All official European Union website addresses are in the europa.eu domain.See all EU institutions and bodies
Agroecosystems, are defined as communities of plants and animals interacting with their physical and chemical environments that have been modified by people to produce food, fibre, fuel and other products for human consumption and processing (Maes, 2018).
Agroecosystems are composed by cropland and grassland, and cover about 47% of the EU’s land area. To a very large degree these are managed ecosystems, only some grassland habitats exist in fact under a natural state. The history of agriculture spans for several millennia, a sufficient time to have specific species and habitats coevolving together with human management. The latter is key to maintain agroecosystems in good condition. But what is a good condition for a managed ecosystem, therefore in an ecosystem that exists to a great extent for the benefit of humans? The approach taken in this report is that a good condition requires balance: in the use of natural resources while maintaining biodiversity, in the supply of a set of ecosystems services, in the necessity to fulfil the needs of current as well as of future generations.
Agroecosystems host some of the most species-rich habitats in the EU (Wilson et al, 2012) and it is estimated that ca. 50% of all species in Europe rely on agricultural habitats at least to some extent (Halada et al., 2011; Lomba et al., 2015). Moreover, agrobiodiversity and in particular genetic resources for food and agriculture (wild crop relatives, plant varieties, landraces etc.) represent an insurance for the future, guaranteeing the capacity to respond to crises (climatic, economic etc.) contributing thus to food security.
Extent and change
The extent of agroecosystems according to CORINE Land Cover (all eleven level-3 classes 2.x, of which ten are assigned to cropland ecosystems, and one -class 2.3.1 “Pastures”- assigned to grassland ecosystems) corresponds to almost 48% (2018) of total EU land area. The total area covered by agroecosystems has decreased by over 12,000 km² since 2000.A key driver for this was urbanisation, with 4,200 km² of agroecosystems irreversibly lost in a decade.
Drivers and pressures
The assessment of pressures on agroecosystems focuses on three categories of pressures, deriving from: climate change, land conversion, pollution and nutrient enrichment.
The relation of agroecosystems with climate is twofold: farming activities shaping agroecosystems depend directly on climatic conditions (e.g. planting and sowing dates, water availability and irrigation, choice of species varieties better adapted to climate extremes etc.). Moreover, changing climatic conditions affect plant community traits and composition, leading to species range shifts e.g. in grassland habitats (Tardella et al, 2016; Choler P., 2018), and change in their usage (e.g. duration and intensity of grazing season) driving therefore a whole range of impacts on biodiversity. The perspective adopted in this assessment is that climate change creates a disturbance, leading to changes in the physiological responses of ecosystems, their time responses (e.g. phenology), and spatial distribution (Bellard et al. 2012). Therefore, even though some beneficial effects for some ecosystems are possible, e.g. in terms of increased primary productivity at the regional scale, significant changes are overall considered major cross-ecosystem drivers of degradation including agroecosystems . Generally, EU climate goes in the direction of having higher temperatures, longer warm periods, and milder winters.
Depositions of pollutants (nitrogen and sulphur) causing acidification and eutrophication on agroecosystems have decreased both in the short term and since 2000 (long-term trend). High deposition levels can in fact impact grassland structure and function, in particular by inducing changes in plant species composition, eutrophication and soil acidification (Henry and Aherne, 2014). The improvement is significant, 47% decrease per decade for the acidification component, 20% decrease for the eutrophication component.
Convergence of evidence
According to the results, 22% of the agroecosystems area shows improvement in at least three indicators (Figure 3.2.16), most of these are concentrated in the Northern part of the EU (Figure 3.2.15). Conversely, 27% of the agroecosystems area shows degradation in at least three indicators (Figure 3.2.18), mostly concentrated in the Southern part of the EU (Figure 3.2.17). In 28% of agroecosystems area five indicators show no change (Figures 3.2.19 and 3.2.20).
While pressures on agroecosystems have largely remained unchanged or even increased throughout the 2010-2020 decade, two thirds of condition indicators show either stable or declining trends.
The European Court of Auditors (ECA) in its 2020 assessment on the contribution made by the CAP to maintaining and enhancing biodiversity (ECA, 2020), found that the CAP has so far been insufficient to counteract declining biodiversity on farmland. The ECA recommendations to the European Commission are to:
1. improve coordination and design for the post-2020 EU biodiversity strategy – to this end also tracking expenditure more accurately;
2. enhance the contribution of direct payments to farmland biodiversity;
3. increase the contribution of rural development to farmland biodiversity;
4. develop reliable indicators to assess the impact of the CAP on farmland biodiversity.
The assessment presented in this report is based on trends calculated on the basis of available data, and therefore may overlook factors that would describe in a more complete way the dynamics of agroecosystem condition. Nevertheless, many relevant variables are considered and the main conclusion is that the degradation trend of agroecosystems was not halted in the 2010-2020 decade. Such trend departs from a condition of agroecosystems that had already been suffering long-term degradation and important biodiversity losses, while pressure levels are to a large degree unchanged or increasing. These are the same pressures that contributed in the past decades to biodiversity loss, which is still ongoing, as clearly shown by available biodiversity indicators. Therefore, when increasing pressures from a changing climate are added to the picture, there is no evidence that reversal of biodiversity trends and improvement of ecosystem condition will take place, if appropriate actions are not taken.
"Kama ilivyoelezwa katika makala ya kwanza ya EU Agroecology, ""Agroecology"" ni jamii ya mimea na wanyama wanaohusika na mazingira yao ya kimwili na kemikali ambayo yamebadilishwa na watu ili kuzalisha chakula, nyuzi, mafuta na bidhaa nyingine kwa ajili ya matumizi ya binadamu na usindikaji." Mifumo ya kilimo ya mazingira inajumuisha mashamba ya kilimo na nyasi, na inashughulikia karibu 47% ya eneo la ardhi la EU. Kwa kiwango kikubwa sana hizi ni mifumo ya ikolojia inayosimamiwa, ni baadhi tu ya makazi ya nyasi ambayo kwa kweli yapo chini ya hali ya asili. Historia ya kilimo inaenea kwa maelfu ya miaka, muda wa kutosha kuwa na spishi maalum na makazi coevolving pamoja na usimamizi wa binadamu. Jambo hilo la mwisho ni muhimu ili kudumisha mifumo ya ikolojia ya kilimo katika hali nzuri. Lakini ni nini hali nzuri kwa mfumo wa ikolojia uliodhibitiwa, kwa hivyo katika mfumo wa ikolojia ambao upo kwa kiwango kikubwa kwa faida ya wanadamu? """Mtazamo uliochukuliwa katika ripoti hii ni kwamba hali nzuri inahitaji usawa: katika matumizi ya rasilimali za asili wakati wa kudumisha utofauti wa kibiolojia, katika utoaji wa huduma za mfumo wa ikolojia, katika uhitaji wa kukidhi mahitaji ya kizazi cha sasa na kizazi cha baadaye." Kwa mujibu wa takwimu za EU, mazingira ya kilimo ni miongoni mwa mazingira yenye aina nyingi zaidi za wanyama (Wilson et al., 2012) na inakadiriwa kuwa karibu asilimia 50 ya mazingira ya kilimo ni ya wanyama. Kwa mfano, asilimia 50 ya spishi za wanyama duniani zinategemea mazingira ya kilimo (Halade et al., 2011; Lomba et al., 2015). Kwa kuongezea, agrobiodiversity na hasa rasilimali za maumbile kwa ajili ya chakula na kilimo ( jamaa wa mazao ya mwituni, aina za mimea, landraces nk.) Ni bima ya siku zijazo, kuhakikisha uwezo wa kukabiliana na mgogoro (hali ya hewa, kiuchumi, nk). hivyo kuchangia usalama wa chakula. "Kama ilivyoelezwa katika ripoti ya CORINE Land Cover, ""kiwango cha 11 cha kiwango cha 3 cha 2.x, ambayo kumi ni kugawanywa kwa mifumo ya ikolojia ya mashamba ya kilimo, na moja - aina ya 2.3.1 - ""Mashamba"" - iliyowekwa kwa mifumo ya ikolojia ya nyasi - inalingana na karibu 48% ya jumla ya eneo la ardhi la EU." Kwa mujibu wa ripoti hiyo, eneo la kilimo limepungua kwa zaidi ya kilomita 12,000 tangu mwaka 2000, na kwa sababu ya kuongezeka kwa idadi ya wakazi wa miji, eneo la kilimo limepungua kwa kilomita 4,200 katika kipindi cha miaka kumi. Kwa mujibu wa utafiti wa utafiti wa hali ya hewa, athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari za athari. Uwiano wa agroecosystems na hali ya hewa ni mbili: shughuli za kilimo kuunda agroecosystems kutegemea moja kwa moja juu ya hali ya hewa (kwa mfano. Kuongeza muda wa kupanda, kupanda, na kupanua, na kuongeza upatikanaji wa maji, na kuchagua aina za mimea zinazolingana na hali ya hewa ya hali ya juu. Kwa kuongezea, mabadiliko ya hali ya hewa huathiri sifa na muundo wa jamii ya mimea, ikisababisha mabadiliko ya aina ya aina, kwa mfano. Katika maeneo ya mashamba ya mimea (Tardella et al., 2016; Choler P., 2018), na mabadiliko katika matumizi yao (kwa mfano, Kwa sababu ya muda na nguvu ya msimu wa malisho, hii ina athari nyingi kwa uumbaji. Kwa mujibu wa utafiti huo, mabadiliko ya hali ya hewa ni athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari ya athari. phenology), na usambazaji wa nafasi (Bellard et al. 2012) na Kwa hiyo, hata ingawa baadhi ya athari za manufaa kwa baadhi ya mifumo ya ikolojia inawezekana, kwa mfano Kwa ujumla, mabadiliko makubwa yanachukuliwa kuwa sababu kuu za uharibifu wa mifumo ya ikolojia, ikiwa ni pamoja na mifumo ya ikolojia ya kilimo. Kwa ujumla, hali ya hewa ya EU inaelekea kuwa na joto la juu, vipindi vya joto vya muda mrefu, na majira ya baridi kali. Utoaji wa uchafuzi wa hewa (nitrojeni na sulfuri) unaosababisha acidification na eutrophication kwenye mifumo ya kilimo imepungua katika muda mfupi na tangu 2000 (mwelekeo wa muda mrefu). Kiwango cha juu cha kutua kwa kweli kinaweza kuathiri muundo na kazi ya nyasi, haswa kwa kusababisha mabadiliko katika muundo wa spishi za mimea, eutrophication na acidification ya udongo (Henry na Aherne, 2014). Mabadiliko hayo ni makubwa, 47% kupungua kwa kila muongo kwa ajili ya acidification kipengele, 20% kupungua kwa ajili ya eutrophication kipengele. Kwa mujibu wa matokeo, asilimia 22 ya eneo la agroecosystems inaonyesha uboreshaji katika angalau viashiria vitatu (Figure 3.2.16), wengi wao ni umakini katika sehemu ya kaskazini ya EU (Figure 3.2.15). Kwa upande mwingine, 27% ya eneo la agroecosystems inaonyesha uharibifu katika angalau viashiria vitatu (Figure 3.2.18), hasa katika sehemu ya kusini ya EU (Figure 3.2.17). Katika asilimia 28 ya maeneo ya agroecosystems, viashiria vitano havionyeshi mabadiliko (Rahis 3.2.19 na 3.2.20). Ingawa shinikizo kwa agroecosystems kwa kiasi kikubwa limebaki bila kubadilika au hata kuongezeka katika muongo mzima wa 2010-2020 - theluthi mbili ya viashiria vya hali ya mazingira vinaonyesha mwenendo wa kudumu au kupungua. Katika tathmini yake ya 2020 ya mchango wa CAP katika kudumisha na kuongeza utofauti wa kibiolojia, Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Wakaguzi (ECA) iligundua kuwa CAP hadi sasa haijatosha kukabiliana na kupungua kwa utofauti wa kibiolojia kwenye ardhi ya kilimo. Tume ya Ulaya ya Uchunguzi ya Biolojia imependekeza Tume ya Ulaya ifanye kazi kwa ufanisi zaidi katika kufuatilia matumizi ya EU baada ya 2020 na kuongeza mchango wa malipo ya moja kwa moja kwa uhifadhi wa mazingira ya mashamba, na kuendeleza viashiria vya kuaminika vya kutathmini athari za CAP kwa uhifadhi wa mazingira. Tathmini iliyotolewa katika ripoti hii inategemea mwenendo uliohesabiwa kwa msingi wa data inayopatikana, na kwa hivyo inaweza kupuuza sababu ambazo zinaweza kuelezea kwa njia kamili zaidi nguvu za hali ya mazingira ya kilimo. Hata hivyo, vigezo vingi vinavyohusiana vinachukuliwa na hitimisho kuu ni kwamba mwenendo wa uharibifu wa mifumo ya kilimo haukukoma katika muongo wa 2010-2020. Mwelekeo huo unatokana na hali ya mifumo ya ikolojia ya kilimo ambayo tayari ilikuwa ikiteseka kwa muda mrefu na hasara kubwa ya bioanuwai, wakati viwango vya shinikizo ni kwa kiwango kikubwa bila kubadilika au kuongezeka. Hizi ni shinikizo sawa ambazo zimechangia katika miongo ya hivi karibuni kwa upotezaji wa bioanuwai, ambao bado unaendelea, kama inavyoonyeshwa wazi na viashiria vya bioanuwai vinavyopatikana. Kwa hiyo, wakati shinikizo la kuongezeka kutoka kwa mabadiliko ya hali ya hewa huongezwa kwenye picha, hakuna ushahidi kwamba mwelekeo wa mabadiliko ya kibiolojia na uboreshaji wa hali ya mazingira utafanyika ikiwa hatua sahihi hazitachukuliwa.