithm\nis meta learning algorithms.",
"timestamp": [
589.197,
592.49
]
},
{
"text": "A third kind of algorithm\nis meta learning algorithms.",
"timestamp": [
589.197,
592.49
]
},
{
"text": "And these algorithms learn not just from",
"timestamp": [
592.49,
595.91
]
},
{
"text": "And these algorithms learn not just from",
"timestamp": [
592.49,
595.91
]
},
{
"text": "the most recent experience\non the current task,",
"timestamp": [
595.91,
598.289
]
},
{
"text": "the most recent experience\non the current task,",
"timestamp": [
595.91,
598.289
]
},
{
"text": "but leverage experience\nfrom other task in the past.",
"timestamp": [
598.289,
602.211
]
},
{
"text": "but leverage experience\nfrom other task in the past.",
"timestamp": [
598.289,
602.211
]
},
{
"text": "And they're not just completely separate.",
"timestamp": [
602.211,
604.078
]
},
{
"text": "And they're not just completely separate.",
"timestamp": [
602.211,
604.078
]
},
{
"text": "We can combine the aspects\nof these algorithms",
"timestamp": [
604.078,
606.629
]
},
{
"text": "We can combine the aspects\nof these algorithms",
"timestamp": [
604.078,
606.629
]
},
{
"text": "into a single method that gets\nthe benefits of each of them.",
"timestamp": [
606.629,
609.821
]
},
{
"text": "into a single method that gets\nthe benefits of each of them.",
"timestamp": [
606.629,
609.821
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
609.821,
612.404
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
609.821,
612.404
]
},
{
"text": "What year are you in your PhD?",
"timestamp": [
614.512,
615.959
]
},
{
"text": "What year are you in your PhD?",
"timestamp": [
614.512,
615.959
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm just finishing up my first year.",
"timestamp": [
615.959,
617.699
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm just finishing up my first year.",
"timestamp": [
615.959,
617.699
]
},
{
"text": "Studying food manipulation and\nalso bimanual manipulations,",
"timestamp": [
617.699,
620.029
]
},
{
"text": "Studying food manipulation and\nalso bimanual manipulations,",
"timestamp": [
617.699,
620.029
]
},
{
"text": "and just enabling robots\nto have these capabilities,",
"timestamp": [
620.029,
625.029
]
},
{
"text": "and just enabling robots\nto have these capabilities,",
"timestamp": [
620.029,
625.029
]
},
{
"text": "so that, eventually, we can use it",
"timestamp": [
625.096,
626.628
]
},
{
"text": "so that, eventually, we can use it",
"timestamp": [
625.096,
626.628
]
},
{
"text": "in like a home robot\nuse case, for example.",
"timestamp": [
626.628,
628.933
]
},
{
"text": "in like a home robot\nuse case, for example.",
"timestamp": [
626.628,
628.933
]
},
{
"text": "- What are some of the\nchallenges that you've run into",
"timestamp": [
628.933,
631.173
]
},
{
"text": "- What are some of the\nchallenges that you've run into",
"timestamp": [
628.933,
631.173
]
},
{
"text": "when trying to work with\nrobots and do these tasks?",
"timestamp": [
631.173,
633.815
]
},
{
"text": "when trying to work with\nrobots and do these tasks?",
"timestamp": [
631.173,
633.815
]
},
{
"text": "- So, I was really\ninterested in the problem",
"timestamp": [
633.815,
636.185
]
},
{
"text": "- So, I was really\ninterested in the problem",
"timestamp": [
633.815,
636.185
]
},
{
"text": "of scooping peas on a plate.",
"timestamp": [
636.185,
637.874
]
},
{
"text": "of scooping peas on a plate.",
"timestamp": [
636.185,
637.874
]
},
{
"text": "They're relatively homogenous,",
"timestamp": [
637.874,
639.648
]
},
{
"text": "They're relatively homogenous,",
"timestamp": [
637.874,
639.648
]
},
{
"text": "but when it came to more complex foods,",
"timestamp": [
639.648,
642.485
]
},
{
"text": "but when it came to more complex foods,",
"timestamp": [
639.648,
642.485
]
},
{
"text": "like broccoli, or\ndeformable foods, like tofu,",
"timestamp": [
642.485,
645.639
]
},
{
"text": "like broccoli, or\ndeformable foods, like tofu,",
"timestamp": [
642.485,
645.639
]
},
{
"text": "that can crumble, that gets a\nlot more complex to simulate.",
"timestamp": [
645.639,
649.138
]
},
{
"text": "that can crumble, that gets a\nlot more complex to simulate.",
"timestamp": [
645.639,
649.138
]
},
{
"text": "- One thing I find really\nfascinating about robotics",
"timestamp": [
649.138,
651.509
]
},
{
"text": "- One thing I find really\nfascinating about robotics",
"timestamp": [
649.138,
651.509
]
},
{
"text": "is that the things that\nare so simple for us,",
"timestamp": [
651.509,
654.953
]
},
{
"text": "is that the things that\nare so simple for us,",
"timestamp": [
651.509,
654.953
]
},
{
"text": "like feeding yourself broccoli,\nso second nature to us,",
"timestamp": [
654.953,
658.173
]
},
{
"text": "like feeding yourself broccoli,\nso second nature to us,",
"timestamp": [
654.953,
658.173
]
},
{
"text": "are really hard for robotics.",
"timestamp": [
658.173,
659.504
]
},
{
"text": "are really hard for robotics.",
"timestamp": [
658.173,
659.504
]
},
{
"text": "When you try to take a robot",
"timestamp": [
659.504,
660.997
]
},
{
"text": "When you try to take a robot",
"timestamp": [
659.504,
660.997
]
},
{
"text": "and train it to do a task and simulation,",
"timestamp": [
660.997,
663.648
]
},
{
"text": "and train it to do a task and simulation,",
"timestamp": [
660.997,
663.648
]
},
{
"text": "and the simulation isn't\nperfectly accurate,",
"timestamp": [
663.648,
665.78
]
},
{
"text": "and the simulation isn't\nperfectly accurate,",
"timestamp": [
663.648,
665.78
]
},
{
"text": "it's really hard to\nactually model the physics",
"timestamp": [
665.78,
667.27
]
},
{
"text": "it's really hard to\nactually model the physics",
"timestamp": [
665.78,
667.27
]
},
{
"text": "of how tofu crumbles.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
667.27,
669.124
]
},
{
"text": "of how tofu crumbles.\n- Right.",
"timestamp": [
667.27,
669.124
]
},
{
"text": "What algorithms do you\nthink are most promising",
"timestamp": [
669.124,
670.844
]
},
{
"text": "What algorithms do you\nthink are most promising",
"timestamp": [
669.124,
670.844
]
},
{
"text": "for handling non-rigid deformable objects",
"timestamp": [
670.844,
673.294
]
},
{
"text": "for handling non-rigid deformable objects",
"timestamp": [
670.844,
673.294
]
},
{
"text": "and the other things\nyou've been looking at?",
"timestamp": [
673.294,
674.89
]
},
{
"text": "and the other things\nyou've been looking at?",
"timestamp": [
673.294,
674.89
]
},
{
"text": "- For most of my past work,",
"timestamp": [
674.89,
676.477
]
},
{
"text": "- For most of my past work,",
"timestamp": [
674.89,
676.477
]
},
{
"text": "which have been relatively\nmore complex tasks,",
"timestamp": [
676.477,
679.01
]
},
{
"text": "which have been relatively\nmore complex tasks,",
"timestamp": [
676.477,
679.01
]
},
{
"text": "I lean towards the imitation learning type",
"timestamp": [
679.01,
681.738
]
},
{
"text": "I lean towards the imitation learning type",
"timestamp": [
679.01,
681.738
]
},
{
"text": "of algorithm approach,\nbehavioral clonning and all that.",
"timestamp": [
681.738,
684.516
]
},
{
"text": "of algorithm approach,\nbehavioral clonning and all that.",
"timestamp": [
681.738,
684.516
]
},
{
"text": "Mostly because, if it's hard to simulate",
"timestamp": [
684.516,
687.235
]
},
{
"text": "Mostly because, if it's hard to simulate",
"timestamp": [
684.516,
687.235
]
},
{
"text": "an interaction with an object,",
"timestamp": [
687.235,
689.168
]
},
{
"text": "an interaction with an object,",
"timestamp": [
687.235,
689.168
]
},
{
"text": "then I think RL is harder to go with,",
"timestamp": [
689.168,
691.851
]
},
{
"text": "then I think RL is harder to go with,",
"timestamp": [
689.168,
691.851
]
},
{
"text": "because it's not as sample efficient",
"timestamp": [
691.851,
694.138
]
},
{
"text": "because it's not as sample efficient",
"timestamp": [
691.851,
694.138
]
},
{
"text": "as imitation learning can be.",
"timestamp": [
694.138,
695.752
]
},
{
"text": "as imitation learning can be.",
"timestamp": [
694.138,
695.752
]
},
{
"text": "And a lot of the times I'll be learning",
"timestamp": [
695.752,
698.441
]
},
{
"text": "And a lot of the times I'll be learning",
"timestamp": [
695.752,
698.441
]
},
{
"text": "some high level policy of what to do,",
"timestamp": [
698.441,
701.027
]
},
{
"text": "some high level policy of what to do,",
"timestamp": [
698.441,
701.027
]
},
{
"text": "and then hard coding a lot of the,",
"timestamp": [
701.027,
703.249
]
},
{
"text": "and then hard coding a lot of the,",
"timestamp": [
701.027,
703.249
]
},
{
"text": "like action primitives\nthat I want to select",
"timestamp": [
703.249,
706.415
]
},
{
"text": "like action primitives\nthat I want to select",
"timestamp": [
703.249,
706.415
]
},
{
"text": "between my task.",
"timestamp": [
706.415,
707.668
]
},
{
"text": "between my task.",
"timestamp": [
706.415,
707.668
]
},
{
"text": "- How can we get robots\nto learn more efficiently",
"timestamp": [
707.668,
710.37
]
},
{
"text": "- How can we get robots\nto learn more efficiently",
"timestamp": [
707.668,
710.37
]
},
{
"text": "or learn faster?",
"timestamp": [
710.37,
711.457
]
},
{
"text": "or learn faster?",
"timestamp": [
710.37,
711.457
]
},
{
"text": "- From my experience, it's\na matter of how much support",
"timestamp": [
711.457,
714.644
]
},
{
"text": "- From my experience, it's\na matter of how much support",
"timestamp": [
711.457,
714.644
]
},
{
"text": "you give the, like,\nrobot when it's learning.",
"timestamp": [
714.644,
717.473
]
},
{
"text": "you give the, like,\nrobot when it's learning.",
"timestamp": [
714.644,
717.473
]
},
{
"text": "One could be like a narrower task range.",
"timestamp": [
717.473,
719.501
]
},
{
"text": "One could be like a narrower task range.",
"timestamp": [
717.473,
719.501
]
},
{
"text": "Another is maybe like also biasing",
"timestamp": [
719.501,
721.921
]
},
{
"text": "Another is maybe like also biasing",
"timestamp": [
719.501,
721.921
]
},
{
"text": "the types of samples\nthat you're collecting",
"timestamp": [
721.921,
723.998
]
},
{
"text": "the types of samples\nthat you're collecting",
"timestamp": [
721.921,
723.998
]
},
{
"text": "can bias towards interactions\nthat are gonna be useful",
"timestamp": [
723.998,
727.146
]
},
{
"text": "can bias towards interactions\nthat are gonna be useful",
"timestamp": [
723.998,
727.146
]
},
{
"text": "where the hands actually\ninteract with each other,",
"timestamp": [
727.146,
729.726
]
},
{
"text": "where the hands actually\ninteract with each other,",
"timestamp": [
727.146,
729.726
]
},
{
"text": "rather than just off\ndoing their own things.",
"timestamp": [
729.726,
732.193
]
},
{
"text": "rather than just off\ndoing their own things.",
"timestamp": [
729.726,
732.193
]
},
{
"text": "What have you found to be like your go-tos",
"timestamp": [
732.193,
735.02
]
},
{
"text": "What have you found to be like your go-tos",
"timestamp": [
732.193,
735.02
]
},
{
"text": "between the different styles?",
"timestamp": [
735.02,
737.147
]
},
{
"text": "between the different styles?",
"timestamp": [
735.02,
737.147
]
},
{
"text": "- I think I have a somewhat\nsimilar perspective to you",
"timestamp": [
737.147,
739.694
]
},
{
"text": "- I think I have a somewhat\nsimilar perspective to you",
"timestamp": [
737.147,
739.694
]
},
{
"text": "in that, if we provide\nmore structure and support,",
"timestamp": [
739.694,
742.838
]
},
{
"text": "in that, if we provide\nmore structure and support,",
"timestamp": [
739.694,
742.838
]
},
{
"text": "and sort of forms of prior knowledge",
"timestamp": [
742.838,
745.164
]
},
{
"text": "and sort of forms of prior knowledge",
"timestamp": [
742.838,
745.164
]
},
{
"text": "or experience in the algorithm,",
"timestamp": [
745.164,
746.143
]
},
{
"text": "or experience in the algorithm,",
"timestamp": [
745.164,
746.143
]
},
{
"text": "that should make it more efficient.",
"timestamp": [
746.143,
747.571
]
},
{
"text": "that should make it more efficient.",
"timestamp": [
746.143,
747.571
]
},
{
"text": "And so if we can acquire\nthose kinds of priors",
"timestamp": [
747.571,
750.813
]
},
{
"text": "And so if we can acquire\nthose kinds of priors",
"timestamp": [
747.571,
750.813
]
},
{
"text": "about the world and about interaction",
"timestamp": [
750.813,
753.057
]
},
{
"text": "about the world and about interaction",
"timestamp": [
750.813,
753.057
]
},
{
"text": "from previous data, maybe offline data,",
"timestamp": [
753.057,
756.717
]
},
{
"text": "from previous data, maybe offline data,",
"timestamp": [
753.057,
756.717
]
},
{
"text": "then I think we should be able\nto make learning of new tasks",
"timestamp": [
756.717,
760.291
]
},
{
"text": "then I think we should be able\nto make learning of new tasks",
"timestamp": [
756.717,
760.291
]
},
{
"text": "more efficient.",
"timestamp": [
760.291,
761.366
]
},
{
"text": "more efficient.",
"timestamp": [
760.291,
761.366
]
},
{
"text": "- It's similar to like skill\ntransfer style of things,",
"timestamp": [
761.366,
764.67
]
},
{
"text": "- It's similar to like skill\ntransfer style of things,",
"timestamp": [
761.366,
764.67
]
},
{
"text": "because some skills are just repeatable.",
"timestamp": [
764.67,
767.175
]
},
{
"text": "because some skills are just repeatable.",
"timestamp": [
764.67,
767.175
]
},
{
"text": "Like if I know how to pick up a cylinder,",
"timestamp": [
767.175,
769.133
]
},
{
"text": "Like if I know how to pick up a cylinder,",
"timestamp": [
767.175,
769.133
]
},
{
"text": "then maybe I know also\nhow to pick up a mug.",
"timestamp": [
769.133,
771.315
]
},
{
"text": "then maybe I know also\nhow to pick up a mug.",
"timestamp": [
769.133,
771.315
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
771.315,
772.148
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
771.315,
772.148
]
},
{
"text": "So you may not transfer the exact strategy",
"timestamp": [
772.148,
773.34
]
},
{
"text": "So you may not transfer the exact strategy",
"timestamp": [
772.148,
773.34
]
},
{
"text": "or the exact policy that the robot takes,",
"timestamp": [
773.34,
776.244
]
},
{
"text": "or the exact policy that the robot takes,",
"timestamp": [
773.34,
776.244
]
},
{
"text": "but you should be able to\nlearn some general heuristics",
"timestamp": [
776.244,
780.172
]
},
{
"text": "but you should be able to\nlearn some general heuristics",
"timestamp": [
776.244,
780.172
]
},
{
"text": "about performing manipulation.",
"timestamp": [
780.172,
781.779
]
},
{
"text": "about performing manipulation.",
"timestamp": [
780.172,
781.779
]
},
{
"text": "- There's this gap between the\nsimulators that we have now",
"timestamp": [
781.779,
784.277
]
},
{
"text": "- There's this gap between the\nsimulators that we have now",
"timestamp": [
781.779,
784.277
]
},
{
"text": "and what we actually\nexperience in reality.",
"timestamp": [
784.277,
785.898
]
},
{
"text": "and what we actually\nexperience in reality.",
"timestamp": [
784.277,
785.898
]
},
{
"text": "So what do you think\nare promising directions",
"timestamp": [
785.898,
788.269
]
},
{
"text": "So what do you think\nare promising directions",
"timestamp": [
785.898,
788.269
]
},
{
"text": "to try out for actually\nmaking our simulations",
"timestamp": [
788.269,
791.898
]
},
{
"text": "to try out for actually\nmaking our simulations",
"timestamp": [
788.269,
791.898
]
},
{
"text": "match reality more closely?",
"timestamp": [
791.898,
793.677
]
},
{
"text": "match reality more closely?",
"timestamp": [
791.898,
793.677
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a really, really hard problem.",
"timestamp": [
793.677,
795.219
]
},
{
"text": "- It's a really, really hard problem.",
"timestamp": [
793.677,
795.219
]
},
{
"text": "A lot of simulators, they\ndon't simulate the world",
"timestamp": [
795.219,
798.269
]
},
{
"text": "A lot of simulators, they\ndon't simulate the world",
"timestamp": [
795.219,
798.269
]
},
{
"text": "as a fine enough time\ngranularity to really accurately",
"timestamp": [
798.269,
801.121
]
},
{
"text": "as a fine enough time\ngranularity to really accurately",
"timestamp": [
798.269,
801.121
]
},
{
"text": "capture things like skewing\nan object, for example.",
"timestamp": [
801.121,
804.171
]
},
{
"text": "capture things like skewing\nan object, for example.",
"timestamp": [
801.121,
804.171
]
},
{
"text": "One thing that I think\nis promising is to try to",
"timestamp": [
804.171,
806.335
]
},
{
"text": "One thing that I think\nis promising is to try to",
"timestamp": [
804.171,
806.335
]
},
{
"text": "not build simulators entirely\nfrom first principles,",
"timestamp": [
806.335,
809.034
]
},
{
"text": "not build simulators entirely\nfrom first principles,",
"timestamp": [
806.335,
809.034
]
},
{
"text": "from our knowledge of physics.",
"timestamp": [
809.034,
810.757
]
},
{
"text": "from our knowledge of physics.",
"timestamp": [
809.034,
810.757
]
},
{
"text": "But instead to look at real data",
"timestamp": [
810.757,
814.552
]
},
{
"text": "But instead to look at real data",
"timestamp": [
810.757,
814.552
]
},
{
"text": "and see how real data might\ninform our simulations",
"timestamp": [
814.552,
818.189
]
},
{
"text": "and see how real data might\ninform our simulations",
"timestamp": [
814.552,
818.189
]
},
{
"text": "and try to build, allow robots\nto build models of the world,",
"timestamp": [
818.189,
820.951
]
},
{
"text": "and try to build, allow robots\nto build models of the world,",
"timestamp": [
818.189,
820.951
]
},
{
"text": "build simulators of the world,",
"timestamp": [
820.951,
822.453
]
},
{
"text": "build simulators of the world,",
"timestamp": [
820.951,
822.453
]
},
{
"text": "based on data and based on experiences.",
"timestamp": [
822.453,
824.742
]
},
{
"text": "based on data and based on experiences.",
"timestamp": [
822.453,
824.742
]
},
{
"text": "There's a little bit of a\nchicken and egg problem,",
"timestamp": [
824.742,
826.398
]
},
{
"text": "There's a little bit of a\nchicken and egg problem,",
"timestamp": [
824.742,
826.398
]
},
{
"text": "because if we wanna use\nsimulators to get lots of data,",
"timestamp": [
826.398,
829.6
]
},
{
"text": "because if we wanna use\nsimulators to get lots of data,",
"timestamp": [
826.398,
829.6
]
},
{
"text": "and we also need data\nto get good simulators,",
"timestamp": [
829.6,
831.667
]
},
{
"text": "and we also need data\nto get good simulators,",
"timestamp": [
829.6,
831.667
]
},
{
"text": "then there's no way to get around this.",
"timestamp": [
831.667,
834.917
]
},
{
"text": "then there's no way to get around this.",
"timestamp": [
831.667,
834.917
]
},
{
"text": "- So when you say building simulators",
"timestamp": [
836.222,
838.159
]
},
{
"text": "- So when you say building simulators",
"timestamp": [
836.222,
838.159
]
},
{
"text": "that don't rely on first principles,",
"timestamp": [
838.159,
841.148
]
},
{
"text": "that don't rely on first principles,",
"timestamp": [
838.159,
841.148
]
},
{
"text": "are you saying like, kind\nof like a learn simulator?",
"timestamp": [
841.148,
843.112
]
},
{
"text": "are you saying like, kind\nof like a learn simulator?",
"timestamp": [
841.148,
843.112
]
},
{
"text": "We have all these videos\nof humans interacting",
"timestamp": [
843.112,
845.115
]
},
{
"text": "We have all these videos\nof humans interacting",
"timestamp": [
843.112,
845.115
]
},
{
"text": "with the world, and that can be your,",
"timestamp": [
845.115,
847.137
]
},
{
"text": "with the world, and that can be your,",
"timestamp": [
845.115,
847.137
]
},
{
"text": "like, physics data that\nyou then use to inform",
"timestamp": [
847.137,
849.281
]
},
{
"text": "like, physics data that\nyou then use to inform",
"timestamp": [
847.137,
849.281
]
},
{
"text": "when you're building a simulator,",
"timestamp": [
849.281,
850.736
]
},
{
"text": "when you're building a simulator,",
"timestamp": [
849.281,
850.736
]
},
{
"text": "that's learning based on those videos.",
"timestamp": [
850.736,
852.354
]
},
{
"text": "that's learning based on those videos.",
"timestamp": [
850.736,
852.354
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
852.354,
853.187
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
852.354,
853.187
]
},
{
"text": "I think we can use machine\nlearning to learn about physics",
"timestamp": [
853.187,
856.095
]
},
{
"text": "I think we can use machine\nlearning to learn about physics",
"timestamp": [
853.187,
856.095
]
},
{
"text": "and to build these kinds\nof physics simulators.",
"timestamp": [
856.095,
858.885
]
},
{
"text": "and to build these kinds\nof physics simulators.",
"timestamp": [
856.095,
858.885
]
},
{
"text": "- That's really cool. That's a cool idea.",
"timestamp": [
858.885,
860.797
]
},
{
"text": "- That's really cool. That's a cool idea.",
"timestamp": [
858.885,
860.797
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
860.797,
863.38
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
860.797,
863.38
]
},
{
"text": "- So great to see you, Michael.",
"timestamp": [
865.67,
866.527
]
},
{
"text": "- So great to see you, Michael.",
"timestamp": [
865.67,
866.527
]
},
{
"text": "Thanks for coming.",
"timestamp": [
866.527,
867.611
]
},
{
"text": "Thanks for coming.",
"timestamp": [
866.527,
867.611
]
},
{
"text": "- It's my pleasure.",
"timestamp": [
867.611,
868.725
]
},
{
"text": "- It's my pleasure.",
"timestamp": [
867.611,
868.725
]
},
{
"text": "- So over the past four levels,",
"timestamp": [
868.725,
870.041
]
},
{
"text": "- So over the past four levels,",
"timestamp": [
868.725,
870.041
]
},
{
"text": "we've been talking\nabout Moravec's paradox.",
"timestamp": [
870.041,
871.762
]
},
{
"text": "we've been talking\nabout Moravec's paradox.",
"timestamp": [
870.041,
871.762
]
},
{
"text": "I'm curious to get your perspective.",
"timestamp": [
871.762,
873.298
]
},
{
"text": "I'm curious to get your perspective.",
"timestamp": [
871.762,
873.298
]
},
{
"text": "There are still a lot of open questions",
"timestamp": [
873.298,
875.297
]
},
{
"text": "There are still a lot of open questions",
"timestamp": [
873.298,
875.297
]
},
{
"text": "for how to leverage previous experience",
"timestamp": [
875.297,
876.83
]
},
{
"text": "for how to leverage previous experience",
"timestamp": [
875.297,
876.83
]
},
{
"text": "and learn cumulatively over time.",
"timestamp": [
876.83,
879.09
]
},
{
"text": "and learn cumulatively over time.",
"timestamp": [
876.83,
879.09
]
},
{
"text": "- It's funny because I'm\nkind of at the heart,",
"timestamp": [
879.09,
881.64
]
},
{
"text": "- It's funny because I'm\nkind of at the heart,",
"timestamp": [
879.09,
881.64
]
},
{
"text": "a developmental psychologist.",
"timestamp": [
881.64,
882.882
]
},
{
"text": "a developmental psychologist.",
"timestamp": [
881.64,
882.882
]
},
{
"text": "And so when we talk about babies,",
"timestamp": [
882.882,
884.387
]
},
{
"text": "And so when we talk about babies,",
"timestamp": [
882.882,
884.387
]
},
{
"text": "a lot of what we're talking\nabout is how they become human.",
"timestamp": [
884.387,
886.667
]
},
{
"text": "a lot of what we're talking\nabout is how they become human.",
"timestamp": [
884.387,
886.667
]
},
{
"text": "I started to try to build computer models",
"timestamp": [
886.667,
888.487
]
},
{
"text": "I started to try to build computer models",
"timestamp": [
886.667,
888.487
]
},
{
"text": "of little tiny bits of babies cognition.",
"timestamp": [
888.487,
890.676
]
},
{
"text": "of little tiny bits of babies cognition.",
"timestamp": [
888.487,
890.676
]
},
{
"text": "And I would ask people, and they'd say,",
"timestamp": [
890.676,
892.683
]
},
{
"text": "And I would ask people, and they'd say,",
"timestamp": [
890.676,
892.683
]
},
{
"text": "\"You have to assume that\nyou can recognize objects,",
"timestamp": [
892.683,
894.584
]
},
{
"text": "\"You have to assume that\nyou can recognize objects,",
"timestamp": [
892.683,
894.584
]
},
{
"text": "because actually recognizing\nobjects is impossible.\"",
"timestamp": [
894.584,
896.967
]
},
{
"text": "because actually recognizing\nobjects is impossible.\"",
"timestamp": [
894.584,
896.967
]
},
{
"text": "And I was like, \"Wait, it's\nimpossible? What about AI?\"",
"timestamp": [
896.967,
900.113
]
},
{
"text": "And I was like, \"Wait, it's\nimpossible? What about AI?\"",
"timestamp": [
896.967,
900.113
]
},
{
"text": "And they're like, \"That's,\nthat's really hard.\"",
"timestamp": [
900.113,
901.755
]
},
{
"text": "And they're like, \"That's,\nthat's really hard.\"",
"timestamp": [
900.113,
901.755
]
},
{
"text": "- Why do you think it's so hard to build",
"timestamp": [
901.755,
903.935
]
},
{
"text": "- Why do you think it's so hard to build",
"timestamp": [
901.755,
903.935
]
},
{
"text": "these things into AI systems and robots?",
"timestamp": [
903.935,
906.146
]
},
{
"text": "these things into AI systems and robots?",
"timestamp": [
903.935,
906.146
]
},
{
"text": "- I guess if you think about\na quintessentially human task,",
"timestamp": [
906.146,
908.96
]
},
{
"text": "- I guess if you think about\na quintessentially human task,",
"timestamp": [
906.146,
908.96
]
},
{
"text": "like playing chess or\nsolving arithmetic problem,",
"timestamp": [
908.96,
912.336
]
},
{
"text": "like playing chess or\nsolving arithmetic problem,",
"timestamp": [
908.96,
912.336
]
},
{
"text": "things that other creatures just don't do,",
"timestamp": [
912.336,
914.713
]
},
{
"text": "things that other creatures just don't do,",
"timestamp": [
912.336,
914.713
]
},
{
"text": "when you're a human being,",
"timestamp": [
914.713,
915.796
]
},
{
"text": "when you're a human being,",
"timestamp": [
914.713,
915.796
]
},
{
"text": "you have to learn that in cultural time.",
"timestamp": [
915.796,
917.326
]
},
{
"text": "you have to learn that in cultural time.",
"timestamp": [
915.796,
917.326
]
},
{
"text": "And so there's a limited\namount of data you have.",
"timestamp": [
917.326,
919.175
]
},
{
"text": "And so there's a limited\namount of data you have.",
"timestamp": [
917.326,
919.175
]
},
{
"text": "But if you're talking\nabout seeing the world",
"timestamp": [
919.175,
920.396
]
},
{
"text": "But if you're talking\nabout seeing the world",
"timestamp": [
919.175,
920.396
]
},
{
"text": "interacting with the world,\nusing your effectors properly,",
"timestamp": [
920.396,
923.483
]
},
{
"text": "interacting with the world,\nusing your effectors properly,",
"timestamp": [
920.396,
923.483
]
},
{
"text": "that's the combination\nof this massive amount",
"timestamp": [
923.483,
925.747
]
},
{
"text": "that's the combination\nof this massive amount",
"timestamp": [
923.483,
925.747
]
},
{
"text": "of evolutionary time.",
"timestamp": [
925.747,
926.887
]
},
{
"text": "of evolutionary time.",
"timestamp": [
925.747,
926.887
]
},
{
"text": "When you look at that,",
"timestamp": [
926.887,
927.72
]
},
{
"text": "When you look at that,",
"timestamp": [
926.887,
927.72
]
},
{
"text": "it's like the 56 games of\nchess I played in chess club",
"timestamp": [
927.72,
930.922
]
},
{
"text": "it's like the 56 games of\nchess I played in chess club",
"timestamp": [
927.72,
930.922
]
},
{
"text": "that doesn't look like\na lot of training data.",
"timestamp": [
930.922,
932.894
]
},
{
"text": "that doesn't look like\na lot of training data.",
"timestamp": [
930.922,
932.894
]
},
{
"text": "You work so hard to make a robot,",
"timestamp": [
932.894,
934.574
]
},
{
"text": "You work so hard to make a robot,",
"timestamp": [
932.894,
934.574
]
},
{
"text": "do one particular thing\nor one class of task,",
"timestamp": [
934.574,
937.279
]
},
{
"text": "do one particular thing\nor one class of task,",
"timestamp": [
934.574,
937.279
]
},
{
"text": "and then seems like people\nmust always come up to you",
"timestamp": [
937.279,
939.939
]
},
{
"text": "and then seems like people\nmust always come up to you",
"timestamp": [
937.279,
939.939
]
},
{
"text": "and say, \"So, okay, but\nwhat about my other task?",
"timestamp": [
939.939,
942.356
]
},
{
"text": "and say, \"So, okay, but\nwhat about my other task?",
"timestamp": [
939.939,
942.356
]
},
{
"text": "Okay. You can fold the\nsock or stack a cup.",
"timestamp": [
942.356,
945.401
]
},
{
"text": "Okay. You can fold the\nsock or stack a cup.",
"timestamp": [
942.356,
945.401
]
},
{
"text": "How about my dishes?\"",
"timestamp": [
945.401,
947.361
]
},
{
"text": "How about my dishes?\"",
"timestamp": [
945.401,
947.361
]
},
{
"text": "Is that frustrating? Is that a challenge?",
"timestamp": [
947.361,
948.667
]
},
{
"text": "Is that frustrating? Is that a challenge?",
"timestamp": [
947.361,
948.667
]
},
{
"text": "Is it interesting?",
"timestamp": [
948.667,
949.5
]
},
{
"text": "Is it interesting?",
"timestamp": [
948.667,
949.5
]
},
{
"text": "- I think it's interesting.\nAnd also a huge challenge.",
"timestamp": [
949.5,
952.376
]
},
{
"text": "- I think it's interesting.\nAnd also a huge challenge.",
"timestamp": [
949.5,
952.376
]
},
{
"text": "I think that it's interesting that",
"timestamp": [
952.376,
953.93
]
},
{
"text": "I think that it's interesting that",
"timestamp": [
952.376,
953.93
]
},
{
"text": "if a person sees a robot doing something",
"timestamp": [
953.93,
956.509
]
},
{
"text": "if a person sees a robot doing something",
"timestamp": [
953.93,
956.509
]
},
{
"text": "that seems very capable,",
"timestamp": [
956.509,
957.509
]
},
{
"text": "that seems very capable,",
"timestamp": [
956.509,
957.509
]
},
{
"text": "they assume that the\nrobot can do all sorts",
"timestamp": [
957.509,
959.074
]
},
{
"text": "they assume that the\nrobot can do all sorts",
"timestamp": [
957.509,
959.074
]
},
{
"text": "of other capable things.",
"timestamp": [
959.074,
960.076
]
},
{
"text": "of other capable things.",
"timestamp": [
959.074,
960.076
]
},
{
"text": "It's a huge challenge, because\nthat's actually not the case.",
"timestamp": [
960.076,
963
]
},
{
"text": "It's a huge challenge, because\nthat's actually not the case.",
"timestamp": [
960.076,
963
]
},
{
"text": "- When we think about babies\non their social cognition,",
"timestamp": [
963,
965.036
]
},
{
"text": "- When we think about babies\non their social cognition,",
"timestamp": [
963,
965.036
]
},
{
"text": "we actually start from the idea",
"timestamp": [
965.036,
966.908
]
},
{
"text": "we actually start from the idea",
"timestamp": [
965.036,
966.908
]
},
{
"text": "that they have a notion\nof what an agent is.",
"timestamp": [
966.908,
969.366
]
},
{
"text": "that they have a notion\nof what an agent is.",
"timestamp": [
966.908,
969.366
]
},
{
"text": "An agent is something\nthat's self-propelled,",
"timestamp": [
969.366,
971.287
]
},
{
"text": "An agent is something\nthat's self-propelled,",
"timestamp": [
969.366,
971.287
]
},
{
"text": "that has its own internal states,",
"timestamp": [
971.287,
972.67
]
},
{
"text": "that has its own internal states,",
"timestamp": [
971.287,
972.67
]
},
{
"text": "like goals and beliefs.",
"timestamp": [
972.67,
975.461
]
},
{
"text": "like goals and beliefs.",
"timestamp": [
972.67,
975.461
]
},
{
"text": "And so, it's very natural to imagine",
"timestamp": [
975.461,
977.758
]
},
{
"text": "And so, it's very natural to imagine",
"timestamp": [
975.461,
977.758
]
},
{
"text": "that when you see a seemingly,",
"timestamp": [
977.758,
979.957
]
},
{
"text": "that when you see a seemingly,",
"timestamp": [
977.758,
979.957
]
},
{
"text": "they call it propulsive,\naction by a robot,",
"timestamp": [
979.957,
983.08
]
},
{
"text": "they call it propulsive,\naction by a robot,",
"timestamp": [
979.957,
983.08
]
},
{
"text": "you're thinking, \"Hey,\nthis thing has a desire.",
"timestamp": [
983.08,
986.287
]
},
{
"text": "you're thinking, \"Hey,\nthis thing has a desire.",
"timestamp": [
983.08,
986.287
]
},
{
"text": "It has a goal. It's\naccomplishing it with its.",
"timestamp": [
986.287,
988.647
]
},
{
"text": "It has a goal. It's\naccomplishing it with its.",
"timestamp": [
986.287,
988.647
]
},
{
"text": "So what if I give it a different goal?",
"timestamp": [
988.647,
990.138
]
},
{
"text": "So what if I give it a different goal?",
"timestamp": [
988.647,
990.138
]
},
{
"text": "Why couldn't it do that?\"",
"timestamp": [
990.138,
991.429
]
},
{
"text": "Why couldn't it do that?\"",
"timestamp": [
990.138,
991.429
]
},
{
"text": "They call it promiscuous\ngeneralization about agents, right?",
"timestamp": [
991.429,
993.727
]
},
{
"text": "They call it promiscuous\ngeneralization about agents, right?",
"timestamp": [
991.429,
993.727
]
},
{
"text": "I think that the electrical\noutlet looks like a face.",
"timestamp": [
993.727,
995.971
]
},
{
"text": "I think that the electrical\noutlet looks like a face.",
"timestamp": [
993.727,
995.971
]
},
{
"text": "I think that my computer's mad at me.",
"timestamp": [
995.971,
997.695
]
},
{
"text": "I think that my computer's mad at me.",
"timestamp": [
995.971,
997.695
]
},
{
"text": "And so I think it,",
"timestamp": [
997.695,
999.505
]
},
{
"text": "And so I think it,",
"timestamp": [
997.695,
999.505
]
},
{
"text": "the challenge actually is to\nstop people from doing that,",
"timestamp": [
999.505,
1002.603
]
},
{
"text": "the challenge actually is to\nstop people from doing that,",
"timestamp": [
999.505,
1002.603
]
},
{
"text": "and to recognize limitations\nwhere there are some.",
"timestamp": [
1002.603,
1004.746
]
},
{
"text": "and to recognize limitations\nwhere there are some.",
"timestamp": [
1002.603,
1004.746
]
},
{
"text": "Or we bring to bear our knowledge,",
"timestamp": [
1004.746,
1006.263
]
},
{
"text": "Or we bring to bear our knowledge,",
"timestamp": [
1004.746,
1006.263
]
},
{
"text": "sometimes incredibly quickly,\nto parse an uncertain image.",
"timestamp": [
1006.263,
1009.212
]
},
{
"text": "sometimes incredibly quickly,\nto parse an uncertain image.",
"timestamp": [
1006.263,
1009.212
]
},
{
"text": "So our experiences go all the way down",
"timestamp": [
1009.212,
1012.717
]
},
{
"text": "So our experiences go all the way down",
"timestamp": [
1009.212,
1012.717
]
},
{
"text": "to our very first impressions\nof the sensory signal.",
"timestamp": [
1012.717,
1016.257
]
},
{
"text": "to our very first impressions\nof the sensory signal.",
"timestamp": [
1012.717,
1016.257
]
},
{
"text": "- I like that description,",
"timestamp": [
1016.257,
1017.09
]
},
{
"text": "- I like that description,",
"timestamp": [
1016.257,
1017.09
]
},
{
"text": "because it conveys how\nmuch complexity there is",
"timestamp": [
1017.09,
1019.617
]
},
{
"text": "because it conveys how\nmuch complexity there is",
"timestamp": [
1017.09,
1019.617
]
},
{
"text": "to these really basic\ntasks that we're doing.",
"timestamp": [
1019.617,
1021.658
]
},
{
"text": "to these really basic\ntasks that we're doing.",
"timestamp": [
1019.617,
1021.658
]
},
{
"text": "Is there a definition for\nthe simple tasks that we do",
"timestamp": [
1021.658,
1024.552
]
},
{
"text": "Is there a definition for\nthe simple tasks that we do",
"timestamp": [
1021.658,
1024.552
]
},
{
"text": "versus things that are more\ncomplex, like playing chess?",
"timestamp": [
1024.552,
1028.482
]
},
{
"text": "versus things that are more\ncomplex, like playing chess?",
"timestamp": [
1024.552,
1028.482
]
},
{
"text": "- I guess I like to think about\nthis hierarchical cascade,",
"timestamp": [
1028.482,
1032.682
]
},
{
"text": "- I guess I like to think about\nthis hierarchical cascade,",
"timestamp": [
1028.482,
1032.682
]
},
{
"text": "where, at first, vision\nstarts with the sensory signal",
"timestamp": [
1032.682,
1036.14
]
},
{
"text": "where, at first, vision\nstarts with the sensory signal",
"timestamp": [
1032.682,
1036.14
]
},
{
"text": "and parses it into gradually\nmore complex units.",
"timestamp": [
1036.14,
1038.943
]
},
{
"text": "and parses it into gradually\nmore complex units.",
"timestamp": [
1036.14,
1038.943
]
},
{
"text": "I think it does make sense\nto talk about lower level,",
"timestamp": [
1038.943,
1041.015
]
},
{
"text": "I think it does make sense\nto talk about lower level,",
"timestamp": [
1038.943,
1041.015
]
},
{
"text": "meaning closer to sensation\nand perception and action,",
"timestamp": [
1041.015,
1044.515
]
},
{
"text": "meaning closer to sensation\nand perception and action,",
"timestamp": [
1041.015,
1044.515
]
},
{
"text": "and higher level meaning\nmore deliberative,",
"timestamp": [
1044.515,
1046.79
]
},
{
"text": "and higher level meaning\nmore deliberative,",
"timestamp": [
1044.515,
1046.79
]
},
{
"text": "more mediated by memory\nand language and judgment.",
"timestamp": [
1046.79,
1050.138
]
},
{
"text": "more mediated by memory\nand language and judgment.",
"timestamp": [
1046.79,
1050.138
]
},
{
"text": "- That notion of hierarchy\nis really interesting,",
"timestamp": [
1050.138,
1051.758
]
},
{
"text": "- That notion of hierarchy\nis really interesting,",
"timestamp": [
1050.138,
1051.758
]
},
{
"text": "because it is these higher level things,",
"timestamp": [
1051.758,
1053.97
]
},
{
"text": "because it is these higher level things,",
"timestamp": [
1051.758,
1053.97
]
},
{
"text": "like playing chess, for example,",
"timestamp": [
1053.97,
1055.686
]
},
{
"text": "like playing chess, for example,",
"timestamp": [
1053.97,
1055.686
]
},
{
"text": "that are easier for AI systems.",
"timestamp": [
1055.686,
1057.682
]
},
{
"text": "that are easier for AI systems.",
"timestamp": [
1055.686,
1057.682
]
},
{
"text": "And the reason why they're easier is that",
"timestamp": [
1057.682,
1060.064
]
},
{
"text": "And the reason why they're easier is that",
"timestamp": [
1057.682,
1060.064
]
},
{
"text": "we're providing the abstraction\nfor the system already,",
"timestamp": [
1060.064,
1062.979
]
},
{
"text": "we're providing the abstraction\nfor the system already,",
"timestamp": [
1060.064,
1062.979
]
},
{
"text": "then when we give the game\nof chess to an AI system,",
"timestamp": [
1062.979,
1067.458
]
},
{
"text": "then when we give the game\nof chess to an AI system,",
"timestamp": [
1062.979,
1067.458
]
},
{
"text": "we abstract away all the challenges",
"timestamp": [
1067.458,
1069.199
]
},
{
"text": "we abstract away all the challenges",
"timestamp": [
1067.458,
1069.199
]
},
{
"text": "of like picking up pieces and moving them,",
"timestamp": [
1069.199,
1070.954
]
},
{
"text": "of like picking up pieces and moving them,",
"timestamp": [
1069.199,
1070.954
]
},
{
"text": "and we say, \"Okay, there's this board",
"timestamp": [
1070.954,
1072.65
]
},
{
"text": "and we say, \"Okay, there's this board",
"timestamp": [
1070.954,
1072.65
]
},
{
"text": "of however many boxes on it.\"",
"timestamp": [
1072.65,
1075.052
]
},
{
"text": "of however many boxes on it.\"",
"timestamp": [
1072.65,
1075.052
]
},
{
"text": "And you just need to figure out",
"timestamp": [
1075.052,
1077.428
]
},
{
"text": "And you just need to figure out",
"timestamp": [
1075.052,
1077.428
]
},
{
"text": "within that very narrow,\nsmall world, what to do.",
"timestamp": [
1077.428,
1081.149
]
},
{
"text": "within that very narrow,\nsmall world, what to do.",
"timestamp": [
1077.428,
1081.149
]
},
{
"text": "But handling and learning what\nthose abstractions should be",
"timestamp": [
1081.149,
1084.113
]
},
{
"text": "But handling and learning what\nthose abstractions should be",
"timestamp": [
1081.149,
1084.113
]
},
{
"text": "and handling everything from\nlow level sensory inputs",
"timestamp": [
1084.113,
1087.881
]
},
{
"text": "and handling everything from\nlow level sensory inputs",
"timestamp": [
1084.113,
1087.881
]
},
{
"text": "to that higher level processing\nis really, really hard.",
"timestamp": [
1087.881,
1090.728
]
},
{
"text": "to that higher level processing\nis really, really hard.",
"timestamp": [
1087.881,
1090.728
]
},
{
"text": "- Our impression that it's\npurely discrete and symbolic",
"timestamp": [
1090.728,
1093.967
]
},
{
"text": "- Our impression that it's\npurely discrete and symbolic",
"timestamp": [
1090.728,
1093.967
]
},
{
"text": "might be, just that\nmight be an impression,",
"timestamp": [
1093.967,
1095.573
]
},
{
"text": "might be, just that\nmight be an impression,",
"timestamp": [
1093.967,
1095.573
]
},
{
"text": "because we talk about it in a language.",
"timestamp": [
1095.573,
1097.123
]
},
{
"text": "because we talk about it in a language.",
"timestamp": [
1095.573,
1097.123
]
},
{
"text": "And actually, the fact\nthat it's connected up",
"timestamp": [
1097.123,
1099.066
]
},
{
"text": "And actually, the fact\nthat it's connected up",
"timestamp": [
1097.123,
1099.066
]
},
{
"text": "to all these perception and\nsensation and action systems",
"timestamp": [
1099.066,
1101.525
]
},
{
"text": "to all these perception and\nsensation and action systems",
"timestamp": [
1099.066,
1101.525
]
},
{
"text": "means that it's probably grounded",
"timestamp": [
1101.525,
1104.092
]
},
{
"text": "means that it's probably grounded",
"timestamp": [
1101.525,
1104.092
]
},
{
"text": "in a more continuous\nset of representations.",
"timestamp": [
1104.092,
1106.268
]
},
{
"text": "in a more continuous\nset of representations.",
"timestamp": [
1104.092,
1106.268
]
},
{
"text": "I wonder, is there gonna be a point where",
"timestamp": [
1106.268,
1108.087
]
},
{
"text": "I wonder, is there gonna be a point where",
"timestamp": [
1106.268,
1108.087
]
},
{
"text": "what you really want to know is",
"timestamp": [
1108.087,
1109.281
]
},
{
"text": "what you really want to know is",
"timestamp": [
1108.087,
1109.281
]
},
{
"text": "what are the experiences that a human has?",
"timestamp": [
1109.281,
1111.126
]
},
{
"text": "what are the experiences that a human has?",
"timestamp": [
1109.281,
1111.126
]
},
{
"text": "[indistinct] human speech own project.",
"timestamp": [
1111.126,
1112.908
]
},
{
"text": "[indistinct] human speech own project.",
"timestamp": [
1111.126,
1112.908
]
},
{
"text": "His idea was, \"Well, I need the exact data",
"timestamp": [
1112.908,
1114.844
]
},
{
"text": "His idea was, \"Well, I need the exact data",
"timestamp": [
1112.908,
1114.844
]
},
{
"text": "that my son gets in\norder to train my robot",
"timestamp": [
1114.844,
1117.155
]
},
{
"text": "that my son gets in\norder to train my robot",
"timestamp": [
1114.844,
1117.155
]
},
{
"text": "to be like my son.\"",
"timestamp": [
1117.155,
1118.434
]
},
{
"text": "to be like my son.\"",
"timestamp": [
1117.155,
1118.434
]
},
{
"text": "Or do you think that we're\ngonna end up in a world",
"timestamp": [
1118.434,
1120.11
]
},
{
"text": "Or do you think that we're\ngonna end up in a world",
"timestamp": [
1118.434,
1120.11
]
},
{
"text": "that's more like the large language models",
"timestamp": [
1120.11,
1121.799
]
},
{
"text": "that's more like the large language models",
"timestamp": [
1120.11,
1121.799
]
},
{
"text": "and that'll have to do?",
"timestamp": [
1121.799,
1122.792
]
},
{
"text": "and that'll have to do?",
"timestamp": [
1121.799,
1122.792
]
},
{
"text": "- I suspect that we'll start by doing",
"timestamp": [
1122.792,
1124.236
]
},
{
"text": "- I suspect that we'll start by doing",
"timestamp": [
1122.792,
1124.236
]
},
{
"text": "whatever is most convenient,",
"timestamp": [
1124.236,
1125.515
]
},
{
"text": "whatever is most convenient,",
"timestamp": [
1124.236,
1125.515
]
},
{
"text": "'cause that's whatever we can get.",
"timestamp": [
1125.515,
1127.348
]
},
{
"text": "'cause that's whatever we can get.",
"timestamp": [
1125.515,
1127.348
]
},
{
"text": "But I think that for robots to\nbe capable alongside humans,",
"timestamp": [
1127.348,
1130.763
]
},
{
"text": "But I think that for robots to\nbe capable alongside humans,",
"timestamp": [
1127.348,
1130.763
]
},
{
"text": "in a world with humans,",
"timestamp": [
1130.763,
1132.641
]
},
{
"text": "in a world with humans,",
"timestamp": [
1130.763,
1132.641
]
},
{
"text": "I think that we may need to\nactually use human experience,",
"timestamp": [
1132.641,
1136.471
]
},
{
"text": "I think that we may need to\nactually use human experience,",
"timestamp": [
1132.641,
1136.471
]
},
{
"text": "human learning, to\ninform how robots learn,",
"timestamp": [
1136.471,
1138.345
]
},
{
"text": "human learning, to\ninform how robots learn,",
"timestamp": [
1136.471,
1138.345
]
},
{
"text": "if we want them to follow",
"timestamp": [
1138.345,
1140.603
]
},
{
"text": "if we want them to follow",
"timestamp": [
1138.345,
1140.603
]
},
{
"text": "the same kind of mistake\npattern as humans,",
"timestamp": [
1140.603,
1142.34
]
},
{
"text": "the same kind of mistake\npattern as humans,",
"timestamp": [
1140.603,
1142.34
]
},
{
"text": "so that humans can interpret robots,",
"timestamp": [
1142.34,
1143.774
]
},
{
"text": "so that humans can interpret robots,",
"timestamp": [
1142.34,
1143.774
]
},
{
"text": "and humans can understand what\nrobots will and will not do.",
"timestamp": [
1143.774,
1147.199
]
},
{
"text": "and humans can understand what\nrobots will and will not do.",
"timestamp": [
1143.774,
1147.199
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
1147.199,
1149.93
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
1147.199,
1149.93
]
},
{
"text": "The AI systems and robotics\nare starting to play",
"timestamp": [
1149.93,
1152.216
]
},
{
"text": "The AI systems and robotics\nare starting to play",
"timestamp": [
1149.93,
1152.216
]
},
{
"text": "a larger role in our everyday lives.",
"timestamp": [
1152.216,
1154.727
]
},
{
"text": "a larger role in our everyday lives.",
"timestamp": [
1152.216,
1154.727
]
},
{
"text": "Despite the fact that they're\nplaying this larger role,",
"timestamp": [
1154.727,
1157.031
]
},
{
"text": "Despite the fact that they're\nplaying this larger role,",
"timestamp": [
1154.727,
1157.031
]
},
{
"text": "many people don't have\na full understanding",
"timestamp": [
1157.031,
1159.316
]
},
{
"text": "many people don't have\na full understanding",
"timestamp": [
1157.031,
1159.316
]
},
{
"text": "of the limitations of these systems.",
"timestamp": [
1159.316,
1162.261
]
},
{
"text": "of the limitations of these systems.",
"timestamp": [
1159.316,
1162.261
]
},
{
"text": "And I hope that through\nthese conversations,",
"timestamp": [
1162.261,
1163.942
]
},
{
"text": "And I hope that through\nthese conversations,",
"timestamp": [
1162.261,
1163.942
]
},
{
"text": "you gained a better understanding\nof where the limitations",
"timestamp": [
1163.942,
1167.397
]
},
{
"text": "you gained a better understanding\nof where the limitations",
"timestamp": [
1163.942,
1167.397
]
},
{
"text": "of these systems are and what\nthe future might look like.",
"timestamp": [
1167.397,
1172.23
]
},
{
"text": "of these systems are and what\nthe future might look like.",
"timestamp": [
1167.397,
1172.23
]
}
] |
[
[
"Intro",
"- My name is Chelsea Finn.I'm a professor at Stanford.Today, I've been challenged\nto explain a topicin five levels of difficulty.[upbeat music]Today, we're talking\nabout Moravec's paradox,which says that the things\nthat are really, really easyand second nature for humans,are actually really difficult to programinto AI systems and robots.It's an important topic,because it means that\nwhen we program robots,some of the really basic\nstuff that we take for grantedis actually quite difficult."
],
[
"More of X Paradox",
"Hi, I'm Chelsea, what's your name?- Juliette.- Nice to meet you, Juliette.Today, we'll talk a\nlittle bit about a conceptcalled Moravec's paradox.- What's that?- Something that explains what's hardand what's easy for a robot.Something like stacking these two cups.Do you think that's easy or hard?- If it's this way, then it's easy,but if it's this way, you\nneed to balance it or, oh-- It's still pretty easy, right?It turns out that stacking these two cups,it's actually really hard\nfor robots to do that.So, let's think about\nhow we might have a robotstack these two cups.You could program the robot\nto move its hand right hereand then program the\nrobot to close its handaround the cup.\n- Okay.And then program the\nrobot to move over hereand open the-\n- And drop it.- Exactly, right?That seemed pretty simple\nfor the robot to do.Say we even just move the cup over here.Do you think the robot would still be ableto stack the cups?- Yes.- We can see what happens.So it's gonna,we programed the robot to moveto the same exact position as before.- Oh yeah. So it goes to the same place.- When we gave it instructions,did we tell it to look\nat where the cup was?Or did we tell it to just move over here?- We told it to just move over here.- Exactly.So, Moravec's paradox is\nsomething that means thatthese really simple\nthings, like stacking cups,is really, really hard for robots,even though it's really easy for us.While robots are actually really goodat really complicated and\nreally difficult things.Think about the task of multiplying tworeally big numbers together.\n- Okay.Does that seem like a\nhard task or an easy task?- It's easy for me.- You're good at multiplyingbig numbers together?\n- Yes.Could you multiply 4,100 by-\n- No, I can't do that.- But it's actually really\neasy for a computer to do that.So how fast were you able\nto stack the two cups?- Like two seconds.It took me like a couple dayswhen I learned how to stack cups.- Yeah.But so it took you a couple dayswhen you learned how to\nstack cups, but before that,you already knew how to\ngrasp objects, right?You already knewhow to pick up cups.\n- Yeah.And so you could use thatwhen you were learning to stack cups.We're trying to be inspired by\nhow humans learn to do tasks,to allow robots to do\nthe same kind of thingsthat are very simple for\npeople, like stacking cups.We want robots to be able to\ndo something like that too."
],
[
"Level 1 Hard",
"[upbeat music]- What grade are you in?- I am about to be a junior.- Have you heard of something\ncalled Moravec's paradox?- Never heard of it.- Typically you would think that thingsthat are easy for humans,\nare also easy for robotsand computers to do.\n- Right.And things that are hard for humansshould also be hard for\nrobots and humans to do.But it turns out that it's\nactually the opposite.I wanna try a little demo.\n- Okay.So I have a penny in my hand\nand I'd like you to pick it upwith your right hand and\nput it into your left hand.So that was pretty easy, right?- Yeah.- We're gonna make this\na little bit harder now.So, can you put these on?And we'll try to do the same thing againwith your eyes closed.There you go.Let's try that one more time,and see if you can do any better.So close your eyes.- Oh, there we go.- Yeah. So that you're able,\nwith a bit more practice,you're able to figure it out.When it fell on the\nground, how did you knowto pick it up off the ground?\n- From the sound.So when a robot tries to do something,like pick up an object,not only do you need to program exactlylike what the motors should do,the robot also needs to be able\nto see where the object is.Then this is what's calleda perception action loop in robotics.So if the object moves,the robot can then adapt\nwhat it's doing and changewhat it's doing to successfully\npick up the object.It's really important for\nrobots to be able to leverage,not just like the past hour of experience,but also ideally many years of experience,in order to do the kinds\nof things that you did.- It's kind of hard for\nme to understand whylike robots can do like all\nthese crazy calculations,but they can't do like\nall the simple stuff, so.- Yeah. It's really unintuitive.In order to survive,we need to pick up objects and everything.Basically many, many,\nlike billions of yearsof evolution actually created humansand the ability to\nmanipulate objects like that.So, it actually turns out that thingsthat are really basic for us are actuallyjust really complex tasks in general.- So do robots know, like, they messed up?They know.- That's a great question.So in reinforcement learning,\nthe robot tries the task,and then it gets some\nsort of reinforcement,some sort of feedback.It's similar tohow you might train a dog.\n- Yeah.So you could give it feedback like that.So it won't necessarily know itself,especially on the first few tries,but it's trying to figure\nout what the task is even.- Does a robot see like\nhow we see or does it like,just see like a program or something?- We give robots a camera\nand the camera producesthis array of numbers.Basically, each pixel has\nthree different numbers,one for R, for G and for B.And so the robot sees this\nreally massive set of numbers.And it has to be able to figure out,from that massive set of\nnumbers, what is in the world.There is a number of different\nways to have the robot see,but we use a technique\ncalled neural networks,that tries to take out\nin those big numbersand form representations of\nthe objects in the world,and where those objects are.- Can a robot ever go off the program?- It depends on how you program the robot.If you program the robot\nto follow exact motionsand follow a very specific program,then it won't go off that program.It will always do those actions.But if something unexpected happens,that the program wasn't\ndesigned to handle,then the robot might go off court.- Do you think robots\nwill take over the world?Just being honest.- I think that robotics\nis really, really hard.Having robots do even really basic stuff,like pick up objects,\nis really, really hard.So if they do take over the world,I think it'll be a very, very, very,very long time from now.\n- Very long time. Yeah.[upbeat music]So today we'll talk a bit about roboticsand machine learning and\nartificial intelligence.So have you heard of Moravec's paradox?- I haven't heard of Moravec's paradox?- Yeah.\n- That's what it's called.- Yeah. yeah, I haven't\nheard of it before.- It describes something in AI,which is that things\nthat are really intuitiveand easy for humans,are actually really difficult\nto build into AI systems.And on the flip side,\npicking up an object,really simple for people,but it's actually really\ndifficult to build thatinto robotic systems.- So do you have any\nexperience working with robotsor other AI systems?- Yeah, I did work with robots,but they weren't doing likeartificial intelligence type of stuff.We were just sending like instructionsand the robot would do, like,\nperform like a simple task.I wasn't so used to the aspect of, like,teaching computer how to do stuff.So I'm always on that other end\nof like giving instructions,more focused on the data analysisand machine learning aspect of it.- And how would you just\ndescribe machine learning,like in one sentence?- I'd say machine learning\nis giving like feeding datato a program or to a machine\nand they start to learnbased off of that data.- Do you have any thoughts\non like what the datamight look like in a robotic setting,if you were to apply\nmachine learning to robots?- I think of like coordinates.- Yeah, exactly.One thing that my research\nhas been looking into is,if we can have robots learn from data,we'll collect data from the robot sensors.And if the robot has sensors in its arm,to figure out the angle of\none of its wrist, for example,then we'll record that angle.And all of the robots experience\nwill go into a data set,that if we wanted a robot\nto solve a task, like,I don't know, picking up a cup,and then maybe you want to\npick up a different cup,if it only had the data of\npicking up the first cup,do you think it would\nbe able to perform wellon the second cup?- I don't think so. I feel\nlike that might be a problem.- Yeah, so there's this\ngeneralization gap,this gap between what it was trained to doand the new thing.- So what's like the\nmost complicated thingfor a robot to learn, is it motion?- So you can think of roboticsas having two core components.One is perception, being able\nto see and feel and so forth,and action, where the\nrobot actually figures outhow to move its arm.And both components are really essential,and both components are quite difficult.If you train a perception\nsystem independentlyof how to choose actions,then it might make errors in a waythat mess up the system\nthat selects actions.And so if you instead try to trainthese two systems together,to have it learn perception actionfor the goal of solving\nthese different tasks,then the robot can be more successful.One thing that's really\ndifficult about robotics is,there actually isn't that much\ndata of robots in the world.On the internet, there's\nall sorts of text data,all sorts of image data that\npeople upload and write.But there isn't a lot of\ndata of doing a simple thing,like tying your shoe, for\nexample, because it's so basic.One challenge is even\njust getting data setsthat allow us to teach robots to dothese simple kinds of tasks.- Do you think that we'd be able tokind of accelerate that\nprocess of collecting data?Or do you think, is it the\nway that we've been collectingthose types of data sets?Is that what's keeping us behind?- That's a great question.I think we should be able to acceleratethe data collection\nprocess by having robotscollect more data\nautonomously on their own.And by doing that, we\nmight be able to overcomesome of the challenges\nof Moravec's paradox.- What are some common\nalgorithms that are usedin these types of techniques\nas the robot is learning?- Deep learning is a common toolboxfor addressing some of these challenges,because it allows us to\nleverage large data sets.And so, deep learning is basically,corresponds to methods for trainingthese artificial neural networks.Another common method that comes upis reinforcement learning.A third kind of algorithm\nis meta learning algorithms.And these algorithms learn not just fromthe most recent experience\non the current task,but leverage experience\nfrom other task in the past.And they're not just completely separate.We can combine the aspects\nof these algorithmsinto a single method that gets\nthe benefits of each of them.[upbeat music]"
],
[
"Level 3 Hard",
"What year are you in your PhD?- I'm just finishing up my first year.Studying food manipulation and\nalso bimanual manipulations,and just enabling robots\nto have these capabilities,so that, eventually, we can use itin like a home robot\nuse case, for example.- What are some of the\nchallenges that you've run intowhen trying to work with\nrobots and do these tasks?- So, I was really\ninterested in the problemof scooping peas on a plate.They're relatively homogenous,but when it came to more complex foods,like broccoli, or\ndeformable foods, like tofu,that can crumble, that gets a\nlot more complex to simulate.- One thing I find really\nfascinating about roboticsis that the things that\nare so simple for us,like feeding yourself broccoli,\nso second nature to us,are really hard for robotics.When you try to take a robotand train it to do a task and simulation,and the simulation isn't\nperfectly accurate,it's really hard to\nactually model the physicsof how tofu crumbles.\n- Right.What algorithms do you\nthink are most promisingfor handling non-rigid deformable objectsand the other things\nyou've been looking at?- For most of my past work,which have been relatively\nmore complex tasks,I lean towards the imitation learning typeof algorithm approach,\nbehavioral clonning and all that.Mostly because, if it's hard to simulatean interaction with an object,then I think RL is harder to go with,because it's not as sample efficientas imitation learning can be.And a lot of the times I'll be learningsome high level policy of what to do,and then hard coding a lot of the,like action primitives\nthat I want to selectbetween my task.- How can we get robots\nto learn more efficientlyor learn faster?- From my experience, it's\na matter of how much supportyou give the, like,\nrobot when it's learning.One could be like a narrower task range.Another is maybe like also biasingthe types of samples\nthat you're collectingcan bias towards interactions\nthat are gonna be usefulwhere the hands actually\ninteract with each other,rather than just off\ndoing their own things.What have you found to be like your go-tosbetween the different styles?- I think I have a somewhat\nsimilar perspective to youin that, if we provide\nmore structure and support,and sort of forms of prior knowledgeor experience in the algorithm,that should make it more efficient.And so if we can acquire\nthose kinds of priorsabout the world and about interactionfrom previous data, maybe offline data,then I think we should be able\nto make learning of new tasksmore efficient.- It's similar to like skill\ntransfer style of things,because some skills are just repeatable.Like if I know how to pick up a cylinder,then maybe I know also\nhow to pick up a mug.- Yeah.So you may not transfer the exact strategyor the exact policy that the robot takes,but you should be able to\nlearn some general heuristicsabout performing manipulation.- There's this gap between the\nsimulators that we have nowand what we actually\nexperience in reality.So what do you think\nare promising directionsto try out for actually\nmaking our simulationsmatch reality more closely?- It's a really, really hard problem.A lot of simulators, they\ndon't simulate the worldas a fine enough time\ngranularity to really accuratelycapture things like skewing\nan object, for example.One thing that I think\nis promising is to try tonot build simulators entirely\nfrom first principles,from our knowledge of physics.But instead to look at real dataand see how real data might\ninform our simulationsand try to build, allow robots\nto build models of the world,build simulators of the world,based on data and based on experiences.There's a little bit of a\nchicken and egg problem,because if we wanna use\nsimulators to get lots of data,and we also need data\nto get good simulators,then there's no way to get around this.- So when you say building simulatorsthat don't rely on first principles,are you saying like, kind\nof like a learn simulator?We have all these videos\nof humans interactingwith the world, and that can be your,like, physics data that\nyou then use to informwhen you're building a simulator,that's learning based on those videos.- Exactly.I think we can use machine\nlearning to learn about physicsand to build these kinds\nof physics simulators.- That's really cool. That's a cool idea.[upbeat music]"
],
[
"Level 4 Hard",
"- So great to see you, Michael.Thanks for coming.- It's my pleasure.- So over the past four levels,we've been talking\nabout Moravec's paradox.I'm curious to get your perspective.There are still a lot of open questionsfor how to leverage previous experienceand learn cumulatively over time.- It's funny because I'm\nkind of at the heart,a developmental psychologist.And so when we talk about babies,a lot of what we're talking\nabout is how they become human.I started to try to build computer modelsof little tiny bits of babies cognition.And I would ask people, and they'd say,\"You have to assume that\nyou can recognize objects,because actually recognizing\nobjects is impossible.\"And I was like, \"Wait, it's\nimpossible? What about AI?\"And they're like, \"That's,\nthat's really hard.\"- Why do you think it's so hard to buildthese things into AI systems and robots?- I guess if you think about\na quintessentially human task,like playing chess or\nsolving arithmetic problem,things that other creatures just don't do,when you're a human being,you have to learn that in cultural time.And so there's a limited\namount of data you have.But if you're talking\nabout seeing the worldinteracting with the world,\nusing your effectors properly,that's the combination\nof this massive amountof evolutionary time.When you look at that,it's like the 56 games of\nchess I played in chess clubthat doesn't look like\na lot of training data.You work so hard to make a robot,do one particular thing\nor one class of task,and then seems like people\nmust always come up to youand say, \"So, okay, but\nwhat about my other task?Okay. You can fold the\nsock or stack a cup.How about my dishes?\"Is that frustrating? Is that a challenge?Is it interesting?- I think it's interesting.\nAnd also a huge challenge.I think that it's interesting thatif a person sees a robot doing somethingthat seems very capable,they assume that the\nrobot can do all sortsof other capable things.It's a huge challenge, because\nthat's actually not the case.- When we think about babies\non their social cognition,we actually start from the ideathat they have a notion\nof what an agent is.An agent is something\nthat's self-propelled,that has its own internal states,like goals and beliefs.And so, it's very natural to imaginethat when you see a seemingly,they call it propulsive,\naction by a robot,you're thinking, \"Hey,\nthis thing has a desire.It has a goal. It's\naccomplishing it with its.So what if I give it a different goal?Why couldn't it do that?\"They call it promiscuous\ngeneralization about agents, right?I think that the electrical\noutlet looks like a face.I think that my computer's mad at me.And so I think it,the challenge actually is to\nstop people from doing that,and to recognize limitations\nwhere there are some.Or we bring to bear our knowledge,sometimes incredibly quickly,\nto parse an uncertain image.So our experiences go all the way downto our very first impressions\nof the sensory signal.- I like that description,because it conveys how\nmuch complexity there isto these really basic\ntasks that we're doing.Is there a definition for\nthe simple tasks that we doversus things that are more\ncomplex, like playing chess?- I guess I like to think about\nthis hierarchical cascade,where, at first, vision\nstarts with the sensory signaland parses it into gradually\nmore complex units.I think it does make sense\nto talk about lower level,meaning closer to sensation\nand perception and action,and higher level meaning\nmore deliberative,more mediated by memory\nand language and judgment.- That notion of hierarchy\nis really interesting,because it is these higher level things,like playing chess, for example,that are easier for AI systems.And the reason why they're easier is thatwe're providing the abstraction\nfor the system already,then when we give the game\nof chess to an AI system,we abstract away all the challengesof like picking up pieces and moving them,and we say, \"Okay, there's this boardof however many boxes on it.\"And you just need to figure outwithin that very narrow,\nsmall world, what to do.But handling and learning what\nthose abstractions should beand handling everything from\nlow level sensory inputsto that higher level processing\nis really, really hard.- Our impression that it's\npurely discrete and symbolicmight be, just that\nmight be an impression,because we talk about it in a language.And actually, the fact\nthat it's connected upto all these perception and\nsensation and action systemsmeans that it's probably groundedin a more continuous\nset of representations.I wonder, is there gonna be a point wherewhat you really want to know iswhat are the experiences that a human has?[indistinct] human speech own project.His idea was, \"Well, I need the exact datathat my son gets in\norder to train my robotto be like my son.\"Or do you think that we're\ngonna end up in a worldthat's more like the large language modelsand that'll have to do?- I suspect that we'll start by doingwhatever is most convenient,'cause that's whatever we can get.But I think that for robots to\nbe capable alongside humans,in a world with humans,I think that we may need to\nactually use human experience,human learning, to\ninform how robots learn,if we want them to followthe same kind of mistake\npattern as humans,so that humans can interpret robots,and humans can understand what\nrobots will and will not do.[upbeat music]The AI systems and robotics\nare starting to playa larger role in our everyday lives.Despite the fact that they're\nplaying this larger role,many people don't have\na full understandingof the limitations of these systems.And I hope that through\nthese conversations,you gained a better understanding\nof where the limitationsof these systems are and what\nthe future might look like."
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
UMass Professor Explains the Internet in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
0EqKnvzo3no
| 1,427
|
[] |
[
{
"text": "- Hi, I'm Jim Kurose,",
"timestamp": [
0.297,
1.68
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a professor",
"timestamp": [
1.68,
2.67
]
},
{
"text": "at the University of\nMassachusetts at Amherst,",
"timestamp": [
2.67,
4.98
]
},
{
"text": "and I've been challenged\nto describe the internet",
"timestamp": [
4.98,
7.5
]
},
{
"text": "in five levels of increasing difficulty.",
"timestamp": [
7.5,
10.29
]
},
{
"text": "The internet is the most\ntechnically complex system",
"timestamp": [
10.29,
13.74
]
},
{
"text": "that humanity has ever built.",
"timestamp": [
13.74,
15.78
]
},
{
"text": "The internet is a network of networks.",
"timestamp": [
15.78,
18.09
]
},
{
"text": "It's a platform on which all\nof the internet applications",
"timestamp": [
18.09,
21.99
]
},
{
"text": "that you've heard of can be built.",
"timestamp": [
21.99,
24.568
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
24.568,
25.98
]
},
{
"text": "Hi, it's really, really nice to meet you.",
"timestamp": [
25.98,
28.05
]
},
{
"text": "What's your name?",
"timestamp": [
28.05,
28.883
]
},
{
"text": "- My name is Skylar.",
"timestamp": [
28.883,
29.716
]
},
{
"text": "- Skylar, we're here to\ntalk about the internet,",
"timestamp": [
29.716,
31.38
]
},
{
"text": "and I bet you must use\nthe internet a lot, right?",
"timestamp": [
31.38,
33.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
33.9,
34.733
]
},
{
"text": "- What's your conception\nabout what the internet is?",
"timestamp": [
34.733,
37.14
]
},
{
"text": "- The internet?",
"timestamp": [
37.14,
38.07
]
},
{
"text": "For me, it's just something\nto use when I need",
"timestamp": [
38.07,
41.22
]
},
{
"text": "like to search up\nsomething or watch videos.",
"timestamp": [
41.22,
45.69
]
},
{
"text": "- The internet is,\nphysically, these computers",
"timestamp": [
45.69,
49.53
]
},
{
"text": "that all talk to each other.",
"timestamp": [
49.53,
50.76
]
},
{
"text": "Billions of computers, in\nthe case of the internet.",
"timestamp": [
50.76,
53.19
]
},
{
"text": "The internet allows us to do",
"timestamp": [
53.19,
55.44
]
},
{
"text": "a lot of really, really interesting,",
"timestamp": [
55.44,
58.08
]
},
{
"text": "what we call applications.",
"timestamp": [
58.08,
59.79
]
},
{
"text": "You ever think about how\nthat video gets to you",
"timestamp": [
59.79,
62.58
]
},
{
"text": "over the internet?",
"timestamp": [
62.58,
63.63
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I have no idea.",
"timestamp": [
63.63,
64.5
]
},
{
"text": "- Got a favorite movie?",
"timestamp": [
64.5,
65.677
]
},
{
"text": "- \"Matilda\".",
"timestamp": [
65.677,
66.51
]
},
{
"text": "- \"Matilda\". All right.",
"timestamp": [
66.51,
67.68
]
},
{
"text": "We're gonna actually build an internet.",
"timestamp": [
67.68,
69.03
]
},
{
"text": "I've got a couple of things\nhere that I wanna show you,",
"timestamp": [
69.03,
72.48
]
},
{
"text": "or a couple of toys, actually.",
"timestamp": [
72.48,
74.1
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, let's pretend that these\nround balls are computers.",
"timestamp": [
74.1,
77.307
]
},
{
"text": "And the internet is\nsomething that connects them.",
"timestamp": [
77.307,
79.71
]
},
{
"text": "And right now, the internet is\njust one communication link.",
"timestamp": [
79.71,
83.73
]
},
{
"text": "And \"Matilda\" is sent over the\ninternet from this computer",
"timestamp": [
83.73,
88.47
]
},
{
"text": "to your computer.",
"timestamp": [
88.47,
89.61
]
},
{
"text": "So the internet is a network\nfor carrying information",
"timestamp": [
89.61,
93.9
]
},
{
"text": "from one computer to another.",
"timestamp": [
93.9,
95.19
]
},
{
"text": "Now this network here looks\npretty simple, doesn't it?",
"timestamp": [
95.19,
98.34
]
},
{
"text": "Right? It's just one thing.",
"timestamp": [
98.34,
99.6
]
},
{
"text": "Should we add some more friends in?",
"timestamp": [
99.6,
101.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
101.01,
101.843
]
},
{
"text": "- Let's say we want to get a\nvideo from here, over to here.",
"timestamp": [
101.843,
105.84
]
},
{
"text": "How do you think that\nvideo would sort of travel",
"timestamp": [
105.84,
108.6
]
},
{
"text": "through this network?",
"timestamp": [
108.6,
109.688
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe it could go to here,\nto here, to here, to here.",
"timestamp": [
109.688,
112.98
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
112.98,
113.813
]
},
{
"text": "So that's pretty cool.",
"timestamp": [
113.813,
115.05
]
},
{
"text": "There are actually lots of\ndifferent ways to actually go",
"timestamp": [
115.05,
118.23
]
},
{
"text": "through the internet to get\nfrom what we call a source,",
"timestamp": [
118.23,
123.23
]
},
{
"text": "the place that's sending the information,",
"timestamp": [
123.51,
126.21
]
},
{
"text": "to the receiver, the place\nthat's actually gathering",
"timestamp": [
126.21,
129
]
},
{
"text": "the information together.",
"timestamp": [
129,
130.29
]
},
{
"text": "And that's something we\nactually call routing.",
"timestamp": [
130.29,
132.06
]
},
{
"text": "- Huh, but wouldn't it just be easier",
"timestamp": [
132.06,
134.433
]
},
{
"text": "for it to go from here to here,",
"timestamp": [
134.433,
136.86
]
},
{
"text": "instead of going from here to here,",
"timestamp": [
136.86,
138.99
]
},
{
"text": "to here to here?",
"timestamp": [
138.99,
139.823
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah. So that's a\nreally good observation.",
"timestamp": [
139.823,
143.46
]
},
{
"text": "In most pieces of the internet,",
"timestamp": [
143.46,
144.78
]
},
{
"text": "that's exactly what would happen.",
"timestamp": [
144.78,
146.61
]
},
{
"text": "We want to take what's\ncalled a shortest path.",
"timestamp": [
146.61,
149.49
]
},
{
"text": "But still, there are multiple paths.",
"timestamp": [
149.49,
152.412
]
},
{
"text": "And why do you think\nthat might be valuable?",
"timestamp": [
152.412,
153.54
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe one way is messed up or broken.",
"timestamp": [
153.54,
155.382
]
},
{
"text": "So you go the other way.",
"timestamp": [
155.382,
158.37
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
158.37,
159.203
]
},
{
"text": "So, Skylar, that was a great discussion",
"timestamp": [
159.203,
161.34
]
},
{
"text": "about what we just built.",
"timestamp": [
161.34,
163.17
]
},
{
"text": "And I wanted to talk to you about,",
"timestamp": [
163.17,
164.82
]
},
{
"text": "or ask you about maybe\none other really important",
"timestamp": [
164.82,
168.09
]
},
{
"text": "part about networks.",
"timestamp": [
168.09,
169.62
]
},
{
"text": "And it's not so much the thing itself,",
"timestamp": [
169.62,
172.83
]
},
{
"text": "the physical thing,",
"timestamp": [
172.83,
174.12
]
},
{
"text": "but more about the rules\nabout communication.",
"timestamp": [
174.12,
178.11
]
},
{
"text": "That's governed by something\nthat are called protocols.",
"timestamp": [
178.11,
181.74
]
},
{
"text": "Are you up for one?",
"timestamp": [
181.74,
182.61
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- Knock, knock.",
"timestamp": [
182.61,
183.75
]
},
{
"text": "- Who's there?",
"timestamp": [
183.75,
184.583
]
},
{
"text": "- Lettuce.\n- Lettuce who?",
"timestamp": [
184.583,
186.06
]
},
{
"text": "- Lettuce go on.",
"timestamp": [
186.06,
187.389
]
},
{
"text": "[Skylar and Jim laughing]",
"timestamp": [
187.389,
189
]
},
{
"text": "A knock, knock joke is an\nexample of a protocol, right?",
"timestamp": [
189,
191.46
]
},
{
"text": "The computer that you are\nusing say, makes a request,",
"timestamp": [
191.46,
194.73
]
},
{
"text": "you ask for something, you\nget something in return.",
"timestamp": [
194.73,
197.31
]
},
{
"text": "In the internet, there\nare protocols everywhere.",
"timestamp": [
197.31,
199.77
]
},
{
"text": "So that two computers\nthat have never talked",
"timestamp": [
199.77,
201.87
]
},
{
"text": "to each other before know the rules",
"timestamp": [
201.87,
204.643
]
},
{
"text": "for talking to each other.",
"timestamp": [
204.643,
206.46
]
},
{
"text": "This global internet with\nbillions of people using it",
"timestamp": [
206.46,
210.36
]
},
{
"text": "are just lots of smaller networks",
"timestamp": [
210.36,
212.85
]
},
{
"text": "that are all hooked\ntogether to each other.",
"timestamp": [
212.85,
215.22
]
},
{
"text": "But also, what the internet allows",
"timestamp": [
215.22,
218.49
]
},
{
"text": "are all of these what we\ncall applications, Zoom,",
"timestamp": [
218.49,
223.05
]
},
{
"text": "video playing services,",
"timestamp": [
223.05,
224.7
]
},
{
"text": "can all run on top of the same internet.",
"timestamp": [
224.7,
227.4
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so there's one\ninternet for all of 'em.",
"timestamp": [
227.4,
229.68
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
229.68,
230.513
]
},
{
"text": "There's one internet and lots\nand lots and lots of things",
"timestamp": [
230.513,
233.88
]
},
{
"text": "that you can do on top of it.",
"timestamp": [
233.88,
235.672
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
235.672,
238.56
]
},
{
"text": "So you're a student in\nhigh school, is that right?",
"timestamp": [
238.56,
241.05
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, I'm a sophomore.",
"timestamp": [
241.05,
242.296
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, we're gonna be talking\nabout computers here today,",
"timestamp": [
242.296,
245.01
]
},
{
"text": "and we're gonna be talking\nabout the internet.",
"timestamp": [
245.01,
246.87
]
},
{
"text": "I always like to think of\nthe internet by analogy",
"timestamp": [
246.87,
249.93
]
},
{
"text": "to say road systems for example,",
"timestamp": [
249.93,
251.79
]
},
{
"text": "where you have roads in your neighborhood.",
"timestamp": [
251.79,
253.71
]
},
{
"text": "You have state roads,",
"timestamp": [
253.71,
255.06
]
},
{
"text": "you have the Interstate Highway System.",
"timestamp": [
255.06,
256.68
]
},
{
"text": "And so the internet is a lot like that.",
"timestamp": [
256.68,
258.66
]
},
{
"text": "It's an interconnection of local roads,",
"timestamp": [
258.66,
261.63
]
},
{
"text": "local networks like the network\nin your house for example.",
"timestamp": [
261.63,
265.26
]
},
{
"text": "- How does like all of the\nnetworks in my house connect",
"timestamp": [
265.26,
269.22
]
},
{
"text": "to all the city networks?",
"timestamp": [
269.22,
271.44
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow. Great question.",
"timestamp": [
271.44,
272.85
]
},
{
"text": "Often, it's a little blue\nwire called an ethernet cable.",
"timestamp": [
272.85,
276.42
]
},
{
"text": "So that cable is able to\nbring bits of information",
"timestamp": [
276.42,
279.445
]
},
{
"text": "up into your apartment at say,\na billion bits per second.",
"timestamp": [
279.445,
283.83
]
},
{
"text": "That's pretty fast, right?",
"timestamp": [
283.83,
285.78
]
},
{
"text": "Literally a wire that goes\nbetween a box in your apartment,",
"timestamp": [
285.78,
290.37
]
},
{
"text": "sometimes called a router\nor a modem in your apartment",
"timestamp": [
290.37,
293.446
]
},
{
"text": "that comes from an\ninternet service provider",
"timestamp": [
293.446,
295.74
]
},
{
"text": "come into this first network\nand then that network connects",
"timestamp": [
295.74,
298.89
]
},
{
"text": "to another network\nconnects to another network",
"timestamp": [
298.89,
300.93
]
},
{
"text": "connects to another network.",
"timestamp": [
300.93,
302.236
]
},
{
"text": "- You could FaceTime somebody\nwho's like in Australia.",
"timestamp": [
302.236,
306.15
]
},
{
"text": "You can talk to them at the same time,",
"timestamp": [
306.15,
308.07
]
},
{
"text": "and like you're reaching the same signals.",
"timestamp": [
308.07,
309.66
]
},
{
"text": "So how is it that it gets there so fast?",
"timestamp": [
309.66,
311.64
]
},
{
"text": "- We could talk about that\nby analogy to a road system.",
"timestamp": [
311.64,
315.03
]
},
{
"text": "It's not just one big, super highway.",
"timestamp": [
315.03,
318.487
]
},
{
"text": "It's a lot of smaller super highways",
"timestamp": [
318.487,
321.3
]
},
{
"text": "that are all interconnected.",
"timestamp": [
321.3,
322.92
]
},
{
"text": "And those interchanges are\nwhat are called routers.",
"timestamp": [
322.92,
325.35
]
},
{
"text": "That's where the links come together.",
"timestamp": [
325.35,
326.94
]
},
{
"text": "You're talking about talking\nto a friend in Australia.",
"timestamp": [
326.94,
329.1
]
},
{
"text": "So oh, it's coming in from the East Coast",
"timestamp": [
329.1,
330.84
]
},
{
"text": "of the United States to this router,",
"timestamp": [
330.84,
332.76
]
},
{
"text": "and it's going out say, that\nrouters in San Francisco,",
"timestamp": [
332.76,
335.55
]
},
{
"text": "it's going out on an underseas\ncable over to Australia",
"timestamp": [
335.55,
339.6
]
},
{
"text": "rather than in this direction up to Japan.",
"timestamp": [
339.6,
341.52
]
},
{
"text": "- So there is an underseas cable?",
"timestamp": [
341.52,
343.197
]
},
{
"text": "- The underseas cables are so cool!",
"timestamp": [
343.197,
345.48
]
},
{
"text": "They're these big cables that\nare laid down by switches.",
"timestamp": [
345.48,
348.9
]
},
{
"text": "They cross both the Atlantic,\nthe Pacific, the Indian Ocean.",
"timestamp": [
348.9,
351.9
]
},
{
"text": "So the undersea cables are\nhow the networks in Europe,",
"timestamp": [
351.9,
356.37
]
},
{
"text": "United States, Asia are\nall connected together.",
"timestamp": [
356.37,
359.55
]
},
{
"text": "- How do you connect wirelessly?",
"timestamp": [
359.55,
361.26
]
},
{
"text": "- That's really what\nwe call the first hop.",
"timestamp": [
361.26,
363.99
]
},
{
"text": "It's like from your\nphone, from your tablet,",
"timestamp": [
363.99,
366.48
]
},
{
"text": "from the computer that you're on,",
"timestamp": [
366.48,
368.13
]
},
{
"text": "there's no cables coming in.",
"timestamp": [
368.13,
369.54
]
},
{
"text": "You go over a wireless connection.",
"timestamp": [
369.54,
371.46
]
},
{
"text": "Wi-Fi is the protocol that\nallows your computer to talk",
"timestamp": [
371.46,
374.67
]
},
{
"text": "to that first hop router over\na wireless communication link.",
"timestamp": [
374.67,
378.66
]
},
{
"text": "- And I was wondering how\nthere's so many different movies",
"timestamp": [
378.66,
382.02
]
},
{
"text": "or TV shows that you can\ndownload and they're all there.",
"timestamp": [
382.02,
384.9
]
},
{
"text": "And if you just play it,\nit just knows what to play.",
"timestamp": [
384.9,
388.14
]
},
{
"text": "Like they're all in one spot.",
"timestamp": [
388.14,
389.37
]
},
{
"text": "- Ah, you said they're all in one spot.",
"timestamp": [
389.37,
392.22
]
},
{
"text": "In fact, they're in lots\nof spots in Netflix.",
"timestamp": [
392.22,
395.4
]
},
{
"text": "And so most applications\nwould like to connect you",
"timestamp": [
395.4,
398.28
]
},
{
"text": "with a server that's close to you.",
"timestamp": [
398.28,
400.35
]
},
{
"text": "Server is really just a big\ncomputer with a lot of memory,",
"timestamp": [
400.35,
403.56
]
},
{
"text": "a lot of discs that store\nall the Netflix movies,",
"timestamp": [
403.56,
407.28
]
},
{
"text": "and also so that you\ndon't have to cross over",
"timestamp": [
407.28,
409.65
]
},
{
"text": "too many internet links to\nget from where the server is",
"timestamp": [
409.65,
413.16
]
},
{
"text": "to the TV or the device in your home.",
"timestamp": [
413.16,
415.83
]
},
{
"text": "- So when I'm watching\n\"Vampire Diaries\" in my house,",
"timestamp": [
415.83,
418.47
]
},
{
"text": "how does it know exactly what to do",
"timestamp": [
418.47,
420.51
]
},
{
"text": "without getting scrambled up?",
"timestamp": [
420.51,
421.71
]
},
{
"text": "- Ah, another great question.",
"timestamp": [
421.71,
423.66
]
},
{
"text": "There's a couple of\nthings that could happen",
"timestamp": [
423.66,
426.18
]
},
{
"text": "inside the internet.",
"timestamp": [
426.18,
427.17
]
},
{
"text": "Information is sent in these\nlittle packets of information",
"timestamp": [
427.17,
430.56
]
},
{
"text": "from the Netflix server\nto your display device.",
"timestamp": [
430.56,
434.13
]
},
{
"text": "And literally, each\npacket that arrives says,",
"timestamp": [
434.13,
436.987
]
},
{
"text": "\"This is the first packet for Jenna.",
"timestamp": [
436.987,
438.51
]
},
{
"text": "This is the second.",
"timestamp": [
438.51,
439.343
]
},
{
"text": "This is the third.",
"timestamp": [
439.343,
440.46
]
},
{
"text": "This is the fifth.",
"timestamp": [
440.46,
441.6
]
},
{
"text": "This is the fourth.\"",
"timestamp": [
441.6,
442.77
]
},
{
"text": "And they're reordered for you.",
"timestamp": [
442.77,
444.51
]
},
{
"text": "Matter of fact, your computer will say,",
"timestamp": [
444.51,
446.25
]
},
{
"text": "using the TCP protocol to the server,",
"timestamp": [
446.25,
448.207
]
},
{
"text": "\"Hey, I didn't get packet\nfour, can you resend it again?\"",
"timestamp": [
448.207,
451.5
]
},
{
"text": "And again, the Netflix\nserver is very happy",
"timestamp": [
451.5,
453.6
]
},
{
"text": "to send you packet four again.",
"timestamp": [
453.6,
455.1
]
},
{
"text": "The other is the internet protocol.",
"timestamp": [
455.1,
457.26
]
},
{
"text": "If you think about sending letters",
"timestamp": [
457.26,
458.919
]
},
{
"text": "through the US Postal Service,",
"timestamp": [
458.919,
461.49
]
},
{
"text": "how you've got an address on it.",
"timestamp": [
461.49,
462.99
]
},
{
"text": "So every packet that flows\nfrom the Netflix server to you",
"timestamp": [
462.99,
466.35
]
},
{
"text": "has an address on it.",
"timestamp": [
466.35,
467.183
]
},
{
"text": "It says, \"This is going to Jenna.\"",
"timestamp": [
467.183,
468.9
]
},
{
"text": "It's going to the what's called",
"timestamp": [
468.9,
470.1
]
},
{
"text": "the Internet Protocol\naddress of your device.",
"timestamp": [
470.1,
473.25
]
},
{
"text": "Think of all the range of devices",
"timestamp": [
473.25,
475.53
]
},
{
"text": "that are hooked up to the internet.",
"timestamp": [
475.53,
476.49
]
},
{
"text": "It's totally amazing, right?",
"timestamp": [
476.49,
478.11
]
},
{
"text": "Every single one of them\nhas one thing in common,",
"timestamp": [
478.11,
481.02
]
},
{
"text": "and that is they speak the IP protocol,",
"timestamp": [
481.02,
483.69
]
},
{
"text": "the Internet Protocol.",
"timestamp": [
483.69,
485.04
]
},
{
"text": "That was a great question.",
"timestamp": [
485.04,
486.391
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
486.391,
489.12
]
},
{
"text": "So tell me a little bit about yourself?",
"timestamp": [
489.12,
490.62
]
},
{
"text": "- I am a senior at New York University.",
"timestamp": [
490.62,
493.41
]
},
{
"text": "I study computer science.",
"timestamp": [
493.41,
494.94
]
},
{
"text": "- Have you taken any\ncourses on the internet",
"timestamp": [
494.94,
497.01
]
},
{
"text": "or studied it at all?",
"timestamp": [
497.01,
498
]
},
{
"text": "- I've taken Applied Internet Technology.",
"timestamp": [
498,
499.95
]
},
{
"text": "So we've talked about\nbackend/frontend frameworks",
"timestamp": [
499.95,
504.18
]
},
{
"text": "and libraries, things like that.",
"timestamp": [
504.18,
505.86
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, so really at\nthe application level?",
"timestamp": [
505.86,
508.26
]
},
{
"text": "- At the application level, for sure.",
"timestamp": [
508.26,
509.55
]
},
{
"text": "- I wanted to ask you a\nlittle bit about what you know",
"timestamp": [
509.55,
511.62
]
},
{
"text": "about the history of the internet.",
"timestamp": [
511.62,
513.81
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard of ARPANET, for example?",
"timestamp": [
513.81,
515.73
]
},
{
"text": "- I have not heard of ARPANET.",
"timestamp": [
515.73,
517.92
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, back into the 1960s,\nthere was a research agency",
"timestamp": [
517.92,
521.4
]
},
{
"text": "in the United States called DARPA,",
"timestamp": [
521.4,
523.17
]
},
{
"text": "the Defense Advanced\nResearch Projects Agency.",
"timestamp": [
523.17,
526.44
]
},
{
"text": "Actually, it was called ARPA at the time.",
"timestamp": [
526.44,
527.94
]
},
{
"text": "They wanted to build this notion",
"timestamp": [
527.94,
529.98
]
},
{
"text": "of a packet-switching network.",
"timestamp": [
529.98,
532.02
]
},
{
"text": "Not a circuit switch\nnetwork like a phone network",
"timestamp": [
532.02,
535.08
]
},
{
"text": "where you get a dedicated path",
"timestamp": [
535.08,
536.82
]
},
{
"text": "and a dedicated set of bandwidth and links",
"timestamp": [
536.82,
539.01
]
},
{
"text": "from source to destination.",
"timestamp": [
539.01,
540.48
]
},
{
"text": "- So what would packet switching enable?",
"timestamp": [
540.48,
542.91
]
},
{
"text": "I'm sure there's something\nbig here, for sure.",
"timestamp": [
542.91,
545.265
]
},
{
"text": "- There's a lot big, right?",
"timestamp": [
545.265,
546.777
]
},
{
"text": "And so remember, this was\na Department of Defense,",
"timestamp": [
546.777,
549.03
]
},
{
"text": "was they wanted to have\nforms of of communication",
"timestamp": [
549.03,
552.27
]
},
{
"text": "that were very robust,\nthat were survivable.",
"timestamp": [
552.27,
554.97
]
},
{
"text": "Packets could all find their own ways,",
"timestamp": [
554.97,
557.28
]
},
{
"text": "be routed differently through the network.",
"timestamp": [
557.28,
559.47
]
},
{
"text": "So if parts of the network failed,",
"timestamp": [
559.47,
560.88
]
},
{
"text": "you could route around failures.",
"timestamp": [
560.88,
562.71
]
},
{
"text": "- Sounds like the reason",
"timestamp": [
562.71,
564.45
]
},
{
"text": "for like a request\nresponse type of structure.",
"timestamp": [
564.45,
569.28
]
},
{
"text": "- So you can sort of see\nhow the network architecture",
"timestamp": [
569.28,
572.55
]
},
{
"text": "that wasn't designed to be 100% reliable",
"timestamp": [
572.55,
576.63
]
},
{
"text": "inside the core of the network,",
"timestamp": [
576.63,
578.16
]
},
{
"text": "and had that complexity built\ninto the edges of the network.",
"timestamp": [
578.16,
582.06
]
},
{
"text": "And to me, the really cool thing is you",
"timestamp": [
582.06,
584.205
]
},
{
"text": "put this infrastructure in place,",
"timestamp": [
584.205,
586.86
]
},
{
"text": "and then all these super creative people",
"timestamp": [
586.86,
588.91
]
},
{
"text": "think about amazing things\nto build on top of it.",
"timestamp": [
588.91,
592.71
]
},
{
"text": "And you see this proliferation\nof amazing applications.",
"timestamp": [
592.71,
596.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Abstraction, I think it's\nthe reason why everything.",
"timestamp": [
596.82,
600.33
]
},
{
"text": "- Ah ha! Spoken like a real\ncomputer scientist, right?",
"timestamp": [
600.33,
603.36
]
},
{
"text": "You're a computer scientist.\nI'm a computer scientist.",
"timestamp": [
603.36,
605.28
]
},
{
"text": "We talk about APIs, application\nprogramming interfaces.",
"timestamp": [
605.28,
608.94
]
},
{
"text": "The API for the internet is something",
"timestamp": [
608.94,
611.91
]
},
{
"text": "called a socket.",
"timestamp": [
611.91,
613.41
]
},
{
"text": "And a socket simply says,",
"timestamp": [
613.41,
614.947
]
},
{
"text": "\"I can communicate if I\nknow your internet address,\"",
"timestamp": [
614.947,
617.97
]
},
{
"text": "you know, 128.119.40.186,",
"timestamp": [
617.97,
621.39
]
},
{
"text": "that number is the IP\naddress of my server,",
"timestamp": [
621.39,
624.33
]
},
{
"text": "the University of Massachusetts.",
"timestamp": [
624.33,
625.68
]
},
{
"text": "If you know that, you can write a program",
"timestamp": [
625.68,
628.65
]
},
{
"text": "anywhere in the world and send a message,",
"timestamp": [
628.65,
630.793
]
},
{
"text": "and it'll pop out at my end.",
"timestamp": [
630.793,
633.24
]
},
{
"text": "- I will be remembering that.",
"timestamp": [
633.24,
634.528
]
},
{
"text": "[Jim laughs]",
"timestamp": [
634.528,
635.79
]
},
{
"text": "I've heard that there are like\nseven keys to the internet,",
"timestamp": [
635.79,
640.02
]
},
{
"text": "something like that.",
"timestamp": [
640.02,
641.07
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay, well I don't know\nabout the number seven,",
"timestamp": [
641.07,
644.7
]
},
{
"text": "but there's something in the internet",
"timestamp": [
644.7,
647.31
]
},
{
"text": "that's sort of similar to that.",
"timestamp": [
647.31,
649.5
]
},
{
"text": "It's called the Domain Name System.",
"timestamp": [
649.5,
651.48
]
},
{
"text": "The DNS's role is to translate names",
"timestamp": [
651.48,
655.53
]
},
{
"text": "like gaia.cs.umass.edu, or\nibm.com, or facebook.com",
"timestamp": [
655.53,
660.24
]
},
{
"text": "to an IP address so that your application",
"timestamp": [
660.24,
663.66
]
},
{
"text": "can actually send a message to that name,",
"timestamp": [
663.66,
666.63
]
},
{
"text": "to that named service.",
"timestamp": [
666.63,
668.16
]
},
{
"text": "- This whatever quantity of people",
"timestamp": [
668.16,
669.81
]
},
{
"text": "is able to have some form of control?",
"timestamp": [
669.81,
673.11
]
},
{
"text": "- So that's a great question.",
"timestamp": [
673.11,
674.82
]
},
{
"text": "Who do you think controls the internet?",
"timestamp": [
674.82,
676.59
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm pretty sure the internet\nis fairly decentralized.",
"timestamp": [
676.59,
680.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay. What does that mean?",
"timestamp": [
680.01,
681.24
]
},
{
"text": "- No one authority holds control",
"timestamp": [
681.24,
684.93
]
},
{
"text": "over any sort of\ndecisions or destinations.",
"timestamp": [
684.93,
688.485
]
},
{
"text": "- That's 98% true.",
"timestamp": [
688.485,
692.43
]
},
{
"text": "And if you own a network,\nlike you're att.com,",
"timestamp": [
692.43,
696.54
]
},
{
"text": "or your verizon.com, you\ncan do, within that network,",
"timestamp": [
696.54,
699.87
]
},
{
"text": "you can do what you want, right?",
"timestamp": [
699.87,
701.76
]
},
{
"text": "So in that sense, the internet\nis very decentralized,",
"timestamp": [
701.76,
704.85
]
},
{
"text": "that the control of the network is up",
"timestamp": [
704.85,
707.04
]
},
{
"text": "to whoever owns the network.",
"timestamp": [
707.04,
708.81
]
},
{
"text": "The 2% where you said\nthere's nobody in control,",
"timestamp": [
708.81,
712.68
]
},
{
"text": "there's a a little bit\nof centralized control.",
"timestamp": [
712.68,
714.96
]
},
{
"text": "There's an organization called",
"timestamp": [
714.96,
716.46
]
},
{
"text": "the Internet Corporation for\nAssigned Names and Numbers.",
"timestamp": [
716.46,
719.1
]
},
{
"text": "Its responsibility is to handle,\nas the name ICANN suggests,",
"timestamp": [
719.1,
723.81
]
},
{
"text": "names and numbers.",
"timestamp": [
723.81,
725.22
]
},
{
"text": "It's that little bit of centralization,",
"timestamp": [
725.22,
727.98
]
},
{
"text": "central authority that you need.",
"timestamp": [
727.98,
729.78
]
},
{
"text": "- When can we see the\nnext tenfold increase",
"timestamp": [
729.78,
733.11
]
},
{
"text": "in in Wi-Fi speed?",
"timestamp": [
733.11,
735.36
]
},
{
"text": "- In terms of tenfold speeds of increases,",
"timestamp": [
735.36,
738.69
]
},
{
"text": "depending on what device\nyou're using right now,",
"timestamp": [
738.69,
741
]
},
{
"text": "it's available, all you\nneed to do is upgrade.",
"timestamp": [
741,
743.43
]
},
{
"text": "So the Wi-Fi protocol's called 802.11.",
"timestamp": [
743.43,
747
]
},
{
"text": "And this is sometimes a source\nof confusion for people.",
"timestamp": [
747,
749.61
]
},
{
"text": "How can it be that I've got a connection",
"timestamp": [
749.61,
751.658
]
},
{
"text": "at 100 megabits per second\nfrom our TV into our router?",
"timestamp": [
751.658,
756.36
]
},
{
"text": "100 megabits per second not enough?",
"timestamp": [
756.36,
758.97
]
},
{
"text": "- Packets dropping?",
"timestamp": [
758.97,
760.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Where do they get dropped, do you think?",
"timestamp": [
760.38,
763.14
]
},
{
"text": "- Somewhere in their travel process.",
"timestamp": [
763.14,
765.18
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly, right.",
"timestamp": [
765.18,
766.02
]
},
{
"text": "And maybe they're dropped\nin your apartment,",
"timestamp": [
766.02,
768.57
]
},
{
"text": "but much more likely, they're\ndropped because of congestion",
"timestamp": [
768.57,
771.75
]
},
{
"text": "somewhere between the Hulu or the Netflix",
"timestamp": [
771.75,
774.72
]
},
{
"text": "or the Disney server, if\nyou're watching a video,",
"timestamp": [
774.72,
777.27
]
},
{
"text": "and your home.",
"timestamp": [
777.27,
778.26
]
},
{
"text": "So even though you've got\n200 megabits per second",
"timestamp": [
778.26,
781.47
]
},
{
"text": "on that last hop, you don't\nhave 200 megabits per second",
"timestamp": [
781.47,
785.07
]
},
{
"text": "from the server into your apartment.",
"timestamp": [
785.07,
788.13
]
},
{
"text": "- I see.",
"timestamp": [
788.13,
788.963
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm curious, has our conversation",
"timestamp": [
788.963,
790.95
]
},
{
"text": "sort of changed your view or\nsort of taught you new things",
"timestamp": [
790.95,
794.85
]
},
{
"text": "about the internet?",
"timestamp": [
794.85,
795.84
]
},
{
"text": "- I think that I've sort of realized",
"timestamp": [
795.84,
798.09
]
},
{
"text": "that the internet is a\ntechnology that's dependent",
"timestamp": [
798.09,
801.93
]
},
{
"text": "upon so many other factors.",
"timestamp": [
801.93,
804.15
]
},
{
"text": "Some more in our control, some less.",
"timestamp": [
804.15,
807.019
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
807.019,
809.61
]
},
{
"text": "- Tell us a little bit about yourself?",
"timestamp": [
809.61,
811.02
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Caspar Lant.",
"timestamp": [
811.02,
812.22
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a PhD student at Columbia University",
"timestamp": [
812.22,
814.41
]
},
{
"text": "under Henning Schulzrinne's tutelage.",
"timestamp": [
814.41,
816.48
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, good pronunciation. [laughing]",
"timestamp": [
816.48,
817.74
]
},
{
"text": "- Thank you.",
"timestamp": [
817.74,
818.7
]
},
{
"text": "I'm interested in networking, IoT,",
"timestamp": [
818.7,
821.01
]
},
{
"text": "and sort of what kind of\ndata science you can use",
"timestamp": [
821.01,
823.5
]
},
{
"text": "with the datasets that\nyou get from such devices.",
"timestamp": [
823.5,
826.813
]
},
{
"text": "One of the things that I designed before,",
"timestamp": [
826.813,
828.54
]
},
{
"text": "starting my PhD with Henning,",
"timestamp": [
828.54,
830.28
]
},
{
"text": "was a IoT pill dispenser, essentially,",
"timestamp": [
830.28,
833.91
]
},
{
"text": "which pairs with your smartphone,",
"timestamp": [
833.91,
836.01
]
},
{
"text": "which does facial detection",
"timestamp": [
836.01,
837.39
]
},
{
"text": "and other computer vision controls",
"timestamp": [
837.39,
838.92
]
},
{
"text": "and can basically tell who's taking",
"timestamp": [
838.92,
840.9
]
},
{
"text": "some sensitive medication",
"timestamp": [
840.9,
842.55
]
},
{
"text": "and make sure that they've\ntaken it correctly.",
"timestamp": [
842.55,
845.4
]
},
{
"text": "- We have these low-power devices",
"timestamp": [
845.4,
846.75
]
},
{
"text": "they're sort of at the edge.",
"timestamp": [
846.75,
848.52
]
},
{
"text": "Is it just connecting them\nin across a wireless link?",
"timestamp": [
848.52,
852.72
]
},
{
"text": "Is that the primary challenge or?",
"timestamp": [
852.72,
854.7
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, I think the primary\nchallenge is that for sure,",
"timestamp": [
854.7,
857.64
]
},
{
"text": "but then an additional challenge",
"timestamp": [
857.64,
859.11
]
},
{
"text": "is keeping everything\nconfigured in the way",
"timestamp": [
859.11,
861.48
]
},
{
"text": "that you expect it to be configured.",
"timestamp": [
861.48,
863.55
]
},
{
"text": "So for example, most\nIoT devices require you,",
"timestamp": [
863.55,
866.46
]
},
{
"text": "when you're configuring them for you",
"timestamp": [
866.46,
868.83
]
},
{
"text": "to enter some kind of captive login portal",
"timestamp": [
868.83,
871.53
]
},
{
"text": "where you connect to a local network",
"timestamp": [
871.53,
874.2
]
},
{
"text": "that the IoT device produces,",
"timestamp": [
874.2,
875.97
]
},
{
"text": "and then you can input your\nWi-Fi SSID and password.",
"timestamp": [
875.97,
879.75
]
},
{
"text": "But then say if you were\nto change the password",
"timestamp": [
879.75,
882.6
]
},
{
"text": "or the name of your Wi-Fi network",
"timestamp": [
882.6,
884.04
]
},
{
"text": "or you move to a new place, then suddenly,",
"timestamp": [
884.04,
886.95
]
},
{
"text": "everything needs to be reconfigured.",
"timestamp": [
886.95,
888.51
]
},
{
"text": "'Cause that's a problem\nthat scales linearly.",
"timestamp": [
888.51,
890.802
]
},
{
"text": "- That you don't want the\ncomplexity of managing them",
"timestamp": [
890.802,
893.73
]
},
{
"text": "to go up linearly with that.",
"timestamp": [
893.73,
895.65
]
},
{
"text": "You'd like it to still stay\npretty flat as you start adding.",
"timestamp": [
895.65,
899.1
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
899.1,
899.97
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, the good thing about IoT devices",
"timestamp": [
899.97,
901.74
]
},
{
"text": "is that they tend to transmit",
"timestamp": [
901.74,
903.21
]
},
{
"text": "very, very small amounts of data.",
"timestamp": [
903.21,
905.43
]
},
{
"text": "- We're used to ethernet cables",
"timestamp": [
905.43,
906.75
]
},
{
"text": "that can handle many hundreds\nof gigabits per second",
"timestamp": [
906.75,
909.78
]
},
{
"text": "over a wired device.",
"timestamp": [
909.78,
911.1
]
},
{
"text": "What are the typical data\nrates for IoT devices?",
"timestamp": [
911.1,
914.4
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, not hundreds of gigabits.",
"timestamp": [
914.4,
916.02
]
},
{
"text": "- No, I mean I would imagine\nupper bound, KB per second,",
"timestamp": [
916.02,
920.58
]
},
{
"text": "lower bound, you could see bytes\nper second just on average.",
"timestamp": [
920.58,
923.46
]
},
{
"text": "But I mean, say that you have\na temperature sensor running",
"timestamp": [
923.46,
927.45
]
},
{
"text": "off of your Arduino that's\nreporting the temperature",
"timestamp": [
927.45,
930.48
]
},
{
"text": "in your house every minute.",
"timestamp": [
930.48,
931.62
]
},
{
"text": "That's going to be far less",
"timestamp": [
931.62,
932.79
]
},
{
"text": "than kilobytes per second on average.",
"timestamp": [
932.79,
934.68
]
},
{
"text": "- My sense is you're spot on,",
"timestamp": [
934.68,
936.87
]
},
{
"text": "that they'll produce\nover time, a lot of data.",
"timestamp": [
936.87,
940.29
]
},
{
"text": "And that a lot of IoT is\nabout computing on that data.",
"timestamp": [
940.29,
943.83
]
},
{
"text": "That computation happened\nmostly at the edge,",
"timestamp": [
943.83,
946.2
]
},
{
"text": "or somehow a combination between the edge",
"timestamp": [
946.2,
949.23
]
},
{
"text": "and something happening\nin a far away data center.",
"timestamp": [
949.23,
952.02
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, my sense is right\nnow that all that data tends",
"timestamp": [
952.02,
954.21
]
},
{
"text": "to be centralized because IoT devices",
"timestamp": [
954.21,
956.19
]
},
{
"text": "are usually the commercial\nproducts of companies.",
"timestamp": [
956.19,
959.19
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you think they'll share it?",
"timestamp": [
959.19,
960.39
]
},
{
"text": "- Not without some persuasion,",
"timestamp": [
960.39,
962.52
]
},
{
"text": "but I agree that these data",
"timestamp": [
962.52,
964.65
]
},
{
"text": "have massive, massive research value.",
"timestamp": [
964.65,
967.08
]
},
{
"text": "Something I'm interested\nin with my research",
"timestamp": [
967.08,
969
]
},
{
"text": "is collaborating with people who manage",
"timestamp": [
969,
971.34
]
},
{
"text": "these distributed sensor devices,",
"timestamp": [
971.34,
973.59
]
},
{
"text": "and then taking advantage\nof those datasets",
"timestamp": [
973.59,
976.331
]
},
{
"text": "and comparing them to,\nsay you were interested",
"timestamp": [
976.331,
979.71
]
},
{
"text": "in doing a research project\non how daily rush hour traffic",
"timestamp": [
979.71,
983.34
]
},
{
"text": "impacts the acoustic\nlandscape of New York City.",
"timestamp": [
983.34,
986.04
]
},
{
"text": "Figuring out, look, this\nstreet next to this school",
"timestamp": [
986.04,
989.67
]
},
{
"text": "is causing visible ratings\nabove what we mandate.",
"timestamp": [
989.67,
992.64
]
},
{
"text": "And so there needs to\nbe an intervention here.",
"timestamp": [
992.64,
995.19
]
},
{
"text": "- I think for a long time,",
"timestamp": [
995.19,
996.39
]
},
{
"text": "the internet hasn't grappled with,",
"timestamp": [
996.39,
998.22
]
},
{
"text": "but now has with IoT and\nalso with cellular networks,",
"timestamp": [
998.22,
1002.15
]
},
{
"text": "generally is the question of mobility.",
"timestamp": [
1002.15,
1003.71
]
},
{
"text": "Do you imagine in the future\nthat it might be possible",
"timestamp": [
1003.71,
1006.182
]
},
{
"text": "for mobile devices not\nto always have to connect",
"timestamp": [
1006.182,
1009.5
]
},
{
"text": "through the same provider to\ngo from one network to another?",
"timestamp": [
1009.5,
1012.32
]
},
{
"text": "- Definitely.",
"timestamp": [
1012.32,
1013.153
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, we're already\nseeing long range networks",
"timestamp": [
1013.153,
1015.02
]
},
{
"text": "like LoRa that can, first\nof all, provide access",
"timestamp": [
1015.02,
1017.99
]
},
{
"text": "over a much larger coverage area,",
"timestamp": [
1017.99,
1019.7
]
},
{
"text": "but then also look the same",
"timestamp": [
1019.7,
1021.2
]
},
{
"text": "because they're set up to\nthe same specification,",
"timestamp": [
1021.2,
1023.87
]
},
{
"text": "regardless of where the\nindividual gateway is.",
"timestamp": [
1023.87,
1026.267
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
1026.267,
1028.61
]
},
{
"text": "- So hey, Jen, it's\ngreat to see you again.",
"timestamp": [
1028.61,
1030.47
]
},
{
"text": "- Good to see you, Jim.",
"timestamp": [
1030.47,
1031.303
]
},
{
"text": "- We're in level five now.",
"timestamp": [
1031.303,
1032.93
]
},
{
"text": "So you're the expert-expert.",
"timestamp": [
1032.93,
1035.12
]
},
{
"text": "I'm a huge fan of the\nwork that you did in RCP,",
"timestamp": [
1035.12,
1038.33
]
},
{
"text": "the Routing Control\nPlatform being a precursor",
"timestamp": [
1038.33,
1041.253
]
},
{
"text": "to software-defined networking",
"timestamp": [
1041.253,
1043.52
]
},
{
"text": "and the notion that rather\nthan having protocols",
"timestamp": [
1043.52,
1046.34
]
},
{
"text": "actually always compute things,",
"timestamp": [
1046.34,
1047.84
]
},
{
"text": "that we could compute\nthings in data centers.",
"timestamp": [
1047.84,
1051.05
]
},
{
"text": "I'd be interested if you\ncould sort of just reflect",
"timestamp": [
1051.05,
1053.18
]
},
{
"text": "back on that time and\nsort of the beginnings",
"timestamp": [
1053.18,
1055.46
]
},
{
"text": "of SDN and where it's come since then.",
"timestamp": [
1055.46,
1057.47
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, and when we were at AT&T,",
"timestamp": [
1057.47,
1059.21
]
},
{
"text": "the thing we found most frustrating",
"timestamp": [
1059.21,
1060.62
]
},
{
"text": "is AT&T would buy routers,",
"timestamp": [
1060.62,
1062.15
]
},
{
"text": "and they would come pre-baked\nwith a set of protocols",
"timestamp": [
1062.15,
1065.45
]
},
{
"text": "instead of knobs that you\ncould turn if you wanted",
"timestamp": [
1065.45,
1066.954
]
},
{
"text": "to influence how the traffic flowed,",
"timestamp": [
1066.954,
1069.11
]
},
{
"text": "and a set of dials you\ncould read to understand",
"timestamp": [
1069.11,
1071.69
]
},
{
"text": "what was going on inside the network.",
"timestamp": [
1071.69,
1073.16
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, you couldn't directly\ndo what you wanted to.",
"timestamp": [
1073.16,
1075.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
1075.38,
1076.28
]
},
{
"text": "And so we started thinking\nabout earlier work that was done",
"timestamp": [
1076.28,
1078.44
]
},
{
"text": "in the telephony network,\nthe old telephone network.",
"timestamp": [
1078.44,
1080.6
]
},
{
"text": "And there, they had the same problem.",
"timestamp": [
1080.6,
1081.83
]
},
{
"text": "And they had the idea of having\na computer running a program",
"timestamp": [
1081.83,
1085.76
]
},
{
"text": "tell a distributed set of\ntelephony switches what to do.",
"timestamp": [
1085.76,
1089.06
]
},
{
"text": "But the idea was like, wow,\nit was kind of a revelation,",
"timestamp": [
1089.06,
1091.1
]
},
{
"text": "like what would that\nlook like if we did that?",
"timestamp": [
1091.1,
1093.02
]
},
{
"text": "Not for the whole internet,\nbut at least AT&T's part",
"timestamp": [
1093.02,
1095.09
]
},
{
"text": "of the internet.",
"timestamp": [
1095.09,
1095.97
]
},
{
"text": "So in other words, use software",
"timestamp": [
1095.97,
1097.31
]
},
{
"text": "instead of distributed protocols",
"timestamp": [
1097.31,
1098.99
]
},
{
"text": "to to tell the network what to do.",
"timestamp": [
1098.99,
1100.64
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, do you see the\nsoftwarization of the internet",
"timestamp": [
1100.64,
1103.19
]
},
{
"text": "as a whole happening?",
"timestamp": [
1103.19,
1104.78
]
},
{
"text": "- So, so far, it hasn't very much.",
"timestamp": [
1104.78,
1106.49
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, basically,\nsoftware-defined networking exists,",
"timestamp": [
1106.49,
1108.62
]
},
{
"text": "let's say within a\nsingle provider backbone,",
"timestamp": [
1108.62,
1111.11
]
},
{
"text": "or a single cloud provider's\nnetwork or a single campus.",
"timestamp": [
1111.11,
1113.948
]
},
{
"text": "There's been some work on\ndoing it at the juncture points",
"timestamp": [
1113.948,
1116.6
]
},
{
"text": "between a pair of networks.",
"timestamp": [
1116.6,
1117.92
]
},
{
"text": "But one other trend that's happening",
"timestamp": [
1117.92,
1119.24
]
},
{
"text": "that makes it more possible is it used",
"timestamp": [
1119.24,
1120.89
]
},
{
"text": "to be that to get from one end\nto the internet to the other,",
"timestamp": [
1120.89,
1123.74
]
},
{
"text": "you have access networks getting\nmuch closer to, say Google",
"timestamp": [
1123.74,
1127.76
]
},
{
"text": "or Microsoft or other\nlarge cloud providers,",
"timestamp": [
1127.76,
1130.61
]
},
{
"text": "where even, you might only\ngo through two networks",
"timestamp": [
1130.61,
1133.28
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, so some people have called",
"timestamp": [
1133.28,
1134.36
]
},
{
"text": "that the flattening of\nthe internet, right?",
"timestamp": [
1134.36,
1135.883
]
},
{
"text": "I think it used to be on average,",
"timestamp": [
1135.883,
1137.63
]
},
{
"text": "you would go through 10 different networks",
"timestamp": [
1137.63,
1140.27
]
},
{
"text": "to get from a source to a destination.",
"timestamp": [
1140.27,
1141.654
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, exactly.",
"timestamp": [
1141.654,
1142.79
]
},
{
"text": "And if you take that even further,",
"timestamp": [
1142.79,
1144.08
]
},
{
"text": "they're starting to be more edge computing",
"timestamp": [
1144.08,
1145.79
]
},
{
"text": "where you might imagine\nyou might have a cell tower",
"timestamp": [
1145.79,
1148.37
]
},
{
"text": "connected to a small number of routers,",
"timestamp": [
1148.37,
1149.99
]
},
{
"text": "connected directly to a server",
"timestamp": [
1149.99,
1151.4
]
},
{
"text": "that's gonna be running the application.",
"timestamp": [
1151.4,
1153.38
]
},
{
"text": "In that case, the entire\ninfrastructure might be controlled",
"timestamp": [
1153.38,
1155.75
]
},
{
"text": "by a single party.",
"timestamp": [
1155.75,
1156.583
]
},
{
"text": "- It's totally fascinating to me",
"timestamp": [
1156.583,
1157.85
]
},
{
"text": "that we have such an important\nglobal infrastructure,",
"timestamp": [
1157.85,
1162.279
]
},
{
"text": "and yet, the laws that that govern it tend",
"timestamp": [
1162.279,
1165.95
]
},
{
"text": "to be very, very local.",
"timestamp": [
1165.95,
1168.32
]
},
{
"text": "- There are tens of thousands",
"timestamp": [
1168.32,
1169.43
]
},
{
"text": "of separately administered networks,",
"timestamp": [
1169.43,
1170.72
]
},
{
"text": "and of course, in hundreds of countries.",
"timestamp": [
1170.72,
1173.18
]
},
{
"text": "And the fact that it even\nholds together at all",
"timestamp": [
1173.18,
1174.98
]
},
{
"text": "is kind of a miracle.",
"timestamp": [
1174.98,
1175.97
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, well it holds together\nbecause we have standards,",
"timestamp": [
1175.97,
1178.97
]
},
{
"text": "and we have protocols",
"timestamp": [
1178.97,
1180.004
]
},
{
"text": "that you mentioned.\n- Exactly, protocol standards",
"timestamp": [
1180.004,
1181.038
]
},
{
"text": "for how the equipment\ntalks to one another.",
"timestamp": [
1181.038,
1183.8
]
},
{
"text": "And increasingly, certificate authorities",
"timestamp": [
1183.8,
1185.72
]
},
{
"text": "that help bootstrap the secure, encrypted",
"timestamp": [
1185.72,
1188.48
]
},
{
"text": "and communication between end hosts.",
"timestamp": [
1188.48,
1190.43
]
},
{
"text": "So there are a few of\nthese sort of centrally,",
"timestamp": [
1190.43,
1192.47
]
},
{
"text": "kind of agreed upon\nkinds of infrastructure,",
"timestamp": [
1192.47,
1194.66
]
},
{
"text": "but for the most part,\neach network runs itself.",
"timestamp": [
1194.66,
1197.33
]
},
{
"text": "- And certainly, we've\nheard about some countries",
"timestamp": [
1197.33,
1199.58
]
},
{
"text": "that impose firewalls",
"timestamp": [
1199.58,
1200.87
]
},
{
"text": "that don't let certain\nkinds of traffic out,",
"timestamp": [
1200.87,
1203.12
]
},
{
"text": "or certain kinds of traffic in.",
"timestamp": [
1203.12,
1205.61
]
},
{
"text": "So there's no global body\nthat is regulating that?",
"timestamp": [
1205.61,
1208.97
]
},
{
"text": "- Not really because each country",
"timestamp": [
1208.97,
1210.47
]
},
{
"text": "really can have it's own\nlaws and its own norms.",
"timestamp": [
1210.47,
1212.75
]
},
{
"text": "And so they can decide,",
"timestamp": [
1212.75,
1214.01
]
},
{
"text": "like the Great Firewall\nof China can decide,",
"timestamp": [
1214.01,
1216.38
]
},
{
"text": "they don't wanna let\ncertain content be accessed",
"timestamp": [
1216.38,
1218.51
]
},
{
"text": "by the citizens inside that country.",
"timestamp": [
1218.51,
1220.16
]
},
{
"text": "So if a country decides they\ndon't wanna answer a request",
"timestamp": [
1220.16,
1222.29
]
},
{
"text": "for a particular domain name, they say,",
"timestamp": [
1222.29,
1223.767
]
},
{
"text": "\"Hey, I don't want to let\nsomeone know the IP address",
"timestamp": [
1223.767,
1225.86
]
},
{
"text": "of this website.\"",
"timestamp": [
1225.86,
1226.693
]
},
{
"text": "They can decide not to let\nthose answers be delivered",
"timestamp": [
1226.693,
1229.37
]
},
{
"text": "inside their country.",
"timestamp": [
1229.37,
1230.33
]
},
{
"text": "And so encryption plays\na role in helping people",
"timestamp": [
1230.33,
1233.334
]
},
{
"text": "keep their privacy or\nprevent surveillance,",
"timestamp": [
1233.334,
1236.36
]
},
{
"text": "but it's not perfect.",
"timestamp": [
1236.36,
1237.29
]
},
{
"text": "It's often possible, still,\nto know a fair amount",
"timestamp": [
1237.29,
1240.32
]
},
{
"text": "about what people are doing,\neven if you can't look",
"timestamp": [
1240.32,
1242.57
]
},
{
"text": "inside the envelope at\nthe letter that's written.",
"timestamp": [
1242.57,
1244.67
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean, even you could just tell",
"timestamp": [
1244.67,
1246.05
]
},
{
"text": "that two people are communicating",
"timestamp": [
1246.05,
1247.52
]
},
{
"text": "even though the traffic\nitself is encrypted.",
"timestamp": [
1247.52,
1249.95
]
},
{
"text": "So you don't know what they're saying,",
"timestamp": [
1249.95,
1251.48
]
},
{
"text": "just even knowing two\ndevices are communicating.",
"timestamp": [
1251.48,
1254.24
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly, and in fact,\nif you look at say,",
"timestamp": [
1254.24,
1256.111
]
},
{
"text": "the sizes of the transfers\nthat they're doing,",
"timestamp": [
1256.111,
1258.86
]
},
{
"text": "you may know, hey, I'm talking to Netflix.",
"timestamp": [
1258.86,
1260.54
]
},
{
"text": "And by the way, this is the\nlength of the movie I watched.",
"timestamp": [
1260.54,
1263.42
]
},
{
"text": "This is the size-\n- So you can infer",
"timestamp": [
1263.42,
1265.58
]
},
{
"text": "or guess a lot of things.",
"timestamp": [
1265.58,
1266.821
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
1266.821,
1267.654
]
},
{
"text": "- You're one of the most\nawesome networking researchers",
"timestamp": [
1267.654,
1269.33
]
},
{
"text": "that I know.",
"timestamp": [
1269.33,
1270.163
]
},
{
"text": "I'm curious, just to pick your brain,",
"timestamp": [
1270.163,
1271.58
]
},
{
"text": "what do you think are\nsome of the hot topics",
"timestamp": [
1271.58,
1273.74
]
},
{
"text": "in networking research?",
"timestamp": [
1273.74,
1274.85
]
},
{
"text": "Where do you think the field is heading?",
"timestamp": [
1274.85,
1276.32
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I'm excited about the convergence",
"timestamp": [
1276.32,
1278.15
]
},
{
"text": "of wireless communications,\ncellular networks, Wi-Fi",
"timestamp": [
1278.15,
1282.14
]
},
{
"text": "with networking and cloud computing.",
"timestamp": [
1282.14,
1284.48
]
},
{
"text": "And in particular, we're\nseeing in edge computing,",
"timestamp": [
1284.48,
1286.64
]
},
{
"text": "a convergence of all three.",
"timestamp": [
1286.64,
1288.17
]
},
{
"text": "Where you might have a mobile phone",
"timestamp": [
1288.17,
1289.4
]
},
{
"text": "or a drone or some other\nkind of device connecting",
"timestamp": [
1289.4,
1292.4
]
},
{
"text": "over the wireless medium\ndirectly to a network",
"timestamp": [
1292.4,
1295.1
]
},
{
"text": "that connects you directly to the server",
"timestamp": [
1295.1,
1296.78
]
},
{
"text": "that might run your application.",
"timestamp": [
1296.78,
1298.13
]
},
{
"text": "- So you want the computation close",
"timestamp": [
1298.13,
1299.69
]
},
{
"text": "to where the endpoint is.",
"timestamp": [
1299.69,
1302.3
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly, and I think that\nwhat's now exciting about that",
"timestamp": [
1302.3,
1305.36
]
},
{
"text": "is all three of these\ntechnologies, wireless, networking",
"timestamp": [
1305.36,
1307.94
]
},
{
"text": "and cloud, which are normally\nthree different communities,",
"timestamp": [
1307.94,
1310.31
]
},
{
"text": "three different sets of technologies,",
"timestamp": [
1310.31,
1312.05
]
},
{
"text": "three different sets of\nstandards or practices,",
"timestamp": [
1312.05,
1314.27
]
},
{
"text": "now have to work together in close harmony",
"timestamp": [
1314.27,
1317.12
]
},
{
"text": "to be able to service applications\nthat are really critical",
"timestamp": [
1317.12,
1320.3
]
},
{
"text": "and that that might be interacting\nwith the physical world",
"timestamp": [
1320.3,
1322.37
]
},
{
"text": "in ways where safety\nis a potential concern.",
"timestamp": [
1322.37,
1324.92
]
},
{
"text": "- You know, we've had\ncellular networks now",
"timestamp": [
1324.92,
1326.99
]
},
{
"text": "for 20, 30 years.",
"timestamp": [
1326.99,
1329.36
]
},
{
"text": "So when we hear about 5G,",
"timestamp": [
1329.36,
1330.77
]
},
{
"text": "what's trumpeted the most is the fact",
"timestamp": [
1330.77,
1332.36
]
},
{
"text": "that oh, super high bandwidth, right?",
"timestamp": [
1332.36,
1334.55
]
},
{
"text": "But I sense that the exciting things",
"timestamp": [
1334.55,
1336.53
]
},
{
"text": "are more than just the\nnetwork being faster.",
"timestamp": [
1336.53,
1340.13
]
},
{
"text": "- I agree.",
"timestamp": [
1340.13,
1340.963
]
},
{
"text": "It's both the high\nbandwidth, it's the low delay",
"timestamp": [
1340.963,
1343.01
]
},
{
"text": "so that you can have these applications",
"timestamp": [
1343.01,
1344.99
]
},
{
"text": "that interact with the physical world",
"timestamp": [
1344.99,
1346.82
]
},
{
"text": "and need answers in real-time.",
"timestamp": [
1346.82,
1348.8
]
},
{
"text": "It's about having the compute really close",
"timestamp": [
1348.8,
1351.26
]
},
{
"text": "so that you can integrate\ncomputation and communication.",
"timestamp": [
1351.26,
1353.81
]
},
{
"text": "It's about having more coverage.",
"timestamp": [
1353.81,
1356.06
]
},
{
"text": "- Coming back again to the softwarization.",
"timestamp": [
1356.06,
1358.28
]
},
{
"text": "SDN and softwarization",
"timestamp": [
1358.28,
1359.907
]
},
{
"text": "is a maybe a little bit behind the covers,",
"timestamp": [
1359.907,
1363.56
]
},
{
"text": "that you wouldn't normally\nsee it as a user going",
"timestamp": [
1363.56,
1366.29
]
},
{
"text": "from 3G to 4G to 5G.",
"timestamp": [
1366.29,
1368.57
]
},
{
"text": "You just see an increase in speed.",
"timestamp": [
1368.57,
1370.16
]
},
{
"text": "But yet, the way the network\nis now being managed again,",
"timestamp": [
1370.16,
1374.09
]
},
{
"text": "I think is bringing the\ncellular networking world",
"timestamp": [
1374.09,
1376.58
]
},
{
"text": "sort of into the internet world",
"timestamp": [
1376.58,
1378.02
]
},
{
"text": "in terms of the softwarization-",
"timestamp": [
1378.02,
1380.3
]
},
{
"text": "- Completely agree.",
"timestamp": [
1380.3,
1381.47
]
},
{
"text": "I think the bringing in\nof compute and storage",
"timestamp": [
1381.47,
1383.33
]
},
{
"text": "is important too.",
"timestamp": [
1383.33,
1384.163
]
},
{
"text": "I think when you think\njust about networking,",
"timestamp": [
1384.163,
1386.45
]
},
{
"text": "it really is often just\none part of the IT,",
"timestamp": [
1386.45,
1389.098
]
},
{
"text": "the information technology ecosystem.",
"timestamp": [
1389.098,
1391.55
]
},
{
"text": "Is there's often compute\nand storage as well.",
"timestamp": [
1391.55,
1394.82
]
},
{
"text": "And so, I think now there's\nan opportunity to have all",
"timestamp": [
1394.82,
1397.43
]
},
{
"text": "of those parts of the\ninfrastructure work together",
"timestamp": [
1397.43,
1399.65
]
},
{
"text": "towards an even higher level goal.",
"timestamp": [
1399.65,
1401.12
]
},
{
"text": "And so I think it's a really exciting time",
"timestamp": [
1401.12,
1403.37
]
},
{
"text": "to be in the field 'cause now,",
"timestamp": [
1403.37,
1404.99
]
},
{
"text": "the plumbing is getting\nclose to the application",
"timestamp": [
1404.99,
1407.06
]
},
{
"text": "in a way that it wasn't before.",
"timestamp": [
1407.06,
1408.708
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
1408.708,
1411.56
]
},
{
"text": "- So I really hope you've\nenjoyed this video,",
"timestamp": [
1411.56,
1413.18
]
},
{
"text": "and I hope you've also\nunderstood the internet",
"timestamp": [
1413.18,
1415.85
]
},
{
"text": "is part of the worldwide\nglobal communication fabric.",
"timestamp": [
1415.85,
1420.17
]
},
{
"text": "It's absolutely fascinating how it works.",
"timestamp": [
1420.17,
1423.122
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
1423.122,
1425.789
]
}
] |
[
[
"no_chapters",
""
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Mathematician Explains Infinity in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
Vp570S6Plt8
| 1,484
|
[
{
"end_time": 17,
"start_time": 0,
"title": "Intro"
},
{
"end_time": 170,
"start_time": 17,
"title": "What is Infinity"
},
{
"end_time": 394,
"start_time": 170,
"title": "Infinity as a Number"
},
{
"end_time": 853,
"start_time": 394,
"title": "Infinity as a Cardinality"
},
{
"end_time": 1484,
"start_time": 853,
"title": "Infinity in Algebraic Geometry"
}
] |
[
{
"text": "- I'm Emily Riehl and I'm a mathematician.",
"timestamp": [
0.12,
2.13
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm Emily Riehl and I'm a mathematician.",
"timestamp": [
0.12,
2.13
]
},
{
"text": "I've been challenged\nto explain the concept",
"timestamp": [
2.13,
3.78
]
},
{
"text": "I've been challenged\nto explain the concept",
"timestamp": [
2.13,
3.78
]
},
{
"text": "of infinity at five levels\nof increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
3.78,
7.35
]
},
{
"text": "of infinity at five levels\nof increasing complexity.",
"timestamp": [
3.78,
7.35
]
},
{
"text": "So while the concept of\ninfinity can seem mysterious,",
"timestamp": [
7.35,
10.02
]
},
{
"text": "So while the concept of\ninfinity can seem mysterious,",
"timestamp": [
7.35,
10.02
]
},
{
"text": "and it's very difficult to find\ninfinity in the real world,",
"timestamp": [
10.02,
12.78
]
},
{
"text": "and it's very difficult to find\ninfinity in the real world,",
"timestamp": [
10.02,
12.78
]
},
{
"text": "mathematicians have developed\nways to reason very precisely",
"timestamp": [
12.78,
15.69
]
},
{
"text": "mathematicians have developed\nways to reason very precisely",
"timestamp": [
12.78,
15.69
]
},
{
"text": "about the strange properties of infinity.",
"timestamp": [
15.69,
17.74
]
},
{
"text": "about the strange properties of infinity.",
"timestamp": [
15.69,
17.74
]
},
{
"text": "So what do you know about infinity?",
"timestamp": [
20.58,
22.23
]
},
{
"text": "So what do you know about infinity?",
"timestamp": [
20.58,
22.23
]
},
{
"text": "- I think it means that\nit's really just something",
"timestamp": [
22.23,
24.66
]
},
{
"text": "- I think it means that\nit's really just something",
"timestamp": [
22.23,
24.66
]
},
{
"text": "that's infinite, that never ends.",
"timestamp": [
24.66,
26.88
]
},
{
"text": "that's infinite, that never ends.",
"timestamp": [
24.66,
26.88
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a great way to think about it.",
"timestamp": [
26.88,
28.74
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a great way to think about it.",
"timestamp": [
26.88,
28.74
]
},
{
"text": "Infinity is something that\nnever ends, where finite,",
"timestamp": [
28.74,
31.26
]
},
{
"text": "Infinity is something that\nnever ends, where finite,",
"timestamp": [
28.74,
31.26
]
},
{
"text": "the opposite of infinity,",
"timestamp": [
31.26,
32.73
]
},
{
"text": "the opposite of infinity,",
"timestamp": [
31.26,
32.73
]
},
{
"text": "refers to a process or a quantity",
"timestamp": [
32.73,
35.04
]
},
{
"text": "refers to a process or a quantity",
"timestamp": [
32.73,
35.04
]
},
{
"text": "that we could actually\ncount all the way through,",
"timestamp": [
35.04,
37.56
]
},
{
"text": "that we could actually\ncount all the way through,",
"timestamp": [
35.04,
37.56
]
},
{
"text": "at least in theory if given enough time.",
"timestamp": [
37.56,
40.35
]
},
{
"text": "at least in theory if given enough time.",
"timestamp": [
37.56,
40.35
]
},
{
"text": "So if you had to guess, how\nmany Skittles are in this jar?",
"timestamp": [
40.35,
44.313
]
},
{
"text": "So if you had to guess, how\nmany Skittles are in this jar?",
"timestamp": [
40.35,
44.313
]
},
{
"text": "- I would say about like 217.",
"timestamp": [
45.21,
48.39
]
},
{
"text": "- I would say about like 217.",
"timestamp": [
45.21,
48.39
]
},
{
"text": "- 217.",
"timestamp": [
48.39,
49.38
]
},
{
"text": "- 217.",
"timestamp": [
48.39,
49.38
]
},
{
"text": "And if we wanted to figure\nout the exact number,",
"timestamp": [
49.38,
52.92
]
},
{
"text": "And if we wanted to figure\nout the exact number,",
"timestamp": [
49.38,
52.92
]
},
{
"text": "how would we find out?",
"timestamp": [
52.92,
54.18
]
},
{
"text": "how would we find out?",
"timestamp": [
52.92,
54.18
]
},
{
"text": "- We could put them\nall out and divide them",
"timestamp": [
54.18,
56.52
]
},
{
"text": "- We could put them\nall out and divide them",
"timestamp": [
54.18,
56.52
]
},
{
"text": "into pieces of five and\nthen we could use that.",
"timestamp": [
56.52,
60.06
]
},
{
"text": "into pieces of five and\nthen we could use that.",
"timestamp": [
56.52,
60.06
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
60.06,
60.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
60.06,
60.9
]
},
{
"text": "In fact, I did that before you got here,",
"timestamp": [
60.9,
63.3
]
},
{
"text": "In fact, I did that before you got here,",
"timestamp": [
60.9,
63.3
]
},
{
"text": "and it's 649 Skittles.",
"timestamp": [
63.3,
65.94
]
},
{
"text": "and it's 649 Skittles.",
"timestamp": [
63.3,
65.94
]
},
{
"text": "Here's a much harder question.",
"timestamp": [
65.94,
67.563
]
},
{
"text": "Here's a much harder question.",
"timestamp": [
65.94,
67.563
]
},
{
"text": "How many pieces of glitter\ndo you think are in that jar?",
"timestamp": [
68.94,
71.31
]
},
{
"text": "How many pieces of glitter\ndo you think are in that jar?",
"timestamp": [
68.94,
71.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe like 4,012.",
"timestamp": [
71.31,
73.65
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe like 4,012.",
"timestamp": [
71.31,
73.65
]
},
{
"text": "- I'll admit. I have absolutely no idea.",
"timestamp": [
73.65,
75.66
]
},
{
"text": "- I'll admit. I have absolutely no idea.",
"timestamp": [
73.65,
75.66
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think it's a finite\nnumber or an infinite number?",
"timestamp": [
75.66,
78.36
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think it's a finite\nnumber or an infinite number?",
"timestamp": [
75.66,
78.36
]
},
{
"text": "- Finite because I can\nsee them all in here.",
"timestamp": [
78.36,
81.33
]
},
{
"text": "- Finite because I can\nsee them all in here.",
"timestamp": [
78.36,
81.33
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, you can see them all.",
"timestamp": [
81.33,
82.5
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, you can see them all.",
"timestamp": [
81.33,
82.5
]
},
{
"text": "And in fact, if we were\nreally, really, really patient,",
"timestamp": [
82.5,
85.29
]
},
{
"text": "And in fact, if we were\nreally, really, really patient,",
"timestamp": [
82.5,
85.29
]
},
{
"text": "we could do the same thing\nas with the Skittles.",
"timestamp": [
85.29,
87.6
]
},
{
"text": "we could do the same thing\nas with the Skittles.",
"timestamp": [
85.29,
87.6
]
},
{
"text": "But here's another question.",
"timestamp": [
87.6,
88.59
]
},
{
"text": "But here's another question.",
"timestamp": [
87.6,
88.59
]
},
{
"text": "You said that there's a finite amount",
"timestamp": [
88.59,
90.3
]
},
{
"text": "You said that there's a finite amount",
"timestamp": [
88.59,
90.3
]
},
{
"text": "of glitter in that jar, and I agree.",
"timestamp": [
90.3,
92.34
]
},
{
"text": "of glitter in that jar, and I agree.",
"timestamp": [
90.3,
92.34
]
},
{
"text": "So how many jars would we need",
"timestamp": [
92.34,
94.71
]
},
{
"text": "So how many jars would we need",
"timestamp": [
92.34,
94.71
]
},
{
"text": "to hold an infinite amount of glitter?",
"timestamp": [
94.71,
97.48
]
},
{
"text": "to hold an infinite amount of glitter?",
"timestamp": [
94.71,
97.48
]
},
{
"text": "- An infinite amount of jars.",
"timestamp": [
97.48,
99
]
},
{
"text": "- An infinite amount of jars.",
"timestamp": [
97.48,
99
]
},
{
"text": "- Very good. Why do you say that?",
"timestamp": [
99,
100.71
]
},
{
"text": "- Very good. Why do you say that?",
"timestamp": [
99,
100.71
]
},
{
"text": "- Because if there's\nunlimited pieces of glitter,",
"timestamp": [
100.71,
103.05
]
},
{
"text": "- Because if there's\nunlimited pieces of glitter,",
"timestamp": [
100.71,
103.05
]
},
{
"text": "we need unlimited pieces of jar.",
"timestamp": [
103.05,
105.57
]
},
{
"text": "we need unlimited pieces of jar.",
"timestamp": [
103.05,
105.57
]
},
{
"text": "- So let's try and imagine\ninfinitely many jars.",
"timestamp": [
105.57,
110.16
]
},
{
"text": "- So let's try and imagine\ninfinitely many jars.",
"timestamp": [
105.57,
110.16
]
},
{
"text": "Would they fit in this room?",
"timestamp": [
110.16,
111.56
]
},
{
"text": "Would they fit in this room?",
"timestamp": [
110.16,
111.56
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
113.04,
114
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
113.04,
114
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, absolutely not.",
"timestamp": [
114,
115.2
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, absolutely not.",
"timestamp": [
114,
115.2
]
},
{
"text": "Because this room holds only\na finite amount of space.",
"timestamp": [
115.2,
118.95
]
},
{
"text": "Because this room holds only\na finite amount of space.",
"timestamp": [
115.2,
118.95
]
},
{
"text": "And in fact, infinitely\nmany jars would not even fit",
"timestamp": [
118.95,
123.12
]
},
{
"text": "And in fact, infinitely\nmany jars would not even fit",
"timestamp": [
118.95,
123.12
]
},
{
"text": "in something called the\nobservable universe,",
"timestamp": [
123.12,
125.64
]
},
{
"text": "in something called the\nobservable universe,",
"timestamp": [
123.12,
125.64
]
},
{
"text": "which is the portion",
"timestamp": [
125.64,
128.25
]
},
{
"text": "which is the portion",
"timestamp": [
125.64,
128.25
]
},
{
"text": "of the universe that astronomers can see.",
"timestamp": [
128.25,
130.23
]
},
{
"text": "of the universe that astronomers can see.",
"timestamp": [
128.25,
130.23
]
},
{
"text": "Really how does that make you feel?",
"timestamp": [
130.23,
131.931
]
},
{
"text": "Really how does that make you feel?",
"timestamp": [
130.23,
131.931
]
},
{
"text": "- That makes me feel like\nmy brain is exploding.",
"timestamp": [
131.931,
134.654
]
},
{
"text": "- That makes me feel like\nmy brain is exploding.",
"timestamp": [
131.931,
134.654
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, that makes me feel\nlike my brain is exploding.",
"timestamp": [
134.654,
137.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, that makes me feel\nlike my brain is exploding.",
"timestamp": [
134.654,
137.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Can infinity ever get bigger?",
"timestamp": [
137.01,
138.72
]
},
{
"text": "- Can infinity ever get bigger?",
"timestamp": [
137.01,
138.72
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a wonderful question,\na very rich question.",
"timestamp": [
138.72,
141.75
]
},
{
"text": "- That's a wonderful question,\na very rich question.",
"timestamp": [
138.72,
141.75
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think?",
"timestamp": [
141.75,
143.033
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think?",
"timestamp": [
141.75,
143.033
]
},
{
"text": "- I think maybe because\nyou said it was unlimited.",
"timestamp": [
143.033,
145.59
]
},
{
"text": "- I think maybe because\nyou said it was unlimited.",
"timestamp": [
143.033,
145.59
]
},
{
"text": "- You have very good intuition.",
"timestamp": [
145.59,
147.18
]
},
{
"text": "- You have very good intuition.",
"timestamp": [
145.59,
147.18
]
},
{
"text": "So there are ways",
"timestamp": [
147.18,
148.38
]
},
{
"text": "So there are ways",
"timestamp": [
147.18,
148.38
]
},
{
"text": "that mathematicians can build",
"timestamp": [
148.38,
150.393
]
},
{
"text": "that mathematicians can build",
"timestamp": [
148.38,
150.393
]
},
{
"text": "infinite collections of things.",
"timestamp": [
150.393,
153.45
]
},
{
"text": "infinite collections of things.",
"timestamp": [
150.393,
153.45
]
},
{
"text": "And if you repeat those processes,",
"timestamp": [
153.45,
155.82
]
},
{
"text": "And if you repeat those processes,",
"timestamp": [
153.45,
155.82
]
},
{
"text": "it's in fact possible to build even bigger",
"timestamp": [
155.82,
158.28
]
},
{
"text": "it's in fact possible to build even bigger",
"timestamp": [
155.82,
158.28
]
},
{
"text": "and bigger sizes of infinity.",
"timestamp": [
158.28,
161.07
]
},
{
"text": "and bigger sizes of infinity.",
"timestamp": [
158.28,
161.07
]
},
{
"text": "So what have you learned\ntoday about infinity?",
"timestamp": [
161.07,
163.26
]
},
{
"text": "So what have you learned\ntoday about infinity?",
"timestamp": [
161.07,
163.26
]
},
{
"text": "- I've learned that\neven if it's unlimited,",
"timestamp": [
163.26,
165.27
]
},
{
"text": "- I've learned that\neven if it's unlimited,",
"timestamp": [
163.26,
165.27
]
},
{
"text": "there are many different\nways of making infinity",
"timestamp": [
165.27,
167.58
]
},
{
"text": "there are many different\nways of making infinity",
"timestamp": [
165.27,
167.58
]
},
{
"text": "and you can never actually see it all.",
"timestamp": [
167.58,
170.463
]
},
{
"text": "and you can never actually see it all.",
"timestamp": [
167.58,
170.463
]
},
{
"text": "- What does infinity mean to you?",
"timestamp": [
173.13,
174.69
]
},
{
"text": "- What does infinity mean to you?",
"timestamp": [
173.13,
174.69
]
},
{
"text": "- Really anything that has no end to it.",
"timestamp": [
174.69,
176.94
]
},
{
"text": "- Really anything that has no end to it.",
"timestamp": [
174.69,
176.94
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, that's absolutely right.",
"timestamp": [
176.94,
178.26
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, that's absolutely right.",
"timestamp": [
176.94,
178.26
]
},
{
"text": "So infinity gets used a lot",
"timestamp": [
178.26,
179.73
]
},
{
"text": "So infinity gets used a lot",
"timestamp": [
178.26,
179.73
]
},
{
"text": "of different ways in mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
179.73,
181.62
]
},
{
"text": "of different ways in mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
179.73,
181.62
]
},
{
"text": "There's a way that mathematicians think",
"timestamp": [
181.62,
183.84
]
},
{
"text": "There's a way that mathematicians think",
"timestamp": [
181.62,
183.84
]
},
{
"text": "of infinity as a number,\njust like the number 13,",
"timestamp": [
183.84,
188.31
]
},
{
"text": "of infinity as a number,\njust like the number 13,",
"timestamp": [
183.84,
188.31
]
},
{
"text": "just like the number 10 million.",
"timestamp": [
188.31,
190.113
]
},
{
"text": "just like the number 10 million.",
"timestamp": [
188.31,
190.113
]
},
{
"text": "So the reason that mathematicians consider",
"timestamp": [
191.07,
192.72
]
},
{
"text": "So the reason that mathematicians consider",
"timestamp": [
191.07,
192.72
]
},
{
"text": "infinity to be a number is\nthat it is a size of a set.",
"timestamp": [
192.72,
197.72
]
},
{
"text": "infinity to be a number is\nthat it is a size of a set.",
"timestamp": [
192.72,
197.72
]
},
{
"text": "So the first example of an infinite set",
"timestamp": [
197.73,
199.56
]
},
{
"text": "So the first example of an infinite set",
"timestamp": [
197.73,
199.56
]
},
{
"text": "in mathematics is the set\nof all counting numbers.",
"timestamp": [
199.56,
202.38
]
},
{
"text": "in mathematics is the set\nof all counting numbers.",
"timestamp": [
199.56,
202.38
]
},
{
"text": "So one, two, three, four,\nfive, six, seven, et cetera.",
"timestamp": [
202.38,
206.01
]
},
{
"text": "So one, two, three, four,\nfive, six, seven, et cetera.",
"timestamp": [
202.38,
206.01
]
},
{
"text": "That list goes on forever.\nThat is an infinite set.",
"timestamp": [
206.01,
209.723
]
},
{
"text": "That list goes on forever.\nThat is an infinite set.",
"timestamp": [
206.01,
209.723
]
},
{
"text": "And to be a little bit more precise,",
"timestamp": [
209.723,
211.56
]
},
{
"text": "And to be a little bit more precise,",
"timestamp": [
209.723,
211.56
]
},
{
"text": "it's a countably infinite set.",
"timestamp": [
211.56,
213.39
]
},
{
"text": "it's a countably infinite set.",
"timestamp": [
211.56,
213.39
]
},
{
"text": "But as a number, infinity\nis pretty strange.",
"timestamp": [
213.39,
217.83
]
},
{
"text": "But as a number, infinity\nis pretty strange.",
"timestamp": [
213.39,
217.83
]
},
{
"text": "- What do you mean by that?",
"timestamp": [
217.83,
218.73
]
},
{
"text": "- What do you mean by that?",
"timestamp": [
217.83,
218.73
]
},
{
"text": "- Adding infinities.\nMultiplying infinities.",
"timestamp": [
218.73,
221.67
]
},
{
"text": "- Adding infinities.\nMultiplying infinities.",
"timestamp": [
218.73,
221.67
]
},
{
"text": "And there's a sense in\nwhich it's very similar",
"timestamp": [
221.67,
223.29
]
},
{
"text": "And there's a sense in\nwhich it's very similar",
"timestamp": [
221.67,
223.29
]
},
{
"text": "to the arithmetic that\nyou learned about already.",
"timestamp": [
223.29,
225.78
]
},
{
"text": "to the arithmetic that\nyou learned about already.",
"timestamp": [
223.29,
225.78
]
},
{
"text": "But it's also totally different.",
"timestamp": [
225.78,
227.04
]
},
{
"text": "But it's also totally different.",
"timestamp": [
225.78,
227.04
]
},
{
"text": "It has some very weird properties.",
"timestamp": [
227.04,
229.14
]
},
{
"text": "It has some very weird properties.",
"timestamp": [
227.04,
229.14
]
},
{
"text": "Welcome to Hilbert's Hotel.",
"timestamp": [
229.14,
230.64
]
},
{
"text": "Welcome to Hilbert's Hotel.",
"timestamp": [
229.14,
230.64
]
},
{
"text": "Unlike an ordinary hotel,",
"timestamp": [
230.64,
231.96
]
},
{
"text": "Unlike an ordinary hotel,",
"timestamp": [
230.64,
231.96
]
},
{
"text": "has accountably infinitely many rooms.",
"timestamp": [
231.96,
234.09
]
},
{
"text": "has accountably infinitely many rooms.",
"timestamp": [
231.96,
234.09
]
},
{
"text": "Suppose a new guest shows up,",
"timestamp": [
234.09,
236.37
]
},
{
"text": "Suppose a new guest shows up,",
"timestamp": [
234.09,
236.37
]
},
{
"text": "you might think that the new\nguest could take the room",
"timestamp": [
236.37,
239.49
]
},
{
"text": "you might think that the new\nguest could take the room",
"timestamp": [
236.37,
239.49
]
},
{
"text": "that's all the way down\nat the end of the hall,",
"timestamp": [
239.49,
241.08
]
},
{
"text": "that's all the way down\nat the end of the hall,",
"timestamp": [
239.49,
241.08
]
},
{
"text": "all the way at infinity,",
"timestamp": [
241.08,
242.07
]
},
{
"text": "all the way at infinity,",
"timestamp": [
241.08,
242.07
]
},
{
"text": "except there isn't a room like that.",
"timestamp": [
242.07,
244.02
]
},
{
"text": "except there isn't a room like that.",
"timestamp": [
242.07,
244.02
]
},
{
"text": "The rooms each have a number,",
"timestamp": [
244.02,
246.12
]
},
{
"text": "The rooms each have a number,",
"timestamp": [
244.02,
246.12
]
},
{
"text": "and even though there's\ninfinitely many rooms,",
"timestamp": [
246.12,
248.82
]
},
{
"text": "and even though there's\ninfinitely many rooms,",
"timestamp": [
246.12,
248.82
]
},
{
"text": "each room is only a finite distance away.",
"timestamp": [
248.82,
251.76
]
},
{
"text": "each room is only a finite distance away.",
"timestamp": [
248.82,
251.76
]
},
{
"text": "So here's how we're gonna\nmake room for the new guest.",
"timestamp": [
251.76,
254.52
]
},
{
"text": "So here's how we're gonna\nmake room for the new guest.",
"timestamp": [
251.76,
254.52
]
},
{
"text": "I'm gonna ask the guest in\nroom one to move into room two,",
"timestamp": [
254.52,
258.123
]
},
{
"text": "I'm gonna ask the guest in\nroom one to move into room two,",
"timestamp": [
254.52,
258.123
]
},
{
"text": "and then we're gonna ask\nthe guest in room two",
"timestamp": [
259.62,
261.69
]
},
{
"text": "and then we're gonna ask\nthe guest in room two",
"timestamp": [
259.62,
261.69
]
},
{
"text": "to move into room three,",
"timestamp": [
261.69,
263.133
]
},
{
"text": "to move into room three,",
"timestamp": [
261.69,
263.133
]
},
{
"text": "and we'll continue this all the way along.",
"timestamp": [
265.02,
267.45
]
},
{
"text": "and we'll continue this all the way along.",
"timestamp": [
265.02,
267.45
]
},
{
"text": "It looks to me like there's\nspace for the new guest.",
"timestamp": [
267.45,
269.61
]
},
{
"text": "It looks to me like there's\nspace for the new guest.",
"timestamp": [
267.45,
269.61
]
},
{
"text": "Where is it?\n- It'll be in room number one.",
"timestamp": [
269.61,
271.276
]
},
{
"text": "Where is it?\n- It'll be in room number one.",
"timestamp": [
269.61,
271.276
]
},
{
"text": "- Room number one. Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
271.276,
272.55
]
},
{
"text": "- Room number one. Exactly.",
"timestamp": [
271.276,
272.55
]
},
{
"text": "I'm gonna use this symbol for infinity,",
"timestamp": [
272.55,
275.28
]
},
{
"text": "I'm gonna use this symbol for infinity,",
"timestamp": [
272.55,
275.28
]
},
{
"text": "but what we've just shown is that one,",
"timestamp": [
275.28,
277.953
]
},
{
"text": "but what we've just shown is that one,",
"timestamp": [
275.28,
277.953
]
},
{
"text": "the one new guest plus infinity",
"timestamp": [
280.32,
283.59
]
},
{
"text": "the one new guest plus infinity",
"timestamp": [
280.32,
283.59
]
},
{
"text": "is equal to the same infinity.",
"timestamp": [
283.59,
285.753
]
},
{
"text": "is equal to the same infinity.",
"timestamp": [
283.59,
285.753
]
},
{
"text": "What happens if we had a second guest?",
"timestamp": [
286.83,
288.72
]
},
{
"text": "What happens if we had a second guest?",
"timestamp": [
286.83,
288.72
]
},
{
"text": "- Would it be two plus\ninfinity equals infinity?",
"timestamp": [
288.72,
290.7
]
},
{
"text": "- Would it be two plus\ninfinity equals infinity?",
"timestamp": [
288.72,
290.7
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
290.7,
291.533
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
290.7,
291.533
]
},
{
"text": "So now I'm gonna make this\nstory a little more complex.",
"timestamp": [
293.28,
296.07
]
},
{
"text": "So now I'm gonna make this\nstory a little more complex.",
"timestamp": [
293.28,
296.07
]
},
{
"text": "That there's another Hilbert's Hotel",
"timestamp": [
296.07,
297.42
]
},
{
"text": "That there's another Hilbert's Hotel",
"timestamp": [
296.07,
297.42
]
},
{
"text": "down the street and they're\nhaving plumbing issues",
"timestamp": [
297.42,
300.03
]
},
{
"text": "down the street and they're\nhaving plumbing issues",
"timestamp": [
297.42,
300.03
]
},
{
"text": "and we need to find room for them.",
"timestamp": [
300.03,
302.37
]
},
{
"text": "and we need to find room for them.",
"timestamp": [
300.03,
302.37
]
},
{
"text": "- They can't live together?",
"timestamp": [
302.37,
303.69
]
},
{
"text": "- They can't live together?",
"timestamp": [
302.37,
303.69
]
},
{
"text": "- They can't live together.",
"timestamp": [
303.69,
305.036
]
},
{
"text": "- They can't live together.",
"timestamp": [
303.69,
305.036
]
},
{
"text": "That would be a great solution.",
"timestamp": [
305.036,
306.9
]
},
{
"text": "That would be a great solution.",
"timestamp": [
305.036,
306.9
]
},
{
"text": "I don't know.",
"timestamp": [
306.9,
307.733
]
},
{
"text": "I don't know.",
"timestamp": [
306.9,
307.733
]
},
{
"text": "I think these people\ndon't really get along.",
"timestamp": [
307.733,
309.03
]
},
{
"text": "I think these people\ndon't really get along.",
"timestamp": [
307.733,
309.03
]
},
{
"text": "So I need to somehow create\ninfinitely many new rooms,",
"timestamp": [
309.03,
314.03
]
},
{
"text": "So I need to somehow create\ninfinitely many new rooms,",
"timestamp": [
309.03,
314.03
]
},
{
"text": "but I can only ask each person",
"timestamp": [
314.67,
316.32
]
},
{
"text": "but I can only ask each person",
"timestamp": [
314.67,
316.32
]
},
{
"text": "in the hotel to move a\nfinite distance away.",
"timestamp": [
316.32,
319.65
]
},
{
"text": "in the hotel to move a\nfinite distance away.",
"timestamp": [
316.32,
319.65
]
},
{
"text": "So let's take the guest who is originally",
"timestamp": [
319.65,
321.36
]
},
{
"text": "So let's take the guest who is originally",
"timestamp": [
319.65,
321.36
]
},
{
"text": "in room one and move them into room two.",
"timestamp": [
321.36,
323.673
]
},
{
"text": "in room one and move them into room two.",
"timestamp": [
321.36,
323.673
]
},
{
"text": "So that's creating one new space for us.",
"timestamp": [
324.81,
327.24
]
},
{
"text": "So that's creating one new space for us.",
"timestamp": [
324.81,
327.24
]
},
{
"text": "And I'm gonna take the\nguest who was originally",
"timestamp": [
327.24,
329.07
]
},
{
"text": "And I'm gonna take the\nguest who was originally",
"timestamp": [
327.24,
329.07
]
},
{
"text": "in room two and move them into room four.",
"timestamp": [
329.07,
331.677
]
},
{
"text": "in room two and move them into room four.",
"timestamp": [
329.07,
331.677
]
},
{
"text": "Are you starting to see a pattern here?",
"timestamp": [
331.677,
333.51
]
},
{
"text": "Are you starting to see a pattern here?",
"timestamp": [
331.677,
333.51
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes. You're going up one each time?",
"timestamp": [
333.51,
335.94
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes. You're going up one each time?",
"timestamp": [
333.51,
335.94
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I'm increasing\nby one more each time.",
"timestamp": [
335.94,
338.25
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I'm increasing\nby one more each time.",
"timestamp": [
335.94,
338.25
]
},
{
"text": "So I'm doubling the room number in fact.",
"timestamp": [
338.25,
340.89
]
},
{
"text": "So I'm doubling the room number in fact.",
"timestamp": [
338.25,
340.89
]
},
{
"text": "So this is some of the strange\narithmetic of infinity.",
"timestamp": [
340.89,
343.82
]
},
{
"text": "So this is some of the strange\narithmetic of infinity.",
"timestamp": [
340.89,
343.82
]
},
{
"text": "So we have two Hilbert Hotels,",
"timestamp": [
343.82,
346.71
]
},
{
"text": "So we have two Hilbert Hotels,",
"timestamp": [
343.82,
346.71
]
},
{
"text": "each of which have infinitely many guests,",
"timestamp": [
346.71,
349.62
]
},
{
"text": "each of which have infinitely many guests,",
"timestamp": [
346.71,
349.62
]
},
{
"text": "then this is equal to?",
"timestamp": [
349.62,
351.063
]
},
{
"text": "then this is equal to?",
"timestamp": [
349.62,
351.063
]
},
{
"text": "- Infinity.",
"timestamp": [
352.05,
352.883
]
},
{
"text": "- Infinity.",
"timestamp": [
352.05,
352.883
]
},
{
"text": "- Infinity, great.",
"timestamp": [
352.883,
354.66
]
},
{
"text": "- Infinity, great.",
"timestamp": [
352.883,
354.66
]
},
{
"text": "Hilbert's Hotel is a\nstory that mathematicians",
"timestamp": [
354.66,
356.52
]
},
{
"text": "Hilbert's Hotel is a\nstory that mathematicians",
"timestamp": [
354.66,
356.52
]
},
{
"text": "have been telling themselves\nfor almost 100 years",
"timestamp": [
356.52,
358.77
]
},
{
"text": "have been telling themselves\nfor almost 100 years",
"timestamp": [
356.52,
358.77
]
},
{
"text": "because it's a really\nvisceral way to think",
"timestamp": [
358.77,
362.01
]
},
{
"text": "because it's a really\nvisceral way to think",
"timestamp": [
358.77,
362.01
]
},
{
"text": "about some of the\ncounterintuitive properties",
"timestamp": [
362.01,
364.44
]
},
{
"text": "about some of the\ncounterintuitive properties",
"timestamp": [
362.01,
364.44
]
},
{
"text": "of the arithmetic of infinity.",
"timestamp": [
364.44,
366.63
]
},
{
"text": "of the arithmetic of infinity.",
"timestamp": [
364.44,
366.63
]
},
{
"text": "- How does infinity come\nacross in mathematics for you?",
"timestamp": [
366.63,
370.44
]
},
{
"text": "- How does infinity come\nacross in mathematics for you?",
"timestamp": [
366.63,
370.44
]
},
{
"text": "- So when I'm teaching calculus",
"timestamp": [
370.44,
372.09
]
},
{
"text": "- So when I'm teaching calculus",
"timestamp": [
370.44,
372.09
]
},
{
"text": "and talking about concepts\nlike limits and derivatives,",
"timestamp": [
372.09,
375.54
]
},
{
"text": "and talking about concepts\nlike limits and derivatives,",
"timestamp": [
372.09,
375.54
]
},
{
"text": "those are only defined\nprecisely with infinity.",
"timestamp": [
375.54,
378.9
]
},
{
"text": "those are only defined\nprecisely with infinity.",
"timestamp": [
375.54,
378.9
]
},
{
"text": "Teaching algebra,",
"timestamp": [
378.9,
380.37
]
},
{
"text": "Teaching algebra,",
"timestamp": [
378.9,
380.37
]
},
{
"text": "which is meant in a different\nsense about number systems,",
"timestamp": [
380.37,
382.83
]
},
{
"text": "which is meant in a different\nsense about number systems,",
"timestamp": [
380.37,
382.83
]
},
{
"text": "we deal with infinite families",
"timestamp": [
382.83,
385.29
]
},
{
"text": "we deal with infinite families",
"timestamp": [
382.83,
385.29
]
},
{
"text": "of numbers in their operations.",
"timestamp": [
385.29,
387.03
]
},
{
"text": "of numbers in their operations.",
"timestamp": [
385.29,
387.03
]
},
{
"text": "Infinite sets are somehow very exotic.",
"timestamp": [
387.03,
389.34
]
},
{
"text": "Infinite sets are somehow very exotic.",
"timestamp": [
387.03,
389.34
]
},
{
"text": "They're not found so\ncommonly in their real world,",
"timestamp": [
389.34,
392.55
]
},
{
"text": "They're not found so\ncommonly in their real world,",
"timestamp": [
389.34,
392.55
]
},
{
"text": "but they're all over mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
392.55,
394.818
]
},
{
"text": "but they're all over mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
392.55,
394.818
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
394.818,
397.401
]
},
{
"text": "[bright music]",
"timestamp": [
394.818,
397.401
]
},
{
"text": "What do you know about infinity?",
"timestamp": [
399.72,
401.1
]
},
{
"text": "What do you know about infinity?",
"timestamp": [
399.72,
401.1
]
},
{
"text": "- A property of something being endless.",
"timestamp": [
401.1,
403.5
]
},
{
"text": "- A property of something being endless.",
"timestamp": [
401.1,
403.5
]
},
{
"text": "- Great.",
"timestamp": [
403.5,
404.333
]
},
{
"text": "- Great.",
"timestamp": [
403.5,
404.333
]
},
{
"text": "So today we're gonna focus",
"timestamp": [
404.333,
405.166
]
},
{
"text": "So today we're gonna focus",
"timestamp": [
404.333,
405.166
]
},
{
"text": "on infinity as a cardinality,",
"timestamp": [
405.166,
406.98
]
},
{
"text": "on infinity as a cardinality,",
"timestamp": [
405.166,
406.98
]
},
{
"text": "and what cardinality means\nis it's a size of a set.",
"timestamp": [
406.98,
410.13
]
},
{
"text": "and what cardinality means\nis it's a size of a set.",
"timestamp": [
406.98,
410.13
]
},
{
"text": "What are you studying?",
"timestamp": [
410.13,
410.963
]
},
{
"text": "What are you studying?",
"timestamp": [
410.13,
410.963
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm studying computer science",
"timestamp": [
410.963,
412.35
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm studying computer science",
"timestamp": [
410.963,
412.35
]
},
{
"text": "- Studying computer science.",
"timestamp": [
412.35,
413.52
]
},
{
"text": "- Studying computer science.",
"timestamp": [
412.35,
413.52
]
},
{
"text": "Are you taking any math courses right now?",
"timestamp": [
413.52,
415.564
]
},
{
"text": "Are you taking any math courses right now?",
"timestamp": [
413.52,
415.564
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, right now I'm taking calculus two.",
"timestamp": [
415.564,
417.21
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, right now I'm taking calculus two.",
"timestamp": [
415.564,
417.21
]
},
{
"text": "- Calculus involves\nthe study of functions.",
"timestamp": [
417.21,
419.61
]
},
{
"text": "- Calculus involves\nthe study of functions.",
"timestamp": [
417.21,
419.61
]
},
{
"text": "Functions are one of the\nmost fundamental concepts",
"timestamp": [
419.61,
421.68
]
},
{
"text": "Functions are one of the\nmost fundamental concepts",
"timestamp": [
419.61,
421.68
]
},
{
"text": "in mathematics, but they aren't\nalways so clearly defined.",
"timestamp": [
421.68,
425.7
]
},
{
"text": "in mathematics, but they aren't\nalways so clearly defined.",
"timestamp": [
421.68,
425.7
]
},
{
"text": "What would you say a function is?",
"timestamp": [
425.7,
427.53
]
},
{
"text": "What would you say a function is?",
"timestamp": [
425.7,
427.53
]
},
{
"text": "- I would say a function is a\nprocedure that takes an input",
"timestamp": [
427.53,
430.05
]
},
{
"text": "- I would say a function is a\nprocedure that takes an input",
"timestamp": [
427.53,
430.05
]
},
{
"text": "and does some operation\nand returns an output.",
"timestamp": [
430.05,
432.54
]
},
{
"text": "and does some operation\nand returns an output.",
"timestamp": [
430.05,
432.54
]
},
{
"text": "- That's the computer science\nbrain thinking right there.",
"timestamp": [
432.54,
434.94
]
},
{
"text": "- That's the computer science\nbrain thinking right there.",
"timestamp": [
432.54,
434.94
]
},
{
"text": "So we wanna think",
"timestamp": [
434.94,
435.773
]
},
{
"text": "So we wanna think",
"timestamp": [
434.94,
435.773
]
},
{
"text": "of a function as procedure\nor mapping between sets.",
"timestamp": [
435.773,
439.47
]
},
{
"text": "of a function as procedure\nor mapping between sets.",
"timestamp": [
435.773,
439.47
]
},
{
"text": "So a function defines a\none-to-one correspondence",
"timestamp": [
439.47,
442.35
]
},
{
"text": "So a function defines a\none-to-one correspondence",
"timestamp": [
439.47,
442.35
]
},
{
"text": "if it defines a perfect\nmatching between the elements",
"timestamp": [
442.35,
445.65
]
},
{
"text": "if it defines a perfect\nmatching between the elements",
"timestamp": [
442.35,
445.65
]
},
{
"text": "of its domain set and the\nelements of its output set.",
"timestamp": [
445.65,
449.67
]
},
{
"text": "of its domain set and the\nelements of its output set.",
"timestamp": [
445.65,
449.67
]
},
{
"text": "We call such functions\nbijections or isomorphisms.",
"timestamp": [
449.67,
453.12
]
},
{
"text": "We call such functions\nbijections or isomorphisms.",
"timestamp": [
449.67,
453.12
]
},
{
"text": "So the reason I'm so interested",
"timestamp": [
453.12,
454.92
]
},
{
"text": "So the reason I'm so interested",
"timestamp": [
453.12,
454.92
]
},
{
"text": "in this idea of a bijective function",
"timestamp": [
454.92,
457.29
]
},
{
"text": "in this idea of a bijective function",
"timestamp": [
454.92,
457.29
]
},
{
"text": "or a one-to-one\ncorrespondence that guarantees",
"timestamp": [
457.29,
460.53
]
},
{
"text": "or a one-to-one\ncorrespondence that guarantees",
"timestamp": [
457.29,
460.53
]
},
{
"text": "that every element of one set gets matched",
"timestamp": [
460.53,
463.2
]
},
{
"text": "that every element of one set gets matched",
"timestamp": [
460.53,
463.2
]
},
{
"text": "with an element of the other set,",
"timestamp": [
463.2,
464.79
]
},
{
"text": "with an element of the other set,",
"timestamp": [
463.2,
464.79
]
},
{
"text": "no matter how many elements there are,",
"timestamp": [
464.79,
466.5
]
},
{
"text": "no matter how many elements there are,",
"timestamp": [
464.79,
466.5
]
},
{
"text": "these bijections or these\none-to-one correspondences",
"timestamp": [
466.5,
469.23
]
},
{
"text": "these bijections or these\none-to-one correspondences",
"timestamp": [
466.5,
469.23
]
},
{
"text": "as they help mathematicians\nreason about infinity.",
"timestamp": [
469.23,
472.29
]
},
{
"text": "as they help mathematicians\nreason about infinity.",
"timestamp": [
469.23,
472.29
]
},
{
"text": "- How can you compare\nsomething that is endless?",
"timestamp": [
472.29,
474.99
]
},
{
"text": "- How can you compare\nsomething that is endless?",
"timestamp": [
472.29,
474.99
]
},
{
"text": "- Today we're gonna think about\ninfinity as a cardinality,",
"timestamp": [
474.99,
478.02
]
},
{
"text": "- Today we're gonna think about\ninfinity as a cardinality,",
"timestamp": [
474.99,
478.02
]
},
{
"text": "which is a technical term",
"timestamp": [
478.02,
480.24
]
},
{
"text": "which is a technical term",
"timestamp": [
478.02,
480.24
]
},
{
"text": "for a number that could\nbe a size of a set.",
"timestamp": [
480.24,
483.51
]
},
{
"text": "for a number that could\nbe a size of a set.",
"timestamp": [
480.24,
483.51
]
},
{
"text": "And we're gonna use this idea",
"timestamp": [
483.51,
484.92
]
},
{
"text": "And we're gonna use this idea",
"timestamp": [
483.51,
484.92
]
},
{
"text": "of one-to-one correspondence to try",
"timestamp": [
484.92,
486.99
]
},
{
"text": "of one-to-one correspondence to try",
"timestamp": [
484.92,
486.99
]
},
{
"text": "and investigate the question of",
"timestamp": [
486.99,
488.4
]
},
{
"text": "and investigate the question of",
"timestamp": [
486.99,
488.4
]
},
{
"text": "whether all infinite\nsets have the same size.",
"timestamp": [
488.4,
491.55
]
},
{
"text": "whether all infinite\nsets have the same size.",
"timestamp": [
488.4,
491.55
]
},
{
"text": "So what I've drawn here are some pictures",
"timestamp": [
491.55,
493.32
]
},
{
"text": "So what I've drawn here are some pictures",
"timestamp": [
491.55,
493.32
]
},
{
"text": "of some of the infinite sets\nthat appear in mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
493.32,
496.68
]
},
{
"text": "of some of the infinite sets\nthat appear in mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
493.32,
496.68
]
},
{
"text": "So the natural numbers are\nthe prototypical example",
"timestamp": [
496.68,
499.5
]
},
{
"text": "So the natural numbers are\nthe prototypical example",
"timestamp": [
496.68,
499.5
]
},
{
"text": "of an infinite set.",
"timestamp": [
499.5,
500.64
]
},
{
"text": "of an infinite set.",
"timestamp": [
499.5,
500.64
]
},
{
"text": "So the natural numbers are\nclearly a subset of the integers.",
"timestamp": [
500.64,
505.64
]
},
{
"text": "So the natural numbers are\nclearly a subset of the integers.",
"timestamp": [
500.64,
505.64
]
},
{
"text": "Both of these are infinite sets.",
"timestamp": [
506.19,
508.56
]
},
{
"text": "Both of these are infinite sets.",
"timestamp": [
506.19,
508.56
]
},
{
"text": "Are they the same size infinity",
"timestamp": [
508.56,
510
]
},
{
"text": "Are they the same size infinity",
"timestamp": [
508.56,
510
]
},
{
"text": "or different size infinities?",
"timestamp": [
510,
511.5
]
},
{
"text": "or different size infinities?",
"timestamp": [
510,
511.5
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, the integers would,",
"timestamp": [
511.5,
512.37
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, the integers would,",
"timestamp": [
511.5,
512.37
]
},
{
"text": "there'd be more integers\nthan natural numbers.",
"timestamp": [
512.37,
514.14
]
},
{
"text": "there'd be more integers\nthan natural numbers.",
"timestamp": [
512.37,
514.14
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm gonna now try and\nconvince you that they are",
"timestamp": [
514.14,
516.06
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm gonna now try and\nconvince you that they are",
"timestamp": [
514.14,
516.06
]
},
{
"text": "in fact the same size infinity.",
"timestamp": [
516.06,
518.37
]
},
{
"text": "in fact the same size infinity.",
"timestamp": [
516.06,
518.37
]
},
{
"text": "And this is using this idea\nof a one-to-one correspondence",
"timestamp": [
518.37,
521.13
]
},
{
"text": "And this is using this idea\nof a one-to-one correspondence",
"timestamp": [
518.37,
521.13
]
},
{
"text": "which was applied in this\ncontext by Georg Cantor.",
"timestamp": [
521.13,
523.98
]
},
{
"text": "which was applied in this\ncontext by Georg Cantor.",
"timestamp": [
521.13,
523.98
]
},
{
"text": "What he says is if we\ncan match up the elements",
"timestamp": [
523.98,
526.98
]
},
{
"text": "What he says is if we\ncan match up the elements",
"timestamp": [
523.98,
526.98
]
},
{
"text": "of the integers with the\nelements of the natural numbers",
"timestamp": [
526.98,
529.71
]
},
{
"text": "of the integers with the\nelements of the natural numbers",
"timestamp": [
526.98,
529.71
]
},
{
"text": "so that there's nothing left over,",
"timestamp": [
529.71,
531.51
]
},
{
"text": "so that there's nothing left over,",
"timestamp": [
529.71,
531.51
]
},
{
"text": "so that there's a bijective\nfunction between them,",
"timestamp": [
531.51,
534.09
]
},
{
"text": "so that there's a bijective\nfunction between them,",
"timestamp": [
531.51,
534.09
]
},
{
"text": "then that's a proof that there's exactly",
"timestamp": [
534.09,
536.97
]
},
{
"text": "then that's a proof that there's exactly",
"timestamp": [
534.09,
536.97
]
},
{
"text": "as many natural numbers",
"timestamp": [
536.97,
538.08
]
},
{
"text": "as many natural numbers",
"timestamp": [
536.97,
538.08
]
},
{
"text": "as there are integers.",
"timestamp": [
538.08,
539.16
]
},
{
"text": "as there are integers.",
"timestamp": [
538.08,
539.16
]
},
{
"text": "Start by matching zero\nwith zero and one with one.",
"timestamp": [
539.16,
542.01
]
},
{
"text": "Start by matching zero\nwith zero and one with one.",
"timestamp": [
539.16,
542.01
]
},
{
"text": "But then we wanna include\nthe negatives in the list.",
"timestamp": [
542.01,
544.44
]
},
{
"text": "But then we wanna include\nthe negatives in the list.",
"timestamp": [
542.01,
544.44
]
},
{
"text": "So which natural number would\nwe match with negative one?",
"timestamp": [
544.44,
548.044
]
},
{
"text": "So which natural number would\nwe match with negative one?",
"timestamp": [
544.44,
548.044
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe two.",
"timestamp": [
548.044,
548.877
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe two.",
"timestamp": [
548.044,
548.877
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe two. Why not?",
"timestamp": [
548.877,
549.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe two. Why not?",
"timestamp": [
548.877,
549.9
]
},
{
"text": "Because now we're\nstarting to make progress",
"timestamp": [
549.9,
551.37
]
},
{
"text": "Because now we're\nstarting to make progress",
"timestamp": [
549.9,
551.37
]
},
{
"text": "on matching all the negatives.",
"timestamp": [
551.37,
553.11
]
},
{
"text": "on matching all the negatives.",
"timestamp": [
551.37,
553.11
]
},
{
"text": "We can match the natural number\nthree with the integer two,",
"timestamp": [
553.11,
556.8
]
},
{
"text": "We can match the natural number\nthree with the integer two,",
"timestamp": [
553.11,
556.8
]
},
{
"text": "the natural number four\nwith the integer minus two.",
"timestamp": [
556.8,
559.2
]
},
{
"text": "the natural number four\nwith the integer minus two.",
"timestamp": [
556.8,
559.2
]
},
{
"text": "And do you see a pattern?",
"timestamp": [
559.2,
560.82
]
},
{
"text": "And do you see a pattern?",
"timestamp": [
559.2,
560.82
]
},
{
"text": "- All of the positive\nintegers would be odd numbers",
"timestamp": [
560.82,
562.68
]
},
{
"text": "- All of the positive\nintegers would be odd numbers",
"timestamp": [
560.82,
562.68
]
},
{
"text": "and all of the negative\nintegers would be even numbers?",
"timestamp": [
562.68,
564.96
]
},
{
"text": "and all of the negative\nintegers would be even numbers?",
"timestamp": [
562.68,
564.96
]
},
{
"text": "- Great. So now I have\na much harder question.",
"timestamp": [
564.96,
567.42
]
},
{
"text": "- Great. So now I have\na much harder question.",
"timestamp": [
564.96,
567.42
]
},
{
"text": "So we have the same challenge, again,",
"timestamp": [
567.42,
570.15
]
},
{
"text": "So we have the same challenge, again,",
"timestamp": [
567.42,
570.15
]
},
{
"text": "evidently there are way, way,",
"timestamp": [
570.15,
572.19
]
},
{
"text": "evidently there are way, way,",
"timestamp": [
570.15,
572.19
]
},
{
"text": "way more rational numbers\nthan there are integers.",
"timestamp": [
572.19,
575.94
]
},
{
"text": "way more rational numbers\nthan there are integers.",
"timestamp": [
572.19,
575.94
]
},
{
"text": "Does that mean this is\na larger infinite set",
"timestamp": [
575.94,
579.51
]
},
{
"text": "Does that mean this is\na larger infinite set",
"timestamp": [
575.94,
579.51
]
},
{
"text": "than the integers?",
"timestamp": [
579.51,
580.59
]
},
{
"text": "than the integers?",
"timestamp": [
579.51,
580.59
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think?",
"timestamp": [
580.59,
581.423
]
},
{
"text": "What do you think?",
"timestamp": [
580.59,
581.423
]
},
{
"text": "- By intuition I would say yes,",
"timestamp": [
581.423,
582.75
]
},
{
"text": "- By intuition I would say yes,",
"timestamp": [
581.423,
582.75
]
},
{
"text": "but that was the same\ncase with the integers.",
"timestamp": [
582.75,
584.563
]
},
{
"text": "but that was the same\ncase with the integers.",
"timestamp": [
582.75,
584.563
]
},
{
"text": "I would imagine there might\nbe some bijective function",
"timestamp": [
584.563,
587.34
]
},
{
"text": "I would imagine there might\nbe some bijective function",
"timestamp": [
584.563,
587.34
]
},
{
"text": "for mapping natural numbers\nto rational numbers.",
"timestamp": [
587.34,
590.28
]
},
{
"text": "for mapping natural numbers\nto rational numbers.",
"timestamp": [
587.34,
590.28
]
},
{
"text": "- So I'm going to use\nthis picture to count the",
"timestamp": [
590.28,
593.4
]
},
{
"text": "- So I'm going to use\nthis picture to count the",
"timestamp": [
590.28,
593.4
]
},
{
"text": "rational numbers by actually\ncounting the elements",
"timestamp": [
593.4,
595.86
]
},
{
"text": "rational numbers by actually\ncounting the elements",
"timestamp": [
593.4,
595.86
]
},
{
"text": "of this larger set because\nit'll be clearer geometrically.",
"timestamp": [
595.86,
598.83
]
},
{
"text": "of this larger set because\nit'll be clearer geometrically.",
"timestamp": [
595.86,
598.83
]
},
{
"text": "What I've drawn in this\npicture is the integer lattice.",
"timestamp": [
598.83,
601.98
]
},
{
"text": "What I've drawn in this\npicture is the integer lattice.",
"timestamp": [
598.83,
601.98
]
},
{
"text": "So Z cross Z refers to the\nset of all of these dots.",
"timestamp": [
601.98,
605.91
]
},
{
"text": "So Z cross Z refers to the\nset of all of these dots.",
"timestamp": [
601.98,
605.91
]
},
{
"text": "So I'll start by counting\nthe number at the origin,",
"timestamp": [
605.91,
608.13
]
},
{
"text": "So I'll start by counting\nthe number at the origin,",
"timestamp": [
605.91,
608.13
]
},
{
"text": "and you can see I'm just labeling the dots",
"timestamp": [
608.13,
611.61
]
},
{
"text": "and you can see I'm just labeling the dots",
"timestamp": [
608.13,
611.61
]
},
{
"text": "around the origin,",
"timestamp": [
611.61,
612.72
]
},
{
"text": "around the origin,",
"timestamp": [
611.61,
612.72
]
},
{
"text": "moving in a counterclockwise fashion",
"timestamp": [
612.72,
616.8
]
},
{
"text": "moving in a counterclockwise fashion",
"timestamp": [
612.72,
616.8
]
},
{
"text": "and getting progressively further away.",
"timestamp": [
616.8,
620.283
]
},
{
"text": "and getting progressively further away.",
"timestamp": [
616.8,
620.283
]
},
{
"text": "And this process could continue,",
"timestamp": [
624.06,
625.773
]
},
{
"text": "And this process could continue,",
"timestamp": [
624.06,
625.773
]
},
{
"text": "but maybe by now you see the pattern,",
"timestamp": [
628.44,
630.03
]
},
{
"text": "but maybe by now you see the pattern,",
"timestamp": [
628.44,
630.03
]
},
{
"text": "though it'd be a little bit difficult",
"timestamp": [
630.03,
631.17
]
},
{
"text": "though it'd be a little bit difficult",
"timestamp": [
630.03,
631.17
]
},
{
"text": "to describe as a function.",
"timestamp": [
631.17,
632.73
]
},
{
"text": "to describe as a function.",
"timestamp": [
631.17,
632.73
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh is it for each rational number,",
"timestamp": [
632.73,
634.65
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh is it for each rational number,",
"timestamp": [
632.73,
634.65
]
},
{
"text": "there's a pair of integers that",
"timestamp": [
634.65,
638.1
]
},
{
"text": "there's a pair of integers that",
"timestamp": [
634.65,
638.1
]
},
{
"text": "represent that rational number?",
"timestamp": [
638.1,
639.99
]
},
{
"text": "represent that rational number?",
"timestamp": [
638.1,
639.99
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, that's exactly right.",
"timestamp": [
639.99,
641.52
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, that's exactly right.",
"timestamp": [
639.99,
641.52
]
},
{
"text": "And now for each pair of integers,",
"timestamp": [
641.52,
643.2
]
},
{
"text": "And now for each pair of integers,",
"timestamp": [
641.52,
643.2
]
},
{
"text": "I'm gonna represent it by a\ncorresponding natural number.",
"timestamp": [
643.2,
646.203
]
},
{
"text": "I'm gonna represent it by a\ncorresponding natural number.",
"timestamp": [
643.2,
646.203
]
},
{
"text": "That's what's going on with this counting.",
"timestamp": [
646.203,
647.46
]
},
{
"text": "That's what's going on with this counting.",
"timestamp": [
646.203,
647.46
]
},
{
"text": "And when I compose those operations,",
"timestamp": [
647.46,
649.35
]
},
{
"text": "And when I compose those operations,",
"timestamp": [
647.46,
649.35
]
},
{
"text": "what I've done is I've\nencoded rational numbers",
"timestamp": [
649.35,
651.75
]
},
{
"text": "what I've done is I've\nencoded rational numbers",
"timestamp": [
649.35,
651.75
]
},
{
"text": "as natural numbers in a way that reveals",
"timestamp": [
651.75,
654.3
]
},
{
"text": "as natural numbers in a way that reveals",
"timestamp": [
651.75,
654.3
]
},
{
"text": "that they can be no larger,",
"timestamp": [
654.3,
655.8
]
},
{
"text": "that they can be no larger,",
"timestamp": [
654.3,
655.8
]
},
{
"text": "there are no more rational\nnumbers than natural numbers.",
"timestamp": [
655.8,
658.86
]
},
{
"text": "there are no more rational\nnumbers than natural numbers.",
"timestamp": [
655.8,
658.86
]
},
{
"text": "- So this slope is\nrepresented by three, two,",
"timestamp": [
658.86,
662.1
]
},
{
"text": "- So this slope is\nrepresented by three, two,",
"timestamp": [
658.86,
662.1
]
},
{
"text": "and three, two is in here as 25.",
"timestamp": [
662.1,
664.38
]
},
{
"text": "and three, two is in here as 25.",
"timestamp": [
662.1,
664.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly. That's exactly right.",
"timestamp": [
664.38,
666
]
},
{
"text": "- Exactly. That's exactly right.",
"timestamp": [
664.38,
666
]
},
{
"text": "So we were hoping to\ncompare the size of infinity",
"timestamp": [
666,
668.37
]
},
{
"text": "So we were hoping to\ncompare the size of infinity",
"timestamp": [
666,
668.37
]
},
{
"text": "of the rational numbers\nwith the size of infinity",
"timestamp": [
668.37,
670.92
]
},
{
"text": "of the rational numbers\nwith the size of infinity",
"timestamp": [
668.37,
670.92
]
},
{
"text": "of the natural numbers.",
"timestamp": [
670.92,
672.45
]
},
{
"text": "of the natural numbers.",
"timestamp": [
670.92,
672.45
]
},
{
"text": "What we've done is introduced\nan intermediate set,",
"timestamp": [
672.45,
675.18
]
},
{
"text": "What we've done is introduced\nan intermediate set,",
"timestamp": [
672.45,
675.18
]
},
{
"text": "these pair of integer points,",
"timestamp": [
675.18,
677.37
]
},
{
"text": "these pair of integer points,",
"timestamp": [
675.18,
677.37
]
},
{
"text": "and this proves that this size of infinity",
"timestamp": [
677.37,
679.74
]
},
{
"text": "and this proves that this size of infinity",
"timestamp": [
677.37,
679.74
]
},
{
"text": "is smaller than this size of infinity.",
"timestamp": [
679.74,
682.47
]
},
{
"text": "is smaller than this size of infinity.",
"timestamp": [
679.74,
682.47
]
},
{
"text": "Since we also have an injective\nfunction the other way,",
"timestamp": [
682.47,
685.29
]
},
{
"text": "Since we also have an injective\nfunction the other way,",
"timestamp": [
682.47,
685.29
]
},
{
"text": "this size of infinity is smaller\nthan this size of infinity",
"timestamp": [
685.29,
688.62
]
},
{
"text": "this size of infinity is smaller\nthan this size of infinity",
"timestamp": [
685.29,
688.62
]
},
{
"text": "so therefore they must be the same size.",
"timestamp": [
688.62,
691.14
]
},
{
"text": "so therefore they must be the same size.",
"timestamp": [
688.62,
691.14
]
},
{
"text": "- That's wild.",
"timestamp": [
691.14,
692.58
]
},
{
"text": "- That's wild.",
"timestamp": [
691.14,
692.58
]
},
{
"text": "- Now there's one final collection",
"timestamp": [
692.58,
694.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Now there's one final collection",
"timestamp": [
692.58,
694.53
]
},
{
"text": "of numbers that we haven't yet discussed,",
"timestamp": [
694.53,
696.09
]
},
{
"text": "of numbers that we haven't yet discussed,",
"timestamp": [
694.53,
696.09
]
},
{
"text": "which are the real numbers,",
"timestamp": [
696.09,
697.29
]
},
{
"text": "which are the real numbers,",
"timestamp": [
696.09,
697.29
]
},
{
"text": "all of the points on the number line.",
"timestamp": [
697.29,
700.11
]
},
{
"text": "all of the points on the number line.",
"timestamp": [
697.29,
700.11
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think that's\nthe same size infinity?",
"timestamp": [
700.11,
702.39
]
},
{
"text": "Do you think that's\nthe same size infinity?",
"timestamp": [
700.11,
702.39
]
},
{
"text": "- I guess again,",
"timestamp": [
702.39,
703.53
]
},
{
"text": "- I guess again,",
"timestamp": [
702.39,
703.53
]
},
{
"text": "intuition seems like\nit must be much larger,",
"timestamp": [
703.53,
705.66
]
},
{
"text": "intuition seems like\nit must be much larger,",
"timestamp": [
703.53,
705.66
]
},
{
"text": "but I don't know, I\nhaven't been on a roll.",
"timestamp": [
705.66,
709.053
]
},
{
"text": "but I don't know, I\nhaven't been on a roll.",
"timestamp": [
705.66,
709.053
]
},
{
"text": "- Georg Cantor proved",
"timestamp": [
710.1,
711.9
]
},
{
"text": "- Georg Cantor proved",
"timestamp": [
710.1,
711.9
]
},
{
"text": "that it is impossible to\ncount all real numbers",
"timestamp": [
711.9,
715.86
]
},
{
"text": "that it is impossible to\ncount all real numbers",
"timestamp": [
711.9,
715.86
]
},
{
"text": "like we've just counted\nthe rational numbers",
"timestamp": [
715.86,
717.66
]
},
{
"text": "like we've just counted\nthe rational numbers",
"timestamp": [
715.86,
717.66
]
},
{
"text": "or just counted the integers.",
"timestamp": [
717.66,
719.49
]
},
{
"text": "or just counted the integers.",
"timestamp": [
717.66,
719.49
]
},
{
"text": "This is called the cardinality",
"timestamp": [
719.49,
720.5
]
},
{
"text": "This is called the cardinality",
"timestamp": [
719.49,
720.5
]
},
{
"text": "of the continuum, it is uncountable.",
"timestamp": [
720.5,
724.004
]
},
{
"text": "of the continuum, it is uncountable.",
"timestamp": [
720.5,
724.004
]
},
{
"text": "What I'm going to do now\nis form a new real number",
"timestamp": [
724.004,
727.015
]
},
{
"text": "What I'm going to do now\nis form a new real number",
"timestamp": [
724.004,
727.015
]
},
{
"text": "that I guarantee is not on this list.",
"timestamp": [
727.015,
730.484
]
},
{
"text": "that I guarantee is not on this list.",
"timestamp": [
727.015,
730.484
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, so here's how we do this.",
"timestamp": [
730.484,
732.055
]
},
{
"text": "Okay, so here's how we do this.",
"timestamp": [
730.484,
732.055
]
},
{
"text": "What I'm gonna do is I'm gonna look",
"timestamp": [
732.055,
733.08
]
},
{
"text": "What I'm gonna do is I'm gonna look",
"timestamp": [
732.055,
733.08
]
},
{
"text": "at the diagonal elements.",
"timestamp": [
733.08,
735.06
]
},
{
"text": "at the diagonal elements.",
"timestamp": [
733.08,
735.06
]
},
{
"text": "So I'll highlight them.",
"timestamp": [
735.06,
736.323
]
},
{
"text": "So I'll highlight them.",
"timestamp": [
735.06,
736.323
]
},
{
"text": "This continues forever,",
"timestamp": [
745.35,
746.58
]
},
{
"text": "This continues forever,",
"timestamp": [
745.35,
746.58
]
},
{
"text": "and now I'm going to\nform a new real number",
"timestamp": [
746.58,
750
]
},
{
"text": "and now I'm going to\nform a new real number",
"timestamp": [
746.58,
750
]
},
{
"text": "by changing all of these.",
"timestamp": [
750,
751.8
]
},
{
"text": "by changing all of these.",
"timestamp": [
750,
751.8
]
},
{
"text": "- If you just like added one to them,",
"timestamp": [
751.8,
753.24
]
},
{
"text": "- If you just like added one to them,",
"timestamp": [
751.8,
753.24
]
},
{
"text": "then that would be\nsomething that doesn't exist",
"timestamp": [
753.24,
754.74
]
},
{
"text": "then that would be\nsomething that doesn't exist",
"timestamp": [
753.24,
754.74
]
},
{
"text": "in any of the other ones.",
"timestamp": [
754.74,
755.64
]
},
{
"text": "in any of the other ones.",
"timestamp": [
754.74,
755.64
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes. You see the idea right away.",
"timestamp": [
755.64,
757.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes. You see the idea right away.",
"timestamp": [
755.64,
757.38
]
},
{
"text": "So I'm gonna form a new real number",
"timestamp": [
757.38,
759.81
]
},
{
"text": "So I'm gonna form a new real number",
"timestamp": [
757.38,
759.81
]
},
{
"text": "whose first digit is\ndifferent from this one.",
"timestamp": [
759.81,
762.69
]
},
{
"text": "whose first digit is\ndifferent from this one.",
"timestamp": [
759.81,
762.69
]
},
{
"text": "And you've already convinced yourself",
"timestamp": [
762.69,
764.04
]
},
{
"text": "And you've already convinced yourself",
"timestamp": [
762.69,
764.04
]
},
{
"text": "that this number is not\non this list anywhere.",
"timestamp": [
764.04,
766.17
]
},
{
"text": "that this number is not\non this list anywhere.",
"timestamp": [
764.04,
766.17
]
},
{
"text": "Why is that?",
"timestamp": [
766.17,
767.37
]
},
{
"text": "Why is that?",
"timestamp": [
766.17,
767.37
]
},
{
"text": "- Because at every point there's",
"timestamp": [
767.37,
769.44
]
},
{
"text": "- Because at every point there's",
"timestamp": [
767.37,
769.44
]
},
{
"text": "at least one change\nfrom a number in there.",
"timestamp": [
769.44,
772.95
]
},
{
"text": "at least one change\nfrom a number in there.",
"timestamp": [
769.44,
772.95
]
},
{
"text": "- Great. That's exactly right.",
"timestamp": [
772.95,
774.39
]
},
{
"text": "- Great. That's exactly right.",
"timestamp": [
772.95,
774.39
]
},
{
"text": "So what we've proven is\nthat this number is missing,",
"timestamp": [
774.39,
777
]
},
{
"text": "So what we've proven is\nthat this number is missing,",
"timestamp": [
774.39,
777
]
},
{
"text": "and therefore it is impossible\nto define a bijection",
"timestamp": [
777,
780.63
]
},
{
"text": "and therefore it is impossible\nto define a bijection",
"timestamp": [
777,
780.63
]
},
{
"text": "between the natural numbers\nand the real numbers.",
"timestamp": [
780.63,
783.66
]
},
{
"text": "between the natural numbers\nand the real numbers.",
"timestamp": [
780.63,
783.66
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh wow.",
"timestamp": [
783.66,
784.493
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh wow.",
"timestamp": [
783.66,
784.493
]
},
{
"text": "- So we've started to explore some",
"timestamp": [
784.493,
786.09
]
},
{
"text": "- So we've started to explore some",
"timestamp": [
784.493,
786.09
]
},
{
"text": "of the counterintuitive\nproperties of infinity.",
"timestamp": [
786.09,
789.09
]
},
{
"text": "of the counterintuitive\nproperties of infinity.",
"timestamp": [
786.09,
789.09
]
},
{
"text": "On the one hand there are infinite sets",
"timestamp": [
789.09,
791.52
]
},
{
"text": "On the one hand there are infinite sets",
"timestamp": [
789.09,
791.52
]
},
{
"text": "that feel very different\nlike the natural numbers,",
"timestamp": [
791.52,
794.37
]
},
{
"text": "that feel very different\nlike the natural numbers,",
"timestamp": [
791.52,
794.37
]
},
{
"text": "the integers,",
"timestamp": [
794.37,
795.203
]
},
{
"text": "the integers,",
"timestamp": [
794.37,
795.203
]
},
{
"text": "the rational numbers that\nnevertheless have the same size",
"timestamp": [
795.203,
798
]
},
{
"text": "the rational numbers that\nnevertheless have the same size",
"timestamp": [
795.203,
798
]
},
{
"text": "or the same infinite cardinality.",
"timestamp": [
798,
800.4
]
},
{
"text": "or the same infinite cardinality.",
"timestamp": [
798,
800.4
]
},
{
"text": "While there are other\ninfinities that are larger.",
"timestamp": [
800.4,
804.24
]
},
{
"text": "While there are other\ninfinities that are larger.",
"timestamp": [
800.4,
804.24
]
},
{
"text": "So there's more than one size of infinity,",
"timestamp": [
804.24,
807.06
]
},
{
"text": "So there's more than one size of infinity,",
"timestamp": [
804.24,
807.06
]
},
{
"text": "not all infinities are created equal.",
"timestamp": [
807.06,
809.01
]
},
{
"text": "not all infinities are created equal.",
"timestamp": [
807.06,
809.01
]
},
{
"text": "- I was wondering what the kind of",
"timestamp": [
809.01,
811.2
]
},
{
"text": "- I was wondering what the kind of",
"timestamp": [
809.01,
811.2
]
},
{
"text": "practical implications are,",
"timestamp": [
811.2,
812.4
]
},
{
"text": "practical implications are,",
"timestamp": [
811.2,
812.4
]
},
{
"text": "what you can do with\nthis sort of knowledge.",
"timestamp": [
812.4,
813.96
]
},
{
"text": "what you can do with\nthis sort of knowledge.",
"timestamp": [
812.4,
813.96
]
},
{
"text": "- Really glad you asked me that.",
"timestamp": [
813.96,
815.01
]
},
{
"text": "- Really glad you asked me that.",
"timestamp": [
813.96,
815.01
]
},
{
"text": "There's a practical implication\nfor computer science.",
"timestamp": [
815.01,
817.29
]
},
{
"text": "There's a practical implication\nfor computer science.",
"timestamp": [
815.01,
817.29
]
},
{
"text": "Alan Turing,",
"timestamp": [
817.29,
818.13
]
},
{
"text": "Alan Turing,",
"timestamp": [
817.29,
818.13
]
},
{
"text": "he came up with a mathematical\nmodel of a computer,",
"timestamp": [
818.13,
821.1
]
},
{
"text": "he came up with a mathematical\nmodel of a computer,",
"timestamp": [
818.13,
821.1
]
},
{
"text": "something called a Turing machine.",
"timestamp": [
821.1,
822.87
]
},
{
"text": "something called a Turing machine.",
"timestamp": [
821.1,
822.87
]
},
{
"text": "So Turing was wondering is it possible to",
"timestamp": [
822.87,
825.03
]
},
{
"text": "So Turing was wondering is it possible to",
"timestamp": [
822.87,
825.03
]
},
{
"text": "compute every real number,",
"timestamp": [
825.03,
827.73
]
},
{
"text": "compute every real number,",
"timestamp": [
825.03,
827.73
]
},
{
"text": "an arbitrary real number",
"timestamp": [
827.73,
829.11
]
},
{
"text": "an arbitrary real number",
"timestamp": [
827.73,
829.11
]
},
{
"text": "to within arbitrary\nprecision in finite time?",
"timestamp": [
829.11,
832.62
]
},
{
"text": "to within arbitrary\nprecision in finite time?",
"timestamp": [
829.11,
832.62
]
},
{
"text": "He defined a real number to be computable<",
"timestamp": [
832.62,
834.63
]
},
{
"text": "He defined a real number to be computable<",
"timestamp": [
832.62,
834.63
]
},
{
"text": "if you could calculate its\nvalue, maybe not exactly,",
"timestamp": [
834.63,
837.18
]
},
{
"text": "if you could calculate its\nvalue, maybe not exactly,",
"timestamp": [
834.63,
837.18
]
},
{
"text": "but as accurately as you'd like\nin a finite amount of time.",
"timestamp": [
837.18,
841.23
]
},
{
"text": "but as accurately as you'd like\nin a finite amount of time.",
"timestamp": [
837.18,
841.23
]
},
{
"text": "And because there are uncountably",
"timestamp": [
841.23,
843.09
]
},
{
"text": "And because there are uncountably",
"timestamp": [
841.23,
843.09
]
},
{
"text": "infinitely many real numbers,",
"timestamp": [
843.09,
844.86
]
},
{
"text": "infinitely many real numbers,",
"timestamp": [
843.09,
844.86
]
},
{
"text": "but only a countably infinitely\nmany Turing machines,",
"timestamp": [
844.86,
847.62
]
},
{
"text": "but only a countably infinitely\nmany Turing machines,",
"timestamp": [
844.86,
847.62
]
},
{
"text": "what that means is that the vast majority",
"timestamp": [
847.62,
849.39
]
},
{
"text": "what that means is that the vast majority",
"timestamp": [
847.62,
849.39
]
},
{
"text": "of real numbers are uncomputable.",
"timestamp": [
849.39,
851.01
]
},
{
"text": "of real numbers are uncomputable.",
"timestamp": [
849.39,
851.01
]
},
{
"text": "So we'll never be able to access them",
"timestamp": [
851.01,
852.63
]
},
{
"text": "So we'll never be able to access them",
"timestamp": [
851.01,
852.63
]
},
{
"text": "with a computer program.",
"timestamp": [
852.63,
854.058
]
},
{
"text": "with a computer program.",
"timestamp": [
852.63,
854.058
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
854.058,
857.46
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
854.058,
857.46
]
},
{
"text": "You're a PhD student, is that right?",
"timestamp": [
857.46,
859.32
]
},
{
"text": "You're a PhD student, is that right?",
"timestamp": [
857.46,
859.32
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, I'm a second year PhD student",
"timestamp": [
859.32,
860.91
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, I'm a second year PhD student",
"timestamp": [
859.32,
860.91
]
},
{
"text": "at the University of Maryland.",
"timestamp": [
860.91,
862.14
]
},
{
"text": "at the University of Maryland.",
"timestamp": [
860.91,
862.14
]
},
{
"text": "- Does infinity come up",
"timestamp": [
862.14,
863.13
]
},
{
"text": "- Does infinity come up",
"timestamp": [
862.14,
863.13
]
},
{
"text": "in your mathematics that you're studying?",
"timestamp": [
863.13,
864.6
]
},
{
"text": "in your mathematics that you're studying?",
"timestamp": [
863.13,
864.6
]
},
{
"text": "- One place infinity comes\nup is in algebraic geometry.",
"timestamp": [
864.6,
867.36
]
},
{
"text": "- One place infinity comes\nup is in algebraic geometry.",
"timestamp": [
864.6,
867.36
]
},
{
"text": "Normally we think okay,",
"timestamp": [
867.36,
868.35
]
},
{
"text": "Normally we think okay,",
"timestamp": [
867.36,
868.35
]
},
{
"text": "well if you have two lines like this,",
"timestamp": [
868.35,
869.61
]
},
{
"text": "well if you have two lines like this,",
"timestamp": [
868.35,
869.61
]
},
{
"text": "you'd keep drawing them,\nthey intersect right here.",
"timestamp": [
869.61,
871.98
]
},
{
"text": "you'd keep drawing them,\nthey intersect right here.",
"timestamp": [
869.61,
871.98
]
},
{
"text": "But in projective space,",
"timestamp": [
871.98,
873.03
]
},
{
"text": "But in projective space,",
"timestamp": [
871.98,
873.03
]
},
{
"text": "two parallel lines will also intersect",
"timestamp": [
873.03,
875.43
]
},
{
"text": "two parallel lines will also intersect",
"timestamp": [
873.03,
875.43
]
},
{
"text": "at the point at infinity.",
"timestamp": [
875.43,
876.75
]
},
{
"text": "at the point at infinity.",
"timestamp": [
875.43,
876.75
]
},
{
"text": "Infinity is like this perfect\nconcept for what we can add to",
"timestamp": [
876.75,
880.02
]
},
{
"text": "Infinity is like this perfect\nconcept for what we can add to",
"timestamp": [
876.75,
880.02
]
},
{
"text": "a space that allows lines",
"timestamp": [
880.02,
882.42
]
},
{
"text": "a space that allows lines",
"timestamp": [
880.02,
882.42
]
},
{
"text": "to have this more uniform property.",
"timestamp": [
882.42,
883.86
]
},
{
"text": "to have this more uniform property.",
"timestamp": [
882.42,
883.86
]
},
{
"text": "What's your research in?",
"timestamp": [
883.86,
885.15
]
},
{
"text": "What's your research in?",
"timestamp": [
883.86,
885.15
]
},
{
"text": "- So one of my main research areas",
"timestamp": [
885.15,
887.04
]
},
{
"text": "- So one of my main research areas",
"timestamp": [
885.15,
887.04
]
},
{
"text": "is something called category theory,",
"timestamp": [
887.04,
888.57
]
},
{
"text": "is something called category theory,",
"timestamp": [
887.04,
888.57
]
},
{
"text": "it's been described as the\nmathematics of mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
888.57,
891.42
]
},
{
"text": "it's been described as the\nmathematics of mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
888.57,
891.42
]
},
{
"text": "It's a language that can be used to prove",
"timestamp": [
891.42,
893.88
]
},
{
"text": "It's a language that can be used to prove",
"timestamp": [
891.42,
893.88
]
},
{
"text": "very general theorems.",
"timestamp": [
893.88,
895.68
]
},
{
"text": "very general theorems.",
"timestamp": [
893.88,
895.68
]
},
{
"text": "And an interesting aspect\nof being a researcher",
"timestamp": [
895.68,
899.4
]
},
{
"text": "And an interesting aspect\nof being a researcher",
"timestamp": [
895.68,
899.4
]
},
{
"text": "in category theory that\ndoesn't come up as much",
"timestamp": [
899.4,
901.23
]
},
{
"text": "in category theory that\ndoesn't come up as much",
"timestamp": [
899.4,
901.23
]
},
{
"text": "in other areas is that we\nhave to really pay attention",
"timestamp": [
901.23,
905.49
]
},
{
"text": "in other areas is that we\nhave to really pay attention",
"timestamp": [
901.23,
905.49
]
},
{
"text": "to the axioms of set theory in our work.",
"timestamp": [
905.49,
907.83
]
},
{
"text": "to the axioms of set theory in our work.",
"timestamp": [
905.49,
907.83
]
},
{
"text": "When you're proving theorems,",
"timestamp": [
907.83,
908.82
]
},
{
"text": "When you're proving theorems,",
"timestamp": [
907.83,
908.82
]
},
{
"text": "have you ever used the axiom of choice?",
"timestamp": [
908.82,
910.53
]
},
{
"text": "have you ever used the axiom of choice?",
"timestamp": [
908.82,
910.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it's basically this idea",
"timestamp": [
910.53,
912.24
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, it's basically this idea",
"timestamp": [
910.53,
912.24
]
},
{
"text": "that you can put a choice\nfunction on any set.",
"timestamp": [
912.24,
915.03
]
},
{
"text": "that you can put a choice\nfunction on any set.",
"timestamp": [
912.24,
915.03
]
},
{
"text": "- And a choice function does what exactly?",
"timestamp": [
915.03,
918.03
]
},
{
"text": "- And a choice function does what exactly?",
"timestamp": [
915.03,
918.03
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, that's a good question.",
"timestamp": [
918.03,
919.47
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, that's a good question.",
"timestamp": [
918.03,
919.47
]
},
{
"text": "- So the way I think about\nit is if you have an infinite",
"timestamp": [
919.47,
922.26
]
},
{
"text": "- So the way I think about\nit is if you have an infinite",
"timestamp": [
919.47,
922.26
]
},
{
"text": "or an arbitrary family of\nsets and you know for sure",
"timestamp": [
922.26,
925.41
]
},
{
"text": "or an arbitrary family of\nsets and you know for sure",
"timestamp": [
922.26,
925.41
]
},
{
"text": "that none of these sets are empty,",
"timestamp": [
925.41,
927.42
]
},
{
"text": "that none of these sets are empty,",
"timestamp": [
925.41,
927.42
]
},
{
"text": "then a choice function",
"timestamp": [
927.42,
928.35
]
},
{
"text": "then a choice function",
"timestamp": [
927.42,
928.35
]
},
{
"text": "would allow you to select an element",
"timestamp": [
928.35,
930.12
]
},
{
"text": "would allow you to select an element",
"timestamp": [
928.35,
930.12
]
},
{
"text": "from each set sort of all at once.",
"timestamp": [
930.12,
932.64
]
},
{
"text": "from each set sort of all at once.",
"timestamp": [
930.12,
932.64
]
},
{
"text": "When you've used the\naxiom of choice in proofs,",
"timestamp": [
932.64,
935.22
]
},
{
"text": "When you've used the\naxiom of choice in proofs,",
"timestamp": [
932.64,
935.22
]
},
{
"text": "do you know which incarnation\nof this you've used?",
"timestamp": [
935.22,
937.92
]
},
{
"text": "do you know which incarnation\nof this you've used?",
"timestamp": [
935.22,
937.92
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I've used it like that.",
"timestamp": [
937.92,
939
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I've used it like that.",
"timestamp": [
937.92,
939
]
},
{
"text": "I've also used it in Zorn's lemma",
"timestamp": [
939,
940.667
]
},
{
"text": "I've also used it in Zorn's lemma",
"timestamp": [
939,
940.667
]
},
{
"text": "and in the well ordering principle.",
"timestamp": [
940.667,
942.45
]
},
{
"text": "and in the well ordering principle.",
"timestamp": [
940.667,
942.45
]
},
{
"text": "- So there are three well-known\nfamous equivalent forms",
"timestamp": [
942.45,
946.74
]
},
{
"text": "- So there are three well-known\nfamous equivalent forms",
"timestamp": [
942.45,
946.74
]
},
{
"text": "of the axiom of choice.",
"timestamp": [
946.74,
947.82
]
},
{
"text": "of the axiom of choice.",
"timestamp": [
946.74,
947.82
]
},
{
"text": "The well ordering principle\nis the assumption,",
"timestamp": [
947.82,
951.39
]
},
{
"text": "The well ordering principle\nis the assumption,",
"timestamp": [
947.82,
951.39
]
},
{
"text": "the axiom that any set\ncan be well ordered,",
"timestamp": [
951.39,
955.05
]
},
{
"text": "the axiom that any set\ncan be well ordered,",
"timestamp": [
951.39,
955.05
]
},
{
"text": "but there are lots of subsets",
"timestamp": [
955.05,
956.55
]
},
{
"text": "but there are lots of subsets",
"timestamp": [
955.05,
956.55
]
},
{
"text": "of real numbers that do\nnot have a minimal element.",
"timestamp": [
956.55,
958.95
]
},
{
"text": "of real numbers that do\nnot have a minimal element.",
"timestamp": [
956.55,
958.95
]
},
{
"text": "So that ordering is not a well ordering.",
"timestamp": [
958.95,
961.2
]
},
{
"text": "So that ordering is not a well ordering.",
"timestamp": [
958.95,
961.2
]
},
{
"text": "So here's the key question.",
"timestamp": [
961.2,
962.34
]
},
{
"text": "So here's the key question.",
"timestamp": [
961.2,
962.34
]
},
{
"text": "Do you believe the axiom of choice?",
"timestamp": [
962.34,
964.223
]
},
{
"text": "Do you believe the axiom of choice?",
"timestamp": [
962.34,
964.223
]
},
{
"text": "- I do believe the axiom of choice.",
"timestamp": [
964.223,
965.61
]
},
{
"text": "- I do believe the axiom of choice.",
"timestamp": [
964.223,
965.61
]
},
{
"text": "- You do believe the axiom of choice,",
"timestamp": [
965.61,
966.81
]
},
{
"text": "- You do believe the axiom of choice,",
"timestamp": [
965.61,
966.81
]
},
{
"text": "though it leads us to\nsome strange conclusions.",
"timestamp": [
966.81,
969.18
]
},
{
"text": "though it leads us to\nsome strange conclusions.",
"timestamp": [
966.81,
969.18
]
},
{
"text": "So if the axiom choice is true,",
"timestamp": [
969.18,
972.51
]
},
{
"text": "So if the axiom choice is true,",
"timestamp": [
969.18,
972.51
]
},
{
"text": "then it's necessarily the case",
"timestamp": [
972.51,
975.18
]
},
{
"text": "then it's necessarily the case",
"timestamp": [
972.51,
975.18
]
},
{
"text": "that there exists a well\nordering of the reals.",
"timestamp": [
975.18,
978.466
]
},
{
"text": "that there exists a well\nordering of the reals.",
"timestamp": [
975.18,
978.466
]
},
{
"text": "And what that means is that\nwe can perform induction",
"timestamp": [
978.466,
980.1
]
},
{
"text": "And what that means is that\nwe can perform induction",
"timestamp": [
978.466,
980.1
]
},
{
"text": "over real numbers like\nwe perform induction",
"timestamp": [
980.1,
982.68
]
},
{
"text": "over real numbers like\nwe perform induction",
"timestamp": [
980.1,
982.68
]
},
{
"text": "over the natural numbers.",
"timestamp": [
982.68,
984.66
]
},
{
"text": "over the natural numbers.",
"timestamp": [
982.68,
984.66
]
},
{
"text": "This is trans-finite induction.",
"timestamp": [
984.66,
986.16
]
},
{
"text": "This is trans-finite induction.",
"timestamp": [
984.66,
986.16
]
},
{
"text": "It would work for any ordinal.",
"timestamp": [
986.16,
987.54
]
},
{
"text": "It would work for any ordinal.",
"timestamp": [
986.16,
987.54
]
},
{
"text": "So there must be some\nuncountably infinite ordinal",
"timestamp": [
987.54,
990.93
]
},
{
"text": "So there must be some\nuncountably infinite ordinal",
"timestamp": [
987.54,
990.93
]
},
{
"text": "that represents the order\ntype of the real numbers.",
"timestamp": [
990.93,
993.57
]
},
{
"text": "that represents the order\ntype of the real numbers.",
"timestamp": [
990.93,
993.57
]
},
{
"text": "And this allows us to\nprove some crazy things.",
"timestamp": [
993.57,
996.21
]
},
{
"text": "And this allows us to\nprove some crazy things.",
"timestamp": [
993.57,
996.21
]
},
{
"text": "Imagine three-dimensional Euclidean space.",
"timestamp": [
996.21,
998.01
]
},
{
"text": "Imagine three-dimensional Euclidean space.",
"timestamp": [
996.21,
998.01
]
},
{
"text": "So the space that we live in,",
"timestamp": [
998.01,
999.42
]
},
{
"text": "So the space that we live in,",
"timestamp": [
998.01,
999.42
]
},
{
"text": "extending infinitely in all directions.",
"timestamp": [
999.42,
1002.78
]
},
{
"text": "extending infinitely in all directions.",
"timestamp": [
999.42,
1002.78
]
},
{
"text": "So it is possible to completely\ncover three-dimensional",
"timestamp": [
1002.78,
1006.89
]
},
{
"text": "So it is possible to completely\ncover three-dimensional",
"timestamp": [
1002.78,
1006.89
]
},
{
"text": "Euclidean space by disjoint circles,",
"timestamp": [
1006.89,
1009.38
]
},
{
"text": "Euclidean space by disjoint circles,",
"timestamp": [
1006.89,
1009.38
]
},
{
"text": "so infinitesimal circles,\ndisjoint circles of radius one.",
"timestamp": [
1009.38,
1013.19
]
},
{
"text": "so infinitesimal circles,\ndisjoint circles of radius one.",
"timestamp": [
1009.38,
1013.19
]
},
{
"text": "So what that means is you\ncan put a circle somewhere",
"timestamp": [
1013.19,
1016.13
]
},
{
"text": "So what that means is you\ncan put a circle somewhere",
"timestamp": [
1013.19,
1016.13
]
},
{
"text": "in space and then put a\nsecond circle somewhere",
"timestamp": [
1016.13,
1018.17
]
},
{
"text": "in space and then put a\nsecond circle somewhere",
"timestamp": [
1016.13,
1018.17
]
},
{
"text": "in space that can't\nintersect with the first one",
"timestamp": [
1018.17,
1020.06
]
},
{
"text": "in space that can't\nintersect with the first one",
"timestamp": [
1018.17,
1020.06
]
},
{
"text": "because these are solid circles and then",
"timestamp": [
1020.06,
1022.22
]
},
{
"text": "because these are solid circles and then",
"timestamp": [
1020.06,
1022.22
]
},
{
"text": "another circle can somehow\ncover every single point",
"timestamp": [
1022.22,
1024.77
]
},
{
"text": "another circle can somehow\ncover every single point",
"timestamp": [
1022.22,
1024.77
]
},
{
"text": "in space with no gaps in between.",
"timestamp": [
1024.77,
1027.08
]
},
{
"text": "in space with no gaps in between.",
"timestamp": [
1024.77,
1027.08
]
},
{
"text": "- It's crazy.",
"timestamp": [
1027.08,
1027.913
]
},
{
"text": "- It's crazy.",
"timestamp": [
1027.08,
1027.913
]
},
{
"text": "It's not the only crazy thing.",
"timestamp": [
1027.913,
1029.15
]
},
{
"text": "It's not the only crazy thing.",
"timestamp": [
1027.913,
1029.15
]
},
{
"text": "Do you have a favorite consequence\nof the axiom of choice?",
"timestamp": [
1029.15,
1031.43
]
},
{
"text": "Do you have a favorite consequence\nof the axiom of choice?",
"timestamp": [
1029.15,
1031.43
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean the Banach-Tarski\nparadox is a big one.",
"timestamp": [
1031.43,
1033.68
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean the Banach-Tarski\nparadox is a big one.",
"timestamp": [
1031.43,
1033.68
]
},
{
"text": "So basically it says that you can,",
"timestamp": [
1033.68,
1035.54
]
},
{
"text": "So basically it says that you can,",
"timestamp": [
1033.68,
1035.54
]
},
{
"text": "using just rigid motions I think,",
"timestamp": [
1035.54,
1037.97
]
},
{
"text": "using just rigid motions I think,",
"timestamp": [
1035.54,
1037.97
]
},
{
"text": "you can take one ball--",
"timestamp": [
1037.97,
1039.44
]
},
{
"text": "you can take one ball--",
"timestamp": [
1037.97,
1039.44
]
},
{
"text": "- One solid ball with a finite volume.",
"timestamp": [
1039.44,
1041.573
]
},
{
"text": "- One solid ball with a finite volume.",
"timestamp": [
1039.44,
1041.573
]
},
{
"text": "- Cut it up and then\nrearrange the pieces so that",
"timestamp": [
1043.024,
1044.96
]
},
{
"text": "- Cut it up and then\nrearrange the pieces so that",
"timestamp": [
1043.024,
1044.96
]
},
{
"text": "in the end you get two balls\nwhich are the exact same size,",
"timestamp": [
1044.96,
1047.75
]
},
{
"text": "in the end you get two balls\nwhich are the exact same size,",
"timestamp": [
1044.96,
1047.75
]
},
{
"text": "the exact same volume.",
"timestamp": [
1047.75,
1048.98
]
},
{
"text": "the exact same volume.",
"timestamp": [
1047.75,
1048.98
]
},
{
"text": "So you've actually taken\none thing and using just",
"timestamp": [
1048.98,
1051.86
]
},
{
"text": "So you've actually taken\none thing and using just",
"timestamp": [
1048.98,
1051.86
]
},
{
"text": "pretty normal operations to it,",
"timestamp": [
1051.86,
1053.72
]
},
{
"text": "pretty normal operations to it,",
"timestamp": [
1051.86,
1053.72
]
},
{
"text": "you can double it,",
"timestamp": [
1053.72,
1054.92
]
},
{
"text": "you can double it,",
"timestamp": [
1053.72,
1054.92
]
},
{
"text": "which seems pretty\nimplausible in real life.",
"timestamp": [
1054.92,
1056.93
]
},
{
"text": "which seems pretty\nimplausible in real life.",
"timestamp": [
1054.92,
1056.93
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. That seems crazy to me.",
"timestamp": [
1056.93,
1058.19
]
},
{
"text": "- Right. That seems crazy to me.",
"timestamp": [
1056.93,
1058.19
]
},
{
"text": "And yet it's an irrefutable consequence",
"timestamp": [
1058.19,
1060.23
]
},
{
"text": "And yet it's an irrefutable consequence",
"timestamp": [
1058.19,
1060.23
]
},
{
"text": "of this axiom that you tell\nme you believe is true.",
"timestamp": [
1060.23,
1063.74
]
},
{
"text": "of this axiom that you tell\nme you believe is true.",
"timestamp": [
1060.23,
1063.74
]
},
{
"text": "So how many infinities are there?",
"timestamp": [
1063.74,
1065.96
]
},
{
"text": "So how many infinities are there?",
"timestamp": [
1063.74,
1065.96
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, definitely\nuncountably many infinities.",
"timestamp": [
1065.96,
1069.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, definitely\nuncountably many infinities.",
"timestamp": [
1065.96,
1069.29
]
},
{
"text": "- So there's certainly no\nstop to this procedure.",
"timestamp": [
1069.29,
1071.66
]
},
{
"text": "- So there's certainly no\nstop to this procedure.",
"timestamp": [
1069.29,
1071.66
]
},
{
"text": "But could you give a\nprecise cardinality to that?",
"timestamp": [
1071.66,
1073.82
]
},
{
"text": "But could you give a\nprecise cardinality to that?",
"timestamp": [
1071.66,
1073.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Probably not because if I could,",
"timestamp": [
1073.82,
1075.65
]
},
{
"text": "- Probably not because if I could,",
"timestamp": [
1073.82,
1075.65
]
},
{
"text": "there would be a set of all sets, right?",
"timestamp": [
1075.65,
1077.42
]
},
{
"text": "there would be a set of all sets, right?",
"timestamp": [
1075.65,
1077.42
]
},
{
"text": "- So Cantor's diagonal\nargument can be abstracted",
"timestamp": [
1077.42,
1079.88
]
},
{
"text": "- So Cantor's diagonal\nargument can be abstracted",
"timestamp": [
1077.42,
1079.88
]
},
{
"text": "and then generalized to prove\nthat for an arbitrary set A,",
"timestamp": [
1079.88,
1084.88
]
},
{
"text": "and then generalized to prove\nthat for an arbitrary set A,",
"timestamp": [
1079.88,
1084.88
]
},
{
"text": "its power set has a\nstrictly larger cardinality.",
"timestamp": [
1084.92,
1088.34
]
},
{
"text": "its power set has a\nstrictly larger cardinality.",
"timestamp": [
1084.92,
1088.34
]
},
{
"text": "And since that's true for any set,",
"timestamp": [
1088.34,
1090.14
]
},
{
"text": "And since that's true for any set,",
"timestamp": [
1088.34,
1090.14
]
},
{
"text": "we can just iterate this process.",
"timestamp": [
1090.14,
1092
]
},
{
"text": "we can just iterate this process.",
"timestamp": [
1090.14,
1092
]
},
{
"text": "When set theory was being discovered",
"timestamp": [
1092,
1094.91
]
},
{
"text": "When set theory was being discovered",
"timestamp": [
1092,
1094.91
]
},
{
"text": "or invented or created\nin the late 19th century,",
"timestamp": [
1094.91,
1098.45
]
},
{
"text": "or invented or created\nin the late 19th century,",
"timestamp": [
1094.91,
1098.45
]
},
{
"text": "one of the natural question to ask is",
"timestamp": [
1098.45,
1100.55
]
},
{
"text": "one of the natural question to ask is",
"timestamp": [
1098.45,
1100.55
]
},
{
"text": "can there be a universe of all sets?",
"timestamp": [
1100.55,
1102.23
]
},
{
"text": "can there be a universe of all sets?",
"timestamp": [
1100.55,
1102.23
]
},
{
"text": "This comes up in my\nresearch in category theory",
"timestamp": [
1102.23,
1104.93
]
},
{
"text": "This comes up in my\nresearch in category theory",
"timestamp": [
1102.23,
1104.93
]
},
{
"text": "because even though there\nis no set of all sets,",
"timestamp": [
1104.93,
1107.3
]
},
{
"text": "because even though there\nis no set of all sets,",
"timestamp": [
1104.93,
1107.3
]
},
{
"text": "we would really like for there\nto be a category of sets.",
"timestamp": [
1107.3,
1110.51
]
},
{
"text": "we would really like for there\nto be a category of sets.",
"timestamp": [
1107.3,
1110.51
]
},
{
"text": "So what category theorists\nneed to do to make their",
"timestamp": [
1110.51,
1113.36
]
},
{
"text": "So what category theorists\nneed to do to make their",
"timestamp": [
1110.51,
1113.36
]
},
{
"text": "work rigorous is to add\nadditional axioms to set theory.",
"timestamp": [
1113.36,
1117.26
]
},
{
"text": "work rigorous is to add\nadditional axioms to set theory.",
"timestamp": [
1113.36,
1117.26
]
},
{
"text": "One of my favorites was introduced",
"timestamp": [
1117.26,
1119.51
]
},
{
"text": "One of my favorites was introduced",
"timestamp": [
1117.26,
1119.51
]
},
{
"text": "by an algebraic geometer\nAlexander Grothendieck.",
"timestamp": [
1119.51,
1122.3
]
},
{
"text": "by an algebraic geometer\nAlexander Grothendieck.",
"timestamp": [
1119.51,
1122.3
]
},
{
"text": "This is something that we sometimes",
"timestamp": [
1122.3,
1123.86
]
},
{
"text": "This is something that we sometimes",
"timestamp": [
1122.3,
1123.86
]
},
{
"text": "call a Grothendieck universe,",
"timestamp": [
1123.86,
1124.97
]
},
{
"text": "call a Grothendieck universe,",
"timestamp": [
1123.86,
1124.97
]
},
{
"text": "or also an inaccessible cardinal.",
"timestamp": [
1124.97,
1126.62
]
},
{
"text": "or also an inaccessible cardinal.",
"timestamp": [
1124.97,
1126.62
]
},
{
"text": "It's an infinite number that is so big",
"timestamp": [
1126.62,
1129.23
]
},
{
"text": "It's an infinite number that is so big",
"timestamp": [
1126.62,
1129.23
]
},
{
"text": "that it cannot be accessed by any",
"timestamp": [
1129.23,
1132.11
]
},
{
"text": "that it cannot be accessed by any",
"timestamp": [
1129.23,
1132.11
]
},
{
"text": "of the other constructions\nwithin set theory.",
"timestamp": [
1132.11,
1134.63
]
},
{
"text": "of the other constructions\nwithin set theory.",
"timestamp": [
1132.11,
1134.63
]
},
{
"text": "It's so big that we'll\nnever get to it and this",
"timestamp": [
1134.63,
1137.42
]
},
{
"text": "It's so big that we'll\nnever get to it and this",
"timestamp": [
1134.63,
1137.42
]
},
{
"text": "allows us to contemplate the collection",
"timestamp": [
1137.42,
1141.11
]
},
{
"text": "allows us to contemplate the collection",
"timestamp": [
1137.42,
1141.11
]
},
{
"text": "of all sets whose cardinality\nis bounded by this size",
"timestamp": [
1141.11,
1143.99
]
},
{
"text": "of all sets whose cardinality\nis bounded by this size",
"timestamp": [
1141.11,
1143.99
]
},
{
"text": "that will never reach.",
"timestamp": [
1143.99,
1145.43
]
},
{
"text": "that will never reach.",
"timestamp": [
1143.99,
1145.43
]
},
{
"text": "- So you're just making a cutoff point.",
"timestamp": [
1145.43,
1147.29
]
},
{
"text": "- So you're just making a cutoff point.",
"timestamp": [
1145.43,
1147.29
]
},
{
"text": "You're saying we're never\ngonna get sets bigger",
"timestamp": [
1147.29,
1149.15
]
},
{
"text": "You're saying we're never\ngonna get sets bigger",
"timestamp": [
1147.29,
1149.15
]
},
{
"text": "than this anyway,",
"timestamp": [
1149.15,
1150.08
]
},
{
"text": "than this anyway,",
"timestamp": [
1149.15,
1150.08
]
},
{
"text": "so we might as well make",
"timestamp": [
1150.08,
1151.37
]
},
{
"text": "so we might as well make",
"timestamp": [
1150.08,
1151.37
]
},
{
"text": "our category only include\nthings smaller than that.",
"timestamp": [
1151.37,
1153.92
]
},
{
"text": "our category only include\nthings smaller than that.",
"timestamp": [
1151.37,
1153.92
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
1153.92,
1154.753
]
},
{
"text": "- That's right.",
"timestamp": [
1153.92,
1154.753
]
},
{
"text": "So a rigorous way to work\nwith a category of sets is to",
"timestamp": [
1154.753,
1157.01
]
},
{
"text": "So a rigorous way to work\nwith a category of sets is to",
"timestamp": [
1154.753,
1157.01
]
},
{
"text": "demand that it's a\ncategory of sets whose size",
"timestamp": [
1157.01,
1159.08
]
},
{
"text": "demand that it's a\ncategory of sets whose size",
"timestamp": [
1157.01,
1159.08
]
},
{
"text": "is bounded by this cardinality, Alpha say.",
"timestamp": [
1159.08,
1161.81
]
},
{
"text": "is bounded by this cardinality, Alpha say.",
"timestamp": [
1159.08,
1161.81
]
},
{
"text": "That is then an example\nof a category that fits",
"timestamp": [
1161.81,
1164.42
]
},
{
"text": "That is then an example\nof a category that fits",
"timestamp": [
1161.81,
1164.42
]
},
{
"text": "into another even still larger\nGrothendieck universe Beta.",
"timestamp": [
1164.42,
1167.75
]
},
{
"text": "into another even still larger\nGrothendieck universe Beta.",
"timestamp": [
1164.42,
1167.75
]
},
{
"text": "So implicitly in a lot of my research,",
"timestamp": [
1167.75,
1170.78
]
},
{
"text": "So implicitly in a lot of my research,",
"timestamp": [
1167.75,
1170.78
]
},
{
"text": "I have to add an additional assumption",
"timestamp": [
1170.78,
1173.39
]
},
{
"text": "I have to add an additional assumption",
"timestamp": [
1170.78,
1173.39
]
},
{
"text": "that there exists maybe countably",
"timestamp": [
1173.39,
1176.3
]
},
{
"text": "that there exists maybe countably",
"timestamp": [
1173.39,
1176.3
]
},
{
"text": "many inaccessible cardinals.",
"timestamp": [
1176.3,
1178.62
]
},
{
"text": "many inaccessible cardinals.",
"timestamp": [
1176.3,
1178.62
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
1178.62,
1181.203
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
1178.62,
1181.203
]
},
{
"text": "Examples of infinite sets\nabound in mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
1182.42,
1185.36
]
},
{
"text": "Examples of infinite sets\nabound in mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
1182.42,
1185.36
]
},
{
"text": "You know, we see them every day.",
"timestamp": [
1185.36,
1187.04
]
},
{
"text": "You know, we see them every day.",
"timestamp": [
1185.36,
1187.04
]
},
{
"text": "So do those infinities exist?",
"timestamp": [
1187.04,
1189.53
]
},
{
"text": "So do those infinities exist?",
"timestamp": [
1187.04,
1189.53
]
},
{
"text": "- Think you'll get a different\nanswer from every person,",
"timestamp": [
1189.53,
1192.05
]
},
{
"text": "- Think you'll get a different\nanswer from every person,",
"timestamp": [
1189.53,
1192.05
]
},
{
"text": "every mathematician you meet.",
"timestamp": [
1192.05,
1194.15
]
},
{
"text": "every mathematician you meet.",
"timestamp": [
1192.05,
1194.15
]
},
{
"text": "It is a construct.",
"timestamp": [
1194.15,
1196.1
]
},
{
"text": "It is a construct.",
"timestamp": [
1194.15,
1196.1
]
},
{
"text": "So it exists in the same way that things",
"timestamp": [
1196.1,
1198.8
]
},
{
"text": "So it exists in the same way that things",
"timestamp": [
1196.1,
1198.8
]
},
{
"text": "like poetry exists when you talk",
"timestamp": [
1198.8,
1201.26
]
},
{
"text": "like poetry exists when you talk",
"timestamp": [
1198.8,
1201.26
]
},
{
"text": "about even cardinality and it's just like,",
"timestamp": [
1201.26,
1205.49
]
},
{
"text": "about even cardinality and it's just like,",
"timestamp": [
1201.26,
1205.49
]
},
{
"text": "well here's an infinite hotel.",
"timestamp": [
1205.49,
1206.9
]
},
{
"text": "well here's an infinite hotel.",
"timestamp": [
1205.49,
1206.9
]
},
{
"text": "I had one student who was like, no, no,",
"timestamp": [
1206.9,
1211.016
]
},
{
"text": "I had one student who was like, no, no,",
"timestamp": [
1206.9,
1211.016
]
},
{
"text": "it does not exist.",
"timestamp": [
1211.016,
1212.36
]
},
{
"text": "it does not exist.",
"timestamp": [
1211.016,
1212.36
]
},
{
"text": "When I describe,",
"timestamp": [
1212.36,
1213.68
]
},
{
"text": "When I describe,",
"timestamp": [
1212.36,
1213.68
]
},
{
"text": "well imagine you do this\ninfinitely many times,",
"timestamp": [
1213.68,
1216.26
]
},
{
"text": "well imagine you do this\ninfinitely many times,",
"timestamp": [
1213.68,
1216.26
]
},
{
"text": "they're done with me because\nthey're like \"I can't,",
"timestamp": [
1216.26,
1218.51
]
},
{
"text": "they're done with me because\nthey're like \"I can't,",
"timestamp": [
1216.26,
1218.51
]
},
{
"text": "no one can do this infinitely many times\".",
"timestamp": [
1218.51,
1221.42
]
},
{
"text": "no one can do this infinitely many times\".",
"timestamp": [
1218.51,
1221.42
]
},
{
"text": "These interesting paradoxes that come from",
"timestamp": [
1221.42,
1223.7
]
},
{
"text": "These interesting paradoxes that come from",
"timestamp": [
1221.42,
1223.7
]
},
{
"text": "like the ape typing on a typewriter",
"timestamp": [
1223.7,
1227.15
]
},
{
"text": "like the ape typing on a typewriter",
"timestamp": [
1223.7,
1227.15
]
},
{
"text": "and eventually getting to\nHamlet is an example of",
"timestamp": [
1227.15,
1230.75
]
},
{
"text": "and eventually getting to\nHamlet is an example of",
"timestamp": [
1227.15,
1230.75
]
},
{
"text": "well if you give something forever",
"timestamp": [
1230.75,
1232.97
]
},
{
"text": "well if you give something forever",
"timestamp": [
1230.75,
1232.97
]
},
{
"text": "and any random event is going to happen.",
"timestamp": [
1232.97,
1236.51
]
},
{
"text": "and any random event is going to happen.",
"timestamp": [
1232.97,
1236.51
]
},
{
"text": "- It can be generative for sure.",
"timestamp": [
1236.51,
1237.77
]
},
{
"text": "- It can be generative for sure.",
"timestamp": [
1236.51,
1237.77
]
},
{
"text": "- It's definitely a\nreally interesting thing",
"timestamp": [
1237.77,
1241.19
]
},
{
"text": "- It's definitely a\nreally interesting thing",
"timestamp": [
1237.77,
1241.19
]
},
{
"text": "to try to talk to students about.",
"timestamp": [
1241.19,
1243.387
]
},
{
"text": "to try to talk to students about.",
"timestamp": [
1241.19,
1243.387
]
},
{
"text": "- I'll grant you that\nHilbert's Hotel does not exist.",
"timestamp": [
1243.387,
1246.037
]
},
{
"text": "- I'll grant you that\nHilbert's Hotel does not exist.",
"timestamp": [
1243.387,
1246.037
]
},
{
"text": "For me, infinite objects absolutely exist.",
"timestamp": [
1247.01,
1249.83
]
},
{
"text": "For me, infinite objects absolutely exist.",
"timestamp": [
1247.01,
1249.83
]
},
{
"text": "And I can't read the\nthoughts in your head,",
"timestamp": [
1249.83,
1252.32
]
},
{
"text": "And I can't read the\nthoughts in your head,",
"timestamp": [
1249.83,
1252.32
]
},
{
"text": "but I have a high degree of confidence",
"timestamp": [
1252.32,
1254.39
]
},
{
"text": "but I have a high degree of confidence",
"timestamp": [
1252.32,
1254.39
]
},
{
"text": "that we have a lot of the\nsame ideas about infinity.",
"timestamp": [
1254.39,
1257.63
]
},
{
"text": "that we have a lot of the\nsame ideas about infinity.",
"timestamp": [
1254.39,
1257.63
]
},
{
"text": "- It's this idea that are things",
"timestamp": [
1257.63,
1259.52
]
},
{
"text": "- It's this idea that are things",
"timestamp": [
1257.63,
1259.52
]
},
{
"text": "that you can think of, do they exist?",
"timestamp": [
1259.52,
1262.67
]
},
{
"text": "that you can think of, do they exist?",
"timestamp": [
1259.52,
1262.67
]
},
{
"text": "You're getting into\nphilosophy of math now.",
"timestamp": [
1262.67,
1264.86
]
},
{
"text": "You're getting into\nphilosophy of math now.",
"timestamp": [
1262.67,
1264.86
]
},
{
"text": "It's just exciting.",
"timestamp": [
1264.86,
1265.73
]
},
{
"text": "It's just exciting.",
"timestamp": [
1264.86,
1265.73
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean I think that's\nanother common misconception",
"timestamp": [
1265.73,
1267.83
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean I think that's\nanother common misconception",
"timestamp": [
1265.73,
1267.83
]
},
{
"text": "about mathematics is\nthat it's so far removed",
"timestamp": [
1267.83,
1270.05
]
},
{
"text": "about mathematics is\nthat it's so far removed",
"timestamp": [
1267.83,
1270.05
]
},
{
"text": "from the humanities, for instance.",
"timestamp": [
1270.05,
1271.91
]
},
{
"text": "from the humanities, for instance.",
"timestamp": [
1270.05,
1271.91
]
},
{
"text": "I mean it's hard to ignore some",
"timestamp": [
1271.91,
1273.26
]
},
{
"text": "I mean it's hard to ignore some",
"timestamp": [
1271.91,
1273.26
]
},
{
"text": "of these philosophical questions,",
"timestamp": [
1273.26,
1274.67
]
},
{
"text": "of these philosophical questions,",
"timestamp": [
1273.26,
1274.67
]
},
{
"text": "particularly when we're talking about",
"timestamp": [
1274.67,
1277.172
]
},
{
"text": "particularly when we're talking about",
"timestamp": [
1274.67,
1277.172
]
},
{
"text": "certain things like infinity.",
"timestamp": [
1277.172,
1278.33
]
},
{
"text": "certain things like infinity.",
"timestamp": [
1277.172,
1278.33
]
},
{
"text": "And I think one",
"timestamp": [
1278.33,
1279.163
]
},
{
"text": "And I think one",
"timestamp": [
1278.33,
1279.163
]
},
{
"text": "of the most difficult things\nto really be precise about",
"timestamp": [
1279.163,
1281.75
]
},
{
"text": "of the most difficult things\nto really be precise about",
"timestamp": [
1279.163,
1281.75
]
},
{
"text": "and to explain to students\nis the continuum hypothesis.",
"timestamp": [
1281.75,
1285.02
]
},
{
"text": "and to explain to students\nis the continuum hypothesis.",
"timestamp": [
1281.75,
1285.02
]
},
{
"text": "What do you say to students\nabout the continuum hypothesis?",
"timestamp": [
1285.02,
1287.84
]
},
{
"text": "What do you say to students\nabout the continuum hypothesis?",
"timestamp": [
1285.02,
1287.84
]
},
{
"text": "- The most fun thing to teach\nwhen you teach about infinity,",
"timestamp": [
1287.84,
1290.96
]
},
{
"text": "- The most fun thing to teach\nwhen you teach about infinity,",
"timestamp": [
1287.84,
1290.96
]
},
{
"text": "when students realize that you are talking",
"timestamp": [
1290.96,
1293.54
]
},
{
"text": "when students realize that you are talking",
"timestamp": [
1290.96,
1293.54
]
},
{
"text": "about different sizes of infinity,",
"timestamp": [
1293.54,
1295.19
]
},
{
"text": "about different sizes of infinity,",
"timestamp": [
1293.54,
1295.19
]
},
{
"text": "but then a natural thing\nis for them to think about",
"timestamp": [
1295.19,
1298.16
]
},
{
"text": "but then a natural thing\nis for them to think about",
"timestamp": [
1295.19,
1298.16
]
},
{
"text": "what is the next size of\ninfinity that I can think about?",
"timestamp": [
1298.16,
1301.64
]
},
{
"text": "what is the next size of\ninfinity that I can think about?",
"timestamp": [
1298.16,
1301.64
]
},
{
"text": "And sort of the continuum\nhypothesis is sort of one",
"timestamp": [
1301.64,
1304.19
]
},
{
"text": "And sort of the continuum\nhypothesis is sort of one",
"timestamp": [
1301.64,
1304.19
]
},
{
"text": "of these really hard things to grasp.",
"timestamp": [
1304.19,
1305.99
]
},
{
"text": "of these really hard things to grasp.",
"timestamp": [
1304.19,
1305.99
]
},
{
"text": "- So what's so fascinating\nabout the continuum hypothesis,",
"timestamp": [
1305.99,
1308.45
]
},
{
"text": "- So what's so fascinating\nabout the continuum hypothesis,",
"timestamp": [
1305.99,
1308.45
]
},
{
"text": "if you take a subset of the\nreal line that's infinite,",
"timestamp": [
1308.45,
1311.63
]
},
{
"text": "if you take a subset of the\nreal line that's infinite,",
"timestamp": [
1308.45,
1311.63
]
},
{
"text": "does it necessarily have\neither the cardinality",
"timestamp": [
1311.63,
1313.79
]
},
{
"text": "does it necessarily have\neither the cardinality",
"timestamp": [
1311.63,
1313.79
]
},
{
"text": "of the naturals or the\ncardinality of continuum,",
"timestamp": [
1313.79,
1315.74
]
},
{
"text": "of the naturals or the\ncardinality of continuum,",
"timestamp": [
1313.79,
1315.74
]
},
{
"text": "or is there some sort\nof third possibility?",
"timestamp": [
1315.74,
1317.42
]
},
{
"text": "or is there some sort\nof third possibility?",
"timestamp": [
1315.74,
1317.42
]
},
{
"text": "What's very surprising is\nthe continuum hypothesis",
"timestamp": [
1317.42,
1321.59
]
},
{
"text": "What's very surprising is\nthe continuum hypothesis",
"timestamp": [
1317.42,
1321.59
]
},
{
"text": "has been completely resolved in the sense",
"timestamp": [
1321.59,
1324.32
]
},
{
"text": "has been completely resolved in the sense",
"timestamp": [
1321.59,
1324.32
]
},
{
"text": "that we now know for absolute certain",
"timestamp": [
1324.32,
1326
]
},
{
"text": "that we now know for absolute certain",
"timestamp": [
1324.32,
1326
]
},
{
"text": "that we will never know\nwhether it's true or false.",
"timestamp": [
1326,
1328.46
]
},
{
"text": "that we will never know\nwhether it's true or false.",
"timestamp": [
1326,
1328.46
]
},
{
"text": "So this is a little bit confusing.",
"timestamp": [
1328.46,
1330.23
]
},
{
"text": "So this is a little bit confusing.",
"timestamp": [
1328.46,
1330.23
]
},
{
"text": "The standard foundational axioms\nof mathematics that we take",
"timestamp": [
1330.23,
1332.96
]
},
{
"text": "The standard foundational axioms\nof mathematics that we take",
"timestamp": [
1330.23,
1332.96
]
},
{
"text": "for granted are completely insufficient",
"timestamp": [
1332.96,
1335.6
]
},
{
"text": "for granted are completely insufficient",
"timestamp": [
1332.96,
1335.6
]
},
{
"text": "to prove the continuum\nhypothesis one way or the other.",
"timestamp": [
1335.6,
1339.29
]
},
{
"text": "to prove the continuum\nhypothesis one way or the other.",
"timestamp": [
1335.6,
1339.29
]
},
{
"text": "Mathematicians among other\nthings have been very clear",
"timestamp": [
1339.29,
1341.66
]
},
{
"text": "Mathematicians among other\nthings have been very clear",
"timestamp": [
1339.29,
1341.66
]
},
{
"text": "about exactly what they're\ntaking as an assumption",
"timestamp": [
1341.66,
1343.67
]
},
{
"text": "about exactly what they're\ntaking as an assumption",
"timestamp": [
1341.66,
1343.67
]
},
{
"text": "and exactly what they're\nconcluding from it.",
"timestamp": [
1343.67,
1345.74
]
},
{
"text": "and exactly what they're\nconcluding from it.",
"timestamp": [
1343.67,
1345.74
]
},
{
"text": "So mathematical practice\nis to be exact transparent",
"timestamp": [
1345.74,
1348.56
]
},
{
"text": "So mathematical practice\nis to be exact transparent",
"timestamp": [
1345.74,
1348.56
]
},
{
"text": "about the hypotheses you\nneed to prove your theorem.",
"timestamp": [
1348.56,
1350.96
]
},
{
"text": "about the hypotheses you\nneed to prove your theorem.",
"timestamp": [
1348.56,
1350.96
]
},
{
"text": "So now I think of a\nproof of a theorem more",
"timestamp": [
1350.96,
1354.11
]
},
{
"text": "So now I think of a\nproof of a theorem more",
"timestamp": [
1350.96,
1354.11
]
},
{
"text": "like constructing a\nfunction where the domain",
"timestamp": [
1354.11,
1356.81
]
},
{
"text": "like constructing a\nfunction where the domain",
"timestamp": [
1354.11,
1356.81
]
},
{
"text": "of that function is all of the hypotheses",
"timestamp": [
1356.81,
1358.85
]
},
{
"text": "of that function is all of the hypotheses",
"timestamp": [
1356.81,
1358.85
]
},
{
"text": "that I'm assuming and then the target",
"timestamp": [
1358.85,
1361.43
]
},
{
"text": "that I'm assuming and then the target",
"timestamp": [
1358.85,
1361.43
]
},
{
"text": "of that function is maybe\na particular element",
"timestamp": [
1361.43,
1364.58
]
},
{
"text": "of that function is maybe\na particular element",
"timestamp": [
1361.43,
1364.58
]
},
{
"text": "in some universe that\nis the modularized space",
"timestamp": [
1364.58,
1368
]
},
{
"text": "in some universe that\nis the modularized space",
"timestamp": [
1364.58,
1368
]
},
{
"text": "of the statement",
"timestamp": [
1368,
1368.833
]
},
{
"text": "of the statement",
"timestamp": [
1368,
1368.833
]
},
{
"text": "that I'm trying to prove\nor something like this.",
"timestamp": [
1368.833,
1370.58
]
},
{
"text": "that I'm trying to prove\nor something like this.",
"timestamp": [
1368.833,
1370.58
]
},
{
"text": "If the foundations were to change,",
"timestamp": [
1370.58,
1372.38
]
},
{
"text": "If the foundations were to change,",
"timestamp": [
1370.58,
1372.38
]
},
{
"text": "if set theory were\nreplaced by something else,",
"timestamp": [
1372.38,
1374.39
]
},
{
"text": "if set theory were\nreplaced by something else,",
"timestamp": [
1372.38,
1374.39
]
},
{
"text": "maybe dependent type theory,",
"timestamp": [
1374.39,
1376.37
]
},
{
"text": "maybe dependent type theory,",
"timestamp": [
1374.39,
1376.37
]
},
{
"text": "do you think the theorem you've\nproven would still be true?",
"timestamp": [
1376.37,
1378.32
]
},
{
"text": "do you think the theorem you've\nproven would still be true?",
"timestamp": [
1376.37,
1378.32
]
},
{
"text": "- There's a lot of math\nthat we sort of take",
"timestamp": [
1378.32,
1380.99
]
},
{
"text": "- There's a lot of math\nthat we sort of take",
"timestamp": [
1378.32,
1380.99
]
},
{
"text": "for granted as this is\nthe thing that you can do",
"timestamp": [
1380.99,
1384.41
]
},
{
"text": "for granted as this is\nthe thing that you can do",
"timestamp": [
1380.99,
1384.41
]
},
{
"text": "without really admitting",
"timestamp": [
1384.41,
1386.75
]
},
{
"text": "without really admitting",
"timestamp": [
1384.41,
1386.75
]
},
{
"text": "that we are creating the foundations",
"timestamp": [
1386.75,
1390.23
]
},
{
"text": "that we are creating the foundations",
"timestamp": [
1386.75,
1390.23
]
},
{
"text": "that are the basis for\nthe work we do later.",
"timestamp": [
1390.23,
1393.77
]
},
{
"text": "that are the basis for\nthe work we do later.",
"timestamp": [
1390.23,
1393.77
]
},
{
"text": "And so yes, I think that if\nwe change the foundations,",
"timestamp": [
1393.77,
1397.28
]
},
{
"text": "And so yes, I think that if\nwe change the foundations,",
"timestamp": [
1393.77,
1397.28
]
},
{
"text": "we would change mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
1397.28,
1399.05
]
},
{
"text": "we would change mathematics.",
"timestamp": [
1397.28,
1399.05
]
},
{
"text": "But I think that's also very humbling in",
"timestamp": [
1399.05,
1400.97
]
},
{
"text": "But I think that's also very humbling in",
"timestamp": [
1399.05,
1400.97
]
},
{
"text": "that it's not that we're\nsort of discovering",
"timestamp": [
1400.97,
1403.7
]
},
{
"text": "that it's not that we're\nsort of discovering",
"timestamp": [
1400.97,
1403.7
]
},
{
"text": "a universal truth,",
"timestamp": [
1403.7,
1405.2
]
},
{
"text": "a universal truth,",
"timestamp": [
1403.7,
1405.2
]
},
{
"text": "it's we are humans constructing meaning.",
"timestamp": [
1405.2,
1408.59
]
},
{
"text": "it's we are humans constructing meaning.",
"timestamp": [
1405.2,
1408.59
]
},
{
"text": "It's abstract art in a sense.",
"timestamp": [
1408.59,
1410.24
]
},
{
"text": "It's abstract art in a sense.",
"timestamp": [
1408.59,
1410.24
]
},
{
"text": "There is something there even",
"timestamp": [
1410.24,
1411.59
]
},
{
"text": "There is something there even",
"timestamp": [
1410.24,
1411.59
]
},
{
"text": "if you can't see all the\npieces for particular things.",
"timestamp": [
1411.59,
1415.46
]
},
{
"text": "if you can't see all the\npieces for particular things.",
"timestamp": [
1411.59,
1415.46
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that it's really fascinating.",
"timestamp": [
1415.46,
1417.68
]
},
{
"text": "And I think that it's really fascinating.",
"timestamp": [
1415.46,
1417.68
]
},
{
"text": "I was thinking about\nthis on the drive here.",
"timestamp": [
1417.68,
1420.8
]
},
{
"text": "I was thinking about\nthis on the drive here.",
"timestamp": [
1417.68,
1420.8
]
},
{
"text": "The way that I interact",
"timestamp": [
1420.8,
1421.91
]
},
{
"text": "The way that I interact",
"timestamp": [
1420.8,
1421.91
]
},
{
"text": "with infinity I mentioned\nearlier is sometimes we,",
"timestamp": [
1421.91,
1425.39
]
},
{
"text": "with infinity I mentioned\nearlier is sometimes we,",
"timestamp": [
1421.91,
1425.39
]
},
{
"text": "in number theory especially, we say,",
"timestamp": [
1425.39,
1427.617
]
},
{
"text": "in number theory especially, we say,",
"timestamp": [
1425.39,
1427.617
]
},
{
"text": "\"does this type of equation\nhave infinitely many solutions?\"",
"timestamp": [
1427.617,
1431.15
]
},
{
"text": "\"does this type of equation\nhave infinitely many solutions?\"",
"timestamp": [
1427.617,
1431.15
]
},
{
"text": "And then the question is\nare there infinitely many,",
"timestamp": [
1431.15,
1434.39
]
},
{
"text": "And then the question is\nare there infinitely many,",
"timestamp": [
1431.15,
1434.39
]
},
{
"text": "are there not?",
"timestamp": [
1434.39,
1435.223
]
},
{
"text": "are there not?",
"timestamp": [
1434.39,
1435.223
]
},
{
"text": "Or are there infinitely many twin primes?",
"timestamp": [
1435.223,
1438.05
]
},
{
"text": "Or are there infinitely many twin primes?",
"timestamp": [
1435.223,
1438.05
]
},
{
"text": "These are sort of interesting ideas",
"timestamp": [
1438.05,
1440.18
]
},
{
"text": "These are sort of interesting ideas",
"timestamp": [
1438.05,
1440.18
]
},
{
"text": "but I don't think that\nknowing if it's infinite",
"timestamp": [
1440.18,
1442.4
]
},
{
"text": "but I don't think that\nknowing if it's infinite",
"timestamp": [
1440.18,
1442.4
]
},
{
"text": "or not is necessarily the\nmost interesting thing for me.",
"timestamp": [
1442.4,
1446.413
]
},
{
"text": "or not is necessarily the\nmost interesting thing for me.",
"timestamp": [
1442.4,
1446.413
]
},
{
"text": "What's been most interesting",
"timestamp": [
1446.413,
1447.89
]
},
{
"text": "What's been most interesting",
"timestamp": [
1446.413,
1447.89
]
},
{
"text": "to me is all the math that gets developed",
"timestamp": [
1447.89,
1451.82
]
},
{
"text": "to me is all the math that gets developed",
"timestamp": [
1447.89,
1451.82
]
},
{
"text": "to be able to answer that question.",
"timestamp": [
1451.82,
1453.83
]
},
{
"text": "to be able to answer that question.",
"timestamp": [
1451.82,
1453.83
]
},
{
"text": "- Given current technology.",
"timestamp": [
1453.83,
1455.03
]
},
{
"text": "- Given current technology.",
"timestamp": [
1453.83,
1455.03
]
},
{
"text": "And who knows what\nmathematics will look like",
"timestamp": [
1455.03,
1456.56
]
},
{
"text": "And who knows what\nmathematics will look like",
"timestamp": [
1455.03,
1456.56
]
},
{
"text": "in 100 years.",
"timestamp": [
1456.56,
1457.88
]
},
{
"text": "in 100 years.",
"timestamp": [
1456.56,
1457.88
]
},
{
"text": "150 years ago when we\nbarely knew infinity,",
"timestamp": [
1457.88,
1460.91
]
},
{
"text": "150 years ago when we\nbarely knew infinity,",
"timestamp": [
1457.88,
1460.91
]
},
{
"text": "and look where we are today.",
"timestamp": [
1460.91,
1463.013
]
},
{
"text": "and look where we are today.",
"timestamp": [
1460.91,
1463.013
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
1463.013,
1464.96
]
},
{
"text": "[upbeat music]",
"timestamp": [
1463.013,
1464.96
]
},
{
"text": "Infinity inspires me to imagine a world",
"timestamp": [
1464.96,
1467.12
]
},
{
"text": "Infinity inspires me to imagine a world",
"timestamp": [
1464.96,
1467.12
]
},
{
"text": "that is so much broader than\nwhat I'll ever experience",
"timestamp": [
1467.12,
1469.79
]
},
{
"text": "that is so much broader than\nwhat I'll ever experience",
"timestamp": [
1467.12,
1469.79
]
},
{
"text": "with my senses over the\nspan of a human life.",
"timestamp": [
1469.79,
1472.61
]
},
{
"text": "with my senses over the\nspan of a human life.",
"timestamp": [
1469.79,
1472.61
]
},
{
"text": "The ideas can just go on\nand on and on forever.",
"timestamp": [
1472.61,
1476.333
]
},
{
"text": "The ideas can just go on\nand on and on forever.",
"timestamp": [
1472.61,
1476.333
]
}
] |
[
[
"Intro",
"- I'm Emily Riehl and I'm a mathematician.I've been challenged\nto explain the conceptof infinity at five levels\nof increasing complexity.So while the concept of\ninfinity can seem mysterious,and it's very difficult to find\ninfinity in the real world,mathematicians have developed\nways to reason very preciselyabout the strange properties of infinity."
],
[
"What is Infinity",
"So what do you know about infinity?- I think it means that\nit's really just somethingthat's infinite, that never ends.- That's a great way to think about it.Infinity is something that\nnever ends, where finite,the opposite of infinity,refers to a process or a quantitythat we could actually\ncount all the way through,at least in theory if given enough time.So if you had to guess, how\nmany Skittles are in this jar?- I would say about like 217.- 217.And if we wanted to figure\nout the exact number,how would we find out?- We could put them\nall out and divide theminto pieces of five and\nthen we could use that.- Yeah, absolutely.In fact, I did that before you got here,and it's 649 Skittles.Here's a much harder question.How many pieces of glitter\ndo you think are in that jar?- Maybe like 4,012.- I'll admit. I have absolutely no idea.Do you think it's a finite\nnumber or an infinite number?- Finite because I can\nsee them all in here.- Yeah, you can see them all.And in fact, if we were\nreally, really, really patient,we could do the same thing\nas with the Skittles.But here's another question.You said that there's a finite amountof glitter in that jar, and I agree.So how many jars would we needto hold an infinite amount of glitter?- An infinite amount of jars.- Very good. Why do you say that?- Because if there's\nunlimited pieces of glitter,we need unlimited pieces of jar.- So let's try and imagine\ninfinitely many jars.Would they fit in this room?- No.- Yeah, absolutely not.Because this room holds only\na finite amount of space.And in fact, infinitely\nmany jars would not even fitin something called the\nobservable universe,which is the portionof the universe that astronomers can see.Really how does that make you feel?- That makes me feel like\nmy brain is exploding.- Yeah, that makes me feel\nlike my brain is exploding.- Can infinity ever get bigger?- That's a wonderful question,\na very rich question.What do you think?- I think maybe because\nyou said it was unlimited.- You have very good intuition.So there are waysthat mathematicians can buildinfinite collections of things.And if you repeat those processes,it's in fact possible to build even biggerand bigger sizes of infinity.So what have you learned\ntoday about infinity?- I've learned that\neven if it's unlimited,there are many different\nways of making infinityand you can never actually see it all."
],
[
"Infinity as a Number",
"- What does infinity mean to you?- Really anything that has no end to it.- Yeah, that's absolutely right.So infinity gets used a lotof different ways in mathematics.There's a way that mathematicians thinkof infinity as a number,\njust like the number 13,just like the number 10 million.So the reason that mathematicians considerinfinity to be a number is\nthat it is a size of a set.So the first example of an infinite setin mathematics is the set\nof all counting numbers.So one, two, three, four,\nfive, six, seven, et cetera.That list goes on forever.\nThat is an infinite set.And to be a little bit more precise,it's a countably infinite set.But as a number, infinity\nis pretty strange.- What do you mean by that?- Adding infinities.\nMultiplying infinities.And there's a sense in\nwhich it's very similarto the arithmetic that\nyou learned about already.But it's also totally different.It has some very weird properties.Welcome to Hilbert's Hotel.Unlike an ordinary hotel,has accountably infinitely many rooms.Suppose a new guest shows up,you might think that the new\nguest could take the roomthat's all the way down\nat the end of the hall,all the way at infinity,except there isn't a room like that.The rooms each have a number,and even though there's\ninfinitely many rooms,each room is only a finite distance away.So here's how we're gonna\nmake room for the new guest.I'm gonna ask the guest in\nroom one to move into room two,and then we're gonna ask\nthe guest in room twoto move into room three,and we'll continue this all the way along.It looks to me like there's\nspace for the new guest.Where is it?\n- It'll be in room number one.- Room number one. Exactly.I'm gonna use this symbol for infinity,but what we've just shown is that one,the one new guest plus infinityis equal to the same infinity.What happens if we had a second guest?- Would it be two plus\ninfinity equals infinity?- Absolutely.So now I'm gonna make this\nstory a little more complex.That there's another Hilbert's Hoteldown the street and they're\nhaving plumbing issuesand we need to find room for them.- They can't live together?- They can't live together.That would be a great solution.I don't know.I think these people\ndon't really get along.So I need to somehow create\ninfinitely many new rooms,but I can only ask each personin the hotel to move a\nfinite distance away.So let's take the guest who is originallyin room one and move them into room two.So that's creating one new space for us.And I'm gonna take the\nguest who was originallyin room two and move them into room four.Are you starting to see a pattern here?- Yes. You're going up one each time?- Yeah, I'm increasing\nby one more each time.So I'm doubling the room number in fact.So this is some of the strange\narithmetic of infinity.So we have two Hilbert Hotels,each of which have infinitely many guests,then this is equal to?- Infinity.- Infinity, great.Hilbert's Hotel is a\nstory that mathematicianshave been telling themselves\nfor almost 100 yearsbecause it's a really\nvisceral way to thinkabout some of the\ncounterintuitive propertiesof the arithmetic of infinity.- How does infinity come\nacross in mathematics for you?- So when I'm teaching calculusand talking about concepts\nlike limits and derivatives,those are only defined\nprecisely with infinity.Teaching algebra,which is meant in a different\nsense about number systems,we deal with infinite familiesof numbers in their operations.Infinite sets are somehow very exotic.They're not found so\ncommonly in their real world,but they're all over mathematics."
],
[
"Infinity as a Cardinality",
"[bright music]What do you know about infinity?- A property of something being endless.- Great.So today we're gonna focuson infinity as a cardinality,and what cardinality means\nis it's a size of a set.What are you studying?- I'm studying computer science- Studying computer science.Are you taking any math courses right now?- Yeah, right now I'm taking calculus two.- Calculus involves\nthe study of functions.Functions are one of the\nmost fundamental conceptsin mathematics, but they aren't\nalways so clearly defined.What would you say a function is?- I would say a function is a\nprocedure that takes an inputand does some operation\nand returns an output.- That's the computer science\nbrain thinking right there.So we wanna thinkof a function as procedure\nor mapping between sets.So a function defines a\none-to-one correspondenceif it defines a perfect\nmatching between the elementsof its domain set and the\nelements of its output set.We call such functions\nbijections or isomorphisms.So the reason I'm so interestedin this idea of a bijective functionor a one-to-one\ncorrespondence that guaranteesthat every element of one set gets matchedwith an element of the other set,no matter how many elements there are,these bijections or these\none-to-one correspondencesas they help mathematicians\nreason about infinity.- How can you compare\nsomething that is endless?- Today we're gonna think about\ninfinity as a cardinality,which is a technical termfor a number that could\nbe a size of a set.And we're gonna use this ideaof one-to-one correspondence to tryand investigate the question ofwhether all infinite\nsets have the same size.So what I've drawn here are some picturesof some of the infinite sets\nthat appear in mathematics.So the natural numbers are\nthe prototypical exampleof an infinite set.So the natural numbers are\nclearly a subset of the integers.Both of these are infinite sets.Are they the same size infinityor different size infinities?- Yes, the integers would,there'd be more integers\nthan natural numbers.- I'm gonna now try and\nconvince you that they arein fact the same size infinity.And this is using this idea\nof a one-to-one correspondencewhich was applied in this\ncontext by Georg Cantor.What he says is if we\ncan match up the elementsof the integers with the\nelements of the natural numbersso that there's nothing left over,so that there's a bijective\nfunction between them,then that's a proof that there's exactlyas many natural numbersas there are integers.Start by matching zero\nwith zero and one with one.But then we wanna include\nthe negatives in the list.So which natural number would\nwe match with negative one?- Maybe two.- Maybe two. Why not?Because now we're\nstarting to make progresson matching all the negatives.We can match the natural number\nthree with the integer two,the natural number four\nwith the integer minus two.And do you see a pattern?- All of the positive\nintegers would be odd numbersand all of the negative\nintegers would be even numbers?- Great. So now I have\na much harder question.So we have the same challenge, again,evidently there are way, way,way more rational numbers\nthan there are integers.Does that mean this is\na larger infinite setthan the integers?What do you think?- By intuition I would say yes,but that was the same\ncase with the integers.I would imagine there might\nbe some bijective functionfor mapping natural numbers\nto rational numbers.- So I'm going to use\nthis picture to count therational numbers by actually\ncounting the elementsof this larger set because\nit'll be clearer geometrically.What I've drawn in this\npicture is the integer lattice.So Z cross Z refers to the\nset of all of these dots.So I'll start by counting\nthe number at the origin,and you can see I'm just labeling the dotsaround the origin,moving in a counterclockwise fashionand getting progressively further away.And this process could continue,but maybe by now you see the pattern,though it'd be a little bit difficultto describe as a function.- Oh is it for each rational number,there's a pair of integers thatrepresent that rational number?- Yeah, that's exactly right.And now for each pair of integers,I'm gonna represent it by a\ncorresponding natural number.That's what's going on with this counting.And when I compose those operations,what I've done is I've\nencoded rational numbersas natural numbers in a way that revealsthat they can be no larger,there are no more rational\nnumbers than natural numbers.- So this slope is\nrepresented by three, two,and three, two is in here as 25.- Exactly. That's exactly right.So we were hoping to\ncompare the size of infinityof the rational numbers\nwith the size of infinityof the natural numbers.What we've done is introduced\nan intermediate set,these pair of integer points,and this proves that this size of infinityis smaller than this size of infinity.Since we also have an injective\nfunction the other way,this size of infinity is smaller\nthan this size of infinityso therefore they must be the same size.- That's wild.- Now there's one final collectionof numbers that we haven't yet discussed,which are the real numbers,all of the points on the number line.Do you think that's\nthe same size infinity?- I guess again,intuition seems like\nit must be much larger,but I don't know, I\nhaven't been on a roll.- Georg Cantor provedthat it is impossible to\ncount all real numberslike we've just counted\nthe rational numbersor just counted the integers.This is called the cardinalityof the continuum, it is uncountable.What I'm going to do now\nis form a new real numberthat I guarantee is not on this list.Okay, so here's how we do this.What I'm gonna do is I'm gonna lookat the diagonal elements.So I'll highlight them.This continues forever,and now I'm going to\nform a new real numberby changing all of these.- If you just like added one to them,then that would be\nsomething that doesn't existin any of the other ones.- Yes. You see the idea right away.So I'm gonna form a new real numberwhose first digit is\ndifferent from this one.And you've already convinced yourselfthat this number is not\non this list anywhere.Why is that?- Because at every point there'sat least one change\nfrom a number in there.- Great. That's exactly right.So what we've proven is\nthat this number is missing,and therefore it is impossible\nto define a bijectionbetween the natural numbers\nand the real numbers.- Oh wow.- So we've started to explore someof the counterintuitive\nproperties of infinity.On the one hand there are infinite setsthat feel very different\nlike the natural numbers,the integers,the rational numbers that\nnevertheless have the same sizeor the same infinite cardinality.While there are other\ninfinities that are larger.So there's more than one size of infinity,not all infinities are created equal.- I was wondering what the kind ofpractical implications are,what you can do with\nthis sort of knowledge.- Really glad you asked me that.There's a practical implication\nfor computer science.Alan Turing,he came up with a mathematical\nmodel of a computer,something called a Turing machine.So Turing was wondering is it possible tocompute every real number,an arbitrary real numberto within arbitrary\nprecision in finite time?He defined a real number to be computable<if you could calculate its\nvalue, maybe not exactly,but as accurately as you'd like\nin a finite amount of time.And because there are uncountablyinfinitely many real numbers,but only a countably infinitely\nmany Turing machines,what that means is that the vast majorityof real numbers are uncomputable.So we'll never be able to access themwith a computer program."
],
[
"Infinity in Algebraic Geometry",
"[upbeat music]You're a PhD student, is that right?- Yes, I'm a second year PhD studentat the University of Maryland.- Does infinity come upin your mathematics that you're studying?- One place infinity comes\nup is in algebraic geometry.Normally we think okay,well if you have two lines like this,you'd keep drawing them,\nthey intersect right here.But in projective space,two parallel lines will also intersectat the point at infinity.Infinity is like this perfect\nconcept for what we can add toa space that allows linesto have this more uniform property.What's your research in?- So one of my main research areasis something called category theory,it's been described as the\nmathematics of mathematics.It's a language that can be used to provevery general theorems.And an interesting aspect\nof being a researcherin category theory that\ndoesn't come up as muchin other areas is that we\nhave to really pay attentionto the axioms of set theory in our work.When you're proving theorems,have you ever used the axiom of choice?- Yeah, it's basically this ideathat you can put a choice\nfunction on any set.- And a choice function does what exactly?- Yeah, that's a good question.- So the way I think about\nit is if you have an infiniteor an arbitrary family of\nsets and you know for surethat none of these sets are empty,then a choice functionwould allow you to select an elementfrom each set sort of all at once.When you've used the\naxiom of choice in proofs,do you know which incarnation\nof this you've used?- Yeah, I've used it like that.I've also used it in Zorn's lemmaand in the well ordering principle.- So there are three well-known\nfamous equivalent formsof the axiom of choice.The well ordering principle\nis the assumption,the axiom that any set\ncan be well ordered,but there are lots of subsetsof real numbers that do\nnot have a minimal element.So that ordering is not a well ordering.So here's the key question.Do you believe the axiom of choice?- I do believe the axiom of choice.- You do believe the axiom of choice,though it leads us to\nsome strange conclusions.So if the axiom choice is true,then it's necessarily the casethat there exists a well\nordering of the reals.And what that means is that\nwe can perform inductionover real numbers like\nwe perform inductionover the natural numbers.This is trans-finite induction.It would work for any ordinal.So there must be some\nuncountably infinite ordinalthat represents the order\ntype of the real numbers.And this allows us to\nprove some crazy things.Imagine three-dimensional Euclidean space.So the space that we live in,extending infinitely in all directions.So it is possible to completely\ncover three-dimensionalEuclidean space by disjoint circles,so infinitesimal circles,\ndisjoint circles of radius one.So what that means is you\ncan put a circle somewherein space and then put a\nsecond circle somewherein space that can't\nintersect with the first onebecause these are solid circles and thenanother circle can somehow\ncover every single pointin space with no gaps in between.- It's crazy.It's not the only crazy thing.Do you have a favorite consequence\nof the axiom of choice?- I mean the Banach-Tarski\nparadox is a big one.So basically it says that you can,using just rigid motions I think,you can take one ball--- One solid ball with a finite volume.- Cut it up and then\nrearrange the pieces so thatin the end you get two balls\nwhich are the exact same size,the exact same volume.So you've actually taken\none thing and using justpretty normal operations to it,you can double it,which seems pretty\nimplausible in real life.- Right. That seems crazy to me.And yet it's an irrefutable consequenceof this axiom that you tell\nme you believe is true.So how many infinities are there?- Well, definitely\nuncountably many infinities.- So there's certainly no\nstop to this procedure.But could you give a\nprecise cardinality to that?- Probably not because if I could,there would be a set of all sets, right?- So Cantor's diagonal\nargument can be abstractedand then generalized to prove\nthat for an arbitrary set A,its power set has a\nstrictly larger cardinality.And since that's true for any set,we can just iterate this process.When set theory was being discoveredor invented or created\nin the late 19th century,one of the natural question to ask iscan there be a universe of all sets?This comes up in my\nresearch in category theorybecause even though there\nis no set of all sets,we would really like for there\nto be a category of sets.So what category theorists\nneed to do to make theirwork rigorous is to add\nadditional axioms to set theory.One of my favorites was introducedby an algebraic geometer\nAlexander Grothendieck.This is something that we sometimescall a Grothendieck universe,or also an inaccessible cardinal.It's an infinite number that is so bigthat it cannot be accessed by anyof the other constructions\nwithin set theory.It's so big that we'll\nnever get to it and thisallows us to contemplate the collectionof all sets whose cardinality\nis bounded by this sizethat will never reach.- So you're just making a cutoff point.You're saying we're never\ngonna get sets biggerthan this anyway,so we might as well makeour category only include\nthings smaller than that.- That's right.So a rigorous way to work\nwith a category of sets is todemand that it's a\ncategory of sets whose sizeis bounded by this cardinality, Alpha say.That is then an example\nof a category that fitsinto another even still larger\nGrothendieck universe Beta.So implicitly in a lot of my research,I have to add an additional assumptionthat there exists maybe countablymany inaccessible cardinals.[upbeat music]Examples of infinite sets\nabound in mathematics.You know, we see them every day.So do those infinities exist?- Think you'll get a different\nanswer from every person,every mathematician you meet.It is a construct.So it exists in the same way that thingslike poetry exists when you talkabout even cardinality and it's just like,well here's an infinite hotel.I had one student who was like, no, no,it does not exist.When I describe,well imagine you do this\ninfinitely many times,they're done with me because\nthey're like \"I can't,no one can do this infinitely many times\".These interesting paradoxes that come fromlike the ape typing on a typewriterand eventually getting to\nHamlet is an example ofwell if you give something foreverand any random event is going to happen.- It can be generative for sure.- It's definitely a\nreally interesting thingto try to talk to students about.- I'll grant you that\nHilbert's Hotel does not exist.For me, infinite objects absolutely exist.And I can't read the\nthoughts in your head,but I have a high degree of confidencethat we have a lot of the\nsame ideas about infinity.- It's this idea that are thingsthat you can think of, do they exist?You're getting into\nphilosophy of math now.It's just exciting.- I mean I think that's\nanother common misconceptionabout mathematics is\nthat it's so far removedfrom the humanities, for instance.I mean it's hard to ignore someof these philosophical questions,particularly when we're talking aboutcertain things like infinity.And I think oneof the most difficult things\nto really be precise aboutand to explain to students\nis the continuum hypothesis.What do you say to students\nabout the continuum hypothesis?- The most fun thing to teach\nwhen you teach about infinity,when students realize that you are talkingabout different sizes of infinity,but then a natural thing\nis for them to think aboutwhat is the next size of\ninfinity that I can think about?And sort of the continuum\nhypothesis is sort of oneof these really hard things to grasp.- So what's so fascinating\nabout the continuum hypothesis,if you take a subset of the\nreal line that's infinite,does it necessarily have\neither the cardinalityof the naturals or the\ncardinality of continuum,or is there some sort\nof third possibility?What's very surprising is\nthe continuum hypothesishas been completely resolved in the sensethat we now know for absolute certainthat we will never know\nwhether it's true or false.So this is a little bit confusing.The standard foundational axioms\nof mathematics that we takefor granted are completely insufficientto prove the continuum\nhypothesis one way or the other.Mathematicians among other\nthings have been very clearabout exactly what they're\ntaking as an assumptionand exactly what they're\nconcluding from it.So mathematical practice\nis to be exact transparentabout the hypotheses you\nneed to prove your theorem.So now I think of a\nproof of a theorem morelike constructing a\nfunction where the domainof that function is all of the hypothesesthat I'm assuming and then the targetof that function is maybe\na particular elementin some universe that\nis the modularized spaceof the statementthat I'm trying to prove\nor something like this.If the foundations were to change,if set theory were\nreplaced by something else,maybe dependent type theory,do you think the theorem you've\nproven would still be true?- There's a lot of math\nthat we sort of takefor granted as this is\nthe thing that you can dowithout really admittingthat we are creating the foundationsthat are the basis for\nthe work we do later.And so yes, I think that if\nwe change the foundations,we would change mathematics.But I think that's also very humbling inthat it's not that we're\nsort of discoveringa universal truth,it's we are humans constructing meaning.It's abstract art in a sense.There is something there evenif you can't see all the\npieces for particular things.And I think that it's really fascinating.I was thinking about\nthis on the drive here.The way that I interactwith infinity I mentioned\nearlier is sometimes we,in number theory especially, we say,\"does this type of equation\nhave infinitely many solutions?\"And then the question is\nare there infinitely many,are there not?Or are there infinitely many twin primes?These are sort of interesting ideasbut I don't think that\nknowing if it's infiniteor not is necessarily the\nmost interesting thing for me.What's been most interestingto me is all the math that gets developedto be able to answer that question.- Given current technology.And who knows what\nmathematics will look likein 100 years.150 years ago when we\nbarely knew infinity,and look where we are today.[upbeat music]Infinity inspires me to imagine a worldthat is so much broader than\nwhat I'll ever experiencewith my senses over the\nspan of a human life.The ideas can just go on\nand on and on forever."
]
] |
UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCftwRNsjfRo08xYE31tkiyw
|
Theoretical Physicist Brian Greene Explains Time in 5 Levels of Difficulty | WIRED
|
TAhbFRMURtg
| 1,886
|
[] |
[
{
"text": "- I'm Brian Greene, and\ntoday I have been challenged",
"timestamp": [
0.09,
2.64
]
},
{
"text": "to explain a topic in\nfive levels of difficulty.",
"timestamp": [
2.64,
6.274
]
},
{
"text": "We're going to be talking\nabout the nature of time,",
"timestamp": [
6.274,
10.32
]
},
{
"text": "the most familiar and the\nmost mysterious quality",
"timestamp": [
10.32,
13.77
]
},
{
"text": "of the physical universe.",
"timestamp": [
13.77,
15.18
]
},
{
"text": "There is nothing that we experience",
"timestamp": [
15.18,
17.493
]
},
{
"text": "that does not take place\nin some duration of time.",
"timestamp": [
17.493,
21.36
]
},
{
"text": "So if you can understand time,",
"timestamp": [
21.36,
23.52
]
},
{
"text": "you're on your way to\nunderstanding reality.",
"timestamp": [
23.52,
26.559
]
},
{
"text": "[rapid music]",
"timestamp": [
26.559,
29.059
]
},
{
"text": "Hello?\n- Hello.",
"timestamp": [
30.304,
31.29
]
},
{
"text": "- What's your name?",
"timestamp": [
31.29,
32.343
]
},
{
"text": "- Kayla.",
"timestamp": [
32.343,
33.45
]
},
{
"text": "- How old are you, Kayla?",
"timestamp": [
33.45,
34.283
]
},
{
"text": "- I am nine years old.",
"timestamp": [
34.283,
35.116
]
},
{
"text": "- So if you are nine years old,",
"timestamp": [
35.116,
36.54
]
},
{
"text": "what does that mean about the earth?",
"timestamp": [
36.54,
38.43
]
},
{
"text": "How many times has it gone around the sun?",
"timestamp": [
38.43,
41.024
]
},
{
"text": "- Nine times.",
"timestamp": [
41.024,
41.857
]
},
{
"text": "- Nine times.",
"timestamp": [
41.857,
42.93
]
},
{
"text": "So there's a relationship\nbetween motion through space,",
"timestamp": [
42.93,
47.93
]
},
{
"text": "the earth is going through\nspace, and the passage of time.",
"timestamp": [
48,
51.81
]
},
{
"text": "They're kind of connected",
"timestamp": [
51.81,
54.18
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.\n- in some way.",
"timestamp": [
54.18,
55.41
]
},
{
"text": "But there are differences, right?",
"timestamp": [
55.41,
57.06
]
},
{
"text": "If I asked you to move through space,",
"timestamp": [
58.02,
60.24
]
},
{
"text": "you could do it freely, right?",
"timestamp": [
60.24,
61.98
]
},
{
"text": "Can you get up?",
"timestamp": [
61.98,
63.33
]
},
{
"text": "And let's see how easy it\nis to move through space.",
"timestamp": [
63.33,
66.33
]
},
{
"text": "Can you move over to that location?",
"timestamp": [
66.33,
68.67
]
},
{
"text": "And can you come back?",
"timestamp": [
68.67,
70.275
]
},
{
"text": "Anything getting in your way?",
"timestamp": [
70.275,
72.6
]
},
{
"text": "Easy to do?",
"timestamp": [
72.6,
73.68
]
},
{
"text": "- Yep.",
"timestamp": [
73.68,
74.513
]
},
{
"text": "- If I were to ask you to\nsit perfectly still in space,",
"timestamp": [
74.513,
77.28
]
},
{
"text": "can you do that?",
"timestamp": [
77.28,
78.18
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, hold perfectly still.",
"timestamp": [
78.18,
80.16
]
},
{
"text": "That's good.",
"timestamp": [
80.16,
80.993
]
},
{
"text": "But if I ask you to hold still in time,",
"timestamp": [
80.993,
83.73
]
},
{
"text": "to not go to the next\nsecond or the next second,",
"timestamp": [
83.73,
86.403
]
},
{
"text": "can you do that?",
"timestamp": [
87.33,
88.41
]
},
{
"text": "- No.",
"timestamp": [
88.41,
89.243
]
},
{
"text": "- So there's definitely this difference",
"timestamp": [
89.243,
91.71
]
},
{
"text": "between space and time,\nsome fundamental quality",
"timestamp": [
91.71,
95.49
]
},
{
"text": "that distinguishes how freely\nwe can move through space",
"timestamp": [
95.49,
99.06
]
},
{
"text": "versus how freely we\ncan move through time.",
"timestamp": [
99.06,
101.76
]
},
{
"text": "Have you heard of Albert Einstein?",
"timestamp": [
101.76,
103.38
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
103.38,
104.37
]
},
{
"text": "- What do you know about him?",
"timestamp": [
104.37,
105.496
]
},
{
"text": "- He has crazy hair.",
"timestamp": [
105.496,
106.448
]
},
{
"text": "- He does have crazy hair,\nand I think I'm maybe heading",
"timestamp": [
106.448,
108.27
]
},
{
"text": "in that direction actually.",
"timestamp": [
108.27,
109.56
]
},
{
"text": "He showed us an approach\nto travel to the future.",
"timestamp": [
109.56,
112.71
]
},
{
"text": "You want me to tell you how you do it?",
"timestamp": [
112.71,
114.69
]
},
{
"text": "- Okay.",
"timestamp": [
114.69,
115.523
]
},
{
"text": "- You build a spaceship.",
"timestamp": [
115.523,
116.85
]
},
{
"text": "You go out into space really quickly.",
"timestamp": [
116.85,
119.22
]
},
{
"text": "You turn around and you\ncome back to planet Earth,",
"timestamp": [
119.22,
121.62
]
},
{
"text": "and he showed us that\nwhen you're on that ship,",
"timestamp": [
121.62,
124.71
]
},
{
"text": "your clock will tick off time more slowly.",
"timestamp": [
124.71,
127.44
]
},
{
"text": "You will age more slowly.",
"timestamp": [
127.44,
129.9
]
},
{
"text": "So that journey may only\ntake you, say, a year,",
"timestamp": [
129.9,
132.36
]
},
{
"text": "six months out and six months back,",
"timestamp": [
132.36,
134.1
]
},
{
"text": "but you know what?",
"timestamp": [
134.1,
134.933
]
},
{
"text": "When you step out of the ship,",
"timestamp": [
134.933,
136.41
]
},
{
"text": "it'll be 100 years into\nthe future or 1,000 years,",
"timestamp": [
136.41,
139.67
]
},
{
"text": "a million years into the future.",
"timestamp": [
139.67,
142.23
]
},
{
"text": "Would you do that if you could?",
"timestamp": [
142.23,
143.7
]
},
{
"text": "- I would probably be dead by then.",
"timestamp": [
143.7,
145.5
]
},
{
"text": "- No, you'd be alive,\nthat's the amazing thing.",
"timestamp": [
145.5,
147.661
]
},
{
"text": "I'd be dead.",
"timestamp": [
147.661,
148.71
]
},
{
"text": "Everybody else would be\ndead who stayed on earth,",
"timestamp": [
148.71,
151.56
]
},
{
"text": "but your body would only age one year,",
"timestamp": [
151.56,
154.59
]
},
{
"text": "and yet it would be 1,000\nyears into the future.",
"timestamp": [
154.59,
157.41
]
},
{
"text": "The question though\nis, could you get back?",
"timestamp": [
157.41,
159.84
]
},
{
"text": "And I don't know the answer\nto that, nobody does.",
"timestamp": [
159.84,
162.36
]
},
{
"text": "We don't know if you can travel back,",
"timestamp": [
162.36,
164.79
]
},
{
"text": "but we certainly know that\nyou can travel forward.",
"timestamp": [
164.79,
167.857
]
},
{
"text": "- Has anyone ever tried\nto go forward and back?",
"timestamp": [
167.857,
170.76
]
},
{
"text": "- I don't think so.",
"timestamp": [
170.76,
171.93
]
},
{
"text": "That same guy with the\ncrazy hair, Albert Einstein,",
"timestamp": [
171.93,
174.084
]
},
{
"text": "showed that there's actually a limit",
"timestamp": [
174.084,
176.4
]
},
{
"text": "to how fast things can go.",
"timestamp": [
176.4,
177.88
]
},
{
"text": "And you know what the limit limit is?",
"timestamp": [
177.88,
179.46
]
},
{
"text": "The limit is the speed of light,",
"timestamp": [
179.46,
182.49
]
},
{
"text": "because light travels 671\nmillion miles per hour,",
"timestamp": [
182.49,
187.49
]
},
{
"text": "that is fast enough to go\naround the entire earth",
"timestamp": [
188.01,
191.76
]
},
{
"text": "seven times in one second.",
"timestamp": [
191.76,
194.22
]
},
{
"text": "So if we could build a\nspaceship that would go",
"timestamp": [
194.22,
196.56
]
},
{
"text": "as fast as light, we'd be able\nto do what Einstein noted.",
"timestamp": [
196.56,
201.03
]
},
{
"text": "There's something else that's\nreally curious about time.",
"timestamp": [
201.03,
203.25
]
},
{
"text": "Things tend to go in one direction,",
"timestamp": [
203.25,
205.38
]
},
{
"text": "and we call it the arrow of time.",
"timestamp": [
205.38,
207.33
]
},
{
"text": "It sort of points from the past",
"timestamp": [
207.33,
208.92
]
},
{
"text": "into what we call the future.",
"timestamp": [
208.92,
211.71
]
},
{
"text": "If you're to ask me why is\nthere an arrow to time, ask me.",
"timestamp": [
211.71,
215.79
]
},
{
"text": "- Why is there an arrow to time?",
"timestamp": [
215.79,
217.2
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm not really sure.",
"timestamp": [
217.2,
218.88
]
},
{
"text": "I have some ideas, but I'd say",
"timestamp": [
218.88,
220.68
]
},
{
"text": "we've still not completely nailed it down.",
"timestamp": [
220.68,
223.05
]
},
{
"text": "Kayla, what have you learned about time",
"timestamp": [
223.05,
224.85
]
},
{
"text": "from talking about it here?",
"timestamp": [
224.85,
226.08
]
},
{
"text": "- That you can't really\ntravel back through time.",
"timestamp": [
226.08,
229.2
]
},
{
"text": "- And can you travel to\nthe future in principle?",
"timestamp": [
229.2,
231.639
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe.",
"timestamp": [
231.639,
232.472
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe, that's absolutely right.",
"timestamp": [
232.472,
234.42
]
},
{
"text": "I think it's unlikely we'll\nlearn how to travel to the past,",
"timestamp": [
234.42,
237.93
]
},
{
"text": "but it's not been ruled out.",
"timestamp": [
237.93,
239.79
]
},
{
"text": "That's kind of exciting",
"timestamp": [
239.79,
241.38
]
},
{
"text": "that it's still at least\nan open possibility.",
"timestamp": [
241.38,
244.014
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
244.014,
244.966
]
},
{
"text": "[rapid music]",
"timestamp": [
244.966,
247.466
]
},
{
"text": "- If I was to ask you what\nis time, what would you say?",
"timestamp": [
248.504,
251.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, time is kind of strange",
"timestamp": [
251.29,
254.13
]
},
{
"text": "because it's almost a man-made idea.",
"timestamp": [
254.13,
256.59
]
},
{
"text": "There is the tangible of, you know,",
"timestamp": [
256.59,
258.84
]
},
{
"text": "how the Earth revolves around the sun",
"timestamp": [
258.84,
260.76
]
},
{
"text": "or how we orbit around ourselves,",
"timestamp": [
260.76,
262.871
]
},
{
"text": "it's almost in a way, does it exist",
"timestamp": [
262.871,
265.17
]
},
{
"text": "if the way that we measure it is manmade?",
"timestamp": [
265.17,
267.63
]
},
{
"text": "- Before there was any\nlife on planet Earth,",
"timestamp": [
267.63,
270.24
]
},
{
"text": "I think we all agree the universe existed.",
"timestamp": [
270.24,
272.82
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
272.82,
273.653
]
},
{
"text": "- Did things change before\nthere was life on Earth?",
"timestamp": [
273.653,
276.36
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
276.36,
277.193
]
},
{
"text": "- And how would you talk about that change",
"timestamp": [
277.193,
280.38
]
},
{
"text": "without invoking this concept of time?",
"timestamp": [
280.38,
283.53
]
},
{
"text": "- It's difficult to talk about something",
"timestamp": [
283.53,
285.54
]
},
{
"text": "without adding time into it.",
"timestamp": [
285.54,
287.31
]
},
{
"text": "- Even if it is a human-made concept",
"timestamp": [
287.31,
289.41
]
},
{
"text": "that the universe evolved, developed,",
"timestamp": [
289.41,
291.66
]
},
{
"text": "changed through time,\nultimately giving rise",
"timestamp": [
291.66,
294.75
]
},
{
"text": "to galaxy, stars, planets,",
"timestamp": [
294.75,
296.82
]
},
{
"text": "and on this particular planet, life.",
"timestamp": [
296.82,
299.67
]
},
{
"text": "That conception of time gives a feel",
"timestamp": [
299.67,
302.16
]
},
{
"text": "that it's like universal,\nthat it's out there,",
"timestamp": [
302.16,
305.28
]
},
{
"text": "it's the same for everybody.",
"timestamp": [
305.28,
306.9
]
},
{
"text": "It's independent of our\nactions or activities.",
"timestamp": [
306.9,
309.96
]
},
{
"text": "Do you know that Albert Einstein shattered",
"timestamp": [
309.96,
312.06
]
},
{
"text": "that view of time?",
"timestamp": [
312.06,
313.77
]
},
{
"text": "He found that if you and I, say,",
"timestamp": [
313.77,
316.17
]
},
{
"text": "have identical wrist\nwatches, I'm sitting still",
"timestamp": [
316.17,
319.02
]
},
{
"text": "and I'm watching you move,\nI will find that your clock",
"timestamp": [
319.02,
321.99
]
},
{
"text": "is taking off time more\nslowly than my clock.",
"timestamp": [
321.99,
325.5
]
},
{
"text": "But you know what's really remarkable?",
"timestamp": [
325.5,
326.88
]
},
{
"text": "You can figure out this quality of time",
"timestamp": [
326.88,
330.42
]
},
{
"text": "if you know one fact, that the\nspeed of light is constant.",
"timestamp": [
330.42,
334.38
]
},
{
"text": "Have you ever heard that phrase?",
"timestamp": [
334.38,
335.73
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, my freshman year physics class.",
"timestamp": [
335.73,
337.29
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, if you're clever,",
"timestamp": [
337.29,
338.22
]
},
{
"text": "you can use that with high school algebra,",
"timestamp": [
338.22,
340.5
]
},
{
"text": "maybe even a little\nhigh school trigonometry",
"timestamp": [
340.5,
342.36
]
},
{
"text": "to make it even easier,",
"timestamp": [
342.36,
343.95
]
},
{
"text": "to derive that clocks take\noff time at different rate.",
"timestamp": [
343.95,
348.57
]
},
{
"text": "Do you want me to show you how that goes?",
"timestamp": [
348.57,
349.86
]
},
{
"text": "- Yes, please.",
"timestamp": [
349.86,
350.848
]
},
{
"text": "- All right, so to figure out\nthe effect of motion on time,",
"timestamp": [
350.848,
355.59
]
},
{
"text": "I'm gonna use a really simple clock,",
"timestamp": [
355.59,
357.66
]
},
{
"text": "it's called a light clock.",
"timestamp": [
357.66,
359.34
]
},
{
"text": "It's two mirrors that\nare facing each other.",
"timestamp": [
359.34,
363.21
]
},
{
"text": "And what we do is we have\na little ball of light",
"timestamp": [
363.21,
365.49
]
},
{
"text": "called a photon, right?",
"timestamp": [
365.49,
366.998
]
},
{
"text": "That goes up, hits the top mirror,",
"timestamp": [
366.998,
370.17
]
},
{
"text": "then comes back down and\nhits the bottom mirror.",
"timestamp": [
370.17,
373.29
]
},
{
"text": "And every time it does\nthat, they go tick-tock,",
"timestamp": [
373.29,
376.17
]
},
{
"text": "that's one unit of time.",
"timestamp": [
376.17,
377.94
]
},
{
"text": "Imagine now, we have another\none of these light clocks,",
"timestamp": [
377.94,
381.232
]
},
{
"text": "but I'm gonna have it in motion.",
"timestamp": [
381.232,
383.217
]
},
{
"text": "Now what do you notice about that path?",
"timestamp": [
383.217,
386.49
]
},
{
"text": "- It's much longer.",
"timestamp": [
386.49,
387.39
]
},
{
"text": "- It's much longer, right?",
"timestamp": [
387.39,
388.71
]
},
{
"text": "This one's going tick-tock, tick.",
"timestamp": [
388.71,
390.24
]
},
{
"text": "This is gonna go tick, tock.",
"timestamp": [
390.24,
394.38
]
},
{
"text": "In fact, we can figure out the ratio.",
"timestamp": [
394.38,
396.63
]
},
{
"text": "Let's consider time on\nthe stationary clock",
"timestamp": [
396.63,
400.83
]
},
{
"text": "compared to time on this moving clock.",
"timestamp": [
400.83,
404.37
]
},
{
"text": "Well, that ratio is gonna\nbe the ratio of the lengths.",
"timestamp": [
404.37,
407.82
]
},
{
"text": "Then this would be given by D over L.",
"timestamp": [
407.82,
410.85
]
},
{
"text": "More time on the stationary",
"timestamp": [
410.85,
412.89
]
},
{
"text": "because it's longer distance\non the moving clock.",
"timestamp": [
412.89,
415.98
]
},
{
"text": "Well, this length over here,",
"timestamp": [
415.98,
418.106
]
},
{
"text": "that's the same as this\nL over here, right?",
"timestamp": [
418.106,
422.01
]
},
{
"text": "So we want D over L.",
"timestamp": [
422.01,
423.75
]
},
{
"text": "Now, you may have recall\nthat in trigonometry,",
"timestamp": [
423.75,
428.75
]
},
{
"text": "there's a name for L over D.",
"timestamp": [
428.79,
431.79
]
},
{
"text": "Sine of theta, opposite is\nL, hypotenuse is D, right?",
"timestamp": [
431.79,
436.79
]
},
{
"text": "And so this ratio is just\n1 over sine of theta.",
"timestamp": [
439.71,
444.12
]
},
{
"text": "So if we can figure out 1 over sine theta,",
"timestamp": [
446.1,
448.65
]
},
{
"text": "we'll have our beautiful\nformula for the ratio of time",
"timestamp": [
448.65,
451.47
]
},
{
"text": "and the stationary clock to\ntime on the moving clock,",
"timestamp": [
451.47,
454.47
]
},
{
"text": "we just need one other fact.",
"timestamp": [
454.47,
456.24
]
},
{
"text": "The speed of light along this diagonal",
"timestamp": [
456.24,
459.69
]
},
{
"text": "is equal to what we call C.",
"timestamp": [
459.69,
462.42
]
},
{
"text": "C equals speed of light.",
"timestamp": [
462.42,
464.583
]
},
{
"text": "But in order for this ball of light",
"timestamp": [
465.78,
468.63
]
},
{
"text": "to hit that point on the mirror,",
"timestamp": [
468.63,
471.54
]
},
{
"text": "the component of the speed of light",
"timestamp": [
471.54,
474.15
]
},
{
"text": "in the horizontal direction\nbetter be keeping perfect pace",
"timestamp": [
474.15,
478.35
]
},
{
"text": "with the speed of the clock itself.",
"timestamp": [
478.35,
480.21
]
},
{
"text": "So let's assume that this clock is moving",
"timestamp": [
480.21,
482.46
]
},
{
"text": "in this direction with\nthe speed equal to V.",
"timestamp": [
482.46,
485.31
]
},
{
"text": "So C times cosine theta must be equal to",
"timestamp": [
485.31,
490.31
]
},
{
"text": "the speed of the clock in motion.",
"timestamp": [
491.52,
494.37
]
},
{
"text": "And from this, we learn that cosine theta",
"timestamp": [
494.37,
497.07
]
},
{
"text": "is equal to V over C.",
"timestamp": [
497.07,
499.5
]
},
{
"text": "There's another beautiful\nidentity you may recall",
"timestamp": [
499.5,
502.8
]
},
{
"text": "from your study of trigonometry,",
"timestamp": [
502.8,
505.32
]
},
{
"text": "that sine-squared theta\nplus cosine-squared theta",
"timestamp": [
505.32,
509
]
},
{
"text": "is equal to 1.",
"timestamp": [
509,
510.72
]
},
{
"text": "This is really just a\nPythagorean theorem in disguise.",
"timestamp": [
510.72,
513.87
]
},
{
"text": "And from that, we can now solve",
"timestamp": [
513.87,
516.03
]
},
{
"text": "for a sine-squared theta equals\n1 minus V over C squared.",
"timestamp": [
516.03,
521.03
]
},
{
"text": "And therefore sine theta\nis the square root of this.",
"timestamp": [
521.79,
525.06
]
},
{
"text": "And now, we're basically done",
"timestamp": [
525.06,
527.94
]
},
{
"text": "because we already had\nover here that this ratio",
"timestamp": [
527.94,
532.23
]
},
{
"text": "is 1 over sine theta, which\nnow is 1 over the square root",
"timestamp": [
532.23,
537.23
]
},
{
"text": "of 1 minus V over C squared.",
"timestamp": [
537.282,
542.282
]
},
{
"text": "So you see, as V gets very close to C,",
"timestamp": [
542.97,
545.64
]
},
{
"text": "this gets very close to 1.",
"timestamp": [
545.64,
547.8
]
},
{
"text": "1 minus something very close\nto 1 is very close to 0.",
"timestamp": [
547.8,
552
]
},
{
"text": "1 over something close to 0 is huge,",
"timestamp": [
552,
554.94
]
},
{
"text": "which means the ratio of\ntime on the stationary",
"timestamp": [
554.94,
557.49
]
},
{
"text": "to time on the moving,\nthat can be a huge number",
"timestamp": [
557.49,
560.012
]
},
{
"text": "as the speed of the moving clock",
"timestamp": [
560.012,
562.05
]
},
{
"text": "approaches the speed of light.",
"timestamp": [
562.05,
564.72
]
},
{
"text": "Now I did this for a light clock,",
"timestamp": [
564.72,
566.34
]
},
{
"text": "but it's true for any clock,\nand this is what Einstein",
"timestamp": [
566.34,
569.1
]
},
{
"text": "discovered in 1905 with his\nspecial theory of relativity.",
"timestamp": [
569.1,
574.1
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you think that in the\nnear or foreseeable future",
"timestamp": [
574.23,
578.669
]
},
{
"text": "of humans, as we know ourselves now,",
"timestamp": [
578.669,
582.12
]
},
{
"text": "will there be a time where\nwe are using these formulas",
"timestamp": [
582.12,
585.12
]
},
{
"text": "and these concepts in our daily lives?",
"timestamp": [
585.12,
587.1
]
},
{
"text": "- As technology progresses,",
"timestamp": [
587.1,
588.99
]
},
{
"text": "the barrier between the\nlimitations of experience",
"timestamp": [
588.99,
593.52
]
},
{
"text": "and the truth of how the world behaves",
"timestamp": [
593.52,
596.04
]
},
{
"text": "in extreme environments will be moved",
"timestamp": [
596.04,
598.68
]
},
{
"text": "in the very same way that, you know,",
"timestamp": [
598.68,
600.3
]
},
{
"text": "we can toss a pack of gum",
"timestamp": [
600.3,
602.13
]
},
{
"text": "and we know where to put\nour other hand to catch it.",
"timestamp": [
602.13,
604.71
]
},
{
"text": "Will we have that kind of\nintuition about these ideas?",
"timestamp": [
604.71,
607.2
]
},
{
"text": "I think it's quite possible.",
"timestamp": [
607.2,
608.858
]
},
{
"text": "[rapid music]",
"timestamp": [
608.858,
611.358
]
},
{
"text": "What are you studying right now?",
"timestamp": [
612.54,
613.86
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm doing physics and computer science.",
"timestamp": [
613.86,
615.36
]
},
{
"text": "- So have you spent any time",
"timestamp": [
615.36,
617.73
]
},
{
"text": "thinking about this weird\nquality of the laws of physics,",
"timestamp": [
617.73,
620.73
]
},
{
"text": "that there's no mathematical\ndistinction in the laws",
"timestamp": [
620.73,
624.81
]
},
{
"text": "between forward in time\nand backward in time?",
"timestamp": [
624.81,
627.71
]
},
{
"text": "Is that something you're familiar with?",
"timestamp": [
627.71,
629.49
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, and the one thing\nthat really confuses me there,",
"timestamp": [
629.49,
632.31
]
},
{
"text": "I'm thinking about one of the\nmost basic things we learn,",
"timestamp": [
632.31,
634.8
]
},
{
"text": "I guess, from \"Interstellar\"",
"timestamp": [
634.8,
635.91
]
},
{
"text": "is that the universe is expanding,",
"timestamp": [
635.91,
637.14
]
},
{
"text": "or space is expanding.\n- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
637.14,
638.097
]
},
{
"text": "- And so I'm thinking how\ndoes that square with gravity",
"timestamp": [
638.097,
640.44
]
},
{
"text": "and electromagnetism, which\nis like kind of predicated",
"timestamp": [
640.44,
642.54
]
},
{
"text": "on the density of charges or masses.",
"timestamp": [
642.54,
644.37
]
},
{
"text": "- The fact that space expands\nis perfectly compatible",
"timestamp": [
644.37,
647.88
]
},
{
"text": "with our understanding of\nall the forces of nature",
"timestamp": [
647.88,
651.99
]
},
{
"text": "because all of them continue to operate",
"timestamp": [
651.99,
654.6
]
},
{
"text": "in a somewhat more subtle way,",
"timestamp": [
654.6,
656.28
]
},
{
"text": "but we have a beautiful prescription",
"timestamp": [
656.28,
659.7
]
},
{
"text": "for taking any law that we\nunderstand in the simpler context",
"timestamp": [
659.7,
664.7
]
},
{
"text": "of flat space time and juicing it up",
"timestamp": [
665.19,
668.34
]
},
{
"text": "so that it works in a curved space time.",
"timestamp": [
668.34,
671.58
]
},
{
"text": "The more philosophical question",
"timestamp": [
671.58,
673.02
]
},
{
"text": "is in any of those formulations.",
"timestamp": [
673.02,
675.33
]
},
{
"text": "If you replace T by -T,",
"timestamp": [
675.33,
677.85
]
},
{
"text": "and you do it properly in the equations,",
"timestamp": [
677.85,
680.04
]
},
{
"text": "the equations still work.",
"timestamp": [
680.04,
681.54
]
},
{
"text": "But if past and future are kind\nof treated on equal footing",
"timestamp": [
681.54,
685.17
]
},
{
"text": "in the fundamental equations,\nwhy are they so different",
"timestamp": [
685.17,
688.47
]
},
{
"text": "from the perspective of experience?",
"timestamp": [
688.47,
691.08
]
},
{
"text": "- And when you're talking about\nthe perspective experience,",
"timestamp": [
691.08,
692.685
]
},
{
"text": "is that just human subjective experience",
"timestamp": [
692.685,
694.59
]
},
{
"text": "or actual observation for physics?",
"timestamp": [
694.59,
696.36
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, certainly it starts",
"timestamp": [
696.36,
697.47
]
},
{
"text": "with human subjective\nexperience, but then we are able",
"timestamp": [
697.47,
700.92
]
},
{
"text": "to elevate it to a more\nobjective description,",
"timestamp": [
700.92,
704.55
]
},
{
"text": "for instance, when we\nintroduce words like \"disorder\"",
"timestamp": [
704.55,
708.84
]
},
{
"text": "and \"order,\" and entropy",
"timestamp": [
708.84,
710.34
]
},
{
"text": "in the second law of thermodynamics.",
"timestamp": [
710.34,
712.8
]
},
{
"text": "And the equation, usually\nthe way we say it,",
"timestamp": [
712.8,
715.47
]
},
{
"text": "is S equals K log W,",
"timestamp": [
715.47,
717.63
]
},
{
"text": "entropy equals Boltzmann\nconstant times log",
"timestamp": [
717.63,
721.828
]
},
{
"text": "of a particular quantity,\nwhich is ultimately counting",
"timestamp": [
721.828,
725.14
]
},
{
"text": "the number of distinct configurations",
"timestamp": [
725.14,
728.4
]
},
{
"text": "that a system can be in.",
"timestamp": [
728.4,
730.53
]
},
{
"text": "What Boltzmann and others\nshowed is that entropy",
"timestamp": [
730.53,
734.128
]
},
{
"text": "tends to increase toward the future.",
"timestamp": [
734.128,
738.21
]
},
{
"text": "But the key word there\nis \"tends to increase.\"",
"timestamp": [
738.21,
741.18
]
},
{
"text": "So this arrow of time going\nfrom the past to the future",
"timestamp": [
741.18,
745.74
]
},
{
"text": "rests on a curious foundation.",
"timestamp": [
745.74,
747.93
]
},
{
"text": "It's a statistical foundation,",
"timestamp": [
747.93,
750.3
]
},
{
"text": "which says that it's more likely for eggs",
"timestamp": [
750.3,
752.55
]
},
{
"text": "to splatter than unsplatter.",
"timestamp": [
752.55,
754.38
]
},
{
"text": "It's more likely for glasses\nto smash than unsmash,",
"timestamp": [
754.38,
758.7
]
},
{
"text": "but not that it's impossible\nfor things to happen.",
"timestamp": [
758.7,
762.139
]
},
{
"text": "You just have to wait a really long time",
"timestamp": [
762.139,
764.49
]
},
{
"text": "for there to be a reasonable\nchance of it ever taking place.",
"timestamp": [
764.49,
767.55
]
},
{
"text": "- When you said that, you know,",
"timestamp": [
767.55,
769.26
]
},
{
"text": "it's more likely for an egg to\nsmash or for glass to smash,",
"timestamp": [
769.26,
772.47
]
},
{
"text": "and that's probably because\nthere's so many atoms,",
"timestamp": [
772.47,
774
]
},
{
"text": "so much stuff going on.\n- Yes.",
"timestamp": [
774,
775.05
]
},
{
"text": "- But I'm thinking if we zoom in on,",
"timestamp": [
775.05,
776.64
]
},
{
"text": "like a single thing, I guess,",
"timestamp": [
776.64,
777.84
]
},
{
"text": "do we have variations that\nare extremely unintuitive",
"timestamp": [
777.84,
780.36
]
},
{
"text": "because, you know, things\ncan happen in a way",
"timestamp": [
780.36,
782.34
]
},
{
"text": "that isn't the statistical average?",
"timestamp": [
782.34,
783.75
]
},
{
"text": "- If I take a film of that electron,",
"timestamp": [
783.75,
787.08
]
},
{
"text": "and it's a little fanciful to describe it",
"timestamp": [
787.08,
789.39
]
},
{
"text": "that language because you know",
"timestamp": [
789.39,
790.62
]
},
{
"text": "about quantum mechanics and so forth,",
"timestamp": [
790.62,
792.33
]
},
{
"text": "but I take a film of a little\nparticle moving around,",
"timestamp": [
792.33,
794.811
]
},
{
"text": "and I show you that film,",
"timestamp": [
794.811,
796.98
]
},
{
"text": "you'll be really hard-pressed to determine",
"timestamp": [
796.98,
799.95
]
},
{
"text": "whether I've shown you the film running",
"timestamp": [
799.95,
802.14
]
},
{
"text": "forward in time or whether I've shown you",
"timestamp": [
802.14,
804.51
]
},
{
"text": "the film going in reverse time.",
"timestamp": [
804.51,
806.82
]
},
{
"text": "If I had two, or three, or four,",
"timestamp": [
806.82,
809.01
]
},
{
"text": "or a gazillion particles into the mix,",
"timestamp": [
809.01,
811.83
]
},
{
"text": "then it will be much\neasier for you to determine",
"timestamp": [
811.83,
814.95
]
},
{
"text": "whether the film is going forward in time",
"timestamp": [
814.95,
817.11
]
},
{
"text": "or backward in time.",
"timestamp": [
817.11,
818.16
]
},
{
"text": "But order and disorder\ndon't have much meaning",
"timestamp": [
818.16,
820.35
]
},
{
"text": "if there's only one particle.",
"timestamp": [
820.35,
821.49
]
},
{
"text": "And that's why the fundamental laws",
"timestamp": [
821.49,
823.443
]
},
{
"text": "don't draw a distinction,",
"timestamp": [
823.443,
825.66
]
},
{
"text": "but the macroscopic experience does,",
"timestamp": [
825.66,
828.27
]
},
{
"text": "but it raises a key question.",
"timestamp": [
828.27,
829.98
]
},
{
"text": "Where'd the order of the egg come from?",
"timestamp": [
829.98,
832.17
]
},
{
"text": "If everything goes toward disorder,",
"timestamp": [
832.17,
834.18
]
},
{
"text": "how did I get this orderly\ncollection of atoms",
"timestamp": [
834.18,
836.91
]
},
{
"text": "called an egg?",
"timestamp": [
836.91,
837.81
]
},
{
"text": "Well, you probably would say from--",
"timestamp": [
837.81,
839.64
]
},
{
"text": "- Chicken.\n- A chicken.",
"timestamp": [
839.64,
840.87
]
},
{
"text": "But then I say to you,\nwhere'd the chicken come from?",
"timestamp": [
840.87,
843.33
]
},
{
"text": "And you'd say from an egg.",
"timestamp": [
843.33,
844.65
]
},
{
"text": "But there's actually some real insight",
"timestamp": [
844.65,
846.75
]
},
{
"text": "we can draw from this,\nbecause if we keep going back",
"timestamp": [
846.75,
849.42
]
},
{
"text": "with the chicken and egg story,",
"timestamp": [
849.42,
850.995
]
},
{
"text": "we'll go back through the\nevolutionary lineage of life,",
"timestamp": [
850.995,
854.94
]
},
{
"text": "we'll go back to early moments\nof the sun and the galaxy,",
"timestamp": [
854.94,
858.69
]
},
{
"text": "and ultimately, the universe,",
"timestamp": [
858.69,
860.43
]
},
{
"text": "each step taking us to\ngreater and greater order.",
"timestamp": [
860.43,
863.7
]
},
{
"text": "So we believe that the\nultimate source of order",
"timestamp": [
863.7,
866.49
]
},
{
"text": "is the Big Bang itself.",
"timestamp": [
866.49,
868.14
]
},
{
"text": "Highly ordered beginning called the Bang,",
"timestamp": [
868.14,
870.84
]
},
{
"text": "and we have been living\nthrough the degradation",
"timestamp": [
870.84,
873.45
]
},
{
"text": "of that order ever since.",
"timestamp": [
873.45,
875.37
]
},
{
"text": "We still don't really\nhave a solid explanation",
"timestamp": [
875.37,
878.64
]
},
{
"text": "for why the Big Bang had to\nbe or was, highly ordered.",
"timestamp": [
878.64,
883.44
]
},
{
"text": "At the moment, it's\nreally a deep assumption.",
"timestamp": [
883.44,
885.99
]
},
{
"text": "- Back with Einstein,\nyou know, we wondered,",
"timestamp": [
885.99,
887.68
]
},
{
"text": "does time change with speed?",
"timestamp": [
887.68,
889.68
]
},
{
"text": "And that's another change with",
"timestamp": [
889.68,
891.03
]
},
{
"text": "that before, we didn't think possible,",
"timestamp": [
891.03,
892.8
]
},
{
"text": "but I guess we found out eventually",
"timestamp": [
892.8,
894.27
]
},
{
"text": "some of the fanciful ideas.",
"timestamp": [
894.27,
895.35
]
},
{
"text": "I guess it's just tiny\nsliver of hope that.",
"timestamp": [
895.35,
897.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, not only did we\nfind that time changes",
"timestamp": [
897.09,
899.604
]
},
{
"text": "with speed in special relativity,",
"timestamp": [
899.604,
902.07
]
},
{
"text": "but we also found that\ntime changes with gravity.",
"timestamp": [
902.07,
905.1
]
},
{
"text": "Einstein showed that the\nrate at which a clock ticks",
"timestamp": [
905.1,
908.22
]
},
{
"text": "slows down based upon the\nstronger gravitational field,",
"timestamp": [
908.22,
912.24
]
},
{
"text": "or gravitational potential actually,",
"timestamp": [
912.24,
913.92
]
},
{
"text": "that it is experiencing.",
"timestamp": [
913.92,
915.78
]
},
{
"text": "I think you mentioned the\n\"Interstellar\" before.",
"timestamp": [
915.78,
917.73
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
917.73,
918.563
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you remember the\nscene in \"Interstellar\"?",
"timestamp": [
918.563,
919.59
]
},
{
"text": "They're going to a planet\nthat's near a black hole.",
"timestamp": [
919.59,
923.85
]
},
{
"text": "They go down to the planet,",
"timestamp": [
923.85,
925.65
]
},
{
"text": "and they spend just a couple hours there,",
"timestamp": [
925.65,
928.35
]
},
{
"text": "but when they go back to the ship,",
"timestamp": [
928.35,
929.945
]
},
{
"text": "it's 23 years later on the ship",
"timestamp": [
929.945,
933.24
]
},
{
"text": "because time is elapsing slowly",
"timestamp": [
933.24,
935.94
]
},
{
"text": "near the strong gravitational field,",
"timestamp": [
935.94,
937.77
]
},
{
"text": "comparatively quickly far away.",
"timestamp": [
937.77,
940.32
]
},
{
"text": "And that's not science fiction,",
"timestamp": [
940.32,
941.61
]
},
{
"text": "that's actually how time behaves.",
"timestamp": [
941.61,
943.44
]
},
{
"text": "- I've always heard people say,",
"timestamp": [
943.44,
944.347
]
},
{
"text": "\"Oh, general relativity, you know,",
"timestamp": [
944.347,
945.96
]
},
{
"text": "it might not seem applicable.\"",
"timestamp": [
945.96,
947.16
]
},
{
"text": "But GPS, due to satellites,",
"timestamp": [
947.16,
949.47
]
},
{
"text": "we could synchronize those clocks",
"timestamp": [
949.47,
950.94
]
},
{
"text": "by accounting for relativity.",
"timestamp": [
950.94,
952.35
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, but that's even a\nreally, really good point.",
"timestamp": [
952.35,
954.36
]
},
{
"text": "The GPS would become completely inaccurate",
"timestamp": [
954.36,
957.24
]
},
{
"text": "in a very short period\nof time if the satellites",
"timestamp": [
957.24,
960.66
]
},
{
"text": "weren't taken account of, or the software",
"timestamp": [
960.66,
962.97
]
},
{
"text": "wasn't taking account of\nthe fact that time elapses",
"timestamp": [
962.97,
965.52
]
},
{
"text": "differently for the\nclocks on the satellite",
"timestamp": [
965.52,
967.8
]
},
{
"text": "compared to the clocks down here on earth.",
"timestamp": [
967.8,
970.98
]
},
{
"text": "So we walk around with general\nrelativity in our pockets",
"timestamp": [
970.98,
973.5
]
},
{
"text": "even though most of us perhaps\ndon't really know that.",
"timestamp": [
973.5,
975.92
]
},
{
"text": "[rapid music]",
"timestamp": [
975.92,
978.42
]
},
{
"text": "Have you started any\nprojects yet, or that's?",
"timestamp": [
980.58,
982.833
]
},
{
"text": "- I am just starting one right now.",
"timestamp": [
982.833,
984.78
]
},
{
"text": "- What's it on?",
"timestamp": [
984.78,
985.613
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm trying to figure out\nhow stars in the galaxy",
"timestamp": [
985.613,
988.2
]
},
{
"text": "are moving based on what they're made of,",
"timestamp": [
988.2,
990.33
]
},
{
"text": "which is interesting.",
"timestamp": [
990.33,
991.163
]
},
{
"text": "- Oh, clearly, time comes\nin to what you're doing.",
"timestamp": [
991.163,
994.17
]
},
{
"text": "To what extent do you have to grapple",
"timestamp": [
994.17,
996.54
]
},
{
"text": "with some of the subtle features of time?",
"timestamp": [
996.54,
999.13
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, with my research in particular,",
"timestamp": [
999.13,
1001.52
]
},
{
"text": "I've really want to know\nwhat happened in the past",
"timestamp": [
1001.52,
1004.877
]
},
{
"text": "and what happened in the future,",
"timestamp": [
1004.877,
1006.35
]
},
{
"text": "but you only get a single snapshot",
"timestamp": [
1006.35,
1008.06
]
},
{
"text": "when you look up at the night sky.",
"timestamp": [
1008.06,
1009.44
]
},
{
"text": "- Right, but if it's\nsufficiently far back, you're--",
"timestamp": [
1009.44,
1011.99
]
},
{
"text": "- Great, and so we can learn a lot",
"timestamp": [
1011.99,
1013.31
]
},
{
"text": "by looking at other galaxies and seeing",
"timestamp": [
1013.31,
1015.02
]
},
{
"text": "what they were doing in\ntheir present, I suppose.",
"timestamp": [
1015.02,
1017.87
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1017.87,
1018.703
]
},
{
"text": "- Just figuring out\nwhat's gonna happen next",
"timestamp": [
1018.703,
1020.27
]
},
{
"text": "is part of the issue.",
"timestamp": [
1020.27,
1022.307
]
},
{
"text": "That's looking into the future, I suppose.",
"timestamp": [
1022.307,
1024.5
]
},
{
"text": "- And so have you taken\ngeneral relativity,",
"timestamp": [
1024.5,
1027.17
]
},
{
"text": "or you taken that now, or?",
"timestamp": [
1027.17,
1028.428
]
},
{
"text": "- I took a course on\ngeneral relativity, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1028.428,
1030.95
]
},
{
"text": "- But you learned about black holes?",
"timestamp": [
1030.95,
1033.11
]
},
{
"text": "- Sure.",
"timestamp": [
1033.11,
1033.943
]
},
{
"text": "- One of the weird things\nand wonderful things",
"timestamp": [
1033.943,
1036.29
]
},
{
"text": "about wormholes is that they\nare tunnels, if you will,",
"timestamp": [
1036.29,
1041.27
]
},
{
"text": "shortcuts from one point in\nspace to another point in space.",
"timestamp": [
1041.27,
1044.63
]
},
{
"text": "But once you have a\nshortcut from here to there,",
"timestamp": [
1044.63,
1047.12
]
},
{
"text": "the beautiful thing is,\nif you move the openings,",
"timestamp": [
1047.12,
1050.84
]
},
{
"text": "time will elapse differently\nat the different openings.",
"timestamp": [
1050.84,
1054.41
]
},
{
"text": "So there's a possibility of\nwormholes as time machines.",
"timestamp": [
1054.41,
1058.43
]
},
{
"text": "Go one direction, you're\ngoing into the future,",
"timestamp": [
1058.43,
1061.4
]
},
{
"text": "go the other direction,\nyou'd be going into the past.",
"timestamp": [
1061.4,
1064.22
]
},
{
"text": "But that, of course, raises\nphilosophical and logical--",
"timestamp": [
1064.22,
1067.897
]
},
{
"text": "- Paradoxes.",
"timestamp": [
1067.897,
1069.089
]
},
{
"text": "yeah, absolutely.\n- paradoxes and sort.",
"timestamp": [
1069.089,
1070.7
]
},
{
"text": "So what do you think, what do you?",
"timestamp": [
1070.7,
1072.115
]
},
{
"text": "[both laughs]",
"timestamp": [
1072.115,
1073.13
]
},
{
"text": "I throw it to you.",
"timestamp": [
1073.13,
1074.09
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, I've heard a\nfew different theories",
"timestamp": [
1074.09,
1076.19
]
},
{
"text": "that people posit.",
"timestamp": [
1076.19,
1077.27
]
},
{
"text": "Like maybe it is back to the future,",
"timestamp": [
1077.27,
1079.76
]
},
{
"text": "and you really change your own universe.",
"timestamp": [
1079.76,
1083.66
]
},
{
"text": "I've also heard people say",
"timestamp": [
1083.66,
1085.01
]
},
{
"text": "that you could have\nmultiple universes spawned",
"timestamp": [
1085.01,
1087.65
]
},
{
"text": "from this event or\nsomething along these lines.",
"timestamp": [
1087.65,
1089.63
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, if you are going to\nbe able to change the past,",
"timestamp": [
1089.63,
1092.57
]
},
{
"text": "that's the one that\nresonates most with me.",
"timestamp": [
1092.57,
1095.27
]
},
{
"text": "- I think the same.",
"timestamp": [
1095.27,
1096.103
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so you go into the past,",
"timestamp": [
1096.103,
1097.61
]
},
{
"text": "and maybe you can prevent\nyour parents from meeting,",
"timestamp": [
1097.61,
1100.25
]
},
{
"text": "but you're preventing them from meeting",
"timestamp": [
1100.25,
1102.29
]
},
{
"text": "in the parallel reality, which means",
"timestamp": [
1102.29,
1104.36
]
},
{
"text": "that you will never be\nborn in that reality,",
"timestamp": [
1104.36,
1107.78
]
},
{
"text": "but the origin of your birth\nis still completely understood,",
"timestamp": [
1107.78,
1112.78
]
},
{
"text": "it was in the universe\nfrom which you originated.",
"timestamp": [
1112.82,
1115.73
]
},
{
"text": "Another one that's more subtle is,",
"timestamp": [
1115.73,
1118.22
]
},
{
"text": "the laws of physics may\nprevent you from interceding.",
"timestamp": [
1118.22,
1122.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Right.",
"timestamp": [
1122.81,
1123.643
]
},
{
"text": "- And that raises uncomfortable issues",
"timestamp": [
1123.643,
1127.07
]
},
{
"text": "for many people having to\ndo with like free will.",
"timestamp": [
1127.07,
1130.55
]
},
{
"text": "- I'm immediately uncomfortable.",
"timestamp": [
1130.55,
1131.81
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, so that one,",
"timestamp": [
1131.81,
1132.736
]
},
{
"text": "there's actually some\npeople like Joe Polchinski",
"timestamp": [
1132.736,
1136.46
]
},
{
"text": "who did some wonderful studies\nof billiard ball tables,",
"timestamp": [
1136.46,
1139.79
]
},
{
"text": "where you imagine a billiard\nball goes into a wormhole,",
"timestamp": [
1139.79,
1142.43
]
},
{
"text": "comes out and hits the very ball",
"timestamp": [
1142.43,
1145.04
]
},
{
"text": "that was going into the hole.",
"timestamp": [
1145.04,
1147.29
]
},
{
"text": "And in that way, if it\ncould knock it off course,",
"timestamp": [
1147.29,
1149.93
]
},
{
"text": "we seem to be in some logical paradox.",
"timestamp": [
1149.93,
1152.574
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
1152.574,
1153.8
]
},
{
"text": "- But the finding was,\nthe ball can come out",
"timestamp": [
1153.8,
1156.5
]
},
{
"text": "and just sort of graze the other one,",
"timestamp": [
1156.5,
1158.81
]
},
{
"text": "but it can't affect it enough",
"timestamp": [
1158.81,
1161.33
]
},
{
"text": "to prevent the sequence\nof events from happening.",
"timestamp": [
1161.33,
1164.69
]
},
{
"text": "And the way I like to\nthink about it frankly is",
"timestamp": [
1164.69,
1166.91
]
},
{
"text": "if there's one universe,\nnot parallel universes",
"timestamp": [
1166.91,
1169.58
]
},
{
"text": "like in the other solution,\nmoments in time just are.",
"timestamp": [
1169.58,
1174.35
]
},
{
"text": "They don't change,",
"timestamp": [
1174.35,
1175.22
]
},
{
"text": "the whole point of time is the variable",
"timestamp": [
1175.22,
1178.79
]
},
{
"text": "along which change can happen.",
"timestamp": [
1178.79,
1180.47
]
},
{
"text": "So if you have the atoms of\ntime, the individual events,",
"timestamp": [
1180.47,
1183.98
]
},
{
"text": "there's no conception of them changing.",
"timestamp": [
1183.98,
1186.74
]
},
{
"text": "So whatever collection of\ninfluences were in play",
"timestamp": [
1186.74,
1190.19
]
},
{
"text": "that allowed your parents to meet,",
"timestamp": [
1190.19,
1191.9
]
},
{
"text": "they will always be in play",
"timestamp": [
1191.9,
1193.7
]
},
{
"text": "because you were always\npart of that moment.",
"timestamp": [
1193.7,
1196.52
]
},
{
"text": "- Do you think travel back\nto the past is impossible",
"timestamp": [
1196.52,
1199.745
]
},
{
"text": "because of a deep physical,\nlike mathematical reasoning,",
"timestamp": [
1199.745,
1204.26
]
},
{
"text": "or just because of all of these problems",
"timestamp": [
1204.26,
1206.6
]
},
{
"text": "that yet you've been talking about?",
"timestamp": [
1206.6,
1207.89
]
},
{
"text": "- I suspect that when we've\nfully understand the mathematics",
"timestamp": [
1207.89,
1212.081
]
},
{
"text": "of the final physical laws,\nif we ever come upon them,",
"timestamp": [
1212.081,
1216.62
]
},
{
"text": "I think there's gonna\nbe something built in",
"timestamp": [
1216.62,
1218.34
]
},
{
"text": "that prevents this kind of\nfree travel to the past.",
"timestamp": [
1218.34,
1223.34
]
},
{
"text": "But sometimes I wonder\nif that's just coming",
"timestamp": [
1223.67,
1226.73
]
},
{
"text": "from a more emotional place",
"timestamp": [
1226.73,
1228.29
]
},
{
"text": "where I sort of want the world to be safe",
"timestamp": [
1228.29,
1230.51
]
},
{
"text": "from this kind of paradoxes.",
"timestamp": [
1230.51,
1232.13
]
},
{
"text": "So what's pretty clear based\non any of the hypothetical",
"timestamp": [
1232.13,
1236.42
]
},
{
"text": "proposals for traveling to the past",
"timestamp": [
1236.42,
1238.61
]
},
{
"text": "that have come out of physics,",
"timestamp": [
1238.61,
1239.84
]
},
{
"text": "you can't travel to a moment in the past",
"timestamp": [
1239.84,
1243.32
]
},
{
"text": "before the first time\ntravel machine is built.",
"timestamp": [
1243.32,
1247.34
]
},
{
"text": "- Sure, you know the twin paradox?",
"timestamp": [
1247.34,
1249.65
]
},
{
"text": "- [Brian] Yeah, sure.",
"timestamp": [
1249.65,
1250.483
]
},
{
"text": "- Where, you know, you fly off,",
"timestamp": [
1250.483,
1251.84
]
},
{
"text": "looks like you're moving fast,",
"timestamp": [
1251.84,
1253.82
]
},
{
"text": "but to you, it looks like\nthe other guy's moving fast",
"timestamp": [
1253.82,
1256.01
]
},
{
"text": "so who actually ages more?",
"timestamp": [
1256.01,
1257.75
]
},
{
"text": "Who ages less?",
"timestamp": [
1257.75,
1259.13
]
},
{
"text": "A resolution I've heard is that",
"timestamp": [
1259.13,
1260.78
]
},
{
"text": "because you have to be going\naway and then coming back,",
"timestamp": [
1260.78,
1264.59
]
},
{
"text": "you had to accelerate at some point,",
"timestamp": [
1264.59,
1266.18
]
},
{
"text": "and this breaks the ambiguity.",
"timestamp": [
1266.18,
1268.16
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1268.16,
1268.993
]
},
{
"text": "- What if, say, the universe isn't flat?",
"timestamp": [
1268.993,
1272.15
]
},
{
"text": "What if the universe is\ncurved, and you go off",
"timestamp": [
1272.15,
1275.39
]
},
{
"text": "in one direction and then you come back",
"timestamp": [
1275.39,
1277.76
]
},
{
"text": "in the same direction,\nyou pass by the Earth,",
"timestamp": [
1277.76,
1279.92
]
},
{
"text": "who's older then?",
"timestamp": [
1279.92,
1281.21
]
},
{
"text": "Do we have an answer?",
"timestamp": [
1281.21,
1282.08
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, we do have an answer.",
"timestamp": [
1282.08,
1283.55
]
},
{
"text": "So the simplest version of that is,",
"timestamp": [
1283.55,
1285.14
]
},
{
"text": "imagine that the universe\nhas a shape of a donut.",
"timestamp": [
1285.14,
1287.9
]
},
{
"text": "Imagine I'm on the circular\npart of this donut universe.",
"timestamp": [
1287.9,
1292.19
]
},
{
"text": "- All right.",
"timestamp": [
1292.19,
1293.023
]
},
{
"text": "- And imagine I turn on two laser beams,",
"timestamp": [
1293.023,
1295.61
]
},
{
"text": "sending a beam of light going\nto my right and to my left.",
"timestamp": [
1295.61,
1299.21
]
},
{
"text": "And these beams will go\naround the entirety of space,",
"timestamp": [
1299.21,
1301.97
]
},
{
"text": "and they'll both come\nback, and at some point,",
"timestamp": [
1301.97,
1304.49
]
},
{
"text": "they will hit me.",
"timestamp": [
1304.49,
1305.45
]
},
{
"text": "Imagine they hit me at the same\nmoment from my perspective.",
"timestamp": [
1305.45,
1308.72
]
},
{
"text": "Now imagine someone's\nmoving relative to my frame",
"timestamp": [
1308.72,
1312.29
]
},
{
"text": "of reference, say, to my left,\nthey do the same experiment.",
"timestamp": [
1312.29,
1315.86
]
},
{
"text": "They fire the beam of\nlight left and right.",
"timestamp": [
1315.86,
1318.32
]
},
{
"text": "Notice that the beam that\nthey fire to their left",
"timestamp": [
1318.32,
1322.01
]
},
{
"text": "will have to travel farther to reach them",
"timestamp": [
1322.01,
1324.38
]
},
{
"text": "because they're moving away from it.",
"timestamp": [
1324.38,
1326.03
]
},
{
"text": "Whereas the beam that\nthey fired to their right",
"timestamp": [
1326.03,
1328.34
]
},
{
"text": "will not have to travel as far",
"timestamp": [
1328.34,
1330.17
]
},
{
"text": "because in some sense,\nthey're moving toward it.",
"timestamp": [
1330.17,
1331.97
]
},
{
"text": "The two beams of light will\nnot hit that moving observer",
"timestamp": [
1331.97,
1335.21
]
},
{
"text": "at the same moment.",
"timestamp": [
1335.21,
1336.44
]
},
{
"text": "- To you or to them?",
"timestamp": [
1336.44,
1337.58
]
},
{
"text": "- To them.",
"timestamp": [
1337.58,
1338.69
]
},
{
"text": "- Wow.",
"timestamp": [
1338.69,
1339.523
]
},
{
"text": "- Which means that there's a\npreferred frame of reference",
"timestamp": [
1339.523,
1342.71
]
},
{
"text": "in this universe.",
"timestamp": [
1342.71,
1343.67
]
},
{
"text": "Everybody is not on equal footing",
"timestamp": [
1343.67,
1345.89
]
},
{
"text": "- Fascinating.\n- as they are when we teach",
"timestamp": [
1345.89,
1347.36
]
},
{
"text": "to freshmen the special\ntheory of relativity.",
"timestamp": [
1347.36,
1349.629
]
},
{
"text": "That's right, exactly.\n- Me, for example.",
"timestamp": [
1349.629,
1351.29
]
},
{
"text": "- No, everybody else is\nmoving relative to me,",
"timestamp": [
1351.29,
1354.68
]
},
{
"text": "and it's real motion.",
"timestamp": [
1354.68,
1356.18
]
},
{
"text": "So everybody else will\nbe like the moving twin.",
"timestamp": [
1356.18,
1359.54
]
},
{
"text": "They will be younger and I will be older.",
"timestamp": [
1359.54,
1362.96
]
},
{
"text": "And when you think about past and future",
"timestamp": [
1362.96,
1364.88
]
},
{
"text": "on a cosmological scale,\nthere was a long period",
"timestamp": [
1364.88,
1368.455
]
},
{
"text": "when there were no human\nbeings in the universe.",
"timestamp": [
1368.455,
1372.26
]
},
{
"text": "The fact of the matter is there will be",
"timestamp": [
1372.26,
1374.36
]
},
{
"text": "these two long stretches",
"timestamp": [
1374.36,
1376.4
]
},
{
"text": "with our presence being sort\nof a flicker in between,",
"timestamp": [
1376.4,
1380.33
]
},
{
"text": "does that thought inform anything",
"timestamp": [
1380.33,
1382.82
]
},
{
"text": "about how you live in your brief flicker",
"timestamp": [
1382.82,
1386.15
]
},
{
"text": "within that brief flicker?",
"timestamp": [
1386.15,
1387.68
]
},
{
"text": "- I rage against thinking like that.",
"timestamp": [
1387.68,
1390.05
]
},
{
"text": "- Too defeatist?",
"timestamp": [
1390.05,
1391.02
]
},
{
"text": "- I think it's too defeatist.",
"timestamp": [
1391.02,
1391.853
]
},
{
"text": "I think that's the perfect way to put it.",
"timestamp": [
1391.853,
1393.74
]
},
{
"text": "Because it might be a brief flicker",
"timestamp": [
1393.74,
1396.29
]
},
{
"text": "on a single moat of dust like floating",
"timestamp": [
1396.29,
1398.87
]
},
{
"text": "in a cosmic eternity.",
"timestamp": [
1398.87,
1400.131
]
},
{
"text": "- [Brian] Yep.",
"timestamp": [
1400.131,
1400.964
]
},
{
"text": "- But it's everything.",
"timestamp": [
1400.964,
1402.41
]
},
{
"text": "There's nothing else that\nI'll ever experience.",
"timestamp": [
1402.41,
1404.66
]
},
{
"text": "And so in a way, there's\nnothing else to me.",
"timestamp": [
1404.66,
1407.37
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1407.37,
1408.203
]
},
{
"text": "- There's an eternity, but\nI'm never gonna see it,",
"timestamp": [
1408.203,
1410.57
]
},
{
"text": "I'm never gonna feel it.",
"timestamp": [
1410.57,
1411.68
]
},
{
"text": "- It can be debilitating to imagine",
"timestamp": [
1411.68,
1415.46
]
},
{
"text": "an eternal future of sort of nothing,",
"timestamp": [
1415.46,
1417.62
]
},
{
"text": "where none of what we do sort of persist.",
"timestamp": [
1417.62,
1419.63
]
},
{
"text": "On the other hand, if you\nflip your perspective around",
"timestamp": [
1419.63,
1423.08
]
},
{
"text": "and say, \"How remarkable is it",
"timestamp": [
1423.08,
1425.12
]
},
{
"text": "that we have this brief\nmoment that allows us to think",
"timestamp": [
1425.12,
1428.18
]
},
{
"text": "and feel and love and\nexplore and illuminate,",
"timestamp": [
1428.18,
1432.23
]
},
{
"text": "wow, how wonderful is that?\"",
"timestamp": [
1432.23,
1435.44
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1435.44,
1436.505
]
},
{
"text": "[rapid music]",
"timestamp": [
1436.505,
1439.005
]
},
{
"text": "- So often, when we try\nto give the basic idea",
"timestamp": [
1439.88,
1443.12
]
},
{
"text": "of what time is, I'm fond of saying,",
"timestamp": [
1443.12,
1445.557
]
},
{
"text": "\"Look, space is the\nlanguage that allows us",
"timestamp": [
1445.557,
1448.43
]
},
{
"text": "to say where events take place,",
"timestamp": [
1448.43,
1451.097
]
},
{
"text": "and time is the language\nthat allows us to specify",
"timestamp": [
1451.097,
1454.49
]
},
{
"text": "when they take place.\"",
"timestamp": [
1454.49,
1456.71
]
},
{
"text": "Where would you jump off from there",
"timestamp": [
1456.71,
1458.24
]
},
{
"text": "and trying to give a deeper understanding",
"timestamp": [
1458.24,
1460.49
]
},
{
"text": "of the basics of time?",
"timestamp": [
1460.49,
1461.84
]
},
{
"text": "- Maybe part of the distinction\nin between time and space,",
"timestamp": [
1461.84,
1466.16
]
},
{
"text": "it's that you have a clear\nirreversible evolution.",
"timestamp": [
1466.16,
1470.06
]
},
{
"text": "So how to explain what time is,",
"timestamp": [
1470.06,
1472.19
]
},
{
"text": "well, it's a parameter\nthat is measured by clocks.",
"timestamp": [
1472.19,
1474.98
]
},
{
"text": "I mean, at the end, this is what we know.",
"timestamp": [
1474.98,
1477.02
]
},
{
"text": "- And allows us to talk about change.",
"timestamp": [
1477.02,
1479.15
]
},
{
"text": "- And also that we know how to describe",
"timestamp": [
1479.15,
1481.43
]
},
{
"text": "in terms of some set of equations.",
"timestamp": [
1481.43,
1483.71
]
},
{
"text": "- Which gives a clear sense of causality.",
"timestamp": [
1483.71,
1486.08
]
},
{
"text": "- Yep.",
"timestamp": [
1486.08,
1486.913
]
},
{
"text": "- To note our recent paper,",
"timestamp": [
1486.913,
1488.27
]
},
{
"text": "where we were thinking\nabout Einstein's ideas",
"timestamp": [
1488.27,
1492.061
]
},
{
"text": "of special relativity, but in a setting",
"timestamp": [
1492.061,
1495.23
]
},
{
"text": "where the global shape of the space time,",
"timestamp": [
1495.23,
1497.564
]
},
{
"text": "we imagine there might be a\ncurled up dimension of space,",
"timestamp": [
1497.564,
1501.26
]
},
{
"text": "a circular dimension and thought about",
"timestamp": [
1501.26,
1503.18
]
},
{
"text": "how special relativity\nworks in that setting,",
"timestamp": [
1503.18,
1505.67
]
},
{
"text": "we came to a result in\nthis very basic setting.",
"timestamp": [
1505.67,
1508.031
]
},
{
"text": "You can send signals into the past,",
"timestamp": [
1508.031,
1512.24
]
},
{
"text": "not in a way that will violate causality.",
"timestamp": [
1512.24,
1515.36
]
},
{
"text": "Did that surprise you, that by\ngoing from the usual topology",
"timestamp": [
1515.36,
1519.26
]
},
{
"text": "that doesn't have a closed part of space,",
"timestamp": [
1519.26,
1521.99
]
},
{
"text": "but making that one change,",
"timestamp": [
1521.99,
1523.25
]
},
{
"text": "you could have this radical impact?",
"timestamp": [
1523.25,
1524.96
]
},
{
"text": "- I found quite surprising\nthat you could have",
"timestamp": [
1524.96,
1528.438
]
},
{
"text": "this exotic behavior of signal propagation",
"timestamp": [
1528.438,
1533.18
]
},
{
"text": "in a system that was extremely simple,",
"timestamp": [
1533.18,
1535.46
]
},
{
"text": "totally classical, there was nothing weird",
"timestamp": [
1535.46,
1538.46
]
},
{
"text": "except one dimension\nthat was compactified,",
"timestamp": [
1538.46,
1542
]
},
{
"text": "was identified on a circle.",
"timestamp": [
1542,
1543.53
]
},
{
"text": "Actually, even the standard\nvanilla causal structure",
"timestamp": [
1543.53,
1548.24
]
},
{
"text": "of special relativity",
"timestamp": [
1548.24,
1549.89
]
},
{
"text": "may give some very unexpected behaviors",
"timestamp": [
1549.89,
1553.46
]
},
{
"text": "when you combine it with\nother simple modifications",
"timestamp": [
1553.46,
1557.9
]
},
{
"text": "of just the flat space time.",
"timestamp": [
1557.9,
1560.06
]
},
{
"text": "- And the beauty of it is, it is not like",
"timestamp": [
1560.06,
1561.89
]
},
{
"text": "there is some high-powered\nmathematical methodology,",
"timestamp": [
1561.89,
1565.46
]
},
{
"text": "straightforward algebra\nthat a high school kid",
"timestamp": [
1565.46,
1568.97
]
},
{
"text": "would know is all that you need",
"timestamp": [
1568.97,
1570.44
]
},
{
"text": "to extract these unusual results.",
"timestamp": [
1570.44,
1572.78
]
},
{
"text": "- And they were unusual because",
"timestamp": [
1572.78,
1574.61
]
},
{
"text": "even if you do not violate causality,",
"timestamp": [
1574.61,
1577.55
]
},
{
"text": "we discovered that a fast-moving observer,",
"timestamp": [
1577.55,
1581.15
]
},
{
"text": "that could be us on a\nrocket, could send signals",
"timestamp": [
1581.15,
1584.45
]
},
{
"text": "very far and then back\nin a very small time.",
"timestamp": [
1584.45,
1587.207
]
},
{
"text": "- And so the old idea that of\ncourse we always hear about,",
"timestamp": [
1587.207,
1589.94
]
},
{
"text": "that if we ever make contact\nwith extraterrestrial life,",
"timestamp": [
1589.94,
1592.25
]
},
{
"text": "if they're far away, we can't\nreally have a conversation",
"timestamp": [
1592.25,
1594.83
]
},
{
"text": "because we'll say hello,",
"timestamp": [
1594.83,
1596.18
]
},
{
"text": "and then like 10,000 years\nor 100,000 years later,",
"timestamp": [
1596.18,
1599.3
]
},
{
"text": "they'll answer us 'cause\nthey'll take that long",
"timestamp": [
1599.3,
1601.04
]
},
{
"text": "for the signals.",
"timestamp": [
1601.04,
1601.873
]
},
{
"text": "But at least in this\nsetup, which we don't know",
"timestamp": [
1601.873,
1603.86
]
},
{
"text": "is true about our\nuniverse, but if it were,",
"timestamp": [
1603.86,
1606.11
]
},
{
"text": "then you could have a\nreal-time conversation",
"timestamp": [
1606.11,
1608.9
]
},
{
"text": "over arbitrarily large\ndistances, which is--",
"timestamp": [
1608.9,
1611.414
]
},
{
"text": "- That was unexpected.",
"timestamp": [
1611.414,
1614.03
]
},
{
"text": "And so that shows how even ideas",
"timestamp": [
1614.03,
1616.7
]
},
{
"text": "that seem to be well-settled\nand well-understood",
"timestamp": [
1616.7,
1619.46
]
},
{
"text": "have surprises.",
"timestamp": [
1619.46,
1620.75
]
},
{
"text": "- Like, why didn't Einstein realize this?",
"timestamp": [
1620.75,
1622.607
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, maybe the idea\nof living on a subspace,",
"timestamp": [
1622.607,
1626.72
]
},
{
"text": "of being confined in this\nextra dimension on a surface,",
"timestamp": [
1626.72,
1630.44
]
},
{
"text": "may have been looked exotic",
"timestamp": [
1630.44,
1632.21
]
},
{
"text": "but definitely did not look\nexotic after the 1990s.",
"timestamp": [
1632.21,
1635.63
]
},
{
"text": "- Many people have begun\nthinking about the possibility",
"timestamp": [
1635.63,
1638.57
]
},
{
"text": "that space and time may\nbe so-called emergent",
"timestamp": [
1638.57,
1642.5
]
},
{
"text": "quantities that they're not\nas fundamental as perhaps",
"timestamp": [
1642.5,
1646.376
]
},
{
"text": "Newton or Einstein would've thought.",
"timestamp": [
1646.376,
1649.22
]
},
{
"text": "Where do you stand on that idea?",
"timestamp": [
1649.22,
1651.05
]
},
{
"text": "- It seems not unthinkable.",
"timestamp": [
1651.05,
1654.38
]
},
{
"text": "Saying that something is\nemergent will make full sense",
"timestamp": [
1654.38,
1658.01
]
},
{
"text": "only when we have some concrete model",
"timestamp": [
1658.01,
1660.65
]
},
{
"text": "in which space and time emergent,",
"timestamp": [
1660.65,
1663.02
]
},
{
"text": "in which we make sense of this non-space,",
"timestamp": [
1663.02,
1667.1
]
},
{
"text": "non-time description of a theory.",
"timestamp": [
1667.1,
1670.13
]
},
{
"text": "I don't know if we are still at this stage",
"timestamp": [
1670.13,
1672.14
]
},
{
"text": "in which I would say we begin\nto understand this scenario",
"timestamp": [
1672.14,
1675.65
]
},
{
"text": "because, often, I tell my students,",
"timestamp": [
1675.65,
1679.13
]
},
{
"text": "the greatest scientific revolution",
"timestamp": [
1679.13,
1680.81
]
},
{
"text": "has been not in the 20th century,",
"timestamp": [
1680.81,
1683.51
]
},
{
"text": "has not been quantum mechanics\nnor general relativity",
"timestamp": [
1683.51,
1686.33
]
},
{
"text": "nor special relativity,\nthat's been the passage",
"timestamp": [
1686.33,
1688.88
]
},
{
"text": "from qualitative description of nature,",
"timestamp": [
1688.88,
1691.76
]
},
{
"text": "the quantitative one.",
"timestamp": [
1691.76,
1692.78
]
},
{
"text": "- When you pass from\nasking how to how much,",
"timestamp": [
1692.78,
1697.78
]
},
{
"text": "then you understand something.",
"timestamp": [
1697.79,
1698.87
]
},
{
"text": "- And who do you credit with that?",
"timestamp": [
1698.87,
1700.123
]
},
{
"text": "Is that Newton?",
"timestamp": [
1700.123,
1701.124
]
},
{
"text": "Do you go Newton or a little bit below?",
"timestamp": [
1701.124,
1701.957
]
},
{
"text": "Do you Galileo?\n- I would say Galileo, Newton.",
"timestamp": [
1701.957,
1703.069
]
},
{
"text": "- Of course, the completion\nof this idea is Newton.",
"timestamp": [
1703.069,
1706.73
]
},
{
"text": "- One of the things that\nrelativity also sheds a light on",
"timestamp": [
1706.73,
1710.96
]
},
{
"text": "is what exists, that if\nsomeone's moving relative to me,",
"timestamp": [
1710.96,
1715.96
]
},
{
"text": "what they consider now\nmight be in my past,",
"timestamp": [
1716.139,
1719.96
]
},
{
"text": "what they consider now\nmight be in my future,",
"timestamp": [
1719.96,
1722.93
]
},
{
"text": "which would suggest that all",
"timestamp": [
1722.93,
1724.82
]
},
{
"text": "of time exists much as we're willing",
"timestamp": [
1724.82,
1727.82
]
},
{
"text": "to accept that all of space exists.",
"timestamp": [
1727.82,
1730.28
]
},
{
"text": "Is that cold water?",
"timestamp": [
1730.28,
1731.75
]
},
{
"text": "- Actually, it resonates\nwith me for various reasons.",
"timestamp": [
1731.75,
1735.29
]
},
{
"text": "One is that, professionally,",
"timestamp": [
1735.29,
1737.42
]
},
{
"text": "we use spacetime diagrams,\nPenrose diagrams,",
"timestamp": [
1737.42,
1740.81
]
},
{
"text": "a lot of diagrams where space and times",
"timestamp": [
1740.81,
1743.84
]
},
{
"text": "are just two axis on a board.",
"timestamp": [
1743.84,
1746.33
]
},
{
"text": "And when we describe a particle,",
"timestamp": [
1746.33,
1748.4
]
},
{
"text": "we have a line that goes up in time.",
"timestamp": [
1748.4,
1750.98
]
},
{
"text": "By the way, this image also\nis the last image in Pros,",
"timestamp": [
1750.98,
1753.62
]
},
{
"text": "the last page, there is\nthis beautiful sentence,",
"timestamp": [
1753.62,
1756.11
]
},
{
"text": "which is also true, saying\nthat if he has the time,",
"timestamp": [
1756.11,
1758.42
]
},
{
"text": "he would like to describe\npeople as being monstrous beings",
"timestamp": [
1758.42,
1762.65
]
},
{
"text": "that extending time much\nlonger than in space.",
"timestamp": [
1762.65,
1766.13
]
},
{
"text": "If C equal to 1, that's very true.",
"timestamp": [
1766.13,
1768.38
]
},
{
"text": "So this idea that you have a continuum,",
"timestamp": [
1768.38,
1771.38
]
},
{
"text": "and time should not be made to disappear",
"timestamp": [
1771.38,
1774.35
]
},
{
"text": "as soon as it's gone, is very practical.",
"timestamp": [
1774.35,
1777.59
]
},
{
"text": "It's also what is behind\nthe idea of histories",
"timestamp": [
1777.59,
1781.76
]
},
{
"text": "in quantum mechanics.",
"timestamp": [
1781.76,
1782.87
]
},
{
"text": "When in the approach of\nvarious people including",
"timestamp": [
1782.87,
1786.02
]
},
{
"text": "Hartle that collaborated\na lot with Hawking.",
"timestamp": [
1786.02,
1789.23
]
},
{
"text": "There is this idea that what\nyou describe is a history,",
"timestamp": [
1789.23,
1792.11
]
},
{
"text": "it's not a particular moment\nin time, but it's an evolution.",
"timestamp": [
1792.11,
1796.43
]
},
{
"text": "This history treats space and\ntime on a more equal basis.",
"timestamp": [
1796.43,
1801.02
]
},
{
"text": "- But would you say there's\nmore to it than the technical,",
"timestamp": [
1801.02,
1803.283
]
},
{
"text": "more to it than the diagrams,",
"timestamp": [
1803.283,
1805.34
]
},
{
"text": "more to it than sort of an interpretation",
"timestamp": [
1805.34,
1807.8
]
},
{
"text": "of the mathematical equations?",
"timestamp": [
1807.8,
1809.06
]
},
{
"text": "would you go so far as to\ntake solace in the fact that,",
"timestamp": [
1809.06,
1812.9
]
},
{
"text": "in a sense that you will always exist",
"timestamp": [
1812.9,
1815
]
},
{
"text": "because you will always be at\nthe moments of space and time",
"timestamp": [
1815,
1817.805
]
},
{
"text": "that you have occupy throughout your life?",
"timestamp": [
1817.805,
1819.98
]
},
{
"text": "- Well, actually, that's\nprobably the only way",
"timestamp": [
1819.98,
1822.74
]
},
{
"text": "in which you can take\nsolace because all the rest,",
"timestamp": [
1822.74,
1825.26
]
},
{
"text": "right, is almost children's stories.",
"timestamp": [
1825.26,
1827.51
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah.",
"timestamp": [
1827.51,
1828.343
]
},
{
"text": "- I mean, of course, it's\nsomething that you come",
"timestamp": [
1828.343,
1829.52
]
},
{
"text": "by yourself, and you\narrive at this conclusion,",
"timestamp": [
1829.52,
1831.95
]
},
{
"text": "which is totally not objective and is part",
"timestamp": [
1831.95,
1834.53
]
},
{
"text": "of your personal history by yourself,",
"timestamp": [
1834.53,
1836.27
]
},
{
"text": "but it was interesting to\nsee that, for instance,",
"timestamp": [
1836.27,
1837.89
]
},
{
"text": "Kurt Vonnegut had exactly the same take.",
"timestamp": [
1837.89,
1840.32
]
},
{
"text": "He said, no, I mean the only thing",
"timestamp": [
1840.32,
1841.88
]
},
{
"text": "that really makes you\nnot fear what will happen",
"timestamp": [
1841.88,
1846.47
]
},
{
"text": "or your own mortality\nis that every instant",
"timestamp": [
1846.47,
1848.72
]
},
{
"text": "is a turn of instances,",
"timestamp": [
1848.72,
1850.16
]
},
{
"text": "exactly as each point in space\nis nothing, space disappears.",
"timestamp": [
1850.16,
1854.03
]
},
{
"text": "- It will always be there.",
"timestamp": [
1854.03,
1854.91
]
},
{
"text": "- Yeah, the idea that\nsomething is irretrievable",
"timestamp": [
1854.91,
1858.11
]
},
{
"text": "maybe is an accident, and we go back again",
"timestamp": [
1858.11,
1860.54
]
},
{
"text": "to all the initial conditions\nin which we started.",
"timestamp": [
1860.54,
1865.07
]
},
{
"text": "- Absolutely.",
"timestamp": [
1865.07,
1865.99
]
},
{
"text": "[gentle music]",
"timestamp": [
1865.99,
1868.31
]
},
{
"text": "From this discussion of time,",
"timestamp": [
1868.31,
1870.47
]
},
{
"text": "I hope that you have\nappreciated the subtlety",
"timestamp": [
1870.47,
1874.13
]
},
{
"text": "and the richness of this\nquality of the world",
"timestamp": [
1874.13,
1876.92
]
},
{
"text": "that we experience all the time.",
"timestamp": [
1876.92,
1880.13
]
},
{
"text": "Thanks so much for watching.",
"timestamp": [
1880.13,
1881.543
]
}
] |
[
[
"no_chapters",
""
]
] |
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