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During the Bronze Age in Britain (2500-2000 BCE) there was a near complete turnover of the local Neolithic population when people from the continent crossed over to the island, bringing their Beaker culture with them.
But a new study investigating burials surrounding Stonehenge has found that rather than this being a violent invasion and displacement, these newcomers were living side-by-side with the locals for possibly hundreds of years, during which time it appears that the two populations were also exchanging ideas.
The Early Bronze Age in Britain was a time of great change. Not only did this period see a shift in the dominant culture of the island, but studies have found that there was a huge change in the genetics of the people living there too.
Recent narratives have framed this in terms of waves of invaders sweeping across the channel and displacing the people who were already living in Britain.
But a new study looking at both the genetics and culture of Britain between 4,500 and 4,000 years ago is showing that the picture is far more complex. Rather than this shift representing a sudden, violent turnover of populations, it was instead a gradual integration and merging of communities.
Dr Tom Booth, a former postdoctoral researcher at the Museum now based at The Francis Crick Institute, has been delving deeper into the genetics of these ancient people.
'When you look at this change more carefully, it is a much more gradual process, probably taking the best part of 500 years' explains Tom. 'It looks like this new population came over from the continent and settled areas of the landscape where the local Neolithic population weren't living.
'Two groups that were genetically quite different from one another lived largely in parallel, having children with each other only occasionally.'
This situation persisted for at least three hundred years, until sometime around 4,000 years ago when the two groups started mixing more liberally.
It is at this point that we can see the older population who inhabited Britain during the Neolithic had only a small overall genetic legacy.
Yet while these different groups of people may not have initially been frequently having children together, they were extensively interacting in other ways, sharing and adopting aspects of each other's cultures.
In 2018, Museum scientists were part of the largest study ever conducted using DNA from archaeological human remains from Britain, and found that the migration of these 'Beaker people', so-called because of their distinctive pottery style, led to a near complete switch in the genomes of the British population at this time.
Around 4,500 years ago Britain was inhabited by groups of people who lived in small, semi-nomadic communities spread across the landscape.
While these people did not typically form large population centres, they did come together to build massive structures, the most famous of which is Stonehenge. These monuments were presumably central to their belief system.
Around this time, a new population of people arrived from the continent. They brought with them what is known as Bell Beaker cultures. Bell Beaker groups can be tracked through their use of distinctive Beaker pottery, but this pottery was also often accompanied by new funerary practices and skills such as metalworking, suggesting Beakers reflected a larger overall change in culture, technology, ideology, ritual and belief. There is evidence the local population of Britain rapidly adopted this type of pottery and other associated traits from the newcomers.
But equally, the team have been showing that there was an exchange going in the opposite direction.
By looking at the genetics of people buried in the landscapes around Stonehenge during the Bronze Age, they have been able to build up something of a family tree. No-one in this set of relatives from the Stonehenge landscape had any ancestry from the groups that actually built Stonehenge.
Prof Ian Barnes, a research leader on ancient DNA at the Museum, says, 'There are loads of Neolithic structures around Stonehenge and it's this landscape, that the Beaker people use as a prestigious place to bury their dead.
'What is interesting is that even though it wasn't these people's biological ancestors who built Stonehenge, they referenced and incorporated these monuments into their belief systems very quickly and they were adapting parts of the local culture.'
This parallel situation in which both peoples were living and interacting, but not mixing much biologically, lasted for perhaps up to 500 years.
Then, there was a tipping point when the populations started having children together more extensively. What is interesting here is the genetics of the local Neolithic population were almost completely gone: there was a 90% replacement of the ancestry of these people.
What caused this tipping point is hard to discern.
Dr Selina Brace, a researcher in ancient DNA at the Museum, explains, 'Just before the point where we can infer interbreeding, there was a hybrid culture between what came before and what came after.
'It is almost like it takes them a few hundred years to iron it out, but then they find an accord and develop this set of ideas that incorporates both cultures into something that they can all subscribe to.'
The picture of Britain during this time is hugely complex.
In part it is muddied due to the wide range of burial practices during the Bronze Age. Previous work by Tom and his colleagues has shown how Bronze Age inhabitants of Britain were doing everything from leaving bodies out on the ground to simply decompose, to keeping body parts of their ancestors in their houses.
Just before the new groups arrive around 2500 BC, the Neolithic inhabitants of Britain were cremating their dead or treating them in ways which left no archaeological record, so no remains are left for researchers to study. It makes it hard to know exactly who was living where, and when. The incoming groups more often buried their dead, meaning they are much more visible archaeologically.
If local populations continued cremating, it would explain why the change in ancestry previously appeared so sudden. We can only see that the local population are still there in the genetic evidence when they have children with the new groups who were burying their dead.
Why the Neolithic groups have such a small genetic legacy in later populations remains unanswered. This new study does show that the population turnover was unlikely due to a violent invasion, as there are seemingly fewer markers of violence on human skeletons dating to this time than those from the previous Neolithic period. There is also little evidence of extensive burning or destruction of existing structures.
One plausible explanation is that large parts of Britain were less populous at the time when new Beaker populations began to arrive.
Fanya orodha ya makala utakazosoma baadaye. Utaweza kupata orodha yako kutoka kwa makala yoyote katika Discover. Huna makala yoyote kuhifadhiwa. Wakati wa Enzi ya Shaba huko Uingereza (2500-2000 KK) kulikuwa na karibu mzunguko kamili wa idadi ya watu wa Neolithic ya ndani wakati watu kutoka bara walipovuka kwenda kisiwa hicho, wakileta utamaduni wao wa Beaker pamoja nao. Uchunguzi mpya unaochunguza makaburi karibu na Stonehenge umegundua kuwa badala ya kuwa uvamizi mkali na uhamisho, wahamiaji hawa wapya waliishi kando ya wenyeji kwa mamia ya miaka, wakati ambao inaonekana kwamba watu hao wawili walikuwa pia wakibadilishana mawazo. Enzi ya Mapema ya Shaba huko Uingereza ilikuwa wakati wa mabadiliko makubwa. Wakati huo, si tu kwamba kulikuwa na mabadiliko makubwa katika utamaduni wa kisiwa hicho, lakini pia kulikuwa na mabadiliko makubwa katika maumbile ya watu walioishi huko. "Mambo ya hivi karibuni yameelezea hili kwa maneno ya ""mafuriko ya wavamizi"" wakivuka Channel na kuhamisha watu ambao tayari walikuwa wakiishi Uingereza." Utafiti mpya unaochunguza urithi na utamaduni wa watu wa Uingereza kati ya miaka 4,500 na 4,000 iliyopita unaonyesha kuwa hali ni ngumu zaidi. Badala ya mabadiliko haya kuwakilisha mabadiliko ya ghafla, ya vurugu ya idadi ya watu, badala yake ilikuwa ushirikiano wa hatua kwa hatua na kuunganishwa kwa jamii. Tom Booth, mtafiti wa zamani wa postdoctoral katika Jumba la Makumbusho, sasa anaishi katika Taasisi ya Francis Crick, amekuwa kuchunguza kina zaidi katika maumbile ya watu hawa wa kale. "Ukiangalia mabadiliko haya kwa uangalifu zaidi, ni mchakato wa hatua kwa hatua, labda kuchukua sehemu bora ya miaka 500 ""anaeleza Tom." 'Inaonekana kama idadi hii mpya ilikuja kutoka bara na makazi maeneo ya mandhari ambapo idadi ya watu wa Neolithic ya ndani hawakuwa wakiishi. 'Kikundi viwili vilivyokuwa tofauti sana kimaumbile vilikuwa vikishiana kwa muda mrefu, vikizaa watoto pamoja mara kwa mara tu.' Hali hiyo iliendelea kwa angalau miaka mia tatu, hadi wakati fulani karibu miaka 4,000 iliyopita, wakati makundi hayo mawili yalipoanza kuchangamana kwa uhuru zaidi. Katika kipindi hiki, watu wa zamani walioishi Uingereza wakati wa Neolithic walikuwa na urithi mdogo tu wa maumbile. Hata hivyo, ingawa huenda makundi haya tofauti ya watu hayakuwa na watoto pamoja mara nyingi, walikuwa wakishirikiana kwa njia nyingine, wakishiriki na kupitisha mambo ya tamaduni za kila mmoja. Katika mwaka wa 2018, wanasayansi wa Makumbusho walikuwa sehemu ya utafiti mkubwa zaidi uliofanywa kwa kutumia DNA kutoka kwa mabaki ya kiakiolojia ya binadamu kutoka Uingereza, na walipata kwamba uhamiaji wa 'watu wa Beaker', wanaojulikana kwa mtindo wao wa udongo wa udongo, ulisababisha mabadiliko karibu kamili katika genome ya idadi ya watu wa Uingereza wakati huo. Karibu miaka 4,500 iliyopita, Uingereza ilijengwa na makundi ya watu ambao waliishi katika jamii ndogo, nusu-nome, zilizosambaa katika eneo hilo. Ingawa watu hawa kwa kawaida hawakufanyiza vituo vikubwa vya watu, walikusanyika pamoja kujenga majengo makubwa, maarufu zaidi kati ya hayo ni Stonehenge. Yaelekea vitu hivyo vya ukumbusho vilikuwa muhimu sana katika itikadi zao. Karibu na wakati huo, idadi mpya ya watu ilifika kutoka bara hilo. Walileta pamoja nao kile kinachojulikana kuwa utamaduni wa Bell Beaker. Makundi ya Beaker ya Bell yanaweza kufuatiliwa kupitia matumizi yao ya udongo wa Beaker wa kipekee, lakini udongo huu pia mara nyingi ulifuatana na mazoea mapya ya mazishi na ujuzi kama vile kazi ya chuma, ikidokeza kuwa Beakers ilionyesha mabadiliko makubwa ya jumla katika utamaduni, teknolojia, itikadi, desturi na imani. Kuna uthibitisho kwamba watu wa eneo hilo la Uingereza walichukua upesi aina hiyo ya vyombo vya udongo na sifa nyingine zinazohusiana na hizo kutoka kwa wageni hao. Lakini kwa usawa, timu imekuwa kuonyesha kwamba kulikuwa na kubadilishana kwenda katika mwelekeo kinyume. Kwa kuchunguza maumbile ya watu waliozikwa katika maeneo ya karibu na Stonehenge wakati wa Enzi ya Shaba, wameweza kujenga kitu kama mti wa familia. Hakuna mtu katika kundi hili la jamaa kutoka eneo la Stonehenge alikuwa na ukoo wowote kutoka kwa makundi ambayo kwa kweli alijenga Stonehenge. "Professor Ian Barnes, kiongozi wa utafiti wa DNA ya kale katika Jumba la Makumbusho, anasema, ""Kuna mizigo ya miundo ya Neolithic karibu na Stonehenge na ni mandhari hii ambayo watu wa Beaker hutumia kama mahali pa kifahari kuzikia wafu wao.""" "Kila mtu anajua kwamba hata kama sio mababu wa watu hawa waliojenga Stonehenge, walijumuisha kumbukumbu hizi katika mifumo yao ya imani haraka sana na walikuwa wakibadilisha sehemu za utamaduni wa eneo hilo. """ Hali hii ya sambamba, ambapo watu wote wawili waliishi na kuingiliana, lakini hawakuhusishwa sana kibiolojia, iliendelea kwa labda miaka 500. Kisha, kulikuwa na wakati ambapo watu hao walianza kuzaa watoto pamoja kwa wingi zaidi. Kwa sababu ya hali hiyo, watu wa Neolithic walipoteza karibu asilimia 90 ya asili yao. Ni vigumu kujua ni nini kilichosababisha hali hiyo mbaya. "Daktari Selina Brace, mtafiti wa DNA ya kale katika Jumba la Makumbusho, anaelezea, ""Kabla tu ya hatua ambayo tunaweza kudhani interbreeding, kulikuwa na utamaduni mchanganyiko kati ya kile kilichokuja kabla na kile kilichokuja baada." 'Ni kama kwamba inachukua miaka mia chache kuifuta, lakini kisha wanapata makubaliano na kuendeleza seti hii ya mawazo ambayo hujumuisha tamaduni zote mbili katika kitu ambacho wote wanaweza kujiunga nacho.' Picha ya Uingereza wakati huu ni tata sana. Kwa sehemu ni muddy kutokana na mbalimbali ya mazoea ya mazishi wakati wa Bronze Age. "Tumekuwa tukifanya kazi kwa muda mrefu na tumeona jinsi watu wa Uingereza wa enzi ya shaba walivyofanya kila kitu, kuanzia kuacha miili chini ili kuharibika, hadi kuweka sehemu za mwili wa mababu zao katika nyumba zao.""" Kabla ya watu hao kuwasili, karibu mwaka 2500 KK, watu wa Uingereza waliwaua wafu wao au kuwachunga kwa njia ambazo hazikuacha rekodi za kiakiolojia, kwa hiyo hakuna mabaki ya kuchimbua. Ni vigumu kujua ni nani hasa aliyeishi wapi na wakati gani. Vikundi vilivyokuja mara nyingi zaidi vilizika wafu wao, ikimaanisha kwamba wanaonekana zaidi kiakiolojia. Ikiwa watu wa eneo hilo waliendelea kuchoma maiti, hilo lingetoa ufafanuzi wa kwa nini mabadiliko ya ukoo yalionekana ghafula hivyo. "Hii ni kwa sababu watu wa eneo hilo wanaonekana kuwa na ""utambuzi wa maumbile"" wakati wanazaliwa na watu wa jamii hiyo mpya ambao walikuwa wakizika wafu wao." Kwa nini vikundi vya Neolithic vina urithi mdogo sana wa maumbile katika idadi ya watu wa baadaye bado haijibiwa. Utafiti huo unaonyesha kuwa mabadiliko ya idadi ya watu hayakuwa ya uwezekano mkubwa kutokana na uvamizi mkali, kwani kuna alama chache za vurugu kwenye mifupa ya binadamu inayotokana na wakati huu kuliko zile kutoka kipindi cha Neolithic cha awali. Pia kuna uthibitisho mdogo wa kuchomwa moto au uharibifu mkubwa wa majengo yaliyopo. Ufafanuzi mmoja unaowezekana ni kwamba sehemu kubwa za Uingereza hazikuwa na watu wengi wakati watu wapya wa Beaker walipoanza kufika.