In Celebration Of Labor Day, A Look At Women In The U.S. Workforce
Women have been breaking all sorts of glass ceilings recently.
At the 2016 Rio Olympics, U.S. women took home more gold medals than anybody else. Beyoncé was nominated for 11 VMA awards this year and took home eight, setting a record for VMA wins (and the #BeyHive rejoiced). And of course, this summer Hillary Clinton became the first woman to be nominated for president by a major political party. That's never happened in our nation's 240 year history.
And for everyday working women, a lot has changed for the better, too. Wages have increased and some women even now generally earn more than men.
Let's look deeper at the state of women in the workforce. We'll use Clinton's historic first as our jumping-off point.
Women In Elected Office
There are now more women serving in public office than ever before. There were only 15 women serving in the 92nd Congress (1971-1973). Now there are 108. However, we still don't have full representation, as NPR's Danielle Kurtzleben reports:
That slow creep into presidential campaigns reflects a larger trend: Women make up a bigger share of national and state lawmakers than ever, and yet the share of women in major political positions remains disproportionately low. Women make up around 19 percent of all members of Congress and less than 25 percent of all state legislators. They also make up six of the nation's 50 governors, or 12 percent.
Well, there could be several reasons: Women are still the primary caregivers in their households, they're more wary of the perceptions of gender bias in the political arena, and they need to be greatly encouraged to run in the historically male-dominated political sphere.
A look at other countries shows just how far behind American women are (if we keep in mind women only make up 22 percent of all government positions globally). Cuba, South Africa, Sweden, Afghanistan, Sudan and Mexico are just a few countries with higher female representation in government than the U.S., according to data by the International Organization of Parliaments. America is 97th of 203 countries. Who's first? Rwanda, with a lower house of parliament that is 63.8 percent female.
Women Entering The Workforce: College And Careers
The U.S. has seen booms in college-educated women, most notably during the first part of the 20th century, again in the 1970s, and now. There are currently more women enrolling in college than men, particularly Hispanic and black women, according to a study by the Pew Research Center. In 1994, there was only a two percentage point difference in the rate at which recent female and male high school graduates enrolled at four-year institutions. By 2012, women were outpacing men in college enrollment by more than ten percentage points.
With the increase in college degrees, there are now more women seeking careers that were once solely headed by men. For example, the population of lawyers was 12.4 percent female in 1980. Today, women make up 36 percent. (Of course, that's still a large gender disparity. And of note: When it comes to taking the lead role in trials, female lawyers are less likely to do so, according to a study by the American Bar Association.)
Part of what you want to do is introduce this with the ABCs and the colors. And particularly focusing on girls participation-math, science, technology-early is important.
There's also been a push to include more women in STEM fields — science, technology, engineering and math — and progress has been mixed. Women now earning degrees in bioscience about equal men. But the number of women majoring in computer science and engineering is lagging behind that of men. In an interview with Recode, President Obama told tech columnist Kara Swisher that the government wasn't doing enough to help schools teach the skills necessary for careers in mathematics and science and that the entertainment industry needed to do a better job in portraying successful women engineers.
"Part of what you want to do is introduce this with the ABCs and the colors. And particularly focusing on girls, participation — math, science, technology — early is important," Obama said. "Underrepresented groups, African-Americans, Latinos. We've got to get those kids tapped in."
The Obama administration's White House Council on Women and Girls and the Office of Science and Technology have worked to expand the number of female STEM students. The most recent initiative was a push for an additional $4 billion in funding for increasing educational science and technology programs in elementary, middle and high schools across the nation.
"Equal pay for equal work is a shared American value," Republican Sen. Deb Fischer told Congress on Equal Pay Day this year. "At its core, equal pay is about basic fairness and ensuring that every woman, just like every man, has the opportunity to build a life that she chooses."
In 2016, women earned 81.8 percent of what men earned on a weekly basis, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Using America's median income, that means women earned $320 less a month and $3,840 less a year. For Hispanic and black women, earnings tend to dip even lower.
Of course, these numbers become more fluid depending on career. For instance, women who worked in education made a median weekly salary of $907 in 2015, while men in the same field earned $1,144.
In 2009, the first piece of legislation Obama signed was the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act, extending the period of time for women to file complaints of employment discrimination regarding earnings. This year, Obama went one step further by proposing companies with over 100 employees disclose salary data based on race, gender and ethnicity.
Another bill, the Paycheck Fairness Act, would protect women from retaliation from their employer when they seek to discuss and challenge their wages. The bill has been introduced to Congress every year since 1977, and has repeatedly been defeated. It was again introduced in November 2015, but no real action has been taken on it since.
So, More Leaders And More Grads. Why Less Pay?
A number of theories could explain why the gender wage gap is so persistent. For one, women are less likely to negotiate their salaries. Emily Martin, vice president and general counsel of the National Women's Law Center, told NPR's Jennifer Ludden, "Because often your pay is set with some reference to how much you made at your last job, the impact of pay discrimination can follow people through their careers."
Another factor that could be contributing to unequal pay: motherhood. Women who have children often bump up against what's termed a "maternal wall" and make less than young, childless women who live in cities, according to a study by Reach Advisors' James Chung. The reason could be fear on the part of employers that mothers won't be as committed to their jobs as childless workers. As NPR's Yuki Noguchi reported, there's been a steady increase of pregnancy and maternity discrimination charges filed with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission since the 1990s.
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Siku ya Wafanyakazi: Mtazamo wa Wanawake nchini Marekani Wanawake wa kazi wamekuwa wakivunja kila aina ya dari za kioo hivi karibuni. Katika michezo ya Olimpiki ya Rio 2016, wanawake wa Marekani walichukua medali za dhahabu zaidi kuliko mtu mwingine yeyote. Beyoncé amechaguliwa kwa tuzo 11 za VMA mwaka huu na alichukua nyumbani nane, akiweka rekodi ya ushindi wa VMA. Mwaka huu, Hillary Clinton alikuwa mwanamke wa kwanza kuchaguliwa na chama kikubwa cha siasa. Hii haijawahi kutokea katika historia ya nchi yetu ya miaka 240. Na kwa wanawake wanaofanya kazi kila siku, mengi yamebadilika kwa ajili ya bora, pia. Mishahara imeongezeka na hata sasa wanawake fulani kwa ujumla hupata mapato zaidi ya wanaume. Hebu tuangalie kwa undani zaidi hali ya wanawake katika nguvu za kazi. "Tutatumia historia ya Clinton kama hatua yetu ya kuanza.""" Wanawake katika Ofisi za Uchaguzi Sasa kuna wanawake wengi zaidi wanaotumikia katika ofisi za umma kuliko hapo awali. Wanawake 15 tu walihudumu katika Bunge la 92 (1971-1973). Sasa kuna 108. "Hata hivyo, bado hatuna uwakilishi kamili, kama Danielle Kurtzleben wa NPR anaripoti: ""Hiyo kuingia polepole katika kampeni za urais inaonyesha mwelekeo mkubwa: Wanawake wanafanya sehemu kubwa ya wabunge wa kitaifa na wa serikali kuliko hapo awali, na bado sehemu ya wanawake katika nafasi kuu za kisiasa inabaki chini sana.""" Wanawake ni asilimia 19 ya wabunge wa Marekani na chini ya asilimia 25 ya wabunge wa majimbo. Pia, wanawakilisha asilimia 12 ya magavana 50 wa nchi hiyo. "Hii inaweza kuwa na sababu kadhaa: wanawake bado ni watunzaji wa msingi katika nyumba zao, wao ni zaidi ya tahadhari ya maoni ya ubaguzi wa kijinsia katika uwanja wa kisiasa, na wanahitaji kuhamasishwa sana kuendesha katika historia ya kiume-dominated siasa. """ Kwa mujibu wa ripoti hiyo, wanawake wa Marekani wamechelewa sana kupata nafasi za serikali, huku wanawake wakishiriki asilimia 22 tu ya nafasi za serikali duniani. Cuba, Afrika Kusini, Sweden, Afghanistan, Sudan na Mexico ni nchi chache tu zilizo na uwakilishi wa wanawake katika serikali kuliko Marekani, kulingana na takwimu za Shirika la Kimataifa la Bunge. Marekani ni ya 97 kati ya nchi 203 Ni nani aliye wa kwanza? Rwanda, ambayo inashikilia bunge la chini kwa asilimia 63.8 Wanawake Wanaingia Kazi: Chuo na Kazi Marekani imeona kuongezeka kwa wanawake waliosoma chuo kikuu, hasa katika sehemu ya kwanza ya karne ya 20, tena katika miaka ya 1970, na sasa. Wanawake wengi zaidi wanajiandikisha katika vyuo vikuu kuliko wanaume, hasa wanawake wa Hispania na weusi, kulingana na utafiti uliofanywa na Kituo cha Utafiti cha Pew. Mwaka 1994 kulikuwa na tofauti ya asilimia mbili tu katika kiwango cha wanafunzi wa shule ya sekondari wa wanawake na wa kiume waliojisajili katika taasisi za miaka minne. Mwaka 2012 wanawake walikuwa wakizidi wanaume katika idadi ya wanafunzi wa chuo kikuu kwa zaidi ya asilimia 10. Kwa kuongezeka kwa digrii za chuo kikuu, sasa kuna wanawake wengi wanaotafuta kazi ambazo wakati mmoja ziliongozwa tu na wanaume. Kwa mfano, idadi ya wanasheria walikuwa 12.4% wanawake katika 1980. Leo, wanawake ni asilimia 36. (Bila shaka, hiyo bado ni tofauti kubwa ya jinsia. "Kama ilivyoelezwa katika utafiti wa mwaka huu, ""Wanawake wana jukumu la kuongoza katika kesi za mahakama, na wanawake wana uwezekano mdogo wa kufanya hivyo, kulingana na utafiti uliofanywa na Chama cha Wanasheria wa Marekani.""" Kwa hivyo, kwa sehemu ya hii, tunakupa maelezo ya msingi ya ABC na rangi. Na hasa kuzingatia ushiriki wa wasichana - hisabati, sayansi, teknolojia - mapema ni muhimu. Pia kumekuwa na msukumo wa kujumuisha wanawake zaidi katika nyanja za STEM - sayansi, teknolojia, uhandisi na hisabati - na maendeleo yamekuwa mchanganyiko. Wanawake wanaopata digrii katika sayansi ya viumbe wanafanana na wanaume. Lakini idadi ya wanawake wanaofundisha sayansi ya kompyuta na uhandisi ni ya chini kuliko ya wanaume. Katika mahojiano na Recode, Rais Obama alimwambia mwandishi wa habari Kara Swisher kwamba serikali haifanyi vya kutosha kusaidia shule kufundisha ujuzi unaohitajika kwa kazi katika hisabati na sayansi na kwamba tasnia ya burudani inahitaji kufanya kazi bora katika kuelezea wanawake wa mafanikio wa uhandisi. "Kama sehemu ya kazi hii, ni muhimu kuanzisha ""ABC"" na ""Rangi.""" Na hasa kuzingatia wasichana, ushiriki - hisabati, sayansi, teknolojia - mapema ni muhimu, "Obama alisema. "Vikundi visivyo na uwakilishi wa kutosha, Waafrika-Wamarekani, Watalatino. Lazima tuwaunganishe watoto hao". Baraza la Wanawake na Wasichana la Baraza la White House la utawala wa Obama na Ofisi ya Sayansi na Teknolojia wamekuwa wakifanya kazi ya kupanua idadi ya wanafunzi wa kike wa STEM. Mpango huo wa hivi karibuni ni kuimarisha fedha za ziada za dola bilioni 4 kwa ajili ya kuongeza programu za elimu ya sayansi na teknolojia katika shule za msingi, za kati na za sekondari nchini kote. "Mshahara sawa kwa kazi sawa ni thamani ya pamoja ya Marekani, ""Seneta wa Republican Deb Fischer aliiambia Bunge katika Siku ya Mshahara Sawa mwaka huu." "Kimsingi, mshahara sawa ni juu ya usawa wa msingi na kuhakikisha kwamba kila mwanamke, kama kila mwanamume, ana fursa ya kujenga maisha ambayo yeye huchagua. """ Wanawake walipata asilimia 81.8 ya mapato ya wanaume kila wiki, kulingana na Idara ya Takwimu za Kazi. Kwa mujibu wa kipimo cha wastani wa mapato ya wanawake nchini Marekani, wanawake wanajipatia mapato ya chini ya dola 320 kwa mwezi na $3,840 kwa mwaka. Kwa wanawake Wahispania na weusi, mapato huelekea kushuka hata chini. Bila shaka, idadi hizo hubadilika-badilika ikitegemea kazi-maisha. Kwa mfano, wanawake waliofanya kazi katika elimu walipata mshahara wa wastani wa $ 907 kwa wiki mnamo 2015, wakati wanaume katika uwanja huo walipata $ 1,144. Mwaka 2009 Obama alisaini sheria ya Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act, ambayo iliongeza muda wa wanawake kuwasilisha malalamiko ya ubaguzi wa kazi. Obama ameweka sheria ya kuwahimiza makampuni yenye wafanyakazi zaidi ya 100 kufichua idadi ya wafanyakazi kulingana na jamii, jinsia na kabila. Sheria ya Haki ya Mshahara (Paycheck Fairness Act) inawalinda wanawake dhidi ya kulipiza kisasi kutoka kwa mwajiri wao wakati wanatafuta kujadili na kupinga mshahara wao. Sheria hiyo imewasilishwa kwa Bunge kila mwaka tangu mwaka wa 1977 na mara nyingi imepingwa. Mkataba huo ulifunguliwa mnamo Novemba 2015, lakini hakuna hatua yoyote iliyopigwa tangu wakati huo. Kwa hiyo, Viongozi Wengi na Wahitimu Wengi. Kwa Nini Kulipa Chini? Nadharia kadhaa zaweza kueleza kwa nini tofauti ya mshahara wa jinsia ni ya kudumu sana. Kwa mfano, wanawake hawawezi kujadili mshahara wao. "Emily Martin, makamu wa rais na mshauri mkuu wa Kituo cha Sheria cha Wanawake cha Kitaifa, aliiambia Jennifer Ludden, ""Kwa sababu mara nyingi mshahara wako huamuliwa kwa kumbukumbu ya kiasi gani ulichopata katika kazi yako ya mwisho, athari za ubaguzi wa mshahara zinaweza kufuata watu katika kazi zao.""" Jambo jingine ambalo linaweza kuchangia kutokuwa na usawa wa mshahara: kuwa mama. "Wanawake ambao wana watoto mara nyingi hupambana na kile kinachoitwa ""ukuta wa mama"" na hufanya chini ya wanawake wachanga, wasio na watoto ambao wanaishi katika miji, kulingana na utafiti uliofanywa na James Chung wa Reach Advisors." Sababu inaweza kuwa hofu kwa upande wa waajiri kwamba akina mama hawatakuwa kama kujitolea kwa kazi zao kama wafanyakazi wasio na watoto. "Yuki Noguchi, mwandishi wa NPR, alisema: ""Kulikuwa na ongezeko la mara kwa mara la mashtaka ya ubaguzi wa ujauzito na uzazi yaliyowasilishwa kwa Tume ya Fursa za Usawa wa Ajira tangu miaka ya 1990." Copyright 2020 NPR. Kwa maelezo zaidi, tembelea www.nl.org.