- Potters’ craft is believed to be one of the oldest and most important traditional crafts of India.
- It has come down to our times from pre-historic age. Indian pottery is said to be “the truest to nature, in the directness and simplicity of its forms, their adoption to use, and purest in art, of all its homely and sumptuary handicrafts”. Indeed, no feature of Indian art has such a long tradition of artistic achievements as the pottery.
- It is a marked fact that through a continuous process of development in techniques and artistic expressions, the pottery craft in India achieved an appreciable degree of perfection e.g. pottery industry in different periods brought about some improvements in innovative techniques and creative quality of the fine output upon the previous period.
- We find the first reference of pottery in this age. Naturally it is hand-made pottery but during the later period footwheel is also used.
- Unglazed/unburnished that is having rough surface
- Handmade coarse grey pottery
- Material – clay mixed with mica and sand
- Pottery is devoid of any painting
- In many cases twisted rice husk cords were impressed into wet clay for decoration
- Found throughout India including the South. Burzahom-coarse grey pottery
- Included black-burnished ware, greyware and matpressed ware.
- Chalcolithic Era, the first metal age, is marked by the occurrence of distinct cultures in various parts of our country namely – Ahar culture in South Eastern Rajasthan, Malwa culture in Western MP, Jorwe culture in Western Maharashtra, etc.
- People of this age used different kinds of pottery.
- Black-and-red-ware Pottery: Black and red ware seems to have been widely used. Cultures like Ahar Banas showed the presence of Black and Red ware pottery with white linear designs.
- Black-on-red ware: Jorwe ware is painted black-onred and has a matt surface treated with a wash.
- Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP): OCP people are regarded as the junior contemporaries of Harappa.
- This pottery is identified with the Copper Hoard Culture that was found in upper Ganga Valley and Ganga Yamuna doab area.
- The colour of the pottery ranges from orange to red.
- The period covered by the OCP culture is roughly placed between 2000 BC and 1500 BC.
- Major sites are- Jodhpura (Rajasthan), Attranjikhera (UP)
- Ganeshwar, located near Khetri copper mines, was initially believed to have OCP but researches have confuted this.
Polished Ware Pottery with rough surface
- Both polished and unpolished type of pottery existed
- Pottery generally has a red surface and is wheel thrown although handmade ones too exist
- Polished wares were well fired.
- Most of the pottery is polychrome meaning more than two colours are used to colour the pottery.
- Most of the pottery is utilitarian. Such potteries usually have flat bases
- Geometrical design along with paintings depicting flora and fauna are observed
- Perforated pottery was also found may be used for straining liquor.
- Pottery throughout the civilization was uniform (mass thrown) revealing some form of control and leaving less space of individual creativity
- Presence of luxurious pottery obtained from certain sites reveals economic stratification in the society
1. Mature Harappa
Burial Pottery of Harappa
- Burnished and painted pottery
- Burial pottery was specially and distinctly made
- Reveals the Harappan belief in life after death
- Presence or absence of this pottery in the grave goods reflected social stratification
2. Late Harappa
- Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP) – As we know the late Harappan cultures (1900BC – 1200BC) were primarily chalcolithic. Some specific chalcolithic sites show the elements of late Harappan (like use of burnt bricks, etc). These sites have OCP.
- Black-grey burnished ware produced on slow wheel – Found in Swat Valley. This resembles the pottery from north Iranian plateau. Black-on-red painted and wheel turned pottery – Also found in Swat Valley. This shows a connection that Swat Valley was associated with Harappa.
- Grey-ware and Painted Grey Ware, generally associated with Vedic people have been found in conjunction with some late Harappan pottery. It has less intricate designs as compared to the early and mature periods suggesting a dilution of the rich culture.
- The Vedic Era saw the emergence of Painted Grey Ware(PGW) Culture.
- The Rig Vedic sites have PGW but iron objects and cereals are absent. Hence it is considered a pre-iron phase of PGW. On the other hand, the Later Vedic sites are considered ironphase of PGW.
- This pottery is an Iron Age pottery found in Gangetic plain and Ghaggar – Hakra valley, lasting from roughly 1200 BC – 600 BC. Mathura was the largest PGW site.
- Characterized by a style of fine, grey pottery painted with geometric patterns in black.
- Are confined to few geographical locations, namely – Punjab, Haryana and upper Ganga Valley. This culture is associated with village and town settlements (but without large cities)
Later Vedic Era-NBPW
- The later Vedic people were acquainted with 4 types of pottery – Black-and-red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey ware and red ware.
End of Later Vedic Era-NBPW
- Towards the very end of Later Vedic Age around 6th century BC, we see the emergence of 2nd phase of urbanization(1st being Indus Valley Civilization). This era marked the beginning of the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
- Map showing areas where NBPW pottery was found
- Glossy, shining type pottery.
- Made of fine fabric and served as tableware for richer class. Considered deluxe potteryonly found with the elites revealing societal Brahmanical stratification which hegemony was. a result of
- This pottery continued to exist during the Mahajanapada era.
- Found in Ahichatra, Hastinapur (both in UP), Navdatoli (Madhya Pradesh)
- Classified into two groups- bichrome and monochrome
- Monochrome pottery has a fine and thin fabric . Potted on fast wheel and have astrikingly lustrous surface. 90% of this type is jet black, brownish black and bluish black and 10% have colours like pink, golden, brown among others.
- Bichrome pottery is found less. It shows all the features of monochrome except that it shows combination of two colours. A Bichrome pottery with two colours
- This culture is placed between- 3rd Century BC to 1st Century AD.
- Megaliths refers to monuments constructed of big (mega) stones (lith).
- This culture is particularly known for its large stone graves. In the South this age is characterized by the use of iron.
- Megalithic Pottery found in Kerala
- Well baked and durable Wheel thrown
- Bulk of these are plain however, a sherd from Koldihawa reveals black painting on the surface.
- It has been excavated throughout India but majorly from the South. Mostly in Vindhyas.
- They were used as grave goods revealing belief in life after death.
- Ufundi wa kutengeneza vyombo vya udongo unaaminika kuwa mojawapo ya ufundi wa kitamaduni wa kale na muhimu zaidi wa India. - Imefika nyakati zetu kutoka enzi za kabla ya historia. Vitu vya udongo vya India husemwa kuwa "vya kweli zaidi kwa asili, katika uwazi na unyenyekevu wa fomu zake, kupitishwa kwao kwa matumizi, na safi zaidi katika sanaa, ya ufundi wake wote wa nyumbani na wa kifahari". Kwa kweli, hakuna sehemu yoyote ya sanaa ya Kihindi iliyo na utamaduni mrefu wa mafanikio ya kisanii kama ule wa vyombo vya udongo. Ni ukweli ulio wazi kwamba kupitia mchakato wa kuendelea wa maendeleo katika mbinu na usemi wa kisanii, ufundi wa udongo nchini India ulipata kiwango cha kupendeza cha ukamilifu. Ufundi wa udongo katika vipindi tofauti ulileta baadhi ya maboresho katika mbinu za ubunifu na ubora wa ubunifu wa pato bora juu ya kipindi cha awali. - Tunapata kumbukumbu ya kwanza ya vyombo vya udongo katika enzi hii. Bila shaka ni vyombo vya udongo vilivyotengenezwa kwa mikono lakini wakati wa kipindi cha baadaye magurudumu ya miguu hutumiwa pia. - Unglazed, ambayo ni kuwa na uso mbaya - Handmade coarse kijivu udongo - Vifaa <unk> udongo mchanganyiko na mica na mchanga - Udongo ni devoid ya uchoraji wowote - Katika kesi nyingi twisted mchele shell kamba walikuwa impressed katika udongo mvua kwa ajili ya mapambo - Kupatikana kote India ikiwa ni pamoja na Kusini. Burzahom-kubwa kijivu udongo - Ni pamoja na nyeusi-burnished vyombo, greyware na matpressed vyombo. Chalcolithic Era, enzi ya kwanza ya chuma, ni alama ya kutokea kwa tamaduni tofauti katika sehemu mbalimbali za nchi yetu yaani <unk> Ahar utamaduni katika Kusini Mashariki Rajasthan, Malwa utamaduni katika Magharibi MP, Jorwe utamaduni katika Magharibi Maharashtra, nk. - Watu wa enzi hiyo walitumia aina mbalimbali za vyombo vya udongo. - Vyombo vya udongo vya rangi nyeusi na nyekundu: Inaonekana kwamba vyombo vya udongo vya rangi nyeusi na nyekundu vilitumiwa sana. Utamaduni kama vile Ahar Banas ulionyesha uwepo wa vyombo vya udongo vya rangi nyeusi na nyekundu vyenye michoro nyeupe ya mstari. - Black-on-red: Vifaa vya Jorwe vimechorwa nyeusi-nyekundu na vina uso wa matte uliotibiwa na kuosha. - Vifaa vya udongo vya rangi ya Ochre (OCP): Watu wa OCP wanachukuliwa kama wa kisasa wa Harappa. - Vitu hivi vya udongo vinatambuliwa na Utamaduni wa Hifadhi ya Shaba ambao ulipatikana katika Bonde la juu la Ganga na eneo la doab ya Ganga Yamuna. - Rangi ya vyombo vya udongo huanzia rangi ya machungwa hadi nyekundu. Kipindi cha utamaduni wa OCP ni kati ya 2000 na 1500 KK. Sehemu kuu ni Jodhpura (Rajasthan), Attranjikhera (UP) - Ganeshwar, iliyoko karibu na migodi ya shaba ya Khetri, awali ilidhaniwa kuwa na OCP lakini utafiti umekanusha hii. Vitu vya udongo vilivyopakwa rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi ya rangi. - Wengi wa vyombo vya udongo ni polychrome maana zaidi ya rangi mbili ni kutumika rangi ya vyombo vya udongo. - Vitu vingi vya udongo ni vya matumizi. Vitu hivyo vya udongo kwa kawaida huwa na misingi tambarare - Muundo wa kijiometri pamoja na michoro inayoonyesha mimea na wanyama huonekana - Vitu vya udongo vilivyopigwa pia vilipatikana vinaweza kutumiwa kusafisha pombe. - Vitu vya udongo katika ustaarabu wote vilikuwa sawa (vimechukuliwa kwa wingi) vinavyofunua aina fulani ya udhibiti na kuacha nafasi kidogo ya ubunifu wa mtu binafsi - Uwepo wa vyombo vya udongo vya anasa vilivyopatikana kutoka maeneo fulani vinafunua tabaka la kiuchumi katika jamii 1. Vitu vya udongo vya Harappa - Vitu vya udongo vilivyopakwa rangi na kupakwa rangi - Vitu vya udongo vilivyotengenezwa kwa njia maalum na tofauti - Inafunua imani ya Harappa katika maisha baada ya kifo - Uwepo au kutokuwepo kwa udongo huu katika bidhaa za kaburi kulionyesha tabaka la kijamii. Harappa ya mwisho - Choo cha rangi ya Ochre (OCP) Kama tunavyojua tamaduni za Harappa za mwisho (1900BC < 1200BC) zilikuwa hasa chalcolithic. Baadhi ya maeneo maalum ya chalcolithic yanaonyesha vipengele vya Harappan ya marehemu (kama matumizi ya matofali yaliyochomwa, nk). Maeneo haya yana OCP. - Black-kijivu polished vyombo zinazozalishwa juu ya gurudumu polepole <unk> Kupatikana katika Swat Valley. Hii inafanana na vyombo vya udongo kutoka eneo la juu la kaskazini mwa Iran. Vitu vya udongo vilivyochorwa kwa rangi nyeusi juu ya nyekundu na vilivyogeuzwa gurudumu <unk> Pia vimepatikana katika Bonde la Swat. Hii inaonyesha uhusiano kwamba Bonde la Swat lilihusianishwa na Harappa. - Grey-vitu na Painted Grey Vitu, kwa ujumla kuhusishwa na watu Vedic wamepatikana kwa kushirikiana na baadhi ya mwisho Harappan udongo. Ina miundo isiyo tata sana ikilinganishwa na vipindi vya mapema na vya kukomaa vinavyopendekeza kupunguzwa kwa utamaduni tajiri. - Enzi ya Vedic iliona kuibuka kwa Utamaduni wa Painted Grey Ware (PGW). - Maeneo ya Rig Vedic yana PGW lakini vitu vya chuma na nafaka havipo. Kwa hiyo ni kuchukuliwa pre-siri awamu ya PGW. Kwa upande mwingine, maeneo ya baadaye ya Vedic yanachukuliwa kuwa hatua ya chuma ya PGW. Vitu vya udongo ni vitu vya udongo vya enzi ya chuma vilivyopatikana katika tambarare ya Ganges na Ghaggar-Hakra, kuanzia 1200 KK hadi 600 KK. Mathura ilikuwa eneo kubwa zaidi la PGW. - Ina sifa ya mtindo wa udongo mzuri, wa kijivu uliochorwa kwa michoro ya kijiometri kwa rangi nyeusi. - Ni mdogo kwa maeneo machache ya kijiografia, yaani <unk> Punjab, Haryana na juu ya Ganga Valley. Utamaduni huu unahusishwa na makazi ya vijiji na miji (lakini bila miji mikubwa) Enzi ya Baadaye ya Vedic (NBPW) - Watu wa Baadaye wa Vedic walijua aina nne za vyombo vya udongo: vyombo vya rangi nyeusi na nyekundu, vyombo vya rangi nyeusi, vyombo vya rangi ya kijivu na vyombo vya rangi nyekundu. Mwisho wa Enzi ya Baadaye ya Vedic (NBPW) - Karibu na mwisho wa Enzi ya Baadaye ya Vedic karibu karne ya 6 KK, tunaona kuibuka kwa awamu ya pili ya mijini (ya kwanza ikiwa ni Utamaduni wa Bonde la Indus). Enzi hii iliashiria mwanzo wa Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). - Ramani inayoonyesha maeneo ambapo vyombo vya udongo vya NBPW vilipatikana - Vitu vya udongo vyenye kung'aa, vyenye kung'aa. - Imetengenezwa kwa kitambaa kizuri na kutumika kama vyombo vya meza kwa ajili ya darasa tajiri. Utafiti wa kihistoria unaonyesha kwamba watu wa jamii ya Brahmanic walikuwa na uwezo wa kuunda utamaduni wa kifalme. matokeo ya - Hii udongo iliendelea kuwepo wakati wa enzi ya Mahajanapada. - Kupatikana katika Ahichatra, Hastinapur (wote katika UP), Navdatoli (Madhya Pradesh) - Classified katika makundi mawili- bichrome na monochrome - Monochrome udongo ina kitambaa nzuri na nyembamba. Potted juu ya gurudumu haraka na kuwa astrikingly lustrous uso. 90% ya aina hii ni jet nyeusi, kahawia nyeusi na bluu nyeusi na 10% ina rangi kama waridi, dhahabu, kahawia na wengine. - Vitu vya udongo vyenye rangi mbili hupatikana mara chache zaidi. Inaonyesha sifa zote za monochrome isipokuwa kwamba inaonyesha mchanganyiko wa rangi mbili. Vitu vya udongo vyenye rangi mbili - Utamaduni huu umewekwa kati ya karne ya tatu KK hadi karne ya kwanza KK. - Megaliths inahusu makaburi yaliyojengwa kwa mawe makubwa (mega) (lith). - Utamaduni huu unajulikana hasa kwa makaburi yake makubwa ya mawe. Katika Kusini enzi hii inaonyeshwa na matumizi ya chuma. - Megalithic Pottery kupatikana katika Kerala - vizuri baked na kudumu Wheel kutupwa - Wengi wa haya ni wazi hata hivyo, sherd kutoka Koldihawa inaonyesha uchoraji nyeusi juu ya uso. - Imechimbuliwa kotekote India lakini hasa kutoka Kusini. Hasa katika Vindhyas. - Zilitumiwa kama vitu vya makaburi vinavyofunua imani katika maisha baada ya kifo.