Critical metal for lightspeed communications, computations Critical Minerals Alliances - September 9, 2021
From the transistors in quantum computers that are millions of times faster than their classical counterparts to fiber optic cables that send data at the speed of light, germanium is a little-known semiconductor that is a small but extremely important ingredient in the technologies behind the future of ultrafast computing and communications.
Germanium traces its technological roots back to the 1950s, when scientists developed the transistor to replace vacuum tubes in the enormous mainframes of the day – a discovery that ushered in the era of personal computers.
These transistors utilized germanium's excellent semiconductor qualities to, in a sense, flick tiny on and off switches that create the streams of ones and zeros that represent the standard computer binary system.
While germanium is the original and more powerful transistor semiconductor, it was supplanted by silicon, a more abundant and less expensive material that has established such an important stake in the computing world that a valley named after the semiconductor is widely regarded as the global capital of computer technology and innovation.
Germanium's intrinsic semiconducting superiority has reemerged – this time in the realm of quantum computing and the most efficient solar panels ever created.
Despite its superlative-earning semiconductor achievements, germanium's superior optical qualities are what drive the highest demand for this metalloid.
"The major use of germanium worldwide is for fiber-optic systems, whereby germanium is added to the pure silica glass core of fiber-optic cables to increase their refractive index, minimizing signal loss over long distances," the United States Geological Survey inked in a germanium fact sheet.
These optical and other exceptional qualities are also important to making night-vision goggles and other infrared imaging devices that are used extensively by the military and law-enforcement agencies.
"Germanium is metallic in appearance and has unique properties that make it critical to the function of numerous commercial, industrial, and military applications," the USGS penned in the germanium chapter of a 2018 report on the 35 minerals and metals critical to the U.S.
Often found alongside zinc, germanium is almost always produced as a byproduct of the galvanizing metal.
"In 2020, zinc concentrates containing germanium were produced at mines in Alaska and Tennessee," according to the USGS.
The germanium-carrying zinc concentrates from the Alaska mine, Red Dog, were shipped to Teck Resources Ltd.'s Trail refinery in British Columbia, and the concentrates from the Middle Tennessee Mines were processed at a local refinery.
Whether it be smartphones, laptops, or supercomputers, the central processing unit at the heart of these machines is built using semiconductor technology that is capable of holding billions of transistors onto a single chip. Now, researchers at QuTech, an advanced research center for quantum computing and quantum internet, are using germanium-based transistors in computers that are unfathomably faster and more powerful than the silicon-based computers we use today.
"We have been working with transistors as the building blocks for a quantum computer for some time now," says Nico Hendrickx, a Ph.D. student at QuTech. "Until now, however, it hasn't been possible to perform quantum calculations using only transistors. Other elements were needed as well, and this provided a limitation for upscaling. We now show that a single transistor can function as a quantum bit by using germanium."
The QuTech researchers have long considered germanium as a superb material for making quantum bits, or qubits, but manufacturing with this material has been challenging.
These hurdles have now been overcome and the team has now demonstrated they "can perform reliable and extremely fast quantum calculations with germanium."
How fast? In a mere 200 seconds, Google's quantum computer Sycamore solved a calculation so mathematically complex that it would take the world's most powerful supercomputer 10,000 years to figure out, or roughly 158 million times faster than the fastest classical computer on the planet.
The researchers at QuTech consider germanium as the ideal platform for several quantum technologies they are developing.
"Now that we know how to manufacture germanium and operate an array of qubits, the germanium quantum information route can truly begin," said Menno Veldhorst, a team leader at QuTech.
Best in the solar system
The same semiconducting properties that are taking computing into the quantum realm are also are being used in the most effective photovoltaic panels in the solar system.
"Germanium substrates are used to form the base layer in multijunction solar cells, which are the highest efficiency solar cells currently available," according to the USGS.
These solar arrays, which have three layers of cells that use germanium and other critical metals, are much more expensive to build than the typical photovoltaic cell that primarily uses silicon to convert light into electricity.
The high efficiency of the germanium germanium-infused solar cells, however, makes them preferred for space applications such as some of the Mars rovers.
"The solar cells are stacked in three layers on the rover's solar arrays and, because they absorb more sunlight, can supply more power to the rover's re-chargeable lithium batteries," NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory explains on technologies to power space missions.
USGS said recent research could make similar high-efficiency solar arrays commercially viable on Earth, a potential driver for future germanium demand.
"Solar powerplants that use concentrator technology composed of lenses or mirrors that focus high concentrations of direct sunlight onto germanium-based multijunction solar cells have emerged as viable sources for large-scale renewable energy generation," according to USGS.
While quantum computers and solar panels may be the future demand drivers for germanium, most of the metalloid's current applications are focused on its optical qualities – transparent to the infrared electromagnetic spectrum, can be formed into glass, exceptionally high refractive index, and low chromatic dispersion.
"Chromatic dispersion is a serious consideration in long-haul optical fibers. Its effect is essentially to stretch or flatten the initially sharply-defined binary pulses of information. This degradation makes the signals (ones and zeros) more difficult to distinguish from each other at the far end of the fiber," M2 Optics Inc. CEO Kevin Miller explains.
The growing need to send and receive enormous quantities of data at lightning-fast speeds continues to drive the demand for more fiber-optic cable and the germanium that goes in it.
U.S. demand for fiber-optic cable decreased during 2020 as a side effect of the COVID-19 pandemic. Federal funding to increase broadband infrastructure in rural communities and a nationwide increase in remote work, however, partially offset the lowered demand.
The demand for germanium is expected to continue trending higher with the global installation of 5G network technology that will require the speeds delivered by fiber optics.
Infrared imaging devices used by the military, law-enforcement agencies, and increasingly in the private sector are another major driver of demand for germanium.
"Infrared optical devices improve a soldier's ability to operate weapon systems in harsh conditions effectively, and they are increasingly used in remotely operated unmanned weapons and aircraft," the USGS inked in its germanium report. "Infrared optical devices are also used for border patrol and by emergency response teams for conducting search-and-rescue operations."
While military and law enforcement are the major buyers of night-vision technology, USGS said commercial applications for thermal imaging devices that use germanium lenses have increased during the past few years.
From concentrates to coal ash
While there is currently plenty of germanium mined to meet demands for this critical tech metalloid for the foreseeable future, only a fraction of this zinc-byproduct is recovered at the refineries.
Teck Resources' Trail Operations in southern British Columbia, which refines zinc and lead concentrates from the company's Red Dog Mine in Alaska, is considered one of the largest producers of germanium in the world.
The Trail refinery offers a wide variety of high-quality germanium products, including germanium dioxide and fiber optic grade germanium tetrachloride.
With the refinery processing concentrates from other mines, it is hard to track exactly how much, if any, of this germanium comes from Red Dog concentrates.
This situation has created a conundrum for agencies tracking critical minerals.
"Because zinc concentrates are shipped globally and blended at smelters ... the recoverable germanium in zinc reserves cannot be determined," USGS penned in its 2021 mineral commodities report.
In addition to zinc concentrates, germanium, rare earths, and other critical minerals are often also found in coal deposits. While the concentrations of critical minerals in the deposits themselves are typically too low to be economical, this percentage becomes much higher in the ash left behind by more than a century of burning coal to generate electricity.
Looking to transform old coal mining regions into new domestic sources for critical minerals, the U.S. Department of Energy has awarded $19 million for 13 projects in traditionally fossil fuel-producing communities from Appalachia to Alaska.
While rare earths are the primary target of this DOE-funded project, the cash that has been stacking up at coal-fired power plants also often contains germanium, lithium, cobalt, titanium, vanadium, and a dozen other minerals and metals considered critical to the U.S.
This could provide a new source for germanium and other metals needed for the envisioned renewable energy and electric vehicle transition, while also providing new career opportunities that are being affected by this transition.
"The very same fossil fuel communities that have powered our nation for decades can be at the forefront of the clean energy economy by producing the critical minerals needed to build electric vehicles, wind turbines, and so much more," said Secretary of Energy Jennifer Granholm.
"Kutoka kwa transistors katika kompyuta za quantum ambazo ni milioni mara kwa kasi kuliko wenzao wa kawaida hadi kebo za fiber optic ambazo hutuma data kwa kasi ya mwanga, germanium ni nusu-mwongozo unaojulikana kidogo ambayo ni kiungo kidogo lakini muhimu sana katika teknolojia nyuma ya baadaye ya kompyuta na mawasiliano ya ultra-haraka.""" Germanium ilitengenezwa katika miaka ya 1950, wakati wanasayansi walipoanzisha transistor ili kuchukua nafasi ya mabomba ya utupu katika mainframes kubwa za wakati huo - uvumbuzi ambao uliongoza kwenye enzi ya kompyuta za kibinafsi. Transistors hizi zilitumia sifa bora za germanium ya semiconductor, kwa maana fulani, kugeuza swichi ndogo za kuwasha na kuzima ambazo huunda mito ya moja na sifuri ambazo zinawakilisha mfumo wa kawaida wa kompyuta ya binary. "Kama germanium ni transistor ya awali na yenye nguvu zaidi, ilibadilishwa na silicon, nyenzo ya kutosha na ya bei nafuu ambayo imeanzisha sehemu muhimu katika ulimwengu wa kompyuta kwamba bonde lililoitwa kwa jina la semiconductor linachukuliwa sana kama ""mji mkuu wa ulimwengu wa teknolojia ya kompyuta na uvumbuzi.""" Ubora wa asili wa semiconductor wa Germanium umeibuka tena - wakati huu katika ulimwengu wa kompyuta ya quantum na paneli za jua zenye ufanisi zaidi zilizowahi kutengenezwa. Kwa sababu ya ubora wake wa juu wa germanium, ubora wake wa macho ni moja ya sababu za mahitaji ya juu ya metalloid hii. "Utumizi mkubwa wa germanium ulimwenguni ni kwa mifumo ya nyuzi za macho, ambapo germanium huongezwa kwa kiini cha kioo cha silika safi cha kebo za nyuzi za macho ili kuongeza kiwango chao cha kupinduka, kupunguza upotezaji wa ishara kwa umbali mrefu. - Utafiti wa Kijiolojia wa Marekani." Vipimo hivyo vya kipekee vya macho na vingine vya kipekee ni muhimu pia kwa kutengeneza miwani ya kuona usiku na vifaa vingine vya kupima picha za infrared ambavyo hutumiwa sana na jeshi na mashirika ya kutekeleza sheria. "Kama vile Germanium inaonekana kama chuma na ina mali ya kipekee ambayo inafanya kuwa muhimu kwa kazi ya matumizi mengi ya kibiashara, viwanda na kijeshi, ""USGS iliripoti katika sura ya Germanium ya ripoti ya 2018 juu ya madini 35 na metali muhimu kwa Marekani, ambayo mara nyingi hupatikana pamoja na zinki, Germanium karibu daima hutengenezwa kama bidhaa ya chuma cha galvanizing." "Kulingana na USGS, ""mchanganyiko wa zinki unaojumuisha germanium ulitengenezwa katika migodi ya Alaska na Tennessee.""" Zinc iliyotengenezwa katika mgodi wa Red Dog huko Alaska, ilisafirishwa hadi kiwanda cha Teck Resources Ltd. katika Trail, British Columbia, na zink iliyotengenezwa katika mgodi wa Middle Tennessee, ilitengenezwa katika kiwanda cha ndani. Ikiwa ni simu mahiri, kompyuta ndogo, au kompyuta kubwa, kitengo cha usindikaji cha kati katika moyo wa mashine hizi kimejengwa kwa kutumia teknolojia ya semiconductor ambayo ina uwezo wa kushikilia mabilioni ya transistors kwenye chip moja. Watafiti wa Quantum Technologies, kituo cha utafiti wa juu cha kompyuta ya quantum na mtandao wa quantum, wanatumia transistors za germanium katika kompyuta ambazo ni haraka na nguvu kuliko kompyuta za silicon tunazotumia leo. "Tumekuwa tukifanya kazi na transistors kama vitalu vya ujenzi kwa kompyuta ya quantum kwa muda sasa, "anasema Nico Hendrickx, mwanafunzi wa PhD katika QuTech." "Hata hivyo, hadi sasa, haikuwezekana kufanya hesabu za quantum kwa kutumia transistors tu. Vitu vingine vilihitajiwa pia, na hii ilitoa kikomo kwa upskilling. Sasa tunaonyesha kwamba transistor moja inaweza kufanya kazi kama bit ya quantum kwa kutumia germanium". Kwa muda mrefu, watafiti wa Quartz wamekuwa wakiona germanium kama nyenzo bora ya kutengeneza bits za quantum, au qubits, lakini utengenezaji na nyenzo hii umekuwa changamoto. Vizuizi hivi sasa vimepitwa na vikwazo na timu sasa imeonyesha kwamba wanaweza "kufanya hesabu za quantum za kuaminika na za haraka sana na germanium". Ni haraka kadiri gani? Katika sekunde 200 tu, kompyuta ya Google ya quantum, Sycamore, ilifanikisha hesabu ngumu sana ya hisabati ambayo ingechukua supercomputer yenye nguvu zaidi duniani miaka 10,000 kuifahamu, au karibu mara milioni 158 kwa kasi kuliko kompyuta ya kawaida ya haraka zaidi duniani. Watafiti wa QuTech wanaona germanium kama jukwaa bora kwa teknolojia kadhaa za quantum wanazotengeneza. "Sasa kwa kuwa tunajua jinsi ya kutengeneza germanium na kuendesha safu ya qubits, njia ya habari ya germanium quantum inaweza kuanza kweli, ""alisema Menno Veldhorst, kiongozi wa timu katika QuTech." Kwa mfano, katika mfumo wa jua, vifaa vya semiconductor vinavyoweza kuunganishwa na vifaa vya quantum vinaweza kuunganishwa na vifaa vya umeme vya jua. "Utekelezaji wa germanium katika chembe za jua za multijunction ni muhimu kwa ajili ya kuunda chembe za jua za hali ya juu zaidi zinazopatikana kwa sasa.""" Vifaa hivyo vina tabaka tatu za germaniamu na metali nyingine muhimu, na ni ghali zaidi kuliko seli za kawaida za umeme zinazotumia silicon kugeuza mwanga kuwa umeme. Kwa sababu ya ufanisi wa juu wa germanium, seli za jua zinafaa kwa matumizi ya anga, kama vile baadhi ya Mars rovers. "Seli za jua zimejengwa katika tabaka tatu kwenye safu za jua za rover na, kwa sababu zinachukua mwanga zaidi wa jua, zinaweza kutoa nguvu zaidi kwa betri za lithiamu za rover zinazoweza kusafirishwa tena, ""Labora ya Uendeshaji wa Jet ya NASA inaelezea teknolojia ya kuendesha misheni ya anga." Utafiti wa hivi karibuni wa USGS unaweza kufanya safu za jua zenye ufanisi wa hali ya juu kuwa na uwezo wa kibiashara duniani, kichocheo cha uwezekano wa mahitaji ya germanium ya baadaye. "Vituo vya nishati ya jua vinavyotumia teknolojia ya concentrator iliyoundwa na lensi au vioo vinavyozingatia mkusanyiko mkubwa wa mwangaza wa jua wa moja kwa moja kwenye seli za jua za germanium zimeibuka kama vyanzo vinavyofaa kwa uzalishaji mkubwa wa nishati mbadala, ""alisema USGS." Ingawa kompyuta za quantum na paneli za jua zinaweza kuwa madereva ya mahitaji ya baadaye ya germanium, matumizi mengi ya sasa ya metalloid yanazingatia sifa zake za macho - uwazi kwa wigo wa umeme wa infrared, inaweza kufanyizwa kuwa kioo, kiwango cha juu cha refractive, na kutawanyika kwa rangi ya chini. "Utawanyiko wa rangi ni jambo la maana sana katika nyuzi za macho za umbali mrefu. Athari yake ni kimsingi kunyoosha au flatten awali sharply-kufafanuliwa binary pulses ya habari. "Uharibifu huu hufanya ishara (moja na sifuri) ngumu kutofautisha kutoka kwa kila mmoja mwishoni mwa nyuzi, ""M2 Optics Inc Mkurugenzi Mtendaji Kevin Miller anaelezea." Kwa sababu ya mahitaji ya haraka ya kupeleka na kupokea data, kuna mahitaji ya kupanua matumizi ya kebo za fiber-optic na germanium. Mahitaji ya Amerika ya kebo ya fiber-optic yalishuka mnamo 2020 kama athari ya janga la COVID-19. Hata hivyo, fedha za shirikisho za kuongeza miundombinu ya mtandao wa upana katika jamii za vijijini na ongezeko la kitaifa la kazi ya mbali, zilipunguza kwa sehemu mahitaji yaliyopungua. "Kama matokeo, mahitaji ya germanium yatazidi kuongezeka kwa sababu ya kuanzishwa kwa teknolojia ya mtandao wa 5G, ambayo itahitaji kasi inayotolewa na fiber optics. """ Vifaa vya kupima picha za infrared vinavyotumiwa na jeshi, mashirika ya kutekeleza sheria, na kwa kuongezeka katika sekta binafsi ni kichocheo kingine kikuu cha mahitaji ya germaniamu. "Vifaa vya infrared optical kuboresha uwezo wa askari wa kuendesha mifumo ya silaha katika hali ngumu kwa ufanisi, na wao ni zaidi na zaidi kutumika katika remote operated unmanned silaha na ndege, ""USGS inked katika ripoti yake germanium." "Vifaa vya macho vya infrared pia hutumiwa kwa ajili ya ulinzi wa mipaka na na vikosi vya dharura kwa ajili ya kufanya shughuli za kutafuta na kuokoa". Wakati jeshi na utekelezaji wa sheria ni wanunuzi wakuu wa teknolojia ya maono ya usiku, USGS ilisema matumizi ya kibiashara ya vifaa vya picha za joto vinavyotumia lensi za germanium yameongezeka katika miaka michache iliyopita. Wakati kuna sasa mengi ya germanium kuchimbwa ili kukidhi mahitaji ya hii muhimu tech metalloid kwa siku zijazo, tu sehemu ya hii zinki-byproduct ni kurejeshwa katika viwanda vya kusafisha. Teck Resources, ambayo inashughulikia shughuli za kusafisha zinki na risasi kutoka kwa mgodi wa Red Dog huko Alaska, ni moja ya wazalishaji wakubwa wa germanium ulimwenguni. Trail refinery inatoa aina mbalimbali ya bidhaa za ubora wa juu germanium, ikiwa ni pamoja na germanium dioksidi na fiber optic daraja germanium tetrachloride. Kwa kuwa viwanda vya kusafisha vinatumia mchanganyiko kutoka kwenye migodi mingine, ni vigumu kujua ni kiasi gani cha germaniamu hiyo inayotokana na mchanganyiko wa Red Dog. Hali hii imesababisha tatizo kwa mashirika ya kufuatilia madini muhimu. "Kwa sababu zingi huingizwa ulimwenguni kote na kuchanganywa katika viwanda vya kutengeneza chuma, germanium inayoweza kupatikana katika akiba ya zinki haiwezi kuamuliwa, ""USGS iliripoti katika ripoti yake ya bidhaa za madini ya 2021." Mbali na zinki, germaniamu, madini ya ardhi nadra, na madini mengine muhimu mara nyingi hupatikana katika matope ya makaa ya mawe. Wakati viwango vya madini muhimu katika amana wenyewe ni kawaida chini sana kuwa kiuchumi, asilimia hii inakuwa kubwa zaidi katika majivu kushoto nyuma na zaidi ya karne ya kuchoma makaa ya mawe kuzalisha umeme. Kwa kuzingatia kugeuza maeneo ya zamani ya uchimbaji wa makaa ya mawe kuwa vyanzo vipya vya ndani vya madini muhimu, Idara ya Nishati ya Marekani imetoa $ 19m kwa miradi 13 katika jamii za jadi za uzalishaji wa mafuta ya makaa ya mawe kutoka Appalachian hadi Alaska. Ingawa madini ya ardhi ni lengo kuu la mradi huu unaofadhiliwa na Wizara ya Uchumi, fedha ambazo zimekuwa zikikusanywa katika mitambo ya umeme inayotumia makaa ya mawe pia mara nyingi zina germanium, lithiamu, cobalt, titani, vanadium, na madini mengine kadhaa na metali zinazohesabiwa kuwa muhimu kwa Marekani. Hii inaweza kutoa chanzo kipya cha germanium na metali nyingine zinazohitajika kwa mabadiliko ya nishati mbadala na magari ya umeme, wakati pia kutoa fursa mpya za kazi ambazo zinaathiriwa na mabadiliko haya. "Jumuiya za mafuta ya visukuku ambazo zimekuwa zikitoa nishati kwa taifa letu kwa miongo kadhaa zinaweza kuwa mbele katika uchumi wa nishati safi kwa kuzalisha madini muhimu yanayohitajika kujenga magari ya umeme, turbini za upepo, na mengi zaidi, ""alisema Waziri wa Nishati Jennifer Granholm."