The problem of substance abuse has emerged as a major issue in society and has become an area of major focus for healthcare professionals. According to the 2007 drug survey interview, the rate of current (past-month) illicit drug use among people aged 12 or older was 19.9 million, representing about 8.0% of the U.S. population.1. “With high rates of abuse of various types of substances among a diverse population, there is an urgent need for the investigation of the best practices for treating pain and improving pain-free care. It is also imperative to develop proper diagnosis and management protocols to reduce future abuse.” Substance abuse is often described as “self-administration of various drugs that deviate from medically or socially accepted use, which, if prolonged, can lead to the development of physical and psychological dependence.”2 “This disease process, often referred to as chemical dependency, is characterized by periodic or continuous impaired control over drug(s) acquisition, and distortions of mental capacity, most notably denial.”3
Various other definitions of substance abuse have also been proposed by professional organizations in the past. Those include:
• “Non-medical use of a drug,” [Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)],
• “Non-medical use of a substance” [National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)],
• “Non-medical use of a substance for psychic effect, dependence, or suicide attempt or gesture” [Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMSHA)],
• “Any harmful use, irrespective of whether the behavior constitutes a ‘disorder’ in the DSM-IV diagnostic nomenclature [Institute of Medicine (IOM)],
• “A maladaptive pattern of substance use, leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, as manifested by one or more of the following occurring within a 12-month period: recurrent substance use resulting in a failure to fulfill major obligation at work, school, or home; recurrent substance use in situations in which it is physically hazardous; recurrent substance-related legal problems; or continued substance use despite having persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused or exacerbated by the effects of the substance.” [Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fourth edition; DSM-IV, 1994) by the American Psychiatric Association].
THEORIES OF DRUG ADDICTION
There have been numerous theories proposed to describe the essential nature of drug addiction. It is important to realize that drug addiction is neither a weakness in character nor a moral issue.
Genetic and Biochemical Theories
Although substances of abuse are chemically divergent molecules with very different initial activities, the resultant addictions share many important features. Most addictive drugs directly or indirectly activate the brain’s reward system by markedly increasing the release of dopamine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter regulating emotion, cognition, movement, motivation and pleasure. Overstimulation of the brain reward pathway with dopamine produces intense euphoric effects sought by most drug abusers. This pleasurable sensation is very reinforcing. The brain reward pathway is associated with several substances of abuse, including nicotine. There can be associated changes in behavior that reflect changes in neuron physiology and biochemistry.
Exaggerated response to lower levels of stimuli can lead to dependence in susceptible individuals. This has been shown to be true with the hypersensitivity of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors to nicotine. These individuals can develop tolerance and sensitization due to chronic exposure to nicotine. Usually, this kind of susceptibility plays a role in the transition from substance use to dependence and also from chronic use to addiction.4
The cholinergic muscarinic 2 receptor has been associated with the function of memory and cognition, but has also been shown to be related to alcohol dependence and major depressive syndrome. Researchers have identified specific alleles, genotypes, haplotypes, and diplotypes associated with risk for either dependence or affective disorders. Moreover, substance abuse has been documented within multiple generations of some families, indicating genetic predisposition.4 Figure 1 is the diagrammatic representation of the limbic circuitry with tentative localization of functions involved in drug addiction.5
Psychiatric co-morbid conditions
It has been suggested that some substance abusers typically exhibit pre-existing co-morbid traits such as novelty-seeking and antisocial behavior. Many of them choose the drug to self-medicate coinciding with the symptoms of the co-morbid psychiatric disorders.4
Researchers have suggested that exposure to a class of drugs that have the potential for abuse can sensitize the reward pathways in the brain to promote substance abuse. Such exposure alters the chemistry of the addicted brain, changing the relative levels of the neurotransmitters, such as γ-aminobutyric acid, dopamine and serotonin. “For example, Anesthesiologists can be affected due to occupational exposure and may continue to use the agents to alleviate the withdrawal symptoms they feel when away from the exposure.” Additionally, low doses of opiates that can induce sensitization are present and measurable in the exhaled breath of patients receiving them. However, some believe that the trace levels are not enough to cause chemical changes.4
ORAL MANIFESTATION OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE
Many of the abused substances have devastating consequences on oral health. Cocaine can result in movement disorder and manifest itself as transient chorea. Additionally, buccolingual dyskinesia, which is commonly known as ‘crack dancing’ or boca torcida (twisted mouth), can also be present. In the case of heroin abuse, increased numbers of decayed, missing, and filled teeth can be detected in the mouth. This can result from chronic malnutrition, poor oral hygiene due to impaired motor function and neuropathology secondary to infection, vasculitis, septic emboli, thromboembolism, prolonged heroin-induced respiratory depression, hypotension, positional vascular compression, acute Parkinsonism, and spongiform leukoencephalopathy. Marijuana abuse can lead to acidic erosion of enamel due to cannabinoid hyperemesis, in which frequent episodes of vomiting occurs. Additionally, these patients develop dental caries, inflammation and hyperplasia of gingival, uvulitis, leukoplakia, oral papillomas, and tongue carcinoma. The underlying pathology includes poor oral hygiene due to short-term and long-term debilitating psychological effects, xerostomia, alveolar bone loss, and carcinogens in marijuana. Increased incidence of HIV has also been reported. “Indirectly, marijuana use has been linked to HIV because the abusers adopt more risky and unprotected sexual practice.”On the other hand, the major psychoactive component in marijuana (the cannabinoids), including Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) induce immunosuppression and increase HIV replication in severe combined immunodeficient mice implanted with human peripheral blood lymphocytes (huPBL-SCID mice), indicating a direct link between marijuana abuse and HIV infection.6 Several mechanisms have been described in chronic abuse of methamphetamine which leads to “Meth mouth” (Fig. 2), and characterized by large carious lesions in buccal smooth surface areas and fractured teeth.6,7 “Xerostomia occurs due to the stimulation of the a2 receptors, mild dysphoria, and prolonged sleep which leads to poor oral hygiene. Drug-induced craving for high-calorie carbonated beverages results in increased dental caries, bruxism, clenching and fracture of the comprom
ised dentition due to increased motor activity.” Lastly, vasoconstriction leads to periodontal breakdown.6 It is important to note that a significant level of osteoporosis has also been reported in a high percentage of methamphetamine abusers.8 Therefore, it is possible that such structural weakness can occur in the dentition as well.
CUTANEOUS MANIFESTATIONS OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE
In addition to a thorough history taking that follows all of the HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) Guidelines, it is necessary to look for any cutaneous manifestations in this group of individuals. Often patients may present with infection and cellulites of the area where the drug has been injected. Usually, the pathogens get introduced into the area due to unsterile supplies, licking of the needles, and use of saliva to moisten the skin and dilute the drug. Ulceration or necrosis of tissue can result from vasoconstriction, sclerosed veins and chronic venous insufficiency. Examples include delayed leg ulcers and nasal necrosis seen in cocaine abuse. Subcutaneous and intramuscular route of drug abuse can be favored by the abusers to hide track marks. This practice is often referred to as “skin popping” and can subsequently form sclerosed veins. The localized infections resulting from substance abuse often heal with characteristic irreversible scarring, called ‘pop scars.’ These can be well-circumscribed irregular round or oval area 0.5-3 cm in diameter, and can be hypopigmented or hyperpigmented, atrophic or hypertrophic scars or keloids.6 Excoriated papules and gangrene of extremities have also been reported with cocaine abuse.9,10 Impaired lymphatic drainage can also ensue and lead to puffy hand syndrome, a term, which is self-explanatory.6 These conditions have been illustrated in Figures 3a-c. We observed both pop scars and puffy hand syndrome in our 61-year-old completely edentulous female patient. Her well-circumscribed lesions measured between 3-18 mm in diameter. Each lesion was characterized by a central area of elevated scarring with depressed peripheries. The lesions were surrounded by hyperpigmented smooth skin. However, she did not report any itching, burning, or pain sensation in or around the lesions. She admitted to both cocaine and methamphetamine abuse and skin popping behavior.6 Substance abuse is often marked with significant behavioral clues. Patients often think that they have been infested with “Crank bugs.” This delusional parasitosis causes the individual to pick their own skin. As a result, sharply circumscribed chronic ulcerations that do not heal are hard to diagnose with cultures or biopsies. The patients may often present inorganic types of ‘fibers’ as evidence of infestation. This condition has been referred to as “Morgellons Disease.” Some of these individuals also demonstrate cutting of own wrists, arms and other body parts that constitute deliberate carving behavior.6
DENTAL MANAGEMENT OF DRUG ABUSERS
The management of drug abuse in patients can often become a daunting task. A study report published in 2002 identified four possible causes of mutual mistrust in the medical care of drug users. Firstly, the physicians are skeptical about the medical necessity of opiates to treat pain in the drug abusers. The abusers fear a deceiving practice on their part because the assessment of pain is mostly dependent on the documentation of the self-reporting. Secondly, there is no standard approach available to verify the actual need with precision. Thirdly, physicians felt uncomfortable in addressing the issues that they suspected were based on deception on the abusers’ part and are more uncertain in terms of assessment and intervention. Lastly, the drug abusers also feel mistreated. They perceive physician inconsistency and avoidance as signs of biased attitude. They viewed delayed care as intentional mistreatment. Unfortunately, the dental setting can prove to be the same if the dental care providers are not knowledgeable about the recommended protocols.11
Our edentulous patient was referred to the oral surgeon for the removal of the bilateral maxillary exostoses that she presented with since those would prevent the fabrication of a maxillary complete denture. Subsequently, a set of maxillary and mandibular complete dentures were fabricated to address her esthetic and functional needs. Patients like her, who need simple or extensive dental procedures, also require adequate pre- and/or post-operative pain management.
As a routine, patients associate the quality of dental care with the degree of effective pain management. Many dental situations call for prescribing over-the-counter non-narcotic analgesics. Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen are excellent because of the dual anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. However, these increase bleeding tendency. Acetaminophen can be used for less intense pain. COX-2 inhibitors such as rofecoxib and celecoxib have been used for effective treatment of TMJ problems but are not without risks. Corticosteroids can be used in urgent cases to reduce inflammation and swelling, thereby preventing nerve damage, but have the potential to cause adrenal crisis and elevation of blood glucose level.6
It has been advised that prescribing acetaminophen for postoperative pain should be limited to less than 2.5 g daily in dental patients with a history of drug and alcohol abuse with compromised hepatic function. The recent reduction of the recommended daily maximum dose of Acetaminophen for healthy individuals by its maker might also indicate the need for a revision of this regimen.6
However, the degree of severity of a condition may necessitate the selection of a stronger and effective opioid analgesic. Therefore, certain formulations like fentanyl can be delivered transdermally to ensure gradual onset, minimize the need for frequent self-administration, and reduce abuse potential. Oxycontin offers a sustained-delivery mechanism through dual delivery mechanism, which is characterized by an enhanced immediate release phase followed by sustained delivery to prolong the duration of action. A combination of an opioid pain reliever and an opioid antagonist such as naloxone, naltrexone, or nalmefene could also reduce abuse potential. However, ‘experienced’ drug users can still find ways to manipulate the abuse potential. Combining analgesics with different modes of action such as an opioid and acetaminophen could provide greater analgesic efficacy than therapy utilizing a single agent. Combining ibuprofen and acetaminophen can be as effective for some moderate to severe pain control. Interestingly, health care professionals can also suffer from “opiophobia” and remain reluctant to prescribe, administer, dispense, or stock opioid drugs. Dental care providers must be knowledgeable about the pharmacological effects, duration of action, and half-life of the opioids in order to prescribe the correct medication for effective pain management. Various behavioral management techniques such as Contingency management can also be utilized with delivery of vouchers contingent upon naltrexone compliance, drug-free urine specimens. Involving a significant other has been also shown to increase compliance and utilization of available pharmacotherapies.6
Local anesthetics with vasoconstrictors can increase cardiovascular risks such as lethal cardiac arrhythmias and cerebral hemorrhage in substance abusers. Cocaine abusers experience convulsions with the use of Lidocaine. Intrapocket application of gingival retraction cord and Oraqix, a combination of lidocaine/prilocaine gel can also increase the risks due to the absorption of significant amount of vasoconstrictors. On some occasions, peripheral nerve stimulator can be as effective as 2% lidocaine with 1:100,000 epinephrine and can further reduce cardiovascular risks. Nonetheless, it is advisable to consult with a patient&rs
quo;s physician or abuse specialist to outline a treatment plan that allows for conscious sedation for major dental procedures.6
The course of action for dental management also depends on the extent of the renal insufficiency. The presence of an arteriovenous shunt in a hemodialysis patient warrants antibiotic prophylaxis. NSAIDs can prove to be nephrotoxic. Therefore, those should be avoided in patients with renal insufficiency, but can be used if the patient is already in an end-stage renal disease with no residual renal function. Similar protocol has been proposed with the use of narcotics in substance abusers with renal insufficiency. Regardless, narcotics with prolonged duration of action should be avoided. However, active metabolites of meperidine can accumulate in renal patients to cause seizures and should be avoided. In patients with renal insufficiency, no specific adjustments for the dosage are required with the use of local anesthetics, but the amount of vasoconstrictor should be minimized because of hypertension secondary to renal disease.6
There are evidence-based studies that confirm the occurrence of hepatitis C in substance abusers. Many drug abusers can also be alcoholics with hepatic impairment. The resulting compromise in the hepatic function requires extra caution with the use of amide-type anesthetics like lidocaine and prilocaine, both of which are metabolized in the liver. Moreover, esters are biotransformed by plasma cholinesterase (also known as pseudocholinesterase). This is an enzyme that is also synthesized by the liver. Therefore, the use of the ester type of anesthetic does not provide additional benefits in patients with hepatic failure. Hepatic insufficiency does not affect the duration of action of local anesthetics. Therefore, these patients require the standard amount of local anesthetic for each treated site. It is still advisable to treat only one quadrant at a time to minimize the total dose.6
Use of long-acting local anesthetics in oral surgery and endodontic procedures should be considered for this group of patients to reduce the overall amount of anesthetics. Long-acting anesthetics like 0.5% bupivacaine with 1:200,000 epinephrine could delay the onset, and reduce the intensity of postoperative pain, though bupivacaine has also been shown to cause severe toxicity, including cardiovascular arrest. Levobupivacaine and ropivacaine have been deemed to be safer alternatives for long-acting anesthetics.6
Drug abusers can present for dental care at any stage of abuse. Comprehensive oral hygiene regimen must include dental prophylaxis and oral hygiene instruction consistently every three to six months for partially edentulous patients. Regular neutral fluoride is recommended instead of the acidulated ones to prevent further damage to the already compromised dentition. The patients need to be educated about the harmful effects of drug abuse on oral and overall health. Sialogogues such as pilocarpine hydrochloride and cevimeline hydrochloride, sugarless gum or oral moisturizers can be prescribed to address the problems with xerostomia. Saliva substitutes may not be as effective.6
Mouth rinses containing alcohol should be avoided in patients with drug abuse who also have fungal infections. This may also be true for severe xerostomia. Topical application of hydrocortisone and iodoquinol or nystatin and triamcinolone cream can be recommended. Severe fungal infection can be treated with fluconazole instead of ketoconazole, which can be hepatotoxic.12
PREGNANT WOMEN AND HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS AS ABUSERS
The fact that pregnant women and health care providers who are also substance abusers can seek dental care is often overlooked. Substance use by pregnant women is a leading preventable cause of mental, physical, and psychological problems in infants and children. In 2002 and 2003, 4.3 percent of pregnant women aged 15 to 44 used illicit drugs during the past month, 4.1 percent reported binge alcohol use, and 18.0 percent reported smoking cigarettes. It has also been noted that pregnant women aged 15 to 25 were more likely to use illicit drugs and smoke cigarettes during the past month than pregnant women aged 26 to 44.13 Nearly 16 percent of pregnant women aged 15 to 17 used alcohol in the past month, and they consumed an average of 24 drinks in the past month (i.e., they drank on an average of 6 days during the past month and had an average of about four drinks on the days that they drank).14 Combined data from 2004 to 2006 indicate that an annual average of 6.3 million women aged 18 to 49 (9.4 percent) needed treatment for a substance use problem. Research suggests that most people who have a substance use problem do not receive treatment. In 2006, 7.4 million women aged 18 or older needed treatment for a substance abuse disorder involving alcohol or illicit drugs, but only 822,000 (11.2 percent) received treatment. This report focuses on substance use treatment among women of childrearing age (18 to 49), for whom substance use may pose particular risks to vulnerable offspring.15
Regardless of the drug(s) ingested or the clinical symptoms, it is very hard to predict the anesthetic implications in the drug abusers. It is also true for both regional and general anesthesia administered to the parturient. Alcohol and other substances taken by pregnant women can harm the mother and the unborn baby. Occasionally, emergency situations may arise where the dentists will have to perform major surgical procedures on the expecting mothers who also have a known or concealed substance abuse history. Accidents and other trauma cases may require emergency maxillofacial surgical procedures on a pregnant patient who can also be an active substance abuser. In those cases, administering regional or even general anesthesia may become imperative. Unfortunately, the administration of local, regional or general anesthesia can have major health consequences.
Healthcare professionals too can become addicted to the drugs that they frequently handle during their job responsibilities. Various mechanisms can play a role as have been described under the possible theories of drug addiction. Alcoholism and other forms of substance abuse can affect between 10 to 15 percent of dentists and need assistance from their peers to overcome the problem.16 There are many telltale signs that can be observed in a healthcare professional who abuses drugs. Those are summarized below:17,18
• Most striking sign can be withdrawal from family, friends and leisure activities. Instead more time can be spent at work, where drugs can be easily available.
• Often these practitioners will volunteer for extra calls or shifts and show up for work during off hours.
• Mood swings can include episodes of depression, euphoria, anger, irritability, hostility and can mimic split personality.
• They can also refuse to take lunch or coffee breaks to stay behind or take frequent restroom breaks in order to find an isolated environment to procure or administer the drug.
• When on call, these providers can be hard to reach on pager, or cannot function. They fail to respond to emergencies when on night call.
• These providers can sign out way more than normal amount of narcotics for any given case so that the excess amount can be utilized for self-administration.
• For the same reason there can be unexplained increase in the amount of “ampoule breakage” or “waste.”
• Weight loss and pale skin due to failure to maintain a healthy lifestyle.
• They can also dress up in a manner such as clothes with long sleeves, so that they can hide physical evidence of drug abuse.
The situation usually gets a little tricky when a health care professional becomes addicted to restricted substances. It becomes problematic to confront one of the colleagues based on suspicion. Legal implications cannot be discounted either. On one hand, it is ethically responsible to address the p
roblem. On the other hand, it can be a challenge to report a colleague or a superior. Nonetheless, the intervention has to be initiated sooner than later. On many occasions, the abuser can be in denial or simply employing deception. Then it becomes the obligation of the peers to intervene. There are a few guidelines that can be followed while intervention is offered to an addicted healthcare professional. Those have been listed below:4,17-19
• Colleagues need to talk to the impaired dentist and advise him to seek help. Such discussion has to be done in a private setting. However, it is advisable to have other trusted individuals in the room as witness.
• Reporting a colleague or superior can produce rifts between the parties. Therefore, the Chief Executive of the company or practice can be notified to handle the situation, if it is an inconvenience to confront a friend, colleague, or a senior dentist.
• The Americans with Disabilities Act, enacted in 1992, offers some protection to the addicted health care provider. However, that applies more to the individuals who are addicted to alcohol and does not protect the individuals addicted to other substances of abuse.
• A trained interventionist must be made available during the sessions at all time.
• Intervention must always be done in a larger group. The addicted individual will not feel singled out. At the same time, the treatment outcome may turn out to be favorable if the group includes supportive individuals such as the spouse, family members, friends and colleagues.
• Special attention has to be paid to the gender of the addicted provider. An intervention group consisting of all male members may not be welcome by a female individual.
• All evidence has to be brought to the discussion. Otherwise, the encounter may turn out to be of an accusatory nature rather than one that is aimed at helping the individual. Usually, employers can perform random drug screenings to run an effective monitoring program. Due process is paramount in obtaining specimen and conducting the tests. The cost of initial drug screening is usually borne by the employer or hospital or department or the practice. However, a recovering addict is often required to bear the cost for future tests. In 2008, the cost for one urine test with a fentanyl assay in a New York laboratory was $32.50; but the cost increased dramatically to $290 for a propofol assay and crossed $1000 for analysis of each hair sample.
a) Specimen collection has to be truly random and unpredictable,
b) Micturation must be witnessed,
c) Each urine specimen should be split; half tested and half frozen. The first half of the specimen is tested with radioimmunoassay (RIA) which only rules out drug use.
d) Any positive result must be confirmed with gas chromatographic-mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Hair analysis can also be done with this technique.
e) Other specific requests must be made based on the need. For example, specific requests have to be made for the assay of phenylpiperidines or fentanyl analog use, reentry on naltrexone, use of propofol.
• Do not let the individual leave alone or drive, as he or she can be impaired or can get suicidal.
• Arrangements need to be made for direct transfer to an outpatient facility prior to the intervention.
• The addict is not to be allowed to dictate the treatment. This may include the exact nature of the treatment or the time for initiation of the process. An impaired person is not capable of making a sound judgment.
• If all attempts fail to convince the addict to seek help, the person handling the session should threaten to call the police as a last resort.
• The dentist’s impairment or abuse history should not be revealed to the patient at any point. As an individual the impaired dentist also has the right to privacy. Disclosing such delicate information can be considered a violation of privacy and defamation.
• It is not unusual for an addicted dentist to seek help, overcome the condition and resume normal duties. However, in many instances, a dentist’s career can be jeopardized forever because of the rumors that surface because of the failure in following proper protocols. That can become a huge legal liability for the persons involved in the mismanagement.
• It is also mandatory to report the colleague to the ‘professional assistance or chemical dependency committee of the appropriate dental society.’ This is because your duty does not end until you have made sure that the individual has sought professional help. However, individual state laws and the availability of the ‘dental society-sponsored programs’ must be explored before taking that action. If such programs do not exist, then at the least, you can notify his / her physician.
It may be advisable to refer the individual to a specialist in occasions where following all of these guidelines may not be possible. An individual who becomes suicidal or may be too aggressive and may cause harm to others should not be managed on premises.
RECENT RESEARCH INITIATIVES AND TRACKING SYSTEM
Many approaches have been introduced in recent years in an effort to combat the current trend of increasing substance abuse. More research initiatives and tracking systems have been in place on top of educating the health care professionals. For example, human psychopharmacology is being used as an essential tool to monitor the individuals that have a history of drug abuse. SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography) and PET (position emission tomography) have been used for better understanding of the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of abused drugs. These technologies have been used to study drug mechanisms, drug interactions (e.g., cocaine and alcohol), their acute effects, such as euphoria and craving of drugs on active drug abusers.20
Complex genetic and environmental factors make certain individuals vulnerable to drug and alcohol addiction. The identification of these “addiction genes” is a difficult task because of the variance in the genetic component. In order to make the research endeavor more effective, affordable and widely available, the researchers have recently turned to the invertebrate models systems, namely Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegnas. Researchers hope to identify the mechanisms by which abused substances such as ethanol, cocaine, and nicotine modulate behavior. The research on these flies and worms with sophisticated genetics yet simple anatomy can provide useful insight applicable in the clinical setting because of the remarkable similarity to mammals.21
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has set up its own tracking systems to monitor the sales of substances from Manufacturers to Channels of Distribution. Usually the outlets monitored within the retail market include the settings such as chain drug stores, independent drug stores, mass merchandisers, food stores, and mail service. Tracked outlets within the non-retail market include clinics, non-federal hospitals, federal facilities, HMOs, long-term care facilities, home health care, and other miscellaneous settings. The various drug use databases operated by FDA include:22
• IMS Health, IMS National Sales Perspectives™ that measures the volume of drug products, both prescription and over-the-counter, and selected diagnostic products moving from manufacturers into various outlets within the retail and non-retail markets. Volume is expressed among other things in terms of sales dollars, extended units, and share of market.
• IMS Vector One® National (VONA) measures retail dispensing of prescriptions or the frequency with which drugs move out of an estimated 59,000 retail pharmacies throughout the US into the hands of consumers via formal prescriptions. Information on the physician specialty, the patients’ age and gender, and estimates for the numbers of patients
that are continuing or new to the therapy are available. This database integrates prescription activity from a sample received from payers, switches, and other software systems that may arbitrage prescriptions at various points in the sales cycle.
• IMS Vector One® Total Patient Tracker (TPT). It is a national-level projected audit designed to estimate the total number of unique patients across all drugs and therapeutic classes in the retail outpatient setting over time. Vector One® (both VONA and TPT combined) receives over 1.4 billion prescription claims per year, representing over 120 million unique patients.
• Source Healthcare Analytics’ ProMetis Lx® is a longitudinal patient data source which captures adjudicated prescription claims across the United States across all payment types, including commercial plans, Medicare Part D, cash, assistance programs, and Medicaid. The database is linked to approximately 4.8 billion prescription claims linked to over 190 million unique prescription patients with the duration of therapy, the treating physician or facility and definitive diagnosis linked to each. The overall sample represents nearly 30,000 pharmacies, 1,000 hospitals, 800 outpatient facilities, and 80,000 physician practices.
• Encuity Research, LLC, Physician Drug & Diagnosis Audit (PDDA) with Pain Panel is a monthly survey designed to provide descriptive information on the patterns and treatment of diseases encountered in office-based physician practices in the US. The survey consists of data collected from over 3,200 office-based physicians representing 30 specialties across the US that report on all patient activity during one typical workday per month. The term “drug uses” is referred to a drug in association with a diagnosis during an office-based patient visit. This term may be duplicated by the number of diagnosis for which the drug is mentioned.
Unfortunately, in the past, evidence-based structured review indicated that chronic opioid analgesic therapy (COAT) exposure leads to abuse / addiction in a small percentage of chronic pain patients (CPPs), but a larger percentage will demonstrate aberrant drug-related behaviors (ADRBs) and illicit drug use. These percentages appear to be much less if CPPs are preselected for the absence of a current or past history of alcohol / illicit drug use or abuse / addiction.23
When the FDA database information is utilized, it can be observed that approximately 64,000 kilograms of combination hydrocodone-containing products were sold during the year 2011 accounting for a 28% increase from 50,000 kilograms sold during year 200722 (Fig. 4).
On top of the measures to detect and track substance abuse history, the American Dental Association (ADA) has a proposed guideline on the provision of dental treatment for patients with substance use disorders. It advises dentists to take into consideration a patient’s abuse history for thorough treatment planning. All dental providers need up-to-date knowledge about substance abuse disorders, must use professional judgment while making recommendations to the alcohol and substance abusers, and seek professional consultation, as needed. It is up to the practitioner to get familiar with the resources available to effectively render care and handle emergencies for this group of patients. All dentists are advised to take special precaution while prescribing medications and administering anesthetics with epinephrine for substance users that are both active and in remission. Lastly, all interactions and handling of information must be done with absolute protection of patient privacy, with particular attention paid to the federal and respective state laws.24
Despite increased awareness about the disease of addiction the number of patients with a history of substance abuse has been consistently increasing. All dental care providers can expect to see a steady number of substance abusing patients throughout the year. Dental patients usually consider effective pain management as a measure of quality care. Substance abusing patients are no exception. However, extra caution has to be taken to minimize drug interactions, and adverse effects while achieving this goal. Widespread education is needed to prepare our community to handle the demands. Awareness among the care providers has to be continual to ensure a sound foundation of knowledge on the topic.OH
Dr. Hussain is an adjunct clinical assistant professor, Department of Dental Public Health Sciences, Temple University Kornberg School of Dentistry, Philadelphia, PA, where Drs. Frare and Py Berrios are adjunct clinical instructors. Dr. Hussain is also a practicing general dentist and the dental coordinator, Quality Community Health Care, Inc., Philadelphia, where Drs. Frare and Py Berrios are practicing dentists. Additionally, Drs. Frare and Py Berrios maintain private practices in Voorhees, NJ and Philadelphia, respectively. Corresponding author: Fahmida Hussain, Email: email@example.com
Oral Health welcomes this original article. References available upon request. See the article at: oralhealthgroup.com
Matatizo ya matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya yameibuka kama suala kubwa katika jamii na imekuwa eneo la kuzingatia kubwa kwa wataalamu wa huduma za afya. Kulingana na uchunguzi wa uchunguzi wa dawa za kulevya wa 2007, kiwango cha matumizi ya madawa ya kulevya ya sasa (mwezi uliopita) kati ya watu wenye umri wa miaka 12 au zaidi ilikuwa milioni 19.9, ikimaanisha karibu 8.0% ya idadi ya watu wa Marekani. <unk>Kwa viwango vya juu vya matumizi mabaya ya aina mbalimbali za dawa za kulevya miongoni mwa idadi ya watu mbalimbali, kuna haja ya haraka ya uchunguzi wa mazoea bora ya kutibu maumivu na kuboresha huduma ya bila maumivu. "Uchunguzi wa madawa ya kulevya unajulikana kama ""kujipatia dawa za kulevya ambazo zinatofautiana na matumizi ya matibabu au ya kijamii, ambayo, ikiwa imeongezwa, inaweza kusababisha maendeleo ya utegemezi wa kimwili na kisaikolojia.""[2] Ugonjwa huu, mara nyingi unajulikana kama utegemezi wa kemikali, una sifa ya kudhibitiwa mara kwa mara au kuendelea juu ya upatikanaji wa dawa za kulevya, na upotoshaji wa uwezo wa akili, hasa kukataa." "Utumizi wa dawa za kulevya kwa madhumuni yasiyo ya matibabu, ""Utumzi wa dawa za kulevya kwa madhumuni yasiyo ya matibabu"" (Utumzi wa Dawa za Kulevya na Huduma za Afya ya Akili) ni ""matumizi ya dawa za kulevya kwa madhumuni yasiyo ya matibabu, ambayo husababisha madhara makubwa ya kisaikolojia au shida, kama inavyoonyeshwa na moja au zaidi ya mambo yafuatayo yanayotokea ndani ya kipindi cha miezi kumi na mbili: matumizi ya dawa ya kulevya yanayosababisha kushindwa kutimiza wajibu mkubwa wa kazi, nyumbani, shule au kijamii, na bado ni ya kawaida." Nadharia za Uraibu wa Dawa za Kulevya Kuna nadharia nyingi zilizopendekezwa kuelezea asili ya msingi ya uraibu wa dawa za kulevya. Ni muhimu kutambua kwamba uraibu wa dawa za kulevya si udhaifu wa tabia wala suala la maadili. Ingawa vitu vya matumizi mabaya ni molekuli tofauti za kemikali na shughuli za awali tofauti sana, ulevi unaotokana na vitu hivyo una sifa nyingi muhimu. Dawa nyingi zinazosababisha uraibu huamsha moja kwa moja au kwa njia isiyo ya moja kwa moja mfumo wa thawabu wa ubongo kwa kuongeza sana kutolewa kwa dopamini. Dopamine ni neurotransmitter kudhibiti hisia, utambuzi, harakati, motisha na furaha. Kuchochewa kupita kiasi kwa njia ya thawabu ya ubongo na dopamini hutokeza athari kali za msisimko zinazotafutwa na watumiaji wengi wa dawa za kulevya. Hisia hiyo yenye kufurahisha huimarisha sana. Njia ya thawabu ya ubongo inahusishwa na vitu kadhaa vya matumizi mabaya, kutia ndani nikotini. Kunaweza kuwa na mabadiliko yanayohusiana katika tabia ambayo huonyesha mabadiliko katika fiziolojia ya neva na biokemia. Jibu la kupita kiasi kwa viwango vya chini vya vichocheo linaweza kusababisha utegemezi katika watu walio na mwelekeo. Hii imeonyeshwa kuwa kweli na hypersensitivity ya nicotinic acetylcholine receptors kwa nikotini. Watu hao wanaweza kuwa na uvumilivu na hisia kwa sababu ya kuwa na nikotini kwa muda mrefu. Kwa kawaida, aina hii ya unyeti hucheza jukumu katika mpito kutoka kwa matumizi ya dawa ya kulevya hadi utegemezi na pia kutoka kwa matumizi ya muda mrefu hadi ulevi.Receptor ya cholinergic muscarinic 2 imehusishwa na kazi ya kumbukumbu na utambuzi, lakini pia imeonyeshwa kuwa inahusiana na utegemezi wa pombe na ugonjwa mkubwa wa kushuka moyo. Watafiti wametambua alleles maalum, genotypes, haplotypes, na diplotypes kuhusishwa na hatari ya ama utegemezi au matatizo ya hisia. Kwa kuongezea, matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya yameandikwa katika vizazi vingi vya familia, ikiashiria mwelekeo wa maumbile.4 Mchoro wa 1 ni uwakilishi wa mfululizo wa mzunguko wa limbic na eneo la kazi zinazohusika katika ulevi wa dawa za kulevya.5 Hali za ugonjwa wa akili za pamoja. "Wanafunzi wengi huchagua dawa ya kujisaidia kwa sababu ya dalili za ""kuugua kwa pamoja"" na magonjwa ya akili.4 Watafiti wamedokeza kwamba kuambukizwa kwa aina fulani ya dawa za kulevya ambazo zinaweza kusababisha matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya kunaweza kuchochea njia za thawabu katika ubongo ili kuchochea matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya." Ugonjwa huo huathiri kemikali ya ubongo wa mtu mwenye uraibu, na kubadilisha viwango vya neurotransmitters kama vile asidi ya amino-butyric, dopamine na serotonin. Kwa mfano, wataalamu wa anesthesia wanaweza kuathiriwa kutokana na mfiduo wa kazi na wanaweza kuendelea kutumia mawakala ili kupunguza dalili za kujiondoa wanahisi wakati mbali na mfiduo. Kwa kuongezea, vipimo vya chini vya opioids ambavyo vinaweza kusababisha unyeti viko na vinaweza kupimwa katika pumzi ya wagonjwa wanaozipokea. Hata hivyo, baadhi ya watu wanaamini kwamba viwango vidogo vya kemikali hizo havitoshi kusababisha mabadiliko ya kemikali.4 KUTABAKARI KWA KUSOKA KWA VITO Vingi vinavyotumiwa vibaya vina athari mbaya sana kwa afya ya mdomo. Kokaini yaweza kusababisha kasoro ya mwendo na kujionyesha kuwa chorea ya muda mfupi. Kwa kuongezea, dyskinesia ya mdomo, ambayo kwa kawaida inajulikana kama <unk>crack dancing<unk> au boca torcida ( mdomo uliojipinda), pia inaweza kuwapo. Katika kisa cha matumizi mabaya ya heroini, idadi iliyoongezeka ya meno yaliyoharibika, yanayokosekana, na yaliyojaa yanaweza kugunduliwa kinywani. Hii inaweza kutokea kutokana na utapiamlo wa muda mrefu, usafi duni wa mdomo kutokana na kazi ya motisha iliyoharibika na neuropathology ya sekondari kwa maambukizo, vasculitis, septic embolism, thromboembolism, depressive ya kupumua ya muda mrefu inayosababishwa na heroin, hypotension, compression ya vascular, Parkinsonism ya haraka, na spongiform leukoencephalopathy. Matumizi mabaya ya bangi yanaweza kusababisha uharibifu wa asidi wa enamel kutokana na hyperemesis ya cannabinoid, ambayo matukio ya mara kwa mara ya kutapika hutokea. Kwa kuongezea, wagonjwa hao huanza kuwa na kuoza kwa meno, uvimbe na hyperplasia ya meno, uvulitis, leukoplakia, papillomas za mdomo, na kansa ya ulimi. Ugonjwa huo unajumuisha afya mbaya ya mdomo kutokana na athari za kisaikolojia za muda mfupi na za muda mrefu, xerostomia, kupoteza mifupa ya alveolar, na kemikali za kansa katika bangi. Ongezeko la maambukizi ya UKIMWI limeripotiwa pia. "Kwa upande mwingine, ""kiungo muhimu cha kisaikolojia katika bangi (cannabinoids), ikiwa ni pamoja na THC, husababisha ukandamizaji wa kinga na kuongeza uundaji wa virusi vya Ukimwi katika panya wenye ukimwi mkali waliopandikizwa na lymphocytes za damu ya binadamu (panya wa huBL-SCID), ikionyesha uhusiano wa moja kwa moja kati ya matumizi mabaya ya bangi na maambukizi ya HIV.""" Xerosis ni ugonjwa wa meno ya mdomo unaosababishwa na msukosuko wa receptor za a2 na dysphoria ya muda mrefu na kusababisha afya mbaya ya mdomo. "Uchanganyiko wa dawa za kulevya na vinywaji vyenye kalori nyingi huongeza ""kuharibika kwa meno"" (caries), ""bruxism,"" ""clenching"" na ""mvunjiko wa meno"" (fractures) kwa sababu ya shughuli za magari, na ""vasoconstriction"" (kufupika kwa mishipa ya meno) husababisha ""kuvunjika kwa mishi"" (periodontal breakdown)." Kwa sababu ya hali ya afya ya mwili, ni muhimu kuchunguza historia ya matibabu ya afya ya binadamu (HIPAA) na kuangalia dalili za ngozi katika watu hawa. Mara nyingi wagonjwa wanaweza kuwa na maambukizo na cellulites ya eneo ambapo dawa imeingizwa. Kwa kawaida, vimelea huingia katika eneo hilo kwa sababu ya vifaa visivyo na sumu, kunyonya sindano, na kutumia mate kuyeyusha ngozi na kuyeyusha dawa. Ulceration au necrosis ya tishu inaweza kusababisha vasoconstriction, mishipa sclerosed na upungufu wa mishipa ya muda mrefu. Mifano ni pamoja na ulcer ya mguu iliyocheleweshwa na necrosis ya pua inayoonekana katika matumizi mabaya ya kokeini. Njia ya chini ya ngozi na ya ndani ya misuli ya matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya yaweza kupendwa na watumiaji vibaya ili kuficha alama za kufuatilia. Mazoea haya mara nyingi huitwa "kupasua ngozi" na baadaye yanaweza kuunda mishipa ya damu. "Ugonjwa wa ""kileo"" unaoweza kuambukizwa kwa kutumia dawa za kulevya, kwa mfano, ni ugonjwa wa ""kileo"" (kileo) na ""kileo"" (kileo) na ""kileo"" (kileo) na ""kileo"" (kileo) na ""kileo"" (kileo) na ""kileo"" (kileo) na ""kileo"" (kileo) na ""kileo"" (kileo) na ""kileo"" (kileo) na ""kileo"" (kileo) na ""kileo"" (kileo) na ""kileo"" (kileo) na ""kileo"" (kileo) na ""kileo"" (kileo) na ""kileo"" (kileo)." Majeraha yake yaliyoelezwa vizuri yalipima kati ya 3-18 mm kwa kipenyo. Kila ugonjwa ulijulikana kwa eneo la kati la makovu yaliyoinuka na pembe zilizoshushwa. Majeraha hayo yalizungukwa na ngozi laini yenye rangi nyingi. Hata hivyo, hakuripoti dalili zozote za kukwaruza, kuchoma, au maumivu ndani au karibu na vidonda hivyo. Alikiri kuwa alitumia dawa za kulevya kama vile cocaine na methamphetamine na kuwa na tabia ya kupasua ngozi. Mara nyingi wagonjwa hufikiri kwamba wameambukizwa "vipepeo wa crank". Ugonjwa huu wa kuambukizwa na vipepeo unafanya mtu achukue ngozi yake mwenyewe. Kwa sababu hiyo, ni vigumu kugundua vidonda vya muda mrefu visivyoweza kupona kwa kutumia chembe za urithi au vipimo vya viungo. Mara nyingi wagonjwa wanaweza kuwa na aina zisizo za kikaboni za "viungo" kama uthibitisho wa kuambukizwa. "Hii ni kwa sababu ya ""Morgellons"" ugonjwa, ambayo ni ugonjwa wa watu ambao huchoma mikono, mikono, na sehemu nyingine za mwili kwa makusudi, na kwa hivyo kuharibu misuli yao, na kusababisha matatizo ya afya ya mwili." Utafiti uliochapishwa mwaka 2002 ulionyesha sababu nne zinazoweza kusababisha kutokuwa na imani kati ya watumiaji wa dawa za kulevya na watumiaji wa dawa za kulevya. Kwanza, madaktari wanatilia shaka uhitaji wa matibabu ya dawa za kulevya kutibu maumivu kwa wale wanaotumia dawa za kulevya. Watendaji wa unyanyasaji wanaogopa mazoezi ya kudanganya kwa upande wao kwa sababu tathmini ya maumivu inategemea zaidi nyaraka za kuripotiwa kwa kibinafsi. Pili, hakuna mbinu ya kawaida inapatikana kwa ajili ya kuthibitisha haja halisi kwa usahihi. Tatu, madaktari walijisikia vibaya katika kushughulikia masuala ambayo walidhani yalikuwa yanategemea udanganyifu kwa upande wa watendaji na hawana uhakika zaidi katika suala la tathmini na uingiliaji. Mwishowe, wale wanaotumia dawa za kulevya pia huhisi wametendewa vibaya. Wao huona kutofuata kanuni za daktari na kuepuka matibabu kuwa ishara za mtazamo wa upendeleo. Waliiona kuchelewesha utunzaji kuwa unyanyasaji wa kimakusudi. Kwa bahati mbaya, mazingira ya meno yanaweza kuthibitika kuwa sawa ikiwa watoa huduma za meno hawajui juu ya itifaki zilizopendekezwa.11 Mgonjwa wetu wa mdomo alirejeshwa kwa daktari wa upasuaji wa mdomo kwa kuondolewa kwa exostoses ya maxillary ya pande mbili ambayo aliwasilisha, kwani hizo zingezuia utengenezaji wa meno kamili ya maxillary. Baadaye, seti ya meno ya meno ya maxillary na mandibular ilitengenezwa ili kukidhi mahitaji yake ya urembo na utendaji. Kwa wale wanaohitaji matibabu ya meno ya kawaida au ya muda mrefu, matibabu ya maumivu ya kabla na baada ya upasuaji ni muhimu. Kwa kawaida, wagonjwa huhusianisha ubora wa utunzaji wa meno na kiwango cha udhibiti mzuri wa maumivu. Hali nyingi za meno huhitaji dawa za kulevya zisizo za dawa za kulevya zisizotumiwa kwa dawa za kulevya. Dawa za kuzuia uvimbe zisizo za steroid (NSAIDs) kama vile aspirin, ibuprofen, na naproxen ni bora kwa sababu ya athari mbili za kuzuia uvimbe na analgesic. Hata hivyo, hizo huongeza mwelekeo wa kutokwa na damu. Acetaminophen yaweza kutumiwa kwa maumivu yasiyo makali sana. Inhibitors COX-2 kama vile rofecoxib na celecoxib zimetumika kwa ajili ya matibabu ya ufanisi ya matatizo ya TMJ lakini si bila hatari. Corticosteroids inaweza kutumika katika kesi za dharura kupunguza uvimbe na uvimbe, hivyo kuzuia uharibifu wa neva, lakini ina uwezo wa kusababisha adrenal crisis na kuongezeka kwa kiwango cha sukari ya damu.6 Inashauriwa kwamba kuagiza acetaminophen kwa maumivu ya baada ya upasuaji inapaswa kuwa chini ya 2.5 g kwa siku kwa wagonjwa wa meno na historia ya dawa na matumizi mabaya ya pombe na kazi ya ini. Kupunguzwa kwa hivi karibuni kwa kipimo cha juu cha kila siku cha acetaminophen kwa watu wenye afya na mtengenezaji wake kunaweza pia kuonyesha haja ya marekebisho ya utaratibu huu. Kwa hiyo, baadhi ya formulations kama fentanyl inaweza kutolewa transdermally kuhakikisha hatua ya mwanzo, kupunguza haja ya mara kwa mara binafsi utawala, na kupunguza uwezekano wa matumizi mabaya. OxyContin hutoa utaratibu wa utoaji uliodumu kupitia utaratibu wa utoaji wa mara mbili, ambao una sifa ya awamu ya kutolewa mara moja iliyoimarishwa ikifuatiwa na utoaji uliodumu ili kupanua muda wa hatua. Mchanganyiko wa dawa ya kupunguza maumivu ya opioid na dawa ya kupinga opioid kama vile naloxone, naltrexone, au nalmefene pia unaweza kupunguza uwezekano wa matumizi mabaya. Hata hivyo, watumiaji wa dawa za kulevya wenye "mazoezi" bado wanaweza kupata njia za kudhibiti uwezekano wa matumizi mabaya. Kuchanganya analgesics na njia tofauti za hatua kama vile opioid na acetaminophen inaweza kutoa ufanisi mkubwa wa analgesic kuliko tiba kutumia wakala mmoja. Kuchanganya ibuprofen na acetaminophen kunaweza kuwa na matokeo sawa kwa baadhi ya udhibiti wa maumivu ya wastani hadi kali. Kwa kupendeza, wataalamu wa huduma za afya wanaweza pia kuteseka kutokana na <unk>opiophobia<unk> na kubaki kusita kuagiza, kusimamia, kutoa, au hifadhi dawa za opioid. Wataalamu wa matibabu ya meno wanapaswa kuwa na ujuzi kuhusu athari za dawa, muda wa hatua, na nusu ya maisha ya opioids ili kuagiza dawa sahihi kwa ajili ya usimamizi wa maumivu. Utaratibu wa usimamizi wa tabia kama vile usimamizi wa hali ya dharura unaweza pia kutumiwa na utoaji wa voucher kulingana na kufuata naltrexone, sampuli za mkojo zisizo na dawa. Ujumuishaji wa mtu mwingine muhimu pia umeonyeshwa kuongeza kufuata na matumizi ya dawa zinazopatikana. anesthetics za mahali pamoja na vasoconstrictors zinaweza kuongeza hatari za moyo kama vile arrhythmias za moyo na kutokwa na damu ya ubongo kwa watumiaji wa dawa. Watumiaji wa kokeini hupata mshtuko wa akili wanapotumia Lidocaine. Intrapocket matumizi ya retraction chingiva na Oraquix, mchanganyiko wa lidocaine na prilocaine gel pia inaweza kuongeza hatari kutokana na kunyonya kiasi kikubwa cha vasoconstrictors. Katika baadhi ya matukio, stimulator ya neva ya pande zote inaweza kuwa na ufanisi kama 2% lidocaine na 1: 100,000 epinephrine na inaweza zaidi kupunguza hatari ya moyo na mishipa. Hata hivyo, ni vyema kushauriana na daktari wa mgonjwa au mtaalamu wa unyanyasaji ili kuelezea mpango wa matibabu ambao unaruhusu utulivu wa ufahamu kwa taratibu kubwa za meno. Kuwepo kwa shunt ya arteriovenous katika mgonjwa wa hemodialysis inahakikisha kinga ya antibiotic. Dawa za kuua viini zisizo za kinga za vimelea zinaweza kuwa na sumu ya figo. Kwa hivyo, dawa hizo zinapaswa kuepukwa kwa wagonjwa wenye upungufu wa figo, lakini zinaweza kutumiwa ikiwa mgonjwa tayari ana ugonjwa wa figo wa hatua ya mwisho bila kazi ya figo iliyobaki. Mkataba kama huo umependekezwa kwa matumizi ya dawa za kulevya kwa watumiaji wa dawa za kulevya wenye upungufu wa figo. Hata hivyo, dawa za kulevya zenye athari ya muda mrefu zapasa kuepukwa. Hata hivyo, metabolites kazi ya meperidine inaweza kukusanya katika wagonjwa wa figo kusababisha mshtuko na inapaswa kuepukwa. Kwa wagonjwa wenye upungufu wa figo, hakuna marekebisho maalum ya kipimo yanahitajika kwa matumizi ya anesthetics za mahali, lakini kiasi cha vasoconstrictor kinapaswa kupunguzwa kwa sababu ya shinikizo la damu la sekondari kwa ugonjwa wa figo. Watumiaji wengi wa dawa za kulevya wanaweza pia kuwa walevi wenye kasoro ya ini. Matokeo ya kuathiriwa kwa kazi ya ini inahitaji tahadhari zaidi na matumizi ya anesthetics ya aina ya amide kama lidocaine na prilocaine, ambayo yote mawili ni metabolized katika ini. Zaidi ya hayo, esters ni biotransformed na plasma cholinesterase (pia inajulikana kama pseudocholinesterase). Hii ni enzyme ambayo pia hutengenezwa na ini. Kwa hiyo, matumizi ya aina ya ester ya anesthetic haina kutoa faida za ziada katika wagonjwa na kushindwa kwa ini. Ukosefu wa uwezo wa ini hauathiri muda wa utendaji wa dawa za kuua anesthesia za mahali hapo. Kwa hiyo, wagonjwa hao huhitaji kiasi cha kawaida cha anesthetic ya mahali pa kila mahali pa kutibiwa. Kwa hivyo, inashauriwa kutibu sehemu moja tu kwa wakati ili kupunguza kipimo cha jumla.6 Matumizi ya dawa za kuua dawa za muda mrefu katika upasuaji wa mdomo na taratibu za endodontic zinapaswa kuzingatiwa kwa kikundi hiki cha wagonjwa ili kupunguza kiasi cha jumla cha dawa za kuua dawa. Dawa za kulevya za muda mrefu kama vile bupivacaine 0.5% na epinephrine 1: 200,000 zinaweza kuchelewesha mwanzo na kupunguza nguvu ya maumivu ya baada ya upasuaji, ingawa bupivacaine pia imeonyeshwa kusababisha sumu kali, pamoja na kusimamishwa kwa moyo. Levopivacaine na ropivacaine ni dawa za kulevya za muda mrefu na zinatumiwa kwa muda mrefu na dawa za kulevya za muda mrefu. Mfumo kamili wa usafi wa mdomo lazima ujumuishe kinga ya meno na maagizo ya usafi wa mdomo kila baada ya miezi mitatu hadi sita kwa wagonjwa wenye meno kidogo. Fluoridi isiyo na rangi hupendekezwa badala ya fluoridi yenye asidi ili kuzuia uharibifu zaidi wa meno yaliyoharibiwa tayari. Wagonjwa wanahitaji kuelimishwa kuhusu athari mbaya za matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya kwenye afya ya mdomo na ya jumla. Sialogs kama vile pilocarpine hydrochloride na cevimeline hydrochloride, gum isiyo na sukari au moisturizers za mdomo zinaweza kuagizwa kushughulikia matatizo na xerostomia. Kwa sababu ya matumizi ya dawa za kulevya, dawa za kinywaji zenye sumu ya pombe zinapaswa kuepukwa kwa wagonjwa ambao pia wana maambukizo ya kuvu. Hilo laweza kuwa kweli pia kwa xerostomia kali. Matumizi ya hydrocortisone na iodoquinol au nystatin na triamcinolone cream yanaweza kupendekezwa. Ugonjwa wa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa kwa kuambukizwa. Matumizi ya dawa za kulevya na wanawake wajawazito ni kisababishi kikuu cha matatizo ya kiakili, kimwili, na kisaikolojia kwa watoto wachanga na watoto. Katika mwaka wa 2002 na 2003, asilimia 4.3 ya wanawake wajawazito wenye umri wa miaka 15 hadi 44 walitumia dawa za kulevya mwezi uliopita, asilimia 4.1 waliripoti kutumia pombe kupita kiasi, na asilimia 18.0 waliripoti kuvuta sigara. "Wanawake wenye umri wa miaka 15 hadi 25 walikuwa na uwezekano mkubwa wa kutumia dawa za kulevya na kuvuta sigara katika mwezi uliopita kuliko wanawake wenye umri wa miaka 26 hadi 44 "" (Wanawake wenye umri wa miaka 15 hadi 17 walitumia kileo kwa wastani wa vinywaji 24 katika mwezi uliopita, yaani, walikunywa kwa wastani siku sita na walikuwa na wastani wa vinywaji vinne siku ambazo walikunywa) " Utafiti unaonyesha kwamba watu wengi walio na tatizo la kutumia dawa za kulevya hawapati matibabu. Katika mwaka wa 2006, wanawake milioni 7.4 wenye umri wa miaka 18 na zaidi walihitaji matibabu kwa sababu ya tatizo la kutumia dawa za kulevya, lakini ni wanawake 822,000 tu (11.2%) waliopata matibabu. Utafiti huo unaonyesha kuwa wanawake wenye umri wa kuzaa watoto (wakati wa miaka 18 hadi 49) wanaotumia dawa za kulevya wana hatari kubwa ya kuambukizwa na dawa za kulevya, na kwa hivyo ni muhimu kuamua ni dawa gani inayotumiwa na watoto wao. Pia ni kweli kwa ajili ya anesthesia ya kikanda na ya jumla inayotolewa kwa mzazi. Kileo na vitu vingine vinavyotumiwa na wanawake wajawazito vinaweza kumdhuru mama na mtoto ambaye hajazaliwa. Wakati mwingine, hali za dharura zinaweza kutokea ambapo madaktari wa meno watalazimika kufanya upasuaji mkubwa kwa mama wanaotarajia ambao pia wana historia ya kutumia dawa za kulevya inayojulikana au iliyofichwa. Matukio ya ajali na majeraha mengine yanaweza kuhitaji upasuaji wa dharura wa maxillofacial kwa mgonjwa mjamzito ambaye pia anaweza kuwa mtumiaji wa dawa za kulevya. Katika visa hivyo, huenda ikawa lazima kutumia anesthesia ya eneo au hata anesthesia ya jumla. Kwa kusikitisha, utoaji wa anesthesia ya mahali, ya mkoa au ya jumla unaweza kuwa na matokeo makubwa ya afya. Wataalamu wa afya pia wanaweza kuwa na uraibu wa dawa ambazo mara nyingi hushughulikia wakati wa majukumu yao ya kazi. Utaratibu mbalimbali unaweza kuwa na jukumu kama ilivyoelezwa chini ya nadharia zinazowezekana za ulevi wa dawa za kulevya. Uraibu wa kileo na aina nyingine za dawa za kulevya huathiri asilimia 10 hadi 15 ya madaktari wa meno na wanahitaji msaada kutoka kwa wenzao ili kushinda tatizo hilo. "Hii ni kwa sababu ya ""mfano wa kuvutia"" ambao unaweza kuonekana katika kuondoa kutoka kwa familia, marafiki na shughuli za burudani." Badala yake, wakati mwingi waweza kutumiwa kazini, ambapo dawa za kulevya zinaweza kupatikana kwa urahisi. • Mara nyingi wataalamu hawa watatoa kujitolea kwa ajili ya wito wa ziada au mabadiliko na kuonekana kwa ajili ya kazi wakati wa masaa ya nje. • Mabadiliko ya hisia yanaweza kujumuisha vipindi vya kushuka moyo, msisimko, hasira, kukasirika, uhasama na yanaweza kuiga utu uliogawanyika. • Wanaweza pia kukataa kuchukua mapumziko ya chakula cha mchana au kahawa ili kukaa nyuma au kuchukua mapumziko ya mara kwa mara ya choo ili kupata mazingira ya kutengwa ili kupata au kusimamia dawa. • Wakati juu ya wito, watoa huduma hizi inaweza kuwa vigumu kufikia juu ya pager, au haiwezi kazi. Wao hushindwa kujibu hali za dharura wanapokuwa kwenye zamu ya usiku. • Watoa huduma hawa wanaweza kusaini nje njia zaidi ya kiasi cha kawaida cha dawa za kulevya kwa kesi yoyote iliyopewa ili kiasi cha ziada kiweze kutumiwa kwa ajili ya utawala wa kibinafsi. • Kwa sababu hiyo hiyo kunaweza kuwa na ongezeko lisiloelezeka katika kiasi cha <unk> ampoule kuvunjika <unk> au <unk> taka. <unk> Kupoteza uzito na ngozi nyeupe kutokana na kushindwa kudumisha mtindo wa maisha wenye afya. • Wanaweza pia kuvaa kwa njia kama vile nguo zenye mikono mirefu, ili waweze kuficha uthibitisho wa kimwili wa matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya. Hali kwa kawaida inakuwa ngumu kidogo wakati mtaalamu wa huduma ya afya anapokuwa mraibu wa vitu vilivyopigwa marufuku. Inakuwa tatizo kukabiliana na mmoja wa wenzake kwa msingi wa tuhuma. Matokeo ya kisheria hayawezi kupuuzwa pia. Kwa upande mmoja, ni wajibu wa kimaadili kushughulikia tatizo hilo. Kwa upande mwingine, inaweza kuwa vigumu kumshtaki mfanyakazi mwenzako au msimamizi. Hata hivyo, ni lazima uingiliaji huo uanzishwe upesi. Katika pindi nyingi, mtenda-dhambi anaweza kukataa au kutumia udanganyifu tu. Kisha inakuwa wajibu wa wenzao kuingilia kati. Kuna miongozo michache ambayo inaweza kufuatwa wakati uingiliaji unapewa mtaalamu wa huduma za afya mwenye uraibu. "Hii ni kwa sababu ya ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa ""mfano"" wa""""" Mazungumzo hayo yapaswa kufanywa faraghani. Hata hivyo, ni vyema kuwa na watu wengine wa kuaminika katika chumba hicho wakiwa mashahidi. • Kuripoti mwenzako au msimamizi kunaweza kusababisha migogoro kati ya pande hizo. Kwa hiyo, Mkurugenzi Mtendaji wa kampuni au mazoezi inaweza kuarifiwa kushughulikia hali, kama ni usumbufu kukabiliana na rafiki, mwenzake, au daktari wa meno mwandamizi. Sheria ya Wamarekani wenye Ulemavu (AMAD) ya 1992 inatoa ulinzi kwa watoa huduma za afya. Hata hivyo, hii inatumika zaidi kwa watu ambao ni addicted kwa pombe na haina kulinda watu addicted kwa vitu vingine vya matumizi mabaya. • Msaidizi aliyezoezwa lazima apatikane wakati wote wakati wa vikao. • Kuingilia lazima daima kufanyika katika kundi kubwa. Mtu aliye na uraibu wa kulevya hatahisi kuwa amechaguliwa. Wakati huo huo, matokeo ya matibabu yanaweza kuwa mazuri ikiwa kikundi hicho kinajumuisha watu wanaosaidiana kama vile mwenzi wa ndoa, wanafamilia, marafiki na wenzake. • Uangalifu wa pekee lazima utolewe kwa jinsia ya mtoa huduma mwenye uraibu. Kikundi cha uingiliaji kilicho na wanachama wote wa kiume kinaweza kutokubaliwa na mtu wa kike. • Ushahidi wote lazima uletwe kwenye majadiliano. Vinginevyo, kukutana kunaweza kuwa kwa asili ya kumshtaki badala ya moja ambayo inakusudiwa kumsaidia mtu huyo. Kwa kawaida, waajiri wanaweza kufanya uchunguzi wa madawa ya kulevya kwa nasibu ili kuendesha programu yenye ufanisi ya ufuatiliaji. Utaratibu unaofaa ni wa maana sana katika kupata sampuli na kufanya majaribio. Gharama za kwanza za uchunguzi wa dawa za kulevya kwa kawaida huchukuliwa na mwajiri au hospitali au idara au mazoezi. Hata hivyo, mara nyingi mraibu anayepona huhitaji kulipa gharama za majaribio ya baadaye. Katika mwaka wa 2008, gharama ya mtihani mmoja wa mkojo na kipimo cha fentanyl katika maabara ya New York ilikuwa $ 32.50; lakini gharama iliongezeka sana hadi $ 290 kwa kipimo cha propofol na ilivuka $ 1,000 kwa uchambuzi wa kila sampuli ya nywele. (a) Mfano wa sampuli lazima uwe wa nasibu na usioweza kutabiriwa; (b) Utoaji wa mkojo lazima uwe na mashahidi; (c) Kila sampuli ya mkojo inapaswa kugawanywa; nusu imepimwa na nusu imefungwa. Sehemu ya kwanza ya sampuli ni mtihani na radioimmunoassay (RIA), ambayo tu inakataza matumizi ya madawa ya kulevya. Matokeo yoyote mazuri lazima kuthibitishwa na spectrometry ya wingi ya chromatographic ya gesi (GCMS). Uchunguzi wa nywele unaweza pia kufanywa kwa kutumia mbinu hii. e) Maombi mengine maalum lazima kufanywa kulingana na haja. Kwa mfano, maombi maalum yanapaswa kufanywa kwa ajili ya upimaji wa phenylpiperidine au matumizi ya fentanyl analog, kuingia tena kwenye naltrexone, matumizi ya propofol. • Usimruhusu mtu huyo aondoke peke yake au kuendesha gari, kwa kuwa anaweza kuwa amechoka au anaweza kujiua. • Ni lazima mipango ifanywe kwa ajili ya kuhamishwa moja kwa moja kwenye kituo cha wagonjwa wa nje kabla ya upasuaji. • Mraibu hapaswi kuruhusiwa kuamuru matibabu. Hii inaweza kujumuisha asili halisi ya matibabu au wakati wa kuanzishwa kwa mchakato. Mtu aliye na kasoro hawezi kufanya uamuzi wenye kusadikisha. • Ikiwa majaribio yote hayamvumbui mraibu kutafuta msaada, mtu anayeongoza kikao anapaswa kutisha kumwita polisi kama njia ya mwisho. • Historia ya udhaifu au unyanyasaji wa daktari wa meno haipaswi kufunuliwa kwa mgonjwa wakati wowote. Kama mtu binafsi daktari wa meno aliye na ulemavu pia ana haki ya faragha. Kufunua habari hizo zenye kuumiza kwaweza kuonwa kuwa uvunjaji wa faragha na uchongezi. • Si jambo lisilo la kawaida kwa daktari wa meno mwenye uraibu kutafuta msaada, kushinda hali hiyo na kurudia kazi zake za kawaida. Hata hivyo, katika visa vingi, kazi ya daktari wa meno inaweza kuhatarishwa milele kwa sababu ya uvumi ambao hutokea kwa sababu ya kushindwa kufuata itifaki sahihi. Hiyo inaweza kuwa dhima kubwa ya kisheria kwa watu wanaohusika katika usimamizi mbaya. "Kama ilivyoelezwa hapo juu, ni lazima uwasilishe ""msaada wa kitaaluma au kamati ya utegemezi wa kemikali ya jamii sahihi ya meno"" kwa sababu wajibu wako haukomi mpaka uwe na uhakika kwamba mtu huyo ametafuta msaada wa kitaaluma." Hata hivyo, sheria za kila jimbo na upatikanaji wa "programu zinazofadhiliwa na jamii ya meno" lazima zifuatwe kabla ya kuchukua hatua hiyo. Ikiwa hakuna programu kama hiyo, basi angalau, unaweza kumjulisha daktari wake. Inaweza kuwa bora kumpeleka mtu huyo kwa mtaalamu katika hali ambapo kufuata miongozo hii yote haiwezekani. Mtu ambaye anajaribu kujiua au anaweza kuwa mkali sana na anaweza kusababisha madhara kwa wengine haipaswi kusimamiwa katika majengo. Katika miaka ya hivi karibuni, mbinu nyingi zimetengenezwa katika juhudi za kupambana na mwelekeo wa sasa wa kuongezeka kwa matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya. Mipango zaidi ya utafiti na mifumo ya ufuatiliaji imewekwa mahali juu ya kuelimisha wataalamu wa huduma za afya. Kwa mfano, psychopharmacology ya binadamu inatumiwa kama chombo muhimu cha kufuatilia watu ambao wana historia ya matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya. SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography) na PET (position emission tomography) zimetumiwa kwa uelewa bora wa pharmacokinetics na pharmacodynamics ya dawa zilizotumiwa vibaya. Teknolojia hizi zimetumika kujifunza utaratibu wa dawa, mwingiliano wa dawa (kwa mfano, cocaine na pombe), athari zao kali, kama vile euphoria na hamu ya dawa za kulevya kwa watumiaji wa dawa za kulevya, na sababu ngumu za maumbile na mazingira hufanya watu fulani kuwa na hatari ya kulevya dawa za kulevya na pombe. Utambulisho wa hizi "jeni za uraibu" ni kazi ngumu kwa sababu ya tofauti katika sehemu ya maumbile. Ili kufanya utafiti huo uwe na ufanisi zaidi, wa bei nafuu na upatikanaji wa wingi, watafiti wamegeukia mifumo ya mifano ya wanyama wasio na uti wa mgongo, yaani Drosophila melanogaster na Caenorhabditis elegans. Watafiti wanatumaini kutambua njia ambazo dawa kama vile ethanol, kokeni, na nikotini huathiri tabia ya mtu. Utafiti wa nzi na minyoo na maumbile ya kisasa lakini anatomia rahisi inaweza kutoa ufahamu muhimu kutumika katika mazingira ya kliniki kwa sababu ya kufanana ajabu na mamalia.Usimamizi wa Chakula na Dawa (FDA) imeanzisha mfumo wake wa kufuatilia kufuatilia mauzo ya vitu kutoka kwa wazalishaji hadi kwa njia za usambazaji. Kwa kawaida maduka ya kufuatilia ndani ya soko la rejareja ni pamoja na mipangilio kama vile maduka ya dawa ya mlolongo, maduka ya dawa huru, merchandisers wingi, maduka ya chakula, na huduma ya barua. Vituo vya kufuatilia ndani ya soko lisilo la rejareja ni pamoja na kliniki, hospitali zisizo za shirikisho, vifaa vya shirikisho, HMO, vifaa vya utunzaji wa muda mrefu, huduma za afya nyumbani, na mipangilio mingine mbalimbali. "Kati ya ""Database ya Matumizi ya Dawa"" iliyoendeshwa na FDA ni pamoja na: IMS Health, IMS National Sales Perspectives, ambayo hupima kiasi cha bidhaa za dawa, zote mbili za dawa na over-the-counter, na bidhaa za utambuzi zilizochaguliwa zinazohamia kutoka kwa wazalishaji hadi maduka mbalimbali ndani ya masoko ya rejareja na yasiyo ya rejareja." Kiasi ni kuonyeshwa miongoni mwa mambo mengine katika suala la dola mauzo, vitengo kupanuliwa, na sehemu ya soko. IMS Vector One (VNA) ni mfumo wa kitaifa wa uchunguzi wa dawa za dawa unaoonyesha jinsi dawa zinazotolewa na maduka ya dawa 59,000 nchini Marekani zinavyopelekwa kwa watumiaji kupitia dawa za dawa. Habari juu ya utaalam wa daktari, umri na jinsia ya wagonjwa, na makadirio ya idadi ya wagonjwa ambao wanaendelea au wapya kwa tiba inapatikana. Hifadhidata hii inajumuisha shughuli za dawa kutoka kwa sampuli iliyopokelewa kutoka kwa walipaji, swichi, na mifumo mingine ya programu ambayo inaweza kuamua dawa katika hatua mbalimbali katika mzunguko wa mauzo. IMS Vector One ni mfumo wa kufuatilia jumla ya wagonjwa (TPT). Ni ukaguzi wa kitaifa uliowekwa ili kukadiria idadi ya jumla ya wagonjwa wa kipekee katika dawa zote na madarasa ya matibabu katika mazingira ya mgonjwa wa nje ya rejareja kwa muda. Vector One® (VONA na TPT pamoja) hupokea zaidi ya madai ya dawa bilioni 1.4 kwa mwaka, ikiwakilisha zaidi ya wagonjwa milioni 120. ProMetis LX ni chanzo cha data ya mgonjwa wa muda mrefu ambayo inashika madai ya dawa iliyopitishwa kote Marekani katika aina zote za malipo, ikiwa ni pamoja na mipango ya kibiashara, Medicare, sehemu ya D, fedha, programu za msaada na Medicaid. Hifadhidata hiyo inaunganishwa na madai ya dawa ya karibu bilioni 4.8 yanayohusiana na zaidi ya wagonjwa milioni 190 wa kipekee wa dawa ya dawa na muda wa matibabu, daktari anayetibu au kituo na utambuzi wa mwisho unaohusiana na kila mmoja. Kwa ujumla, sampuli hiyo inawakilisha maduka ya dawa karibu 30,000, hospitali 1,000, vituo vya wagonjwa 800, na mazoezi ya madaktari 80,000. Encuinty Research, LLC, Mtaalamu wa Dawa na Uchunguzi wa Uchunguzi (PDDA) na Pain Panel ni uchunguzi wa kila mwezi ulioundwa kutoa maelezo ya maelezo juu ya mifumo na matibabu ya magonjwa yanayopatikana katika mazoezi ya daktari wa ofisi nchini Marekani. Uchunguzi huo unajumuisha data zilizokusanywa kutoka kwa madaktari zaidi ya 3,200 wa ofisi, wakionyesha utaalam wa 30 kote Marekani, ambao wanaripoti shughuli zote za mgonjwa wakati wa siku moja ya kawaida ya kazi kwa mwezi. Neno "matumizi ya dawa za kulevya" linarejelea dawa ya kulevya kuhusiana na utambuzi wakati wa ziara ya mgonjwa wa ofisi. Neno hili linaweza kuunganishwa na idadi ya utambuzi ambao dawa hiyo inatajwa. Kwa bahati mbaya, katika siku za nyuma, uchunguzi wa msingi wa ushahidi ulionyesha kuwa athari ya dawa ya maumivu ya opioid (COT) inaongoza kwa utumiaji wa dawa za kulevya katika asilimia ndogo ya wagonjwa wa maumivu ya muda mrefu (CPP), lakini asilimia kubwa itaonyesha tabia mbaya zinazohusiana na dawa za kulevya (ADRBs) na matumizi haramu ya dawa za kulevya. Kwa mujibu wa takwimu za FDA, asilimia 64,000 ya bidhaa zenye hidrokodoni ziliuzwa mwaka 2011, na hivyo kuongezeka kwa asilimia 28 ikilinganishwa na asilimia 50,000 zilizouzwa mwaka 2007. 4) Kwa mujibu wa sheria za Marekani, shirika la American Dental Association (ADA) limetoa miongozo ya matibabu ya meno kwa wagonjwa wenye matatizo ya kutumia dawa za kulevya. Inashauri madaktari wa meno kuzingatia historia ya unyanyasaji wa mgonjwa kwa mipango kamili ya matibabu. Wataalamu wote wa meno wanahitaji maarifa ya kisasa kuhusu matatizo ya matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya, lazima watumie uamuzi wa kitaaluma wakati wa kutoa mapendekezo kwa wale wanaotumia dawa za kulevya na dawa za kulevya, na kutafuta ushauri wa kitaaluma, kama inahitajika. Ni juu ya mtaalamu kupata ukoo na rasilimali zinazopatikana kwa ufanisi kutoa huduma na kushughulikia dharura kwa kundi hili la wagonjwa. Madaktari wote wa meno wanashauriwa kuchukua tahadhari maalum wakati wa kuagiza dawa na utoaji wa anesthetics na epinephrine kwa watumiaji wa dawa ambao ni wote hai na katika msamaha. Mwishowe, ushirikiano wote na utunzaji wa habari lazima ufanywe kwa ulinzi kamili wa faragha ya mgonjwa, na uangalifu maalum unaotolewa kwa sheria za shirikisho na za jimbo husika.24 Licha ya kuongezeka kwa ufahamu juu ya ugonjwa wa kulevya, idadi ya wagonjwa wenye historia ya matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya imeongezeka. Wataalamu wa meno wanatarajia kuona idadi kubwa ya wagonjwa wanaotumia dawa za kulevya mwaka mzima. Kwa kawaida wagonjwa wa meno huona udhibiti mzuri wa maumivu kuwa kipimo cha utunzaji bora. Wagonjwa wanaotumia dawa za kulevya si wa kawaida. Hata hivyo, tahadhari ya ziada lazima ichukuliwe ili kupunguza mwingiliano wa dawa, na athari mbaya wakati wa kufikia lengo hili. Elimu ya kuenea inahitajika ili kutayarisha jamii yetu kushughulikia mahitaji. "Hakuna haja ya kuwa na ""mfano wa msingi"" wa matibabu ya meno, kama ilivyoelezwa na Daktari Hussain, Msaidizi wa Profesa wa Kliniki, Idara ya Sayansi ya Afya ya Umma ya meno, Chuo Kikuu cha Temple, Shule ya Tiba ya Meno ya Kornberg, Philadelphia, PA." Frare na Py Berrios ni walimu wa kliniki wa ziada. Hussain pia ni daktari wa meno wa jumla na mratibu wa meno, Quality Community Health Care, Inc., Philadelphia, ambapo Dk. Frare na Py Berrios ni madaktari wa meno wanaofanya kazi. Kwa kuongezea, Dakt. Frare na Py Berrios kudumisha mazoezi binafsi katika Voorhees, NJ na Philadelphia, kwa mtiririko huo. Fahmida Hussain, Mkurugenzi wa Utafiti wa Afya ya mdomo, anashukuru kwa makala hii ya awali. Marejeo yanapatikana kwa ombi. Tazama makala hii kwenye OralHealth.com