Chapter 4: Nonverbal Communication
- Discuss the role of nonverbal communication in relational contexts.
- Discuss the role of nonverbal communication in professional contexts.
- Provide examples of cultural differences in nonverbal communication.
- Provide examples of gender differences in nonverbal communication.
Nonverbal communication receives less attention than verbal communication as a part of our everyday lives. Learning more about nonverbal communication and becoming more aware of our own and others’ use of nonverbal cues can help us be better relational partners and better professionals. In addition, learning about cultural differences in nonverbal communication is important for people traveling abroad but also due to our increasingly multinational business world and the expanding diversity and increased frequency of intercultural communication within our own borders.
Nonverbal Communication in Relational Contexts
A central, if not primary, function of nonverbal communication is the establishment and maintenance of interpersonal relationships. Further, people who are skilled at encoding nonverbal messages have various interpersonal advantages, including being more popular, having larger social networks consisting of both acquaintances and close friends, and being less likely to be lonely or socially anxious.
Nonverbal communication increases our expressivity, and people generally find attractive and want to pay more attention to things that are expressive. This increases our chances of initiating interpersonal relationships. Relationships then form as a result of some initial exchanges of verbal and nonverbal information through mutual self-disclosure. As the depth of self-disclosure increases, messages become more meaningful if they are accompanied by congruent nonverbal cues. Impressions formed at this stage of interaction help determine whether or not a relationship will progress. As relationships progress from basic information exchange and the establishment of early interpersonal bonds to more substantial emotional connections, nonverbal communication plays a more central role. As we’ve learned, nonverbal communication conveys much emotional meaning, so the ability to effectively encode and decode appropriate nonverbal messages sent through facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, and touch leads to high-quality interactions that are rewarding for the communicators involved.
Nonverbal communication helps maintain relationships once they have moved beyond the initial stages by helping us communicate emotions and seek and provide social and emotional support. In terms of communicating emotions, competent communicators know when it is appropriate to express emotions and when more self-regulation is needed. They also know how to adjust their emotional expressions to fit various contexts and individuals, which is useful in preventing emotional imbalances within a relationship. Emotional imbalances occur when one relational partner expresses too much emotion in a way that becomes a burden for the other person. Ideally, each person in a relationship is able to express his or her emotions in a way that isn’t too taxing for the other person. Occasionally, one relational partner may be going through an extended period of emotional distress, which can become very difficult for other people in his or her life. Since people with nonverbal communication competence are already more likely to have larger social support networks, it is likely that they will be able to spread around their emotional communication, specifically related to negative emotions, in ways that do not burden others. Unfortunately, since people with less nonverbal skill are likely to have smaller social networks, they may end up targeting one or two people for their emotional communication, which could lead the other people to withdraw from the relationship.
Expressing the need for support is also an important part of relational maintenance. People who lack nonverbal encoding skills may send unclear or subtle cues requesting support that are not picked up on by others, which can lead to increased feelings of loneliness. Skilled encoders of nonverbal messages, on the other hand, are able to appropriately communicate the need for support in recognizable ways. As relationships progress in terms of closeness and intimacy, nonverbal signals become a shorthand form of communicating, as information can be conveyed with a particular look, gesture, tone of voice, or posture. Family members, romantic couples, close friends, and close colleagues can bond over their familiarity with each other’s nonverbal behaviors, which creates a shared relational reality that is unique to the relationship.
Nonverbal Communication in Professional Contexts
Surveys of current professionals and managers have found that most report that nonverbal skills are important to their jobs. Although important, there is rarely any training or instruction related to nonverbal communication, and a consistent issue that has been reported by employees has been difficulty with mixed messages coming from managers. Interpreting contradictory verbal and nonverbal messages is challenging in any context and can have negative effects on job satisfaction and productivity. As a supervisor who gives positive and negative feedback regularly and/or in periodic performance evaluations, it is important to be able to match nonverbal signals with the content of the message. For example, appropriate nonverbal cues can convey the seriousness of a customer or coworker complaint, help ease the delivery of constructive criticism, or reinforce positive feedback. Professionals also need to be aware of how context, status, and power intersect with specific channels of nonverbal communication. For example, even casual touching of supervisees, mentees, or employees may be considered condescending or inappropriate in certain situations. A well-deserved pat on the back is different from an unnecessary hand on the shoulder to say hello at the start of a business meeting.
In professional contexts, managers and mentors with nonverbal decoding skills can exhibit sensitivity to others’ nonverbal behavior and better relate to employees and mentees. In general, interpreting emotions from nonverbal cues can have interpersonal and professional benefits. One study found that salespeople who were skilled at recognizing emotions through nonverbal cues sold more products and earned higher salaries. Aside from bringing financial rewards, nonverbal communication also helps create supportive climates. Bosses, supervisors, and service providers like therapists can help create rapport and a positive climate by consciously mirroring the nonverbal communication of their employees or clients. In addition, mirroring the nonverbal communication of others during a job interview, during a sales pitch, or during a performance evaluation can help put the other person at ease and establish rapport. Much of the mirroring we do is natural, so trying to overcompensate may actually be detrimental, but engaging in self-monitoring and making small adjustments could be beneficial.
You can also use nonverbal communication to bring positive attention to yourself. Being able to nonverbally encode turn-taking cues can allow people to contribute to conversations at relevant times, and getting an idea or a piece of information or feedback in at the right time can help bring attention to your professional competence. Being able to encode an appropriate amount of professionalism and enthusiasm during a job interview can also aid in desired impression formation since people make judgments about others’ personalities based on their nonverbal cues. A person who comes across as too enthusiastic may be seen as pushy or fake, and a person who comes across as too relaxed may be seen as unprofessional and unmotivated.
Nonverbal Communication and Culture
As with other aspects of communication, norms for nonverbal communication vary from country to country and also among cultures within a particular country. We’ve already learned that some nonverbal communication behaviors appear to be somewhat innate because they are universally recognized. Two such universal signals are the “eyebrow flash” of recognition when we see someone we know and the open hand and the palm up gesture that signals a person would like something or needs help. Smiling is also a universal nonverbal behavior, but the triggers that lead a person to smile vary from culture to culture. The expansion of media, particularly from the United States and other Western countries around the world, is leading to more nonverbal similarities among cultures, but the biggest cultural differences in nonverbal communication occur within the categories of eye contact, touch, and personal space. Next, we will overview some interesting and instructive differences within several channels of nonverbal communication that we have discussed so far. As you read, remember that these are not absolute, in that nonverbal communication like other forms of communication is influenced by context and varies among individuals within a particular cultural group as well.
Cultural variations in the way we gesture, use head movements, and use eye contact fall under the nonverbal category of kinesics.
Remember that emblems are gestures that correspond to a word and an agreed-on meaning. When we use our fingers to count, we are using emblematic gestures, but even our way of counting varies among cultures. I could fairly accurately separate British people and US Americans from French, Greek, and German people based on a simple and common gesture. Let’s try this exercise: First, display with your hand the number five. Second, keeping the five displayed, change it to a two. If you are from the United States or Britain you are probably holding up your index finder and your middle finger. If you are from another European country you are probably holding up your thumb and index finger. While Americans and Brits start counting on their index finger and end with five on their thumb, other Europeans start counting on their thumb and end with five on their pinky finger.
How you use your hands can also get you into trouble if you’re unaware of cultural differences.Allan Pease and Barbara Pease, The Definitive Book of Body Language (New York, NY: Bantam, 2004), 110–11. For example, the “thumbs up” gesture, as we just learned, can mean “one” in mainland Europe, but it also means “up yours” in Greece (when thrust forward) and is recognized as a signal for hitchhiking or “good,” “good job / way to go,” or “OK” in many other cultures. Two hands up with the palms out can signal “ten” in many Western countries and is recognized as a signal for “I’m telling the truth” or “I surrender” in many cultures. The same gesture, however, means “up yours twice” in Greece. So using that familiar gesture to say you surrender might actually end up escalating rather than ending a conflict if used in Greece.
Bowing is a nonverbal greeting ritual that is more common in Asian cultures than Western cultures, but the head nod, which is a common form of acknowledgement in many cultures, is actually an abbreviated bow. Japan is considered a culture, which refers to cultural groups in which people stand farther apart while talking, make less eye contact, and touch less during regular interactions. Because of this, bowing is the preferred nonverbal greeting over handshaking. Bows vary based on status, with higher status people bowing the least. For example, in order to indicate the status of another person, a Japanese businessperson may bow deeply. An interesting ritual associated with the bow is the exchange of business cards when greeting someone in Japan. This exchange allows each person to view the other’s occupation and title, which provides useful information about the other’s status and determines who should bow more. Since bowing gives each person a good view of the other person’s shoes, it is very important to have clean shoes that are in good condition, since they play an important part of initial impression formation.
In some cultures, avoiding eye contact is considered a sign of respect. Such eye contact aversion, however, could be seen as a sign that the other person is being deceptive, is bored, or is being rude. Some Native American nations teach that people should avoid eye contact with elders, teachers, and other people with status. This can create issues in classrooms when teachers are unaware of this norm and may consider a Native American student’s lack of eye contact as a sign of insubordination or lack of engagement, which could lead to false impressions that the student is a troublemaker or less intelligent.
As we’ve learned, touch behaviors are important during initial interactions, and cultural differences in these nonverbal practices can lead to miscommunication and misunderstanding. Shaking hands as a typical touch greeting, for example, varies among cultures. It is customary for British, Australian, German, and US American colleagues to shake hands when seeing each other for the first time and then to shake again when departing company. In the United States, the colleagues do not normally shake hands again if they see each other again later in the day, but European colleagues may shake hands with each other several times a day. Once a certain level of familiarity and closeness is reached, US American colleagues will likely not even shake hands daily unless engaging in some more formal interaction, but many European colleagues will continue to shake each time they see each other. Some French businesspeople have been known to spend up to thirty minutes a day shaking hands. The squeezes and up-and-down shakes used during handshakes are often called “pumps,” and the number of pumps used in a handshake also varies among cultures. Although the Germans and French shake hands more often throughout the day, they typically only give one or two pumps and then hold the shake for a couple seconds before letting go. Brits tend to give three to five pumps, and US Americans tend to give five to seven pumps. This can be humorous to watch at a multinational business event, but it also affects the initial impressions people make of each other. A US American may think that a German is being unfriendly or distant because of his or her single hand pump, while a German may think that a US American is overdoing it with seven.
are cultural groups in which people stand closer together, engage in more eye contact, touch more frequently, and speak more loudly. Italians are especially known for their vibrant nonverbal communication in terms of gestures, volume, eye contact, and touching, which not surprisingly places them in the contact culture category. Italians use hand motions and touching to regulate the flow of conversations, and when non-Italians don’t know how to mirror an Italian’s nonverbals they may not get to contribute much to the conversation, which likely feeds into the stereotype of Italians as domineering in conversations or overexpressive. For example, Italians speak with their hands raised as a way to signal that they are holding the floor for their conversational turn. If their conversational partner starts to raise his or her hands, the Italian might gently touch the other person and keep on talking. Conversational partners often interpret this as a sign of affection or of the Italian’s passion for what he or she is saying. In fact, it is a touch intended to keep the partner from raising his or her hands, which would signal that the Italian’s conversational turn is over and the other person now has the floor. It has been suggested that in order to get a conversational turn, you must physically grab their hands in midair and pull them down. While this would seem very invasive and rude to northern Europeans and US Americans, it is a nonverbal norm in Italian culture and may be the only way to get to contribute to a conversation.
The volume at which we speak is influenced by specific contexts and is more generally influenced by our culture. In European countries like France, England, Sweden, and Germany, it is not uncommon to find restaurants that have small tables very close together. In many cases, two people dining together may be sitting at a table that is actually touching the table of another pair of diners. Most US Americans would consider this a violation of personal space, and Europeans often perceive US Americans to be rude in such contexts because they do not control the volume of their conversations more. Since personal space is usually more plentiful in the United States, Americans are used to speaking at a level that is considered loud to many cultures that are used to less personal space. I have personally experienced both sides of this while traveling abroad. One time, my friends and I were asked to leave a restaurant in Sweden because another table complained that we were being loud. Another time, at a restaurant in Argentina, I was disturbed, as were the others dining around me, by a “loud” table of Americans seated on the other side of the dining area. In this case, even though we were also Americans, we were bothered by the lack of cultural awareness being exhibited by the other Americans at the restaurant. These examples show how proxemics and vocalics can combine to make for troubling, but hopefully informative, nonverbal intercultural encounters.
Cultural norms for personal space vary much more than some other nonverbal communication channels such as facial expressions, which have more universal similarity and recognizability. We’ve already learned that contact and noncontact cultures differ in their preferences for touch and interpersonal distance. Countries in South America and southern Europe exhibit characteristics of contact cultures, while countries in northern Europe and Southeast Asia exhibit noncontact cultural characteristics. Because of the different comfort levels with personal space, a Guatemalan and a Canadian might come away with differing impressions of each other because of proxemic differences. The Guatemalan may feel the Canadian is standoffish, and the Canadian may feel the Guatemalan is pushy or aggressive.
The United States and many northern and western European countries have a orientation to time, meaning time is seen as a commodity that can be budgeted, saved, spent, and wasted. Events are to be scheduled in advance and have set beginning and ending times. Countries like Spain and Mexico have a orientation to time. Appointments may be scheduled at overlapping times, making an “orderly” schedule impossible. People may also miss appointments or deadlines without offering an apology, which would be considered very rude by a person with a monochronic orientation to time. People from cultures with a monochronic orientation to time are frustrated when people from polychromic cultures cancel appointments or close businesses for family obligations. Conversely, people from polychromic cultures feel that US Americans, for example, follow their schedules at the expense of personal relationships.
Nonverbal Communication and Gender
Gender and communication scholar Kathryn Dindia contests the notion that men and women are from different planets and instead uses another analogy. She says men are from South Dakota and women are from North Dakota. Although the states border each other and are similar in many ways, state pride and in-group identifications lead the people of South Dakota to perceive themselves to be different from the people of North Dakota and vice versa. But if we expand our perspective and take the position of someone from California or Illinois, North Dakotans and South Dakotans are pretty much alike. This comparison is intended to point out that in our daily lives we do experience men and women to be fairly different, but when we look at the differences between men and women compared to the differences between humans and other creatures, men and women are much more similar than different. For example, in terms of nonverbal communication, men and women all over the world make similar facial expressions and can recognize those facial expressions in one another. We use similar eye contact patterns, gestures, and, within cultural groups, have similar notions of the use of time and space. As I will reiterate throughout this book, it’s important to understand how gender influences communication, but it’s also important to remember that in terms of communication, men and women are about 99 percent similar and 1 percent different.
Although men and women are mostly similar in terms of nonverbal communication, we can gain a better understanding of the role that gender plays in influencing our social realities by exploring some of the channel-specific differences. Within the category of kinesics, we will discuss some gender differences in how men and women use gestures, posture, eye contact, and facial expressions.
- Women use more gestures in regular conversation than do men, but men tend to use larger gestures than women when they do use them.
- Men are, however, more likely to use physical adaptors like restless foot and hand movements, probably because girls are socialized to avoid such movements because they are not “ladylike.”
- Men are more likely to lean in during an interaction than are women.
- Women are more likely to have a face-to-face body orientation while interacting than are men.
- Women’s tendency to use a face-to-face body orientation influences the general conclusion that women are better at sending and receiving nonverbal messages than men. Women’s more direct visual engagement during interactions allows them to take in more nonverbal cues, which allows them to better reflect on and more accurately learn from experience what particular nonverbal cues mean in what contexts.
- In general, women make more eye contact than men. As we learned, women use face-to-face body orientations in conversations more often than men, which likely facilitates more sustained eye contact.
- Overall, women tend to do more looking and get looked at more than men.
- Women reveal emotion through facial expressions more frequently and more accurately than men.
- Men are more likely than women to exhibit angry facial expressions.
- Men are often socialized to believe it is important to hide their emotions. This is especially evident in the case of smiling, with women smiling more than men. This also contributes to the stereotype of the more emotionally aware and nurturing woman, since people tend to like and view as warmer others who show positive emotion.
- Gender socialization plays a role in facial displays as girls are typically rewarded for emotional displays, especially positive ones, and boys are rewarded when they conceal emotions—for instance, when they are told to “suck it up,” “take it like a man,” or “show sportsmanship” by not gloating or celebrating openly.
- Although it is often assumed that men touch women more than women touch men, this hasn’t been a consistent research finding. In fact, differences in touch in cross-gender interactions are very small.
- Women do engage in more touching when interacting with same-gender conversational partners than do men.
- In general, men tend to read more sexual intent into touch than do women, who often underinterpret sexual intent.
There is a touch taboo for men in the United States. In fact, research supports the claim that men’s aversion to same-gender touching is higher in the United States than in other cultures, which shows that this taboo is culturally relative. For example, seeing two adult men holding hands in public in Saudi Arabia would signal that the men are close friends and equals, but it wouldn’t signal that they are sexually attracted to each other. The touch taboo also extends to cross-gender interactions in certain contexts. It’s important to be aware of the potential interpretations of touch, especially as they relate to sexual and aggressive interpretations.
- Women are socialized to use more vocal variety, which adds to the stereotype that women are more expressive than men.
- In terms of pitch, women tend more than men to end their sentences with an upward inflection of pitch, which implies a lack of certainty, even when there isn’t.
A biological difference between men and women involves vocal pitch, with men’s voices being lower pitched and women’s being higher. Varying degrees of importance and social meaning are then placed on these biological differences, which lead some men and women to consciously or unconsciously exaggerate the difference. Men may speak in a lower register than they would naturally and women may speak in more soft, breathy tones to accentuate the pitch differences. These ways of speaking often start as a conscious choice after adolescence to better fit into socially and culturally proscribed gender performances, but they can become so engrained that people spend the rest of their lives speaking in a voice that is a modified version of their natural tone.
- Men are implicitly socialized to take up as much space as possible, and women are explicitly socialized to take up less space.
- In terms of interpersonal distance, research shows that women interact in closer proximity to one another than do men.
- Men do not respond as well as women in situations involving crowding. High-density environments evoke more negative feelings from men, which can even lead to physical violence in very crowded settings.
Men are generally larger than women, which is a biological difference that gains social and cultural meaning when certain behaviors and norms are associated with it. For example, women are told to sit in a “ladylike” way, which usually means to cross and/or close their legs and keep their limbs close to their body. Men, on the other hand, sprawl out in casual, professional, and formal situations without their use of space being reprimanded or even noticed in many cases.
If you’ll recall our earlier discussion of personal space, we identified two subzones within the personal zone that extends from 1.5 to 4 feet from our body. Men seem to be more comfortable with casual and social interactions that are in the outer subzone, which is 2.5 to 4 feet away, meaning men prefer to interact at an arm’s length from another person. This also plays into the stereotypes of women as more intimate and nurturing and men as more distant and less intimate.
- Men and women present themselves differently, with women, in general, accentuating their physical attractiveness more and men accentuating signs of their status and wealth more.
- Men and women may engage in self-presentation that exaggerates existing biological differences between male and female bodies.
Most people want to present themselves in ways that accentuate their attractiveness, at least in some situations where impression management is important to fulfill certain instrumental, relational, or identity needs. Gender socialization over many years has influenced how we present ourselves in terms of attractiveness. Research shows that women’s physical attractiveness is more important to men than men’s physical attractiveness is to women. Women do take physical attractiveness into account, but a man’s social status and wealth has been shown to be more important.
Men and women also exaggerate biological and socially based sex and gender differences on their own. In terms of biology, men and women’s bodies are generally different, which contributes to the nonverbal area related to personal appearance. Many men and women choose clothing that accentuates these bodily differences. For example, women may accentuate their curves with specific clothing choices and men may accentuate their size—for example, by wearing a suit with shoulder padding to enhance the appearance of broad shoulders. These choices vary in terms of the level of consciousness at which they are made. Men are also hairier than women, and although it isn’t always the case and grooming varies by culture, many women shave their legs and remove body hair while men may grow beards or go to great lengths to reverse baldness to accentuate these differences. Of course, the more recent trend of “manscaping” now has some men trimming or removing body hair from their chests, arms, and/or legs.
- A central function of nonverbal communication is the establishment and maintenance of interpersonal relationships. Nonverbal communication helps initiate relationships through impression management and self-disclosure and then helps maintain relationships as it aids in emotional expressions that request and give emotional support.
- Professionals indicate that nonverbal communication is an important part of their jobs. Organizational leaders can use nonverbal decoding skills to tell when employees are under stress and in need of support and can then use encoding skills to exhibit nonverbal sensitivity. Nonverbal signals can aid in impression management in professional settings, such as in encoding an appropriate amount of enthusiasm and professionalism.
- Although some of our nonverbal signals appear to be more innate and culturally universal, many others vary considerably among cultures, especially in terms of the use of space (proxemics), eye contact (oculesics), and touch (haptics). Rather than learning a list of rules for cultural variations in nonverbal cues, it is better to develop more general knowledge about how nonverbal norms vary based on cultural values and to view this knowledge as tools that can be adapted for use in many different cultural contexts.
- In terms of gender, most of the nonverbal differences between men and women are exaggerations of biological differences onto which we have imposed certain meanings and values. Men and women’s nonverbal communication, as with other aspects of communication, is much more similar than different. Research has consistently found, however, that women gesture, make eye contact, touch and stand close to same-gender conversational partners, and use positive facial expressions more than men.
- Identify some nonverbal behaviors that would signal a positive interaction on a first date and on a job interview. Then identify some nonverbal behaviors that would signal a negative interaction in each of those contexts.
- Discuss an experience where you have had some kind of miscommunication or misunderstanding because of cultural or gender differences in encoding and decoding nonverbal messages. What did you learn in this chapter that could help you in similar future interactions?
- Ronald E. Riggio, “Social Interaction Skills and Nonverbal Behavior,” in Applications of Nonverbal Behavior Theories and Research, ed. Robert S. Feldman (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1992), 15. ↵
- Peter J. DePaulo, “Applications of Nonverbal Behavior Research in Marketing and Management,” Applications of Nonverbal Behavior Theories and Research, ed. Robert S. Feldman (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1992), 63. ↵
- Kristin Byron, Sophia Terranova, and Stephen Nowicki Jr., “Nonverbal Emotion Recognition and Salespersons: Linking Ability to Perceived and Actual Success,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 37, no. 11 (2007): 2600–2619. ↵
- Peter J. DePaulo, “Applications of Nonverbal Behavior Research in Marketing and Management,” in Applications of Nonverbal Behavior Theories and Research, ed. Robert S. Feldman (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1992), 71–73. ↵
- Judith N. Martin and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010), 271. ↵
- Allan Pease and Barbara Pease, The Definitive Book of Body Language (New York, NY: Bantam, 2004), 112–13. ↵
- Allan Pease and Barbara Pease, The Definitive Book of Body Language (New York, NY: Bantam, 2004), 108. ↵
- Allan Pease and Barbara Pease, The Definitive Book of Body Language (New York, NY: Bantam, 2004), 114. ↵
- Allan Pease and Barbara Pease, The Definitive Book of Body Language (New York, NY: Bantam, 2004), 115. ↵
- Judith N. Martin and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010), 278. ↵
- Peter A. Andersen, Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999), 106. ↵
- Peter A. Andersen, Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999), 118–21. ↵
- Peter A. Andersen, Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999), 125. ↵
- Judith N. Martin and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010), 274. ↵
Cultural groups in which people stand farther apart while talking, make less eye contact, and touch less during regular interactions.
Cultural groups in which people stand closer together, engage in more eye contact, touch more frequently, and speak more loudly.
A fixed and precise orientation toward time in which time is seen as a commodity that can be budgeted, saved, spent, and wasted and events are to be scheduled in advance and have set beginning and ending times.
A flexible cultural orientation toward time in which relationships are often valued above schedules and scheduling appointments at the same time and being late for or missing appointments may not be a violation of norms.
Sura ya 4: Mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno - Jadili jukumu la mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno katika muktadha wa mahusiano. - Kuzungumzia jukumu la mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno katika muktadha wa kitaaluma. - Kutoa mifano ya tofauti za kitamaduni katika mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno. - Kutoa mifano ya tofauti za jinsia katika mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno. Mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno hupokea uangalifu mdogo kuliko mawasiliano ya maneno kama sehemu ya maisha yetu ya kila siku. Kujifunza zaidi juu ya mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno na kuwa na ufahamu zaidi wa matumizi yetu wenyewe na ya wengine ya ishara zisizo za maneno zinaweza kutusaidia kuwa washirika bora wa mahusiano na wataalamu bora. Kujifunza kuhusu tofauti za kitamaduni katika mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno ni muhimu kwa watu wanaosafiri nje ya nchi, lakini pia kwa sababu ya ulimwengu wetu wa biashara unaoongezeka wa kimataifa na kuongezeka kwa utofauti na kuongezeka kwa mzunguko wa mawasiliano ya kati ya tamaduni ndani ya mipaka yetu. Mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno katika Muktadha wa Uhusiano: Kazi kuu, ikiwa si ya msingi, ya mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno ni kuanzisha na kudumisha mahusiano ya kati ya watu. Zaidi ya hayo, watu ambao ni stadi katika encoding ujumbe nonverbal kuwa na faida mbalimbali ya mahusiano ya kibinafsi, ikiwa ni pamoja na kuwa maarufu zaidi, kuwa na mtandao mkubwa wa kijamii linajumuisha wote marafiki na marafiki wa karibu, na kuwa na uwezekano mdogo wa kuwa mpweke au kijamii wasiwasi. Mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno huongeza uwezo wetu wa kueleza mambo, na kwa kawaida watu huona mambo yanayoonyesha mambo kuwa yenye kuvutia na wanataka kuyaona kwa makini zaidi. Hilo huongeza uwezekano wetu wa kuanzisha mahusiano ya kibinafsi. Mahusiano hufanyizwa kama matokeo ya kubadilishana kwa habari za maneno na zisizo za maneno kupitia kujifunua kwa kila mmoja. Kadiri ufunuo wa kibinafsi unavyozidi kuwa wa kina, ujumbe huwa na maana zaidi ikiwa unaambatana na ishara zisizo za maneno. Maoni yanayotokezwa katika hatua hii ya mwingiliano husaidia kuamua kama uhusiano utaendelea au la. Kadiri mahusiano yanavyosonga mbele kutoka kwa kubadilishana habari za msingi na kuanzishwa kwa vifungo vya mapema vya watu hadi uhusiano mkubwa zaidi wa kihisia, mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno huchukua jukumu muhimu zaidi. Kama tulivyojifunza, mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno yana maana nyingi ya kihisia, kwa hivyo uwezo wa kuunda na kufuta ujumbe sahihi usio wa maneno uliotumwa kupitia usemi wa uso, ishara, mawasiliano ya macho, na kugusa husababisha mwingiliano wa ubora wa juu ambao ni thawabu kwa wawasilianao wanaohusika. Mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno husaidia kudumisha mahusiano mara tu yanapopita hatua za mwanzo kwa kutusaidia kuwasiliana na hisia na kutafuta na kutoa msaada wa kijamii na kihisia. Kwa habari ya kuwasiliana hisia, wasemaji wenye uwezo wanajua ni wakati gani unaofaa wa kueleza hisia na ni wakati gani unahitajika kujidhibiti zaidi. Pia wanajua jinsi ya kurekebisha hisia zao ili ziwe sawa na hali mbalimbali na watu, jambo ambalo linaweza kusaidia kuzuia kutoelewana kwa hisia katika uhusiano. Ukosefu wa usawa wa kihisia hutokea wakati mwenzi mmoja wa uhusiano anapoonyesha hisia nyingi sana kwa njia ambayo inakuwa mzigo kwa mtu mwingine. Kwa kawaida, kila mtu katika uhusiano anaweza kueleza hisia zake kwa njia ambayo si ya kulemea sana kwa mtu mwingine. Mara kwa mara, mtu mmoja anaweza kuwa na matatizo ya kihisia-moyo kwa muda mrefu, na hilo linaweza kuwa gumu sana kwa watu wengine katika maisha yake. Kwa kuwa watu wenye uwezo wa mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno tayari wana uwezekano mkubwa wa kuwa na mitandao mikubwa ya msaada wa kijamii, inawezekana kwamba wataweza kueneza mawasiliano yao ya kihisia, haswa kuhusiana na hisia hasi, kwa njia ambazo hazisababishi mzigo kwa wengine. Kwa bahati mbaya, kwa kuwa watu wenye ujuzi mdogo wa usemi wana uwezekano wa kuwa na mitandao ndogo ya kijamii, wanaweza kuishia kulenga mtu mmoja au wawili kwa mawasiliano yao ya kihisia, ambayo inaweza kusababisha watu wengine kujiondoa kutoka kwa uhusiano. Kueleza uhitaji wa utegemezo pia ni sehemu muhimu ya kudumisha uhusiano. Watu ambao hawana ujuzi wa kuandika maneno ya maneno wanaweza kutuma ishara zisizo wazi au za hali ya chini za kuomba msaada ambazo hazipatikani na wengine, ambayo inaweza kusababisha hisia za kuongezeka kwa upweke. Kwa upande mwingine, waandishi wenye ustadi wa ujumbe usio wa maneno wanaweza kueleza kwa njia inayofaa uhitaji wa msaada kwa njia zinazotambuliwa. Wakati mahusiano yanapozidi kuwa karibu na ya karibu, ishara zisizo za maneno huwa njia fupi ya kuwasiliana, kwani habari inaweza kuwasiliana kwa sura, ishara, sauti, au msimamo fulani. Wanachama wa familia, wanandoa wa kimapenzi, marafiki wa karibu, na wenzake wa karibu wanaweza kuunganisha juu ya ukoo wao na tabia zisizo za maneno, ambazo huunda hali halisi ya uhusiano wa pamoja ambayo ni ya kipekee kwa uhusiano. Mafunzo ya sasa ya wataalamu na wasimamizi wamegundua kwamba wengi wanaripoti kwamba ujuzi wa maneno ni muhimu kwa kazi zao. Ingawa ni muhimu, ni nadra kuna mafunzo yoyote au maagizo yanayohusiana na mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno, na suala la mfululizo ambalo limeripotiwa na wafanyikazi limekuwa shida na ujumbe mchanganyiko unaokuja kutoka kwa mameneja. Kutumia maneno na maneno yasiyo na maana ni jambo gumu katika hali yoyote na linaweza kuathiri vibaya kuridhika na kazi na uzalishaji. Kama msimamizi ambaye hutoa maoni mazuri na hasi mara kwa mara na au katika tathmini za utendaji wa mara kwa mara, ni muhimu kuwa na uwezo wa kulinganisha ishara zisizo za maneno na yaliyomo katika ujumbe. Kwa mfano, ishara sahihi zisizo za maneno zinaweza kuelezea uzito wa malalamiko ya mteja au mfanyakazi mwenzake, kusaidia kupunguza utoaji wa ukosoaji wenye kujenga, au kuimarisha maoni mazuri. Wataalamu pia wanahitaji kujua jinsi muktadha, hadhi, na nguvu zinavyoshirikiana na njia hususa za mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno. Kwa mfano, hata kugusa kwa kawaida watu unaowaongoza, wale unaowafundisha, au wafanyakazi kunaweza kuonwa kuwa jambo la hali ya chini au lisilofaa katika hali fulani. Kupiga makofi kwenye bega ni tofauti na mkono usio wa lazima kwenye bega ili kusalimu mwanzoni mwa mkutano wa biashara. Katika muktadha wa kitaaluma, mameneja na washauri wenye ujuzi wa kufuta maneno wanaweza kuonyesha unyeti kwa tabia ya wengine isiyo ya maneno na kuhusiana vizuri na wafanyikazi na washauri. Kwa ujumla, kutafsiri hisia kutoka kwa ishara zisizo za maneno kunaweza kuwa na faida za kibinafsi na za kitaaluma. Utafiti mmoja uligundua kwamba wafanyabiashara walio na ustadi wa kutambua hisia kupitia ishara zisizo za maneno waliuza bidhaa zaidi na kupata mishahara ya juu zaidi. Mbali na kuleta thawabu za kifedha, mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno pia husaidia kuunda hali ya hewa yenye kutegemeza. Wakurugenzi, wasimamizi, na watoa huduma kama vile wataalamu wa matibabu wanaweza kusaidia kuunda uhusiano na hali nzuri kwa kuiga kwa ufahamu mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno ya wafanyikazi wao au wateja. Kwa kuongezea, kuiga mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno ya wengine wakati wa mahojiano ya kazi, wakati wa mauzo, au wakati wa tathmini ya utendaji inaweza kusaidia kuweka mtu mwingine kwa urahisi na kuanzisha uhusiano. Kuiga kunawezekana, kwa hivyo kujaribu kulipa msamaha kupita kiasi kunaweza kuwa na madhara, lakini kujidhibiti na kufanya marekebisho madogo inaweza kuwa na faida. Unaweza pia kutumia mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno ili kujiletea uangalifu mzuri. Kuwa na uwezo wa nonverbal encode turn-taking cues inaweza kuruhusu watu kuchangia mazungumzo katika nyakati muhimu, na kupata wazo au kipande cha habari au maoni katika wakati sahihi inaweza kusaidia kuleta tahadhari kwa uwezo wako wa kitaaluma. Kuwa na uwezo wa kuingiza kiasi sahihi cha utaalamu na shauku wakati wa mahojiano ya kazi pia inaweza kusaidia katika kuunda hisia inayotakiwa kwani watu hufanya hukumu juu ya utu wa wengine kulingana na ishara zao zisizo za maneno. Mtu ambaye anakuja kama msisimko sana anaweza kuonekana kama pushy au bandia, na mtu ambaye anakuja kama kupumzika sana anaweza kuonekana kama unprofessional na unmotivated. Kama ilivyo na mambo mengine ya mawasiliano, kanuni za mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno hutofautiana kutoka nchi moja hadi nyingine na pia kati ya tamaduni ndani ya nchi fulani. Tayari tumejifunza kwamba baadhi ya tabia za mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno huonekana kuwa za asili kwa sababu zinatambuliwa ulimwenguni pote. Ishara mbili za ulimwengu ni'mwisho wa kipaji' wa utambuzi wakati tunapoona mtu tunamjua na mkono uliofunguliwa na ishara ya mkono wa juu ambayo inaonyesha mtu angependa kitu au anahitaji msaada. Tabasamu ni tabia ya kawaida ya watu, lakini sababu za kutokeza tabasamu hutofautiana kulingana na utamaduni. Kuongezeka kwa vyombo vya habari, hasa kutoka Marekani na nchi nyingine za Magharibi, kunasababisha kufanana zaidi kwa lugha kati ya tamaduni, lakini tofauti kubwa za kitamaduni katika mawasiliano yasiyo ya lugha hutokea ndani ya makundi ya mawasiliano ya macho, kugusa, na nafasi ya kibinafsi. Kwa hiyo, tutachunguza tofauti kadhaa za kuvutia na zenye kuelimisha kati ya njia kadhaa za mawasiliano zisizo za maneno ambazo tumezungumzia hadi sasa. Kama unavyosoma, kumbuka kwamba haya si ya kweli, kwa kuwa mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno, kama aina nyingine za mawasiliano, huathiriwa na muktadha na hutofautiana kati ya watu ndani ya kikundi fulani cha kitamaduni pia. Tofauti za kitamaduni katika njia tunayoonyesha ishara, kutumia miendo ya kichwa, na kutumia mawasiliano ya macho huanguka chini ya jamii isiyo ya maneno ya kinetics. Kumbuka kwamba alama ni ishara zinazolingana na neno na maana iliyokubaliwa. Tunapotumia vidole vyao kuhesabu, tunatumia ishara za mfano, lakini hata njia yetu ya kuhesabu inatofautiana kati ya tamaduni. """Ningeweza kwa usahihi kutenganisha watu wa Uingereza na Wamarekani kutoka kwa watu wa Ufaransa, Ugiriki na Ujerumani kwa msingi wa ishara rahisi na ya kawaida." Hebu jaribu zoezi hili: Kwanza, onyesha kwa mkono wako namba tano. Pili, kuweka tano kuonyeshwa, kubadilisha kwa mbili. Ikiwa wewe ni kutoka Marekani au Uingereza, labda unashikilia kifuniko cha index yako na kidole chako cha kati. Ikiwa wewe ni kutoka nchi nyingine ya Ulaya labda unainua kidole gumba na kidole cha kiashiria. Wamarekani na Waingereza huanza kuhesabu kwa kidole cha kiashiria na kumaliza kwa tano kwenye kidole kikuu, lakini Wazungu wengine huanza kuhesabu kwa kidole kikuu na kumaliza kwa tano kwenye kidole kidogo. "Kama unavyojua, kuna uwezekano mkubwa wa kuwa na ""mfano wa kawaida"" wa lugha ya mwili, kama vile Allan Pease na Barbara Pease, ""The Definitive Book of Body Language"" (New York, NY: Bantam, 2004)." Kwa mfano, ishara ya <unk>thumbs up<unk>, kama tulivyojifunza hivi karibuni, inaweza kumaanisha <unk>one<unk> katika bara la Ulaya, lakini pia inamaanisha <unk>up yours<unk> katika Ugiriki (wakati wa kusukuma mbele) na inatambuliwa kama ishara ya hitchhiking au <unk>good job way to go<unk> au <unk>OK<unk> katika tamaduni nyingine nyingi. Mikono miwili iliyoinuliwa na mikono iliyoinuliwa inaweza kuwa ishara ya <unk>ten<unk> katika nchi nyingi za Magharibi na inatambuliwa kama ishara ya <unk>Ninasema ukweli<unk> au <unk>Ninajisalimisha<unk> katika tamaduni nyingi. Hata hivyo, ishara hiyohiyo humaanisha "up yours twice" katika Ugiriki. "Kutumia ishara ya ""kujisalimisha"" inaweza kuimarisha mgogoro wa kijeshi." Kuinama ni njia ya salamu isiyo ya maneno ambayo ni ya kawaida katika tamaduni za Asia kuliko tamaduni za Magharibi, lakini kutikisa kichwa, ambayo ni aina ya kawaida ya utambuzi katika tamaduni nyingi, kwa kweli ni kifupi cha kuinama. Japani ni nchi ya utamaduni ambapo watu wanaendelea kusimama mbali wakati wa kuzungumza, na kufanya mawasiliano ya macho kidogo, na kugusa kidogo wakati wa mwingiliano wa kawaida. Kwa sababu hiyo, kuinama ni salamu inayopendelewa isiyo ya maneno kuliko kushikamana mkono. Kuinama hutofautiana kulingana na hadhi, na watu wenye hadhi ya juu huinama kidogo zaidi. Kwa mfano, ili kuonyesha cheo cha mtu mwingine, mfanyabiashara Mjapani aweza kuinama kwa kina. Desturi yenye kupendeza inayohusiana na upinde ni kubadilishana kadi za biashara unapomsalimu mtu katika Japani. Mabadiliko haya huruhusu kila mtu kuona kazi na jina la mwingine, ambayo hutoa habari muhimu juu ya hali ya mwingine na kuamua ni nani anayepaswa kuinama zaidi. Kwa kuwa kuinama kunampa kila mtu mtazamo mzuri wa viatu vya mtu mwingine, ni muhimu sana kuwa na viatu safi ambavyo viko katika hali nzuri, kwa kuwa vina jukumu muhimu katika kuunda hisia ya kwanza. Katika tamaduni fulani, kuepuka kuwasiliana kwa macho huonwa kuwa ishara ya kuheshimu. Hata hivyo, kuepuka kuwasiliana kwa macho kwa njia hiyo kunaweza kuonwa kuwa ishara ya kwamba mtu huyo ni mdanganyifu, anachoshwa, au ni mchafu. Mataifa fulani ya Wenyeji wa Asili wa Amerika hufundisha kwamba watu wapaswa kuepuka kuwasiliana kwa macho na wazee, walimu, na watu wengine wenye cheo. Hii inaweza kuunda masuala katika madarasa wakati walimu hawajui kanuni hii na wanaweza kuzingatia ukosefu wa mawasiliano ya macho ya mwanafunzi wa asili ya Amerika kama ishara ya kutotii au ukosefu wa ushiriki, ambayo inaweza kusababisha hisia bandia kwamba mwanafunzi ni msumbuaji au chini ya akili. Kama tulivyojifunza, tabia ya kugusa ni muhimu wakati wa mwingiliano wa awali, na tofauti za kitamaduni katika mazoea haya yasiyo ya maneno yanaweza kusababisha mawasiliano mabaya na kutoelewana. Kwa mfano, kushikana mkono kama njia ya kawaida ya kusalimiana kwa kugusa hutofautiana kati ya tamaduni mbalimbali. Ni desturi kwa wafanyakazi wa Uingereza, Australia, Ujerumani na Marekani kushikana mikono wanapokutana kwa mara ya kwanza na kisha kushikana tena wanapotoka. Katika Marekani, wafanyakazi wa kawaida hawapigi mkono tena ikiwa wanaonana tena baadaye katika siku, lakini wafanyakazi wa Ulaya wanaweza kupigania mkono mara kadhaa kwa siku. Baada ya kufikia kiwango fulani cha ukaribu na ukaribu, wafanyakazi wa Marekani na Marekani huenda wasikushikane mikono kila siku isipokuwa kushiriki katika mwingiliano rasmi zaidi, lakini wafanyakazi wengi wa Ulaya wataendelea kushikamana kila mara wanapokutana. Wafanyabiashara fulani Wafaransa wamejulikana kutumia hadi dakika thelathini kwa siku wakishikana mikono. Squeezes na juu-na-chini shakes kutumika wakati wa handshakes ni mara nyingi aitwaye <unk>pumps,<unk> na idadi ya pumps kutumika katika handshake pia inatofautiana kati ya tamaduni. Ingawa Wajerumani na Wafaransa wanashikamana mara nyingi zaidi wakati wa mchana, kwa kawaida wanatoa pampu moja au mbili tu na kisha wanashikilia kwa sekunde chache kabla ya kuacha. Waingereza wana pumzi tatu hadi tano, na Wamarekani wana pumzi tano hadi saba. Hii inaweza kuwa ya kuchekesha kutazama katika tukio la biashara la kimataifa, lakini pia huathiri hisia za kwanza watu hufanya kwa kila mmoja. "Mtu wa Marekani anaweza kufikiri kwamba Mjerumani ni kuwa unfriendly au mbali kwa sababu ya pampu yake moja ya mkono, wakati Mjerumani anaweza kufikiri kwamba Mmarekani ni kupita kiasi na saba. """ Watu wa jamii ya watu wa kawaida hujiunga na makundi ya watu wa kawaida, wakisimama karibu, wakikutana macho, wakigusa mara nyingi, na wakizungumza kwa sauti kubwa. Waitaliano wanajulikana hasa kwa mawasiliano yao ya sauti, sauti, mawasiliano ya macho, na kugusa, ambayo kwa kushangaza huwaweka katika jamii ya utamaduni wa mawasiliano. Waitaliano hutumia ishara za mikono na kugusa ili kudhibiti mtiririko wa mazungumzo, na wakati wasio Waitaliano hawajui jinsi ya kuiga lugha ya Kiitaliano, wanaweza kutokuwa na mchango mkubwa katika mazungumzo, ambayo inaweza kuingiza stereotype ya Waitaliano kama kutawala katika mazungumzo au overexpressive. Kwa mfano, Waitaliano huzungumza kwa mikono yao iliyoinuliwa ili kuonyesha kwamba wana nafasi ya kuzungumza. Ikiwa mwenzi wao wa mazungumzo anaanza kuinua mikono yake, huenda Mwitaliano akaigusa kwa upole mtu mwingine na kuendelea kuongea. Mara nyingi wenzi wa mazungumzo hufafanua jambo hilo kuwa ishara ya shauku au shauku ya Mwitaliano kwa kile anachosema. Kwa kweli, ni kugusa kunakusudiwa kumzuia mwenzi wake asiinue mikono yake, ambayo ingekuwa ishara kwamba zamu ya mazungumzo ya Kiitaliano imekwisha na mtu mwingine sasa ana nafasi. Ili kuanzisha mazungumzo, ni lazima umshike mkono katikati ya hewa na kumshika. Ingawa hii inaweza kuonekana kuwa ya uvamizi na ya kukosa adabu kwa watu wa Ulaya ya Kaskazini na Wamarekani wa Marekani, ni kanuni isiyo ya maneno katika utamaduni wa Kiitaliano na inaweza kuwa njia pekee ya kupata kuchangia mazungumzo. Kiasi cha sauti tunazozungumza huathiriwa na muktadha maalum na kwa ujumla huathiriwa na utamaduni wetu. Katika nchi za Ulaya kama vile Ufaransa, Uingereza, Sweden, na Ujerumani, ni jambo la kawaida kupata mikahawa yenye meza ndogo zilizo karibu sana. Katika visa vingi, watu wawili wanaokula pamoja huenda wakaketi kwenye meza ambayo kwa kweli inagusa meza ya wenzi wengine wawili wa chakula. Wamarekani wengi wangekuwa wanaona hii kama ukiukaji wa nafasi ya kibinafsi, na Wazungu mara nyingi huona Wamarekani kuwa wachafu katika muktadha kama huo kwa sababu hawawezi kudhibiti kiasi cha mazungumzo yao zaidi. Kwa kuwa nafasi ya kibinafsi ni ya kawaida zaidi katika Marekani, Wamarekani wamezoea kuzungumza kwa kiwango ambacho huchukuliwa kuwa kikubwa kwa tamaduni nyingi ambazo zimezoea nafasi ndogo ya kibinafsi. Mimi binafsi nimepata uzoefu wa pande zote mbili za jambo hili nilipokuwa nikisafiri nje ya nchi. Wakati mmoja, mimi na rafiki zangu tulilazimika kuondoka kwenye mkahawa fulani nchini Sweden kwa sababu meza nyingine ililalamika kwamba tulikuwa tukifanya kelele. Wakati mwingine, katika mkahawa mmoja huko Argentina, nilivurugwa, kama vile wengine waliokuwa wakila karibu nami, na meza ya "sauti kubwa" ya Wamarekani waliokuwa wameketi upande ule mwingine wa eneo la kula. Katika kesi hii, ingawa sisi pia tulikuwa Wamarekani, tulivurugika na ukosefu wa ufahamu wa kitamaduni unaonyeshwa na Wamarekani wengine katika mkahawa. Mifano hii inaonyesha jinsi proxemics na vocalics inaweza kuchanganya kufanya kwa ajili ya kusumbua, lakini matumaini ya habari, nonverbal intercultural kukutana. Kanuni za kitamaduni kwa nafasi ya kibinafsi hutofautiana zaidi kuliko njia zingine za mawasiliano zisizo za maneno kama vile usemi wa uso, ambao una kufanana zaidi na kutambuliwa. Tayari tumejifunza kwamba tamaduni za mawasiliano na zisizo za mawasiliano hutofautiana katika upendeleo wao kwa kugusa na umbali wa kati ya watu. Nchi za Amerika Kusini na Ulaya Kusini zina sifa za utamaduni wa mawasiliano, wakati nchi za Ulaya Kaskazini na Asia ya Kusini-Mashariki zina sifa za utamaduni usio na mawasiliano. Kwa sababu ya viwango tofauti vya starehe na nafasi ya kibinafsi, Guatemalan na Canada wanaweza kuondoka na hisia tofauti za kila mmoja kwa sababu ya tofauti za proxemic. Huenda Mguatemala akahisi kwamba Mkanada ni mwenye kujitenga, na Mkanada anaweza kuhisi kwamba Mguatemala ni mwenye kushinikiza au mwenye jeuri. Marekani na nchi nyingi za kaskazini na magharibi mwa Ulaya zina mwelekeo wa wakati, ikimaanisha wakati unaonekana kama bidhaa ambayo inaweza kupangwa bajeti, kuokolewa, kutumiwa, na kutupwa. Matukio yanapaswa kupangwa kimbele na kuwa na nyakati za kuanza na kumaliza. Nchi kama vile Hispania na Mexico zina mwelekeo wa wakati. Mikutano inaweza kupangwa kwa nyakati zinazofanana, na kufanya ratiba ya "kuamuru" isiwezekane. Watu wanaweza pia kukosa miadi au tarehe za mwisho bila kutoa msamaha, ambayo itachukuliwa kuwa ya kijinga sana na mtu mwenye mwelekeo wa wakati mmoja. Watu kutoka tamaduni zenye mwelekeo wa wakati mmoja hukasirika wakati watu kutoka tamaduni za rangi nyingi wanapofuta miadi au kufunga biashara kwa majukumu ya familia. Kwa upande mwingine, watu kutoka tamaduni polychromic kuhisi kwamba Marekani Wamarekani, kwa mfano, kufuata ratiba zao kwa gharama ya mahusiano ya kibinafsi. Kathryn Dindia, mtaalamu wa jinsia na mawasiliano, anashindana na wazo kwamba wanaume na wanawake ni kutoka sayari tofauti na badala yake anatumia mfano mwingine. Anasema wanaume ni kutoka South Dakota na wanawake ni kutoka North Dakota. Ingawa majimbo hayo yanapakana na kila mmoja na yanafanana kwa njia nyingi, kiburi cha jimbo na utambulisho wa ndani ya kikundi huongoza watu wa South Dakota kujiona kuwa tofauti na watu wa North Dakota na kinyume chake. Lakini ikiwa tutapanua mtazamo wetu na kuchukua msimamo wa mtu kutoka California au Illinois, Dakota Kaskazini na Dakota Kusini ni sawa sana. "Mfano huu unaonyesha kwamba katika maisha yetu ya kila siku tunakutana na wanaume na wanawake tofauti sana, lakini tunapochunguza tofauti kati ya wanaume na wanawake, ikilinganishwa na tofauti kati ya wanadamu na viumbe vingine, wanaume na wanawake ni sawa zaidi kuliko tofauti. """ Kwa mfano, katika mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno, wanaume na wanawake duniani kote hufanya ishara za uso zinazofanana na wanaweza kutambua ishara hizo za uso kwa kila mmoja. Tunatumia mifumo sawa ya mawasiliano ya macho, ishara, na, ndani ya vikundi vya kitamaduni, tuna dhana sawa za matumizi ya wakati na nafasi. Kama nitakavyoelezea katika kitabu hiki, ni muhimu kuelewa jinsi jinsia inavyoathiri mawasiliano, lakini pia ni muhimu kukumbuka kwamba katika suala la mawasiliano, wanaume na wanawake ni karibu 99% sawa na 1% tofauti. Ingawa wanaume na wanawake ni sawa katika suala la mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno, tunaweza kupata uelewa bora wa jukumu ambalo jinsia inacheza katika kuathiri hali halisi ya kijamii kwa kuchunguza baadhi ya tofauti maalum za njia. Katika jamii ya kinetics, tutazungumzia baadhi ya tofauti za kijinsia katika jinsi wanaume na wanawake kutumia ishara, msimamo, mawasiliano ya macho, na hisia za uso. Wanawake hutumia ishara nyingi katika mazungumzo kuliko wanaume, lakini wanaume hutumia ishara kubwa zaidi kuliko wanawake. Wanaume ni, hata hivyo, zaidi uwezekano wa kutumia adaptors kimwili kama miguu restless na harakati za mkono, pengine kwa sababu wasichana ni socialized kuepuka harakati kama hizo kwa sababu wao si <unk>ladylike<unk>. - Wanawake ni zaidi ya uwezekano wa kuwa na uso-kwa-uso mwili mwelekeo wakati wa kuingiliana kuliko ni wanaume. - Mwelekeo wa wanawake wa kutumia mwelekeo wa mwili wa uso kwa uso unaathiri hitimisho la jumla kwamba wanawake ni bora katika kutuma na kupokea ujumbe usio wa maneno kuliko wanaume. Wanawake zaidi ya moja kwa moja ya kuona ushiriki wakati wa maingiliano inaruhusu wao kuchukua katika ishara zaidi yasiyo ya maneno, ambayo inaruhusu wao bora kutafakari na zaidi kwa usahihi kujifunza kutoka uzoefu nini ishara maalum yasiyo ya maneno maana katika mazingira gani. - Kwa ujumla, wanawake huangalia macho zaidi kuliko wanaume. Wanawake hutumia mwelekeo wa uso-kwa-uso katika mazungumzo mara nyingi kuliko wanaume, ambayo inawezekana kuwezesha mawasiliano ya macho ya kudumu. - Kwa ujumla, wanawake huwa na mwelekeo wa kuangalia zaidi na kutazamwa zaidi kuliko wanaume. - Wanawake hufunua hisia kupitia nyuso mara nyingi zaidi na kwa usahihi zaidi kuliko wanaume. - Wanaume wana uwezekano mkubwa zaidi kuliko wanawake wa kuonyesha nyuso zenye hasira. - Mara nyingi wanaume hufundishwa kuamini kwamba ni muhimu kuficha hisia zao. Hii ni dhahiri hasa katika kesi ya tabasamu, na wanawake tabasamu zaidi kuliko wanaume. Hii pia inachangia stereotype ya mwanamke mwenye ufahamu zaidi wa kihisia na kulea, kwani watu huwa wanapenda na kuona kama wengine wenye joto ambao huonyesha hisia chanya. - Jamii ya jinsia ina jukumu katika maonyesho ya uso kama wasichana ni kawaida tuzo kwa maonyesho ya kihisia, hasa mazuri, na wavulana ni tuzo wakati wao kuficha hisia - kwa mfano, wakati wao ni aliiambia <unk> suck ni juu, <unk> <unk> kuchukua kama mtu, <unk> au <unk> kuonyesha sportsmanship <unk> kwa si gloating au kusherehekea wazi. - Ingawa mara nyingi inadhaniwa kwamba wanaume huwagusa wanawake zaidi kuliko wanawake huwagusa wanaume, hii haijawahi kuwa matokeo ya utafiti thabiti. Kwa kweli, tofauti katika kugusa katika maingiliano ya jinsia mbalimbali ni ndogo sana. Wanawake hujihusisha na kugusa zaidi wakati wa kuingiliana na washirika wa mazungumzo ya jinsia moja kuliko wanaume. - Kwa ujumla, wanaume huwa na mwelekeo wa kusoma nia ya kingono zaidi katika kugusa kuliko wanawake, ambao mara nyingi hufafanua nia ya kingono. Kuna vizuizi vya kugusa kwa wanaume nchini Marekani. Utafiti unaunga mkono madai kwamba upinzani wa wanaume kwa kugusa watu wa jinsia moja ni mkubwa zaidi nchini Marekani kuliko katika tamaduni nyingine, ambayo inaonyesha kwamba tabu hii ni ya kiutamaduni. Kwa mfano, kuona wanaume wawili wakubwa wakishikamana mikono hadharani nchini Saudi Arabia kungesema kwamba wanaume hao ni marafiki wa karibu na sawa, lakini haingesema kwamba wanavutiana kingono. Kizuizi cha kugusa pia huenea kwa mwingiliano wa jinsia mbalimbali katika muktadha fulani. Ni muhimu kuwa na ufahamu wa tafsiri zinazowezekana za kugusa, haswa kwa kuwa zinahusiana na tafsiri za kijinsia na za vurugu. - Wanawake ni socialized kutumia zaidi sauti mbalimbali, ambayo anaongeza kwa stereotype kwamba wanawake ni zaidi ya kujieleza kuliko wanaume. - Kwa suala la pitch, wanawake huwa zaidi ya wanaume kumaliza sentensi zao na upward inflection ya pitch, ambayo ina maana ya ukosefu wa uhakika, hata wakati hakuna. Tofauti ya kibiolojia kati ya wanaume na wanawake inahusisha sauti ya sauti, na sauti za wanaume ni za chini na sauti za wanawake ni za juu. Vilevile, viwango tofauti vya umuhimu na maana ya kijamii huwekwa juu ya tofauti hizi za kibiolojia, ambazo zinawaongoza wanaume na wanawake wengine kwa ufahamu au bila ufahamu kuzidisha tofauti. Wanaume wanaweza kuzungumza kwa sauti ya chini kuliko ilivyo kawaida, na wanawake wanaweza kuzungumza kwa sauti laini zaidi ili kusisitiza tofauti za sauti. Njia hizi za kuzungumza mara nyingi huanza kama chaguo la ufahamu baada ya ujana ili kuendana vizuri na utendaji wa kijinsia uliofungwa kijamii na kitamaduni, lakini zinaweza kuwa na mizizi sana kwamba watu hutumia maisha yao yote wakizungumza kwa sauti ambayo ni toleo lililobadilishwa la sauti yao ya asili. Wanaume wanafahamika kwa njia ya kujiingiza katika jamii ili kuchukua nafasi nyingi iwezekanavyo, na wanawake wanafahamika kwa njia ya kujiingiza katika jamii ili kuchukua nafasi ndogo. - Kwa suala la umbali wa kati ya watu, utafiti unaonyesha kwamba wanawake huingiliana karibu zaidi kuliko wanaume. - Wanaume hawaitwi vizuri kama wanawake katika hali zinazohusisha msongamano. Mazingira yenye msongamano mkubwa ya watu huamsha hisia mbaya zaidi kutoka kwa wanaume, ambayo inaweza hata kusababisha vurugu za kimwili katika mazingira yenye msongamano mkubwa. Wanaume kwa ujumla ni wakubwa kuliko wanawake, ambayo ni tofauti ya kibiolojia ambayo hupata maana ya kijamii na kitamaduni wakati tabia fulani na kanuni zinahusishwa nayo. Kwa mfano, wanawake huambiwa kukaa kwa njia ya <unk>ladylike<unk>, ambayo kwa kawaida inamaanisha kuvuka na au kufunga miguu yao na kuweka viungo vyao karibu na mwili wao. Wanaume, kwa upande mwingine, hujipanga katika hali za kawaida, za kitaaluma, na za kawaida bila kutumia nafasi yao kukosolewa au hata kuonekana katika visa vingi. Kama unajua, katika makala yetu ya kwanza ya nafasi ya kibinafsi, tulikuwa na sehemu mbili za eneo la kibinafsi ambazo zinaanzia mita 1.5 hadi 4. Wanaume wanaonekana kuwa na furaha zaidi na mwingiliano wa kawaida na wa kijamii ambao uko katika eneo la nje, ambalo ni mita 2.5 hadi 4 mbali, ikimaanisha wanaume wanapendelea kuingiliana kwa urefu wa mkono kutoka kwa mtu mwingine. Hii pia hucheza katika mitazamo ya wanawake kama wa karibu zaidi na kulea na wanaume kama mbali zaidi na chini ya karibu. Wanaume na wanawake hujionyesha tofauti, na wanawake, kwa ujumla, hukazia uvutio wao wa kimwili zaidi na wanaume hukazia ishara za hadhi na utajiri wao zaidi. - Wanaume na wanawake wanaweza kushiriki katika kujiwasilisha ambayo exaggerates tofauti zilizopo za kibiolojia kati ya miili ya wanaume na wanawake. Watu wengi wanataka kujiwasilisha kwa njia ambazo zinaongeza kuvutia kwao, angalau katika hali fulani ambapo usimamizi wa hisia ni muhimu kutimiza mahitaji fulani ya vyombo, mahusiano, au utambulisho. Utamaduni wa kijinsia kwa miaka mingi umeathiri jinsi tunavyojionyesha wenyewe katika suala la kuvutia. Utafiti unaonyesha kwamba uvutio wa kimwili wa wanawake ni muhimu zaidi kwa wanaume kuliko uvutio wa kimwili wa wanaume kwa wanawake. Wanawake hufikiria uvutio wa kimwili, lakini hali ya kijamii ya mwanamume na utajiri wake umeonyeshwa kuwa muhimu zaidi. Wanaume na wanawake pia huongeza tofauti za kijinsia na jinsia za kibiolojia na kijamii kwa wenyewe. Kwa upande wa biolojia, miili ya wanaume na wanawake kwa ujumla ni tofauti, ambayo inachangia eneo lisilo la maneno linalohusiana na muonekano wa kibinafsi. Wanaume na wanawake wengi huchagua mavazi yanayoonyesha tofauti hizo za kimwili. Kwa mfano, wanawake wanaweza kusisitiza curves yao na uchaguzi maalum wa nguo na wanaume wanaweza kusisitiza ukubwa wao - kwa mfano, kwa kuvaa suti na bega padding ili kuboresha kuonekana kwa mabega pana. Uchaguzi huu hutofautiana kulingana na kiwango cha ufahamu ambao hufanywa. Wanaume pia wana nywele nyingi kuliko wanawake, na ingawa sio wakati wote na matengenezo hutofautiana kulingana na utamaduni, wanawake wengi huchonga miguu yao na kuondoa nywele za mwili wakati wanaume wanaweza kukuza ndevu au kwenda kwa urefu mkubwa ili kugeuza upara ili kusisitiza tofauti hizi. Bila shaka, mwelekeo wa hivi karibuni wa "kufanyiza sura ya mtu" sasa una wanaume fulani kukata au kuondoa nywele za mwili kutoka kifuani, mikono, na/au miguu yao. - Kazi kuu ya mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno ni kuanzisha na kudumisha mahusiano ya kati ya watu. Mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno husaidia kuanzisha mahusiano kupitia usimamizi wa hisia na kujidhihirisha, na kisha husaidia kudumisha mahusiano kwa sababu husaidia katika maonyesho ya hisia ambayo yanahitaji na kutoa msaada wa kihisia. - Wataalamu huonyesha kwamba mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno ni sehemu muhimu ya kazi zao. Viongozi wa shirika wanaweza kutumia ujuzi wa decoding yasiyo ya maneno kujua wakati wafanyakazi ni chini ya mkazo na wanahitaji msaada na kisha wanaweza kutumia ujuzi wa encoding kuonyesha unyeti yasiyo ya maneno. Ishara zisizo za maneno zinaweza kusaidia katika usimamizi wa hisia katika mazingira ya kitaaluma, kama vile kuingiza kiasi sahihi cha shauku na utaalamu. Ingawa baadhi ya ishara zetu zisizo za maneno zinaonekana kuwa za asili na za kitamaduni, nyingine nyingi hutofautiana sana kati ya tamaduni, hasa katika suala la matumizi ya nafasi (proxemics), mawasiliano ya macho (oculesics), na kugusa (haptics). Badala ya kujifunza orodha ya sheria kwa ajili ya tofauti za kitamaduni katika ishara zisizo za maneno, ni bora kuendeleza maarifa ya jumla kuhusu jinsi kanuni zisizo za maneno hutofautiana kulingana na maadili ya kitamaduni na kuona maarifa haya kama zana ambazo zinaweza kubadilishwa kwa ajili ya matumizi katika muktadha mbalimbali wa kitamaduni. - Kwa suala la jinsia, tofauti nyingi zisizo za maneno kati ya wanaume na wanawake ni uzuri wa tofauti za kibiolojia ambazo tumeweka maana na maadili fulani. Wanaume na wanawake mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno, kama na masuala mengine ya mawasiliano, ni mengi zaidi sawa kuliko tofauti. Utafiti umegundua kuwa wanawake hutumia ishara, kufanya mawasiliano ya macho, kugusa na kusimama karibu na wenzi wa mazungumzo wa jinsia moja, na kutumia usemi mzuri wa uso zaidi kuliko wanaume. - Kutambua baadhi ya tabia zisizo za maneno ambayo yangeonyesha mwingiliano mzuri kwenye tarehe ya kwanza na kwenye mahojiano ya kazi. Kisha tafuta tabia fulani zisizo za maneno ambazo zingeweka ishara ya mwingiliano mbaya katika kila moja ya muktadha huo. - Zungumza juu ya uzoefu ambapo umekuwa na aina fulani ya mawasiliano mabaya au kutoelewana kwa sababu ya tofauti za kitamaduni au jinsia katika kuingiza na kufuta ujumbe usio wa maneno. Ni nini ulichokijifunza katika sura hii ambacho kinaweza kukusaidia katika mahusiano kama hayo ya wakati ujao? - Ronald E. Riggio, <unk>Ujuzi wa Maingiliano ya Jamii na Tabia isiyo ya Kimsingi, <unk> katika Maombi ya Nadharia na Utafiti wa Tabia isiyo ya Kimsingi, ed. Robert S. Feldman (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1992), 15. <unk> - Peter J. DePaulo, <unk>Matumizi ya Utafiti wa Tabia isiyo ya Kimsingi katika Uuzaji na Usimamizi, <unk> Matumizi ya Nadharia na Utafiti wa Tabia isiyo ya Kimsingi, ed. Robert S. Feldman (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1992), 63 "Kristin Byron, Sophia Terranova, na Stephen Nowitzki Jr., ""Ugunduzi wa hisia zisizo za maneno na wauzaji: Kuunganisha Uwezo kwa Mafanikio ya Utekelezaji na ya kweli,"" Jarida la Saikolojia ya Jamii ya Matumizi 37, namba." (Mdo 11:27-29) Kwa hiyo, ni wazi kwamba Yehova atafanya hivyo. <unk> - Peter J. DePaulo, <unk>Matumizi ya Utafiti wa Tabia isiyo ya Kimsingi katika Uuzaji na Usimamizi,<unk> katika Matumizi ya Nadharia na Utafiti wa Tabia isiyo ya Kimsingi, ed. Robert S. Feldman (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1992), 71 <unk> 73.  - Judith N. Martin na Thomas K. Nakayama, Mawasiliano ya Utamaduni katika Muktadha, toleo la tano. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) Allan Pease na Barbara Pease, Kitabu cha mwisho cha Lugha ya Mwili (New York, NY: Bantam, 2004), 112 <unk> 13. Allan Pease na Barbara Pease, Kitabu cha Mwisho cha Lugha ya Mwili (New York, NY: Bantam, 2004), 108. Allan Pease na Barbara Pease, Kitabu cha mwisho cha Lugha ya Mwili (New York, NY: Bantam, 2004), 114. Allan Pease na Barbara Pease, Kitabu cha Mwisho cha Lugha ya Mwili (New York, NY: Bantam, 2004), 115.  - Judith N. Martin na Thomas K. Nakayama, Mawasiliano ya Utamaduni katika Muktadha, toleo la tano. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) Peter A. Andersen, Mawasiliano yasiyo ya Kimsingi: Fomu na Kazi (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999), 106. Peter A. Andersen, Mawasiliano yasiyo ya maneno: Fomu na Kazi (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999), 118 <unk> 21. Peter A. Andersen, Mawasiliano yasiyo ya Kimsingi: Fomu na Kazi (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999), 125.  - Judith N. Martin na Thomas K. Nakayama, Mawasiliano ya Utamaduni katika Muktadha, toleo la tano. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) 274.  Vikundi vya kitamaduni ambavyo watu wanasimama mbali zaidi wanapozungumza, hawaonekani sana macho, na hawaugusani sana wakati wa mawasiliano ya kawaida. Vikundi vya kitamaduni ambavyo watu wamesimama karibu zaidi, wanawasiliana zaidi kwa macho, wanagusa mara nyingi zaidi, na huzungumza kwa sauti kubwa zaidi. Wakati ni mtazamo wa kudumu na sahihi kuelekea wakati ambapo wakati unaonekana kama bidhaa ambayo inaweza kupangwa bajeti, kuokolewa, kutumiwa, na kutupwa na matukio yanapaswa kupangwa mapema na kuweka nyakati za kuanza na kumaliza. Uwezo wa kubadilika kwa utamaduni kuelekea wakati ambapo mahusiano mara nyingi yanathaminiwa juu ya ratiba na kupanga miadi wakati huo huo na kuchelewa au kukosa miadi inaweza kuwa ukiukaji wa kanuni.