There are four different fire resistive tests that cover wall system design. The main and oldest of the four tests is known as ASTM E119 Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials. The next two tests concern penetrations and construction joints in a fire resistive wall. The fire test on penetrations is ASTM E814 Standard Test Method for Fire Tests of Penetration Firestop Systems. Construction joints between fire resistive walls are evaluated under ASTM E1966 Standard Test Method for Fire-Resistive Joint Systems. The fourth test was especially developed for exterior walls. Its intent is to measure the impact of foam plastics when used in an exterior wall that will be used on an otherwise non-combustible wall.
ASTM E119 is designed to gauge the ability of various construction elements to maintain their structural integrity while holding a fire to its location of origin. The test procedure covers walls, floors, roofs, beams, and columns. A building element such as a wall is subjected to controlled fire on one side. The wall must not exceed specific temperatures on the surface on the other side. It is meant to measure heat transfer and the transmission of hot gases through the wall itself. If the wall or building element is to be load-bearing, the test will evaluate the wall’s ability to maintain its structural capacity under test conditions (elevated temperatures). The application of a standard fire hose stream may be applied after the fire portion to determine structural integrity.
The test is designed for comparative purposes only. It provides data to illustrate how one type of wall performs compared to another. It is not meant to predict a tested wall’s performance in the event of an actual fire. Also, the test does not provide information as to how the element will perform in sizes other than what was tested. It does not evaluate smoke migration or toxicity. The test only considers elements isolated from the rest of the structure. It does not look at, for example, the intersection of a wall and a floor assembly.
The wall size for a fire test is a nominal 10 foot X 10 foot, or 100 square feet. The wall is built within a steel/concrete frame and then placed in front of the furnace itself. Installation is done in such a way that one side of the partition will be exposed to the fire, and the other side is not. The temperature on the exposed side is closely monitored and controlled. There is a recognized time-temperature curve shown here that must be followed. The temperature within the furnace increases at a very rapid pace, then tapers off with time. Within the first five minutes the temperature will reach be 1000oF, while after 2 hours the temperature will be 2000oF.
This picture shows the wall to be tested clamped in front of the furnace. Under the nine gray squares are heat measuring devices called thermocouples. The thermocouples are used to measure the unexposed side of the wall. During the test the average temperature at the nine locations cannot exceed 250oF plus ambient (the temperature in the room when the test is started). Also, no single temperature can exceed 325oF plus ambient. The picture on the left is a wall in the middle of a test. You will notice that there appears to be smoke rising from the test specimen. When that is seen, a lab technician is to place what is called “cotton waste” at the location where the smoke is emanating from. Should the cotton char, that indicates the presence of hot gases escaping, and the test is terminated. If the wall system includes gypsum panels, there is a very good chance that what appears to be smoke is simply steam. Gypsum contains chemically combined water that is released as steam at elevated temperatures.
The final part of the test is what is called a hose stream test. Essentially the wall system is rebuilt and fire tested for half the time, but not to exceed one hour, for the intended rating. For example, one hour retest if a two hour wall is to be the desired rating. Immediately after the one hour exposure, the wall is removed from the face of the furnace and subjected to a hose stream of water. This hose stream must be from a 2-1/2 inch hose with a National Standard playpipe nozzle with a 1-1/8 inch tip. This hose stream will be shot from a distance of 20 feet. The duration of the hose stream test will vary with the intended fire rating. For example, a two hour fire rating requires a 2-1/2 minute hose stream exposure, while the one hour fire rating requires a one minute hose stream exposure. To pass this portion of the test, no water can protrude beyond the plane of the wall.
The following links are suggested for more information:
The previously described test protocol only evaluates the fire resistive performance of building elements such as walls. It is logical to assume that this performance is greatly reduced if there are any penetrations through the wall. There is a specific test procedure for evaluating penetrations. The material that is used to “seal” the penetration is called a “fire stop”. Fire stops should be considered as a system, for in many cases there are several constituents that make up the fire stop. ASTM E814 is the recognized test to evaluate the performance of fire stop systems.
The test follows the same concept as ASTM E119. It uses the same “time-temperature curve” as a control and has a requirement for a hose stream test. The picture shown here is of a hose stream test on a wall specimen that contains several through-penetrations. A fire stop system is specific to the materials in the fire stop, the manner they are installed, the size of hole they fill, and the make-up of the wall or floor in which they are tested. Based on the outcome of the ASTM E814 test, a fire stop system is given two ratings. The first is an “F” rating which indicates, in time, the appearance of flame on the side opposite the fire exposed side. The second is a “T” rating which measures heat transfer in time through the fire stop.
The fire stop test is limited only to walls and floors that have already been tested according to ASTM E119. As with ASTM E119, the test is not intended to predict performance in an actual fire. Also similar to ASTM E119 the test does not evaluate serviceability after a fire test or event.
The following sites are offered for more information:
Head-Of-Wall Fire Resistance
The next type of fire testing looks at how various building elements interface. ASTM E119 is only concerned with individual, isolated building elements. ASTM E 1966 is used to analyze the fire performance at the interface of adjacent fire resistive assemblies. Similar to ASTM E814, this test starts with the same principals as ASTM E119. It shares same time-temperature curve and the same requirements for fire exposure and hose stream. This test evaluates what is termed as a “joint system”. A joint system is a combination of materials that are designed and installed at the interface of two hourly rated (ASTM E119) building elements. The test analyzes the effect of building movement on the ability of a joint system to contain a fire during a predetermined time exposure. The load-bearing capacity of the joint is evaluated as well as the ability of the joint system to impede the passage of flame (heat) and hot gases.
The following sites are offered for more information:
Building officials became concerned with the proliferation of foam plastics in exterior walls that were being used in otherwise non-combustible buildings. Their concern was how the plastic would affect the vertical spread of a fire up the exterior face of a building. To analyze this impact, NFPA 285: Standard Fire Test Method for Evaluation of Fire Propagation Characteristics of Exterior Non-Load Bearing Wall Assemblies Containing Combustible Components
was drafted. The test calls for a 2-story twenty-four foot tall assembly to be exposed to fire. Each floor is twelve feet tall. During the test, flame spread up the face of the wall is observed. Horizontal flame spread is also evaluated. Flame spread within the cavity of the wall and the inside face of the wall is also measured. A very unique aspect of this test is that it requires fire exposure on both sides of the wall. All the wall panel tests look at fire exposure on one side only, and also measure heat transfer through the walls.
Exterior walls contain windows, and windows are easily breached at elevated temperatures. Glass cannot withstand high temperatures; they will break and fall out in a fire event. When this occurs, the wall is exposed to fire on both sides. This is of critical concern when considering how a wall assembly can contain fire to its floor of origin. The photograph at the left clearly shows the impact that a breached window has on fire containment. This is the unexposed side of the wall and the flames are on what would be the exterior side of a building.
Acoustics in wall system design is important. A special concern is sound transmission loss through the wall. This leads to determining a wall’s Sound Transmission Classification, STC. The laboratory test method for obtaining this classification is ASTM E90 Standard Test Method for Laboratory Measurement of Airborne Sound Transmission Loss of Building Partitions and Elements. Similar to ASTM E119, this test is best used in comparing the performance of different wall systems. It is not intended to predict in-place acoustical performance. Also, as in E119, the wall to be tested is isolated from adjacent systems and the building structure itself. This is important for determining acoustical performance. What are called flanking paths are those paths that allow sound to bypass the wall thus effectively reducing the acoustical performance. Examples of flanking paths are where the wall interfaces structure, placement of doors, and even electrical outlet boxes. The result of not including flanking paths in laboratory test is that the values obtained from a laboratory reflect a “best case” scenario.
The systems that are considered in ASTM E90 include walls, floor-ceilings assemblies, doors, and roofs. Sound travels throughout a building in two ways. The first is sound that travels through the air and is called “airborne.” The second is sound that travels through the structure itself and is called “structure borne.” ASTM E90 only evaluates airborne sound. In the test sound is generated at 16 specific frequencies, starting at 125 hz, or cycles per second and ending at 4000 hz. At each tested frequency the amount of energy is measured in the receiving room is measured. The difference is called the transmission loss, and it is graphically tabulated. When all frequencies have been tabulated and plotted, the STC value can then be graphically determined.
The graph depicted here is a plot of the individual transmission loss values (TL) at specific frequencies taken from an ASTM E90 test. The solid black line is the actual test results. The red line is called the STC contour curve and it is defined within the ASTM standard. The red line is graphically manipulated over the black line until certain ASTM placement requirements are met. Then a vertical line (purple in this case) is drawn vertically up from 500 Hz. The resulting intersection is then the STC value of the tested assembly, a 39 in this case. Some interesting observations can be made from this graph. The first is that the TL is different at each frequency. That implies that the attenuation is not uniform across the frequencies tested. A wall may respond very well at one frequency, and poorly at another. A more important point is that two walls with the same STC may behave very differently at the same frequency. Because of this phenomenon it is well advised to discuss critical conditions with a recognized acoustical engineer.
Another observation is that the tested system appears to let more sound energy through at lower frequencies. This is true for most panel assemblies. Mass is a key factor for reducing sound transmission, especially at low frequencies. Many systems can be acoustically transparent at very low frequencies. The range of frequencies that is evaluated in ASTM E90 coincides with the range of human speech. If the sound source that a designer is trying to control is mechanical or musical where low frequencies are common the STC value alone may not be sufficient. Again, it is recommended enlisting the services of a recognized acoustical engineer.
Structural borne sound is evaluated in floor–ceiling systems. For example, the system must impede the transmission of foot traffic from the upper floor to the lower ceiling. The concept of the test is similar to ASTM E90 in that there is a sound source on one side of the system and the sound levels in the receiving room are measured. The difference is that the sound source is a mechanical tapping device that is placed directly on top of the finished floor. The test method that is used is ASTM E492 Standard Test Method for Laboratory Measurement of Impact Sound Transmission Through Floor-Ceiling Assemblies Using the Tapping Machine. The result of the test is the system’s Impact Isolation Classification (IIC). The IIC is a single number rating system similar to STC, in that the higher the IIC value the better the system is in controlling structure borne sound.
Beyond the scope of this discussion are the other areas of architectural acoustics. Concepts such as sound reflectivity or how sound waves “bounce off” hard surfaces within a given space can have a significant impact on how well a room performs. This reflectivity leads to reverberation, which is how long sound “lingers” within the space. A little reverberation enhances a space, too much reverberation detracts. This reverberation can be controlled through the use of materials that are strategically placed to reflect sound, and other materials are also placed in the space to absorb sound. This type of design is best handled by a qualified acoustical engineer.
For information on specific assemblies the following sources are suggested:
Heat transfer is a function of the thermal resistance of the materials that make up the building thermal envelope. The International Energy Conservation Code (2012) defines the building thermal envelope as “The basement walls, exterior walls, floor, roof, and any other building elements that enclose conditioned space or provides a boundary between conditioned space and exempt or unconditioned space.” These individual resistance values (R-Values) are mathematically combined to predict the performance of the assembly.
Heat is a form of energy and is defined as the relative motion of the molecules of a given material. The hotter the material is, the faster the molecules are moving. This heat is measured in British thermal units, or Btu. A single Btu is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise one pound of water from 63o to 64oF.
There is a directionality to heat transfer. Heat always flows to colder temperatures. From the building envelope standpoint, this means that during winter the heat of the interior space is flowing to the exterior, and conversely in the summer, the warm air on the exterior of the building is flowing to the interior. There are three methods for this heat transfer. They are convection, conduction, and radiation. This paper will primarily discuss conduction.
All common building materials will conduct heat. Therefore, each building material has a coefficient of conductance (k) value that predicts the amount of energy that the material will conduct. The units for this coefficient are Btu per hour, per square foot of material, per inch thickness of material, per degree Fahrenheit. The total heat that will pass through an assembly (the combination of individual building materials each with its own coefficient of conductance) is termed the “coefficient of heat transmission.” This value is expressed as Btu per hour, per square foot, per the degree Fahrenheit temperature difference between the air on one side of the assembly to the air on the other. This value is called a “U” value of the assembly. “Thermal resistance” of a material or assembly is the more common term that is used. Mathematically the thermal resistance, “R,” of a material is the reciprocal of its heat transfer coefficient, which is 1/k, 1/C, 1/U. The higher the “R-value” of a material is the greater its resistance to the transfer of heat.
The above is taken from Navigating Uncharted Waters: Understanding the Energy Codes and
How They Impact the Role of the Contractor. (A research paper prepared for The Foundation of Wall and Ceiling Industry).
One of the more important factors in the design of the exterior envelope is controlling water migration through the walls, the roof, and the foundation. Water-resistive membranes, flashing, and sealants are typically used to control water in its liquid state. Water in its vapor state can be a little more challenging, and is a natural occurrence in the air we breathe. The common term is “humidity.” Building materials can either allow or resist the passage of water vapor through them. They all have what is termed a “perm rating,” or a rate in which they allow vapor transmission. Similar to how heat flows from hot to cold, moisture travels from areas of high vapor pressure (high humidity) to areas of low vapor pressure. In a very real sense, water is driven through an exterior wall from the hot moist outside air to the relatively cool dry inside air. At the same time as the vapor is migrating through the wall the temperature is dropping through the existence of insulation. In a poorly designed or erected wall the temperature can drop to what is called the “dew point,” which is where the water will convert to its liquid state, similar to beads of water on a cold soda can. If this condensation occurs inside the stud cavity it will have catastrophic consequences. Therefore a good exterior envelope design includes a dew point analysis, and attention to detail in the construction phase is equally critical.
The above is taken from Navigating Uncharted Waters: Understanding the Energy Codes and How They Impact the Role of the Contractor. (A research paper prepared for The Foundation of Wall and Ceiling Industry).
Expanding on the concept of the water resistive membrane for exterior applications the current International Building Code (2009) calls for a Water Resistive Barrier to be installed behind the exterior veneer (see Section 1403.2). In the case of a framed exterior wall the idea is to restrict the potential for water entering the stud cavity. The code further interprets the water resistive barrier to be #15 building paper or equivalent. Some recognized barriers are 1. Asphalt saturated papers and felts that meet ASTM D226 Standard Specification for Asphalt Saturated Organic Felt Used in Roofing and Waterproofing Type I, 2. Polymeric sheets, 3. Fluid applied barriers, and 4. Rigid board barriers. The proper design of a water barrier must include flashing, weeps, and a drainage system to allow for any water in its liquid state to exit from the exterior wall.
The Tile Council of North America (TCNA) provides guidance in what is termed “membranes” in tile applications. These membranes are used in either interior or exterior applications. In the 2013 Edition of the TCNA Handbook for Ceramic, Glass, and Stone Tile Applications there are definitions of the various types of membranes and where they should be used in interior, exterior, wall and floor applications that call for a tile finish. The “Membrane Selection Guide” defines cleavage membranes, vapor retarder membranes, waterproof membranes, and low perm waterproof membranes as they relate to moisture control within tile installations. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standard that covers these materials is ANSI A118.10 Load Bearing, Bonded, Waterproof Membranes for Thin-Set Tile and Dimensional Stone Installation.
The ASTM Standard that applies to vapor permeance is E96 Standard Test Methods for Water Vapor Transmission of Materials. There are two methods in which permeability is measured. In the first method the sample to be tested is installed tightly to a cup that has a desiccant (a material that absorbs water). This cup is this placed in a controlled environment where the temperature (73oF) and Relative Humidity (50% RH) is maintained. In the second method the sample to be tested is installed over a cup of liquid water, and then placed in the same controlled environment. In both cases, the permeability of the tested material is then obtained by the rate of change found in the sample’s mass.
Another important test for building materials is a test that measures the amount moisture that a material will absorb. Long term moisture absorption in a material can be bad for it may cause degradation of the material itself, or the materials adjacent to it. In some cases, such as moisture migration through an exterior wall system, having a material in place that absorbs water in the system may be good. This material can help lessen the potential for the development of a dew point and subsequent condensation in a stud cavity. A common water absorption test for gypsum panels is found in ASTM C473 Standard Test Methods for Physical Testing of Gypsum Panel Products. In this test a sample panel is immersed in water for a period of time, 2 days, and the percentage increase in weight is measured.
Framing members are typically spaced at 16 or 24 inches on center, with spacing variations lower and higher depending upon the loads and coverings. Wall members are typically vertical lipped channel “stud” members, which fit into channel “track” sections at the top and bottom. The sketches to the right depict the common stud, joist, and track profiles. The track sections are typically fastened to a concrete deck with power driven fasteners. The photograph to the right shows a track attached to a concrete deck. In the track a stud has been installed. In structural applications the stud must be mechanically attached to the framing. In non-structural applications the stud is not attached to the track.
In structural applications, headers are installed over any openings such as doors and windows. There are several options to be considered with the one shown at the left as a “boxed header.” This is where C-Stud/Joists members are installed with the open side facing each other. The number of C-Stud/Joist members, their steel thickness, and depth of the member will vary with the openings that they must span.
In multi-floor applications it is important that all the wall framing studs align vertically, thus creating a continuous load path from roof to foundation. Notice in the photograph on the right how all the studs are installed from one floor to the next on top of each other. To resist rotation of the studs, lateral bracing is used. This is typically done with channel bracing that is installed in the cavity of the wall by running the channels through the convenience holes located in the web of the C-Stud member. In non-structural applications gypsum panels provide the required bracing.
The photograph on the left illustrates how the lateral bracing should be installed. The cold-rolled steel channel is running horizontally in the cavity of the wall. It runs through a punch-out in each stud. There is a small clip angle that is used to mechanically attach the channel to the stud.
Lateral bracing is one option for accommodating wind bracing or “shear walls.” Unlike the bracing described above, which runs horizontally, this bracing is installed in an “X” configuration. Other options include proprietary panels. In mid-rise construction, the exterior wall framing is usually installed in a “balloon” framing configuration. This is where the exterior wall framing runs continuous by the floor framing. This is detailed in the Exterior Systems Details of this site.
Similar configurations are used for both floor joist and rafter assemblies, but in a horizontal application for floors, and a horizontal or sloped application for roof framing. Accessories of the framing system include fasteners and connectors, braces and bracing, clips and connectors. The photograph at the right illustrates a floor joist (C-Stud/Joist profile) installed directly over a load-bearing stud. A track section is used to cap the joists and tie them altogether. This is an example of platform framing that is the framing of choice for low-rise conditions. In the photograph below, there are web-stiffeners installed where the joists bear on the wall framing. Another way to do the floor framing is to use a steel floor truss that is made up of C-Stud/Joist members. There are many available truss manufacturers that design and fabricate trusses.
There are several options of floor systems that can be used over the joists. Plywood is common for combustible construction. In non-combustible applications, one can use precast concrete, poured-in-place concrete, non-combustible panels, or corrugated steel deck (minimum 22 gauge) and a cementitious topping. The two photographs to the right show a corrugated steel deck (shown from below) and a mechanic pouring the topping over the deck.
Roof framing members can either be C-Stud/Joists installed in a common rafter style or trusses can be fabricated using C-Stud/Joist members. As with floor truss systems, there are many local fabricators available that design, build, and supply the trusses. The three photographs to the right show both types of framing. The crane in the center photograph illustrates how panelization of framing systems can be used to facilitate installation. Panelization offers many benefits such as reducing the construction schedule and increasing quality control over conventional built-in-place techniques.
Non-Structural Framing-Limiting Heights
The strength and stiffness of any cold-formed steel framing member is determined by three things. They are the thickness of the steel, the material properties of the steel, and finally the geometric properties provided by the framing member’s profile.
Cold-formed steel is formed from relatively thin sheets of steel. The chart shown here is taken from the Steel Framing Industry Association’s Technical Guide
, and provides the basic thicknesses that are available. The steel is measured in “mil” thickness therefore the basic interior non-loadbearing stud is 18 mils. The minimum thickness of the steel, measured in inches is 0.0179 inch. This is the thickness of the steel itself without a protective coating. The roll-forming process in steel does not provide a uniform thickness of steel within what is termed a coil of steel. The coil as shown here arrives at a framing fabricator facility ready to be slit and formed into individual stud, joist, or track profiles. The thickness of steel will vary within this coil. To accommodate this variance, the thickness 0.0179 inches represents the minimum thickness acceptable. There is a note on the bottom of the table that states “Minimum thickness represents 95% of the design thickness and is the minimum acceptable thickness delivered to the jobsite based upon Section A2.4 of the AISI S100-07 Specification.”
Material properties: Steel is considered a ductile or elastic material. Therefore an important material property to consider when designing with cold-formed steel framing members is steel’s yield strength. Steel will deform under an applied tensile load. When that load or stress is released, the steel will return to its original shape. At some load level the steel will not return to its normal shape and permanent deformation will occur. Yield strength is then defined as that threshold stress where permanent deformation occurs in an otherwise ductile material. This is a critical factor when designing in cold-formed steel framing, and is measured in pounds per square inch. Because the value can be fairly high the values are published where “1 kip” equals 1000 pounds. Common yield strengths used in cold-formed steel framing are 33 ksi (kips per square inch) and 50 ksi.
The bending of a flat sheet of steel increases its ability to withstand an applied load. Consider that a flat piece of paper cannot stand up, yet it can when folded in half. Therefore the final profile of a cold-formed steel member is equally important. The two most important geometric, or “section” properties to consider is a profile’s “Moment of Inertia” with the units of inches to the fourth, and “Section Modulus.” The units of Section Modulus are inches to the third power. The moment of inertia, symbolized as Ix, predicts a profile’s stiffness or ability to resist deflection. The deeper a member, the more it can resist deflection. A 6” deep stud is stiffer than a stud that is 1-5/8” deep. The section modulus, symbolized as Sx predicts a profile’s strength. It determines, along with the steel yield strength how much load a profile can take until ultimate failure. A final geometric consideration of a profile is its web depth. As the web of a stud gets larger so does the potential for web buckling. This is a factor when analyzing end reaction and shear capacity. The SFIA Technical Guide for Cold-Formed Steel Products
provides the section properties for all the profiles.
Lateral load on interior partitions: For many years the accepted design load for interior partitions was 15 psf. It was based on the assumption of loads imparted on an interior partition as a result of an open window. This requirement was based on work done in the 1940s by the Building Research Advisory Board (BRAB). This board was part of the National Research Council. In 1967 a code change was approved by ICBO (International Council of Building Officials) for the Uniform Building Code to reduce the load to 5 psf. This change was based on work done by Wiss, Janny & Elstner that was commissioned by the Gypsum Association. A 5 psf uniform load is still the design load and referenced in both the Gypsum Association GA 600 Fire Resistance Design Manual and ASTM C754 Standard Specification for Installation of Steel Framing Members to Receive Screw-Attached Gypsum Panel Products.
Limiting heights tables:
The height table here provides the designer with information of how tall a wall can be designed with a given non-structural stud. The table is taken from the Steel Framing Industry Association’s published Technical Guide for Cold-Formed Steel Products
. The tables are based on a uniform lateral load only. It is not meant for when the framing member must have the capacity for loadbearing (axial load) conditions. Other tables in the guide provide information on combined lateral and axial loads. The table evaluates each standard stud profile at 12, 16, and 24 inches on center. It also limits deflection (a function of the profiles moment of inertia) to l/120, 1/240, and l/360. Deflection should be determined based on the intended finish in order to limit the potential for that finish material to crack. The table also looks at heights limited by bending stress and end reaction shear (web buckling). Bending stress is measured by the yield strength of the steel and the profiles section modulus.
These wall heights are determined by tests following the procedures required by AC86 - Acceptance Criteria for Determining Limiting Height of Composite Walls Constructed of Gypsum and Steel Studs. This procedure was established by the International Code Congress – Evaluation Services, ICC-ES.
The tables published today by the SFIA for interior non-load bearing partitions only evaluate heights based on the stud properties alone, or are labeled as “non-composite.” Gypsum panels installed on both sides of a partition effectively stiffen the wall. This contribution is recognized in “composite” tables. What is important to understand is that the test procedure for determining composite wall heights requires that the panels are fastened around the perimeter of the partition. That means that the composite tables are not to be used when the gypsum panels stop above a suspended ceiling and the studs are not covered from that elevation up to structure. For that reason, some manufacturers have tested and published values for that condition. This is called “fully braced” and assumes lateral bracing is provided by other means above the plane of the ceiling.
Kuna majaribio manne tofauti ya upinzani wa moto ambayo hufunika muundo wa mfumo wa ukuta. Mtihani wa kwanza na wa kwanza kati ya vipimo hivyo ni ASTM E-119 (Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials). Majaribio mawili ya pili yanahusu kupenya na viungo vya ujenzi katika ukuta wa kuzuia moto. Mtihani wa moto wa kupenya ni ASTM E814 Standard Test Method kwa Majaribio ya Moto ya Mifumo ya Firestop ya Kupenya. Kuunganisha kwa ujenzi kati ya kuta za moto ni tathmini chini ya ASTM E196 Standard Test Method kwa Fire-Resistant Joint Systems. Mtihani wa nne ulitengenezwa hasa kwa ajili ya kuta za nje. Kwa mfano, kuna uwezekano wa kuathiri athari za plastiki ya foam wakati wa kutengeneza ukuta wa nje, na kwa hivyo inaweza kuathiri uharibifu wa mazingira. ASTM E119 ni kiwango cha juu cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango cha kiwango. Utaratibu wa mtihani unashughulikia kuta, sakafu, paa, mihimili, na nguzo. Sehemu ya jengo kama vile ukuta ni chini ya moto kudhibitiwa kwa upande mmoja. Ukuta haupaswi kuzidi joto maalum juu ya uso upande mwingine. Ni maana ya kupima uhamisho wa joto na uhamisho wa gesi moto kupitia ukuta yenyewe. Kama ukuta au jengo kipengele ni kuwa kubeba mzigo, mtihani itakuwa kutathmini ukuta uwezo wa kudumisha uwezo wake wa muundo chini ya hali ya mtihani (hisa ya juu). Matumizi ya kiwango cha moto mfereji mkondo inaweza kutumika baada ya sehemu ya moto kuamua uadilifu wa muundo. Mtihani ni iliyoundwa kwa ajili ya madhumuni ya kulinganisha tu. Inatoa data ili kuonyesha jinsi aina moja ya ukuta inafanya ikilinganishwa na nyingine. Si maana ya kutabiri utendaji wa ukuta mtihani katika tukio la moto halisi. Pia, mtihani haitoi habari kuhusu jinsi kipengele hicho kitakavyofanya katika ukubwa tofauti na kile kilichopimwa. Haitathmini uhamiaji wa moshi au sumu. Mtihani tu inachukua vipengele kutengwa kutoka sehemu nyingine ya muundo. Haichunguzi, kwa mfano, makutano ya ukuta na jengo la sakafu. Ukubwa wa ukuta wa majaribio ya moto ni 10 ft x 10 ft, au 100 sq ft. Ukuta ni kujengwa ndani ya chuma / saruji frame na kisha kuwekwa mbele ya tanuru yenyewe. Ufungaji hufanywa kwa njia ambayo upande mmoja wa mgawanyiko utafunuliwa kwa moto, na upande mwingine sio. Joto upande ulio wazi linadhibitiwa kwa ukaribu. Kuna kutambuliwa muda-joto curve kuonyeshwa hapa kwamba lazima kufuatwa. Joto ndani ya tanuru huongezeka kwa kasi sana, kisha hupungua kadiri wakati unavyopita. Katika dakika tano za kwanza joto litakuwa 1000oF, wakati baada ya masaa mawili joto litakuwa 2000oF. Picha hii inaonyesha ukuta kuwa kupimwa clamped mbele ya tanuru. Chini ya mraba huo wa kijivu kuna vifaa vya kupima joto vinavyoitwa thermocouples. Thermo couples ni kutumika kupima upande unexposed ya ukuta. Wakati wa mtihani, joto la wastani katika maeneo tisa hawezi kuzidi 250 ° F + mazingira (joto katika chumba wakati mtihani ni kuanza). Kwa upande mwingine, hakuna joto la kawaida linaloweza kuzidi 325 ° F + mazingira. Picha iliyo upande wa kushoto ni ukuta katikati ya mtihani. Utaona kwamba kuna moshi unaoonekana ukitoka kwenye sampuli ya mtihani. Wakati huo unapoonekana, fundi wa maabara anapaswa kuweka kile kinachoitwa "matope ya pamba" mahali ambapo moshi unatoka. Kama pamba char, kwamba inaonyesha uwepo wa gesi moto kutoroka, na mtihani ni kumalizika. Ikiwa mfumo wa ukuta una paneli za gypsum, kuna uwezekano mkubwa sana kwamba kile kinachoonekana kuwa moshi ni mvuke tu. Gypsum ina maji yaliyochanganywa na kemikali ambayo hutolewa kama mvuke katika halijoto ya juu. Sehemu ya mwisho ya mtihani ni kile kinachoitwa mtihani wa mkondo wa mfereji. Kwa kweli, mfumo wa ukuta umejengwa upya na kupimwa moto kwa nusu ya muda, lakini si zaidi ya saa moja, kwa kiwango kinachotarajiwa. Kwa mfano, saa moja retest kama ukuta saa mbili ni kuwa rating taka. Mara baada ya saa moja ya mfiduo, ukuta ni kuondolewa kutoka uso wa tanuru na chini ya mfereji mfereji wa maji. Hifadhi ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji. Mtiririko huu wa bomba utapigwa risasi kutoka umbali wa futi 20. Muda wa mtihani mfereji mfereji itatofautiana na lengo moto rating. Kwa mfano, kiwango cha moto cha saa mbili kinahitaji mfiduo wa mtiririko wa mfereji wa dakika 2-12, wakati kiwango cha moto cha saa moja kinahitaji mfiduo wa mtiririko wa mfereji wa dakika moja. Ili kuvumilia sehemu hii ya mtihani, hakuna maji yanayoweza kutokeza zaidi ya usawa wa ukuta. Viungo vifuatavyo vinapendekezwa kwa habari zaidi: Itifaki ya mtihani iliyoelezwa hapo awali inathamini tu utendaji wa upinzani wa moto wa vipengele vya ujenzi kama vile kuta. Ni mantiki kudhani kwamba utendaji huu hupunguzwa sana kama kuna uvamizi wowote kupitia ukuta. Kuna utaratibu maalum wa mtihani kwa ajili ya kutathmini penetrations. Vifaa ambavyo hutumiwa <unk>kufunga<unk> kupenya huitwa <unk>kuzuia moto<unk>. Vizuizi vya moto vinapaswa kuonwa kuwa mfumo, kwa sababu katika visa vingi kuna sehemu kadhaa zinazofanyiza vizuizi vya moto. ASTM E814 ni mtihani wa kawaida wa utendaji wa mfumo wa kuzuia moto. Mtihani huu unafuata dhana sawa na ASTM E119. Inatumia sawa "wakati-joto curve" kama udhibiti na ina mahitaji kwa ajili ya mtiririko bomba mtihani. Picha iliyoonyeshwa hapa ni ya mtihani wa mkondo wa mfereji kwenye sampuli ya ukuta ambayo ina upenyezaji kadhaa. Mfumo wa kuzuia moto ni maalum kwa vifaa katika kuzuia moto, jinsi wao ni imewekwa, ukubwa wa shimo wao kujaza, na muundo wa ukuta au sakafu ambayo wao ni majaribio. Kwa mujibu wa ASTM E814 mtihani, mfumo wa kuzuia moto ni kupewa viwango viwili. Ya kwanza ni <unk>F<unk> rating ambayo inaonyesha, kwa wakati, kuonekana kwa moto upande kinyume na upande moto wazi. Ya pili ni <unk>T<unk> rating ambayo hupima uhamisho wa joto kwa wakati kupitia kukomesha moto. Mtihani wa moto wa moto ni mdogo tu kwa kuta na sakafu ambazo tayari zimepimwa kulingana na ASTM E119. Kama ilivyo kwa ASTM E119, mtihani huo haukusudiwa kutabiri utendaji katika moto halisi. Kwa mfano, katika ASTM E119 (A) na E119 (B) majaribio ya moto yanaonyesha kwamba vifaa vya kuendesha gari vinaweza kuathiriwa na moto. Kwa habari zaidi, tovuti zifuatazo zinapatikana: Upinzani wa Moto wa Kiongozi wa Ukuta Aina inayofuata ya majaribio ya moto inaangalia jinsi vipengele mbalimbali vya ujenzi vinavyoingiliana. ASTM E119 inahusu tu vipengele vya ujenzi vya kibinafsi, vilivyojitenga. ASTM E1966, kwa mfano, inatumika kwa ajili ya kuchambua utendaji wa moto katika interface ya jumuiya jirani moto-resistive. Kwa mfano, ASTM E814 inatoa viwango vya juu vya majaribio ya hali ya juu, na ASTM E119 inatoa viwango vya chini vya majaribio ya hali ya juu. Inashiriki sawa muda-joto curve na mahitaji sawa kwa ajili ya mwangaza moto na mfereji mfereji. Mtihani huu hutathmini kile kinachoitwa "mfumo wa pamoja". Pamoja mfumo ni mchanganyiko wa vifaa ambayo ni iliyoundwa na imewekwa katika interface ya mbili saa-rated (ASTM E119) vipengele vya ujenzi. Mtihani inachambua athari ya ujenzi harakati juu ya uwezo wa mfumo wa pamoja ya kuzuia moto wakati wa muda uliopangwa mapema mfiduo. Uwezo wa kubeba mzigo wa pamoja ni tathmini kama vile uwezo wa pamoja mfumo wa kuzuia kupita kwa moto (joto) na gesi moto. "Kama ilivyoelezwa hapo juu, ""Wafanyakazi wa ujenzi walianza kuwa na wasiwasi juu ya kuenea kwa plastiki ya povu katika kuta za nje ambazo zilikuwa zikitumiwa katika majengo ambayo kwa njia nyingine hayakuweza kuwaka.""" Walisisitiza kwamba plastiki hiyo ingeweza kuathiri jinsi moto unavyoenea kwenye sehemu ya nje ya jengo. NFPA285 - Njia ya kawaida ya mtihani wa moto kwa Tathmini ya Sifa za Kuenea kwa Moto za Mipangilio ya Kuta ya Nje isiyo ya Kubeba Mzigo inayojumuisha Vipengele vya Kuungua Mtihani huo unahitaji jengo lenye orofa mbili lenye urefu wa futi ishirini na nne liangaliwe na moto. Kila ghorofa ina urefu wa meta kumi na mbili. Wakati wa mtihani, moto kuenea juu ya uso wa ukuta ni kuchunguzwa. Uenezaji wa moto wa usawa pia unathaminiwa. Moto kuenea ndani ya shimo la ukuta na uso wa ndani ya ukuta pia ni kipimo. Sehemu ya kipekee sana ya mtihani huu ni kwamba inahitaji mfiduo wa moto pande zote mbili za ukuta. Vipimo vyote vya jopo la ukuta huangalia mfiduo wa moto upande mmoja tu, na pia hupima uhamisho wa joto kupitia kuta. Kuta za nje zina madirisha, na madirisha huvunjika kwa urahisi kwa joto la juu. Kioo hakiwezi kuvumilia joto la juu; kitavunjika na kuanguka nje katika tukio la moto. Hilo linapotokea, ukuta huo huathiriwa na moto pande zote mbili. Hii ni ya wasiwasi muhimu wakati wa kuzingatia jinsi jengo la ukuta linaweza kuzuia moto kwenye sakafu yake ya asili. Picha iliyo upande wa kushoto inaonyesha waziwazi athari ambazo dirisha lililovunjika linafanya kwa kuzuia moto. Hii ni upande usiofunuliwa wa ukuta na moto uko kwenye kile ambacho kitakuwa upande wa nje wa jengo. Acoustics katika kubuni mfumo wa ukuta ni muhimu. Hangaiko la pekee ni hasara ya maambukizi ya sauti kupitia ukuta. Hii inaongoza kwa kuamua ukuta wa Sound Transmission Classification, STC. Mtihani wa maabara kwa ajili ya kupata uainishaji huu ni ASTM E90 Standard Mtihani mbinu kwa ajili ya Laboratory kipimo cha hewa sauti Transmission Hasara ya ujenzi Partitions na Vipengele. Kama ilivyo kwa ASTM E119, mtihani huu ni bora kutumika katika kulinganisha utendaji wa mifumo tofauti ya ukuta. Ni si lengo la kutabiri katika-mahali acoustic utendaji. Pia, kama katika E119, ukuta wa kupimwa ni kutengwa kutoka mifumo jirani na muundo wa jengo yenyewe. Hii ni muhimu kwa ajili ya kuamua utendaji acoustic. Njia za kuingilia ni zile ambazo huruhusu sauti kuzunguka ukuta na hivyo kupunguza utendaji wa sauti. Mifano ya njia za kando ni ambapo muundo wa muundo wa ukuta, uwekaji wa milango, na hata masanduku ya umeme. Matokeo ya kutojumuisha njia za kando katika mtihani wa maabara ni kwamba maadili yaliyopatikana kutoka kwa maabara yanaonyesha hali ya "hali bora". Mifumo inayochukuliwa katika ASTM E90 ni pamoja na kuta, sakafu-safu ya makundi, milango, na paa. Sauti husafiri katika jengo kwa njia mbili. Sauti ya hewa ni sauti inayosafiri kupitia hewa na inaitwa sauti ya hewa, na sauti ya hewa ni sauti inayosafiri kupitia muundo na inaitwa sauti inayosafirishwa na muundo. Sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti ya sauti. Katika kila frequency mtihani, kiasi cha nishati ni kupimwa katika chumba kupokea. Tofauti hiyo inaitwa hasara ya usambazaji, na inaonyeshwa kwa njia ya picha. Wakati frequency zote zimekuwa tabulated na plotted, thamani STC inaweza kisha kuwa graphically kuamua. Grafu iliyoonyeshwa hapa ni mchoro wa maadili ya hasara ya usafirishaji (TL) kwa masafa maalum yaliyochukuliwa kutoka kwa mtihani wa ASTM E90. Mstari mweusi kamili ni matokeo halisi ya mtihani. Mstari wa rangi nyekundu unaitwa mviringo wa contour ya STC na hufafanuliwa ndani ya kiwango cha ASTM. Mstari nyekundu ni graphically manipulated juu ya mstari nyeusi mpaka baadhi ya mahitaji ya uwekaji ASTM ni kukidhi. Mstari wa wima (mchanga katika kesi hii) huchorwa wima juu kutoka 500 Hz. Kwa mfano, katika kesi hii, kiwango cha STC cha kiunganishi cha mtihani ni 39. Maelezo fulani yenye kupendeza yanaweza kufanywa kutokana na grafu hii. Kwanza ni kwamba TL ni tofauti katika kila mzunguko. Hiyo ina maana kwamba attenuation si sawa katika masafa kupimwa. Ukuta waweza kujibu vizuri sana kwenye mzunguko mmoja, na vibaya kwenye mwingine. Jambo muhimu zaidi ni kwamba kuta mbili na STC sawa inaweza tabia tofauti sana katika mzunguko huo. Kwa sababu ya jambo hili ni vizuri kushauri kujadili hali muhimu na mhandisi acoustic kutambuliwa. Uchunguzi mwingine ni kwamba mfumo uliopimwa unaonekana kuruhusu nishati zaidi ya sauti ipite kwa masafa ya chini. Hii ni kweli kwa ajili ya makusanyiko mengi ya jopo. Misa ni jambo muhimu kwa kupunguza usambazaji wa sauti, hasa katika masafa ya chini. Mifumo mingi inaweza kuwa acoustically uwazi katika masafa ya chini sana. Kiwango cha sauti cha ASTM E90 kinalingana na kiwango cha sauti ya binadamu. Ikiwa chanzo cha sauti ambacho mtengenezaji anajaribu kudhibiti ni cha mitambo au muziki ambapo masafa ya chini ni ya kawaida, thamani ya STC peke yake inaweza kuwa haitoshi. Kwa mara nyingine tena, inapendekezwa kuajiri mhandisi wa sauti anayejulikana. Sauti ya muundo inayosababishwa inathaminiwa katika mifumo ya sakafu-safu. Kwa mfano, mfumo lazima kuzuia maambukizi ya trafiki ya miguu kutoka ghorofa ya juu hadi dari ya chini. Mfano wa mtihani huu ni sawa na ASTM E90, ambayo inaonyesha chanzo cha sauti upande mmoja wa mfumo na viwango vya sauti katika chumba cha kupokea. Tofauti ni kwamba chanzo cha sauti ni kifaa cha kuigiza ambacho huwekwa moja kwa moja juu ya sakafu iliyokamilika. Mfano wa majaribio ya ASTM E492 ni mfano wa majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio ya majaribio. Matokeo ya mtihani ni mfumo wa Impact Isolation Classification (IIC). IIC ni mfumo wa kiwango cha nambari moja sawa na STC, kwa kuwa kiwango cha juu cha IIC ni bora zaidi mfumo ni katika kudhibiti muundo wa sauti. Zaidi ya wigo wa majadiliano haya ni maeneo mengine ya sauti ya usanifu. Dhana kama vile sauti reflectivity au jinsi mawimbi ya sauti <unk> bounce off <unk> nyenzo ngumu ndani ya nafasi fulani inaweza kuwa na athari kubwa juu ya jinsi vizuri chumba hufanya. Hii reflectivity inaongoza kwa reverberation, ambayo ni jinsi muda mrefu sauti <unk>lingers<unk> ndani ya nafasi. Mzunguko mdogo huongeza nafasi, mkung'uniko mwingi sana hupunguza. Mzunguko huu unaweza kudhibitiwa kwa kutumia vifaa ambavyo vimewekwa kimkakati ili kutafakari sauti, na vifaa vingine pia vimewekwa katika nafasi ili kunyonya sauti. Aina hii ya kubuni ni bora kushughulikiwa na mhandisi wa sauti wenye sifa. Kwa habari juu ya makundi maalum, vyanzo vifuatavyo vinapendekezwa: Uhamisho wa joto ni kazi ya upinzani wa joto wa vifaa vinavyounda kifuniko cha joto cha jengo. "Kodeksi ya Kimataifa ya Uhifadhi wa Nishati (IEC) inafafanua kifuniko cha joto cha jengo kama ""mazingira ya chini ya ardhi, kuta za nje, sakafu, paa, na vitu vingine vya ujenzi vinavyozunguka nafasi ya hali ya hewa au hutoa mpaka kati ya nafasi ya hali ya hewa na nafasi isiyo na hali ya hewa.""" Joto ni aina ya nishati na hufafanuliwa kama mwendo wa jamaa wa molekuli za nyenzo fulani. Kadiri nyenzo inavyokuwa moto, ndivyo molekuli zinavyohamia haraka zaidi. Joto hilo hupimwa katika vitengo vya joto vya Uingereza, au Btu. Btu ni kiasi cha nishati ya joto inayohitajika kuinua kilo moja ya maji kutoka 63 ° F hadi 64 ° F. Kuna mwelekeo wa uhamisho wa joto. Joto sikuzote hutiririka kwenye halijoto baridi zaidi. Kwa mtazamo wa kifuniko cha jengo, hii inamaanisha kwamba wakati wa baridi joto la nafasi ya ndani linapita nje, na kinyume chake wakati wa majira ya joto, hewa ya joto ya nje ya jengo inapita ndani. Kuna njia tatu za kuhamisha joto hili. Ni convection, conduction, na radiation. Karatasi hii itakuwa hasa kujadili conduction. Vifaa vyote vya kawaida vya ujenzi huongoza joto. Kwa hiyo, kila vifaa vya ujenzi ina coefficient ya conductivity (k) thamani ambayo utabiri kiasi cha nishati kwamba vifaa itaongoza. Kiwango cha coefficient hii ni Btu kwa saa, kwa kila mraba wa miguu ya nyenzo, kwa kila inchi unene wa nyenzo, kwa kila digrii Fahrenheit. Joto la jumla ambalo litapita kupitia jengo (mchanganyiko wa vifaa vya ujenzi vya mtu binafsi kila moja na coefficient yake ya conductivity) huitwa coefficient ya uhamisho wa joto, ambayo huonyeshwa kama Btu kwa saa, kwa mguu wa mraba, kwa tofauti ya joto ya digrii Fahrenheit kati ya hewa upande mmoja wa jengo na hewa upande mwingine. Thamani hii inaitwa <unk>U<unk> thamani ya mkutano. "Ukinga wa joto" wa nyenzo au mkusanyiko ni neno la kawaida linalotumiwa. Kwa mfano, upinzani wa joto wa nyenzo ni sawa na coefficient ya uhamisho wa joto, ambayo ni k = 1C. Zaidi ya <unk>R-thamani<unk> ya nyenzo ni kubwa upinzani wake kwa uhamisho wa joto. Ya juu ni kuchukuliwa kutoka Navigating Uncharted Waters: Kuelewa Nambari za Nishati na Jinsi Wanavyoathiri Jukumu la Mkataba. (Karatasi ya utafiti iliyoandaliwa kwa ajili ya The Foundation of Wall na Safu ya Viwanda). Mojawapo ya mambo muhimu zaidi katika kubuni kifuniko cha nje ni kudhibiti uhamiaji wa maji kupitia kuta, paa, na msingi. Matofali yanayopinga maji, flashing, na sealants kwa kawaida hutumiwa kudhibiti maji katika hali yake ya kioevu. Maji katika hali yake ya mvuke ni rahisi sana, na ni asili katika hewa tunayopumua. Neno la kawaida ni <unk> unyevu.<unk> Vifaa vya ujenzi vinaweza kuruhusu au kupinga kupita kwa mvuke wa maji kupitia kwao. Wote wana kile kinachoitwa "kiwango cha kudumu", au kiwango ambacho huruhusu usafirishaji wa mvuke. Kama vile joto linapita kutoka joto hadi baridi, unyevu hutoka kwenye maeneo yenye mvuke wa juu hadi maeneo yenye mvuke wa chini. Kwa kweli, maji hupitishwa kupitia ukuta wa nje kutoka hewa ya nje yenye unyevunyevu hadi hewa ya ndani yenye baridi na kavu. Wakati huo huo kama mvuke ni kuhamia kwa njia ya ukuta joto ni kushuka kwa njia ya kuwepo kwa insulation. Katika ukuta ulioundwa vibaya au uliojengwa vibaya, joto linaweza kushuka hadi mahali pa <unk>wingu<unk>, ambapo maji yatageuka kuwa hali yake ya kioevu, sawa na shanga za maji kwenye chupa ya soda baridi. Ikiwa condensation hii hutokea ndani ya shimo stud itakuwa na matokeo ya maafa. Kwa hiyo, kubuni nzuri ya kifuniko cha nje ni pamoja na uchambuzi wa hatua ya umande, na tahadhari kwa maelezo katika awamu ya ujenzi ni muhimu sawa. Ya juu ni kuchukuliwa kutoka Navigating Uncharted Waters: Kuelewa Nambari za Nishati na Jinsi Wanavyoathiri Jukumu la Mkataba. (Karatasi ya utafiti iliyoandaliwa kwa ajili ya The Foundation of Wall na Safu ya Viwanda). Kwa kuzingatia hali ya hewa ya hewa, sheria ya ujenzi ya kimataifa ya 2009 inatoa sheria ya kuzuia maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji ya maji. Katika kesi ya ukuta wa nje framed wazo ni kuzuia uwezekano wa maji kuingia stud cavity. "Kama ilivyoelezwa hapo juu, ""kifuniko cha maji"" ni ""karatasi ya ujenzi ya # 15 au sawa.""" Vizuizi fulani vinavyotambuliwa ni 1. Asphalt-Saturated Felt (ASTM D226): Asphalt-Saturated Organic Felt (ASTM D226: Asphalt-Saturated Organic Felt) ni aina ya nyenzo za kutengeneza nyenzo za kutengeneza nyenzo za kutengeneza nyenzo za kutengeneza nyenzo za kutengeneza nyenzo za kutengeneza nyenzo za kutengeneza nyenzo za kutengeneza nyenzo za kutengeneza nyenzo za kutengeneza nyenzo za kutengeneza nyenzo za kutengeneza nyenzo. Polymeric karatasi, 3 Fluid barrier (kinyume cha maji) Vizuizi vya ubao mgumu. Muundo sahihi wa kizuizi cha maji lazima ujumuishe flashing, weeps, na mfumo wa mifereji ya maji ili kuruhusu maji yoyote katika hali yake ya kioevu kutoka kwa ukuta wa nje. Baraza la Tile la Amerika Kaskazini (TCNA) hutoa mwongozo katika kile kinachoitwa "membranes" katika maombi ya tile. Matofali haya hutumiwa katika matumizi ya ndani au ya nje. Toleo la 2013 la Mwongozo wa TCNA kwa Matumizi ya Vipande vya Ceramic, Kioo na Jiwe linafafanua aina mbalimbali za utando na mahali ambapo zinapaswa kutumika katika matumizi ya ndani, nje, ukuta na sakafu ambayo inahitaji kumaliza tile. <unk>Membrane Selection Guide<unk> hufafanua utando wa kugawanyika, utando wa kupunguza mvuke, utando wa kuzuia maji, na utando wa kuzuia maji wa chini ya perm kama inahusiana na udhibiti wa unyevu ndani ya mitambo ya tile. Kiwango cha American National Standards Institute (ANSI) kinachohusu vifaa hivi ni ANSI A118.10 - Load-Bearing, Bonded, Waterproof Membranes for Thin-Set Tile and Dimensional Stone Installation. Kiwango cha ASTM kinachotumika kwa upenyezaji wa mvuke ni E96, Njia za Kiwango cha Mtihani wa Uhamisho wa Mvuke wa Maji wa Vifaa. Kuna mbinu mbili katika ambayo permeability ni kipimo. Katika njia ya kwanza sampuli ya kupimwa ni imewekwa tightly kwa kikombe kwamba ina desiccant (nyenzo ambayo huchukua maji). Kikombe hiki kimewekwa katika mazingira yaliyodhibitiwa ambapo joto (Fahrenheit 73 ° C) na unyevu wa jamaa (RH 50%) huhifadhiwa. Katika njia ya pili sampuli ya kupimwa ni imewekwa juu ya kikombe cha maji kioevu, na kisha kuwekwa katika mazingira sawa kudhibitiwa. Katika visa vyote viwili, permeability ya nyenzo majaribio ni kisha kupatikana kwa kiwango cha mabadiliko kupatikana katika sampuli ya wingi. Mtihani mwingine muhimu kwa ajili ya vifaa vya ujenzi ni mtihani ambao hupima kiasi cha unyevu ambacho nyenzo itachukua. Kuchukua unyevu kwa muda mrefu katika nyenzo inaweza kuwa mbaya kwa sababu inaweza kusababisha uharibifu wa nyenzo yenyewe, au nyenzo zilizo karibu nayo. Katika baadhi ya kesi, kama vile uhamiaji unyevu kupitia mfumo wa ukuta wa nje, kuwa na nyenzo mahali ambayo huchukua maji katika mfumo inaweza kuwa nzuri. Vifaa hivi vinaweza kusaidia kupunguza uwezekano wa maendeleo ya hatua ya umande na condensation baadaye katika shimo stud. Utafiti wa kawaida wa kunyonya maji kwa paneli za gypsum unapatikana katika ASTM C473 Njia za Mtihani wa Kiwango cha Majaribio ya Fizikia ya Bidhaa za Paneli za Gypsum. Katika jaribio hili, sampuli ya chombo cha maji huingizwa ndani ya maji kwa muda wa siku mbili, na asilimia ya kuongezeka kwa uzito hupimwa. Vipande vya kuunganisha kawaida viko katika umbali wa inchi 16 au 24 katikati, na tofauti za umbali chini na juu kulingana na mizigo na vifuniko. Washiriki wa ukuta ni kawaida wima lipped channel <unk>stud<unk> wanachama, ambayo fit katika channel <unk>track<unk> sehemu juu na chini. Michoro iliyo upande wa kulia inaonyesha vipande vya kawaida vya mhimili, mhimili, na mhimili wa reli. Sehemu za reli ni kawaida imefungwa kwa deck saruji na nguvu kuendeshwa fasteners. Picha iliyo upande wa kulia inaonyesha reli iliyounganishwa na sakafu ya saruji. Katika reli hiyo, mhimili umewekwa. Katika maombi ya muundo stud lazima mechanically kushikamana na frame. Katika maombi yasiyo ya muundo stud si kushikamana na track. Katika maombi ya muundo, vichwa ni imewekwa juu ya kufungua yoyote kama vile milango na madirisha. Kuna chaguzi kadhaa kuwa kuchukuliwa na moja iliyoonyeshwa upande wa kushoto kama <unk>boxed kichwa.<unk> Hii ni ambapo C-Stud <unk> Joists wanachama ni imewekwa na upande wazi inakabiliwa na kila mmoja. Idadi ya C-Stud na joist wanachama, chuma yao unene, na kina cha mwanachama itakuwa tofauti na vyanzo kwamba lazima span. Katika maombi ya ghorofa nyingi ni muhimu kwamba studs zote ukuta framing align wima, hivyo kujenga kuendelea mzigo njia kutoka paa kwa msingi. Angalia picha iliyo upande wa kulia jinsi vijiti vyote vinavyowekwa juu ya jengo jingine kutoka ghorofa moja hadi jingine. Ili kukabiliana na mzunguko wa studs, lateral bracing hutumiwa. Hii ni kawaida kufanyika na channel bracing ambayo ni imewekwa katika shimo la ukuta kwa kuendesha njia kupitia mashimo ya urahisi ziko katika mtandao wa C-Stud mwanachama. Katika matumizi yasiyo ya muundo gypsum paneli kutoa bracing required. Picha iliyo upande wa kushoto inaonyesha jinsi ya kufunga bracing ya upande. Mfereji wa chuma ulioyeyushwa baridi unaenda kwa usawa katika shimo la ukuta. Inaendesha kupitia punch-out katika kila stud. Kuna pembe ndogo clip ambayo ni kutumika kwa mechanically kuunganisha kituo cha stud. Upande bracing ni chaguo moja kwa ajili ya kukaribisha upepo bracing au <unk>shear kuta.<unk> Tofauti na bracing ilivyoelezwa hapo juu, ambayo anaendesha usawa, bracing hii imewekwa katika <unk>X<unk> Configuration. Chaguzi nyingine ni pamoja na paneli za wamiliki. Katika ujenzi wa katikati ya urefu, sura ya ukuta wa nje kwa kawaida huwekwa katika muundo wa muundo wa "baluni". Hapa ndipo muundo wa ukuta wa nje unaendelea na muundo wa sakafu. Hii ni kina katika Mifumo ya nje Maelezo ya tovuti hii. Mipangilio kama hiyo hutumiwa kwa jopo la sakafu na makundi ya rafter, lakini katika maombi ya usawa kwa sakafu, na maombi ya usawa au ya mteremko kwa muundo wa paa. Vifaa vya mfumo wa frame ni pamoja na fasteners na viunganishi, braces na bracing, clips na viunganishi. Picha upande wa kulia inaonyesha joist sakafu (C-Stud / Joist profile) imewekwa moja kwa moja juu ya stud kubeba mzigo. Sehemu ya reli hutumiwa kufunika mihimili na kuifunga kabisa. Hii ni mfano wa jukwaa framing kwamba ni framing ya uchaguzi kwa hali ya chini-kuinuka. Katika picha iliyo hapa chini, kuna web-stiffeners imewekwa ambapo beams kubeba juu ya ukuta frame. Njia nyingine ya kufanya sakafu framing ni kutumia chuma sakafu truss ambayo ni alifanya juu ya C-Stud na joist wanachama. Kuna wengi inapatikana truss wazalishaji kwamba kubuni na kutengeneza trusses. Kuna chaguzi kadhaa za mifumo ya sakafu ambayo inaweza kutumika juu ya joists. Mbao za plywood ni za kawaida kwa ajili ya ujenzi wa moto. Katika matumizi yasiyo ya moto, mtu anaweza kutumia saruji iliyotengenezwa, saruji iliyomwagika mahali, paneli zisizo za moto, au deck ya chuma ya corrugated (kiwango cha chini cha 22) na topping ya saruji. Picha mbili zilizo upande wa kulia zinaonyesha jengo la chuma lenye umbo la mviringo (kuonyeshwa kutoka chini) na fundi akimimina juu ya jengo hilo. Sehemu za muundo wa paa zinaweza kuwa C-Stud / Joists zilizowekwa katika mtindo wa kawaida wa rafter au trusses zinaweza kutengenezwa kwa kutumia wanachama wa C-Stud / Joist. Kama ilivyo na mifumo ya truss sakafu, kuna wengi wafanyabiashara wa ndani inapatikana kwamba kubuni, kujenga, na ugavi trusses. Picha tatu zilizo upande wa kulia zinaonyesha aina zote mbili za muundo. Crane katika picha ya katikati inaonyesha jinsi panelization ya mifumo ya framing inaweza kutumika ili kuwezesha ufungaji. Panelization inatoa faida nyingi kama vile kupunguza ratiba ya ujenzi na kuongeza udhibiti wa ubora juu ya mbinu za kawaida zilizojengwa mahali. Non-Structural Framing-Limiting Heights Nguvu na ugumu wa yoyote baridi-kufanyizwa chuma framing mwanachama ni kuamua na mambo matatu. Wao ni unene wa chuma, mali ya vifaa vya chuma, na hatimaye mali ya kijiometri zinazotolewa na profile ya mwanachama framing. Chuma kilichofanyizwa kwa baridi hutengenezwa kutokana na karatasi nyembamba za chuma. Chati iliyoonyeshwa hapa ni kuchukuliwa kutoka Steel Framing Industry Association's Technical Guide, na hutoa thicknesses msingi ambayo zinapatikana. Chuma ni kipimo katika <unk>mil<unk> unene kwa hiyo msingi ndani yasiyo ya kubeba mzigo stud ni 18 mils. Kiasi cha chini cha chuma, kipimo katika inchi ni 0.0179 inchi. Hii ni unene wa chuma yenyewe bila mipako ya kinga. Mchakato wa roll-kuunda katika chuma haitoi unene sawa wa chuma ndani ya kile kinachoitwa coil ya chuma. Coil kama inavyoonyeshwa hapa hufika katika kituo cha mtengenezaji wa muundo tayari kukatwa na kufanyizwa katika stud ya mtu binafsi, beast, au maelezo ya kufuatilia. Unene wa chuma utatofautiana ndani ya coil hii. Kwa sababu ya tofauti hii, unene wa inchi 0.0179 unawakilisha unene wa chini unaokubalika. "Kama ilivyoelezwa hapo juu, ""Urefu wa chini unawakilisha 95% ya unene wa muundo na ni unene wa chini unaokubalika uliotolewa kwenye tovuti ya kazi kulingana na Sehemu A2.4 ya AISI S100-07 Specification.""" Kwa hiyo mali muhimu ya nyenzo kuzingatia wakati wa kubuni na baridi-kufanyizwa chuma framing wanachama ni chuma ya nguvu ya mavuno. Chuma itabadilika sura chini ya mzigo wa kuvuta uliotumika. Mzunguko huo unapomalizika, chuma hicho kinarudi katika umbo lake la awali. Katika kiwango fulani cha mzigo chuma hakitarudi kwa umbo lake la kawaida na deformation ya kudumu itatokea. Nguvu ya kuanguka kisha hufafanuliwa kama mkazo huo wa kizingiti ambapo deformation ya kudumu hutokea katika nyenzo nyingine ductile. Hii ni sababu muhimu wakati wa kubuni katika baridi-kufanyizwa chuma frame, na ni kipimo katika pauni kwa inchi mraba. Kwa sababu thamani inaweza kuwa ya juu sana, maadili huchapishwa ambapo <unk>1 kip<unk> inalingana na pauni 1000. Kiwango cha juu cha uharibifu wa chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma cha chuma. Kupindika kwa karatasi tambarare ya chuma huongeza uwezo wake wa kuvumilia mzigo unaotumiwa. Fikiria kwamba kipande cha karatasi tambarare hakiwezi kusimama, lakini kinaweza wakati kimejipinda vipande viwili. Kwa hiyo profile ya mwisho ya sehemu ya chuma baridi-kufanyizwa ni muhimu sawa. Vipengele viwili muhimu zaidi vya kijiometri, au "kifungu" cha kuzingatia ni profile's "Moment of Inertia" na vitengo vya inchi kwa nne, na "Section Modulus". Vitengo vya Section Modulus ni inchi kwa nguvu ya tatu. Wakati wa inertia, iliyoonyeshwa kama Ix, hutabiri ugumu wa profile au uwezo wa kupinga kupotoka. Kadiri kiungo kilivyo kirefu, ndivyo kinavyoweza kukinza kupotoshwa. Mti wa 6  ni mgumu kuliko mti wa 1-5 8. Sehemu modulus, alama kama Sx hutabiri nguvu ya profile. Inaamua, pamoja na nguvu ya kuzaa ya chuma ni mzigo gani wa wasifu unaweza kuchukua hadi kushindwa mwisho. Mtazamo wa mwisho wa kijiometri wa wasifu ni kina cha mtandao wake. Kadiri utando wa kipepeo unavyozidi kuwa mkubwa ndivyo utando unavyozidi kugeuka. Hii ni sababu wakati kuchambua mwisho athari na uwezo shear. SFIA Technical Guide kwa Cold-Formed Steel Products hutoa sehemu mali kwa ajili ya maelezo yote. Kwa miaka mingi, mzigo wa kubuni uliokubaliwa kwa ajili ya partitions za ndani ulikuwa 15 psf. Ilikuwa msingi juu ya dhana ya mizigo imparted juu ya partition ya ndani kama matokeo ya dirisha wazi. Utaratibu huo ulifanywa na Bodi ya Ushauri ya Utafiti wa Ujenzi (BRAB). Bodi hii ilikuwa sehemu ya Baraza la Kitaifa la Utafiti. Mwaka 1967 ICBO (International Council of Building Officials) iliidhinisha mabadiliko ya kanuni kwa ajili ya Uniform Building Code kupunguza mzigo kwa 5 psf. Mabadiliko haya yalitegemea kazi iliyofanywa na Wiss, Janny & Elstner ambayo iliagizwa na Chama cha Gypsum. Kiwango cha 5psf bado ni mzigo wa kubuni na inarejelea katika Gipsum Association GA 600 Fire Resistance Design Manual na ASTM C754 Standard Specification for Installation of Steel Framing Members to Receive Screw-Attached Gypsum Panel Products. Kwa mfano, meza ya urefu wa urefu wa kuta inaonyesha jinsi ukuta unavyoweza kuundwa na stud isiyo ya muundo. Jedwali ni kuchukuliwa kutoka Steel Framing Industry Association's kuchapishwa Ufundi Mwongozo kwa ajili ya Cold-kufanyizwa bidhaa chuma. Meza ni msingi wa mzigo sawa upande tu. Ni si maana kwa wakati frameing mwanachama lazima kuwa na uwezo wa kubeba (axial mzigo) hali. Meza nyingine katika mwongozo kutoa habari juu ya pamoja upande na axial mizigo. Kwa mfano, meza ya kawaida ya studs inaweza kuwa 12, 16 au 24 inches. Inapunguza deflection (kazi ya pembe ya inertia ya profiles) kwa l-120, l-1240, na l-360. Deflection inapaswa kuamua kulingana na kumaliza lengo ili kupunguza uwezekano wa kwamba kumaliza nyenzo ya crack. Jedwali pia inaangalia urefu mdogo na bending mkazo na mwisho athari shear (web buckling). Mkazo wa bending hupimwa na nguvu ya kuzaa ya chuma na moduli ya sehemu ya maelezo. Urefu wa ukuta huu huamuliwa na vipimo vinavyofuata taratibu zinazohitajika na AC86 - Vigezo vya Kukubali kwa Kuamua Urefu wa Kiwango cha Kuta za Composite zilizojengwa kwa Gypsum na Stele Studs. Utaratibu huu ulianzishwa na International Code Congress <unk> Evaluation Services, ICC-ES. Tafsiri zilizochapishwa leo na SFIA kwa ajili ya mambo ya ndani yasiyo ya kubeba mzigo tu kutathmini urefu kulingana na mali stud peke yake, au ni alama kama <unk>non-composite<unk> gypsum paneli imewekwa pande zote mbili za partition ufanisi stiffen ukuta. Mchango huu ni kutambuliwa katika <unk>composite<unk> meza. Ni muhimu kuelewa kwamba utaratibu wa mtihani wa kuamua urefu wa ukuta wa mchanganyiko unahitaji kwamba paneli zimeunganishwa karibu na perimeter ya partition. Kwa hiyo, meza za mchanganyiko hazipaswi kutumiwa wakati paneli za gypsum zinasimama juu ya dari la kusimamishwa na studs hazifuniki kutoka kwa urefu huo hadi muundo. Kwa sababu hiyo, baadhi ya watengenezaji wamejaribu na kuchapisha maadili kwa ajili ya hali hiyo. Hii inaitwa "kuimarishwa kikamilifu" na inachukua kuimarishwa kwa upande hutolewa kwa njia nyingine juu ya ndege ya dari.