Moths can be as pretty and intriguing as butterflies. Most moths have evolved to fly at night but there are also day flying moths. The night moths tend to be drab coloured, especially their forewings, usually having a cryptic pattern that blends in with green foliage or brown bark or even lichen and fungus, used by the moths for camouflage protection when they are resting during the day. But quite often their hindwings are brightly coloured which they can use as a sudden flash-display mechanism when they are in a resting position, to startle predatory birds that are looking for an easy meal. Day flying moths, however, can be brightly coloured and just as beautiful as butterflies. Often these bright colours in the larger moths signify they are distasteful, and some moths like the day flying black and white/yellow Agaristid moths can also have aposematic coloured black-red-orange-yellow marked bodies signifying their distaste. When disturbed, such moths flagrantly expose their abdomens to predators to warn them of their distaste. The smaller bright coloured day flying moths use their colours to blend in with flowers. Some larger moths are tailed, such as the giant male Australian Atlas Moth (or Hercules Moth) and the Brown Swallowtail Moth occurring in the tropics. When settled, most moths rest with their forewings folded over their hindwings in the shape of a pitched tent or roof, usually with their antennae folded out-of-sight beneath their wings. Some moths like the Geometridae rest with flattened wings, but very few rest with wings fully open and upright like butterflies.
A lot less is known about South Australian moths than butterflies, which is largely due to a lack of published information and images. But in recent years there has been a marked improvement in information in both books and on the Internet. There are about 11,000 described moth species occurring in Australia (Nielsen et al, 1996), with estimates of about the same number undescribed, (but moth species are notoriously variable in their markings, so there may also be some doubling-up in species numbers). More detailed information is still required on the biology and food hosts of South Australian moths, which can be published in the newsletter of Butterfly Conservation South Australia.For information on how you can further take an interest in moths and butterflies refer to Butterfly Conservation South Australia.
Opodiphthera helena (Saturniidae), male Helena Gum-moth, 112 mm, Adelaide Hills (5-10-2012)
Moths comprise both the smallest and the largest of the Lepidoptera, from a few millimetres to as large as a dinner plate. Their ancient ancestors flew alongside dinosaurs. They can be solitary or they can occur in massive migratory swarms, the latter often unnoticed during the night. They are a large food source for night flying birds (owls) and animals (bats), and also our nocturnal, native marsupial animals. Most moths have coupled fore and hind wings, usually by a spine-like frenulum process on the hindwing that fits into a groove on the forewing underside, effectively forming a more efficient single wing. Males of each species tend to have one spine while the females have two or more spines, or sometimes even a brush of hairs. Some moths make a clicking noise when flying, and some can make a whistling sound. Some, like Hawk Moths, can hover like a humming bird or helicopter. Some moths (particularly the females) do not have wings or are rudimentary. Some have clear wings or large clear windows inserted into their wings (Hercules Moth), others have plume-wings like the feathered wings of birds, and these latter moths tend to be small and often look like mosquitos. Others have large ocelli 'eyes' on their wings (Emperor and Granny or Old Lady Moths) that mimic the eyes of lizards, night birds or small animals.
Some moths, like Bardi, Rain, Wood and day flying Sun-moths, may not have a proboscis for feeding and live off stored fat accumulated during their larva-pupa stage. Those with a proboscis feed mostly on flower nectar, but some feed on ripe fruit (fruit piercing moths), plant sap, 'honey-dew' of sap-sucking insects, animal sweat and fresh excrement, and even animal blood (similar to vampires). Some moths can run quickly like a cockroach. Moths hear by picking up sound vibrations on specialised auditory hairs on their bodies, and some moths have specialised tympanal ears capable of picking up the ultrasound of flying bats and can thus evade these predators while in flight. The males often have comb-like or pinnate antennae that are capable of detecting female pheromones (scents) from very large distances up to about 20km! Some moths are mimics and resemble bees and wasps to escape predation, while some larger tropical moths mimic poisonous swallowtail butterflies. A few moths at rest mimic bird droppings.
Female moths usually lay their eggs carefully on or near their host, singly or in small to large batches, but some like the large Rain Moths are often capable of randomly laying vast numbers of tiny eggs. Moth eggs come in a variety shapes and can be smooth or ornamented. Some females are parthenogenetic, reproducing themselves without cross gamete fertilisation. Moth larvae (caterpillars) are usually herbivorous and are sometimes a pest of our crops, but sometimes they also feed on fungus, algae, lichen and moss, or can be carnivorous (on other insect or moth early stages) or feed on animal matter, corpses and excrement (Clothes Moths). They can feed above ground on bark, foliage, flowers, seeds, or feed on the ground on leaf litter, or bore into stems, trunks and seed-pods, or even live underground on roots and tubers. Others can be found in our homes living on our carpets and clothes, and in the pantry. Some even live under-water feeding on aquatic plants, and are capable of extracting oxygen from the water via filament-like gills. Some larvae (particularly the witchetty grubs) can take several years to mature, and the larva-pupa stage of the Yucca Moth in North America can live for 30 years. Bright aposematic coloured larvae are usually distasteful to predators.
Different groups of moths usually have distinctive types of larvae or larval shelters. Larvae can be smooth or hairy, the latter can be sparse or dense (woolly bears) or consist of tufts. Some larvae can have a velvet appearance like the large Snout Moth larvae. The pest Noctuidae moths have the cutworm or armyworm larvae, while the Geometridae have the looper larvae. The Ghost, Goat, Rain, Swift, Wood, and day-flying Sun-moths have witchetty or bardi grub larvae, and those of the former can be quite large. Cup Moth larvae are brightly coloured and slug-shaped having extendable stinging tentacles like a sea anemone, while its pupa shelter has a small cup or gumnut shape. Bag Moths live in communal bag-like silk shelters in the foliage of the host plant. The Case Moths have larvae that live in long portable shelters formed from cut-off twigs or leaves. The large Hawk Moth larvae have a dorsal spine at their rear end, while Tiger and Anthelid Moths often have woolly-bear larvae. Some larvae like the Fruit Piercing and Hawk Moths can have large eye-spots. The very small moths can have the wriggling leaf-roller larvae, or leaf miners that 'mine' beneath leaf cuticle creating clear windows in leaves, or eat the new growth tips or tunnel into stems and green fruit (Codling, Fruit and Borer Moths).
Most moth larvae construct some form of a silken cocoon within which they pupate. Many moths pupate within soil or leaf litter. Those larvae that are already protected by bags, cases, cups, holes and tunnels etc, will still line their final resting place with silk, which probably acts as a water repellant.
Few moths are seen flying during the day in South Australia, but on suitable (warm) nights an outside light (without moon-shine) can attract many local moths. An ultraviolet light and the bright mercury vapour lights to be found on certain roads will attract even more numbers. Moth numbers and diversity increase significantly as one enters the realm of native vegetation habitat such as the Mt Lofty Ranges and country areas. Moths can fly during hot or cold weather, and even tolerate light rain.
McQuillan, PB and Forrest, JA (1985) A guide to Common Moths of the Adelaide Region. Special Educational Bulletin Series (No. 5), 52pp. South Australian Museum, Adelaide. [A good quick reference to many South Australian moths, with colour and b/w images, although some scientific names are no longer correct]
McFarland, N. (1988) Portraits of South Australian Geometrid moths. 400pp. Allen Press, U.S.A. [Early stages, adult images and relevant text of many macro-geometrids from mainly the Adelaide Hills. In b/w, may no longer be available]
Marriott, P. Moths of Victoria. Entomological Society of Victoria. [An up to date series of parts started in 2008, comprising booklet and CD Rom on moths and their early stages, currently in progressive publication. Many of the moths illustrated also occur in South Australia]
Common, I.F.B. (1990) Moths of Australia. 544pp. Melbourne University Press. [An authoritative guide]
Nielsen, E.S., Edwards, E.D. and Rangsi, T.V. (eds), (1996) Checklist of the Lepidoptera of Australia. Monographs on Australian Lepidoptera, Vol 4. 529pp. CSIRO Publishing. [A checklist of Australian Lepidoptera, a reference of known species numbers at year 1996]
Zborowski, P & Edwards, T. (2007) A guide to Australian moths. 224pp. CSIRO Publishing. [The latest CSIRO published guide to Australian moths]
Nondo wanaweza kuwa wazuri na wenye kuvutia kama vipepeo. Nondo wengi wamebadilika na kuruka usiku lakini pia kuna nondo wanaoruka mchana. Nyota za usiku huwa na rangi nyeusi, hasa mabawa yao ya mbele, kwa kawaida kuwa na muundo wa siri ambao huchangamana na majani ya kijani au ganda la kahawia au hata lichen na uyoga, kutumika na nondo kwa ulinzi wa camouflage wakati wao ni kupumzika wakati wa mchana. Lakini mara nyingi mabawa yao ya nyuma huwa na rangi nyangavu ambayo wanaweza kutumia kama utaratibu wa kuonyesha flash ghafla wakati wako katika nafasi ya kupumzika, kuogopesha ndege wa mwindaji ambao wanatafuta chakula rahisi. Hata hivyo, nondo wanaoruka wakati wa mchana wanaweza kuwa na rangi nyangavu na kuwa wazuri kama vipepeo. Mara nyingi rangi hizi mkali katika nondo kubwa zinaonyesha kwamba wao ni disgusting, na baadhi ya nondo kama siku kuruka nyeusi na nyeupe au manjano nondo Agaristida pia inaweza kuwa aposematic rangi nyeusi-nyekundu-orange-njano alama miili kuashiria disgust yao. Wanapovurugwa, nondo hao huonyesha waziwazi tumbo lao kwa wawindaji ili kuwaonya juu ya chuki yao. Nondo wadogo wenye rangi nyangavu hutumia rangi zao kuchanganya na maua. Nyigu wengine wakubwa wana mkia, kama vile nyigu mkubwa wa Australia anayeitwa Atlas Moth (au Hercules Moth) na nyigu anayeitwa Brown Swallowtail Moth anayepatikana katika maeneo ya kitropiki. Wakati wa kukaa, nondo wengi hupumzika na mabawa yao ya mbele yamejipinda juu ya mabawa yao ya nyuma katika umbo la hema au paa, kwa kawaida na antennae zao zimejipinda nje ya macho chini ya mabawa yao. Baadhi ya nondo kama vile Geometridae hupumzika kwa mabawa yaliyo tambarare, lakini ni wachache sana wanaopumzika kwa mabawa yaliyo wazi kabisa na wima kama vipepeo. Kuna habari chache sana kuhusu nondo wa Australia Kusini kuliko nondo, ambayo ni kwa sababu ya ukosefu wa habari na picha zilizochapishwa. Lakini katika miaka ya hivi karibuni kumekuwa na uboreshaji mkubwa katika habari katika vitabu na kwenye Intaneti. Kuna karibu 11,000 aina ya nondo ilivyoelezwa katika Australia (Nielsen et al., 1996), na makadirio ya takriban idadi sawa ya undescribed (lakini nondo aina ni notoriously kutofautiana katika alama zao, hivyo kunaweza pia kuwa na baadhi ya mara mbili juu katika idadi ya spishi). "Kama unajua, kuna habari nyingi kuhusu ""mnyama"" wa Australia Kusini, na unaweza kupata habari zaidi kuhusu ""mnyama"" wa Australia Kusini katika jarida la Butterfly Conservation Australia Kusini." Opodiphthera helena (Saturniidae), kiume Helena Gum-moth, 112 mm, Adelaide Hills (5-10-2012) Moths ni pamoja na ndogo na kubwa ya Lepidoptera, kutoka milimita chache hadi kubwa kama sahani ya chakula cha jioni. Mababu zao wa kale waliruka pamoja na dinosaur. Wanaweza kuwa peke yao au wanaweza kutokea katika makundi makubwa ya wahamiaji, mara nyingi hawaonekani wakati wa usiku. Ni chanzo kikubwa cha chakula kwa ndege wanaoruka usiku (mbuni) na wanyama (vipande), na pia kwa wanyama wetu wa usiku, wa asili wa marsupial. Nondo wengi wana mabawa ya mbele na ya nyuma, kwa kawaida kwa njia ya frenulum inayofanana na uti wa mgongo kwenye mrengo wa nyuma ambao unafaa katika mteremko kwenye sehemu ya chini ya mrengo wa mbele, kwa ufanisi kuunda mrengo mmoja wenye ufanisi zaidi. Wanaume wa kila spishi huwa na uti mmoja wa mgongo, huku wanawake wakiwa na uti mbili au zaidi, au nyakati nyingine hata viatu. Nondo fulani hutokeza kelele wakati wa kuruka, na wengine wanaweza kutokeza sauti ya mlio. Baadhi yao, kama vile nondo wa aina ya Hawk, wanaweza kuruka-ruka kama ndege anayepiga kelele au helikopta. Baadhi ya nondo (hasa wanawake) hawana mabawa au ni wa hali ya chini. Baadhi yao wana mabawa ya wazi au madirisha makubwa yaliyo ndani ya mabawa yao (Hercules Moth), wengine wana mabawa ya manyoya kama mabawa ya ndege, na nondo hawa wa mwisho huwa wadogo na mara nyingi huonekana kama mbu. Nyingine zina'macho' makubwa kwenye mabawa yao (Emperor na Granny au Old Lady Moths) ambayo huiga macho ya mbawakawa, ndege wa usiku au wanyama wadogo. Baadhi ya nondo, kama vile Bardi, Mvua, Wood na siku kuruka Sun-nondo, inaweza kuwa na proboscis kwa ajili ya kulisha na kuishi nje ya kuhifadhiwa mafuta zilizokusanywa wakati wao larva-pupa hatua. Wanyama hao hula matunda yaliyokomaa, maji ya mimea, mvua ya wanyama, na hata damu ya wanyama (kama vile ya vampire). Baadhi ya nondo wanaweza kukimbia haraka kama mbawakawa. Nondo husikia kwa kukusanya sauti kwa nywele maalum za kusikia kwenye miili yao, na baadhi ya nondo wana masikio maalum ya tympanal ambayo yanaweza kukusanya sauti ya ultrasound ya popo wanaoruka na hivyo wanaweza kuepuka wawindaji hawa wakati wa kuruka. Wanaume wana antena kama ya comb au pinnate ambayo ni uwezo wa kugundua pheromones ya wanawake (harufu) kutoka umbali mkubwa sana hadi karibu kilomita 20. Baadhi ya nondo huiga nyuki na nyuki na nyuki ili kuepuka kuwindwa, ilhali nondo wengine wakubwa wa kitropiki huiga vipepeo wenye sumu. Nondo wachache wanapopumzika huiga kinyesi cha ndege. Kwa kawaida, nondo wa kike huweka mayai yao kwa uangalifu juu ya mwenyeji wao au karibu naye, kwa njia ya moja kwa moja au kwa vikundi vidogo hadi vikubwa, lakini baadhi yao, kama vile nondo wa mvua, mara nyingi huweza kuweka mayai mengi kwa nasibu. Mayai ya nondo huwa na maumbo mbalimbali na yanaweza kuwa laini au yenye mapambo. Baadhi ya wanawake ni parthenogenetic, kuzaliana wenyewe bila msalaba gamete uzazi. Larvae ya nondo ni kawaida herbivorous na wakati mwingine wadudu wa mazao yetu, lakini wakati mwingine wao pia kulisha juu ya uyoga, mwani, lichen na mwani, au inaweza kuwa carnivorous (juu ya wadudu wengine au nondo hatua za mapema) au kulisha juu ya wanyama, maiti na uchafu. Wanaweza kula juu ya ardhi juu ya magamba, majani, maua, mbegu, au kula juu ya ardhi juu ya majani, au kuchimba katika shina, shina na mbegu-pods, au hata kuishi chini ya ardhi juu ya mizizi na tubers. Wengine wanaweza kupatikana katika nyumba zetu wakiishi kwenye mazulia na nguo zetu, na katika chumba cha kulia chakula. Baadhi yao hata huishi chini ya maji na kula mimea ya majini, na wanaweza kupata oksijeni kutoka majini kupitia matete yanayofanana na nyuzi. Mimea ya aina ya Yucca, hasa ya aina ya Witchgrass, huishi kwa miaka 30 hadi kufikia hatua ya kukomaa. Kwa kawaida, wadudu hawapendi mabuu yenye rangi nyangavu. Vikundi tofauti-tofauti vya nondo kwa kawaida huwa na aina tofauti-tofauti za mabuu au makao ya mabuu. Larvae inaweza kuwa laini au nywele, mwisho inaweza kuwa sparse au nene (woolly dubu) au lina tufts. Baadhi ya mabuu ya ndege wanaweza kuonekana kama vitambaa kama vile mabuu makubwa ya ndege anayeitwa Snout Moth. Noctuidae wadudu wana larvae cutworm au armyworm, wakati Geometridae wana larvae looper. Mnyama anayeitwa Ghost, Goat, Rain, Swift, Wood, na Sun-moths, ambaye hufa wakati wa mchana, ana mabuu ya aina ya witchetty au bardi, na wale wa aina ya kwanza wanaweza kuwa wakubwa sana. Larvae ya nondo wa kikombe ni rangi nyangavu na slug-shaped kuwa extendable stinging tentacles kama anemone bahari, wakati pupa yake makazi ina kikombe kidogo au gumnut umbo. Nondo huishi katika makao ya pamoja ya hariri yanayofanana na mifuko katika majani ya mmea mwenyeji. Nondo wa Case wana mabuu ambayo huishi katika makao marefu yanayoweza kubebwa ambayo yamefanyizwa kutokana na matawi au majani yaliyochongwa. Nyigu wakubwa wa Hawk Moth wana uti wa mgongo wa nyuma, ilhali nyigu wa Tiger na Anthelid mara nyingi huwa na nyigu wa dubu wenye sufu. Baadhi ya mabuu kama vile Fruit Piercing na Hawk Moths yanaweza kuwa na macho makubwa. Nyigu wadogo sana wanaweza kuwa na larvae ya rolling leaf, au wachimbaji wa majani ambao 'uchimbaji' chini ya cuticle ya jani kuunda madirisha wazi katika majani, au kula ncha mpya za ukuaji au handaki katika shina na matunda ya kijani (Codling, Matunda na Borer Moths). Larva nyingi za nondo hujenga aina fulani ya kifuniko cha hariri ambacho hufanyiza kifuniko. Nondo wengi huzaana ndani ya udongo au majani. Larvae ambao tayari ni kulindwa na mifuko, kesi, vikombe, mashimo na vichuguu, na kadhalika, bado line mwisho wao mapumziko mahali na hariri, ambayo pengine kazi kama repellent maji. Nondo wachache huonekana wakiruka mchana katika Australia Kusini, lakini usiku unaofaa (mwenye joto) nuru ya nje (bila mwangaza wa mwezi) yaweza kuvutia nondo wengi wa mahali hapo. Nuru ya ultraviolet na taa zenye kung'aa za mvuke wa zebaki zinazopatikana kwenye barabara fulani zitavutia idadi kubwa zaidi. Idadi ya nondo na utofauti huongezeka kwa kiasi kikubwa mtu anapokuwa akiingia katika eneo la mimea ya asili kama vile Mlima Lofty Ranges na maeneo ya mashambani. Nondo wanaweza kuruka wakati wa hali ya hewa ya joto au baridi, na hata kuvumilia mvua ndogo. McQuillan, PB na Forrest, JA (1985) Mwongozo wa Moths ya kawaida ya Mkoa wa Adelaide. Mfululizo wa Gazeti Maalum la Elimu (Nambari. 5), 52 pp. Jumba la Makumbusho la Australia Kusini, Adelaide. "Kama mfano, ""Mchoro wa Nyota wa Australia Kusini"" ni picha ya rangi na rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi." 400 ppm ya Allen Press, U.S.A. [Hatua za mapema, picha za watu wazima na maandishi husika ya macro-geometrids nyingi kutoka hasa Adelaide Hills. "Kama ilivyoelezwa hapo juu, ""Mariott"" ni jina la kampuni ya P. Moths ya Victoria." Jamii ya Entomolojia ya Victoria. Mfululizo wa vipindi vya hivi karibuni ulianza mnamo 2008, unajumuisha kijitabu na CD-ROM juu ya nondo na hatua zao za mapema, kwa sasa katika uchapishaji wa hatua kwa hatua. Nondo wengi waliotajwa katika picha hizo hupatikana pia katika Australia Kusini] Common, I.F.B. (1990) Nondo wa Australia. 544pgs. Chapa ya Chuo Kikuu cha Melbourne. [Mwongozo wenye mamlaka] Nielsen, E. S., Edwards, E. D. Rangi, T.V. (eds), (1996) Orodha ya ukaguzi wa Lepidoptera ya Australia. Monographs on Australian Lepidoptera, Vol. 5292 - P. Uchapishaji wa CSIRO. "A ""checklist of Australian Lepidoptera"" (a reference of known species numbers at year 1996) ni orodha ya aina za ndege wa Australia, na inaonyesha idadi ya aina za ndege katika mwaka wa 1996." 224 ya P. Uchapishaji wa CSIRO. [Kichapo cha hivi karibuni cha CSIRO kilichochapishwa juu ya nondo wa Australia]