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Thesis defended by Astrid Oppliger Uribe – February 23th, 2023 – Institute of Geography & Durability (IGD)
Forests and plant communities play a key role in regulating the hydrological cycle. During the last decades, forest plantations of Eucalyptus species – or Pinus and Acacias – have become predominant in the landscapes of many countries and raised concerns about their detrimental effects on water availability. The phenomenon has become a controversial subject. Such is the case in Chile, where, despite the existence of a wide range of international and national forest hydrology studies, the issue remains somehow contested. As scientific knowledge plays a key role in the development of societies, by providing, for example, the basis of knowledge for decision or policy-making, the science of forest hydrology – which studies how water flows through forests and vegetation communities – might help to understand such contestations of environmental knowledge.
This investigation was initiated to understand the science of forest hydrology, and whether or not in its social production, circulation and application of knowledge it was possible to find reasons for these water and forest contestations. To address this, the investigation draws on three bodies of literature:
- forest hydrology science,
- science studies,
- political ecology.
Empirically, this research is based on three field campaigns in Chile, South Africa and Australia. The research method is structured in three phases. First, it draws on a systematic literature review on Eucalyptus trees – from forest hydrology studies of these three countries. The second and third phases of the research focus on Chile. Inspired by works interconnecting science studies and political ecology, the research operationalises the “field theory” and the “advocacy coalition framework” as theoretical tools to analyse the social production, circulation and application of scientific knowledge of forest hydrology, its governance, and policy-making. In this regard, the forest hydrology science and policy of the Forest Plantation Protocol (FPP) in Chile are taken as a case study.
Results are presented in three chapters.
First, results demonstrate that most scientific studies confirm that Eucalyptus trees have higher water use rates than other land covers such as native forests or scrublands, agriculture, grassland, wetland vegetation, and other plantation tree species such as Pinus radiata or Acacias. These hydrological results hold irrespective of whether the Eucalyptus trees are present as native or non-native trees. The review suggests that variations and nuances in these findings may result from variations in the study design, notably on bio-environmental and forest management factors.
Second, the investigation on the production and circulation of knowledge in the forest hydrology field reveals the presence of knowledge producers from academia, government and forestry companies. These actors contribute and contest knowledge in different ways. Some high-level governmental actors claim not be aware of the existence of forest hydrology research in the country. Other researchers for their part, acknowledge the existence of several forest hydrology studies and the effects of forestry plantations on water resources, but some challenge the legitimacy and scientific authority of these forest hydrology studies in different ways. The investigation shows the existence of two scientific trends or approaches within the forest hydrology field: the ecosystem approach and the forestry hydrogeology approach. It also demonstrates that external political-economic relations within which the field is embedded, shape the production and circulation of the forest hydrology knowledge, and some of its practices challenge its relative autonomy.
Third, the research on the circulation and application of forest hydrology knowledge in the policy-making of the FPP demonstrates that the knowledge listened to is a combination of forestry hydrogeology and ecosystem science approaches. Both approaches correspond to two opposing coalitions on water and soil regulation issues in the FPP: forestry industry versus governmental actors, and each of their allies. Most of the invited academics supported the industrial coalition, as did some governmental actors. It is demonstrated that some academics deny knowledge and generate doubt on certain issues. Despite this, it is demonstrated that scientific knowledge played a role in the policy production through the circulation and the application of scientific articles to support the policy outputs. Paths to policy change, are a combination of external events (fires in 2017), some learning and a process of negotiation where socio-economic criteria are also applied. The research also shows that external events can relatively shift the balance of negotiation powers, as well as that previous policy or agreements can strategically establish negotiation margins of the policy outcomes.
This theoretical and empirical investigation contributes to the literature in three ways. First, it contributes to understanding forest hydrology discussions. Second, it empirically and geographically furthers research in political ecology and sciences studies working on production, circulation and application of environmental knowledge. Third, it contributes to the work of political ecology and science studies by operationalizing the concepts of “the field theory” and the “advocacy coalition framework”, highlighting the role of scientific knowledge, its governance and role in policy-making.
"Kama ilivyoelezwa katika makala ya kwanza ya jarida la ""The Nature of Forests,"" Astrid Opliger-Uribe, Mkurugenzi wa Taasisi ya Jiografia na Uvumilivu (IGD), alisema: ""Miti na jamii za mimea zina jukumu muhimu katika kudhibiti mzunguko wa maji." Katika miongo ya hivi karibuni, mimea ya misitu ya aina ya Eucalyptus au Pinus na Acacias imekuwa kubwa katika mandhari ya nchi nyingi na kuibua wasiwasi juu ya athari zao mbaya kwa upatikanaji wa maji. Jambo hilo limekuwa jambo lenye kubishaniwa. Hii ni kesi katika Chile, ambapo, licha ya kuwepo kwa mbalimbali ya kimataifa na kitaifa misitu hydrology masomo, suala hilo bado kwa namna fulani mgogoro. Kwa kuwa maarifa ya kisayansi yana jukumu muhimu katika maendeleo ya jamii, kwa kutoa, kwa mfano, msingi wa maarifa kwa ajili ya maamuzi au utengenezaji wa sera, sayansi ya hydrology misitu - ambayo inachunguza jinsi maji hutiririka kupitia misitu na jamii za mimea - inaweza kusaidia kuelewa mashindano kama hayo ya maarifa ya mazingira. Uchunguzi huu ulianzishwa ili kuelewa sayansi ya hidrolojia ya misitu, na kama katika uzalishaji wake wa kijamii, mzunguko na matumizi ya maarifa ilikuwa inawezekana kupata sababu za changamoto hizi za maji na misitu. Ili kushughulikia hili, uchunguzi hutegemea miili mitatu ya fasihi: - sayansi ya hidrolojia ya misitu, - masomo ya sayansi, - ikolojia ya kisiasa. Kwa kweli, utafiti huu unategemea kampeni tatu za shamba nchini Chile, Afrika Kusini na Australia. Mbinu ya utafiti ni muundo katika hatua tatu. Kwanza, inategemea ukaguzi wa fasihi ya utaratibu juu ya miti ya Eucalyptus <unk> kutoka kwa masomo ya hidrolojia ya misitu ya nchi hizi tatu. Awamu ya pili na ya tatu ya utafiti huo inazingatia Chile. Kuchochewa na kazi zinazounganisha masomo ya sayansi na ikolojia ya kisiasa, utafiti huo unafanya kazi ya "nadharia ya uwanja" na "mfumo wa muungano wa utetezi" kama zana za kinadharia kuchambua uzalishaji wa kijamii, mzunguko na matumizi ya maarifa ya kisayansi ya hidrolojia ya misitu, utawala wake, na utengenezaji wa sera. Katika suala hili, sayansi ya hidrolojia ya misitu na sera ya Itifaki ya Mimea ya Misitu (FPP) nchini Chile inachukuliwa kama utafiti wa kesi. Matokeo ni iliyotolewa katika sura tatu. Kwa mfano, utafiti wa utafiti wa kisayansi unaonyesha kwamba miti ya Eucalyptus hutumia maji zaidi kuliko misitu ya asili, mashamba ya nyasi, mimea ya nyanda za mvua, na mimea mingine ya mimea kama vile Pinus radiata na Acacia. Matokeo haya ya hydrological kushikilia bila kujali kama miti ya Eucalyptus ni sasa kama miti ya asili au yasiyo ya asili. Uchunguzi unaonyesha kwamba tofauti na nuances katika matokeo haya inaweza kutokea kutokana na tofauti katika muundo wa utafiti, hasa juu ya bio- mazingira na misitu ya usimamizi wa mambo. Pili, uchunguzi juu ya uzalishaji na mzunguko wa maarifa katika uwanja wa hydrology misitu inaonyesha uwepo wa wazalishaji wa maarifa kutoka vyuo vikuu, serikali na makampuni ya misitu. Watendaji hawa kuchangia na mashindano maarifa kwa njia tofauti. Baadhi ya watendaji wa ngazi ya juu wa serikali wanadai kuwa hawajui kuwepo kwa utafiti wa hidrolojia ya misitu nchini. Watafiti wengine, kwa upande wao, wanakubali kuwepo kwa masomo kadhaa ya hidrolojia ya misitu na athari za mashamba ya misitu kwenye rasilimali za maji, lakini wengine wanashutumu uhalali na mamlaka ya kisayansi ya masomo haya ya hidrolojia ya misitu kwa njia tofauti. Utafiti unaonyesha kuwepo kwa mwelekeo mbili za kisayansi au mbinu ndani ya uwanja wa hidrolojia ya misitu: mbinu ya mfumo wa ikolojia na mbinu ya hidrolojia ya misitu. Pia inaonyesha kwamba mahusiano ya nje ya kisiasa na kiuchumi ambayo uwanja ni embedded, kuunda uzalishaji na mzunguko wa maarifa ya misitu hydrology, na baadhi ya mazoea yake changamoto uhuru wake wa kiasi. Kwa upande mwingine, utafiti wa kuenea na matumizi ya maarifa ya hidrolojia ya misitu katika utengenezaji wa sera za FPP unaonyesha kwamba maarifa yaliyosikilizwa ni mchanganyiko wa mbinu za hidrolojia ya misitu na sayansi ya mfumo wa ikolojia. Mipango hiyo inazingatia suala la maji na udhibiti wa udongo katika FPP: sekta ya misitu dhidi ya watendaji wa serikali na kila mmoja wa washirika wao. Wengi wa wasomi walioalikwa waliunga mkono muungano wa viwanda, kama vile baadhi ya watendaji wa serikali. Inaonyeshwa kwamba baadhi ya wasomi kukataa maarifa na kuzalisha shaka juu ya masuala fulani. Hata hivyo, ni alionyesha kwamba maarifa ya kisayansi alicheza jukumu katika uzalishaji wa sera kupitia mzunguko na matumizi ya makala ya kisayansi kusaidia matokeo ya sera. Njia za mabadiliko ya sera ni mchanganyiko wa matukio ya nje (moto katika 2017), baadhi ya kujifunza na mchakato wa mazungumzo ambapo vigezo vya kijamii na kiuchumi pia hutumiwa. Utafiti pia unaonyesha kwamba matukio ya nje yanaweza kugeuza usawa wa nguvu za mazungumzo, na pia sera au makubaliano ya zamani yanaweza kuanzisha vyama vya mazungumzo ya matokeo ya sera. Uchunguzi huu wa nadharia na empirical inachangia fasihi kwa njia tatu. Kwanza, inachangia kuelewa majadiliano ya hidrolojia ya misitu. Pili, empirically na kijiografia inaendeleza utafiti katika ikolojia ya kisiasa na masomo ya sayansi kufanya kazi juu ya uzalishaji, mzunguko na matumizi ya maarifa ya mazingira. Tatu, inachangia kazi ya ikolojia ya kisiasa na masomo ya sayansi kwa kufanya kazi dhana za "nadharia ya uwanja" na "mfumo wa muungano wa utetezi", ikikazia jukumu la maarifa ya kisayansi, utawala wake na jukumu katika utengenezaji wa sera.