ST 1 / tct 1 / Technique and its Training
Translated and adapted by David Ribera-Nebot
Introduction to the Concept of Technique
Technique is a concept with varied applications and a great diversity of contents.
In contrast with other human technical activities, in sport activities all human capacities are involved and evaluated immediately. For this reason, there is a need for a more specific approach to the concept of technique.
Ozolín, N. (1970) defines technique as the most rational and effective form to perform exercises.
Grosser, M. (1982) defines technique as the ideal model of a movement relative to a specific sport activity. For team sports; Mechling (1983) defines technique as that movements or part of movements that permit to perform attack and defense actions with a concrete game purpose, and with a quite good execution quality (good with reference to an ideal model). It follows from these definitions that the sportsman, in order to obtain performance in his particular sport, must have learned a group of movements, following ideal models, result of different research, which will facilitate to execute precise actions to improve his motor skills. Therefore, when a person possess this or that movement within his motor repertory, it is said that he has this or that ability; that is why, the group of movements of different sport specialties are called sport technical abilities. Harre, D.(1979), Grosser, M. (1982), Roth (1983). Consequently, an sportsman will possess a good technical ability the best he adjust his movement to the ideal model, in addition to the best he can control it to obtain maximal performance during real competition. The aptitude of a person to acquire these abilities is understood as capacity (Thiess, 1980). Thus, an individual with a better learning capacity, will have the possibility to have a major number of technical abilities to apply to sport executions (Hortz, 1983). We should point out, in passing, that to apply correctly a technical ability during competition not only depends of this capacity, but also on tactical capacities which are not the motive of this article.
But, how this ideal technical model is established? It is the product of research that proposes a concrete movement to be performed as the most effective. However, the ideal model changes, and the ideal now is not that ideal after a period of time, when science and experience of coaches improve. Therefore, we think that does not exist an ideal model, but the ideal model for each sportsman, which will depend upon his ability to perform during real competitive situations with reference to his possibilities to solve efficiently the situations proposed in that moment. We neither agree with the term style as the personal interpretation that a person does of a determined ideal technical model, because his execution is a personal model acquired through practice and which is the ideal for him in that moment. Who can say that the ideal technical model of a person 15 years old must be the same than his ideal technical model when hi be 25 years old, when changes as corporal dimensions, weight, strength, concept of movement, contents, tactics, have occurred. The ideal model is transitory, thus the most important is to create a personal model that be adjusted to the game rules and facilitates maximal performance during competition at each stage of the sport life.
Donsk (1962), Ozolín (1970), Grosse (1982), Verjoshanskij (1987), pointed out the need to examine the conditions in which the technique is executed. Each one proposes different options that are the base for the development of a particular analysis.
All technical abilities are performed by precise segmentary and/or global movements. Such precision makes the segmentary body parts to perform meticulous paths on the space. Also, that spatial trajectory must spend a certain period of time. All spatial and temporal aspects of a technical skill are easily observable and can be studied from different perspectives. They can be differenced from other called internal or structural aspects which will generate that external values manifested during sport practices of the athlete.
External factors are evident during the execution of each movement and they can even be observable by a non-specialist, while structural factors are of more complex assessment.
Description of the Spatial-Temporal Aspects.
The number of factors proposed for each analysis is obviously open for including new elements, depending on the knowledge of the specialist.
In subsequent parts we will see how each of these factors is generated by one or several internal factors, from which they are their external manifestation. The best way of summing up this initial study is to state that all these spatial-temporal aspects (constituents of the external form of movement) are consequence of a correct coordination, and are the representation of an intention that generates movement.
- Description of the Structural Aspects.
Fundaments of the structuralism theory (Saussure, Köhler, Wertheimer, Kofka,...) assert that exists a close interaction among all internal factors influencing the execution of technical abilities. For instance, concentration allows to choose adequately the type of movement and the possibility of being executed under a determined strength condition (qualities from different categories). The interrelation is so that a single factor modify all others; and external aspects are the manifestation of all of them together.
As we mentioned, spatial-temporal aspects (external) are consequence of structural aspects (internal). It is evident that cinematic conditions are the result of force production (internal dynamic study). Temporal assessment depends a great deal on informative factors. Thus, aesthetic and medical-kinesiological factors depend in part on psychological contents of movement, but also on dynamic components. It seems clear that both external and internal assessments are necessary for the understanding of performance of a technical skill. Therefore, we can explain how various subjets who execute “the same” technical ability obtain very different values in some of these internal and external components and consequently perform, from a technical point of view, at a different level (Ratov, 1987). For example, physical conditioning preparation, which is responsible of force application conditions (internal factor), can determine the outcome of a confrontation between two players of similar technical levels. Similarly, an appropriate tactical decision (that affects both internal and external factors) can be relevant in many cases.
All described factors will have differential influence in each sport specialty. By analysing the technical abilities of a particular sport in the way it has been proposed, we will be able to define in a more precise way the technical training goals for this sport specialty and, in addition, to propose a more individualized technical learning.
The concept “technique” does not have the same meaning in all sports. The factors previously studied play a different role for every sport.
In order to determine the different meaning of a technical concept, it is necessary to analyse each sport specialty independently.
Verjoshanskij (1985) develop different meanings of technique even within the same sport (athletics). For explosive strength specialties, he states that the technique must guarantee the capacity of producing a strong and concentrated impulse just at the determinant phase of execution.
Neumeier (1981) also states that at this determinant phase of execution the role of the technique is to reach maximal acceleration. We can see, then, that there is a clear concurrence of concepts (dynamic-cinematic).
While for endurance events the technique is efficacy or performing a skill economically (temporal and kinesiologic factors are the most relevant). Thus, their techniques must be learnt differently.
For sports practiced with an opponent, Gulinelli (1986) understands technique as the possibility to solve variable competitive situations. On the other, Djatschkov (1977) states that technique must develop precise strength and speed executions to the maximal extend. In this case internal-informative and external-temporal values are the most determinant. Therefore, such factors must be taught preferentially in order to develop technical skills adequated to the competitive needs.
Gulinelli (1986) holds that in artistics sports the technique have to increase the precision and expressivity of movement (external-aesthetic assessment, and internal-informative and psychological assessments are the most important). Evidently, it is necessary to understand the meaning of technique before the selection of a training model. The proposed analysis allows the coach to design very efficiently the learning objectives of a concrete technique, the first step of any learning plan.
The observation of a technique can be assessed from a formal and a real point of view.
The formal assessment consist of an analysis of the similarity between a technical execution and its scientific ideal model. It is an objective assessment. In some sports (gymnastics, figure skating, etc) the athlete’s performance is evaluated with such formal criterion. A judge, trained to observe, give an score that assesses the execution of this type of technical skill. In other words, there exist a direct concurrence technique-result; therefore, such formal assessment is equivalent to a real assessment of the result.
Real assessment is based on the result, independently from the similarity between a technical execution and its ideal model. An athlete can perform scoring many goals and having a poor model of the throwing technique. Thus, it is an indirect measurement or assessment of technique. On the other hand, in some athletics specialities to have a technique similar to a model is a guarantee to perform at high level. An athlete who does not know the jumping hurdles technique cannot obtain a good result in those specialities, although the technique is not evaluated, but the time (an indirect assessment of technique). Therefore, the indirect assessment conditions of a technique permit to classify sports, at least, in these two cited groups. What it is really relevant is to know how technique is evaluated in our sport specialty in order to plan learning and training goals depending on the real demands of that speciality.
By doing that, different technical factors will be emphasized for each learning stage.
By the technical analysis (section 2) we have the knowledge of all factors that can be taught in order to improve the technical skill of a particular athlete. Knowing the meaning of technique allow us to classify the importance of all these factors and, therefore, to clearly define the goals. Finally, with the evaluation of the technical skill in different sports, we can fix its relative importance and plan in sequence the learning goals during the athlete’s sport life. It is now time to discuss how to improve a technical skill; however, it is impossible to describe all the training process of all different sports, due to the nature of this article. We are going to tackle the questions of the influential aspects in acquiring a sport technique and the proposal of a model based on learning stages.
To learn technical abilities, besides motor learning, requires also another learning that permits to adjust an athlete’s motor activity to the predominant circumstances of a sport competition (Lorenz, 1969; Higgins, 1977). Technical training requires a more complex improvement of various capacities. Thus, it is not only necessary to achieve a motor learning, but also a perceptual and decisional learning in order to achieve all learning needs which are required for a high level sport practice (Arnold, 1980). These three type of learning must grow up homogeneously to perform in different sports; however, in each sport they will be emphasized particularly. For instance, Mandoni (1985) proposes the following learning that must be reached in beginner basketball players:
· Learning of signals (stimulus-answer).
· Learning of connections (stimulus-answer, without linking)
· Linking of various stimulus-answers.
· Learning of concepts.
· Learning of rules.
In this proposal perceptual and decisional learning are more emphasized than motor learning, while in other type of sports may happen the contrary.
All in all, there is a group of factors (figure 3) that will influence when learning new sport techniques of any speciality (Reider, 1985):
On the other hand, technical training is a more complex process that affects the improvement of all technical factors, and it includes among them the motor learning as well as all other components set out (figure 4).
- The training that is performed by execution of movements is the most meaningful in a training practice. This body motion can be aim toward the perfecting of movement, by improving its execution, or it also can be aim toward the acquisition of conditioning factors which improve the performance of a skill. In other words, to increase the value of both coordination and conditioning capacities of the athlete.
- The technical training of cognitive-affective participation is commonly underestimated, supposing that the simple participation of such values in any physical practice means already its training. It is not really like that and Duran (1985) systematize all required operations to plan a motor answer that makes evident the need to improve these type of capacities in which it is not necessary a motor participation for its training.
After these “mental practices” the motor execution is performed, under conditions similar to the designed proposals in the preceding plan. Once the movement has been executed, it is necessary to evaluate it, taking again value cognitive-affective capacities for being able to perform the following operations proposed by Duran on the figure.
In such type of mental operations become apparent, both during training practices and during competitions, that the participations of cognitive capacities allows a technical execution be adjusted to the activity purpose of an athlete; and if the planning has bigger cognitive participation, the answer has both cognitive and affective values
Volpert (1976) proposes different possibilities of technical training without motor activity, therefore it permits to improve certain cognitive capacities. Figure 9 is a representation of such training systems. Based on Volpert, Reider (1985) define the following cognitive objectives to practice:
· To improve the representation capacity of movement.
· To improve anticipation processes.
· Conscious perception of each information type (kinestesic, visual, tactile, acoustic).
· To improve observation capacities.
· To improve the capacity to compare the expected result with the real one.
· Motor schemes with attention focus.
· To improve the concentration capacity.
The achievement of such goals allows to develop more specific training methods so as to avoid execution mistakes which are based on the athlete’s comprehension (cognition) of his own technical performance. For instance, Pöhlmann (1977), based on the called “principle of discrimination or clarification”, proposes attempts with artifacts of different weights in order to solve, by kinestesic differentiation, determined execution problems in relation, basically, to the application of forces.
There also exist options based on mistakes, proposed by Korengerg (1980), for knowing the real origin of errors during the execution of technical skills. Added to that, based on Meinel & Schnabel (1977), the cognitive processes attain great stability in the sportsman with reference to motor execution of technique for reaching his high performance in any circumstance (called “constancy of movement”). Cognitive processes have also an important participation in eliminating the called “speed’s barrier” or “speed’s block” (Ozolín, 1980 and Hollmann-Hettinger, 1980); in addition to other applications during training and competition.
Therefore, during the process of technical training is necessary to apply skills of motor participation as well as skill of cognitive-affective participation, which make its application more complex and extend it to, practically, a person’s sport life. It would be necessary to use different methods depending on what an athlete needs to improve his technique. Evidently, each of these training options are more or less effective to reach some or others technical goals that must be achieved during the course of different formation stages of the technical ability.
This training process will allow the learning of technical abilities after years of uninterrupted experiences. On the one hand, Fitts (1964) proposes three stages for these acquisitions: cognitive stage, associative stage and autonomous stage. Gentile (1972) only define two stages, while Meinel (1977) develops also three levels of dominion: beginner, advanced and high dominion. Martin (1977) adds a fourth level. Both Ozolín (1970) and Matveev (1977) observe two moments: learning and advanced. More recently, Nadori (1985) define three levels under the following epigraphs: non-specific, semi-specific and specific stage for the technical ability acquisition. Most authors agree with the idea of defining a first moment in which it must be reached a basic “technical model”, understanding the conditions of the skill as well as recognizing and interpreting environmental characteristics in which the technical movement must be performed and adapted.
In a second technical stage, the sportsman must perfects his movements by eliminating unnecessary movements (Harre, 1976). He also must obtain an enough degree of stability and regularity, as well as perfect decisional processes, identifying the integrated environmental characteristics, predict events, and he also must rank answers that might be applied to determined competitive situations.
Some authors define, in a third level, phenomenon of constancy and availability that permits high levels of technical execution in any environmental situation.
While others, which only propose two stages, include these achievements in the second like a final consequence of a well done training process. We believe that there is lack of a third or fourth stage of technical training. Stage in which the sportsman, owner of his technique, is able to create new ability forms, identifying them as something personal and, simultaneously, such new skills are as an additional stimulus to stay many years practicing sport. There exist sport specialities in which this process is more difficult, and it can even be interfered with the specific rules. Anyway, there cannot be any doubt that the person’s sport life must be divided by stages in order to adjust the biological maturing processes with the development of technical abilities and others. Our proposal for team sports and sports of similar characteristics is:
A) Stage of multipurpose general conditioning (8-10 year-old).
B) Stage of oriented multilateral preparation (10-12 year-old).
C) Stage of specific initiation (12-16 year-old).
D) Stage of specialization (16-20 year-old).
E) Stage of perfecting (20-24 year-old).
F) Stage of high stability of performance (more than 24 year-old).
For each stage we will define the differential criteria for the formation of the technical ability, as a consequence of an organized training under the parameters we have mentioned.
A) At this stage the training of motor participation must develop all coordination capacities; with non-specific orientation, with constant modifications of environmental conditions of the practitioner. It is founded, therefore, on motor experimentation of all movement capacities. All areas of conditional capacities are developed in equilibrium to coordination capacities.
With reference to the training of cognitive participation, it should be focused on the understanding of movement as a human capacity, as well as the self-conscience of the individual during this movement.
At this stage there is no difference among the training of different individuals; thus, all of them will after be able to practice all type of sports. Coaches should observe the areas of movements and cognitions in which each subject learn faster or is outstanding in comparison with his partners, in order to be able to develop next step correctly.
B) When the athlete and coach are conscious of the best efficacy at executing a concrete spectrum of movements, this second stage of oriented multilateral preparation begins. The training of technical abilities is focused on the improvement of non-specific coordination of the group of movements in which the individual is talented, and in which they will be able to apply afterwards to some sport specialty. As much as the coach knows the selected sport he will propose an elementary orientation towards the practice of the technical actions of such specialty and to the complementary skills, based on his experience. At this moment it is of great importance to analyse the technique in order to propose the predominant space-temporal and structural aspects of that sport specialty that will be the fundamentals of posterior technical acquisitions in that specific ability.
At this stage begins the first differentiation of training of technical skills and the cognitive participation practices. This will allow, in addition to the observation of the biological development, to determine, with less errors, a future sport specialty which is initiated in a specific manner immediately.
C) At this moment, all technical training is focused on reaching and developing the self-execution model of the specific movements of a concrete sport specialty. We could talk about an adaptation of abilities to specific skills with participation of cognitive processes so as they can be assimilated by the motor repertoire. These cognitive processes have now their main role during competition, place to test each technique achieved during training practices. The meaning of technique in the chosen sport specialty will determine the adjustment of achievements to the competition. The role of the coach is fundamental in identifying these meanings and presenting them to the athlete under simplified conditions during the practices.
Conditional capacities training is focused on that specific facets of the initiated specialty, but considering the degree of biological maturing of the subject. It is evident, at this stage, that the athlete is already a player or competitor of a determined athletic specialty.
D) Talent personal qualities are basic at this specialization stage. Morphological development, facility in technical learning and its fixing, efficacy in taking decisions, adaptability to competitive conditions, are among others, factors which will allow both the athlete and the coach to make sure that their choice was right. All external factors, space-temporal, must be solve with efficacy. Specific technical evaluation will define this efficacy and will permit to adjust structural factors progressively to needs required at this level. Methods of cognitive training must reach a profound knowledge of the sport and sport specialty, or of the specific position to which the athlete must adapt all the achieved skills. This stage is termed “stage of profound specialization” by Tschiene (1985), with reference to athletics (track and field) in order to point out the importance of specific training methods.
The dynamic study and temporal assessment are the elements that allow the proposal of preferable goals for technical training at this level. Higgins (1977) proposes that the athlete must adapt and transfer his ability to the predominant conditions of environment. Differentially, in the next stage, the athlete will have to adapt his ability to unusual or varied situations.
E) At this moment the sportsman has a dominion of all technical abilities and the purpose is its perfecting. That means that space-temporal and structural aspects must be in total concordance in order to obtain this perfection in competitive situations. The variability of these situations tests cognitive and specific conditional capacities which must be continuously trained to reach that perfection of the technical ability. It is fundamental to reproduce variable conditions of competition in a global form, even to increase them during training practices in order to never block the progress of the technical execution (Pöhlmann, 1977).
If these conditions of training are maintained, this perfection can be extended indefinitely; if also competitive conditions bring to the sportsman enough new stimulus that avoid periods of stagnation.
F) The stage of high stability of performance. This is a consequence of the previous stage. The difference is that now, the possible motor solutions to competitive situations must be, in most of the cases, a product of personal elaboration of the athlete and his creative capacity. The athlete has a high level of technical stability, its technical capacity is consolidated in such a way that permits him to perform in all competitive conditions and, moreover, can create movement solutions which even allow him to be more effective. This success will permit him to stay during a longer period of time competing with a high level of motivation to do that. We believe this is possible through an appropriate distribution of the goals in the different stages proposed and by giving attention to the training of cognitive capacities over the different phases of technical training.
Finally, it only remains to point out that the technical training proposed is senseless if it is not done in concordance with the tactical training which has been systematically ignored due to the nature of this article.
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|© 1987 Francisco Seirul-lo Vargas ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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"Mfano wa ""Ufundi wa ST"" na mafunzo yake (Kutafsiriwa na kurekebishwa na David Ribera-Nebot) Utangulizi wa dhana ya ""Ufundi"" ni dhana yenye matumizi mbalimbali na utamaduni mkubwa wa maudhui." Tofauti na shughuli nyingine za kiufundi za binadamu, katika shughuli za michezo uwezo wote wa binadamu unahusika na kutathminiwa mara moja. Kwa sababu hii, kuna haja ya mbinu maalum zaidi kwa dhana ya mbinu. Ozolin (1970) anaelezea mbinu kama njia ya busara na ufanisi zaidi ya kufanya mazoezi. Grosser, M. (1982) hufafanua mbinu kama mfano bora wa harakati kuhusiana na shughuli maalum ya michezo. "Mechling (1983) anaelezea mbinu kama ""harakati au sehemu ya harakati ambazo huruhusu kutekeleza vitendo vya mashambulizi na ulinzi na lengo halisi la mchezo, na kwa ubora mzuri wa utekelezaji.""" "Kutokana na ufafanuzi huu, ni lazima mwanariadha, ili kupata utendaji katika mchezo wake maalum, awe amejifunza kikundi cha harakati, akifuata mifano bora, matokeo ya utafiti tofauti, ambayo itasaidia kutekeleza vitendo sahihi ili kuboresha ujuzi wake wa magari. """ "Kwa hiyo, wakati mtu ana hii au kwamba harakati ndani ya repertoire yake motor, ni alisema kwamba ana hii au kwamba uwezo; kwamba ni kwa nini kundi la harakati ya maalum tofauti michezo ni kuitwa ""hatua za michezo.""" Harro, D., 1979; Grosser, M., 1982; Roth, 1983; na wengine. Kwa hiyo, mwanariadha atakuwa na uwezo mzuri wa kiufundi, kadiri atakavyoweza kurekebisha mwendo wake kwa mfano bora, pamoja na jinsi atakavyoweza kuudhibiti ili kupata utendaji wa juu wakati wa mashindano halisi. Uwezo wa mtu kupata uwezo huu unaeleweka kama uwezo (Thiess, 1980). Kwa hivyo, mtu mwenye uwezo bora wa kujifunza atakuwa na uwezo wa kuwa na idadi kubwa ya uwezo wa kiufundi wa kutumia kwa utekelezaji wa michezo (Hortz, 1983). Tunapaswa kuashiria, kwa njia, kwamba kutumia kwa usahihi uwezo wa kiufundi wakati wa mashindano haitegemei tu uwezo huu, lakini pia juu ya uwezo wa kimkakati ambao sio sababu ya makala hii. Lakini, mtindo huu bora wa kiufundi unategemea nini? Ni bidhaa ya utafiti ambayo inapendekeza harakati halisi kufanyika kama ufanisi zaidi. Hata hivyo, mfano bora hubadilika, na bora sasa si kwamba bora baada ya kipindi cha muda, wakati sayansi na uzoefu wa makocha kuboresha. Kwa hiyo, tunafikiri kwamba hakuna mfano bora, lakini mfano bora kwa kila mwanariadha, ambayo itategemea uwezo wake wa kufanya kazi wakati wa hali halisi ya ushindani, kwa kuzingatia uwezekano wake wa kutatua kwa ufanisi hali zinazopendekezwa wakati huo. "Hatuwezi kukubaliana na neno ""mtindo"" kama tafsiri ya kibinafsi ambayo mtu hufanya ya mfano wa kiufundi wa mfano, kwa sababu utekelezaji wake ni mfano wa kibinafsi uliopatikana kupitia mazoezi na ambayo ni bora kwa yeye wakati huo." Ni nani anayeweza kusema kwamba mfano bora wa kiufundi wa mtu mwenye umri wa miaka 15 lazima uwe sawa na mfano wake bora wa kiufundi wakati yeye ni mwenye umri wa miaka 25, wakati mabadiliko kama vipimo vya mwili, uzito, nguvu, dhana ya harakati, maudhui, mbinu, yametokea? Mfano bora ni wa muda mfupi, kwa hivyo muhimu zaidi ni kuunda mfano wa kibinafsi ambao unabadilishwa kwa sheria za mchezo na kuwezesha utendaji wa juu wakati wa mashindano katika kila hatua ya maisha ya michezo. "Kama vile ""Donsk"" (1962), ""Ozolín"" (1970), ""Grosse"" (1982), na ""Veryoshanskiy"" (1987), walionyesha haja ya kuchunguza hali ambayo mbinu hiyo inafanywa." Kila mmoja anapendekeza chaguzi tofauti ambazo ni msingi wa maendeleo ya uchambuzi fulani. Uwezo wote wa kiufundi ni kufanyika na sahihi segmentary na / au harakati ya kimataifa. Usahihi huo hufanya sehemu za mwili za sehemu kufanya njia za uangalifu kwenye nafasi. Pia, kwamba trajectory nafasi lazima kutumia kipindi fulani cha muda. Mambo yote ya kijiografia na ya muda ya ustadi wa kiufundi yanaweza kuchunguzwa kwa urahisi na yanaweza kuchunguzwa kutoka kwa mtazamo tofauti. Hizi zinaweza kutofautishwa na nyingine zinazoitwa mambo ya ndani au ya muundo ambayo yatazalisha thamani hizo za nje zinazoonekana wakati wa mazoezi ya michezo ya mwanariadha. Mambo ya nje ni dhahiri wakati wa utekelezaji wa kila harakati na wanaweza hata kuwa observable na asiye mtaalamu, wakati mambo ya muundo ni ya tathmini ngumu zaidi. Maelezo ya Spatial-Temporal Aspects. Idadi ya mambo mapendekezo kwa kila uchambuzi ni wazi wazi kwa ajili ya kuingiza vipengele vipya, kulingana na maarifa ya mtaalamu. Katika sehemu zifuatazo tutaona jinsi kila moja ya mambo haya ni kuzalishwa na moja au zaidi mambo ya ndani, ambayo ni maonyesho yao ya nje. Njia bora ya kujumlisha utafiti huu wa awali ni kusema kwamba mambo haya yote ya nafasi-wakati (viungo vya aina ya nje ya harakati) ni matokeo ya uratibu sahihi, na ni uwakilishi wa nia ambayo inazalisha harakati. - Maelezo ya Aspects Structural. "Kutokana na nadharia ya ""mfumo"" (Saussure, Koehler, Wertheimer, Kofka, na wengineo) kuna uhusiano wa karibu kati ya mambo yote ya ndani yanayoathiri utendaji wa uwezo wa kiufundi." Kwa mfano, mkusanyiko inaruhusu kuchagua kutosha aina ya harakati na uwezekano wa kuwa kutekelezwa chini ya hali ya nguvu maalum (sifa kutoka makundi tofauti). Uhusiano ni kwamba sababu moja tu kubadilisha wengine wote; na mambo ya nje ni maonyesho ya wote pamoja. Kama tulivyosema, mambo ya nafasi-wakati (ya nje) ni matokeo ya mambo ya muundo (ya ndani). Ni dhahiri kwamba hali ya sinema ni matokeo ya uzalishaji wa nguvu (mafunzo ya ndani ya nguvu). Tathmini ya muda inategemea sana mambo ya habari. Hivyo, esthetic na matibabu-kinesiological mambo hutegemea kwa sehemu juu ya maudhui ya kisaikolojia ya harakati, lakini pia juu ya vipengele nguvu. Inaonekana wazi kwamba wote nje na ndani tathmini ni muhimu kwa ajili ya uelewa wa utendaji wa ujuzi wa kiufundi. Kwa hiyo, tunaweza kueleza jinsi watu mbalimbali ambao kutekeleza "sawa" uwezo wa kiufundi kupata maadili tofauti sana katika baadhi ya vipengele hivi vya ndani na nje na kwa hiyo kufanya, kutoka kwa mtazamo wa kiufundi, katika ngazi tofauti (Ratov, 1987). Kwa mfano, maandalizi ya hali ya mwili, ambayo ni wajibu wa hali ya matumizi ya nguvu (sababishi la ndani), inaweza kuamua matokeo ya mapigano kati ya wachezaji wawili wa ngazi sawa za kiufundi. Vivyo hivyo, uamuzi sahihi wa kimkakati (ambao huathiri mambo ya ndani na ya nje) unaweza kuwa muhimu katika kesi nyingi. Sababu zote zilizoelezwa zitakuwa na ushawishi tofauti katika kila utaalam wa michezo. Kwa kuchambua uwezo wa kiufundi wa mchezo fulani kwa njia ambayo imependekezwa, tutaweza kufafanua kwa njia sahihi zaidi malengo ya mafunzo ya kiufundi kwa utaalam huu wa michezo na, kwa kuongezea, kupendekeza kujifunza kiufundi kwa mtu binafsi. Dhana ya "teknolojia" haina maana sawa katika michezo yote. Sababu zilizochunguzwa hapo awali zina jukumu tofauti kwa kila mchezo. Ili kuamua maana tofauti ya dhana ya kiufundi, ni muhimu kuchambua kila utaalam wa michezo kwa kujitegemea. Verjoshanskij (1985) kuendeleza maana tofauti ya mbinu hata ndani ya mchezo huo (athletics). Kwa ajili ya nguvu ya mlipuko maalum, yeye anasema kwamba mbinu lazima kuhakikisha uwezo wa kuzalisha nguvu na msukumo mkali tu katika awamu ya kuamua ya utekelezaji. Neumeier (1981) pia anasema kwamba katika hatua hii ya kuamua ya utekelezaji jukumu la mbinu ni kufikia kasi ya juu. Tunaweza kuona, basi, kwamba kuna wazi concurrence ya dhana (dynamic-cinematic). Wakati kwa ajili ya matukio ya uvumilivu mbinu ni ufanisi au kufanya ustadi kiuchumi (wakati na kinesiological mambo ni muhimu zaidi). Kwa hiyo, mbinu zao lazima zifundishwe kwa njia tofauti. Katika michezo ya kupigana, Gulinelli anatumia mbinu ya kupigana kama njia ya kukabiliana na hali tofauti. "Jatschkov (1977) anasema: ""Ufundi lazima kuendeleza nguvu sahihi na kasi ya utekelezaji kwa kiwango cha juu.""" Katika kesi hii ndani-informative na nje-wakati maadili ni zaidi ya kuamua. Kwa hiyo, mambo hayo lazima kufundishwa preferentially ili kuendeleza ujuzi wa kiufundi sahihi kwa mahitaji ya ushindani. Gulinelli (1986) anasema kwamba katika michezo ya sanaa mbinu lazima kuongeza usahihi na expressiveness ya harakati (nje-aesthetic tathmini, na ndani-informative na tathmini ya kisaikolojia ni muhimu zaidi). Ni wazi, ni muhimu kuelewa maana ya mbinu kabla ya uteuzi wa mfano wa mafunzo. Uchambuzi uliopendekezwa unaruhusu kocha kubuni kwa ufanisi sana malengo ya kujifunza ya mbinu halisi, hatua ya kwanza ya mpango wowote wa kujifunza. Uchunguzi wa mbinu inaweza kutathminiwa kutoka rasmi na halisi mtazamo. Tathmini rasmi inajumuisha uchambuzi wa kufanana kati ya utekelezaji wa kiufundi na mfano wake wa kisayansi bora. Ni tathmini ya kimakusudi. Katika baadhi ya michezo (gymnastics, figure skating, nk) utendaji wa mwanariadha ni tathmini na kama vigezo rasmi. Hakimu, aliyezoezwa kuchunguza, hutoa alama ambayo inathamini utekelezaji wa aina hii ya ustadi wa kiufundi. Kwa maneno mengine, kuna moja kwa moja concur mbinu-matokeo; kwa hiyo, kama tathmini rasmi ni sawa na tathmini halisi ya matokeo. Tathmini halisi inategemea matokeo, bila kujali kufanana kati ya utekelezaji wa kiufundi na mfano wake bora. Mwanariadha anaweza kufanya kufunga mabao mengi na kuwa na mfano duni wa mbinu ya kutupa. Hivyo, ni kipimo au tathmini isiyo ya moja kwa moja ya mbinu. Kwa upande mwingine, katika baadhi ya utaalam wa riadha kuwa na mbinu sawa na mfano ni dhamana ya kufanya katika ngazi ya juu. Mchezaji ambaye hajui mbinu ya kuruka vizuizi hawezi kupata matokeo mazuri katika taaluma hizo, ingawa mbinu haichunguzwi, lakini wakati (utathmini wa moja kwa moja wa mbinu). Kwa hiyo, masharti ya tathmini isiyo ya moja kwa moja ya mbinu inaruhusu kuainisha michezo, angalau, katika makundi haya mawili yaliyotolewa. Ni muhimu kujua jinsi mbinu inavyopimwa katika taaluma yetu ya michezo ili kupanga malengo ya kujifunza na mafunzo kulingana na mahitaji halisi ya taaluma hiyo. Kwa kufanya hivyo, mambo tofauti ya kiufundi yatasisitizwa kwa kila hatua ya kujifunza. Kwa uchambuzi wa kiufundi (section 2) tuna ujuzi wa mambo yote ambayo yanaweza kufundishwa ili kuboresha ustadi wa kiufundi wa mwanariadha fulani. Kujua maana ya mbinu inaruhusu sisi kuainisha umuhimu wa mambo haya yote na, kwa hiyo, kwa wazi kufafanua malengo. Hatimaye, kwa tathmini ya ustadi wa kiufundi katika michezo tofauti, tunaweza kuweka umuhimu wake wa jamaa na kupanga kwa mfululizo malengo ya kujifunza wakati wa maisha ya michezo ya mwanariadha. Sasa ni wakati wa kujadili jinsi ya kuboresha ujuzi wa kiufundi; hata hivyo, haiwezekani kuelezea mchakato wote wa mafunzo ya michezo yote tofauti, kwa sababu ya asili ya makala hii. Kwa hivyo, tunapaswa kuzingatia mambo muhimu katika kujifunza mbinu ya michezo na kuanzisha mfumo wa kujifunza. Kujifunza uwezo wa kiufundi, pamoja na kujifunza motor, inahitaji pia kujifunza nyingine ambayo inaruhusu kurekebisha shughuli motor wa mwanariadha kwa hali ya ushindani wa michezo (Lorenz, 1969; Higgins, 1977). Mafunzo ya kiufundi yanahitaji uboreshaji tata zaidi wa uwezo mbalimbali. Kwa hivyo, sio tu ni muhimu kufikia kujifunza motor, lakini pia kujifunza kwa utambuzi na uamuzi ili kufikia mahitaji yote ya kujifunza ambayo yanahitajika kwa mazoezi ya kiwango cha juu cha michezo (Arnold, 1980). Aina hizi tatu za kujifunza lazima zikue kwa usawa ili kufanya katika michezo tofauti; hata hivyo, katika kila mchezo zitakazowekwa mkazo hasa. Kwa mfano, Mandoni (1985) anapendekeza kujifunza zifuatazo kwamba lazima kufikiwa katika wachezaji wa mpira wa kikapu mwanzoni: · Kujifunza ya uhusiano (kichocheo-jibu, bila kuunganisha) · Kuunganisha ya stimulation-jibu mbalimbali. · Kujifunza dhana. · Kujifunza sheria. Katika pendekezo hili kujifunza kwa utambuzi na uamuzi kunasisitizwa zaidi kuliko kujifunza kwa motor, wakati katika aina nyingine ya michezo inaweza kutokea kinyume. Kwa ujumla, kuna kikundi cha mambo (chapa 3) ambayo itaathiri wakati wa kujifunza mbinu mpya za michezo ya taaluma yoyote (Reider, 1985), kwa upande mwingine, mafunzo ya kiufundi ni mchakato tata zaidi ambayo huathiri kuboresha mambo yote ya kiufundi, na ni pamoja na kujifunza motor pamoja na vipengele vingine vyote vilivyoelezwa. - Mafunzo ambayo ni kufanyika kwa utekelezaji wa harakati ni muhimu zaidi katika mazoezi ya mafunzo. Mzunguko huu wa mwili unaweza kuwa na lengo la kukamilisha mwendo, kwa kuboresha utekelezaji wake, au pia inaweza kuwa na lengo la kupata sababu za hali ambayo kuboresha utendaji wa ujuzi. Kwa maneno mengine, kuongeza thamani ya uwezo wa uratibu na hali ya mwanariadha. - mafunzo ya kiufundi ya ushiriki utambuzi-affective ni kawaida underestimated, kudhani kwamba ushiriki rahisi ya maadili kama katika mazoezi yoyote ya kimwili ina maana tayari mafunzo yake. Duran (1985) anatumia mfumo wa kazi zote zinazohitajika kupanga majibu ya motor ambayo inaonyesha haja ya kuboresha aina hii ya uwezo ambapo si lazima ushiriki wa motor kwa ajili ya mafunzo yake. Baada ya hizi "mazoezi ya akili" utekelezaji wa motor hufanywa, chini ya hali sawa na mapendekezo yaliyotengenezwa katika mpango wa awali. Baada ya harakati kutekelezwa, ni muhimu kuchunguza, kuchukua tena thamani uwezo wa utambuzi-affective kwa kuwa na uwezo wa kufanya shughuli zifuatazo mapendekezo na Duran juu ya takwimu. Katika aina hii ya shughuli za akili, inakuwa dhahiri, wakati wa mazoezi ya mafunzo na wakati wa mashindano, kwamba ushiriki wa uwezo wa utambuzi unaruhusu utekelezaji wa kiufundi kurekebishwa kwa kusudi la shughuli ya mwanariadha; na ikiwa mipango ina ushiriki mkubwa wa utambuzi, jibu lina thamani ya utambuzi na hisia. - Volpert (1976) Picha ya 9 inaonyesha mifumo ya mafunzo. "Kutokana na Volpert, Reider (1985) kufafanua ""malengo ya utambuzi yafuatayo kwa mazoezi: kuboresha uwezo wa uwakilishi wa harakati.""" · Kuboresha michakato ya kutarajia. · Uelewa wa ufahamu wa kila aina ya habari (kinestesic, visual, tactile, acoustic). · Kuboresha uwezo wa uchunguzi. · Kuboresha uwezo wa kulinganisha matokeo yanayotarajiwa na halisi. · Mifumo ya magari na umakini lengo. · Kuboresha uwezo wa kukaza fikira. Ufikiaji wa malengo kama hayo inaruhusu kuendeleza mbinu za mafunzo maalum zaidi ili kuepuka makosa ya utekelezaji ambayo yanategemea uelewa wa mwanariadha (utambuzi) wa utendaji wake wa kiufundi. Kwa mfano, Pohlmann (1977), kulingana na inayoitwa "kanuni ya ubaguzi au ufafanuzi", inapendekeza majaribio na vitu vya uzito tofauti ili kutatua, kwa tofauti ya kinesthetic, matatizo ya utekelezaji yaliyowekwa kuhusiana, kimsingi, na matumizi ya nguvu. Kuna pia chaguzi msingi makosa, mapendekezo ya Korengerg (1980), kwa kujua asili halisi ya makosa wakati wa utekelezaji wa ujuzi wa kiufundi. "Kuhusu ""Kutambua"" na ""Kutambua"" katika Meinl na Schnabel (1977), mchakato wa utambuzi unafikia utulivu mkubwa katika mwanariadha kwa kuzingatia utekelezaji wa injini ya mbinu ya kufikia utendaji wake wa juu katika hali yoyote (inaitwa ""mzuri wa mwendo")."" Utaratibu wa utambuzi pia una ushiriki muhimu katika kuondoa kile kinachoitwa kizuizi cha kasi au kizuizi cha kasi (Ozolín, 1980 na Hollmann-Hettinger, 1980), pamoja na matumizi mengine wakati wa mafunzo na mashindano. Kwa hiyo, wakati wa mchakato wa mafunzo ya kiufundi ni muhimu kutumia ujuzi wa ushiriki wa motor na ujuzi wa ushiriki wa utambuzi-affective, ambayo hufanya matumizi yake kuwa ngumu zaidi na kupanua kwa, kwa kweli, maisha ya michezo ya mtu. Ni muhimu kutumia mbinu tofauti kulingana na kile ambacho mwanariadha anahitaji kuboresha mbinu yake. Kwa wazi, kila moja ya chaguzi hizi za mafunzo ni zaidi au chini ya ufanisi kufikia baadhi au nyingine ya malengo ya kiufundi ambayo lazima kupatikana wakati wa hatua tofauti za malezi ya uwezo wa kiufundi. Utaratibu huu wa mafunzo utawezesha kujifunza uwezo wa kiufundi baada ya miaka ya uzoefu usio na usumbufu. Fitts (1964) anaelezea hatua tatu za kujifunza: hatua ya utambuzi, hatua ya ushirika na hatua ya kujitegemea. "Kama ilivyoelezwa katika Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo ya Maelezo.""" Martin (1977) anaongeza ngazi ya nne. Ozil (1970) na Matveev (1977), wote wawili, wanaona wakati wa kujifunza na wa maendeleo. Nadori (1985) anaelezea hatua tatu za upatikanaji wa uwezo wa kiufundi: hatua isiyo ya kipekee, nusu ya kipekee na ya kipekee. Waandishi wengi wanakubaliana na wazo la kufafanua wakati wa kwanza ambapo lazima ifikie "mfano wa kiufundi" wa msingi, kuelewa hali ya ustadi na pia kutambua na kutafsiri sifa za mazingira ambazo harakati ya kiufundi lazima ifanywe na kubadilishwa. Katika hatua ya pili ya kiufundi, mwanariadha lazima kukamilisha harakati zake kwa kuondoa harakati zisizohitajika (Harrett, 1976). Lazima pia kupata kiwango cha kutosha cha utulivu na utaratibu, pamoja na mchakato kamili wa uamuzi, kutambua sifa za mazingira ya pamoja, kutabiri matukio, na pia lazima nafasi majibu ambayo inaweza kutumika kwa hali fulani ya ushindani. Baadhi ya waandishi kufafanua, katika ngazi ya tatu, jambo la constancy na upatikanaji kwamba inaruhusu ngazi ya juu ya utekelezaji wa kiufundi katika hali yoyote ya mazingira. Wakati wengine, ambao wanapendekeza hatua mbili tu, hujumuisha mafanikio haya katika ya pili kama matokeo ya mwisho ya mchakato wa mafunzo uliofanywa vizuri. Tunaamini kwamba kuna ukosefu wa hatua ya tatu au ya nne ya mafunzo ya kiufundi. Katika hatua hii, mwanariadha, mwenyeji wa mbinu yake, anaweza kuunda aina mpya za uwezo, kuutambua kama kitu cha kibinafsi, na wakati huo huo, ujuzi huo mpya ni kama kichocheo cha ziada cha kukaa miaka mingi katika mazoezi ya michezo. Kuna michezo maalum ambapo mchakato huu ni vigumu zaidi, na inaweza hata kuingiliwa na sheria maalum. Kwa vyovyote vile, hakuna shaka kwamba maisha ya mtu ya michezo lazima kugawanywa kwa hatua ili kurekebisha michakato ya kukomaa ya kibiolojia na maendeleo ya uwezo wa kiufundi na wengine. "Kama ilivyoelezwa hapo juu, ""mchezo wa timu na michezo ya tabia sawa ni: A) Hatua ya hali ya jumla ya matumizi mengi (miaka 8-10)." B) Hatua ya maandalizi ya pande nyingi (10-12 miaka). C) hatua ya uanzishaji maalum (12-16 miaka). D) Hatua ya utaalam (16-20 miaka). E) hatua ya kukamilisha (20-24 miaka). (a) Uwezo wa kuimarisha utendaji wa kazi (mwisho wa miaka 24). Kwa kila hatua tutafafanua vigezo tofauti kwa ajili ya malezi ya uwezo wa kiufundi, kama matokeo ya mafunzo kupangwa chini ya vigezo tumetaja. A) Katika hatua hii mafunzo ya ushiriki wa motor lazima kuendeleza uwezo wote wa uratibu; na mwelekeo usio maalum, na marekebisho ya mara kwa mara ya hali za mazingira ya mtaalamu. Kwa hiyo, inategemea majaribio ya utendaji wa nguvu zote za mwendo. Maeneo yote ya uwezo masharti ni maendeleo katika usawa kwa uwezo wa uratibu. Kwa kuzingatia mafunzo ya ushiriki wa utambuzi, inapaswa kuzingatia uelewa wa harakati kama uwezo wa binadamu, na pia dhamiri ya mtu binafsi wakati wa harakati hii. Katika hatua hii hakuna tofauti kati ya mafunzo ya watu tofauti; hivyo, wote wao baada ya kuwa na uwezo wa mazoezi ya aina zote za michezo. Mkufunzi anapaswa kuchunguza maeneo ya harakati na utambuzi ambapo kila somo kujifunza haraka au ni bora ikilinganishwa na washirika wake, ili kuwa na uwezo wa kuendeleza hatua ya pili kwa usahihi. Wakati mwanariadha na kocha wanafahamu ufanisi bora katika kutekeleza wigo halisi wa harakati, hatua hii ya pili ya maandalizi ya pande zote huanza. Mafunzo ya uwezo wa kiufundi ni lengo la kuboresha ushirikiano wa kawaida wa kundi la harakati ambazo mtu binafsi ni vipaji, na ambayo wataweza kuomba baadaye kwa baadhi ya michezo maalum. Kama vile kocha anajua mchezo uliochaguliwa, atapendekeza mwelekeo wa msingi kuelekea mazoezi ya vitendo vya kiufundi vya utaalam huo na ujuzi wa ziada, kulingana na uzoefu wake. Katika hatua hii ni muhimu sana kuchambua mbinu ili kupendekeza sehemu kuu ya nafasi-wakati na muundo wa taaluma hiyo ya michezo ambayo itakuwa msingi wa upatikanaji wa baadaye wa kiufundi katika uwezo huo maalum. Katika hatua hii huanza tofauti ya kwanza ya mafunzo ya ujuzi wa kiufundi na mazoea ya ushiriki wa utambuzi. Hii itawezesha, pamoja na uchunguzi wa maendeleo ya kibiolojia, kuamua, na makosa kidogo, utaalamu wa michezo ya baadaye ambayo huanzishwa kwa njia maalum mara moja. C) Kwa sasa, mafunzo yote ya kiufundi ni lengo la kufikia na kuendeleza mfano wa kujiendesha ya harakati maalum ya maalum ya michezo maalum. "Tunaweza kuzungumza juu ya marekebisho ya uwezo kwa ujuzi maalum na ushiriki wa michakato ya utambuzi ili waweze kufanywa na repertoire ya motor. """ Utaratibu huu wa utambuzi sasa una jukumu lao kuu wakati wa mashindano, mahali pa kujaribu kila mbinu iliyopatikana wakati wa mazoezi ya mafunzo. Maana ya mbinu katika utaalam wa michezo iliyochaguliwa itaamua marekebisho ya mafanikio kwa mashindano. Kazi ya kocha ni ya msingi katika kutambua maana hizi na kuwasilisha kwa mwanariadha chini ya hali rahisi wakati wa mazoezi. Mafunzo ya uwezo wa masharti ni lengo juu ya kwamba vipengele maalum vya utaalam ulioanzishwa, lakini kuzingatia kiwango cha kukomaa kwa kibiolojia ya somo. Ni dhahiri, katika hatua hii, kwamba mwanariadha tayari ni mchezaji au mshindani wa taaluma maalum ya riadha. D) Vipengele vya kipekee vya vipaji ni vya msingi katika hatua hii ya utaalam. Maendeleo ya morphological, urahisi katika kujifunza kiufundi na fixing yake, ufanisi katika kuchukua maamuzi, adaptability kwa hali ya ushindani, ni miongoni mwa wengine, mambo ambayo itawawezesha wote wanariadha na kocha kuhakikisha kwamba uchaguzi wao ilikuwa sahihi. Sababu zote za nje, nafasi-wakati, lazima kutatuliwa kwa ufanisi. Tathmini maalum ya kiufundi itafafanua ufanisi huu na itaruhusu kurekebisha mambo ya muundo hatua kwa hatua kwa mahitaji yanayohitajika katika ngazi hii. Njia za mafunzo ya utambuzi lazima zifike kwa maarifa ya kina ya mchezo na taaluma ya michezo, au ya nafasi maalum ambayo mwanariadha lazima abadilishe ujuzi wote uliopatikana. "Mwisho wa hatua hii unaitwa ""hatua ya utaalam wa kina"" na Tschiene (1985), kwa kumbukumbu ya riadha (rithi na uwanja) ili kuonyesha umuhimu wa mbinu maalum za mafunzo." utafiti nguvu na tathmini ya muda ni vipengele kwamba kuruhusu pendekezo la malengo bora kwa ajili ya mafunzo ya kiufundi katika ngazi hii. Higgins (1977) anapendekeza kwamba mwanariadha lazima kurekebisha na kuhamisha uwezo wake kwa hali kuu ya mazingira. Tofauti, katika hatua inayofuata, mwanariadha atahitaji kurekebisha uwezo wake kwa hali zisizo za kawaida au tofauti. E) Katika wakati huu mwanariadha ana utawala wa uwezo wote wa kiufundi na lengo ni ukamilifu wake. Hiyo inamaanisha kwamba vipengele vya nafasi-wakati na muundo lazima viwe katika concordance kamili ili kupata ukamilifu huu katika hali za ushindani. Mabadiliko ya hali hizi mtihani uwezo wa utambuzi na maalum masharti ambayo lazima kuendelea mafunzo kufikia ukamilifu wa uwezo wa kiufundi. Ni muhimu kuunda hali tofauti za ushindani kwa namna ya jumla, hata kuzidisha wakati wa mazoezi ya mafunzo ili kamwe kuzuia maendeleo ya utekelezaji wa kiufundi (Pohlmann, 1977). Kama hali hizi za mafunzo ni kudumishwa, ukamilifu huu inaweza kupanuliwa kwa muda usiojulikana, kama pia hali ya mashindano kuleta kwa mwanariadha kutosha kichocheo mpya kwamba kuepuka vipindi vya stagnation. F) hatua ya utulivu wa juu wa utendaji. Hii ni matokeo ya hatua ya awali. Tofauti ni kwamba sasa, ufumbuzi wa uwezekano wa magari kwa hali ya ushindani lazima, katika kesi nyingi, bidhaa ya utengenezaji wa kibinafsi wa mwanariadha na uwezo wake wa ubunifu. Mchezaji ana kiwango cha juu cha utulivu wa kiufundi, uwezo wake wa kiufundi umeimarishwa kwa njia ambayo inamruhusu kufanya kazi katika hali zote za ushindani na, kwa kuongezea, anaweza kuunda suluhisho la harakati ambazo hata zinamruhusu kuwa na ufanisi zaidi. Mafanikio haya yatamruhusu kukaa kwa muda mrefu zaidi akishindana na kiwango cha juu cha motisha ya kufanya hivyo. Tunaamini hii inawezekana kupitia usambazaji sahihi wa malengo katika hatua tofauti zilizopendekezwa na kwa kuzingatia mafunzo ya uwezo wa utambuzi katika hatua tofauti za mafunzo ya kiufundi. Mwishowe, inabaki tu kuashiria kwamba mafunzo ya kiufundi yaliyopendekezwa hayana maana ikiwa hayafanyiwi kwa upatano na mafunzo ya kimkakati ambayo yamepuuzwa kwa utaratibu kutokana na asili ya kifungu hiki. 1. Uwe na mtazamo wa kweli ARNOLD, R. "Le maendeleo ya habilites sportives" E.P.S. Faida ya 3 Nusu nane na tano. 2. Uwezekano wa kupata BERNSTEIN, N. "Uratibu na udhibiti wa harakati". Chapa ya Pergamon Press. Mwaka 1967 3. Uwe na mtazamo wa kweli "M. Durand, ""Activity cognitive et habilitation motrice"" (M. Durand, ""Mtazamo wa Kifahamu na Uwezo wa Kichocheo"")" 4. Uwe na uhakika Groser; Neumaier. "Técnicas de entrenamiento" Ed. Martins Roca 86 5. Uwe na mtazamo mzuri. HAHN, E. "Allenamento infantile" S. Stampa sportiva. Mwaka 1986 6. Uwe na uhakika KOCH, K. "Hacia una ciencia del deporte" Ed. Kapelusz. 81. - (Mstari wa 8) 7. Uwe na mtazamo gani? LAWTHER, J. "Aprendizaje de las habilidades motrices" Ed. Waliolipwa. 8. Uwe na mtazamo gani? MANNO, R.. <unk>La técnica nello sport<unk> Shule ya dello michezo. Mwaka 1984 9. (a) Kwa nini? MATVÉEV, l. "Fundamentos del Entrenamiento deportivo" Ed. Ráduga. Kumi. MEINEL; SCHNABEL. "Teoría del movimiento" S. Stampa sportiva. Mwaka 1984 11. (a) Kwa nini? OZOLÍN, N. "Sistema contemporáneo entrenamiento deportivo" Ed. Mtaalamu wa Teknolojia 83. 12. (a) Kwa nini? "Mejorar la técnica, Revista de entrenamiento deportivo, No. 1, 1987. ""Mejorar la técnica, Revista de entrenamiento deportivo, No. 1, 1987." 13. (a) Kwa nini? TSCHIENE, P. "Mwelekeo wa jumla wa mafunzo ya vijana" E.P.S. (Mdo.19:1-8) Kwa nini? "Mwaka wa 1987 Francisco Seirol-Lo Vargas alitoa taarifa ya ""Uhuru"" kwa ajili ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu ya timu."