The Age of George III
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There had been two previous attempts to defeat the French armies of expansion following the French Revolution of 1789: the First Coalition of 1793-1797 and the Second Coalition of 1799-1801. Neither had succeeded and eventually Britain and France were obliged to reach a peace agreement. The Peace of Amiens, concluded between Britain and France in 1802 did not last long. In May 1803 hostilities broke out again. Also in 1803 a third coalition was formed although it did nothing until 1805. The coalition comprised Prussia, England, Austria, Russia and Sweden. A third coalition was necessary because Napoleon began a quest for military Empire in Europe. He invaded Northern Italy, occupied Switzerland and left a French army of occupation in Holland. He contemplated a second invasion of Egypt and refused commercial treaties with Britain.
Napoleon believed that Britain was weak, particularly in the absence of Pitt who had resigned over the lack of Catholic Emancipation following the 1801 Act of Union with Ireland. Also, Napoleon was angered by anti-French feeling particularly in the British press - for example the various cartoons by people such as Gillray. Napoleon also objected to Britain giving political asylum to French émigrés.
By 1803 Napoleon had stabilised France, given it a strong central government, restored Catholicism with the Concordat and now needed military victories to maintain his raison d'être. He became 'a revolution on horseback'.
In 1804 Napoleon became Emperor of France and the following year the third coalition became rather more active. Initially, Britain was alone. French forces tried to capture some British bases in India and landed an expedition in Ireland. Both failed, so Napoleon decided to crush Britain, since Britain was the centre of resistance in Europe, providing sea-power and gold.
In 1804 Napoleon planned an invasion of Britain and coincidentally Pitt returned to power. George III fell ill again between February and April 1804. Britain was isolated when Pitt returned to power. Napoleon called Britain 'the vampire of the north' and 'that nation of shopkeepers'. He was aware that to defeat Britain he had to attack Britain's trade.
The invasion plan
150,000 French soldiers, known as the 'Army of England', were assembled at Boulogne. To get such a huge force across the English Channel, to provide the necessary transport and complete the planning needed much effort, because the British navy could defeat any French invasion attempt. The aim was for the Spanish fleet to sail up the Channel to join the flotilla of barges at Boulogne and protect the Army of England as it crossed the Channel. The main problem was how to get rid of the British fleet. Napoleon's solution was to instruct the Franco-Spanish fleet to make a feint voyage towards the West Indies, shake off the British fleet, return up the Channel and begin the invasion. Villeneuve, who commanded the Franco-Spanish fleet, had been second in command at the Battle of the Nile.
However, Britain was not so weak as Napoleon had hoped. On returning to power, Pitt made instant increases in the army and navy. Volunteer units of about half-million men were set up throughout England to defend the coast. Beacons and Martello towers were built along the coast as a warning, and civilian volunteers formed local units.
James Gillray's "Plumb Pudding in Danger", published early in 1805. The cartoon shows William Pitt and Napoleon dividing the world between them. Pitt takes the ocean: symbolically, his fork resembles a trident. Napoleon takes Europe, with the exception of Britain, Sweden, and Russia. This division of the world symbolizes the difficulty each sides experienced in defeating the other. Napoleon possessed a great army, but he could accomplish little at sea. The British possessed a strong navy, but made little headway on the continent. Ironically enough, this etching appeared in the same year although prior to a time when both sides enjoyed their greatest victories in their respective spheres. At Trafalgar, the Royal Navy ensured its maritime supremacy for the rest of the war by destroying a combined Franco-Spanish fleet. At Austerlitz, Napoleon crushed an Austro-Russian army to become the master of Europe for the next seven years.
There was very little support in England for the Revolution by this time: the British attitude had completely changed. European rulers sat back and watched events but British naval power saved Britain.
Map showing the fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar. Click on the image for a larger view.Admiral Villeneuve was to lead the decoy fleet towards the West Indies, but went all the way there and back with Nelson hanging on. When he had almost arrived back to Spain, Villeneuve met up with another British fleet, was sandwiched between Nelson and Admiral Calder, was engaged in battle and ended with a crippled fleet. Villeneuve had to put into Cadiz for repairs. Napoleon was furious because all hopes of an invasion were wrecked; he withdrew his troops from Boulogne and embarked on the conquest of Europe instead, without telling Villeneuve that the Army of England was going elsewhere. Unfortunately, Villeneuve tried to complete his orders and sailed from Cadiz for Boulogne.
The Franco-Spanish fleet met Nelson off Cape Trafalgar on 21 October 1805. Nelson used unusual tactics and blew the enemy fleet to pieces. Eighteen of Villeneuve's fleet of thirty-four were accounted for in the battle and none ever fought again. Nelson had twenty-seven ships.Results of victory at Trafalgar: it
The third Coalition collapsed quickly because British naval victories were again counter-acted by French land victories. In October 1805 Austria was defeated at the Battle of Ulm and in December the Austrian and Russian armies were defeated at the Battle of Austerlitz. Napoleon occupied Vienna and forced Austria to sign the Treaty of Pressburg which extended Napoleon's 'Kingdom of Italy' and allowed him to set up the Confederation of the Rhine from lands owned by Austria and by the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire.
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"Kama ""Mfalme wa George III"" na ""Mfalme wa George III"" ni tovuti ya kuvutia na ya kuvutia, lakini pia ina maana ya kuvutia." Kwa bahati mbaya, gharama ya kufanya vifaa hivi kupatikana kwa uhuru inaongezeka, kwa hiyo kama umepata tovuti muhimu na ungependa kuchangia mwendelezo wake, ningependa sana. Bonyeza kitufe cha kwenda kwenye PayPal na kutoa mchango. Mapambano ya kwanza ya Ufaransa yalifanyika baada ya mapinduzi ya 1789 na mapambano ya pili yalifanyika baada ya mapambano ya 1793. Hakuna hata moja iliyokuwa imefanikiwa na hatimaye Uingereza na Ufaransa zililazimika kufikia makubaliano ya amani. Amani ya Amiens ilifungwa mwaka 1802 na Ufaransa na Uingereza, lakini haikuendelea kwa muda mrefu. Mnamo Mei 1803 vita vilizuka tena. Katika mwaka wa 1803 muungano wa tatu ulifanyizwa, ingawa haukufanya chochote mpaka mwaka wa 1805. Muungano huo ulitia ndani Prussia, Uingereza, Austria, Urusi, na Sweden. Muungano wa tatu ulikuwa muhimu kwa sababu Napoleon alianza kutafuta Milki ya kijeshi katika Ulaya. Alivamia Italia Kaskazini, akachukua Uswisi na kuacha jeshi la Ufaransa la uvamizi nchini Uholanzi. Alitafakari juu ya uvamizi wa pili wa Misri na kukataa mikataba ya kibiashara na Uingereza. Napoleon aliona kuwa Uingereza ilikuwa dhaifu, hasa kwa kukosekana kwa Pitt ambaye alikuwa amejiuzulu kwa sababu ya ukosefu wa uhuru wa Kikatoliki kufuatia Sheria ya Muungano na Ireland ya 1801. Pia, Napoleon alikasirika na hisia za kupinga Ufaransa hasa katika vyombo vya habari vya Uingereza - kwa mfano katuni mbalimbali za watu kama vile Gillray. Napoleon pia alipinga Uingereza kuwapa wakimbizi wa Ufaransa hifadhi ya kisiasa. Mnamo 1803 Napoleon alikuwa amesimamisha Ufaransa, akipewa serikali yenye nguvu, akirudisha Ukatoliki na Concordat, na sasa alihitaji ushindi wa kijeshi ili kudumisha sababu yake ya kuwapo. Akawa'mageuzi juu ya farasi.' Mwaka 1804 Napoleon akawa Maliki wa Ufaransa na mwaka uliofuata muungano wa tatu ukawa wenye nguvu zaidi. Mwanzoni, Uingereza ilikuwa peke yake. Majeshi ya Ufaransa yalijaribu kuteka baadhi ya misingi ya Uingereza nchini India na kusafiri kwenda Ireland. Kwa sababu ya kushindwa kwa mapambano hayo, Napoleon aliamua kuangamiza Uingereza, kwa kuwa Uingereza ilikuwa kitovu cha upinzani huko Ulaya, ikitoa nguvu za baharini na dhahabu. Mwaka 1804 Napoleon alipanga uvamizi wa Uingereza na kwa bahati mbaya Pitt alirudi madarakani. George III aliugua tena kati ya Februari na Aprili 1804. Uingereza ilijitenga wakati Pitt aliporudi madarakani. Napoleon aliita Uingereza 'vampire wa kaskazini' na 'taifa hilo la wamiliki wa maduka.' Alijua kwamba ili kushinda Uingereza alipaswa kushambulia biashara ya Uingereza. "Kama ilivyoelezwa hapo juu, ""jeshi la Uingereza"" lilikuwa jeshi la Ufaransa lenye askari 150,000 waliokusanyika huko Boulogne." Ili kuingiza jeshi kubwa kama hilo katika Mlango-Bahari wa Uingereza, kutoa usafiri unaohitajika na kukamilisha mipango ilihitaji jitihada nyingi, kwa sababu jeshi la wanamaji la Uingereza lingeweza kushindwa jaribio lolote la uvamizi wa Ufaransa. Meli za Hispania zilipaswa kusafiri kwenye Mlango-Bahari wa Mancheli ili kuungana na meli za meli za Boulogne na kulinda Jeshi la Uingereza lilipokuwa likivuka Mlango-Bahari wa Mancheli. Tatizo kuu lilikuwa jinsi ya kuondoa meli za Uingereza. Napoleon aliamua kuagiza meli za Ufaransa na Hispania ziende kwa njia ya ujanja kuelekea West Indies, zikapeperushwe na meli za Uingereza, zikarudi juu ya Mlango-Bahari na kuanza uvamizi. Villeneuve, ambaye aliongoza meli za Ufaransa na Hispania, alikuwa amekuwa wa pili katika uongozi katika Vita vya Mto Nile. Hata hivyo, Uingereza haikuwa dhaifu kama vile Napoleon alivyotarajia. Aliporudi madarakani, Pitt aliongeza mara moja jeshi na jeshi la wanamaji. Vikosi vya kujitolea vya wanaume wapatao nusu milioni vilianzishwa kotekote Uingereza ili kulinda pwani. Minara ya maonyesho na minara ya Martello ilijengwa kando ya pwani kama onyo, na wajitoleaji wa kiraia waliunda vitengo vya mahali hapo. "James Gillray, ""Pudding ya Plum katika Hatari""" Katuni hiyo inaonyesha William Pitt na Napoleon wakigawanya ulimwengu kati yao. Pitt anachukua bahari: kwa mfano, uma wake unafanana na mhimili. Napoleon anashinda Ulaya, isipokuwa Uingereza, Sweden, na Urusi. Mgawanyiko huo wa ulimwengu unaonyesha ugumu ambao kila upande ulipata katika kumshinda yule mwingine. Napoleon alikuwa na jeshi kubwa, lakini hangeweza kufanya mengi baharini. Waingereza walikuwa na jeshi kubwa la wanamaji, lakini hawakufanya maendeleo mengi katika bara hilo. Kwa kushangaza, mchoro huu ulionekana mwaka huo huo ingawa kabla ya wakati ambapo pande zote mbili zilifurahia ushindi wao mkubwa katika nyanja zao. Katika Trafalgar, Jeshi la Wanamaji la Uingereza lilihakikisha utawala wake wa baharini kwa muda wote uliobaki wa vita kwa kuharibu meli ya Ufaransa na Hispania. Katika Austerlitz, Napoleon alishinda jeshi la Austria na Urusi na kuwa mtawala wa Ulaya kwa miaka saba iliyofuata. Kulikuwa na msaada mdogo sana nchini Uingereza kwa ajili ya Mapinduzi wakati huu: mtazamo wa Uingereza ulikuwa umebadilika kabisa. Watawala wa Ulaya walikaa kimya na kutazama matukio lakini nguvu za majini za Uingereza ziliokoa Uingereza. Ramani inayoonyesha meli katika Vita vya Trafalgar. Admiral Villeneuve alikuwa na kuongoza meli ya kuvutia kuelekea West Indies, lakini alienda njia yote huko na nyuma na Nelson kunyongwa juu. Wakati alipokuwa karibu kurudi Hispania, Villeneuve alikutana na meli nyingine ya Uingereza, alishikiliwa kati ya Nelson na Admiral Calder, alishiriki katika vita na kumaliza na meli iliyoharibika. Villeneuve alilazimika kuingia Cadiz kwa ajili ya ukarabati. Napoleon alikasirika sana kwa sababu matumaini yote ya uvamizi yalikuwa yameharibiwa; akaondoa majeshi yake kutoka Boulogne na kuanza ushindi wa Ulaya badala yake, bila kumwambia Villeneuve kwamba Jeshi la Uingereza lilikuwa likienda mahali pengine. Kwa kusikitisha, Villeneuve alijaribu kukamilisha maagizo yake na kusafiri kutoka Cadiz hadi Boulogne. Meli hiyo ilikutana na Nelson karibu na Cape Trafalgar tarehe 21 Oktoba 1805. Nelson alitumia mbinu zisizo za kawaida na kuvunja meli za adui vipande-vipande. Wanane kati ya wanamaji 34 wa Villeneuve waliuawa katika vita hivyo na hakuna hata mmoja wao aliyepigana tena. Baada ya ushindi wake katika vita vya Trafalgar, Muungano wa Tatu ulivunjika haraka kwa sababu ushindi wa majini wa Uingereza ulipingwa tena na ushindi wa nchi kavu wa Ufaransa. Katika Oktoba 1805 Austria ilishindwa katika vita vya Ulm na Desemba 1805 Austria na Urusi zilishindwa katika vita vya Austerlitz. Napoleon alishinda Vienna na kulazimisha Austria kusaini Mkataba wa Pressburg, ambao ulipanua 'Ufalme wa Italia' wa Napoleon na kumruhusu kuanzisha Muungano wa Rhine kutoka kwa ardhi inayomilikiwa na Austria na kwa kuondolewa kwa Milki Takatifu ya Kirumi. <p>Mafunzo ya wavuti yanaweza kutumika kwa uhuru kwa madhumuni yasiyo ya kibiashara kulingana na ruzuku ya kisheria inayotumika na usambazaji kwa wanafunzi. "Mfano wa ""Mfano wa Utafiti"" ni ""Mfano wa Utafiti"" na ""Mfano wa Utafiti"" na ""Mfano wa Utafiti"" na ""Mfano wa Utafiti"" na ""Mfano wa Utafiti"" na ""Mfano wa Utafiti"" na ""Mfano wa Utafiti"" na ""Mfano wa Utafiti"" na ""Mfano wa Utafiti"" na ""Mfano wa Utafiti"" na ""Mfano wa Utafiti"" na ""Mfano wa Utafiti."""