READING PASSAGE 1
Tea and Industrial Revolution
A. Alan Macfarlane thinks he could rewrite history. The professor of anthropological science at King’s College, Cambridge has, like other historians, spent decades trying to understand the enigma of the Industrial Revolution. Why did this particular important event – the world-changing birth of industry – happen in Britain? And why did it happen at the end of the 18th century?
B. Macfarlane compares the question to a puzzle. He claims that there were about 20 different factors and all of them needed to be present before the revolution could happen. The chief conditions are to be found in history textbooks. For industry to ‘take off’, there needed to be the technology and power to drive factories, large urban populations to provide cheap labour easy transport to move goods around, an affluent middle-class willing to buy mass-produced objects, a market-driven economy, and a political system that allowed this to happen. While this was the case for England, other nations, such as Japan, Holland and France also met some of these criteria. All these factors must have been necessary but not sufficient to cause the revolution. Holland had everything except coal, while China also had many of these factors.
C. Most historians, however, are convinced that one or two missing factors are needed to solve the puzzle. The missing factors, he proposes, are to be found in every kitchen cupboard. Tea and beer, two of the nation’s favorite drinks, drove the revolution. Tannin, the active ingredient in tea, and hops, used in making beer, both contain antiseptic properties. This -plus the fact that both are made with boiled water- helped prevent epidemics of waterborne diseases, such as dysentery, in densely populated urban areas. The theory initially sounds eccentric but his explanation of the detective work that went into his deduction and the fact his case has been strengthened by a favorable appraisal of his research by Roy Porter (distinguished medical historian) the skepticism gives way to wary admiration.
D. Historians had noticed one interesting factor around the mid-18th century that required explanation. Between about 165D and 1740, the population was static. But then there was a burst in population. The infant mortality rate halved in the space of 20 years, and this happened in both rural areas and cities, and across all classes. Four possible causes have been suggested. There could have been a sudden change in the viruses and bacteria present at that time, but this is unlikely. Was there a revolution in medical science? But this was a century before Lister introduced antiseptic surgery. Was there a change in environmental conditions? There were improvements in agriculture that wiped out malaria, but these were small gains. Sanitation did not become widespread until the 19th century. The only option left was food. But the height and weight statistics show a decline. So the food got worse. Efforts to explain this sudden reduction in child deaths appeared to draw a blank.
E. This population burst seemed to happen at just the right time to provide labor for the Industrial Revolution. But why? When the Industrial Revolution started, it was economically efficient to have people crowded together forming towns and cities. But with crowded living conditions comes disease, particularly from human waste. Some research in the historical records revealed that there was a change in the incidence of waterborne disease at that time, the English were protected by the strong antibacterial agent in hops, which were added to make beer last. But in the late 17th century a tax was introduced on malt. The poor turned to water and gin, and in the 1720s the mortality rate began to rise again.
F. Macfarlane looked to Japan, which was also developing large cities about the same time, and also had no sanitation. Waterborne diseases in the Japanese population were far fewer than those in Britain. Could it be the prevalence of tea in their culture? That was when Macfarlane thought about the role of tea in Britain. The history of tea in Britain provided an extraordinary coincidence of dates. Tea was relatively expensive until Britain started direct hade with China in the early 18th century. By the 1740s, about the time that infant mortality was falling, the drink was common. Macfarlane guesses that the fact that water had to be boiled, together with the stomach-purifying properties of tea so eloquently described in Buddhist texts, meant that the breast milk provided by mothers was healthier than it had ever been. No other European nation drank tea so often as the British, which, by Macfarlane’s logic, pushed the other nations out of the race for the Industrial Revolution.
G. But, if tea is a factor in the puzzle, why didn’t this cause an industrial revolution in Japan? Macfarlane notes that in the 17th century, Japan had large cities, high literacy rates and even a futures market. However, Japan decided against a work-based revolution, by giving up labor-saving devices even animals, to avoid putting people out of work. Astonishingly, the nation that we now think of as one of the most technologically advanced, entered the 19th century having almost abandoned the wheel. While Britain was undergoing the Industrial Revolution, Macfarlane notes wryly, Japan was undergoing an industrious one.
Reading passage 1 has seven paragraphs, A-G
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A -G from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-x, in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet
List of headings
i. Cases of Japan, Holland and France
ii. City development in Japan
iii. Tea drinking in Japan and Britain
iv. Failed to find a plausible cause for mystery about lower mortality rate
V. Preconditions necessary for industrial revolution
vi. Time and place of industrialization
vii. Conclusion drawn from the comparison with Japan
viii. Relation between population and changes of drink in Britain
ix. Two possible solutions to the puzzle
1 Paragraph A
2 Paragraph B
3 Paragraph c
4 Paragraph D
5 Paragraph E
6 Paragraph F
7 Paragraph G
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1? In boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement is true
FALSE if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage
8 The industrialization did not happen in China because of its inefficient railway transportation.
9 Tea and beer contributed to protect people from waterborne disease.
10 Roy Porter disagreed with the proposed theory about the missing factors
11 The reason of lower child deaths is fully explained by food.
12 The British made beer by themselves.
13 Tax on malt indirectly affected the increase of population in late 17th century
READING PASSAGE 2
“The Paleobiology Database”
A. Are we now living through the sixth extinction as our own activities destroy ecosystems and wipe out diversity? That’s the doomsday scenario painted by many ecologists, and they may well be right. The trouble is we don’t know for sure because we don’t have a clear picture of how life changes between extinction events or what has happened in previous episodes. We don’t even know how many species are alive today, let alone the rate at which they are becoming extinct. A new project aims to fill some of the gaps. The Paleobiology Database aspires to be an online repository of information about every fossil ever dug up. It is a huge undertaking that has been described as biodiversity’s equivalent of the Human Genome Project. Its organizers hope that by recording the history of biodiversity they will gain an insight into how environmental changes have shaped life on Earth in the past and how they might do so in the future. The database may even indicate whether life can rebound no matter what we throw at it, or whether a human induced extinction could be without parallel, changing the rules that have applied throughout the rest of the planet’s history.
B. But already the project is attracting harsh criticism. Some experts believe it to be seriously flawed. They point out that a database is only as good as the data fed into it, and that even if all the current fossil finds were catalogued, they would provide an incomplete inventory of life because we are far from discovering every fossilised species. They say that researchers should get up from their computers and get back into the dirt to dig up new fossils. Others are more sceptical still, arguing that we can never get the full picture because the fossil record is riddled with holes and biases.
C. Fans of the Paleobiology Database acknowledge that the fossil record will always be incomplete. But they see value in looking for global patterns that show relative changes in biodiversity. “The fossil record is the best tool we have for understanding how diversity and extinction work in normal times,” says John Alroy from the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis in Santa Barbara. “Having a background extinction estimate gives US a benchmark for understanding the mass extinction that’s currently under way. It allows us to say just how bad it is in relative terms.”
D. To this end, the Paleobiology Database aims to be the most thorough attempt yet to come up with good global diversity curves. Every day between 10 and 15 scientists around the world add information about fossil finds to the database. Since it got up and running in 1998, scientists have entered almost 340,000 specimens, ranging from plants to whales to insects to dinosaurs to sea urchins. Overall totals are updated hourly at www.paleodb.org. Anyone can download data from the public part of the site and play with the numbers to their heart’s content. Already, the database has thrown up some surprising results. Looking at the big picture, Alroy and his colleagues believe they have found evidence that biodiversity reached a plateau long ago, contrary to the received wisdom that species numbers have increased continuously between extinction events. “The traditional view is that diversity has gone up and up and up,” he says. “Our research is showing that diversity limits were approached many tens of millions of years before the dinosaurs evolved, much less suffered extinction.” This suggests that only a certain number of species can live on Earth at a time, filling a prescribed number of niches like spaces in a multi-storey car park. Once it’s full, no more new species can squeeze in, until extinctions free up new spaces or something rare and catastrophic adds a new floor to the car park.
E. Alroy has also used the database to reassess the accuracy of species names. His findings suggest that irregularities in classification inflate the overall number of species in the fossil record by between 32 and 44 per cent. Single species often end up with several names, he says, due to misidentification or poor communication between taxonomists in different countries. Repetition like this can distort diversity curves. “If you have really bad taxonomy in one short interval, it will look like a diversity spike—a big diversification followed by a big extinction-when all that has happened is a change in the quality of names,” says Alroy. For example, his statistical analysis indicates that of the 4861 North American fossil mammal species catalogued in the database, between 24 and 31 per cent will eventually prove to be duplicates.
F. Of course, the fossil record is undeniably patchy. Some places and times have left behind more fossil-filled rocks than others. Some have been sampled more thoroughly. And certain kinds of creatures—those with hard parts that lived in oceans, for example–are more likely to leave a record behind, while others, like jellyfish, will always remain a mystery. Alroy has also tried to account for this. He estimates, for example, that only 41 per cent of North American mammals that have ever lived are known from fossils, and he suspects that a similar proportion of fossils are missing from other groups, such as fungi and insects.
G. Not everyone is impressed with such mathematical wizardry. Jonathan Adrain from the University of Iowa in Iowa City points out that statistical wrangling has been known to create mass extinctions where none occurred. It is easy to misinterpret data. For example, changes in sea level or inconsistent sampling methods can mimic major changes in biodiversity. Indeed, a recent and thorough examination of the literature on marine bivalve fossils has convinced David Jablonsky from the University of Chicago and his colleagues that their diversity has increased steadily over the past 5 million years.
H. With an inventory of all living species, ecologists could start to put the current biodiversity crisis in historical perspective. Although creating such a list would be a task to rival even the Palaeobiology Database, it is exactly what the San Francisco-based ALL Species Foundation hopes to achieve in the next 25 years. The effort is essential, says Harvard biologist Edward o. Wilson, who is alarmed by current rates of extinction. “There is a crisis. We’ve begun to measure it, and it’s very high,” Wilson says. “We need this kind of information in much more detail to protect all of biodiversity, not just the ones we know well.” Let the counting continue.
The reading passage has seven paragraphs, A-F
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A-Ffrom the lừt below. Write the correct number, i-xi, in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i. Potential error exists in the database
ii. Supporter of database recleared its value
iii. The purpose of this paleobiology data
iv. Reason why some certain species were not included in it
v. Duplication of breed but with different names
vi. Achievement of Paleobiology Databasesince
vii. Criticism on the project which is waste of fund
14 Paragraph A
15 Paragraph B
16 Paragraph c
17 Paragraph D
18 Paragraph E
19 Paragraph F
Use the information in the passage to match the people (listed A-C) with opinions or deeds below. Write the appropriate letters A-C in boxes 20-22 on your answer sheet.
A. Jonathan Adrain
B. John Alroy
C. David Jablonsky
D. Edward o. Wilson
20 Creating the Database would help scientist to identify connections of all species.
21 Believed in contribution of detailed statistics should cover beyond the known species.
22 reached a contradictory finding to the tremendous species die-out.
Choose the TWO correct letter following
Write your answers in boxes 23-24 on your answer sheet.
Please choose TWO CORRECT descriptions about the The Paleobiology Database in this passage:
A. almost all the experts welcome this project
B. intrigues both positive and negative opinions from various experts
C. all different creature in the database have unique name
D. aims to embrace all fossil information globally
E. get more information from record rather than the field
Choose the correct letter, A, B, c or D.
Write your answers in boxes 25-26 on your answer sheet.
25 According to the passage, jellyfish belongs to which category of The Paleobiology Database?
A. repetition breed
B. untraceable species
C. specifically detailed species
D. currently living creature
26 What is the author’s suggestion according to the end of passage?
A. continue to complete counting the number of species in the Paleobiology Database
B. stop contributing The Paleobiology Database
C. try to create a database of living creature
D. study more in the field rather than in the book
READING PASSAGE 3
Communication in science
A. Science plays an increasingly significant role in people’s lives, making the faithful communication of scientific developments more important than ever. Yet such communication is fraught with challenges that can easily distort discussions, leading to unnecessary confusion and misunderstandings.
B. Some problems stem from the esoteric nature of current research and the associated difficulty of finding sufficiently faithful terminology Abstraction and complexity are not signs that a given scientific direction is wrong, as some commentators have suggested, but are instead a tribute to the success of human ingenuity in meeting the increasingly complex challenges that nature presents. They can, however, make communication more difficult. But many of the biggest challenges for science reporting arise because in areas of evolving research, scientists themselves often only partly understand the full implications of any particular advance or development. Since that dynamic applies to most of the scientific developments that directly affect people’s lives global warming, cancer research, diet studies — learning how to overcome it is critical to spurring a more informed scientific debate among the broader public.
C. Ambiguous word choices are the source of some misunderstandings. Scientists often employ colloquial terminology, which they then assign a specific meaning that is impossible to fathom without proper training. The term “relativity,” for example, is intrinsically misleading. Many interpret the theory to mean that everything is relative and there are no absolutes. Yet although the measurements any observer makes depend on his coordinates and reference frame, the physical phenomena he measures have an invariant description that transcends that observer’s particular coordinates. Einstein’s theory of relativity is really about finding an invariant description of physical phenomena. True, Einstein agreed with the idea that his theory would have been better named “Invarianten theorie.” But the term “relativity” was already entrenched at the time for him to change.
D. “The uncertainty principle” is another frequently abused term. It is sometimes interpreted as a limitation on observers and their ability to make measurements.
E. But it is not about intrinsic limitations on any one particular measurement; it is about the inability to precisely measure particular pairs of quantities simultaneously? The first interpretation is perhaps more engaging from a philosophical or political perspective. It’s just not what the science is about.
F. Even the word “theory” can be a problem. Unlike most people, who use the word to describe a passing conjecture that they often regard as suspect, physicists have very specific ideas in mind when they talk about theories. For physicists, theories entail a definite physical framework embodied in a set of fundamental assumptions about the world that lead to a specific set of equations and predictions — ones that are borne out by successful predictions. Theories aren’t necessarily shown to be correct or complete immediately. Even Einstein took the better part of a decade to develop the correct version of his theory of general relativity. But eventually both the ideas and the measurements settle down and theories are either proven correct, abandoned or absorbed into other, more encompassing theories.
G. “Global warming” is another example of problematic terminology. Climatologists predict more drastic fluctuations in temperature and rainfall —not necessarily that every place will be warmer. The name sometimes subverts the debate, since it lets people argue that their winter was worse, so how could there be global warming? Clearly “global climate change” would have been a better name. But not all problems stem solely from poor word choices. Some stem from the intrinsically complex nature of much of modem science. Science sometimes transcends this limitation: remarkably, chemists were able to detail the precise chemical processes involved in the destruction of the ozone layer, making the evidence that chlorofluorocarbon gases (Freon, for example) were destroying the ozone layer indisputable.
H. A better understanding of the mathematical significance of results and less insistence on a simple story would help to clarify many scientific discussions. For several months, Harvard was tortured months. Harvard was tortured by empty debates over the relative intrinsic scientific abilities of men and women. One of the more amusing aspects of the discussion was that those who believed in the differences and those who didn’t used the same evidence about gender-specific special ability. How could that be? The answer is that the data shows no substantial effects. Social factors might account for these tiny differences, which in any case have an unclear connection to scientific ability. Not much of a headline when phrased that way, is it? Each type of science has its own source of complexity and potential for miscommunication. Yet there are steps we can take to improve public understanding in all cases. The first would be to inculcate greater understanding and acceptance of indirect scientific evidence. The information from an unmanned space mission is no less legitimate than the information from one in which people are on board.
I. This doesn’t mean never questioning an interpretation, but it also doesn’t mean equating indirect evidence with blind belief, as people sometimes suggest. Second, we might need different standards for evaluating science with urgent policy implications than research with purely theoretical value. When scientists say they are not certain about their predictions, it doesn’t necessarily mean they’ve found nothing substantial. It would be better if scientists weremore open about the mathematical significance of their results and if the public didn’t treat math as quite so scary; statistics and errors, which tell us the uncertainty in a measurement, give us the tools to evaluate new developments fairly.
J. But most important, people have to recognize that science can be complex. If we accept only simple stories, the description will necessarily be distorted. When advances are subtle or complicated, scientists should be willing to go the extra distance to give proper explanations and patient about the truth. Even so, some difficulties are unavoidable. Most developments reflect work in progress, so the story is complex because no one yet knows the big picture.
Choose the correct letter, A, B, c or D.
Write your answers in boxes 27-31 on your answer sheet.
27 Why the faithful science communication Important?
A. Science plays an increasingly significant role in people’s lives.
B. Science is fraught with challenges public are interested in.
C. The nature of complexity in science communication leads to confusion.
D. Scientific inventions are more important than ever before.
28 What is the reason that the author believe for the biggest challenges for science reporting
A phenomenon such as global warming, cancer research, diet studies are too complex
B Scientists themselves often only partly understand the Theory of Evolution
C Scientists do not totally comprehend the meaning of certain scientific evolution
D Scientists themselves often partly understand the esoteric communication nature
29 According to the 3rd paragraph, the reference to the term and example of “theory of relativity” is to demonstrate
A theory of relativity is about an invariant physical phenomenon
B common people may be misled by the inaccurate choice of scientific phrase
C the term “relativity,” is designed to be misleading public
D everything is relative and there is no absolutes existence
30 Which one Is a good example of appropriate word choice:
A Scientific theory for uncertainty principle
B phenomenon of Global warming
C the importance of ozone layer
D Freon’s destructive process on environmental
31 What Is surprising finding of the Harvard debates In the passage?
A There are equal intrinsic scientific abilities of men and women.
B The proof applied by both sides seemed to be of no big difference,
C The scientific data usually shows no substantial figures to support a debated idea.
D Social factors might have a clear connection to scientific ability.
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement is true
FALSE if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage
32 “Global warming” scientifically refers to greater fluctuations in temperature and rainfall rather than a universal temperature rise.
33 More media coverage of “global warming” would help public to recognize the phenomenon.
34 Harvard debates should focus more on female scientist and male scientists
35 Public understanding and acceptance of indirect scientific evidence in all cases would lead to confusion
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using no more than two words from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 36-40 on your answer sheet.
Science Communication is fraught with challenges that can easily distort discussions, leading to unnecessary confusion and misunderstandings. Firstly, Ambiguous 36………….are the source of some misunderstandings. Common people without proper training do not understand clearly or deeply a specific scientific meaning via the 37…………scientists often employed. Besides, the measurements any 38………….makes can not be confined to describe in a(n) constant 39………….yet the phenomenon can be. What’s more, even the word “theory” can be a problem. Theories aren’t necessarily shown to be correct or complete immediately since scientists often evolved better versions of specific theories, a good example can be the theory of 40 ………… Thus, most importantly people have to recognize that science can be complex.
"Mwanzoni mwa karne ya kumi, ""Tea and Industrial Revolution"" (Tea na Mapinduzi ya Viwanda) ya Alan Macfarlane ilisababisha watu wengi kuamini kwamba toleo la kwanza la ""Tea and Industrial Revolution"" lingetokea." Profesa huyo wa sayansi ya binadamu katika Chuo Kikuu cha King's, Cambridge, kama wanahistoria wengine, amekuwa akijaribu kwa miongo kadhaa kuelewa fumbo la Mapinduzi ya Viwanda. Kwa nini tukio hilo muhimu hasa - kuzaliwa kwa viwanda kulibadili ulimwengu - lilitukia Uingereza? Kwa nini hii ilitokea mwishoni mwa karne ya 18? B. Macfarlane analinganisha swali hilo na fumbo. "Amesema kuwa kuna ""sababishi 20 tofauti"" na kwamba wote wanapaswa kuwapo kabla ya mapinduzi kutokea." Hali kuu zinapatikana katika vitabu vya historia. Ili viwanda viweze kufanikiwa, ilibidi kuwe na teknolojia na nguvu za kuendesha viwanda, idadi kubwa ya watu wa mijini ili kutoa kazi ya bei nafuu, usafiri rahisi wa kusafirisha bidhaa, tabaka la kati lenye utajiri la kununua vitu vilivyotengenezwa kwa wingi, uchumi unaoendeshwa na soko, na mfumo wa kisiasa ambao uliruhusu hili kutokea. Ingawa hii ilikuwa kesi kwa Uingereza, mataifa mengine, kama vile Japan, Uholanzi na Ufaransa pia alikutana baadhi ya vigezo hivi. Lazima mambo hayo yote yalikuwa ya lazima lakini hayakutosha kusababisha mapinduzi. Uholanzi ilikuwa na kila kitu isipokuwa makaa ya mawe, wakati China pia ilikuwa na mambo mengi ya haya. Hata hivyo, wanahistoria wengi wanaamini kwamba jambo moja au mbili linalokosekana linahitajika ili kutatua fumbo hilo. Anadokeza kwamba mambo yanayokosekana yanapatikana katika kila kabati la jikoni. Chai na bia, vinywaji viwili vilivyopendwa na taifa hilo, vilichochea mapinduzi hayo. Tannin, kiungo chenye nguvu katika chai, na hops, inayotumiwa kutengeneza bia, zote mbili zina uwezo wa kuua vimelea. Jambo hilo - pamoja na ukweli kwamba zote mbili hutengenezwa kwa maji yaliyokaushwa - lilisaidia kuzuia magonjwa yanayopitishwa na maji, kama vile ugonjwa wa kuhara, katika maeneo ya mijini yenye watu wengi. Nadharia hiyo inaonekana kuwa ya ajabu, lakini maelezo yake ya kazi ya upelelezi ambayo ilihusika katika kuondoa kwake na ukweli kwamba kesi yake imeimarishwa na tathmini nzuri ya utafiti wake na Roy Porter (mhistoria mashuhuri wa matibabu) kutilia shaka kunatoa njia ya kuvutiwa. Kwa mujibu wa wataalamu wa historia, katika karne ya 18 kulikuwa na tukio moja ambalo lilihitaji kuelezwa. Kati ya mwaka 165 na 1740, idadi ya watu ilikuwa imara. Lakini baadaye idadi ya watu iliongezeka sana. Kiwango cha vifo vya watoto wachanga kilipungua kwa nusu katika kipindi cha miaka 20 na hii ilitokea katika maeneo ya vijijini na mijini, na katika madarasa yote. Sababu nne zinazoweza kusababishwa zimedokezwa. Inawezekana kwamba kuna mabadiliko ya ghafula katika virusi na bakteria zilizokuwapo wakati huo, lakini hilo haliwezekani. Je, kulikuwa na mapinduzi katika sayansi ya kitiba? Lakini hilo lilikuwa karne moja kabla ya Lister kuanzisha upasuaji wa kuua viini. Je, kulikuwa na badiliko katika hali za mazingira? Kulikuwa na maendeleo katika kilimo ambayo yaliondoa malaria, lakini hayo yalikuwa mafanikio madogo. Usalama wa mazingira haukuenea sana hadi karne ya 19. Njia pekee iliyobaki ilikuwa chakula. Lakini takwimu za urefu na uzito zinaonyesha kupungua. Kwa hiyo chakula kilizidi kuwa kibaya. Jitihada za kueleza kupungua ghafula kwa vifo vya watoto zilionekana kuwa hazikufanikiwa. E. Mvuto huu wa idadi ya watu ulionekana kutokea wakati unaofaa kabisa kutoa kazi kwa ajili ya Mapinduzi ya Viwanda. Lakini kwa nini? Wakati Mapinduzi ya Viwanda yalipoanza, ilikuwa rahisi kiuchumi kuwa na watu wengi pamoja wakifanyiza miji na vijiji. Lakini hali ya kuishi yenye msongamano wa watu huleta magonjwa, hasa kutokana na taka za kibinadamu. Utafiti wa rekodi za kihistoria ulifunua kuwa kulikuwa na mabadiliko katika maambukizi ya ugonjwa wa maji wakati huo, Waingereza walihifadhiwa na wakala wa nguvu wa kupambana na bakteria katika hops, ambayo iliongezwa ili kufanya bia iendelee. Katika karne ya 17 na 19 kulikuja ushuru wa malt. Watu maskini walianza kutumia maji na pombe, na katika miaka ya 1720, idadi ya watu waliokufa ilianza kuongezeka tena. F. Macfarlane alitazama Japani, ambayo pia ilikuwa ikiendeleza miji mikubwa karibu wakati huohuo, na pia haikuwa na usafi wa mazingira. Magonjwa yanayopitishwa na maji katika idadi ya watu wa Japani yalikuwa machache sana kuliko yale ya Uingereza. Je, huenda ikawa ni kwa sababu ya kuenea kwa chai katika utamaduni wao? Wakati huo ndipo Macfarlane alipofikiria juu ya fungu la chai katika Uingereza. Historia ya chai nchini Uingereza ilionyesha kwamba tarehe zilipatana kwa njia isiyo ya kawaida. Chakula cha chai kilikuwa ghali sana hadi Uingereza ilipoanza biashara ya moja kwa moja na China mwanzoni mwa karne ya 18. Katika miaka ya 1740 na 1740 ambapo idadi ya watoto waliokufa ilikuwa imepungua, pombe hiyo ilikuwa ya kawaida. Macfarlane anadhani kwamba kwa sababu maji yalipaswa kuchemshwa, pamoja na uwezo wa chai wa kusafisha tumbo ulioelezwa kwa ufasaha sana katika maandishi ya Kibuddha, maziwa ya mama yalikuwa yenye afya zaidi kuliko wakati mwingine wowote. Hakuna taifa lingine la Ulaya lililokunywa chai mara nyingi kama Uingereza, ambayo, kwa mantiki ya Macfarlane, ilisukuma mataifa mengine nje ya mbio za Mapinduzi ya Viwanda. G. Lakini, kama chai ni jambo katika puzzle, kwa nini hii si kusababisha mapinduzi ya viwanda katika Japan? Macfarlane anasema kwamba katika karne ya 17, Japani ilikuwa na miji mikubwa, viwango vya juu vya kusoma na kuandika na hata soko la siku zijazo. Hata hivyo, Japani iliamua dhidi ya mapinduzi ya kazi, kwa kuacha vifaa vya kuokoa kazi hata wanyama, ili kuepuka kuwaweka watu nje ya kazi. Kwa kushangaza, taifa ambalo sasa tunafikiri ni mojawapo ya mataifa yaliyoendelea zaidi kiteknolojia, liliingia karne ya 19 likiwa karibu limeacha kutumia gurudumu. Wakati Uingereza ilipokuwa ikipitia Mapinduzi ya Viwanda, Macfarlane aona kwa uchungu, Japani ilikuwa ikipitia mapinduzi ya ujasiri. "Msomo wa kwanza una vifungu saba, A-G, ""Chagua kichwa sahihi kwa vifungu A-G kutoka orodha ya vifungu hapa chini.""" "Kumbuka ""I"" ni namba ya kwanza katika safu ya 1-7 ya karatasi ya majibu na ""I"" ni namba ya pili katika safu ya 7." Kesi za Japan, Uholanzi na Ufaransa ii. Maendeleo ya Jiji katika Japani iii. Kunywa chai katika Japani na Uingereza iv. "Hakuna sababu ya kuaminika ya kuwa na kiwango cha chini cha vifo, ""alisema, ""kiwango cha chini cha vifo, ""kiwango cha chini cha vifo, ""kiwango cha chini cha vifo, ""kiwango cha chini cha vifo, ""kiwango cha chini cha vifo, ""kiwango cha chini cha vifo, ""kiwango cha chini cha vifo.""" Wakati na mahali pa viwanda vii. Mkataa uliochukuliwa kutoka kwa kulinganisha na Japan viii. Uhusiano kati ya idadi ya watu na mabadiliko ya kunywa katika Uingereza ix. "Kuna njia mbili za kutatua tatizo hili: (1) Kifungu A (2) Kifungu B (3) Kifungu C (4) Kifungu D (5) Kifungu E (6) Kifungu F (7) Kifungu G) Je, taarifa zifuatazo zinapatana na habari iliyotolewa katika sehemu ya kusoma ya kwanza?""" Katika sanduku la 8-13 la karatasi ya majibu, andika kweli ikiwa taarifa ni kweli, na uongo ikiwa taarifa ni uongo, na usipate ikiwa habari haijapewa katika kifungu cha 8 - Viwanda haikufanyika nchini China kwa sababu ya usafirishaji wake wa reli. Chai na bia pia husaidia kuepuka magonjwa yanayohusiana na maji. Roy Porter alishindwa kukubaliana na nadharia iliyopendekezwa kuhusu sababu zinazokosekana. Waingereza walifanya bia wenyewe. Mfuko wa kodi ya malt ulisababisha ongezeko la idadi ya watu katika karne ya 17 na baadaye katika karne ya 19. Je, sasa tunaishi katika kutoweka kwa mara ya sita wakati shughuli zetu wenyewe zinaharibu mifumo ya ikolojia na kufuta utofauti? Hilo ndilo jambo ambalo wataalamu wengi wa mazingira hufikiri kwamba litatukia wakati wa mwisho wa ulimwengu, na huenda wakawa sahihi. Tatizo ni kwamba hatujui kwa uhakika kwa sababu hatuna picha wazi ya jinsi maisha hubadilika kati ya matukio ya kutoweka au kile kilichotokea katika vipindi vya awali. Hatujui hata ni spishi ngapi zilizo hai leo, acheni tu tujue ni kwa kiwango gani zinapoangamia. Mradi mpya unakusudia kujaza baadhi ya mapungufu hayo. Hifadhidata ya Paleobiolojia inataka kuwa hifadhidata ya mtandaoni ya habari kuhusu kila visukuku vilivyotambuliwa. Ni mradi mkubwa ambao umeelezwa kuwa sawa na Mradi wa Genomu ya Binadamu kwa ajili ya utofauti wa viumbe. Wanasayansi wanaamini kwamba kwa kurekodi historia ya viumbe hai, wataweza kuelewa jinsi mabadiliko ya mazingira yalivyoathiri maisha ya dunia wakati uliopita na jinsi yatakavyobadilika wakati ujao. "Hata inaweza kuonyesha kama uhai unaweza kurudia hali yake, bila kujali tunavyopigana nayo, au kama kutoweka kwa viumbe kwa sababu ya binadamu kunaweza kuwa na mfano, na kubadilisha sheria ambazo zimetumika katika historia yote ya sayari.""" B. Lakini tayari mradi huo unashambuliwa vikali. Wataalamu fulani wanaamini kwamba kuna kasoro kubwa. "Wanasema kwamba ""database ni nzuri tu kama data iliyopelekwa ndani yake, na hata kama vifusi vyote vilivyopatikana sasa vingeorodheshwa, vingeandaa orodha isiyo kamili ya maisha kwa sababu tuko mbali na kugundua kila aina ya fossilized.""" "Wanasema kwamba watafiti wanapaswa kuamka kutoka kwa kompyuta zao na kurudi kwenye udongo ili kuchimba visukuku vipya.""" Wengine bado ni wenye kutilia shaka zaidi, wakisema kwamba hatuwezi kamwe kupata picha kamili kwa sababu rekodi ya visukuku imejaa mashimo na upendeleo. C. Mashabiki wa Paleobiology Database wanakubali kwamba rekodi ya visukuku sikuzote haitakuwa kamili. Lakini wanaona thamani ya kutafuta mifumo ya ulimwengu inayoonyesha mabadiliko ya kiasi katika utofauti wa kibiolojia. "Hati ya visukuku ni chombo bora tunacho kuelewa jinsi utofauti na kutoweka hufanya kazi katika nyakati za kawaida", anasema John Alroy kutoka Kituo cha Kitaifa cha Uchambuzi na Uunganisho wa Ikolojia huko Santa Barbara. <unk>Kuwa na makadirio ya kutoweka kwa msingi hutupa Marekani kiwango cha kuelewa kutoweka kwa wingi ambayo <unk>ni sasa katika mwendo. "Kutokana na hali hii, tunaweza kusema kwamba ""Data ya Paleobiolojia"" ni jaribio kamili zaidi la kupata curves nzuri za utofauti wa ulimwengu." Kila siku, wanasayansi 10 hadi 15 kutoka nchi mbalimbali huongeza habari kuhusu visukuku vilivyopatikana katika hifadhidata hiyo. Tangu kufunguliwa kwa kituo hicho mwaka 1998, wanasayansi wamehesabu spishi 340,000 za wanyama, kuanzia mimea, nyangumi, wadudu, dinosaur na nyigu. Jumla ya jumla ni updated kila saa katika www.paleodb.org. Mtu yeyote anaweza kupakua data kutoka sehemu ya umma ya tovuti na kucheza na namba kwa maudhui ya moyo wao. Tayari, hifadhidata imetoa matokeo ya kushangaza. Alroy na wenzake wanaamini wamepata ushahidi kwamba utofauti wa viumbe ulifikia kiwango cha juu muda mrefu uliopita, kinyume na hekima iliyopokelewa kwamba idadi ya spishi imeongezeka kwa kuendelea kati ya matukio ya kutoweka. "Maoni ya jadi ni kwamba utofauti umeongezeka na kuongezeka na kuongezeka", anasema. "Utafiti wetu unaonyesha kwamba mipaka ya utofauti ilikaribia makumi ya mamilioni ya miaka kabla ya dinosaurs kuibuka, na hata zaidi ya kutoweka, ""Hii inaonyesha kwamba idadi fulani tu ya spishi zinaweza kuishi duniani kwa wakati mmoja, kujaza idadi maalum ya niches kama nafasi katika maegesho ya magari ya ghorofa nyingi." Mara tu inapojaa, hakuna spishi mpya zinazoweza kuingizwa, hadi kutoweka kunapoondoa nafasi mpya au kitu cha nadra na cha msiba kinaongeza ghorofa mpya kwa maegesho ya magari. E. Alroy pia ametumia hifadhidata hiyo kuchunguza upya usahihi wa majina ya spishi. Utafiti huo ulionyesha kwamba aina mbalimbali za viumbe huonekana kuwa na idadi kubwa ya aina mbalimbali katika rekodi ya visukuku, kwa asilimia 32 hadi 44. "Kama ilivyoelezwa hapo juu, aina moja ya wanyama mara nyingi huwa na majina kadhaa, kwa sababu ya utambulisho mbaya au mawasiliano duni kati ya wataalamu wa jamii katika nchi tofauti. """ Kurudia-rudia kama hii kunaweza kupotosha mviringo wa utofauti. "Ikiwa una taxonomy mbaya sana katika kipindi kifupi, itaonekana kama spike ya utofauti - utofauti mkubwa unaofuatwa na kutoweka kubwa - wakati yote ambayo yametokea ni mabadiliko katika ubora wa majina", anasema Alroy. Kwa mfano, uchunguzi wake wa takwimu unaonyesha kwamba kati ya spishi 4861 za wanyama wa Amerika Kaskazini waliotajwa katika hifadhidata hiyo, kati ya asilimia 24 na 31 ni spishi mbili. F. Bila shaka, rekodi ya visukuku ni isiyo na uthabiti. Maeneo fulani na nyakati fulani zimeacha miamba mingi iliyojaa visukuku kuliko nyingine. Baadhi ya sampuli hizo zimechunguzwa kwa undani zaidi. Na aina fulani za viumbe - wale wenye sehemu ngumu waliokaa baharini, kwa mfano - ni uwezekano mkubwa zaidi wa kuacha rekodi nyuma, wakati wengine, kama jellyfish, daima kubaki siri. Alroy pia amejaribu kuelezea hili. Kwa mfano, inakadiriwa kwamba asilimia 41 tu ya mamalia wa Amerika Kaskazini ambao wamewahi kuishi wanajulikana kutoka kwa visukuku, na anashuku kwamba sehemu sawa ya visukuku zinakosa kutoka kwa vikundi vingine, kama vile kuvu na wadudu. G. Si kila mtu anayevutiwa na uchawi huo wa hisabati. Jonathan Adrien, Mtafiti wa Chuo Kikuu cha Iowa, anasema kwamba watu wengi wanaishi katika maeneo ambayo hayana vifo vya wanyama. Ni rahisi kutafsiri vibaya habari. Kwa mfano, mabadiliko katika kiwango cha bahari au mbinu zisizo na upatano za kuchukua sampuli zaweza kuiga mabadiliko makubwa katika utofauti wa kibiolojia. Uchunguzi wa hivi karibuni na wa kina wa fasihi juu ya mabaki ya bivalve ya baharini umeshawishi David Jablonski wa Chuo Kikuu cha Chicago na wenzake kwamba utofauti wao umeongezeka kwa kasi katika miaka milioni 5 iliyopita. Kwa kuwa na orodha ya spishi zote zilizo hai, wataalamu wa mazingira wanaweza kuanza kuweka mgogoro wa sasa wa utofauti wa kibiolojia katika mtazamo wa kihistoria. Ingawa kuunda orodha kama hiyo ingekuwa kazi ya kushindana hata na Hifadhidata ya Paleobiolojia, ni nini hasa All Species Foundation ya San Francisco inatarajia kufikia katika miaka 25 ijayo. "Hata hivyo, ""mwanabiolojia wa Harvard Edward O. Wilson, ambaye ana wasiwasi na viwango vya sasa vya kutoweka, anasema kwamba juhudi hizo ni muhimu." <unk>Kuna mgogoro. Tumeanza kupima, na ni ya juu sana, "Wilson anasema. """Tunahitaji habari kama hii kwa undani zaidi ili kulinda aina zote za viumbe hai, sio tu zile tunazozijua vizuri,"" alisema." Sehemu ya kusoma ina aya saba, A-F Chagua kichwa sahihi kwa mafungu A-F kutoka kwa lừt hapa chini. "Kumbuka ""I"" ni namba ya kwanza katika safu ya 14 na ya 19 ya karatasi ya majibu." Orodha ya vichwa i. Uwezekano wa makosa ipo katika database ii. Msaidizi wa hifadhidata recleared thamani yake iii. Kusudi la data hii ya paleobiology iv. Sababu kwa nini baadhi ya spishi fulani hazikujumuishwa ndani yake v. Duplication ya uzazi lakini na majina tofauti vi. Mafanikio ya Paleobiology Database tangu vii. "Kutumia ""Mtazamo wa Utafiti"" katika sehemu ya kwanza ya makala hii, sehemu ya 14 ya makala hii, sehemu ya 18 ya makala hii, sehemu ya 19 ya makala hii, sehemu ya 18 ya makala hii, sehemu ya 19 ya makala hii, sehemu ya 18 ya makala hii, sehemu ya 19 ya makala hii, sehemu ya 20 ya makala hii." Weka herufi A hadi C kwenye sanduku la 20 na 22 kwenye karatasi yako ya majibu. A. Jonathan Adrien B. John Alroy C. David Jablonski D. Edward O. Wilson 20 Kuunda hifadhidata itasaidia mwanasayansi kutambua uhusiano wa spishi zote. 21 Imani katika mchango wa takwimu za kina inapaswa kufunika zaidi ya spishi zinazojulikana. 22 - Utafiti wa kutoweka kwa spishi Chagua herufi mbili zilizofuata na uandike majibu yako kwenye sanduku la 23-24 kwenye karatasi yako ya majibu. "Kama unavyoona, kuna maelezo mawili sahihi kuhusu ""The Paleobiology Database"" katika sehemu hii: A. Wataalamu wote wanakaribisha mradi huu B. Wana maoni mazuri na mabaya kutoka kwa wataalamu mbalimbali C. Viumbe vyote tofauti katika hifadhidata zina jina la kipekee D. Lengo ni kuunganisha habari zote za visukuku ulimwenguni E. Kupata habari zaidi kutoka kwa rekodi badala ya uwanja Chagua herufi sahihi, A, B, C au D." "Kwa mfano, ""Jellyfish"" ni aina ya samaki wa aina ya jellyfish katika orodha ya ""The Paleobiology Database.""" A. Mbwa wa mara kwa mara B. Aina isiyoweza kufuatiliwa C. Aina maalum ya kina D. Kiumbe aliye hai sasa 26 Ni nini pendekezo la mwandishi kulingana na mwisho wa kifungu? A. kuendelea kukamilisha kuhesabu idadi ya spishi katika Paleobiology Database B. kuacha kuchangia Paleobiology Database C. kujaribu kuunda database ya viumbe hai D. kujifunza zaidi katika uwanja badala ya katika kitabu kusoma kifungu cha 3 Mawasiliano katika sayansi A. Sayansi ina jukumu muhimu zaidi katika maisha ya watu, na kufanya mawasiliano ya uaminifu ya maendeleo ya kisayansi muhimu zaidi kuliko hapo awali. Hata hivyo, mawasiliano hayo yana matatizo mengi ambayo yanaweza kupotosha mazungumzo kwa urahisi, na kusababisha mvurugo na kutoelewana. B. Matatizo fulani yanatokana na asili ya kisayansi ya utafiti wa sasa na ugumu unaohusiana na kupata maneno ya kweli ya kutosha, na abstract na utata si ishara kwamba mwelekeo fulani wa kisayansi ni mbaya, kama baadhi ya wasemaji wamedokeza, lakini badala yake ni heshima kwa mafanikio ya ubunifu wa binadamu katika kukabiliana na changamoto zinazozidi kuwa ngumu ambazo asili inatoa. Hata hivyo, zinaweza kufanya mawasiliano yawe magumu zaidi. Lakini changamoto kubwa kwa ripoti za sayansi hutokea kwa sababu katika maeneo ya utafiti unaobadilika, wanasayansi wenyewe mara nyingi huelewa tu sehemu ya athari kamili ya maendeleo yoyote maalum au maendeleo. Kwa kuwa mwenendo huo unatumika kwa maendeleo mengi ya kisayansi ambayo huathiri moja kwa moja maisha ya watu - joto la dunia, utafiti wa kansa, masomo ya lishe - kujifunza jinsi ya kuishinda ni muhimu kuchochea mjadala wa kisayansi wenye habari zaidi kati ya umma kwa ujumla. C. Uchaguzi wa maneno usioeleweka ni chanzo cha kutoelewana fulani. Wanasayansi mara nyingi hutumia maneno ya kawaida, ambayo kisha hutoa maana hususa ambayo haiwezekani kuelewa bila mazoezi sahihi. Kwa mfano, neno "uhusiano", kwa asili ni lenye kupotosha. Wengi hufafanua nadharia hiyo kuwa inamaanisha kwamba kila kitu ni cha kihusiana na hakuna kitu kisicho na shaka. Hata hivyo, ingawa vipimo yoyote mtazamaji hufanya hutegemea kuratibu zake na mfumo wa rejea, matukio ya kimwili yeye vipimo kuwa na maelezo invariant kwamba transcends kwamba mtazamaji maalum kuratibu. Nadharia ya Einstein ya upendeleo ni kweli kuhusu kupata maelezo invariant ya matukio ya kimwili. "Kama ilivyoelezwa hapo juu, Einstein alishikilia wazo la kwamba nadharia yake ingekuwa bora kuitwa ""Invariant Theory"" lakini neno ""relativity"" lilikuwa tayari limetumika wakati huo kwa ajili yake kubadilisha." D. "Kanuni ya kutokuwa na uhakika" ni neno jingine mara nyingi kutumiwa vibaya. Wakati mwingine hufafanuliwa kama kikomo kwa watazamaji na uwezo wao wa kufanya vipimo. Lakini sio juu ya mapungufu ya ndani ya kipimo kimoja maalum; ni juu ya kutokuwa na uwezo wa kupima kwa usahihi jozi maalum za kiasi wakati huo huo. Tafsiri ya kwanza labda ni ya kuvutia zaidi kutoka kwa mtazamo wa kifalsafa au wa kisiasa. Si tu kile sayansi ni kuhusu. F. Hata neno "nadharia" laweza kuwa tatizo. Tofauti na watu wengi, ambao hutumia neno hilo kuelezea dhana inayopita ambayo mara nyingi huona kama ya kutiliwa shaka, wanamuziki wana mawazo maalum sana akilini wanapozungumza juu ya nadharia. Kwa wataalamu wa fizikia, nadharia zinajumuisha mfumo maalum wa fizikia uliojumuishwa katika seti ya dhana za msingi kuhusu ulimwengu ambazo husababisha seti maalum ya equations na utabiri - zile ambazo zinathibitishwa na utabiri wa mafanikio. Nadharia hazionyeshwi kuwa sahihi au kamili mara moja. Hata Einstein alichukua sehemu kubwa ya muongo mmoja kuendeleza toleo sahihi la nadharia yake ya upendeleo wa jumla. Lakini hatimaye mawazo na vipimo huisha na nadharia huonyeshwa kuwa sahihi, kuachwa au kufyonzwa katika nadharia nyingine, zenye kujumuisha zaidi. G. "Utekelezaji wa joto duniani" ni mfano mwingine wa usemi wenye matatizo. Wataalamu wa hali ya hewa wanatabiri mabadiliko makubwa zaidi ya halijoto na mvua - si kwamba kila mahali kutakuwa na joto zaidi. "Jina hilo wakati mwingine huchanganya mjadala, kwa kuwa linawawezesha watu kusema kwamba majira yao ya baridi kali yalikuwa mabaya zaidi, kwa hiyo, ""kuongezeka kwa joto duniani"" kunawezaje kutokea?" Ni wazi kwamba "mabadiliko ya hali ya hewa ulimwenguni pote" yangekuwa jina bora zaidi. Lakini si matatizo yote yanatokana tu na uchaguzi mbaya wa maneno. Baadhi ya mambo hayo yanatokana na utata wa sayansi ya kisasa. Kwa mfano, wanasayansi waliweza kueleza kwa undani jinsi kemikali zinazohusika katika uharibifu wa tabaka la ozoni, na hivyo kuthibitisha kwamba gesi za klorofluorokaboni (Freon, kwa mfano) zilikuwa zikiharibu tabaka la ozoni. Uelewa bora wa umuhimu wa hisabati wa matokeo na kudai kidogo juu ya hadithi rahisi ingesaidia kufafanua majadiliano mengi ya kisayansi. Kwa miezi kadhaa, Harvard iliteswa. Harvard iliteswa na mijadala isiyo na maana juu ya uwezo wa kisayansi wa kiasili wa wanaume na wanawake. Moja ya mambo ya kufurahisha zaidi ya majadiliano ilikuwa kwamba wale waliamini tofauti na wale ambao hawakutumia ushahidi sawa kuhusu uwezo maalum wa kijinsia. Hilo linawezekanaje? Jibu ni kwamba data haionyeshi athari kubwa. Mambo ya kijamii yanaweza kueleza tofauti hizi ndogo, ambazo kwa vyovyote vile hazina uhusiano ulio wazi na uwezo wa kisayansi. Si kichwa cha habari kikubwa kinapotajwa kwa njia hiyo, sivyo? Kila aina ya sayansi ina chanzo chake cha utata na uwezekano wa kutoelewana. Hata hivyo kuna hatua ambazo tunaweza kuchukua ili kuboresha uelewa wa umma katika kesi zote. Jambo la kwanza lingekuwa kuimarisha uelewevu na kukubali zaidi uthibitisho wa kisayansi usio wa moja kwa moja. Taarifa kutoka kwa misheni ya angani isiyo na watu si halali kuliko habari kutoka kwa moja ambayo watu wako ndani. Mimi. Hii haimaanishi kamwe kutilia shaka tafsiri, lakini pia haimaanishi kulinganisha ushahidi wa moja kwa moja na imani ya kipofu, kama watu wakati mwingine kupendekeza. Pili, tunaweza kuhitaji viwango tofauti vya kutathmini sayansi na athari za haraka za sera kuliko utafiti na thamani ya nadharia tu. Wakati wanasayansi wanasema wao si uhakika kuhusu utabiri wao, si lazima maana wao wamepata kitu kikubwa. "Ingekuwa bora kama wanasayansi wangekuwa wazi zaidi juu ya umuhimu wa hisabati wa matokeo yao na kama umma haungetendea hisabati kama ya kutisha sana; takwimu na makosa, ambayo yanatuambia kutokuwa na uhakika katika kipimo, hutupa zana za kutathmini maendeleo mapya kwa haki. """ J. Lakini muhimu zaidi, watu wanapaswa kutambua kwamba sayansi inaweza kuwa ngumu. Ikiwa tutakubali tu hadithi sahili, ufafanuzi huo utapotoshwa. Wakati maendeleo ni subtle au ngumu, wanasayansi wanapaswa kuwa tayari kwenda umbali wa ziada kutoa maelezo sahihi na subira kuhusu ukweli. Hata hivyo, magumu fulani hayaepukiki. Maendeleo mengi yanaonyesha kazi inayoendelea, kwa hivyo hadithi ni ngumu kwa sababu bado hakuna anayejua picha kubwa. Chagua herufi sahihi (A, B, C, D) na uandike majibu yako kwenye sanduku la 27-31 kwenye karatasi yako ya majibu. 27 Kwa Nini Mawasiliano ya Sayansi ya Uaminifu Ni Muhimu? A. (Mwanzo wa Sura ya 2) Sayansi ina jukumu muhimu zaidi na zaidi katika maisha ya watu. B. Sayansi ina changamoto nyingi ambazo watu wengi wanapendezwa nazo. C. Asili ya utata katika mawasiliano ya sayansi husababisha kuchanganyikiwa. D. Uvumbuzi wa kisayansi ni muhimu zaidi kuliko wakati mwingine wowote. "Kama ilivyoelezwa katika makala ya kwanza ya makala hii, ""Mtazamo wa Uwezo wa Sayansi"" ni ""Mtazamo wa Uwezo wa Sayansi"" na ""Mtazamo wa Uwezo wa Sayansi"" ni ""Mtazamo wa Sayansi"" na ""Mtazamo wa Sayansi"" ni ""Mtazamo wa Sayansi"" na ""Mtazamo wa Sayansi"" ni ""Mtazamo wa Sayansi"" na ""Mtazamo wa Sayansi"" ni ""Mtazamo wa Sayansi"" na ""Mtazamo wa Sayansi"" ni ""Mtazamo wa Sayansi"" na ""Mtazamo wa Sayansi"" ni ""Mtazamo wa Sayansi"" na ""Mtazamo wa Sayansi"" ni ""Mtazamo wa Sayansi"" na ""Mtazamo wa Sayansi"" ni ""Mtazamo wa Sayansi"" na ""Mashabiki"" ni ""Mashabiki"" na ""Mashabiki"" ni ""Wana"" na ""Wanafiki"" na ""Wanafiki"" ni ""Wanafiki"" na ""Wanafiki"" na ""Wanafiki"" na ""Wanafunzi." A Kuna uwezo sawa wa kisayansi wa ndani wa wanaume na wanawake. B. Uthibitisho uliotumiwa na pande zote mbili haukuonekana kuwa na tofauti kubwa.C. Takwimu za kisayansi kwa kawaida hazionyeshi takwimu kubwa za kuunga mkono wazo linalopingwa. D Mambo ya kijamii inaweza kuwa na uhusiano wazi na uwezo wa kisayansi. Je, maneno yafuatayo yanapatana na yale yaliyotajwa katika sehemu ya kwanza ya usomaji? Katika sanduku la 32-35 la karatasi yako ya majibu, andika kweli ikiwa taarifa ni kweli, uongo ikiwa taarifa ni uongo, haijapewa ikiwa habari haijapewa katika kifungu cha 32: joto la dunia linaonyesha mabadiliko makubwa ya joto na mvua badala ya ongezeko la joto ulimwenguni. 33 Utangazaji zaidi wa vyombo vya habari wa "kuongezeka kwa joto duniani" ungeisaidia umma kutambua jambo hilo. "Kutoka kwa utafiti wa Harvard, ""Uelewa wa umma na kukubalika kwa ushahidi wa kisayansi usio wa moja kwa moja katika kesi zote ungeongoza kwa kuchanganyikiwa: Jaza muhtasari wa vifungu vya kusoma, kwa kutumia maneno zaidi ya mawili kutoka kwa kusoma kwa kila jibu.""" Jibu swali lako katika sanduku la 36-40. Mawasiliano ya kisayansi yana changamoto nyingi ambazo zinaweza kupotosha mazungumzo kwa urahisi, na kusababisha mvurugo na kutokuelewana usio wa lazima. Kwa mfano, katika 363 ya Kiingereza, kuna tofauti ya msingi kati ya maneno ya 'ambiguous' na 'ambiguous'. Watu wa kawaida bila mafunzo sahihi hawaelewi wazi au kina maana maalum ya kisayansi kupitia wanasayansi 37 mara nyingi kuajiriwa. Kwa upande mwingine, kipimo cha 38 haipaswi kuelezwa kwa mfuatano wa n, lakini inaweza kuelezwa kwa mfuatano wa n. Isitoshe, hata neno "nadharia" laweza kuwa tatizo. Nadharia hazionyeshwi kuwa sahihi au kamili mara moja kwani wanasayansi mara nyingi huendeleza matoleo bora ya nadharia maalum, mfano mzuri unaweza kuwa nadharia ya 40... Kwa hivyo, muhimu zaidi watu wanapaswa kutambua kwamba sayansi inaweza kuwa ngumu.