“The truth about space … is that it has a deep effect on our everyday lives. And the satellites that orbit hundreds or thousands of kilometres above our heads can contribute to our lives in very direct ways.”
– Executive Vice-President Margrethe Vestager
Earlier this year, UNIDIR set out to explore ‘security’ and ‘safety’ in the space context at the suggestion of some Vienna-based UN delegations. This distinction is less clear than at first glance, and how it is understood has consequences in terms of the policies and behaviour of space users.
Ideally, there is a clear boundary. ‘Security’ is related to the maintenance of peace and stability. ‘Safety’ is the combination of measures precluding risks and protecting space systems during normal operations. Both terms have been in use since the adoption of the Outer Space Treaty (OST) in 1967. Their respective definitions, as expressed in the drafting of the OST, subsequently served as the basis for the development of binding and voluntary instruments related to space activities, the most recent being the Guidelines for the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities. 
However, it’s apparent that States can interpret the terms space ‘safety’ and ‘security’ in different ways. A clearer mutual understanding of the distinction between ‘security’ and ‘safety’ could be helpful at a time when space activity and the number of space stakeholders is growing, including in implementing or developing further measures aiming at better safeguarding their space-based activities.
The conduct of space activities is a global matter. Today, space infrastructure is becoming ever more important for national defence in more countries as well as for burgeoning civil, economic and commercial interests. This dependency on space infrastructure creates a double vulnerability – in outer space and on the ground. The ‘safety’ and ‘security’ of many activities on Earth are underpinned by ‘safety’ and ‘security’ of infrastructure in outer space such as satellites, just as more countries are developing counterspace capabilities.
One important benefit of the ‘security’ versus ‘safety’ distinction is that it helps the international community to build safety measures applying to space operations like the Guidelines for the Long-term Sustainability without having to consider certain security-related issues that might result in a political impasse.
Yet the notions of space ‘safety’ and ‘security’ remain linked. For example, lack of information about the number and position of space objects is a safety issue because it increases the probability of accidental collisions between satellites of all types, whereas opacity and lack of information about a space object, such as its capabilities and limitations, is related to security because of the strategic advantage this information conveys. This can be especially tricky with satellites that have both military and civil functions such as communication, remote-sensing and navigation.
Today the reality is that military operations are increasingly supported by space infrastructure that is also critical to society in general. Targeting of these space objects, for instance with direct-ascent anti-satellite missiles or co-orbital drones, could cause major indirect, collateral damage to civilians on the ground. It might also create long-lived space debris that would further endanger the unimpeded use of space by anyone.
Altogether, these developments suggest a feedback loop between safety and security in which the intentional disruption or destruction of satellites impacts the safety of the space environment and can, in turn, lead to tenser situations between geopolitical rivals. If, without safety measures, security in space cannot be guaranteed, military activities related to defence and security can have an adverse impact on safety.
Understanding the relationship between safety and security is key to the further development of a comprehensive framework of responsible behaviour in outer space and to providing a more objective basis for interpreting established treaties in “good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treat[ies] in their context and in the light of [their] object and purpose.”
To that end, how could space safety and space security be commonly understood, consistent with the objects and purposes of existing treaties in this field, and their ordinary meanings?
Space safety is a result of measures precluding inherent malfunction and mitigating the risks of accidental damage that would be caused by or undergone by a space object, including its component parts.
Safety measures are related to the normal functioning of a satellite, from its design, fabrication and encryption of its critical communications to normal operations and subsequent debris management. A safety approach would be to protect a space-based asset against malfunctioning by reducing its defects and fixing any issues arising during normal operations, whether it is a manufacturing defect, a bad design or an error in the computing system. Such an approach would also consider the space environment to address any issue harmful to crewed missions or to other space objects. Safety measures may involve ISO standards for space systems, government licenses or examinations, or a comprehensive framework for a graveyard orbit.
Because space activities are multiplying, safety-related issues – like debris from collisions – involve a growing range of actors and assets, both civilian and military. The prudent reasonable behaviour of such actors should reduce the probability or even severity of the damage caused inadvertently to space objects, and thus any knock-on disruption and harm on the ground. In other words, safety measures cover the reduction of risks, as in the conventional weapons area like safe ammunition stockpile management. One parallel is with nuclear safety. Just as one of its major concerns is the harmful consequences caused by radioactive materials released into the environment, space safety concerns risks like those caused by orbiting debris that can collide with other space objects and cause subsequent harm. The Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines issued by COPUOS show the importance of technical safety standards due to the damaging nature of debris and other space assets.
Space security is the protection of a space object, including its component parts, against the threat of intentional actions undertaken by external or unauthorized actors.
Rising strategic tensions on Earth between the leading military powers, concerns about ground-based, direct-ascent anti-satellite interceptor tests, unauthorized close, co-orbital manoeuvres in space and various cyber and electronic attacks on satellite systems, have led to concerns that a ‘space arms race’ is developing. Although at present a very limited number of States have dedicated counterspace capabilities, intentional disruption or destruction of space objects could have major negative consequences for all.
Attacks on space objects also have the potential to increase tensions, and thus the potential for conflict, here on Earth. Greater international cooperation, data-sharing, transparency about space military doctrines, and better space situational awareness are ways to strengthen security for all. It should be considered a basic, responsible behaviour for space operators to openly publish information about their space objects and on-orbit operations so as to avoid these being considered as potential threats. This information helps in the tracking of objects and activities on orbit and so can further enhance transparency in the space environment.
The safety-security distinction serves as a starting point. It can help to identify which organisations and agencies should address which issues, and defines the stakeholders in those discussions, including from the commercial sector. This distinction could even help push forward agreement on the meaning of these terms in all UN official languages, which might help UN Members States in their efforts to keep the space environment both safe and secure for all.
Laetitia Cesari was a Graduate Professional with UNIDIR’s WMD and Other Strategic Weapons Programme in 2020 and is a doctoral researcher in Space Law and Cyber Law at the University of Luxembourg. The author would like to acknowledge in particular John Borrie, Daniel Porras, Wilfred Wan, James Revill, and Tom Hickey for their invaluable advice and support on this commentary.
 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and use of Outer Space, including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies 610 UNTS 206, 10 October 1967, Articles III and XII.
 United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space – 62nd Session, 12–21 June 2019, Annex II, Guidelines for the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (A/74/20), p. 50.
 Martinez Peter, Challenges for ensuring the security, safety and sustainability of outer space activities, The Journal of Space Safety Engineering, Volume 6, 2019, Editorial, p. 65.
 West Jessica, Doucet Gilles, From safety to security: reducing the threat environment through the responsible use of outer space, Ploughshares Survey Report, July 2020.
 United Nations, Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Treaty Series, vol. 1155, 23 May 1969, Article 31.
 United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines, endorsed by the General Assembly in its Resolution 62/217, 22 December 2007.
 Liddle Aidan, Disarmament blog: a new initiative on outer space security, Part of Conference on Disarmament, Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office Blogs, August 2020.
 Johnson Kaitlyn, Key Governance Issues in Space, CSIS Aerospace Security Project, September 2020.
<unk>Ukweli kuhusu nafasi... ni kwamba ina athari kubwa juu ya maisha yetu ya kila siku. "Sateliti zinazozunguka mamia au maelfu ya kilomita juu ya vichwa vyetu zinaweza kuchangia maisha yetu kwa njia za moja kwa moja. "" - Makamu wa Rais Mtendaji Margrethe Vestager, Mkurugenzi wa UNIDIR, alisema katika taarifa yake ya wiki iliyopita." Tofauti hii ni wazi kidogo kuliko kwa mtazamo wa kwanza, na jinsi inaeleweka ina matokeo katika suala la sera na tabia ya watumiaji wa nafasi. Kwa vyovyote vile, kuna mpaka ulio wazi. "Usalama" unahusiana na kudumisha amani na utulivu. "Usalama" ni mchanganyiko wa hatua za kuzuia hatari na kulinda mifumo ya anga wakati wa shughuli za kawaida. Maelezo haya mawili yamekuwa yakitumiwa tangu kupitishwa kwa Mkataba wa Anga la nje (OST) mnamo 1967. Maelezo yao, kama ilivyoelezwa katika rasimu ya OST, baadaye kutumika kama msingi kwa ajili ya maendeleo ya kisheria na hiari vyombo kuhusiana na shughuli za anga, ya hivi karibuni kuwa Miongozo kwa ajili ya Utekelezaji wa Muda Mrefu wa Shughuli za anga. Hata hivyo, ni dhahiri kwamba Mataifa inaweza kutafsiri maneno nafasi "salama" na "usalama" kwa njia tofauti. Uelewevu wa wazi wa tofauti kati ya usalama na usalama inaweza kuwa na manufaa wakati shughuli za anga na idadi ya wadau wa anga zinapozidi kuongezeka, ikiwa ni pamoja na kutekeleza au kuendeleza hatua zaidi za kulinda vizuri shughuli zao za anga. Utendaji wa shughuli za angani ni suala la kimataifa. Leo, miundombinu ya anga inakuwa muhimu zaidi kwa ulinzi wa kitaifa katika nchi zaidi na pia kwa maslahi ya kiraia, kiuchumi na kibiashara. Utegemezi huu juu ya miundombinu ya anga huunda udhaifu mara mbili - katika anga za nje na ardhini. "Usalama na usalama wa shughuli nyingi duniani unategemea ""salama na usalama"" wa miundombinu katika nafasi ya nje kama vile satelaiti, kama vile nchi zaidi zinaendeleza uwezo wa kupambana na nafasi." """Faida moja muhimu ya tofauti ya usalama dhidi ya usalama ni kwamba inasaidia jamii ya kimataifa kujenga hatua za usalama zinazotumika kwa shughuli za anga kama vile Miongozo ya Utekelezaji wa Muda Mrefu bila kuzingatia masuala fulani yanayohusiana na usalama ambayo yanaweza kusababisha mgogoro wa kisiasa." Hata hivyo dhana ya nafasi "salama" na "usalama" kubaki kushikamana. Kwa mfano, ukosefu wa habari kuhusu idadi na nafasi ya vitu vya angani ni suala la usalama kwa sababu huongeza uwezekano wa mgongano wa ajali kati ya satelaiti za aina zote, wakati upungufu wa habari kuhusu kitu cha angani, kama vile uwezo wake na mapungufu, ni kuhusiana na usalama kwa sababu ya faida ya kimkakati hii habari inatoa. Hii inaweza kuwa ngumu hasa na satelaiti ambazo zina kazi za kijeshi na za kiraia kama vile mawasiliano, utambuzi wa mbali na urambazaji. """Sasa ukweli ni kwamba shughuli za kijeshi zinaungwa mkono zaidi na miundombinu ya anga ambayo pia ni muhimu kwa jamii kwa ujumla." Kuwashambulia vitu hivi vya angani, kwa mfano na makombora ya moja kwa moja ya kupanda kwa satelaiti au drones za co-orbital, zinaweza kusababisha uharibifu mkubwa wa moja kwa moja, wa raia ardhini. Pia inaweza kuunda mabaki ya anga ya muda mrefu ambayo yangehatarisha zaidi matumizi ya anga bila vizuizi na mtu yeyote. Kwa ujumla, maendeleo haya yanaonyesha mzunguko wa maoni kati ya usalama na usalama, ambapo usumbufu wa makusudi au uharibifu wa satelaiti huathiri usalama wa mazingira ya anga na inaweza, kwa upande wake, kusababisha hali ya mkazo kati ya wapinzani wa kijiografia. Kama, bila hatua za usalama, usalama katika nafasi haiwezi kuhakikisha, shughuli za kijeshi kuhusiana na ulinzi na usalama inaweza kuwa na athari mbaya kwa usalama. "Kufahamu uhusiano kati ya usalama na usalama ni muhimu kwa maendeleo ya zaidi ya mfumo wa kina wa tabia ya wajibu katika nafasi ya nje na kutoa msingi zaidi wa lengo kwa ajili ya tafsiri ya mikataba imara katika ""haki ya imani katika mujibu wa maana ya kawaida ya kuwa na maneno ya mikataba katika muktadha wao na katika mwanga wa ""lengo na lengo"" yao. kwa kusudi hilo, jinsi nafasi ya usalama na nafasi inaweza kuwa kawaida kuelewa, sambamba na malengo na madhumuni ya mikataba iliyopo katika uwanja huu." Usalama wa anga ni matokeo ya hatua za kuzuia kasoro ya asili na kupunguza hatari ya uharibifu wa ajali ambayo inaweza kusababishwa au kupatikana na kitu cha anga, pamoja na sehemu zake. Hifadhi ya usalama inahusiana na utendaji wa kawaida wa satelaiti, kutoka kwa muundo wake, utengenezaji na encryption ya mawasiliano yake muhimu kwa shughuli za kawaida na usimamizi wa mabaki ya baadaye. "Mtazamo wa usalama ni kulinda mali ya anga dhidi ya kutofanya kazi kwa kupunguza kasoro zake na kurekebisha masuala yoyote yanayotokea wakati wa shughuli za kawaida, iwe ni kasoro ya utengenezaji, muundo mbaya au kosa katika mfumo wa kompyuta. """ Njia hiyo pia ingezingatia mazingira ya anga ili kushughulikia suala lolote lenye madhara kwa misheni zenye wafanyakazi au kwa vitu vingine vya angani. Hatua za usalama zinaweza kuhusisha viwango vya ISO kwa mifumo ya anga, leseni za serikali au uchunguzi, au mfumo kamili wa mzunguko wa makaburi. Kwa sababu shughuli za angani zinaongezeka, masuala yanayohusiana na usalama - kama vile mabaki kutokana na mgongano - yanahusisha idadi inayoongezeka ya watendaji na mali, raia na kijeshi. """Mwenendo wa busara wa waigizaji kama hao unapaswa kupunguza uwezekano au hata ukali wa uharibifu unaosababishwa bila kukusudia kwa vitu vya anga, na hivyo kuharibu na kuharibu ardhi." Kwa maneno mengine, hatua za usalama inashughulikia kupunguza hatari, kama katika eneo la silaha za kawaida kama usimamizi salama wa akiba ya risasi. Moja ni sambamba na usalama wa nyuklia. Kama vile moja ya wasiwasi wake kuu ni matokeo mabaya yanayosababishwa na vifaa vya mnururisho vilivyotolewa katika mazingira, usalama wa anga unahusu hatari kama zile zinazosababishwa na mabaki ya anga ambayo yanaweza kugongana na vitu vingine vya anga na kusababisha madhara ya baadaye. Miongozo ya Kupunguza Mabaki ya Angani iliyotolewa na COPUOS inaonyesha umuhimu wa viwango vya usalama wa kiufundi kutokana na asili ya uharibifu wa mabaki na mali nyingine za anga. Usalama wa anga ni ulinzi wa kitu cha angani, pamoja na sehemu zake, dhidi ya tishio la vitendo vya makusudi vilivyofanywa na waigizaji wa nje au wasio na mamlaka. Mvutano wa kimkakati unaoongezeka duniani kati ya mataifa makuu ya kijeshi, wasiwasi kuhusu majaribio ya kupinga satelaiti ya ardhi, majaribio ya karibu, majaribio ya orbital katika nafasi na mashambulizi mbalimbali ya kiber na elektroniki kwenye mifumo ya satelaiti, yameongoza kwa wasiwasi kwamba "mbio ya silaha za anga" inaendelea. Ingawa kwa sasa idadi ndogo sana ya mataifa ina uwezo wa kujitolea wa kupambana na nafasi, usumbufu wa makusudi au uharibifu wa vitu vya anga unaweza kuwa na matokeo mabaya makubwa kwa wote. Mashambulizi dhidi ya vitu vya angani pia yana uwezo wa kuongeza mvutano, na hivyo uwezekano wa mgogoro, hapa Duniani. Ushirikiano mkubwa wa kimataifa, ushirikiano wa data, uwazi kuhusu mafundisho ya kijeshi ya anga, na ufahamu bora wa hali ya anga ni njia za kuimarisha usalama kwa wote. "Ni lazima kuonekana kama tabia ya msingi, wajibu kwa ajili ya waendeshaji nafasi ya kuchapisha wazi habari kuhusu vitu vyao nafasi na shughuli juu ya mzunguko ili kuepuka haya kuwa kuchukuliwa kama vitisho uwezekano. """ Taarifa hii husaidia katika kufuatilia vitu na shughuli kwenye mzunguko na hivyo inaweza kuongeza uwazi katika mazingira ya nafasi. Tofauti ya usalama-usalama hutumika kama hatua ya kuanzia. Inaweza kusaidia kutambua ni mashirika gani na mashirika yanapaswa kushughulikia masuala gani, na hufafanua wadau katika majadiliano hayo, ikiwa ni pamoja na kutoka kwa sekta ya kibiashara. "Utofauti huu unaweza hata kusaidia kusukuma mbele makubaliano juu ya maana ya maneno haya katika lugha zote rasmi za Umoja wa Mataifa, ambayo inaweza kusaidia nchi wanachama wa Umoja wa Mataifa katika juhudi zao za kuweka mazingira ya anga salama na salama kwa wote. """ Laetitia Cesari alikuwa mtaalamu wa kuhitimu na UNIDIR's WMD na Programu nyingine za Silaha za Kimkakati mnamo 2020 na ni mtafiti wa udaktari katika Sheria ya Anga na Sheria ya Cyber katika Chuo Kikuu cha Luxembourg. Mwandishi anataka kutambua hasa John Borrie, Daniel Porras, Wilfred Wan, James Revill, na Tom Hickey kwa ushauri wao wa thamani na msaada juu ya ufafanuzi huu. Mkataba wa kanuni zinazoongoza shughuli za mataifa katika uchunguzi na matumizi ya anga za nje, ikiwa ni pamoja na mwezi na miili mingine ya angani (UNTS 206-1066) "Kampuni ya Space Space ya Umoja wa Mataifa, ambayo inasimamia shughuli za anga za nje, ilitoa taarifa ya mwisho ya ""Miongozo ya Utekelezaji wa Muda Mrefu wa Shughuli za Angani za Kamati ya Kutumia Angani kwa Amani"" (A50-720), Juni 12, 2019." "Mwanzoni mwa mwaka huu, utafiti wa utafiti wa ""Usalama wa anga za nje na Usalama wa Usalama wa Anga,"" uliofanywa na Jurnal of Space Engineering, Volume 6, 2019 Editorial, p.65." "Jessica West, Doucet-Gilles, ""Kutoka Usalama hadi Usalama: Kupunguza Mazingira ya Tisho kupitia Matumizi ya Uwajibu wa Anga,"" Ripoti ya Uchunguzi wa Ploughshares, Julai 2020" Umoja wa Mataifa, Mkataba wa Vienna juu ya Sheria ya Mikataba, Mkataba Series, vol. (Kutoka 115:3, 23 Mei 1969) "Kampuni ya Space Space ya Umoja wa Mataifa, ambayo inasimamia kazi ya utafiti wa anga ya nje, ilitoa taarifa ya ""Miongozo ya Kupunguza Uharibifu wa Vitu vya Anga"" iliyoidhinishwa na Mkutano Mkuu wa Umoja wa Mataifa katika azimio lake la 22 Desemba 2007." "Liddell Aidan, ""Blog ya Uondoaji wa Silaha: Mpango Mpya juu ya Usalama wa Anga la Nje,"" sehemu ya Mkutano wa Uondoaji wa Silaha, Blogi za Ofisi ya Mambo ya Nje, Jumuiya ya Madola na Maendeleo, Agosti 2020." Johnson-Kaytlin, Key Governance Issues in Space, CSIS Aerospace Security Project, Septemba 2020