The French Stage at the Beginning of the Baroque
The French Stage at the Beginning of the Baroque
Crisis and Recovery.
The later sixteenth century in France had been punctuated by religious wars and economic and political instability. With the accession of Henri IV (r. 1594–1610) and his promulgation of the Edict of Nantes—a royal decree that granted a limited degree of religious toleration to French Calvinists—a new tenuous stability began to develop in the country. Although Henri IV was assassinated in 1610, France did not sink into civil war again as might have been expected. Instead under the regency of Henri's wife Marie de' Medici and the rule of her son, Louis XIII (r. 1610–1643), the country's political systems and economy gathered renewed strength and the way was prepared for France's rise to European dominance in the second half of the seventeenth century. Developments in the professional theater were very much affected by these trends as well. In 1600, Paris, which was by far the country's largest city, possessed a theater that was little developed when compared against the high standards of professionalism being developed in England and Spain at the time. A half-century later, a new generation of playwrights was producing quality tragedies and comedies that were eventually to shape drama, not only in France, but throughout Europe as well. While the sudden rise of several generations of playwrights that included such geniuses as Pierre Corneille (1606–1684), Jean-Baptiste Molière (1622–1673), and Jean Racine (1639–1699), may appear meteoric, their successes nevertheless stemmed from the traditions of theater that had flourished in France before them.
The Sixteenth-Century Theater.
At the beginning of the sixteenth century, a variety of genres of drama were popular in France and were being performed by mostly amateur troupes of actors in the country's cities. As in other parts of Europe at the time, the popularity of religious drama was still strong, and mystery plays performed on important feast days often consumed the efforts of scores of actors in France's cities. Allegorical morality plays were also popular throughout the country, while for lighter fare, French audiences enjoyed silly farces and satirical dramas known as soties. In the second half of the century, however, the impact of humanism began to manifest itself in the writing of new kinds of comedies, tragicomedies, and tragedies inspired by the works of Antiquity. In comedy, the impact of the five-act form of the ancient writers Terence and Plautus began to produce subtle modulations around 1550 in French farces and comedies, as a group known as the Pleiades tried to adopt classical forms to the country's theater. This group took its name from the celestial constellation that, according to Greek mythology, had been formed out of the remains of seven prominent poets. The most prominent of these figures, Joachim du Bellay (c. 1522–1560) and Pierre de Ronsard (1524–1585), had studied classical forms with the intention of raising the standards of French drama to compete with the brilliance they saw in Italian humanist theater of the time. While many of the dramatic structures of ancient comedy came to be applied to the works of the Pleiades, much of the writing of the group continued to be faithful to French traditions of farce common in the later Middle Ages. As a group, the Pleiades still favored the octosyllabic, or eight-syllable, verse writing that had been commonly used in the writings of French comic farces to this date. They did not, in other words, emulate the use of prose that was common among Italian humanist dramatists of the day. At the same time many writers adopted plots that were drawn directly from Antiquity, from the works of Terence and Plautus. Plays treating adulterous husbands and wives, scheming family members, and lovelorn students derived many of their plots from Antiquity, while continuing to be set in the urban world of the time. At about the same time that these experiments in new forms of comedy were appearing, French humanists also turned to the tragedies of Latin Antiquity for inspiration as well. Like Italian tragedies of the day, the many French tragedies that date from the second half of the sixteenth century evidenced the use of ancient canons of dramatic writing. A renewed interest in the Roman tragedies of Seneca and in the Greek works of Euripides was important in prompting French writers to emulate the ancient five-act structures of classical tragedy as well as to develop a role for the chorus. At the same time, many of the tragedies written in this period were not performed, but were primarily "closet dramas" intended to be read by educated elites. In this way ancient stories about figures like Julius Caesar, Medea, or Cleopatra often became a vehicle for commenting upon the grave circumstances of the French Wars of Religion (1562–1598). Writers saw in these ancient episodes events that might provide virtuous moral lessons for their contemporary readers, who were suffering through a time of uncertainty and political instability.
The Confraternity of the Passion.
The sixteenth century also saw the rise of a nascent professional theater in Paris around the institution known as the Confraternity of the Passion. In 1402, this organization, which was comprised of young amateur performers who were usually apprentices and journeymen in Paris guilds, had been granted a royal monopoly over all dramatic productions in the city. This monopoly was to be upheld well into the seventeenth century before being formally abolished by Louis XIV, who began to charter new theaters in the city. For much of the later Middle Ages and the Renaissance the Confraternity of the Passion had been responsible for the annual staging of the city's mystery plays, religious dramas that accompanied the celebration of the Feast of Corpus Christi and other important religious holidays throughout the year. During the sixteenth century the Confraternity came under increasing criticism for the liberties that it took in producing religious dramas. Churchmen attacked the organization for including spurious material in their productions. French Protestants, in particular, detested the group's productions, fearing that the theater provided an entree into idolatry and immorality. By 1548, the Parlement of Paris, the local governing body, forbade the group from performing religious dramas in the city. At the same time, the Confraternity of the Passion retained its rights to use the Hôtel de Bourgogne, a palatial residence that the group owned in the city. Deprived of their ability to perform religious dramas, the members of the Confraternity began to perform light farces and other kinds of secular fare in the Hôtel's theater, a large room outfitted with a simple two-story stage and bleachers. Over the following decades, though, the group gradually abandoned acting altogether and began to lease out their theater to professional troupes that performed their repertory there. Until 1600, no troupe, however, was able to achieve any modicum of financial success performing in the theater; at that time the company of Valleran le Conte set up shop in the Hôtel de Bourgogne, and its successful exploitation of the space as well as its populist-tinged dramas began to develop a professional theater in early seventeenth-century Paris. Le Conte had a highly successful relationship with the playwright Alexandre Hardy (c. 1575–1632), who in his relatively short life wrote hundreds of comedies, tragedies, tragicomedies, and pastorals. Unlike the cultivated dramas that Renaissance humanists were writing at the time, Hardy's works relied on a realistic mixture of coarse language, sexuality, and outright violence. His dramas were fast-paced and designed to please a broad spectrum of Paris' populace, filled as they were with a progression of short scenes and sudden plot turns. While highly cultivated French writers of the time labored to revive classical drama, Hardy gave his audiences a steady stream of crowd-pleasing sensations. Limbs were severed in duels, eyes were plucked out, and characters were beheaded in the many plays that he wrote for the Hôtel de Bourgogne. Eventually, Valleran's troupe took up permanent residence in the facility and hired Hardy from 1611 as their official playwright. The productions of the Conte de Valleran's troupe and Hardy were to have an undeniably important impact on French theater. While the quality of the dramas they produced may not have been particularly memorable, the sustained professionalism and high production values of their efforts helped to popularize theater in Paris.
Although the Hôtel de Bourgogne's monopoly over theatrical productions in Paris was not formally revoked until 1676, the growth of urban sprawl in Paris affected the theater there, just as it did in London at about the same time. In the English capital, Puritan ministers and city officials in late sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century London feared the disorder that accompanied the theaters. While many objected to drama, they also detested the theaters as the haunts of criminals and prostitutes. To skate the regulations of the city of London's officialdom, theater owners in London had thus located their large public theaters in the areas known as the Liberties, places on the outskirts of the city where municipal regulations held no force. While the professional stage was not nearly so highly developed in Paris in 1600 as it was in London at the same time, Paris' growing urban sprawl provided a similar opportunity for professional troupes that were anxious to perform in the capital's vicinity. Around this date plays began to be performed at the fairs that were held in the suburban districts of Saint-Germain and Saint-Laurent in the spring and summer months. Thus these new temporary theaters developed alongside the monopolistic Hôtel de Bourgogne and flourished as venues for short dramas, dances, and song at the fairs on Paris' outskirts. In this way the dominance of the Confraternity of the Passion's control over the Parisian theater was gradually challenged. And as the royal government, too, acquired a taste for the theater in the 1630s and 1640s, new troupes were allowed to perform within the city's walls.
Karten Garscha, Hardy als Barockdramatiker, eine stilistische Untersuchung (Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Peter Lang, 1971).
Brian Jeffrey, French Renaissance Comedy, 1552–1630 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969).
Jillian Jondorf, French Renaissance Tragedy: The Dramatic Word (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
Donald Stone, French Humanist Tragedy: A Reassessment (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1974).
"Mwisho wa kipindi cha ""Mwaka wa Baroque"" katika Ufaransa, na ""Mwaka wa Baroko"" katika Ufaransa, ni wakati wa ""Mwaka wa Baroque"" na ""Mwaka wa Baroque"" katika Ufaransa." Mwishoni mwa karne ya kumi na sita nchini Ufaransa kulikuwa na vita vya kidini na ukosefu wa uthabiti wa kiuchumi na kisiasa. Baada ya utawala wa Henry IV (1594-1610) na kutolewa kwa Amri ya Nantes, amri ya kifalme iliyotoa kiasi kidogo cha uvumilivu wa kidini kwa Wafaransa wa Calvin, utulivu mpya ulianza kuanzishwa nchini. Ingawa Henry wa Nne aliuawa mwaka wa 1610, Ufaransa haikupigwa na vita vya wenyewe kwa wenyewe tena kama ilivyotarajiwa. Wakati wa utawala wa mke wa Henri, Marie de' Medici, na utawala wa mwanawe, Louis XIII (1610-1643), mifumo ya kisiasa na uchumi wa nchi hiyo ilipata nguvu mpya na njia iliandaliwa kwa ajili ya kuongezeka kwa Ufaransa kwa utawala wa Ulaya katika nusu ya pili ya karne ya kumi na saba. Maendeleo katika ukumbi wa michezo wa kitaalamu yaliathiriwa sana na mwenendo huu pia. Paris, mji mkubwa zaidi nchini Ufaransa, ulikuwa na ukumbi wa michezo ambao haukuwa umesitawi sana ukilinganishwa na viwango vya juu vya ufundi vilivyokuwa vikitengenezwa huko Uingereza na Hispania wakati huo. Karne moja baadaye, kizazi kipya cha waandishi wa michezo ya kuigiza kilikuwa kikitengeneza tragedi na vichekesho vyenye ubora ambavyo hatimaye vilikuja kuunda mchezo wa kuigiza, si tu nchini Ufaransa, bali pia kotekote Ulaya. Ingawa kuibuka ghafla kwa vizazi kadhaa vya waandishi wa michezo ya kuigiza, ikiwa ni pamoja na watu mashuhuri kama vile Pierre Corneille (1606-1684), Jean-Baptiste Molière (1622-1673) na Jean Racine (1639-1699), kunaweza kuonekana kuwa jambo la kawaida, mafanikio yao yalitokana na mapokeo ya michezo ya kuigiza yaliyokuwa yamefanikiwa nchini Ufaransa kabla yao. Jumba la Maonyesho la Karne ya Kumi na Sita. Mwanzoni mwa karne ya 16, aina mbalimbali za michezo ya kuigiza zilikuwa maarufu nchini Ufaransa na zilikuwa zikiigizwa na vikundi vya waigizaji wa amateur katika miji ya nchi hiyo. Kama ilivyo katika sehemu nyingine za Ulaya wakati huo, umaarufu wa michezo ya kuigiza ya kidini ulikuwa bado mkubwa, na mara nyingi michezo ya kuigiza ya fumbo iliyochezwa katika siku muhimu za sikukuu ilichukua jitihada za waigizaji wengi katika majiji ya Ufaransa. Michezo ya kuigiza ya maadili ya mfano pia ilikuwa maarufu kotekote nchini, huku watazamaji wa Ufaransa wakifurahia michezo ya kuigiza ya kipumbavu na ya ucheshi inayojulikana kama soties. Hata hivyo, katika nusu ya pili ya karne hiyo, uvutano wa ubinadamu ulianza kuonekana katika aina mpya za vichekesho, vichekesho vya msiba, na vichekesho vya msiba vilivyoongozwa na kazi za kale. Katika mchezo wa kuigiza, athari ya aina ya vitendo vitano ya waandishi wa kale Terence na Plautus ilianza kutokeza mabadiliko madogo karibu na 1550 katika vitendo vya Kifaransa na vichekesho, wakati kikundi kinachojulikana kama Pleiades kilijaribu kupitisha aina za kawaida kwa ukumbi wa michezo wa nchi. Jina la kikundi hicho lilitokana na kundi la nyota la mbinguni ambalo kulingana na hekaya za Kigiriki lilitokana na mabaki ya washairi saba mashuhuri. Joachim du Bellay (1522-1560) na Pierre de Ronsard (1524-1585) walikuwa wanafanya kazi ya kuunda drama ya Kifaransa na kuifanya kuwa maarufu zaidi katika Italia. Ingawa baadhi ya vipindi vya michezo ya kuigiza vya kale vilitumiwa katika michezo ya kuigiza ya Pleiades, sehemu kubwa ya maandishi ya kikundi hicho yaliendelea kuwa ya kifaransa, na hivyo kufanana na michezo ya kuigiza ya zamani ya Ufaransa. Pleiades waliendelea kutumia herufi nane za herufi nane, ambazo zilikuwa zimetumiwa sana katika maandishi ya Kifaransa hadi wakati huo. Kwa maneno mengine, hawakuiga matumizi ya mashairi ambayo yalikuwa ya kawaida miongoni mwa waandishi wa michezo wa Italia wa wakati huo. Wakati huohuo waandishi wengi walichukua hadithi zilizochukuliwa moja kwa moja kutoka Enzi za Kale, kutoka kwa kazi za Terence na Plautus. Michezo ya kuigiza inayohusu waume na wake wazinzi, washiriki wa familia wenye hila, na wanafunzi waliopoteza upendo ilichukua mengi ya njama zao kutoka Enzi za Kale, huku ikizidi kuwekwa katika ulimwengu wa mijini wa wakati huo. Wakati huohuo, wakati majaribio hayo ya aina mpya za vichekesho yalipoanza kuonekana, wasomi wa Kifaransa pia waligeukia tragedi za Kilatini cha Kale ili kupata msukumo. Kama vile maonyesho ya mateso ya Kiitaliano ya wakati huo, maonyesho mengi ya mateso ya Kifaransa ya nusu ya pili ya karne ya kumi na sita yalionyesha matumizi ya kanuni za kale za uandishi wa kuigiza. Kwa sababu ya kuvutia tena drama za Kiroma za Seneca na kazi za Kigiriki za Euripides, waandishi wa Kifaransa walianza kuiga muundo wa zamani wa matukio matano ya tragedi za kale na pia kuendeleza wimbo wa wimbo. Wakati huohuo, matukio mengi ya msiba yaliyoandikwa katika kipindi hicho hayakuchezwa, bali yalikuwa hasa "mchezo wa kuigiza wa ndani" uliokusudiwa kusomwa na watu wenye elimu. Kwa njia hiyo, hadithi za kale kuhusu watu kama vile Julius Kaisari, Medea, au Cleopatra mara nyingi zilitumiwa kueleza hali mbaya za Vita vya Dini vya Ufaransa (1562-1598). Waandishi waliona katika matukio hayo ya kale matukio ambayo yangeweza kutoa masomo mazuri ya maadili kwa wasomaji wao wa wakati huo, ambao walikuwa wakiteseka katika wakati wa kutokuwa na uhakika na ukosefu wa uthabiti wa kisiasa. Ushirika wa Mateso. Karne ya kumi na sita pia iliona kuongezeka kwa ukumbi wa michezo wa kitaalamu uliokuwa ukianzishwa huko Paris kuzunguka taasisi inayojulikana kama Confraternity of the Passion. Mwaka 1402, shirika hilo, ambalo lilikuwa na wasanii wachanga wa amateur ambao kwa kawaida walikuwa wanafunzi na wasafiri katika vyama vya Paris, lilikuwa limepokea mamlaka ya kifalme juu ya maonyesho yote ya kuigiza katika jiji hilo. Ule ukiritimba ulidumu hadi karne ya kumi na saba kabla ya kuondolewa rasmi na Louis XIV, ambaye alianza kuajiri majumba mapya ya maonyesho katika jiji hilo. Katika kipindi cha enzi za kati na Renaissance, Confraternity of the Passion ilikuwa na jukumu la kuandaa michezo ya kila mwaka ya mji wa siri, drama za kidini ambazo ziliandamana na sherehe ya sikukuu ya Corpus Christi na sikukuu nyingine muhimu za kidini. Katika karne ya kumi na sita, ushirika huo ulishutumiwa sana kwa sababu ya uhuru uliotumiwa kutengeneza michezo ya kuigiza ya kidini. Wanaume wa kanisa walishambulia tengenezo hilo kwa sababu la kutia habari bandia katika vichapo vyao. Waprotestanti wa Ufaransa, hasa, walichukia maonyesho ya kikundi hicho, wakiota hofu kwamba jumba hilo la maonyesho lilitoa njia ya kuingia katika ibada ya sanamu na ukosefu wa adili. Mwaka 1548 Bunge la Paris lilikataza maonyesho ya kidini. Wakati huohuo, ushirika wa Passion ulihifadhi haki zake za kutumia Hôtel de Bourgogne, makao ya kifalme ambayo kundi hilo lilikuwa na katika jiji hilo. Kwa kuwa hawakuwa na uwezo wa kuigiza michezo ya kuigiza ya kidini, washiriki wa ushirika huo walianza kuigiza michezo ya kuigiza na michezo mingine ya kilimwengu katika jumba kubwa la maonyesho la Hôtel, lililokuwa na jukwaa la ghorofa mbili na viti vya maonyesho. Hata hivyo, katika miongo iliyofuata, kikundi hicho kiliacha hatua kwa hatua kucheza michezo ya kuigiza kabisa na kuanza kukodisha jumba lao la maonyesho kwa vikundi vya wataalamu vilivyoigiza michezo yao huko. Hata hivyo, hadi mwaka 1600, hakuna kikundi cha wanamuziki kilichokuwa na mafanikio ya kifedha katika ukumbi wa michezo; wakati huo, kampuni ya Valléran le Conte ilianzisha duka katika Hôtel de Bourgogne, na matumizi yake ya mafanikio ya nafasi hiyo na michezo yake ya kuigiza ya watu walianza kuendeleza ukumbi wa michezo wa kitaaluma mapema karne ya kumi na saba. Le Conte alikuwa na uhusiano mzuri sana na mwandishi wa michezo Alexandre Hardy (c.1575-1632), ambaye katika maisha yake mafupi aliandika mamia ya vichekesho, majanga, tragicomedies, na pastorals. Tofauti na michezo ya kuigiza ya wakati huo, kazi za Hardy zilitegemea mchanganyiko wa lugha mbaya, ngono, na jeuri ya wazi. Drama zake zilikuwa za kasi na zilikuwa zimekusudiwa kufurahisha idadi kubwa ya watu wa Paris, zikiwa zimejaa matukio mafupi na mabadiliko ya ghafula ya hadithi. Wakati waandishi wa Kifaransa wenye elimu ya juu wa wakati huo walipokuwa wakijitahidi kuamsha tena mchezo wa kuigiza wa kale, Hardy aliwapa wasikilizaji wake mtiririko wa mara kwa mara wa hisia zenye kupendeza. Alipigwa viungo vya miguu na miguu katika mapigano, macho yake yalichongwa, na vichwa vya watu waliokatwa katika michezo mingi ya kuigiza aliyoandika kwa ajili ya Hôtel de Bourgogne. Mwishowe, kikundi cha Valleran kiliishi kwa kudumu katika kituo hicho na kukodisha Hardy kutoka 1611 kama mwandishi wao rasmi wa michezo. Maonyesho ya kikundi cha Conte de Valleran na Hardy yalikuwa na athari muhimu sana kwenye ukumbi wa michezo wa Ufaransa. Ingawa ubora wa michezo ya kuigiza waliyotengeneza haukumbukwa sana, ustadi wao wa kudumu na thamani ya juu ya uzalishaji wa juhudi zao zilisaidia kueneza michezo ya kuigiza huko Paris. Ingawa ukiritimba wa Hôtel de Bourgogne juu ya maonyesho ya Paris haukuondolewa rasmi hadi 1676, ukuaji wa ukuaji wa mijini huko Paris uliathiri ukumbi wa michezo huko, kama ilivyokuwa London wakati huo huo. Katika mji mkuu wa Uingereza, wahudumu wa Puritani na maofisa wa jiji la London mwishoni mwa karne ya kumi na sita na mwanzoni mwa karne ya kumi na saba walihofu machafuko yaliyokuwa yakifuatana na majumba ya maonyesho. Ingawa wengi walipinga michezo ya kuigiza, pia walichukia majumba ya maonyesho kwa kuwa yalikuwa makao ya wahalifu na makahaba. Ili kuepuka sheria za serikali ya jiji la London, wamiliki wa majumba ya maonyesho ya London walikuwa wameweka majumba yao makubwa ya maonyesho katika maeneo yanayojulikana kama Liberties, maeneo ya nje ya jiji ambapo sheria za manispaa hazikuwa na nguvu. Wakati hatua ya kitaalamu haikuwa karibu sana maendeleo katika Paris katika 1600 kama ilivyokuwa katika London wakati huo huo, Paris 'kukua mji kuenea alitoa nafasi sawa kwa makundi ya kitaalamu kwamba walikuwa na hamu ya kufanya katika mji mkuu wa karibu. Karibu na tarehe hii michezo ilianza kutekelezwa katika maonyesho ambayo yalifanyika katika wilaya za vitongoji vya Saint-Germain na Saint-Laurent katika miezi ya masika na majira ya joto. Hivyo, majumba hayo mapya ya maonyesho ya muda yalitokezwa pamoja na Hôtel de Bourgogne iliyokuwa na mamlaka ya kipekee na yakafanikiwa kuwa mahali pa maonyesho mafupi ya kuigiza, kucheza dansi, na kuimba kwenye maonyesho ya nje ya Paris. Kwa njia hiyo utawala wa Ushirika wa Mateso juu ya jumba la maonyesho la Paris ulishindwa hatua kwa hatua. Wakati wa utawala wa kifalme, watu walianza kupenda sana michezo ya kuigiza na katika miaka ya 1630 na 1640, makundi mapya ya wanamuziki yaliruhusiwa kucheza ndani ya kuta za jiji. "Karten Gerscha, ""Hardy als Barockdramatiker: eine stilistische Untersuchung"" (Frankfurt am Main, Ujerumani, 1971)." "Brian, ""Comedy ya Renaissance ya Kifaransa"" (1523) na ""Mchoro wa Maandishi ya Kifaransa"" (1630) ni vitabu vya kisasa vya kisasa vya kisasa vya kisasa vya kisasa vya kisasa." "Jillian Jondorf, ""Tragedy ya Renaissance ya Kifaransa: Neno la Dramatic"" (Cambridge, Uingereza: Cambridge University Press, 1990)." "Donald Stone, ""Tragedy ya Kifaransa ya Kibinadamu: Tathmini Mpya"" (Manchester, Uingereza: Manchester University Press, 1974)."