When the United States began sending combat forces to Vietnam in 1965, the American economy became overstimulated by the war expenses, resulting in higher wages, higher prices, and significant inflation. Government spending on the war and tax increases burdened American businesses despite war-related contracts. At the end of the war, the U.S. economy suffered from stagflation and no peace dividend materialized.
At the end of World War II in 1945, the American business community worried that countries that became
For the American business community, Vietnam was essentially economically irrelevant. Pre-World War II U.S. trade with colonial French Indochina–Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos–was very light. In 1939, U.S. exports to Indochina were worth just $2.5 million and U.S. imports, primarily rubber, added up to $10.7 million. After World War II, American businesses were interested in strengthening the Japanese and West European economies so that these countries could withstand the surge of communism. However, Japan and France viewed Vietnam as a vital potential market with important natural resources.
The United States grudgingly sided with France when war broke out in Vietnam. After Ho Chi Minh rejected a French proposal for limited Vietnamese autonomy, French warships bombed the Vietnamese-held harbor of Haiphong on November 23, 1946. While France sought U.S. aid for its war in Vietnam, it also jealously guarded its colonial economic privileges. It objected, for example, to oil exploration in Vietnam by Texaco.
On May 8, 1950, Truman agreed to provide aid for the French war effort, officially funneled through the semi-independent state of Vietnam founded that year. From 1950 to mid-1954, the United States supported the French war in Vietnam with some $3.6 billion, paying 75 to 80 percent of the French war expenses with U.S. taxpayer money.
The Geneva Accords of July 21, 1954, temporarily halted the Vietnam War. Cambodia and Laos became independent. Vietnam was temporarily partitioned into the communist North Vietnam and the noncommunist South Vietnam. U.S. support of South Vietnam enabled
U.S. representatives in Saigon were unhappy with Diem’s unwillingness to use U.S. economic aid to promote Vietnamese economic development and his spending up to two-thirds of the aid on consumer goods, often imported from France. Diem’s distrust of private versus state-owned enterprises exasperated American businessmen in South Vietnam. They also fought against Vietnamese restrictions on direct foreign investment and wanted some guarantees against nationalization of American-owned businesses in Vietnam.
Beginning in late 1950, the United States sent U.S. soldiers to act as military advisers to Diem. When war in South Vietnam flared up again in 1957, the number of soldiers grew from the initial 77 to more than 1,000 in 1961. At a rough annual cost of $25,000 per soldier, this cost the United States an additional $25 million.
By late 1963, Diem was losing the fight against the communists. The United States acquiesced to a coup that killed and replaced him with a military junta. However, even ever-increasing American aid could not win the junta’s war against the communists. Year after year, the war in South Vietnam cost the U.S. economy more money, with few positive results.
Determined to keep South Vietnam from becoming communist, President Lyndon B.
The United States’ full-scale engagement in the Vietnam War increased government spending for military operations, equipment, and aid to Vietnam. Low unemployment dropped further as young men were drafted for temporary military service, leading to a significant rise in labor costs. Prices rose as U.S. companies passed on these higher costs to their customers. In December, 1965, the Federal Reserve raised the discount rate from 4 to 4.5 percent to fight
In early 1966, the U.S. economy boomed. Americans bought new cars, fearing that the government might restrict domestic car production as was done in the Korean War. This fear proved groundless, but consumer spending increased, as did wages and prices. The consumer price index, which had been increasing annually at a rate of 1.2 percent from 1960 to 1964, rose at the rate of 3.5 percent in 1966. The wholesale price index rose, climbing from an annual rate of 0.0 percent to 2.2 percent in 1966. This increase was driven by direct and indirect government expenses for the Vietnam War and the Great Society programs. A tightening of the money supply by the Federal Reserve led to the credit crunch of 1966.
For the 1966 U.S. budget, the $4.4 billion for direct war expenses had to be supplemented by an additional $1.4 billion, and the war continued to rage with no end in sight. A proposed 1967 tax increase to cover the cost of the Vietnam War failed, and the government resorted to deficit spending.
By 1968, the majority of U.S. businesses turned against the war in Vietnam. Together with many other segments of American society, the business community was disillusioned by the communists’ surprise Tet offensive in February. By the end of fiscal year 1967, the original budget for direct military expenditures to fight the war in Vietnam nearly doubled from $10.2 billion to $19.4 billion, and $21.4 billion was projected for fiscal year 1968. Indirect costs of the war, such as those incurred by keeping draftees out of the civilian economy and providing for future veterans’ benefits and pensions, were not included in these budgets.
The American business community was deeply concerned about the cost of the war in Vietnam, viewing the conflict as predominantly a drain on the domestic economy and the trigger for unhealthy inflation. Businessmen blamed the March 14, 1968, run on the dollar and the ensuing gold crisis on the Vietnam War and disliked the increase in domestic unrest caused by antiwar demonstrations. U.S. business leaders felt that the United States could not continue to pay for both the Vietnam War and the Great Society, stabilize the dollar, and avoid new taxes. The business community was also aware that what people perceived as the government’s misconduct in handling the war was creating massive distrust of big business. America’s New Left combined opposition to the Vietnam War with popularization of its anticapitalist agenda.
Government spending for the Vietnam War also affected the U.S. trade balance, diminishing the surplus from about $4.7 billion in 1967 to a mere $1.4 billion in 1968. American businesses complained that the leaders of South Vietnam spent much of American economic aid on French consumer goods.
Given the U.S. business community’s dissatisfaction with Johnson’s conduct of the war in Vietnam, it is not surprising that stocks jumped on March 31, 1968, when Johnson announced that he would not seek reelection and would try to negotiate peace with North Vietnam. In June, 1968, Congress finally enacted a 10 percent tax surcharge to help pay the cost of the Vietnam War.
When Richard M.
The business community was pleased with the prospect of reducing U.S. troops in Vietnam and negotiating with the North to end the war. However, when Nixon instead announced on April 30, 1970, that American troops had entered Cambodia, the U.S. stock market plunged by 15 percent. As the draft slowed down, the unemployment rate began to rise. The Federal Reserve’s decision to increase the money supply during the 1970 fiscal crisis further heated up inflation.
As Nixon tried to wind down the Vietnam War, its cumulative effects hit the U.S. economy. The country slid into a recession from 1970 to 1972. In 1971, the trade balance turned negative. The dollar was devalued in 1971 and 1973. Then, the United States suffered
Nixon finally negotiated a peace deal with North Vietnam on January 27, 1973. As the U.S. economy entered a severe recession from November, 1973, to March, 1975, there was little U.S. business support for aid to South Vietnam, and Congress cut aid from $1 billion to $700 million in 1974. Although American companies still did business in South Vietnam in 1974 and about ten thousand Americans were employed by the South Vietnamese government in military and economic advisory positions, the deterioration of the military situation after January, 1975, led to the U.S. economic disengagement from South Vietnam. Saigon fell on April 30, 1975, ending the war with a communist victory.
Engagement in the Vietnam War from 1965 to 1975 cost the United States about $111 billion, worth about $686 billion in 2008 fiscal year constant dollars. Some 58,000 U.S. soldiers were killed. The cost of the economic reintegration of about 7.9 million U.S. soldiers who served in Vietnam, most of them draftees, and their claims to veterans’ benefits (education, medical expenses, and pensions) is very difficult to calculate. Estimates vary widely and are billions apart. In 1987, the unemployment rate of Vietnam War veterans was 5.2 percent, higher than the 4.3 percent rate for the general population.
After the Vietnam War ended, there was no peace dividend because the Department of Defense easily swallowed the roughly $22 billion budgeted annually for the war until 1973. The money saved was spent on other defense projects and used to offset rising costs due to inflation.
In May, 1975, President Gerald R. Ford imposed a U.S. trade
Campagna, Anthony S. The Economic Consequences of the Vietnam War. New York: Praeger, 1991. Discusses the economic impact of the Vietnam War on the United States during the conflict. Pays close attention to all aspects of the economy, including the reintegration of Vietnam veterans. Tables, bibliography, index. Herring, George C. America’s Longest War. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996. Covers economic issues within a general history of the Vietnam War. Informative and well written. Illustrated, notes, bibliography, index. Karnow, Stanley. Vietnam: A History. 2d ed. New York: Viking Press, 1997. Standard history of the Vietnam War that pays attention to the effect of the war on American businesses as it discusses the conflict. Although it does not contain a separate chapter on economic issues, reading this widely available book gives useful insight into this aspect of the war. Illustrated. LaFeber, Walter. The Deadly Bet: LBJ, Vietnam, and the 1968 Election. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. Comprehensive review of how the negative economic impact of the Vietnam War affected the 1968 U.S. presidential elections. Author writes accessibly and with interest in economic issues. Illustrated, notes, bibliography, index. Lawrence, Mark Atwood. Assuming the Burden: Europe and the American Commitment to War in Vietnam. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005. Excellent study of how the United States came to support France’s retaking of its Indochinese colony for a variety of economic and political reasons. Scholarly but accessible work. Notes, bibliography, index. Schulzinger, Robert. A Time for War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Section “Economic Effects of the War” summarizes the late 1960’s. Illustrated, notes, index, bibliography.
Asian trade with the United States
Wakati Marekani ilianza kutuma majeshi ya kivita Vietnam mwaka 1965, uchumi wa Marekani ulisukumwa na gharama za vita, na kusababisha mishahara ya juu, bei za juu, na mfumuko mkubwa wa bei. Matumizi ya serikali kwa ajili ya vita na ongezeko la kodi yaliwaumiza wafanyabiashara wa Marekani licha ya mikataba inayohusiana na vita. Baada ya vita, uchumi wa Marekani ulipatwa na mfumuko wa bei na hakuna faida ya amani iliyotokea. Baada ya Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia, Vietnam ilijulikana kama nchi ya biashara ya Marekani, na kwa sababu ya kuanguka kwa uchumi wake, ilichukuliwa kuwa nchi ya biashara ya Marekani. Biashara ya Marekani kabla ya Vita vya Pili vya Ulimwengu na koloni za Ufaransa za Indochina - Vietnam, Kambodia, na Laos - ilikuwa ndogo sana. Mwaka 1939 bidhaa za Marekani zilizosafirishwa hadi Indochina zilikuwa na thamani ya dola milioni 2.5 tu, na bidhaa za Marekani zilizopelekwa nje, hasa mpira, zilikuwa na thamani ya dola milioni 10.7. Baada ya Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia, biashara za Marekani zilikuwa na nia ya kuimarisha uchumi wa Japani na Ulaya Magharibi ili nchi hizo ziweze kukabiliana na kuongezeka kwa ukomunisti. Hata hivyo, Japani na Ufaransa ziliiona Vietnam kuwa soko muhimu lenye uwezo na rasilimali muhimu za asili. Marekani ilichukua upande wa Ufaransa wakati vita vya Vietnam vilipotokea. Baada ya Ho Chi Minh kukataa pendekezo la Ufaransa la uhuru mdogo wa Vietnam, meli za vita za Ufaransa zilipiga mabomu bandari ya Haiphong iliyodhibitiwa na Vietnam mnamo Novemba 23, 1946. Wakati Ufaransa ilitafuta msaada wa Marekani kwa ajili ya vita vyake vya Vietnam, pia ililinda kwa wivu mapendeleo yake ya kiuchumi ya kikoloni. Kwa mfano, ilipinga uchunguzi wa mafuta huko Vietnam uliofanywa na kampuni ya Texaco. Mnamo Mei 8, 1950, Truman alikubali kutoa msaada kwa ajili ya juhudi za vita za Ufaransa, rasmi kupitia jimbo la Vietnam lililokuwa na uhuru wa nusu, lililoanzishwa mwaka huo. Tangu mwaka 1950 hadi katikati ya mwaka 1954, Marekani iliunga mkono vita vya Ufaransa nchini Vietnam kwa dola bilioni 3.6 na kulipia asilimia 75 hadi 80 ya gharama za vita za Ufaransa kwa fedha za walipa kodi wa Marekani. Mkataba wa Geneva wa Julai 21, 1954 ulifanya vita vya Vietnam viwe na mwisho. Cambodia na Laos zilipata uhuru. Vietnam iligawanywa kwa muda katika Vietnam Kaskazini ya kikomunisti na Vietnam Kusini isiyo ya kikomunisti. Msaada wa Marekani kwa Vietnam Kusini uliwawezesha wawakilishi wa Marekani huko Saigon kuwa na wasiwasi na kutotaka kwa Diem kutumia msaada wa kiuchumi wa Marekani kukuza maendeleo ya kiuchumi ya Vietnam na matumizi yake ya hadi theluthi mbili ya msaada juu ya bidhaa za watumiaji, mara nyingi zinazoletwa kutoka Ufaransa. Kutokuwa na imani kwa Diem kwa makampuni ya kibinafsi dhidi ya yale ya serikali iliwakasirisha wafanyabiashara wa Marekani huko Vietnam Kusini. Pia walipinga vikwazo vya Vietnam juu ya uwekezaji wa moja kwa moja wa kigeni na walitaka dhamana dhidi ya utaifa wa biashara zinazomilikiwa na Wamarekani nchini Vietnam. Kuanzia mwaka 1950, Marekani ilituma wanajeshi wa Marekani kuwa washauri wa kijeshi kwa Diem. Vita vya Vietnam ya Kusini vilipozuka tena mwaka 1957, idadi ya askari iliongezeka kutoka 77 hadi zaidi ya 1,000 mwaka 1961. Kwa gharama ya kila mwaka ya dola 25,000 kwa kila askari, Marekani ilihitaji dola milioni 25 zaidi. Mwishoni mwa mwaka wa 1963, Diem alikuwa akishindwa katika mapambano dhidi ya Wakomunisti. Marekani ilikubali mapinduzi yaliyomuua na kumteua na kuanzisha serikali ya kijeshi. Hata hivyo, hata msaada wa Marekani uliokuwa ukiongezeka sikuzote haukuweza kushinda vita vya junta dhidi ya Wakomunisti. Mwaka baada ya mwaka, vita vya Vietnam Kusini vilimgharimu uchumi wa Marekani pesa nyingi zaidi, bila matokeo mazuri. Akiwa ameazimia kuzuia Vietnam Kusini isiwe ya kikomunisti, Rais Lyndon B. Ushirikiano wa Marekani kwa kiwango kamili katika Vita vya Vietnam uliongeza matumizi ya serikali kwa shughuli za kijeshi, vifaa, na misaada kwa Vietnam. Ukosefu wa ajira ulipungua zaidi wakati vijana walipokuwa wakijiunga na jeshi kwa muda, na hivyo kuongeza gharama za kazi. Bei iliongezeka wakati makampuni ya Marekani yalipowasilisha gharama hizo za juu kwa wateja wao. Mnamo Desemba 1965, Fedha ya Marekani iliongeza kiwango cha discount kutoka asilimia 4 hadi 4.5% ili kukabiliana na mlipuko wa uchumi wa Marekani. Wamarekani walinunua magari mapya, wakitisha kwamba serikali ingeweza kuzuia uzalishaji wa magari ya ndani kama ilivyotendeka katika Vita vya Korea. Hofu hiyo haikuwa na msingi, lakini matumizi ya watumiaji yaliongezeka, na vilevile mishahara na bei. Kiwango cha bei ya watumiaji, ambacho kilikuwa kikiongezeka kwa asilimia 1.2 kila mwaka kuanzia mwaka wa 1960 hadi 1964, kiliongezeka kwa asilimia 3.5 mwaka wa 1966. Kiwango cha bei ya jumla ya bidhaa kiliongezeka kutoka asilimia 0.0 kwa mwaka hadi asilimia 2.2 mwaka 1966. Ongezeko hili lilitokana na gharama za moja kwa moja na zisizo za moja kwa moja za serikali kwa ajili ya Vita vya Vietnam na programu za Jumuiya Kuu. Mabadiliko ya Fedha ya Marekani (Fed) yaliongoza kwenye mgogoro wa madeni mwaka 1966. Kwa mujibu wa bajeti ya Marekani ya mwaka 1966, dola bilioni 4.4 za Marekani zilizotumika kwa ajili ya gharama za vita zililazimika kuongezwa na dola bilioni 1.4 za Marekani, na vita viliendelea bila mwisho kuonekana. Mwaka 1967 serikali ilipendekeza kuongeza kodi ili kulipia gharama za vita vya Vietnam lakini ilishindwa na serikali ikaanza kutumia fedha za ziada. Mwaka 1968 kampuni nyingi za Marekani zilipinga vita vya Vietnam. Pamoja na sehemu nyingine nyingi za jamii ya Marekani, jamii ya wafanyabiashara ilivunjika moyo na shambulio la kushangaza la Kikomunisti la Tet mnamo Februari. Kufikia mwisho wa mwaka wa kifedha wa 1967, bajeti ya awali ya matumizi ya moja kwa moja ya kijeshi katika vita vya Vietnam iliongezeka karibu mara mbili kutoka $ 10.2 bilioni hadi $ 19.4 bilioni, na $ 21.4 bilioni ilitabiriwa kwa mwaka wa kifedha wa 1968. Gharama zisizo za moja kwa moja za vita, kama vile zile zilizotokana na kuweka drafted nje ya uchumi wa kiraia na kutoa faida na pensheni za maveterani wa baadaye, hazikujumuishwa katika bajeti hizi. Jumuiya ya biashara ya Marekani ilikuwa na wasiwasi mkubwa juu ya gharama ya vita vya Vietnam, ikiangalia mgogoro huo kama mvuke kwa uchumi wa ndani na kichocheo cha mfumuko wa bei usio na afya. Wafanyabiashara waliwalaumu vita vya Vietnam kwa sababu ya mlipuko wa dola mnamo Machi 14, 1968 na mgogoro wa dhahabu uliofuata, na hawakupenda kuongezeka kwa ghasia za ndani zilizosababishwa na maandamano ya kupinga vita. "Wanajeshi wa Marekani waliamini kwamba Marekani haingeweza kuendelea kulipa gharama za vita vya Vietnam na ""Jamii Kubwa,"" ili kudumisha thamani ya dola, na kuepuka kodi mpya." Jumuiya ya biashara pia ilijua kwamba kile ambacho watu waliona kama mwenendo mbaya wa serikali katika kushughulikia vita ilikuwa ikisababisha kutokuwa na uaminifu mkubwa kwa biashara kubwa. America's New Left ilichanganya upinzani dhidi ya Vita vya Vietnam na kueneza ajenda yake ya kupambana na ubepari. Utekelezaji wa fedha za serikali kwa ajili ya vita vya Vietnam pia ulihusisha usawa wa biashara ya Marekani, ukipunguza ziada kutoka dola bilioni 4.7 mwaka 1967 hadi dola bilioni 1.4 tu mwaka 1968. Biashara za Marekani zililalamika kwamba viongozi wa Vietnam Kusini walitumia kiasi kikubwa cha msaada wa kiuchumi wa Marekani kwa bidhaa za watumiaji za Ufaransa. Kwa sababu ya kutoridhika kwa jamii ya biashara ya Marekani na mwenendo wa Johnson katika vita vya Vietnam, haishangazi kwamba hisa zilipanda mnamo Machi 31, 1968, wakati Johnson alipotangaza kwamba hatatafuta kuchaguliwa tena na angejaribu kujadili amani na Vietnam Kaskazini. Mwaka 1968 Marekani ilianzisha sheria ya kulipa kodi ya asilimia 10 kwa ajili ya vita vya Vietnam. Richard M. M. alishangilia sana kuondolewa kwa vikosi vya Marekani nchini Vietnam na mazungumzo ya mwisho wa vita. Hata hivyo, wakati Nixon alipotangaza Aprili 30, 1970, kwamba majeshi ya Marekani yalikuwa yameingia Kambodia, soko la hisa la Marekani lilipungua kwa asilimia 15. Kadiri kazi ya kuajiriwa ilivyopungua, ndivyo kiwango cha ukosefu wa kazi kilivyoanza kuongezeka. Fedha ya Marekani iliongeza kiasi cha fedha katika kipindi cha mgogoro wa fedha mwaka 1970 na kuharibu uchumi wa Marekani. Nixon alipokuwa akijaribu kuondoa vita vya Vietnam, athari zake zilipiga uchumi wa Marekani. Nchi hiyo ilishuka katika hali mbaya ya kiuchumi kuanzia mwaka wa 1970 hadi 1972. Mwaka 1971 uchumi wa nchi hizo ulibadilika na kuwa na uchumi mbaya. Dola ilipunguzwa thamani mwaka wa 1971 na 1973. Mwaka 1973 Nixon alishirikiana na Vietnam ya Kaskazini katika mazungumzo ya amani. Wakati uchumi wa Marekani ulipoingia katika mvurugo mkubwa kuanzia Novemba 1973 hadi Machi 1975, kulikuwa na msaada mdogo wa biashara ya Marekani kwa Vietnam Kusini, na Bunge lilipunguza misaada kutoka $ 1 bilioni hadi $ 700 milioni mnamo 1974. Ingawa kampuni za Marekani bado zilifanya biashara katika Vietnam Kusini mwaka wa 1974 na karibu Wamarekani elfu kumi waliajiriwa na serikali ya Vietnam Kusini katika nafasi za ushauri wa kijeshi na kiuchumi, kuzorota kwa hali ya kijeshi baada ya Januari 1975 kulisababisha Marekani kujiondoa kiuchumi kutoka Vietnam Kusini. Saigon ilianguka Aprili 30, 1975, na mwisho wa vita ulifanyika kwa ushindi wa Kikomunisti. Vita vya Vietnam vilivyotokea kati ya mwaka wa 1965 na 1975 viligharimu Marekani dola bilioni 111 za Marekani, na thamani ya dola bilioni 686 za Marekani katika mwaka wa kifedha wa 2008. Majeshi ya Marekani yaliteseka kwa kiasi cha askari 58,000. Gharama ya kuunganishwa tena kwa uchumi wa askari milioni 7.9 wa Marekani waliohudumu Vietnam, wengi wao wanaohamishwa, na madai yao ya faida za maveterani (elimu, gharama za matibabu, na pensheni) ni ngumu sana kuhesabu. Makadirio hutofautiana sana na yanatofautiana kwa mabilioni. Katika mwaka wa 1987, kiwango cha ukosefu wa kazi ya kuajiriwa kwa maveterani wa vita vya Vietnam kilikuwa asilimia 5.2 na ni cha juu kuliko kiwango cha asilimia 4.3 kwa watu wote. Baada ya vita vya Vietnam, hakuna faida ya amani kwa sababu Wizara ya Ulinzi ilimeza kwa urahisi dola bilioni 22 zilizopangwa kwa ajili ya vita hadi 1973. Pesa zilizopatikana zilitumiwa katika miradi mingine ya ulinzi na kutumiwa kulipia gharama zinazozidi kuongezeka kwa sababu ya mfumuko wa bei. Mwaka 1975 Rais Gerald R. Ford alitangaza vita vya Vietnam na Marekani, na kuanzisha kampeni ya kuondoa vita vya Vietnam. New York, Praeger, 1991. Inajadili athari za kiuchumi za Vita vya Vietnam juu ya Marekani wakati wa mgogoro. Inatumia uangalifu mkubwa kwa nyanja zote za uchumi, ikiwa ni pamoja na kuingizwa tena kwa maveterani wa Vietnam. Meza, orodha ya vitabu, faharisi. Herring, George C. Vita vya Muda Mrefu Zaidi vya Amerika. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1996. Inashughulikia masuala ya kiuchumi ndani ya historia ya jumla ya Vita vya Vietnam. Ni yenye kuelimisha na imeandikwa vizuri. Picha, maelezo, orodha ya vitabu, faharisi. Karnow, Stanley. Vietnam: Historia. 2d ed. New York, Viking Press, 1997. Historia ya vita vya Vietnam ni hadithi ya vita ya Vietnam ambayo inazungumzia athari za vita juu ya biashara za Marekani. Ingawa kitabu hicho hakina sura ya pekee inayohusu masuala ya kiuchumi, kitabu hicho kinaweza kutumiwa kwa njia mbalimbali ili kuelewa mambo mengi kuhusu vita hivyo. Imeonyeshwa. LaFeber, Walter. The Deadly Bet: LBJ, Vietnam, na uchaguzi wa 1968. Lanham, Md. Rowman na Littlefield Mtazamo wa kiuchumi wa vita vya Vietnam ulihusisha uchaguzi wa rais wa 1968. Mwandishi anaandika kwa urahisi na kwa nia ya masuala ya kiuchumi. Picha, maelezo, orodha ya vitabu, faharisi. Lawrence, Mark Atwood. Kuchukua Mzigo: Ulaya na Kujitolea kwa Marekani kwa Vita vya Vietnam. Berkeley, Chuo Kikuu cha California Press, 2005. Utafiti bora wa jinsi Marekani ilivyokuja kuunga mkono Ufaransa kuchukua tena koloni yake ya Indochina kwa sababu mbalimbali za kiuchumi na kisiasa. Kazi ya kisayansi lakini inayoweza kupatikana. Maelezo, orodha ya vitabu, faharisi. Schulzinger, Robert. Wakati wa Vita. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. [27] Kitabu cha kwanza cha Kiingereza cha Kiingereza cha Kiingereza Sehemu ya "Madhara ya Kiuchumi ya Vita" inaelezea mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1960. Picha, maelezo, orodha, orodha ya vitabu. Biashara ya Asia na Marekani