Electromagnetic Waves Class 12 | Chapter 8 | Physics |
We have read in previous chapters that electric current produces magnetic field and also that the two current carrying wires exert a magnetic force on each other and magnetic field changing with time gives rise to an electric field. But, does electric field changing with time produces magnetic field?
The answer is, yes. James Clerk Maxwell proposed that, indeed this was the case, not only an electric current but also a time varying electric field generates magnetic field.
He formulated a set of equations that includes electric and magnetic fields, and their sources, the charge and current densities these equations are known as Maxwell’s equations.
The most important Indication to emerge from Maxwell’s equation is the existence of electromagnetic waves, which are () time varying electric and magnetic fields that propagate in space. The speed of these waves turned out to be very close to the speed of light i.e. 3×108 m/s. Proving that light is an electromagnetic wave.
The change in electric field with respect to time produces current ,known as displacement current.To see this let’s consider the process of charging a capacitor. According to a circuital law (chapter 4).
Here, we have to find the field on the point p just outside the capacitor. Considering a circular loop with radius r perpendicular to the direction of the current carrying wire.The field is, symmetrically, directed along the circumference of the loop and is same in the magnitude at all the points.If b is the magnitude of the field and the circumference is 2πr, therefore,
Now, if we consider another port like surface which has it’s bottom between the capacitor plates. Also another subsurface which is shaped like a tiffin box (without the lid). On applying ACL, we will find that the left side of the above equation is not changed at the right side have become 0 instead of U0i.Therefore we know that is missing from the Ampere’s Law. To find this term let’s take in consideration the electric field between two plates. Let the charge be Q and the area A the magnitude of the field is,
The flux through the surface is—
If there is any current through the surface of capacitor, it can be expressed as i=dQ/dt,
This value is the missing term from the Ampere’s Law and it is known as displacement current id ,
Key Points: 1. Conduction current is the total current carried by the conductor due to the flow of charges. 2. The total current is the sum of conduction current and displacement current—
3. There are regions in which there is no induction or displacement current for e.g. between the platesof charging/discharging capacitor. 4. Also, there are regions in which there is no displacement current but conduction current is present for e.g. A wire carrying steady current and also outside a capacitor. **Conduction current is only present outside the capacitor while the displacement current present inside it. The correct or generalized Ampere’s Law is given as, “the total current interview any surface of which the closed loop is the perimeter is the sum of of conduction and displacement current”—
Maxwell’s Equations Sources of Electromagnetic Waves
Neither stationary charges nor charges in uniform motion can be sources of electromagnetic waves. These waves are generated by accelerated charges. Consider a charge oscillating with some frequency (oscillating charge is an example of accelerated charge). This produces an oscillating electric field in the space which in turn producers magnetic field and this osculating magnetic field again produces electric field and so on.These accelerating electric and magnetic field regenerate each other, as the wave propagates through the space.The frequency e of electromagnetic wave is equal to the frequency of oscillation of charge.
1. Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium to propagate — There is no material medium required for the vibration of electric and magnetic field. 2. These waves can be polarized. 3. Electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum — electromagnetic waves carry electric and magnetic field, they must have some energy associated with them. The magnitude of the momentum p can be expressed as,
4. Electromagnetic waves exert pressure — These waves carry momentum, therefore, they exert pressure. This pressure is known as radiation pressure. 5. The speed of electromagnetic waves in free space or vacuum the fundamental constant i.e. 3×108 m/s.
Nature of Electromagnetic Waves
• Electric and magnetic field in an EMW areperpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. • Both electric and magnetic field oscillates in phases with each other and the direction of energy transfer(velocity of wave) is given by E × B. Consider a wave travelling in the z direction then the electric field Ex is in the X direction and the magnetic field By is in the Y direction.
We can write this as, Where K is the wave number, given by, And the speed of propagation of wave is given by,
Also, from Maxwell’s equations, we can conclude that,
Velocity of electromagnetic wave in any medium— – It does not depend on electric and magnetic field but only depends on the properties of the medium.
The classification of electromagnetic waves on the basis of the frequency is known as electromagnetic spectrum. Different types of waves are classified as—
Accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires.
Radio and television
Cellular phones transmit
voice signals in Ultrahigh
frequency band (UHF).
0.1mm to 1mm
Klystron valves, Magnetron valve, Gunn diodes
Point Contact Diodes
Radar systems in aircraft
navigation, used to time
fast balls, tennis serves
Microwave ovens in homes.
Infrared waves/ Heat waves
1mm to 700mm
Vibration of atoms and molecules in hot bodies
Thermopiles, bolometer, infrared photographic film
IR lamps used in physical
earth’s avg temp.
effect, IR detectors in
satellites for military purpose
Light/ Visible Rays
700nm to 400nm
Electrons in atoms emit light
when they move from a high energy level to a lower energy level
Eye, photocells, photographic films
It enables us to see
things and provides
information about the world.
400nm to 1nm
Inner shell electrons in atoms moving from one energy level to lower level
Photo cells, photographic films
Used in LASIK eye
surgery, UV lamps are
used to kill germs in water purifiers.
1nm to 10-3 nm
Bombarding metals with high energy electrons, X- Ray tubes,
"Mfano wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme.""" Lakini, je, mabadiliko ya uwanja wa umeme kadiri wakati unavyopita hutokeza uwanja wa sumaku? Jibu ni, ndiyo. James Clerk Maxwell alidai kwamba, kwa kweli, si mkondo wa umeme tu bali pia uwanja wa umeme unaobadilika wakati hutokeza uwanja wa sumaku. Maxwell alibuni seti ya equations ambazo ni pamoja na umeme na sumaku, na vyanzo vyao, malipo na sasa wiani, na hizi equations ni inayojulikana kama Maxwell's equations. Kiashiria muhimu zaidi kutokea kutoka Maxwell's equation ni kuwepo kwa mawimbi ya umeme, ambayo ni (wakati) kubadilisha umeme na sumaku mashamba ambayo kueneza katika nafasi. Kasi ya mawimbi haya iligunduliwa kuwa karibu sana na kasi ya mwanga yaani. 3 × 10 m s Kuthibitisha kwamba nuru ni wimbi la umeme. Mabadiliko katika uwanja wa umeme kuhusiana na muda inazalisha sasa,inajulikana kama displacement sasa.Kuona hii hebu kufikiria mchakato wa malipo ya capacitor. Kwa mujibu wa sheria ya mzunguko (sura ya 4). Hapa, tunapaswa kupata uwanja juu ya uhakika p tu nje ya capacitor. Kwa mfano, kwa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo wa mviringo. Pia subsurface nyingine ambayo ni umbo kama tiffin sanduku (bila kifuniko). Kwa kutumia ACL, tutapata kwamba upande wa kushoto wa equation hapo juu haujabadilishwa, upande wa kulia umekuwa 0 badala ya U0i, kwa hivyo tunajua kwamba inakosa kutoka kwa Sheria ya Ampere. Kupata neno hili hebu kuchukua katika kuzingatia uwanja wa umeme kati ya sahani mbili. "Kama ""A"" ni kiwango cha nguvu, ""Q"" ni kiwango cha nguvu, na ""A"" ni kiwango cha nguvu, na ""A"" ni kiwango cha nguvu, na ""A"" ni kiwango cha nguvu, na ""A"" ni kiwango cha nguvu, na ""A"" ni kiwango cha nguvu, na ""A"" ni kiwango cha nguvu." Mtiririko wa conduction ni jumla ya sasa kubeba na kondakta kutokana na mtiririko wa malipo. 2. Uwezekano wa kupata Jumla ya sasa ni jumla ya conduction sasa na displacement sasa <unk> 3. Kuna mikoa ambayo hakuna induction au uhamisho sasa kwa mfano Kuongeza na kuondoa capacitor 4. Uwe na uhakika Pia, kuna mikoa ambayo hakuna displacement sasa lakini conduction sasa ni sasa kwa mfano Wire kubeba sasa thabiti na pia nje ya capacitor. ** Conduction sasa ni tu sasa nje ya capacitor wakati displacement sasa sasa ndani yake. Sheria sahihi au generalized Ampere ni alitoa kama, <unk> jumla ya sasa mahojiano yoyote uso ambayo kitanzi imefungwa ni perimeter ni jumla ya ya conduction na displacement sasa <unk> Maxwell ya equations vyanzo vya mawimbi ya umeme Wala malipo ya kituo wala malipo katika mwendo sawa inaweza kuwa vyanzo vya mawimbi ya umeme. Mawimbi hayo hutokezwa na mizigo yenye kasi. Fikiria malipo oscillating na baadhi ya mzunguko (malipo oscillating ni mfano wa malipo kuharakishwa). Hii hutokeza uwanja wa umeme katika nafasi ambayo kwa upande wake hutokeza uwanja wa sumaku na uwanja huu wa sumaku hutokeza tena uwanja wa umeme na hivyo.Hizi kuharakisha umeme na sumaku uwanja kuzalisha kila mmoja, kama wimbi kuenea kwa njia ya nafasi. 1. Uwe na mtazamo wa kweli Mawimbi ya umeme hauhitaji njia ya kueneza <unk> Hakuna njia ya nyenzo inayohitajika kwa mtetemeko wa uwanja wa umeme na sumaku. 2. Uwezekano wa kupata Mawimbi hayo yanaweza kugawanywa. 3. Uwe na mtazamo wa kweli Mawimbi ya umeme hubeba nishati na kasi <unk> mawimbi ya umeme hubeba uwanja wa umeme na sumaku, lazima wawe na nishati fulani inayohusiana nao. Ukubwa wa p-mzunguko unaweza kuelezwa kama, 4. Mawimbi ya umeme hutumia shinikizo <unk> Mawimbi haya hubeba kasi, kwa hiyo, hutumia shinikizo. Shinikizo hilo huitwa shinikizo la mnururisho. 5. Uwe na mtazamo mzuri. Kasi ya mawimbi ya umeme katika nafasi huru au utupu ni mara kwa mara ya msingi yaani. 3 × 10 m s Hali ya mawimbi ya umeme na sumaku katika EMW ni perpendicular kwa kila mmoja na kwa mwelekeo wa kuenea. Mashamba ya umeme na sumaku huingiliana katika awamu na mwelekeo wa uhamisho wa nishati (haraka ya wimbi) hutolewa na E × B. Fikiria wimbi kusafiri katika mwelekeo z basi uwanja wa umeme Ex ni katika mwelekeo X na uwanja wa sumaku By ni katika mwelekeo Y. Tunaweza kuandika hii kama, ambapo K ni idadi ya wimbi, iliyotolewa na, Na kasi ya kuenea kwa wimbi ni iliyotolewa na, Pia, kutoka Maxwell's equations, tunaweza kuhitimisha kwamba, Kasi ya wimbi la umeme katika vyombo vya habari yoyote <unk> <unk> Haitegemei uwanja wa umeme na sumaku lakini inategemea tu mali ya vyombo vya habari. Uainishaji wa mawimbi ya umeme kwa msingi wa mzunguko unajulikana kama wigo wa umeme. Aina tofauti za mawimbi ni classified kama <unk> Kuongeza mwendo wa malipo katika kuongoza waya. Redio na televisheni Simu za mkononi hutuma ishara za sauti katika bendi ya masafa ya juu sana (UHF). Vifaa vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme vya umeme. Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared) - Infrared (Infrared (Infrared) -Infrared (Infrared) -Infrared (Infrared) "Kutumia vifaa vya infrared katika vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi, vifaa vya kijeshi.""" LASIK: LASIK ni aina ya upasuaji wa macho unaotumia umeme wa UV kuua bakteria katika vifaa vya kusafisha maji. 1nm - 10nm - 3nm: Utoaji wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme wa umeme