Discovery of the Arctic began in 330 BC with Pytheas, a Greek explorer from Marseille, who left to sail northwards as far as the Shetland Islands or Iceland.
Later, around 982
The Viking Erik the Red left Scandinavia for Iceland then, expelled from the island, he founded a colony in Greenland (“the green country”) giving it that name in the hope of attracting possible colonial settlers.
The Dutchman Willem Barents discovered Spitsbergen (already known to Nordic navigators). However, his ship, trapped in the ice, was damaged and the crew were forced to overwinter in dreadful conditions, north of Novaya Zemlya (76°N), the first time for any Europeans.
Searching for the Northwest passage, William Baffin and Robert Bylot voyaged north along the west coast of Greenland as far as 77°45’N. They discovered the Lancaster, Smith and Jones Sounds. Only 2 centuries later the Northwest Passage leading to the Arctic Ocean was navigated by an expedition. This route was later found to lead to the Pacific Ocean, through the Bering Strait.
Danish explorer Vitus Bering, sent by Tsar Peter the Great, discovered the strait between Siberia and America, which now bears his name, the Aleutian Islands and the south coast of Alaska, of which he took possession in the name of the Czar.
British naval officer John Ross along with Edward Parry entered Melville Bay and became the first Europeans to encounter “Eskimos” whose particular characteristic was to “move around at great speed on sleds pulled by dogs”. They looked in vain for the Northwest Passage before turning back in the Lancaster Sound. Parry made a second expedition (1819-1820), reaching meridian 113°W.
After a first failed attempt to reach the North Pole in 1872, Swedish explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld made a huge effort to find the Northeast Passage, sailing along the Siberian coastline. In September 1878 Nordenskiöld became frozen in by the ice, then decided to overwinter at in Kolyuchin Bay, 200 km west of the Bering Strait. He finally broke free from the ice in 18 July 1879 (having been blocked for 294 days); 2 days later, he successfully reached the Strait.
The Norwegian Fridtjof Nansen drifted with the Fram across the Arctic Ocean. In so doing he brought proof of the existence of the transpolar marine current which drives the drifting of the sea-ice.
The Northwest Passage was not gained by sea until 1906 when the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen finished a 3-year journey with the Gjøa. During this voyage the explorer learned the Inuit techniques that later enabled him to reach the South Pole in 1911.
The American Robert Peary announced that he had arrived at the geographical pole on 6 April but without making any observation of longitude, or offering the smallest proof. His old friend, Dr Frederick Cook did little better, although claiming that he had “reached the pole, 21 April 1908, and discovered land in the Far North”. It appears in reality that Peary got very close to the North Pole (a few miles) but had not reached the actual point.
The Russian Ivan Papanin and several fellow explorers left Franz-Josef Land by plane, landing at 89°43’N. They established the first drifting base on 21 May, before drifting for 9 months until they reached the Greenland Sea.
Expeditions by French explorer Paul-Émile Victor to Greenland.
The American nuclear submarine Nautilus crossed the Arctic Ocean and passed under the North Pole on 3 August. Then on 17 March 1961, Skate, another American nuclear submarine, surfaced at 90°N.
The British plar explorer Wally Herbert crossed from Point Barrow (Alaska, 21 February 1968) to Spitsbergen (29 May 1969) by way of the Pole by sled traîneau. As Robert Peary had not truly got to the North Pole in 1909, Herbert was the first ever to have reached by walking “overland”.
A region in the north of the Earth, in and around the Arctic Circle, parallel to latitude 66°36′. This is the limit of the “midnight sun”.
The name of the Arctic comes from the Great Bear constellation, located to the north (arctos = bear (Greek)). This region takes in the Arctic Ocean, a large part of which is permanent ice (sea-ice) and the north of the continents which surround it: including the Scandinavian Peninsula, the north of Russia and Siberia, of Alaska, Canada, Greenland and Spitsbergen. The geopolitical situation of the Arctic is very different from that of the Antarctic.
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If the limits of the Arctic Ocean (13 000 000 km² and more than 4000 m depth) are perfectly defined, how can the border of the Arctic regions on land be fixed? By the Arctic Circle, the treeline or by the limit of the land that is constantly frozen at depth, the permafrost? The most commonly recognized answer is the line within which the air temperature never exceeds 10°C during the warmest months (July). This isotherm, called the Köppen line, coincides quite well with the transition from boreal forest (taiga) to tundra. According to this, the Arctic would stretch over an area of about 24 million km², including 17 million of ocean, a little more than 3 million of continent and nearly 4 million of scattered islands, from the Aleutians to Labrador, with its maximum diameter exceeding 7000 km.
North Magnetic Pole
The North Magnetic Pole is defined as the point on the Earth’s surface where the direction of the magnetic field runs exactly vertically downwards. At the North Magnetic Pole, the magnetic dip (the angle between the direction of the field and the horizontal) is 90° and the magnetic declination or variation (the angle between the direction of the field and the geographic North Pole) is not definite. In the same way there is a magnetic South Pole where the magnetic field is exactly vertical upwards.
Care should be taken not to confuse the magnetic poles (North and South) and geomagnetic poles. The latter are defined as the intersection points on the Earth’s surface where the axis of the magnetic dipole passing through the Earth’s centre gives the best first-order approximation of the global magnetic field. Inevitably therefore the geomagnetic North and South poles are antipodal, in contrast with the magnetic poles. The difference between the two types of pole stems from the fact that the Earth’s magnetic field is not exactly dipolar at the scale of the whole globe. This is why, even though all the magnetic meridians converge at the North Magnetic Pole, they do not arrive radially: compasses lead to the North Magnetic Pole without ever pointing in that direction!
James Ross was the first to fix an exact location for the North Magnetic Pole, in 1831. Amundsen followed in 1904. At that time the pole was situated at the Boothia Peninsula in the Far North of Canada. The pole moves around owing to the geomagnetic secular variation, itself induced by convection movements of liquid iron in the Earth’s core. For this reason expeditions were run regularly in the 20th Century to update the position of the pole on the magnetic maps.
The latest in situ determination of the position of the pole was performed by a Franco-Canadian team (L.R.Newitt, A.Chulliat and J.-J.Orgeval, Poly- Arctic project) in April 2007, using several measurements taken in a radius of about 100 km around the pole. The position obtained was 83.95°N, 121.02°W, effectively around 800 km to the north-west of Ellesmere Island. These field observations have been more and more difficult owing to increasing distances and global warming. For several years they have been complemented by satellite measurements.
The North Magnetic Pole drifted quite slowly (less than 10 km/year) towards Siberia from 1834 to 1980. From the mid 1980s, the speed of the drift has been increasing to reach the present-day 55 km/year (still towards Siberia). This speed appears to have stabilized since the beginning of the 2000s. If it continues at the same rate, the North Magnetic Pole will reach Siberia in around 2040.
This quite abrupt acceleration has yet to find a full explanation. It could be linked to an increase in the magnetic field flux in the polar area North of the Earth’s core. This increase could be caused by the expulsion of the lines of the magnetic field from the core, in a mechanism rather like the processes that induce sun spots.
Topography and bathymetry
The landscapes in the Arctic are extremely diversified. They include sea-ice, strongly carved coastlines, coastal plains, hills and mountains reaching beyond 6000 metres above sea level (Mount McKinley at 6194 m, in Denali Park in Alaska). Rivers and lakes abound, also tundra, and the region supports the world’s most extensive forests (Russian Taiga).
The original Russian term tundra denotes the circumpolar plant community which takes over from the taiga (which supports trees) towards the north. This community grows on soil that is permanently frozen, at least at depth, the permafrost. From south to north, the first type encountered is shrubby tundra with shrub-scattered moorland consisting of a range of species of dwarf willow, open moorland then grasslands (herbaceous tundra), followed by zones where mosses and lichens are the only representatives of vegetation (some of them are eaten by reindeer). All these plants have their growth slowed down by the climatic conditions (freezing, wind, etc.), the alternation between a long winter night and a long summer day and the poverty of the soil. The soil infertility is due to lower bacterial activity: there is very little decomposition of the organic matter that accumulates and gives rise to peat. The short vegetative period is however sufficient to attract a host of migratory birds (eider, black geese (Branta), snow goose, etc.) and make it a zone of intense animal life and reproduction.
The Sea ice
This is a mass accumulation of floating ice, formed by freezing of sea water, also known as pack ice. Sea-ice consists of the year’s ice which forms at the beginning of winter (ice-jam) and thaws in spring (break-up) along with older polar ice. It is subjected to tidal movements and drifting driven by marine currents and winds.
The permafrost is a horizon of the subsurface which does not undergo thawing for at least 2 years running. It holds a record of the negative heat balance over a long period (103 years) with an accumulation of ice lenses, especially in the first 10 m of soil. Its upper horizon thaws each year: this is the active layer where cryoturbation occurs in the form of stones circles. At present the permafrost stretches at low altitude between 57°N on the eastern sides of the continent and 70°N on the western margins. Its thickness varies from 20 m in the South reaching 300 m in the zones not overlain by ice 10 000 years BP and more than 600 m in the non-iced hyper-continental zones of the Quaternary (Siberia). The record depth is held by the Verkhoyansk Range in eastern Siberia where depth exceeds 1000 m. The permafrost can be continuous to the North (> 80% of the surface area), discontinuous (between 30 and 80%) and sporadic to the South (Iceland, Lapland, Quebec).
In the warmest times of the Holocene, 8000 years ago, the permafrost was restricted to the area included within the Arctic Circle. Since then it has again advanced towards the South. Following the fall in summer solar radiation during the Holocene, the current southward spread of the permafrost reaches about 1/3 of the extent it had at the Last Glacial Maximum. The Russian authors consider the Arctic permafrost to be ancient (7-5 million years). Its thermal mass gave it deep resistance, both to the warming of the Lower Pliocene (4.2 million years BP, when there were palm trees in the Netherlands!) and to the warmest interglacial periods of the recent Quaternary, the Eemian (132-110 000 years BP, with Portuguese fish reaching Denmark !). A large amount of ice formed in the top layer of permafrost during warm humid episodes, for example 8000 years BP. The most recent permafrost is less rich in ice. When this accumulated ice melts the ground collapses: thermokarst or thaw lakes then form. This occurred already in the early Holocene and before the Little Ice Age.
When the permafrost cools down again, it can incorporate peat, blocking the annual production of methane, particularly in the continental subarctic climate zone. Deep down, around 200 m, large quantities of gas hydrates (methane) can build up; these accumulations do not form at shallower depths.
The Arctic Ocean covers an area of about 13 million km², making it the World’s smallest ocean. It reaches depths of more than 4000 m. This ocean stretches over all the seas situated between the North Pole and the northern parts of Europe, Asia and America. It is connected with the north of the Atlantic Ocean, receiving an input of large bodies of water through the Barents Sea and the Fram Strait. It also has some contact with the Pacific Ocean, through the Bering Strait, but this passage is narrower.
Arctic Ocean circulation
The circulation of waters in the Arctic Ocean is a key player in World Ocean circulation and global climate regulation, owing particularly to the heat exchanges it effects with the atmosphere. When relatively warm, strongly saline water bodies moving from the Atlantic (by the Gulf Stream for example) arrive in the cold Arctic Ocean, where the resulting temperature decrease induces their density to rise. That causes them to plunge further down into deeper layers, forming deep-water masses. This process is “thermohaline circulation” (from Greek thermos, warm, and halos, salt). It moves slowly but over vast surface areas. Every winter therefore, several million km³ of water is driven towards the deeper zones, slowly moving water southwards, along the deep along the floor of the Atlantic Ocean. The slow mixing process in the oceans has been represented by oceanographers by a global-scale conveyor belt. Many other currents (surface, deep and mid-depth) circulate in the Arctic Ocean in a complex configuration. They include the Nansen currents, operating at the surface, which cause the sea-ice to drift.
The Arctic Ocean is largely covered by a thick layer of sea-ice whose extent varies with the seasons. It is mobile, continually being fragmented and remodelled by the winds and currents. In summer, when the sea hardly freezes, the sea-ice breaks up into a multitude of floating islands of ice or floes. With the changing seasons, the covering of Boreal ice shifts between about 8 and 15 million km². In its central area the sea-ice can attain a thickness of 4 m.
It is difficult to characterize one specific Arctic climate. Indeed, the Arctic encompasses different types of region where the climate can be rather different from one place to another. Several factors can produce variations in climate, including latitude (more or less northwards), distance from coasts (it is generally colder inland), whether or not marine currents are present (like the Gulf Stream which warms the coasts of Scandinavia), altitude, or relief. Several climates can exist within the same region, Alaska for instance. Moreover, in the polar regions, the top-of atmosphere radiative balance is negative, meaning that more heat is lost than gained. This effect is linked to loss of energy which can be explained by: The energy of the solar radiation is lost by a maximum amount in reaching the poles because there it crosses the atmosphere always at an oblique angle; therefore the nearer the poles, the longer its path. The quantity of energy received by a given surface area in the polar regions is therefore lower than that for the same area in the equatorial regions. This effect is moreover accentuated by the Earth’s curvature and axial tilt.
The snow and ice also play a role. Whereas on average the Earth’s surface and atmosphere sends back 30% of the solar energy, this reflection is accentuated by the whiteness of the snow, which reflects 80% of the incident light back towards space.
These variables influence the Arctic climate. A climate characterized by the disparity of its seasons, the Earth’s tilt in relation to the Sun expressed in most of the region by the existence of seasons of highly variable length: winter lasts about 9 months (involving 6 months of polar night for the regions furthest north), summer is only1/3 as long whereas spring and autumn are like transition periods no longer than a few weeks. At Resolute in Canada (74°N), the period without frost is restricted to 9 days per year on average! The Arctic climate may well be harsh, but it would be even more so if it did not enjoy the warmth carried in by the ocean and atmospheric currents from warmer regions. This makes the climate nonetheless “milder” than in the Antarctic.
The human populations known as the “Arctic” peoples (including the Inuit, Sami and Évenks) have developed ways of life very well adapted to harsh living conditions (very cold climate, sparse vegetation, the polar night and so on).
The Saami people are indigenous to an area covering the north of Sweden, Norway, Finland and a small part of Russia. They Sami form one of the largest autochthonous groups in Europe. They do not constitute an ethnic group but a people speaking the same Finno-Ugric languages (10 of which have been identified).
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The Sami are more commonly known as Lapps, although members of the community prefer the name Sami or Saami, which they therefore use to refer to themselves. The term Lapp is considered pejorative (close to the High-German lapp, meaning stupid). They call their ancestral lands Sápmi (Lapland).
Although these peoples are spread over an immense surface area, and their populations reach only small numbers, their clothes, tools, techniques, social organization and cultural features show striking similarities, whether they are from Siberia, the far north of Europe or Arctic America. Nevertheless, these peoples do show way-of-life differences such as sedentarization/nomadization, hunting/animal husbandry, the species used depending on their location, their relations with the other peoples, etc.
Indigenous peoples of the Arctic
The Inuit (or Eskimos), present from north-east Siberia to Greenland, by way of Alaska and Canada.
The designation Inuit (adopted by ethnologists at the Washington International Conference) groups together several Arctic populations spread between 56°N and 76°N, from eastern Siberia as far as the east coast of Greenland, a territory that totals 15 000 km of coastline. From the linguistic point of view, the Inuit are classified into two groups:
The Inuit are attached politically to 4 nations (Russia, USA, Canada and Greenland). Their numbers reach nearly 150 000. The largest group (more than 50 000) are found in Greenland, with the Kalaallit from the west coast and the Ammassalimiut from the east coast.
The term Eskimo, generally corresponding to the Inuk people of the Far North of Canada, Alaska and Greenland), comes from the crie language (of the Amerindian people of North America). It means “he who eats raw meat”. In Canada, the Inuit prefer the name they use themselves, Inuit, signifying “the people” in Inuktitut. The singular is Inuk and the dual Inuuk.
An Inuk, some Inuit
The Inuit are not related to the Amerindian peoples, who arrived some millennia before them. Nevertheless, the same political questions arise concerning the Inuit and the Amerindians.
The most important process of territorial claims in Canada’s history led in 1999 to the foundation of Nunavut, a new territory conceived as homeland for the greater part of the Inuit of Canada, with the name meaning “our Land”.
Moreover, in order to meet the claims of the Inuit of the Nunavik region, in the Quebec Arctic, the Quebec government set up the Kativik Regional Administration under the James Bay and North Quebec Agreement. In Canada, the Inuit are represented by the Inuk Tapiriit Kanatami.
The Sami (or Lapps) in the north of Scandinavia and the west of Russia.
There are between 60 000 and 100 000, spread over the Nordic ice sheet running from the Norwegian shores to the Kola Peninsula (Russia). More than half of them live in Norway, whereas about 20 000 are inhabitants of Sweden, 6000 are in Finland but hardly 2000 in northern Russia. Contrary to popular belief, only 10% of Sami practise reindeer husbandry and transhumance. Most of the population operate in other activities: agriculture, fishing, industry, the tertiary sector (in the north, but also in the large cities of the south). Reindeer domestication and husbandry never became widespread, in fact it entered relatively late into Sami history as they previously lived by hunting this animal. It was mainly from the 17th and 18th Centuries that the domesticated reindeer became the principal resource for Sami communities in the mountains and forests, at the same time as the animal became the epitome of Sami culture.
The Sami have the right to vote in Sweden, Norway and Finland (but not in Russia), in the democratically elected Sami Parliament, an especially designated authority with government powers.
The “Indigenous small-numbered peoples” of Russia, a term which encompasses a mosaic of ethnic groups that are more or less affiliated with each other (including the Evenks, Nenets, Chukchis, Aleuts) and whose populations are low (< 50 000 individuals).
This is the collective name the Russians give to the mosaic of autochthonous peoples (43 recorded in 2000 by the Russia Federation) spread across the Arctic and Subarctic of Eurasia, particularly in Siberia.
19 ethnic groups belong to the Arctic area – permanently or otherwise, as many of them are nomadic. Following a simple ethno-linguistic classification they can be separated into 3 broad families: Uralo-Siberian, Altaic and Dené-Caucasian.
From west to east: Sami – Nenets – Mansi – Selkups – Enets – Khanty – Ket – Nganasan – Dolgans – Evenks – Evens – Yukaghir – Chuvants- Chukchi – Kereks – Alyutors – Koryaks – Aleuts- Inuit
The broad Uralo-Siberian family, the most ancient of Siberia, occupies a large area in northern Russia. It subdivides into 5 families: Finno-Ugric, Samodeic, Yukaghir, Eskaleut (Eskimo-Aleut) and Luoravetian (or Chukotko-Kamchatkan).
The broad Altaic family is represented in the Siberian Arctic by 2 families: the Turkic languages spoken by the Yakuts and the Dolgans, and the Tungusic spoken by the Evens and the Evenks. The Tungusic peoples entered Siberia early in the 1st Century AD. They reached the Arctic around 1000, practically at the same time as the Yakuts began their advance southwards. The Yakuts (or Sakhas) are not considered as a minority because the population was at 382 000 in 1989.
The broad Dené-Caucasian family, whose only Arctic family is known as Yeniseian, is represented by the Ket ethnic group. Recent studies position this within a wide-ranging family bringing together Basque, Caucasian, Yeniseian and Sino-Tibetan languages. Their origin is still a subject of debate.
Source: “Le monde polar – Mutations et transitions”, Chief Editor M.-F. André, Editions ellipses, 2005
Focus on some ethnic groups within the “Small Peoples of the North of Russia”:
The Enets are settled on the eastern bank of the River Yenisei and the neighbouring part of the Taymyr Peninsula. Only 327 persons were recorded in the 2002 census. This small ethnic group is showing all the signs of a society close to extinction.
The Nenets (formerly Youraks) live in western Siberia and the north-east of Europe. Their populations cover a wide area (1 million km²), from the Kola to the Taymyr Peninsulas. They make up the largest autochthonous minority of the North with 41 454 persons recorded in 2002. Their traditional activities range from reindeer rearing in the tundra, to hunting and fishing in the taiga.
The Aleuts of Siberia are settled in the Commander Islands (Bering and Copper Islands). Russia’s Aleut population comprised 592 persons at the last census in 2002, indicating a decline from the 1989 figure (644). About 200 Aleuts have left their islands to set up in Kamchatka. Traditional activities are marine mammal hunting, fishing and shellfish harvesting.
The Chukchi inhabit the Chukotka Autonomous District, also Kamchatka and Yakutia. In 2002 their population was recorded as 15 827 persons. They are culturally close to the Koryaks, and like them are divided between the nomadic land dwellers with their reindeer herds and the maritime hunting and fishing communities settled on the coast.
The Evenks (formerly Tungus) are present in even more vast an area than occupied by the Nenets: their range stretches from the Arctic to Manchuria, the River Amur and Mongolia, some 2.5 million km². Their recorded population in 2002 was 36 377. The communities in the northern areas are reindeer breeders and fishermen.
As well as these groups, all of whose populations are below 50 000, can be mentioned the Yakuts (or Sakhas) as peoples of the Siberian Arctic.
The Yakuts (or Sakha) in Russia who cannot be categorized among the “Small-numbered peoples of the North” owing to their larger population (> 300 000) and many of whom live in the Arctic areas of Siberia.
The Yakuts (who call themselves Sakhas) are a Siberian people who form the north-eastern branch of the Turkic peoples. In the XIVth Century they were forced to leave the Lena Valley near the shores of Lake Baikal. Now they occupy almost the whole of the river basins Khatanga, Olekma, Lena, Yana and Indigirka, encroaching onto the territories of their neighbours such as the Tungus, Chukchi and Samoidians.
From the XVIIIth Century, Russian colonies gradually moved into these regions and at present their descendants constitute half the population of the Sakha Republic (ex-Yakutia). The Yakuts themselves make up a third of the population and the second largest ethnic group.
The Sakha Republic covers one-fifth of the Russian Federation. It includes one of Earth’s “Poles of cold”: Verkhoyansk. At the beginning of the XXth Century a temperature of -71°C was recorded in an inhabited zone.
The Yakuts are elk hunters, horse and cattle breeders, sometimes traders. They number more than 300 000, making them one of the most numerous Siberian peoples. The fall of the communist regime gave rise to a strong process of cultural renewal.
UNESCO officially inscribed the Yakut heroic epos on the List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2005. Their language is spoken from Irkutsk to the Sea of Okhotsk and from the Chinese border to the Arctic Ocean, over a vast range covered by deserted mountains and taiga.
Political organization and territorial claims
Increasing contacts made by Western and Russian travellers with the populations of the Arctic eventually led to an upheaval in their organization. Whether it occurred gradually or abruptly sedentarization came hand-in-hand with westernization or russification of ways of life. However, the end of the 20th Century saw claims emerging from the most numerous and best organized Arctic communities to assert their rights to control over the running of their territory.
Creation of Nunavut
The strongest process of land claims in the history of Canada led to the creation of Nunavut in 1999. It is a new territory conceived as the homeland of a large proportion of the Inuit of Canada. Indeed its name means “our land”. Besides this move, measures to meet Inuit people’s claims in the Nunavik region in Quebec’s Arctic to the north, led the Quebec government to found the Kativik Regional Government under the terms of the 1975 James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement.
The Sami Parliament
In Sweden, Norway and Finland (but not in Russia) the Sami have the right to vote in the Sami Parliament, an especially designated authority. It is a democratically elected parliament with a governmental role.
Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North
The Small-numbered peoples of the North of Russia suffered greatly from the sovietization of Siberia in the ex-USSR: exploitation of natural resources causing damage to the integrity of their lands and installation of gulags. Nowadays, the Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON) is working to unify 30 indigenous minorities with the aim of presenting a united voice before the Russian Federal Government in Moscow.
The geographical location and climate conditions generate a set of remarkable ecosystems, sensitive to the smallest variations. In spite of the extreme conditions, the Arctic regions are far from being desert-like or deserted and harbour a great diversity of plant and animal wildlife.
The flora is represented mainly by the plants making up the tundra which covers the permafrost. Such frozen ground would prevent tree roots from reaching deep enough to draw the elements they need for growth. This explains the absence of trees from these regions. The boundary line here between regions with tree cover and those without is the treeline. Ecologists often use it as a defining frontier between the Arctic and the Subarctic regions.
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Plankton and krill : The fact that north-south ocean currents meet in the Arctic seas creates waters that are extremely rich in micro-organisms (plankton and krill), the staple food for Invertebrates and Vertebrate. A huge number of these concentrate around the polynyas (area of unfrozen sea within the pack of sea-ice), channels, ice-free coasts and margins of sea-ice.
The Mammals, whether terrestrial or marine, are remarkably well adapted to the Arctic world. They have developed characteristics such as hollow hairs, a thick layer of fat or increase in size, which provide them with insulation against cold.
A young reindeer lying in the snow.
Marine mammals are represented by 6 species of seal, 2 species of sea lion and walrus (Pinnipedia); 11 species of toothed whales (Odontoceti) (Cetacea) such as beluga and narwhal and 8 species of baleen whales (Mysticeti) such as the humpback and the blue whale which feeds on abundant krill it finds in Arctic waters.
The tail of a whale
The main land mammals are: polar bear, reindeer (or caribou), musk ox, Arctic fox, wolverine, lemming, and so on.
A polar fox
A polar fox with its summer coat
More than 100 species of bird live in the Arctic regions, but permanent residents are rare (gyre falcon, snowy owl, ptarmigan, common raven, ivory gull, etc.).
There are no penguins in the Arctic! They should not be confused with auks like Alca torda (razorbill) which live in the North Atlantic zones: all of them can fly (since the extinction of Pinguinnis impennis (great auk!) which was the only flightless species).
Katika mwaka wa 330 KK, Pythias, mvumbuzi Mgiriki kutoka Marseille, alianza safari ya kwenda kaskazini hadi Visiwa vya Shetland. Mwaka 982 Erik the Red, aliyekuwa mvinzi wa Iceland, alianzisha koloni huko Greenland, na kuifanya kuwa nchi ya wakoloni. Mholanzi Willem Barents aligundua Spitsbergen (ambayo tayari ilijulikana na mabaharia wa Nordic). Hata hivyo, meli yake, iliyokuwa imekamatwa katika barafu, iliharibiwa na wafanyakazi walilazimika kukaa wakati wa majira ya baridi kali katika hali mbaya, kaskazini mwa Novaya Zemlya (76 ° N), mara ya kwanza kwa Wazungu. Ili kutafuta njia ya kaskazini-magharibi, William Baffin na Robert Bylot walienda kaskazini kando ya pwani ya magharibi ya Greenland hadi 77°45'N. Waligundua Sauti za Lancaster, Smith na Jones. Karne mbili tu baadaye, njia ya kaskazini-magharibi inayoelekea Bahari ya Aktiki ilisafirishwa na safari ya kwanza ya baharini. Baadaye iligunduliwa kwamba njia hiyo iliongoza kwenye Bahari ya Pasifiki, kupitia Mlango-Bahari wa Bering. Vitus Bering, mvumbuzi wa Denmark, alitumwa na Tsar Peter Mkuu, na kugundua mwamba kati ya Siberia na Amerika, ambayo sasa ina jina lake, Visiwa vya Aleutian na pwani ya kusini ya Alaska, ambayo alichukua mali katika jina la Tsar. Afisa wa jeshi la wanamaji la Uingereza John Ross pamoja na Edward Parry waliingia Melville Bay na kuwa Wazungu wa kwanza kukutana na "Eskimos" ambao sifa yao maalum ilikuwa "kuhamia kwa kasi kubwa kwenye sleeds zilizovutwa na mbwa". Walitafuta njia ya kaskazini-magharibi bila mafanikio kabla ya kurudi nyuma katika Mlango-Bahari wa Lancaster. Katika safari yake ya pili (1819-1820) Parry alifika kwenye meridian ya 113 W. Baada ya majaribio ya kwanza ya kutaka kufika kwenye Ncha ya Kaskazini mwaka wa 1872, mvumbuzi wa Sweden Adolf Erik Nordenskjold alijitahidi sana kutafuta Njia ya Kaskazini-Mashariki kwa kusafiri kwa meli kwenye pwani ya Siberia. Mnamo Septemba 1878, Nordenskiold alishikwa na barafu na akaamua kukaa huko Kolyushin Bay, kilomita 200 magharibi mwa Bering Strait. Mwishowe, alivunjika kutoka kwenye barafu mnamo Julai 18, 1879 (alipokuwa amezuiwa kwa siku 294) na siku mbili baadaye alifikia mafanikio ya Strait. Meli ya Norway Fridtjof Nansen ilisafiri pamoja na meli ya Fram kuvuka Bahari ya Aktiki. Kwa kufanya hivyo alileta uthibitisho wa kuwepo kwa mkondo wa baharini wa transpolar ambao husababisha kuelea kwa barafu ya bahari. Njia ya Kaskazini Magharibi ilifikiwa kwa njia ya bahari mwaka 1906 na mvumbuzi wa Norway Roald Amundsen, ambaye alisafiri kwa meli ya Gjøa. Katika safari hiyo, mvumbuzi huyo alijifunza mbinu za Inuit ambazo baadaye zilimwezesha kufika kwenye Ncha ya Kusini mwaka wa 1911. "Mmarekani Robert Peary alitangaza kwamba alikuwa amefika kwenye ncha ya kijiografia tarehe 6 Aprili lakini bila kufanya uchunguzi wowote wa longitudo, au kutoa uthibitisho mdogo zaidi.""" "Mwanamume mmoja wa zamani wa Marekani, Frederick Cook, aliandika hivi: ""Nilikuwa nimefika kwenye ncha ya kaskazini ya dunia tarehe 21 Aprili 1908 na kugundua nchi kavu katika Kaskazini ya Mbali." Inaonekana kwamba Peary alikuwa amekaribia sana Ncha ya Kaskazini (maili chache) lakini hakuwa amefika mahali hapo. Ivan Papanin, Mmarekani wa kwanza, na wenzake walisafiri kutoka nchi ya Franz Josef kwa ndege hadi kwenye latitude 89°43′N. Wakaanzisha kituo cha kwanza cha kusafiri kwenye bahari ya Greenland mnamo Mei 21, kabla ya kusafiri kwa miezi tisa hadi walipofika Bahari ya Greenland. Safari za mvumbuzi Mfaransa Paul-Émile Victor kwenda Greenland. Meli ya nyuklia ya Marekani ya Nautilus ilivuka bahari ya Arctic na kupita chini ya Ncha ya Kaskazini mnamo Agosti 3. Mnamo Machi 17, 1961, Skate, nyambizi nyingine ya nyuklia ya Marekani, ilionekana kwenye bahari. Mtafutaji wa plar wa Uingereza Wally Herbert alivuka kutoka Point Barrow (Alaska, Februari 21, 1968) hadi Spitsbergen (Mei 29, 1969) kupitia Pole kwa sled traineau. Robert Peary alipofika kwenye Ncha ya Kaskazini mwaka 1909, alikuwa mtu wa kwanza kutembea kwa miguu. Eneo la kaskazini mwa Dunia, ndani na karibu na Mzunguko wa Aktiki, sambamba na latitudo 66°36′. Hii ni kikomo cha "juu ya usiku wa manane". Jina la Aktiki linatokana na kundi la nyota la Great Bear, lililo kaskazini (arctos = dubu (Kigiriki)). Eneo hili linachukua Bahari ya Aktiki, sehemu kubwa ambayo ni barafu ya kudumu (barafu ya bahari) na kaskazini mwa mabara yanayoizunguka: ikiwa ni pamoja na Peninsula ya Scandinavia, kaskazini mwa Urusi na Siberia, Alaska, Kanada, Greenland na Spitsbergen. Hali ya kijiografia ya Aktiki ni tofauti sana na ile ya Antaktiki. """Ikiwa mipaka ya Bahari ya Aktiki (km 13,000,000 na kina cha zaidi ya mita 4,000) imewekwa kikamilifu, jinsi gani mpaka wa mikoa ya Aktiki kwenye ardhi inaweza kuamuliwa?" Ni mstari wa Arctic Circle, au mpaka wa ardhi ambayo ni daima barafu katika kina, permafrost? Jibu la kawaida ni mstari ambao joto la hewa halizidi 10 ° C wakati wa miezi ya joto (Juli). Isotherm hii, iitwayo mstari wa Köppen, inalingana vizuri sana na badiliko kutoka msitu wa boreal (taiga) hadi tundra. Kwa mujibu wa utafiti huo, eneo la Arctic linaweza kuwa na ukubwa wa kilomita milioni 24 na linaweza kuwa na ukubwa wa kilomita milioni 17 na linaweza kuwa na ukubwa wa kilomita milioni 17 na linaweza kuwa na ukubwa wa kilomita milioni 3 na karibu milioni 4 za visiwa vilivyotawanyika kutoka Aleutian hadi Labrador. Ncha ya Kaskazini ya Magnetiki (NM) ni sehemu ya dunia ambapo mwelekeo wa uwanja wa sumaku unaelekea chini. Katika pole ya kaskazini ya sumaku, magnetism (upande kati ya mwelekeo wa uwanja na usawa) ni 90 ° na magnetic declination (upande kati ya mwelekeo wa uwanja na pole ya kaskazini ya kijiografia) si dhahiri. Kwa njia ileile kuna pole ya kusini ya sumaku ambapo uwanja wa sumaku ni moja kwa moja wima juu. Unapaswa kuwa mwangalifu usichanganyike na nguzo za sumaku (Kaskazini na Kusini) na nguzo za sumaku za dunia. Hizi ni alama za makutano kwenye uso wa dunia ambapo mhimili wa dipole ya sumaku kupitia katikati ya dunia hutoa approximation bora ya kwanza ya uwanja wa sumaku wa dunia. Kwa hiyo, bila shaka, ncha za kaskazini na kusini za sumaku za dunia ni za upande wa pili, tofauti na ncha za sumaku. Tofauti kati ya aina mbili za nguzo inatokana na ukweli kwamba uwanja wa sumaku wa Dunia si hasa dipolar katika kiwango cha dunia nzima. Hii ndiyo sababu, ingawa meridiani zote za sumaku hukutana kwenye Ncha ya Kaskazini ya Sumaku, hazikuja kwa radial: dira huongoza kwenye Ncha ya Kaskazini ya Sumaku bila kamwe kuelekeza katika mwelekeo huo! James Ross alikuwa wa kwanza kuamua mahali sahihi pa Ncha ya Kaskazini ya Magnetiki mnamo 1831. Amundsen alifuata katika 1904. Wakati huo nguzo hiyo ilikuwa katika Peninsula ya Boothia katika Kaskazini ya Kanada. Ncha hiyo husonga kwa sababu ya tofauti za kijiografia za sumaku, ambazo zinachochewa na mwendo wa chuma katika kiini cha Dunia. Kwa sababu hii, safari za uvumbuzi zilifanywa mara kwa mara katika karne ya 20 ili kusasisha nafasi ya pole kwenye ramani za sumaku. Utafiti wa mwisho wa eneo la pole ulifanywa na timu ya Ufaransa na Canada (L.R. Newitt, A. Chouillet na J. Orgeval, mradi wa Poly-Arctic) mnamo Aprili 2007, kwa kutumia vipimo kadhaa vilivyopigwa katika kipenyo cha kilomita 100 karibu na pole. Mzunguko wa mstari wa 83,95 ° N, 121,02 ° W, karibu kilomita 800 kaskazini magharibi mwa kisiwa cha Ellesmere. Uchunguzi huo wa shambani umekuwa mgumu zaidi na zaidi kwa sababu ya kuongezeka kwa umbali na ongezeko la joto duniani. Kwa miaka kadhaa zimekamilishwa na vipimo vya satelaiti. Pole ya Kaskazini ya Magnetiki ilisonga polepole (kwa chini ya kilomita 10 kwa mwaka) kuelekea Siberia kutoka 1834 hadi 1980. Tangu katikati ya miaka ya 1980, kasi ya mtiririko huo imekuwa ikiongezeka kufikia 55 km kwa mwaka (bado kuelekea Siberia). Kiwango hiki cha kasi kinaonekana kuwa kimesimama tangu mwanzo wa miaka ya 2000. Ikiwa hali hiyo itaendelea kwa kasi hiyo, Ncha ya Kaskazini ya Magnetiki itafikia Siberia karibu mwaka 2040. Mwangaza huo wa ghafula bado haujatajwa kikamili. Inaweza kuhusishwa na ongezeko la mtiririko wa uwanja wa sumaku katika eneo la polar Kaskazini mwa kiini cha Dunia. Ongezeko hili linaweza kusababishwa na kuondolewa kwa mistari ya uwanja wa sumaku kutoka kwa kiini, katika utaratibu kama vile michakato inayosababisha madoa ya jua. Topografia na bathymetry mandhari katika Arctic ni tofauti sana. Mwamba wa bahari, pwani zilizochongwa, nyanda za pwani, vilima na milima inayofikia zaidi ya mita 6000 juu ya usawa wa bahari (Mlima McKinley katika mita 6194 katika Hifadhi ya Denali huko Alaska). Kuna mito na maziwa mengi, na pia kuna misitu, na eneo hilo lina misitu mikubwa zaidi ulimwenguni (Taiga ya Urusi). "Jina la asili la Kirusi la tundra linamaanisha ""jamii ya mimea ya circumpolar ambayo inachukua nafasi ya taiga (ambayo inasaidia miti) kuelekea kaskazini.""" Jamii hii hukua kwenye udongo uliohifadhiwa daima, angalau kwa kina, barafu ya kudumu. Kutoka kusini hadi kaskazini, aina ya kwanza inayopatikana ni tundra ya misitu na mashamba yaliyotawanyika na mashamba yaliyo na aina mbalimbali za willow dwarf, mashamba ya wazi na nyasi (tundra ya nyasi), ikifuatiwa na maeneo ambapo mwani na lichens ni wawakilishi pekee wa mimea (baada yao hula na reindeer). Mimea hii yote ina ukuaji wao polepole na hali ya hali ya hewa (kuyeyusha, upepo, nk. Kwa sababu ya mabadiliko ya hali ya hewa, usiku mrefu wa majira ya baridi kali na siku ndefu za majira ya joto, na umaskini wa udongo. Ukosefu wa rutuba wa udongo unatokana na shughuli ya chini ya bakteria: kuna uharibifu mdogo sana wa vitu vya kikaboni ambavyo hujipanga na kusababisha peat. Hata hivyo, kipindi kifupi cha mimea kinatosha kuvutia ndege wengi wanaohama-hama (eider, black geese (Branta), snow goose, nk.) na kuifanya kuwa eneo la maisha ya wanyama na uzazi. Barafu ya Bahari ni barafu inayoelea iliyofanyizwa na maji ya bahari, ambayo pia huitwa barafu ya pakiti. Barafu ya bahari inajumuisha barafu ya mwaka ambayo huundwa mwanzoni mwa majira ya baridi (barafu-jam) na kuyeyuka katika majira ya kuchipua (kuvunjika) pamoja na barafu ya zamani ya polar. Inashughulikiwa na harakati za mawimbi na kuhamishwa na mikondo ya baharini na upepo. Permafrost ni sehemu ya chini ya ardhi ambayo haijafunikwa kwa angalau miaka miwili. Hii ni kwa sababu ya uwiano wa joto wa chini kwa muda mrefu (103 miaka) na mkusanyiko wa lensi za barafu, hasa katika m 10 ya kwanza ya udongo. Upeo wake wa juu huyeyuka kila mwaka: hii ni safu ya kazi ambapo cryoturbation hutokea katika fomu ya duru za mawe. Kwa sasa, barafu ya kudumu inaenea katika urefu wa chini kati ya 57 ° N upande wa mashariki wa bara na 70 ° N upande wa magharibi. Unene wake unatofautiana kutoka mita 20 kusini hadi mita 300 katika maeneo ambayo hayajafunikwa na barafu miaka 10,000 kabla ya miaka ya 2000 na zaidi ya mita 600 katika maeneo ya barafu ya Quaternary. Ukubwa wa barafu ya Verkhovyansk ni zaidi ya 1000 m, na inaweza kuwa ya mviringo (kati ya 80% ya eneo la uso), ya mviringo (kati ya 30 na 80%), na ya mviringo (kati ya Iceland, Lapland, Quebec). Katika kipindi cha joto zaidi cha Holocene, miaka 8000 iliyopita, barafu ya kudumu ilikuwa imepunguzwa kwa eneo lililo ndani ya Mzunguko wa Aktiki. Tangu wakati huo imeendelea tena kuelekea Kusini. Baada ya kupungua kwa mnururisho wa jua wakati wa majira ya joto wakati wa Holocene, kuenea kwa sasa kusini kwa permafrost hufikia karibu theluthi moja ya kiwango kilichokuwa nacho katika kiwango cha juu cha barafu ya mwisho. Waandishi wa Urusi huona barafu ya Arctic kuwa ya kale (miaka milioni 7 hadi 5). Kwa sababu ya joto lake, mti huo ulijulikana kama mti wa mtende wa Pliocene ya Chini (mwaka wa 4.2 milioni BC, wakati kulikuwa na mitende nchini Uholanzi). Katika kipindi cha kati ya barafu ya Quaternary, Eemian (mwaka wa 132-110 000 BC), samaki wa Ureno walifika Denmark. ) Kwa mfano, barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu ya barafu. Barafu ya kudumu ya hivi karibuni haijaa barafu nyingi. Barafu hiyo inapoyuka, ardhi huanguka: na hivyo maziwa ya thermokarst hufanyizwa. Jambo hilo lilitukia mapema katika kipindi cha Holocene na kabla ya Enzi Ndogo ya Barafu. Wakati permafrost inapopungua tena, inaweza kuingiza peat, kuzuia uzalishaji wa kila mwaka wa methane, haswa katika eneo la hali ya hewa ya subarctic ya bara. Katika kina cha chini, karibu mita 200, kiasi kikubwa cha hidrati za gesi (methani) inaweza kujengwa; makusanyo haya hayakufanyizwa katika kina cha chini. Bahari ya Aktiki ina eneo la kilomita milioni 13 na ni bahari ndogo zaidi duniani. Bahari ya Dunia ina kina cha zaidi ya mita 4000 na inaenea katika bahari zote kati ya Ncha ya Kaskazini na sehemu za kaskazini za Ulaya, Asia na Amerika. Mto huo unaunganishwa na Bahari ya Atlantiki ya Kaskazini, na unapata maji mengi kupitia Bahari ya Barents na Mlango-Bahari wa Fram. Pia ina mawasiliano fulani na Bahari ya Pasifiki, kupitia Mlango-Bahari wa Bering, lakini njia hii ni nyembamba zaidi. Mzunguko wa maji katika Bahari ya Aktiki ni mchezaji muhimu katika mzunguko wa bahari ya ulimwengu na udhibiti wa hali ya hewa ya ulimwengu, hasa kwa sababu ya kubadilishana kwa joto ambayo huathiri na anga. Wakati joto, maji yenye chumvi nyingi kutoka Atlantiki (kwa mfano, kupitia Mtiririko wa Ghuba) hufika katika Bahari ya Aktiki baridi, ambapo kupungua kwa joto kunasababisha wiani wao kuongezeka. Hilo huwafanya waingie zaidi ndani ya tabaka za chini zaidi, na kufanyiza maji ya kina kirefu. Utaratibu huo huitwa "mzunguko wa joto" (kutokana na neno la Kigiriki thermos, lenye joto, na halo, lenye chumvi). Inasonga polepole lakini juu ya maeneo makubwa ya uso. Kila majira ya baridi kali, milioni kadhaa za kilomita za maji huendeshwa kuelekea maeneo ya kina kirefu, polepole kusonga maji kusini, kando ya kina kirefu kando ya sakafu ya Bahari ya Atlantiki. Utaratibu wa kuchanganya polepole katika bahari umeonyeshwa na wataalamu wa bahari kwa mkanda wa kusafirisha wa kiwango cha ulimwengu. Mtiririko mwingine mwingi (wa uso, wa kina na wa kina cha kati) huzunguka katika Bahari ya Aktiki katika muundo tata. Hizo zatia ndani mikondo ya Nansen, inayofanya kazi juu ya uso, ambayo husababisha barafu ya baharini kusonga. Bahari ya Aktiki imefunikwa kwa sehemu kubwa na tabaka nene la barafu ya baharini ambayo inatofautiana kulingana na majira. Ni ya kusonga-songa, ikivunjika-vunjika na kubadilishwa-badilishwa daima na upepo na mikondo ya bahari. Katika majira ya kiangazi, wakati bahari inapokuwa imefungia, barafu ya baharini huvunjika na kuwa visiwa vingi vya barafu vinavyoelea au vilivyobubujika. Kwa sababu ya mabadiliko ya majira, barafu ya Boreal hufunika eneo la kilomita milioni 8 hadi 15. Katika eneo lake la kati barafu ya bahari inaweza kufikia unene wa mita 4 ni vigumu kuelezea moja maalum Arctic hali ya hewa. Kwa kweli, eneo la Aktiki lina aina mbalimbali za maeneo ambako hali ya hewa inaweza kuwa tofauti sana kutoka mahali moja hadi pengine. Kuna mambo kadhaa yanayoweza kusababisha mabadiliko ya hali ya hewa, ikiwa ni pamoja na latitudo (kwa upande wa kaskazini zaidi au chini), umbali kutoka pwani (kwa ujumla ni baridi ndani ya nchi), ikiwa kuna mkondo wa bahari au la (kama Mtiririko wa Ghuba ambao unafanya pwani za Scandinavia kuwa moto), urefu, au misaada. Hali ya hewa mbalimbali zaweza kuwepo katika eneo moja, kama vile Alaska. Kwa kuongezea, katika maeneo ya polar, usawa wa mnururisho wa juu wa angahewa ni hasi, ikimaanisha kwamba joto zaidi linapotea kuliko kupatikana. Madhara haya yanahusiana na hasara ya nishati ambayo inaweza kuelezwa na: Nishati ya mnururisho wa jua inapotea kwa kiasi cha juu kufikia nguzo kwa sababu huko inapita angahewa daima kwa pembe ya mteremko; kwa hivyo karibu na nguzo, njia yake ni ndefu zaidi. Kwa hiyo, kiasi cha nishati inayopokelewa na eneo fulani katika maeneo ya ncha za dunia ni kidogo kuliko kile cha eneo hilohilo katika maeneo ya ikweta. Kwa kuongezea, athari hii huongezwa na mviringo wa Dunia na mwinuko wa mhimili. Theluji na barafu pia huchangia. Kwa wastani, angahewa la dunia linarudisha 30% ya nishati ya jua, lakini hii huongezwa na rangi nyeupe ya theluji, ambayo huonyesha 80% ya mwanga unaotokea nyuma kuelekea angani. Mabadiliko hayo huathiri hali ya hewa ya Aktiki. Hali ya hewa ya dunia ina sifa ya kutofautiana kwa misimu yake, mwinuko wa Dunia kwa uhusiano na Jua, iliyoonyeshwa katika sehemu kubwa ya eneo hilo na kuwepo kwa misimu ya urefu tofauti sana: majira ya baridi kali huchukua miezi tisa (kujumuisha miezi sita ya usiku wa polar kwa mikoa ya kaskazini zaidi), majira ya joto ni ya nusu tu, wakati majira ya kuchipua na vuli ni kama vipindi vya mpito. Katika eneo la Resolute huko Kanada (N 74°), kipindi kisicho na baridi kali ni siku tisa tu kwa mwaka kwa wastani! Hali ya hewa ya Arctic inaweza kuwa kali, lakini ingekuwa mbaya zaidi ikiwa haingekuwa na joto linaloletwa na bahari na mawimbi ya anga kutoka maeneo ya joto. Hata hivyo, hali ya hewa ni "nyembamba" kuliko ile ya Antaktika. Watu wa eneo la Arctic (kutia ndani Inuit, Sami na Evens) wameendeleza njia za maisha zilizoendana vizuri na hali ngumu za maisha (hali ya hewa baridi sana, mimea michache, usiku wa polar na kadhalika). Saami ni watu wa asili wa eneo linalofunika kaskazini mwa Sweden, Norway, Finland na sehemu ndogo ya Urusi. Wasami ni mojawapo ya vikundi vikubwa zaidi vya wenyeji wa Ulaya. Wao si kikundi cha kikabila bali ni watu wanaozungumza lugha sawa za Kifinno-Ugric (ambazo kumi zimetambuliwa). "Kama ilivyoelezwa hapo juu, watu wa Sami wanajulikana kama ""Lapp,"" ingawa wanachama wa jamii hiyo wanapendelea jina la Sami au Saami, ambalo kwa hivyo hutumia kujirejelea." Neno Lapp linaonwa kuwa lenye kudharau (karibu na neno la Kijerumani la juu lapp, linalomaanisha mpumbavu). Wao huita nchi za mababu zao Sápmi (Lapland). Ingawa watu hawa wameenea katika eneo kubwa na idadi yao ni ndogo, mavazi yao, vifaa, mbinu, utaratibu wa kijamii na utamaduni wao huonyesha kufanana kwa kushangaza, iwe ni kutoka Siberia, kaskazini mwa Ulaya au Amerika ya Kaskazini. Hata hivyo, watu hawa wanaonyesha tofauti za njia ya maisha kama vile kukaa, uwindaji, ufugaji wa wanyama, aina zinazotumiwa kulingana na eneo lao, mahusiano yao na watu wengine, nk. Inuit (au Eskimos) ni watu wa asili wa Arctic, wanaishi kutoka kaskazini mashariki mwa Siberia hadi Greenland, kupitia Alaska na Canada. Inuit (iliyotumiwa na wataalamu wa jamii katika Mkutano wa Kimataifa wa Washington) ni jamii ya watu wa Arctic waliotawanyika kati ya 56 ° N na 76 ° N, kutoka Siberia ya mashariki hadi pwani ya mashariki ya Greenland, eneo ambalo lina jumla ya kilomita 15,000 za pwani. Kwa lugha, Inuit wamegawanywa katika makundi mawili: Inuit wameunganishwa kisiasa na mataifa manne (Russia, USA, Canada na Greenland). Idadi yao inakaribia 150,000. Watu wengi zaidi (watu zaidi ya 50,000) wanaishi Greenland, pamoja na watu wa kabila la Kalaalit kutoka pwani ya magharibi na Ammassali Mitu kutoka pwani ya mashariki. "Jina ""Eskimo"" linatokana na lugha ya Kree, ambayo ni lugha ya watu wa Amerika ya Kaskazini." Linamaanisha "yule anayekula nyama mbichi". Katika Kanada, Wainuiti hupendelea jina wanalojitumia wenyewe, Wainuiti, linalomaanisha "watu" katika Kiinuktitut. Inuk ya pekee na Inuuk ya pande mbili. Inuit ni jamii ya watu wa asili wa Amerika ambao waliwasili miaka elfu kadhaa kabla yao. Hata hivyo, maswali yaleyale ya kisiasa yanatokea kuhusiana na Wainuiti na Wahindi wa Amerika. "Mwaka 1999 eneo la Nunavut lilijengwa na watu wa Inuit wa Canada, na jina lake lilimaanisha ""Nchi yetu.""" Kwa kuongezea, ili kukidhi madai ya Inuit ya eneo la Nunavik, katika Arctic ya Quebec, serikali ya Quebec ilianzisha Utawala wa Mkoa wa Kativik chini ya Mkataba wa James Bay na Kaskazini mwa Quebec. Katika Kanada, Wainuiti wanawakilishwa na Wainuuki Tapiriit Kanatami. Wasami (au Lapps) kaskazini mwa Skandinavia na magharibi mwa Urusi. Kuna kati ya 60,000 na 100,000, kusambazwa juu ya barafu Nordic sheet kuanzia pwani ya Norway kwa Kola Peninsula (Russia). Zaidi ya nusu yao wanaishi Norway, huku watu 20,000 wakikaa Sweden, 6,000 Finland na karibu 2,000 kaskazini mwa Urusi. Kinyume na imani ya watu wengi, ni asilimia 10 tu ya Wasami wanaofanya kazi ya kufuga nyati na kuhamisha wanyama. Idadi kubwa ya watu wanafanya kazi katika shughuli nyingine: kilimo, uvuvi, viwanda, sekta ya huduma (katika kaskazini, lakini pia katika miji mikubwa ya kusini). Ufugaji wa Reindeer haukuenea sana, kwa kweli iliingia baadaye katika historia ya Wasami kwani hapo awali waliishi kwa kuwinda mnyama huyu. Katika karne ya 17 na 18, punda-milia waliotajwa kuwa mali kuu kwa ajili ya jamii ya Wasami katika milima na misitu, wakati huo huo kama mnyama akawa mfano wa utamaduni wa Wasami. Wanasami wana haki ya kupiga kura nchini Sweden, Norway na Finland (lakini si Urusi), katika Bunge la Sami lililochaguliwa kidemokrasia, mamlaka maalum iliyoteuliwa na mamlaka ya serikali. "Watu wa asili wa idadi ndogo ya Urusi, neno ambalo linajumuisha mosaic ya makundi ya kikabila ambayo ni zaidi au chini ya washirika na kila mmoja (ikiwa ni pamoja na Evenks, Nenets, Chukchis, Aleuts) na ambao idadi ya watu ni ndogo (< 50,000 watu)." "Hii ni jina la pamoja ambalo Warusi wanampa mosaiki ya watu wa asili (wa 43 waliorekodiwa mnamo 2000 na Shirikisho la Urusi) waliosambaa katika Arctic na Subarctic ya Eurasia, haswa huko Siberia.""" Kuna makundi 19 ya kikabila katika eneo la Arctic, na wengi wao ni wahamiaji. Kwa mujibu wa utambulisho rahisi wa lugha, wanaweza kugawanywa katika familia tatu kuu: Uralo-Siberia, Altaic na Denet-Caucasian. Kutoka magharibi hadi mashariki: Sami <unk> Nenets <unk> Mansi <unk> Selkups <unk> Enets <unk> Khanty <unk> Ket <unk> Nganasan <unk> Dolgans <unk> Evenks <unk> Evens <unk> Yukaghir <unk> Chuvants- Chukchi <unk> Kereks <unk> Alyutors <unk> Koryaks <unk> Aleuts <unk> Inuit Familia pana ya Uralo-Siberia, ya kale zaidi ya Siberia, inachukua eneo kubwa kaskazini mwa Urusi. Lugha hiyo imegawanywa katika makabila matano: Lugha ya Ugariki, Lugha ya Samodeki, Lugha ya Yukagiri, Lugha ya Eskamo-Aleutiki na Lugha ya Luoravetian (au Lugha ya Chukotko-Kamchatka). Lugha za Ki-Altai zinawakilishwa katika eneo la Siberia na familia mbili: lugha za Kituruki zinazozungumzwa na Wakut na Wadolgan, na lugha za Tungus zinazozungumzwa na Waeveni na Waeveni. Watu wa Tungus waliingia Siberia mapema katika karne ya kwanza KK. Wahamiaji hao walifika katika eneo la Aktiki karibu mwaka wa 1000, wakati huohuo Wakyukuts walipoanza kusonga kuelekea kusini. Wakazi wa Yakutia (Sakhas) ni wachache sana katika nchi ya Urusi, na idadi ya watu ni 382,000. Familia pana ya Dené-Caucasian, ambayo familia pekee ya Aktiki inajulikana kama Yeniseian, inawakilishwa na kikundi cha kikabila cha Ket. Uchunguzi wa hivi karibuni unaweka hii ndani ya familia pana inayounganisha lugha za Basque, Caucasian, Yeniseian na Sino-Tibetan. Asili yao bado ni jambo linalobishaniwa. "Kutoka kwa ""Mutaz"" na ""Mutaz"" katika ""Mutaz"" na ""Mutaz"" katika ""Mutaz"" na ""Mutaz"" katika ""Mutaz"" na ""Mutaz"" katika ""Mutaz"" na ""Mutaz"" katika ""Mutaz"" na ""Mutaz"" katika ""Mutaz"" na ""Mutaz"" katika ""Mutaz"" na ""Mutaz"" katika ""Mtaz"" na ""Mtaz"" katika ""Mtaz.""" Watu 327 tu waliorekodiwa katika sensa ya 2002. Kikundi hicho kidogo cha kikabila kinaonyesha dalili zote za jamii iliyo karibu kutoweka. Watu wa kabila la Nenets (walioitwa Youraks) wanaishi magharibi mwa Siberia na kaskazini-mashariki mwa Ulaya. Idadi yao hufunika eneo kubwa (1 milioni km2), kutoka Kola hadi Peninsula za Taymyr. Watu hao ndio wenyeji wachache zaidi katika eneo la Kaskazini, na idadi yao ilikuwa 41,454 mwaka 2002. Shughuli zao za kitamaduni huanzia kulea punda-milia katika tundra, hadi kuwinda na kuvua samaki katika taiga. Aleuti wa Siberia wamekaa katika Visiwa vya Commander (Visiwa vya Bering na Copper). Idadi ya watu wa Aleut nchini Urusi ilikuwa 592 katika sensa ya mwisho ya mwaka 2002, ikionyesha kupungua kutoka kwa takwimu ya mwaka 1989 (644). Watu 200 hivi kutoka Aleuti wameondoka visiwani mwao na kuishi Kamchatka. Shughuli za jadi ni uwindaji wa mamalia wa baharini, uvuvi na kuvuna samaki wa baharini. Watu wa Chukchi wanaishi katika Wilaya ya Chukotka, Kamchatka na Yakutia. Mwaka 2002 idadi ya watu ilikuwa 15,827 na mwaka huu ni asilimia moja. Wao ni karibu na Koryaks, na kama wao wamegawanywa kati ya wakazi wa nchi ya nomadic na makundi yao ya reindeer na jamii za uwindaji wa baharini na uvuvi zilizokaliwa kwenye pwani. Wenyeji wa Evenki (walioitwa Tungus) wanaishi katika eneo kubwa zaidi kuliko lile la Nenets: eneo lao linaanzia Arctic hadi Manchuria, Mto Amur na Mongolia, karibu kilomita milioni 2.5 za mraba. Idadi ya watu waliorekodiwa katika mwaka wa 2002 ilikuwa 36,377. Jamii katika maeneo ya kaskazini ni wafugaji wa reindeer na wavuvi. Pamoja na makundi haya, ambayo idadi ya watu ni chini ya 50,000, inaweza kutajwa Yakuts (au Sakhas) kama watu wa Siberia Arctic. Wakukuu (Sakhas) ni watu wa Urusi ambao hawawezi kuorodheshwa miongoni mwa watu wachache wa Kaskazini kwa sababu ya idadi yao kubwa (> 300,000) na wengi wao wanaishi katika maeneo ya Arctic ya Siberia. Wakut (wanaojita Saxa) ni watu wa Siberia ambao hufanyiza tawi la kaskazini-mashariki la watu wa Kituruki. Katika karne ya 14, walilazimika kuondoka katika Bonde la Lena, karibu na pwani ya Ziwa Baikal. Sasa wanachukua karibu maeneo yote ya mabonde ya mto Khatanga, Olekma, Lena, Yana na Indigirka, wakivamia maeneo ya majirani zao kama vile Tungus, Chukchi na Samoyeds. Tangu karne ya 18, makoloni ya Urusi hatua kwa hatua walihamia katika mikoa hii na kwa sasa wazao wao huunda nusu ya idadi ya watu wa Jamhuri ya Sakha (ya zamani Yakutia). Wakazi wa Yakut hufanyiza thuluthi moja ya idadi ya watu na ni kabila la pili kwa ukubwa. Jamhuri ya Sakha inashughulikia sehemu moja ya tano ya Shirikisho la Urusi. Inajumuisha moja ya "Poles ya baridi" ya Dunia: Verkhoyansk. Katika karne ya 20 joto la joto la -71 ° C lilirekodiwa katika eneo la makazi. Wakyakuti ni wawindaji wa nyati, wafugaji wa farasi na ng'ombe, na nyakati nyingine wafanyabiashara. Idadi yao ni zaidi ya watu 300,000, na hivyo ni mojawapo ya makabila mengi zaidi ya Siberia. Kuanguka kwa utawala wa kikomunisti kulitokeza mchakato mkubwa wa uamsho wa kitamaduni. UNESCO iliorodhesha kitabu cha kihistoria cha Wakukutu katika orodha ya Urithi wa Utamaduni wa Kimwili wa Binadamu. Lugha yao huzungumzwa kutoka Irkutsk hadi Bahari ya Okhotsk na kutoka mpaka wa China hadi Bahari ya Aktiki, katika eneo kubwa lililofunikwa na milima na taiga. Mipango ya kisiasa na madai ya kanda Kuongezeka kwa mawasiliano yaliyofanywa na wasafiri wa Magharibi na Urusi na idadi ya watu wa Arctic hatimaye kulisababisha msukosuko katika shirika lao. Iwe ilitokea hatua kwa hatua au ghafula, ukimya ulikuja mkono kwa mkono na magharibi au russification ya njia za maisha. Hata hivyo, mwishoni mwa karne ya 20 iliona madai ya kuibuka kutoka kwa jamii nyingi zaidi na zilizoandaliwa vizuri za Arctic kudai haki zao za kudhibiti juu ya kuendesha eneo lao. Mwaka 1999 Nunavut ilijengwa na serikali ya Canada. Ni eneo jipya lililobuniwa kuwa makao ya sehemu kubwa ya Wainuiti wa Kanada. Kwa kweli jina lake linamaanisha "nchi yetu". Kwa mujibu wa makubaliano ya 1975 kati ya serikali ya Quebec na serikali ya Kativik, serikali ya eneo la Kativik ilitakiwa kuondoa eneo la Nunavik, ambalo ni sehemu ya eneo la Kaskazini mwa Quebec. Katika Sweden, Norway na Finland (lakini si katika Urusi) Sami wana haki ya kupiga kura katika Bunge la Sami, mamlaka maalum iliyochaguliwa. Ni bunge lililochaguliwa kidemokrasia lenye jukumu la serikali. "Kama ""Watu wa asili wa Kaskazini"" wa Urusi, watu wa Kaskazini mwa Urusi walipatwa na ""sovietization"" ya Siberia katika USSR ya zamani: uchimbaji wa rasilimali za asili na uharibifu wa uadilifu wa ardhi yao na ufungaji wa gulags." Shirika la Urusi la Watu wa Asili wa Kaskazini (RAIPON) limekuwa likifanya kazi ya kuunganisha watu wa asili 30 wa makabila madogo ya asili na lengo la kutoa sauti moja mbele ya Serikali ya Shirikisho la Urusi huko Moscow. Eneo la kijiografia na hali ya hewa hutokeza mifumo ya ikolojia yenye kutokeza, inayoweza kutofautiana hata kidogo. Licha ya hali mbaya, maeneo ya Aktiki ni mbali na kuwa kama jangwa au ukiwa na makazi ya utofauti mkubwa wa mimea na wanyama wa porini. Mimea inawakilishwa hasa na mimea inayofanyiza tundra ambayo inashughulikia permafrost. Kwa sababu ya hali hiyo, mizizi ya miti haingeweza kuingia ndani ya ardhi ili kupata vitu vinavyohitajika ili ikue. Hilo laeleza kutokuwepo kwa miti kutoka maeneo hayo. Mstari wa mpaka hapa kati ya mikoa yenye miti na wale wasio na miti ni mstari wa miti. Mara nyingi wataalamu wa mazingira hutumia eneo hilo kama mpaka kati ya maeneo ya Aktiki na Subarktiki. Kwa mfano, kwa sababu ya mtiririko wa bahari kutoka kaskazini hadi kusini, bahari ya Aktiki ina maji mengi sana ya viumbe wadogo (plankton na krill), chakula cha msingi cha wanyama wasio na uti wa mgongo. Idadi kubwa ya hizi hukusanyika karibu na polynya (eneo la bahari isiyohifadhiwa ndani ya pakiti ya barafu ya bahari), njia, pwani zisizo na barafu na kingo za barafu ya bahari. Wanyama hao, iwe ni wa nchi kavu au wa baharini, wamebadilika-badilika sana katika ulimwengu wa Aktiki. Wao ni maarufu kwa kuwa na nywele za ndani, tabaka nene la mafuta, au kuongezeka kwa ukubwa, ambayo huwapa insulation dhidi ya baridi. Nyati mchanga amelala kwenye theluji. Wanyama hao ni aina sita za nyangumi, aina mbili za simba wa baharini na walrus, aina 11 za nyangumi wenye meno (Odontoceti) kama vile beluga na narwhal, na aina nane za nyangumi wenye manyoya (Mysticeti) kama vile nyangumi mwenye manyoya na nyangumi wa bluu ambao hula krill nyingi katika maji ya Aktiki. Mnyama anayeishi kwenye nchi kavu ni dubu wa barafu, reindeer (au caribou), ng'ombe-mwitu, mbweha wa Aktiki, wolverine, lemming, na kadhalika. Nyati wa barafu (Polar fox) ni ndege wa aina ya kipekee wa barafu, ambaye huishi katika maeneo ya Arctic, lakini ni wachache sana wanaoishi huko (Gyrfalcon, Snowy Owl, Ptarmigan, Common Raven, Ivory Gull, na wengineo). Hakuna pengwini katika Aktiki! Alca torta (alca torta) ni aina ya ndege anayeishi katika eneo la Atlantiki Kaskazini, na anaweza kuruka. ambayo ilikuwa aina pekee isiyoweza kuruka).