Propolis is a resinous substance from the beehive that has powerful antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and antioxidant properties. It is also known to have hepatoprotective and immunomodulating properties.
Several studies demonstrated that Brazilian propolis exerted antimicrobial activity and could reduce the symptoms of allergic rhinitis (nose itching, purulence, sneezing). In diabetic rats, ethanol extract of propolis reduced blood glucose levels and insulin resistance.
The antimicrobial properties of propolis are mainly due to the fact that it contains flavonoids and phenolic compounds, which inhibit bacteria from adhering to the surface of host cells, and interfere with enzymes required for their growth, metabolism and invasion. Propolis has been shown to be effective against many microorganisms, including some pathogens that cause inflammatory diseases in humans such as Candida albicans and Aspergillus flavus.
In addition, the phenolic constituents in propolis interfere with bacterial protein function, thus causing the death of the bacterium. The mode of action of propolis against microorganisms is complex and involves several mechanisms, such as reducing the negative surface charge of the microorganism, increasing permeability of the cell membrane, disrupting the potential energy of the bacterial cell, impairing adenosine triphosphate production and lowering the cellular mobility .
It has been shown that propolis has antimicrobial and antifungal activity in vitro. However, the exact mechanism of this action is not fully understood and may depend on several factors, such as (a) geographic origin, since different propolis samples possess a range of bioactivity; (b) strain, since the antimicrobial effect is strongly dependent on the strain; and (c) the protocol used to assess in vitro bioactivity, since the solubility of phenolic compounds can vary with the method of preparation.
Studies using disc diffusion and agar-well diffusion methods, have shown that the ethanol extract of Al-Museiab propolis has high bactericidal activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes and Helicobacter pylori. However, the activity of this EEMP is reduced against Staphylococcus epidermidis and Candida albicans. In contrast, the ethanol extract of the propolis from Turkey, Taiwan and Oman exhibited the highest activity against these strains.
Studies have shown that propolis has antifungal properties and enhances the efficacy of some conventional medicines. Its antifungal activity is attributed to its complex chemical composition. The most studied components include flavonoids and phenolic acids. Propolis is also rich in terpenes. The presence of these compounds promotes wound healing and prevents infection. It also reduces the activity of free radicals, which protects against oxidative damage to the cells.
It has been demonstrated that a water-soluble derivative (WSD) of propolis increases resistance to experimental bacterial (Klebsiella pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus) and fungal (Candida albicans) infections in mice. The WSD also stimulates peritoneal macrophage proliferation and interleukin 1 secretion. The cytotoxicity of the WSD is associated with its ability to reduce the positive charge on the surface of bacteria, promoting membrane permeability and interfering with ATP production.
The physicochemical properties of propolis differ depending on botanical origin, season of collection, and flora. Ethanol extracts from green propolis show higher polar and nonpolar chemical compositions than hexane extracts. Ethanol is also a more efficient solvent than water for dissolving propolis. In addition to the aforementioned properties, propolis is an antioxidant and possesses antiviral activities. Its antioxidant properties are due to the presence of phenolic and flavonoid compounds. Propolis also possesses hepatoprotective properties, which are attributed to the presence of polyphenols and other bioactive substances.
The hepatoprotective action of propolis is mediated by the inhibition of oxidative stress on liver cells. Oxidative stress is a major cause of cell damage in many diseases, including cardiovascular disease, arthritis, cancer, and aging. Propolis is also an antifungal, and it inhibits the growth of fungi such as Trichophyton, Mycrosporum, and Candida albicans. It also has a direct effect on the cells of these organisms and reduces their ability to form a biofilm.
Propolis has antiviral properties and can be used to treat viral infections. It may protect against rotavirus, influenza virus, human respiratory syncytial and coronaviruses, and herpes simplex viruses . In addition to its antimicrobial, antifungal, and antioxidant activities, propolis can also help stimulate the immune system and prevent inflammation.
The antiviral effect of propolis is mediated by its ability to mask the viral compounds required for viral entry into host cells. Propolis inhibits viral polymerase activity and prevents the binding of virus nucleic acid and capsid proteins to cellular receptors. It also interferes with the process of herpes viral adsorption to host cell surface.
Moreover, the antiviral properties of propolis are mediated by its terpenes. Various studies have demonstrated that certain diterpenes in propolis exhibit significant antiviral activity. For example, one study reported that the ethanolic extracts of Brazilian propolis contain daucane diterpene esters of hydroxybenzoic acids that exhibit high antiviral activity. This property is attributed to the ability of these terpenes to scavenge DPPH and ABTS free radicals.
Another study of 13 ethanolic extracts of South Brazilian propolis showed that they had significant anti-influenza virus activity in vitro. The extracts also protected MDBK cells from infection by pseudo rabies virus. This effect was attributed to the ability of propolis extracts to form an electron-dense layer on host cell surface, masking the viral nucleic acid or proteins required for viral entry into host cells.
A 2020 study published in the journal Phytotherapy Research found that propolis improves the balance of bacteria and yeast in the gut microbiome, which helps prevent leaky gut and other digestive problems. It also strengthens the mucosal barrier of the gastrointestinal tract to let nutrients in but not toxins or food proteins.
The use of propolis is gaining popularity in the health industry due to its anti-cancer properties. It also has a wide range of other benefits including the inhibition of cancer progression, mitigation of parasitic-related symptoms, and improvement of the gut microbiome. Its efficacy as a natural medicine has been confirmed by several in vitro and in vivo studies. It is also a promising candidate for the development of novel drugs for treating various diseases and conditions.
The phenolic compounds in propolis have been found to have potent antitumor activity. Research has shown that these compounds inhibit the proliferation of tumor cells by targeting multiple pathways and causing metabolic interference. These compounds also induce apoptosis by modulating both the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways. Propolis can also be used in combination therapy with chemotherapy to treat certain cancers.
Propolis contains flavonoids that are known to be effective antioxidants and reduce the oxidative stress caused by chemotherapy drugs. In addition, the anti-inflammatory effects of propolis are also useful in reducing toxicity and improving survival. The hepatoprotective effect of propolis is also well documented. It has been found that the hepatoprotective properties of propolis are associated with its ability to inhibit the activities of serum transaminases.
In addition to its hepatoprotective effects, propolis is also used in the treatment of indicative vaginitis, such as bacterial vaginosis and vulvovaginal candidiasis. It has been shown that propolis strengthens the mucosal barrier in the gastrointestinal tract, which can prevent leaky gut syndrome. Additionally, it can help balance the bacteria in the gut microbiome and prevent the growth of pathogenic yeasts. In one study, researchers found that propolis significantly improved the balance of bacteria and yeasts in the intestine.
Propolis contains a large number of chemical compounds that have various biological effects, such as antimicrobial, antifungal and antiviral activities. It also has immunomodulatory and chemopreventive properties. These properties are due to its phenolic contents, including apigenin, caffeic acid and flavonoids. It has been shown to induce apoptosis in cancer cells, inhibit cell growth and inflammatory responses. It also has hepatoprotective effects.
Propolis can protect the liver against oxidative damage and prevent inflammation caused by drugs, such as acetaminophen (Tylenol). It may even help reverse damage already done to the liver. Propolis also has been used by beekeepers to treat wounds and injuries.
In a study by El-Mahalaway et al, propolis protected against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver damage in rats. The treatment of propolis resulted in a significant reduction in the levels of hepatic enzymes (alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase and total protein). Liver histology showed reduced hepatocellular injury and increased cellular viability in the treated group. Propolis also increased the antioxidant status in the hepatocytes of the treated group.
The hepatoprotective properties of propolis are related to its phenolic and flavonoid content, which are known to have high antioxidant activity. Polyphenols and apigenin have been found to suppress the secretion of inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-a and IL-6, in experimental models of acute hepatitis.
Another benefit of propolis is that it can reduce the symptoms of herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections, which are often referred to as cold sores or fever blisters. In one clinical trial, children who were given a propolis extract for the duration of a cold season had less severe symptoms than those who did not take the propolis extract.
Propolis ni dutu yenye utomvu inayotokana na kiota cha nyuki ambayo ina uwezo mkubwa wa kuzuia bakteria, kuua kuvu, kuua virusi, na kuzuia vimeng'enyaji vya kemikali. Pia inajulikana kuwa na mali hepatoprotective na immunomodulating. Uchunguzi kadhaa ulionyesha kwamba propolis ya Brazili ilikuwa na utendaji wa kupambana na vimelea na ingeweza kupunguza dalili za rhinitis ya mzio (kucheka pua, purulence, kupiga chafya). Katika panya wenye kisukari, dondoo la ethanoli la propolis lilipunguza viwango vya sukari ya damu na upinzani wa insulini. Propolis ina uwezo wa kuzuia bakteria kutoka kwa kuunganisha kwenye uso wa seli za mwenyeji na kuingilia enzymes zinazohitajika kwa ukuaji, kimetaboliki na uvamizi. Propolis imeonyeshwa kuwa na ufanisi dhidi ya viumbe vingi, ikiwa ni pamoja na baadhi ya vimelea vinavyosababisha magonjwa ya uchochezi kwa wanadamu kama vile Candida albicans na Aspergillus flavus. Kwa kuongezea, viungo vya phenolic katika propolis huingilia kazi ya protini ya bakteria, na hivyo kusababisha kifo cha bakteria. Mfumo wa propolis dhidi ya viumbe wadogo ni tata na inahusisha taratibu kadhaa, kama vile kupunguza malipo ya uso wa kiungo, kuongeza upenyezaji wa utando wa seli, kuvuruga nishati ya uwezekano wa seli ya bakteria, kudhoofisha uzalishaji wa adenosine triphosphate na kupunguza mwendo wa seli. Imeonyeshwa kwamba propolis ina utendaji wa kupambana na vimelea na kuua kuvu in vitro. Hata hivyo, utaratibu halisi wa hatua hii haijulikani kabisa na inaweza kutegemea mambo kadhaa, kama vile (a) asili ya kijiografia, kwani sampuli tofauti za propolis zina kiwango cha bioactivity; (b) strain, kwa sababu athari ya antimicrobial inategemea sana strain; na (c) itifaki inayotumiwa kutathmini bioactivity in vitro, kwa sababu solubility ya misombo ya phenolic inaweza kutofautiana na njia ya maandalizi. Utafiti uliofanywa kwa kutumia mbinu za kuenea kwa diski na kuenea kwa shimo la agar umeonyesha kuwa dondoo ya ethanol ya propolis ya Almusebib ina shughuli ya bactericidal dhidi ya Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes na Helicobacter pylori. Kwa upande mwingine, EMPP inaweza kuwa na athari kubwa kwa Staphylococcus epidermidis na Candida albicans. Kwa kulinganisha, dondoo ya ethanol ya propolis kutoka Uturuki, Taiwan na Oman ilionyesha shughuli ya juu zaidi dhidi ya aina hizi. Uchunguzi umeonyesha kwamba propolis ina uwezo wa kuzuia kuvu na huongeza ufanisi wa dawa fulani za kawaida. Utendaji wake wa kuzuia kuvu unahusianishwa na muundo wake tata wa kemikali. Sehemu zilizochunguzwa zaidi zinatia ndani flavonoidi na asidi za phenolic. Pia, mimea hiyo ina terpenes nyingi. Kuwepo kwa misombo hiyo huchochea uponyaji wa majeraha na kuzuia maambukizo. Pia hupunguza utendaji wa free radicals, ambayo hulinda dhidi ya uharibifu wa oxidative kwa seli. Inasemekana kwamba WSD (Water-soluble derivative) ya propolis huongeza upinzani kwa maambukizi ya bakteria (Klebsiella pneumoniae na Staphylococcus aureus) na fungi (Candida albicans) katika panya. WSD pia huchochea kuenea kwa peritoneal macrophage na interleukin 1 secretion. Cytotoxicity ya WSD inahusishwa na uwezo wake wa kupunguza malipo mazuri kwenye uso wa bakteria, kukuza upenyezaji wa utando na kuingilia uzalishaji wa ATP. Sifa za kimwili na za kemikali za propolis hutofautiana ikitegemea asili ya mimea, msimu wa kukusanya, na mimea. Ethanol extracts kutoka propolis kijani kuonyesha juu polar na nonpolar kemikali muundo kuliko hexane extracts. Ethanol pia ni mumunyifu mzuri zaidi kuliko maji kwa ajili ya kuyeyuka propolis. Mbali na sifa zilizotajwa hapo juu, propolis ni antioxidant na ina shughuli za kupambana na virusi. Sifa zake za antioxidant zinatokana na uwepo wa misombo ya phenolic na flavonoid. Propolis pia ina mali hepatoprotective, ambayo ni kuhusishwa na uwepo wa polyphenols na vitu vingine bioactive. Utendaji wa kulinda ini wa propolis unasimamiwa na kuzuia mkazo wa oxidative kwenye seli za ini. Mkazo wa oksidi ni kisababishi kikuu cha uharibifu wa chembe katika magonjwa mengi, kutia ndani magonjwa ya moyo, ugonjwa wa viungo vya mwili, kansa, na kuzeeka. Propolis pia ni dawa ya kuua kuvu, na huzuia ukuzi wa kuvu kama vile Trichophyton, Mycrosporum, na Candida albicans. Pia ina athari ya moja kwa moja kwenye chembe za viumbe hawa na hupunguza uwezo wao wa kuunda biofilm. Propolis ina uwezo wa kuzuia virusi na inaweza kutumiwa kutibu maambukizo ya virusi. Inaweza kulinda dhidi ya rotavirus, virusi vya mafua, virusi vya kupumua vya binadamu na virusi vya coronavirus, na virusi vya herpes simplex. Mbali na uwezo wake wa kuzuia vimelea, kuua kuvu, na kuzuia vimelea, propolis inaweza pia kusaidia kuchochea mfumo wa kinga na kuzuia uvimbe. Athari ya antiviral ya propolis ni mediated na uwezo wake wa kuficha misombo ya virusi required kwa ajili ya kuingia virusi katika chembe mwenyeji. Propolis huzuia shughuli ya polymerase ya virusi na huzuia kuunganishwa kwa asidi ya nucleic ya virusi na protini za capsid kwa vipokezi vya seli. Pia huingilia mchakato wa kuingizwa kwa virusi vya herpes kwenye uso wa chembe za mwenyeji. Isitoshe, uwezo wa propolis wa kuzuia virusi unatokana na terpenes zake. Uchunguzi mbalimbali umeonyesha kwamba diterpenes fulani katika propolis zina utendaji mkubwa wa kupambana na virusi. Kwa mfano, utafiti mmoja uliripoti kwamba dondoo za ethanolic za propolis ya Brazil zina esters za diterpene za daucane za asidi ya hydroxybenzoic ambazo zinaonyesha shughuli ya juu ya antiviral. Uwezo wa terpenes ni kuondoa DPPH na ABTS huru radicals. Uchunguzi mwingine uliofanywa kwenye vipande 13 vya ethanol kutoka kwa propolis ya Kusini mwa Brazil ulionyesha kuwa vilikuwa na shughuli kubwa ya kupambana na virusi vya mafua. Vichipukizi pia vililinda chembe za MDBK kutokana na maambukizi ya virusi vya ugonjwa wa rabies bandia. Matokeo haya yalitokana na uwezo wa vipande vya propolis kuunda safu ya umeme kwenye uso wa seli ya mwenyeji, kufunika asidi ya nyuklia ya virusi au protini zinazohitajika kwa kuingia kwa virusi katika seli za mwenyeji. Utafiti uliochapishwa katika jarida la Phytotherapy Research uligundua kwamba propolis inaboresha usawa wa bakteria na chachu katika microbiome ya matumbo, ambayo husaidia kuzuia matumbo ya kuvuja na matatizo mengine ya kumeng'enya. Pia huimarisha kizuizi cha utando wa tumbo ili kuruhusu virutubisho kuingia lakini si sumu au protini za chakula. Matumizi ya propolis ni kupata umaarufu katika sekta ya afya kutokana na mali yake ya kupambana na kansa. Pia ina faida nyingi, ikiwa ni pamoja na kuzuia maendeleo ya saratani, kupunguza dalili zinazohusiana na vimelea, na kuboresha microbiome ya matumbo. Ufanisi wake kama dawa ya asili umethibitishwa na masomo kadhaa ya in vitro na in vivo. Pia ni mgombea mwenye matumaini kwa ajili ya maendeleo ya dawa mpya kwa ajili ya kutibu magonjwa mbalimbali na hali. Vifaa vya phenolic katika propolis vimegunduliwa kuwa na utendaji wenye nguvu wa kupambana na uvimbe. Utafiti umeonyesha kwamba misombo hii huzuia kuenea kwa seli za uvimbe kwa kulenga njia nyingi na kusababisha kuingiliana kwa kimetaboliki. Misombo hii pia husababisha apoptosis kwa kurekebisha njia zote mbili za apoptotic za nje na za ndani. Propolis pia yaweza kutumiwa katika tiba ya kuchanganya na tiba ya kemikali kutibu kansa fulani. Propolis ina flavonoids ambayo ni inayojulikana kuwa antioxidants ufanisi na kupunguza mkazo oxidative unasababishwa na dawa za chemotherapy. Kwa kuongezea, athari za kupambana na uvimbe za propolis pia ni muhimu katika kupunguza sumu na kuboresha kuishi. Athari ya kuhifadhi ini ya propolis pia imethibitishwa vizuri. Imethibitishwa kwamba mali ya hepatoprotective ya propolis inahusiana na uwezo wake wa kuzuia shughuli za transaminases serum. Pamoja na athari zake za kulinda ini, propolis pia hutumiwa katika matibabu ya vaginitis ya kiashiria, kama vile vaginosis ya bakteria na candidiasis ya vulvovaginal. Propolis inaimarisha kizuizi cha utando katika mfumo wa tumbo, na kuzuia ugonjwa wa utumbo unaovunjika. Kwa kuongezea, inaweza kusaidia kusawazisha bakteria katika microbiome ya matumbo na kuzuia ukuaji wa chachu za ugonjwa. Katika utafiti mmoja, watafiti waligundua kwamba propolis iliboresha sana usawa wa bakteria na chachu katika matumbo. Propolis ina idadi kubwa ya kemikali ambayo ina athari mbalimbali za kibiolojia, kama vile antimicrobial, antifungal na antiviral shughuli. Pia ina uwezo wa kupunguza kinga na kuzuia kemikali. Sifa hizi ni kutokana na maudhui yake phenolic, ikiwa ni pamoja na apigenin, asidi caffeic na flavonoids. Imeonyeshwa kusababisha apoptosis katika chembe za kansa, kuzuia ukuaji wa chembe na majibu ya uchochezi. Pia ina athari za kulinda ini. Propolis inaweza kulinda ini dhidi ya uharibifu wa oxidative na kuzuia uvimbe unaosababishwa na dawa, kama vile acetaminophen (Tylenol). Inaweza hata kusaidia kurekebisha uharibifu ambao tayari umefanywa kwenye ini. Pia, wafugaji wa nyuki wametumia propolis kutibu majeraha. Katika utafiti uliofanywa na El-Mahalaway et al, propolis ililinda dhidi ya uharibifu wa ini unaosababishwa na kaboni tetrachloride (CCl4) katika panya. Matibabu ya propolis yalisababisha kupungua kwa kiasi kikubwa kwa viwango vya enzymes za ini (alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase na protini ya jumla). Histolojia ya ini ilionyesha kupunguzwa kwa uharibifu wa seli za ini na kuongezeka kwa uwezo wa kuishi wa seli katika kikundi kilichotumiwa. Propolis pia iliongeza hali ya antioxidant katika hepatocytes ya kundi lililotibiwa. Propolis ina uwezo wa kulinda ini kutokana na phenolic na flavonoid, ambayo ni maarufu kwa kuwa na shughuli ya juu ya antioxidant. Polyphenols na apigenin zimepatikana kuzuia secretion ya cytokines ya uchochezi, kama vile TNF-a na IL-6, katika mifano ya majaribio ya hepatitis kali. Faida nyingine ya propolis ni kwamba inaweza kupunguza dalili za maambukizi ya herpes simplex (HSV), ambayo mara nyingi huitwa majeraha ya baridi au mabomoko ya homa. Katika majaribio ya kliniki, watoto waliopewa dondoo ya propolis kwa muda wa msimu wa baridi walikuwa na dalili mbaya zaidi kuliko wale ambao hawakupata dondoo ya propolis.