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Chapter 5 Probability and Statistics in
5.1 Probability in
5.1.1 Distributions
When working with different statistical distributions, we often want to make probabilistic statements based on the distribution.
We typically want to know one of four things:
- The density (pdf) at a particular value.
- The distribution (cdf) at a particular value.
- The quantile value corresponding to a particular probability.
- A random draw of values from a particular distribution.
This used to be done with statistical tables printed in the back of textbooks. Now,
R has functions for obtaining density, distribution, quantile and random values.
The general naming structure of the relevant
R functions is:
dnamecalculates density (pdf) at input
pnamecalculates distribution (cdf) at input
qnamecalculates the quantile at an input probability.
rnamegenerates a random draw from a particular distribution.
Note that
name represents the name of the given distribution.
For example, consider a random variable \(X\) which is \(N(\mu = 2, \sigma^2 = 25)\). (Note, we are parameterizing using the variance \(\sigma^2\).
R however uses the standard deviation.)
To calculate the value of the pdf at
x = 3, that is, the height of the curve at
x = 3, use:
dnorm(x = 3, mean = 2, sd = 5)
## [1] 0.07820854
To calculate the value of the cdf at
x = 3, that is, \(P(X \leq 3)\), the probability that \(X\) is less than or equal to
3, use:
pnorm(q = 3, mean = 2, sd = 5)
## [1] 0.5792597
Or, to calculate the quantile for probability 0.975, use:
qnorm(p = 0.975, mean = 2, sd = 5)
## [1] 11.79982
Lastly, to generate a random sample of size
n = 10, use:
rnorm(n = 10, mean = 2, sd = 5)
## [1] 7.37419359 6.10660658 3.52600481 -4.44840024 -1.34387366 2.30941982
## [7] 0.05664736 5.09714342 2.67348934 2.58181891
These functions exist for many other distributions, including but not limited to:
* can be
q, and
r. Each distribution will have its own set of parameters which need to be passed to the functions as arguments. For example,
dbinom() would not have arguments for
mean and
sd, since those are not parameters of the distribution. Instead a binomial distribution is usually parameterized by \(n\) and \(p\), however
R chooses to call them something else. To find the names that
R uses we would use
?dbinom and see that
R instead calls the arguments
size and
prob. For example:
dbinom(x = 6, size = 10, prob = 0.75)
## [1] 0.145998
Also note that, when using the
dname functions with discrete distributions, they are the pmf of the distribution. For example, the above command is \(P(Y = 6)\) if \(Y \sim b(n = 10, p = 0.75)\). (The probability of flipping an unfair coin
10 times and seeing
6 heads, if the probability of heads is
5.2 Hypothesis Tests in
A prerequisite for STAT 420 is an understanding of the basics of hypothesis testing. Recall the basic structure of hypothesis tests:
- An overall model and related assumptions are made. (The most common being observations following a normal distribution.)
- The null (\(H_{0}\)) and alternative (\(H_{1}\) or \(H_{A}\)) hypotheses are specified. Usually the null specifies a particular value of a parameter.
- With given data, the value of the test statistic is calculated.
- Under the general assumptions, as well as assuming the null hypothesis is true, the distribution of the test statistic is known.
- Given the distribution and value of the test statistic, as well as the form of the alternative hypothesis, we can calculate a p-value of the test.
- Based on the p-value and pre-specified level of significance, we make a decision. One of:
- Fail to reject the null hypothesis.
- Reject the null hypothesis.
We'll do some quick review of two of the most common tests to show how they are performed using
5.2.1 One Sample t-Test: Review
Suppose \(x_{i} \sim \mathrm{N}(\mu,\sigma^{2})\) and we want to test \(H_{0}: \mu = \mu_{0}\) versus \(H_{1}: \mu \neq \mu_{0}.\)
Assuming \(\sigma\) is unknown, we use the one-sample Student's \(t\) test statistic:
\[ t = \frac{\bar{x}-\mu_{0}}{s/\sqrt{n}} \sim t_{n-1}, \]
where \(\bar{x} = \displaystyle\frac{\sum_{i=1}^{n}x_{i}}{n}\) and \(s = \sqrt{\displaystyle\frac{1}{n - 1}\sum_{i=1}^{n}(x_i - \bar{x})^2}\).
A \(100(1 - \alpha)\)% confidence interval for \(\mu\) is given by,
\[ \bar{x} \pm t_{\alpha/2, n-1}\frac{s}{\sqrt{n}} \]
where \(t_{\alpha/2, n-1}\) is the critical value such that \(P\left(t>t_{\alpha/2, n-1}\right) = \alpha/2\) for \(n-1\) degrees of freedom.
5.2.2 One Sample t-Test: Example
Suppose a grocery store sells "16 ounce" boxes of Captain Crisp cereal. A random sample of 9 boxes was taken and weighed. The weight in ounces is stored in the data frame
= data.frame(weight = c(15.5, 16.2, 16.1, 15.8, 15.6, 16.0, 15.8, 15.9, 16.2))capt_crisp
The company that makes Captain Crisp cereal claims that the average weight of a box is at least 16 ounces. We will assume the weight of cereal in a box is normally distributed and use a 0.05 level of significance to test the company's claim.
To test \(H_{0}: \mu \geq 16\) versus \(H_{1}: \mu < 16\), the test statistic is
\[ t = \frac{\bar{x} - \mu_{0}}{s / \sqrt{n}} \]
The sample mean \(\bar{x}\) and the sample standard deviation \(s\) can be easily computed using
R. We also create variables which store the hypothesized mean and the sample size.
= mean(capt_crisp$weight)
x_bar = sd(capt_crisp$weight)
s = 16
mu_0 = 9n
We can then easily compute the test statistic.
= (x_bar - mu_0) / (s / sqrt(n))
t t
## [1] -1.2
Under the null hypothesis, the test statistic has a \(t\) distribution with \(n - 1\) degrees of freedom, in this case 8.
To complete the test, we need to obtain the p-value of the test. Since this is a one-sided test with a less-than alternative, we need the area to the left of -1.2 for a \(t\) distribution with 8 degrees of freedom. That is,
\[ P(t_{8} < -1.2) \]
pt(t, df = n - 1)
## [1] 0.1322336
We now have the p-value of our test, which is greater than our significance level (0.05), so we fail to reject the null hypothesis.
Alternatively, this entire process could have been completed using one line of
R code.
t.test(x = capt_crisp$weight, mu = 16, alternative = c("less"), conf.level = 0.95)
## One Sample t-test
## data: capt_crisp$weight
## t = -1.2, df = 8, p-value = 0.1322
## alternative hypothesis: true mean is less than 16
## 95 percent confidence interval:
## -Inf 16.05496
## sample estimates:
## mean of x
## 15.9
We supply
R with the data, the hypothesized value of \(\mu\), the alternative, and the confidence level.
R then returns a wealth of information including:
- The value of the test statistic.
- The degrees of freedom of the distribution under the null hypothesis.
- The p-value of the test.
- The confidence interval which corresponds to the test.
- An estimate of \(\mu\).
Since the test was one-sided,
R returned a one-sided confidence interval. If instead we wanted a two-sided interval for the mean weight of boxes of Captain Crisp cereal we could modify our code.
= t.test(capt_crisp$weight, mu = 16,
capt_test_results alternative = c("two.sided"), conf.level = 0.95)
This time we have stored the results. By doing so, we can directly access portions of the output from
t.test(). To see what information is available we use the
names() function.
## [1] "statistic" "parameter" "p.value" "conf.int" "estimate"
## [6] "null.value" "stderr" "alternative" "method" "data.name"
We are interested in the confidence interval which is stored in
## [1] 15.70783 16.09217
## attr(,"conf.level")
## [1] 0.95
Let's check this interval "by hand." The one piece of information we are missing is the critical value, \(t_{\alpha/2, n-1} = t_{8}(0.025)\), which can be calculated in
R using the
qt() function.
qt(0.975, df = 8)
## [1] 2.306004
So, the 95% CI for the mean weight of a cereal box is calculated by plugging into the formula,
\[ \bar{x} \pm t_{\alpha/2, n-1} \frac{s}{\sqrt{n}} \]
c(mean(capt_crisp$weight) - qt(0.975, df = 8) * sd(capt_crisp$weight) / sqrt(9),
mean(capt_crisp$weight) + qt(0.975, df = 8) * sd(capt_crisp$weight) / sqrt(9))
## [1] 15.70783 16.09217
5.2.3 Two Sample t-Test: Review
Suppose \(x_{i} \sim \mathrm{N}(\mu_{x}, \sigma^{2})\) and \(y_{i} \sim \mathrm{N}(\mu_{y}, \sigma^{2}).\)
Want to test \(H_{0}: \mu_{x} - \mu_{y} = \mu_{0}\) versus \(H_{1}: \mu_{x} - \mu_{y} \neq \mu_{0}.\)
Assuming \(\sigma\) is unknown, use the two-sample Student's \(t\) test statistic:
\[ t = \frac{(\bar{x} - \bar{y})-\mu_{0}}{s_{p}\sqrt{\frac{1}{n}+\frac{1}{m}}} \sim t_{n+m-2}, \]
where \(\displaystyle\bar{x}=\frac{\sum_{i=1}^{n}x_{i}}{n}\), \(\displaystyle\bar{y}=\frac{\sum_{i=1}^{m}y_{i}}{m}\), and \(s_p^2 = \displaystyle\frac{(n-1)s_x^2+(m-1)s_y^2}{n+m-2}\).
A \(100(1-\alpha)\)% CI for \(\mu_{x}-\mu_{y}\) is given by
\[ (\bar{x} - \bar{y}) \pm t_{\alpha/2, n+m-2}\left(s_{p}\textstyle\sqrt{\frac{1}{n}+\frac{1}{m}}\right), \]
where \(t_{\alpha/2, n+m-2}\) is the critical value such that \(P\left(t>t_{\alpha/2, n+m-2}\right)=\alpha/2\).
5.2.4 Two Sample t-Test: Example
Assume that the distributions of \(X\) and \(Y\) are \(\mathrm{N}(\mu_{1},\sigma^{2})\) and \(\mathrm{N}(\mu_{2},\sigma^{2})\), respectively. Given the \(n = 6\) observations of \(X\),
= c(70, 82, 78, 74, 94, 82)
x = length(x)n
and the \(m = 8\) observations of \(Y\),
= c(64, 72, 60, 76, 72, 80, 84, 68)
y = length(y)m
we will test \(H_{0}: \mu_{1} = \mu_{2}\) versus \(H_{1}: \mu_{1} > \mu_{2}\).
First, note that we can calculate the sample means and standard deviations.
= mean(x)
x_bar = sd(x)
s_x = mean(y)
y_bar = sd(y)s_y
We can then calculate the pooled standard deviation.
\[ s_{p} = \sqrt{\frac{(n-1)s_{x}^{2}+(m-1)s_{y}^{2}}{n+m-2}} \]
= sqrt(((n - 1) * s_x ^ 2 + (m - 1) * s_y ^ 2) / (n + m - 2))s_p
Thus, the relevant \(t\) test statistic is given by
\[ t = \frac{(\bar{x}-\bar{y})-\mu_{0}}{s_{p}\sqrt{\frac{1}{n}+\frac{1}{m}}}. \]
= ((x_bar - y_bar) - 0) / (s_p * sqrt(1 / n + 1 / m))
t t
## [1] 1.823369
Note that \(t \sim t_{n + m - 2} = t_{12}\), so we can calculate the p-value, which is
\[ P(t_{12} > 1.8233692). \]
1 - pt(t, df = n + m - 2)
## [1] 0.04661961
But, then again, we could have simply performed this test in one line of
t.test(x, y, alternative = c("greater"), var.equal = TRUE)
## Two Sample t-test
## data: x and y
## t = 1.8234, df = 12, p-value = 0.04662
## alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is greater than 0
## 95 percent confidence interval:
## 0.1802451 Inf
## sample estimates:
## mean of x mean of y
## 80 72
Recall that a two-sample \(t\)-test can be done with or without an equal variance assumption. Here
var.equal = TRUE tells
R we would like to perform the test under the equal variance assumption.
Above we carried out the analysis using two vectors
x and
y. In general, we will have a preference for using data frames.
= data.frame(values = c(x, y),
t_test_data group = c(rep("A", length(x)), rep("B", length(y))))
We now have the data stored in a single variables (
values) and have created a second variable (
group) which indicates which "sample" the value belongs to.
## values group
Now to perform the test, we still use the
t.test() function but with the
~ syntax and a
data argument.
t.test(values ~ group, data = t_test_data,
alternative = c("greater"), var.equal = TRUE)
## Two Sample t-test
## data: values by group
## t = 1.8234, df = 12, p-value = 0.04662
## alternative hypothesis: true difference in means between group A and group B is greater than 0
## 95 percent confidence interval:
## 0.1802451 Inf
## sample estimates:
## mean in group A mean in group B
## 80 72
5.3 Simulation
Simulation and model fitting are related but opposite processes.
- In simulation, the data generating process is known. We will know the form of the model as well as the value of each of the parameters. In particular, we will often control the distribution and parameters which define the randomness, or noise in the data.
- In model fitting, the data is known. We will then assume a certain form of model and find the best possible values of the parameters given the observed data. Essentially we are seeking to uncover the truth. Often we will attempt to fit many models, and we will learn metrics to assess which model fits best.
Often we will simulate data according to a process we decide, then use a modeling method seen in class. We can then verify how well the method works, since we know the data generating process.
One of the biggest strengths of
R is its ability to carry out simulations using built-in functions for generating random samples from certain distributions. We'll look at two very simple examples here, however simulation will be a topic we revisit several times throughout the course.
5.3.1 Paired Differences
Consider the model:
\[ \begin{split} X_{11}, X_{12}, \ldots, X_{1n} \sim N(\mu_1,\sigma^2)\\ X_{21}, X_{22}, \ldots, X_{2n} \sim N(\mu_2,\sigma^2) \end{split} \]
Assume that \(\mu_1 = 6\), \(\mu_2 = 5\), \(\sigma^2 = 4\) and \(n = 25\).
\[ \begin{aligned} \bar{X}_1 &= \displaystyle\frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=1}^{n}X_{1i}\\ \bar{X}_2 &= \displaystyle\frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=1}^{n}X_{2i}\\ D &= \bar{X}_1 - \bar{X}_2. \end{aligned} \]
Suppose we would like to calculate \(P(0 < D < 2)\). First we will need to obtain the distribution of \(D\).
\[ \bar{X}_1 \sim N\left(\mu_1,\frac{\sigma^2}{n}\right) \]
\[ \bar{X}_2 \sim N\left(\mu_2,\frac{\sigma^2}{n}\right). \]
\[ D = \bar{X}_1 - \bar{X}_2 \sim N\left(\mu_1-\mu_2, \frac{\sigma^2}{n} + \frac{\sigma^2}{n}\right) = N\left(6-5, \frac{4}{25} + \frac{4}{25}\right). \]
\[ D \sim N(\mu = 1, \sigma^2 = 0.32). \]
This can then be calculated using
R without a need to first standardize, or use a table.
pnorm(2, mean = 1, sd = sqrt(0.32)) - pnorm(0, mean = 1, sd = sqrt(0.32))
## [1] 0.9229001
An alternative approach, would be to simulate a large number of observations of \(D\) then use the empirical distribution to calculate the probability.
Our strategy will be to repeatedly:
- Generate a sample of 25 random observations from \(N(\mu_1 = 6,\sigma^2 = 4)\). Call the mean of this sample \(\bar{x}_{1s}\).
- Generate a sample of 25 random observations from \(N(\mu_1 = 5,\sigma^2 = 4)\). Call the mean of this sample \(\bar{x}_{2s}\).
- Calculate the differences in the means, \(d_s = \bar{x}_{1s} - \bar{x}_{2s}\).
We will repeat the process a large number of times. Then we will use the distribution of the simulated observations of \(d_s\) as an estimate for the true distribution of \(D\).
= 10000
num_samples = rep(0, num_samples)differences
Before starting our
for loop to perform the operation, we set a seed for reproducibility, create and set a variable
num_samples which will define the number of repetitions, and lastly create a variables
differences which will store the simulate values, \(d_s\).
By using
set.seed() we can reproduce the random results of
rnorm() each time starting from that line.
for (s in 1:num_samples) {
= rnorm(n = 25, mean = 6, sd = 2)
x1 = rnorm(n = 25, mean = 5, sd = 2)
x2 = mean(x1) - mean(x2)
differences[s] }
To estimate \(P(0 < D < 2)\) we will find the proportion of values of \(d_s\) (among the 10^{4} values of \(d_s\) generated) that are between 0 and 2.
mean(0 < differences & differences < 2)
## [1] 0.9222
Recall that above we derived the distribution of \(D\) to be \(N(\mu = 1, \sigma^2 = 0.32)\)
If we look at a histogram of the differences, we find that it looks very much like a normal distribution.
hist(differences, breaks = 20,
main = "Empirical Distribution of D",
xlab = "Simulated Values of D",
col = "dodgerblue",
border = "darkorange")
Also the sample mean and variance are very close to what we would expect.
## [1] 1.001423
## [1] 0.3230183
We could have also accomplished this task with a single line of more "idiomatic"
= replicate(10000, mean(rnorm(25, 6, 2)) - mean(rnorm(25, 5, 2)))diffs
?replicate to take a look at the documentation for the
replicate function and see if you can understand how this line performs the same operations that our
for loop above executed.
mean(differences == diffs)
## [1] 1
We see that by setting the same seed for the randomization, we actually obtain identical results!
5.3.2 Distribution of a Sample Mean
For another example of simulation, we will simulate observations from a Poisson distribution, and examine the empirical distribution of the sample mean of these observations.
Recall, if
\[ X \sim Pois(\mu) \]
\[ E[X] = \mu \]
\[ Var[X] = \mu. \]
Also, recall that for a random variable \(X\) with finite mean \(\mu\) and finite variance \(\sigma^2\), the central limit theorem tells us that the mean, \(\bar{X}\) of a random sample of size \(n\) is approximately normal for large values of \(n\). Specifically, as \(n \to \infty\),
\[ \bar{X} \overset{d}{\to} N\left(\mu, \frac{\sigma^2}{n}\right). \]
The following verifies this result for a Poisson distribution with \(\mu = 10\) and a sample size of \(n = 50\).
= 10
mu = 50
sample_size = 100000
samples = rep(0, samples)x_bars
for(i in 1:samples){
= mean(rpois(sample_size, lambda = mu))
x_bars[i] }
= hist(x_bars, breaks = 50,
x_bar_hist main = "Histogram of Sample Means",
xlab = "Sample Means")
Now we will compare sample statistics from the empirical distribution with their known values based on the parent distribution.
c(mean(x_bars), mu)
## [1] 10.00008 10.00000
c(var(x_bars), mu / sample_size)
## [1] 0.1989732 0.2000000
c(sd(x_bars), sqrt(mu) / sqrt(sample_size))
## [1] 0.4460641 0.4472136
And here, we will calculate the proportion of sample means that are within 2 standard deviations of the population mean.
mean(x_bars > mu - 2 * sqrt(mu) / sqrt(sample_size) &
< mu + 2 * sqrt(mu) / sqrt(sample_size)) x_bars
## [1] 0.95429
This last histogram uses a bit of a trick to approximately shade the bars that are within two standard deviations of the mean.)
= ifelse(x_bar_hist$breaks > mu - 2 * sqrt(mu) / sqrt(sample_size) &
shading $breaks < mu + 2 * sqrt(mu) / sqrt(sample_size),
x_bar_hist"darkorange", "dodgerblue")
= hist(x_bars, breaks = 50, col = shading,
x_bar_hist main = "Histogram of Sample Means, Two Standard Deviations",
xlab = "Sample Means")


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Creating 'intentional pipeline': Raytheon supporting STEM program for students of color to help diversify workforce
Two organizations have joined forces with one shared goal in mind: building an "intentional pipeline" to get more students of color into tech.
For the next five years, Raytheon Technologies, which specializes in aerospace and defense, will contribute nearly $8 million to support scholarships, internships and mentoring for high school students of color participating in the Kapor Center's SMASH (Summer Math and Science Honor Academy) program. Raytheon will also provide 10 SMASH students each year with $40,000 engineering and computer science scholarships for college.
The partnership is a part of Raytheon's 10-year, $500 million Connect Up initiative with eight organizations including SMASH, an intense three-year college-prep program where students study STEM (science, technology, engineering and math) courses and spend their summers at one of 10 college campuses across the country.
Last year, Raytheon also created a fund to match employee donations to the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, the National Urban League and the Equal Justice Initiative. Additionally, Raytheon partners with the Executive Leadership Council to give scholarships to Black college students majoring in STEM and business management.
SMASH's partnership with Raytheon intends to go beyond just lip service and a big check, SMASH President Danielle Rose told USA TODAY.
"I feel like I've been hollowed out by the words and lack of action, inaction," Rose said, . "Now, we're saying let's follow the words with deep and long-term investments that are going to be required for us to truly diversify the workplace, diversify tech (and) close the opportunity gaps."
The partnership between SMASH and Raytheon is just the latest endeavor by a tech company investing in programs to attract people of color to an industry that's known for having embarrassingly dismal diversity in its workforce. For example, Black professionals make up only 5% of the tech workforce, 3% of tech executives and 1% of tech founders, according to a new Kapor Center report. The report also said between 2014-2020, "there has been only a 1 percentage point increase in Black representation among the top tech companies, and individually, there has been very slow progress."
After George Floyd's death in police custody in Minneapolis last summer, and protests worldwide, tech companies vowed to support Black and underrepresented communities and diversify their workforce.
Apple created a mentorship program, Launch@Apple, for first-generation college students studying accounting and economics. There's Google's free computer science education program for mostly Black and Latino high schoolers, Code Next. And Microsoft has a scholarship program for high school senior women and nonbinary students pursuing STEM degrees in college.
Despite some progress, SMASH and Raytheon,whose corporate leadership is composed primarily of white men, agree more needs to be done.
"This urgency has been in the making for quite some time; just look at the impact and influence tech is having in society and how we navigate life on a daily basis," Rose said. "We're not looking to solve the problems by ourselves or that of one corporation. It's going to take many corporations; it's going to take a lot of investment for us to able to right-size and really create some balance."
SMASH students will have "a host of opportunities," said Pam Erickson, Raytheon's chief communications officer and head of corporate philanthropy.
"We're definitely creating an intentional pipeline," Erickson said. "Our hope, our goal will be is that we guide students from high school through the college experience with resources that help them envision the future."
Eli Kennedy, SMASH's CEO, said the program has a 100% graduation rate, with more than 800 SMASH students having attended top-50 colleges. About 80% of SMASH students major in STEM courses in college, and 85% graduate within five years, Kennedy added. More than half of SMASH's students work full-time in STEM fields since the program was created nearly 20 years ago.
"We're really working with them on their resilience, what to expect, understanding what goes into changes being in a college environment, understanding the workplace," Kennedy said. "We're giving them not only the hard-core quantitative skills they need to succeed but also the qualitative skills."
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Kennedy said it's also about changing the culture of tech companies "and pushing them to think differently about: How do they recruit? How do they monitor and create an environment where all people of color can thrive?"
For its part, Raytheon said in a statement that it is "absolutely committed" to hiring SMASH graduates.
"That's one of the key tenets of the program," the company said. "SMASH program graduates will be given priority placement for our internship programs, with the intention of eventually placing them into full-time positions."
Kennedy's remarks echo what Bhaskar Chakravorti, dean of global business at The Fletcher School at Tufts University, wrote in the Harvard Business Review in December, noting that the tech industry desperately needs a new approach to finding and retaining talent.
"We suggest it starts with meeting high-quality recruits where they are without being constrained by geography and identifying regions that also have suitable conditions to retain such talent," said Chakravorti, who cites Atlanta as an emerging tech hub. With a majority Black population, the city features top engineering schools Georgia Tech, Emory University and Morehouse College, a historically Black men's liberal arts school that has a SMASH location on its campus.
Randy Bumps, Raytheon's head of corporate social responsibility, shares a similar sentiment. The company said it is still pulling together its diversity workforce numbers since its merger with United Technologies a year ago and is committed to significantly increase its number of employees of color in the U.S. by 2030. Current diversity data for the newly formed company are to be filed with the EEOC in July.
Last year, Raytheon was ranked 108th by Forbes on its list of 500 companies that were considered among the best employers for diversity.
"Like many technology companies, we do know that we're not hiring enough people from underrepresented groups and we need to do more to fix the leaky pipeline between early childhood education and full-time engineering careers," Bumps said. "This partnership (with SMASH), alongside other efforts like increased recruiting from HBCUs (Historically Black Colleges and Universities), are key steps toward fixing that pipeline."
In addition to Morehouse, other SMASH locations include:
- Northeastern University in Boston
- Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania
- University of Michigan
- Wayne State University in Detroit
- Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago
- Southern Illinois University in Carbondale, Illinois
- University of California campuses in Berkeley, Davis and Los Angeles
- Stanford University in Palo Alto, California
Raytheon identifies with SMASH's mission, especially with helping students who are likely "the first" in the family to achieve certain milestones, Erickson said.
"So they are the first to go to college, and then maybe the first to go into a STEM career," said Erickson, who was a first-generation college graduate. "And when you're the first, it's harder."
Erickson said Raytheon is committed to helping SMASH's attempt to level the playing field: "We're here to make that happen."


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Bracken: No decision in Madjax lawsuit against city
MUNCIE, Ind. — Contrary to rumors circulating online Sunday, no decision has been made in a Ball State University trustee's lawsuit against the city of Muncie over the Madjax makers hub.
Thomas Bracken, who filed a lawsuit over Muncie City Council's September vote to provide $4.5 million in funding for the Madjax makers hub, confirmed Sunday evening that no decision had been made.
"I just received a response from my attorney," Bracken told The Star Press. "No decision."
►City, Bracken make final arguments in Madjax lawsuit
Rumors had circulated through online postings and email Sunday that Hamilton County Judge Steven Nation had issued a finding, in favor of Bracken, in the lawsuit.
But besides the response Bracken received from his attorney, other factors indicated the lack of a final decision. The supposed ruling from Nation was the Findings of Fact, Conclusions of Law and Entry of Judgment from Bracken's attorney filed — and dated — Dec. 20. It's common for attorneys in cases to file proposed findings ready for a judge's approval. The city of Muncie filed a similar proposed finding.
The finding did not have Nation's signature, and Nation's court staff told The Star Press last week he was out of the office all week. At the time of earlier filings, Nation had told each side to expect a decision in 60 to 90 days.
The online listing of filings in the case also showed no entries since Jan. 2.
The city and Bracken's final arguments were recapped in an article published Jan. 3 in The Star Press.
Keith Roysdon is the government watchdog reporter for The Star Press. Contact him at 765-213-5828 and email@example.com.


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'Mind-blowing': Emirates jet appears out of nowhere in amazing VIDEO
Jaw-dropping footage of a huge Emirates jet suddenly appearing through dense cloud cover as if by magic has been shared online by an avid plane-spotter.
The video opens with a seemingly innocuous airport scene, as two easyJet planes sit on the tarmac and low-lying clouds gather overhead. Suddenly, as if out of nowhere, a huge Emirates A380 dwarfs the jets on the ground when it glides from the clouds above, condensation trailing from its wings.
Reportedly snapped recently during morning landings at London's Gatwick Airport, the video was shared with aviation site Aeronews, who in turn posted it on Facebook then Twitter:
Out of nowhere: awesome morning arrival at @Gatwick_Airport (LGW): @Airbus A380 @emirates inbound from @DXB. Video taken by a friend of Aeronews. 🇦🇪 @AirbusPRESS@aibfamilyflight@PlaneSpotIsCool@stef_schaffrath@sara_rcc@SpaethFlies@McWhirterAlex@email@example.com/gp9OyHA4Ui— Aeronews (@AeronewsRO) July 29, 2019
The Facebook video has been watched over 170,000 times since being posted on Sunday, with amazed viewers hailing the "mind-blowing" arrival.Also on rt.com From propeller bombers to 5th gen jets: Russia's Sukhoi marks 80th anniversary (PHOTOS)
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Posted September 30, 2018 at 10:00 pm
This is probably the last strip number to match its update number (#930 updated on 9/30) for a long long while, if not forever. Cherish it, cherish the absolute meaningless coincidence of it all.
Join the GWS mailing list!
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I'm one quarter of the way through this challenge. In other words, what I just did, I have to do again – three more times. 30 days to go.
The good news is that I've fallen into a comfortable routine with my media consumption. I get up in the morning, brew a cup of coffee, and hit Syke Jethani's daily devotional. Then, I peruse Facebook, my email, and hit some of the Christian news websites.
On my way to work, I listen to one of the dozen Christian-made podcasts that I'm trying out. There've been a few clunkers, but I've found others that really strike me as well-produced, entertaining, enlightening, even convicting. More to come about the podcasts later.
My big find this week was when I discovered that you can buy seasons of The Andy Griffith Show at different Christian retailers! So I have started to allow myself an episode or two during the day. Some people may call foul, saying that Andy Griffith was not a Christian program. Technically, that is correct, but the rules I set up for myself stated clearly that I could only consume media that one could purchase at Christian retailers, so in my opinion I'm in the clear. Remember, one of the things I was attempting with this experiment was to better understand the people who consume only Christian media every day for 365 days a year – and those folks would probably not have a problem with Andy.
I also decided to go against the better angels of my nature, and download an "end-times" movie. I chose Pure Flix's Revelation Road, which is sort of like God's Not Dead meets Mad Max. And do you believe, I was pleasantly surprised. The film had some good action, a premise that was not typical for these kinds of movies, and say what you will about the preachiness of his movies, but David A.R. White is immensely likable on screen. I still wouldn't recommend the film to my non-Christian friends (still preachier than I prefer), but it made for some pretty solid "for-the-choir" entertainment.
Next up on the list? Pure Flix's Marriage Retreat.
I was also able to get hold of a very interesting little film, which I plan to write more about later. It's called Rocket Pack Jack, and it's a fun little (50 minutes) movie for kids. RPJ sports fairly impressive special effects, a good dose of humor, and quite a bit of on-the-nose Gospel talk that should have bothered me more than it did. Again, more to come later, but you can watch the trailer here.
Finally, I've felt stronger spiritually these past ten days, but I don't think this is because I've been finding such strong and enriching spiritual content to consume. No, I attribute this mostly to my purposeful refocusing on my relationship with God, taking more time for prayer, and reading the Word.
The lesson I'm learning? While there's some good in all the stuff that the Christian media machine tries to convince us to buy, in the end those things aren't the things that will really help us to grow.


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Elmiron is a very popular prescription drug used by millions for the treatment of chronic bladder problems. It is also a popular originator of mass tort lawsuits in 2021. We have the latest news on the Elmiron MDL lawsuit in this post.
Elmiron Appeared to Be a Great Drug
Elmiron started off as a miracle of scientific innovation. In October 2019, eye doctors at Emory University School of Medicine made a chance discovery that long-term use of Elmiron can cause a unique and serious eye disease called pigmentary maculopathy. Pigmentary maculopathy can cause blindness or vision impairment and the only known cause of this condition is the use of the drug Elmiron.
Since this initial discovery, a number of studies have confirmed the link between Elmiron and pigmentary maculopathy. This discovery has led thousands of individuals to stop taking Elmiron and nearly 100 individual Elmiron lawsuits have already been filed across the country.
Evidence Linking Elmiron to Eye Damage and Vision Loss
In October 2019, three ophthalmologists in Atlanta announced that they had found an association between Elmiron use and a very particular type of macular eye damage. After noticing an unusual and unexplained eye disease occurring in some of their patients, the doctors performed their own investigation for a possible cause. The eye doctors started comparing the medical histories and records of the patients with this unique eye condition to look for commonalities that might explain the origins of the disease. It very quickly became apparent what the patients had in common. All of them were long-term users of the prescription drug Elmiron.
Ophthalmology Article
The doctors concluded that long-term, high-dose use of Elmiron can result in a type of toxicity that can cause a very unique type of macular eye damage. The condition is now known as pigmentary maculopathy. This discovery was first announced to the medical community in the November 2019 edition of Ophthalmology. Soon after this initial alarm bell was sounded, more comprehensive studies were done to assess the danger of Elmiron. Examinations and detailed retinal imaging were performed on a total of 91 long-term Elmiron users. The results confirmed the suspicions about Elmiron. 22 of the 91 Elmiron users who took part in the study showed clear signs of the unique eye condition. Most of these patients also had signs of Elmiron toxicity.
JAMA Article
In a JAMA article published in July 2020, Emory University researchers formally identified this condition as Elmiron-associated pigmentary maculopathy. The JAMA article reviewed the findings of several studies and suggested that eye damage from Elmiron use can occur long after individuals stop using the drug. It also suggested that all long-term Elmiron users should get eye examinations 2 times a year to look for signs of maculopathy.
FDA Requires Update to Elmiron Warning Label
In June 2020, the FDA updated Elmiron's warning label to include pigmentary maculopathy as a known risk. It mentioned that while many cases involve three years or more of use, retinal damage may occur in those taking it in a shorter period. The FDA also recommended that potential Elmiron patients have their ophthalmologic history examined before taking the drug. They also advised that current Elmiron users have their retinas checked regularly to detect retinal damage.
Elmiron Class Action MDL
The mounting evidence linking Elmiron to pigmentary maculopathy and vision loss has led to a wave of Elmiron lawsuits against the drug's manufacturer, Janssen Pharmaceuticals. Over a hundred individual plaintiffs have already filed Elmiron lawsuits in courts across the country. The Elmiron lawsuits in federal court are in the process of being consolidated into a "class action" MDL. In an MDL, mass tort cases involving a single drug or product are consolidated into a combined action assigned to a single judge for purposes of more efficient discovery.
Once the consolidated discovery is completed in the MDL, one or two test cases are selected and sent back to their home court for trial. The results from these test case trials are then used to facilitate the negotiation of a global settlement agreement. Right now, the Elmiron MDL lawsuits are just getting started so any global settlement is some time away.
The Elmiron MDL is going to happen. Janssen is not even opposing the requests to establish an MDL (which should formally occur before the end of 2020). At this point, the only real debate is where the Elmiron MDL will be located. Currently, the 2 contenders for hosting the Elmiron MDL are the Eastern District of Pennsylvania or the District of New Jersey. [February 2021 Update: New Jersey won out.]
Contact Miller & Zois About Your Elmiron Lawsuit
Our Elmiron vision loss lawyers are currently seeking new cases from ANY individual who has been diagnosed with Elmiron-related pigmentary maculopathy; OR anyone who has experienced vision impairment after taking Elmiron for longer than 1 year. If you meet these qualifications, call us today at 800-553-8082 or contact us online.


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» What's new ?
The First Citizens' Assembly of the Southern Cone has just come to an end, after three days of uninterrupted exchanges, parties, citizens' caravans and artistic expressions. Finally, we can say that the Assembly managed to achieve its first mobilization and debate initiative with the presence of a very diverse group of actors from the Southern Cone and more. Participants expressed a global satisfaction with the general atmosphere and the intensity of the exchanges + read more
About 12 participants from the Assembly of the Southern Cone got together in Santiago de Chile on September 4 and 5 to build a vision and a methodological response to the challenges set by the Assembly at Iquique which will take place next November. The idea is to be able to put together a team which will carry popular methodologies that may lead to the appreciation of the diversity of ideas, expressions and identities in the Southern Cone, simultaneously revealing emerging ideas and group perspectives + read more
The general coordination team got together on May 29, 2010 in Santiago, to define the program, ethics, criteria and organization methods of the assembly to be held in the emblematic city of Iquique, in the north of Chile. The 250-participant trip is imagined aboard four buses advancing toward this Chilean city from each of the four Southern Cone countries, in the form of travelling caravans. This document debates the proposal and launches the meeting's essential preparation process + read more
Approximately twenty representatives from Southern Cone countries discovered themselves, rediscovered one another and warmly intertwined on June 19 – 20 in La Plata, Argentina. The meeting is here to conclude a series of national processes carried out during 2009, to establish new perspectives and to present the Iquique assembly in November, 2010. Apart from a work meeting, this was a moment of rediscovery in which food, dancing, nights and profound dialogs were shared + read more
This took place last 26 and 27 March in Santiago de Chile, with artists and members of environmental or solidarity economy networks, neighbourhood groups, cooperatives, cultural centres and NGOs. Four dialog groups were formed and concluded on a series of original proposals / orientations which range from transformations of ethical and cultural fields to changes in the collective action ways + read more
"Speaking from the woman" : this phrase acquired its full meaning dimension in the voice of hundreds of women from all around the country, who got together in Santiago - Chile, on November 12 and 13, 2009, during the First National Meeting of the Women from Dark America network. "Some might only want to change little details, but others may want a whole life change" + read more
Four meetings between women from the Southern Cone region will take place in November 2009 in Argentina, Bolivia, Perou and Chile. They will be held in Córdoba and La Plata (Argentina) on November 7, in Cochabamba (Bolivia) on November 20 - 21, in Lima on 19 and in Santiago (Chile) on November 12 - 13. Locally organized by the Assembly teams, this cycle of meetings will end up in a Regional Women's Conference of Southern Cone, planned for 2010 + read more
Four countries and 300 participants coming by bus to Iquique, Chile, approximately 15 socio-professional areas represented getting together around various debates and thematic groups in order to draft a Charter of Citizens' Responsibilities for the Southern Cone, then going close to the sea, to perform aboriginal celebrations and to pay homage to the history of Pisagua… We now have the first draft of the Southern Cone's Assembly for November 2010 ! + read more
It is not easy to take stock of the Southern Cone Assembly since this is clearly a process in motion, an evolving dynamics. Thus, the retrospective is very important, as it clears out the travelled road and the objective aimed at. What defines this Assembly? Who make it up and give life to it? Which activities were carried out in 2009? Here is a panoramic balance as well as a joint and pedagogic vision of the initiative + read more
After Carlos Liberona's leaving, the Assembly's coordination team takes stock of its internal organization, of the shared responsibilities between the coordinators, of the methodological effort to be made in order to develop the activities in 2009-2010 and of the Iquique Assembly itself. A necessary step to start over and get ready seriously with the 2010 meetings + read more
"Taking part in the Military, Democracy and Latin American seminar that gathered retired and active Military men from various countries of the Southern Cone was such a great surprise! It was so good to find such democratic and integrationist Military men!"
Andrés Monares points out, as he shares here some of his impressions and thoughts after the seminar which took place in Chile + read more
The second "Water and geopolitics" seminar took place on June 5-6, 2009 in Córdoba, Argentina. It was based on the speeches made by a dozen of experts in issues connected with water management and environmental impact. The debates stated that the economic logics of the market, together with the permeable governance mechanisms which do not set a limit on foreign pressures, may and already do lead to a dead end + read more
Carlos Liberona, member of the Revolutionary Leftist Movement - MIR – from Chile since its very beginnings, passed away on June, 11 2009. Before becoming a member of MIR, he had been a popular and revolutionary activist, which he continued to be until his physical disappearance. And we still continue... of course we continue + read more
The chair is a Southern Cone Assembly initiative. It is an informal education space supported by universities and cheered by a team of sociologists, political scientists, economists and political figures of the region. It places academic knowledge on the issue of regional integration at students and social leaders' disposals. About sixty students have finished classes in May, in Lima, Peru ! + read more
The seminar took place on April 3 and 4, 2009 in Santiago de Chile. A dozen military officers from the region got together around five round tables and a plenary session and a strong balance was stricken: the affirmation to renew the social contract between the armed body and the democracies, the absolute need for regional integration so that the countries in the Southern Cone may insert themselves and take part in the creation of a sustainable global community + read more
After a two years coordination of the Southern Cone Assembly, Carlos Liberona and Ricardo Jiménez describe the assembly's ripening and its new challenges. They also describe two emergent axes of the process : governance and courses towards integration. Video interviews carried out in Iquique - Chile in December 2008 + read more
"We, the citizens of Bolivia, Peru, Argentina and Chile, tenaciously maintain our resistance, responsibility and solidarity, and we call for all the citizens of the Southern Cone to our first "Regional Citizens' Assembly in Iquique, Chile, in 2010 (...) We have also joined the other processes of Citizens' Assemblies which will take place in 2010 as well, in Sahel-Sahara, in the Mediterranean, in India (for the Asian group) and in Samoa (for the peoples from Oceania) + read more
The coordinators meeting on Paris in June 2008 made possible to give a progress report on each assembly and to draw strategic axes to continue the path. This article gives a rapid look at the key ideas and directions to be followed for the Southern Cone Assembly. Among these are to build citizenship in a context of import citizenship's lack, to gather different society's sectors and to articulate initiatives + read more


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We are an Internet marketing company, who has won national awards in search engine optimization, conversion rate optimization and social media. We also teach two courses on digital marketing at the University of California San Diego and have been featured on websites like Forbes, Search Engine Land, Marketing Land, Search Engine Journal, CIO Magazine and much more.
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Slingshot Racing represents very unusual races for Android, with stunning graphics and a superdynamic gameplay. To understand how events on the presented racing tracks develop, it is enough to present as you untwist over your head a small (or big – as you like) cargo which is fixed on the end of a rope. Users of senior generation can remember aviamodel sports, bewitching boys of the Soviet Union. Then not all were able to afford radio-controlled model, and everything what they can do- to fix on one of forward wings of the plane a rope and to make it to fly around.
To Download Slingshot Racing App For PC,users need to install an Android Emulator like Xeplayer.With Xeplayer,you can Download Slingshot Racing App for PC version on your Windows 7,8,10 and Laptop.
Guide for Play & Download Slingshot Racing on PC,Laptop.
1.Download and Install XePlayer Android Emulator.Click "Download XePlayer" to download.
2.Run XePlayer Android Emulator and login Google Play Store.
3.Open Google Play Store and search Slingshot Racing and download,
or import the apk file from your PC Into XePlayer to install it.
4.Install Slingshot Racing for PC.Now you can play Slingshot Racing on PC.Have Fun!


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ITINERARY to the South of Kazakhstan -Turkestan region 2 nights -3 days
Day 1 . Shymkent - Otrar Settlement - Turkestan - Shymkent
09.00AM Arrival to airport Shymkent .Transfer to Otrar Region /220 km/. Departure to the site of ancient settlement Otrar. The site of the ancient settlement of Otyrar is known as the capital of the oasis with the same name and as the birthplace of great medieval philosopher, scholar Abu Nasr al-Farabi. Emergence of the settlement Otyrar belongs to the first centuries of our era. The name Otyrar /Farab/appears in written sources in the IX century. The period of the X-XII centuries was time of prosperity of city life which was broken by the Mongolian invasion. In 1219 Otyrar underwent attack of army of Chingis khan. However, Otyrar managed to revive anew and to the middle of the XIII century became the main shopping center on a way from the West to the East. In 1405 in one of Otyrar's palaces
Temirlan dies. Life in the city of Otyrar proceeds till the XVIII century'. You will visit:
- local history museum "Otrar",
- archaeological site of the ancient settlement of Otrar.
- Arystan-Bab Mausoleum ( Khoja Ahmed Yasawi's teacher's mausoleum) teacher and spiritual mentor of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi, 'Arystan Bab was the follower of prophet Mohammed.
Transfer to Turkestan/70 km/ . Lunch at local restaurant in Turkestan.
Then visit Hodzha Ahmed YASSAVI mausoleum complex (XIV с ). The mausoleum is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List This amazing erection was builded in honour of a famous Turkic poet and Sufi mystic, Khoja Ahmed Yasawi. The word "Yassawi" originates from "Yassy". That was the ancient name of Turkestan. The whole city is a historical and cultural reservation of Khazret Sultan. Except the Mausoleum of Khoja Akhmet Yassawy,
you"ll visit:
- historical-cultural reserve-museum Aziret-Sultan,
-Darvaza (gates) of 18 - 19th centuries,
-Esim Кhan mausoleum (16th century),
-Rabiga Sultan Begim mausoleum (end of the 15th century), you will visit :
- historical-cultural reserve-museum Aziret-Sultan,
-Darvaza (gates) of 18 - 19th centuries,
-Esim Кhan mausoleum (16th century),
-Rabiga Sultan Begim mausoleum (end of the 15th century),
-Akhmed Yassawi khanaka-mausoleum (12 - 14th centuries),
-"Zhuma" mosque (1878),
-underground mosque Khilvat (12 - 15th centuries),
-oriental baths (16 - 18th centuries),
-Big khilvet (12th century),
-Chillyakhana (14th century),
-archeological site of ancient settlement Kultobe (14th century),
Transfer to Shymkent / 170km./
Overnight in Hotel 4* "Shymkent Grand" or "Aidana Plaza" 1 DBL/HB/
Day 2. Shymkent- Aksu-Zhabagly Reserve - Shymkent
08:00AM Departure to Aksu Zhabagly reserve-to wild nature//125km// Aksu-Zhabagly is the oldest natural reserve in Kazakhstan, located at the spurs of the Western Tien-Shan Mountains at an altitude from 1000 to 4280 meters above sea level. Patchwork of colorful alpine flowers adorns the base of rigorous peaks with dazzling snow and bluish tongues of glaciers.The reserve is a rich treasury of rare, endangered and endemic species of animals and plants. It is home for argali and ibex, deer and roe deer, lynx and snow leopards, wolves, foxes, bears, porcupines and ermines. Bearded vultures, griffons and golden eagles are flying high in the sky..You will visite:
- canyon Aksu -for whole day with lunch box .Transfer to Shymkent/125 km/
Overnight in Hotel 4* "Shymkent Grand" or "Aidana Plaza" 1 DBL/HB/
Day 3. Shymkent - Sairam Settlement- Shymkent airport
09.00AM After breakfast transfer to Sairam Village/20 km/.
The oldest name of the city according to historical evidence is Isfijab . You will visit :
-"Ibragim-Ata" mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi's father;
- "Kharashash-Ana" mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi's mother;
- Middle ages minaret.
Transfer to Shymkent. Lunch at local café . Then continue sightseeing tour Shymkent.
During sightseeing tour Shymkent you will visit :
- History Museum
- Memory Alley in Shamshi park
- Museum of Political Repression Victims
- Independence Park
06.00 PM Transfer to airport or train station .
Tour Price: (per pax(DBL)- upon request
- Transport -3 days
- All the tour and entrance fees
- English Speaking Local Guide- 3days
- Accommodation -2 nights
- 01 bottle of water daily
- Meal on the base HB:- 3 Lunch
Not included:
- domestic flight
- train tickets
- meal: 3 Dinner


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Results of our experiments prove that pear is more or less sensitive to the reduced bee pollination period. However, the reaction (or the sensitivity) of cultivars may be different to the reduced bee pollination. Most cultivars produce much less yield under reduced bee pollination or no yield with the exclusion of bees but in the case of some c...ultivars total exclusion of bees does not prevent the yield formation and what is more sometimes reduced bee pollination can be resulted in somewhat higher yield than open pollination. Typical reaction, however, is a significant yield reduction with reduced bee pollination. Pear seems to be somewhat less sensitive to the partial reduction of bee pollination period than apple or quince. The first half of the flowering period seems to be more important in yield formation because usually higher yield was resulted when pear cultivars received open pollination in the first than in the second half of the blooming period. Based on our experimental results no definite relationship between parthenocarpic capacity of cultivars and the yield under reduced bee pollination can be established. So reduced bee pollination does not seem to contribute the parthenocarpic fruit formation in pear.
The duration of effective bee pollination period was limited by caging flowering branches for shorter or longer time in blooming fruit trees in a number of experiments during the past decades. In the case of self-sterile fruit species and cultivars (apples, pears, quinces, some plums, some sour cherries) even partial limitation of the effective... duration of bee pollination period significantly reduced the fruit set and the yield. In the case of self-fertile apricots the effect of the total and also the influence of partial limitation of bee pollination period was the same as in the case of the mentioned self-sterile fruits. On the other hand, in the case of another self-fertile fruits (some plums, some sour cherries), the effect of partial limitation of bee pollination period was usually small, but complete (or incomplete but strong) limitation of be pollination usually resulted in a strong reduction of yield. This means that not only self-sterile but also self-fertile fruits clearly depend on insect (bee) pollination. This is because pollen dehiscence of anthers and the receptive period of stigmas do not overlap in time within the individual flowers. Stigmas in self-fertile trees, therefore, need pollen carried by bees from another flowers of the same tree (or compatible pollen from another trees). Accordingly, additional bee pollination (moving bee colonies to the orchards in flower) is needed to all kinds of temperate-zone fruit tree species when bee visitation of plantations is not abundant enough for some reasons.
Intensive research has been implemented on different aspects of the bee pollination of pear in Hungary in the past decade, extending to the following topics: the effect of the opening sequence of the flowers within the inflorescence of pear cultivars on the effectiveness of bee pollination; the nectar production of flowers of pear cultivars; in...tensity of honeybee visitation and their foraging behaviour at the flowers of pear cultivars; flower constancy of honeybees to pear plantations; competition by weeds in bloom for bee pollination in flowering pear orchards; and some aspects to the bee pollination strategies of pear plantations (the effect of the limitation of bee pollination period on the set and the yield, possible compensation of frost damage of flowers by bee pollination in pear orchards, the optimal size of single cultivar block in pear plantations). The results of these studies are reviewed in this paper and some important aspects that need further studies are outlined.
Detailed studies and comparisons were carried out on those flower characters of sour cherry cultivars that may affect bee pollination of flowers. Flower characters of sour cherry are fairly similar to other temperate zone fruit tree species. Their relatively small flowers distinguish the Cigánymeggy-types of cultivars from the flowers of tart...cherries cultivars that are conspicuously larger, almost as large as the sweet cherry flowers. The relative position of flower organs was much more variable according to the season than according to the cultivars. So the differences were rather the consequences of seasonal effects than of variety features of sour cherry cultivars. As far as individual cultivars are concerned differences in the nectar production and the sugar concentration are revealed rather between groups of cultivars than between individual cultivars. The pollen production of flowers was extremely changeable in consecutive years. Most honeybees collected nectar at sour cherry flowers; pure pollen gatherers and mixed behaviour bees were half as frequent but differences among the behaviour of honeybees according to cultivars cannot be stated. The fidelity of honeybees to sour cherry is less expressed than to some other fruit tree species. Accordingly, it is very strongly suggested to take the competitive effect other plant species (weeds) flowering in and around the orchard carefully into account when organizing additional bee pollination in sour cherry plantations. Several sour cherry cultivars possess more or less self-fertilization capacity but this is greatly changeable according to the season. It has been proved that self-sterile sour cherry cultivars are sensitive even on the partial restriction of the effective time of bee pollination and it is to be stressed too that even in the case of partly self-fruitful cultivars bee pollination is also vital in yield formation because medium or strong restriction of the effective bee pollination period is of a definite negative effect on their fruit set and yield. In years with unfavourable weather the yield can dramatically be reduced sometimes down to nil. However, very high fruit set is also unfavourable because a negative correlation was detected between the final set and the mean mass of fruits.
In the past decades fruit production has become more and more intensive and so the interest towards the bee pollination of fruit trees has increased in Hungary. Thus insect pollination research has become more intensive in the eighties and in the nineties. Recently, high density fruit orchards are planted of dwarf trees at more and more farms i...n Hungary and these need highly controlled growing practices involving insect pollination, too. This is a new challenge of insect pollination research in Hungary. So it seems to be worth to compile a list on research publications having been appeared so far to create a basis to the ongoing new research. Besides papers strictly on the insect pollination of fruit trees publications on some closely related topics, first of all on the nectar production and on other flower characteristics of fruit tree cultivars that directly influence bee activity have also been included on the list.
Intense research was made on the pollination of cultivated crop plants in the temperate zone region during the past decade. Some 400 publications appeared on the subject and some additional 150 papers on the effect of pesticides to the most important pollinating insects, the honeybee and the wild bees. Progress of knowledge is discussed in this... paper based on the most important publications. Most new results relate to field crops and deciduous fruit species and much less to field vegetables and small fruits. Great effort was taken to improve insect pollination of crops grown under cover. All these are connected to the utilization of the honeybee as a pollinating agent and much less to native or managed wild bees. However, a number of questions arose partly from the results of latest pollination research and partly from practical experiences in commercial plant production. These indicate several research tasks to understand and to solve the problems possibly in the near future. The questions concentrate on the effectiveness of bee visits in the pollination of individual crop plants and their different cultivars and on the reliable estimate of the overall amount of bees as well as on the control of bee density during the flowering periods of crops for optimal, controlled pollination in the changing environment of agricultural crop production.
An experiment conducted using factorial based on randomized completely block design during 2005 and 2006. Flowers of Érdi bőtermő, Érdi jubileum and Cigány meggy before anthesis and in balloon stages were isolated with paper bags from guest pollens and pollinated in appropriate time. The averages of final fruit set showed the advantage of...open pollination (14.6% fruit set) in compare with artificial self pollination (13.0% fruit set) and natural self pollination (4.4% fruit set). Siah mashhad sweet cherry cultivar with more than 70% overlap of flowering and 9.8% fruit set in 2005 and 17.9% in 2006 was the best among applied pollinisers for Érdi bôtermô sour cherry cultivar.Also, Siah mashhad sweet cherry with more than 50%overlap of flowering time and 25.8%fruit set was the best polliniser for Cigány megg. Among the pollinisers, Siah mashhad was the best for Érdi jubileum with more than 50% overlap and 15.22% fruit set. Meanwhile, pollens of Siah mashhad caused the increase of fruit size in Cigány meggy cultivar. phenomenon. Pollens of Siah mashhad caused reduction in total soluble solids of Érdi bôtermô fruits, however, it does not have any significant effect on the acid rate of fruits.
Intensive research has been implemented on different aspects of the bee pollination of pear in Hungary in the past decade, extending to the following topics: the effect of the opening sequence of the flowers within the inflorescence of pear cultivars on the effectiveness of bee pollination; the nectar production of flowers of pear cultivars; in...tensity of honeybee visitation and their foraging behaviour at the flowers of pear cultivars; flower constancy of honeybees to pear plantations; competition by weeds in bloom for bee pollination in flowering pear orchards; and some aspects to the bee pollination strategies of pear plantations (the effect of the limitation of bee pollination period on the set and the yield, possible compensation of frost damage of flowers by bee pollination in pear orchards, the optimal size of single cultivar block in pear plantations). The results of these studies are reviewed in this paper and some important aspects that need further studies are outlined.
The effect of the partial and/or complete limitation of the insect (bee) pollination period was studied in three consecutive years at 6 quince cultivars. Quince is greatly sensitive to the limitation. Complete limitation of insect pollination resulted in no yield and also a partial limitation of the insect pollination period (exclusion of the b...ees at the first or at the second half of the blooming) depressed the final set and the yield by 60-70% at least or more, sometimes down to no yield. No real correlation was found between the mean mass of fruits and the fruit set. The mass of fruit seems to be rather a character of the cultivars. A loose but significant correlation was established between the intensity of honeybee visitation and the consequent yield of quince. As much as some 4-5 and 8-10 honeybee visits are needed a day on one flower to achieve the required optimal fruit set that has been declared to be 20-25% for quince in the literature. These are extremely high bee visitation figures, accordingly, no doubt the commercial quince plantations require much higher number of honeybee colonies than other temperate zone fruit tree species to supplementary pollination
The knowledge of blooming, pollination and fertilisation and its use are indispensable in maximizing of cropping potential of fruits in economical fruit production. In attaining maximum yield a greater attention has to be focused on choosing cultivar combinations, and results of experiments on blooming, pollination and fertilisation must be app...lied carefully.
To have efficient bee pollination requires attention at the time of designing an orchard. It requires further attention at the time of bloom of any of the fruit-hearing species. Markets demand new types of fruit which forces constant changes in the cultivar composition of orchard. The blooming, pollinating and fertilisation characteristics of cultivars chosen have to be known before an orchard is set up. Apart from the general knowledge of trees considered to be planted, there is a great need to know the flowering, pollinating and fertilization characteristics of each cultivar in detail.
The flowering phenology, blooming time and inter-fertility relations of 63 European plum varieties has been studied at growing sites with different ecological conditions during a 10 year long period. The purpose was to develop a system of variety combinations which approaches an optimum in fertility as long as inter-fertility relations will cea...se to be a limiting factor of yield. According to their blooming time, varieties are assigned to 5 groups: very early, early, medium, late and very late. As for their fertility relations, four groups are formed: self-sterile (0%), partially self-fertile (0.1 to 10 %), self-fertile (10.1 to 20 %) and highly self-fertile (more than 20 % fruit set with self pollination). The four categories of fruit set at free pollination are also relevant to the grower: low (less than 10 %), medium (10 to 20 %), high (20 to 40 %) and very high (more than 40 % fruit set).
By artificial cross pollination, one combination Cacanska najbolja x Stanley proved to be mutually inter-incompatible. Blocks planted to a single self-sterile variety flanking a pollinizer variety proved the spacial distribution of the pollen. The reduction in fruit set was already apparent in the second row away from the pollinizer trees. In a large plantation, without bee hives, relatively low yield was stated on self-sterile trees even close to the pollinizer.
In the case of self-sterile and partially self-fertile varieties, a combination of three varieties is recommended. The blooming period of the pollinizer variety should overlap the period of the self-sterile variety at least by 70 %, and the distance should not exceed 15 to 20 meters. Association of self-fertile varieties may also enhance the productivity of the trees. In that case an overlap of 50 % in blooming time and a maximum distance between the varieties of 30 to 40 meters will be sufficient.
Apricot yields are highly variable according to the season. The variation is caused mainly by the adversities during the critical processes of floral biology, i.e. blooming and fertilisation. On the basis of information concerning blooming time and mutual compatibility relations of apricot varieties a system of securing regular and adequate yie...lds has been developed.
Winter frosts of the continental type are well tolerated by most of the apricots, however, after the end of rest period, flower buds are loosing frost tolerance, 'rapidly.
Being one of the fruit species blooming earliest during the early spring, apricot start to bloom in Hungary around the end of March or early April as a mean of many years, but it also happened, exceptionally that apricot started to bloom at February 20 (at Letenye South Hungary). The early season, exposes the floral organs to frost injuries. As a consequence, apricot orchards on the Great Plain produce low yields in 3 years, intermediate yields in other 3 years out of a ten-year-period.
Moreover, weather conditions during the blooming period are often unfavourable for pollination. Cool, windy and rainy weather prevents the flight of insects and on the other hand, warm spells shorten the blooming process, nectarines and stigmata get dry and the female gametes loose viability before effective pollination occurres.
The fertility of individual cultivars are meeting different obstacles. Apricot cultivars differ greatly in the rate of flowers bearing underdeveloped pistils, which may attain even 60% (e.g. Orangered). New commercial cultivars are often self-incompatible. Local varieties of that type in Hungary are the "óriás" varieties (e.g. Ceglédi óriás, Szegedi mammut), and the new hybrid Ceglédi Piroska. Many of the cultivars are variable in their self-fertility (partially self-fertile): Budapest, Harmat, Korai piros, Mandulakajszi.
Inter-incompatibility is also known in apricots. The "óriás " varieties do not fertilise each other. During the growth of fruits, cool spells (2-4 °C) caused severe fruit shed in Ceglédi óriás.
Apricot flowers produce pollen and nectar at average rates related to other fruit species, thus bees are attracted sufficiently. Bee visits are very variable according to growing site and season. Most of the bees are pollen gatherers but sometimes nectar suckers are in majority. Bee pollination is necessary not only for the self-incompatible varieties but also to enhance the yield of self-fertile varieties.
Taking the blooming and fertility relations of the cultivars into account, plantations should not exceed two rows to a particular self-incompatible varieties, and possibly two different polliniser varieties are suggested to be planted as flanking the block in question.
In commercial plantations 2 to 4 bee colonies per hectare are proposed to move for the whole blooming period.
Observations were made at two growing sites, Siófok and Szatymaz, in the years 1998 and 1999, on 16 peach varieties. The production of nectar was measured, the foraging behaviour of bees, fruit set and the effect of exclusion of bee visits for different periods were observed systematically.
Production of nectar confirmed earlier data,...9.09 mg per flower in average. There was large variation due to variety and date of observation. Bee visits were relatively abundant. At favourable weather, 1 to 30 visits/flower/day occurred in the average. Artificial hand pollination increased fruit set, substantially. Open pollination yielded superior fruit set than self pollination, without bees. Supplementary bee pollination can be regarded to be beneficial to peach production as well.
The low productivity in the Japanese plum (Prunus salicina Lindl) is related with self-incompatibility characteristics, so other species or varieties that act as pollinators need to be present to improve fruit production. The objective of this work was to study the efficiency of pollination in different genotypes of P. salicina ...m>using treatments of natural self-pollination, cross-pollination with P. armeniaca cv. Giada and open pollination. These treatments were evaluated through viability techniques and in vitro and in vivo germination of pollen grains; the growth of pollen tubes along the pistil was also observed. Genotypes used in this study showed differences for each one of the pollination treatments. Some genotypes showed signs of self-sterility and interincompatibility with P. armeniaca cv. Giada, while others showed partial self-fertility characteristics or pseudocompatibility. Moreover, some genotypes showed a higher affinity coefficient with cv. Giada and these will be indicating a possible intercompatibility. These studies will be an important contribution breeding and selection of intra and intercompatible genotypes to be used in commercial orchards.
Self-fertility and fertility at conditions of open pollination in plum varieties is strictly determined by genetic factors. However, rates of fruit set are highly variable according to growing sites as well as to seasons, which may result from a couple of inner and outer conditions, but mainly from the method applied in seizing the facts of fer...tility in the experiments planned including the number of replications of treatments. During three successive years, 4-16 trees of each of the four plum varieties have been selected and 16-64 branches were tagged either for checking their fertility as pollinated freely or isolated excluding the access of foreign pollen. The data of fruit set have been processed in order to determine the variability of the data, subsequently, the number of replications necessary to make reliable decisions. Both autogamy and open pollination displayed multiple differences between branches and trees studied.
A number of 20 branches are needed yearly for each variety, the branches should be distributed on 5 trees at least for checking the autogamy, whereas on 10 trees for the results of open pollination. Each variety and treatment should be represented in three seasons, at least because of the different weather conditions.
Experiments were conducted during the period between 1972 and 2002 at three sites in Hungary. At Érd 97, Helvetia 10, and Újfehértó, 3 cultivars were studied in variety collections. Observations were made on the blooming phenology (start, main time, end and length of the bloom period), on the blooming dynamics (the rate of the open flowers...counted every day), on the receptivity of sexual organs, on the fruit set following self- and open-pollination and on the effect of association of varieties in the orchards (choice, rate and placement of pollinisers).
Based on the results the rate of the overlap of the blooming times were calculated and varieties were assigned into five bloom time groups according to their main bloom. Self-fertility conditioned by natural self pollination was studied and good pollinisers were chosen (sweet, sour and duke cherry varieties) for the self-sterile and partially self-fertile varieties.
The necessity of bee pollination was proved by different pollination methods: natural self-pollination, artificial self-pollination, open pollination. Summary: Experiments were conducted during the period between 1972 and 2002 at three sites in Hungary. At Érd 97, Helvetia 10, and Újfehértó, 3 cultivars were studied in variety collections. Observations were made on the flowering phenology (start, main time, end and length of the bloom period), on the flowering dynamics (the rate of the open flowers counted every day), on the receptivity of sexual organs, on the fruit set following self- and open-pollination and on the effect of association of varieties in the orchards (choice, rate and placement of pollinisers).
Fruit set of two sweet cherry cultivars (Alex' and 'Stella' ) and four Hungarian selections have been studied over two years following open pollination, unassisted self-pollination (autogamy) and artificial self-pollination (geitonogamy). Among accessions 'IV-6/240' proved to be self-sterile, while the other five revealed to b...e self-fertile. Significant differences have been found in fruit set among years and among pollination treatments but not among self-fertile accessions. Fruit set following unassisted self-pollination was significantly lower than of other pollination treatments. Thus pollen transfer is essential for profitable yield in sweet cherry growing.
There was no significant relationship in the fruit set of open- and self-pollination.
Experiments were conducted with four sour cherry cultivars three of that were self-fertile and one was self-sterile. Different levels of fruit set were obtained by limiting, the bee pollination period. The limitation of the duration of the effective bee pollination period definitely affected the fruit set of all the four cvs. The mass of indivi...dual fruits seemed to be related to the final set but this relationship has not find to be definitely expressed statistically at that moderate level of maximum fruit sets (10-14 per cent at the maximum) we obtained in the experiments. For this reason, further research is needed to explore that level of fruit set that can notably reduce the fruit size (mass) to an undesirable extent.
In commercial fruit tree orchards, consistently high yields are necessary for a durable economy. The Swedish pear cultivar 'Carola' has been noted for low setting in some orchards, possibly due to insufficient pollination. In this study, fruit set was evaluated in a research orchard where `Carola' had been planted together with four potential p...ollinators. Total yield and number of fruits was noted during three and four years, respectively. In 2003, seeds were germinated from the harvested `Carola' fruits, and the paternity of three seedlings from 50 trees was determined with RAPD analysis. 'Clapp's Favourite' had sired 39.6% of the seedlings, closely followed by `Seigneur d'Esperen' (30.7%) and 'Clara Frijs' (26.7%) whereas 'Skanskt sockerparon' only sired 1.1% of the seedlings. The remaining 2.3% appeared to have been derived by selfing. Pollen-limited seed set was indicated at surprisingly short distances; accumulated number of fruits on the `Carola' trees was significantly higher when separated by only 2 m from one of the two most efficient pollinators, 'Clapp's Favourite' or 'Seigneur d'Esperen', compared to trees 4—l0 in away in the same row. Number of viable seeds per fruit was also higher in fruits from trees immediately adjacent to the pollinators, suggesting an effect of improved pollination success. The importance of very short inter-cultivar distances for efficient pollen transfer became even more clear when comparisons involved the true pollination distances as determined by RAPD; the accumulated yields decreased linearly from 55 kg at a 2 in distance to only 17 kg at 13 m.
Studies were made on the bee visitation of 6 quince cultivars and on the foraging behaviour of honeybees at quince flowers for 3 consecutive years. The bee visitation was highly intense because both the plantation and its surrounding was overpopulated by honeybee colonies. Some 5.5 bee visits were counted in average at 50 opening quince flowers... in 10 minutes and some 9.7 flowers were visited of the 50 ones observed meanwhile. This equals some 7 bee visits per flower per day per in good weather. Bee visitation, however, was variable and it was greatly different in the three consecutive years with fairly favourable weather. Some cultivars tended to be more and others less visited by honeybees than the others but these differences were not consequent at each occasion. No consequent relationship between the weather and the bee visitation of quince trees could be recognised. It was concluded that .other factors were responsible for the variable nature of the bee activity at quince. Most honeybees tended to collect pollen (51.6% in average for the 3 years) and usually much less gathered for nectar only (19.9%), and the rest of them were mixed behaviour foragers gathering for both (28.5%). There were some slight differences in the foraging behaviour of honeybees at some cultivars but these differences were not always consequent in consecutive years. Also the nectar production of flowers failed to affect the bee visitation and the foraging behaviour of honeybees definitely. For the variable nature of bee visitation and bee behaviour at quince flowers, supplementary pollination is needed to achieve as high set of fruits as high is required to a good crop at quince (at least 20-25% because the flower density is low of this fruit tree species). Since the intensity of bee visitation at the flowers is the only reliable estimate of the necessity of supplementary bee pollination further research is needed to explore the relationship between the number of honeybee visits and the consequent fruit set at quince.
Several species in the Lamiaceae family are therapeutically significant medicinal plants. Such as sage (Salvia officinalis L.), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.), peppermint (Moldier piperita L.). marjoram (Majomna hortensis Winch), thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), Origanum spp., hyssop (H...yssopus officinalis L.), Lavandula spp., basil (Ocimum basalicum L.), lemon-balm (Melissa officinalis L.) are regularly produced in Hungary. Nevertheless, data on their floral biology are not satisfactory. This review intends to gather information on the characteristic constitution of flowers and inflorescences, blooming dynamics, pollination mechanism and crossability of some of the most significant medicinal and spice species
Flowers are mainly hermaphrodite, however, also monoeceous ones are turning up: pistillate flowers marjoram, tyme, oregano. In flowering of a plant individual, a basipetal blooming sequence is described. These species have a floral structure fully adapted to pollination by insects, and the majority of them is an excellent honey-plant (lavandel, hyssop, sage, etc.).
Flowers exhibit characteristic proterandry, therefore autogamy is considered to be almost impossible, and geintonogamy as well as xenogamy to be the most characteristic ways of fertilization. However, in several cases self-fertilization proved to be also successful. Crossability among cultivars or species is depending on the genotype combination and usually produces less seed than the above forms of fertilization.
The Apiaceae family consists of several species which are well known for their therapeutical use and also as spice plants. Although fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.), caraway (Carton carvi L.), anise (Pimpinella anisum L.), coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), dill (Anethum graveolens L.), angelica ...>(Angelica archangelica L.) and lovage (Levisticum officinale Koch.) are also economically considerable cultures, data on their flowering biology are rather scarce. This review supports data on the characteristic constitution of flowers and inflorescences, flowering dynamics, pollination mechanism and crossability of some of the most significant medicinal and spice species.
The inflorescence is a compound umbel. Flowers are hermaphrodite, however also monoeceous, mainly male flowers are turning up too. In blooming of a plant individual, a strict sequence is observed. The main umbel is the first to bloom, followed by the different range umbels in order of their range. In their pollination, both wind and insects are considered to be active. For each species, proterandry is characteristic. Although autogamy is considered to be almost unpossible, and geintonogamy as well as xenogamy to be the most characteristic ways of fertilization, several cases of self-fertilization proved to be also successful. Crossability among cultivars or species is depending on the genotype combination and usually produces less seed set than the above forms of fertiliiation.
Fruit set and fruit drop rates of 9 sour cherry cultivars ('Érdi bôtermő', 'Debreceni bőtermő', 'Kántorjánosi', 'Újfehértói fürtös', 'Éva', 'Petri' 'Oblocsinszka', 'Pandy 279' and 'Csengôdi') of eight years-old trees grown in Újfehértó, located in the Eastern north part of Hungary which graft...ed on Prunns mahaleb have been studied. Significant differences have been found in fruit set among cultivars. The average percentage of fruit set was 18.3%, which the 'Oblacsinszka' by 32.6% the highest fruit set, while 'Debreceni bőtermő' is very similar to 'Pandy279' showed lowest (12%) fruit set. Seasonal changes of fruit set and drop shows that there are four abscission peaks. The first fruit abortion wave appears during second week after pollination Thereafter, the second and third dropping period was found during the third and forth weeks after pollination. The forth abscission happened on the forth week after pollination. The highest fruit drop happened on 'Pandy279' (92.4%) very similar to 'Éva' (90%) while the lowest fruit drop observed in 'Oblocsinszka' (71.5%)
In the majority of Hungarian orchards of stone fruits, the planting distance is 6-7 m x 4-5 m. As many of the current varieties are self-incompatible, planting designs are applied to provide for adequate pollinisers. As long as differences in blooming time are small, i.e. 3-5 days at most, overlaps of blooming of the associated varieties are su...fficient for fruit set.
In sour cherry, one leading variety, Pándy, is self-incompatible and requires two polliniser varieties at least (Ciganyneggy or some sweet cherry varieties). Pándy is, moreover, cross-incompatible with the varieties Debreceni bőtermő, Kántorjánosi and Újfehértói fürtös being all of them self-fertile as most of new varieties recommended, by the way, for being planted to monovarietal blocks.
Among European plums there are varieties registered as male sterile, self-incompatible, parially self-fertile and self-fertile, respectively. For the purpose of cross pollination, the choice of two varieties, at least, to be associated to any variety belonging to the first three groups, is recommended. The number of rows in blocks planted to self incompatible or male-sterile varieties should not be higher than 2-(4). Inter-incompatibility has been observed within the currently recommended assortment, between the varieties Cacanska najbolja and Stanley, only. Chinese-Japanese plums are scarcely represented in Hungarian plantations. Variation of blooming time in varieties is somewhat more pronounced, i.e. 5-8 days. There is but a weak tendency to self-fertility, thus practically, all varieties are considered as self-incompatible, thus the planting of two-row blocks for each of three varieties, at least, are recommended to be associated.
Self-incompatibility and partially self-fertile apricot varieties are recommended to be combined with two polliniser varieties, at least, each planted to two-row blocks. The varieties Ceglédi óriás, Ligeti óriás, Nagykőrösi óriás and Szegedi Mammut are mutually inter-incompatible. Most of the peach varieties grown in Hungary are self-fertile, thus they are planted to large blocks, each. On sites threatened by late spring frost, it is recommended to plant (monovarietal) blocks of 4-6 rows at most. Cross-pollination may increase fruit set even in self-fertile varieties.
The cause for the erratic yields of the two main almond cultivars grown in Morocco has been searched in order to recommend possible solutions for a high and stable production. The lack of sufficient bloom overlap between 'Marcona' and 'Fournat de Brézenaud' in many years may be one of the reasons of this erratic behavior, but not the o...nly one, as the same behaviour may be observed in two simultaneously blooming cultivars, 'Ferragnès' and 'Ferraduel'. The relatively high temperatures observed during the blooming period
significantly reduced the stigma receptivity of these cultivars and, as a consequence, their effective pollination period, showing that stigmatic receptivity is a limiting factor for fruit set in 'Marcona' and 'Ferragnès' and their subsequent yield reduction under warm conditions. Thus, in the present context of global warming, the search for cultivars tolerant to heat stress during flowering will acquire a special interest, as well as the combination of cultivars with the same chilling and heat requirements to ensure a simultaneous bloom.


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Buy expensive herbs
Medicinal plants, herbs at great prices, without intermediaries and free Search add Postings producepage medicinal herbs buy, demand Dec Buy dry herbs, tea, berries, herbs, fruits Urgently buy the root of cyanosis Constantly buy dry plant material of medicinal herbs Considered proposals from suppliers for a regular supply of dry Buy – sale of medicinal plants, herbs wholesale and retail relevant listings from sellers in the Ukraine with direct contacts and Zakupkam expensive the dry root of coolbaby Price in zaleznosc from Different medicinal plants, herbs buy expensive wholesale Sukhiy the Bessa – podolany – avtoru As sewn bottom shirt Viking Vyborg in Summer, more and more Russian citizens collect wild herbs and medicinal plants
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Medicinal herb plants to buy – agro-ukraine Continue reading
Cossack folk medicine
Ancient knowledge possessed by and possess the Cossacks, had knowledge on traditional medicine. Despite the fact that, like all ancient arts, the healing was surrounded by all sorts of mysteries and superstitions, much was widely known about and lived up to our days.
Being constantly in the saddle, constantly on military service and war, the Cossacks had a unique knowledge in manual therapy, that is, the ability to straighten the joints and vertebrae.
Not only ordinary dislocations, but also all sorts of "disruptions", "olizy", "octupi", "failures" and dozens of other injuries, which invariably accompanies military life of a cavalryman, most often it was treated right in the hundred. There were always older Cossack, who owned many popular "kostopravstva". Techniques massage owned almost everything.
So, the Cossacks of the guards regiments, going into the Palace guard, the regimental tailors were literally sewn into the uniforms (maybe hence the word "swamped", i.e. in a hurry), and after a few hours standing still in the halls of the Palace; they were "down in the sleigh and drove to Cossack baths trample numb body on a hot shelf". Continue reading
Physical therapy in osteochondrosis of the cervical, lumbar and thoracic
Physical therapy in osteochondrosis
Physical therapy in osteochondrosis — one of the effective methods of treatment. Thanks to him, drugs can be delivered directly into the nidus of infection. Physiotherapy in osteochondrosis of the cervical spine no impact on neighbouring areas or the body in General do not have. So after physical therapy in osteochondrosis of the cervical spine did not reveal side effects and allergic reactions. Be treated by this method can a person of any age, in any physical state. That is why physiotherapy is considered to be a very effective treatment, albeit minor.
What is the treatment? During physiotherapy in osteochondrosis specialist effect on inflammation through a variety of physical factors — radiation, heat, cold, or magnetic or electric fields.
The goal of physiotherapy in osteochondrosis — stimulation of regenerative processes in the body and the removal of pain. The effect of each procedure is directed to the following processes:
removing the inflammation;
the elimination of pain;
relaxation of the muscles, spasm-type seizures; Continue reading


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Published December 8, 2020
Jeff Higginbotham, professor in the Department of Communicative Disorders and Sciences and director of the Communication and Assistive Device Laboratory in the College of Arts and Sciences, has received a grant from the National Institute on Disability, Independent Living and Rehabilitation Research.
The $2.5 million grant, "Project Open," will support work by Higginbotham and colleagues at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill to improve expressive communication during in-person conversation and interaction with individuals who have complex communication needs (CCN) and use augmentative and alternative communication (AAC).
"The research will focus on creating a comprehensive catalog of the problems and range of etiologies for individuals with CCN using AAC to replace or support speech and other modes of communication," says Higginbotham.
Additionally, the research will cover strategies individuals with CCN and their communication partners employ to address problems and support successful in-person interactions.
The target populations for the research include older youths and adults with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), cerebral palsy, and intellectual and developmental disabilities.
"Project Open" will develop an open-source, web-based, AAC prototype research-and-development platform that will allow individuals and manufacturers to use the code for their own purposes. The open-source programmer interface will be used during the project to design and implement focused user interfaces and test cases for field testing and continued research and development.
Researchers will also feature a project website and regular face-to-face and online meetings with the inclusive open source research-and-development community.
Higginbotham will collaborate with principal investigator Karen Erickson andco-PI Lori Geist, both of the Center for Literacy & Disability Studies, Department of Allied Health Sciences, UNC Chapel Hill.


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Nike Drops Black History Month Shoe Collection
On January 18, Nike is releasing some Black History Month-themed signature shoes from the game's best athletes. I'm going to break down each shoe from this powerful 'Black History Month' pack.
Kyrie 2
The wildly popular Kyrie 2 has been changing the game — seriously. And the most dynamic point guard in the game just got another unique colorway for his new shoe. Fit your feet in festive African colors, and light up the game in traditional African style with the Nike Kyrie 2 'BHM' on Monday.
LeBron 13
In the wide circle of sneakerheads, the LeBron 13 is widely hyped or widely disliked. While the naysayers like the overall thought and design put into the shoe, they believe the colors aren't bright enough. However, people in favor of this colorway say it's a unique twist on tradition, and shouldn't be knocked for staying true to African culture. After all, it is a Black History Month shoe. What's your opinion? Let us know in the comments below.
Kobe 11
For the flashiest take on Nike's 'BHM' offerings, look no further than the Kobe 11s. With a bright blue toe that morphs into a multicolor design as it reaches the heel and white midsole and Swoosh for contrast, these shoes stand out and leave a message.
KD's take on Black History Month is a bold one — dark on top, and bright on the bottom. Traditional African tribal colors are placed on the swoosh, shoestrings, and outer tongue. The midsole is white with a colorful egg speckled print, the air sole unit is clear blue, and the sole is icy translucent rubber.
Remember, all of the shoes will be available January 18 at 10 am ET. The Kobe 11s are available in Men's sizes only, but the other three are offered in Kid's sizes. Which of these signature shoes in the Black History Month pack will most likely be added to your collection? Let us know below.