Azerbaijan, landlocked country of eastern Transcaucasia. Occupying an area that fringes the southern flanks of the Caucasus Mountains, it is bounded on the north by Russia, on the east by the Caspian Sea, on the south by Iran, on the west by Armenia, and on the northwest by Georgia. The exclave of Naxçıvan (Nakhichevan) is located southwest of Azerbaijan proper, bounded by Armenia, Iran, and Turkey. Azerbaijan includes within its borders the predominantly Armenian enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh, which from 1988 was the focus of intense conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia. The capital of Azerbaijan is the ancient city of Baku (Bakı), whose harbour is the best on the Caspian Sea.
In addition to its variegated and often beautiful terrain, Azerbaijan offers a blend of traditions and modern development. The people of its remoter areas retain many distinctive folk traditions, but the lives of its inhabitants have been much influenced by accelerating modernization, characterized by industrialization, the development of power resources, and the growth of the cities, in which more than half the people now live. Industry dominates the economy, and more-diversified pursuits have supplemented the exploitation of oil, of which Azerbaijan was the world’s leading producer at the beginning of the 20th century. Fine horses and caviar continue as some of the more distinctive traditional exports of the republic.
Azerbaijan was an independent nation from 1918 to 1920 but was then incorporated into the Soviet Union. It became a constituent (union) republic in 1936. Azerbaijan declared sovereignty on September 23, 1989, and independence on August 30, 1991.
Relief, drainage, and soils
As a result of its broken relief, drainage patterns, climatic differences, and sharply defined altitudinal zoning of vegetation, Azerbaijan is characterized by a wide variety of landscapes. More than two-fifths of its territory is taken up by lowlands, about half lies at 1,300 to 4,900 feet (400 to 1,500 metres), and areas above 4,900 feet occupy a little more than one-tenth of the total area.
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The highest peaks are Bazardyuzyu (Bazardüzü; 14,652 feet [4,466 metres]), Shakhdag, and Tufan, all part of the Greater Caucasus range, the crest of which forms part of Azerbaijan’s northern boundary. Magnificent spurs and ridges, cut into by the deep gorges of mountain streams, make this part of Azerbaijan a region of great natural beauty. At the same time, it lies within a region characterized by a high degree of seismic activity.
The spurs of the Lesser Caucasus, in southwestern Azerbaijan, form the second important mountain system, which includes the Shakhdag, Murovdag, and Zangezur ranges, their summits rising to nearly 13,000 feet, and also the Karabakh Upland. The large and scenic Lake Geygyol lies at an altitude of 5,138 feet.
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The southeastern part of Azerbaijan is bordered by the Talish (Talysh) Mountains, consisting of three longitudinal ranges, with Mount Kyumyurkyoy as the highest peak (8,176 feet), and the Länkäran Lowland, along the Caspian coast. This lowland, an extension of the Kura-Aras Lowland, reaches the Iranian border near Astara.
The Kura-Aras Lowland is named for the main river, the Kura (Kür), and its tributary the Aras (Araz). The Shirvan, Milskaya, and Mugan plains are part of this lowland and have similar soils and climate. Gray soils and saline solonchaks (aridisols) and, in higher regions, gray alkaline solonetz and chestnut soils (mollisols) prevail.
A well-developed network of canals between the Kura and Aras rivers makes it possible to irrigate a major part of the lowland. The Upper Karabakh Canal, 107 miles (172 kilometres) long, provides a vital link between the Aras River and the Mingäçevir Reservoir on the Kura River. The reservoir has a surface area of 234 square miles and a maximum depth of 246 feet. The Upper Karabakh Canal alone irrigates more than 250,000 acres (100,000 hectares) of fertile land and in addition supplies the Aras River with water during dry summer periods. The Upper Shirvan Canal, the second most important canal, is 76 miles in length and also irrigates about 250,000 acres.
The dry subtropical climate of central and eastern Azerbaijan is characterized by a mild winter and a long (four to five months) and very hot summer, with temperatures averaging about 81 °F (27 °C) and maximum temperatures reaching 109 °F (43 °C).
Southeastern Azerbaijan is characterized by a humid subtropical climate with the highest precipitation in the country, some 47 to 55 inches (1,200 to 1,400 millimetres) a year, most of it falling in the cold months.
A dry continental climate, with a cold winter and a dry, hot summer, prevails in Naxçıvan at altitudes of 2,300 to 3,300 feet. Moderately warm, dry, or humid types of climate are to be found in other parts of Azerbaijan. The mountain forest zone has a moderately cold climate, while an upland tundra climate characterizes elevations of 10,000 feet and above. Frosts and heavy snowfalls make the passes at such altitudes inaccessible for three or four months of the year.
Plant and animal life
Natural vegetation zones vary according to altitude. Steppe and semidesert conditions prevail in the lowlands and the foothills of the mountain regions. The slopes of the mountains are covered with beech, oak, and pine forests. Higher up there is a zone of alpine meadows. The Länkäran region of southern Azerbaijan has evergreen vegetation and thick beech and oak forests.
In the lowlands the animal life includes gazelles, jackals, and hyenas as well as reptile and rodent species. The mountain regions are inhabited by Caucasian deer, roe deer, wild boar, brown bear, lynx, European bison (wisent), chamois, and leopard, though the latter is rare. Mild winters draw many birds to the Caspian coast, and nature reserves provide a resting home for flamingos, swans, pelicans, herons, egrets, sandpipers, and partridges.
People of Azerbaijan
Turkic-speaking Azerbaijanis (Azeris) make up some nine-tenths of the country’s population; the remaining population comprises only small concentrations of minorities—among them, Lezgians (who speak a Caucasian language), Russians, and Armenians. Ethnic Azerbaijanis combine in themselves the dominant Turkic strain, which arrived in Azerbaijan especially during the Oghuz Seljuq migrations of the 11th century, with mixtures of older inhabitants—Iranians and others—who had lived in Transcaucasia since ancient times. At the end of the 20th century, about 13 million Azerbaijanis lived abroad, most of them in Iran.
At the beginning of the 21st century, the population of the Azerbaijani exclave of Naxçıvan (lying wholly within Armenia) was almost entirely ethnic Azerbaijani, whereas the enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh (lying wholly within Azerbaijan) was predominantly ethnic Armenian. In the Soviet era there were several disagreements regarding the status of the two territories’ placement. After a number of reversals, the Soviet government provided that Naxçıvan was to be recognized as an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (A.S.S.R.) with close ties to Azerbaijan, while Karabakh was to remain within the Azerbaijan S.S.R. but with significant autonomy. In the early 1920s the region, including its mountainous zone, was confirmed as the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast.
Slightly more than half the population lives in urban areas. The most densely populated region is the Abşeron Peninsula, on the western coast of the Caspian Sea. Baku, Azerbaijan’s largest city and the most important industrial city in Transcaucasia, is located on this peninsula, as are other industrial towns, including Sumqayıt. Baku is a large and attractive city situated on natural terraces running down to a gulf of the Caspian Sea. The city has a 2-mile- (3.2-kilometre-) long picturesque boulevard and many historic sites.
Other areas of dense population occur in certain lowland and foothill regions. Gäncä is the second largest town and the main urban centre of the interior.
The highest density of rural population is found in Länkäran and Masallı in the southeast. The Talysh, or Talishi—Iranian people who form the bulk of the local population—have preserved many of their old customs and traditions.
In the late 1980s sizable Azerbaijani and Armenian populations were driven from each other’s countries as a result of ethnic conflict and disputes over the Nagorno-Karabakh region. In addition, full-scale combat in the early 1990s, as well as territorial expansion by the ethnic Armenians within Azerbaijan, resulted in the displacement of a significant number of Azerbaijanis. Conflict between Armenians and Azerbaijanis over Nagorno-Karabakh, which persisted into the 21st century, was complicated by an official declaration of independence by the Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh in 1992 (a claim that failed to gain recognition from the international community).
The Azerbaijani language is a member of the West Oghuz group of the southwestern (Oghuz) branch of the Turkic languages. The literary tradition dates to the 15th century. The Arabic script was used until the 20th century; the Cyrillic alphabet was introduced in 1939. In 1992 the Azerbaijani government switched from the Cyrillic to the Roman alphabet as its official orthography.
Azerbaijan is a predominantly Muslim country; more than three-fifths of the population is Shiʿi, and about one-third is Sunni. Members of the Russian Orthodox or Armenian Orthodox Church constitute a very small percentage of the population.
Azerbaijan has a growing and youthful population. The birth and death rates of Azerbaijan are both slightly below the global average. Life expectancy is about the same as the global average, however, about 73 years of age. More than one-fifth of the population is under 15, while approximately half the population is under 30.
Azerbaijan is a developed industrial and agrarian country. The emphasis on heavy industry has considerably expanded two traditional industries—petroleum and natural gas—but engineering, light industry, and food production are also of growing importance.
In the early 1990s Azerbaijan began a transition to a market economy. Prices of most goods were liberalized, and some state-owned enterprises were privatized. Land privatization, however, proceeded slowly.
At the beginning of the 20th century Azerbaijan was the world’s leading petroleum producer, and it was also the birthplace of the oil-refining industry. In 1901, for example, Azerbaijan produced 11.4 million tons of oil, more than the United States; it accounted for more than half of world production. As the 20th century progressed, however, Azerbaijan’s role in oil production decreased as the industry developed in other regions of the U.S.S.R. and elsewhere in the world.
During the 1990s exploitation of the vast oil fields under the Caspian Sea was complicated by political instability in Azerbaijan, ethnic conflict throughout the region, Russian claims on the Caspian fields, and disputes over the location of new pipelines.
Azerbaijan has other natural resources, including natural gas, iodobromide waters, lead, zinc, iron, and copper ores, nepheline syenites utilized in the production of aluminum, common salt, and a great variety of building materials, including marl, limestone, and marble.
Azerbaijan’s agriculture developed considerably in the latter part of the 20th century. Almost half of the country’s total area is suitable for agriculture, and some two-fifths of this is under cultivation.
Grain is the leading agricultural product, with raw cotton the second most valuable crop. Favourable conditions for grapes have contributed to the development of viticulture. Most of the grape varieties grown in Azerbaijan are used for making wine, almost all of which is exported. Other crops include vegetables (particularly early varieties), fruits, walnuts, and hazelnuts. Some districts, particularly those around the cities of Şäki, Zaqatala, and Göyçay, are—as they have been traditionally—engaged in silkworm breeding.
High commodity output is not characteristic of Azerbaijan’s animal husbandry.
Azerbaijani fisheries are of particular importance because of the sturgeon of the Caspian Sea; sturgeon roe is made into internationally renowned caviar. Sturgeon stocks are being depleted, however, as a result of pollution of Caspian waters.
Azerbaijan has a diversified industrial base, with the leading branches of heavy industry—power, manufacturing, and chemical production—predominating. Branches of the processing industry, producing mineral fertilizers, gasoline, kerosene, herbicides, industrial oils, synthetic rubber, and plastics, have developed, and Sumqayıt has emerged as the major centre of this industry, as well as of ferrous metallurgy.
The country’s manufacturing industries have grown considerably in the late 20th century. Azerbaijan manufactures equipment for the oil and gas industry, electrical equipment of all kinds, and many appliances and instruments. This type of industry is located mostly in Baku, Gäncä, and Mingäçevir.
Light industrial manufactures include cotton and woolen textiles, knitwear, traditional household items and souvenirs, footwear, and other consumer goods. Şäki, Xankändi, Gäncä, Mingäçevir, and Baku are the main centres of this industry. Food-processing plants are distributed fairly evenly throughout the republic.
The development of Azerbaijan’s industry created a demand for fuel and power supplies. All electricity is produced at thermoelectric power stations burning fossil fuels, which have been built throughout the country.
Trade of Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan exports chemicals, machinery, food (particularly grapes and other fruits and vegetables), beverages, petroleum and natural gas, iron and steel, nonferrous metals, and other products; its imports include iron and steel, machinery, and food and beverages, particularly meat and milk. Azerbaijan’s primary trading partners are Russia, Turkey, China, and Italy; the country also has trade links with Georgia, Belarus, Britain, Israel, and the Central Asian republics. Azerbaijan has no trade with Armenia because of the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh.
Few of the rivers of Azerbaijan are navigable, and most freight—including that transported out of the country—is carried by rail and truck. Considerable portions of the rail network are electrified. The principal goods carried are oil products, building materials, timber, and grain. A major railway line traverses the Kura valley and connects Baku with Tbilisi and Batumi in Georgia. Another parallels the Caspian Sea north of Baku.
Motor transport is used extensively for both freight and passengers. Roads connect various parts of the country and are often the only means of land communication between remote mountain districts and the administrative centres and large cities.
Baku, on the Caspian, is a busy seaport, handling such goods as oil, timber, grain, and cotton. The ferry link between Baku and Turkmenbashi (also on the Caspian, in Turkmenistan) augments considerably the amount of cargo passing through Azerbaijan. Air routes connect Baku with many European and Asian cities. Britannica QuizWhich Country Is Larger By Population? Quiz
The Abşeron region includes the Abşeron Peninsula and several other areas of eastern Azerbaijan. As a result of its advantageous geographic position, it is crossed by freight routes connecting Azerbaijan and the whole of Transcaucasia with the North Caucasus and Central Asia. Highways run from the peninsula to every corner of the republic.
Although it is on the shores of the Caspian Sea, the Abşeron region nevertheless remains one of the most arid parts of Azerbaijan. Its main natural wealth is mineral, including oil, natural gas, iodobromide waters, and limestone used in building and cement production. Baku owes its modern growth to the development of the oil industry; oil derricks encircle the city, and the oil refineries and processing plants attract workers from many areas. Modern Sumqayıt, 22 miles (35 kilometres) northwest of Baku, is currently a centre of the iron and steel, nonferrous metallurgical, and chemical industries, although the development of light engineering is envisaged.
A tea plantation in the Länkäran region of southern Azerbaijan.
The Länkäran region of southern Azerbaijan is well endowed by nature; warm-climate crops, such as tea, feijoa (a fruit-bearing shrub), rice, grapes, tobacco, and citrus trees, flourish there. The region also produces spring and winter vegetables. The towns of Länkäran, Astara, and Masallı are small, and local industry is mostly concerned with the processing of agricultural goods, while in the mountains the Talysh people make colourful rugs and carpets.
The Quba-Xaçmaz region lies to the north of Abşeron. Its coastal lowlands specialize in grain and vegetable production, while vast orchards surround the towns of Quba and Qusar. The mountain slopes are used for grazing. Special breeds of sheep are raised; their skins are used in the local fur industry.
The Shirvan region, an industrially and agriculturally developed part of Azerbaijan, is centred on the Shirvan Plain. The Mingäçevir hydroelectric station is located there. The area also has a well-developed network of roads. Industry is generally engaged in the processing of such agricultural products as cotton, grapes, and fruit. The most important vineyards lie in the vicinity of Şamaxı, a town famed for its wines, notably Matrasa and Shemakha, which are, respectively, dry red and sweet. In Kürdämir a fragrant dessert wine is produced. The best varieties of pomegranates are grown near Göyçay.
The Mugano-Salyan region, lying south of the Kura River and within the boundaries of the Mili and Mugan plains, specializes in cotton growing (under irrigation), producing about seven-tenths of the gross cotton output of Azerbaijan. Cotton-ginning plants are located in Bärdä, Salyan, and Äli-Bayramlı, all of which, in addition to being on the Kura River, have the advantage of being located on railways and motor roads. A thermal power station stands near Äli-Bayramlı.
The southwestern region includes Nagorno-Karabakh and the Laçin, Füzuli, and Qubadlı administrative districts. Because the average altitude is 4,900 feet, it is one of the areas in the country where broken relief impedes the development of transport, industry, and agriculture. Agricultural production is concentrated in the mountain valleys. Animal husbandry constitutes a large percentage of the gross agricultural output, the leading branches being sheep and pig raising. Grapes, tobacco, and grain are the main crops; wine-making, silk-making, and electrical engineering are the main industries.
The Gäncä-Qazax region is situated in the centre of Transcaucasia near the junction of Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia. The region has conditions favourable both for human life and for intensive agriculture. Trade routes have crossed this part of Azerbaijan from time immemorial, and the ancient town of Ganja (Gäncä) was founded here. It is an industrial centre, with food, engineering, chemical, and nonferrous metallurgical industries. Naftalan is a health resort.
The Şäki-Zaqatala region includes the towns of Şäki, Zaqatala, and Balakän. Its territory borders the Greater Caucasus range, which shelters it from cold northern winds. The numerous mountain rivers provide ample supplies of water, and the region is densely populated. Agricultural products include tobacco, aromatic plants (mint, basil, and roses), rice, corn (maize), and various fruits. The area is also a major producer of hazelnuts and walnuts.
Administration and social conditions
Azerbaijan’s 1978 Soviet-era constitution was subsequently revised or superseded by the 1991 Act of Independence and by presidential and parliamentary decree. In 1995 a new constitution was overwhelmingly approved by referendum. The constitution provides for a unicameral legislature, whose members are directly elected to five-year terms. The head of state is the president, who is also elected by direct universal suffrage to a term of seven years. A constitutional amendment that was passed in 2009 removed the presidency’s two-term limit.
Political parties include the New Azerbaijan Party (founded by former president Heydar Aliyev), the pro-Turkish, nationalist Azerbaijan Popular Front, the New Equality Party (Musavat), the Azerbaijan Social Democratic Party, the Azerbaijan National Independence Party, and the Azerbaijan United Communist Party, which was founded after its predecessor was banned in 1991.
Armed forces and security
Azerbaijan formed a national military in 1991, including an army (consisting partly of personnel and matériel from the Soviet 4th Army), navy, and air force. Russian forces completed their withdrawal from Azerbaijan in 1993. Military service is voluntary; individuals are eligible to serve in the armed forces at 18 years of age, and service obligations last for 18 months (12 months for university graduates). The conflict with Armenia over Nagorno-Karabakh dominated Azerbaijani military planning during the 1990s.
The Ministry of Internal Affairs, which is responsible for internal security and general police work, was reorganized in 1993. Crime rates in Azerbaijan rose during the 1990s, exacerbated by the social dislocation that accompanied the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.
Education in Azerbaijan is compulsory between ages 6 and 17. Primary education begins at age 6; secondary education, which begins at age 10, consists of two cycles of five and two years, respectively. Azerbaijani is the primary language of instruction, although in higher education, some technical fields continue to favour Russian. In the Soviet period illiteracy was virtually eradicated, and a network of institutes of higher education, research centres, and similar bodies was established.
A number of universities and institutes of learning are located in Baku. Among these are the Azerbaijan State Economic University (founded in 1929), which includes faculties of commerce, finance, and management; the Azerbaijan State University of Languages (founded 1937; current name and status, 2000), which includes faculties of Russian, English, and French; the Azerbaijan State University of Culture and Fine Arts (founded 1945); the Azerbaijan Medical University (founded 1930), which includes faculties of dentistry, pediatrics, general medicine, and pharmacy; and the Azerbaijan Technical University (founded 1950), which offers study in areas that include machine sciences, metallurgy, radio engineering and communications, and transportation. The Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences (founded 1945), also located in Baku, coordinates the activities of research centres, including institutes of cybernetics, physics, theoretical problems of chemical technology, petrochemical processes, and genetics.
Health and welfare
Azerbaijan has a well-established health service with some specialized clinics and medical research institutes. Medical services, provided free to patients, are supported by general taxation on individual workers and by taxes on income of factories and other firms.
In the course of its long history, Azerbaijan has given the world a number of outstanding thinkers, poets, and scientists. Among the medieval scientists and philosophers, Abul Hasan Bakhmanyar (11th century), the author of numerous works on mathematics and philosophy, and Abul Hasan Shirvani (11th–12th centuries), the author of Astronomy, may be noted. The poet and philosopher Nẹzāmī, called Ganjavī after his place of birth, Ganja, was the author of Khamseh (“The Quintuplet”), composed of five romantic poems, including “The Treasure of Mysteries,” “Khosrow and Shīrīn,” and “Leyli and Mejnūn.”
The people of Azerbaijan have retained their ancient musical tradition. For example, the art of ashugs, who improvise songs to their own accompaniment on a stringed instrument called a kobuz, remains extremely popular. Mugams, vocal and instrumental compositions, are also widely known, the town of Shusha being particularly renowned for this art.
Azerbaijan’s cultural institutions, including museums, theatres, and public libraries, are located in Baku. Many of them were established after World War II. The city has museums devoted to the art, history, and literature of Azerbaijan. In Nagorno-Karabakh there is a museum with material on the history and archaeology of the Armenian people of the region.
The opera and ballet are widely attended. Some of Azerbaijan’s composers, notably Uzeir Hajjibekov (the operas Ker-Ogly and Leyli and Mejnūn and the operetta Arshin Mal ʾAlan) and Kara Karayev (the ballets Seven Beauties and The Path of Thunder), have international reputations. The latter’s symphonic music is also well known abroad.
Throughout the Soviet period Azerbaijani literature was controlled by a system that saw mortal danger in even a modicum of creative freedom. Azerbaijani writers and other intellectuals were closely supervised and subjected to varying degrees of persecution.
Azerbaijan has no private publishing; several government firms publish scientific books and magazines as well as books and magazines about art and literature in Azerbaijani, Russian, and other languages. In 1992 the Azerbaijani government switched from the Cyrillic to the Roman alphabet.
The magazines Literaturny Azerbaydzhan (in Russian), Azerbaijan Gadïnï (“Azerbaijan Woman,” in Azerbaijani), and Azerbaydzhanskoye neftyanoye khozyaystvo (“Azerbaijan Petroleum Economy,” in Russian) have the highest circulation.
In ancient and early medieval times, eastern Transcaucasia was populated by Iranian speakers, nomadic Turkic tribes, Kurds, and the Caucasian Albanians, who converted to Christianity in the 4th century and came under the cultural influence of the Armenians. After Arab incursions in the 7th century, Islamic polities were established under local rulers called shāhanshāhs. The Seljuq invasions in the 11th century changed the composition of the local population and resulted in the linguistic dominance of Oghuz Turkic languages. But, unlike the Ottoman Turks who came to dominate Anatolia, the Caucasian Muslims of Azerbaijan in the early 16th century became Shiʿi, rather than Sunni, Muslims, and they continued to develop under Persian social and cultural influence. Persian-ruled khanates in Shirvan (Şamaxı), Baku, Ganja (Gäncä), Karabakh, and Yerevan dominated this frontier of Ṣafavid Iran.
After a series of wars between the Russian Empire and Iran, the treaties of Golestān (Gulistan; 1813) and Turkmenchay (Torkmānchāy; 1828) established a new border between the empires. Russia acquired Baku, Shirvan, Ganja, Nakhichevan (Naxçıvan), and Yerevan. Henceforth the Azerbaijani Turks of Caucasia were separated from the majority of their linguistic and religious compatriots, who remained in Iran. Azerbaijanis on both sides of the border remained largely rural, though a small merchant class and working class appeared in the second half of the 19th century. As Baku became the major source of oil for Russia, tens of thousands of Iranian, Armenian, and Russian workers streamed to the Abşeron Peninsula in search of employment, and Russian economic and political influence could be felt in both parts of Azerbaijan. As the source of employment and the home of the nascent Azerbaijani intelligentsia and revolutionary movement, Baku radiated its influence in Iranian Azerbaijan as well as north of the Aras (Araz) River. No specifically Azerbaijani state existed before 1918, and, rather than seeing themselves as part of a continuous national tradition, like the Georgians and Armenians, the Muslims of Transcaucasia saw themselves as part of the larger Muslim world, the ummah. They were referred to as “Tatars” by the Russians; the ethnonym Azerbaijani (azarbayjanli) came into use in the prerevolutionary decades at first among urban nationalist intellectuals. Only in the Soviet period did it become the official and widely accepted name for this people.
Incorporation into the Russian Empire provided a new outlet for educated Azerbaijanis, some of whom turned from their religious upbringing to a more secular outlook. Prominent among the early scholars and publicists who began the study of the Azerbaijani language were ʿAbbās Qolī Āghā Bāqıkhānlı (Bakikhanov), who wrote poetry as well as histories of the region, and Mīrzā Fatḥ ʿAlī Ākhūndzādeh (Akhundov), author of the first Azerbaijani plays. Though eventually these figures would be incorporated into a national narrative as predecessors of the Turkic revival, a variety of conflicting impulses stimulated early Azerbaijani intellectuals—loyalty to the tsarist empire, the continuing influence of Persian culture, and a longing for Western learning. Although no single coherent ideology or movement characterized the Azerbaijani intelligentsia, by 1905 a growing number of writers and journalists adopted the program of the nationalist intellectual ʿAlī Bay Huseynzadeh: “Turkify, Islamicize, Europeanize” (“Turklashtirmak, Islamlashtirmak, Avrupalashtirmak”).
The town of Baku, which by 1901 produced more than half of the world’s output of petroleum, was complexly segregated, with Russians and Armenians in the central part of the town and Muslims clustered in distinct districts. As social resentments festered, particularly in times of political uncertainty, ethnic and religious differences defined the battle lines; bloody clashes between Azerbaijanis and local Armenians took place in 1905 and 1918. A hierarchy of skills, education, and wages placed Muslims on the bottom and Christians at the top. By virtue of a quota on non-Christian representation and a system of suffrage based on property holdings, the Baku city duma (legislative council) remained in the hands of wealthy Armenians and Russians. Azerbaijanis remained on the fringe of the labour movement and were indifferent to or ignorant of the aspirations of both their socialist and nationalist intellectuals. None of the small parties and political groups that arose after 1905 commanded much of a following beyond the intelligentsia, though Musavat (“Equality”), founded in 1911 and led by Mehmed Emin Rasulzadeh, proved most enduring. Anxiety about the Armenian “threat,” a perception of their own distance from and hostility to this privileged element within their midst, and a feeling that Azerbaijanis were connected in important ways to other Muslims, particularly Turks, became part of an Azerbaijani sense of self.
With the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Caucasian front during World War I (1914–18), Azerbaijani leaders joined Armenians and Georgians in a brief experiment in Transcaucasian autonomy (February to April 1918). An even briefer attempt at unity in an independent federative republic of Transcaucasia (April to May) fell apart, and finally three separate independent republics were established. Azerbaijan was declared an independent state on May 28, 1918, but Baku remained in the hands of a communist government, assisted by local Armenian soldiers, who had put down a Muslim revolt in March. Allied with the advancing Turkish army, in September 1918 the Azerbaijani nationalists secured their capital, Baku, and engaged in a massacre of the Armenians.
However, even as they secured control of Baku, the Azerbaijani nationalists were faced with a mixed population of Russian, Armenian, and Muslim workers who had undergone a long socialist and trade-unionist education. Among the peasantry on whom they depended, national consciousness was still largely absent, and the nationalists were never fully secure in Baku, where Bolshevism had deep roots. With the end of World War I, the Turks withdrew; they were replaced by the British, who remained until August 1919. The fragile republic received de facto recognition from the Allies on January 15, 1920, but when the Red Army marched into Baku in April 1920 there was little resistance.
The Soviet and post-Soviet periods
The Azerbaijani Soviet Socialist Republic lasted 71 years. It was part of the Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic from 1922 until 1936 and, like Georgia and Armenia, it experienced considerable economic development, urbanization, and industrialization. Although education in Azerbaijan was promoted and Azerbaijanis were placed in positions of power, the republic was tightly controlled by Moscow, especially during the years of Joseph Stalin’s rule (1928–53) when M.A. Bagirov headed the Azerbaijani Communist Party. Becoming a more urban, educated, and socially mobile society, Azerbaijan was divided between more traditional, underdeveloped rural areas and the cosmopolitan city of Baku. After the death of Stalin, the republic enjoyed somewhat greater autonomy, and the national political and intellectual elites flourished.
Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, dissolution of the Soviet Union, and presidency of Heydar Aliyev
When conflict with the Armenians of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region within Azerbaijan broke out in February 1988, these elites provided the leaders both for the oppositional Azerbaijan Popular Front and for their communist opponents. Violent protests and interethnic clashes targeting both Armenians and Azerbaijanis in the late 1980s, anti-Armenian pogroms in Sumgait in 1988 and in Baku in 1990, as well as continual warfare between the Azerbaijanis and the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh, led to military action by Moscow against the republic in January 1990. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union late the following year, the Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh was declared; following a referendum indicating popular support for independence, as well as an election in December, the republic’s independence was officially proclaimed in the first days of 1992, a move unrecognized by the international community. The full-scale conflict that exploded between the Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh and the Azerbaijanis shortly thereafter was finally halted by a 1994 cease-fire, which, though periodically violated, largely managed to hold.
The Communist Party of Azerbaijan retained its power until 1992. After the abortive coup against the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in Moscow in August 1991, Azerbaijan declared itself independent, and the head of the party, Ayaz Mutalibov, was elected its first president. In May 1992 the Azerbaijan Popular Front overthrew Mutalibov and forced new elections, in which its candidate, Abulfez Elchibey, emerged victorious on a platform of separating from the Commonwealth of Independent States and maintaining control over Nagorno-Karabakh. Elchibey was himself overthrown in June 1993 by Heydar Aliyev, a former KGB official and leader of the Azerbaijani Communist Party who had adopted the rhetoric of Azerbaijani nationalism.Ronald Grigor Suny
Over the next decade, the Aliyev government maintained control—reportedly through intimidation of the press and opposition groups and through manipulation of elections—but was unable to resolve the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh, despite numerous summit meetings between Aliyev and Armenian leaders. Complicating the discussions was the 1992 declaration of independence that had been issued by the self-proclaimed Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh. The enclave held periodic elections thereafter, the results of which were soundly rejected by Azerbaijan as illegal under international law. In addition, the fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh resulted in the displacement of substantial populations of both Armenians and Azerbaijanis, and, by the time of the 1994 cease-fire, the Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians had expanded their hold over Azerbaijani territory.
At the beginning of the 21st century, roughly one-seventh of Azerbaijan’s territory remained outside its control, and significant populations remained displaced, particularly in the case of the Azerbaijanis, many of whom also remained displaced internally. Tensions were further inflamed in the late 1990s by the appointment of a former president of Nagorno-Karabakh to the post of prime minister in Armenia; in Azerbaijan the move was largely viewed as a deliberate provocation, and talks were hampered further. Relations were also strained with Russia, which felt that the government in Azerbaijan was doing little to stop Chechen rebels from operating out of Azerbaijani territory.
Presidency of Ilham Aliyev
In the meantime, oil revenues in Azerbaijan began to soar, as new fields were discovered and new contracts were signed with Western companies for their exploitation. In 2003 the elderly Aliyev died and was succeeded by his son, Ilham, whom Aliyev had been grooming for succession. Scandalized by the apparent accession to power of a hereditary line, opposition political groups staged a series of violent protests that failed to keep the younger Aliyev from the presidency. During the course of his term, Aliyev directed income from the boom in Caspian oil in part toward developing Azerbaijani military capacity, which in 2006 was described as nearing the capability needed to challenge the forces in Nagorno-Karabakh. That same year, Nagorno-Karabakh passed a referendum approving a new constitution, and, in the year that followed, it held its fourth round of elections. Though leadership in the disputed region had hoped that such shows of democratic rule would support the territory’s claim to sovereignty, neither Azerbaijan nor the remainder of the international community recognized the region’s claims to independence. Efforts to resolve the conflict continued, and in November 2008 Aliyev signed an agreement with Armenian Pres. Serzh Sarkisyan that pledged to intensify the countries’ efforts to settle the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.
Aliyev secured election to a second term in the presidential vote of October 2008 amid an opposition boycott against the election’s restrictive measures. International observers indicated concerns that the proceedings were not sufficiently free and fair, partly because of media restrictions and a lack of robust competition. In early 2009 a series of constitutional amendments meant to consolidate Aliyev’s position were passed by referendum. Among their provisions were the removal of the two-term limit on the presidency, which would allow Aliyev to run for a third term in the coming years, as well as new restrictions on the media.
Aliyev won a third term as president in October 2013, taking nearly 85 percent of the vote, which the opposition decried as marred by fraud. The election took place amid an intensifying crackdown on independent media and political activity: in the months preceding and following the election there were numerous reports of journalists and activists being harassed, detained, and arrested.
The passage of a referendum on a package of constitutional amendments in September 2016 furthered the perception that Aliyev was seeking to tighten his own hold on power and install members of his family in senior positions in the government. One amendment lengthened the president’s term in office from five years to seven, and another created two vice presidential posts, to be filled by presidential appointees who would take over presidential powers, instead of the prime minister doing so, if the president became incapacitated. A third amendment, abolishing the minimum age for presidential candidates and lowering the age for candidates for the legislature, was seen by some as part of an effort to prepare a path into politics for Aliyev’s 19-year-old son. In 2017 Aliyev appointed his wife, Mehriban, to one of the newly created vice presidential posts. Aliyev was reelected to a fourth term in April 2018 in an election that, in spite of being boycotted by the main opposition parties, had a high turnout.
A new government in Armenia offered a fresh start in negotiations over Nagorno-Karabakh. A number of high-level meetings in early 2019 culminated in late March with a meeting between Aliyev and Armenian Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan, which the two parties deemed constructive.
Diplomacy broke down in 2020, however, and escalating tension led to renewed conflict. In September Nagorno-Karabakh saw its most intense and destructive fighting since the 1990s, fueled in part by support from Turkey to Azerbaijan. On November 9, the day after Azerbaijan captured the region’s secondlargest city, Shusha (Şuşa), Pashinyan agreed to a cease-fire deal that included the withdrawal of Armenian armed forces from the region. While Russian peacekeepers would guard much of Nagorno-Karabakh as part of the deal, Azerbaijan was given full control over the areas it captured during the conflict as well as the districts of Ağdam, Kälbäjär, and Laçin.
Azerbaijan, nchi isiyo na pwani ya mashariki mwa Transcaucasia. Mji huo una mipaka ya kaskazini na Urusi, mashariki na Bahari ya Caspian, kusini na Iran, magharibi na Armenia, na kaskazini magharibi na Georgia. Eneo la Naxçıvan (Nakhichevan) liko kusini magharibi mwa Azerbaijan, linazungukwa na Armenia, Iran, na Uturuki. Azerbaijan ina eneo la Nagorno-Karabakh, ambalo tangu mwaka 1988 limekuwa kitovu cha mzozo kati ya Armenia na Azerbaijan. Mji mkuu wa Azerbaijan ni mji wa kale wa Baku (Baku), ambao bandari yake ni bora juu ya Bahari ya Caspian. Mbali na eneo lake lenye rangi mbalimbali na mara nyingi lenye kupendeza, Azerbaijan inatoa mchanganyiko wa mapokeo na maendeleo ya kisasa. Watu wa maeneo yake ya mbali bado wana desturi nyingi za kipekee, lakini maisha ya wakazi wake yameathiriwa sana na maendeleo ya kisasa, ambayo yanajulikana kwa viwanda, maendeleo ya rasilimali za umeme, na ukuaji wa miji, ambayo zaidi ya nusu ya watu sasa wanaishi. Viwanda vimetawala uchumi, na shughuli nyingi za biashara zimeongeza uchimbaji wa mafuta, ambayo Azerbaijan ilikuwa mtayarishaji mkuu wa dunia mwanzoni mwa karne ya 20. Farasi wazuri na kaviar huendelea kuwa baadhi ya bidhaa za kuuza nje za jadi za jamhuri hiyo. Azerbaijan ilikuwa taifa huru kutoka 1918 hadi 1920, lakini baadaye iliingizwa katika Muungano wa Sovieti. Mwaka 1936 alijiunga na Jamhuri ya Muungano. Azerbaijan ilitangaza uhuru wake mnamo Septemba 23, 1989 na uhuru wake mnamo Agosti 30, 1991. Kwa sababu ya mazingira yake yaliyovunjika, mifumo ya mifereji, tofauti za hali ya hewa, na mgawanyiko wa mimea iliyofafanuliwa kwa ukali, Azerbaijan ina sifa ya aina mbalimbali za mandhari. Zaidi ya sehemu mbili za tano ya eneo lake ni chini ya ardhi, karibu nusu iko katika urefu wa mita 1,300 hadi 4,900, na maeneo juu ya mita 4,900 huchukua kidogo zaidi ya sehemu ya kumi ya eneo la jumla. "Hii ni kwa sababu ya ""Bazarduz"" (mzima wa 1445m), ""Shakhdag"" (mzima wa 1445m), na ""Tufan"" (mzima wa 1445m) ambao ni sehemu ya safu ya Caucasus ya Kubwa, ambayo ni sehemu ya mpaka wa kaskazini wa Azerbaijan." Matofali na miamba yenye kuvutia, iliyochongwa na mabonde ya kina kirefu ya vijito vya milimani, hufanya sehemu hii ya Azerbaijan iwe eneo lenye uzuri mkubwa wa asili. Wakati huohuo, iko ndani ya eneo lenye kiwango cha juu cha utendaji wa matetemeko ya ardhi. Milima ya Kaukasus Ndogo, kusini magharibi mwa Azerbaijan, hufanyiza mfumo wa pili muhimu wa milima, ambayo inajumuisha safu za Shakhdag, Murovdag, na Zangezur, ambazo vilele vyao vinainuka hadi karibu mita 13,000, na pia Karabakh Upland. Ziwa Geygol ni ziwa kubwa lenye mandhari nzuri na liko kwenye urefu wa meta 5,138. Kupata Britannica Premium usajili na kupata upatikanaji wa maudhui ya kipekee. Sehemu ya kusini-mashariki ya Azerbaijan imepakana na Milima ya Talysh, inayojumuisha safu tatu za urefu, na Mlima Kyumyursky kama kilele cha juu zaidi (futi 8,176) na Lankaran Lowland, kando ya pwani ya Caspian. Eneo hili la chini, ambalo ni sehemu ya eneo la chini la Kura-Aras, hufikia mpaka wa Iran karibu na Astara. Eneo la chini la Kura-Aras limepewa jina kutokana na mto mkuu, Kura (Kür), na kijito chake Aras (Araz). Nyanda za Shirvan, Milskaya, na Mugan ni sehemu ya eneo hilo la chini na zina udongo na hali ya hewa inayofanana. Udongo wa kijivu na solonchaks ya chumvi (aridisols) na, katika mikoa ya juu, solonetz ya kijivu ya alkaline na udongo wa chestnut (mollisols) hupita. Mfumo uliotengenezwa vizuri wa mifereji kati ya mito ya Kura na Aras hufanya iwezekane kunyunyizia maji sehemu kubwa ya eneo la chini. Mfereji wa Karabakh ya Juu, una urefu wa kilomita 107 na unaunganisha Mto Aras na Hifadhi ya Mto Mingesevir kwenye Mto Kura. Hifadhi hiyo ina eneo la kilomita 234 za mraba na kina cha juu cha futi 246. Mfereji wa Karabakh ya Juu pekee unamwaga zaidi ya ekari 250,000 za ardhi yenye rutuba na kwa kuongezea hutoa maji kwa Mto Aras wakati wa majira ya joto kavu. Mfereji wa juu wa Shirvan, ambao ni muhimu zaidi, una urefu wa maili 76 na pia unamwaga ekari 250,000 za maji. Hali ya hewa ya kitropiki ya Azerbaijan ya kati na mashariki ina sifa ya majira ya baridi kali na majira ya joto ya muda mrefu (miezi minne hadi mitano), na joto la wastani wa karibu 81 ° F (27 ° C) na joto la juu la kufikia 109 ° F (43 ° C). Azerbaijan ya Kusini-Mashariki ina hali ya hewa ya unyevu ya kitropiki na mvua ya juu zaidi nchini, karibu 47-55 inchi (1,200-1400 mm) kwa mwaka, zaidi ya hiyo inashuka katika miezi ya baridi. Hali ya hewa ya bara kavu, na majira ya baridi kali na majira ya joto kavu, inatawala katika Naxçıvan katika urefu wa mita 2,300 hadi 3,300. Aina za hali ya hewa zenye joto la wastani, kavu, au yenye unyevunyevu zinapatikana katika sehemu nyingine za Azerbaijan. Eneo la msitu wa milimani lina hali ya hewa baridi ya wastani, wakati hali ya hewa ya tundra ya milimani ina sifa ya urefu wa futi 10,000 na zaidi. Baridi kali na theluji nyingi hufanya vijia vilivyo kwenye urefu huo visipatikane kwa miezi mitatu au minne ya mwaka. Mimea na wanyama Maeneo ya mimea ya asili hutofautiana kulingana na urefu. Hali za nyanda na nusu-jangwa zinatawala katika maeneo ya chini na kwenye miinuko ya maeneo ya milimani. Mteremko wa milima hiyo umefunikwa na misitu ya mialoni, mialoni, na mialoni. Juu zaidi kuna eneo la nyasi za milimani. Eneo la Länkäran kusini mwa Azerbaijan lina mimea ya kijani kibichi na misitu mikubwa ya mialoni na mialoni. Katika maeneo ya chini, wanyama ni pamoja na gazelle, jackals, na hyenas pamoja na wanyama wanaotambaa na wanyama wanaokula. Katika maeneo ya milimani kuna nyati wa Caucasus, nyati wa Roe, mbweha wa mwituni, dubu wa rangi ya kahawia, lynx, bison wa Ulaya (wisent), chamois, na chui, ingawa nyani wa mwisho ni wa nadra. Majira ya baridi kali huvutia ndege wengi kwenye pwani ya Bahari ya Kaspi, na hifadhi za asili hutoa mahali pa kupumzika kwa flamingo, mbweha, pelikani, korongo, egrets, sandpipers, na partridges. Watu wa Azerbaijan wanaozungumza Kituruki (Azeris) hufanyiza karibu tisa-kumi ya idadi ya watu wa nchi; idadi iliyobaki inajumuisha tu mkusanyiko mdogo wa wachache - miongoni mwao, Lezgians (wanaozungumza lugha ya Caucasian), Warusi, na Waarmenia. Wananchi wa Azerbaijan wanajumuisha asili ya Uturuki, ambayo ilifika Azerbaijan hasa wakati wa uhamiaji wa Oghuz Seljuq wa karne ya 11, na mchanganyiko wa wakazi wa zamani - Wairani na wengine - ambao waliishi Transcaucasia tangu nyakati za kale. Katika karne ya 20, Azerbaijan ilikuwa na idadi kubwa ya watu, karibu milioni 13 waliishi nje ya nchi, wengi wao katika Iran. Mwanzoni mwa karne ya 21, idadi ya watu wa eneo la Azerbaijan la Nakhchivan (iliyopo ndani ya Armenia) ilikuwa karibu kabisa ya kikabila cha Azerbaijan, wakati eneo la Nagorno-Karabakh (iliyopo ndani ya Azerbaijan) lilikuwa na kikabila cha Armenia. Katika enzi ya Sovieti kulikuwa na kutoelewana kadhaa kuhusu hadhi ya maeneo mawili ya uwekaji. Baada ya mapinduzi kadhaa, serikali ya Sovieti ilitoa mpango wa kwamba Naxçıvan ikatambuliwe kuwa Jamhuri ya Kisoshalisti ya Sovieti (A.S.S.R.) Karabakh ilibaki katika USSR ya Azerbaijan. lakini kwa uhuru mkubwa. Katika miaka ya 1920, eneo hilo, pamoja na eneo lake la milima, lilithibitishwa kama Mkoa wa Uhuru wa Nagorno-Karabakh. Zaidi ya nusu ya idadi ya watu huishi katika maeneo ya mijini. Eneo lenye watu wengi zaidi ni Peninsula ya Absheron, kwenye pwani ya magharibi ya Bahari ya Caspian. Baku, mji mkubwa wa Azerbaijan na mji muhimu zaidi wa viwanda katika Transcaucasia, iko kwenye peninsula hii, kama vile miji mingine ya viwanda, ikiwa ni pamoja na Sumqayıt. Baku ni mji mkubwa na wenye kuvutia ulio juu ya nyanda za asili zinazoelekea kwenye ghuba ya Bahari ya Kaspi. Jiji hilo lina barabara yenye kupendeza yenye urefu wa kilometa 3.2 na maeneo mengi ya kihistoria. Maeneo mengine yenye idadi kubwa ya watu yanapatikana katika maeneo fulani ya chini na ya chini ya milima. Gäncä ni mji wa pili kwa ukubwa na kituo kikuu cha mijini cha ndani. Kiasi cha juu cha idadi ya watu wa vijijini hupatikana katika Länkäran na Masallı kusini mashariki. Watu wa Talysh, au Talishi - watu wa Iran ambao hufanyiza sehemu kubwa ya idadi ya watu wa eneo hilo - wamehifadhi desturi na desturi zao nyingi za zamani. Mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1980, idadi kubwa ya watu wa Azerbaijan na Armenia walifukuzwa kutoka nchi za kila mmoja kama matokeo ya mgogoro wa kikabila na mabishano juu ya mkoa wa Nagorno-Karabakh. Kwa kuongezea, mapigano ya kikamilifu mwanzoni mwa miaka ya 1990, pamoja na upanuzi wa kikanda na Waarmenia wa kikabila ndani ya Azerbaijan, yalisababisha uhamisho wa idadi kubwa ya Waazerbaijani. Mapigano kati ya Armenia na Azerbaijan juu ya Nagorno-Karabakh, ambayo yaliendelea katika karne ya 21, ilizidi kuwa ngumu na tangazo rasmi la uhuru na Jamhuri ya Nagorno-Karabakh mnamo 1992 (madai ambayo yalishindwa kupata utambuzi kutoka kwa jamii ya kimataifa). Lugha ya Azerbaijani ni mwanachama wa kundi la Magharibi Oghuz ya kusini magharibi (Oghuz) tawi la lugha za Kituruki. Utamaduni wa fasihi ulianza katika karne ya 15. Alama ya Kiarabu ilitumiwa hadi karne ya 20; alfabeti ya Kisirili ilianzishwa mwaka 1939. Mwaka 1992 serikali ya Azerbaijan ilibadilisha herufi za Kirili na kutumia herufi za Kirumi. Azerbaijan ni nchi yenye Waislamu wengi; zaidi ya theluthi tatu ya idadi ya watu ni Shi'i, na karibu theluthi moja ni Sunni. Washiriki wa Kanisa Othodoksi la Urusi au Kanisa Othodoksi la Armenia hufanyiza asilimia ndogo sana ya idadi ya watu. Azerbaijan ina idadi ya watu inayoongezeka na vijana. Viwango vya kuzaliwa na vifo vya Azerbaijan ni vyote viwili chini kidogo ya wastani wa kimataifa. Matarajio ya maisha ya watu wa nchi hiyo ni sawa na ya wastani wa dunia, lakini ni ya miaka 73. Zaidi ya asilimia tano ya watu wa nchi hiyo wana umri wa chini ya miaka 15, na karibu nusu ya watu wa nchi hiyo wana umri wa chini ya miaka 30. Azerbaijan ni nchi iliyoendelea ya viwanda na kilimo. Mkazo juu ya viwanda vizito umepanua sana viwanda viwili vya jadi - mafuta na gesi asilia - lakini uhandisi, viwanda vyepesi, na uzalishaji wa chakula pia ni muhimu zaidi. Mwanzoni mwa miaka ya 1990, Azerbaijan ilianza mabadiliko ya uchumi wa soko. Bei za bidhaa nyingi zilifunguliwa, na baadhi ya makampuni ya serikali yakafanywa kuwa ya kibinafsi. Hata hivyo, ubinafsishaji wa ardhi ulifanyika polepole. Mwanzoni mwa karne ya 20, Azerbaijan ilikuwa mtayarishaji mkuu wa mafuta duniani, na pia ilikuwa mahali pa kuzaliwa kwa sekta ya kusafisha mafuta. Kwa mfano, mwaka wa 1901, Azerbaijan ilitoa tani milioni 11.4 za mafuta, zaidi ya Marekani, na ilitoa zaidi ya nusu ya mafuta yote ulimwenguni. Hata hivyo, kadiri karne ya 20 ilivyopita, jukumu la Azerbaijan katika uzalishaji wa mafuta lilipungua huku sekta hiyo ikikua katika maeneo mengine ya USSR na kwingineko ulimwenguni. Katika miaka ya 1990, uchimbaji wa mashamba makubwa ya mafuta chini ya Bahari ya Caspian ulizidiwa na ukosefu wa utulivu wa kisiasa nchini Azerbaijan, migogoro ya kikabila katika mkoa huo, madai ya Urusi juu ya mashamba ya Caspian, na mabishano juu ya eneo la mabomba mapya. Azerbaijan ina rasilimali nyingine za asili, ikiwa ni pamoja na gesi asilia, iodobromide maji, risasi, zinki, chuma, na shaba madini, nepheline syenite kutumika katika uzalishaji wa alumini, chumvi ya kawaida, na aina kubwa ya vifaa vya ujenzi, ikiwa ni pamoja na marl, chokaa, na marumaru. Kilimo cha Azerbaijan kilikua sana katika sehemu ya mwisho ya karne ya 20. Karibu nusu ya eneo la nchi nzima ni sahihi kwa ajili ya kilimo, na baadhi ya mbili-tano ya hii ni chini ya kilimo. Mbegu ndiyo bidhaa kuu ya kilimo, na pamba mbichi ndiyo mazao ya pili yenye thamani zaidi. Hali nzuri za kuzalisha zabibu zimechangia ukuzi wa uzalishaji wa mizabibu. Aina nyingi za zabibu zinazokuzwa nchini Azerbaijan hutumiwa kutengeneza divai, ambayo karibu yote huuzwa nje. Mazao mengine yanatia ndani mboga (hasa aina za mapema), matunda, karanga, na hazelnuts. Baadhi ya wilaya, hasa zile karibu na miji ya Şäki, Zaqatala, na Göyçay, ni <unk>kama wamekuwa jadi <unk>kujihusisha na uzalishaji wa minyoo ya hariri. Uzalishaji wa bidhaa za juu si sifa ya ufugaji wa mifugo ya Azerbaijan. Uvuvi wa Azerbaijan ni muhimu hasa kwa sababu ya sturgeon ya Bahari ya Caspian; sturgeon roe ni kufanywa katika caviar kimataifa maarufu. Hata hivyo, samaki hao wanakoma kwa sababu ya uchafuzi wa maji ya Bahari ya Kaspi. Azerbaijan ina msingi wa viwanda mbalimbali, na matawi ya kuongoza ya viwanda nzito - nguvu, utengenezaji, na uzalishaji wa kemikali - predominant. Mashamba ya viwanda vya kusindika, kuzalisha mbolea za madini, petroli, petroli, dawa za kuua magugu, mafuta ya viwanda, mpira wa synthetic, na plastiki, yameendelea, na Sumqayit imeibuka kama kituo kikuu cha sekta hii, pamoja na metallurgy ya chuma. Viwanda vya utengenezaji nchini vimeongezeka sana mwishoni mwa karne ya 20. Azerbaijan hutengeneza vifaa kwa ajili ya sekta ya mafuta na gesi, vifaa vya umeme vya aina zote, na vifaa vingi na vyombo. Aina hii ya viwanda iko hasa katika Baku, Gäncä, na Mingäçevir. Viwanda vyepesi vinatia ndani vitambaa vya pamba na sufu, mavazi ya kushona, vitu vya kawaida vya nyumbani na zawadi, viatu, na bidhaa nyingine za matumizi. Şäki, Xankändi, Gäncä, Mingäçevir, na Baku ni vituo kuu vya sekta hii. Viwanda vya usindikaji wa chakula vimegawanywa kwa usawa katika jamhuri nzima. Maendeleo ya viwanda vya Azerbaijan yaliunda mahitaji ya mafuta na usambazaji wa umeme. Umeme wote hutengenezwa katika vituo vya umeme vya joto vinavyochoma mafuta ya visukuku, ambavyo vimejengwa kotekote nchini. Azerbaijan inasafirisha bidhaa za kemikali, mashine, chakula (haswa zabibu na matunda na mboga zingine), vinywaji, mafuta na gesi asilia, chuma na chuma, metali zisizo na chuma, na bidhaa zingine; uagizaji wake ni pamoja na chuma na chuma, mashine, na chakula na vinywaji, haswa nyama na maziwa. Washirika wa msingi wa kibiashara wa Azerbaijan ni Urusi, Uturuki, China, na Italia; nchi pia ina uhusiano wa kibiashara na Georgia, Belarus, Uingereza, Israeli, na jamhuri za Asia ya Kati. Azerbaijan haina biashara na Armenia kwa sababu ya mgogoro juu ya Nagorno-Karabakh. Mito michache ya Azerbaijan ni navigable, na mizigo zaidi - ikiwa ni pamoja na ile kusafirishwa nje ya nchi - ni kusafirishwa kwa reli na lori. Sehemu kubwa za reli zimeunganishwa na umeme. Bidhaa kuu zinazosafirishwa ni bidhaa za mafuta, vifaa vya ujenzi, mbao, na nafaka. Reli kubwa hupita katika bonde la Kura na kuunganisha Baku na Tbilisi na Batumi huko Georgia. Mto mwingine unaelekea upande wa kaskazini wa Baku kando ya Bahari ya Caspian. Usafiri wa magari hutumiwa sana kwa ajili ya mizigo na abiria. Barabara zinaunganisha sehemu mbalimbali za nchi na mara nyingi ni njia pekee ya mawasiliano ya ardhi kati ya wilaya za milimani za mbali na vituo vya utawala na miji mikubwa. Baku, kwenye Bahari ya Caspian, ni bandari yenye shughuli nyingi, ikishughulikia bidhaa kama vile mafuta, mbao, nafaka, na pamba. Mkataba wa kivuko kati ya Baku na Turkmenbashi (pia kwenye Caspian, katika Turkmenistan) huongeza sana kiasi cha mizigo inayopita kupitia Azerbaijan. Njia za ndege huunganisha Baku na miji mingi ya Ulaya na Asia. Britannica QuizNi nchi gani iliyo kubwa zaidi kwa idadi ya watu? Mkoa wa Quiz Abşeron ni pamoja na Peninsula ya Abşeron na maeneo mengine kadhaa ya mashariki mwa Azerbaijan. Kwa sababu ya nafasi yake nzuri ya kijiografia, ni kuvuka na njia za mizigo kuunganisha Azerbaijan na Transcaucasia nzima na Kaskazini Caucasus na Asia ya Kati. Barabara kuu huanzia peninsula hadi kila kona ya jamhuri hiyo. Ingawa eneo hilo liko kwenye pwani ya Bahari ya Caspian, bado ni mojawapo ya maeneo yenye ukame zaidi nchini Azerbaijan. Utajiri wake kuu wa asili ni madini, ikiwa ni pamoja na mafuta, gesi ya asili, maji ya iodobromidi, na mawe ya chokaa yanayotumiwa katika ujenzi na uzalishaji wa saruji. Mji wa Baku ulipata ukuzi wake wa kisasa kutokana na maendeleo ya viwanda vya mafuta; mabwawa ya mafuta yanazunguka jiji hilo, na viwanda vya kusafisha na kusafisha mafuta huvutia wafanyakazi kutoka maeneo mengi. Sumgait ya kisasa, kilomita 22 kaskazini magharibi mwa Baku, kwa sasa ni kituo cha chuma na chuma, chuma cha chuma, na viwanda vya kemikali, ingawa maendeleo ya uhandisi mwepesi yanafikiriwa. Mimea ya chai katika mkoa wa Länkäran kusini mwa Azerbaijan. Lankaran, eneo la kusini mwa Azerbaijan, ni eneo lenye mazingira mazuri; mimea ya hali ya hewa ya joto, kama vile chai, feijoa (mti wa matunda), mchele, zabibu, tumbaku, na miti ya machungwa, hukua sana. Eneo hilo pia hutokeza mboga za majira ya kuchipua na za majira ya baridi kali. Miji ya Lankaran, Astara, na Masali ni midogo, na viwanda vya mahali hapo vinahusika hasa na usindikaji wa bidhaa za kilimo, wakati katika milima watu wa Talysh hufanya mazulia na mazulia yenye rangi. Mkoa wa Quba-Xaçmaz uko kaskazini mwa Abşeron. Eneo lake la chini la pwani lina uzalishaji wa nafaka na mboga, huku mashamba makubwa ya matunda yakizunguka miji ya Quba na Qusar. Mteremko wa milima hutumiwa kwa ajili ya malisho. Kondoo wa jamii maalum hufugwa; ngozi zao hutumiwa katika viwanda vya manyoya ya mahali hapo. Mkoa wa Shirvan, sehemu ya Azerbaijan iliyoendelea kiviwanda na kilimo, umezungukwa na Bonde la Shirvan. Kituo cha umeme wa maji cha Mingäçevir kiko huko. Eneo hilo pia lina barabara zilizotengenezwa vizuri. Kwa kawaida viwanda hufanyiza bidhaa za kilimo kama vile pamba, zabibu, na matunda. Mimea ya mizabibu ya Matrasa ni maarufu kwa sababu ya mvinyo wake, hasa Matrasa na Shemakha, ambayo ni nyekundu kavu na tamu. Katika Kürdämir divai ya dessert yenye harufu nzuri hutengenezwa. Aina bora zaidi za matango hupandwa karibu na Göyçay. Mkoa wa Mugano-Salyan, ulio kusini mwa Mto Kura na ndani ya mipaka ya nyanda za Mili na Mugan, una utaalam katika kilimo cha pamba (chini ya umwagiliaji), na hutoa karibu saba-kumi ya uzalishaji wa pamba wa jumla wa Azerbaijan. Viwanda vya kutengeneza pamba viko katika Bärdä, Salyan, na Äli-Bayramlı, ambazo zote, pamoja na kuwa kwenye Mto Kura, zina faida ya kuwa kwenye reli na barabara kuu. Kituo cha umeme wa joto kinasimama karibu na Äli-Bayramlı. Eneo la kusini magharibi linajumuisha Nagorno-Karabakh na wilaya za kiutawala za Laçin, Füzuli, na Qubadlı. Kwa sababu ya urefu wa wastani wa ardhi ni futi 4,900, ni mojawapo ya maeneo ya nchi ambayo maporomoko ya ardhi huzuia maendeleo ya usafiri, viwanda, na kilimo. Uzalishaji wa kilimo unakazwa katika mabonde ya milimani. Ufugaji wa mifugo unawakilisha asilimia kubwa ya pato la jumla la kilimo, matawi makuu ni ufugaji wa kondoo na nguruwe. Zabibu, tumbaku, na nafaka ndizo mazao makuu; utengenezaji wa divai, utengenezaji wa hariri, na uhandisi wa umeme ndizo viwanda vikuu. Eneo la Gäncä-Qazax liko katikati ya Transcaucasia karibu na makutano ya Azerbaijan, Armenia, na Georgia. Eneo hilo lina hali nzuri kwa ajili ya maisha ya kibinadamu na kwa ajili ya kilimo cha kina. Njia za biashara zimepita katika sehemu hii ya Azerbaijan tangu nyakati za kale, na mji wa kale wa Ganja (Gäncä) ulianzishwa hapa. Ni kituo cha viwanda, na chakula, uhandisi, kemikali, na viwanda nonferrous metallurgical. Naftalan ni kituo cha afya. Mkoa wa Şäki-Zaqatala unajumuisha miji ya Şäki, Zaqatala, na Balakän. Eneo lake linazunguka safu ya milima ya Greater Caucasus, ambayo humlinda dhidi ya upepo wa kaskazini wenye baridi. Mito mingi ya milimani hutoa maji mengi, na eneo hilo lina watu wengi. Bidhaa za kilimo zinatia ndani tumbaku, mimea yenye harufu nzuri (mint, basil, na maua ya waridi), mchele, mahindi (mbuga), na matunda mbalimbali. Eneo hilo pia ni mtayarishaji mkuu wa hazelnuts na walnuts. "Kama ilivyoelezwa katika Katiba ya Azerbaijan ya mwaka 1978, ""Sheria ya uhuru ya 1991"" ilibadilishwa na kuondolewa na sheria ya serikali ya Azerbaijan." Mwaka 1995 katiba mpya ilipitishwa kwa kura kubwa. Katiba inatoa kwa ajili ya bunge unicameral, ambao wanachama ni moja kwa moja kuchaguliwa kwa muhula wa miaka mitano. Mkuu wa serikali ni Rais, ambaye pia huchaguliwa kwa kura ya moja kwa moja ya jumla kwa muhula wa miaka saba. Marekebisho ya katiba ya mwaka 2009 yaliondoa kikomo cha urais wa muda wa muhula mmoja. Chama cha New Azerbaijan (kuanzishwa na Rais Heydar Aliyev), Chama cha New Azerbaijan (kuanzishwa na Muungano wa Azerbaijan), Chama cha New Equality (Muzamat), Chama cha Democratic cha Azerbaijan, Chama cha Ukomanisti cha Umoja wa Azerbaijan, na Chama cha Utamaduni cha Azerbaijan, ni vyama vya siasa vya Azerbaijan. 1991 - Azerbaijan ilianzisha jeshi la kitaifa, ikiwa ni pamoja na jeshi (linalojumuisha sehemu ya wafanyakazi na vifaa kutoka Jeshi la Nne la Sovieti), jeshi la wanamaji, na jeshi la anga. Urusi iliondoka Azerbaijan mwaka 1993. Huduma ya kijeshi ni ya hiari; watu wana haki ya kutumikia katika majeshi katika umri wa miaka 18, na wajibu wa huduma huendelea kwa miezi 18 (mwezi 12 kwa wahitimu wa chuo kikuu). Mapigano ya Armenia na Azerbaijan juu ya Nagorno-Karabakh yaliongoza mipango ya kijeshi ya Azerbaijan katika miaka ya 1990. Wizara ya Mambo ya Ndani, ambayo ina jukumu la usalama wa ndani na kazi ya polisi ya jumla, iliandaliwa upya mnamo 1993. Kiwango cha uhalifu nchini Azerbaijan kiliongezeka katika miaka ya 1990, ikizidiwa na mvurugo wa kijamii uliosababishwa na mzozo wa Nagorno-Karabakh. Elimu nchini Azerbaijan ni ya lazima kati ya umri wa miaka 6 na 17. Elimu ya msingi huanza katika umri wa miaka sita, na elimu ya sekondari huanza katika umri wa miaka kumi na ina mizunguko miwili ya miaka mitano na miwili. Lugha ya msingi ya kufundishwa ni Kizarabiji, ingawa katika elimu ya juu, baadhi ya nyanja za kiufundi zinaendelea kupendelea Kirusi. Katika kipindi cha Sovieti ukosefu wa ujuzi wa kusoma na kuandika uliangamizwa kabisa, na mtandao wa taasisi za elimu ya juu, vituo vya utafiti, na mashirika kama hayo yalianzishwa. Idadi ya vyuo vikuu na taasisi za kujifunza ziko katika Baku. Chuo Kikuu cha Taifa cha Kiuchumi cha Azerbaijan (kuanzishwa mwaka 1929), ambacho kina vyuo vikuu vya biashara, fedha, na usimamizi; Chuo Kikuu cha Taifa cha Lugha cha Azerbaijan (kuanzishwa mwaka 1937; jina la sasa na hali, 2000), ambacho kina vyuo vikuu vya Kirusi, Kiingereza na Kifaransa; Chuo Kikuu cha Taifa cha Utamaduni na Sanaa ya Azabajani (kuanzishwa mwaka 1945); Chuo Kikuu cha Tiba cha Azerbaijan (kuanzishwa mwaka 1950); na Chuo Kikuu cha Ufundi cha Azabajani. Chuo cha Sayansi cha Taifa cha Azerbaijan (kuanzishwa 1945), pia iko katika Baku, inaratibu shughuli za vituo vya utafiti, ikiwa ni pamoja na taasisi za cybernetics, fizikia, matatizo ya kinadharia ya teknolojia ya kemikali, michakato ya petrochemical, na urithi. Afya na ustawi Azerbaijan ina huduma ya afya imara na baadhi ya kliniki maalumu na taasisi za utafiti wa matibabu. Huduma za matibabu, zinazotolewa bila malipo kwa wagonjwa, hutegemezwa na ushuru wa jumla kwa wafanyakazi binafsi na kwa ushuru wa mapato ya viwanda na makampuni mengine. Katika historia yake ndefu, Azerbaijan imetoa ulimwengu idadi ya wasomi, washairi, na wanasayansi mashuhuri. Miongoni mwa wanasayansi na wanafalsafa wa enzi za kati, Abul Hasan Bakhmaniar (mwaka wa 11), mwandishi wa kazi nyingi juu ya hisabati na falsafa, na Abul Hasan Shirvani (mwaka wa 11-12), mwandishi wa Astronomy, wanaweza kutajwa. "Mshairi na mwanafalsafa Nizam Ali, aliyeitwa Ganjavi baada ya mahali pake pa kuzaliwa, Ganja, alikuwa mwandishi wa Khamseh (The Quintuplet), iliyoundwa na mashairi matano ya kimapenzi, ikiwa ni pamoja na ""Hazina ya Siri,"" ""Khosrow na Shirin,"" na ""Leyli na Meijin,"" watu wa Azerbaijan wamehifadhi utamaduni wao wa kale wa muziki." Kwa mfano, sanaa ya ashugs, ambao huimba nyimbo kwa sauti yao wenyewe kwa kutumia ala ya muziki yenye kamba iitwayo kobuz, bado ni maarufu sana. Mugams, nyimbo za sauti na za ala, pia zinajulikana sana, na mji wa Shusha unajulikana hasa kwa sanaa hii. Taasisi za kitamaduni za Azerbaijan, ikiwa ni pamoja na makumbusho, majumba ya maonyesho, na maktaba za umma, ziko Baku. Mengi ya hayo yalianzishwa baada ya Vita ya Ulimwengu ya Pili. Jiji hilo lina majumba ya makumbusho yanayohusu sanaa, historia, na fasihi ya Azerbaijan. Katika Nagorno-Karabakh kuna makumbusho na nyenzo juu ya historia na akiolojia ya watu wa Armenia wa mkoa huo. Maonyesho ya opera na ya dansi ya bale huchezwa na watu wengi. Baadhi ya wanamuziki wa Azerbaijan, hasa Uzeir Hajjibekov (opera Ker-Ogly na Leyli na Mejnūn na operetta Arshin Mal <unk>Alan) na Kara Karayev (ballets Seven Beauties na The Path of Thunder), wana sifa za kimataifa. Muziki wa symphonic wa mwisho pia unajulikana sana nje ya nchi. Katika kipindi chote cha Sovieti fasihi ya Azerbaijan ilidhibitiwa na mfumo ambao uliona hatari ya kifo hata katika kiwango kidogo cha uhuru wa ubunifu. Waandishi wa Azerbaijan na wasomi wengine walisimamiwa kwa ukaribu na kuteswa kwa viwango tofauti-tofauti. Azerbaijan haina uchapishaji wa kibinafsi; makampuni kadhaa ya serikali huchapisha vitabu na majarida ya kisayansi na vile vile vitabu na majarida juu ya sanaa na fasihi katika lugha ya Azerbaijani, Kirusi, na lugha zingine. Mwaka 1992 serikali ya Azerbaijan ilibadilisha alfabeti yake kutoka alfabeti ya Kirili kwenda alfabeti ya Kirumi. Magazeti Literaturny Azerbaydzhan (kwa Kirusi), Azerbaijan Gadïnï (Azerbaijan Woman, kwa Kiazerbaijani), na Azerbaydzhanskoye neftyanoye khozyaystvo (Azerbaijan Petroleum Economy, kwa Kirusi) yana mzunguko mkubwa zaidi. Katika nyakati za kale na mapema za enzi za kati, mashariki mwa Transcaucasia ilikuwa na watu wa lugha ya Kiirani, makabila ya waturuki, Wakurdi, na Waalbania wa Caucasus, ambao waliigeuza imani yao kuwa Ukristo katika karne ya nne na wakawa chini ya ushawishi wa kitamaduni wa Waarmenia. Baada ya uvamizi wa Waarabu katika karne ya saba, serikali za Kiislamu zilianzishwa chini ya watawala wa mitaa walioitwa shahanshahs. Mavamio ya Seljuq katika karne ya 11 yalibadilisha muundo wa idadi ya watu wa eneo hilo na kusababisha utawala wa lugha ya Oghuz Turkic. Lakini tofauti na Waturuki wa Ottoman ambao walikuja kutawala Anatolia, Waislamu wa Caucasian wa Azerbaijan mapema karne ya 16 wakawa Waislamu wa Shi'i, badala ya Sunni, na waliendelea kuendeleza chini ya ushawishi wa kijamii na kitamaduni wa Kiajemi. Mikoa ya khanate iliyotawaliwa na Waajemi huko Shirvan (Şamaxı), Baku, Ganja (Gäncä), Karabakh, na Yerevan ilitawala mpaka huu wa Iran ya Ṣafavid. Baada ya vita kadhaa kati ya Urusi na Iran, mikataba ya Golestan (Gulistan, 1813) na Turkmenchay (Torkmanchay, 1828) ilianzisha mpaka mpya kati ya milki hizo. Urusi ilipata Baku, Shirvan, Ganja, Nakhichevan (Naxçıvan), na Yerevan. Kuanzia wakati huo na kuendelea, Waturuki wa Azerbaijan wa Caucasus walitenganishwa na wengi wa wananchi wao wa lugha na dini, ambao walibaki Iran. Azerbaijan katika pande zote mbili za mpaka ilibaki hasa vijijini, ingawa darasa dogo la wafanyabiashara na darasa la wafanyakazi lilionekana katika nusu ya pili ya karne ya 19. Wakati Baku ilipoanza kuwa chanzo kikuu cha mafuta kwa Urusi, maelfu ya wafanyakazi wa Iran, Armenia na Urusi walihamia Absheron Peninsula kutafuta kazi, na ushawishi wa kiuchumi na kisiasa wa Urusi ulihisiwa katika sehemu zote mbili za Azerbaijan. Kama chanzo cha ajira na nyumbani kwa wasomi wa Azerbaijani na harakati ya mapinduzi, Baku ilitoa ushawishi wake katika Azerbaijan ya Iran na kaskazini mwa Mto Aras. "Hakuna nchi ya Azerbaijan iliyokuwapo kabla ya 1918 na badala ya kujiona kama sehemu ya utamaduni wa kitaifa, kama vile Wagorgi na Waarmenia, Waislamu wa Transcaucasia walijiona kama sehemu ya ulimwengu mkubwa wa Kiislamu, ""ummah.""" "Watu wa asili wa Azerbaijan waliitwa ""Tatars"" na Warusi, na jina la kikabila ""Azerbaijani"" (azarbayjanli) lilitumiwa katika miongo ya kabla ya mapinduzi, kwanza kati ya wasomi wa kitaifa wa mijini." Ni katika kipindi cha Sovieti tu ambapo lilikuja kuwa jina rasmi na linalokubaliwa sana kwa ajili ya watu hao. Kuingizwa katika Milki ya Urusi kulitoa njia mpya ya kupata elimu kwa Waazerbaijani, ambao wengine wao waligeuka kutoka kwa malezi yao ya kidini kwenda kwa mtazamo wa kidunia zaidi. "Wanafalsafa wa kwanza wa lugha ya Kizaybiya walikuwa ""Abbas Quli Aghash Bakha-Khanli"" (Bakha-Khanov), ambaye aliandika mashairi na historia ya eneo hilo, na ""Mirza Fath-al-Akhundzadeh"" (Akhundov), mwandishi wa michezo ya kwanza ya Kizaybiya." Ingawa hatimaye takwimu hizi zingehusishwa katika hadithi ya kitaifa kama watangulizi wa uamsho wa Kituruki, aina mbalimbali za msukumo wa kupingana zilichochea wasomi wa mapema wa Azerbaijan - uaminifu kwa milki ya tsarist, ushawishi wa kuendelea wa utamaduni wa Kiajemi, na hamu ya kujifunza Magharibi. "Hata hivyo, katika miaka ya 1950 na 1960, Azerbaijan ilijulikana kama ""mji wa Uturuki,"" na mwaka 1905 ilijulikana kama ""mji wa Uturuki,"" na mwaka 1905 ilijulikana kama ""mji wa Uturuki, Uturuki, Uturuki, Uturuki, Uturuki, Uturuki, Uturuki.""" Mji wa Baku, ambao kufikia mwaka 1901 ulitoa zaidi ya nusu ya mafuta ya dunia, ulikuwa umegawanyika kwa njia ngumu, na Warusi na Waarmenia katika sehemu ya kati ya mji na Waislamu waliokusanyika katika wilaya tofauti. Katika miaka ya 1905 na 1918, mapigano ya damu kati ya Azerbaijan na Armenia yalifanyika. Utaratibu wa ustadi, elimu, na mishahara uliwaweka Waislamu chini na Wakristo juu. Kwa sababu ya upendeleo wa wawakilishi wasio Wakristo na mfumo wa haki ya kupiga kura kulingana na umiliki wa mali, Baku City Duma (bunge la sheria) ilibaki mikononi mwa Waarmenia na Warusi matajiri. Azerbaijan ilibaki kwenye pembe ya harakati ya wafanyakazi na haikuwa na wasiwasi au haijui matakwa ya wasomi wao wa kisoshalisti na kitaifa. Hakuna chama chochote cha kisiasa kilichotokea baada ya mwaka 1905 kilichokuwa na wafuasi wengi zaidi ya wasomi, ingawa Musavat (Usawa), iliyoanzishwa mwaka 1911 na kuongozwa na Mehmed Emin Rasulzadeh, ilithibitika kuwa yenye kudumu zaidi. "Hata hivyo, wasiwasi juu ya ""tisho"" la Armenia, hisia ya umbali wao na uhasama kwa kipengele hiki cha upendeleo ndani yao, na hisia kwamba Waazerbaijani walikuwa wameunganishwa kwa njia muhimu kwa Waislamu wengine, haswa Waturuki, wakawa sehemu ya hisia ya Azerbaijani ya ""wenyewe.""" Baada ya ushindi wa Bolshevik katika Mapinduzi ya Urusi ya 1917 na kuondolewa kwa majeshi ya Urusi kutoka pande ya Caucasus wakati wa Vita Kuu ya Kwanza ya Dunia (1914-1918), viongozi wa Azerbaijan walijiunga na Waarmenia na Wazurujia katika jaribio fupi la uhuru wa Transcaucasian (Februari hadi Aprili 1918). Jaribio la muda mfupi zaidi la kuunganisha katika jamhuri huru ya shirikisho la Transcaucasia (Aprili hadi Mei) lilivunjika, na hatimaye jamhuri tatu tofauti za kujitegemea zilianzishwa. Azerbaijan ilitangazwa kuwa nchi huru Mei 28, 1918, lakini Baku ilibaki mikononi mwa serikali ya kikomunisti, ikisaidiwa na askari wa Armenia wa eneo hilo, ambao walikuwa wamepiga mapinduzi ya Waislamu mnamo Machi. Mnamo Septemba 1918, pamoja na jeshi la Uturuki, waasi wa taifa la Azerbaijan walichukua mji mkuu wa Baku na kuanza mauaji ya kikatili ya Waarmenia. Hata hivyo, hata walipokuwa wakidhibiti Baku, waasi wa taifa la Azerbaijan walikabiliwa na idadi ya watu mchanganyiko wa wafanyakazi wa Urusi, Armenia, na Waislamu ambao walikuwa wamepitia elimu ndefu ya kisoshalisti na ya chama cha wafanyabiashara. Katika jamii ya wakulima, ambao walitegemea, hali ya kujisikia kuwa wa taifa bado haikuwa imara, na watu wa taifa hawakuwa salama kabisa huko Baku, ambapo Bolshevism ilikuwa na mizizi mizito. Baada ya Vita Kuu ya Kwanza ya Ulimwengu, Uturuki iliondoka na Uingereza ikachukua nafasi yake. Jamhuri hiyo ilitambuliwa na Muungano mnamo Januari 15, 1920, lakini wakati Jeshi Nyekundu lilipovamia Baku mnamo Aprili 1920, kulikuwa na upinzani mdogo. Muungano wa Sovieti na Jamhuri ya Kisoshalisti ya Sovieti ya Azerbaijan (ASSR) ilianza mnamo mwaka wa 1991. Mji huo ulikuwa sehemu ya Jamhuri ya Kisoshalisti ya Muungano wa Sovieti ya Transcaucasian kutoka 1922 hadi 1936 na, kama Georgia na Armenia, ulipata maendeleo makubwa ya kiuchumi, mijini, na viwanda. Ingawa elimu katika Azerbaijan iliendelezwa na Wazarabejani waliwekwa katika nafasi za nguvu, jamhuri ilidhibitiwa kwa ukali na Moscow, haswa wakati wa miaka ya utawala wa Joseph Stalin (1928-53) wakati M.A. Bagirov aliongoza Chama cha Kikomunisti cha Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan ilikuwa na jamii ya mijini, yenye elimu, na yenye kusonga mbele kijamii, na iligawanywa kati ya maeneo ya vijijini ya kitamaduni, yasiyoendelea na jiji la Baku. Baada ya kifo cha Stalin, jamhuri hiyo ilifurahia uhuru mkubwa zaidi, na wasomi wa kisiasa na kiakili wa kitaifa walifanikiwa. Mapigano ya Nagorno-Karabakh, kuanguka kwa Muungano wa Sovieti na urais wa Heydar Aliyev, wakati mgogoro na Waarmenia wa Mkoa wa Uhuru wa Nagorno-Karabakh ndani ya Azerbaijan ulipotokea mnamo Februari 1988, wasomi hawa waliandaa viongozi wote kwa Upinzani wa Popular Front ya Azerbaijan na kwa wapinzani wao wa Kikomunisti. Mapigano ya kikabila na maandamano ya kikatiba yaliyowakabili Waarmenia na Waazerbaijani mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1980, mauaji ya kikatili ya Kiarmenia huko Sumgait mnamo 1988 na huko Baku mnamo 1990, na vita vya kuendelea kati ya Waazerbaijani na Waarmenia wa Nagorno-Karabakh, yalisababisha hatua ya kijeshi ya Moscow dhidi ya jamhuri hiyo mnamo Januari 1990. Baada ya kuanguka kwa Muungano wa Sovieti mwishoni mwa mwaka uliofuata, Jamhuri ya Nagorno-Karabakh ilitangazwa; kufuatia kura ya maoni iliyoonyesha msaada wa umma kwa uhuru, na uchaguzi mnamo Desemba, uhuru wa jamhuri ulitangazwa rasmi katika siku za kwanza za 1992, hatua ambayo haikutambuliwa na jamii ya kimataifa. Mapigano makubwa kati ya Armenia na Azerbaijan katika Nagorno-Karabakh yalianza mnamo 1994 na kusimamishwa kwa makubaliano ya kusitisha mapigano, ambayo, ingawa ilivunjwa mara kwa mara, ilifanikiwa kushikilia. Chama cha Kikomunisti cha Azerbaijan kilishikilia mamlaka yake hadi 1992. Baada ya mapinduzi ya mwaka 1991 dhidi ya kiongozi wa Sovieti Mikhail Gorbachev, Azerbaijan ilitangaza uhuru wake na Ayaz Mutalibov akachaguliwa kuwa rais wa kwanza. Mnamo Mei 1992, Chama cha Popular Front cha Azerbaijan kilimshinda Mutalibov na kulazimisha uchaguzi mpya, ambapo mgombea wake, Abulfaz Elchibey, alishinda kwenye jukwaa la kujitenga na Jumuiya ya Madola ya Uhuru na kudumisha udhibiti juu ya Nagorno-Karabakh. Aliyev alishindwa kuondoa utawala wa Aliyev mnamo Juni 1993 na Heydar Aliyev, afisa wa zamani wa KGB na kiongozi wa Chama cha Kikomunisti cha Azerbaijan, ambaye alikuwa amepitisha usemi wa utaifa wa Azerbaijan. Mkataba huo ulifungwa mwaka 1992 baada ya kutangazwa kwa uhuru wa jamhuri ya Nagorno-Karabakh. Baada ya hapo, uchaguzi ulifanyika mara kwa mara, na matokeo yake yalikataliwa na Azerbaijan kwa uthabiti kwa kuwa ni kinyume cha sheria za kimataifa. Mapigano ya Nagorno-Karabakh yalifanya idadi kubwa ya watu wa Armenia na Azerbaijan kuhamishwa, na kufikia wakati wa kusitisha mapigano ya 1994, Armenia ya Nagorno-Karabakh ilikuwa imepanua udhibiti wake juu ya eneo la Azerbaijan. Mwanzoni mwa karne ya 21, karibu sehemu ya saba ya eneo la Azerbaijan ilibaki nje ya udhibiti wake, na idadi kubwa ya watu ilibaki kuhamishwa, haswa katika kesi ya Azerbaijanis, wengi wao pia walibaki kuhamishwa ndani. Mvutano uliongezeka mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1990 na uteuzi wa rais wa zamani wa Nagorno-Karabakh kuwa waziri mkuu wa Armenia, hatua hiyo ilionwa kama uchochezi wa makusudi na mazungumzo yaliingiliwa zaidi. Urafiki uliendelea kuwa mgumu na Urusi, ambayo ilihisi kwamba serikali ya Azerbaijan haikuwa ikifanya mengi kuzuia waasi wa Chechnya kufanya kazi nje ya eneo la Azerbaijan. Wakati huo huo, mapato ya mafuta nchini Azerbaijan yalianza kuongezeka, kwani mashamba mapya yalipatikana na mikataba mpya ilisainiwa na makampuni ya Magharibi kwa ajili ya uchimbaji wao. Aliyev alikufa mwaka 2003 na mwanawe Ilham alimrithi. Kwa sababu ya kuonekana kwa nguvu ya mrithi wa mrithi, makundi ya kisiasa ya upinzani yalifanya mfululizo wa maandamano ya vurugu ambayo yalishindwa kumzuia Aliyev mdogo kutoka kwa urais. Aliyev alielekeza mapato ya mafuta ya Caspian kwa kuendeleza uwezo wa kijeshi wa Azerbaijan, ambayo katika 2006 ilielezwa kuwa karibu na uwezo unaohitajika kupinga vikosi vya Nagorno-Karabakh. Mwaka huohuo, Nagorno-Karabakh ilipitisha kura ya maoni ya kupitisha katiba mpya, na, mwaka uliofuata, ilifanya raundi yake ya nne ya uchaguzi. Ingawa viongozi katika eneo hilo walitumaini kwamba maonyesho hayo ya utawala wa kidemokrasia yangeunga mkono madai ya eneo hilo la uhuru, wala Azerbaijan wala jumuiya ya kimataifa haikutambua madai ya eneo hilo la uhuru. Majaribio ya kutatua mgogoro huo yaliendelea, na mnamo Novemba 2008, Aliyev alisaini makubaliano na Rais wa Armenia. Serzh Sarkisyan kwamba aliahidi kuongeza juhudi za nchi za kutatua mgogoro wa Nagorno-Karabakh. Aliyev alishinda uchaguzi wa mara ya pili katika uchaguzi wa urais wa Oktoba 2008 wakati wa upinzani dhidi ya hatua za kuzuia uchaguzi. Waangalizi wa kimataifa walionyesha wasiwasi kwamba kesi hizo hazikuwa huru na za haki vya kutosha, kwa sehemu kwa sababu ya vizuizi vya vyombo vya habari na ukosefu wa ushindani wenye nguvu. Mapema mwaka 2009, mfululizo wa marekebisho ya katiba yaliyokusudiwa kuimarisha msimamo wa Aliyev yalipitishwa kwa kura ya maoni. Miongoni mwa mapendekezo hayo ni kuondolewa kwa kikomo cha muhula wa mara mbili kwa urais, ambacho kingeweza kumruhusu Aliyev kuwania muhula wa tatu katika miaka ijayo, pamoja na vizuizi vipya kwa vyombo vya habari. Aliyev alishinda muhula wa tatu wa urais mwezi Oktoba mwaka 2013, akipata karibu asilimia 85 ya kura, jambo ambalo upinzani ulilishutumu kuwa limeathiriwa na udanganyifu. Uchaguzi huo ulifanyika wakati wa kukandamiza vyombo vya habari vya kujitegemea na shughuli za kisiasa: katika miezi iliyotangulia na kufuatia uchaguzi kulikuwa na ripoti nyingi za waandishi wa habari na wanaharakati kusumbuliwa, kukamatwa, na kukamatwa. Baada ya kura ya maoni ya Septemba 2016 kuidhinisha marekebisho ya katiba, Aliyev alidai kuwa alikuwa akijaribu kuimarisha mamlaka yake na kuweka familia yake katika nafasi za juu katika serikali. Marekebisho hayo mawili yalipanua muda wa rais katika ofisi kutoka miaka mitano hadi saba, na nyingine iliunda nafasi mbili za makamu wa rais, kujazwa na watu walioteuliwa na rais ambao wangechukua mamlaka ya rais, badala ya waziri mkuu kufanya hivyo, ikiwa rais angekuwa na uwezo. Marekebisho ya tatu, ambayo yanakataza umri wa chini wa wagombea urais na kupunguza umri wa wagombea wa bunge, yanaonekana na baadhi ya watu kuwa sehemu ya juhudi za kuandaa njia ya kisiasa kwa mwana wa Aliyev mwenye umri wa miaka 19. Aliyev aliteua mkewe Mehriban kuwa makamu wa rais. Aliyev alichaguliwa tena kwa muhula wa nne mwezi Aprili 2018 katika uchaguzi ambao, licha ya kupigwa marufuku na vyama vikuu vya upinzani, ulikuwa na ushiriki mkubwa. Serikali mpya nchini Armenia ilitoa mwanzo mpya katika mazungumzo juu ya Nagorno-Karabakh. Mkutano wa ngazi ya juu uliofanyika mapema mwaka 2019 ulifikia kilele mwishoni mwa Machi na mkutano kati ya Aliyev na Waziri Mkuu wa Armenia Nikol Pashinyan, ambao pande hizo mbili ziliona kuwa wa kujenga. Hata hivyo, mazungumzo hayo yalivunjika mwaka 2020, na kuongezeka kwa mvutano kulisababisha mgogoro upya. Mnamo Septemba, Nagorno-Karabakh iliona mapigano yake makali na ya uharibifu zaidi tangu miaka ya 1990, yakichochewa kwa sehemu na msaada kutoka Uturuki hadi Azerbaijan. Mnamo Novemba 9, siku moja baada ya Azerbaijan kukamata mji wa pili kwa ukubwa katika mkoa huo, Shusha, Pashinyan alikubaliana na makubaliano ya kusitisha mapigano ambayo yalijumuisha uondoaji wa vikosi vya Armenia kutoka mkoa huo. Wakati wanajeshi wa amani wa Urusi watalinda sehemu kubwa ya Nagorno-Karabakh kama sehemu ya mpango huo, Azerbaijan ilipewa udhibiti kamili juu ya maeneo ambayo ilishinda wakati wa mgogoro na vile vile wilaya za Aghdam, Kalbajar na Lachin.